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32X

THE SCIENCE AND ART

'n-r

TEACHING:

OR, THC

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION.

GEORGE VICTOR LE VAUX,

Mttmher of the Royal College of Preceptors, London, England', Aitttuir of
" The Twin Records of Creation," ^c, ia*c.

WITH AN

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY,

THE REV. GEORGE BELL, LL.D.

Queen's University, Kingston,

TORONTO:
<Jopp, Clark & Co., 47 Front Strkit.

1875,

wSm

Entered according to Act of tlie Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight
hundred and seventy-five, by Georok Victor Le Vaux, Clifton, Ontario, in the Office
of the Minister of Agriculture.

17120

PREFACE.

fiur design in preparing the following work was to furnish
Student-Teachers, and others engaged in education, with a Manual
containing a comprehensive resume, within a moderate ompass,
of all the more important principles and details of their Profession.
In the execution of this task we have endeavoured to combine
brevity with clearness, so that our mode of expression might be
as simple and direct as was consistent with the nature of the
subject.

Several of the succeeding chapters have appeared from time to
time in the English and Irish Educational Papers, some in the
Amencati Educational Mont/ily, and some in the Ontario yotirnal
of Education. Those published in the old country, having secured
the kind commendations of the London press, were reproduced in
the Journal of Education for the Province of Victoria (Australia)
and received with much favour by our fellow-labourers in the
antipodes. These chapters (with others which appear in print for
the first time) are now presented in book form, with the hope
that they may to some extent fill a place, hitherto void, in our
native educational literature, and thereby help to promote the
interests of the young by reflecting me'ital light and youthful
happiness into some of the darker and less attractive shades of the
school-room. In years to come we hope to see the prejudices and
moral weaknesses of present educational systems supplanted by
the reign of light, love, and intelligence ; so that children, at home
and abroad, may be emancipated from the thraldom of fear, and
educated according to the teachings of Nature and the laws of
their being.

Believing it to be the duty of all who write for others to ascertain
what their predecessors have thought and said on the same or
similar subjects, we have perused with interest, in this and other
lands, such educational works as have stood the test of time and
popular criticism; so that while advancing our own theories by the
force of concurrent sentiments, we have been enabled to present

PREPACK.

our readers with radiant gems from many authors. In some cases
we have adopted the thoughts of others, diverting them into more
practical channels, 'uut in no instance have we recommended any-
thing not authorized by experience — personal or otherwise. If we
have receded in any point from that which is generally received
and believed, it has been done in a spirit of amendment and in
accordance with the advancement of modern science — not for the
purpose of novelty or change. We might therefore say, in the
words of Lord Bacon, that " we could not be true or constant to
the subject we handle were we not willing to go beyond others;
but yet not more willing than to have others go beyond us again."

The intelligent practice of the Art of Teaching must be founded
on, and inferred from, experimental science — mental and physical.
Keeping this in view we have based our conclusions on the laws
of mental development (as we understand them), endeavouring, so
far as our limits would permit, to evolve guiding principles from
the latest science. We are conscious ihat many generations must
elapse ere the philosophy of mind is so thoroughly understood as
to ensure a rich professional success to every teacher who seeks it ;
nevertheless, each of us can give more attention to the laws of
psychology aiid the right interpretation of Nature, and thus help to
introduce and make perfect such a scheme of culture as will hasten
the advent of light, and finally establish the Profession on a broad,
scientific, and ever enduring basis.

In conclusion, we respectfully beg to submit our views on these
matters to the kind and courteous consideration of the Profession
and general public, hoping that their publication may not be alto-
gether fruitless nor profitless.

The Author avails himself of this opportunity of recording his
grateful sense of the valuable aid given him, in the revision of this
work, by his esteemed friend. Miss Jane S. Chadwick — a lady
whose educational labour?, extending over more than quarter of a
century, have reflected honour and dignity on the profession, whilst
affording such an example of zeal, skill, and ability, as justly to
entitle her to rank as one of the premier teachers of the Province,

G. V. L.

Clifton, Niagara Falls,
30th October^ j8j^.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.— FIRST TRINCIPLES.

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOaiCAL ESSAY.

The Human Being, 9. Birth-place of Primeval Man, 10. Race — Sub-
divisions — Characteristics, 10. The Negro, Mongolian, and Cau-
casian or Iiido-Germanic Races, 10. Progress of Education amongst
the Shemitic Races, Mexicans, Peruvians, &c,, 12. Progress of
Education amongst the Indo-(iermanic Races, 15. Mythology —
Ancient (Jreece and Rome, IG. The Crusades, 17. Discovery of
America, 17. Era of Colcmization, 17. E<hication in England,
Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Prussia, &c., 18. Mixture and amalga-
mation of races, 20. Development of Language and Religion in
Ancient and Modern Times, 20. Christianity, the highest fruitage
of Education and Religion, 21. Effects of Education on future
Civilization, 22. A Commendation, 22.

CHAPTER 1.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

Anecdotes of Napoleon and Lincoln, 23. Good Mothers and efHcient
Teachers, 24. First Lessons, 24. Mothers, the first Teachers, 25.
The Parental Substitute, 26. Mutual duties, 26. Education, a
noble work, 27.

CHAPTER II.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER.

Teachers form the character of their generation, 28. Responsibilities,
29. The early habits of pupils an index to their future career, 29,
I Power of example and of yoathf ul impressions^Sp, How to make
right impressions, 31. Teachers to sympaLlillic with their pupik
and seek their love, 32. To cultivate mutual affection, 33. To
tfeach by example as well as by precept, 34.

-y<3,^^

ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS.

CHAPTER in.
SPIRIT AND HABITS OF THE TEACHER.

Things necessary to make a good Teacher, S.*). To have a right perccp*
tiou of hi8 work, 3»). Candidates for " Teacherships " to look well
to their motives, 'Mi. Ignorance, no excuse for professional mis-
takes, 37. Physical Education, .38. Science of National and Self-
Government, 38. To l)egin each day aright, 39. An important
question, 39. Who can be a Teacher, 40.

CHAPTER IV.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD TEACHER.

To be a judge of human nature, 41. Aptitude for teaching, 42. Pnpila
should be le<l to do eve rvtltin^ for themselves. 42. Courtesy oT

manner ann-nrlier^characturistics of the Teacher, 43. Youth to
honour age, 44. An anecdote — A Grecian legend, 44. Sjiartan
courtesy, 45. Courtesy recognized, 45. Amiability of disposition,
46. Not to ui)braid pupils with their mental or physical defects, 47.
Absence of jicrsonal kindness, 48. To be honest, just and true, 49.
Regularity aiwl punctuality, 49. Lord Palnierston's opinion of

/ Teachers' (pialifications, 50. Teachers to lead in the march of

\ intellect, 51. To beware of pride and vanity, 51.

CHAPTER V.

KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED.

Teachers to study continually, 53. Temptations incident to the Pro-
fession, 54. Doing two things at the same time, 55. To turn
spare moments to good account, 55. Sir Walter Raleigh's advice,
56. Precepts by Pythagoras, 56.

CHAPTER VL

MUTUAL DUTIES OF THE PROFESSION AND THE PUBLIC.

We are all indebted to our profession, 57. Adequate remuneration, 57.
Good services, good pay, 58. Test of civilization, 58. A cause
and consequence, 59. The rich fool's argument considered, 69.
An International Association of Teachers, 61.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS.

▼u

CHAPTER Vir.

RIGHT CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION.

The Kindergarten system considered, 62. ATeaning of Education, 63.
The best Teacher, 04. Special j)rei)arati()ii necessary, 64. To have
a beau ideal, 05. Future reward, 0(5. A perfect man — Unison
of culture, 00. Formation of character, 07 First principles of
education, 07.

en AFTER VIII

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION CONTRASTED.

Imprudtaice of raising children in seclusion, 68. A Public School course
the best preparation for the duties of after life, 09. Elements of
success, 7<). Selt-decej»tion, 71. Union of public and private
systems commendable, 72, Necessity of a national provision for
Education, 72. Compulsorj'^ Education, 73.

CHAPTER IX.

NATURAL ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESPECTIVE

FACULTIES.

Fundamental principles, 74. Development of the faculties, 74. Order
of sequence, 74.

Section 1. ATTENTION.

Continuity of Attention essential, 75. Cultivate habits of ibservation 1;
and reflection, 76. Happiness of childhood, 77. Mutual afiection, li
77. How to secure attention, 78. Not to discourage, 78. Causel{
and cure of certain eccentricities, 79. Coacentration of attention, I*
79. Natural disposition, 80. How to sweeten labour and ensure};
progress, 80. Self-reliance to be encouraged, 81. Abstraction, 82,1'

Section 2. MEMORY.

Memory and Retention 83. Mental store-house, 83. Visible illustra-
tions, 84. Two varieties of Memory, 84. Invention, 85. Utility
of Memory to the public speaker, 85. Conditions of efficiency, 85.

Section 3. IMAGINATION.

Imagination, what it is, 80. Connection with the sublime, 86.
counteracts certain mental defeccs, 87*

vui

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTEJfTfl.

II f

Bectiow 4. REFLECTION AND REASON

Reflection a creative faculty, 88. Reason, its utility and importance, 88.
Art of Reasoning considered, 89. 'i'eacher, to ascertain motives of
at;tion, how and why, 90. Different callings in life more or less
indebted to Imagination, 91.

Skctjon 5. THE JUDGMENT.

The key-stono of the intellectual arch, 92. A compound faculty, 92.
Inference, 92.

Sectiom 0. INTEGRITY.

IJ^leasure of beinc tnisted, 93. Teachers not to wear maskj, 93. CJour-
tesy to children, 94. Praise in proportion to merit, 94.

Section

PRUDENCE.

Elements of Prudence, 95. Certain impressions to be rectified, 95.
H»)w to correct false ideas and objectionable habits, 95.

CHAPTER X.
POWER AND EFFECTS OF SYMPATHY.

Sympathy, 96. EflFects of associated affection, 97. Fellowship with
companions, 97. Management of sensibility, 98. PriuciiJes of
happiness, 99.

PAKT It.— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

■A

if!

CHAPTER L

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL.

(iood order essential, 100. Necessity of Time Table, 100. Effects of
good order, 101. A time and place for everything, 101. Apian
of study necessary, 102. Guidance of youthful activity, 102. Un-
fortunate professional coimections, 103. A hint to parents and
guardians, 104. A Canadian village school, 104. Eifects of exterior
intiuences, \06. Personal neatness indispensable, 107. Manner of
pupils in fachools, 107. Teacher to be animated, 107. Brevity a

AHALTTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

characteristic of a good gchool, 108. Urbanity ainl Buavity, 108. /
Pupils to do their duty, 108. To lovo their tcacherft and be zualoua
of the honour of their school, 109. How to study aright, 10J>.
Quality and quantity, 110. l^anguage to he pure and siuipic, 110.
[iUcid explanations, 111. Recitations of lessons to be prompt and
accurate, 111.

CHArXEIl II.

HOW TO MAKE STUDY ATTRACTIVE.

Child-tature, 112. Pleasure to bo associated with instruction, 113.
The happiness principle, 11.3. Guiding principles, 114. How to
cuhivate the love of study, 114. When a lesson shouhl cease, 1 15.
Solt-instrut tion the best, 115. Sufficient physical recreation, 116,
Exercise without fatigue, 116. Nature's mode of ciUture, 117.
How Nature teaches, US. When Nature dismisses her school, 118>

' CUAPTER III.

INCENTIVES TO STUDIOUS HABITS.

Noblest incentives of action, 119. Regulation and cultivation of
curiosity, 119. The desire of acq viisi tion, 120. The love of appro-
bation, 120. The prize system cozisidered, 121. Prizes by ignoble
means, 122. When they stimulate only a few, 123. Uniformity
of mental capacity, 123. The reward system, 123. The merit card
system, 124. How cards are used, 125. The roll of merit, 125.
Abuse possible, 126. Power and effects of the system, 126.

CHAPTER IV.
ELEME NTS OF GENERAL ADMINISTRATION.

Teachers should respect their own authority, 127. Decision of char-
acter, 128. llequests versus Commands, 128. Force as an clement
in government, 128. Abbott's maxims, 129. Self-reliance, 130,
Fretfulness and frivolity to be avoided, 130. Teacher to commence
as he would continue, 130. Not M'ise to exliibit suspicion, 131.
To look on both sides of a boy's character, 131. Pupils not to
be contrasted with each other, 132. Children to be encouraged,
133. Oifendera to be considered innocent until proved guilty, 133.
Teachers to maintain proper discipline, 134. A time for everything
and everything in its time, 134. IniYjrudence of dividing the
attention, *135. Not to allow interruptions, 1.35. A time for in-
vestigating irregularities, 136. Certain variations commendable,

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

137. Music in Schools, 137. Military education, 138. Quality
preferable to (juantity, 138. Prejjaration of lessons at home, 139.
Perfect recitations required, 139. The alternate system, 140.
Reviewing and grinding, 141. Loitering, &c., on the way to or
from School, 142. .Suspension of privileges, 142. The IJegistration
system, 143. How applied in Upper Canada College, 143. Aver-
age standing, how found, 145, Private report book, 145. The
demerit b(K)k, 146. American system of registration, 140, Monthly
Boll of Honour, 147. Value of marks and time of entry, 14& A
word to trustees, 1 48,

r i

ill

CHAPTER V.
, SCHOOL GOVER NMENT .

Effects of associated pleasure or pain, 149, Natural consequences, 150.
Obedieuco and how to secure it, 150, The father of the scliool, 15L
Legislation concerning corporal punishment, 151.

Section 1, THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS.

Objects of punishment, 152. Censure faults, not persons, 153. Soli-
tary contin( uiont, 153, Admonition and advice, 154. Ridicule
and reproach, 154. Humiliation considered as a punishment, 166.
Quickness of apprehension in children, 156. Courtesy to juveniles,
156. Children not to be rebuked in an^er, 156. The end of
Education, 157. How to make study pleasant, 157. Natural
tendencies of children, 158. Personal recriminations not to be
countenanced, 158. The practice of sundry virtues eonmiended,
159. Certain shortcomings to be treated with forbearxnce, 169.

Sectiom 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.

Object of punishment, 159. Shame as a punishment, 159. Corporal
punishment justifiable, 160, The probable origin of Public Schools,
161. The Teacher's commission, 162. Never to threaten pupils,
163, Corporal punishment to be inflicted publicly, 164, Teachers
to establish their authority by force if necessary, 164, I'unish-
ment to be maile effectual, 166. A supplementary duty, lb7. The
Teacher to be free from anger when inflicting pimishment, 168.
Teacher not to indulge himself in what he would deny to otherti,
169. Seneca's remarks on the education of children, 169.

Section 3, MUTUAL DUTIES AND RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF

TEACHERS.

Powers and duties of principals, 170, Uniformity of discipline in several
divisions of same school, 171, Powers and duties of assistants, 171.
Teachers to keep a record of punishments, 171. Proper channel of
inter-communication, 172, Notes from parents or guardians to bear
signature, 172, Local supremacy of "Teachers of Division," 172.
Assistant Teachers to report cause of absence to principd, 172,
Geueral supervision, 173.

IIP

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART III.— METHODS OF TEACHING.

CHAPTER I.

HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OP SCHOOLS.

Moreau's plan the best for Moreau, 174. Each Teacher to follow a
general plan modified by original expedients, 175. The school-
room and its decorations, 17<>. Plan of class-rooms, 177. Isolation
and arrangements of desks, 179. The play-grounds and cloak-
rooms, 180. Exercises to be conducted with military precision,

181. Calling and dismissing school, 181. Classification of pupils,

182. Test subjects, 182, Suggestions on the grading of schools,

183. How to secure uniformity of progress, 184, Subjects of
study to be adapted to mental capacity, 185, Systems of Teaching,
185. Order of development, 185. Natural and logical order of
study, 187.

CHAPTER n.
COLLECTIVE TEACHING.

Sundry observations, 1S8, The elliptical method of teaching, 189.
Same class — same capacity, 189. Arrangement of lesson in its
natural order of sequence, 190. Recapitulation, 190, Character-
istics of good Teaching, 191, The object and utility of the intro-
duction to lessons, 191. Lessons should have a practical applica-
tion, 192.

Section 2. THE ART OF CATECHIZING,

Socratic method, 192, Tentative and examination questions, 193.
Questions should be addressed to the whole class, 193, Character-
istics of good answering, 194. Correction of errors, 194,

CHAPTER IIL

SPELLING.

Methods of teaching should be based on scientific principles, 195.
Spelling a^' ^ how to teach it, 195, Spelling machine, 196, Reading
machine, 197. Reading should precede spelling, 198, The si)ell-
ing stick, 199. How the higher classes should be taught spelling,
200. Order of merit, 200, How errors should be corrected, 201.
Field days in spelling, 201.

v«

XU AKALTTICAL TABLE OF CONTEKTS.

CHAPTER IV.
READING.

Reading, and how to teach it, 202. Precedence according to merit, 20.t-
Certain questions to precede lessons so as to ascertain amount of
individual knowledge, 203. Pupils to be required to give a sum-
mary of the lesson at its close, 204. To question each other, 204
Certain things to be observed, 204. Lessons to be of moderate
length, 204. How to correct and improve style, 205. The concert
method, 205. Pupils to ascertain the position of places mentioned
in their lessons, 206. A substitute for the Register of Progress, 207.

CHAPTER V.
WRITING.

Writing to be taught at an early age, 208. How to teach it, 209. First
lessons, 208. Working arrangements, 209. Primary classes, 210.
Supervision and correction, 210.

CHAPTER VI.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.

Arithmetic as a mental exercise, 211. First ideas of numbers, 211.
Written Arithmetic, 212. Rapidity and accuracy, 212. A more
approved method of teaching Algebra and Arithmetic, 213. Pupils
to be well grounded in tables, 215. Mental Arithmetic, 215. Prin-
ciples before rules, 215. How to ensure the acquisition of know-
ledge, 216.

CHAPTER VII.
GEOGRAPHY.

Hints on the study of Geography, 21G. Boxing the compass, 217.
Latitude and Longitude, how to teach them, 217. Rotation of the
earth and differences of time, 218. Hints on the use of maps and
charts, 218. Order of teaching Geography, 219. Geographical
summary, 219. Weekly reviews, 220.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS.

XUl

CHAPTER VIIL
ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE.

How Nature teaches the lanffuages, 220. Mental conceptions to pre-
cede words, 221. Nature s method of Teaching, 221. Acquisition
made easy, 222.

CHAPTER IX.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

Composition should accompany the study of Grammar, 222. How to
teach Grammar to junior pupils, 223. Construction and classi-
fication, 224. Inflections, &c., 224. Grammar to be made inter-
esting, 224. An observation, 225. The Grammatical variations,
225. Composition — secondary and original. How to teach it, 226.
The best teacher of Grammar and Composition, 226. Importance
and utility of correspondence considered, 227. Reading and pars-
ing machine, 228.

CHAPTER X.
HISTORY.

Methods of teaching History, 229. Incidental questions, 229. General
recapitulation, 230. Pupils to prepare a sketch of lesson, 230.
How to study History aright, 230.

CHAPTER XI.

GEOMETRY.

Excellency of Geometry as a mental exercise, 231. A common method
of teaching Euclid, 232. A change of system, 233. The more
excellent method, 233. To use diagrams without letters, 234.
Solution in general terms, 2.34, Connection of Geometry with the
kindred sciences to be noted, 235.

XIV

ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIL
A SCIENTIFIC HABIT.
Ouli;ivfttioa of a acientific habit desirable, 235. Natural History, 236.

CHAPTER Xin.
BOTANY.

Children's love of flowers, 237. This love to be turned to account in the
acquisition of Botanical knowledge, 237. Characteristics of parts
of plants and flowers, 238. Arrangement of parts of flowers on
stem, 238. Adaptation of plants to surrounding circumstances, 238.
Season rings, 238. Classification of plants, 239.

CHAPTER XIV.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Children to be taught as far as practicable through the medium of the
eye, 239. Lessons about birds, 240. Lessons about fishes, 240.
Human Physiology, 240.

CHAPTER XV.
ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY.

First lessons in Geology, 241. Formation of soils, 241. Peculiaritiea
of location, 242. Utility of Geological knowledge, 242.

I ;

CHAPTER i^L

:.TURAL CHEMI
Chemiatrv. 243.*

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Importance of Agricultural Chemistry, 243.' Different kinds of sub-
stances, 243. Rotation of crops, 244. Supply of complementary
elements, 244. Absorption and assimilation, 245. Utility of
Agricultural Chemistry to the stock raiser, 245. Influences of
heat, light, &c., on Agriculture, 246.

^S■^|.|^ .

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVII. /

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Elements of Natural Philosophy to be taught at School, 246. First
lessons, 247. Subject to ])e taught by simple practical experiments,
247. The pupils to conduct the experiments under the teacher's
guidance, 248. A series of practical experiments with suggestions,
249. Effects of heat, 250. Construction of thermometer, 250.
Pro])erties of water, 250. When the text-book should be intro-
duced, 250.

CHAPTER XVIII.
MECHANICS.

Introductory lessons on Mechanics, 251. Virtual velocities, 252. The
Mechanical powers, 252. Formulie, and practical hints on the
application, of each power, 252. Hydrostatics and Dynamics, 254.
Philosophy of falling bodies, 254. Sundry observations, 255.

CHAPTER XIX.
PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS.

Public examinations desirable at certain intervals, 257. The school to
be exhibited as it really is, 257. Results unreliable, 257. A
superior private school, 258. Excellency of discipline and arrange-
ments, 259. Defects of the system, 200, The memory system,
261. The system of the future, 261. When examinations reflect
credit on the teacher and taiight, 262. Quarterly examinations,
263. Parents to l)e apprized of the promotion of their children,
263. Periodical evening examinations, 264. Official books, 264.

(

XVI

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAKT IV.

CHAPTER XX.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

Teacher's intercourse — its characteristics — 266, Teachers to avoid
professional or other dissensions, 267. To cultivate a fraternal dis-
position, 268. Absence of professional enthusiasm, 268. Its cause,
268. How to remove the evil, 269. Apprenticeship to the pro-
fession, 270. The best remedies, 271. Advantages of experience,
271. The best use of wealth, 272. No excuse for want of books,
273. The great requisite of the age, 273. The laws of life and
the order of mental evolution to be constant themes of study, 274.
^.,The science of mind considered, 275. Conditions of professional
success, 275. How to secure it, 276. Nature's book on teaching,
276. The koy to successful teaching, 277. The doctrine of natural
re-actions considered, 277. Provision for public education, 279.
Public School Boards, 280. Europe and America compared from
an educational standpoint, 281. Higher education, 283. Popular
education, 283. Provision for adult education, 285. Influences of
age on education, 286. Necessary supidements to our public school
system, 287. Sorrows and joys of life, the common property of
all, 289. Dawn of the age of intellect, 289. Growth of mind,
290. Important public duties, 291. Conclusion, 292.

APPENDIX.

Notice to parents and guardians, 293. Daily register of progress,
(U.C. College) 295. Summary of pupil's report, 296. Results for
session, 297. Standard of classification, 298. Clifton School —
daily record of progress, 299. Sample of a more approved system,
300. Form of Monthly Report for a Public School pupil, 301.
Time table, or plan of work, for a graded school, 302.

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

To appreciate the real significance of questions of education,
attention must be turned to the material to be acted upon —
namely, the human being. To educate a human being is to
draw out or develop all his powers or faculties. To ascertain
what these are in our own race of the human species, we require
to make a comparison between it and other races. As man is
found in races differing so much in bodily peculiarities and
mental powers, many questions have arisen both as to his origin
and his history. Into the question of unity or plurality of origin
I do not enter; but to another question, whether man's history,
in civilization, has been an ascent or a descent, we must give a
passing notice. All nations have certain traditions as to their
early condition, and scientific inquiry brings out many impor-
tant suggestions. Two pictures of primeval man are drawn,
differing very materially. One is of a being pure, happy, simple
in his tastes, but free from the degradations usually found in
savage life. By many this is regarded only as a dream of
poetry, or a beautiful myth, or, it may be, the mere yearning of
the human soul for something better than is already possessed,
reflected back into the dim mythical region of pre-historic time.
The other is of a coarse and filthy savage, gross in tastes and
habit?, warring with the wild animals, tearing their flesh and
cracking their bones, dwelling in caves, and little advanced
above the lower animals, except in the superiority which the
possession of hands gave him. While the superior weight of
evidence, at present, is certainly on the side of man's descent to
barbarism, much may be urged on the other side, and doubtless
some portions of both pictures are true. Scripture, tradition and
2

INTBODUCTORY ETH50LOOICAL ESSAY.

science all point to the origin of man at a central part of the
land of the eastern hemisphere, whence successive waves of
population have been continually flowing towards the distant
portions of the earth, the more debased races occupying the
positions more distant from the centre, and the debased races
being gradually and continuously exterminated before the suc-
ceeding waves of a superior race.

Without noticing minutely the many subdivisions of races,
■we may observe that there are three great divisions plainly
distinguishable, popularly known as the white, yellow, and black
races. The black or negro race, comprising the Negroes proper,
the Bushmen, the Hottentots, and the Papuans, differ among
themselves, but in their native countries have always remained
barbarous, displaying little tendency to improvement, and very
little educational capacity. Wanting in energy and persever-
ance, they show great sensitiveness. Below the white race in
intellect, they are superior in imagination, and, when brought
into contact with elevating influences, they will doubtless awake
to a life of superior sentimental and imaginative power.

The yellow or Mongolian race has shown peculiar powers
in the way of overrunning the territories of other peoples,
founding great empires, developing an early civilization which
reaches a medium stage and then becomes stationary. The
names of Attila, Tamerlane, and Genghis Khan, will at once
suggest their warlike roving habits, while the condition of
Japan, China, Siam and the American Indians will indicate
their unprogressive nature. This race, although so capable of
conquest, and of founding mighty empires, is singularly devoid
of inventive genius and improvement. They have depopulated
fair and flourishing lands, but have not re-peopled them. They
have servilely copied the architecture of their forefathers, or
of the people they have conquered. The history of their pro-
gress has been ever the same ; the Scythian invasion recorded
by Herodotus, or the march of Tamerlane, alike leaves traces of
bloodsh<ed ajad devastation in a desert, without any great work

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

of any kind as a monument of their power or skill. Were the
Mongolian race swept from the face of the earth, they would
leave but faint traces of their former existence, having no laws,
no lit<!rature, no art to which, particularly, their name has

been attached.

As they are in civilization, so are they in educational pecu-
liarities. China well illustrates this similarity. At a very
early period this country appeara to have risen to a certain
stage in education, and then to have remained stationary in the
use of an artificial and stereotyped system. The regulations,,
not originally devised by Confucius twenty-four centuries ago,
but, as he himself states, only revised from ancient ages, and
formally reduced to system, were admirable for the age in
which he lived, but they are unsuitable for the present time ;.
yet they are rigidly adhered to. The education obtained has a
great many grades, the higher grades opening the way to the
possession of the civil oflSces of the Government. Throughout,
the instruction in schools and colleges consists, to a large
extent, of reading, wiiting, a little arithmetic, and a great deal
of memoidsing of lists of names and events, and recitation and
chanting of long passages from text books, the sense of which
is little understood by the student.

The Caucasian or white race is that in which the highest
development has taken place, both intellectually and education-
ally. The name Caucasian not being considered distinctive
enough, that of Iranian has been applied to it, as Turanian to
the Mongolian race. The Caucasian race occupies the central
part of the old world. Western Asia extending as far as Hin-
dostan, Northern Africa, the whole of Europe, and a consider-
able portion of America. The complexion is fair in the tem-
perate and cold regions, becoming brown in those which are
hot ; and the cheeks are tinged with red ; while greater variety
of features prevails in this race than in any other. This race
embraces many subdivisions, differing materially from each
other. These may primarily be divided into two groups, sepa-

INTBODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

^ !

rated by marketl peculiarities, known as the Shcmitic and Indo-
Euroj^ean races. The name Syro-Arabian has })een suggested
as an improvement on Shorn itic, and the name Aryan Is no^
very properly applied as the designation of those branches of
the Caucasian race formerly called ludo-Europecni, or Indo-
■Germanic.

The Syro-Arabian or Shemitic race of men are distinguished
for brilliant imagination, ready conceiition of idea, and repug-
nance to any constraint, whether of intellect or of person. They
;posses3 imagination in the highest degree. They have an in-
tuitive conception of the beautiful, whether in idea or in mate-
rial form, but have no idea of natural l)eauty being suly'ected
to constraining rules. Their poetry is distinguished by spon-
taneous, beautiful figures ; and in their mechanical works they
naturally produce the most beautiful forms. The poor and
ignorant Arab, who never heard of a iiile or standard of beauty,
moulds an earthenware jar for a drinking vessel in a form in
which may be traced the most elegant vases of Greece and
Rome, and identical with that sculptured by his refined and
luxurious ancestors on the monuments of Nineveh three thou-
sand years ago ; and his speech consists of glowing words,
expressing fanciful but appropriate figures. These qualities
;are innate, and not the result of cultivation.

The Aryan race do not possess the power in a high degree of
'Conceiving beautiful forms, but they readily perceive the beauty
•of that which is presented to them. They readily adopt from
others those beauties which they have never themselves invented.
They investigate the cause of the idea of beauty, and by analysis
and reasoning reduce it to first principles, on which they found
Tules. Then by the application of these rules, they modify and
improve what they have borrowed from others. Deficient in
imagination as compared with the Shemitic nfce, they are
vastly superior in reasoning powers ; hence their superiority
l)oth in a national point of view and in the advancement of art.
One of the Shemitic race invents, or rather intuitively conceives,

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

a beautiful architectural ornament, and there stops. The Greek
takes up the ornament so fuinishod, and which ho would not
have invented ; he investigates the reason why it is beautiful ;
and stops not until he has developed a system of beauty in
architectural structure and ornament, which, commending itself
to the ajsthotic sense of mankind, must continue for ever to be
pleasing.

From the peculiar characteristics of tlie Shemitic branches
of the human family, wo may naturally infer that they would
be earnestly desirous of education, not perhaps for the highest
intellectual development, but for the culture of imagination
and the develoimieiit of a taste for the fine ai-ts, in a somewhat
rude and primitive form. Such, as history informs us, was
actually the caso. On the fertile plains watered by the Tigris,
the Euphrates and the Nile, the very dawn of history shows us
wealthy and prosperous empires in the full possession of a
written language, a class of men devoted to the cultivation and
advancement of literature and science, and already an extensive
knowledge of astronomy, geometry, chemistry, medicine, archi-
tecture, painting, scul[)ture and other decorative arts, music,
the working of metals, gems and ivory, and the api)lication of
many of these arts to the uses of public and domestic life.
Commerce and navigation soon followed the development of
home art. In later days, e.sp3cially in the times of the Ptole-
mies, Egypt was renowned for its schools of science, philosophy
and literature, and for the formation of vast libraries.

The Hebrew nation, although comparatively small as a
branch of the Shemitic race, has fillo.l a very large place in
history. Under special favouring circumstances of Divine
Providence they attained to a high place in literature and
science. No literature of any age or nation can compare, for
beauty and grandeur, with the boak of Ps ilms, and many parts
of the books of the Prophets. Solomon, apparently without
the addition to his education of foreign travel, was yet a pro-
digy of learning. Science and the useful arts flourished in a

"Wi^'

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOOICAL B88AT.

-.*«*.

high degree during the time of the Hebrew monarchy; the
cesthetic and moral, however, being preferred to the intelleo*
tual in their training. For the higher training of those who
were to fill the important civil and ecclesiastical offices, colle-
giate schools were provided, under the name of " Schools of
the Prophets." At a later period the Rabbinical schools, in
both east and west, exerted a |>owerful influence on the world
during several centuries after the Christian era.

Among the Arabs, in early days, education of an intellectual
kind had made little [)rogress, but poetry was highly cultivated ;
and their history was embalmed in a rude but highly picturesque
poetry, which was chanted by their bards. From the days of
Mohammed a new impulse wa« given to the Arab mind, which
made it for the next six centuries the leading intellect of the
world, and which exerted powerful influences of an educational
kind both on that people and also on many other peoples,
especially the western nations of Europe. No sooner had
the first warlike fervour of the Saracens passed by, and
Arabia, Palestine, Persia, part of India, Egypt and Northern
Africa been subjected to the faith of Islam, than attention was
turned to education. Thousands of schools were opened for
elementary instruction, that the Koran might be read by all ;
and higher schools were instituted for the critical study of the
sacred book. Greek and Oriental learning was called in and
extensively cultivated, and magnificent libraries were collected
at Bagdad, Damascus and other cities. In mathematics — espe-
cially algebra and arithmetic — astronomy, grammar, poetry,
philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and natural science, they
attained an eminence probably never before reached. During
the seven centuries of Moslem power under the Moors of Spain,
along with the display of beautiful art in architecture, schools
and universities, with rich endowments, able professors, and
large and valuable libraries, had sprung up. It is noted that
in the reign of Ab-der-rahman III., in the tenth century, there
\were in Spain seventeen universities and sixty-six public libra*

4i.

DTTBODUCrrORT ITHNOLOOICAL E88AT.

1»

lies, the colebrated univendt/ of Cordova having a libr&rj ol
600,000 volumes.

In the Oriental oolonistii of America wo find the same peeu*
liarities which are distinctive of the Shomitic race in the old
world. Without entering on the dispute<l question whether
the ar cient Mexicans were of Phcenician, Hebrew or other
orig! 1, there is no doubt of their belonging to the Shemitio
race, au<l, as such, quite distinct from the wandering Indians of
Mongolian origin. America had been known to China and
Japan, as Fu-sang, thirteen centuries ago ; the Atlantis of Plato,
the Satumian contitiont of Plutarch, and the Moropia of Elian,
were not pure myths ; there is probably some truth in the
accounts of the commerce and colonizing of the Northmen in
early times, and of the Welsh colony under Prince Madog,
who either originated the Tuscarora tribe or became incor-
porated with it ; but, after all, the western world was practically
unknown to the eastern until the time of Columbus. Then, aa
a new and unknown people, the Mexicans were found in the
use of a written hieroglyphic language, with high attainments
in mathematics, architecture, <fec., and a superior mental culture.
With revolting religious rites there coexisted much refine-
ment of manners, sublimity in the forma of worship, and a
strict system of morals. An extraordinary institution among
them was a tribunal, called the Council of Music, which had
jurisdiction over all matters of science and art, and under
whose supervision the whole education of the country appears
to have been placed. The Peruvians resembled the Mexicans
in many respects, but were not so far advanced in education.

The Aryan race (called also Indo-European and lndo-(Jer-
manic) is widely diffused in different parts of the world. It
established itself in Hindostan three thousand years ago ;
very early occupied Persia and Europe, and is in modern times
planting itself by colonization in all parts of the world. If we
compare the national peculiarities, the religion and the poetry
of the ancient Greeks and Romans, the ancient and modem

INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

Teutonic and Celtic nations, the Hindoos and Persians, thej*
may, to a superficial observer, present no similarities, or even
very close analogies. But the profound researches of the last
few years, especially in the field of comparative philology and
ethnology, have clearly sliown their identity of origui and close
relation in distinctive characteristics. Not only do they all
possess, in •ommon, the mental and physical peculiarities which
distinguish them from the Shemitic rt* vie, but their traditions
all spring from the same root. There is a grand parallelism in
ihe myths of all, and the epic poems of India, Persia, Greece,
Bome, Germany, England and Norseland, with their variety
of life, heroes, wars and conquests, are in reality different
versions of the same story ; and varied as these versions are by
difierences of climate and individual national circumstances,
the origin of this story is to be found in the natural phenomena
of the world, the course of the seasons of the year,, and the
alternations of darkness, dawn, light and twilight of the day*
The mythology of the Vedic and Homerio poems contains the
germs of tLe stories of Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian folk-
lore. Among; the infinite variety of shapes into which this
material has been moulded by the poets and story-tellers of
Greeks and Latins, Persians and Englishmen, Hindoos, Ger-
mans and Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes, Frenchmen and
Spaniards, the same common stock may be traced, even to the
subtle distinctions of feature and character in the actors and
scenes of the great drama of the powers of Nature, which is
the theme of all Aryan national poetry. Distinguished for in-
tellectual power and enterprise, this race are the great builders,
manufacturers and merchants of the world. Their educational
characteristics are in accordance with the natural. Less ima-
ginative than the Shemitic race, their education has less of the
aesthetic and poetic, and more of the intellectual development
and solid acquirement.

In ancient Greece considerable attention was paid to educa-
tion, but generally it was more in the way of physical develop-

IHTEODUCTORY ETHNOLOQICAt ESSAY.

ment than intellectual culture. At Athens more attention was
paid to intellectual and scientific attainments than at other
places. In later days aesthetic and philosophic education
became veiy popular ; while under the influence of Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle, a groat advance was made in rhetoric,
logic, ethics and mathematics. In these the schools of Athens
and Alexaixdria became pre-eminent.

In ancient Rome the education, so far as it went, was princi-
pally moral and physical, until it came under the influence of
the Greek system, which then prevailed, but not so generally as
in Greece itself.

As the several nations of Europe emerged from the chaos of
the ruins of the Westei*n Empire, schools and colleges began to
be founded, and attention Avas paid to the scholastic philosophy,
but there was such profound, general ignorance spread like a
dark cloud over society, that little progress was made for some
ages. But years rolled on. The awaking time of the Crusades
had conie and gone, leaving a thirst for new developments of
society. There were Oriental visions and longings which in-
creased the vitality of the already awakened spirit of commerce
and enterprise. The people of Europe were waking up from
the night of the dark ages. The revival of learning was in
progress, to which an immense impetus was given by the inven-
tion of printing from movable types, and thence proceeded
what may be called the modern epoch of progress and develop-
ment. To the awakening of Europe succeeded the founding of
an English-speaking nation in America. There could not have
been a better time for such an event than that in which it took
place. The seventeenth century was exceedingly rich in moral
and intellectual power in England. The Puritan founders of
New England were men of gigantic intellect, great learning,
deep religious fervour, inflexible moi*al principle, and quench-
less love of liberty, and the deep impress of these elements of
national life were inwrought into the early life of the young
nation. Hence, freed from many hinderancea in the way of

INTBODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAT.

progress which were inevitable in Old England, education
speedily blossomed and bore abundant fruit in the new. Before
the early colonists had comfortable homes to shelter themselves,
they reared the church and school-house in each town, that
provision for the wants of their spiritual and intellectual life
might be in advance of that for their physical life. With
extraordinary munificence, in their circumstances, support was
provided for free common schools, grammar schools and higher
seminaries of learning.

Scotland was the first country in Europe to establish a complete
system of parish schools for general instruction, on the principle
of the property of all being liable to taxation for the erection of
a school-house and teacher's dwelling. It has ample provision
for obtaining a superior education, but not for carrying it on to
such an extent as can be done in the universities of England.
In England, at the present time, the means are ample in the
universities and great endowed schools, for acquiring the highest
grade of education. Owing to ecclesiastical difficulties, England
is far behind some other countries in Europe in provision for
the education of the masses ; but its prospects are improving.
Ireland is rapidly progressing under the influence of its national
system of education, which has outlived the violent opposition
of extreme men among both Protestants and Roman Catholics.
Established in 1831, it has had the honour of being the ^>asis
of our Ontario Public School system, and of furnishing us with
masters and other officers for our Provincial Normal School.*
Under its influence, the people of Ireland have made rapid pro-
gress in education and general intelligence. In France, ample
provision is made for superior education. If inferior to Ger-
many in classical knowledge, it is superior in mathematical and
physical science. Primary education was much neglected until
about half a century ago. The efforts of Louis Philippe and
Guizot, followed by those of succeeding rulers, have recently

* T. J. Robertson, Esq., First Head Bfaster, Provincial Normal School, Toronto;
J. G. Hodgins, EiSq,. LL.O., Dep. Superiut of Education for Province of Ontario, &c.

INTBODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL E8SAT.

developed a very thorough and e£5cient system of public schools
connected with the municipal organization of the country. In
Spain and Fortitgal, harassed by internal discord, the glory of
ancient universities has passed away, and there is no system of
public schools of any practical value in o^istence. In Italy,
the former States of the Church have ample means of superior
education, but are deficient in the elementary department.
The former kingdom of Naples is at a low ebb. Sardinia has
been since 1848 rapidly advancing so as to occupy a very
respectable position. The whole of Italy is likely now to
advance with rapid strides in education. Greece has, since its
independence, made zealous efforts to improve, and has pro-
vided a university, superior and primary schools. Denmark
has for many years maintained a high standard of education.
All grades of schools are provided, and the people are well
educated. In Sweden and Norway the sparseness of the popu-
lation presents a serious difficulty ; yet education is general and
well conducted. Germany in all its States occupies a high
educational position, although there is a great difference among
them. Prussia, Saocony and Wurtemberg are celebrated for the
thorough organization and general practical usefulness of their
systems. Austria is somewhat behind Prussia, but is making
advancement. Bavaria, Mecklenburg and some of the smaller
States are not so far advanced.

In the United States of America a great difference exists
between the Northern and Southern portions, the latter being
much inferior to the former. Ample provision has been made
for superior education, but as yet it has not reached the high
standard of that of Europe. In common and grammar schools
the Eastern, Middle and Western States occupy a distinguished
position, both in the wide diffusion of elementary education,
and in the development of intellectual activity. In Canada,
we have in Ontario an organization, of which an American
writer says that " it is unsurpassed in it3 results, for attendance

inthoductory ethnological essay.

and intellectual progi'ess, by any in the world." The other
Provinces are behind Ontario, but are rapidly improving.

We cannot par oicularize further, and must turn to some
general considerations. Among all the various branches of
the Aryan race, there is much mingling of sub-varieties. The
result of this is often the production of a character highly con-
ducive to improvement and advancement. For example, the
British race, at home, in the colonies, and in the United
States of America, mingles the patient enduring spirit of the
^ Saxon, the refined moral perception, grace and politeness of the
Norman, and the fortitude, perseverance and impulsiveness of
the Celt, together with many other peculiarities derived from the
smaller intermingling of Phoenician, Roman, Danish and other
elements. Such a race is pre-eminently fitted for overcoming
difliculties, advancing enterprise, commerce and agriculture,
making improvements, cultivating art and science, and attain-
ing the highest intellectual position which education can aid
— in producing.

Closely connected with education are questions of language
and religion. Tracing back language to its earliest records, we
find in the vast drifting desert of human speech, three oases
which have been early formed, and in which, before history
began, language assumed a more stable form. These were the
Turanian, Shemitic and Aryan. In these, language was arrested
and became solid and petrified. In the first it assumed a form
mono-syllabic and agglutinate; in the second, radical; and
in the third, inflectional. And concomitantly with this fixing
of anguage was the fixing of three independent settlements
of religion. In China, where we have the earliest record of
Tui'anian speech, we find an ancient, colourless and unpoetical
religion, which may be called mono-syllabic, consisting of the
worship of single spirits, representing the sky, the sun, storms
and lightnings, mountains and rivers, standing side by side, with
nothing to bind them together; also the worship of ancestral
spirits : while above all there towers a lofty range of half reli-

other

IJJTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOOrCAL ESSAY.

gious, half philosophical faith, a belief in two powers, variously"
applied, but originally meaning heaven and earth. In the
ancient worship of the Sheraitic races we find names of God,
which appear in the polytheistic religions of the Babylonians,
Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, as well as in the mono-theistic
creeds of Jews, Christians and Mohammedans. The worship
of these nations is a worship of God in history — that is, as
wielding the destinies of men, races and nations, rather than of
the powers of nature. The names applied to Gbd are generally
expressive of moral qualities, such as Strong, Exalted, Lord,
King. In the ancient worship of the Aryan race, can'ied to
all parts of the earth by its adventurous sons, and which may
be easily recognized in the classic remains of Greece and Rome,
the valleys of India, or the forests of Gennany, by the common
names of the Divine Being, these names are expressive of the
powers of nature. Their worship is, however, not a worahip of
nature, but of God in nature, as God hidden behind the veil of
nature, rather than behind the veil of the human heart. As
the races spread, and the true meaning of words was gradually
lost, eiTors crept in ; figurative language came to be understood
literally; the Divine powers were transferred into many objects
of worship; and widespread systems of idolatry gradually
became developed. The early worshippers of India, who wor-
shipped the Great Father in heaven, and the supreme power in
nature, and even the writers of the Rig- Veda, who were begin^
ning to lose their hold on the Divine, by the multiplication of
epithets and names, would be astounded were they to witness
the horrors of the durga pujah, the great festival of the goddess
Kali, or contemplate the gigantic system of mythology of modem
India, the most gorgeously developed and elaborated which the
world has seen, with its 330,000,000 idols.

Christianity, by birth a Shemitic religion, has spread most
widely among the Aryan race. In Christianity, therefore, we
have now the highest blossoming, or rather fruitage, of the
whole religious idea or life of both of the great branches of the

IKTRODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY.

Caucasian stock, and the mightiest power on earth for the
development of the highest faculties of man. The human
mind held by such a power, anchored to communion with its
Father in heaven, and thoroughly awakened to research, will
speedily overturn and sweep away_old superatitions, and build
up a solid and enduring structure of religion and learning.
Effete creeds, whether religious, scientific or educational, must
pass away; and nothing will stand which cannot bear the
fullest blaze of light. Our branch of the human race is des-
tined to higher and higher developments, to mightier achieve-
ments than the world has yet witnessed, and the highest develop-
ing power of education is required that we may fill our destined
place on the arena of the wcrld.

The following work has been prepared by an experienced
and successful Teacher, and as such, its conclusions are not
to be regarded as merely theoretical, but as the results of
actual experiment and practice. Mr. Le Vaux has made educa-
tion, both theoretical and practical, the great study of his life.
He has devoted to it the resources of a mind thoroughly trained
in a wide range of general scientific knowledge, and a rich
acquaintance with human life, derived from extensive travel
and observation ; to all which he has added the practice of his
theories in the actual organization and government of various
grades of schools. I can with much pleasure, as well as with
much confidence in the soundness of the principles and practice
laid down in the book, cordially commend it to the reading
public as a valuable addition to the educational literature of
the day.

GEORGE BELL, LL.D.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

PART I.-~FIRST PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

Napoleon Bonaparte, while in ezile at Elba, was asked Anecdotes
by one of the ladies of his miniature Court if he would be and Lincoln,
pleased to favour her with his opinion as to ** What France
needed most 1 " Placing one hand in his bosom and the ■
other behind his back, the Emperor reflected for a moment,
and then, looking earnestly at his fair companion, he replied —
in his usual grave and emphatic style — " Mothers.'* Abra-
ham Lincoln's answer to a similar question, though not so
laconic, was equally suggestive. An English friend who
had an interview with Mr. Lincoln the day preceding his
assassination, after congratulating him on the apparent
advent of peace, took the liberty of asking " What he conr
ceived to be the best prescription for restoring order and
prosperity in the prostrate South ] " No threatening words
or angiy reproaches escaped the lips of the venerable Presi-
dent. The loving parent of a disobedient family, he was-
ever ready "to kill the fatted calf" and to receive "the
penitent prodigal" to his bosom. While the question was
being proposed, he approached one of the windows : feelings
of sorrow seemed to agitate his heart ; but after looking out
on the clear blue sky for a moment, his mind was cheered
with more pleasant ideas, and a smile of benevolence lighted

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACIIINQ.

Good mo-
thers and
eflflcient
teachers.

First
lessons.

Up his countenance,
you pro[)ose is

" Mr. B ," said he, " the query

natural under the circumstances. It has
engrossed my attention for some time. We must proclaim
a liberal amnesty and establish good schools, and then ths
heat prescription we can offer the South will be efficient
teachers.^*

Both Napoleon and Lincoln were right. Their conclu-
sion, judged by the light of after events, proves that they
thoroughly understood " the situation," and were fully con-
scious of the great wants of their respective countries. But
what was true of France and the Southern States is, to some
^extent, true of the whole world. Every race and nation
need good mothers, and every people, whether civilized or
barbarous, require efficient teachers. Upon these benefac
tors — mothers and teachers — depend the temporal and
spiritual welfare of the present and all future generations.
History tells us that all the great nations of antiquity had
great mothers and great teachei-s. Every student knows
that those States which had the best mothers and most
efficient teachers, always subdued or annexed their less in-
telligent or less worthy rivals. Recent events in Europe
and America point to the same fact. The North overcame
the South, because it had more excellent teachers than its
rival ; or, rather, the South over-indulged its selfish pro-
pensities, and rushed into a fratricidal contest, because its
people were not sufficiently educated to know their own
interests. Then, again, Germany has dismembered France,
because the women of "Vaterland" were more excellent
•wives and mothers than those of Gaul. We feel assured,
moreover, that there would have been no war in either case
had the mothers and teachers on both sides been equally
worthy. ' .'

A child's education commences when it first smiles in
response to its mother's caresses. It unconsciously receives
xnai^ lessons from those who listen to or applaud its first

THE BCIEKCf AND ART Or TEACHIITO. 25

efforts to ipeak. Children acquire a knowledge of men's
character and disposition by indulgence in a natural impulse
which impels them to study the human face. They shrink
from the clouded brow, but experience much delight when
they perceive by the countenance that they have succeeded
in exciting expressions of pleasure in the hearts of their
friends. Feelings of kindness, and perhaps self-satisfaction,
induce them to repeat what they believe to have given,
pleasure. Though this desire to please is an amiable and
praiseworthy quality, it is, nevertheless, liable to many
abases, and should therefore be guided by reason and culti-
vated with caution. While giving the child its due meed of
praise or approval, wo should occasionally direct attention
to his errors, and be careful to check egotistical displays.

During the days of infancy, the mother, by her *' teachings Mothers
and influence," instils into the heart or incites in the mind t««eh«n.
of the child the germs of those characteristics which, in time
to come, will distinguish him (or her) from all the world
besides. In after years it becomes the teacher's peculiar
province to invigorate those characteristics, and so develop
the mental, moral and physical powers £is to fix indelibly
the noble impressions first made by the dearest and kindest
of earthly friends. It is from mothers alone that children
will learn as if by instinct, and in early childhood they are
therefore the best of all teachers. But as time rolls on, and
the child merges into the boy, or the boy into the man, the
nature of our institutions (in conjunction with domestic or
public duties and the want of special teaching skUl) compel
the parent to delegate his (or her) educational poweiti and
privileges to another. That other — the teacher, tutor or
preceptor — ^is thus constituted the locum tenent of the parent,
and becomes forthwith his ri^presentative in all scholastic
matters; not the representative of one particular parent,
but oi aU the pwrentt whose children are committed to his
charge.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINQ.

ThcfMirental It will be Hccn that tho teacher, by reason of his special
•ubttltut*.

training and experience, must be far more skilful as an
educator than each individual parent could possibly be. In
the division of labour of his little community, the educational
interests have been committed to his care. He is, for the
time being, the common parent of his pupils, and will treat
them as if they were really his own children. To be nae-
cessful in his calling, he must perfectly understand the
nature of the materials on which he is to act ; he must be
acquainted with all the best and most approved methods of
teaching, and be expert and skilful in using them ; he must
sympathize with humanity, and enthusiastically devote him-
self to his work. His responsibility is much greater than
that of any ii^ dividual parent, inasmuch as his " collective
family" is much larger than that of any particular '* home
circle."

The authority of the parent and teacher are patriarchal,
and to some extent inseparable. It is the bounden duty of
the one to uphold and extend the influence of the other.
Their interests are mutual and their hopes similar, if not
identical. Children are easily managed when they feel that
their parents and teachers understand each other, and work
together in harmony and unity for their individual welfare.
There should be no "clashing of authority;" parents and
teachers must support each other. Anything like antagonism,
or doubts and fears, would nullify the labours of both, and
engender a tendency to rebellion and obstinacy. This would
injure the pupils for time — perhaps for eternity — and pre-
vent them from becoming amiable men and women, good
and worthy citizens. Amongst the Greeks and Bomanaf
there was no profession so highly honoured as that of the
educators of youth; and we understand that the modern
Dutch and Germans exhibit a similar appreciation of tiutt
useful calling. It will soon be so in every civilized com-
munity. Parents are becoming conscious of the fact iSuLt if

Mutual
duties.

THB SCIEVCl AND ART OP TKAOBIKO.

thej wish their children to m&ke " the largest amount of
progress in the shortcut space of time/' they must teach
them by example to love education and revere educators.
"The great mind of the people," says Canning, "is becom-
ing impressed with the idea that no office can compare
in dignity, solemnity and public importance with that of
the trainer and educator of youth ; that skill to fashion the
intellects of the young, and ability to lead them in the paths
of truth and virtue are worth more than the knowledge of
all other arts and sciences together, and that the encourage-
ment of accomplished teachers is therefore the first and
noblest duty of every intelligent community." The teacher
is the life of the school. Its value, its efficiency, its success,
depends on his personal character and professional qualifica-
tions. Commissioners and School Corporations may erect
beautiful and commodious schools, furnishing them in the
most approved style, but such labours will be comparatively
fruitless unless the teachers employed be worthy of their
vocation. Many of our Public Schools possess well stocked
libraries, museums and philosophical apparatus, but these
are lifeless and comparatively useless unless made effiectual
through the living agency of mind ; the direct intervention
of men, apt to teach, skilful in illustrations and happy in
Application. A few teachers, eminent in profiessicmal know-
ledge, skilful to understand, quicken, and direct the pupils'
minds, are worth more than a whole army of unskilled
and inexperienced men, even though favoured with every
desirable extraneous aid

The banker, the merchant, the farmer and the mechanic Education, •
work on earthly and perishable materials, and by fair means °°**^® ^^'^'
or foul, endeavour to secure a competency, if aot to accumu-
Ute wealth. How different is the work of the teacher 1
He works upon the living principle — %hfi immortal xniia,^,
•od his wealth is seldom of this world. It is his province
Mid priyilege to excite, draw out, cherish, develop and Ipuild

ill

Tetchert
fonn the
characteics
of their
geooratioo.

TBI 8CIKNCC AND ABT Of TZJLCRUXQ,

up the dirine fabric of the intellect ; to cultirate the iSner
feelings of the heart ; to influence the morals of his generation ;
to promote peace and proclaim the rights of man. His pro-
fession is connected with tlnie and eternity — with the present,
past and future ; its results are everlasting, its effects indeli-
ble. Teachin^^ is a noble work, worthy of the holiest charac-
ter, of the highest intellect, and of the greatest skill. Ever
foremost in wisdom, piety, and virtue, the literary and other
qualifications of the educator should always be in advance
of the age in which he lives, for great inr^**" l are his responsi-
bilities. He who spake as man never spake, even the Prince
of Life, lived and died as a teacher, and His last words,
*' Qo and teach all nations," are still ringing in our ears.
The soul, the mind, the materials on which the teacher
labours are everlasting, and said to be the express image of
the Creator. His work is therefore the noblest in which
man can be engaged. Much is required of teachers, but in
the midst of their trials and annoyances let them consider
the dignity and public utility of their calling, and remember
that, unlike the ','eneraaty of men, they can lift up their
heads at any time and say, ** We follow the profession of
the Great Teacher. We also are apostles- and co-labourers
with Him who said, 'Suffer little children to come unto
Me and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom oi
God.'"

CHAPTER IL

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER.

Teachers form the character of each succeeding generation.
They cannot fail to transmit their Dharacteristics. They are
sure to leave their impression on the plastic minds of their
pupils. The teacher can move the hearts of the young for
good or evil, just as the evening zephyrs move the leaves of

THE SCTINOB AND ART OF TKACHINO.

the foivHt treeH. Hjh acts and wohIh, uIooh and precrptH,
are iinpiinted on their little hearts, a« faithfully an tho
impression of a seal on softened wax. Neither time nor
eternity can ever efface these mental impressions. Once
made, they remain a blessing or a curse for ever. Accord-
ing as these impressions are gooil or evil, the pupils in after
yeara emblazon or dim theii' country's fame, causing it to
shine with the brightness of tho mid-day sun, or to hide
its head in a gloom blacker than Egyptian darkneas. Tho
influence of such youthful imj)res8ion8 is exi)erience«l
home and abroad i*' nil tho events of existence, and — after
inciting, encouraging or restraining the child, the youth and
the man, through all the varied and transitory scenes of
life — they probably accompany the enfranchised spirit into
the world beyond the grave, clothing ii with peculiar char-
acteristics through all the countless ages of eternity.

In all the avocations of life, there is probably no position Re«poaii-
in which the responsibilities are so great, nor is there any
in which so much real permanent good, or enduring evil,
can be done, as in that of the teacher. It is an old and tme
saying that " example is better than precept." They labour
in vain who teach by precept and not by example. As a
rule, example should always precede, or accompany precept. *
The precept should be the expression of the example, as the
rule in mathematics is the expression of the principle. The
person who does not teach by example is not an educator,
and does not deserve success. "Do as I say but not as I
do," should never be the motto of the teacher, for of all the
powers at his command, that of example (or of setting
examples) is the most influential.

The habits acquired in school are those which generally The habitH
characterize the pupils in after life. These characteristics, fudex^"' *"
taken collectively, indicate what the prestige of the nation {J^"^ ^^^^^
will be in years to come. In the public school we may see
the character of the future nation in embryo, and send it

THE SCIEKCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Power of
example,
and of
youthful
impressions.

down to posterity stamped with our imprimatur. How
anxiously should we endeavour to fashion it so that it may
be admired of man and commended by God. The germs of
some characteristics are bom with the child ; others are in-
stilled into his mind duiing the days of infancy. When he is
tmnsfen-ed to the care of the public teacher they are still in
a crude state — ready for training, ripe for extensive develop-
ment, and it becomes the bounden duty of the educator to
cultivate them to their utmost capacity, eliminating the evil,
strengthening the good, and faithfully performing every duty
to the best of his ability. Successful teaching, like successful
preaching, is always accompanied by example. If desirous
of success the teacher, like the early preachers of the Gospel,
must be a living model of the doctrines he inculcates. There
must be no hypocrisy about him — he must be thoroughly in
earnest. Every word, deed, and even the exprsssion of his
face have their effect for good or evil on the imitative beings
committed to his charge.

Example is infectious. It reigns supreme in early youth
and childhood, as the imitative powers are then far stronger
than reason or judgment. Benjamin West declared that a
kiss from his mother had made him a painter ; an approving
^ smile from Madame Bonaparte made her illustrious son a
soldier and an emperor; a story related by his teacher made
Livingston a traveller. So is it in every stage of life ; a
look, a word, an act, a smile, or a frown, from those we love —
from teacher, parent, or friend — may influence our destiny for
time and eternity. " A pebble or a few grains of sand often
decide whether the rain-drops falling on the crest of the
Rocky Mountains shall flow westward to the Pacific Ocean
or eastward to the Atlantic."* So is it in life ; the most
insignificant circumstance affects individual character, and
often originates events which decide Whether the innocent
child is to be a patriotic hero or a " worthless sot" — an angel

* Rev. Geoiie Bell, LL.D.

TSJB SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

^r a demon. The influence of youthful impressions being
immortal and indelible, it i» impossible to calculate the result
of their prospective or immediate efiects. It is the teacher's
peculiar province to make such enduring impressions. Next
to parents, no other human being possesses such power
for good or evil over the youthful mind. How extremely
careful should he be therefore that they may be such as shall
be conducive to the welfare of the immortal beings entrusted
to his care. " Life is such as we take it and make it, or
rather, as it is taken hold of and made for us by those to
whom the care of our youthful days is entrusted."* The
children of the present will be the fathers, mothers, teachers,
authors, lawgivers and rulers of the future. Their character
depends on their education, and that depends on our modem
educators. Let our teachers then "be up and doing," remem-
bering that they labour for posterity. Becognizing "no
standard of superior worth but wisdom, truth, and nobleness
of soul," let them commence the exercise of their influence
over the young by looking well to their personal example,
manner, and general temper — by becoming the right kind of
men themselves ; not indolent, cold, selfish, cruel or irreve-
rent, but brave, faithful, gentle and self-sacrificing : all the How to
powers of their intellect, all the energies of their hearts and impnsjfons,
souls being consecrated to their work. Under the light and
influence of these aspirations the teacher'ft enthusiasm will
be caught up by his pupils. It is sure to impel them to
make such efforts as will deserve, even if they do not ensure,
success. Having chosen his sphere, and engendered this laud-
able spirit amongst his pupils, let him pursue a straight-
forward course, not deviating therefrom to the i ight hand
or the left, and ere many years elapse he will be sure to
discover t^at there are grander objects of ambition than
worldly prosperity or individual wealth. Though his road
be dark and slippery at first, it will gradually brighten, and^

* Natbaniel Sands.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

To sympa-
thize with
the pupils,
and to seek
their love.

at the further end he shall be met by One who (when his
race is run) will welcome him and say — " Well done, thou
good and faithful servant. Enter thou into the joy of thy
Lord."

When a teacher takes charge of a school, his first object
should be to win the affectionate co-operation of the respec-
tive pupils. Should he understand his work and be a good
judge of human nature, he will doubtless succeed in doing
so at once — otherwise, time will be necessary. In some
exceptional cases time will always be requisite. Unless he
possess the natural tact or ability to gain their esteem,
confidence and affectionate regard, his success, if at all
possible, will be very uncertain. If he really loves the
children, and be desirous of deserving and winning their
confidence and friendship, they will soon reciprocate his
feelings. But, as a rule, he mutt 1 ' them ere they love
him. They will become conscious of the affectionate interest
he takes in their welfare by the kindness of his actions, the
urbanity, suavity and earnestness of his manner, the bright-
ness of his looks and the geniality of his disposition towards
them in school and out of school. Self-sustaining patience,
cheerful perseverance, dignified self-control, warm sympathy
and a real eaitiest abiding love for children are essentially
necessary in acquiring the love of youthful hearts. When
the teacher has won his pupils' love, his ascendancy is estab-
lished on a sure and lasting foundation. • uey will feel
honoured in receiving his commands, and c' ■■; while he is
yet speaking. Disobedience will be regarded as i heinous"
offence, and a prompt;, cheerful compliance with the teacher's
instructions or commands will be considered a high honour —
a distinction which each and all will endeavour to acquire.
Under such circumstances tbe work of education is no longer
irksome to the teacher or the taught. Teaching becomes a
god-like exercise when the pupils of a class, like little birds ,
in a nest, aroused to a just sense of their wants, stretch out

THE 8CIE}!CE AND ART OF TEACHING. 33

their necks, beDd foi-ward their heads, and open wide their
mouths to receive what their good friend has provided;
when the skilful teacher like a parent bird stands over his
little flock, sympathizing with their weakness, carefully
dividing his provisions, and feeding them with the same until
all their wants are supplied. Win the hearts of your pupils,
and you win their prompt and cheerful obedience to all your
commands, and their enthusiastic co-operation with all your
designs ; your rule over their minds will be absolute. You
can then say to this one, " Go, and he goeth ; to that one,
come, and he cometh; and to another, do this, and he
doeth it."

It has been well said that " a teacher who would com- Teache™.
mand success must be an enthusiast in his profession ;" and pupils,
we would say in addition that he must love his pupils and,
in turn, be loved by them. The teacher and the taught
must be bound together in bonds of mutual affection. Man
is a creature desirous of love and esteem, and therefore finds
the greatest charm of existence in the affectionate regard of
those around him, whom ho has reason to admire for their
possession of ordinary and extraordinary qualities, such as
gentleness, kindness, honour, truth, sincerity, devotion,
prudence, heroism, or forgetfulness of self for the good
of others. Be a friend and protector, not a tyrant or task-
master, and remember that " No empire is safe, unless it
has affection for its basis."* As anger begets anger, so love
begets love, and the hearts of the young never fail to reci-
procate this god-like feeling. It is not necessary, nor indeed
would it be prudent, on the part of the teacher to announce
in words the existence of this affection — instinct will inform
them of the fact. Teacher, they will read it in your face,
and have the assurance of it in the tone of your voice, in
your smile, in your manner and in your actions — all of
which speak "louder than words." Let your pupils feel

Racine.

,?*

THE SCIENCE AST) ART OP TEACHING.

that you recMy care for thorn, that you take a lively interest
in all that concerns them, that you are their sincere and
unselfish friend, that you sympathize with tiiem in all \hxxc
little sorrows, and would gladly share all their little joys ;
then you will have found the true key to their hearts.
Frowns cliill the sensitive little hearts of the young, and are
frequently reflected back on their source. Those who smile
on the innocent face of a child are sure to receive back an
" answering smile ;" the happy response being an enlarged
and improved reflection of the original beaming glaace.
Smiles are like happy voices in a wooded vale. Their meny
musical tones are sure to be reflected back with increased
sweetness on those who uttered them. Let us always try
to promote the present happiness, as well as the future
interests, of our youthful friends.
To teach by Befoi-e concluding this chapter we will take the liberty
weii"M pre- once more of alluding to the influence of example as an
auxiliary in training pupils to act well their parts in the
respective ^>heres of life, so that at last they may become
worthy citizens of that bright world beyond the grave.

Educators should always remember that it is impera-
tively incumbent on them to teach by example. Precept
without example has no more efiect on the heart of the young
than evening zephyrs on the tall grass of the prairie. They
may bend their heads for a moment before it, but when the
breeze has passed — ^when the living voice has ceased to
speak — its influence is sure to vanish. Example should be
the forerunner of precept, and, as a rule, the latter should
be deduced from the former. This important principle
should be engraven on the hearts of teachers, as their success
in a great measure depends on its observance. Tf, for in-
stance, the teacher be desirous that his pupUs should attend
to their business in school or elsewhere, he must set them
the example by attending to his. And here we may remark,
that as a public officer he is bound to devote his school hours

cept.

III n
>iit

THB K0IS5CI AVD ABT OF TmkOanHt.

exclusively to school work. Never should he forget himself
so far as to transact extraneous business) during those hours
which are supposed to be occupied in the discharge of his
official duties. Any personal indulgence in this respect is a
direct violation of the principles of right and wrong which
he, of all Others, should never forget or infringe.

CHAPTER lU.

THE SPIRIT AND HABITS OF THE TEACHER.

It is the teacher's province to train the finer feelings of Things ne-
the human heart, to develop the latent faculties of immortal SaST^od
beings, to strengthen their weakness, to remove their ignor- '***^****'*
ance; being always careful to equip them with the armour
of knowledge and sword of intelligence, that they may be
able to hold their own in the great battle of life. It requires
time, talent, energy, considerable skill and much experience
to make a really good and skilful teacher. Nor are these
sufficient. In addition, he must be " a man after God's own
heart," kind and affectionate. He must be meek as Moses,
patient as Job, zealous as Paul, alow to anger and apt to
teach. He must have a spirit in him worthy of his noble
and useful vocation. In every child, in every human being,
he should recognize the hiindiwork and image of Jehovah.
Always alive to the responsibilities of his position, he should
possess a soul to which wisdom and science are as the sun
and moon. Happen what may, he must cleave to what is
right, and abhor everything low, mean, or selfish. In ihe
nature of things, he will be an angel of light, elevating
immortal beings to heaven, or an angel of darkness, sinking
i them to hell. He is a " light set on a hill and cannot be ^
fhid." He that w;ould be a good teacher must aim high in
profession.

To have a
right per-
ception of
his work.

in f I

Candidates
for "Teach-
erships " to
look well to
their mo-
tives.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

The great object of the teacher should be to engrave such
impressions on the youthful minds of his pupils as will
ensure them a happy and useful life. He should have a
correct perception of his calling and of the various duties it
entails. He must have a thorough knowledge of the logical
ability and other requirements necessary for the skilful
execution of its obligations, and be duly impressed by its
capabilities for good. Otherwise he cannot have a clear
conscience nor be possessed of the right teaching spirit.
The faithful teacher vnll always endeavour to adapt his
teachings to the nature and disposition of the innocent
creatures committed to his charge — having an eye to their
temporal welfare and eternal happiness. Of course he
cannot absolutely command success ; but much ^vill depend
on his judgment and personal skill in fashioning their
" opening minds " — much also on the quality of the tools
employed for that purpose, and the intelligent persistency
with which he wields them. Mind is the subject of the
teacher. His business is to educate. That he may do so
effectually he should be perfectly acquainted with the dispo-
sition, nature and "surroundings" of his "subject." As a
" mental physician," he must have a right conception of the
object to be attained in education, and of the best, means to
be employed to effect his purpose. He must study man
before he can teach him — he must thoroughly understand
and wholly sympathise with children before he can educate
them. Bonds of paternal love and brotherly affection should
rule in school and out of school, so that, if necessary, every
pupil will glory in sacrificing liimself to serve his com-
panions.

Teaching being one of the most important of the profes-
sions, no one should enter it lightly or without due prepara-
tion. Candidates for admission should look well to their
motives. I^o one is justified in adopting it as a chance
vocation — as a mere temporary calling. Let those who

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

[would enter it with a view to making it a stepping stone to
nomething else, halt whUe yet on the threshhold, and not
liraitate Balaam of old by perserering in a course they know
[to be wrong. Let them ponder well over the awful responsi-
bilities they would undertake, remembering that every word
passing their lips, and eveiy act performed in school may
influence their pupils, individually or collectively, for better
I or worse, for time and eternity. Let them bear in mind that
i a time will come when they must " give an account of their
stewardship," and not forget that the school is heaven's
nursery as well as the world's cradle, and that the teacher's
soul — like Jacob's ladder, while esting on the earth and
piercing the skies — should lead the minds of the young to
comprehend the things of this world and, if possible, guide
their hearts to contemplate the glories of the next.

The teacher, being fully impressed with the almost over^ ignorance

whelming importance of his work, should thoroughly under- for profes-

stand how his respective duties ought to be performed. His jjkes! '"'*'

mistakes, be they ever so simple or insignificant, may injure

his pupils individually and collectively for all time to come.

Ignorance would be no palliation of his blunders. Such a plea

would only add to his crime. The mental and moi*al facul-

[ties of "even little children" are too sacred and too precious

to be " tampered with" by ignorant peraons. Who would

[accept a plea of ignorance from a physician who, through in-

I competency or carelessness, had poisoned one of his patients?

If such a medical man escaped capital punishment, he would

^be expelled from society, and no one would ever engage his

[services again. There are "mental and moral quacks" as

[well as medical ones. From year to year these gentry con-

[iir.ue to murder their pupils* intellects, yet the public do

[liot interfere : miserly school trustees engage their services,

md illiterate people "believe in cheap teachers." Such

'instructors'* may of course do infinitely more mischief

Lhan the unskilled or careless physician, inasmuch as the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TBAOHINO.

&SS.

heart and soul, to which thej administer, are of far more
yalne than the body which must ultimately perish. The
errors of the physician affect his patients in this world only,
but the errors of the blundering teacher will continue to
affect his pupils for all eternity. It is the duty of every
civilized government to pass a law prohibiting untrained,
luicertificated, and unqualified men from practising the pro-
fession of teaching, and restraining public school trustees
from employing them. This would have boen done long ago
were it not that such teachers' blunders and shortcomings —
unlike those of the physician — seldom produce immediate
effects. It is true they may not be visible — they may
slumber, or like seed cast into the ground by the sower,
they may require time to grow and ripen — but a day will
come, in the far distant future perhaps, when the results of
unskilful teaching will be clearly manifest. The effects of
such teaching are the more pernicious because of uncertain
or slow development ; and this is why far-seeing people are
often more careful in selecting a family teacher than in
appointing a family physician.

On the teacher, to a great extent, devolves the i^esponsi-
bility of promoting the physical development and of preser-
ving the health of those little ones who are the joy of the
present and the hope of the future. It has been said that more
than half the deaths occurring between the ages of seven
and twenty-one arise from transgrossions of the natural laws
of health. The seeds of many a lingering disease have cer-
tainly been sown at school, and if the teacher would have
his pupils enjioy through life "Sound minds in sound bodies,"
he must see that their physical education is not neglected.

One of the great objects of education is to prepare the

nsing generation to be good and patriotic citizens. They

government, ^ould, thei"efore, be instructed in the science of national as

^ well as self-government. The youth of the country should

J^ not be left in total ignorance of the duties which will

PhyBical
«ducation.

■ficience of
national
and aelf-

..«

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

|«yolvG on them when they come to man's cfitate. They
lould, at least, be well acquainted with the provision made
their nation for the election of its legislative, jndioial
executive officers, and be ever willing cordially to sub-
lit to la irful auUiority. Submission to the laws is one of
le primary attributes of good citizenship. Both parents
id teachers should carefully "initiate th» child into the
ky stories of obedience."
The teacher, desirous of beinff successful in the practice of To heain

each ilay

is profession, must bo sure to begin each day aright. He aright.

lust remember that there is no personal chai'acteiistic so

^tractive as an open countenance, and no quality so amiable
good humour or evenness of disposition. Before entering

le school-room ho should so regulate hi» temper and spirit
to be proof against whatever disturbing or disagreeable
tuences may greet his arrival or come under his notice
ring the day. Having control over himself he can the

lore easily control his pupils. Firm in command, strong
will, and pleasant in disposition, he can smile upon his

ipils and enter cheerfully on his important work. He will
id " the little labourers" instead o di-iving them, and
iconsciously induce them to feel that tlieir work is a plea-
it duty and not a disagreeable task. Under the influences
a genial nature, he will thus "allure them" to pursue

leir studies with prolfit, aotd bring them to sympathize with

iself and with each othei*. Under such cireumsta&eet

3y will prefer the society of the class-room to that of tha

iwing-r jom ; the school will be surrounded with hallowed

itionS) and " learning lessons" will become a pleasant,

not a delightful duty. Let them be encouraged to grai^

te living fn^esent with all its ^lergies, fulness and dev^op-
3nt, and be made familiar with the idea that labour is not
ly the souree of subsistence but the fountain of comfort,

1th and happiness.
After reading this chapter some may ask perhaps, wheth^ An impor

le public can honestly expect so much from men in return

tantqueiy. ^

THE SCIENCE AND \RT OF TEACHING.

Who can be
a t«acher?

for a salary of a few hundred dollars a yearl — whether we
can hope to find such rare moral and intellectual qualifica-
tions in parties who (as the world goes) have to lire on
" starvation wages V* We will revert to the subject of re-
muneration in another place, but in the meantime may be
permitted to say that, the teacher is a mind-builder or a mind-
destroyer whether paid five thousand a year or only five
hundred. If he does not understand the science and art of
his calling he is no more capable of educating one child than
he would be to educate one hundred or more. Of course
there would be a difference in the amount of labour, but
the moral and intellectual qualifications would be the same.
A physician has to spend years in studying his art before
receiving his diploma. This he must do even though he
were afterwards to extend his services to only one patient.
The mental and moral qualifications of teachers should be
equal to, or rather in advance of, those of other professional
men, and thoy should be paid in proportion to their respon-
sibility, competency, and skill.

Others may ask, perhaps, " If tliese things be so, and that
the responsibilities are so great as you point out, who then
can be a teacher?" Very few indeed can be really good and
great teachers. Nevertheless if a man feel that he has the
right spirit within him, if he be desirous of being instru-
mental in promoting in the highest degree the welfare of
the rising generation — by elevating and enlarging the capa-
bilities of the human soul, by moulding the feeblest and most
innocent of God's creatures into intelligent and benevolent
"sovereigns of creation" — then, his motives being pure, let
him assume the duties of the office, and enthusiastically
devote his sole attention to his chosen profession. It is
necessary that at all times and seasons he should be in
sympathy with his work, and all that pertains to it. For
without devotion, enthusiasm, and professional sympathy,
though he may be a "school keeper," and be called a "school

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

:hcr," yet he never can be a suoccssful educator — at best
le will be but a mere machine. If a man enter the profes-
sion, and finds after due trial that he does not possess the
I qualifications essentially necessary — that in fact he has mis-
taken his vocation — then for his own sake, and the interests
of those committed to his charge, he sliould immediately
"got out of harness" and seek some other calling. If, on
Ithe contrary, ho have reason to believe that he jwssesses the
lessential mental and professional qualifications, then let him
jrsevere unto the end. Let him steer a straightforward
sourse, and having put his hands to the plough, never look
)ack. His devotion will be acceptable to his Creator and
lis country, and in days to come his reward will be more
raluable than any which silver and gold can purchase. Even
thLs world, he shall have his reward. Superior worth —
specially superior knowledge — is always honoured. People
tnnot long withhold their love and affectionate apprecia-
ion from those faithful citizens who devote themselves to
le service of humanity, and are ever willing to sacrifice
leir worldly prospects on the high altar of education.

CHAPTER IV.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD TEACHER.

Any person desirous of becoming a successful teacher To be a
lUst possess an extensive knowledge of human nature, more ^Imln
specially that branch of it which relates to children. ^^*"'*'
Jautious and sensible, he must know when to censure and
rhen to praise ; when to rule their passions ; when to guide
leir afiections ; when to repress their animal spirits ; when

direct their attention, and when to govern their ambition.
)urtesy of manner, kindness of disposition, and sympathy

feeling, will enable him to rule with almost despotic
ithority through the influence of mutual esteem and affec-

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF T

TING.

Aptitude for
teaching.

Pupll»7
should be
led to do
crenrthing
for them-
selves.

tion. Let him therefore lje careful to cultivate these noble
and pleanant characteristics. If not endowed with the power
of building " a royal road to the temples of learning," (and
few ever were,) he ought, at least, to be able to strew the
way with flowers, and competent to relate the history of
every scene along the route. His mind should abound with
apt illustrations. He should be able to awaken the youpg
idea to a full consciousness of its wants, capabilities and
responsibilities, so that he may stir up or incite to activity
eveiy worthy feeling of the human heart. To do so effectually
he must be a good judge of child nature, have a chorongh
knowledge of the workings of mind under different influences,
and of its expansion and growth under different systems of
training. An acquaintance with the writings of ancient
philosophers, and with the most approved modem works on
education, will assist him materially in this resjMjct ; but, as
s rule, he must rely for success on his own observation and
professional genius or aptitude.

From what has been said. will be seen that it is a very
difficult thing to be a good tv...^xier ; and we have the highest
authority for stating that without being apt to teach, it is
impossible to be a successful one. Integrity of character
and literary or intellectual attainments, though essential,
are as nothing without this divine quality. Of course these
accomplishments add to the worth of the individual posses-
sing them, but without being apt to tea^h, he cannot efficiently
or effectually transfer them to others — he cannot develop
the mental capacity of pupils, nor impart to them the know-
ledge accumulated in his mind. In some persons this aptness
to teach is the gift of nature ; but in the majority of cases
it is an acqaii'ed power — the result of a careful study of
humanity, and of the young heart in particular. |

"We may here remark that a good teacher will never
decline to lend a helping hand to bis pupils when such
assistance is necessary; but, on the other hand, he should

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACRIKO.

carefully avoid doing too much for thorn. It in said that
young teachers have a tendency to do this from feelings of
mitituken kiudness, or through ignorance of the child's
capacity. A teacher should 1)0 careful also not to say more
than is necessary on any subject, for, as Kossuth observes,
"an unnecessary word is a word too much." Too much
may be done /or, and too much may bo said to, the pupil.
Both must l>e avoided. Milk is fit food for bal)es, and beef
for older people. The former are fed with the spoon, but
who would attempt to feed the latter in the samo wayl
What man, enjoying the use of his hands, would accept such
infantile civilities 1 None. So is it with the teacher and
the taught. There should be no unuecessury nursing — no
literary dandling — in the public school or private study. . ,
Too much aid is as bad as too little. Pupils should be
taught to exercise their own faculties — to depend on their
own resources ; and, as a rule, the teacher should never do
anything fw Item that they themselves could do vnthout hia
assistance. His great object should be to lead them to do
everything for themselves. By such prtictice their intellect
will be expanded, their various faculties strengthened, and
their self-reliance increased, and they shall grow up to be
men and women in the true sense of the word — " sturdy
trees," defying the battle and the breeze of life. They will
us learn at an early age that " whatsoever is worth having
i«an only be had by climbing ;" that knowledge ctin only be
uired through honest, well sustained, well directed, per-
sonal efforts.

Real courtesy should be a leading characteristic of every Conrtesy of
her — we mean true politeness — that genuine solicitude ^her chur"
d' earnest attention which spring from benevolence and SJ^the*^"^*'
le well-meaning kindness of a noble heart. This is indis- *^*'*^'''-
sns&bly necessary to his success. Being cheerful in dis-
)sition, kind and courteous towards friends and enemies,
le cannot possibly fail in due time to obtain and retain the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Touth to
ihonour a^e.

An anecdote
—a Grecian
Je>?end.

esteem and good-will of all — both intelligent and ignorant.
In his walks abroad should he meet his pupils (or any of
them), he should recognize them courteously — with smiles,
not with frowns ; with kind and affectionate looks, not with
a cold, stern countenance. He should take the earliest
opportunity to make the acquaintance of their parents. He
cannot cultivate the friendship of all, but he should be sure
to greet them cordially whenever he meets them. In
public or in private, he should be careful to act so as to
merit their esteem. He will thus obtain " a good name,"
which " is more desirable than great riches." At all events
the experiment will cost him nothing; let him give it a
trial. It is his duty to teach his pupils politeness by
example as well as by precept.

Whilst impressing on their minds the respective claims
of superior worth, and pointing out the duties they owe to
humanity in general, he should never forget to claim their
filial reverence for old age in particular. Let it be a point
of et iquette with them — nay, let it be the rule of their daily
life — to " rise up before the hoary head and honour the face
of the old man."

We may be excused if we digress for a moment to relate
an anecdote which will illustrate the spirit of the foregoing
quotation — an anecdote exhibiting clearly what we mean by
true politeness, whilst it affords an example worthy of*'
imitation by the youth of all generations. On a certain
piemorable occasion, in days gone by, a number of Greeks
assembled at an Athenian theatre to see the performance
of " a star" — a primitive Shakspeare doubtless. The actor
was popular and "drew a crowded house." The Spartan
ambassador and his suite happened to be present. They
occupied seats opi)Osite those allotted to, or engaged by, the
Athenian aristocracy. Before the play commenced, or dur-
ing one of the intermissions, it happened that an old man —
a citizen of Athens — came in. He surveyed the audience

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 45

for a moment, but though his head was white with the
snows of age, and a staff supported his feeble form, yet no
one offered him a seat — in truth, there seemed to be no seats
vacant. However, the young Athenian aristocrats, seeing
his position, resolved to have a j oke at his expense. They
therefore pretended to make place for him, and made signs
inviting him to come amongst them and be seated. He
bowed in reply, and walked to the place indicated, but when
about to sit down, "the wags" closed on either side and re-
occupied the vacant space. They then winked at each other
and laughed at the chagrin of the old man. The cheeks of
the gallant young Spartans burned with shame and indig-
nation as they observed this rudo and insolent "performance,"
For a moment they gazed at each other in amazement, and 8p«rtan
then, as if moved by one will, every man of them rose and
remained standing whilst one of their number went over to
the old gentleman, and, bowing reverently, begged permis-
sion to conduct him to a seat. The old man complied, and,
leaning on the arm of the noble youth, crossed to the other
side of the house, where he was cordially received by the
ambassador and requested to take the moat honoui-ahle seat.
The comfort of the old patriarch being thus secured, the
Spartans quietly resumed their seats and turned their atten-
tion to the stage.

After a moment's silence, a mighty cheer shook the foun- conrtesy
dation of the theatre. The audience " were struck by the "'^««'"^^<*-
little adventure," and took this method of showing their
appreciation of such noble conduct. The gallant Spartans
smiled with inward satisfaction, but the rude Athenians,
now blushing at their own behaviour, held down their heads
with shame. Both parties had received their reward —
remorse was the lot of the one, and an approving conscience
the glory of the other.

When the cheers had died away, the worthy old gentleman
arose and, after thanking the kind "foreigners" for their

, •)

46 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

attention and example, expressed his regret that his fellow-
citizens knowing what was right, did what was wrong ; but
that nevertheless, he was glad to find "the Spartans practised
what the Athenians knew." Thenceforth Lacedsemonian
courtesy was praised in the patriot homes of Greece, and
every citizen felt proud of his Spartan countrymen. By
that one act these young Spartans set a worthy example to
the youth of every generation, and made the world their
debtors for time and eternity. Young friends do you approve
of their conduct? If so, " Go, and do likewise." Macaulay,
referring to this anecdote, writes as follows :

* In Athens, ere its sun of fame had set,
'Midst pomp and show the gazing crowds were met.
Intent for ever upon something new —
The mimic wonders of tlie stage to view,
The seats were filled, but ere the show began,
A stranger entered — 'twas an aged man.
Awhile he sought a place with aspect mild, —
The young Atheniacs sat and smiled.
How poor the produce of fair learning's tree,
Tliat bears no fruit of sweet humility.
The Spartan youths had their appointed place
Apart from Athen's more distinguished race.
And rose with one accord, intent to prove
To honoured age their duty and their love ;
Nor did a Spartan youth his seat resume
Till the old man found due and fitting room.
Then came the sentence of reproof and praise.
Stamped with the sternness of ancient days ;
For, standing full amidst the assembled crowd.
The venerable stranger cried aloud ;
" The Athenians learn their duty well ; but lo I
The Spartans practise what the Athenians know."
The words were good, and in a virtuous cause —
They quickly earned a nation's glad applause
But we have surer words of precept given
In God's own Book — the words that came from Heaven :
" Be kind, be courteous, be all honour shown —
Seek others' welfare rather than thine own."

Amiability The teacher's face, like the full moon in an azure sky,

tk)ni^^°'* should, if possible, be always bright and pleasant-looking.

Smiles, like sunbeams, should light up his countenance so

* Condensed from original.

!*!»%;

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

[that all with whom he comes in contact may, for the time
[being at least, be made to feel comfortable and happy. His
kim should be to "Attract all and repel none." He must
[remember that to teach self-control by example, it is neces-
iry that he should not allow the trials incident to life, and ,

his profession, to ruffle his coujitenance or influence his
jtions. An amiable disposition, a smiling countenance, and
m engaging manner, never fail to warm into life the generous
fections of the human heart, whilst they dispel the moonless
jloom which so frequently besets the paths of both young
id old. For these reasons, and others too numerous to men-
tion, we should carefully cultivate those agreeable personal
laracteristics.

Teachers should be particularly careful never to upbraid Not to up-
pupil with his (or her) mental or physical defects. It is with the&
lot consistent with refined feeling or Christian piinciple to physical
lo so. On the contrary, his interest in and kindness towards * "'^ '
ich parties should be the more marked in consequence of
lese defects. Children, naturally irritable, selfish or obsti-
ite, like those who are blind and deformed, are objects of
pity and compassion. They are unfortunate in being subject
infirmities and misfortunes which can only be overcome
|)jy peculiar mat ngement, aided by sympathy and encourage-
lent. Mental or physical deformities are heavy burdens,
id perpetual censure (besides being useless in itself) only
Ids to the crushing weight of these afflictions. Let children
assisted in overcoming unpleasant natural peculiarities,
id not abused for the misfortune of having inherited them,
liey are naturally weak, and should be treated with extreme
snderness. Mental defects and the singularities of manner
3culiar to any pupil should be mentioned to him in private,
id they never should be alluded to in the presence of his
)mpanionfl. When addressing a pupil the teacher should
lot gaze on, or appear to notice, any physical defects with
rhich he may be afflicted. To do so would be inconsistent

Absence of

persoDal

kiaduesii.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

with gentlemanly feeling, and might be the cause of unneces-
sary pain. No vulgar jests, no coarseness of language, no
disagreeable epithets, and no profanity should ever stain
the lips of the teacher. His language should always be
pure, accurate and chaste — a model worthy of adoption
and imitation by the innocent beings committed to his
charge.

It has been well said that " Children's happiness depends on
the attitude assumed towards them by their comrades more
than on anything else in the school, and a great part of the
misery which they have to endure is what they inflict on
each other. ..... The chief violations of the spirit

of kindness which will come under the teaclier's notice are
these : a selfish want of sympathy in the misfortunes that
befal others; a disobliging spirit, which churlishly refuses
to accommodate others . . . want of courtesy in speech
and manner; nick-naming, which wounds the feelings of
others ; the playing of practical jokes to their detriment or
inconvenience ; tyranny on the part of the strong towards
the weak ; ridicule of the poor or deformed ; and cruelty to
animals. Much apparent unkindness amongst children arises
from thoughtlessness ; they do not consider the consequences
of their words or actions, or they have not imagination
enough to realize them. . . . The training to kindness

consists in the training to considerateness."* The teacher
should gradually seek to foster in them the disposition to
do good to others independent of its direct consequence to
themselves — to do good for the love of doing it ; and though
he cannot force the development of kindness, he can and
should restrain oppression. Pupils should be led to see
that the duties o*" life are mutual, that they should bear
with each other's infirmities, and be guided in all things by
the word of Him who said: ** Whatsoever ye would that
men should do unto you even so do unto them."

• Currie.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

jonsequences

Aristides "the Just," and "Honest" Old Abe of the West, To be

' . honest, just

have become houschokl names. The former title speaks to and tru«.

us of Grecian worth and gratitude ; the latter quaint cogno-
men expresses the aflectionate regard of a great nation for
one of her noblest sons. These are two of the most noble
titles that can designate a human being — two of which every
teacher should endeavour to be worthy. Every man and
woman should cultivate, and endeavour to unite in them-
selves, these two characteristics ; but in no pci-sou is their
combination so necessary as in the teacher. Strictly just
and honest in all his dealings, he should always use the
words of truth and soberness ; for if honour, truth and
[ justice were banished from all the world besides, they should
find refuge in the heart of the teacher. It has been said
that people gradually grow into the likeness of that upon
which they constantly gaze — mental or physical. For this
[reason, if for no other, thoy should carefully foster all the
nobler sentiments of the heart by the daily practice of bene-
volent deeds. Followinsr the higher instincts of their nature
they should surround themselves, so far as possible, with
objects calculated to cultivate the taste, elevate the mind,
and excite good and pleasurable emotions. If there be any
truth in the foregoing statements (and there is) it follows
that the constant " worship" of honesty and justice will
secure our happiness in early youth, and crown our old age
with wreaths of purity and peace.

" There is (says a learned writer) something very admoni- Regularity
.... . . .and punc-

tory and awe-inspiring in the punctuality of God in His tuaiuy.

universe and in His providence. The laughing stars know

their courses and rejoice to run them. The moon, ever true

to her seasons, duly observes her time to wax and her time

to wane. The great aun himself never forgets his time to

rise, nor his time to set." Onwards for ever roll the heavenly

orbs on high, never a moment late in fulfilling their appointed

courses. Teachers, parents, pupils, friends, let 113 take a

Lord Pftl-
iiierston's
opinion.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

lesson from the works of Nature, and make " Punctuality
and Regularity" the rule of our Uvea. It has been well
said that " the standard of a school depends sensitively on
the regularity and punctuality of every person in it — but
more especially on the regularity and punctuality of its
teachers."* A teacher should be regular and punctual in
all his dealings and undertakings, no matter what others
may be. It behoves him to be a bright example of these
virtues not for his own sake alone, but for the sake of those
imitative beings committed to his charge. Unless his actions
exemplify his precepts, he cannot with propriety insist on
their observance by others. He who neglects to practice
what he teaches or preaches is, at best, but a recruiting
agent for the already numerous army of hypocrites. His
tongue says one thing and his actions say another of opposite
or different import, so that he is divided against himself,
and therefore his teaching "cannot stand." The rules a
teacher makes, and the precepts he utters, are as binding on
himself as they are on the pupils. The teacher, as well as
the taught, must be subject to the common law of the school.
If possible he should never be late in his attendance. As a
rule, he should arrive at least ten minutes before the time
fixed for the commencement of business, and he should dis-
miss the pupils punctually "when their time is up." If he
be not regular and punctual himself, how can he insist on
others being sol especially when these others are little
children. " Method is the hinge of business," and there can
be no method without punctuality, and no progress without
regularity and continuity of application.

The late Yiscount Palmerston stated on one occasion to a
deputation, comprising some members of the Royal College
of Preceptors, that "if there were any class of men who
could or should know everything, that class were teachers ;
for (continued he) they can never know too much." No

♦Itev. Dr. Ryerson,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

casion to a

lan has known, or ever can know, all the branches of

lowledge — at least not in this world. A teacher must be

^ver on the qui vive, always learning, always studying — he

m never know enough ; or as Palmerston said, ** he can
lever know too much." The first-class teacher should know,
^r endeavour to know, the whole circle of knowledge ; but

lore especially those branches which are of daily use in his
location. In the grand march of intellect and science, he Teachers to

° lead m the

ould lead instead of being led. Fixing his eve on the march of
ir of his country, his great and paramount object should

to train up the youth of his fold, so that they may be

)d and worthy citizens — an honour to him and a credit to
lemselves during the long years to come. Such a teacher

II be affectionately remembered when lying in his grave,
le teachor should always recollect that if he be acquainted
ith all the branches of knowledge except one which he

lid know, he may be said to be an ignorant man. In
order that an edifice may be substantial, the foundation
aiust be sound. A teacher's knowledge of the higher and
lore advanced subjects may, in many cases, be regarded as

accomplishment ; but, in all cases, a thorough knowledge

the elementary branches is absolutely necessary. How-
rer, learning alone will not make an efficient teacher, nor
lable him to overcome the many difficulties peculiar to his
)sition. As already pointed out, there are sundry other

[uisites of a personal nature, which, if he does not naturally
)S8ess, he must endeavour to acquire — amongst these we
lust give a prominent place to good sound common sense ;
quality which implies the power of looking at things in
leir ordinary nature and relations, irrespective of their
)nnections or associations with ourselves or our interests.

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scholars ever To beware

111 11 1 • 1 °' P"^® *^<*

bngland or any other country produced, yet, durmg the vanity.

rening of his life, he repeatedly stated that he appeared to

limself as a little child picking pebbles on the shore, whilst

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

the great and boundless ocean of knowledge and truth spread
out unexplored before him. These were the sentiments of
a philosopher — of a true christian — of a great and noble, yet
a meek and humble, man. Sir Isaac, notwithstanding all
his learning, was a mere child in his own eyes — ever ready
and anxious to learn more. This should be the spirit of the
true teacher, and with the false ones we would have no com-
munication. The teacher should avoid self-sufficiency and
false pride as he would avoid Satan, and, like Sir Isaac, be
ever ready to learn sometliing new — something useful. The
wisest man that ever lived — even Solomon himself — was but
a mere cadet in knowledge. How therefore can any sensible
man be a pedant? too proud to learn more — too vain to
profit by the experience of others. Teachera, as a class,
should certainly be the best scholars of the age ; but if, in
consequence of their superior knowledge, they (or any of
them) be puffed up with vanity, pedantry, false pride and
self-conceit, they are unfit for their calling — unworthy of
the name of educators. We cannot see how any human
being, not the victim of a diseased imagination, can be guilty
of such follies. A teacher should possess a sound mind and
a sound body, and by practising such vanities, or pursuing
such bubbles, he unintentionally indicates that he is per-
sonally conscious of the existence of a defect or imperfection
in one or both — whilst he, unconsciously perhaps, degrades
himself in the estimation of his fellow-men, and thereby
brings contempt on his profession. Learning always endows
those who possess it with a certain superiority above their
fellows — a superiority which will be duly acknowledged by
people in every rank in life, provided it be accompanied
with no absurd pretensions or ridiculous airs. Modesty
seldom fails to charm. We should never allow self-deception
to swamp the faculties of reason and judgment. Be we ever
so good or great, still there is ample space for improvement.
There is no real or genuine comfort in considering ourselves
better than we really are. Let us be blind to our own

-^\N

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

lerits, and leave the perception and appreciation of them
others. All men, at beat, are but dust and ashes. In
le sense, all had the same beginning, and all will have the
imo end. It has been well said that " the greatest and
jst men mentioned in history were the most humble" — the
lost forgetful of self, and the least given to foolish parade,
it has been, and will be in every age. Humility and
jrsonal worth are inseparable.

CHAPTKR V.
KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED.

The Falls of Niagara would soon cease to exist were the Tenrhers i^^

imense lakes abovo them not regularly replenished by the minify.

lows of winter and the surplus waters of the various foun-

is, streams and rivers of tlio adjoining countries. Were

lese supplies suspended, or directed into another channel,

many yeara would elapse boys might explore the empty

tves of Niagara's tide, and reptiles gambol in the pul-

srized dust on the bed of the once mighty river. Not

[drop of water would remain even in the great lakes — all

)uld disappear from the effects of evaporation. So is it

ith the teacher's mind. He must study continually — he

^iist keep adding to his stock of knowledge. He must

irsue a regular plan of study. In the nature of things

learning will increase or decrease — there is nothing

itionary in this world. In knowledge, as in everything

5e, we must either advance or retrograde. It behoves us

)t only to perform some good work every day, but also to

irn something new. If we do not draw a regular supply

information from the fountains of knowledge, they will

!0 far as concerns us) gradually dry up, and our learning

dll evaporate or become uncertain and indistinct, like the

it remembrance of the dreams of childhood. If we do

)t keep on the qui vive, and endeavour to expand and

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

<l!

Temptations
incident to
the profei-
Mioa.

strengthen our mintls by continual acquinition and reflection,
our faculties will certainly stagnate to a greater or less
degree, according to the quality and extent of our previous
education. Every man, and the teacher especiiilly, should
occasionally refresh his memory by taking a tour through
the various fields of kmjwledgo. He should add somt'thing to
the furniture of his mind — to his luontal accomjdiHhinents —
every day. Necessity will compel hira regularly to replenish
his " capital in trade ;" reflection will suggest the propriety
of systematically exploring the sources of knowledge, so that
he may sip freely of their crystal waters. By so doing his
mind will become a well stocked treasury from which he
can draw as he has need. In this respect, as in others, a j
little forgetfulness or neglect will l)e sui'e to breed more or
less mischief Intelligent teachers periodically pursue a
course of professional study, and diligently labour to cultivate I
their various faculties. Teacliers should be as hard students |
as any of their pupils. They are expecte<l to be educators, I
and should not content themselves with being mere " lesson 1
hearers." Considering the public utility of their work, and I
having higher and holier aims than the accumulation of I
money, " let them exalt the dignity of their profession by |
adding daily to their mental accomplishments and by indivi- 1
dual growth in pei-sonal worth."* They will thus keep ahead
of the age in which they live, and grow in grace with God
and man. Let it be remembered, however, that though
reading may sow the seed of knowledge, reflection alone can
ripen the fruit.

It has often been observed of individual teachers on both
sides of the Atlantic, that the schools they first taught were
their best — ^that in after life they retrograde in efficiency
instead of advancing. Indeed it is a matter of notoriety
that many young persons practice the profession frr years,
and in the end are more backward in intellectual ability and
more deficient in the science of teaching than when they

•Rev. E. Ryeraon, D.D.

THE SCIENCE AlfD ART OP TEACHING.

commenced. Tlicse effects are the results of many cauBes
(too nuniorous to mention here) ; but when they prevail to
[any great extent, it is evident the delinquents are unfit /or,
itLixd have mistaken, their calling. It must be borne in mind,
[bowcver, that there are many peculiar temptations incidental
the profession wfiich tend to make the teacher a back-
llider. For instance, few men do (or can do) more than one
hing at one and the same time. Still, in the nature of
lings, this is just what the teacher has to do. He is com-
jUed to do two things — to teach and to govern — at one and
le same moment. This double duty — requiring the con-
sentration of all his faoulties — continues not for a day or
|wo, but week after week, tirm after term, and year after
fear ; so that after his daily work is over he is coninietely
Itigucd, and therefore, instead of devoting his spai-e hours
his own private studies or mental acconiplishmonts, he is Doing tw©

, , 1 . , things at

ipted to rush away to the nearest and most convenient place tiie sam*

recreation.* This feeling of weariness is strengthened,

id not unfrequcntly produced, by a press r.f business, by

le inconsideration or thoughtlessness of pupils, by want of

ssh air, by the insufl&ciency of his remuneration, and the

ion of other anxieties incident to his position. However,

the teacher can only strive resolutely against these things,

will triumph in the end. If he resist these anxieties

ley will flee from him. Remembering that spare moments

"the gold dust of time," let him not fritter away his

lious moments on insignificant matters, nor yield to

)ression of spirit ; and then, indolence — consequent on

biguc — will keep at a respectful distance. Hope, energy

pt-rseverance conquer all difficulties. Let him, at least,

rote one hour out of the twenty-four to sweet communion

ith the educators and philosophers of other ages. From

3ir writings and his own observation he will be sure to To turn

[uire the insti-uction and experience, if not the peculiar Se^ts'tr

;t, necessary to his professional success.

good
account.

* David Page.

^!l

8lrW.

fialeigh's

advice.

Precepts by
Pytbagoiaa.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

The culture of the intellect will improve the natural diH-
position, enli«j;hten the conscience, feed the flame' of geiieroua
sentiment, enhance our perceptions of the dignity, utility,
and obligations of life, whilst making us founttiins of happi-
ness and centres of holy inlluonce in our rcsjKjctive spheres
of usefulness.

Before concluding this chapter we would beg to direct the
attention of pupils and younger teachers to the following
words of Sir Walter Ruleigh : " Bestow thy youth (says he)
so that thou mayest have comfort to remember it when it
has fors.iken thee — so that when old thou mayest not have
cause to sigh and grieve at the account thereof Whilst
young thou wilt think thy youth will never have an end ;
but behold the longest day hath a/i evening — thou wilt enjoy
it but once and it will never return. Use it therefore as
the spring time, which soon dej)arteth, and wherein thou
oughtest to plant and sow all i)rovisions necessary for a
long and happy life." I

Before retiring to rest we should carefully review the |
various transactions of the past day. The great teacher '
Pythagoras made a rule to this effect for his own personal
guidance. His modern admirers should follow so worthy
an example. How dasii'able that young and old before
r( gning themselves to sleep should take stock of the day's;
doings and, in the words of the Grecian sage, exclaim:;
" The day is past ; where have I turned aside from my recti!
tude? what have I been doing] what have I left undone;
which I ought to have done "? . . . . Begin thus from
the first act and proceed to the last (says the philosopher),
and, in conclusion, be troubled at the ill thou hast done and
rejoice for the good."

" still in the paths of honour persevere.
And not from past or present ills despair ;
For blessings ever wait on virtuous deeds,
And, though a late, a sure reward succeeds."*

• Congrcve.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO.

CHAPTBS VI.

MUTUAL DUTIES OF THE PROFESSION AND TIIE

PUBLIC.

It has been well said that " every man om'cs a debt to his Wo are all

• 11 I'll in<lpl»UKl to

profession." This observation la 8|)ecially applicable to the .)ur|»r..fea.

teacher and hi« vocation. How are teachers to discharge

the debt, admitting its existence 1 In many ways, but

chiefly by arousing the public to a just sense of duty

in re8|)ect to education — by doing all in their power to

j magnify the real importance of their profession — by making

it moi-e and more honourable as a result of their profound

[learning, intelligence, character, and general merit.

Skilful teachers can only be formed by several concurrent Adiqimto

. lint 1 remuniir«»

|ualincations, such as a naiunil love for the work, natural tiun.
I pulse, and individual fitness or professional aptness ; but
iese must be efliciently seconded by adequate remuneration.
If etlucation be worth having, it is worth paying for. The
sachers* salary should bear some proportion to his resj)onsi-
jilities, qualifications and success. " The labourer is worthy
his hire ;" and no people should be so mean, or so forgei>
il of their children's interests, as to only half pay for their
3her's services. So useful, so important is the faithful •
iher's work that he can never be fully paid for it in this
rorld. What are the paltry few hundred dollars which he
mally receives, compared with the value of the services
sndered? An intelligent community should blush at the
lea of paying teachers starvation wagea^ — in fact an intelli-
snt community won't do it — they will have a oettor appre-
teation of their own and their children's interest. Besides,
itelligent people have too much honour and discrimination
ofier half a year's pay for a full year's work. " Every
lember of society (says Goklsmith) should be paid in pro-
)rtion as he is necessary; and I will be bold enough to say

Test of
civilization.

THE SGIENOB AND AKT OP TEACHING.

that schoolmasters in a state are more necessary than clergy-
men, as children are in more need of instmction than their
parents. ... Of all professions in society. I do not
know a more useful or a more honourable one than that of a
schoolmaster, at the same time I do not sec any .
whose talents are so ill-rewarded. ... I would make
the business of a schoolmaster every way more respectable
by increasing teachers' salaries, and admitting only men (or
women) of proper abilities. . . . Masters and teachers,
when they are men of learning, reputation, and assiduity,
cannot be sufficiently prized in a state."

It is pleasant to know that at the present moment the
public, in all civilized lands, are awakening from their
political lethargy and indifference about educational matters.
The rostrum, the pulpit, and the press, are astir in favour of
education and educators. The public press — the angel flying
in the midst of heaven — has done much for the teacher, and
will doubtless continue its favours. The people may rest
assured that his efiiciency and devotion wUl increase in pro-
portion to the increase of his remunei*ation. The great mass
of the people are of opinion that the time is at hand when
the pay and position of the teacher must be improved ; for
all feel that " good hands should receive good hire." High
accomplishments secure esteem, and better services command
better pay. The liberality of employers will never fail to
stimulate the faithful teacher to still greater exertions in
discharge of his duties, and still higher attainments in the
various departments of knowledge. Hence, the action of
the profession and the public should be mutual. The former
must equal, if not surpass, the other learned professions in
knowledge and " business tact." and the latter (the public)
must duly appreciate the labours of the teacher, and, in
addition, pay well for his services. In fact, they will have
to do so, whether they will or not, ere many years elapse.

If we look abroad upon the modern history of the world,
we will observe that wherever education is prized above

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

I wealth, and the educator preferred to the money maker,
[there, and there only, are the people truly refined, happy
land enlightened — there are those who lead the world in the
[march of civilization — there the golden rule is observed, and
len " do unto others as they would have others do unto
lem." In such a country every man follows some useful
dling — thero are no fops, no idlers, no ** place hunters " or
\* hangers on," and but few cases on the criminal calendar.
Jood an 1 learned teachei*s are the cause and consequence of
learned national character. It is therefore generai'7 con- A cause
ded that the esteem in which they are held is a iu< ire quence.
the intelligence and civilization of the people. Tij' re< jnt
ictories of Prussia and the United States may be directly
ced to the superiority of these nations over their opponents
the matter of education. In no other countries of the
orld (except Holland) ai*e teachers so highly respected,
id in none are they so well i)aid as in gallant Prussia and
America. Great and enlightened nations appreciate
eir teachers, and the teachers in such nations — considering
le obligations mutual — render themselves more and more
•rthy of public regard, as scholars, patnots, citizens —
doing whatsoever they find to do with all their might."
en teachers, as a class, duly honour and appreciate their
lofession, and the law of the land prevents parties entering
who are not thoroughly qualified, the people will, and
tost, liberally remunerate and properly esteem those who
qualified and in successful practice. When the teachers
d the laws work together to this end, the emoluments and
blic appreciation of the educational profession will be
ual to its importance, and its most successful sons will be
more attracted from its ranks by the moie lucrative
ducements of other callings.

The low estimation of our ancestors for the profession of The rich
hing arose decidedly from their personal ignorance and the ment c^

le value they placed on education itself. Some amongst

Bidered.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

US who received little or no education in their early days
may still inherit this spirit, and be induced thereby to
undervalue the advantages of learning and the merits of the
teacher. These people, or any of them, may perhaps speak
on this wise — " Oh ! I have got along pretty well in the
world — made an independent fortune — and yet I have had
very little book knowledge. I spent only six months at
school. Many of my acquaintances who received a college
education could never succeed at anything. I wish my
children to follow my example in all things." By entrench-
ing themselves behind such arguments these anti-education
people only exhibit their inherent folly, vanity, and utter
ignorance. If they got on so well in the world with so little
" book knowledge," how much better would they have got
on had they been favoured with a good, sound, liberal educa-
tion? Might not their educated (?) acquaintances have been
equally unsuccessful even though they had never entered a
college? In that case perhaps their fate would be worse
than mere failure in business. Was extensive learning and
profound knowledge the real cause of their want of success
in life? Are you sure, dear parent, should your children
grow up uneducated, that they (like you) will be successful
in amassing a fortune, or even a mere competency ? Was
not your success as an uneducated man an exception, rather
than a general rule ? Does ignorance really elevate a man,
enabling him to become a better individual and a more use-
ful citizen? In your intercourse with the world did not
you yourself acquii'e an education before you acquired a
fortune ? Answer these queries honestly, and abide by the
result; but remember always that God and your country
expect you to do your duty. Why should men, otherwise
respectable, be advocates of darkness and enemies of pro-
gress? Without education and without teachers to impart
it, man, in the course of a few generations, would, in all
probability, retrograde into a state of barbarism. We

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

• early days
thereby to
lerits of the
rhaps speak
well in the
[ have had
: months at
ed a college
I wish my
iy entrench-
iti-education
,y, and utter
with so little
ley have got
iberal educa-
jes have been
er entered a
uld be worse
I learning and
Qt of success
our children
36 successful
fency ] Was
)tion, rather
ivate a man,
i a more use-
[TOfld did not
acquired a
abide by the
yovLV country
en, otherwise
mies of pro-
ers to impart
would, in all
)arism. We

earnestly hope that the time is at hand when none of our
citizens will be so ignorant as to exhibit such ignorance,
and when every man will gladly aid in promoting the intel-
lectual, moral and physical welfare of his fellow-men. O

In some of the foregoing pages we have taken the liberty •^"J"**^

of impressing on teachers that they should embrace every association
, » , . . . ofteachere.

opportunity of domg good and of acquiring knowledge, so

that while improving the faculties of others, their own may

not remain stationary or decay. We would now say that their

personal welfare and the interests of education materially

Buffer from the want of a more extensive and effective pro-

lessional union than any which has hitherto existed. With-

tut combination, teachers are like little stars scattered over

e firmanent — united, they would be as the mid-day sun.

Isolated or divided, teachera are comparatively powerless,

but united they would feel their strength and could use it

too, to their own advantage and the nation's welfare. Let

^e teachers of every county or district unite and form local

|U3Sociations, based on the principles of mutual instruction,

jnutual aid, mutual sympathy, and mutual interest. Let

ese county " unions " unite and form provincial or national

sociations. Let these again unite and form an inter-

tional association. Then will teachers be "a power "in

eir respective states — they will receive sufficient remunera-

,on for their services, and education will be honoured as it

lUght. Teachers, awake from your lethargy. A moment's

flet ion will convince you that mutual welfare and common

interests require you to form a universal brotherhood, embrac-

g teachers of all denominations, climes and nationalities.

ise then in the interests of posterity. "Be up and

ioing "—lose no time in organizing these unions and " the

ion of unions " — a Teacher's International Institute.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

CHAPTER VII.

RIGHT CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION.

The kinder-
gartAU

system.

The teacher's duties towards his pupils are somewhat
analagous to those which characterize a gardener skilful in
the management of " little nurslings." " Indeed," as a
learned teacher remarks, "the public school may be regarded
as a garden or 'nursery,' in which children are the plants
and the teacher the gardener."* "We will become more
impressed with the resemblance if we remember that, in
addition to the elimination or amputation of diseased or
unfruitful members, both have to remove hindrances and
strengthen favouring circumstances; so that their little
"flock" may have sufficient room and opportunities for
development in their respective spheres, according to the
laws of their organization. It must have been some such
ideas as these which induced the Germans to found their
Kindergofl'tena. The term Kindergarten means "garden of
children," and may be regarded as a school in which the
"little plants of humanity" are trained and developed m
accordance with the laws of their being and " the teachings"
or promptings of child-nature. Like Pestalozzi, Froebel,
the founder of the system, was the most eminent teacher of
his time — his special province being "the culture of the
young." After spending more than forty years in studying
the science and in practising the' art of teaching, he pro-
claimed "the Kindergarten;" and, if we mistake not, the
system will make his name immortal. It has beeif intro-
duced (though in a modified form) into many of ^v best
schools, and has been received with much favour. In
philosophy of method it may be justly regarded as the
most scientific of our educational systems. As might be

♦ Froebel

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINQ.

expected, it is peculiarly successful in primary schools ;
but the principles on which it is founded are common to all
children, and applicable to all "learners;" so that, with a
few judicious alterations or additions, the system may be
adapted to schools of all grades. The essential character-
istics of the system are^ that instead of repressing the pupil's
spirit with the view of " making him good," and instead of
attempting to paralyze his natural activity with the view of
" keeping him quiet," it encourages the development of these
things by organizing play itself into educating media. This
is so literally true of the system, that children under its
influence gradually come to regard play as work, and study
as recreation. Such a system begins at " the right end."
It does not encourage the indolent practice of looking at
things through the eye-glasses of others. On the contrary*
it induces the pupils to make the most of their precious
time, and, by encouraging personal investigation, it impels
them to exercise their respective faculties. But to practice
this, or any other system successfully, the teacher must
carefully study the peculiar propensities or natural chai-
acteristics of children, and be sure to make child-nature
his ally in the pursuit of knowledge.

Mere knowledge is not education, but education includes Meaniiig of
knowledge. To teach is not to educate, but education
implies the intervention of teaching. To teach means to
" cram in," and to educate means to " draw out," or lead
forth. It is obvious, therefore, that the two terms are far
from being synonymous. The term education is derived
frona^e or ex (out), and duco (I lead), and, in the sense in
wMMl we use it, signifies the expansion, unfolding, training
and "strengthening of all the human powei-s — of the entire
man: not of the mind alone or of the body alone, but of both
together. An educated mind in a well-trained body, sub-
ject to the direction of superior moral sentiments, is the
surest guarantee of present and future happiness. Educa.

■miipi

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

The lMi»t
teaclnr.

preparation
itecessary.

tion excites the mind to thirst after knowledge, whilst it
endows our faculties with strength to acquire sufficient
supplies of mental food. It enlarges the intellectual capa-
cities, whilst it cultivates, elevates and refines all the feel-
ings of the human heart. It may, in fact, be regarded
as an absorption of surrounding elements into the mind
and body — an assimilation of the substances, qualities,
and relations of things, whereby they become a part of our
being, mental or physical — a new supply of faculty upon
which we can draw as we have need. Education enables us
to acquire and use knowledge. Hence, in a civilized commu-
nity the Art of Teaching may be justly regarded as the most
important of all arts, as well as the basis of all the sciences.

The best educator is not the man who can " cram in" the
most information, but he who can most successfully stir up
or inspire the human mind to think, observe, reflect, analyze,
combine, and execute, without doing any or either of these
things for it. The best teaclier is not he who can pack into
the pupils' minds the greatest number of facts, but he who
can thoroughly discipline the mental faculties, and thereby
enable his pupils to educate themselves. The efficient dis-
cipline of the mind and proper training of the heart are
things to be desired far more than the mere acquisition o^
information. It is, however, a reliable axiom that know-
ledge is the twin sister, if not the ofispring, of educatioS^-
no human being can really educate his heart or mind with-
out acquiring knowledge. The latter always accompanies
the former; but unfortunately the former does not always
go hand in hand with the latter.

To be successful in any of the callings of life menlBk^st
be educated in that particular business by long study, labour
and apprenticeship — no matter how great may be their
aptitude or natural tact. This is specially true of the
teacher. Without study and due preparation no man can
possibly be an educator. Moreover, if careful preparatij

THE SCIENCE AND ART St TEACHIKO.

, whilst it
sufficient
ctual capa-
,1 the feel-
5 regarded
the mind
qualities,
)art of our
culty upon
enables us
sed commu-
as the most
be sciences,
•am in" the
ally stir up
ct, analyze,
ier of these
11 pack into
but he who
md thereby
sfficient dis-
j heart are
quisition o*
that know-
iducaticMP-
mind with-
.ccompanies
not always

men^ll^st
udy, lalK)ur
be their
irue of the

lo man can

preparati^^

d continued study be necessary for success in other pro-
sions, they are doubly so in the case of the teacher, inas-
uch as his responsibilities are much greater than those
hich devolve on the members of other callings — seeing
at lie has to work on the minds of immortal beings, whereas
ey, for the most part, have to do with earthly and transi-
things. He has to work on heavenly subjects — on the
erlasting materials of mind and spirit. Why should he,
erefore, through blunders arising from ignorance or inex-
irience, maim or mar what was intended to be blessed, and
16 source of blessings to others 1 He has to educate vital
d immortal principles, to train the human body, to fashion
human soul, and, unlike the productions of other work-
in, his work, be it good or bad, will endure forever. If
, it shall be his delight in future ages ; if bad, it will
I a source of shame to him for all generations. How
ortant therefore that he should fully understand th®
iteries of his profession, and be duly impressed with its
nsibilities ! How absolutely necessaiy that, like the to have a
ul artist, he should have a beau ideal before him in all *^" "^***'
llabours 1 Every word he speaks should be fraught with
ing, and every sentence he uttere should more clearly
elop the idSal of his mind. The skilful teacher is a
ind artist," whose works will influence the world for ,

d, amd leave their impression on the history of our race,
unskilful teacher is just the reverse — he may influence
world for evil more or less in proportion to his mental
bre. He may be likened to the novice who would
mpt to chisel an Apollo or a Venus from a marble block.
higUPt; efforts would be at best but a series of failures
inful blundei-s — ^blundei-s that probably could never be
^edied so far as that block of marble may be concerned,
much more irreparable would be the errors of the
idering teacher 1 How many blocks of marble would be
bh one good citizen — one immortal souU Other labourers

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

^! !

Fiittir*
reward,

Bon of
culture.

may blunder, and perhaps destroy the materials on which
they labour, but tlio teacher cannot afford to do so. A
thousand diamonds, each tlio size of the world, could not
buy one of the little souls entrusted to his care. How
absolutely necessary is it, therefore, that before commencing
his professional duties he should have correct ideas of hU
work, and be fully posted in the beat and moat approved
methods of performing it 1 The teacher who possesses these
qualifications, and avails himself of every opportunity of
turning them to good account in the interest of the public,
will surely command success, and in days to come " many
shall rise up and call him blessed." It has been well said
that " he who labours for others, forgetful of selfish interests,
is sure of immortality."
A perfect ^ Man was designed to be " perfect after his kind " — in his

man — uni- ^ o '

physical as well as in his mental and moral natures : not in
one only, but in the whole three together. No man can he
perfect after hi^ kind who does not possess a benevolent
heart, a vigorous mind, and a healthy body. It is the due
development and "proportional combination" of these charac
teristics which constitute a " whole man." It is a well
known fact that persons friendly to education have oftcD
affirmed that during the early years of childhood the physical
powers should be allowed to develop themselves, u^heckei
by the tempering restraints involved in the exercise of tkj
other two. Others again have held that the mental faculties
of children should engross all attention to the exclusion ofi
the physical and moral powers, whilst a third party (equallji
earnest) make a similar affirmation with respect t^^e mora
feelings. These three views are equally erroneous^ Natiir
and experience inform us that the true course consists of
due combination of the whole three. All of them are equalljj
important, so that none of them should be placed " afore orM
after the other " in the order of culture. Their developmeDi||
should be contemporaneous. From infancy up, the respectivej

THE SCIKNCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

rials on which
to do so. A
irld, could not
\a care. How j
•e commencing i
ct ideas of hU
moat approved \
possesses these !
opportunity od
, of the public, j

come " manyj
been well said
lelfish interests, |

1 kind " — in his
latures : not in
No man can be
js a benevolent

It is the due
of these charac

It is a well-
ion have ofter.
ood the physics
Ives, uq^heckec

exercise of tb
mental facultici
the exclusion c

party (equfvll}
ect t^Jie mora.
neous^ Natur
se consists of i
hem are equall;
>lac6d *' afore or|
eir developmenil

I, the respective!

mental faculties, physical powers and moral feelings, should
be carefully attended to, so that, being cnlletl forth into
harmonious action, none may flourish at the expense of the
other. It will be seen fr'-m the foregoing that thgse who
consider education to be the mere art of carrying children
through a certain programme of intellectual studies, are
grievously in error as to the right meaning of that science,
whose object is to develop, "perfect men and women" out
of the crude material so characteristic of childhood and
[youth. Q

If we were to watch an icicle from the commencement of P"* f''"n»-

tloii of

is formation until it has attaiued its full growth (or length), *'»anicter.
e would notice that it froze one drop at a time. " Sliould
e water be clean, the icicle will be clear and ratliant in the
nlight ; but should the water be muddy, the icicle will
;B0 be muddy and deficient in ' sparkling ' beauty. It is
us human character is formed — one little thought or feel-
ing at a time. If every thought be pure and right, the soul
irill be bright and lovely, and will sparkle with happiness !
But if tiie thoughts or feelings be evil or impure, the mind
^U\ be soiled or darkened, the cliaracter depraved, and the
5ieart miserable and wretched." The first principle of all First pnn.i-
od sound education is that more attention should be paid education.
the formation of character than to mere expertness in the
spective branches of learning ; and the second is like unto
., namely — that ftir more emphasis should bo laid on the
ight cultivation of the feelings of the heart, and development
f the faculties of the mind, than on the mere acquisition of
nowledge. Every act of the teacher should tend to develop
1 strengthen these eternal principles, and the exercise of
1 the means at his disposal for that purpose is not only
[egal and right, but obligatory. Strict attention to these
atters must be reckoned amongst his most important
iUties. How import;ant that the educators of youth should
eep constant watch over the development of the characters

■111 I

■!l9l

THE BCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

of the immortal and imitative beingn '^'omraitted to their
charge, constantly impressing on tkem the necessity of being
always on tlunr guard against the idle alluremonts and
impulsive propensities peculiar to their age.

CHAPTER VIII.

PUBLIC AND PKIVATE EDUCATION CONTRASTED.

Pupils of studious habits will " gain more book know-
ledge " from a private tutor, in the same space of time, than
they could possibly acquire in a public school. But on tho.
other hand they gain experience of the world and its customs
At public schools, such as they could never obtain in their
own homes. As Goldsmith says, " Boys will learn more
true wisdom in a public school in a year, than by a private
educn^ n ia five." If privately educated they generally
reach uie f.ge of discretion before they become acquainted
with the vices or extravagancies of life ; and as their reason
and judgment are then well developed, they are better pre-
pared to resi.st the temptations or enticements of the world
than they could possibly be at an earlier age. On the other
hand, if kept in ignorance of the allurements of life during
their early days, they are the more likely to be carried away
by them when they esca]oe from tho rest mints of home —
when they enter the universities or go into business. If
boys be kept in ignorance of the allurements of the world,
and subject to rigid restraints, while at home, they generally
(or at least frequently) go beyond all due bounds when they
leave the parental roof, " for the novelty of vice may then
have irresistible charms."* It is unwise to raise children
in this rigid puritanical manner. Nature will have its way
sooner or later. Too much restriction in youth is often suc-

• Goldsmith.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OK TBACiriN'O.

ceedetl by Ticentiousnewj in af -or life. In fart it ncoras to

be a law of om being, that unrestHcted liberty Hudilenly or

unseaflonably obtained is almost sure to be abused : and as

ia nile, the succeeding liceiif 'ousness is in direct proportion

[to the indulgence or antecedent hiirhiiuess of th« ruling

authority. In this respect, as in aH others, !• t ns follow

nature. Let children l)e raised to know tlio world a.) it

b< tjly is; let a aj 'nt be ini ilanted in them which will

enable thorn to steer their ooiirse free from the danger of

shipwreck on the rocks ;ind quicksands of life. Let them

be raised to know thems 'Ives and taught to understand

humanity as it is, and wo need not fear the result. They

Iwill then be almost sure to feel and act as becomes worthy

[citizens, and will prove by their ueeds that the discovery of

jtnith and the [)ractice of courtesy, kindness, and 'oenevolence

jare the noblest objects of life.

Private instruction may perhaps be best adapteil to the A pubim

luining of youth to habits of virtue and piety ; but the countr th«

?niulations, trials, and triumphs of the public school form paration for

the best preparation for the battle of life. If the affections oiliff.

md passions of human nature be not properly directed and

Inly restrained by a firm land during childhood days, man-

lood is apt to be barren — totally devoid of those qualifi-

mtions and accomplishments

" Which adorn youth and cheer with hriTllant rays
The fading spirit of winter's gloomy days."

Parental affection frequently nullifies parental authoi-ity.
lS a necessary consequence th<' child is indulged intem-
ir.itely, and aH the evil propensities of human nature
jvelop themselves unchecked. It is seldom so in the
jnblic school or collegiate institute -. In those institutions
10 various powei-s of the mind are called into activity by
Ijo noble influence of example. Emulation is excited, and
.^ery pupil knows and feels that shame and disgrace are
ire to follow idleness. In those national institutions the

.THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACBINO.

V r

Eleuientii
■aec«Bs.

0.V

obstinate heart is induced to yield a willing obedience;
friondiihip.s are formed which will endure for ever ; equality
is felt, and no sui)eriority acknowledged but that of merit ;
the diffident and shy become confident and bold ; the rude
learn politeness, and literary improvement is pursued by
all with more or lf3ss zeal and success. Some learn from
their companions, others from their books and teachoi-s, but
the fires of emulatit»n gradually seize upon all — upon even
the most indolent. Here, as the mind of the child or youth
expands, and as he wends his way to the temple of learning,
he will have the sweet companionship of co-labourers and
fellow-travellers. He will learn to esteem the noble quali-
ties, usually known as generosity, gratitude, and courage,
and, by the example of companions, be led to despise perfidy,
sloth, and selfishness. Ho will thus (insensibly, as it were)
be taught to cherish in his heart the nobler feelings of
humanity, whilst he learns to avoid the baser instincts of
our fallen nature, as if they entailed instant death. Find-
ing that his reputation in a public school depends on his
own conduct, and being constantly impelled to act with
decision, his mind must gnidually expand, and he will
attain a certain firmness and manliness of character other-
wise unattainable. He will thus leam to feel that patience,
perseverance, energy, fortitude, and industry, are the true
elements of success, whilst he becomes convinced that real
merit, like tho water of a river, is silent in proportion to
its depth.

The future success in life of each individual child depends,
in a great measure, on the right cultivation of its talents by
appropriate studies — on the proper training or development
of its intellect — on the vitality, energy, and amiability of its
disposition, and on the morality of its early youth. " Public
schools are the best arenas in which to prepare for the
duties of after life."* No person can receive a thorough

* Prince Von Bismarck.

THE 8C1EKCE AKD AfiT OF TKACniKO. 71

tical education witliout availing himself of their advan-
Iges. Awkwardness, timidity, doubt, and uncertainty, are
10 accompanying charactcriatics of pupils " educated " by
ivate tutors at their own residences. Such parties seldom
ul to contract the habit of looking upon the world through
irrow or bigoted channels, as their judgment is formed
rather deformed by their own limited experience of
len and things.
It is true the advantages of the public school may be ^^- ,

•^ , * _ _ dei-eption.

ithin their reach, but (as in Europe) the foolish pride of

irents, the culpable vanity of caste — antequateil id(>as of

jdark and barbarous age — clinging to the skirts of their

rments, oft<m prevent them from availing themselves of

keir educational opiKjrtunities. They then seek to api)ea8e

^eir conscience by abusing the public school system. The

lildren of such j)arent8, not having the opportunity of com-

in contact with enlightened or intelligent minds, often

lagine themselves to be beings of gigantic intellect — of

ingelic mould" — by birth, position, and education worthy

the worship they would fain claim from their fellowmen.

iffed up with self-conceit and imaginary importance, they

unconscious of being victims to the vice of self-deception.

structed without being educated, they would fain have us

ieve the scream of the crow to be the voice of the eagle.

lorance and inexperience may be regarded as an excuse

such erratic pretensions if not a palliation for such

Ifish stupidity ; but we can scarcely regard any system of

ication with favour, which tends to make men uncon-

|ou3 of their personal deficiencies. As a learned teacher

jll observes, ** There are some things which a boy leams

)m none so well as his parents, but there are others which

better taught him by men who have made education

study and business of their lives. And though it may

Bm rash and cruel to drive a boy out (to college or public

lool) from the sanctuary of a quiet home into a scene where

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

:i!| ' ■

the darts of Satan are flying thick, yet it is really wise and
kind. That fight must be fought by all ; and if a man
leam not in youth to face the noise and the dangers of the
battle, he can scarcely be firm and fearless in manhood. To
have never met danger is not courage, nor is it innocence
to be ignorant of evil." *
Union of In the education of our children, if we are to have a choice

and private between the public school and private tutorial system, by
all means let us have the former with all its faults, rather
than the latter with its "alleged advantages;" but, if pos-
sible, let us have both together. While children are very
young, mothers are their best teachei's, and governesses are
the mother's best substitutes. Tliey should be sent to school
at an early age; and thenceforth, until they emerge from
the University, private tuition (if it can be procured)
should go hand in hand with i>ublic education — the former
being secondary to the latter. Parties availing themselves
of the advantages of both systems, will have reason to be
pleased with the result.
Necessity It is a matter of the greatest importance, if not of abso-

of national . . , i«iii-iii

provisioufor lute and imperative necessity, that "iiivery chud should be
educated — and this is specially true of those destined toj
occupy prominent or important positions in society." f One
of the greatest duties we (citizens and legislatoi-s) owe to
posterity is, to make a liberal provision for the efiicient|
education of the rising generation. Should we not do so,
we may be sure that our sins of omission will be visited on I
our posterity "to the third and fourth generation." This
provision should be national in character, and subject to
central administration — each city, town, or district being
compelled bylaw to provide school accommodation, with an
efficient staff of teachers, for all the resident children within]
the legal school ages; and entitled, as a necessary conse

* Ascott R. Hope.
f Earl Duffcriu, Goveruor-General of Canada,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

ouence, to a share of the national school fund in proportion
to the amount raised for school purposes by the local Board
of Education. Every parent, rich or poor, should be com- ^Sion'^
pelled to send his chiklren, for a certain length of time, to
some public school — that is, a school taught by a teacher
(or teachers) licensed by Government. Each child in a
country is as much the child of the nation as it ia the child
of the parent, and the nation, therefore, should provide for
its future welfare so far as educational matters are con-
cerned. Parents should not be allowed to raise their
children in ignorance, when facilities are at hand for their
right instruction. Every nation, making a national or
public provision for education, should have a clause in its
legal code compelling all children between certain ages,
enjoying good health, to attend some school, public or
private, a certain prescribed number of days per annum.
A Government which neglects to make, or declines to
enforce, such a law, has no moral right to impose (or levy)
a school tax on its citizens. The Chief Superintendent of
Education for the Province of Ontario, taking this view of
the matter, had a clause inserted in the recent Canadian . «

Scliool Act making attendance at '^'ihool compulsory within
certain limits. Toronto, and some other cities, have given
effect to the Act by appointing ''Truant Officers," whose
duty it is to see that the iaw is obeyed within their
respective jurisdictions.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Fundamen-
tal prin-
ciples.

J )e vol 01)-
iiieitt ut the
faculties.

.■

Order of
sequence.

CH.VPTER IX.

NATURAL ORDER OF DEVELOf>MENT OF THE
RESPECTIVE FACULTIES.

Education may be defined as the art of develojnng, in due
order and proj)ortion, the respective mental, moral, and
physical powers. It behoves the teacher to ascertain the
order of sequence in which nature develops the respective
faculties, so that he may be able to supply each with suitable
mental nourishment during the process of evolution. If we
would command success, our arrangement of matter and
mode of instruction must conform to th^ natural order of
mental development. No one can be a skilful teacher
unless he knows not only how to impart information with
facility, but also the order in which the various branches of
knowledge should be presented to the understanding. These
principles form the basis of Nature's method of instruction —
the great archetype of all methods. The same faculties are
not always ready to germinate at the same age in different
individuals ; nor does the order of sequence remain invari-
able. Both time and sequence are subject to slight fluctu-
ations arising from certain inherited or associated causes ;
but the skilled teacher will discover these variations, and
"govern himself accordingly." In the generality of cases
the order of development follows the order of sequence
observed in this chapter.

Observation is one of the first — if not the very first — of
the mental faculties which awakes to consciousness. Then
come memory, faith, reflection, imagination, reason, and
judgment. The mental faculties which should be particu-
larly attended to in childhood are those which bud, blossom,
and bear fruit during that period — namely, observation,
reflection, memory, and faith. By faith, in this instance,
we mean that faculty which impels people to receive as true

tan SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

those things which are toUl them bj others. As children
advance in years, and ascend into higher classes at school,
the other faculties should be gradually cultivated — the first
lessons in the cultivation of each being of a simple kind,
partaking more of the nature of direct intuition than of
formal propositions. One of the chief objects of education
ia to enable pupils rightly to instruct themselves, and unless
we take Nature for our guide, this object can never be
achieved. The great secret involved in the right cultivation
of the respective faculties is, that the order of sequence
indicated by Nature should be observed in their development.

Sectiok 1. ATTENTION.

Observation and reflection are often regarded as sub- *;{'!^'J!"^'tJ(^„
divisions of what some call the faculty of attention. By es'^fntiai.
the word attention, as here used, we mean that elective
affinity or faculty of the mind which enables us to fix on
(or select for consideration) one particular object, of the
many which may present themselves to the mental vision —
to the exclusion, for the time being, of all others. T^ is a
well known fact that when we thus direct our attention to
any individual object, all extraneous ideas — or thoughts
foreign to the subject — naturally retire from the mind.
The ability to single out or fix on one particular idea, to
the total exclusion of all others, is of course a very impor-
tant, useful, and necessary mental power. The power of
continued attention is, in fact, one of the most important
elements of success. Without it, natural talent will remain
dormant or undeveloped, and even genius itself will fail to
command professional s\iccess. Observation and reflection
may be regarded as the parents of all human ideas. With-
out their aid there would be little or no knowledge. It is
a matter of fact that the strength and utility of our ideas
are in proportion to the degree or intensity of the attention

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO.

devoted to the subjects conceming which conceptions are
generated or conceived. The majority of our ideas perish
at their birth. None permanently remain except those
produced by accurate attention — direct or indirect. By
direct attention we mean percei)tion or observation, and by
indirect attention we mean reflection. The former refers,
of course, to impressions engendered by external objects
received through the media of the senses ; and the latter
refers to thoughts or sensations produced by mental analysis,
synthesis, or comparison, — or by the recurrence and consid-
eration of former ideas. The recalling, or summoning back,
of such ideas is sometimes spontaneous and sometimes the
result of a direct effort of the will.
Cultivate One of the principal duties of a primary teacher is the

observation training of pupils to habits of accurate observation. The

and reflec- o t r ^ .

ion. development of the reflective powers should be the special

duty of the teachers in charge of intermediate departments,
whilst the development of judgment, and its kindred facul-
ties, should be the province of those in charge of the higher
departments — the principal teacher being careful to review,
revise, and overlook the work done in all classes. The
order of development may be fixed, but the age at which
the reflective faculties of the child should be aroused, called
orth, and educated, is very variable. In this respect, as in
others, let the teacher follow Nature. But to return : Con-
ceptions of qualities, such as taste, smell, etc., are com-
prised under the head of reflection. They are diflGicult of
comprehension to the youthful mind, and cannot be recalled
or compared with much accuracy or clearness; but the
reverse is the case as regards conceptions of visible objects.
The latter are generally definite and precise, and can almost
always be recalled without dimness or uncertainty. This
circumstance proves the superiority of sight as a medium of
intelligence. It is an axiom with teachers that knowledge
acquired through the eye is always the most accurate, the

, -, _ .1 '-"yj-,--

THE SCIENCB AND ART OF TEACHING.

most durable, and the most easily leai-ned. For these
reasons, all knowledge, so far as practicable, should be com-
municated through the medium of that organ. If the subject
of a lesson be not of a spiritual or "intangible" nature, it
will probably belong to "the physical world;" and if the
object itself, or a model of it, cannot be presented to the
class, they should, at least, be shown a picture of it. If a
picture or chart of it cannot be obtained, then a drawing
of it should be made on the black board. This plan will
not only enable them to understand the lesson, but will
quicken and cultivate the habit of attention, without which
there can be no permanent acquisition of knowledge — no
improvement in mental capacity. As Archbishop Fenelon
well observes, " There is no pleasure equal to that of diffus-
ing happiness and exciting attention."

The happiness of life depends chiefly on the right use of a child's

. , , • /. 11 hapi)ine8».

moderate enjoyments — on the continued succession ot small

but agreeable sensations. The happiness of childhood de-
pends in a great measure on the continual supply of little
pleasures — on its opportunities of observation and experi-
ment — the true sources of early enjoyment. The child is
ignorant ; everything is new to it, and Natui*e impels it to
seek for knowledge. Hence its continued activity, its love
of variety, and its craving for sympathy — essential elements
of its happiness. Success in securing attention depends on
the teacher's ability to understand and satisfy these long-
ings ; and his personal experience will prompt him to avail
himself of their combined influence in imparting instruction.
Reciprocal regard is the surest index of successful teaching — Mutual
the best evidence of good education. The cultivation of a
generous affection, on the basis of mutual confidence and
niutual esteem, seldom, if ever, fails to refine the heart and
ennoble the understanding. Such an attachment sweetens
the fountains of knowledge, and awakens every chivalric
feeling dormant in the human heart. - ;: if

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

How to

seeuro

uttcntion.

i jil:::i

Not t<)
iliscouiage.

To secure attention, on ordinary occasions, the matter
must be interesting, an'^ the manner of treating it gi-acious
and attractive ; the tei s oi- words must be selected with
care, defined with accuracy, and adhered to with firmness.
If the hmguage used be beyond the pupil's comprehension,
the words will convey no ideas, the attention will be lost,
and the children will yawn and exhiV/it symptoms of weari-
ness, or mental repulsion. Every method of instruction
which fatigues attention, and every effort made to convey
information after the attention is fatigued, must be injurious
to the pupil. For this reason it is not wise to attempt too
much at once. We should, at first, exercise attention only
during comparatively short periods. We should advance
but few ideas that are new, in our early lessons on any
subject. Novelty and variety when concuirent and contin-
uous, always fatigue the mind. The acquisition of one dis-
tinct idea brings the pupil more knowledge and real pleasure
than the recollection of a dozen haz^'^ and confused notions.
The actual information gained in a lesson is of little account
in comparison with the desire of further progress engendered
thereby.

When a subject is new, an unnecessary amount of labour
is often expended on the acquisition v)f terms and ideas.
Under such circumstances children are often fatigued l>y
overstrained and misplaced efforts. They should, theiefore,
be relieved from any app (;hensions of the teacher's fliB-
pleasure ; for undue anxiety will be sure to weary and
weaken their attention. While sympathizing with the
pupil in his difficulties, the teacher should not exhibit or
express any doubts of the pupil's ability to master them.
On .the contrary, he should intimate that though success
may not smile on the child's present efforts, yet time and
perseverance will give him the victory. Such judicious
encouragement will prevent children from contracting an
antipathy towards any branch of knowledge, by failure in
first attempts.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

7«

A learned writer justly observea that, " when we expen- c»u»e and
ence any disagreeable sensations, mental or pliysical, we try certain

. ccct*iit rlcl-

to procure temporary relief by certain motions of the limbs tie*,
and muscles most habitually obedient to the will." * Great
thinkers often unconsciously endeavour to relieve the pain of
intense thought hy indulging in certain awkward gestures.
By frequent rei)etition these gestures become habitual, and
hence the eccentricities and peculiarities so characteristic of
thoughtful men. The same fact holds good in the case of
children. They wrinkle their brows to mitigate the mental
pain caused by close attention; or, wlieu application be-
comes irksome, the body becomes restless, and assumes
strange attitudes ; and thus Nature declares it time to
change employment. These eccentricities are voluntary at
first, but, from frequent assochition with certain states of
the mind, they recur involuntarily whejiever the ideas or
sentiments with which they were associated are recalled —
particularly when the soul is absorbed in the solution of
some difficulty. Judicious oversight may break these ab-
surd motions, and prevent them from becoming habitual;
otherwise, when the pupil comes to man's estate, thoughts
are sure to be governed by external circumstances, and his
manners will, therefore, appear crude and awkward. To
eft'ect a permanent cure, the hours of study should be short-
ened and agreeably intermixed with bodily exercise ; so
that the pain arising from close attention may be alleviated
and assuaged.

Incentives or excitements need not be very numerous to conrentra-
produce attention ; a judicious variation will sometimes be attcution"
more agreeable and effective. Children become conscious
at a very early age of the pleasure aiising from successful
application, as well as from the performance of good and
kind actions. In many cases this alone will be sufficient

Darwin.

Nutiiral dis-
pi)»itiun.

How to
sweeten
Inbour and
ensure pro
gresa.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

inducement to continued exertion. Tliose who are not idle,
stupid, or obstinato, Rometimes exhibit an indisposition or
incapability to concentrate the attention on the subject of a
lesson, chiefly because the exertion required is too great for
their patience, or because the language employed is inac-
curate or of vague signification, or because they despair of
undei-standing the explanations given or the ideas intended
to be conveyed. In either case they can not attend, and the
fault lies with the teacher or the text book.

In forming an opinion of the degree of a child's attention,
the teacher must not forget to consider the natural disposi-
tion of himself and jMipil. If the one be slow and the
other quick — one phlegmatic and the other vivacious —
mutual sympathy may be wanting, and there will be a pos-
sibility of mutual misunderstandings and misconceptions.
Vivacious children are very susceptible to censure or com-
mendation. They are quite as honorable, and perhaps more
sensitive and affectionate, than other children. Hence the
desirability of regarding them with feelings of attachment,
and of rewarding them with our ap[)robation when they
give proofs of long continued exertion and attention.
Children of this disposition are often enthusiastic admirers
of what is good and great, hence the feasibility of creating
or fostering the desire to excel. Let them once feel the
necessity of persevering industry, and with the rapidity of
genius they will c<)U(;ludo that attention is the primary
source of success, and that they must iict accordingly.

When we have a fiiend whom we admire, esteem, and
love, his approbation becomes necessary to our happiness.
His affecticm sweetens labour, and the smile of his approval
throws a flood of sunshine round the heart. Work in the
service of such a friend is always pleasant, always attractive
— never wearisome, never fatiguing. When associated
with the pleasant sensations of affection, liberty, and enthu-
siasm, labour often becomes the medium by which we

TUE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

express our attjvchraent, and we therefore consider no
exertions too great, provided they give pleasure to the object
of our affections. Is it not possible to cultivate the affec-
tions of pupils to such an extent, and in such a manner,
us will ensure their attention to their respective duties, not
uloiie because of the personal benefits arising therefrom, but
l[)ecause of the pleasure which such a line of conduct would
afford their teacher and other friends I It is possible, and
we believe that it behoves every teacher who aspires to
anything more than an ordinary successful career, to acquire
the power of exciting young people to great niental and
physical exertion. For this reason, human nature and the
philosophy of mind must be his constant stutlies.

The dojrree of children's timidit . , or personal confidence, Self-reliance
depciuls in a great measure on the quality and quantity of aK«J-
their fii"st instruction, and the mode of its conveyance. If
innny things be forced on their attention, which they can
not undei-stand or recollect, they lose confidence in their
own mental capacity, and will often feel difiident to under-
take exercises which they can easily perform. For this
reason, whatever is attempted should be within their com-
prehension. Success in small things will encourage them
to attempt the performance of greater. If we would endue
the timid with confidence, we must expect little from each
effort, and award to each triumph its full meed of praise.
With some people, to will is to conquer. Hence the advi-
sability of occasionally leading timid children to observe
that attention, patience, and resolution are equivalent, and
sometimes superior, to quickness of intellect, and that
under such circumstances, the length of the period of appli-
cation is the only difference between the quick and slow.
[| When a succession of small triumphs has given them confi-
dence in themselves, they may then be pressed a little as to
velocity — the time allowed being gradually curtailed. Long
continued efforts of attention fatigue the mind, exhaust

fti

■ lii-

THE 8CIENCK AND ART OF TEACHING.

tha phyaiciil strongtli, and caiiso the pupils to appear
Hlugijish au'l torpil. In thia case, the pupils should be
allowed rest, or tho subject of study changed. Quick transi-
tion of thouijht cannot bo reasonably ex)MH;ted unless the
ciiild bj inontally ai;tive, and partially, if not perfectly, con-
v.irsaut with eauh idea expressed on the subject; otherwise
it would only weaken the understanding, confuse the intel-
lo*;t, and destroy tlie ambition of the timid. Children are
often timid from an anxioty to plea.se, and often unduly
fatigued from the same cause. We should th(5refore seldom,
if ever, act towards them so as to promote terror. On the
contrary, wo should u.se all suitable means in our power to
allay their anxiety, dissipate their fean?, and strengthen
their affectionate reliance on our sympathy and esteem.
We can never command ilie intelligent attention of the
timid until wp Iku e diti'used their fears. Habits of observa-
tion and reflection are always more enduriiiL,' when asso-
ciated with pleasure, and whore there is fear there can be
no pleasure.

Abstraction, or the power of withdrawing the mental Ab^raction.
gaz3 from surrounding objects, or extraneous subjects, and
of concentrating it upon some particular idea or series of
ideas, i , one of the most useful forms of attention, and per-
haps the most difficult of acqui.'-'tion. It is necessary to
the successful oi)eration of the understanding, and essentiiilly
characteristic of genius, heroism, and .}>i'esence of min<l.
Without this faculty, no one can be a great or successful
thinker — there can be no concentration of thought; the
powers of the mind will be diffused like mist ; continued
application will be impossilde, and, if possible, it will be
unfruitful, and therefore unremunerative and of no effect.
By the aid of this faculty, the industrious student will con-
tinue his labours in "the midst of alarms," and heed them
not ; the soldier will be unconscious of the roar and smoke
of battle, and the hero will be blind to ])ersonal danger —

--.i aimiiiiim J I ' I i iiiinj

THE ariKKCB AND ART OF TEACHING.

)iH' 'uhn, and onv alone, will tiljHorb every power of the

leait RU<1 soul. In Huch moiaonta, the |)ersoiinl is innt in

ihe general, aelf retires from tljo lieUl, syniputliy subtuu^

ieur an I tiuinanity is ennobled ' >y a ricii 8ucceb8 or a devoted

icritico.

SKtmoN 2. MKMOHV.

Memory, the seci-etttry of tlie senKes, is closely allieii to M.mory and
attention, iind may hv <ienned lus tluit lacniity ot the mind
which enables us to recal piust inip^ossions. Infonniition
n received through t'^i media of the senses or by the
[exeroihe of the mental acuities. But it is not enough to
receive it passively, its if our inf» Uectual jKiwci's were coni-
|,(c,;(l of sponge. The faculty of attenti. n mist be aroused,
[interested, and fascinated ere the rain<l .>ill ardently grasp,
receive, or apjjropriate the knowledge placed l»eforo it.
[Merchants often say that *" it is more difficult to keep
inouev than to make it." However this m.iv be, it if* cer- ^

tainly less difficult to infuse knowl»;dge into the mind than
to retain it tlitre after its reception. Its retention is the
duty of the memory. From want of sufficient strength
(arising from defective d*\»jlopment), this fjiculty is often
unequal to the task — unable to discharge the important
duti^'rf of its office. Such a state of thii^gs iiuliaites a sickly
condition of the intellectual system, and should therefore
receive the earnest and immediate attention of " the mental
physician." The teacher must take steps to improve and
duly deAclop the weakened faculty.

It has been well said that "memory is the store-house of ^^ignt^j
the undei'standing." But it should be remembered that the "tore house
value of things stored depends, in a great measure, on the
order and system of their arrangement. Everything (even
in mercantile establishments) should be stowed away in its
appropriate })lace, so that it can be readily and promptly
found when required. So of mental accumulations. Know-

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THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

ledge should be arranged under its proper heading. Intel-
lectual wealth, like other riches, will be the source of much
embarrassment, should confusion prevail in the mental
store-house. For these reasons, the teacher's ideas must be
arranged in regular sequence, and, if possible, be presented
to the pupils in logical and coherent order. Love and
veneration may be regarded as the parents of memory.
Hence, wise and skilful teachers always lead their pupils to
contract a fondness for that which is to be learned or
remembered. We ourselves may possibly recollect some
subject which, at one time of life, we may have regarded as
repulsive and difficult to learn, yet, how easily did we
master it in after years, when time and experience had led
us to discover its worth and to admire its beauties? Look-
ing at the matter in this light, we would say that, reverence
for our teachei*s and love for the subjects of instruction, ai"e
two of the most powerful aids in the culti^'ation of memory
and education of the young.

Knowledge acquired when the mind is apathetic, evapor-
ates instantaneously, heiico the importance of exciting a
lively interest in the subjects of study — the necessity of
mutual sympathy between the teacher and the taught.
Knowledge is never learned so quickly, nor retained so
firmly, as when taught through the eye. This is why visible
illusljrations are so popula * and effective, and so easily re-
membered in after yeai-s. When information is imparted
under such conditions, memory will always be vigorous and
retentive.
Two vari- There are two kinds of memory — the retentive and recol-

inemory. / lective. The former accumulates and retains facts, with
/ little or no reference to their further identity, whilst the
A latter selects and reproduces, when necessary, such as may
) be considered useful, desirable, or important. Both of these
( varieties of memory have their advantages and advocates.
The selective variety, usually called recollection, is, how-

Visible illus-
trations.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

ever, the higher and more intellectual bi*anch of the faculty.
People who can guide their memory by natural selection, or
inherent taste, will improve their understanding and acquire
the same amount of facta with far less fatigue than those who
are satisfied with mere acquisition by rote. Memory is one
of the faculties firat developed ; but its growth continues
tks we advance in life, and its cultivation in the higher
gtages is materially assisted by judgment, taste, and kindred
powers.

Memory furnishes the materials on which invention exer- invention,
cises its ingenuity. The two faculties are closely allied.
The development of the latter under proper guidance should
therefore receive careful attention. In proportion to their
knowledge and experience, children can judge quite as well,
and perhaps invent much better, than adults. This circum-
stance arises from the fact that they are comparatively free
from prt^udice, and can, therefore, judiciously analyze, com-
pare, and combine the few ideas they possess — those ideas
being accurate, clear, and distinct.

A good memory is all-important to a public speaker — in H*'''*yA?
tact, he cannot succeed without it, as no other quality can speaker.
compensate for its absence. It endows him with personal
confidence, command of language, and capability to arrange
the ideas he is about to express, while engaged in giving
utterance to others.

The efficiency of memory depends (1) on Hb fidelity, by ^P"!"'"""
which it reproduces faithful impressions ; (2) tenacity, by
which it retains what is committed to it, irrespective of the
lapse of time ; (3) readiness, or rapid reproduction of former
conceptions when required; (4) facility, or rapidity of
acquisition.

The memory is strong or weak in proportion to its power
of analysis and generalization. The principles of associ-
ation by which we analyze or combine, for the purposes of
memory, may be regarded as the instruments of method.

fir

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

They are three in niimher, namely, (1) natural contiguity,
by which objects or incidents, impressing the inind in con-
junction, recur to it in the same connection ever after;
(2) resemblance or analogy, by which objects or incidents
resembling each other are retained together in the mind by
the fact of their resemblance ; (3) cause and eff'ectj by which
facts that are at fii-st conceived as casually related to each
other, recur to the mind ever after by mutual suggestion.

ItnaginKtion
— what it is.

Connection
with the
sublime.

Section 3. IMAGINATION.

Imagination is that faculty of the mind which forms con-
ceptions, ideas, or mental images of things temporal or
spiritual ; so that whether far or near, past or future, their
ideal presence is, for the time being, a living reality — dis-
tinct, clear, and tangible. It comprises two branches —
the conceptive and creative. Besides assisting in the work
of education, the right use of this faculty increases our
enjoy mentSy and adcls materially tp the happiness of life, by
enabling us to group, analyze, and combine objects as well as
create them. Mental exercises and intellectual amusements
are the best antidotes or preventatives of weariness and
dissipation, and may, therefore, be regarded as essential to
the right existence of intelligent and responsible beings.
- "When recollection recals former ideas, imagination pre-
sents them in vivid pictures before the mind; and then, by re-
arrangement and new combinations, it creates characteristic
pictures of its own. The imagination often rambles through
"scenes sublime," in search of mentiil enjoyment. Obscurity
and terror may be regarded as the parents of sublimity. The
natural fears arising from a consciousness of their presence,
when uncontrolled by reason, tend to enervate the mind,
whereas a right conception of the grand and beautiful always
tends to elevate it. But there are branches of the sublime
free from associations of the obscure and terrible, and there

THE SCIENCE iND ART OF TEACHING.

are many branches of study and thoiififht connected with
them which liave no connection with gloom or violence — such
works of art, for instance, and scenes in nature as excite ideas
of infinity with respect to power, space, and duration. These
are praiseworthy media for the exercise of the imagination.
Being founded on observation and conception, they are also
the most simple sources of the sublime, and, therefore, the
most suitable for children as well as the most attractive for
the generality of adults. They are, perhaps, "the fii-st
fields" in which the young imagination delights to ramble,
as well as the last which it will explore. Some children are
slow m comparing, deliberating, or associating ideas, and
othei's seem to have little inclination for mental exertions of
any kin-l, whilst a large number of those who are naturally
vivacious, prompt, and energetic, take more delight in strong
feeling than in deep reflection. Hence, the sensations of
pleasure or pain are intense or acute, toi-pid or sluggish,
iiccording to the mental capacity or natural inclination of
the pupil —strong association of ideas being a characteristic
of such as are over-sensitive or enthusiastic.

In cultivating the imagination so as to counteract the imaginaticn
various defects peculiar to different natural dispositions, the dSts"''^*
teacher must have more than ordinary knowledge of child-
natuie. He must, in fact, be as well posted in "the anatomy
of the mind" as a surgeon is expected to be in that of the
body. He will then be able to read the mental through the
physical, and can prescribe the necessary remedy according
to his skill. The best and most approved regimen for the
quick and slow — lively and dull, the worker and dreamer,
observer and reflector — will be duly considered and faithfully
administered in his plan of education. ^

I ( 1

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING

misi

i i

Reflection
a creative
faculty.

Bectiok 4. REFLECTION AND REASON.

Memory endows man with the power to recal any, or all,
impressions once strongly, vividly, and accurately conceived.
Reflection then enables him to compare their resj)ective
properties, estimate their concurrent or divergent influence,
and ascertain their mutual or relative connections. It is
this faculty which enables us to associate old conceptioiis so
as to produce new idetis on which to base the inferences or
conclusions of reason. Reflection may, in fact, be regarded
as a creative faculty ; since, by its aid, we analyze, compare,
and «ombine old ideas so as to generate new ones. It does
not directly impart the vital energies of conception; but it
nevertheless develops and enlarges the capacity of thought.
Its agency is chiefly directed to a consideration of the posi-
tive qualities of objects; and, by leading us to form just
ideas of their relations, it enables judgment to give fair and
impartial decisions, in accordance with the sober realities of
life and the plain dictates of unadorned truth.
Reason— its Reason and reflection are faculties of the highest order; and
importomje. though their presence may be discovered in children at a very
early age, yet they do not attain perfection until late in life.
Their development is essentially progressive, and may be re-
ferred chiefly to habits of accurate observation, arising from
mental and moral cultui*e. Reason is an exercise of the will
which controls thought and regulates the mind, and may be
defined as the art of drawing inferences from the associaticm of
facts or ideas. Having collected certain data, it abstracts the
attention from external objects, analyzes its perceptions, asso-
ciates its ideas, estimates their general bearing and relative
importance, recals previously acquired knowledge, reviews
former and present ideas as with a kaleidescope, and finally,
with the aid of conscience, it arrives at conclusions which may
be regarded as the fountains of justice and "stepping stones"
of judgment. Reason is one of those rays of Divinity in

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

re, reviews

man, which ennobles human p tiire, and brings us nearer
the Creator, while shining in on our hearts, calmly and
placidly, like moonbeums on a silvery sea. The greater
the development of this principle, the greater our knowledge
of humanity — the more we understand ourselves and others,
and the wider and more efficient our s[)here of usefulness.
The existence of this God-like principle in the human soul
proves that man was not created to be a slave, mentally,
spiritually, or physically — that he was originally endowed
with free will, and all inherent or collateral privileges
implied by that term, and that he is expected to use every
faculty with which he was favored to the fullest extent of
his ability. Reason impels us to receive truth, however
painful to our feelings of pride or self-esteem, and it contin-
ually commands us to do eveiy man justice, however inimical
Buch action may be to our personal interests. "Its still,
small voice," aided and dii-ected by the kindred voice of
Conscience, tells us that the art of being happy implies the
dispensation of happiness to others — that natural kindness
and fraternal affection ensure the happiness of society,
collectively and individually, and that the interests of all
are secure in the hands of God. Though the understanding
may be regarded as the principal working power of the
mmd, yet all the inferior faculties must perform their res-
pective duties ere reason can i^xercise her authority, or judg-
ment make known his decision.

Formal reasoning scarcely falls within the province of Art of
elementary education, and is, therefore, professedly taught in considered.
but very few of our public schools. The art of reasoning,
however, is not wholly ignored. It is practiced, more or
less, though indirectly, in every school in the land. It is
taught practically, however informally, wherever rules anrJ
principles are deduced from examples, or infeiTed as a result
of comparison from simple questions — wherever the con-
clusions arising from personal discoveries in Grammar,
7

To ascertain
niotives—
How and
why.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. .

Science, or Mathematics, are summarised and prepared for
application in the solution of similar or more complex diffi-
culties. The highest and purest forms of reasoning practiced
in our public schools are imparted by the study of Euclid,
Algebra, and Grammar. These subje< s present exercises
in reasoning (within certain dof nite limits) which are well-
connected, conclusive, exhaustive, absolute, and therefore,
complete, explicit, irrefragable, and free from fallacies. The
study and acquisition of a liberal course of public school
subjects (such as suggested or prescribed by the Council of
Public Instruction for Ontario) develops and invigorates
the reason, while intuitively and unconsciously ^'mparting
the art of reasoning. Such p. course of instruction, when
fully adopted and intelligently taught, gives each faculty of
the mind its due share of attention, so that there is a suc-
cessive, concurrent, and continuous development of the
various powers in an order of sequence as near as possible
to the order of Nature. In planning a system of education,
or in projecting a mode of instruction, the teacher should
carefully consiJer the peculiar talents ind ever-varying
tastes of children, so as to give each an opportunity of
developing his specialty in accordance with the indications
of his natural disposition.

Vivacious children, and others who feel quickly, should
be encouraged to describe and compare their sensations in a
deliberate manner. Their motives of action can be thus
ascertained, while their minds are strengthened by the
voluntary exertion entailed by such an exercise. By this
means, and by careful attention to the circumstances which
give birth to hope and fear, joy and grief, a good knowledge
of a child's habitual mental associations, designs and aver-
sions, may be obtained ; and the teacher will thus have
gained such information as will enable him to modify, guide,
or alter the child's character as he may think expedient,
whilst fixing his own ascendancy and authority on, an im-

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

movable basis. By a judicious preparation of hi.s pupils'
minds, he may increase the attraction and effect of his
lessons so as to make their impressions indelible.

Some have laid it down as an axiom, and apparently with Caiiinm in
truth, that those who are favored with moi-e than ordi- t!)^inraghia-
nary powers of imagination, are usually defective in '*"°'
judgment. In this case, the reason and judgment should
be 8ti*engthened even at the expense of the imagination,
iis they are the more important faculties. A cultivated
imagination, how.3ver, is not only a never failing source of
j)leasure and entertainment, but a positive neces&itv to
those who expect to occupy a high sphere of usefulness.
The different callings in life are indebted to imagination for
the ardent professional enthusiasm which enables their
votaries to overcome every obstacle in their path, and at
last stand prominently forward as leaders and masters in
their respecti'e arts. Different professions require different
degrees of enthusiasm, but its source is the same in all.
Men of genius are generally characterized by an enthusiasm

which ri ijften mistaken for insanity by the uninitiated

the world has never exhibited much repugnance to the
persecution or crucifixion of its great reformers. The
enthusiasm arising from strong inuigination makes military
and political heroes — poets, patriots, and othei*s — strike out
in the direction best suited to their tastes and genius, hence
the vast variety of callings. Should our enthusiasm fail
during our apprenticeship in life, we ourselves will fail also
from the want of energy and stamina. Enthusiasm is in
fact, the first, and perhaps the greatest, element of success.
Hence the desirability of rightly cultivating, training, and
guiding the imagination, without which there can be no
enthusiasm. Enthusiasm increases the value of objects
whilst it depreciates real difficulties. To be really advan-
tageous and useful in the highest degree, imagbiation and
enthusiasm must be subject to the control of the judgment.

II ffl

&2 TUE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACUINO.

Section & THE JUDGMENT.

"The key Judgment l>eing the highest of tlio faculties, Nature

the iiittii.;c- would seem to imnlv that its chief dcclopment whould take
tual arcli. * •' *

place near the close of a school i^reer. The faculty of
judgment would be comparatively useless unless assihted by
the minor faculties, just as the head would be if deprivotl
of the services of the less important }>arts of the body.
Memory, imagination, reflection, etc., must support judg-
ment with facts or data, even as the inferior organs of the
body nourish and support the brain. Judgment is a
monarch, and cannot exist without subjects and servants.
Before exercising judgment, we must necessarily have some
experience of the world and of men. It is the key stone
of tho intellectual arch. To retain that position, every
stone of the under structure must be sound and of due pro-
portions, and, in addition, occupy its proper place. Everj'
faculty must do its duty ere Judgment can do " his," just
as the wheels and works ot" a clock must do, ere the hands
indicate the hour on the dial plate.

Judgment expresses itself in propositions ; ideas in terms.
It therefore bears the same relation to a thought that
observation bears to an idea. The exercise of judgment
comes into partial operation in early life, and continues its
growth through after years, and probably never reaches its
full maturity in this world. It may be regarded as a com-
pound faculty, comprising abstraction and goneralization.
By the process of abstraction we compare the whole of
anything with its parts, or vice versA ; and by generalization
we compare one entity with another. Judgment implies
comparison, contrast, and analogy, or resemblance. Tlie idea
of resemblance suggests that of dissimilarity. Comparison
deals with the resemblance of objects ; analogy with the
resemblance of qualities or functions.,

The dependence of cause and effect will gradually lead to
inference, which, in itself, is the creature of reflection, as it

A oompouud
faculty.

Inference.

TBE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

4»

has no sermble or tangible existence. Inference comprises
two divisions — tlio inductive and deductive. Induction
infers the general from the particular — the law which
governs facts from the facts themselves — the cause from the
fffoct. Deduction enables us to draw the particular from
the general — the facts from the laws which govern them —
the effects from the cause. As Currie observe s, " Both are
necessary parts of that completed reason by which scientific
knowledge is established." In the order of logical develop-
ment, time, o,nd effort, induction precedes deduction. " In-
duction comes first and lays down the plan or outline, and
then deduction reduces the contents to ortler within that
outline."

BJtcTiow 6. INTEGRITY.

The consciousness of having desei'ved well of our friends, Pleasure of
and the certainty that we enjoy their confidence and esteem, ed.
are sources of continual happiness. The pleasure of being
tiiisted and esteemed by those we love is, perhai)s, one of the
most delicious experiences of early life. Children will do
much to earn such rewards. They should, however. Vie led
to look impartially on their own merits, so that while grate-
fully accepting well earned praise, they may have sufiicient
sense to regard flattery with contempt. Confidence is the
reward of integrity and intrinsic wurth. Children feel
proud of being trusted, and, when they learn that their
character depends on their conduct, and that to secure res-
pect they must deserve it, they will strive to maintain a
good reputation, and the generous enthusiasm of their
nature (if not habit and reason) will win them to the side
of honour and virtue. They may then be led to understand
that truth is the reflection of God in the heart of man — the
light of heaven revealed on earth.

We have often noticed during our school experience — as jjot to wear
visitor or pupil — that many teachers w^ear masks while on "*^ '''

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TBACHINO.

■i !

Courtesy to
children.

Praise in
proportion
to uierit.

duty. They are radiant, cheerful, and happy (and apparently
dcflirous of bestowing happincRs) in their ordinary inter-
course with society, but in the schoolroom they seem to be
totally different personages. Cold, stem, and sevci-e — the
light of a smile never relaxes their iron features. Grave
and solemn, as if the Hchool was the tomb of their affections,
a word of sympathy or encouragement never escaj>es their
indomitable lips. Teachers, if you feel kindly, don't fear to
let the little ones know it — they will appreciate and recip-
rocate. Jf you cannot sympathize with child-nature, your-
self and pupils will not understand each other — your school
associations will lose half their attractions, and more than
half their real happiness. Try, therefore, to be natural :
throw off the mask ; let the warmth of your affections and
the radiance of your face be as sunlight to your pupils.
Be happy, and the fountain of happiness to your little
friends; then will the school-room be a haven of rest to you
and them. Reveal your real nature. We should not act a
falsehood even to win an erring child to the ti-uth. It
would be wrong to do so, and, besides, children would see
through such an artifice, and gradually, if not immediately,
withdraw their confidence and esteem.

We should listen with pleasure and attention to such
narratives of children as relate to their personal experiences,
and as Rousseau well observes, " We should not doubt, nor
appear to doubt, their veracity ; nor should we question
them too minutely on any matters concerning which it
might be their interest to deceive us." Suspicion would be
injurious, and unbelief imprudent.

If teachers flatter indifferent pupils, then the Baore worthy
will gradually lose their desire to deserve or receive praise.
Praise increases personal confidence, and is a strong stimulus
to industry if it be judiciously managed ; but in awarding
it we must not give false ideas of merit — the degree of
approbation must be in proportion to the value of the

•^mmm

THE SCIEKCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

action. The pleasures of praise should lie ashociattMl with
what commands our approval, and, as the stimulus is of a
r)0werful nature, we should administer it in small quiuiti-
ties — the smallest calcidatcd to produce the desii-ed eflect.

9ft

8KCTION7. PRUHKNCE.

Judgment, resolution, and benevolence are the essential Eiemcnuof
elements of prudence. We i*equire judgment to calndy
review the objects of happiness ; resolution to put our con-
victions in execution ; benevolence to enable us to prefer
the greatest amount of felicity ; so that, if necessary, we
may cheerfully sacrifice ourselves for others. Prudence also
implies tact, or wha^ some call intuitive analogy — a system
of " short-hand reasoning," >)y which we arrive at immediate
conclusions without going through tlio steps of actual demon-
strations. It may justly be said that sensible people possess
tact, prudent people use it, and imprudent people lack it or
abuse it.

Objects appear differently to different i>eopie, and each certain im-
person, while strictly following his own conviction accord- Ee^reotinlfi!'
ing to the light of his understanding, may, nevertheless, bo
the victim of false associations or false apj)earances. Per-
sonal feeling may make them oblivious of past experience,
and negligent as regards future calculation. If so, wisdom
will not inspire their minds, nor prudence guide their con-
duct. Reason and friendly counsel may even fail to recal
them to a right fcense of theii- i)osition — ipore especially if
they happen to be victims of false impressions. In the
latter case, false ideas must be removed, and wrong ones
rectified, before we attempt to improve the judgment or
inculcate prudence.

Should children entertain false ideas on any subject, we How to

cor-i

must change their manner of viewing it before we can alter habits and,
their feelings. In fact, we must induce them to change ''^''^^'

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

tlieir habits of thought. In doing this, their age and experi-
ence should be taken into account. Habits of action and
modes of thouglit may bo easily broken, or formed, in young
children ; but, before attempting to produce similar results
in the larger pupils, wo must first rectify the principles
which guide, or regidate, their conduct. The habits of larger
children are based on principles — true or false — as they gen-
erally exercise reflection, more or less, before they act.
Hence, to change their mode of action, we must correct and
purify the source of action by changing their manner of
thinking.

Sympathy
and its
effects.

CHAPTER X.

POWER AND EFFECTS OF SYMPATHY.

Sympathy may bo regarded as the essence of sensibility.
It is the primary source of compassion, courtesy, kindness,
ambition, friendship, love — the genuine language of Nature,
the fountain of moral sentiment and social vii'tue — the most
pleasing peculiarity of childhood — the most charming and
attractive characteristic of riper years. Yet, strange to say,
there is no necessary connection between sympathy and vir-
tue. If misdirected, or injudiciously guided, it may be
productive of evil. To be useful to the individual and to
society, it must be governed by the light of reason. Children
long for the sympathy of their companions — they wish their
friends to admire their efforts — to be proud of their success —
to take pleasure in their superiority. Their hearts yearn
for our sympathy and approbation. Let us be generous, and
make them happy while we may. Beaming glances of affec-
tion will repay our efforts. Children can feel and reciprocate
sympathy long before they can exercise reason or judgm6nt.

' jj i i i >

THE SCIEiTCE AND AUT OF TEACHING. 97

To this feeling may be traced tlie desire to excel — the ambi-
tion to dare and do — the motives of good and gi-eat deeds.
Involuntary imitation is its natural expression at an early
iif'e. Childi'en with strong Kymj)athies are, therefore, the
most liable to be injured or improved by example, habit,
or other external circ\imstances. For this reason, youi'g
chiMren should never be exposed to the influence of bad
cxauii)le. This restriction will not be so necessary as they
a})proach the years of discretion, for their habits will then
have attained greater strength, and they will probably have
acquired sufficient sense to choose for themselves, and suffi-
cient fortitude to abide by their decisions. Kindness and
benevolence seldom fail to inspii'e emotions of gratitude and
love. It will be difficult, perhaps impossible, to transfoim
sympathy into virtue, should the faces of teachers and rela-
tives frequently exhibit the stern and vile expressions of
anger, malice, or other malevolent passions.

If a teacher's intercoui-se with his pupils be honorable. Effects of
candid, and straightforward, and if he treat them with habi- affection,
tual kindness, courtesy, and generosity, and should he be
so fortunate as to be always able to cheer them with the
light of sympathy and love, then will they always feel hap-
py in his presence ; for, work under his auspices will be a /
pleasure, and even continued attention will become agreeable.
In fancy they will often see him riurrounded with a luilo of
light, and will gradually come to regard him as a kind of
sacred personage who delights in removing doubts and diffi-
culties, and in dispen^iing knowledge and pleasure. His
presence will recal the remembrance of triumphs won by his
aid. Their recollection will excite associated affection, and
revive instinctive love whilst renewing former pleasures —
pleasures arising from a sense of duty done.

Children naturtilly expect a gratification from . he society Fellowship
of strangers similar to that derived from a friendly inter- panions.
course with tea«her^ Bvd relatives. The curiosity and

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

Man.igc-
iiiuiit of
St nsibility.

Principles of
happiness.

sympathy arising from this source impels them to wish for
society and friendship. The present and future happiness
of the child requires the judicious indulgence cf this ])ro-
pensity. Its lonely little heart yearns for companionship,
sympathy, and love. Shall it crave for these things in vain]
The best way to supply these blessings is to grant children
free intercoui-se with their peers in years and station. They
will relish this privilege with a keenness unknown amongst
adults.

Nothing wounds the feelings of children more than to
despise their friendship, or doul>t the genuine character of
their expressions of regard. In fact, we often alienate their
affection, and perhaps change it to antipathy by undue sus-
picion or cold reserve. If, on the contrary, we receive their
expressions of kindness and gratitude with feelings of
thankfulness, they will feel delighted with the idea that
their sentiments are reciprocated, and that they can give as
well as receive pleasure. The desire to give pleasure will
probably lead them to repeat these demonsti-ations from
time to time ; but, for fear of fostering a spirit of affectation,
such repetition must not be unduly encouraged. In such
cases it will require no little skill and delicacy to preserve
a proper medium between the indulgence and repression
of youthful sensibility. As Marmontel truly observes,
"People seldom feel a desire to be cured of any defect which
makes them agreeable." Hence, if possible, the cure should
be effected in youth. As children advance in years, the
enthusiasm arising from fine feeling should be gradually
and cautiously repressed by the greater cultivation of the
reasoning faculties; so that the heart, if possible, may be
made impervious to disappointment — the seat of abiding
pleasure instead of fluctuating felicity.

Children should be treated with such courtesy, kindness,
and consideration as may be necessary to transform child-
hood into a possible st^te of uniform happiness,. Thejr

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

should not, it is true, be indulged inordinately or impru-
dently, but they should be invariably given the largest
amount of present pleasure consistent with future ailvan-
tage. Our happiness, like that of children, in every stage
of life depends, to a gi'eat extent, on the genuine heai-t-felt
sympathy of our fellow creatures. We cannot command
lasting sympathy or enduring friendship unless we oui-selves
possess some useful and agreeable qualities, or social virtues,
which will endear us to our companions. Mutual inter-
course, under such circumstances, will develop mutual
thought, and thus enable us to derive pleasure and profit
from the sweet influences of society and friendship.

PART IT.— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

CHAPTKR I.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL.

i:r

aiidlysTein Order has always been, and will ever be, the faithful
essential. handmaid of the Creator. We gaze with awe on her move-
ments in the heavens, and with feelings of the deepest
interest contemplate her doings on the earth during the
dark ages of old. Without Order, chaos or confusion
would run riot as at "the beginning;" nothing could bo
efficiently done; all our efforts would end in disap})ointment,
and our labours be comparative failures, if not worse than
useless. Order and system are essential to success in every
calling. No railroad or steamboat company could possibly
prosper if they neglected to make arrangements regulating
the arrival and departure of their trains or steam boats.
Nor is this sufficient — they must afterwards publish (or
inform the public of) the rules they have made, and strictly
adhere to the same. Order must be apparent in all the
transactions of the company (and of its agents), otherwise
they will lose the confidence of the public. The rules of
the company once fixed, should, if possible, be invariable.
The preliminary arrangements being made, and the time
table drawn up for the guidance of the public, both parties
will save time and money by being punctual and regular.
N''««^'Y °^ This "Time Table" and its accompanying code of rules,
being the agreement of the company with the public, forms
the basis of a common understanding between the contract-
ing parties, neither of whom can infringe the conditions
with impunity and convenience. The time table is the plan

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINO. 101

)f the company's work — an abstract of tlieir agreement
ith the public. It is absolutely necessary on both sides.
Without it, all would be confusion and dissatisfaction, and
[no efforts of the officers or employe's could make the lino
pav. In fact, it would be a general nuisance instead of a
jmblic convenience.

Order and system are essential to success in any line of Eflici» of

. /. . /.••<. f^'*^ order.

life. This is true of nations, of armies, of societies, of
imblic meetings, and of individuals. No order; no progress.
Such is the rule in the univei-sity, the college, and the
school. Without order, without system, without a plan of
work — without a well reguhited time table — the best elTorts
of tlie teacher will be fruitless, and his establi.shment little
hftttor than an "incarnation" of chaos. The observance or
Piiforcemeii of good ord( r in schools, curbs the lawless pro-
pensities of youthful Iiearts. civilizes their animal tendencies,
:i!kI, by obliging them to conform to its conditions — condi-
tions naturally repugnant to their will — it day by day
strengthens the power of mind over matter, facilitates all
mental acquirements, and endows every individual with the
fjnices of self control. By its aid, those accomplishments
and qualities, which at first were foreign, become customary,
and then habitual — that is, personal characteristics. Laxity
of order will nullify the good intentions of both teachers
and parents. Its tendency is to ti*ansform children into
boisterous, riotous rowdies,, instead of educating them to be
good and useful citizens — ladies and gentlemen in the true
sense of the words. Children will practice order in school
if trained to habits of order at home. They naturally love
order, ojid will observe it if it be made more convenient to
them than disorder. Suitable and attractive occupation is
the best guarantee of good order. Order and system, a time'and
punctuality and regularity, are the sides of a " moral eyerything.
square," within which every true craftsman should duly
exercise his skill for the benefit of himself and his fellows.

102

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

A plan of
atudy.

"True order," as Miss Chadwick well observes, "is that
which is maintained with the least apparent eflfort, just as
the best i-uler is he who governs without seeming to govern.
The school should be a model of refined taste and good
arrangement — every ai-ticle of furniture should be in its
proper place, and every exercise should have its appointed
time, and vice versd."

The various duties of the day, arranged according to a
pre- determined plan (as in the case of the railroad company),
should be attended to in order. The \Aaii of study or time
table, drawn up by the teacher for the guidance of himself
and pupils, should be hung up in a conspicuous place in the
school-room, and each pupil should be instructed to take u
copy of the same. This copy will direct the pupil in his
studies, or in the preparation of his lessons at home, and
will show the parents what he is doing while at school. By
referring to it he will see at a glance what lessons he has to
prepare for the cun-ent day, or for the morrow, as the case
may be. This course will save much time and trouble, and,
if hung up in the ]>rivatc study at home, will furnish
parents with information which they are often anxious to
possess.
youthM^ °' Having classified his pupils and given them employment
activity. jjj accordance with the directions on the prescribed time
table, he should insist on their earnest attention to their
respective duties. By carefully attending to this matter,
and taking up each subject according to its order of
sequence, he will be dispensing an effective antidote to that
law of nature which impels children to activity ; or, rather,
he will have discovered an effective means of directing it to
other ends than the pui-suits of indolence and pleasure.
Neglect in this case, as in others, will give birth to much
mischief, and make it almost impossible for the teacher to
" resist the beginnings" of idleness, disobedience and self-
indulgence. Change in the subjects of study, within short

■ ■- ULUi e -"J ^ . ' i.- iiiiam t-wmwi iwii

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 103

intervals, is not only favourable to good order, but also to
good health and mental vigour. "Animal motions, or con-
figurations of the organs of sense, constitute our ideas. The
fatigue that follows a continued application of the mind to
one object, is relieved by changing the subject of our
thoughts, as the continued movement of one limb is relieved
by moving another in its stead."* The truly wise educator,"
savs Ascott Hojie, " will take care to let the latent energy
of youth have some natural vent." In other words, physical
recreation and mental labour should succeed each other
alternately.

In our opinion, it is 8im])ly impossible for the best of Unfortunate

* , . 1 • 1 t professional

teachers to maintain good order in a large school, under cer- conncctiom.
tain conditions — conditions for which parents and tnistees
are wholly responsible. It not unfrequently happens that
teachers who are not appreciated in one locality become the
idols of another. It is a fact of common occurrence that ho
wlio has failed to maintain order in one sch(x>l becomes
eminently successful in this respect when hie removes to
another sphere of labour. What is the cause of this aj)parent
anomaly] Why is it that in one place his labours produce
nothing but leaves, whilst in the other they bear abundant
fruit 1 The efficient teacher of the one school is voted ineffi-
cient when he assumes a similar charge elsewhere, and why?
Teachei*s, and other experienced persons, will give a variety
of practical and suggestive answers to these queries. Many
will ascribe the result to prejudice, factious opposition,
difference of locality and in people; but, although all these
answers may be true in certain cases, yet there is still
another cause of local or temporary professional failure for
which the trustees and parents are personally and collect-
ively responsible. We allude to the absence of comfortable
andattractive school accommodation. The school house should
be large and airy, agreeably furnished, comfortably heated,

♦ Darwin.

104

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO.

A hint to
parontit
an<l
gunnJiana.

A CAnadian

village

s<'ho!)l.

and well mipplied with scliool appamtus. The school should
\>Q well Hwept every evening, and pro|)erly dusted every morn-
ning. All its appendages should be a model of cleanliness,
neatness, and comfort. The apartments should be properly
ventilated, and sufficiently large to accommo<lato all the pupils
in attendance. The various articles of furniture should bo
kei)t in their proper places, and each place should have its
proper furniture. Pupils should bo clean in pei*son, neat in
dress, smart in api)earance, kind and courteous in di.sposi-
tion, dutiful and olx^dient — ever ready to "bear and forbear."
But how can such habits of order and propriety be inculcated
with success where external conditions are militant — where
the school and everything connected therewith ai"e suggestive
of disorder, misery, and meanness? How can a teacher,
however skilful, be expected to command success in such
a })lace 1 How can children be expected to form habits of
order and industry in over-crowded schools — the windows
being broken, the desks "rickctty," the seats uncomfortable,
the cold unl^earable, or the heat oppressive? Where there
is no pump, no washing apparatus, no playground or gym-
nasium, no cloak-room, no singing, no music — nothing
whatsoever to render the school attractive. It is impossible.
Such a school-room, with such suiTOundings, is a silent but
powerful inculcator of disorder and discontent, and would
counteract the ,)recepts and example of the most eminent
and worthy educator on earth. It is time that parents and
trustees should become conscious of the fact that the best
and most skilful teacher cannot permanently maintain good
discipline in a miserable over-crowded class-room, where
defective appliances and insufficient appointments ever tend
to generate discomfort and produce disorder.

Some years ago the writer was officially connected with
a public school in one of our western settlements, in which
the average attendance exceeded one hundred and sixty.
In the junior division, many of the pupils had no desks ;

TBB SCIBMCB AND ART OF TEACH llMk

105

in the primary division, more than one-half of the
children had no seats, and were under the necessity ot
squatting themselves on the floor, so that their class-roona
njsembled an infant "tailoring department." The few seats
were densely crowded. There were no maps, no cards, no
books, no decorations — absolutely nothing in the room but
some old-fashioned desks, which apparently were old enough
to have "come over in the Main/lower^' a few ricketty
benches, a table minus a leg, a stove, a poker, and an old
drum. The senior division, on the first floor of the
building, was tolerable, but devoid of any decorations or
furniture calculated to cultivate the taste of the pupils.
The intense noise wh.oh occasionally prevailed in the former
divisions was favourable to the cause of disorder in the
latter, and had a tendency to "drown' the voice of the
teacher as there was no "deafening material" in the floors.
Just fancy such a state of things, and the impossibility of
any teachers (under these circumstances) to inculcate,
with success, habits of order and propriety. For twelve
months or more, the trustees "quarrelled" about the provis-
ion of desks and other requisites — half being in favour of
supplying the necessary articles, and half against it — and
during all that time the parents and guardians of the children
looked on with calm indifference. The evils arisincr from
the persistent meanness of trustees, and the culpable negli-
gence of parents, are often imputed to the teacher. Finding
that "things do not progress satisfactorily," they put them-
selves to iio trouble to ascertain the real cause; and, if pointed
out to them, their bigotry, selfishness and ignorance are so
great as to prevent them seeing it : they think it more con-
venient to impute the cause of failure to want of skill in the
teachers, and accordingly the latter are converted into a
kind of scape goats, and sacrificed for the sins of others.
How convenient for our educational guardians f You send
the scape goa^ into the wilderness; still the greatest sufferers

loe

Kff.x t» of
(uttirlor

illfllK'IIUCH.

TRR SCIRNCR AND ART OT TRACtllNO.

are your own littlo children. In it poRAiliIn tbat men can
b« found who would hoo childnm dio, or grow up deformw!
in mind or body, rather than ciill on tho nit<spayor8 to pay
an additional tax of a oont on tho dollar) Wo fear it in ho
in many places. Tho fort^goitig itt not an iHolaifnl caso- —
there am hundro<lH of Himihir onoH in KurojK) and America.
Teachers in such localiti<'H, though unfortunate »n their pro
feKsional connections, must make the most of their limited
opportunities, and learn to cheer themselves with the idea
that they lalx)ur for |K)Ht<;rity. The |»oor children are moro
unfortunate than their teachers, sotniig that they have such
careless parents and unworthy educatioual trustees. Ijet
them resolve to do l)otter when they come to man's estate,
and provide for their children thotte advantages which wo
would fain bestow on themselves.

A large, airy, well-furnished, well-arnxngod, comfortable
school, enlarges tho perceptive faculties, captivates the heart,
generates cheerful emotions, fosters taste, and has a special
tendency to render tho minds of children susceptible to the
precepts of the teacher. Broken windows, broken desks,
" lame" benches, wet walls, damp or uneven floors, and
rooms too hot or too cold, have a contrary efiect. No mat-
ter what "economical" trustees say to the contrary, tho
quality of the building and furniture have a most powerful
effect on the minds and bodies of teachers and pupils. How
can a sweet little child like to spend five or six hours every
day in a building which has a cheerless exterior and a
gloomy interior? It would be strange, indeed, if such sen-
sitive and innocent little ci'eatures did not look upon such
schools as men look upon asylums and jails, or as sheep
would look on the shambles, were they endowed with reason.
Bright children love a school which is bright inside and
bright outside. The building should be a handsome one —
comfortably furnished, large, cheerful -looking, exhibiting
artistic taste in all its arrangements — a model of neatness

THX SCIEKCB AND ART OF TEACUIMO.

107

nnd convenience. Everything connected with the inntitution
ithould bear evidence of refine<l tofite.

While M{N>aking of tliis Hubjpct, we will take the liberty Po"""*!
of stating that prrHoiml noutnosH in one of the primary
eMientialH in a gomi teatdjer. It is a nocesHary ({ualitication,
a cardinal virtue, which no educator can afford to neglect.
Ho must insist on its practice by his pupils, and bo careful
to exhibit it in his own i>erHon. Success in teaching
do[>cndH, in no small n»(»ft«ure, on the observance of this rule.
Next to cleanlineas, there is scarcely any other |)ersonaI
characteristic so essential in the practice of education.
Create an intellectual atmosphere in the school, so that
honour, truth, and justice may "flourish like trees planted
beside rivers of water." Then striven to make the class-
rooms cheerful and attractive, and let the teachers endeavour
to acquire similar characteristics. Success will then depend
on tlio good sense of the community, and tJie generosity or
justice of trustees.

A quiet, gentlemanly (or ladylike) manner should be the MatiMrof*
leading characteristics of boys (and girla) in school. The KilooU."
behaviour of all sliouM be gentle and unassuming. Each
pupil should j>osscss a business-like air, and during business
hours a general calm should reign throughout the respective
departments. The teacher should tolerate no conversation
in the desks during school sessions, and, when "hearing a
class," he should never allow one pupil to interrupt another,
or two to speak at the same time. Then, a pleasing calm, a
genial quietness, a salutary restraint, will pervade the whole
school — thus increasing the comfort of the pupils and the
efficiency of the teachers.

While giving a lesson, a teacher should be all life and Teacher t«
animation. We do not mean to imply that he should leo- ^"''•"■»*'^
ture — lecturing is not suited for the school-room; we do not
mean that he should be a perpetual talker, as mentioned
elsewhere; we do not mean that he should devote himself to

I >!

Brevity a
clmracU'ris-

Si*^""'* acteristics of the school.

108 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

continual repotition, and such like — for nhould he do 80, his
pupilH will make comparatively little progrewi: b«it we mean
that inHt<^ad of defining, explaining, and repeating laws and
principleH, etc., to his pupilH, he should Uad them by a series
of appropriate questions, to define, explain, or rejyeat to him.
In this manner ho will guide or load them to discover the
laws and principles of things for themselves. Knowledge
acquired in this way becomes part of their being, and will
never bo forgotten, whereas that which is gained by the pro-
cess of "telling" will evaporate like water, leaving not a
trace behind.

Brevity of expression should l>c one of the leading char-
Ideas should never bo covered
with a multitude of words. Every thought should be ex-
pressed clearly and fully, but as laconically lus possible.
Useless verbiage obscures the senae and weakens the expres-
sion; but the effects of brevity are just the reverse. The
teacher should thoroughly undci*stand the particulars of
each lesson, subject, or part of a subject, before introducing
it to his pupils. In defining, explaining, or discussing its
difficulties, uses, beauties, etc., he must be careful not to
say himself, nor allow his pupils to say, more than is abso-
lutely necessary.

In school, as elsewhere, urbanity and suavity should be
the motto of each pupil in his personal intercourse with
those around him. Courtesy of manner, sincerity, truthful-
ness, unselfishness, and a careful regard for the feelings of
others — love of God and nature — are, or should be, the
guiding stars of every man or woman bom into this world.
Children, even from the earliest age, should be led to culti-
vate a genial manner and an amiable disposition, so that as
they grow up, these endearing qualities may become personal
characteristics.

Each pupil should do his own work — the teacher should
never do it for him, as many teachers do through feelings

Urbanity
and suavity.

Pupils 1o(!o
their duty.

THE SCIENCE AND AET OF TEACHINO.

109

of mistaken kindness. Each and all should underaiand that
their teachers and {uireDtM expect thcni to do their duty,
and that they must do it. More as-siHtance and attention
should Ih) given to the chiKiron of the lower tliviMionn, or
classes, tlmn to those of the upper. The latter are generally
able to help themselveH, und retpiiro little which a few
judicious questions will not lead them to discover, wher«Mi
the former may often i-eally need assistance of a more minute
and substaii'ial kind. But, from the commencement, each
pupil shoii I l>e taught to rely chiefly on himself — ImiIkjs or
invalids are tlio only individuals fed with a 8|Kxm. So in
literary matters. Stdf-reliance, perseverance, and industry,
should be practised by all.

At home and abroad, pupils should 1)0 encouraged to love ToinTeth«^«r

* ' " teachers, au<l

their own particular school, and to revere its teachers, pre- bo zealous of

- . , .... *'>e honour

fernug them to all others. Want of zeal in maintaining of their

the honour of the school is a sure sign that a pupil does not

stand very high in his resjiective classes, and (worse still)

that he is deficient in that laudable ambition. Every pupil

in a school should be ambitious of adding to its glory. Each

should endeavour to make it superior to all others, always

remembering that its prestige depends on individual efforts,

and that they can command success by working earnestly,

perseveringly, and harmoniously with their teacliers. Should

they do so faithfully and well, they can, in after years, look

back with conscious pride and affection on the memory of

their school days —ever fondly and gratefully remembering

the devoted teachers and school mates of tlieir early youth.

As a French writer (Thomas) justly observes, "Gi-atitude is

the sweetest as well as the holiest of duties."

O
The teacher should occasionally tell his pupils how to How to

study. Calling their attention to some particular subject, or " " ^^ *

part of a subject, he should explain how he himself would

study it were he to take it up for the first time — how he

would examine, analyze, and combine the respective asser-

Qiiality and
quantity.

f iangiiage to
Ite pure and
simple.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO.

tit>ns or statements, and revolve the whole matter in his
mind as in a kaleidoscope, seizing or appropriating the lead-
ing ideas or *• landmarks " as they presented themselves to
his mental vision ; how, by means of reflection, he would
arrange these ideas in natural and logical order, and then
lay them up for future use in the storehouse of his under-
standing. By these means, he will lead his pupils to study
in a philosophical manner, and much valuable time will be
saved which would otherwise be lost or wasted to no pur-
pose. If a pupil, having a thirst for knowledge, knows how
to study aright, and Ims a clear idea of what he should study ,
he is sure to become a learned man. If the habit of think-
ing justly, and strongly, be formed at an early age, the cir-
cumstances of future life will, of themselves, carry on the
great work of personal improvenient.

One book studied well, and properly "digested," will be
of more real sei-vice to him than would a hundred studied
cursorily and without order or reflection. Quality will
always tell against quantity. For these reasons, the man-
ner and quality of study are far more important than the
matter and quantity — far more essential to the right devel-
opment of the faculties and the proper cultivation of literary
taste.

When the teacher undertakes to explain a subject, he
should be careful to use language which will be intelligible to
children. In fancy he must descend to the level of their
mental capacity — standing beside them as one of themselves;
and from that point, gaze in imagination on the cause or
causes of their perplexity. He will then see the respective
difficulties as children see them, and be able to explain each
in its natural order, and in language both simple and expres-
sive. This method of analyzing subjects, the logical order
observed in explaining each component part, and the art of
putting all together again — skilfully presenting ic to the
youthful mind as a complete whole — constitutes what may

THE SCIKNCE AND ART OP TEACHING. HI

be called the science of teaching, and will seldom fail to excite
an interest in study, or to create a desire for the acquisition
of knowledge. The teacher must i-emember that language
which would be plain and simple to him might be incompre-
hensible to children. He should, therefore, never use words
of foreign origin if he can express his ideas in pure Anglo-
Saxon. Should he do so, the explanatory language may
sometimes be more incomprehensible to his pupils than the
original difficulty, as it will only cover the pre-existing
" swamp" with a canopy of clouds or fogs.

We could cite many examples to show that the answer to Lu^-J** ^,

•' * ^ , explanationn

a question may be correct and yet be more incomprehensible
to the child than the query itself, but will mention only one
or two. Many years ago a certain little boy met with the
word "eclipse" in one of his books, and, feeling rather

I puzzled about its meaning, he requested the principal of his
school to tell him what it was. The teacher graciously
smiled, and told him it was "a phenomenon." Some time

t afterwards he requested another teacher to inform him " why
it was that a stone would sink in water, whereas a log of
wood always floated on the surface 1" The teacher replied
that, ''The cause should be attributed to the difference in
their specific gravity." Of course, the pupil appeared to be
satisfied with " these lucid explanations," but in reality they
had only increased his difficulties. "Phenomenon" and
"specific gravity" — "words of learned length" — were to him
as a "sounding brass or tinkling cymbal" — mud-banks over
which he might jump, but through which he dared not wade. Rfcitationn
Prompt and accurate recitation of lessons saves much be prompt
time, strengthens pi-aiseworthy habits, and will exercise no l?curate.
small influence on the pupil's character in after life. For
these and other reasons, the teacher should always insist on
their observance. Should the interest in the subject grow
dull during recitation, he would do well to stop proceedings
until it is revived. The interest created by him in any sub-

112

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP ^BACHIirO.

Child-
natura.

!li

ject, and the amount of information imparted, are stire to fbe
in proportion to the attention of the pupils. He should
decline to proceed with the lesson without the attention of
his class, or should the pupils be unable to recite without
aid. By following this plan, each individual will have to
stand on his own basis; the deficiency of the indolent will
be exposed, and all will feel that disgrace will overtake
those who fail to study the lessons thoroughly. It has been
well said that " the teacher is the school ;" but it is equally
true that he should be the text booh. He should be per-
fectly acquainted with all the authorized works in use in
his sphere, and be able to catechize in the various subjects
without reference to the book.

CHAPTER II.

HOW TO MAKE STUDY ATTRACTIVE.

People who have been so unfortunate as never to have
enjoyed the companionship or friendship of little children,
are ignorant of some of the gi*eatest pleasures in life. They
have, perhaps, carelessly passed by the little flowers without
investigation and without interest, not knowing or appre-
ciating their value. "What can be more beautiful than the
radiant orbs which reflect our image as we look into the
clear wells of light, so characteristic of youthful eyes? How
earnestly they gaze at us ! How merrily, affectionately, and
gratefully they return our smiles ! How full of love, hope,
curiosity, and innocence are those windows of the soul!
How fruitful! how interesting the study of those living,
laughing, rolling, dancing gems ! If patient, watchful, and
sympathetic, we may perceive in the light of their reflection,
the various thoughts and fancies which chase each other

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO.

118

B sure to be
He should
attention of
ite without
ill have to
dolent will
1 overtake
t has been
is equally
nld be per-
in use in
s subjects

• to have
children,
b. They
i without
>r appre-
than the
into the
J? How
ielj, and
e, hope,
ie soul!
living,
ful, and
3ection,
1 other

through the youthful mind, as well as the germs of those
feelings which will some day stir up the heart and fire the
imagination of the advilt.

If the teacher acquires a fair knowledge of the child's bo*tt"oc!-
mental organization, he will be the better able to adapt his fnstruotion.
instructions to the child's requirements. His professional
success depends chiefly on his knowledge of Nature, and his
ability to interpret her precepts aright. It behoves him to
Btudy her operations carefully, closely, perseveringly. I^et
jliim question her in all his difficulties. She is the great
[teacher of teachers, and the only one whose instructions are
free from error. Her admonitions will direct him "in the
way he should go." She will tell him that enjoyment must
^be combined with education, and that methods of instruc-
tion should produce a ha]»py and healthful activity. "La
tout est beau (says Rousseau) parceque tout est vi-ai." We
naturally dislike such places and things as suggest painful
reminiscences, and, in accordance with certain laws of mental
association, we delight in those which recal former pleasures.
The remembrance of painful lessons may make the acqui-
sition of knowledge repulsive, and the remembrance of
pleasureable ones will make it attractive. If the process of
education be made pleasant and agreeable, it will not cease
when school days come to an end — it will bo progressive and
continuous. Those therefore who would succeed as educators
must study child-nature, and adjust their instructions to
the laws of life. Pleasure and instruction go together in
the teachings of Nature : they sliould not be divorced in the
school-room. If feelings of pain be associated with words
or ideas, the pain will invariably retuiii to the mind when-
ever these words or ideas are recalled, and the child will
soon contract a disliko for what ho believes to be the cause
of his sorrow.

Education should be conducted on "the happiness princi- nei prEaci-
ple." Pleasant feelings excite intellectual action whilst im- ^^'

114

Ouidinc
principlea.

How to cul-
tivate the
love of
study.

IMS

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

proving the bodily health and natural disposition. Teachers
and pupils, according to the laws of their being, are at the
mercy of associated ideas. Their relations are friendly or
antagonistic in proportion to the happiness or misery pro-
duced by the prevailing mode of culture. A teacher will
be hated if he create no other than painful emotions; he will
be liked if he sympathize with his pupils, and can lead them
to daily conquests ; he will be esteemed and admired if his
precepts be good, noble, andconfirmed by practice ; he will
be loved if he teaches in accordance with Natui*e's princij)le8.
From these Tacts we infer that that system of education
which gives the most pleasure and least pain is the best and
most appropriate.

When children are well taught in accordance with Nature's
plan, they will often prefer mental to physical exercise;
they will take delight in their studies, and generally prefer
school to home life. Our pupils deserve our warmest smiles
and deepest sympathies — let us give them promptly, gener-
ously, and cordially. Let us cheer them on to victory, let
us inspire them with the desire of mental conquests, and
show ihem how to "storm the fortifications" of doubt and
difficulty, ourselves leading the attack. Let us encourage
them in their attempts to concentrate attention, and, if pos-
sible, endow them with a desire to persevere through repeated
failures. Constant exercise will produce a constant appetite,
and a working mind will inhabit a working body. Such
efforts must educate the finer feelings of the heart whilst
creating mental enjoyment, and will thus increase the sum
total of man's happiness.

Should children acquire a dislike to study, it would be
imprudent, and, perhaps, unjust, to force books and studies
upon them. It would be cruel to punish them for not lov-
ing what they consider uninteresting. Better far to associ-
ate pleasure with the cultivation of habits of attention and
application. Better to create or cultivate the desire for

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

llff

knowledge by a series of interesting conversations on such
subjects as are likely to be useful and attractive. When
this desire is created, study will become pleasant and books
cease to be repugnant. To preserve this desire in good
working order, the attention when aroused must not be
[fatigued; there must be variety in the subjects of study, and
[periods of application must be regularly followed by inter- wh«naie«-
vals of rest. As Mons. Marcel observes, " Lessons should J^**""*''
[cease before the child evinces symptoms of weariness.

His desire of variety should be indulged,

id the gratification of his curiosity should be combined

fvith his improvement." We believe that a lesson should

cease while the child's attention is still on the qui vive —

ibefore the desire for further information begins to wane.

[••The various powers of children's minds stretch out like

foung tendrils to grasp the truths of the material world;"*

Jut their yearning for knowledge should nob be gratified so

ffej* as to destroy their desire for more.

Knowledge should be self-mastered, and is best acquired Seif-instruc-
by a process of self-instruction, more or less modified. For best.
this reason, the subjects in the programme of studies should
be so arninged as to make it possible for the pupil to ascend
the successive steps with little or no external help. To effect
this object, the ascending steps must correspond with the
successive stages of evolution in the ordinary development ^
of the respective faculties. This concurrence will tend to
make application pleasant, and thereby endow acquisition
with intrinsic gratification. The mental vigour educed by
self-evolution, "will guai-antee (says Herbert Spencer) a
vividness and permancy of impression which the ordinary
methods can never produce." The concentration of thought,
essential in the solution of difficulties, necessitates a contin-
uous organization and classification of knowledge previously
acquired, and, in connection with the pleasurable excite-

♦ Rev. Dr. BelL

116

niifflcient

]ihyBi<vil

rn<i-eat.li)n.

Exercise

without

fatigue.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

m^tit peculiar to success, it tends to make a permanent
record iu the memory of all facts received.

Let children be allowed parfect freedom of action in the
play-grounds, so long a.s they recognize and respect each
other's rights and privileges; but insist on perfect discipline
in the school. When taking fresh air and exercise, Nature
inipsis them to be lively and sportive, and, in our opinion,
the teacher or parent who would unnecessarily damp their
flowing spirits and joyous hilarity of heart, would be littl'
better th.in a tyrant. During their younger years, and
under such cir^'umstances, let the innocent little creatures
bo free to run^ leap, and romp just as they please. Natiu^
prompts them to do so. How can we be so forgetful of our
own young days as to curtail their happiness ! Let us make
Nature our guide and ally, and encourage the little ones to
" sing for joy." She impels them to run, jump, and shout
with delight. God's works smile on them from every side-
Why should man alone be frowning and stem'? Freedom
will promote health, and increase the delights of life. After
due exercise in " Nature's b})ortive fields," a return to order
will be agreeable, and the labours of study atti^active. If
children dislike studies, it is chiefly because their teachers
oppose, neglect, or ignore Nature, and cannot, therefore,
make them attractive. Dislike of study, or failure in acqui-
sition or application, point to personal ignorance or profes-
sional incapacity on the part of the teatdier, or to mental
debility on the part of the pupil, arising, perchance, from
imperfect instimction in the past, or a too rapid promotion
in the present. "Experience," says Fallenberg, "has taught
me that indolence iu young persons is so directly opposite
to their natural disposition to activity, that unless it be the
consequence of bad education, it is almost invariably con-
nected with some constitutional defect."

Mons. Vernet justly observes that "the exercise of our
faculties is always attended with pleasure so long as the

KMnuawuiiim

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

117

cercise can be continued without fatigue." For this reason,

lessons should not be too nuinei-ouH, nor the term of api>li-

ition too long. It matters little how much is learned in ft

fiven time, provided the habits of attention l)e strengthened

acquired, the wish to improve excited, and a longing for

lore information created. Children regard their lessons as

)me grown people regard friends — they love them while

ley think them useful and pleasant; but contract a dislike

them when they imagine them to be troublesome or dis-

jeable. In teaching, we should point out the design and

ictical utility of the reH[>ective subjects of study, and then

[ercise all our ingenuity to make them attractive and

jeable. ^

If we watch a child studying under the guidance of Na- ^'^,"7,/
5, we will notice that he earnestly examines the object culture,
his attention. He feels it, tastes it, breaks it, weighs it,
id makes it undergo the scrutiny of all his senses, com-
litting his respective observations to memory, one by one.
lere is no distraction, no confusion, no interruption, no
lental sleep in Nature's mode of culture. The attention is
idivided, vigorous, and active; all the energies of the mind
concentrated upon one object, and only one, at a time,
tence, we infer that children should never be interrupted
their experiments on surrounding objects, or while en-
iged in work, play, or the solution of difficulties. Such
iterruption breaks the course of their ideas, and, besides
pving them real annoyance, prevents them from acquiring
knowledge by personal experience. Instead of thwarting or
iterrupting them, teachers or parents should direct their
lactivity, furnish materials for additional combinations, and
[make such suggestions as will enable them to take fresh, •

and, if possible, more extensive observations. It is our duty
to foster their love of play by directing it into useful and
scientific channels ; and, instead of finding fault with their
physical restlessness and apparent mental idleness, we should

lis

THE SCIENCB AND ART OF TEACHINQ.

Row Nature
tAattliM.

Whon Na-
ture dis'
misnes her

•(;li(>ol.

hearken to the voice of Nature and arouse ourselves to the
oonsciousnes'i of the fact that it is our privilege to guide
their energies in the pursuit of knowledge by giving proper
direction to their natural curiosity and bodily vigour.

Nature teaches by means of tangible and familiar objects.
She does not fatigue the mind with long lessons. Her in-
structions are practical, not theoretical or abstract. She calls
for no painful exertion of mind or body. She proceeds
gradually, from the known to the unknown — from the sim-
ple to the complex — one stop at a time, taking duo care that
the foremost foot is firmly fixed before she moves the other;
hence, her lessons are always received with real gratification
and positive delight. She tills the minds of her pupils with
ideas, but leaves the mode of expression to their judgment
and choice. All her lessons are useful, aiid imparted to be
used. She is, therefore, the best and most successful teacher
Under her guidance, as Dr. Gall observes, "Every new les-
son is a pleasure, and an additional step in advance. In
every instance, the exercise of to-day revives and consoli-
dates that of yesterday, while it smooths and prepares a
way for that of to-morrow."

Mental enquiry creates mental hunger; but after a certain
length of application, a child's attention will necessarily
wane. Having stored up for future use the ideas acquired,
his desire for further investigation, or additional experiment,
will cease for a time in obedience to Nature's promptings.
His lesson has been learned, and the law of his being declares
it is time to play, or change the subject. Any attempts
to stimulate, or further force, the attention, would, under the
circumstances, be injudicious and unjust — perhaps cruel.
The mental appetite has been appeased, and time is required
for rumination and mental digestion. Prolonged or com-
pulsory eflforts, in such a case, would probably excite feel-
ings of dislike. Nature requires rest, variety, change. Let
her have them.

w^wmwig

THl 8CIBKCE A»D ART <Sf TBACniNO.

119

CHAPTER III

INCENTIVES TO STUDIOUS HABITS.

r a certain

The desire to be useful and to do what is right, are the J^Ji^we.

ioblest incentives of human action— the most praiseworthy ofaction.

jriiiciples of individual character. Being the offfpring of a
oA conscience, they are the worthiest preceptors of per-
nial conduct. United with the anxious desire of advancc-
lent and the earnest love of acquisition, they are the
mdainental cloments on which the teaclinr must repose his
Porta whilst exciting and promoting studious habits amongst
pupils. Emulation is, perhaps, one of the most com*
lendable aspirations which can stir up or influence the
luman mind. By emulation we mean the love of distinc-

^ou, the earnest desire to advance in knowledge, to improve

ir condition in life, to excel others without wishing to

sipress them. Progress is imprinted on our nature — we

)re never created to retrogi-ade or remain stationary.

'Onward and upward" should be the motto of man in par-

bcular, as of Nature in general. Wholesome emulation will
sldom fail to develop progress in youth or manhood, and
lould, therefore, be judiciously employed by every teacher,
tends to make men and boys better, wiser, or greater
lan they really are, and (as the saying i*uns) often "enables

[them to surpass themselves." It is, therefore, one of the

[noblest aspirations which can fire the heart of youth or guide

[the feelings of man. ^^

Curiosity is the expression of a desire for knowledge — /u!^Suia~
the earliest development of the young intelligence, and,\**^jy*°^jj,^
[iince it is "the first motive of sentient, intelligent being," ^--
it may be regarded as the source and stimulus of attention.
Curiosity often "runs wild," and is then the source of
importunity, impertinence, inconstancy, and change. Its
development, therefore, requires careful cultivation and
guidance. Its energies should be concentrated on a few ob«

120

THB 8CIENCK AND ART OF TBACHINO.

|i I

Bill 'i

^^^H

jects — objocts of personal worth or public utility — and these
should be pursued in accordance with Nature's mode of
teaching.
ThadMirtof The pleasures experienced in acquiring useful and inter-
esting information more than re|>ay the labours of study.
This "delicious pleasure" varies in proportion to the age
and mental development of the student. Its influence ia
greatest in infancy, and least in old age. A baby feels more
delight in studying the philosophy of a dntni, out of which
it has just ** knocked the bottom," or in contemplating the
fragments of a China cup it has just broken, than the agod
miser would experience in discovering a gold mine. "The
propensity in children to do mischief" is, in reality, a whole-
some and commendable curiosity — an intense desire to ac-
quire information. Their mind is conscious of its ignorance
and want of experience — it is awake to acquire knowledge
of men and thi»ig8. They have been placed as strangers in
a world of wonders, and in exercising their " destructive
ingenuity," or in asking " peculiar questions," they are
merely seeking to gratify their curiosity — they are fulfilling
one of the conditions of Nature, and, in this respect, should
be aided rather than discouraged/ In after years, he will
be the most successful teacher who can most effectuallv
excite and satisfy this curiosity or thirst for knowledge.
This laudable propensity once properly aroused, the mind
of the pupil shall thenceforth neither slumber nor sleep, and,
instead of a task, learning will be a pleasure to the teacher
and the taught.

The love of Th© love of approbation is a very powerful incentive to
approbation, g^^jy Many educators consider it to be a very commend-
^ able one ; others regard it as reprehensible. We don't.

Being a selfish propensity inherent in our nature, its appli-
cation requires considerable caution, discrimination, and
judgment. It is commendable so long as it excites the child
or the man to desire the admimtion of the good, the pious,

■Si ■

THE SCIENCE AND ART Of TSACUINO.

121

Y — and thesfi
re's mode of

111 and intftr-
irs of study.
I to the a^e
influence ig
l>y feels more
Hit of which
riplating the
I an the agod
nine. '*The
ity, a whole-
desire to ac-
ts ignorance
) knowledtfo

strangers in
* destructive
they are
ire fulfilling
pect, should
^ars, be will

effectually

knowledge.

the mind

sleep, and,
ihe teacher

icentive to
commend-
We don't.
3, its appli-
ation, and
s the child
the pious,

and the learned — so long as it incites him to sork the
approval of his tcaclier, parents, and friends — so long as it
impels him to inci-ease his own merit without wishing to
depreciate that of others. Tl»e skilful teacher will seldom
app<>al in vain to this propensity — the desire of distinction
and approval. Indeetl, it is the opinion of many old and
experienced educators, that the teacher will frequently suc-
ceed by its means in governing bis pupils, and in awaken-
ing a thirst for study, when he would fail to produce the
sjime effects by an ap|)eal to other motives. Should the
skilful teacher apjK'al to all these incentives bi vain, and that
the pupil is really in<lifferent about the approbation of his
friends, devoid of curiosity, and careless about being useful
an<l of doing what is right, then indeed will we admit that
there is little hope for the improvement of that child — but
■uch a child we have never met, nor do we ever expect to
meet with such a hardened specimen of humanity.

Whether it is commendable to offer prizes to be competed jhe r.riz*
for in schools, and whether the incentive to study thus pro- STdered.
duccd, does not more than counterbalance the envy and
[ jealousy it may be supposed to engender, have, for many
years, been questions of discussion between the great edu-
cationists of the age. On the whole, we believe that the
balance of opinion is in favour of their introduction and use.
It must be remembered, however, that w^ien the prizes
offered are but few in number, and the candidates numerous,
it is often exceedingly difficult to do full justice to the sev-
eral competitoi-s. Men are not, and never will be, of one
mind; the candidate who would be considered best by one
judge, might be rated as second by another, and vice versd :
so that the examiners may be divided as to the relative
merits of the youthful " rivals." Then again the facilities
of the competitors in preparation and acquisition may be
unequal. The facilities of some of the pupils may be more
than sufficient, whilst those of the majority are inadequate
9

12-'

THE 8C1ENCR AND ART OF TKACUINO.

l*rixes b/

ignoble

lue.ins.

Some may have all the a^siHtance afforded by good text
books, kind {Hirentfl, and intelligent friendH, besides having
no extraneous matters to attend to after school hours,
whereas other children, equally anxious and equally indus
tiious, may have none of these advantages. It is true,
moreover, that the prize is often the measure of success, not
of effort — of good luck, not of worth ; and, in any case, evoi
experienced person will readily concede that success in sucii
a contest is a very unreliable test of a pupil's merit. Th«
most meritorious docs not (but should) always wear tiio
crown. Nature and good fortune may have given one child
mental advantages 8U|)erior to those of another who is far
more industrious, so that what the one can learn in a few
hours, may cost the others as many days or weeks of jiei-se
vering toil.* If the motive and ejhrt of the latter be taken
into account, the former must yield him the palm of merit,
and these are the only means by which we can justly meas
ure the virtue and value of an action. Though the intention
and effect be the same in both cases, there is a vast difference
in the effort.

Some teachers regard prizes as a sort of "literary bribe,"
and affirm that they t nd to make children seek their end
by fair means if convenient, and by ignoble means if neces
sary. It is true that ambition is seldom scrupulous about
the character of her servants. Her devotees are often willing
to stoop to anything that will ensure success. That " the
end will justify the means" is a positive falsehood, and the
root rkf much mischief. But if such ignoble means be used
to eLi4ure success, the teachers or examiners may possibly
detect the fraud, and punish the guilty by public exposure
and forfeiture of privileges. However, it is not at all likely
that pupils will resort to such ai-tifices, and, if they do, the
prudence and experience of the teacher will be more than a
match for them.

•Pago.

TBI SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACRINO.

12.1

' rmity
capacity.

A prize or two offered to the best and second beat Bcholani JJjJJI,]J^''
in a claaa, stimulates only a few. The Uwicher — and even on*y • '•*•
the pupils themselves — knowing by experience the capabili-
ties of the re8|)ective candidates, can tell beforehand who
will bo the victors at the examinations — or, at least, who
are likely to bo. Those pupils who have no hope of obtain-
ing a prize, and who feel confident of their inability to win
one, will make little exertion, or perhaps bo totally indiffer-
ent, seeing that persevering toil will bring them no immedi-
ate reward — despairing of success, they may in fact pretend
to despise "the baiuble."

It is obvious that unless the mind of each child in the
respective classes be a'*:ikened — unless the individual wiU
of all be influenced to mcreasod efforts, to honourable rivalry
with each other, by awarding prizes, then the system is a
failure.* If the system fails to arouse the whole school to
renewed activity — to increased exertion, to additional efforts,
to a higher ambition — and that only two or three or half a
dozen really contend for the prize, the remainder being
indifferent, then it is a mere gift to tliis limited number —
one of them being sure of it. If it be a gift, why call it a
prize ] The efficiency of the prize system depends on the
uniformity of the competitors in mental aipacity. Prizes
are the most powerful, popular, and perhaps the best of all
incentives when the members of the respective classes are of
the same degree of mental standing, and when the facilities of
acquisition are similar, and the services of skilful examiners
can be secured.

We are inclined to believe that prizes or rewards should The rew»r*
be used in every school. The prize system, in its purity, is '^•**^'"
more suitable for colleges and universities than for common
and middle class schools. Judging by our own experience,
and the information gleaned from others, we have no hesita-
tion in stating that, when "piizes" are offered in these

Page.

124

The merit
card HyBtem,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TE.U'HINO.

schools as an incentive to study, they should partake of the
nature of rewards, and be so numerous that every industri-
ous, well-conducted child can receive some token in recog-
nition of his efforts "to become good and great." The
number of prizes offered to each class should be in proportion
to its size. Prizes should be offered for efficiency in each
individual subject, and also for proficiency in the whole
programme of school studies. No pupil should be eligible
to compete for the latter prizes unless his character and
conduct were irreproachable; but eveiy pupil having hia
name on the school register should have permission to com-
pete for the prizes for individual subjects. There should also
be "good conduct" and "regular attendance" prizes, or re-
wards, in addition to the foregoing. Unless these things be
carefully attended to, the system of awarding prizes or re-
wards, will fall shoi-t of the object in view. If prizes or
rewards be introduced at all, they should be awarded to
good conduct, diligence, punctuality, amiability, and intrinsic
worth, as well as to superior talent, or marked success in
certain examinations ; and, as aforesaid, they should be so
numerous that every desei'ving pupil shall receive some
tangible evidence of the appreciation of his efforts.

An accurate register of scholarship and individual deport-
ment never fails to engender and promote healthy emulation ;
yet such a journal is seldom kept. If not attended to at the
close of each lesson or recitation, it must be made from
memory; and, in the latter case, perfect accuracy is impos-
sible. The pupils will, therefore, have little confidence in
the record, and its moral force will be nullified. Taking
these things into consideration, many of our most experienced
teachers recommend the use of merit cards. These "merits"
act as a substitute for, whilst securing the good results of,
accuriite records — and they possess the advantage of occupy-
ing less of the teacher's time than would the record system.
They also enable the pupil to take home with him every

TBB SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

125

evening witnesses of his daily progi-ess, and therefore com-
mand foi him a lively paternal interest, whilst securing for
the teacher the active co-operation of his pupil's natural
guardians.

There are many ways for using the merit cards. We will How used.
mention one or two of those commonly used. In the morn-
ing each pupil may receive as many merits as will represent
the perfect work of one day — the same, or a certain number
of them, to be forfeited should the recipient fail in recitation,
or infringe any of the rules of the school, with reference to
conduct, diligence, or punctuality. Or, if preferred, the
following plan may be adopted, provided the pupils "change
places" in their classes. Give a merit to each pupil as often
as he may happen to get a head mark in reciting his respec.
tive lessons — the recipient to go to the foot of the chiss each
time he receives the same. The less .advanced and " more
bashful" will thus have "a chance," and the more clever will
have an opportunity of winning their way up again. Each
time a pupil gets head of his class he is to receive a "ticket"
or "merit," ami then retire to the foot as before — no pupil
to receive a merit for giving correct answers to questions
directly addressed to himself, unless pupils "above him" have
failed to answer them. According to this plan, as in the for"
mer, the teacher may fine any pupil one or more merits should
he be guilty of a misdemeanor during the day. It may be
remarked that the smaller merits may be exchanged for
"fives, tens, fifties, or hundreds." The merits should be
" paid into the treasury" once a month, and a receipt for the
same handed to the pupil.

A chart or roll of merit, containing the names of the The roU of
pupils, and exhibiting the number of merits won by each *"*"'
during the respective months of the season, should be placed
in some conspicuous part of the school-room.

It must not be forgotten, however, that the "merit card" Abuse
system is liable to abuse unless it be supplemented or checked

126

Power and
«flreets of the
system.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

by registration. It is possible that pupils may sell or give
away some of their merits to othern. Unless such transactions
be discovered, the latter would, by such a si^ecies of dishon-
esty, attain a higher standing than that to which they were
justly entitled ; and the suspicion of foul play thus engen-
dered in the minds of their more honourable companions,
would destroy their confidence in the system, whilst para-
lyzing their efforts to excel.

The number of "merits" handed in by the pupil, and
credited to him on the roll of merit, at the end of the month,
or at the close of the school session, will show his individual
and relative standing; so that, if premiums or prizes are
given, there can be no difficulty or mistake in ascertaining
or determining to whom they should be awarded. No sus-
picion of favouritism or foul play can possibly arise, for, by
looking at the roll of merit, even the pupil himself can tell
to whom the rewards belong — provid) d t! «- •^umber of merits
given to each individual are duly checked or registered.

It is needless to discuss the value of prizes as incentives to
study — no experienced educationist will deny their power.
When mismanaged, the system has doubtless been the origin
of some evil ; but when skilfully conducted, it has been pro-
ductive of much good. Rewards bestowed as indicated (or
even prizes) can do no harm — they afford no food for mis-
apprehension, envy, or jealousy, and no scope for deceit or
hypocrisy. Every pupil will feel that if he deserves a
memento of his benefactor's kindness, his teach r's love, or
of his own honest, earnest efforts, he will be su j i a receive
it. Each, perchance, may reason with himself auc' .; - — " I
have every chance of obtaining a prize or award. If I fail
in talent or perfect recitation, I will acquire one for diligence,
or for good conduct, or for regularity and punctuality, or for
some other individual excellence, if not for general merit-
I will persevere in my studies, and carefully avoid giving
trouble or offence to my companions, or to my teachers. I

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

will infringe none of the niles of the school, ard do every-
thing I find to do 'with all my might,' so that, even should
I fail to win a prize, all will admit that my efforts deserved
miccess." It is evident that either reward or prize system,
conducted according to the foregoing principles, would secure
the due recognition of the merits of each individual pupil,
whilst it would prevent the larger pupils from appropriating
all the pearls, and incite the smaller ones to press forward to
the goal set before them.

127

CHAPTER IV.

ELEMENTS OF GENERAL ADMINISTRATION.

The teacher should always endeavour to be consistent in JhJuJj"
his doings, and never forget to respect his own authority- o^J*®** *''*'"
He should say what he means, and mean what he says, and authority.
never issue an order unless he intends it to be obeyed ; nor
should he give a second command until the first has been
executed. All commands should be issued coolly and delib-
erately, in a voice clear and distinct — loud enough to be
heard by all, but not too loud — and when uttered, he should
permit no hesitation in their execution. " A low, decided
tone of voice accomplishes much more than a loud, bluster-
ing one ; the former attracts and fixes attention, the latter
divides and confuses it." The teacher should be possessed
of the faculties of decision and firmness of purpose, so that
he may deteimine quickly, and act promptly and justly in
accordance with his sense of duty. In teaching, as in every-
thing else, decision of character is the first element of suc-
cess. There should bo no hesitation apparent in his manner
— no vacillation visible in his conduct, for " a courageous

128

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Duciaion of
charnctei'.

loquesta v,
Commands,

heart and a resolute mind are omnipotent." When he de-
cides, he should be sure to decide justly. When he issues
orders, he should, if necessary, compel obedience. "Unless
in case of error," as Locke affirms, " his word should be irre-
vocable." He must convince the whole school, individually
and collectively, that he is a man of energy and tenacity of
purpose, and will exact prompt and implicit obedience to all
his commands — that he will permit no half measures, and
tolerate no habits of partial submission or indolent compli-
ance. Then shall his pupils confide in his justice, and, as
Milton observes, " None will question the equity of his
decisions;" then (and not till then) will order, regularity,
prompt obedience, pei-severing industry, and steady progress,
become the characteristics of his school. It is far better,
however, that these things should be the result of dutiful
affection, than the effects of mere slavish submission.

A sensitive pupil will obey with greater pleasure and alac-
rity when requested than when ordered ; it is, therefore,
better to request than to command. It is imprudent to
foster or exhibit a love for commanding, and unwise to mani-
fest any feeling which would indicate a want of personal
confidence or a doubt of professional ability. Require only
what is reasonable, just, and necessary; be sure that the pupil
comprehends your meaning, and then enforce your orders to
the letter. The teacher should do all things for the best —
best for his pupils, for himself, and for the public. Rever-
ing justice, loving what is right, acting in accordance with
religious and patriotic principles, professional failure will be
impossible; success certain. Such a party will be a good, if
not a great, teacher — a fellow-labourer with his Creator in
the noble work of progress.

Courage, resolution, and tenacity of purpose are just as

Koveiuiuent. requisite in the principal of a school as in the commander of

an army. The mode of discipline or manner of government

should be kind and gentle, for the assurance conveyed there-

J\)rce a» an
element of

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

129^

)y, that no harm is intended, will tend to secure a perfect
uid willing obedience ; but this obedience implies the exist-
jnce of a power sufficient to enforce it if necessary. This
)wer is the bjisis of that authority which commands and
lubdues the will. But power should always be united with
dndness, so that children may obey the one while they love
the other — so that they may yield submission affectionately,
id as the result of affection. Authority and love form the
isis of all good government, and these in turn may be re-
jferred to force — a force base<l on strength, power, or influence.
Svery child is more or less a reasoning creature, an intelli-
jnt being, and a loyal, loving individual, and hence a subject
>r compulsion, persuasion, or inducement, according to the
availing peculiarities of his disposition. Government by
)rce is the lowest order in the scale of disci[)line, and gov.
mient by personal or moral influences is the highest, purest,
id best. Government by supremacy of will is a mean
Jtween those extremes. But any of these methods, if used
cclusively, would, doubtless, {)r()ve a failure, owing to dif-
)nce in disposition and home associations. A mixed
lethod, combining the advantages of all, will, therefore, be
16 most useful in the management of large numbers of
lildrcn. In all cases, the teacher must possess the ability
command obedience when necessary, to control stubborn-
less, quicken diligence, and reform bad habits.
It will well repay the teacher to make himself thoroughly Abbott's
[uainted with the more approved systems of education
id school government as practiced at present and in days
me by. He can then strike out a new and independent
)ui-se for himself, and with the success which always follows
rell-directed efforts. His chances of success will, at all
Events, be materially increased by an acquaintance with the
laxims and writings of the teachei-s and philosophers of
fother ages. Apropos of what we have been writing are the
following maxims of Jacob Abbott : — "When you consent,

maxiuii).

130

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Self-reli-
auce.

Fretftalness
and frivolity
to be
avoided.

To com-
mence as he
would
continue.

consent cordially; when you refuse, refuse finally; when
you punish, punish good-naturedly : commend often — never
scold."

Before undertaking the office of a teacher, the candidate
should duly consider the duties to bo performed, the difficul-
ties to be overcome, and his personal qualifications for the
position. He should not accept nor adopt such a responsible
calling unless, after due consideration, he has reason to W
lieve that he can teach and govern efficiently — unless he
possesses self-reliance, and has perfect confidence in his abil-
ity to satisfactorily perform the onerous duties peculiar to
the office. When pupils discover that a teacher entertains
doubts of his own ability, they are sure to put his misgiv-
ings to the test, and will completely conquer him should his
skill and resources fall short of the occasion. Fixity of will
is the measure of ability in such cases. Resolution will give
him the victory.

The teacher should never so far forget the high responsi-
bility of his post as to wear an air of peevishness on the one
hand, or of frivolity on the other ; nor should he blend these
characteristics together, as is done in many instances. The
trials of life should never influence his conduct in school.
In sickness or in health his manner should be uniform, calm,
and genial. If not favored with a strong constitution, it
may, at times, be difficult to overcome these frailties. We
are inclined to believe, however, that they can be thoroughly
subdued, even by a confirmed invalid, should he only con-
sider how little his pupils have to do with the cause of his
illness or the state of the weather. Unless a man learns to
govern himself in such trivial matters, ho cannot possibly
govern others. How can the blind lead the blind 1

In his dealings with his pupils, and with the public gen-
erally, the teacher should never forget his personal dignity
80 far as to "put on airs" (as it is called), nor should he ever
assume a manner foreign to his natural character. "Be

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

131

he candidate
1, the difficul-
itions for the
a responsible
reason to Ix--
f — unless he
e in his abil-
} peculiar to
er entertains
t his misffiv-
n should his
'ixity of will
ion will give

gh responsi-
3 on the one
blend these
mces. The
in school,
iform. calm,
3titution, it
ilties. We
thoroughly
e only con-
ause of his
in learns to
ot possibly

public gen-
ial dignity
lid he ever
iter. " Be

rhat you appear to be," is a good and wholesome motto.

'ith children, as with full-grown j>eople, attachment always

)llow8 respect — esteem and admiration always precede affec-

m and love. To gain this esteem, affection, and love, he

lust \ye courteous and affable, yet firm and resolute — deeply

itei-ested in the welfare of his pupils. His future success

jpends, in a great mcasui-e, on " first impressions." On

:ing charge of a school, or class, he should be sure to com-

»ence as he would wish to continue, and vice versd. In a

ly or two, each pupil in the school or class has formed his

)r her) estimate of the new teacher. One has formed an

>inion of him in one respect, another in another respect,

id so on. If the individual opinio is thus formed were

ritten out in order, the aggregate would undoubtedly be a

lir estimate of the teacher's character.

The teacher should be particularly careful not to exhibit Not wise to

listrust, or appear to entertain suspicion of his pupils, either suspioion.

llectively or individually. He should never let them see

at he is watching them, or that he suspects they would do

rong. Such an act would not only decrease their respect

»r him personally, but would actually tend to make them

hat he desires them not to bo.* If he has reason to

lieve that a pupil is vicious or idle, and inclined to be

ublesome, he may possibly refomi him by the exercise

a little stratagem — by ai)parently placing great conti-

ce in him, for instance, or by appointing him to some

ponsible position in the school pi'o tern., or by occasionally

fequesting his assistance in some responsible capacity. The

Judicious application of such incentives as these Avill be

Jklmost sure to transform "the backslider" into a good, indus-

ious, trustworthy boy. To doubt an honest child is tanta-

ount to doing all we can to make him a liar. Unless able

convict, we should never appear to doubt.

If a boy be wild, idle, and troublesome, it is not wise of To look on

e teacher to look altogether on the dark side of his char- of a boy's

— — —^ cliaracter.

"" Page.

132

TME SCtENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

act«r. He should be permitted to understand that the
teacher's gaze is fixed on the bright side also — that his good
qualities have been noted as well as his bad ones, and that,
no matter how reprehensible his acts have l>een, still it is
l>elieve<l that many of his intentions were good. This course
being in accordance with Nature^ will probably be effectivp
At all events, it will exhibit to the pupil "a strong likeness
of himself," so that as time rolls away he may gradual Iv
become conscious of his errors, and be strengthened to avoid
his follies in the future. The tf^acher cannot be too careful
in bestowing his commendations. Always strictly just and
honest, he will not, of course, offer them unless they havp
been merited. Boys, like older folks, can distinguish be
tween praise and ilattery — they will not fail to look upon
the one as honest payment of a just debt, and upon the
other as a sinister present. Verbal bribes, like those of a
more tangible nature, are certain signs of weakness, and he
who offers them merits contempt.
Pupils not The painful and malevolent passions of rivalry, arising
triisted^with ft'O^i envy or jealousy, should be carefully repressed by the
impartial distribution of affection and applause — by the due
administration of exact justice, each receiving "what was
justly due to him." When necessary, the plain truth should
be spoken, as to their respective excellencies ; but we should
never contrast pupils with each other, nor should we censure
one while we praise another. As Rousseau observes, " Let
us compare the pupil as he is, with what he himself has been,
or may be, but never compare his deficiencies with another
pupil's excellencies." We naturally love those who are, to
us, a source of pleasure. To prevent envy or jealousy, and
make children fond of each other, we must place them in
situations where no passion or appetite will cross their
natural sympathy, and where they can dispense pleasure to
each other. "It is true," as Edgeworth states, "that many
of our most useful and agreeable actions arise from the desire

eacli otliur.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO.

133

excel; yot, as a nile, we should avoid placiiig children in
linful corapetition with each other."

Children should be encourage<l, but not flattered. They Children

uould receire their just reward when they act so as to merit eucour«ge«i,

le approbation of parents, teachens, and friends. The

jher or parent who always scolds, and is never satisfied

rith a child's efibrts, is sure to break his spirit, and to de»-

roy in him the desire to please, since all his efforts, all his

leeds (whether good or bad), meet with the same reception.

Pouchers, be gentle, but firm, with your pupils ; watch over

them constantly ; rcprove earnestly, but " be not bitter

gainst them." Have compassiom on their infirmities ; re-

uemljer that you were childreii youi-selves ; rccal your child-

lood days, luid you will be better able to sympathize with

rour pupils in all their little trials, joys, and sorrows. En-

Icavour to discriminate between idleness and want of ability.

lEucourage as much and reprove as little as possible. Try

[to "overcome evil with good;" and remember that if a child

ihMH done its best, it can do no more. It then merits praise,

lud not censure, however insignificant the result of its

\ei\ortH.

The teacher should be careful not to a: near to believe a offenders to
)upil guilty of an offence until the charge io clearly proved ered^inno-
|l)y reliable evidence, and he should suspend judgment in all proled *'^
ses until such evidence is produced. He should avoid *"*^^^"
lything that would tend to produce the impression that he
id pre-judged the case. "Innocent until proved guilty,"
lould be the motto of the school as well as of the hall of
Ijustice ; and the reputation of a child should be as sacred as
ithat of a man or woman. Such kind and charitable feelings
pxhibited by the teacher towards the accused, will tend to
l«how that he takes an interest in their welfare, and would
ffain consider them honorable and trustworthy; and his good
)pinion will have no small effect in making them so. As
Marmontel observes, "This is the wisest plan, and also the

134

THF. SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

To maintain

Sropcr
incipline.

! iW i

A timo for
everything,
and every-
thing in tta
lim»*.

most just." Such a rulo of coin. net will foster sentimentaofj
mutual confidence and esteem, and induce the pupils to feel^
tbat the teacher is their friend as well as their judjjp.
"Respect their feelings, and they in turn will respect yours."

In the matter of discipline, the teacher should be strict
without being severe. As Mr. Lancaster observes, "Each
and all should always have something to do, and a motive!
for doing it." The various exercises should be so conducted
that the pupils may fool that indolence and inattention an
sure to be followed by detection, and that degradation and
punishment will be the natural consoquencos. As order, I
quietness, and implicit obedience are characteristics of every!
woll-con<luctcd school, the teacher should not be insensibkj
to any breach of the s.ini", bo it ever so insignificant.

" A time for everything, and everything in its time," waj
tlio favourite motto of good old Lancaster — the motto which
he placod over the door of his school in imitation of that of i
Plato;* and, without strict attention to its precepts, no
teacher can bo really successful. Should the teacher disrc
gard its principles, irregularities will accumulate; indolence,]
mischief, and confusion will increase, until, perplexed and
oppressed, he bows down beneath their united weight, and \
is finally led to believe that his profession is the most weari
some in the world — and that, far from being " a delightful
task," it is a sore burden too heavy to be borne. However,
if he adhere strictly to his "time-table," appointing a time
for every duty and attending to every duty at its proper
time — in other words, if he cany on business in a sys-
tematic manner — then order, regularity, and quietness will
be the characteristics of his school ; otherwise, it will become
a babel — a pandemonium. Whatsoever the teacher finda to
do let him do it with all his might, for, as an old couplft
states —

" One thing at a time and that done well*
Is a very good rule as many can tell."

• "Let no one ignorant of niathomatics enter hero."

THE SCIENCE AMD ART OF TEACUIMO.

135

A person can only attend to one thing at a time with all Jyj*"||];';^*
hi8 might, and at one and the same time can only do one {[JJ,****"*"
thing toell. If he attempt to do two things at one time, and
(Uxjs one of them well with all his might, the other must of
necessity be done badly or imperfectly. Therefore, if a
teacher be giving a lesson in geography, let him not mix it
up with algebra, and if giving a lesson in geometry, let him
not "interline it" with a lecture on grammar. While hear-
ing the recitations oi one class, let him not attempt to correct
the exercises of another. So of individuals as of classes.
When giving a lesson in any subject, he should not allow
pupils to internipt him with comj>iaints against their fellows,
or with requests of assistance in other lessons, etc. He
should not tolerate extraneous interference by the members
of other classes, but he may encourage the individual pupils
of the class he is instructing to .ask any questions connected
with the subject. He should not, however, allow them to
ask collateral questions until the close of the lesson. They
should wait on him, not he on them. Were he to permit
individuals to interrupt him during the delivery of his in-
stnictions by asking questions, etc., concerning extraneous
subjects, the attention of his clafs would be arrested, their
chain of thought and his broken, and a large amount of time
squandered to no purpose. When the lesson has been deliv-
ered, he might profitably allow the pupils to question each
other, beginning with the last and ending with the first in
the class — taking care to revise the queries proposed when
necessary.

If the teacher be not systematic in all his school arrange- Not to allow
ments, then frequent interruptions will occur during the tloM^"^
delivery of the respective lessons. On the one side, James
will ask for leave to go out; on the other, little Georgie will
request permission to take a drink ; Minnie will require
some assistance in arithmetic ; Maggie may want to know
the position of some city, town, or river; whilst Philip,

136

A time for
investiga-
ting irregu-
larities.

TUE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACIIINO.

Bggiieved by idle Jobn, immediately cri it for justice
and protection. All this time the teacher must be attending
to thcHe various requehtH and complaints to the neglect of
the lesson (the members of his cIjush gazing listlessly at aich
other) or vice versd; or he must Ih3 attending to both. If
the latter, then he is attempting an impossibility, and is only
half doing his work ; if the former, then he is attending to
the reipiests and neglecting the lesson, or vice versa, and the
class before him, and the children preferring petitions, are
slowly but surely ac<juiring habits of disorder, inattention,
and carelessness. It would bo totally subversive of ^'uo»l
order to attend to the lesson exclusively, and [lennit the
complainants to prefer their petitions unheeded. On the
other liaud, if he allows the interrup* ions, and attends to the
complaints, he must partially neglect the lesson, and tlius
the chain of ideas will be broken, the j)upils will lose all
interest in the subject, and the effect of this "dual work'
will be ruinous to the school. It is in the power of every
teacher to j)ut an end to these unseemly things, and he should
do it. Of course, every one w" admit that there will be
always some interruptions in .rgo school consisting of

pupils of various ages, many of whom were never trained in
habits of ordor and system at home, and are, therefore, heed-
less of these virtues abroad. However, while engaged in
delivering lessons or in hearing recitations, the teacher, as a
rule, should never attend to extraneous requests — never
allow complaints to be made, never inflict punishment, anil
but seldom administer reproof. Then his teachings will be
efiective, prolific of good to his pupUs, and of comfort to
himself.

As he has a time for teaching, during which he should
permit no interruptions, so should he have a time for inves-
tigating irregularities of conduct, for administering reproof
or punishment — a time for receiving complaints, and for
attending to requests, and (as a rule) that time should be

T1IE 8CIIKCK AND ART OF TEACHING.

1S7

ich he should
iime for inves-

during intermission or immediately before its commence-
ment.

MoHt of the negligence, disorder, and insubordination, ^"J*'"
occasionally visible in some schools, may bo tracwd to the commend-
monotonous character of the programme, and the lack of
interest in the respective studies. lie, therefore, will be the
best disciplinarian who can excite and maintain the deepest
interest in the various exercises. It is thus that he. will
wake up mind in the fullest and truest sense of the word.
It would be well, perhaps, if the teacher were occasionally
to introduce a little variety in the respective exercises. This
he can accomplish by means of recitations, special readings,
music — vocal or instrumental — etc. By such means he will
seldom fail to interest the minds of even the most indolent ;
and, in addition, will so engi'oss the attention of the more
unruly as to prevent them being troublesome. These exer-
cises, like David's harp, will seldom fail to expel the spirit
of discord, as they tend to elevate the mind, cultivate the
taste, soothe the ' ssions, and, in addition, are an excellent
recreation.

Now, thanks to the enlightened spirit of the age, music — Music in
vocal or instrumental, or both — is being introduced into all
our public schools. Almost all the superior public schools
are provided with a piano or melodeon. This is specially
true in cities and towns, and the country schools are follow-
ing suite. Many a time has the writer enjoyed the sweet
performances in the public schools of New York, Ohio, and
Illinois. In these schools, one of the pupils plays volunta-
ries whilst the classes are marching to or from their class-
rooms. Everything is done with precision and in silence.
Not a sound is heard on such occasions but the music and
the pupils' measured tread. When the weather is cold,
wet, or boisterous, the respective divisions practice certain
evolutions during intermissions in the hall or class-rooms.
These evolutions are very graceful and becoming, and are
10

138

MiiiUry
education
ia schools.

Quality, not
qaantity.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

sometimes accompanied by patriotic and soul-stirring songs.
The principal, or the first assistant, superintends, and one
of the pupils discourses the music. Such exercises as these
are calculated not only to refine the taste, elevate the affec-
tions, and create a love for the school and its officers, but
likewise to educate citizens and patriots who shall rival the
worthies of ancient Greece and Rome. The pupils of "the
music class" preside at the piano in turn, and, on ordinary
occasions, many of them remain in to practice during recess
— preferring the enjoyments of the school-room to the pleas-
ures of the play-grounds. Music, in fact, is one of the
characteristic recreations of public school life in America.
We would it were so in other countries also. The cost of
the instrument is a mere trifle in comparison with the ben-
efits it confers on the rising generation. It furnishes a
continual feast to the pupils at school, and at home it is the
source of much profitable amusement. Give the young
warblers a chance to speak their thoughts in music.

If convenient, it would be well to put boys through a
course of military drill. No other exercise will be so efiec-
tual an aid in school government. It trains the pupil to
habits of prompt obedience — it predisposes him to observe
the rules and regulations, and, to a certain extent, prepares
his mind to receive durable impressions. In a military and
physiological point of view, it would be wise perhaps to have
all school boys drilled, and trained to the use of arms. Any
country adopting this policy would, in less than fifteen years,
be a nation of citizen soldiers — powerful as a friend, terrible
as an enemy.

In prescribing "home work," or in assigning lessons for
the respective school exercises, teachers should be very care-
ful not to require their pupils to master too large a task —
more than they can well accomplish, allowing sufficient time
for recreation. If the lessons appointed be too lengthy, the
pupils must necessarily learn them superficially — or pos-
sibly they may be induced to give up the task in despair,

THK 8CIBN0B AND ABT OF TEACHING. 139

sad not learn them at all. Such habits, like all others,
would "grow with their growth, and strengthen with their
strength." As a necessary consequence, they would loae
their self-respect, be indifferent about their failures, reckless
in manner, and, perhaps, acquire propensities which would
materially injure their mental and moral character for time
And eternity. In prescribing lessons, the teacher should
consider the minimum capacity of the children, rather than
the maximum — he should appoint too small a lesson, rather
than too large a one. In this respect, as in others, his
motto should be, "quality before quantity."

We have reason to believo that pupils would progress in Preparation
their studies with gi*eater celerity and more uniformity, if H«>ine work.
ihey were to learn their lessons under the immediate super-
vision of thoir teachers. Parents are seldom willing or com-
petent to render much assistance to their children at home.
; fiome, having the inclination to do so, have not the necessary
time ; and others, having the time, are devoid of the ability
or inclination. As a necessary result, many pupils — even
the most industrious, for want of a little aid — are obliged to
|)repare their lessons in a very imi)erfect manner, whilst the
fnajority neglect them altogether. The indolence and care-
lessness of even a few will divert the efforts of the more
industrious, and check the progress of the whole class. But
when the work is done under the teacher's supervision it is
^nerally well done — better done than elsewhere. Pupils
may, with propriety, be required to prepare their lessons in
the easier branches at home ; but lessons in the more diffi-
cult subjects should be studied at school, under the immedi-
[4kte supervision of the teacher. While engaged in this exer-
cise, immobility and perfect silence should be maintained.

The time fixed for the preparation of each lesscm must Perfect
necessarily be limited, and indolent pupils who fail to keep rejS'relil*
|>aee with the rest, should be " kept in" and required to study
during the greater part of the intermissions and, if necessary,
compelled to return and prepare their lessons after school is

140

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHINO.

dismissed, so that they may make good their deficiencies,
and keep pace with the more intelligent and industrious.
Judging by our own experience and that of others whom we
have consulted concerning this subject, we feel assured that
we advance a good and wholesome rule when we say that,
if the exercises be performed in a careless or slovenly man-
ner during school hours, the teacher should have them pro-
perly done after hours, retaining for that purpose (after the
usual time of dismissal) those pupils who may have exhibited
laxity of discipline or application. This privation would be
a disgrace as well as a punishment, and the offenders would
probably soon endeavour to avoid both by attending more
strictly to business ; so that instead of gazing on their books
in a passive listless manner, their minds, aroused to activity
by a sense of duty, would be absorbed in their studies dur-
ing the appointed hours. If a pupil, convicted of indolence
or wilful negligence failed to remain in, or to return to
study his lessons after hours, as instructed, he should be sub-
jected to corporal punishment. If his parents or guardians
object to this arrangement and discipline, the young offender
should be expelled forthwith, so that his example may be a
warning to his companions and save them from similar
errors. The teacher will seldom have occasion to adopt the
latter expedient. He may never have occasion to exercise
such authority; but its possession will have a material effect
on his labours, and will tend to keep youthful feet on the
right path — ^the path of duty and of peace.
The Alter- The carrying out of the foregoing principles, regulations,
nate System. ^^^ suggestions, is not so difficult as may appear at first
sight. For instance, the teacher can give instruction to one
of the classes, sections, or divisions of his school, or hear
them recite, while the remainder would be engaged in the
preparation of their fixed or prescribed lessons or tasks.
During the succeeding hour he could examine or instruct
the latter, and while doing so, could have the former engaged

JO.

r deficiencies,
i industrious,
hers whom we
si assured that
L we say that,
slovenly man-
ave them pro-
pose (after the
aave exhibited
tion would be
fenders would
btending more
3n their books
sed to activity
ir studies dur-
d of indolence
• to return to
should be sub-

or guardians

oung offender

iple may be a

from similar

to adopt the
)n to exercise
naterial effect
J feet on the

, regulations,
>pear at first
uction to one
hool, or hear
gaged in the
>ns or tasks,
or instruct
fmer enj

THE 8CIBNCB AND ART OF TEACHINQ.

141

the work of preparation, and so on alternately, the time

jcupied in the delivery of any lesson not to exceed three-

larters of an hour in length — thirty minutes would be suffl-

jient in the junior classes. This plan has been adopted in

lost of our public schools, and is specially applicable when

sircumstances do not permit trustees to secure the services

a teacher for every class. The system has also been

lopted in tne public schools of the United States, Canada,

issia, Ireland, and in the superior schools of England —

wntries whose inhabitants have been long noted for their

itelligence, prowess, and patriotism. "The Alternate Sys-

jm," as it has been called, is a special feature in the public

lools of Massachusetts — a State whose school system has

mg been a model for America, and the admiration of

stant nations.

Frequent reviews are necessary with every student, but Reviewing

loi-e particularly with the young. Tliey strengthen and ""fi «"'"''««

iprove all the faculties, whilst impressing useful facts on

le tablet of the mind, but if carried to excess they will

reaken the power of attention. "When skilfully conducted,

ley are a source of never-failing interest. One of the most

iccessful teachers now li^dng, once informed us that he

jribed all his success to "grinding;" another, speaking in

le same spirit, at' ributed his "fame in the art" to frequent

jviews and searching private examinations. The teacher

lould know by the manner, voice, and countenance of the

^upil, when he clearly understands, and is master of the

leas advanced. The mind should then be directed to the

oonsideration of some other topic — prompt, active, and unre-

jpaitting attention being required in all cases. The teacher

llhould never indulge in the habit of calling special attention

Jo certain questions or parts of lessons to the exclusion of

lers. Such a practice would weaken and perhaps ulti-

itely destroy the powers of attention. On the whole, we

re inclined to believe that, in the nature of things, no sys-

*p"

142

Loitering,
etc., on the
w)iy to or
from school

Suspension
of privileges

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

tern can be siicceasful without "grinding." Tt will always
be a mighty lever in the hands of a judicious instructor. If
possible, the teacher should revi(;w his work, at lejist once a
month — we allude to the studies of the more advtmced
pupils. The work of the younger children should be re-
viewed once a week. At the close of each lesson the teacher
should call on the members of the respective classes to give
him a summarj'^ of the" facts adduced, (in their own words,)
taking care to arrange them in logical order or natural
sequence. The pupils shouhl 1m3 encouraged to furnish any
pei-sonal incidents or other matters likely to explain or
illustrate any of the subject^s under consideration. He
might profitably devote iive minutes or more to this pur-
pose at the close of each lesson, and at the same time encour-
age the pupils to mention any difficulty which may have
cccui-red to them in connection therewith, or any statement,
etc., which they may have failed to understand or compre-
hend. No pupil should l>e allowed to put questions, or in-
teiTupt the class during the time a lesson is being given,
more especially if th^ subject of his enquiries has nothing to
do with the matter under consideration.

The teacher should prohibit pupils from loitering around
the gates, or on their way to or from school, as such a prac-
tice tends to promote indolence and slovenly habits. Sucli
habits exhibited outside the school have a tendency to im-
press strangers with the idea that discipline is lax inside.
Pupils should be taught to be kind and courteous to their
companions, polite and respectful to their teachers and elders,
" to hurt no person by word or deed, to be true and just in
all their dealings," ever zealous to promote the honour of
the school, and always desirous of deserving a good name.

Suspensions, or total loss of privileges accompanied by con-
finement, is an eflfectual aid in -school government, and in
compelling the observance of all rules and regulations. The
infringement of laws, human or divine, entails punishment j

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 143

id the abuse of privileges shoiikl be followed by their tom-

jrary or permanent Huspenaion. If a pupil be guilty of

iproprietios of conduct, or neglectful of his duties, or if he

lisi-egard the rights cf his fellows, then punishment, in some

)rm, should follow as a necessary consequence. Tlie voice

conscience, the code of right and wrong, should be the

)mmon law of the school ; and parties interested should be

lade to feel that the teachers will, and the pupils must, obey

precepts — that no infringement of its principles will be

3rmitted — that all without exception must conform to its

i«nciations.

Before iiroceeding to consider the uifliction of the minor The Begin-

.,, /» 1 t ration sys-

>r major punishments, we will venture to treat oi the tem.

f** Merit System" and its registration of " credits" — a system

leservedly popular on both sides of the Atlantic. Having

jcarefuUy studied its effects as applied to the Collegiate Schools

[of England and Public Schools of the United States, we

ive no Iiesitation in affirming that in the hands of a skil-

toacher, the registration of merit and demerit marks is a

lost effective medium of good government. It is a most

)werful ally in stirring up the minds of the j)upils — a valu-

)le aid in inciting them to honourable rivalry, to renewed

)plication, to persevering study, so that if possible they may

irpass themselves and each other. This system is carried

it more perfectly in the Upper Canada College (Toronto)

m in any other school or college with which we are per-

>nally acquainted. We will therefore venture to give a

lopsis of the method as practised in that Institution under

le vigorous supervision of its kind and excellent Principal,

it. R. Cockburn, Esq., M.A.

In the Upper Canada College (and similar institutions) the How applied
jlivery, or recitation, of a lesson occupies about forty-five iSge.' ^' ^"^
linutes. The janitor rings the College bell on the expira-
ion of the allotted time, and the students then change
[classes or go out to enjoy "recess," Each master or pro-

144

THE SCIENCE AND ARl OF TEACHING.

feasor teaches his particular subject to all the classes in turn,
and in his own particular room. The classes, it will be
observed, change rooms, but the teacher never does so. Each
master, or teacher, is supplied with a " Daily Register" and a
"Demerit Book." Each of these books contains the names of
all the students in attendance, classified in theii" respective
classes according to the order in which they wait on the
teacher. Before commencing his lesson, or lecture, the master
reads out the names from the "Daily Register," and the
standing (individually) held at the close of last lesson on
the same subject. Each boy takes his place in the order
and position indicated thereby. After this process has been
completed, the teacher commences his lesson, and the pupils,
during its delivery, change places according to the valine of
their answers. A pupil invariably goes above all the pupils
he has corrected. If, perchance, he happens to be third
from the head, and corrects the pupil tenth from the head,
the* question having meantime been passed round to all
below number ten, and to the first and second boys, he
takes the position number nine from the head, and counts
one Round. When the lesson is over, the boy who has most
Rounds, or supposing the number of Rounds equal, the boy
who is nearest the head is ranked one, and the others follow
in rotation according to their standing. The boys who are
idly disposed and desire to keep together, are thus shaken
up, and idle coteries destroyed. By this method no boy can
come out head by a mere chance correction, made perhaps
just before the end of the lesson. When "the lesson is over,"
(i. e., about three minutes before the bell tolls,) he desires
them to "number." In response, the first boy says "one,"
the second "two," and so on to the last. Then the teacher
calls the name of each individual in order, as at the begin-
ning, and as he does so, the party named mentions the num-
ber he holds in the class, and the same is entered opposite
his name in the Register.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

145

)ns the num-

At the end of each month the numbers opposite each Average

■tanding —

individual's name are added up, and the total divided by how found,
the number of lessons he attended during that time. The
quotient indicates his average standing in the class for that
particular month in that subject of study. When the aver-
age places of all have been thus ascertained they are "num-
bered off;" the lowest quotient A^dll be the fii-st in the order
of merit for that class during that month ; the next lowest
will be second ; the nex t third ; and so on to the highest,
which, of course, indicates the last in the order of merit.

On entering the college each pupil is supplied with a neat Private Re-

■r. . T^ T^ , • ,.,,.,, 11. port Book.

Private Keport 13ook, mto which his absolute and Ins average

standing in each class (and also his absolute and his average
for all the classes united) is copied every month by the res-
jjective masters ; by whom also, remarks are recorded oppo-
site each suVject, stating whether the pu})il is pi-ogressing
satisfactorily or otherwise, The total number of pupils in
each class is also stated, so that the efficiency and progress
of each boy can be seen at a glance. The demerit marks
accorded, the fines, penalties and punishments inflicted, and
sometimes the offences committed, are also recorded ; so that
teachers and friends may judge of a boy's character, whether
good, bad, or indifferent, by this barometer of conduct. These
reports are made out and entered in the Pupil's Private Re-
port Book on the last school day in each month — after which
the said Report Book is forwarded to the parents or guard-
ians for inspection. Should they reside at a distance, the
principal sends them a copy by mail of their son's " Report"
as exhibited in the Report Book, and retains the latter until
the close of the session. In this way the parents and guard-
ians receive a " monthly reminder" of the capacities of their
children and of the progress made; and the pupils, from
love of parents or other motives, take a pride in study, so
that they may attain a higher position and, if possible, ob-
tain a better report each month. On the whole, we are in-

146

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Tho Demerit
nook.

clined to believe that the foregoing is a most excellent plan
for exciting an honest and praiseworthy emulation.

The Demerit Book is used for recording any breach of dis-
cipline, any acts of insubordination, negligence, etc., with
the kind and degree of punishment inflicted. A sepjuute
book is sometimes kept for recortling the Litter items. In
all such institutions corporal punishments are inflicted by
the principal alone, or with his approval, and only for the
graver and higher offences, such as obstinacy and insubor-
dination. Pupils guilty of any of the minor offences, are
punished (at the discretion of the teacher in charge) by
allotting additional lessons, or by " the imposition of demerit
marks, or the dei)rivation of some privilege." The demerit
marks are entered in the Demerit Book opposite the
offender's namoj also, the date and nature of liis offence.
On the last school diiy of each month these marks are
summed up and added to his " sum of averages," — which is,
of course, a very severe punishment, as it removes, or rather
degrades, him so many places in the relative order of merit
in his class. As "1" is the highest number a pupil can get
in his class, it follows- that he who has " the smallest total
will have the greatest merit." Generally speaking, boys
would prefer any amount of corporal punishment to this
moral one. The application of a moral punishment is not
unfrequently found to be conducive of more good, individu-
ally and collectively, than either "public or private flogging."
A teacher should be judicious and sparing in awarding merit
(or demerit) marks. To be lavish of them would decrease
their value and lessen their effect.

The following is a good method of keeping a school record.

registration. Some may prefer it to the foregoing, especially if the classes

are very large and the teachers too few in number, as in

most of our common or public schools. The former system

is the more exact, the latter the less laborious on the

American
system of

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

147

e, etc., with

teacher.* Let the number "5" be adopted as the maxi-
mum standard of perfection for a recitation, or for u (lay's
dei>ortment. Sbovkl the pupil recite lessons in a subject
every day, he will (if able to answer all questions jx^rfectly)
obtain 25 marks for that subject every week, or 100 every
month — there being five days in the school week, and
about twenty in the school month. [It simplities the
work to regard each week as a unit of time complete in
itself — four such weeks to make a school month.] Should
a class recite in a subject only twice a week, then "40"
will be the maximum for the month in that subject.
The principle of the system is unaffected by the number of
recitations. His own convenience, the necessities of the
school, and the requii^ements of the law, must gidde the
teacher as regards the frequency of recitations in any
particular subject or number of subjects.

At the close of each month the marks obtained in the Monthly
several subjects should be added up, and the result placed Honour,
in the margin under the heading "monthly summary."
From this summary, or rather from the aggregate arising
from the addition of the several summaries, a monthly " roll
of honour" should be prepared — the order of sequence of the
pupils' names coiTespondiiig with their order of merit, as
indicated by the ftiaximum of marks. This "roll of honour"
should be placed in a neat frame, to be provided by the
school board, and hung up in the school, until replaced by
the "roU" for the succeeding month. As in the preceding
system, the average standing may be found by dividing the
maximum of marks by the number of liBssons the pupil has
attended. This is done in U. G. College, and in each suc-
ceeding roll of honour the ranks previously obtained are also

* For specimens of both systems see Appendix. The samples of the mode of
registration of merit marks, etc., in U. C. College, furnished us through the kind-
ness of the principal, have been copieddirectly from the books of that institution.
The samples of the second method have been taken from the "Record Books" of
Clifton School, Niagara Falls. Ibey, therefore, have the advantage of being the
exponents of actual practice.

148

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING.

Valufl nt
niarkii and
time of
futrj.

A word to
trustees.

recorded along-mde the name of the pupil, ho tliat the Form
Master may jiulge by a ghince at the lifit whether a pupil ia
rising or falling in his class.

The record of scholarship should he entere<l at the close
of each lesson — a jwjrfect recitation (as aforesaid) being
and a total failure "0" or "#"— the inte^

"5."

marked

vening numbers l)eing awarded according to the tlegree of
intermediate meiit. Before the close of each day the roll of
deportment and attendance should be called. If a pupil liaa
conducted himself to the teacher's satisfaction — not requiring
or receiving admonition, reproof, or other punishment — ho
will be entitled to a record of "5," and will answer accord-
ingly. The number "10" is taken as the maximum of merit
for a recitation in some of the public schools in Philadelphia,
whilst "5" has been adopted as the maximum in most of
the schools in the cities of Now York and Boston. Any
number may l)e used, but we believe that, in practice, ** 5"
will be found most convenient.

Of late years wo have seen the "registration system" prac-
tised in schools of every grade, and invariably found that it
worked well in all. It is popular with the pupils and well
received by intelligent parents, wheresoever adopted. Unfor-
tunately, veiy few teachers give registration a fair trial, very
few receive it with favour, feeling that it entails a large
amount of additional labour for which, under present arrange-
ments, they would receive no additional remuneration. The
system does, undoubtedly, entaU much additional labour j
and the managing officers of schools would find it to the
advantage of their several communities were they less nig-
gardly in money matters. The teacher cannot be expected
to make himself the "scape-goat" of the community, or to
perform extra work without extra pay. "Good teachers,"
as a learned writer remarks, "cannot be paid too highly,"
and, "if trustees want good hands," they must give good hire.
"We have no doubt, judging by our own knowledge of the
foregoing system, and the observations made by us of its

THB 8CIEMCE AND ART OP TEACH 1 NO.

14»

ifuccosflful working in Europe and America, that it will

Iffradually be introduced and finally prevail in all our schoolg.

Oregon, cpiite a new State, has inserted an article in its Brhooiuw

constitution providing for the registration of progress, etc.,

[of pupils of the public schools ; and another, prohibiting any

[person from assuming the office of teacher who l»as not a

diploma from the State Normal School, or a certificate from

the Board of Public Instruction. In these respects she has

set a worthy example, not cmly to her sister States, but to

the proud and boastful countries of Europe.

CHAPTEU V.
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT.

ChiMren will naturally practice such habits as are associ- Effects of
itcd with pleasure, whilst they will soon learn to avoid such pleasure or
I as are followed by immediate or even prospf^tive pain,
t Punishment will, therefore, be more intelligible and effec-
tive with young children, if it be immediately and unifonnly
associated witj, actions from which we wish them to refrain.
The same principle holds good in the use of rewards. By
[associating pleasure or pain with certain actions, habits may
[be formed long before reason can be sufficiently developed
[to be used as a means of government. We should make
[reason our friend and ally as soon as possible. Otherwise,
[it may become an enemy. As pointed out elsewhere, it is
'natural ^r children to dislike everyone, and everything,
that gives or causes them pain, and equally natural that
[they should like all that gives them pleasure. To secure
tand retain their affection, the teacher or parent must respect
[his own authority, be consistent in its exercise, and particu-
larly careful not to enforce it in a fretful, peevish, or ungen-

150

THE 8C1ESCE AND 4RT OP TEACHIlfO.

Nkturalcon
Mqu«nc(!t.

Obedience,
and buw tu
■ccure it.

erous manner. The little sufTerer will then attribute hit
pain to his offence, and regjird it aa the natural consequeooi
of his own conduct, instead of associating it with the penon
of his just, but generous ruler.

He will, unconsciously, perhaps, reason on the philosophy
of natural consequences, and gradually learn, by experience,
that trust and confidence are the rewanl of sincerity and
truth, that all the useful virtues give birth to esteem, that
the heroic virtues command sympathy and admiration, and
that th(5 amiable virtues engender affection and foster love
Good and bad actions should l>e referred to their proper
source, and receive their due raced of praise, censure, or
pain, without unnecessary delay; and a repetition of an
offence should, on detection, be inevitably followed by i|
repetition of the punisliment.

The virtue of obedience should be taught as a habit, inag- j
much as we expect it from children long before they arf!
capable of yicaling it on rational grounds. The beat way
to secure it is, at first, to command children to do agreeable j
things, then those which are less agreeable, and so on to tbt
repugnant. They will thus by degrees become accustomed
to the habit, and then the observance of disagreeable orden
will not be so difficult. Frequent prohibitions, and contra
dictorv commands, promote disobedience, peevishness, and
other .nfirmities of disposition. The voice of command
should be gentle, but decided. However disagreeable an
order may be, the pupil must regard prompt obedience asan |
imperative necessity. Authority is placed in jeopardy by
giving a command without enforcing it; and, if we conde-
scend to entreat compliance, we abdicate our functions, and |
give the child the impression that ho may I'efuse if so dis-
posed. Before giving commands we should be sure that the i
child is able to obey them, and, in case of refusal, that we
are able to compel him. If we are not exact in requiring
prompt obedieuoe, we .will never succeed in. obtaining it.

TBI ICIKNCB AND ART Of TXACniHO.

101

|We should endeavour to lead our pupils to perceive that we
[irish to promote their welfare nnd happinesA, and that obedL
iixco to our commands will facilitate, if it does not ensure,
Ithis object. If children entei*tain a love of glory — and many
)f them do — the courage and fortitude, which would other-
rise have a tendency to degenerate to obstinacy, may be
huire<l and extolled ; for they will imj)el their possessors
|io travel in the path of honour. The love of glory enlarges
[the understanding, transforms obstinacy into magnanimity,
ind strengthens every noble feeling of the heart. It ia,
lorefore, a worthy ally in educational work.

The teacher may bo regarded as the common parent for The Father
th»» time being, of all the children under his charge, and is mhool.
justified in treating them in every respect as if they were
illy his own. His responsibility is, however, much greater
lan that of any individual parent — his " collective family "
iiiig much larger than that of any " home circle." There
scarcely a domestic circle in the land in which " the head
)f the house " (notwithstanding his moral influence and other
irentiil advantages) has not more than once deemed it his
luty to inflict corporal punishment on some member of his
imily. This he did with the view of reforming the " little
ilprit," and for the sake of example ; hoping thereby to
leter his other children from committing similar offences.
?he teacher, for identical reasons, uses similar means to pro-
luce like results, being the parents' substitute, or locum
lens, in all educational matters.

The abolition or continuance of corporal punishment in coiicerning
)ur schools, is a subject which has been discussed with much pu'^ishment.
iterest throughout the length and breadth of the land ; and,
mge to say, it is a question on which the greatest teach.
&rs and most learned men of the age have taken opposite
iews. Some of the States — New Jersey, for instance —
>assed laws prohibiting corporal punishment in the public
jhools ; but ere many months elapsed, the respective legis'

152 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

latures had to repeal these enactments, "the moral snaaion
system" not having been successful in winning "little offend-
ers" to a right sense of duty. Events proved that a middle
course was best — that corpoi*al punishment should not be
abolished, but that it should be resorted to as seldom as pos-
sible ; only when all other means had been tried and found
to fail. Efficient school government is not a tyranny. It
is an arrangement for the public good, placing the teacher
temporarily in the position of parent to each and ail under
his tuition — to children not his own. This arrangoment.
made by the common consent of parents and guardians, has
been founded upon the experience of ages past, not for the
teacher's special convenience, but for the pupils* public and
private welfare.

Objects of
punishment

Section 1. THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS.

The "minor punishments" are frequently and thought
lessly used and abused by both parents and teachers. We !
will therefore take the liberty of considering them before
proceeding to treat of the infliction of corporal correction.
This is regarded by the vulgar as the "major punishment,
but we believe that children of a refined nature will fre-l
quently regard it as "a misfortune" far more easily borae
than any of the minor or moral punishments. Reformation
of the culprit, and the detention of others from committing |
like offences, are the principal objects in view, when we b
flict punishment of any kind. When these objects are|
united, the motive for punishment is doubly just and proper.
Legitimgte authority, having praiseworthy objects in view,
has an unquestionable right to inflict legitimate punishments I
to accomplish legitimate ends. It is so with civil and mili-
tary governments, in every country on earth. It is so in
the private family, and should be so in the public school.
No punishment, not proper nor legitimate, should be inflicted |

THE SCIBNOK AKD ART OF TEACHING.

153

on any pupil : no unseemly or disagreeable epithets should
be applied to him. As Mr. Page well observes, " he should

I never be scolded or abused, never be struck with the hand,
and never subjected to any punishment partaking of the
nature of prolonged torture. The teacher must avoid the
appearance of inflicting punishment as if it were a pleasing
duty — as if he were glad of having the opportunity of
paying the pupils off for some real or imaginary crime.
He should administer it with regret and sorrow, and in obe-

[dience to thu claims of justice. Punishment should be ad-
ministered in love, and because the little sufferer is belovu .
otherwise the teacher would be a tyrant, and the pu iii a

I martyr.

If we express censure or indignation, it should be against cemnre

[the c;iild's fault not against himself; and even then it should *" *"'
never pass the bounds of exact justice. Should it do so, the
little culprit will command the sympathies of his school fel-
lows. It is not advisable to punish or censure a whole class
or division at once, as numbors keep each other in counten-
ance, and, to a certain extent, modify the shame of guilt.

Solitary confinement, in a properly lighted and well venti- Solitary con.

[lated room, is one of the most commendable of the minor
punishments. It affords time for reflection, and, if exclusive
and effective, will seldom fail to produce repentance, contri-
tion, and reformation. It will, therefore, be found an import-

[ant aid in preventing the repetition of offences, as it will
eradicate or stem the evil at its source. But to be successful,

jit must be effective — it must be really solitary, and the
offenders must have no means of communication during its

Icontinuance. In school the confinement must necessarily be
limited, but at home it may be prolonged if necessary. In

[the former case, the refractory pupils will feel that should

[they " hold out " a certain length of time, they must be

liberated unconditionally. It would be better that they

fShould never be confined than that this should occur. How-
11

164

Admonition
And advice.

Ridicule and
Sieproach.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

ever, they might be required to attend school on Saturdays,
or other holidays, to undergo this punishment. In the
nature of things, solitary confinement is better adapted for
domestic discipline than for school government. We cannot,
therefore, recommend its general application.

In the event of a pupil being condemned to "solitary con-
finement," the teacher, when releasing him at the close of
the allotted time, should administer a " proper dose " of kind
reproof, showing the guilty one how his conduct appears in
its various phases — leading him to " see himself as otljers
see him "- —after which he may give him some good and I
friendly advice as regards the future. The skilful teacher
will seldom find this course to fail, even with the most obdu-
rate, and will probably have the satisfaction of feeling, ere I
many weeks elapse, that he has converted another " prodi- 1
gal." Advice is better received in private than in public. I
"Were reproof administered to a pupil publicly, a spirit of I
obstinacy might be developed in him, the manifestation of I
which would be anything but agreeable or edifying. Human I
nature is weak at best, and inclined to be rebellious on such I
occasions — more especially if the reason and judgment be I
not well developed. For this cause, if for no other, reproofl
(like advice) should always be administered in private, unl
less the offence be a very grave one. The kind considera i
tion exhibited in respecting the offender's feelings so far aal
not to expose him in the presence of his companions, willl
tend to open his heart to receive better impressions, andi
may possibly stamp on his conscience the seal of contritii ,
besides increasing his affection for the teacher personally.

Ridicule and reproach are objectionable as aids in schooll
management. The former tends to loosen the ties betweeil
the teacher and the taught ; and the latter, though not quitel
so objectionable, has much the same effect. Both should m
avoided. They generally fall on the awkward, innocentj
and over-sensitive pupils, whilst the idle and vicious, haviii

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

155

no reputation to forfeit, are quite indifferent or insensible to
tJieir application or effect. The unskilful use of either
reproach or ridicule could not fail to destroy the harmony
and mutual affection which exists between the pupils and
teacher of every well-regulated school. It would annoy and
degrade one section of the pupils, whilst it unduly elevated
the other. Besides, it would foster a tendency in the latter
to ref'ard themselves as much better individuals than the
former. In fact, it is wrong to sneer at pupils, and not pru-
dent to rail at them, or to work much on their feelings. On
the whole, it must be apparent to every reflecting mind
(particularly to every experienced teacher) that reproach and
ridicule are extremely dangerous as school punishments, if
not wholly pernicious or reprehensible.

Humiliation, as a means of school discipline — though a Humniatiou
legitimate punishment — should be used, if resorted to, with
[much caution and extreme delicacy. If not skilfully used,
it might possibly produce the same effects as ridicule, and be
followed by disobedience and rebellion. Before resorting to
it, therefore, the teacher should be careful to satisfy himself
that it is requisite. Sometimes the public confession of an
[error or offence, may be absolutely necessary ; and when

lade it should be accompanied with a request for forgive-
less. To condone the offence, this confession should spring

rom a contrite heart. The confessor should be really peni-

mt — really sincere ; for, as Blair well observes, " sincerity
the b us of every virtue .... Ingenuousness and

mdour possess the most ^lowerful charms, and carry an
ipology for almost every failing." The teacher should

Iways encourage his pupils to frankly acknowledge their
(rffences, commending them to pursue the wisest, best, and

lost gentlemanly policy under the circumstances, namely —
ike a free confession with a suitable apology. If they confess

leir offences, regret their occurrence, and resolve not to be

lilty of such conduct in future, the teacher may with pro-

156

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

"Quickness
of apprehen-
sion ' in
childrq^

Courtesy to
juveniles.

Children not
to be re-
buked in
auger.

priety overlook the past, and agree to receive them into favour
again. Should the ** little culprits " fail to do (or decline to
do) these things, and that the offence is a grave one, the
teacher being morally bound to investigate the case, will be
legally (and naturally) justified in using every legitimate
means, even corporal punishment, to bring about the desired
reformation.

"Grown persons often make an incorrect estimate of the
understanding of children, and judge them by what they
know, rather than by their capacity of comprehension."
Their knowledge is "veiy limited," but their power of com-
prehension is very great. They are close observers in small
things, and can draw correct inferences from few and insig-
nificant actions. People often wonder at the grotesque
mixture of wisdom and folly in the sayings and doings of
some "solitary little one," whose old-fashioned ways indicate
its inexperience and want of genial companionship. Its
sayings are foolish, from comparative ignorance; and wise,
from quickness of apprehension. It behoves the educator
to train and develop the latter faculty, so as neither to de-
press, repress, or over-exert it. Like all other faculties it
should be duly exercised, not prematurely forced. No
human being can overstep with impunity the intellectual
boundaries fixed by Nature.

Juvenile inquisitiveness is a natural thirst for knowledge,
and should, therefore, be encouraged rather than discoun-
tenanced. The pupil should not be ridiculed, or laughed at,
if he fail to convey his ideas in suitable or intelligible lan-
guage. Rather let him be requested to put his question in
other words, so that the teacher, if possible, may discover
his meaning. This being done, let the teacher courteously
furnish the required information, taking care to use words
suitable to the child's capacity.

No teacher should forget himself so far as to lose his tem-
per, or to become what children call a "scold." It is very

' i

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

157

objectionable to chide pupils frequently or passionately —
such " indulgence" would certainly lessen the teacher's au-
thority, and diminish the pupils' resi)ect for his person. If
they have violated, or infringed on, any of the rules, a few
words representing the reprehensible nature of their offence,
spoken in a kind and sober tone, with coolness, courtesy,
and becoming dignity, will be far more effective in producing
sorrow and amendment than many hasty rebukes or sundry
angry allusions. In fact, the teacher who would command
respact and professional success, must diligently study the
temper, disposition, and character of his pupils individually,
and fill them, " not so much with learning as with a desire
to learn," — not so much with the fear of punishment as with
the desire not to offend.

H e must lead them to di sc over at an early age that virtue The end of
ancTwLsdom a re the g reat ob j ects of a ll learning — " that jhe * "**
end oi education (as Milton affirms) is to repair the rjumpf
Eden by regaining to know God aright ;" and that the more
they advance 3.. j[gai,r^jig,, the nearer they approach to Hmi
who IS the fountain of all kiiowled<;e.

■■■••-, ... - «^ •- -.. .JUL

People naturatty love liberty, and dislike anything that How to
tends to curtail their privileges. So is it with children. By pieaaant
nature they have an antipathy towards the performance of
compulsory duties, and have an aversion for anything en-
joined as a task, particularly if it tends to limit their pleas-
ures, or control their freedom. The skilful teacher will
therefore induce them to perform their various duties with-
out giving them reason to feel, or even suspect, that they
are in the harness of restraint, and must be obedient to the
whip of compulsion. He may even succeed in creating in
some of them, if not in all, a desire to be taught for the sake
of the honour, delight, and recreation the information may
afford ; but, if possible, he will never allow them to suspect
that the acquisition of any subject, or part of a subject, is
imposed as a compulsory task. The moment he does so, its

I- ..J i

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:i u

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W:.

158

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING.

Natural teu-
dencies of
children.

Personal re-
criminations
not to be
jtounten-
auced.

Study will be shorn of its attractions, and may be regarded
as "a punishment rather than a pleasure."

Children love dominion, and take much delight in exaiJt-
ing obedience to their will. During infancy this tendency
displays itself in frequent fits of crying, and in "unreason-
able peevishness ;" in boyhood, the presence of the " disease"
is indicated chiefly by sullenness of temper, or the desire of
personal acquisition — a longing to have "things as their
own." This love of power and inordinate possession, being
the foundation of many evils, and the roots of contention
and injustice, must be promptly rebuked, and, if pcv-ssible,
extracted from the system. If children strive together for
the mastery, as often happens, and the case be duly reported
to the teacher, he should, as a rule, give judgment against
the originators of the strife, calling attention to the spirit of
the Saviour's words — "Whosoever would be chief among
you, let him be your servant."

Though it be necessary for the teacher to curb- the insolent
and unruly, and to check ill-nature, yet, as a rule, it would
not be prudent of him to countenance the accusations or
informations of pupils against each other. Such charges are
generally the result of anger, envy, or malice — feelings which
need repression, not development. However, if on investi-
gation, he finds the accused " guilty," he would do well to
reprove him in private, and if possible induce him (1st) to
solicit pardon from, and (2nd) make reparation to, the injured
party — both to be done as if the offender were acting of his
own free will. Such a course will make the apology more
easy to the one and more acceptable to the other, whilst it
mutually engenders and promo\;es feelings of good nature,
civility, courtesy, and respect. In well-regulated homes,
children never get what they cry for. or basely ask. Of
course their necessities are supplied, but the desires of pas-
sion or fancy are firmly denied : so should it be in every
well-ordered school. Pupils should be taught, so far as pos-

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

159

Bible, to practice the virtues of resignation, submission, mod- ^f**,]*,^^'*^*
esty, and self-denial, so that they may cheerfully " bear and vi^uer
forbear," cordially sympathizing with each other in every
little trial and difficulty incident to ** school-life," being ever
ready to assist each other — ever willing to divide and share
their little stock of delicacies or curiosities.

Faults arising from inadvertency, mental weakness, for- Certain
cetfulness, unsteadiness, and absence of mind — when not ings to be

° . , ,.1.11 trt'jitcd with

wilful — may be treated with some little indulgence, more indulgence,
especially if the pupil be dull of comprehension or percep-
tion. Probably the best way to correct such errors, or irregu-
larities, is to recognize them as constitutional, but conquer-
able misfortunes, whose subjugation will require continued
effijrts on the part of the pupil, and continued tenderness and
good-will on the part of the teacher. Tlie influence of mu-
tual affection will be almost sure to sharpen the intellect of
the pupil, opening and expanding his mind, so th.at he may
do his duty faithfully and well. Without this incentive to
action (as Locke truly observes) "there would probably be
much uneasiness, and but little learning."

'■I

■I

Hi 4

n 1

Section 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.

The greatest happiness and \ Jtimate good of the whole, Object of

. pumshnicnt.

should be the chief objects of school government. The pun-
ishment of the few is not only to be tolerated but com-
mended, when it is necessary for the public or general good,
more especially when there is reasonable hope that its in-
fliction will reform the ofiendei", and deter others. The least
possible amount o^ pain which can produce the desired effect,
is the just measure of punishment ; and the best system of
government is that which reduces to a minimum the temp-
tation to do wrong.

Children favoured with reasonable and affectionate parents shame as a
are under judicious discipline at home, and, as a necessary ^""''' "'''" '

■M

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160

)rpo:
pUDiahmeut
Juititlabla.

THE 8C1KNCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

consequence, tbey will seldoni nwjd punishment at school.
Intelligent and well-disposed |>upils require little restraint.
Shame is a more powerful feeling than that arising from
bodily pain. Hence the advisability of leading children to
perceive that it is shameful to need government by force.

Many educational writers seem to think (with certain
legislators) that the use of " the rod of correction" is incon-
sistent with the spirit and progress of this enlightened age-
They affect to regard coi-poral punishment as a relic of bar-
barism, and as a crime against juvenile humanity. On en-
quiry it will generally be found that these writers have never
been practical teachers, and have never raised a family of
their own. The theories of such kind-hearted gentlemen
are seldom founded on experience, and (we regret to say)
will not stand the stern test of practice. In teaching, as in
other things, we must take human nature as it is — as we
find it, and not as we hope it may be some centuries hence.
Guided by the experience of mankind, we must deduce our
' inferences from general principles and actual experiment. It
would be folly to draw our conclusions from (or to found a
theory 07i) isolated cases of j)ermanent success, as the result
of mere moral suasion. The oldest book in the world de-
clares with divine authority, that " He who spareth his rod
hateth his son ; but he that loveth him chasteneth him be-
times."* "Chasten thy son," says Solomon, "while there is
hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying, . . . for
if thou deliver him thou must do it again."t " Foolishness
is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of correction
shall drive it far from him."| " Correct thy son and he
shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto thy
80ul."§ While extracting these precepts, our mind reverts
to the writings of a sage of an a,nterior age. We remember
that it is recorded in the first book of Samuel, that God

*Prov. xiii. 24. fProv. xix. 18-19. JProv. xxii. 15. jProv. xxix. 17.

THl BriENOE AKD ART OF TEACHING.

161

Himself punished a certain parent, and pronounced a fearful
doom against his posterity, because he neglected his duty in
this respect. We allude to Eli, Judge of Israel. When
informed of the evil deeds of Hophni and Phineas, the soft-
hearted old man (believing, doubtless, in the omnipotence of
moral suasion), merely pointed out the enormity of their
offence, hoping probably that they would repent and reform ;
but he did not inflict any tangible degradation or punish-
ment, or take any steps to produce contrition or reformations
and for these reasons the Loi-d declare<l that both his sons
should die in one day — that his pnesthood should be given
to another, and that all his posterity should die in the flower
of their age.* What a dreadful punishment of the old
man's apathy, and of his weakness in neglecting to " train
up his children in the way they should golf Well might
Solomon say : " Withhold not correction from thy child,
for if thou beatest him with the rod of correction he shall
not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod and deliver hit
soul from hell." J And to the young he says in another
place : " Apply thy heart unto instruction and thine ears
unto the words of knowledge. "§ " Hear counsel and receive
instruction, that thou mayest be wise in thy latter end."|j
These precepts give a divine sanction to the judicious appli-
cation of corporal punishment — to the discreet use of the
rod, and not only invest the parent with the necessary
authority, but absolutely require him to exercise it eflici-
ently ; and, moreover, the practice of all nations, ancient
and modern, barbarous and civilized, seems to indicate that
such a right has always been recognized by mankind gene-
rally.

In the early ages of the world, parents were the principal ^'®ubi^°
(and in most cases the sole) teachers of their own children, schools.
Every father had to instruct his sons in the arts of peace

•1 Sam. ii 22-36. fProv. xxii 6. J Prov. xxiii. 13-14. §Prov. xxiii. 12.

II Prov. xix. 20.

■ Hii

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162

TIjc teach-
er's vAtm-
missiun.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

and war, ro that he was tutor, chaplain, judge, and 'uilitary
commander — all in one. In like manner, the mother had
to teach her dau'^htere tlie arts of domestic life, attending
aldo to the education of her sons during their younger years.
But, as ci/ilizition advanced, the arts of life b» oume more
numeix)UH and complex, so that domestic or public obligations
compelled parents to delegate th«'ir educational duties and
privilegtMi to another, who thus b^'came the locum lenenn of
the jMirent. Then, after the la])se of yeai^s, another change
took place, as men became conscious of the advaitages to be
denved from "a division of labour." A number of families
residing in the same locality made an*angements to transfer
the education of their childi'en to one such officer — tliinking,
doubtic»s, that this plan would be more economical than for
each to keep a private tutor. This officer, ♦^bi-ough "imme-
morial custom," and by virtue of his election, became the
common parent (so to speak) of all thr pupils entrusted to
liLs charge — bein: uthorized to treat them ii every re8i>ect
SiH if they wer- ioally his own. Probably it was thus
public schools tirst originated ; and. in thi^ wa\ , instead of
every parent in a town or district l)eing of necessity com-
pelled as of old to assum.^ the office of private teacher to his
own family — thereby neglecting other duties — a common
tutor was (and is) appointed to repres( nt them all, who, by
reason of his special training and experience, is far more
skilful as an educator than each individual parent (or pri-
vate tutor) could possibly be.

In the present age, the teacher is not only recognized as
the legal representative of the i)ai*ents in n\\ scholastic mat-
ters, but is likewise considered as endowed with full parental
powers while i i the school-room. Public opinion supports
his influence, and the laws confirm his authority. Indeed,
it seems to be tacitly understood, if not genemlly conceded,
that "the teacher, in the school -room, stands in the parents'
shoes." Let him, therefore, make the most of the position

TlIS SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACDIKO.

163

accorded him by the Inw, bj public opinion, aiid by imme-
morial uHRgo, alwayR acting towanls "the litrle ones" m ii
they were really his own — jurlicioiiHly and dincreetly exer-
cising his del«j»at«d authority according to his 8U|>orior
judgment, and '"the light that iH iu hiui;" not sci upling to
inflict even corpuml punishment when he considers it nw^s-
sary, and conscientiously believes that, under Nimilur circum-
stances, an i telligent and pr 'lont paren t would do likewise.
"Tendermss is a very requisite quality iu an insti-uctor,
yet there is often the truest tendtrness in well-tiun d cor-
rection," *

The teacher should be careful never to threaten his pupils, Ti-aciiem
more especially if he is not prepaicd to carry his threats into uinnUsn
execution. If a boy be innocent, no on- has a right to *"*'
tlireaU;n him ; if guilty, justice oi' gootl example call for his
punishment. The ruU'V who continually threatens his sub-
jects, will gi-adujilly alienate their aflections, and ultimately
l>e "favonred" with their hatred and contempt. They will
hate his person, scoft'at his words, n^ale his actions, and at
last rise in rebellion and deprive him of ix>wer if not of
his head. He who strikes without previous threats, is the
man whom people honour and obe . An old proverb tells
us that "the dog which barks the loudest is not the quickest
dog to bite." Children acquire a knowledge of this fact an
if by instinct, and soon learn that the loudest juid greatest
talker is usually the weakest and smallest actor — that the
firmness and decision of a man of many words are contined
to his tongue. They feel that he does nof really mean what
he says, and, if they do not actually leai-n to despise their
mler, they, at least, acquire the habit of listening with
indifference to his words. Parents and teach nrs who under-
stand human nature, 'will never tLi"eaten children. If a
grave offence be committe^i, and the teacher is of opinion

' i

• Goldsmith.

1C4 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO.

that I he imposition of a certain taKk — say "double home
work," so many hnn(lre<l liu» «, 1oh« of privileges for a term,
or confinement, followed by a^lmonition or advice, etc. —
would be ineffectual in protlueing reformation, then let him
reHort to corj>oral puniHhmcnt without "scolding" or previous
threatfl. The teacher must never "give in to disobedience
or wilful neglect."
nUhment Corjwral punishment shouM be inflicted in the presence
I ^ t".',"!*'*' of the whole Hchool, and in as solemn a mann(;r as i)OSsible.

ed publicly. ' '

When infiictetl publicly, it tends not only to reform the
offender, but deters others from committing similar offences.
When inflicted privately, its example is lost to the school,
and the disgrace to the sufferer is not lessened. Inflicted
publicly in a proper manner, with a right spirit, and for
sufficient cause, its effects on the school will be lasting and
salutary. The degree of severity cannot bo exaggerated to
parents and guardians, nor ridiculed and "made light of" to
school-fellows and other associates. The teacher cannot be
misrepresented ; nothing can be mis-stated, or erroneously
repoi-ted, as dozens of anxious eyes will witness its applica-
tion, dozens of attentive ears will listen to the investigation,
and dozens of expanding minds will moralize on the relations
between cause and effect. If thi^ punishment were admin-
istered in private, (in a room where there would be no wit-
ness,) its example would be lost, and the teacher might be
misrepresented, and the degi*ee of seventy erroneously re-
ported. Punishment should be inflicted as early in the day
as may be convenient, and, as a rule, it should never be
administered during the last hour of the school .session.

The teacher can scarcely expect prompt obedience from
ail his pupils (on taking charge of a school). He must
first win their love or affectionate regard ; and this he can-
not do in a day, a week, or perhaps in a month. Without
a will of his own, and an affectionate, straight-forward, gen-
tlemanly manner, concuri*ent with an unalterable tenacity

To establish
authority bj
force, if
necessary.

mmmmmm

iHPiiPMpm

"""■^

UPPippi"

THB SCreKCl AITO ART Of TEACH IlfO.

165

of purpose, h« will uiver win their esteem ; and, without
enjoying their esteem, he cannot Kccure their love. What,
then, in he to «l«? Should he allow fiome of them, denirouii
of being trouV)leHonie, to run riot for weekH or months, and
thus set ft f-emicious example to the remainder, whilst he —
endeavourmg to convert them by softer means— declines to
PHtablish his authority by force 1 Were he to do so, he
would never win their affection, and never succeed in ruling
by love, by reason, or persuasion. No half measures ever
succeed in such coses — "he feara to strike," would be the
motto «>f all. Things would go on from bad to worse; "the
gickly sheep would infect the flock," and, as a last and only
i-esource, a new physician would be invited to attend to the
case, and the old one paid off. If the pui)il8 abuse their
freedom, and disi-egard or disrc^jiect the immortal principles
of law and order, the teacher must act promptly, and do as
governments do in extreme cases — "suspend the constitu-
tion, and rule by martial law." A ruler, abolishing fines,
prisons, penal servitude, and cai)ital punishment, would soon
have no country to rule, ;io servants to obey him, no friends
to love him — all would be confusion, riot, and bloodshed ;
so of a teacher who, on failing to establish his authority by
reason and love, would decline to do so by force. At the
very first, the teacher must establish habits of order and
implicit obedience at any cost. When this has been done,
he will have to resort but seldom to the rod of correction.
Habits of order and obedience being promulgated and firmly
established, his appeals to higher motives than fear or force
will seldom fail. He can thenceforth rule by the power of
reciprocal affection, and rely for success on the finer feelings
of human nature. These will carry conviction to the con-
science through the avenues of the heart, and the pupils can
then be easily led to exercise their mental faculties under
the teacher's supervision, even as they would exercise their
physical powers without his instructions; for activity of

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, I

}

[fpl

166

PnnlBhinent
to be iimde
effectual.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

mind is as natural to them as activity of body. Both need
direction and exercise. Good government is essential Co
progress, and it can he maintjiiiied only through "eteViial
vigilance." "Aimez Jes enfants," says Archbishop Fonelon,
"n'oubliez rien pour en etre aira6. La crainte est ndcessairo
quand I'aniour man<|ue ; mais il hi faut toujours employer
b, rcgi-et, omme les remedes violents et les plus dangereux."
Corporal punishment is the last resource, and, when used,
its application should be made effectual. Tlie punishment
should be continued until the offender is thoroughly sub-
dued; otherwise its application will only "make bad worse."
The roil should be used only when absolutely necessary, and
when other means have failed or would be likely to fail.
Slight offences should not be followed by a slight ap})lication
of the rod ; nor should the teacher be so deficient in wisdom
and good taste as to keep this instrument in his hand when
he visits the several departments and cbisses, or when going
from one part of his school-room to another. It should b.;
kept in the desk or drawer until required for use, and de-
posited in the same place after it has done its work. Its
constant ap[)earance, or its frequent and slight application,
will familiarize the pupils with its terrors — and lamiliarity,
it is said, generates contempt. "All punishments," as Seneca
observes, "are either for amendment or example, or for

both The custom of offending will take away

the shame of it . . . . and for these reasons, punish-
ments should be effectual, few, and far between." Moreover,
it is as dishonourable for a teacher to have too many pun-
ishments, or rather occasions to punish, "as it is for a prince
to have too many executions, or a physician too many
funerals." It would be far better never to attempt to ad-
minister corporal punishment, than that it should fail in
design, or soon need repetition. As a rule, it should be
inflicted on the hands with a cane of modera^te thickne^.
The child should never be struck on the head, or on the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINQ.

167

tth need
ntial fo
* eteVnal
^enelon,
'cessaiie
niployer
^ereux."
3n used,
ishment
Illy sub-
worse."
[try, and
to fail.
)lication
wisdom
id when
)n going
ould h\\
and de-
:'k. It«
lication,
iUarity,
5 Seneca
, or for
ce away
punish-
oreover,
ny pun-
i prince
many
t to ad-
fail in
ould be
ickness.
on the

front part of the body. Good discipline is the foundation of
good teaching — the fundamental basis of education — yet it
should be always tempered with mercy, and administered in
love.

The teacher should never be in a hurry to inflict corporal a suppie-

•^ * mentary

punishment. Ho would do well to remember that one duty,
thoughtless word, one unjust blow, may nullify the lal)orious
inculcations of many days. Quiet delibenition and long-
forbearing justice, are fundamental elements of success in
school government. When inflicting punishment he should,
therefore, be perfectly calm, self-possessed, and free from
arujer ; but at the same time, he should exhibit a just sense
of the reprehensible nature of the offence. If not free from
anger he sliould defer me punishment. Except in the case
of very young pupils, it will always be wise to allow some
time to elapse — a day or two, or more, according to circum-
stances — from the investigation of an offence and delivery of
judgment, until the infliction of punishment. During the
interval, the offender will have tlie o})por^unity of reflecting
on the nature of his crime and tiie justice of his sentence,
and may perhaps become truly penitent. Thoroughly un-
dei*standing the teacher's character, and knowing by expe-
rience that silence and delay do not mean cemption, he
will feel certain that nothing will arrest the course of justice
except due contrition and immediate reformation — the ex-
hibition of a hea.'tfelt repentance and timely amendment.
The teacher should carefully avoid the appearance of "favour"
or prejudice during the investigation of a case; but above
all, he should never execute judgment or inflict punishment
while under the influence of anger. It is related in ancient
story that on a certain occasion the great teacher Plato being
incensed with the conduct of one of his slaves, thoughtlessly
raised his hand to inflict punishment. Suddenly recollect-
ing himself, he checked his uplifted arm, but still retained
it in its elevated and menacing position. The poor slave

■f !

i *

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168

The teacher
to be ft-ee
from anger
when inflict-
ing |)uui«h-
nient.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

ran away after some he8itation, alfhotigh his master remain-
ed '* fixed to the Hpot," as if he were a statue. One of his
intimate friends, having observed the occurrence, asked the
philosci (her what he meant by such singuhir conduct 1 "I
am now ^said he) chastising an angry man." He had post-
poned his servant's punishment, and was puni.shing himself
for having given way to anger. Seneca states that oiT
another occasion thi-s individual committed some offence
for which Plato thought it advisable to administer corporal
punishment. But being under the influence of anger, he
addres.sed his friend Spousippus, who happened to be pres-
ent, saying — " Do you cliastiso that follow, please. I am
angry, and might go farther than becomes me." This is the
spirit we would commend. The modern teacher, like his
Grecian predecessor, should never injlict punishment while
under the mjliience of auyer. He, also, is liable to " go far-
ther than becomes him." It is true, he cannot legally dele-**
gate his executive power in this respect to another ; but he
can stop his uplifted hand, and allow the offender time to
repent, and his own anger time to evaporate.

The teacher should not rest satisfied with the mere inflic-
tion of corponil punishment. A much higher and nobler
duty awaits him. Coercion prepares the way for persua-
sion. Neg-^jiations and amicable arrangements are often
impracticable until after a satisfactory trial of arms. The
infliction of j)unishment does not terminate the teacher's
opportunities or responsibilities. Every act of coercive dis-
cipline should be carefully followed up by sound suggestions
and friendly influences, until the subjugation of the will is
supplemented by the conquest of the heart. The more cri-
tical the case, and the more violent the treatment, the more
pressing is the need for the watchful and unwearied appli^
cation of the necessary subsequent restoratives. *

♦Jewell.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

169

The teacher teaches whetever he is. His daily walk and ^ot to in-

•' dulge self

conversation are living lessons — practical inciilcators of »"^ ^*«"iy
every praiseworthy quality, *or the opposite. Calm, steady,
and gentle, he should be consistent in all his actions — a
standard of justice and honour, a model in manners, and a
bright example of patient self-confrol. Whilst insisting on
the due observance of all rules and regulations of the school
by his pupils, he should be particularly cai-eful not to in-
fringe them himself; nor should he ever allow himself any
indulgence which duty or principle would compel him to
deny to others. Whatever he would wish his pupils to do,
that he must also do himself; for, as Seneca well observes,
" the best instructors are those who teach in their lives, and
prove their words by their actions."

The divine Seneca, in his " Cautions Against Anger," Henecn's
advances many useful hints concerning the education of th"e'ima^-"
children. We take the liberty of transcribing a few of thom, children.
which may possibly be interesting to parents, and useful to
the young teacher. The noble Roman affirms that " a
careful education is a gi'eat matter in enabling us to conquer
our evil propensities, for our minds are easily formed in
youth ; but bad habits once acquired are very difficult to
cure. Children should be trained to avoid provocations and
the beginnings of anger. Nothing breeds anger more than
a soft effeminate education. The choice of a healthy nurse
and a good-natured tutor, goes a great way in eradicating or
eliminating its geims from the system ; for the sweetness of
the blood and manners pass into the child. . . .The
teacher's favourite or mother's darling, seldom come to good.
Flattery and fortune nourish touchiness, and as he grows up
he becomes a choleric coxcomb . . . It is a very nice
point to check the germs of anger in a child, so as not to
take off his edge and quench his spirits. In this matter,
care must be taken that he be neither too much emboldened
by license, nor too much depressed by severity. Commenda-
12

' :\\

170

Towel's ami
duties of
principals.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

tions give him confidence and courage ; but, if dispensed to
excess, they seldom fail to pi-omote a spirit of insolence.
. . . When to Uvse the bridle and when the spur, is the
main difficulty." Parents or teachens should never put the
child to the necessity of begging anything bjisely; and if he
demeans himself in this manner, let him go without what ho
desires — he is unworthy to receive it. They should give
him nothing that he cries for, until the dogged fit is over.
However, if convenient, they may let him have it when he
has regained his equanimity, and assumed a chcerfid and
becoming demeanour. " He will thus learn that nothing is
to be gained by peevishness," and, as a necessary consequence,
will, day by day, become less waspish and quan-elsome.
Jjct him be led to unde\*stand, in his various exorcises, that
it is not generous nor just to injure his competitors and oppo-
nents, or even to wish them harm, but that it is pmisc-
woi-thy to overcome them without wishing to depress them.

Section 3. MUTUAL DUTIES AND OFFICIAL RELATIONS.

In Canada and most of the States, the principal of a
public school is invested, by law, with full power and author-
ity in the management and control of the school. In such
cases ho is bound to conduct the school according to law,
and it becomes his duty to observe and enforce the mles
and regulations prescribed by the State, or Provincial Coun-
cil of Public Instmction, and any other rules or regulations
consistent therewith, which himself and the school board
may, from time to tima, think expedient or necessary for the
efficient government of the respective departments or classes.
It is also his duty (with the concurrence of the school
board) to prescribe the work of the assistant teachers. The
law, or public opinion, holds him responsible for their work ;
hence the necessity for continual vigilance. It is the princi-
pal's duty, also, to prescribe a general plan of teaching for the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

whole school ; but without sacrificing harmony of arrange- '
ment or ilovelopment, he may permit its provisions to be
slightly modified in application, so as to meet the peculiar
necessities of each division or dopartment. There nwy be
variety in method, but there should bo unity in design. We
here venture to advance a few suggestions which may be of
material service in effecting these objects.

1. Each assistant in charge of a division, department, Uniformity
class, or section, should rule in accordance with the pre-
scribed general plan or method, and in its administration Ije
guided by the principles of government a<iopted for, and ap-
plioaVJe to, the whole school. There will then be uniformity.

of discipline and no clashing of interests — no occasion, and
no opportunity, for invidious comparisons, or internal jea-
lousies ; each individual division will supplement and sus-
tain the whole.

2. As a rule, each teacher of division {i. e. an assistant in powers and
charge of a class-room) should receive authority and, in fact, jJygi'gtVnts
be required to investigate and decide on all mattera of dis-
cipline within his (or her) particular realm. But the graver
offences, and all matters affecting other divisions, or the

order and government of the school in general, and such as
may be committed on the grounds, or in entering or leaving
school, or on the way to or from school, should be refeiTed
to the principal.

3. All cases of suspension, expulsion, or of corporal pun-
ishment, should be entered in a book, to be kept for that iilenS*
purpose, by the pi-incipal. Before inflicting corporal pun-
ishment, each teacher should enter a statement of the case
in this book, names of witnesses, amount of punishment,
etc., and then affix their signature. -The principal should
revise these reports occasionally, and give such advice (pri-
vately) to the teacher concerned as he may think judicious.
This book should be open for inspection by parents ; and it
might not be amiss to lay it before the school board at their
regular meetings. ;, .

A Record of

I %

172

Proper
channel of
inter-com-
muoioation.

•Signatures
4o uotea.

Local supre-
macy of
^teachers.

To report
cause of
absence to
principal.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

4. The principal is the only proper channel of communica-
tion between the assistant teachers and trustees, or public
at large. All letters relative to the ipils, or other school
matters in this connection, should pa. through his hands ;
and should any of the people, ignorant, or otherwise, of this
rule, address an official communication to an assistant
teacher, said teacher as a matter of courtesy, if not of right,
should immediately lay it before the principal, who should
reply (if necessary) in such terms as he may think judicious;
or the assistant may reply under his instructions.

5. " All notes presented by pupils should bear the signa-
ture of the parent or guardian, known as such to the
teacher."

6. "A teacher," says Tracy, "should not be interfered with
in the Government of his or her class while in actual com-
mand — not even by the principal. The teacher, of whatever
grade, should, in the estimation of the pupil, be principal of
his or her own class. Any suggestions or advice from the
principal should, in all cases, be apart from the observation
of the school or class ; otherwise the authority of the teacher
is, in the minds of the pupil, weakened ; for, if the principal
manifest a lack of confidence in the teacher, so will the pupil.
It is a great mistake for the assistant to appeal unnecessarily
to the principal in maintaining order in the class ; for the
pupil is thereby impressed with the idea that his teacher is
incompetent, or he would manage without assistance. Pupils
should not be sent to the principal for punishment or re-
proof, except for absolute disobedience. All else being set.
tied by the teacher unaided, increases his authority and
secures for him the respect of the pupil. When a teacher is
obliged to send an unruly pupil out of the class-room, he
should, at the time, explain the nature of his offence to the
principal, said explanation to be made to the principal alone."

7. Teachers should not allow anything but impossibilities
to prevent their attendance at school; for, when a teacher is

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

173

absent, not only his class but the whole school is more or
less embarrassed. When a teacher is absent through any
cause, he should never fail to apprise the principal of the
circumstances.

8. The principal should visit each class, division, or de- General

supervision.

partment at least once a day. It would be advisable that he
should note the state of discipline, the character of the work
being done, etc., on these occasions, and make an entry of
same in the Report Book of the division, or in the General
Report Book of the school. He should review the work of
each division, at least once a month ; or require the respec-
tive teachers to do so under his direction. He should then
make an entry of the result in the General Report Book,
after (privately) calling attention to defects, or publicly
pointing out excellencies.

The adoption and observance of such rules and regulations
as the foregoing, cannot fail to create a unity of influence,
effort, and design amongst teachers of the same school.

'M '

¥,

'14

.,_.L_

PART III.— METHODS OF TEACHING.

MoreAU's
i)lau tbc
ijetjt for
Mureau.

111!

CHAPTER I.
HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS.

It is said that when Napoleon was about to send Moreau
(A.D. 1801) to fight the Austrians, he drew up a plan of
campaign, such as he himself would have used, and presented
it to the Genenil with his commission as Generalissimo.
Moreau read it over, and then, after a few moments' deliber-
ation, declined to accept the command, aflSrming that should
he fight as directed, and in accordance with the instructions
contained in the document before him, he would certainly
be defeated. The First Consul was not pleased with the
gallant officer's blunt but honest declaration, as it reflected
on, or apparently depreciated, his own militsxry talents.
However, after a little consideration, he very wisely resolved
to let the General have his own M'ay, stating that "he be-
lieved Moreau 's plan was the best for Moreau." That gallant
officer fought according to "hisown plan," and the total defeat
of the Austrians under Klenau, at Hohenlinden, was the re-
sult. As it was with Moreau, so is it with almost every indi-
vidual teacher. His own i)lans and expedients (or methods)
are the best for liim. We do not mean to imply that the
teacher should decline to enquire into the nature and {jositive
success of other methods, and blindly follow his own. Quite
the reverse. We mean that the teacher, like General Moreau,
must have diligently studied and thoroughly mastered the
theory and practice of his art, before he can take rank, or
assume any very responsible position in his profession ; and

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

175

that, having thus posted himself — duly graduated, so to
speak, in all the principles and ai)plications of his calling —
he should strike out an independent and original course.

In writing the preceding sheets, we have not taken it Jrigin*? *"
upon ourselves to particularly recommend any individual P**"*
system or method of educatioA, nc r have we wittingly spoken
dogmatically to our fellow-citizens and co-labourers on any
contested subject or theory ; for, as aforesaid, we believe
that, in the majority of cases, each teacher's "own plan is
the best for him." Still, in practice an in theory, there are
general principles and a common basis from which no teacher
can materially diverge, without suffering the penalties of fail-
ure and defeat. Each teacher should be careful to found his
plan or system on these fixed and eternal priiv'/des, and not,
as is too often the case, on his own or other men's hobbies.
As Wickersham observes, " Teaching is an art based on sci-
entific principles tliat must always guide its practice ...
it lays under contribution all science and all art, in working
out the grandest end that human conception ever realized —
the perfection of the human race." Let the teacher, there-
fore, be just and honest towards himself and his charge
— lot him act like Moroau, or like David of old, who pre-
ferred his own simple weapons to those which lie had not
tested nor proved. But should he have cause to doubt or
suspect the comparative efficacy of his own weapons, let him
lose no time in discarding them, so that he may acquire the
use of others more efficient. Prussia was the first nation in
Europe to arm her soldiers with the needle gun. The vic-
tories of Konnigratz, Sadowa, Gravellotte, and Sedan, were
the result of this intelligence and promptitude. Had she
been content with her old weapons, Alsace, Lorraine, Schles-
wig Holstein, and the minor German States, would not have
been annexed ; Sadowa and Sedan would have had a differ-
ent ending, and her King would never have reigned over a
"united Fatherland." These facts tell us we should never

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176 THE SCIENCE AKD ART OF TEACHINO.

despUe uew piiuciplea, or ignore new discoveries ; and that,
while revering the old, we should acquire an intelligent,
practical knowledge of the new. Having treated of some
of the general princij)le8 on which all good, sound educ.ttion
should be based, we will now proceed o consider matters
which involve the practical application of the great truths
advanced in the foregoing pages.

The school- The class-rooms of the public schools in tfie more respect-
room and its . . .
decorations, able towns and villages, as well as in the cities of the res-
pective States (of America), are generally decorated with
life-size paintings of Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and
other worthies of the Republic. This decoration speaks
volumes for the taste and generosity of the people. Apart
from the decoration of the walls and consequent beauty of
the interior, it cannot fail to have a powerful influence on
the minds of the rising generatit<u. Besides cultivating the
taste of the pupils and developing their ideas of the beauti-
ful, it creates a certain emulation which tends to incite them
to the performance of patriotic and heroic deeds. As time
rolls away, we trust the class-rooms of our public schools
will become more and more like the pi'ivate di*awing-room.
Then will children look upon them as the most pleasant as
well as the most profitable places in which they can spend
their time. The decoration of our educational institutions
deserves the consideration of every citizen. The legislature
of very civilized community should make a liberal provi-
sion for this purpose. It behoves our legislators to make
the school attractive so far as money can do it; and by
doing so, they will discharge one of the most important
duties which they owe to posterity . No capital will bring
in such a large interest as that which is invested in educa-
tion. The United States have generally acted in accordance
with this principle, and Canada — following the example of
her southern sisters — has already taken the initiative in
:--— decorative matters. The Canadian system of education is

TUF SCIENCE AND ART 01 TEACUINO. 177

Mkid to equal that of MaR8achub<3tt0, but in artiatic arrango-
mont, decorative attr -tions, and arclnt«x;tunil df'^^ign, the
schools of the States fj* r excel tho8«' of ( 'anadii.

We are of opinion that lari/c puhlic schools should contain Pi«nof
a spociai rtKnu for eutli cIhmh, and also a room of sufficient
capacity tu allow all the pupiln to asseuiMe together <lnriiij3j
oiiening and closing exercises, and on spociivl occasions, such
i\s exhibition or ceiubmtion days, etc. In this room [>upils,
with ( oir toachci*s, should assen ^'le every morning for
prayers, etc., after which tlicy should bo dismissed by the
principal, cKiss by class, to thiir ro.sp'ctive class r<> nns.* At
on-^ end there should l>e an elevator platform, from which
the prin'^ipal or his ;i.ssistant may overlook the wholo school,
and direct the various movements of the classv s. It would
be advisable for the principal and his assistants t< have
desks or seats on this cLiiJ*, as it would bo their m(.8t appro-
priate place at the commencement and close of business.
But if the school is not a very large one, and all 7mi.'<t find
accommodation in one room — that room should be rectan-
gular in shape. At the further end of the room a gallery (or
galleries) should be erected, with fixed seats or chairs for pu-
pils, during the delivery of collective or object h^ssons. This
gallery should be separated from the » 'st of the room by
means of a movable glass partition. There should be a par-
tition, because without it the classes will interrupt each other

* Some years ago while eni^aged as a master at the Upper Canada College,
Toronto, we had tlii' pleasure of studying pra<^tic;illy the exi'dl-'Pi-ics of^tlus
system— the arrangements alluded to being Ktri(!tly observed in that Institution.
So far as we know, the principle has not bi;en hitherto adopted in any other Cana-
dian schools. It is <toniing into general favour in the States, and is fully exempli-
fied in the new Stfite Normal S 'hool, at IJuffilo, under the kind and able supervision
of its ex<!ellent principal, Mr. Buekhain. Officers ( harged with the ere.?ti«)n of
Normal or other lar^je schools, would do well to visit both of these Institutions,
and study their arrangements, before adopting plans orawarding contra.ts. 8t.ind>
ing, as it does, at tlie head of the great public schools of the continent, U. C. Col-
lege should hava buildings more worthy of its fame. The interior arrangements
are exc^ellent, but the style of architecture is not such as we would recommend.
The Toronto Provincial Normal School Bnildin^'s are, on the whole, worthy of
much commendation— particularly tho.se 8e(;tion.s allotted to the Education Offices,
Library and Museum. The Model Schools (or schools of practice) are neither as
commodious or corwenient as we would wish t<> s > them, and. in r ality, detract
from the beauty anT symmetry of one of the prettiest aud best ordered institutions
in the Province.

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178

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

I !

during recitation, etc., and it should be of glass, so that the
principal may see through it, and, if necessary, overlook the
work of the whole school or department at one and the same
time. The part of the floor occupied by desks, if the room be
very largo, should gradually rise towards the rear, and the
smaller pupils should occupy the firat seats. The desks should
be arranged so that the pupils when seated may face the
teacher's platform. Behind the recitation gallery, and at other
convenient places, maps, diagrams, etc., might be suspended.
The walls of all class-rooms should be lined with slate
(three feet three inches wide) for " black-board " purposes,
the lower margin being about three feet from the floor. The
windows should be elevated about four feet from the ground,
so that outside transactions may not attract the attention
of the pupils. The wall behind the teacher's platform, and
also certain portions of the side walls, should be adorned
with historical paintings and witli life-sizo likenesses of the
great and good men of other times. The ground space of
a school-room laid out according to the foregoing plan would
consist of four divisions: — (1) The teacher's platform, (2)
the recitation or object lesson gallery, (3) the space occupied
by desks in the body of the school, and (4) the open space
between the front desks and the plitform. In small schools
the gallery may be dispensed with. All classes, when at
recitations, should be separated from each other by movable
glass j)artitions ; but if the attendance be very large, the
accommodation sufficient, and the stafi" of teachers in pro-
portion, each class, division, or department should have its
own particular room ; or the pupils should change class,
rooms as often as they change subjects. Accordmg to the
former plan, the teacher in charge of this class or department
would teach them every subject ; and according to the latter
plan, certain teachers would teach them certain subjects, and
they would daily pass under the jurisdiction of each indi-
vidual teacher in the school. Both arrangements have their

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

179

(leskH.

advantages and objections ; but of the two, the latter is the
more commendable. In either case the respective classes
(having separate class-rooms, and, for the time being, differ-
ent teachers) would meet together in the assembly room of
the school only twice a day — at the commencement and con-
clusion of business. The tolling of a bell would announce
the intermissions or respective changes, and each class would
of course know by its "time table" what subject would come
next, and what teacher (and in what class room) they should
attend during the ensuing hour. Each class-room should
possess the most approved means of ventilation, and, unless
in very I'are cases, the building should not exceed two stories
in height.

Desks should not be larger than what may be necessary isolation
to accommodate two pupils. The distance between each mcnt of ***^
desk, from front to rear, need not be more than twelve or
fifteen inches ; but the distance between the " ends of each
range " of desks and seats should not be less than two f^et
four inches. That is to say, the aisles should be between
two and three feet in width. The centre aisle should not
be less than four or five feet. If a school " be seated "
according to this plan, each pupil can get to, or from, his
particulai" seat without disturbing his compiinions: the space
lost in width, and occupied with aisles, will be more than
gained in length, as more desks can be made to fit from
front to i*ear, than under the old system. In addition, a
more general air of comfort and respectability Avill pervade
the establishment ; the teachers can preserve better order,
and there will be less " crowding " on entering or leaving
the school-room. But instead of being made for two, it
would be better if the desks were constructed for the
accommodation of only one pupil. In many of the more
respectable public schools in American cities,* the desks and

* Normal School, Buffalo, for instance

180

TnE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

Tlie play
groimtl and
cloak-
rooms,

seats are isolated ; each pupil has a desk and seat for himself,
and this desk and seat have no connection with other desks
or seats. We aflSrm without hesitation that this is one of
the great improvements of the age — one which only needs
time to be generally adopted. The upper part of these
desks resembles a gentlemen's writing case when open —
being elevated in front, and dipping as it approaches the
body. It is fastened to a cast iron pillar, (or to two iron
castings,) which, in turn, is fixed to the floor. Immediately
in rear of this pillar is a seat resembling a small arm chair,
which is also fastened to a pillar fixed to the floor at a
convenient distance from the former. These desks are
placed together in pairs to the right and left of the regular
aisles, and only two feet apart. Being thus isolated from
each other, no pupil can hold communication with his com-
panions without detection, as there is no covering in front
to hide from the teachers " the telegraphic movements " of
" little hands and feet." There is another feature in these
primary arrangements which (so far as we know) is peculiar
to America — a feature which deserves not a little attention.
It has met with much favour in New England, especially
in "the old Bay State." We allude to the practice of
placing the principal's platform in a large and commodious
recess in the side of the school-room, the pupils being faced
as usual towards ei<!'^r end. By this arrangement the
teacher has a full side view of each pupil — ^a better view,
perhaps, for all practical purposes than he could enjoy were
he to gaze on them from front to rear.

A good play ground, well stocked with gymnastic appara-
tus, should be attached to every school. Part of it should
be covered in, so as to protect the pupils from the extremes
of temperature. Flowers, fancy shrubs, and trees might be
cultivated in another portion of it, if the grounds are larrje
enough. There should also be a suitable place for cricket
and other such games. The grounds should be enclosed

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 181

with a high wall, and a good pump should be situated in
some convenient place therein. In the respective cloak-
rooms there should be a wash-sc^nd, looking-glass, some
brushes and other apparatus for arranging and adjusting the
toilet. These things are necessary in eveiyr respectable
school, and all schools should be respectable. The articles "^
required cost but little, and they tend materially to promote
habits of taste, cleanliness, and good order amongst the pupils.

Scholastic exercises should be conducted with considera- ^xcTcinen
ble military precision. When the boll " calls school," the J^u.^^niti.
pupils should arrange themselves in files on the play ground p^cUion
or some other convenient place. When it ceases to ring, they
should march into the school and to their respective class-
rooms, keeping time to the music of an organ or piano.
Should there be no instrumentiil music available, they may
be allowed to sing some patriotic soul-stirring song. The
piano sliould be situated on the platform, to the i*ight or left
of the } lincipal's desk. One of the assistant teachers, or
some of the older pupils, should discourse the music; or
each pupil competent to do so might take the post in turn.
The music, whether vocal or instrumental, should be con-
tinued until all the pupils have entered, and are standing in
lint beside their respective seats. Then the principal should
command " the halt " by touching his bell, and, by a second
sound thereof, order them to be seated.

If it be the custom of all the teachers and pupils to .«camng"
assemble in the large common hall or assembly room at the ^ig^Jnt'"'
commencement and close of business, the principal, after school."
conducting the religious exercises or other " collective busi-
ness," should dismiss the classes to their homes, or to their
respective class-rooms, not altogether, but separately, and
at short intervals. He should first (by touching his bell)
dismiss the lowest class with its teacher, then the second
class with its teacher, and so on, until all have left, or until
none remain, except the principal's own particular class,

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182

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Clausiflca-
tion of
pupiU.

Test sub-
jects.

should he have one. During their departure some patriotic
tune should be played ou the piano : so that as a rule they
should march into, and out of, school (or their respective
class-rooms) to the sound of music. Though the dismissal
of the pupils should not be en bloc, it should be continuous
—class after Class in succession.

The school may be conveniently organized into three
divisions or departments, each division into twocla.sses; and,
if the school be a large one, each of the classes should be
sub-divided into two sections, each section to number from
twenty to thirty pupils. In Ontario the pupils of the public
schools are supposed to be divided into six classes, the quali-
fications of each class or grade being fixed by the Council of
Public Instruction. Under this system a teacher may be
placed in charge of each class, as in central schools, or two
or more classes may form a division under the superintend-
ence of one teacher, as in the generality of public schools
— the head master being responsible in all cases for the
classification, management and control of each class or divi-
sion, as well as for the general progress of the whole. In
conjunction with the School Board, he has the power to
prescribe the duties of all his assistant teachera, and the
school laws require him to see that these duties are effi-
ciently performed. Generally speaking, the head masters
of the public schools have little cause to find fault; for
there is no " class of workers " in the world more faithful,
diligent, and zealous than Canadian female teachers-^-the
class whence the supply of assistant teachers is usually
drawn.

As a rule, pupils should pursue all their studies in the
same division, or class. But, although it is desirable that
their progress from class to class should be uniform, still, a
pupil may be allowed, if qualified, to study reading in one
section of that class, and arithmetic in another, or vice verad;
and so of the other subjects. These may be regarded as the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 183

most appropriate test subjects for the younger children, (t. «.
those best adapted for enabling a teacher to determine the
section, class, or division to which each child should belong,)
but dictation, composition, (with accurate punctuation, spell-
ing, etc.,) mathematics, and the elements of natural science,
may be more suitable for senior pupils; as difference in skill,
in their case, is more eixsily ascertained in the latter subjects
than in the fomier. They are also more appropriate to the
supposed mental calibre of the pupils of advanced age.

It has been ascertained that in almost all schools classified G-iding.
as above, the thii'd or lowest division will contain about
twice as many pupils as the first ; and the second about as
many, aiid half as many moi*e. In large schools the fore-
going classification into diviMJous, classes and sections, is the
best that can be adopted. Taking fifteen as the average
number in each section, a school arranged as indicated would
stand as follows :

First Division or Department, two classes, each

class two sections 60 pupils

Second Division or Department, three classes, each

class two sections 90 "

Third Division or Department, four classes, each

class, two sections 120 "

Total average attendance .... 270 "

If twenty be taken as the average number in each " section,"
it will give a total of 360 for the whole school ; but schools
are seldom so large, even in our most prosperous cities, as to
exhibit such a high average. As a rule, a "section" should
not contain less than ten, nor more than thirty pupils; and
there should be an assistant teacher for each class of two
sections, or " a teacher for every thirty in the average." In
many English schools what we call sections are called classes
and vice versd : but the name is a matter of little import,
provided we have the principle. In small schools the inter- -
mediate grade should be omitted, and the pupils classified as

184

Uniformity
of progress.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

follows — at least we think the following classification will
be more apprOi>riato in rural schools than that given above.
The following ia to be considered as merely ai. approxi-
mation :

First Division, one class of, say 20 pupils.

Second Division, two classes, fifteen pupils each. 30 "
Third Division, two classes, twenty pupils each. 40 "

Total average attendance .... 90
In very small or very large schools, the classification should
be somewhat diflforent still to the foregoing : we merely
submit these examples as guides to classification. Taey may
serve as a basis for that purpose. It would be unwise, if
not impossible, to lay down any fixed or rigid rules on this
subject, as so much depends on circumstances — circumstances
not general. However, enough has been said on the sub-
ject for all practiciil purposes.

If the teacher be desirous of promoting uniform progress^
the classes must be of uniform size ; the pupils of the same
class, if not of the same section, must be of the same intel-
lectual attainments ; and whatever assistance he thinks pro-
per to furnish should be given, not to one individual but, to
the whole chiss collectively. If a pupil ask for aid, the
teacher should note the difficulty, and explain the same to
the whole cLxss at a fit and convenient time, when, if possi-
ble, he will lead " the youngsters" to solve it for themselves.
Unless he attend to these things, and that the pupils present
at collective lessons be endowed with the same, or nearly the
same, degree of mental capacity, his teaching cannot possibly
be very efficient or successful. He will be like the sower
who went forth to sow, whose seed fell amongst thorns and
on rocks, as well as on good soil. We may remember, it is
said, that the seed which fell on the latter, grew up and came
to maturity, whilst that which fell on rocks and amongst
thorns, remained unproductive. The child's mind is the
ground on which the seed is cast. It behoves the teacher

THR SCIENCE AND ART OF TBACHINO.

185

to see that the soil is duly pre{)ared for the seeds of lastruc-
tion — properly cleared of rocks, stumps and weeds — ho that
in days to come, he may reap when? ho has sown.

The teacher should be careful to suit the subjects of study. Subject* of
and the mode of treating thoui, to the mental capacities of adapted to

1 iMi ji'i Lt ' •» mental f«pa-

the children under his charge. Starting with common city.
things and long familiar ideas, he should lead them on grad-
ually to higher objects — to more enlarged acquirements,
more extensive viows, and, so far as possible, to the maxi-
mum of excellence in everything. The subjects or branches
of learning, likely to be useful in after life, should be made
the instruments of moral culture and mental development.
The lessons of the lower sections and classes should be speci-
ally adapted to the exercise of the perceptive faculties. At
this stage, observation and curiosity are the " working
organs," and, so tar as possible, the pupils should be taught
through the medium of the eye. As the children grow older,
or advance in their respective classes, as aforesaid, memory,
imagination, i-eason and judgment, should be developed in
natural order. This development is the foundation of good
education. The healthy cultivation cf the jnental, moral and
physical powers is far more desirable than the mere acquisi-
tion of knowledge.

The various methods of instruction may be reduced to Systems of

teaching
two — the synthetical and the analytical. By the former

we combine, construe^, or pi*t together ; by the latter, we
reduce compounds to elements. The one ascends from par-
ticular facts to general principles, the other descends from
general principles to particular facts.

When the essential particulars of any subject are so order of
numerous as to be likely to fatigue the attention, pupils may me^t.°^
commence its study by learning the general principles first,
and then proceed to the consideration of the respective facts.
However, as a rule, they should proceed from the simple to
the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the homo-
13

'f4

18() THIS SCIENCE AND vBT OF TEACHINO.

goneouH to the heterogeneous. If possible, the mind should
be intruiluced to principles through the medium of exam-
ples, and gradually led from the particular to the general.
Every study should have an cx[>erimcntal introduction.
The facts a child acquires in this manner should Im) made
the basis of communication of more advanced or more com-
plex ideas. When he fully understands these ideas, we may
a^ke a further step in advance. As he thus gradually digests
each lesson, wo may supply the knowledge he craves, and
thus qiake the mind self-developing. As M. Le Compte
well observes, " the genesis of knowledge in the individual
must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge
in the race." ** In mode and arrangement," says Herbert
Spencer, " the education of children must harmonize with
the education of the race, considered historically." *' There
are stages of development in the immature growth of indi-
viduals," says Hugh Miller, "which seem to correspond with
stages cvf development in the immature growth of nations."
There ia in every child, as we may ascertain by looking
back on our own individual history, an aptitude to acquire
information in the order in which the race to which he
belongs mastered its various kinds of knowledge. The
education of the individual may be facilitated by leading
him through the steps traversed by the general mind —
those steps being taken in their order of sequence. Hence,
education should be a, repetition, in miniature, of the suc-
cessive stages of development in the civilization of the race.
The piore fuUy we consider these facts, the more firmly are
we convinced of their truth. The history of educational
progress amongst the race (or mankind generally) is a potent
ally ii^ CAahling ua, to understand " child natui-e," whilst it
suggests many useful hints as regards the true principles of
teaching. Qne, mgUui is, a, type and representative, more or
less, o£ s^ i]^nds y hence, if we unden^tapd our own con-
ceptiopsi, and 4ulx copiprehend the power sgad effect of the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

187

laws which regulate the action of thought, we will he ablp
to divine tue thoughts and ascertain the motives of other
people. We may generally read a parent's character through
that of his child ; and, vice versd, the evil passions and
infirmities of disposition to be checked or eradicatetl in
children, are traits of character which have l)een more or
less transmitted from their progenitors. Hereditary trans-
mission hands down mental and moral characteristics as
well as physical excellencies or defects.

The order in which subjects of study should be presented Natural hikI
to the understanding, deserves much thought. By judicious of stu-i'y
arrangements and careful elimination, the accumulattd know-
ledge of ages may be condensed into a small compass, and
imparted to children in such a form as will create a thirst
for m^re light, whilst saving them useless labour. An expe.
rienced teacher can impart as mucli information in a few
hours, as the unassisted tyro would fail to acqiiire in as
many months — perhaps years. The subjects embraced in
the programme of studies should follow each other in natui*al
and logical order. The primary, or elementary subjects
should invariably be presented fii-st, and the elements of
ea<ih, thoroughly understood by the pupil before the tt^acher
proceeds to the inculcation of higher truths. In other
words, the subjects best calculated to promote the right
cultivation of the mental powers, should bo j)resented to the
mind in the order of sequence which nature follows in the
development of these faculties. For these reasons, ''natural
and logical order" should be a motto with eA'ery student
and teacher; otherwise, success, if possible, will at all events
be doubtful. Pupils desirous of acquiring any branch of
knowledge should learn to regard it in an applicate jis well
as in a theoretical sense, and vice versa. For instance, in
the acquistion of geometry, arithmetic, grammar, geogra-
phy, or any other branch of learning, they sJiould atudy the '
subject, and regard books relating thei-eto as mere tools or

!4|

18^

TflK ariKMOE AND ART OP TKACHINO.

meaTiR for that purposo. As mntterH Htand, they fro<|uently
fnU into the error of Ktii'lyiui; tho author more than they
study the Hubject, implicitly adopting his view.s without the
least reflection or [>ci*sonal investi<,'ation. Mind should not
be a passive recipient, like the sponge. It should be the
great and constant aim of the teacher to make it an active
agent, .so that it may (jxorcise its divinity, an<l ivssert its
near relation to the Creator.

•frvation*.

CHAI'TEU H.

COLLECTIVE TEACHING.

In collective teaching the teacher's success will depend, in
a great measure, on his j)ei*sonal carriage and general appear-
ance. His manner of address should, therefore, be easy,
fluent, and graceful. He should be animated, without being
"flouried." Being careful to avoid such characteristics as
"meaningless pauses," stammering, and unnecessary repeti-
tion, he should state exactly what he means, and in as few
words as possible. It is far better to be a man of too few
than too many words. Simplicity should be one of the char-
acteristics of every teacher— simplicity of language, simplicity
of illustration. In fact, simplicity may be regarded as "the
maximum of excellence." During the delivery of a lesson,
prior to its commencement and after its close, the teacher
should test his pupils' comprehension of the subject by a
series of skilful questions. As explained more fully else-
where, the time occupied in the deliveiy of a lesson should
not be prolonged so as to weary the class, and create a dis-
like for the subject. A lesson extending over the space of
half an hour will be quite long enough for junior classes,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

189

and forty-five minutos will be Ruflicient for the senior divi-
sions. The teacher can easily jpiess how long a lesstm may
be, and also ascertain the effect of his teaching, by noting
the interest he is able to inspire and maintain. He should
never continue a lesson until the pupils lo.se their relish for
the subject. He must stir up and |)iirtially sati.sfy their
mental appetites, but he must not allow them to feed to the
verge of satiety. Better to stop short of this point and
bring the lesson to a close, while the pupils are yet anxious
to learn more about it. They will then return to, or resume,
its investigation at some future time with renewed pleasure,
and study it in private with an ever-increasing interest.

With very young children, the elliptical method of teach-
ing is, perhaps, the most effective — at all events, it will l)e
most succe.ssful in maintaining attention. It has its dangei-s,
however, and, to be successful, must l)e guided by a skilful
"hand." As a rule, the practice of this method will be suc-
cessful if accompanied by many questions, and but few ellip-
ses. Both skilfully intermixed, will be effective. The pupils
should not be required to fill in an ellip.sis which, in the
nature of things, they could not be expected to supj)ly. The
ellipses should not be ambiguous nor uncertain, and should
consist of but few words. If the class be composed of very
young children, one word will be sufficient.

The analytical and synthetical methods may be used with
great advantage in collective teaching. In conducting his
instructions according to the collective method, the teacher
should be particularly careful that the pupils in each class
be of the same degree of mental capacity ; that he educate
as well as talk; that they be instructed as well as pleased;
that he be supplied with specimens, models, or diagrams, to
illustrate his lesson ; that whatever maps he may require be
at hand, and that any subjects needing illustrations, addi-
tional to those provided, be sketched on the black-board.
If the members composing a class be not of the same (or

The»llinti-
cnl metho<l.

same capa<
city.

rt , -I

lyo

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING.

nearly the same) degree of capacity, the wubjoct, and the
teacher'H methcnl of treating it, will be too simple for some,
and incomprehensible to others. Therefore, neither party
will be edified — probably both will be injured, fatigued, or
"disgusted." Imperfect cUiHsification is one of the greatest
impediments to success, and one of the most serious obstacles
with which the conscientious teacher has to contend. The
difficulty arises from many causes, such as irregularity of
attendance, want of sufficicnit help, the natural though fool-
ish anxiety of parents to have their children promoted, the
desire of teachers to comply with parents' wishes, etc. The
teacher who would be successful must exhibit a will of his
own, and classify his pupils according to their natural and
acquired abilities, irresj)ective of exterior influences. But
to return :
AiTniige- The teachei- must thoroughly understand his subject, and

lesson in its arrange the matter in uf^ural and logical order, if he be

natural '^ . . , , " '

order and really desirous of practising collective lessons successfully.
He should prepare a sketch of the subject, and after tlie
delivery of the lesson, tile the same for future reference.
This sketch should exhibit the heads, divisions, and sub-
divisions of the lesson, arranged in their natural order of
sequence, so that the treatment of the matter, and manner
of delivery may be apparent at a glance. It would be wise
to note (as a P.S.) the specimens, models, charts, or dia-
grams, necessary for illustrating the subject. Object lessons
are generally collective lessons ; and every collective lesson,
should be more or less an object lesson, .

When the teacher has deduced and explained all the par-
ticulars of the first section of his lesson, he should lead his
pupils to recapitulate what they have learned, whiist he
writes the headings or sketch of same on the black-board,
fioni their dictation — taking care to ascertain whether they
have gained ideas jis well as words. He should then take
up the next section and ti'eat it in like manner, and so on

Hf.iiapltula-
tiuM.

THiB SCtEUCE AtfTt ART Of TEACHINO. 191

to the end of the lesson, when there should be a general
i*ecapitu!ation of the whole, the teacher pointing to the
headings on the board. At the close, the black-board
should exhibit a perfect sketch of the principal points of the
lesson, duly numbered in their order of sequence — ^ther each
idea will have been developed, deduced, and expressed in
its logical order. Each of these lessons should form part of ^
a regular series — of a complete whole — being naturally con-
nected one with another, links in the development of the
great chain of intellect, well-prepared stones in the great
arch of science.

From what has been stated in this and preceding chap- Chaiacturi:-
ters, it will be seen that successful teaching depends chiefly teac biiii-.
on the following characteristics, namely: (1) Simplicity, by
which we mean that the mind should be fixed upon only one
thought at a time : (2) Gradation, or logical and natural
order: (3) Repetition, which is necessary to due impression:
(4) Illustration, which groups and associates examples of
same facts : (5) Precision in the use of words, whereby the
elective faculty selects the best and most appropriate : (6)
Enunciation or Definition, whereby principles are clothed in
words : (7) Application, which applies the results of the les-
son to the benefit of the pupil , by solving or confirming some
principle in religion, science, or morals.

Every collective lesson should have an introduction, and lutidduc-
an application. The object of the introduction is .to connect ifssou—
the lesson with the preceding lessons on the same subject.
It should be short, clear, useful, and interesting ; so that it
may open the mind to receive additional light, and fix the
attention on what follows. The illustrations used should
be apposite and natural, interesting, clear and graphic, the
essential points of resemblance being distinctly and promi-
nently placed before the mental gaze. Illustration to be
effective must be ample, without being redundant.

1 92

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

(icsson to
have a pruc-
tinal appli-
imtioii.

Socritic
ii»ethi>(i.

The practical application of a lesson should grow naturally
out of the lesson. It should not be forced, nor introduced
as a mere statement, but as a reflection associated with, and
arising from, the subject. It should not comprise more than
one or two infeiences. Wei-e they increased in number, the
impression of each would be lessened, and the mind con-
fused. The teacher should have a definite purpose in every
lesson he gives, and should not rest satisfied until he has
accomplished the object in view. Should he have a just
conception of his work, he will be able to describe before-
hand what he aims at, how he expects to attain it, and what
efiect each lesson may be expected to produce. The collec-
tive lesson, if skilfully delivered, is a potent agent in devel-
oping noble ideas, habits, and actions. It is the most effec-
tive instrument he can use to influence the affections, or
draw out and develop the various faculties of the mind.
Under the management of a skilful teacher it is one of the
most powerful aids in doing good. We know of no means
more eflicient in "pointing a moral or adorning a tale."

Section 2. THE ART OP CATECHISING.

The art of asking questions admits of two divisions. The
firet division may be used as a means of instruction, and is
then called the catechetical or Socratic method. It is a well-
known fact, that by Ifieans of a few judicious well-connected
questions, pupils may be easily led to discover principles, and
to solve difficulties, which would otherwise be insurmount-
able. Full many a time does the bosom of the pupil glow
with honest pride when he remembers, that personal efforts
have enabled him to overcome such literary obstacles. But
to effect these objects, the questions should naturally grow
out of each other, beginning at some familiar point and pro-
c ^ding step by step to the unknown — until the answer to
t e last question of the series reveals the mystery, and
unfolds the knowledge sought.

P<
P

THE 'SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

19S

The second division of the art comprehends queries pro- Tentative

. ... Ill- ""•' examiii-

posed as test questions at recitations, reviews, and public or ation que«-
private examinations, and also such as may be proposed to
ascertain the extent of pupils' knowledge of a subject before,
giving a lesson. In proposing questions, as in performing
other educational work, the teacher's chief object .should be
to exercise and strengthen the respective mental faculties of
the pupils. The test of their actual knowledge (except at
certain examinations) is a matter secondary to these consid-
erations. A question, admitting of such an answer as *' yes "
or " no" should never be proposed. Queries should be of a
searching nature, and be proposed in such a manner as to
find out how much or how little the pupil knows of the sub-
ject. This course will tend to secure careful and thorough
preparation. It will improve the i)upirs power of expression,
cultivate his memory, increase his knowledge, make his in-
formation more definite, and thereby enable him to acquit
himself with credit and satisfaction. The pupil's answei'S,
like the teacher's queries, should be clear, full, and exact —
free from ambiguity and uncertainty. As a rule, the pupil
should not be interrupted or corrected until ** quite through
with his reply." The tact or skill requisite in asking ques-
tions aright may be regarded as one of the mysteries of the
teacher's art — and not the least of them. This tact is, in
fact, one of his most imi>ortant qualifications, and (if not
naturally possessed of it) he must necessarily acquire it,
should he be desirous of more than ordinary success. It is
a real test of the teacher's aptitude and ability. However,
it must be remembered that the true measure of his skill is
not what he can do and say himself, but Avhat he can get
his pupils to say and do.

Individual questioning is impossible in a large class; and, To be gen-

A**a1 in

if possible, it implies a loss of power, as each pupil will re- application,
ceive only a fraction of the whole instruction. Questions

194

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Character-

ifltiCB of

good
answering.

Correction
of errors.

should be addressed to the class, not to indr-'dual pupils.
To be effective, they must act upon the whole, not upon any
part or unit. After all have held up their hand, or given
some other sij^ of their ability or inability to reply, the
teacher may call on one individual to give the answer ; but
he should never designate the individual before giving the
question. In this manner, all the pupils will profit by the
questions addressed to one, and the whole lesson will be
continuous to the whole class.

Effective questioning must combine the individual and
simultaneous methods. Under such a combination the pupils
will acquire a tendency to answer mentally, and, if the ques-
tions be fairly distributed, the class will imbibe the maxi-
mum amount of knowledge. Though tfulness and distinctness
are the best character is tics of good answering. Hence, 1*6-
plies are to be judged by a double standard — by th^.AI2iount of
truth they contain, and the amount of thought they indicate.
In rejecting an answer, tlie teacher should give credit for
the amount of trutli or evidence of thought expressed or
implied therein — the class, or the ])upil himself, being led to
amend or enlarge, as necessary. This course will encourage
the diffident, and check the thoughtless ardour of the over-
confident, whilst it develops instead of repressing intelli-
gence. Should the teacher detect any inattention on the
part of a pupil he should instantly ask him to answer the
question proposed, or to repeat it. If unable to do so, he
should forfeit his standing in the class.

Error is the result of ignorance, prejudice, or habit. Per-
sonal correction on the part of the pupil is the only true
safe-guard against its repetition. The correction of errors is
no small part of the work of both teacher and pupil ; but
unless a sense of error be felt by those who make it, there
can be no real or thorough correction. It is not always
expedient to insist on rapidity of thought. Hasty answers

THE 8CIENCB AND ART OF TEACH INQ.

196

are often the result of impulse, and then imply the absence
of reflection. For these reasons pupils should be encouraged
to ''think twice before they speak once."

CHAPTER III.

SPELLING.

Having treated of the school building, of the order or
plan of instruction and classification, and of the general
principles which should guide every ttiacher in the intelligent
practice of his art, we will now proceed to consider the more
important of those branches of knowledge supposed to be
imparted at every public school. Feeling that theory should
give way to practice, and science develop itself in art, we
will venture to submit, at least, one of the more approved
methods of teaching each particular subject. However, we
would not bind the teacher to adopt this method, seeing that
"Moreau's plan was the best for Moreau." There are cir-
cumstances in which other methods will work equally well.
The teacher, however, must remember that all systems of
education should be founded on well-established scientific
principles, and that life is too short to waste much time in
visionary experiments. Doubtless the following pages may
be useful to the young and inexperienced teacher, and not
wholly uninteresting to the Nestors of the profession.

Keeping the foregoing objects in view, we will now pro-
ceed to consider the more important subjects of popular
instruction. Fii'st on the list, and first in the order of se-
quence, is spelling — the foundation-stone of all literary edu-
cation. This subject may be taught to very young children
by means of a box or spelling apparatus, containing a chart

MethcKlH of
teaching
bbould [>«
bas<>d on
Bcicntifli;
principlt'8.

Spelling,
and how to
teach it.

1U<) THE SCIENCE AN5 ART OF TEACHING.

of pictures and words (names), which, by the agency of
cranks, can be moved like a panorama beliind an opening —
the said opening, tlirough the action of flexible slides, to be
closed, enlarged, or decreased, at the will of the teacher.

The pictures are of groat Talue, as they prepare the mind to
receive the name of the ol)ject presented. Then tlie crank
is turm?d again, and, as it slowly revolves, letter after letter
of the name is exposed in regular sequence ; so that the
little ones actually spell the word by naming each letter as
it appears. By these means, they tirst receive a strong im-
pression of the object; they then obtain its name, (^ through
the teaclier, if necessary,) and finally learn to spell the same.
This done, they should write the word on their slates (if
able to write), after which the teacher may write the word
on the black-board, and direct them to compare it with the
word on their slates, making any necessary corrections.
They may then proceed to consider the next object, and to
spell and write its name in like manner — the new object
being revealed, and the former one concealed, by another
turn of the crank; and so on to the end of the lesson. It
will be seen that this system combines real amusement with
genuine intellectual instruction. The fact of a portion of
the lesson being concealed, tends to excite the curiosity and
to hold the attention of the pupils, so that they are sure to
be on the qui vive as to "what will come next." This spell-
ing apparatus is specially adapted for the use of primary

THE 8CIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

197

schools, and may be said to supci'sede the use of primei-s.
Besides making instruction pleasant !vnd profitable, it saves
much time and labour, and materially increases the instruc-
tor's teaching power. It will l)e seen that reading (and
even vioa voce com})osition) can bo taught young pupils by
means of this apparatus ; but the reading machine is a much
l)etter aid in this respect.

The Realiiig IMachino, of wliicli the above is a cut, was
devised (with some necessary alterations) from a model seen
by us some years ago in the Royal Museum at Naples. It
is simple in construction and very easily managed. It may
be described as a frame, or box, mounted on a movable
support and fixed so as to revolve on a horizontal axle, e, f.
It may be of any height or length, but its width from front

198

•«

precede
^prlHiijj.

THE 8CIBNCB AND ART OF TEACHING.

to rear need not exceed two and a half inches. The face or
front of the mac})inc may be divided into an many vertical
HectionH containing word«, aa the teacher may desire; — each
section Iwdng covered with Hlides which can be moved up-
wards or downwards at pleasure, one slide Uung absent in
each column. Inside these slides is a card, of suitable
dimensiouH, containing sentences arranged so that at any
stage of an expression the words will suit and make sense,
no matter which of the slides may be moved in the adjoin-
ing column. The teacher may remove the card and substi-
tute another by opening the baso-board, c, D. The iron feet
are sufficiently heavy and far apart to secure stability. It
would be advantageous to mount them on rollers. The card
headings, corresponding to th(^ spaces from a to b, contain
pictures representing the subject of the lesson (the lion for
instance) in various attitudes or relations.

According to Nature's mode of teaching, reading should
precede spelling in the order of sequence. The young child
acquires the use of words long before he is required to
analyze them into soimds, or express them by lettei*s. After
he has learned to read and write the letters of the alphabet
(small scrijjt or italic) he may, by means of the "reading
macliine," be taught to read short sentences. After read-
iii'^ a sentence, tlie words may be resolved into syllables and
letters, and then written by the teacher on the black-board,
the children dictatiiii' the letters. The children mav then
copy same, letter for letter, on their slates; after which they
should be required to read it collectively and simultane-
ously — finally spelling each word as they have written it.
The machine used for teaching spelling in some of the
Massachusetts primary schools (see fig., page 19G,) is about
three feet long by one and a half in breadth and two in
height, and when in use is fixed on a table set apart for the
purpose. The respective objects, and their names, letter
by letter, are exhibited to the class by the movement of

TUfi BCIKMCB AND ART OF TB-'CHINO.

the crank turned by the tmcher'a hr.nd — hovelled wheels
acting on the cylmdera inside Cfuise tlu'-ni to revolve, an<l thuH
roll the canvas round the drum at one end of the machine
(a), whiJHt it is unrolled at the other (6). In some primary
schools the "spelling stick" (see cut) is favoured with a
prominent place.

199

This instrument consists of a piece of wood, or iron,
properly fashioned and grooved for holding the card-board
letters. By the aid of this simple device the teachers of
primary classes will find it easy to command the attention
of their pupils, teach the form of letters, and show how to
combine them into words. It has been well said that " by
it« use words and their Hj)elling may be taught to a large
class with less outlay of time and })atience than is required
for teaching a single p\ipil with the book alone." It will
be seen that if words, instead of lettei*s, be placed on tlie
card-board, the Sjjelling Stick will be transformed into
a "Sentence Stick" — an instrument which may be very
advantageously used in teaching children how to constiiict
sentences, just as they had previously been shown how to
construct words. In fact this is done in the ordinary
manner, as above, with but little effort on the part of the
teacher. By means of " The Stick " the teacher may (with-
out the use of the rod) lead his primary classes to acquire,
almost unconsciously, a good working knowledge of the
first principles of composition.

200

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

How th«
higher
claaiies
nhoulil b«
Uught.

OnItT of
mer.t.

Pupils of the higher claflses should bo taught spelling by
means of dictation, cotni>osition and analysis of words.
S|)ellin^ is needed chiefly in writing, and is taught best in
connection wiUi that exercise. Its aajuisition, in this man-
ner, will cost comparatively little time or labour, and the
neceasary practice in writing words will ensure ibe pupil a
degree of facility in expressing his thoughts, which will be no
small help when he comes to study the art of composition.
Each [)Upil should provide himself with a dictionary, and
also with a spoiling book " without meanings." During the
preparation of his lesson he should write on his slate the
words proscribed, and attach their meanings as given in the
dictionary. The time fixed for spelling exercises having
arrived, and the class being called, the pupils will erase any
words they may have on the slates, and take their places
accortling to their order of merit in the last spelling class.
The teacher will then give out the words of the prescribed
lesson in irreijular order, and the pupils will write the same
to his dictation. This being done he will instruct them to
write the meanings, allowing a fixed time to do so. He will
then tell' them to hold down (or exchange) slates, after which
he will glanco over each and mark the errors, beginning at
the head of the class. When all the slates have been
examined thus, the pupils who have no erroi*s will take pre-
cedence, according to their order of merit, of those who have.
In like manner those who have only one error will take
pi-ecedence of those M^ho have two, whilst those who have
more than two may be " plucked," i. e. sent to their seats
with instructions to remain in during intermissions, or to
remain after school hours to study the lesson. The former,
that is, those who had but one or two errors, correct the same,
while the latter are returning to their seats. The teacher
examines the corrections and instructs the class to ** number,"
He then reads aloud the name of each individual in the
spelling class, from the " Daily Register of Progress."

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

201

been

e pre-

have.

take

have

seats

or to

ji-mer,

same,

eacher

nber."

n the

While doing so, eacli pupil, on mentioned, Htntes the " num-
ber" indicating bis standing in the claw as acquired during
the present losson. This number is imme<liately entered by
the teacher opposite© the pupil's name, under the proper date^
and so on from tirst to last. Pupils sent to their seats will
have no stiinding, and must take places in the class next
time after all their companions, and in the relative order
indioited by their register nuinl)er8 on the roll of the school.

The pupils of intermediate or junior chisses may not be How error*
compelled to give ** meanings for words " as indicated above, corrfotH.
but should be required to write them coiTectly, dividing
each into its proper syllables. The correct copying of prose
or poetry is an agi-eeablo exercise, and also an excellent me-
thod of teaching this subject. Pupils making mistakes in
8i>elling should invariably correct them in writing — on paper
or on the black-board — this will tend to fix them on the
tablet of the mind. Some teachers require pupils to prepare
thoir spelling exercises at home, but the circumstances of
each l)eiag diff»n'ent, and the facilities of acquisition variable,
we believe it would be better to have the work done in
school under official supervision. The higher classes should
study the philosophy of spelling while labouring to acquire
perfection in the art. This is often neglected by modern
students, but wjis never forgotten by our fathers. They
were also more skilful in the art than we are. They seem
to have had more time for pi-actice than their sons and
grandsons of the present age. In former times, besides the
ordinary daily lessons in spelling, there were what might be
called general field days. On these occasions the pupils (by
"choosing sides") divided into two parties, and were ranged
in lines opposite each other. The two best pupils in the
school made the "selections" alternately, under the super-
vision of the teacher. Sometimes, instead of "the whole
school being ranged against each other," irrespective of sex,
the girls became the opponents of the boys, or a class was
U

"Field days'
in spelling.

202

THE BCIENCB AKD ART OF TEACHING.

ran/;(e<l aguinHt a class. TIio woi-ds were th n given out by
the teacher, or by one of the pupils elected i'or the purpose,
and the lively contest commenced; or the pupils on either
side gave words to their op|)onents — words taken from
lessons that hiul l)een learned. Each pupil who missed a
word, fell out of line and took his seat, and at last only a
few remained standing on the "bloodless field." These
"heroes" then commencofl the contest anew (if time per-
mitted), and wagetl "war" until one had the high honour of
standing alone, "monarch of all he sui'veyed." This pupil
was then hailed as "champion s|K;ller" of the school, until
the varying fortunes of another battle gave his laurels to
some industrious rival. If time were limited, the side which
had the greater number standing after "the first round of
spelling" had been finished, might, of course, be regarded as
having won the match. We would not bo so minute in
describing this method were it not that it has fallen into
disuse, and may be forgotten, unknown, or misunderstood
by young teachers. It was formerly very popular, and is
so still, wherever used. It forms an agreeable variation
when the mind is fatigued with heavier studies, and, if
introduced, the teacher may rely on its favourable accept-
ance and general success.

CHAPTER IV.

READING.

Reading,
. and how to
teach it.

In reading, as in spelling and other exercises, the teacher,
of course, appoints the lesson beforehand. It is the custom
in many schools for pupils to go through their reading exer-
cise in their desks, each standing up when it comes to his

THK BTIKNCE Aim ART OP TeACIIllfa.

2on

torn to roa<l; but, if convrnient, it would Iw mlvirnvble for
the pupih to go tlirough this leiwon at the oIumi HtatiotiH, ^ tutrit.
tftking and changing placeH according to merit. Having
duly prcfKinMl tlio leHHon, and taken their resfKictive posi-
tionH, the teacher givi« the aigiuil to *'b«^gin," and then the
6nit pupil in the clasH cominenceN to read, previouHJy naming
the page, 8U> •jt3ct, etc. As a rule, l>efcre giving the order to
commence, '»f^ teacher should propose a few searching ques- tion«t4. jm-
tions, so that he may ascertain what the pupils really know leaaoim.
about the lesson. By this means he gains seveml necessary
advantages ; he leads the pupils to perceive how much they
have still to learn in connection with the subject; he excites
their curiosity to know more ; he gains and concentrates
their attention, and places himself in a [>osition to adapt his
teaching to their mental capacity and general ac(|uirements.
If consistent with his convenience, he should also ask a few
leading questions concerning the lesson, on the same subject,
immediately preceding the one under consideration. This
prwcticfi will enable him to retain and continue the thread
of succession. In reading exercises, strict attention should
be paid to the clear, distinct utterance of each word, to cor-
rect pronunciation, proper inflection, and just emphasis —
the teacher himself occasionally reading a sentence as a
model. Pupils detecting errora in the reading of their com-
panions should raise their right hand in token of dissent;
and one of them, specially selected by the teacher, should
make the necessary correction. If it be the custom of the
school that pupils are to be permitted to '^change places" in
their classes, taking precedence according to merit, then, if
several of the pupils have their hands up, the teacher, as a
rule, would require the correction to be made, or the correct
answer to be given, by the nearest boy to him who had
erred, and who maj have his "hand up." Should this party
answer satisfactorily, he should be allowed to "go up," that
is, to take precedence of the erring boy, and all the inter-

204

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

I I

Papils to
give u sum-
in iry of the
les«on at its

To quention
e»(;!i other.

Things to be
observed.

l<ei}Sons to
he of mod-
prate length.

mediate pupils, if any. At the close of each paragraph (if
the class be a junior one) questions might be advantageously
proposed relative to the meaning of the respective sentences
and component words. If necessary, explanations should
be given, diagmms and other illustrations exhibited, and,
finally, the pupils should l)e required to ex[)i"e8s the sense of
the paragraph in their own words. At the close of the
lesson (whether the classes l)e junior or senior) a general
summing uj» is desirable. Each pupil should be required to
name in order (wholly or in part) the successive steps in the
argument or discourse. The pupils may be occasionally per-
mitted, as a favour, to propose questions to each other con-
cerning the lesson — etich taking "place" according to his
skill and ability. The last or lowest pupil in the class
would, of coui*se, ask the first query, and the head of the
class would ask the last, according to this arrangement.
This CNercise will form an agreeable variation, and will
never fail to excite general interest, and to create an honest
rivalry amongst the pupils. It will cau.se them to seek
assistiiiice at home, so that they may be able to come to
school with a select stock of questions on the reading les-
son. This is a subject in which almost every parent will
be able to render assistance. Of course, all questions pro-
posed by pupils will be subject to such alterations, additions,
or omissions, as the t«acher may think necessary; and all
pupils must "ask questions having answers in the lesson."
The observance of this rule is necessary to the success of the
]>lan. Every Friday afternoon, the pupils may be allowed
to question each other on general topics — on the contents of
the several lessons learned during the week, for instance —
but no idle or unruly pupil should be allowed to take part
in this recreation. It will be observed, that thebo remarks
concerning exercises in reading, are equally applicable to
lessons in history, geography, and several other subjects.
Reading lessons should be of moderate length — ^the limits

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

205

being always fixed beforehand by the teacher. Every pupil
in a class should be required to pay strict attention to the
reading of his companions, and occasionally required to criti-
cise same. Should the teacher have reason to believe that
any pupil is careless or inattentive, he should stop proceed-
ings immediately, and ask him a question. Let him be
asked to read, for instance, and, should he not know the
place, let him be degraded and sent to the foot of
the class.

The best way to correct a bad style is to call the pupils' uow to vet-
attention to the characteristic excellencies of good reading — ffiw- *»tyi"!
instructing them to carefully note the i)eculiar causes of bad
reading. If a boy read badly, or in a slovenly and careless
manner, the teacher should ask if any of his companions can
read better. When he has ascertained how many of them
feel desirous of " offering improvements," he should call on
each pupil (having his hand up) to point out some defect,
and finally require one of them to read the sentence again.
He may then encourage them to [)oint out the difference
between the reading of the former and that of the latter,
and so on until all have read. The following is also a good
method of improving style, viz., let the children be requested
to relate some anecdote, or a short history of their own life
and experience. After it has been stated viva voce, let them
be required to write it on paper, taking care to observe the
same order of narration. This being done, let each pupil,
ill turn, be requested to read his own composition. It will
be found that pupils can read their own productions, of this
nature, much more efficiently than they can read other
compositions. They may thus be led to discover, that, as a
rule, good readers must deliver a piece as they would recite
it, were the composition their own — that they must read
as they would speak, or as they would relate a personal
anecdote.

<tt

2Q6

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

The concert
method.

The pupils should be occasionallj required to road in
concert — that is, all together — taking the time from the
teacher, or some of their more efficient companions. This
exercise will cure them of many defects, such as false
emphasis, etc. At the close of each sentence or paragraph
the teacher should call for criticisms, or point out such
defects as he had noticed and wished them to avoid. In
reading exercises, attention should be directed to the ideas
expressed, rather than to the foi-m of expression. The
lesson should bo repeated until the ideas contained therein
become familiar. Should the pupil fail to observe or under-
stand these ideas, they must be pointed out and explained ;
after which, his attention may be directed to the form of
expression — to the spelling, derivation, and syllabification
of the more important words, etc., the black-board being
freely used.

It would be advisable to got the pupils to point out on
maps or globes the position of all places mentioned in his-

{loned irT" torical or geographical lessons, as well as in reading exercises.

lessons. If maps or globes are not convenient they can point towards
the places, giving their positions with respect to some known
locality. At the close of the lesson the pupils may be
directed to ask for any additional information — direct or
collateral — which they may desire concerning it ; but they
should not be allowed to ask " idle questions," or queries,
which have nothing to do with the subject. During the
progress or delivery of the lesson they may be allowed to
take or "change places," according to their efficiency or
ability in answering. At the close of the lesson the teacher
orders them to" number, and then copies these numbers into
the register of daily progress, as described elsewhere. Before
dismissing the class, the teacher should always fix the limits
of the next lesson on the same subject. The register of
progress, if properly kept, will present an accurate daily
record of ea,ch pupil's scholarship and deportment. How-

Pupils to
leant the
position of

THE SCIENCE AND AAT OF TEACHING.

207

ever, it cannot be accurately kept unless the record is made

at the close of each lesson ; and without accuracy it will a substitute

command no confidence, and its moral effect will be lost, ter of daily

When the staff of instructors is small in comparison with the

number of pupils, it is questionable whether the teachers

can spare time to keep such a register of daily progress as

that alluded to. In this case " merit cards" may be used as

a substitute. By their aid, teachers may secure most of the

good results of accurate records with less expense of time.

We may here remark that teachers who
keep Class Records or Registers of Progress
should never fail to summarize same on or
about the first day of every month, so as to
ascertain the relative merit of theu' pupils
and give each his proper position on the
Monthly Roll of Honour. In New England
and New York it is the custom of the teach-
ers of the more respectable public schools to
prepare a Monthly Register of Merit in the
form of a " School Index " (see cut) ; and, so
far as we could learn, its introduction and
constant use has been attended with the
happiest results. The School Index is hung
on the walls (generally in some c nspicuous
place), where it can be easily seen and exam-
ined by the pupils, parents and visitors. It
consists of a black walnut or other frame, in
which are arranged, inside a glass front, small
pieces of wood, or slate, the names of pupils
being written on same once a month, in their
relative order of merit. One side of the
frame is hinged, so that it can be opened whenever the
teacher desires to make any change in the order or position
of the names. This machine may be used to indicate (1)

K^ffl

WmTSM

SCHOOL INDSX.

208 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

the standing of each pupil as to Scholarship alone ; or (2)
Dei)ortment alone ; or (3) Scholarship and Deportment,
with attendance, the marks obtained in all subjects being
added together for this purpose. When used, there should
be ar. " Index " for each Class or Division of the School.

CHAPTER V.

WRITING.

To be taught
at an early
age.

Firat lesaon.

The practice of writing is often foolishly delayed until
the child reaches a certain age or certain class, etc. We
believe it should be one of the first subjects taught. So
soon as children have learned the names of the letters of
the alphabet, they should be permitted to indulge in the
pleasure of wi'iting — " making" each letter on their slates as
they learn (or even before they learn) its name, the teacher
first printing same on the black-board. The first letters
taught should be the smaller script or italic ; and, if brought
before them in a proper maimer, thoy will know, and be
able to write, the alphabet in a few days. They can then
learn to write small words. Attention should be directed,
' an early date, to the proper manner of holding a pen or
pencil. The teacher will guide, modify and correct the
pupils' attempts in writing, but it would not be wise to
insist on too rigid a uniformity in the style. No two per-
sons are alike, mentally or physically, and handwriting, like
a man's face, will always be characteristic and personal —
similar, yet different. Let the pupil's capacity in this
respect, as in others, bo developed, disciplined, and regu-
lated, but never artificially forced.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

209

When tho time prescribed in the Time Table for the How to

teach it

practice of writing amvea, the teacher should call tue school
to attention by touching his bell. He then gives his pre-
liminary command as foPows^ "First division (second or
third as the case may be) prepare to write." Tlien the
slates, books, etc., of the division, or divisions, addressed
are quietly returned to their proper places. Pens, ink, and
copy books having been conveniently arranged, the pupils
sit perfectly still until they receive the signal to *' Begin,"
from the teacher. When tlie time allotted to writing has
been completed, the principal or his assistant should close
proceedings as follows : -" Writers ! finish lines" — a pause.
"Clean pens" — a pause. " Deposit pens." He then touches
his bell, and all the writers rise, holding their copy bookr
in their hands. Another stroke of the bell (or the command,
"Places") orders them to their class stations — each pupil
taking his place accordin^^ to his standing or order of merit
in writing on the preceding day. Then the principal and
his assistants, (if there be two or more classes) pass round the
class (beginning with the "head") and examine the writing ; »

and while doing so, assign to each individual the place he
deserves in the order of merit. The order to " Number" is
then given, and the standing of each pupil is entered in the
" Register of Progress." This being done, the command
"To seats" is given, and all march off to their desks "in
Indian file." Each pupil should lose a place in his class
(i. e.f be degraded one place), for every blot or error in his
copy. If the " Merit Card System" is in use, the teacher
may give a merit to every one deserving of it, taking care
to give none to those who have blots or errors. In such
cases pupils are generally fined a " merit" if their exercise
in writing exhibits more than one blot or one error.

Before concluding this subject, it may be well to say that Working
children can be classified for the practice of writing, in meuts.
classes, sections, or divisions. The children of the lower

210

Primary
classes.

Supervision
and correc-
tion.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

classes should sit in front, and those of the higher in the
hindermost desks. When arranged and sub-divided in this
way according to their proficiency in the art, the senior
classes engage in copying from a head-line in their copy
books, or from one on the bhick-board, or from copy slips
placed before them for that purpose (as aforesaid) ; whilst
the principal or his assistant (taking a convenient position
before the same or another black board) gives instruction to
the junior pupils in the general principles of the science.

Teachers of writing in the primary department must, of
necessity, devote considerable time to instruction of this
kind ; and, if properly managed, children of very tender
years will take a great delight in the exercise. The pupils
being furnished with slates and pencils, and liaving learned
how to sit and how to hold the pen, the teacher will draw
the straight stroke on the board, and direct attention to
its slope, uniform thickness, and other characteristics, after
which the little ones will copy it, each endeavouring to profit
by the instructions received. When they have grown expert
at this exercise, the upper and lower "ties" or " crooks" (as
they are called) may be introduced. Then the characteristics
of the curve may be pointed out, the children copying it after
receiving the necessary preliminary explanations. When
sufficiently posted in these exercises, lessons should be given
on the formation of letters — each pupil being required to
copy the same accurately from the black-board. This pre-
liminary course " may be gone through on the slates." But
the use of pen and paper should be introduced at its close.
If the pupils copy from the same kind of head-lines (whether
from the copy book or black-board) uniformity and simi-
larity of writing will be the result. "Young beginners"
may, for a short time, have the lines " pencilled."

While the pupils are practising their writing exercise, the
principal, or one of his assistants, should pass up and down
the aisles, pointing out errors, or leading the children to

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

411

1 the

L this

enior
copy
slips

v^hilst

sition

ion to

Be.

ist, of

f this

tender

pupils

sarned

I draw

bion to

i, after

) profit
expert

ks" (as

eristics

it after
When

e given

ired to
lis pre-
" But
is close,
/whether
id simi-
;inners"

sise, the
d down
dren to

discover them hy comparison with the original headline or
copy slip. It would be advistible that he should take a
pupil's "copy" to the black-board and copy the errors in
spelling, the malformation of letters, etc., and then require
the pupils to point them out, deducing from themselves
personally (by reference to the original) the principles to
be observed in connection with the subject. In writing, as
in all other subjects, the teacher should prefer quality to
quantity, being more desirous that all should write well,
than that a few should write par excellence.

CHAPTER VI.

ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.

Arithmetic should be made an exercise of the mind, and Arithmetic

. 1 " J. • If 1 rrw. • £> , as a mental

not a mere application ot rules. The science of numbers exercise.
and art of computation afford, perhaps, the best facilities
for the healthy exercise of the mental faculties. An intelligent
knowledge of the powers^ principles, and properties of num-
bers, combined with precision and despatch in their manipu-
lation, effectually cultivate all the faculties of the mind, and
in after years will enable the pupil to transact the business
of daily life with credit to himself and employers. It is,
perhaps, one of the best subjects for teaching pupils methods
of thought, and how to reason ; as well as what to do, and
how to do it.

Children generally acquire their first knowledge of number First ideas
by learning to count their own fingers. In primary schools
the first ideas of number are usually imparted in this way,
or by means of the ball- frame, the pupils being occasionally
required to reckon marbles, pins, maps, the panes of glass in

212

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINO.

Written
arithinetic,

a window, etc. Children should be taught the elementary
rules on a sort of oomraon-sense principle. Beginning with
simple thingJ4, they should be " inveigled" (or le<l) on by
degrees to the comprehension of more complicated ideas.
Children always seem to experience some difficulty in under-
standing abstract numbers, and for this reason they should
(at fii*st) bo taught to connect them with visible objects. In
the elementary exercises, they should be gradually led to
discover that the name and kind of the artichis reckoned,
do not affect the result — that numbers, in themselves, are
abstract ; that 2 and 3 make 5, whether they be marbles,
cows, horses, cr abstnict units ; tliat the different orders
of units increase from right to left, and decrease from left
to right in a ten-fold ratio ; and that the removal of a figure
one place to the right or left, increases or decreases its value
ten-fold.

Having acquired the names of the numerals, formed cor-
rect ideas of their simple and local values, and learned how
to solve easy questions, in multiplication and division, they
may commence the study of written arithmetic — the rules
being deduced from the examples in all cjises. The exercises in
arithmetic (and in algebra also, so far as practicable), should
always be thickly interspersed with questions occurring in,
or applicable to, the transactions of daily life. The teacher
may occasionally introduce a little variety into the subject,
by writing the queries on the black-board. The various
classes (standing at the draft stations, or sitting at their
Rapiditvand ^®sk^)» copy and solve these questions as rapidly and cor-
rectly as possible. " The first done" (if his work be correct)
takes the first place, the " second done " takes the second
place, and so on to the end. This exercise is conducted in
some places in the following manner : We will suppose the
pupils to be standing at their class stations, *' armed with
slates and pencils." The teacher writes the query on the
black-board ; the pupils copy and solve it. The first done

accuracy.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF THACHINO.

213

entary
r with
on by
ideas,
uiider-
bIiouM
;t8. In
lod to
koiied,
es, are
arbles,
orders
)m left
L figure
} value

icd cor-
ed how
11, they
rules
cisos in
should
ing in,
teacher
ubject,
various
bt their
tid cor-
orrect)
second
cted in
>o8e the
id with
on the
st done

calls out the word "one," and deposits his slate on the floor
— first writing his name thereon. He then stands erect as
before. The second done calls out the word " two," and
follows the example of his predecessor. Each pnrty writes
a large figure on his slate to represent the nunib<»r he willed
out. When all have done, or a reasonable time has ela})sed,
the teacher writes the answer on the black-board, and all the
pupils raise their slates and hold them immovably in such a
position as will enable the teacher to conveniently examine
them lus he passes round to *' inspect the work." This being
done the pupils, whose work is connect, tjike })laces according
to the order of merit indicated by the " numbers " aforestiid.
Another plan is as follows : As each pupil solves the ques-
tion, let him deposit his slate on the table, taking ci\i*e to
place it on top of that of his predecessor. When all have
done, the slates will thus l>e piled one on top of the other.
Jjct the teacher then reverse the pile, and the slate of the
boy who haxi done tii-st, will be on the top. The teacher can
then examine each slate, and, if the work be connect, the
pupils will take places according to the order in which the
slates come to hand. If many of the pupils fail to solve the
query, the teacher should solveit himself on the black-board,
explaining the different steps of tiie work. He should occa-
sionally call on one of the pupils to exhibit and explain
their solutions on the black-board. This is a wholesome and
laudable practice. Such variations are highly commendable,
and never fail to make school work attractive.

The following is, we believe, a more excellent way for ^ ^^^^
teaching algebra, arithmetic, etc., than either of the foregoing : nfe^^od ^f
We will take it for granted that the walls of the school are J^**^el^tj(.3
all set with "liquid slating," or other material for black-board
purposes. Let the black-boards be divided into spaces by
upright lines 30 inches apart. Let each of these spaces be
numbered, and a supply of crayons and brushes placed on
the shelf beneath. On a signal from the teacher let the

THE BCI::SCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

pupilfl arrange themwjlves in claw-form all round tho room
— a pii|)il in front of each space, armed with a crayon. Let the
teach(3r divide the pupils into sections — ^the odd numbers
being section 1, and the even numl>ers section 2; or vice
versd. By this arrangement no two pupils of the same
section will be together — the individuals of each section
will be alternate, arul there can, therefore, be little or no
"copying." The teacher will then dictate a question to
section 1, and they will instantly commence its solution. He
will then give a difterent question to section 2, and they in
like manner will set to worL with such energy and vigour
as to command our sympathies and admiration. As each
pupil finishes the solution, ho deposits his crayon and faces
the centre, awaiting' further onlers. To procure despatch, as
well as accuracy, the pupil in each section who first solves
the question, is allowed a higher "mark" than his com-
panions ; and to prevent confusion ho is required to say
** Fii'st," as ho faces the centre. When all (or nearly all)
have done, the teacher, standing in the centre, or at hiw desk,
calls on the "tirat pupil" to read his answer. If it be correct
he (the pupil) marks a X opposite the name or registsr num-
ber on his portion of the black-board, and he underlines same
(thus >f ) to show that he was first in the order of merit in
that particular exercise. Two underlined X's count "three,"
*. e,f the first pupil receives an additional " half mark " as
the reward of his superior despatch. All others, whose work
is correct, will mark X alone. Those who are wrong will
mark — instead of X- Each pupil registers hifi own work
in the presence and under the inspection of his rivals. At
the close of the lesson the pupil writes three figures on the
black-board ; the first indicates the number of " problems "
read to the section ; the second, preceded by a minus si^,
indicates the number missed; and the third, preceded by the
sign of equality, showB the number he has solved correctly,
ai^ indicated by X's- The teacher then reooipds each pupil's

THB SCIENCE AND ART Of TEACHING.

215

as
work
5 vrill
work
, At
311 the
lems"

sign,
by the
rectly,

upil's

merits in the clasH regiHter, glancing, if neceraary, at the
marking on the black-l>oard. Should any pupilH of a nection
fiftil to work the question, then some of the successful ones
are required to go through the work and explain the respec-
tive stages of difficulty, the remaining successful pupils being
required to assist from time to time. When arithmetic is
properly taught it becomes a sort of mental recreation, and
will always be popular in school — not only for the means of
improvement it affords, but for the agreeable excitement and
peculiar pleasure which always accompany trials of skill
when the opponents are of the same, or nearly the same,
mental calibre, and inspired by the desire to excel.

Teachers should see that every pupil is well grounded in welCgro^ndT-
the various arithmetical ttibles and elementary rules, so as *^ *" ^^^^*-
to be able to apply them rapidly to the practical (or business)
affairs of every-day life, and the general manipulations of
numbers. As correctness and despatch are the principal
objects aimed at, the pupils should be instructed in all con-
tracted methods of calculation, and encouraged to '* read,
mark, learn, and inwardly digest" the laws and principles
on which such systems are based ; so that, if necessary, they
may be able to discover other methods for themselves. As

. , MenUlarith-

a rule, mental anthmetic should be taught to every class in metic.
the school, always being preliminary to the study of the
written work. In fact, every " rule" of arithmetic should
be preceded by a mental courae bearing specially on that
particular branch of the subject. The principles on which
the rule is founded should be duly explained and thoroughly before rules.
understood — practically and theoretically — before the pupils
commence the investigation and solution of the exercises
contained in the text-book under that heading. The skilful
teacher will ha.ye little difficulty in leading pupils of average
ability to discover these principles for themselves. When
they understand the laws, and have discovered the principles
on which the subject of study is based, they can be easily

210

I low to

MOIUlititioU

MOIUI

• .rkn
liilge,

iiW-

§\

THB 8CIENCK AMD ART OF TKACHHrO.

led, by a few judioiuus, well-connect«<l quefitioim, to give
oxpreHsioii And form to " the rule." Each pupil should
then ho re<{uirod to Holve some exerciM08 in accordance wHh
the i-ule thus formed — explaining the principles involved in
each Htop of the work ; after which they may refer to their
)HH)k8 and road the rule there given, c(>m{)tiring it with the
one discovered by " thoinMclveH. '''hey will then see with
their eyew and ** undoifstand with their hearta ;" for they
will have di.scovei*o.l with thoir minds, heard with their ears,
and worked with their handu. Things thua learned will
never Im3 forgotten.

In teaching mental calculations it would always l>e wise
to commence with sensible objects — objects familiar to the
pupils. Should a ditfioulty arise in treating of abstract
numbai-s, the pupils will fro(juently solve it if referred to
f imiliar thiugs ; that is, if the respective numbers be a])plied
to things within their comprehension. Tlie numbers (or
quantities) treated of in the lower chisses should be of small
value (or dimensions) — so small as to be esisily comprehended
by young minda of avera^'e ability. Teachers conducting
arithmetical (or mathematical) exercises should never forget
to elicit, by frequent (juestions, whether the pupils under-
stand the reason (** the why and the wherefore") of each
step in the process in the i^espective solutions. Such dili-
gent and persevering laboui-s will be sure to produce much
fruit.

CHAPTER VII.

GEOGRAPHY.

Geography- Every school should be provided with a compass, a globe,

study.*'" '*' and two sets of good maps — one set filled in and the other

blank. It would be advisable, perhaps, to commence the

tus soibnck amd ait op TEACIIINO.

217

study of gnogiuphy hy directing the attention of the pupils
to the natunil feutuitM of thoir own immediate neighbour-
hood. The peculiar chaructoriHtics of hilU, mountains,
valleyH, ishindM, {KininHuhiH, lakcH, gulfH, Hean, l>ay8, Htntitn,
etc., may tliUH be deduced. Tlie distribution of animulM and
vegettiblcH may then be i>ointed out, and the phenomena of
springH, fountains, deserts, volcanoes, etc., fudy exjdained.
Lessons on winds, currents, tides, climates, latitude, longitude,
eclipses, and other such matters would, of course, follow in
regular order. The *' canlinal points" should be the subject
of one of the early lessons in geograj)hy. Having learned
how to "box the compass," the pupils may \ie required to noxintrthrt
(>oint to any places named (or indicated on the maps), giving
their " bearings" or position with respect to some well known
city, country, or district. " Beginning at home," they should
first give the position of all places in the immeiliate locality,
the school (or their personal residence) being taken as " the
fixed point." They may then be required to point in the
direction of remote towns, cities, or countries. A map of
their own city, vicinity, or county (if convenient), should
then be introduced, and the pupils thoroughly grounded in
the contents. When teaching geography, the scale of the
map, (or chart) of the part of the world under consideration,
should be one of the first things to which attention ought to
be directed. Indeed it would not be amiss to give them a
preliminary lesson on the measurement of space as exhibited
on maps, charts, or globes. Latitude and longitude can be i-'»titudeBn'»
effectually explained by drawiufj two chalk Unas on the floor and how to

; , . , , ,x . , , ^ • , teach thi-iiv

(or on the black-board) at right angles to and cutting each

other. One of these would represent the equator and the

other the first meridian. The pupils could then be easily

led to perceive that all objects on either side of the line

representing the former, would be north or south, whilst

those situated on it (or immediately under it) would be

neither one nor the other — in other words, that all places

LM8

R >t'iti<>i» of
t lie earth,
ami (tilfcr-

•« rices of

.time.

I I

Hints on
the use of
maps and
. charts.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniXO.

under the equator have no latitude, and that those on cither
side of it have north or south hititudo according to tlieir
position. In liko manner they would easily discover that
all placo.s under the tii*8t meridian have no longitude, and
that all places to the right or left of it are in east or west
longitude respectively. The globe may then be introduced,
and the i)ujnls led to perceive how the respective meridians
(marked thereon) " come under the sun" in regular succes-
sion during the space of twenty -four hours — the earth in
the meantime making one complete revolution on its axis,
every point on its surface, except the poles, describing a
circle or SGO"^. Having thus learned that the earth revolves
on its axis at the rate of 360° in twenty-four hours, they
will easily perceive that it rotates 15° in one hour, or 1° in
four minutes. Hence, j^eople say that " fifteen degrees of
longitude make a difTerence of one hour in time." The cal-
culation of time from difference of longitude (or of longitude
from difference of time) will originate many questions of an
instructive and interesting nature. The pupils will easily
perceive that time varies as the longitude changes, but the
fact that all places east of them have earlier time than they
have, and that all places west have later time, will at fii*st
cause some confusion. The action of the sun and moon
with reference to alternate light and dai-kness, etc., being
explained and understood, the attention of the pupils may
be directed to the orbitual motion of the earth, when the
causes of the seasons and other collateral matters may be
fully discussed.

The first map introduced, in teaching political geography,
should be that of the city, township, or county in which the
school is situated ; the second should be that of the state or
country; the third, that of the continent which includes
their particular nation. Map-drawing should go hand in
hand with these subjects, each pupil being requested to
sketch maps on the black-board, or to fill up those drawn

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

219

(in outline) by the teacher, correctly locating the cities, de-
lineating the rivers, mountains, etc. As a preliminary exer-
cise to this, the teacher should point to certain localities on
the blank map, desiring the pupils to name the places, and
mention their natural characteristics, historical associations,
etc. The difference of countries (or parts of countries) in
physical appearance, mineral wealth, and geological forma-
tion, should be pointed out. Attention should be specially
directeJ to their agricultural productions, manufacturing en-
terprise, and commercial facilities ; nor should the national
character of the modern and ancient inhabitants be over-
looked or forgotten. The maps of the great empires of
antiquity should be studied in connection with ancient
history. It should always be borne in mind that a vast
amount of geographic«al and historical iziformation is acquired
incidentally. For this reason every city, river, mountain,
etc., mentioned in the respective lessons, should be pointed
out on the maps, and then a short summary should be given
of their historical associations.

The principal things to be attended to in teaching Order of
geography are as follows — to commence with some known geograpjiy.
locality, and direct attention to its physical features, or
rather by a series of skilful questions to lead the pupils to
state its natural peculiarities, political importance, etc.; to
draw (or cause the pupils to draw) an outlin.d map of the
district under consideration ; to require the pupils to point
with their finger towards any place mentioned, or to indi-
cate its position on the map, globe, or chart, relating, at
the same time, the characteristics of the locality and the
historical events associated with the name. At the close
of the lesson the pupils may be allowed to question each
other on the contents of same.

The following may give some idea as to the order in which Geogra-
the geographical facts of a country, continent, 0£ island Bummary
should be introduced to a class: — (1) Boundaries, (2) Extent

'2-20

Wcfikly
Reviews.

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

and divisions, (3) General character of surface, (4) Internal
watera, (5) Nature of soil and climate, (C) Productions,
(7) Cities and towns, (8) Facilities of intenml comnuinica-
tion, (9) Inhabitants — Race, (10) Education, religion and
government, (11) Science and art, (12) MLscellaneous facts.
During a short time every Friday the pupils may be per-
mitted (as aforesaid) to examine each other on the subjects of
study during the week. When eacli pupil lias asked his
query, the teacher, if so disposed, may propose a series of
general questions on the present and preceding lessons, and
also mention such collateral matters as occurred to him
during the "mutual examination."

■

CHAPTER VIII.
ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE.

How Nature Nature, when teaching a language, always commences
laiiKuaKes*"* With nouns. She impels the young child to begin with sim-
ple sounds — words of one syllable, such as ma, pa, ba, da,
etc. She then prompts him to repeat them at shr»rt inter-
vals — ^hence the combinations of ma-ma, pa-pa, ? "> etc.
Hia words, at first, are all names (nouns) j adj c.j' >, apd
^ certain pronouns, follow in regular succession. B^ ...utar^
tion, he gradually acquires the use of verbs — and all this
time he has no knowledge of the grammatical relations of
words. The ideas expressed are stored up in hia mind; a
language has been learned, but the memory has not been
burdened with words. In fact, Nature has never called
upon him to exert his memory for that purpose She re-
quired him to remember the ideas, but allowed him to lot

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

221

the words take care of themselves. Yet, by preserving the
ideas, she has made the words his own. They return with
tlie respective ideas, but lie is unconscious of having ever
occupied himself in acquiring them. While exercising his
fuCTilties in the acquisition of knowledge, he has, without
any special exertion, learned to speak and understand a
language — the elements of which he uses correctly, without
knowing when or how he acquired them. The ideas compris-
ing this knowledge were impi^essed on the mind by the action
of the judgment or will ; but the words must have been
committed to memory unconsciously and unintentionally.

When Nature uses words as a medium for conveying Mental
ideas, they are always kept in the >)ack ground. The ideas to preceriu'*
exist first in the speaker's mind, and often suggest the words
which give them expression. Should the ideas be vigor-
ously conceived, words will follow naturally, correctly, and
in the form and order required. Should the mind attempt
to grasj) both the ideas and words at one and same time,
tlie attention will be divided and distracted, and the under-
standing little benefited. Should the mind attend to words
alone, the comprehension will be weakened, and the intel-
lect degraded. Ideas should, therefore, precede words.

It is injudicious to cultivate the memory at the expense Nature's
of the reason and judgment, as the mere acquisition of les- teachhi^
sons by rote will not promote intellectual improvement. In
such cases, the recun*ence or expression of ideas depends on
a set form of words, and can, therefore, never make a per-
manent lodgment in the memory. If words be preferred to
ideas, the texture of the mind will be injured, and its im-
pressions weakened. Such a preference would not only
enervate the understanding, but ultimately produce, more or
less, incapacity of thought. It would, moreover, cause
children to dislike study, and thus injure or destroy their
chances of s\iccess in after life. A chapter, first read for the
sake of its ideas alone, and for the sake of the pleasure it

990

Acquisition
iitade easy.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

affords, will produce impressions far more clear and per-
manent than if it were first "learned by rote," and then
"sifted for ideas."

In committing lessons to memory, the first object of the
pupil should be to understand the ideas ; second, to arrange
them in natural or consecutive order as in the book ; third,
to clothe them in appropriate words ; fourth, to commit
them to memory for future use. In this, as in all other
educational matters, the powei*s of the mind must be con-
centrated upon one thing, and only one, at a time ; and tlie
attention must not be diverted until that thing be tho-
roughly known. Nature first imparts ideas, and then sup-
plies appropriate words or terms. Her order of instruction
should never be reversed. Such a course would, more or
less, be sure to paralyze physical effort, and promote men-
tal debility. Let us, therefore, study her means, follow her
methods, and conform to the order of sequence and devel-
opment exhibited in her teachings ; we may then entertain
a reasonable hope that success will crown our efforts.

Composition
to accom-
pany the
study of
{{rnnuiiar.

CHAPTER IX.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

In the nature of things, English composition, both spoken
and written, should precede or accompany the study of
English grammar. Grammar should be introduced in con-
nection with sentences composed by the pupils, and written
from their dictation by the teacher on the black-board, or it
may be introduced through the aid of the Reading Machine
(see page 227). By these means its study becomes an intel-
lectual exercise, and the children are taught the principles
of the science through the medium of the eye.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

223

The matliod of treating the subject will, of coui-so, depend {Jj^j,^
very much on the a^e and mental capacities of the children, j^*^^^"
If they be very young, the subject may be introduced by i»ui»'»«-
asking thorn to m3ntion the names of some things or places
they see or have seen. Such answers as liouse, tree, field,
boat, book, river, etc., may be given in reply. The seh'ction
of the names should be left to themselves, as it is a matter
of importance that they sliould have a clear idea of the
meaning of each term. The words, thus given, are written
vertically on the black-board, in their order of sequence —
the plurals being placed in an opposite column. The teacher
then points to the word hoiise, tree, or field, etc., and asks
what kind it may be] Tn all likelihood they will answer
"nice," "pretty," "green," etc., and then these qualities —
these words — are written before the names of the things to
which they allude — the pupils spelling as the teacher writes.
They are then asked "what these" new words "tell us of the
names'?" and will probably answer — "Their kind, their
quality." They may then be informed that another word
for names is "nouns" — and that both words are similar in
meaning. The word "nouns" is then written over the list
of names, and the pupils are informed (because they could
not be expected to discover it themselves) that words which
express "kind or quality" are called "adjectives." They
are then asked what the nice house, the pretty tree, the
large field, etc., might do? and may reply, "The nice house
falls," "the pretty tree blossoms," etc. They are then asked
to mention something they themselves could do? and will
probably give some such reply as — "We talk, learn, eat,
drink, jump, and sleep," etc. If asked what these words
tell us, they may repl}' — "They tell us of the doing of some-
thing." The teacher may then inform th^ra thtit "words
which tell us of the doing of something," are called verbs.
The question is then asked — "What h;ive you been learn-
ing'?" and they will probably reply, "We have been learning

hgrani-

224

Coniitniiv
tion and
clasaiHca-
tiou.

Iiilleetioiia
die.

Grammar to
be made in-
teresting.

THE EfCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

about nouns, atljectivoa, and verbs," They are then required
to define these words viva voce, or on their slutes or black-
board, f^iving e.vamplcs of each. The other parts of speech
should bo taught in much the same manner.

The pupils should then be "practised" in the construction
of sentences containing all the parts of speech. Tlie point-
ing out of the several parts of spt^ech as they occur in an
ordinary reading lesson, is also a good method of impressing
them with correct ideas of chussification. Occasionally, they
may be required to write out the diffei*ent parts of speech
in a certain number of sentencea, taking care to place each
word under its proper heading. A few preliminary exer-
cises on the Reading and Paraing Machine will afford mate-
lial assistance in this respect.

The properties or inflections of the different parts of
speech may then be taught on the same common-sense prin-
ciple, each being attended w^th so much "practical drill"
as may be sulncieut to permanently fix the subject on the
pupils' mind. Tlie pai-ts of speech, an, I their variations or
inflections, being thus " imprinted on the tablets of the
memory," the principles of concord and government may be
introduced, the teacher taking care to lead the children to
discover the laws and rules of syntax for themselves. He
can do this by a series of judicious questions relative to the
composition, or verbal construction, of certain sentences,
written specially on the black-board — -said sentences to con-
tain the piinciples (or violation of principles) involved in
the rule to be deduced.

Grammar is usually considered "a very dry subject," and
one of which the pupils of many schools entertain a certain
undefined dread, or suspicious awe, arising principally from
imperfect methods of teaching. The pupil, left to himself
and the usual text book, finds that he is expected to ac-
quii'e, and even love, that which he does not comprehend or
esteem; and he is whipped or disgraced if he fails to perform

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

225

the allotted task. Poor fellow! his lot is not an enviable
one. I fear that we teachers have a great deal to answer
for. We often lose sight of the fact that we were not always
wise or learned men ourselves. Perhaps we are still want-
ing in this respect. We seldom take the trouble to bring
ourselves down to the pupil's mental level, so that we may
look out on his difficulties from a child's standpoint. Yet,
it is only by such condescension that we can discover and
remove these obstacles. In fact, we have yet to learn how
to deal with children as we would wish teachers to deal
with us, were we children once mo- o. To be successful
teachers, we must become as little children. Gnvmmar,
being considered "a dry subject" by childi-en, it behooves
the teacher to aim at making it as interesting as any other
subject. If he can do this, and also duly impress the pupils
with a just sonse of its utility, they will, smile at the idea of
its being ''dry," and become as thoroughly posted in it as
in any other subject — if not more so.

It is a matter worthy of note that pupils " well up" in
grammar, are invariably well posted in the other school
subjects. This probably arises from the fact that owing to
imperfections in the method of teaching, and to non -develop-
ment of the reason and judgment, pupils are generally on
the confines of manhood before they thoroughly understand
" what grammar is all about" — before they can comprehend
its principles, or intelligently apply its rules. By the adop-
tion of the common-sense method, previously alluded to,
pupils will be enabled to educate themselves (so to speak),
and the teacher will skilfully lead them, by the judicious
exercise of their own minds, to discover the vaiious laws and
principles peculiar to each element of the language — merely
supplying them with the proper terms as occasion requires.

As aforementioned, when the pupils are thoroughly posted
on " the Parts of Speech," the teacher must retrace his
steps and — considering them one by one — lead the children

Au obscrva-
tiun.

Thi* GraTii-
matical va-
riiationa.

226

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

to discover the variations of each. By inducing them to
observe the genius and common usages of our language,
and by leading them to illustrate the same by rofei*ence to
fitmiliat* examples, they cannot fail to discover the rules of
syntax for themselves — the teacher giving form to the
expression of their ideas when necessary.* In this way they
will be led to tliiuk for themselves, while acquiring the ideas
and experience of others ; their thoughts will become more
original, and their conco})tions, like the rose-buds of early
spring, will gi'adually unfold until they expand into full-
grown flowers. The i)upils will thus be educated in the
true sense of the word.
CompoHition Composition and grammar should bo taught in conjunc-
and original, tion — they naturally go "hand in hand with each other."
In practising composition, the pupils will be enabled profit-
ably to employ the principles learned in grammar. It may
consist of two kinds — original and secondary. In the order
of sequence (or study), secondary composition should always
precede original. In first-class schools, one hour a week
should, at least, be devoted to the study of the science and
art of composition ; two hours would not be too much. In
some cases parents and friends will be likely to render con-
siderable assistance, and it may, therefore, be advisable to
occasionally appoint it as a " Home Exercise." If it be a
" Sacondary Composition," the ideas may be appropriated
from the works of some standard author, or from some lesson
given by the teacher; but they must be neatly dressed in
the pupils' own language. When criticising the MSS. of
pupils, the teacher should pay strict attention to the vera-
city of the information, the style, orthography, penmanship,
punctuation, use of capitals, etc.

Before concluding thLs subject we may observe that Eng-
lish grammar, regarded as a text-book, is a collection of the
laws and principles which should govern the expression of
English thought. It should therefore be borne in mind that

Tli« licst
tcncher of
graniinar
und cotn-
)>osition.

Jl^v. Dr. Davies.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

22;

Eng-
of the
3ion of
id that

the niles of jsn^mmar are merely the expression in words of
tlie recognized usages of language. Ke who can most success-
fully lead his pupils to discover these principles and usages
for themselves, l)efore they attempt to learn the rules by
rote, will Ik? the most successful teacher of grammar and
composition.

One hour per week, at least, should be set apart for the importance

... and utility

practice of " letter writing. This is one of the most useful (.f eon-os-
and impoi-tant branches of composition. Other branches
may Imj regarded as an accomplishment, but this is a neces-
fcity in every sphere of life. It behoves every respectable
citizen to be an expert correspondent. It is a matter of
fact that there are many intelligent and respectable people
in this enlightened country (and fair scholara too) who aro
totally unable to write a passable letter. This defect should
be remedied at once so far as the rising generation are
concerned"; and there is no more effectual way for doing so
than by introducing " correspondence" into all our schools —
taking care to prescribe it as one of the regular periodical
exercises. Its importance should be duly i cognized on the
progi'amme of studios. In every stage and * ondition of life
it is one of the most useful and asTeeable exercises. Never-
theless, at the present moment its study and practice are
neglected or ignored in more than three-fourths of our
})ublic schools. This gigantic defect is partially remedied
by " our commercial colleges." These private institu-
tions profess to teach business correspondence ; but the
subject should be thoroughly taught in all schools and •
seminaries, without restriction. The public school is the .
crowning glory of this favoured land — one of the institu- '.
tions of which we feel especially proud. By its means S
alone can we reach the children of the massas. The desire,
tlierefore, of the people, and the common object of both '\
teachers and legislators, should be to equip the rising genera-
tioii with the armour of intelligence, and to educate them

I y

i i-\

I •?

228

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO.

in the use of all weapons, or tools, essential to their success
in the battle of life.

The above is a modification of the Rea ing Machine al-
ready described. Its face or front is divided into eight ver-
tical columns or sections, to correspond with the Eight Parts
of Speech. Slips containing the names of the Parts of
Speech, in print, are placed at the head of the respective
columns — from A to b — in such order as the teacher may
desire ; or these " headings " may appear on the card selec-
tions if preferred. The card may be inserted or removed
by opening the base-board, c, d. Its dimensions should cor-
respond to the arrangement of the machine ; and it should
embrace sentences comprising all the Parts of Speech,
arranged so that each word will make sense with what has
gone before, no matter which slide is opened in the vertical
section immediately succeeding. After half an hour's intel-
ligent practice at this Machine the youngest children in
primary classes will feel little or no difficulty in classifying
the words of any scntenca so as to place them under their
proper headings or respective Parts of Speech.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH IXO.

220

ccess

line al-
ht ver-
t Parts
irts of
psctive
sr may
selec-
moved
lid cor-
should
Speech,
lat has
vertical
intel-
Iren in
isifying
their

CHAPTER X.

HISTORY.

There are two methods of teaching history, each perhaps nininrr-

II /•!•• 11 ^•tr^ • f mt'thtWS of

equally useful in its way — both very different in form. t»»ci»iiig.
According to the first method, the pupils receive a lesson
viva voce from the teacher on the events, manners, customs,
etc., of some particular time or era, and ui-ethen required to
read at home the account of the same as given in history.
On the occasion of next lesson they are questioned closely
on the subject. This is, perhaps, the method best adapted
for junior pupih. According to the second method the
pupils read history at school as a reading lesson or as a
recitation. Prior to the commencement of this exercise the
teacher should examine them to ascertain how much they
know of the subject, and to excite an interest therein.
During the progress of the lesson he should occasionally
question them as regards the positions, etc., of the localities I^^^iom'
mentioned, and also as regards matters alluded to, which he
may have reason to believe they do not thoroughly under-
stand. Their attention should be specially dii-ected to the
effects likely to be produced by the invasion and subjugation
of one people by another — to the changes wliich follow
amalgamation of races — to how people were housed, clothed
and fed in different ages — to the mannei*s, customs and
facilities of intercourse which existed at different periods —
how railroads, canals, steamboats, etc., promote the general
happiness, preventing local famine, equalizing prices, and
extending commercial intercourse — to the advance of science
the invention of paper, of printing, etc., etc., to the fact
that the poorest citiz-^ns are now • in the enjoyment of
privileges and advantages, comforts and conveniences denied
to kings in olden times. Children should thus be " intro-
duced to the events of other ages," and not confined to the

i.
%.

230

Gtrieral
rac4|)ituU-

PuriU to
write

vketches of
tho leaguD.

How to
study
history
aright.

TRB SOIBMCB AND ART Of TCACnilfO.

acqiUHition uf diy chronological factfi. Ixit the teacher
excL 'u hin profossioniil Hkill 80 us to intereHt the pupils in
their work. They will then find every lesson instructive,
and cannot fail to improve the future by reflecting on the
past. When the prescribed lesson has been read, the whole
subject (or the substance of it) should be recapitulated in
the answers' to a series of searching, well-connected, well-
arranged questions judiciously pro|)osed. During the
progress of the lesson, or at its close, the teacher may (as
hinted elsewhere) furnish any additional information con-
nected with tho events mentioned, and relate any incidents
of interest associated with localities named therein. Then,
with a view of impressing the principal facts of the lesson
on their minds, ha may retjuire each pupil to write a
skeleton of same ; or ho may desire each in turn to mention
some one idea in its order of sequence some " one step in the
argument," so that when put together they may exhibit a
chaste and logical outline of the sub t under consideration.
He may then allow the pupils to < ion each other — tlio
last in tho class commencing, as described in the Chapter on
Reading. Finally he may require them to prepare (at their
convenience) an abstract of the lesson, the same to be
presented for inspection at some specified time.

It is not necessary that a large number of studies should
be mastered in youth, but it is essential that pupils should
acquire tho art of studying aright, and that whatsoever is
taught should be taught livingly, philosophically, profoundly.
In teaching history, for instance, it is not necessary that the
pupil should be taken though the minutiae of the subject
from the creation until the present day, or that he should be
compelled nolens volens to pore over the fragmentary records
of lost races, much less* "the gigantic" volumes which relate
the story of modern nations. Rather let the pupils be taught
to study — "read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" — the
history of an individual nation. As he proceeds, let the

THE sen. ICE AND ART OF TEACIIISO.

231

lIh ill
;tive,
I the
^holo
ed in
well-
5 th«
ly (aa
I con-
idenU
Thou,
lesson
rrito a
lention
p in the
hibit a
3ration.
)r — the
>ter on
iX their
to hi\

teticher show him how to apply the principles of historical
evidence to the statoinonts contained therein; lot him then
be led to trace the cau8t»8 and effects of events, and directed
to investigate the motives of actions, so that he may observe
the workings of human nature in what has been done and
suffered;* let him endeavour to detect the ruling spirit of
each successive age, sympathizing with what is noble and
abhorring what is unworthy; let him master the great truths
and impulse.s whic^h formed the basis of human action in
the past, and learn to judge impartially of men and things,
whilst recognizing a moral Providence, a retributive justice,
amidst all mutations and corruptions. He will thus ac(piire
the art of tracing all events to their origin, whilst forming
a judicious conclusion as to their ultimate effects. The
exercise thus afforded will enable him to study aright, and
as he grows in years he will extend his researches (should
time permit) until li lias studied the whole course of human
history. One book studied in this way v/ill afford him more
educational discipline than would all the histories in the
world read in the usual cursory style.

CHAPTER XI.

GEOMETRY.

Geometry presents us with one of the most extensive and Excellency
attractive fields for the exercise of the faculties of memory, ^lyl^^^'
reason, and judgment. Some mathematicians exhibit a dis- ^g"].^^^
position to ignore Euclid, and go so far as to assert that
trigonometry and mensuration may be mastered without the
aid of pure geometry. They might as well assert that a
stone bridge could be built on a basis of sand. Supposing

* Canning.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

I
/

A common

method of

tuAuhing

Kui-lid.

)

that a knowledge of Euclid were unnecessary for the
acquisition and right application of other branches of
mathematics, it would still be worthy of study, as no other
subject affords such mental discipline. Other subjects may
equal it in positive utility, but none can surpass it as an
iiivigorator of the mind. Euclid is not so popular in
America as in the British Isles. The fact that our people
prefer utility to abstract excellence, is the only reason we
can offer for such a singular anomaly; yet it is possible that
defective teaching ability may have something to do with
the matter. It is a matter of notoriety that the subject is
highly appreciated in our universities, while partially ignored
in our public schools. It is a well-known fact that pure
geometry is better adapted for cultivating and invigorating
the reason .and judgment than for developing the inferior
faculties. Those who degrade it to a mere memory exercise,
mistake its real objects, and divert it from its legitimate
province. In attempting to cram, they fail to educate ; and,
as a necessary result, the youthful students learn to dislike
the subject. This can scarcely be wondered at when we
consider the mode of study adopted in some schools. We
will venture to illustrate our meaning by an example which
came under our own notice in a land famous for its mathema-
tical scliolars.

Some years ago wo held the position of First Assistant
Master in one of the High Schools of England. Occasion-
ally the duties of general superintendence devolved upon us,
and in that capacity we had to visit the respective class-
rooms once or twice a dav. On one of these occasions it
happened that we were present during the delivery of a
lesson in Euclid — the class being the highest in the
institution. The method of teaching having attracted our
attention, we remained until the close of the lesson. This
method was as follows : The young men, seated at their
desks during the first half hour, read the proposition (or

THE 8CIKNCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

233

or the
hes of
o other
;ts may
^ as an
liar in
r people
uson we
ble that
do with
ibject is
f ignored
bat pure
igorating
e inferior

exercise,
Legitimate
sate; and,
to dislike

when we
)ols. We

pie which

mathema-

Assistant
Occasion-
d upon us,
ctive class-
jccasions it
ivory of a
st in the
tracted our
sson. This
«d at their
position (or

lesBon prescribed) over and over, the books being open
before them. During the succeeding fifteen minutes they
were engaged in writing verbatim (from memory) the words
of the text — the book being closed. Each pupil used the
diagram lettered as in the book. During the next fifteen
minutes (^ach pupil had to read what he had written, and the
teacher — glancing at the book — told hira to " sit down " if
his composition failed to coincide with that of the text. If
he happened to remember the words of the book, and sue
ceeded in giving a verbatim report, the teacher smiled and
informed him that he was a "good boy." The good boy
then resumed his seat with an air of conscious pride, and
was asked no further questions.

We represented the weakness and inutility of this system a change of
to the teacher — a graduate of a famous university — and like- '^^ *^"*
wise explained our views to the principal who happened to
be the teacher's father ; but both gentlemen informed us
that such was the method in use at Cambridge, and that as
most of the pupils were preparing for matriculation in that
university, they thought it advisable to adhere to the
" Cambridge System." We were under the impression at
the time that these gentlemen had been misinformed, but
on making enquiries as to the practice at other colleges, we
found that the system was a favorite one in several of the
great educational institutes though it had not been formally
encouraged by Cambridge. On further enquiry, we learned
through Professor Stokes and others, that Professors in the
great English universities had no fixed plan of imparting
information on this subject, but generally followed the method
of teaching practised in the sister institutions of Scotland
and Ireland. •

Geometry should always be taught as a i*eal intellectual "The more
exercise. The enunciation of each proposition should fij-st meThoT."
be analyzed, and each statement clearly understood. Then
the different assertions should be written in logical order on
16

23 1

'r.> U.1C

ittitt^raiiis

without

letters.

Molutiuit in

general

terms.

TilU SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

the bl;ick-bo:u-J. Tho toacher, pointing to these, biiould
ren .ire tho pupils to enumorate the qiierie-s, or things to bo
iloae, ami also the data or things givon. Having described
the diagi-aui — each part in the order in which it is m(;ntione(l
in the enunciation — he may ask tlie pupils if thoy can
suggest any way for solving the theoiem (or problem) or any
»)f its individual assertions. Perhaps one boy can do one
j)art, and another boy tho next, and so on until tho proposition
is solved. Slioul.l they wander from tho right path tho teacher
will, of course, lead tliem back, occasionally making such
sugge.stions as ho may tliink necessary to throw light on the
subject. When they have gone through the solution in thLs
way, the teacher may solve the proposition himself in the
presence of the whole class ; after which they may be
allowed to take their seats and study the solution as given
in the text book. On referring to the text the}'' will be
delighted to find that they have successfully solved the pro-
position — they will be proud of their discoveries, pleased
with themselves, and grateful to the teacher. But a new
exercise is before them. After some time they are called to
their places or class stations, and one by one required to
perform the solution without assistance, using the diagram
without letters. Each pupil, while solving the proposition
at the board, is closely watched by his companions, who
listen to his words with the ears of critics. If he happens
to go wrong, up go the hands of his comrades — the teacher
points to one, down go the hands, and the pupil indicated
instantly corrects the error, and takes his place in the class
accordingly. After they liave been well drilled in this exer-
cise, they are required to solve the proposition in general
terms — no diagrams being used. Each pupil takes prece-
dence according to his merit. The latter is, perhaps, the
most interesting as well as the most useful exercise in tlie
study of Euclid. It improves the memory, strengthens the
judgment, sharpens the reasoning faculties, increases the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

235

( to be

itiontnl
cy can

I or any
do one
poHition

teiw-her
112 such
t oil tlu^

II ill this
f in tbe

may be
as given
f will be
the [)r<>-
, pl<;asod
at a new
s called to
quired to
) diagram
roposition
ions, who
e happens
le teacher
indicated
1 the class
this exer-
iu general-
kes prece-
ii-haps, the
cise in tlie
orthens the
Teases the

jK)wer of expressing ideas, stores the mind with new termp,
and tends to make the pupils eloquent by enabling them to
ppeak effectively and concisely, with accuracy and precision,
whilst creating and fostering a love of truth in general, and
of mathematical knowledge in particular. Such is the "more
excellent way " for teachuig geometry.

In tejvching JCuclid, especially the second, fifth and sixth The connec-

1 1 1 1 1 1 • ■\ !• • tion wjlh

bookH, the teacher should lead his pupils to discover its kindred
intimate relation to Arithmetic and Algebra. After analyz- he noted,
ing the enunciation of each proposition, as before described,
the teacher, by directing the pupils to take numbers to repre-
sent the respective lines, or parts of lines, and to operate
on them as indicated in the same (enunciation), will greatly
facilitate their corapreliension of the subject, and thereby in-
delibly imprint on their minds the facts elicited. After doing
KO, he may proceed with the diagram as before described, and
conclude with the solution in "general terms." During the
pupil's progress through the various books, the teacher should
point out the connection of the respective propositions with
tha kindred sciences, whensoever that can be done with
advantage. In teaching monsuration or trigonometry, fre-
quent reference should be made to the principles in geometry
on which each rule, proposition, or exercise is based. If the
pupil be thoroughly posted in the latter subject, he will
experience no difficulty in acquiring an efficient knowledge
of the former.

CHAPTER XII.
A SCIENTIFIC HABIT.

J-

Thirst for knowledge is a desire for novelty and change — j,^^ cuitiva
a wish for more than we have — a disposition not to be gJ.'JJji'jffl*
content with what we know — ^a longing for information. In *'*^'*-

dae

Natural
hittor/.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

early youth, having no experience and but little knowledge,
we need instruction in the best and most approved methods
of acquisition. Whether old or young, as students, we must
lean! to despise nothing ; we must investigate and strive to
understand the nature and use of everything that comes
under our observation. In other words, we must carefully
cultivate a scientific habit, and labour to acquire a thorough
knowledge of the more useful and important branches of
science. Nature generally endows children with every
requisite necessary for the formation of this habit. They
naturally notice everything they see or hear, arid seldom fail
to draw right conclusions from the data thus afforded.
Nature impels them to study her wondrous workings by
implanting in their breasts the curiosity and inductive
J;>ropensities necessary to unravel her mysteries ; but at first
they may need a tutor or guide, just as at an eariier stage
of existence they required the services of a nui-se. The
Iscienti'fic habit once acquired, timo^ and opportunity alone
can define its limits. The play of the ^upil may be made
to afford him the most useful and instructive lessons.
Circumstarices alono can deterinine whether he is to becdmo
a Newton, a Herschell, or a mere avetuge sdholar; but in
either case he must have a beginnirig — teaching of some sort
must initiate and drill him in the Earlier stages of progress.
In th6 cultivation of a scientific habit, oar^ must be taken
to present such subjects of study as are likely to be attrac-
tive to youthful minds, the less difficult and more popular
subjects preceding the more difiicult and less attractive, in
their order of sequence, each branch being introduced and I
treated in a manner such as will ensure its comprehension
by youthful and inex|^rieneed minds. Natural History is,
perhaps, one of the most popular subjects with the generality!
t)f children. Besides ^resentii^ ihein with rich and inex-
liaixstible mmed of iiif(n*mation, it will be a powerful aid in
incttlda^iig scientific habits, and fdr ti^ese t^eaaons should bel

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

237

taught in eveiy school. Children, if favoured with a little
assistance, are capable of understanding every department
of natural history. They have eyes, and a lively curiosity
which impels them to investigate and make enquiries, so
as to satisfy their natural desire of acquisition. Nature
compels them to use the faculties with which she has
endowed them. It is the teacher's province to train and
develop s^iid faculties, and to ensure this result he is justified
in pressing science and art into his service.

CHAPTER XIII.

BOTANY.

During the spring, summer, and early autumn months chiidren'a
children indulge in the habit of bringing flowers and iiowers
branches of trees to school. They adorn their desks with
these "spoils of the season." Nor will they forget their
teacher. His desk will receive its share of the regalia. We
remember the little devices occasionally practised by some
dear pupils to induce certain teachers to leave the class-room
at intermissions, and mingle in the sports on the play-
grounds, so that some of them in the meantime might
decorate the teacher's desk with flowers and evergreens.
How slyly the little flower " without a name " used to be
laid apart by itself, so that its character and history might
be discussed on the occasion of the next lesson in botany.
How delicate and yet how devoted are the attentions of
children — artless yet full of art, cunning yet delightfully
innocent — they seldom fail to please.

Children enioy their teacher's pleasure and surprise, and To be turned

•^ '' ^ ^ ^ ' to account

when they learn that he is fond of flowers, etc., they are >« teaching

•^ } } J botany.

4^^^

t ^

' t'

•J I

238

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Arrange-
meut.

Adaptation
to circum-
•tancea.

Characteris-
tics of parts.

rings.

sure to keep bim well supplied. Ho may easily turn these
little attentions and civilities to good account in imparting
a knowledge of botany. Holding up a flower (for instance)
he may direct their attention to its form, colour, number of
its parts, and the functions of each part in the floral
economy. Directing attention to the uniformity in number
and size of the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils and shape of
leaves characteristic of one class, he may compare or contrast
them with corresponding j)arts of another class, and thu.s
lead the pupils to form correct ideas of classification. By
dii'ecting attention to the form and shape of the root —
whether fibrous, bulbous or tap-rooted — and inquiring wliere
the flower was found, in what situation and under what
conditions, he may easily lead them to discover that different
kinds of plants grow iii different situations and in different
kinds of soil ; each in the soil best suited to its habits; some
in the shade, some in the sunlight, some in water, some on
dry land, whilst others grow on their fellow plants. The
attention of the children may then be directed to the charac-
teristics of the roots, trunks (or stems), twig.-j, br:^.n:'h: ;,
leaves and leaflets of different trees, the parts of one bein^-
compared with the coiTesponding parts in another. They
may be thus led to distinguish between flowering and
flowerless plants, being occasionally required to state points
of likeness and points of difference. Their attention may
then be directed to the characteiistics of exogens and
endogens, the outside growers and inside growers (a sample
of each being produced for inspection.) Each pupil should
note the point of difference in the appearance of the plants
while growing ; the difference in the wood, in the leaf,
branch, stem and bud or embryo, as the case may be.
Having learned that the layers of wood of an exogen are
called season rings, and that one ring is formed every season,
they will easily discover that the number of "rings" indicate;
the age of the tree. Looking closer, they may perceive that

THE SCIENCE AXD ART OF TEACHING.

parting
stance)
iber of
> floral
number
hape of
contrast
nd thus
>n. By
root —
12 where
er what
different
different
its; some
some on
its. The
le charac-
r:-.no'h::'.,
ne bein,!jf
r. They
rni!' and
ite points
tion may
rjens and
(a sample
pil should
the plants
the leaf,
may be.
>xogen are
ery season,
s" indicate
I'ceivo that

the concentric circles or season rin^s are not all of equal
thickness, and when informed that these inequalities may be
ascribed to some variety in the seasons of former years —
such as a cold or dry summer — they will not be slow in per-
ceiving that tliey can thus ascertain the probable character of
the weather dunn^ every season since the tree commenced its

growth. Hiiviug thus lx3com'3 acnuaintsd with tlie kind, <;iiM!fi«-4

tion.
form, mannei", and term of growth of the various plants and

organs of vegetation and roproduotion, and the particular uses

and peculiarities of arrangement of the respective parts, the

attention of the young botanists should bo directed to tho

principles and practice of botanical classilication.

CHAPTER XIV.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Animal Physiolo''y may be tauirht to children at a very '''''"'••' tJic"'
early age. It is a very interesting subject, and one in which •y«-
they specially delight. Most of its details may be taught
throngh the medium of the eye, and for these reasons it can
be easily adapted to their comprehension or capacity. Their
attention should first be directed to tlie domestic animals,
after which they should be led to study the structure, out-
ward appearance, habits, and other peculiar characteristi(;H
of each class, order, genus, and species. Attention should
then be directed to the chancres which the food underiroes
during the process of mastication, digestion, etc., before its
conversion into blood. A series of lesions should be given
on this subject, so that the pupils m-iy thoroughly master its
difficulties, and fully and clearly undei'stand its nature and
effects on the physical peculiarities of each class of animals.

.Ui

ft"-

f- '1

IMO

I<««soiia
•bout birds.

' I

Lessons
aliuut flslies.

fi Mill lit
i^liy.sit»l(i{jy.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO.

To theue should bj added a series of skilfully arranged
lessons on the circulation of the blood, the organization and
action of the heart, luriija, senses, arteries, veins, etc.

In teachinj^ that branch of animal physiology which
relates to birds, the attention should tii-st be directed to the
form, habits, and other characteristics of those varieties witl»
which the pupils are most familiar. Tlio birds themselves
(or "their })ictures") should be produced bsfore the class.
Those wliich niigrate should be distin<^uished from those that
do not indulge in this propensity. The times of their
departure and arrival may be noted, the reason for these
observances, etc. The pupils may then bo required to state
the characteristics of water birds (tlie Natatores,) and to
point out the various ways in which they differ from (the
Inaessores) those that roost or porch, etc. — characteristics of
those that sing, tlioso noted for brilliancy of plumage, etc. —
characteristics of the cursores, scaiisores, grallatores, and
raptoros, and how each differs from the other according to
mode of life, etc.

A few lessons may then be given on the construction,
characteristics, habits, etc., of fishes and reptiles; after which
the pupils should be required to learn by rote the classifica-
tion of the animal kingdom, as given by some writer of
eminence. Having acquired a passable knowledge of the sub-
kingdom vertebrata, the pupils may now (if time and
circumsttmces permit) direct their attention to the sub-
kingdoms invertebrata, duly studying the various structure
and peculiarities of the MoUusca, Articulata, and Radiata.

Human physiology should form an important branch of
study in every school, and be placed in a prominent position
in the programme. No pupil should be left in ignorance of
the laws of health and physical development; nor should
they be uninstructed as to what they should eat and what
they should drink, and how human food, in all its varieties,
should be prepared for use.

TUE SCIENCE AND ART OP TBACUINO.

241

anged
Q and

■which
to the
a with
iselves
I class,
se that
■ their
• these
io state
and to
)m (the
Lstics of
I, etc. —
3S, and
ding to

ruction,
r which
assifica-
riter of
the sub-
ne and
he sub-
riicture
iata.
■anch of
position
Irance of
should
d what
krieties,

CHAPTER XV.

ELEMENTARY GKOLOOY.

Geology, though still one of the infant sciences, should not Vim irmm<M
be altogether ignored in the pubhc school. The attention ot
the pupils might profitably bo directed to this subject some
time before they commence their studies in agiicultural
chemistry. Geological science is useful, necessary, and inter-
esting. When properly taught it cannot fail to be the
source of much pleasure. The teacher need not necessarily
enter into the technicalitie.s of the science. By refei*ence to
charts or to some locality in the vicinity of the school, the
pupils may be led to distinguish between stratified and un-
stratified rocka. Theii- attention may then be directed to
the divisions and sub-divisions of the former — to the order of
sequence of the different strata irrespective of locality — to
the manner in which the different strata were deposited
througli the agency of water, the materials being originally
of igneous and metamorphic origin — to the fossils charactei-
istic of each stratum — to the degradation, denudation, and
erosion of rocks under the influence of water, heat, cold,
frost, and thaw — to the action of glaciers and the jiccumulation
of alluvial debris.

The formation of soils will thus become an interesting Fommtion

of soila.

study. The pupils will easily understand, by due attention
to the foregoing, how the mineral ingredients are derived
from underlying rocks or from the detritus of neighbouring
mountains — how the high hills are being ground down an<l
the valleys elevated — how the depth of the soil increases
from year to year — how great rivers form deltas in one
locality, whilst "they wear away the stones" in another, as
at Niagara Falls.

s ij

.HI

{■

6»1"

if-

212

Ptf<^ultaHtie«
of ImmlkHi.

flinty of

TOE SCIENCR AND ART OF TEACUINQ,

Having taken a courso of lossous in those subjects, and
coniniltt<'(l tlie order of Htratificiition to imnnory, the atten-
tion of tlio children may be recalled to the conaidenition of
the unstratitiod rocks, sucli us granite, syonite, etc., the
Hgency of th*'ir formation and protrusion binng ex{)lained as
clearly and fully as poHsiblo. Having learned that the
unHtratitied rocks generally appear on tl»e summits of moun-
t^iins as well as at the base of tho aqueous formations, the
class may bj e isily led to perceive that the causo of their
elevation must l)e referred to internal violence ; and that
during their upheaval the concentric crusts, coits, or layers
«»f tho 8eco!ulary strati were broken and laid bare for
inspection, and that the internal treasures of the earth were
thus brought within the reach of man.

\Vhil(^ directing tlio pupils' attention to the laws of
geological super-imposition, the teacher may justly refer to
some of tho many instances in which vast sums of money
were needlessly and uselessly spout by minors, ignorant of
the principles enunciated by the discoverers of "the order of
sequence." He may then question the pupils as to their
kno'.vledge of the pi'eceding .subjects, and the general applica-
tion of geological science, being careful to ascertain where
they would look for coal? — the names of the strata under-
lying and overlying the coal measures ] — where they would
bore for oil, water, or salt, etc., etc. — the names of the
creatures which characterized the Silurian, Devonian, and
other eras ] — their dimensions, structure, and habits 1 — the
nani'js of creatures wliich have become extinct during the
human era? — the probable causes of their extinction, etc. —
alto'rations in climate ? — cause and consequence?

THB 8CIENC£ AMD ABT OV TEACIIIKO.

243

I, and
Ditten-
on of
., the
\e»l Q»
,t the
inou Il-
ls, the
• theii
il that
layers
ire for
h wero

iiwa of
:efer to
money
»rant of
order of
L their
a|)plica-
i where
I imder-
y would

of the

Lan, and

s 1— the

ng the
1, etc. —

CHAPTKR XVI.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Thei-e 18 no knowIed;.jeof a secular nature more interesting i»np.>rti«n.
tiian that which is ftirnished by chemical science; and of all tiu«1'^,''iu'i
the branches of chemiHtry there is none so ur^eful or so *"*'^-
important as that which relates U) agriculture. Wo a,ve a
pfre;it agricultural people, and likely to continue so for ever.
(Jur farmers should, thcrifore, comluct their litdd operations
on scientific principles, Wing careful to leave tlunr prolV ;sion
better than they found it. " Head rules muscle, and (as a
Itiaruod writer well observes) all farmers who educate only
their muscle must occupy the inferior relation of muscle."*
llenco we infer that the elements of agricultural chemistry,
or the theory of farming, should be taught in every public
school — more especially in rural oner;. IIum;in forced ai-e
mere developments of nature. Man's nourishment and
strength are her gifts; and through her the student of
humanity learns the true relationships of things, and through
them finally succeed:! in understanding the wonderful
workings of the human mind.

The gicat object of the farmer is to make his lands yield Diffp^^j^^
the most productive crops at the least possible expense. To '*'?'*? "'
effect this laudable desire, li ) must bi) guided in his agricul-
tural operations, by science and (■.\[>erionce. Science teaches
him that all soils, plants, and animals are composed of
two kimls of substances, whose proportional ingic dients
vary iu different species — that one kind of substances
is organic und volatile; that the ollin* is inorganic and
inca[)able of growth except by accumulation; and that these
again can be analyz)d into their separate elements, the
number, nature, and amount of which will indicate the
composition of the original compound. These things are

* Rev. E. T?yerson, D.D.

l'-'.

%^.,

\ i*\

lt()tatiun of
crop*

Supply of
complemen-
tary ele-
lueuts.

THE BCIRNCE AHD ART OF TEXrHINO.

not ditCcuIt of conipiehension, and should be taught in the
laboratory and un the farm, by practical oxpcriuient. The
pupils must first learn *' the chemical al)>habrt" — the names,
symbols, and atomic runnbers of the reH|)Octive element**.
After whi'^h, the teacher, by a series of judicious, well-
selected exj)eriments, may Iwul them to discover the law of
multiple proportions. After going through a series of
IcHhons ou the metals, metalloids, acids, bases, etc., attention
should be dir»*cted to the composition, conservation, irri^^-
tion, and drainage of boils, the nature and structure of
plants, etc., tlie rotation of crops, and general economy of
the farm.

Science teachas us that diffei*ent species of plants require
different kinds of nouri«hment — or the same kind in
difteront proportions — that every crop depnves the soil of a
portion of its elements; that no soil, however fertile, can
yield an indefinite succession of crops without being
manured; that rotation ])re8erves the soil from impoverish-
ment, clears it of pernicious weeds, turns each element to
account in favour of reproduction, and enables the fatuur to
"replenish and recu[)erate the soil," while relieving him
fix)m the necessity of directly applying manure to su(;h crops
as could >t receive it without hazard or positive injury.
The principles of rotation will teach him how to obtain the
largest interest on his capital. Science will show liim that
the culniiferous and legumenous plants should succeed each
other alternately, and that the period of rotation should
extend over six or seven years. Practice on the farm will
prove the value of the theory of rotation.

A knowledge of the particular substances which a crop
absorbs from the soil, and of the elements needed by the
crop which is to follow, will enable the farmer to form a
good system of rotation — such a system as may be suited to
the exigencies of the time, climate, and nature of the land.
Knowing the composition and capabilities of the soil, he can

n the
Th«

nenU.

well-

aw of

i('8 of

eiition

Mve of
>iny of

pequirw
md ill
lil of a
;ilo, can

being
jverish-
nent to
»ttur to
ig him
:h crops
injury,
tain tho
iim that
jed each

shouhl
irm will

I a crop
by the

) form a
uited to

the land.

il, he can

THB HCIBNCB AND ABT OF TEAOIlINQk 245

apply RucL nianuros as will be mout b<:ne(loial. By burning
»ome of the pluntH which he intendn to how, ro that ho may
examine their aHhea, and by analyzing a portion of the noil
in which he would expect them to grow, the farmer may
judge by the com{>onent ingredientH, and the peculiar habits
of the plant, whether the crop would be productive. Having Abnorption
asceitainod the component elements of the soil, and of the lation
project«<l crop, antj knowing what ingredients will bo
supplied by the atmosphere, he can apply that kind of
manure which contains the proper supply of nourishment —
the same or complemontaiy elements. Children can Ikj
easily UkI to understand that if grasses, vegetables, etc.,
cannot find in tho soil such suljKtances as they need for
suppoi-t, the crop must necessarily be a failure in projwrtion
to the deficiency in the requisite amount of food. Tlie
farmer can supply somo of those substances, antl atmospheric
influences will furnish the remainder. The pupils will nut
find it difficult to remember that plants take in their food
in a fluid form, and cannot under any circumstances absorb
or a.<isimilate substances in a solid state. Hence, a manure
may contain the necessary ingredients, and remain uselesf^
through improper application. Plants cannot avail them-
selves of the nourishing properties of manures unless tho
latter are soluble in water. Solution must precede absorp-
tion.

When the pupils have been well grounded in the fore- utility of

,. . 11111. 1 agricultural

going facts, their attention should be directed to the great chMnistry to
difference which exists between the respective grasses, so far raiaar.
as their nourishing properties are concerned — this fact being
exemplified by reference to certain fields in the immediate
vicinity. They may be led to perceive that some grasses
possess more of the elements of which bone and sinew is
made, than others — that the grass in one field gives the cows
a large flow of milk and a certain quality of butter — that
the grasses in another field have a tendency to fatten the

246

liiflueiictifl
of UffUi,
heat, «tc.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

COWS, etc.; so that chemistry is useful even to the stock-
raiser; for it instructs him as to the particular kind of food
■ — grass, hay, etc. — wliich should be furnished to certain
kinds of cattle, or to cattle intended for certain uses. It
also enables him to fix tho amount of exercise, and to pre-
scribe the quality of tho accommodation or shelter neces-
sary for thoir comfort and his profit.

A series of well arranged, well-connected lessons should
be given on light, heat, cold, moisture, etc., and their
influences on vegetation. If passably posted in the laws of
absorption and radiation, the pupils will easily perceive that
the degree of warmth, or amount of heat, which a soil
obtains from the sun, depends upon its cliemical com|)osition
and power of retention, and tliat this heat will materially
aifect vegetation. The temperature of a dry soil, for
instance, may bo 90'' or 100^, when tliat of the air is only
60' or 70^; and the temperature cf a wet soil is alway 10°
or 15*^ below the temperature of a dry soil. Wet soils are
favourable to evaporation. They thus lose much of their
natural heat, and are, therefore, called cold soils. Hence
tho necessity of correcting this defect by draining. We
might enlarge on this subject, but think enough has been
said to show the utility and necessity of a knowledge of
agricultural chemistry, as well as the advantages to be gained
by placing it on the j)rogramme of school studies.

CII.VPTER XVII.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

! *

Kiementa of No intelligent person will question the utility and im-
PhUosophy portanco of acquiring a knowledge of natural philosophy,
at PuwS^**' o^ chemical physics ; and but few will deny that the founda-
Sehoois. ^^Qj^ Qf ^IjJ^ knowledge shoidd be laid at the public school.

THE 8CILNCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

247

stock -
f foo<l
lertain
s. It
to pre-
neces-

ahould
. their
aws of
ve that
a soil
)Osition
terially
ioil, for
is only
jvay 10°
soils are
of their
H<^nce
. We
las been
ledge of

gained

and im-
ilosophy,
3 foanda-
■ic school.

We would like to dwell on this subject and. if possible, to
give a few examples of how lessons in philosophy should bo
given in the school room ; but want of space prevents us
from indulging ourselves in this respect. However, wo will
take the liberty of advancing a few hints as to the manner
in which the respective brunches should bo introduced to the
notice of children.

The teacher may commence his lessons in natural ^^^^Uo- FirHt lessons
sophy by a few simple exporiments, illustrating the at' .n Philosophy,
of attra'3tion of gravity, cohesion, capillary attraction, et«s.
He may then direct attention to the pressure of the atmoa-
phere, and its elFocts in tlie economy of nature. Should he
not be able to procure orthodox apparatus, his ingenuity will,
in some cases, enable him to provide passable substitutes.
A. large basin will do service as a pneumatic trough, and a
large drinking glass will suit, in some exporimsnts, as well
as a receiver. Both together will enable him to illustrate
several important lessons, especially such as relate to the
pressure of the atmosphere, etc. For instance}, let him fill
the basin with water iind, inverting the glass, place its mouth
horizontal to tlie surface. Inviting one of the i>upils to
press it downwards gradually until it is submerged, let the
teacher call attention to the fact, that as the glass descends,
the air confined therein occupies less and less space. He must
then lead them to discover, by a series of logical well-ar-
ranged questions (based on facts within their comprehension),
why the glass presses upwards against the boy's hand ] — why
the surrounding water does not fill the submerged glass, no
matter how great the pressure I — why the air in tiie glass
expands or contracts in proportion to the depth of the .sub-
morgenco 'I From this, and kindred experiments, the ])upils Suujort to
may bo led to form correct ideas of the compressibility, olas- gimpic pra!--
ticity, im|ienotrabiIity, and other properties of the atnios- nu-nu"^"^'
phero. This experiment will also enable them to compre-
hend the philosophical principles involved in the construction

■iiBM

248

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

The pupils
to conmict
the experi-
ments under
the teacher's
guidauce.

of the diving bell. Let the teacher now fill the glass with
water, cover its mouth with a sheet of paper, and then sud-
denly inverting it (mouth downwards), explain why the
water and paper remain suspended. They will thus be led
to see that the atmosphere presses equally in all directions —
that its upward pressure is sufficient to counterbalance gra-
vity. Submerging the glass, and allowing it to fill with
water, let him invert it and raise it out of the water until
its mouth nearly reaches the surface. Let him then call
attention to the facts that the column of water in the glass
is supported — that it would be supported were the column
thirty-three feet high ; and why 1 — that the same pressure
would support only thirty inches of mercury, and why?
— that the height of the column varies as the density or
Specific gravity of the liquid — that the -atmospheric pres-
sure is about 151bs to the square inch, etc.

Handing one of the pupils the barrel of a quill, or some
similar tube open at both ends, the teacher may direct him
to put one extremity in his mouth and the other in the wa-
ter, (or in milk,) and try whether he can thereby help him-
self to a drink. The teacher may then direct attention to
the fact that the liquid rose in the tube as the " air was
sucked out;" and why] — that the liquid will not rise if a
hole be bored in the tube above the water; and whyl — that
it will rise if this hole be submerged, etc. The pupils may
then receive a few special lessons on "the barometer and its
variations," "the common pump, and its construction, etc.
In explaining the philosophy of the latter, special attention
must be paid to the use of valves, the action of the piston,
its tendency to create a vacuum, the limit to which water
can be raised by the common pump, etc. ; the pupils in all
eases conducting the experiments under the teacher's guid-
ance.

By actual experiment, the pupils may then be led to per-
ceive that air has weight — that it expands by heat — that
the lower strata are more dense than the upper, and have

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

241)

s with
m 8ud-
liy the
, be led
bione —
ice gra-
il with
er until
lien call
he glasR
column
pressure
id why]
msity or
iric pres-

, or some
irect him
n the wa-
help him-
lention to
'* air was
, rise if a
y1— that
pils may
ier and its
ction, etc.
attention
he piston,
ich water
ipils in all
ler's guid-

led to per-
heat — that
and have

to sustain a greater pressure— that the lighter bodies always a series of
rise above and rest on the heavier ; each body taking its I'xper'iVneut'i
place in the order of sequence according to its relative tiong.^"*^^'^''
specific gravity, as creum on milk, for instance, a cork on
water, etc., and hence that smoke ascends, and a balloon
rises above the clouds. Their attention may then be
directed to the principles of rarefaction — why there is always
a draught up the chimney, a current of air from the door to
the fire] — why a current entei-s a room near the threshhold
of the door, whilst another leaves the room at the top of the
door, as may bo proved by holding a lighted candle to these
places — why the one current is cold and the other war|ja]
— why the janitor raises one part of the school windows,
whilst he lowers the other, when desirous of ventilating the
rooms, etc. ? The teacher may now direct attention to the
philosophy of winds, their velocity, cause, and consequences
— the difibront kinds of winds, and their uses in the economy
of nature. Attention may then be directed to the nature and
velocity of light and sound — their utility in calculating dis-
tances, as in the cases of thunder, lightning, cannon shots,
etc. (light travelling at the rate of about 192,000 miles per
second, and sound travelling 1,142 feet in the same time).
They may then introduce a few simple experiments, showing
that the speed of sound varies as the density of the media
through which it passes — that it is about four times quicker
in watei, and twenty times quicker in solids, than in air.
Why the Indians apply their ears to the ground when
calculating their distance from foes on the march? — why
boys apply their ears to the rails of a railroad when they
wish to discover whether there is an approaching engine on
the line. After the pupils have been well grounded on the
preceding subjects, they should receive a series of lessons on
the principles of radiation, reflection, refraction, absorption,
evaporation, electricity, magnetism, etc., and then the laws
relating to them should be committed to memory.
17

i -I'

t ."♦'

■it-

250

THE aCIEN^CE AND AllT OP TEACHING.

Kfr.-.-ta of
ll.ut.

Coiistriu'-
ti.iiiof Tlicr-

DKIllU'tlT.

rropertiea
«.f Water.

XfhL'n the
t'.xt book
slinnld bp
iiilnnluci d.

By a scries of judicious experiments and well-arranged
questions, the pupils may be led to discover that heat
expands all bodies, and is present in all matter — that the
increase of volume at a given temperature varies in different
bodies — that air and gases expand most, fluids* next, and
theu solids, examples being mentioned in each case — that
conterminous bodies have a tendency to equalize their heat,
or to assume an equal temperature — that cir, gas, and porous
bodies are bad condtictoi-s, and that metals and solids
generally are good ones — find that the hair or fur of animals
and pluiauge of birds vary with the climate, etc.

Tiie piinciples on which the thermometer is constructed
may now bo explained — the nature and use of that instru-
ment — why the tube is of a narrow and smooth bore — how
it is graduated — how the frof^zing and boiling points are
determined — the best thermometer for warm countries — the
best for polar regions, and why 1 — and how we may ascertain
the relative (Quantity of heat in different bodies, etc.

The pupils should receive a series of lessons on the nature
and properties of water in its respective forms, during
whicli their attention should be directed to the temperature
at which it becomes ice, and whether 16 then expands or
contracts in volume — why it should not be left in pipes in
frosty weather — effects of its expansion on agriculture.
When water becomes vapour or steam — how one cubic inch
of water becomes 1728 cubic inches of steam — utility in the
arts, etc. — how soluble salts and difference of pressure re-
tard the boiling of water. How the formation of vapour
absorbs heat and thus produces cold — evaporation and dis-
tillation.

In this manner, or in a manner somewhat similar to this,
the teacher should, from time to time, guide the pupils
through n regular course of lessons on the philosophy of
common things, making each as interesting as possible ;
asking for examples and giving illustrations; enlisting the

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

2S1

gett
tieat

the
rent

and
■that
heat,
Droits
solids
inials

•acted
nstru-
— how
ts are
B — the
certain

nat\iv0
during
erature
nds or
dpes in
lulture.
lie inch
in the
are re-
vapour
nd dis-

to this,

pupils

lophy of

Possible ;

Iting the

active co-operation of the children so that he may be able
to turn every available circumstance to good account. After
receiving, viva voce, such lessons as we have alluded to, the
pupils should refer to the text books, and supplement
their knowledge by a careful study of the subject as given
therein ; or, at the close of the viva voce series, they may be
required to take a regular course through the text book.
The teacher's lessons will have enabled them to thoroughly
comprehend the author's meaning in "all cases of doubt or
diflficulty," so that their studies, instead of being dull, will
be considered interesting and agreeable.

CHAPTER XVIII.

MECHANICS.

The teacher may introduce his lessons on this branch of introtiuc-

tory lessons

Natural Philosophy by asking the pupils for information as on Mecha-

iiics

to the manner in which certain familiar tools, or simple
machines, are used in e very-day life — how a spade, hay fork,
fishing rod, etc., are used — how a large stone may be moved
with a walking stick — how water is taken from a draw-well
by means of the wheel and axle — how casks are placed on
or taken off a waggon by means of the inclined plane, etc.?
He may then explain, or give a series of lessons illustrating
what we mean by, such terms as force, motion, centre of
gravity, momentum of forces, etc., and require the defini-
tions to be entered in the pupils' note books, and committed
to memory. Directing attention to the manoeuvres of John
and James, while balancing each other on a plank placed
over a log of wood, to how they adapt, the length of the
arms to their respective weights, etc., he may lead the pupils

*• .'I
>

t; -

'i4;l
■'1'.,

252

" virtual
velocitleu."

The mechan-
ical powers.

Formulae,
and practi-
cal hints on
the applica-
tion of each
power.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

to deduce the laws wliich regulate the power and action of
the lever. Taking a rod of any length (say 30 inches), and
assuming that the power multiplied by the units of distance
through which it moves is equal to the weight multiplied
by the units of distance through which it moves, ho may, by
placing the fulcrum at different distances, show that the
equilibrium is not deranged, and hence that the assumpinon
is true in every case, and of universal application. The
pupils may thus be led to discover and enunciate the prin-
ciple of virtual velocities or equality of moments.

Directing the pupils' attention to a chart (or to models)
of the six mechanical powers, the teacher, after giving the
name of each, should point out the fact that they may be
all referred back to two, namely, to the lever and the in-
clined plane. He may then lead them to observe that to
understand the power of a machine we must consider four
things, viz. — the force or power which acts, the resistance
to be overcome, the fulcrum or centre of motion, and the
respective velocities of the power and weight. The pupils
should then receive a lesson on each of the mechanical pow-
ers and their varieties. The art of illustrating is one of the
great secrets of successful teaching, and for this reason ap-
propriate illustrations should precede or accompany the
enunciation of every mechanical principle. If the lessons on
the simple machines be properly delivered and efficiently
illustrated, the pupils, at the close of each lesson, should
clearly comprehend the principle involved, and be able to
form a rule, or to construct a formula, for its application.
[The following, with similar rules and formulae for the
remaining powers, founded on the principle of the equality
of moments, may be deduced from such lessons and made
the bases of many useful and practical problems. As the
product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means,
a simple arithmetical operation will enable us to find a
mean or extreme when three of the terms are given.]

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

253

lOf

Eind
nice
lied
,by

the
n:ion

The
prin-

)dels)

g the

ay be

he in-

lat to

r four

stance

id the

pupils

1 pow-
of the
on ap-
ly the

.ons on
iiently
should
ible to
.cation.
:or the
quality
made
As the
means,
find a

The Lever. — The power is to the weight as the weight
arm is to the power arm : — Thus, P : W : : Ws arm : P's
arm.

Single Cord Pulley. — Tlie power is to the weight as 1 is
to twice the number of movable Pulleys : — Thus, P : W : :
1 : 2n.

Pvlley vy'Uh Fixed Separate Cords. — The power is to the
weight as 1 is to 2 raised to the power indicated by the
number of movable pulleys : — Thus, P : W : : 1 : 2".

When the Cord passes over a Fixed Pullty attached to a
Beam. — The power is to the weight as 1 to 3 raised to the
power indicated by the number of movable pulleys : — Thus,
P : W : : 1 : 3".

The Wedge. — The power is to the weight as one half the
width of the back to the length: — Thus, P : W : : ^ B : L.

The Wheel and the Pinion. — The power is to the weight
as the continued product of the leaves is to the continued
product of the teeth : — Thus, P : W : : I x P : t xt'.

The Diff'erential Screw. — The power is to the weight as
the difference in pitch of the two screws is to the length of
lever multiplied by 2 multiplied by 3.1416: — Thus, P :
W: : Diff. : ^x 2x3.1416.

The Endless Screw. — The power is to the weight as the
radius of the axle is to the product of the number of teeth
in wheel, multiplied by the length of the winch : — Thus, P :
W : : r: tx\.

During the progress of the series of lessons on the mecha-
nical powers — in fact during the delivery of all lessons — the
teacher may occasionally vary the exercise by some interest-
ing observations of a simple kind, always encouraging the
pupils to give him the result of their own thoughts, and
also to mention such illustrations of the subject as may
occur to them. If giving a lesson on the lever, for instance,
he might ask, in connection with some of the examples men-

264

'It

Hydrosta-
tics and Dy-
namics.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

tioned by the pupils, Why hollow tubes are stronger than
solid ones] Should they fail to reply, he may then state
the reason, or reserve " the difficulty" to form the subject of
some succeeding lessons. Then again he may ask. Why it
is easier to break a ruler flatways than edgeways] — Why
the joists of a house are made thin and laid edgeways in
their respective places] Being thus brought face to face
with another principle of nature, they may be led to per-
ceive that in such cases the strewjth of the material is eqttcU
to the breadth midtlplied by the depth squared, divided by the
length : — Thus, S = 6 x ci' -j- /. Or thus — 1 : 6 : : d^ : S.

The pupils may then receive some lessons on the principles
of liquid pressure, the hydrostatic press, hydrostatic bel-
lows, hydrostatic paradox, specific gravity, etc., after which
theii* attention may be directed to the study of Dynamics.
By a series of practical lessons, judiciously and logically
arranged, the pupds should be led to discover ( 1 ) that when
the velocities of moving bodies are equal, their momenta are
proportional to their masses; (2) that when the masses of
two moving bodies are equal, their momenta are proportional
to their velocities; and (3), that when neither the masses nor
velocities of two bodies are equal, their momenta are in pro-
portion to the products of their weights b}'- their velocities.*

Attention should also be directed to the facts that one

of the bodies being stationary at the moment of impact, the

M X V
velocity of the united mass (y) - ~ (V and v representing

the respective velocities; M and m the masses of the respec-
tive bodies,

That when the two bodies are moving in the same direction,

the velocity of the united mass

(MxV) + (mxV)
M-f-w

Pliilosophy
of falling
bodies.

That when the bodies are moving in difierent directions,

the velocity of the united mass = ^ J.'^ — — — .

The pupils' attention may then be directed to the nature
and effects of gravity with respect to falling bodies. They

* Dr. J. H. Sangster.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

255

than
state
ct of
by it
Why
fa in
face
• per-
equal
by the

iciples
s bel-
wliich
amies,
gically
b when
ata are
,8363 of
rtional
ses nor
in pro-
cities.*
lat one
,ct, the
[senting
respec-

rection,

jctions,

nature
They

must be led to undoratand that it acts separately, cipmlly,
nnd continuously, on every particle of matter without refer-
once to the nature of the body; an<l that all bodies falliiitj
freely, move through equal spaces in the same tiuie; that
gravity never ceases to act; that the falling body gain.s a
new impulse and a consequent increase of velocity o^ich mo-
ment of its descent, and that its final velocity is the sum of
all the increments of velocity thus communicated ; that the
velocity at the end of the second moment of de^scent is twice
that acquired at tlio end of the first; and that its velocity
at the end of the third moment is three times tJint which it
had at the end of the first, and so on. The pupils may bo
then informed that a falling body acquires a velocity of
about 32 feet per second at the end of the firat moment of
descent; that the average speed being the arithmetical mean
between its initial and terminal velocities, the descent in
the first second must have been 16 feet. The following for-
mulae may then be constructed, each forming the basis and
sununary of a lesson : —

The space through which a body falls during any second
of its descent = 2 (sec. — 1) x 16.

The final velocity at the end of any second = Second x 2
xl6.

The whole descent in given number of seconds = Seconds
X 1 6 : (or 8 — ^ gP).

When a body descends with initial force, space travelled
in given time ^Y x t+lCy x t^: (or s~vt + ^ yf).

When a body ascends with initial force, sjiace travelled in
given time = Y xt-\Q xP: (or s~vt-\ gf^).

When a body d -scends with initial force, the final velocity
= V + < X 32 : (or V = V + ig).

When a body ascends with initial force, the final velocity
= V - < X 32 : {ovv = Y -tg).

The foregoing, and Hydro-dynamics, will aflford materials sundry oiv
for many useful and interesting lessons of a practical nature.

st'i'vatious.

Iri*

25(1

' HI

THE BCIENTE AND ART Or TEACHING.

In a work of this description it would be impossible for us
to do more than hint at Huch lassons; but even a young and
inexjKjrienced teacluT would have but little diflficulty in fill-
ing up tho meagre outlines here pi-esentcd. The t<iacher who
would sticcoed in his profession must remember that one of
the (jreat seci'ets o/ success is the poxo*r to make study attrac-
tive by pracflcally illustrating u hat is tauyht. Children can,
and will, learn any subject, how<^ver ditlicult, if the teacher
can only make it sufficiently interesting. Ii studying these
things, or in directing others how to study them, prudence
will not |)ermit us to fetter mind by rules too rigid or too
numerous. Cuiiosity, amusement, and natural tastes may
bo allowed to direct the student in certain cxc» optional cases
in the Iiigher institutunis of learning, lu.il we are of opinion
that, within certain limits, a similar indulgence might be
extender! to ^^ o pupils of the higher classes in public schools.
This princii^ is recognized in the Cv^rnell University,
(Ithaca,) and with marked advantage. The studies of pu-
pils may be as wide as their condition in life and mental
calibre will permit; but it is not advi sable that their atten-
tion should be directed to the acquisition of a large number
of subjects at the same time. Better at first to concentrate
their attention on a few, nnd then gradually keep adding to
the number as they gn vv in mental stitmgth.

The manner in which we would have other subjects intro-
duced may be infeiTcd from the suggestions advanced in the
foregoing pages. Further digression is unnecessary. We
will therefore proceed to discuss other matters, hoping the
preceding sketciies may not be wholls profitless nor alto-
gether uninteresting.

THE SLiENOK AND ART OF TBACHIMSi

26:

;.-f^

» for UB
ng and
^ in tin-
ier who
t one of
' attrac-
en oau,
teacher
ig these
i'udence
(I or too
itos may
lal cases
' opinion
ni^ht be
; schools,
liversity,
^a of pu-
l m<;ntal
}ir atten-
! number
icentrate
itUUng to

icts intro-
eJ in the
ry. We
oping the
nor alto-

CHAITER XIX.
PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS.

Public examinations at (•prtain int<^rval8 — twice a ycnv at P«ii'iif - x

*^ _ iiininnti'Mi-

lenst four times at most — are \ory useful and ilosirablc, if d»«ira».ii i-

Cf^rtaiii in

they bo conducted so as to tc.st the etliciency and accuincy ttrvaU.
of the instruction ^iven, as well us the gen* ml pi'ogross ot"
the youthful students. In fact they are commendabl«3 when
they exhibit the school as it really is, and j>ernicious when
they represent it in false colours or under false lig))ts , Thc^e
periodical examinaticms should ceitainly bo held; but it ^j't.ft'exhn.
must bo borne in mind that they will do more harm than '^'* "* '' '*•
good should the pupils bo led to act the hypocrite in order
that tlioy may win the applause and admiration of the .spec-
tators. No particulai- lessons should be appointed f»)r these
examinations; no special preparation should bo made for
them; nor should the examiners, beforehand, apprise the
pupils of tho nature of the questions they intend to ask.
On these occasions the scho(.> should exhibit a true pictui*e,
a faithful photograph, of the real progress made since the
last "periodical examination." These rules are frequently
infringed, in fact we are well aware that tlioy are seldom, if
ever, observed. Their violation affords a cloak for much
decc^ption; but in such cases the people srem to enjoy and
encourage the deceit *' by bestowing lil»eral encomiums on
the deceivers," However, the most intelligent minds, and
the most discriminative audiences are liable to be decei ed
by appearances. No experienced te-«icher will deny that/
public periodical examinations arr> unreliable in their results, unifiiiii.ie.
and therefore, unsatisfactory tests of the real progi'ess of a
school or any section thereof; nor do they afford sufficient
data whereby to judge of the teacher's professional capacity,
attainments or success. A teacher not possessing a high

»...

25«

A HUperiur
jTlvnte

«''lu»l>l.

■ I

THB SCIEXrR AND ART OF TBACHINO.

character, but favourcxl with a certaiu amount of Belf-nKsur-
anco and " huainess tact," can very eaiMily exhibit his school
in such a light as to aatonisii spectators by its apparent
ethoiency, ami thus* coHi»»au<l thoir fiivourablo coinmenila-
tiona.* A man who is dishonest and hypocritical can ex-
hibit an inferior school in such a way as to induce visitors
to believe it to be in h much moi*e healthy condition as re-
gards «}tticiency, thji ^ another school, which may be far
superior to it but which is governed by an honest conscien
tious teacher. It follows therefore that on such occasions
we should not place too much reliance on apparent success,
as it is often the more counterfeit of merit.

Some years ago while engaged as editor of a paper in a
large provincial town in Ireland, we received a communica-
tion from the Superioress of one of the local educational
institutions requesting '* the favour of our presence and
assistance at an examination of the pupils in attendance at
her school," Knowing from our oflicial connections that
this lady and her staff of sister teachers had earned the
gratitude and esteem of people of "all denominations," by
the affectionate interest tlioy had taken in the educational
welfare of the young, irrespective of creed, class, or con-
dition, we gladly availed ourselves of her kind invitation.
Next day wo duly reported our arrival and were cordially
received by the Sup3rioress and Chaplain, and conducted
through the sevond departments of the institution, the na-
ture and the objects of the various arrangements being ex-
j)lained to us in due order. The walls of one room were
decorated with specimens of the pupils' handwriting, draw-
ing, and fancy work of different kinds. The schools were
graded in much the same manner as corresponding institu-
tions in this country — the Public School System being taken
as a basis. The discipline in all the divisions or departments
was perfect; and the CalLsthenical exercises excelled anything

* f)&Yii Page,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

250

ilf-Rsaur-
» school
ipparent
muenda-
i can ex-
I visitora
3n as ro-
( be far
conscieii
occasions
\, success,

aper in a
:umunica-
lucational
ence and
ndance at
ions that
iriiod the
tions," by
lucational
or con-
iivitation.
cordially
conducted
III, the na-
being ex-
ooui were
mg, draw-
lools were
ig institu-
eing taken
partments
I anything

<»f the kind wo have ever seen. We were proud to notice
rhat neither the sisters nor pupils were u.shanie«l to learn,
<»r afraid to sing, good patriotic, froeiloni loving songs ;
and, while devotedly attached to the land of their birth, we
f(mnd that they not only ** feart^l Ootl" but "honoured the
King." Tlie examination in English history brought out
the many laudable features in Queen Victoria's lift5; and at
its close the young ladies (by reijuest) sung the National
Anthem with all the power, sympathy, and pathos, so char-
acteristic of Celtic hearts. In fact their ren<lenng of the
music was so expressive as to incite the enthusiaoni and com-
mand the encomiums of the oldest and highest ecclesiastics
present. We could not help thinking, during the proceed-
ings, how sadly we Protestants misunderstand our fellow
citizens of the Catholic faith, and how much we might learn
from them in matters of devotion, discipline, and patriotism,
were we so disposed.

We must add, however, that notwitlistanding the excel- Exoeiifncy
lency of the discipline, and the apparent efiiciency of the and arra'n«e-
pupils, we were not quite satisfied as to the intrinsic super-
iority of the system of teaching as indicated by the mode
of examination. We never heard better answering; still
we think the result was unreliable. The pupils answered
the questions addressed to them, clearly, pointedly, deliber-
ately; hut nevertheless, the answers were more "racy" than
appeared natural, and more verbose than necessary — too
foi-mal and too exhaustive. The questions were given viva
voce from a MS. volume on the examiner's desk ; and we
occasionally noticed, by certain changes in some child's face,
and certain hesitations in her manner, that the intellectual
energies were not looking for ideas but for half-forgotten
modes of expressions. We therefore inferred one, or both,
of two things — the pupils had been specially prepared for
examination, or they were answering by rote. The good
sisters told us during another visit some days afterwarcb,

yir'

260

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

nefectof the
fiysterii.

that the latter was the case, and that they always insisted
on accurate acquisition of the text by rote. The Memory
System never appeared to more advantage than under the
skilful management of these kind, patient, and indefatig-
able ladies. Their success was apparently greater than any
ordinary teachers could have commanded with all the newest
(and now more approved) modes of instruction ; yet we
could not recommend its unrestricted use in Public Schools.
Peculiar circumstances may make it popular and successful
in some places, subject to conditions mentioii'^d on p. 222;
but the restilts will always be unreliable, and, more or less,
unsatisfactory, if pupils be examined through the medium of
formal stereotyped questions, copied directly from text books
or selected from recent catechetical acquisitions. Examina-
tions should exhibit what pupils really know ; not what we
think they ought to know, or would wish them to know.

The committal to memory of the words of text books,
and certain stereotyped dialogues, was once a very popular
mode of instruction ; but its fallacy has been long apparent.
Prussia, Switzerland, and Ireland wei 3 the first countries to
adopt an intellectual method of instruction and acquisition,
whereby the respective ideas concerning a subject are im-
printed on the mind, the pupil being then permitted to ex-
press them in his own words — the best which nature can I
suggest. We advocate the use of memory, though opposed
to its abuse, or special cultivation at the expense of higher!
and more useful faculties. Under certain cii'cumstances itl
may be prudent to have certain subjects, or portions of sub-
jects, committed to memory (see p. 222) : but the acquisi-
tion of whole text-books verbatim, especially those portions
required for examination, is an abuse of the faculty. The
examination alluded to was one of the best memory exercise^
we ever witnessed, and the most likely to impress a visitor
with the absolute perfection of the system of teaching adopted]
Still it was far from being an infallible exponent of real eduj

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

2<)1

cational progress — far from being reliable as a test of the
right development of true mental [)ower. It merely showed
what could be accomplished by the persistent and judicious
training of a single faculty.

" The rote system," with its unhealthy mode of recitation The Memory
and " memory" examinations, is what prevails in many parts ^' ^"'
of the St;.tes. It looks well outwardly, but inwardly it is un-
sound. It prefers accuracy of expression to crude evidences
of native intelligence. It deceives a non-professional visitor
by inducing hira to accei)t " accurate memory answers" as
expressions of individual thought. Visiioi-s who cannot
look beneath tht surface are apt to give credit for real pro-
gress when the efficiency is only apparent ; and they often
withhold commendations which have been richly deserved,
because of their inability to measure aright the quality
or quantity of intellectual work. Pupils are frequently
" crammed " specially for such exhibitioDB. Even in this
Canada of ours, instances have often come to our knowledge
of public school pupils having been favoured beforehand
with a list of questions they were to be asked on examina-
tion day, or the number of certain prop^»sitions to be solved
on that occasion. This was in "the good old days," when
teaching was a refuge for the outcasts of all other professions
— an asylum for men who had little or no professional con-
science. In the case above alluded to, the visitors might
deceive themselves, and probably did ; but the teachers
-highly educated, accomplished, and religious ladies — were
entirely above suspicion. As we ascertained xluring succeed-
ing visits, the examination exercises differed very slightly
from those pursued on ordinary occasions. The teachers
believed that the acquisition of the text by rote was the
best system of teaching, and adopted it accordingly. It was
the system that was at fault and not the teachers. They
lacted conscient'ously and in good faith — just as our fellow-
jkbourers, its patrons, do to the south of the line.

Tlie By item

of tiK-

future.

262 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

There is, however, no method of inatniction, or examina-
tion, so bad that it does not contain Home good, and none
so good that it does not admit of much improvement. In
truth, the art of teaching (in all its Vjranches) is yet in
embryo. The system of the future has yet to be developed.
It must be founded on practical experiment, and its philo-
sophy interpreted by liberal-minded, generous-hearted men
and women, whose souls are radiant with the light of science
and full of sympathy with child-nature. As a necessary
preliminary to this state of things, " the greatest liberality,
in religious matters, should be shown in our public schools,
and the greatest care taken in the preparation and right
interpretation of our text-books. Nothing offensive to any
class of citizens, should be tolerated or allowed in institutions
supported by general taxation."* To effect these laudable
objects, teachers must be persons of truly Catholic and unsec-
tarian minds — free from all kinds of religious bigotry, pre-
judice, or intolerance, receiving the opinions and expressed
feelings of others with all the courtesy and respectful con-
sideration so characteristic of true Christian hearts ; being
always ready, like the bee, to extract honey from every open-
ing flower.

Public examinations, however, when conducted properly,
are very useful and desirable, inasmuch as they cause the
t'eaeiier and people to take a greater interest in educational matters than
t le taught, ^j^^y. otherwise would do. When conducted, not for show
or applause, but so as to test the quality and quantity of
the instruction given, and the cultivation and refinement
developed by the same during the respective terms, the
teacher and the taught are exhibited in their true light, and
intelligent, well-educated men can form a correct estimate
of the efficiency of the school. Under such circumstances,
should the examination be a success, parents and guardians
may justly be delighted with the efforts of their childi*en.

•Rev. Dr. Ryersom.

When exam
inations ro-
Heit credit

( )

[NG.

THE SCIENCE ANl) ARt OP TEACHINO.

263

m, or examina-
good, and none
irovement. In
ches) is yet in
io be developed.
;, and its philo-
US-hearted men
) light of science

As a necessary
eatest liberality,
r public schools,
•ation and right

offensive to any
sd in institutions
it these laudable
tholic and unsec-
ous bigotry, pre-
ns and expressed
Id respectful con-
Ein hearts; being

from every open-

nducted properly,
as they cause the
3nal matters than
ed, not for show
and quantity of
and refinement
active terms, the
ir true light, and
correct estimate
ch circumstances,
Lts and guardians
mi their childi-en,

while the latter, incited to renewed exertions, will in future
be proud and happy when succeeding examinations aftbrd
them opportunities of acquitting themselves to the satisfac-
tion of their friends. Parents and pupils will feel deeply
grateful to the esteemed teacher, and he — whilst remember-
ing that good men need no commendation for doing their
duty — will feel happy to receive their encomiums, knowing
that they speak the words of sincerity and truth.

Two public examinations each year, are quite sufficient-
one at midsummer, and one at Christmas; nevertheless we
are inclined to believe that it would be advisable to hold
two minor examinations between these intervals. Accord-
ing to this arrangement there would be four examinations
in the year — two public and oflicial, and two of a "more
quiet" and less pretentious nature — and the intervals be-
tween each would be of moderate length, so that the minds
of the pupils while pursuing their studies, may be fixed on
each subject with a view to its retention and possible use on
examination day, as well as on the more laudable object
of their own permanent pei'sonal improvement. The near
approach of "the quarterly test days " will be a great incen-
tive to study, and cannot fail to incite them to increased
exertion and more accurate attention. On the other hand,
more than one general examination each quarter would be
objectionable, as they would interfere too much with the
regular course of study.

At the half-yearly examinations, rewards or prizes (if any)
should be distributed to the successful candidates, and those
found duly qualified should be promoted to the next higher
classes, the announcement of their promotion being made
in presence of the audience. Paients or guardians, if not
})resent, should be officially informed of the promotion of
their children. On these occasions the pupils should be re-
quired to pass through a written (or printed) and oral exam-
ination. The examining committee should comprise the In-

Quarterly

I'ixnminH'

PilM llt.S to

be api'ri.^fd
of t!ie jjro-
niolioii of
their cliild*
ren.

264

Periodical
evening
ftxnniinu-
t.ii>n».

Official
l>ooks.

TttE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

spector of Schools, the Head Master, and the Chairman ol
the School Bofvrd. It will be the duty of this committee
to prepare questions and examine answers ; after which they
should make out an official leport, carefully noting each
pupil's standing in the respective subjects. Some member
of the committee should copy same into the General Report
Book, whilst another should prepai-e a " Roll of Honour,"
showing each pupil's order of merit; or absolute and relative
rank.

In many of the great schools in Europe an evening ex-
amination, partaking of the nature of a "celebration," Ls
held once or twice a year for the gratification of parents and
friends. This laudable custom is adopted by the principals
of public schools in many of the more important French,
English, and Irish cities. Part of the half-yearly examina-
tions are held in the evening so as to suit the convenience
of parents and other friends whose busmess avocations
would not permit them to attend during the day. Recently
the practice seems to have commanded general favour in
many parts of Ontario and New York. These evening ex-
aminations are usually diversified by dialogues, recitations,
and music. They are generally interesting, and afibrd an
agreeable treat to parents and guardians. We therefore
venture to hope that they will, in time, become a universal
institution. There can be no possible objection to such
popular entertainments provided they do not interfere with
the regular course of study by inordinately engrossing the
minds of the children. They have been very favourably
received wherever adopted. Parents and pupils welcome
their advent with much enthusiasm, being always willing
and ready to do whatever they can to promote efficiency,
and thus ensure the success of the enterprise.

We may here be permitted to observe that it is the duty
of the teacher to keep the daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,
and yearly registers of th-? st iit«,v hi ci "veat and proper man-

t
i ■

,-!,<'

-!-^

•man ot
nmittee
.ch they
[ig each
member
[ Report
lonour,"
relative

sning ex-

ition," is

rents and

[principals

b French,
examina-

nvenience

avocations

Recently

favour in

vening ex-

•ecitations,
afford an
therefore
universal
1 to such
srfere with
:ossing the
Ifavourably
s welcome
jiys willing
rsfficiency,

lis the dut}'
quarterly,
Iroper man-

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO.

ner. These registers are indispensable books in all well-
regulated schools. "In them," as an eminent educator well
observes, "the patrons and friends of the school have a tole-
rable record of their labours ; and by means of them the
teacher can at any time exhibit the proficiency of every scho-
lar who has attended the school." It is therefore a matter
of the greatest importance that they should be accurately
and neatly kept. In addition to the foregoing, each school
should have a Visitor's Journal. It should he placed on a
suitable desk in some convenient and conspicuous spot. On
visiting days this book should be kept ojmn, and visitors
should be requested (by a notice attached) to insert in same
any remarks suggested by their visit. On examination days
the visitors may be formally, but cordially, invited to record
therein their individual impressions of the proceedings.
18

265

4
■I

^^■■.:'■^^\'

266

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIllNO.

PART IV.

CHAPTER XX.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

TcachorV
iiitcrcinirsp
- its cliar-
.icteristics.

Tlie social and official intercourse of teachers should be
free from any traits of character inimical to true friendship
and genuine refinement. Its leading characteristics should
be personal esteem, professional respect, and a delicate re-
gard for the rights and feelings of others. Candid without
rudeness, earnest without positiveness, mutual confidence
and reciprocal kindness should daily cement their friendship.
The younger " craftsmen" should look up to the older and
more experienced with feelings of respect and devotion ;
likewise the Assistants to the Principal ; and the latter
should be always r\ady to sacrifice his own interenta or con-
venience to promote the welfare of his colleagues or official
inferiors. It behoves him to regard their welfare as insepa-
rable from his own. It is his duty to prescribe their duties,
and superintend the jxrformar o of their work; but whilst
zealously guarding his own prerogatives and the public in-
terests, he should carefully protect the rights and privileges
of his colleagues, and on " no account wrong them or see
them wronged." He should judge with caution, admonish
with friendship, and, if necessary, reprehend with courtesy
and candour. He should neither palliate nor aggravate their
negligence or other short comings. First to advise or sug-
gest, last to censure or condemn, he should strive to antici-
pate and remove the cause of what he could not approve.
He may thus prevent what would require much pains to cure.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

267

lOiiW be
iendship
;s should
iicate re-
without
anfidence
iendship.
older and
levotion ;
he latter
ts or Con-
or official
as insepe-
■ir duties,
»ut whilst
public in-
iprivi luges
im or see
admonish
courtesy
,vate their
se or sug-
to antici-
approve.
ls to cure.

His band given to his colleagues, like theirs to him, should
be the wicred pledge of truth, confidence, and fidelity.

Teachers of Division should devote themselves to their Tonvoid
respective duties without envy or jealousy, each pretemng
the other — the younger giving precedence to the more ex-
perienced. Nothing looks so bad in the eyes of the world,
and nothing has such a deleterious efiect on the school as
dissensions amongst the teachers. Slioidd such a malady
exist to any extent it would not be amiss if the principal
were to note its working in his private diary, with its pro-
bable cause and ultimate effects. Should his influence, judg-
ment, and executive tact fail to restore the harmony
and concord necessary to unity of action, the evil may be
regarded as chronic, and he will then be justified in seeking
exterior advice as to its removal. Better that one oi* more
teachers be requested to resign than that the school should
permanently suffer. Such cases of internal dissensions are,
we believe, extremely rare. No such episode has ever fallen
within our own experience ; but we have observed evidences
of their existence in more than one instance during our
official visitations. True teachers never quarrel. Labouring
in the same school, they have an Identity of hopes, interests,
and aspirations which effectually prevent (or should prevent)
profes.sional suspicion and social strife ; whilst those labour-
ing in isolated fields have, nevertheless, a community of
feeling which binds them together in a common apostleship
of peace and good will. Rejoicing with each other in pros-
perity, and sympathizing with each other in all trials, diffi-
culties, and adversities, true teachers never ignore the claims
of duty, or fail to strengthen the bonds of fraternal affection
and christian charity. Being always actuated by a right
spirit, their professional career becomes a living example of
professional harmony, unity, and zeal ; hence the alacrity,
honesty, and cheerfulness with which they obey the respec-
tive commands of their superior officers.

.:'i

268

THE 8C1EKCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

To cultivate
a fraternal
(Unpuititiua.

Abnence of

professional
eothusiauui.

Its cause

Teacliers in the same school should regulate their in-
tercourse — social and official — by the chivalrous sentiments
ever present in true christian hearts, so that a sort of maso-
nic atmosphere may pervade the scene of their united lalx)ur8.
All should stand together to form "a rampart of mutual de-
fence and safety, sup}>orting each other in all just and lau-
dable efforts." They should protect a fellow-teacher's cha-
■racter in his absence as if he were present, "They should
not revile him themselves, nor knowingly suffer others to do
so, if in their power to prevent it." On the contrary, they
should decline fellowship with his detractors, and " boldly
repel the slanderera of his good name."

It has often been remarked to the writer that " lady teach-
ei*s are generally deficient in that professional enthusiasm"
which we regard as essential to success. But after a varied
and prolonged experience in the Public and Collegiate Schools
of this and other countries, during which we have had daily
— we might say hourly — opportunities of studying the excel-
lencies, deficiencies, and relative merits of our colleagues, we
feel bound t'> say that some of the best, most enthusiastic,
and accomplished teach ors we have ever known were ladies ;
and some of the most indifferent and incompetent were men.
In truth, professional apathy is common to both sexes, and
not the peculiar property of either. Our own observations
would lead us to infer that professional enthusiasm — like
professional conscience — depends «//j age, education, and ex-
perience, irrespective of sex.

Young women, it is said, are always ex[»ecting to change
their names, and leave the profession ; young men are usually
expecting to get a more lucrative appointment in some other
calling ; and hence both sexes neglect professional cultiva-
tion, and look on their position as a mere temporary arrange-
ment which will secure them the necessaries of life until
the advent of better times. Such temporary teachers can
have no abiding love for children, no real regard for the
profession — no correct sense of its importance, no just idea

THE ICIEKCE AND ART OF TEACIIIKO.

269

leir in*
:imeuto
f maso-
abours.
tual de-
tnd lau-
d's cha-
shoulJ
ra to do
ry, they
boldly

((

ly teach-
lusiasm
a varied
3 Schools
liad daily
lie excel-
Lgues, we
uiaiastic,
re ladies ;
rare men.
xea, and
ervationa
sm — like
and ex-

,o change
•0 usually
jine other
cultiva-
arrange-
life until
chers can
d for the
just idea

of ita many responsibilities, and therefore no professional
conscience. They probably have had no })rofe88ionttl train-
ing, and do not feel the want of any. Possibly they Imve
got legal certifica*^^es uuthorizing them to teach, and think
that sufficient. What ciire they for professional devotion ]
What need for study — particularly for dry uninteresting
professional study 1 '* And even if there were need it would
not be woi-th while ; for in a month, or a year or two at most,
they will leave the irksome profession, with all its troubles
and annoyances."*

Such, we are told, are some of the favourite modes of ex- How to
pression adopted by young teachers to excuse their want of evij.
enthusiasm. Now all this must hv changed. Of course it
would not be desirable, or indeed possible, to prevent y<mng
women getting married ; but we think it very desirable and
very necessary, to })revent young men or young women leav-
ing the profession for more lucrative appointments. It should
be done : and the only way to do it is to make the teach-
er's profession as lucrative as any other, and to refrain from
em})l<»yihg nnskilUxl labour no matter how well recommended.
If teachers be deticient in energy and zeal (and doubtless some
of them are), then, in most cases, the people are to blame.
They offer insufficient salaries (or wages as some call them),
and, to keep up the supply ot indifferent ** educators," they
— through their officials — grant certificates to unquali-
fied persons. What right, we would ask, have any board, or
body of men, to furnish young and inexperienced persons
with diplomas, giving them the name and status of teach-
ers, until they have supplied practical proof of their prqfea-
sional skill and enthusiasm, and of their desire and intention

* In dlscuBsiug the effect of their profesaiun upon teachers, the San Francisco
BulUtin says; — "Too many queer persons — eccentric, singular, and naturally » -—
small and pedantic-- enter upon the business of instruction. On all such persons
teaching seems to have an unfavourable effect, because it brings out tlKJSt- unde-
sirable traits very prominently. Whenever teachers have striven to l)e something
more t^a,n ma'liines, and have endeavoured to balance any unfavourable tenden-
cies by Y'de reading, high cuUure, and high aims, in nearly all such iitstant^es, so
far from experiencing any ill effects, they have been made better by their voca-
tion. The man or the woman who is not the better for teaching, and fails to <!••
v«lop what is best in the i>upil, is unworthy of that vocation."

270

I !

Apprentice-
ship to the

plufCHHJUU.

THE SCIENCE AND ART Of TEACHING.

to devote their Uvea to their calling ? Tliird-class certificates,
as grnnted in this country, are evidences of mere literary
attainments ; and as such (|ualificatioiis, without practical
prof(>s.sional skill, cannot make a teacher, we are of opinion
that tlie basis on which they are awarded is unsound, aud
needs alteration. The crlificate of a physician testilying
to the [ihysical strength of a navvy does not (jualify such
an individual t( set up as a surgeon; much less does the
certificate o^ a county, or other board, testifying to the
scholastic ac([iuromentsof a caiididato, qualify him, or her, to
set up as a teacher. No certificate or diploma can make a
teacher — a fact which no intelligent board will deny: } 't
strange to say these very gentlemen, though admitting the
truth of our assertion, will next moment grant Teachers^ Cer-
tificates to pei'sons who never taught a day in their lives —
even to mere boys and girls of sixteen.

Now, we maintain in thi? interests of the public, of the
profession, and of the candidates themselves, that a certifi-
cate should not be awarded to any a[)plicant until he, or she,
has given proof of his, or her, professional fitness and na-
tural, or ac(piired, skill in teaching. As in England, Ire-
land, and part of Germany, no person should receive a cer-
tifica* of any class or grade, no matter how high his lite-
rary qualifications, until he hjxs served a certain apprentice-
ship (ono year at least) to the profession in the ca})acity of
pupil- teacher, student-teacher, or monitor, under the auspices
of a legiilly-qualified Public School Master or Mistress; or
until he had attended a Normal School ono or more sessions.
The standard of qualifications now required for Third Class,
should be raised to the Secmd, and subsequent promotion
to the Second or First Class should depend more on length
of service and professional success than on mere literary at-
tainments. The principles and practice of education should
be the most prominent subject on the programme of examina-
tion for certificates of all grades, insicad of being the lowest
and least important, as it is now considered even by the Gov-

[icates,
iterary
•jictieal
)piuion
id, and
nitying
fy such
loes the
to the
r her, to
laake a
ny: > 't
biiig the
lers' Cer-
• lives —

c, of the
a certili-
), or she,
i and nar
and, Ire-
ve a cer-
his lite-
iprentioe-
acity of
iiuspices
[tress ; or
sessions.
|ird Class,
iromotion
111 length
;erary at-
»n should
examina-
|he lowest
the Gov-

TUE 8Ci£NCE AND AHT OF TEACHING.

ernment « tRcials themselves — receiving (as it doos) only half
the numl>er of marks awarded to oth< r individual sithjocts.
Such a la t is, in itself, stifficient to make teacherK cureless
of progress in their art. As ii illustration of its cfl'octs wo
may mention that not many years ago we were present at a
large Convention of Teachers, in which a majority declined
to ItHten to a lecture on "M(!tho<l," projiosed to be given by
a gentleman from New York, who was well intnxluced —
dleging (1) that the lf'«^ture was out of order, not being
mentioned on the progr.niime ; and (2) that a pnjlongution
of the isosaion would cause then' personal in -onvenience t
There were only five ladies present, and we wen^ glad to
notice that four of them voted with th« minoritv. Hince
then, we were present at a tea* liers' meeting where a pro-
j)osal to make " The l»est modes of discipline, and mast
a})proved methods of Teaching a standing subject of discus-
sion," was voted down by the younger membci's of the
profession,

Th(^se and similar facts which have come under our notice
from time to time, would ^< r i to indicate a deai-th of profes-
siontil enthusiasm sutRcient. m itself, to prevent general ad-
vancement in the science of teaching. As Archbishop
Whately well observes, " Such a dearth fills the heart of
the inexperienced with a false pride, and impels them to
believe that improvement is unnecessary." Regular appren-
ticeship to the profession, as in England, more extensive
Normal School training, and greater restriction and discri-
mination in the granting of certificates are the best, and
only real remedies for the evils arising from such profes-
sional apathy and official carelessness. The more a person
knows, the greater his consciousness of his own ignorance —
the greater his humility, and the more intense his desii'e to
learn; 'dnd vice versa.

As teachers advance in life they generally learn to love
their calling an(' to identify themselves with its interests,
so that their zeal becomes more ardent, and their eliiciency

271

Tin- bent,
remediv*.

Advantages
of txpcr-
ieuce.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEHSTER.N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

272

The best use
uf wealth.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

more certain than during their younger and less experienced
years. Successful and continued practice increases their
knowledge of human nature, enlarges their sympathies,
invigorates their enthusiasm, and imparts a lasting impulse
to their professional devotion ; and, not infrequently, ti*an8'
forms the indifferent recruit into a gallant, self-sacrificing
" veteran."

When a community recognizes its greatest benefactors and
most useful citizens in the persons of its teachers, and is
not only willing but anxious to devote its resources to their
proper remuneration, (and the consequent elevation and dif*
fusion of education,) then will it have laid the foundation of
lasting prosperity and true greatness. Wealth is best ex-
pended when used in relieving men of vigorous intellect and
generous disposition from the ordinary cares of existence,
thus enabling them to devote their lives with ardour and
enthusiasm to the study of nature and science, so that with
the professional light obtained they may b the better able
to cultivate the heart, conscience, and mental energies of the
rising generation. It can command the services, and enlist
the sympathies of the most generous and highly-cultivated
spirits of the age, by inducing them to seek commissions in
the grand army of educators. The influence of wealth and
of liberal national appropriations, operating in harmony
with the intelligence and profound sympathies of such
teachers, cannot fail to elevate the social status, whilst pro-
moting the happiness and material comforts, of the masses.
Well-paid, accomplished educators will elevate the art of
teaching, and gradually invigorate the dormant intellectual
energies of their respective communities, so that the people
will not only have a better comprehension of the dignity of
human nature but be better instructed in the laws, harmo-
nies, and duties of life — more especially that portion of it
which relates to the mental, moral, and physical education
of children.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

273

•ienced
i their
)atbies,
mpulse
, ti-ans*
•rificing

tors and
, and is
to their

and dif*
lation of

best ex-
iUect and
"xistence,
lour and
that wich
atter able
riea of the
,nd enlist
jultiyated

issions in

ealth and

harmony
of such

rhilst pro-

,e masses.

^he art of
itellectual

jhe people
dignity of
3, harmo-

[•tion of it
education

It has been said that, under the regulations of the new f " ncwmf

' '^ for want of

school law, pupils in the higher classes have so many stu- tcxt-iMxtWi.
dies and require so many books that parents, when poor,
cannot afford to send them to school in consequence of the
necessary expense, nor to keep them at home in consequence
of the penalties attached to the Compulsory Act. The new
subjects of study are nece8.sary if we would keep up with
the progressive spirit and industrial progress of the times ;
and if parents are too poor to provide good and sufficient
text-books, the law authorizes trustees to supply them at
the public expense. Tliere is therefore no just ground for
complaint, and no excuse for ignorance — no palliation for
negligence. Every parent, or guardian, in the land can
supply his child with all necessary text-books at his own or
the public expense. ^^

Want of books may retard but cannot stop the progress ji,^ g,.,.„|,
of education — a large supply is desirable, but not essential. ''*^fi"'"'*"
Pestallozzi and others have taught successfully without any
books, and but little apparatus. In most cases, chalk and
black boards may be made to supply their place. The great
requisite in the public schools is a class of teachers well
acquainted with the pliilosophy of mind ; active, intelligent
men and women who underntaud child-nature, and ai'ft always
ready and anxious to avail themselves of every opportunity
to develop mental growth, generous sentiments, and coiTect
moi*al principles — teachei*s who will devote their lives to
their profession with that energy and enthusiasm which
always command success. The impulse imparted to educa-
tion by the teaching of such officials cannot fail to invigo.
i*ate, elevate, and regenerate society, and thus introduce a
higher, holier, and more fraternal civilization than any known
hitherto. The ever-increasing number of Normal Schools
and Teachers' Institutes is an evidence of the national
anxiety to produce and train such officials. To be suc-
cessful the people must supplement the Normal Schools and

■m

2/4

The laws of
life and
Drder of
iTiHntal
evolution.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

Institutes with better pay, higher social consideration, and
greater permanency of engagements. As Clianning truly
remarks, *' Tf it be the people's desire to secure and retain
the services of such an order of teachers (as those under
consideration), social circles must be re-arranged, so as to
allow the educators of youth to take precedence of the
moneyed and money-making classses ; and, in point of rank,
the woman of fashion must fall behind the female teacher.
E lucation must be recognized by the community as its high-
est intere-st and duty, and p.arents must sacrifice pleasure
and ostentation to the acquisition of the best possible aids
and guides for their children." We must not be understood
to imply by the foregoing remarks that a sufficiency of good
text-books and apparatus are not desirable ; or that teach-
ers should ever become pomi)ous, flashy, individuals, like
certain fasli >nable folks outside the respective circles of our
ac<juaintance — quite the reverse. We would advocatp a
sufficiency in tlio one case, and the judicious exercise of
reason, taste, and judgment, in the other.

Our ideas of education should not be of the aimless, con-
fusing, cramming, or chaotic character. The nature and
oi'der of mental evolution or development, and the probable
effects of certain modes of treatment, should be constant
themes of professional study. Without a clear and intelli-
gent knowledge of the general principles of mental pheno-
mena, with their causes and consequences, we will fail to
understand the laws which guide the evolution of intelli-
gence, and cannot therefore properly regulate the process of
education, or supply the necessary means to secure each
special end. Moreover, in our ignorance, we will be in
constant danger of thwarting children in their pursuit of
happiness, thereby diminishing their enjoyments, with no
other result than that of making them miserable, fretful,
peevish, and ill-natured. We must remember that the in-
tellectual action which a child likes at any particular age is

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

275

Ion, and

ig truly

id retain

ie under
so as to

e of the

of rank,

J teaclier.

I its high-
pleasure

iible aids

nderstood

;y of good

hat teach-

iuals, like

cles of our

tdvocatp a

exercise of

mless, con-
.ature and
le probable
(O constant
,nd intelli-
ital pheno-
m fail to
of intelli-
process of
lecure each
will be in
pursuit of
|ts, with no
,le, fretful,
Ithat the in-
cular age is

just the action it needs, and therefore the most healthful
and suitable for the requirements of its organization. As a
learned writer remarks, " The rise of an appetite for any
kind of knowledge implies that the unfolding mind has be-
come lit to assimilate it, and needs it for the pur{)oses of
growth ; on the other hand, the disgust felt towards a
kind of knowledge is a sign either that it is prematur
presented, or that it is presented in an indigestible forn
We should reasonably inrlulge the child's love of variety,
and combine improvement with the gratification of his
curiosity. Unwise prohibitions, like unsuitiible regulations,
may undennine his mental or physical constitution, and
gradually produce pennanent disease, premature decay, or
untimely death.. It is cniel carelessness, therefore, on
the part of those having the guidance and control of the
young, to neglect the study of the laws of life, and those
mental and vital procc ses, which are influenced or affected
by rules, regulations, or example. " At present, and in the
remotest future, it must be of incalculable imj>ortance for
the regulation of conduct that men should understand the
science of life, physical, mental, and social ; and that they
should understand all other sciences as the key to the sci-
ence of life True education is practicable only to

the true philosopher."* ^

If teachers would command success in their vocation, they Teacher-, to
must learn to understand the laws of mentiil activity viewed gciencc of
in connection with nature, instinct, and the various analo-
gies of life ; they must be able to resolve intellectual phe-
nomena into its primary elements, and from this analysis to
deduce such facts as will enable them to think out methods
of their own for dealing with the opening mind of child-
hood. The teacher's profession can never attain its true conditions
position until the majority of its exponents acquire such a gf,J,^.^'^'*..
knowledge of mental philosophy as wiU enable them to base ^**'*'*-

♦Herbert Speucer,

276

How to
iiecure it.

Nature's
book on
tenching.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO.

every portion of their art upon its corresponding science,
and to refer every manifestation or expression, mental or
physical, to its native source. Once possessed of this know-
ledge, due development or repression of the mental and
physical powers will be a mere matter of time and patience.

It is essentially necessary that teachers, like other skilled
workmen, should study the pliilosophy of their art. For
this rejison they should pursue a regular course of reading.
When opportunities otfer they should daily question Nature,
in the school-room or nursery, as to the truth of the theories
advanced in the works of their more expciienced brethren.
Should the student-teacher find it impracticable at all times
to command such an excellent studio as either of those men-
tioned, he may nevertheless test the truth of such theories by
looking inwards on himself. No work on education, and no
study of other people's chai-acteristics, can teach us so much of
the science of our art as the revelation of human nature in our
own hearts. The secret workings of the soul, the silent oper-
ations of our varied intelligence, the recollections of our own
personal history in all the stages of its development, our
mental struggles, our sorrows, our joys, and the spontaneous
thoughts, longings, and aspirations which fill our minds from
day to day — with all theii' mutations of ardent feeling and
strength of purpose — compose a volume of priceless value,
and form, in themselves, a fountain of truth, on whose eternal
principles every true teacher must ultimately repose his art-

The teacher's personal experience, and Nature's light in
his own bosom, are the best books on teaching, and the
first, as well as the last, which should engage his attention.
His chief objects during his professional career should be,
(1) to think strongly and actively, so that he may create a
desire for study ; (2) to form good and worthy designs ; (3)
to conceive and impart correct if not great ideas, so that
while diffusing knowledge, he may communicate sound
guiding principles. Such ideas and designs are often receiy|4

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH1.nO.

277

r science,
aental or
iuB know-
mtal and
patience,
ler skilled
art. For
)f reading,
m Nature,
lie theories
I brethren.
it all times
those men-
tlieories by
lion, and no
3 so much of
ature in our
1 silent oper-
, of our own
)pment, our
spontaneous
minds from
feeling and
celess value,
rhose eternal
pose his art.
re's light in
ng, and the
is attention.
sr should be,
lay create a
designs ; (3)
leas, so that
dcate sound
ften receiyfA

by outwp~d impressions, and often by direct inspiration ;
but are more frequently the result of the inward work'nga
of mind on ideas already acquired. If we would l)e good
and skilful teachers we must look inwards, and obtain a
correct and more extensive knowledge of Nature's workings
in ourselves ; otherwise our teaching will lose half its influ-
ence, our lives lack half their usefulness, and our example
never be a worthy beacon light to others. In studying self,
and the principles and laws of our own being, we study na-
ture, history, philosophy, and art. By retaining a conscious-
ness of what pavsses (or has passed) in our own minds, under
certain conditions, we can comprehend the effect of like con-
ditions on other minds. The ideas derived from the study of
our own nature will enable us to understand other natures ;
hence, the key to successful teaching is the study of one\s self r^y^^ ^ ^^
The light gained by intelligent observation and the study of f"*'^^:'*'''^"'
oui"selves, supplemented by such as we may be able to obtain
in the works of others, will not only increase our present
happiness and enable us to serve our generation more effici-
ently, but it will open to us a source of perpetual enjoy-
ment, entirely independent of the changes peculiar to time
and circumstances. " Happy are they whose amusement is
knowledge, and whose supreme delight is the cultivation of
mind. Wherever they chance to roam the means of employ-
ment are still with them. That weary lirtlessless which
renders life insupportable to the indolent and voluptuous is
unknown to those who can employ themselves in study."*

We are inclined to believe that in matters of school gov- The doctrine
emment sufficient attention has not been given to the doc- re-actions
trine of natural consequences or relative re-actions, although
the events of every-day life constantly proclaim their gene-
ral operation and inevitable results — mentally, physically,
and politically. We will find, should we question nature,

that every action is followed by a corresponding re-action,

■ ' — — p

* Archbiabop Fenelon.

■■ipl

278

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

i !

II ,'

and that the latter is the unavoidable consequence of the
fonner. Natural re-actions are proportionate to the degree
of tranHg;*es8ion, other tilings being eijual. " Tliey are con-
stant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be escaped." As Spen-
cer observes — " No threats ; but a silent, rigorous perfor-
mance. If a child runs a pin into its finger, pain follows*
If it does it again, there is the same result ; and so on per-
petually. In all its dealings with surrounding inorganic
nature it finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to
no excuse, and from which there is no appeal : and very soon
recognizing this stern though l)eneficent discipline, it becomes

extremely careful not to transgress It is the function

of parents to see that their children habitually experience
the true consequences of their personal conduct — the natural
re-actions ; neither warding them ofi", nor intensifying them,
nor putting artificial consequences in their place." These
natural re-.actions have a tendency to develop caution, reflec-
tion, and other powers essential to self-jcruidance, and are,
therefore, the Ixjst and most efficient physical and luciital
monitors. The great object of family or school discipline
should be the production of reliant self-goveniing beings,
and not the manufacture of slaves to be governed by others.
For this and other reasons, too numerous to mention, parents
and teachers, while prompt in sympathy, should, as a rule,
let children experience the natural consequences of their own
conduct and actions. Except in extreme cases, children may
be governed efficiently and to advantage by means of the
minor punishments and the penalties incident to natural re-
actions. But to be truly salutary, instructive, or efficient
the latter should be inflicted by nature herself, the teacher
merely acting as proxy to direct or apply her manifestations.
Artificial consequences, such as temporary displeasure, may
justly accompany, though not be the substitute for, natural
penalties. The expression of pai*ental or tutorial feeling in
such cases should assimilate as much as possible to the reac-

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

279

ice of the
the degi-ee
jv aro con-
Ab Spen-
ds perfor-
in follows-
so on per-
r inorganic
li listens to
(1 very soon
>, it becomes
the function
r experience
-the natural
lifying them,
ace." These
lution, reflec-
ice, and are,
L aud mental
3ol discipline
niing beings,
led by others,
ition, parents
aid, as a rule,
IS of their own
children may
means of the
to natural re-
ve, or efficient
If, the teacher
aanifestations.
ipleasure, may
te for, natural
)rial feeling in
►le to the reac-

tion of nature. By due observance of the doctrine of natural
consequences, circumstances may be so guided as always to
ensure the infliction of the right penalty by the oj>eration
of the right agent — the natural laws which n?gulate and
goveiTi things. An irregular, vacillating inlliction of pains
and penalties — too severe t one time, too merciful or motle-
rate at another — promotes transgression instead of decreasing
it. Hence the absolute necessity of being consistent in our
administration, and free from the temi)orary, or traditional,
impulses so characteristic of parental government even in
this enlightened age and country. The difficulties appertain-
ing to the right education and government of children will
be reduced to a minimum when they discover that certain
consequences will inevitably follow certain acts, and that
the only way to avoid the former is to abstain from indul-
gence in the latter.

The American and Canadian people have many advantages provision
over their European brethren in the matter of popular edu- education.
cation. In the Old World popular education has never had
a good start or a fair chance of due dev^opment. It is
different in these countries of the Western W^orld. Tlie
English-speaking States of North America are blessed with
the best and most comprehensive school systems in the
world. Each commonwealth recognizes its children as its
most valuable property and, as a matter of course, makes
State provision for their free education. Every resident has
the privilege of attending the public schools, and most of
the universities, irrespective of his creed, class, condition, or
nationality. The law invests him with an inherent right to
attend these national institutions, and thereby relieves him
of any embarrassments arising from personal obligations-
His thanks are due to the Commonwealth of which he is
himself a part. All the States of the Union, and all the
Provinces of Canada, recognize the right of the people to a
good sound education, and, by the operation of compulsory ^

Acts are about to compel the rising generation to avail them-

280

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

riiblic
Koardi).

selves of the educational advantages provided for their ben-
efit. Tlio States have, from time to time, set aimrt one-sixth
of their public lauds (f^'v^hiy millions of acres) to form a per-
petual fund for gtmenil eihication. In addition to the pro-
ceeds of these lauds a direct supplementary tax is raised
annually for school pur|)oses by the diflferent muuicipalities,
districts, or school sections.

The public schools in Ontario ai'e maintainetl |><irtly by
Government grants based on the average daily attendance,
and p'^rtly on direct local taxation. Public School Boards
are the most jiowerful local corpoi^ations in the Province.
Thev can erect and furnish schools, hire and dismiss teach-
ers, and [Kiy what salaries they choose. Tlieir respective
municii)al councils are compelled by law to furnish them
with whatever sums they desire for school purjioses. In an
economical point of view they seldom, if ever, abuse the
immense jK)wer with which they are invested. On the con-
trary they are generally accused of being " mean and miserly
in money matters." So far as our own personal experience
extends we must, in justice, say that we invariably found
the members of the respective School Boards with which we
have been connected, to be generous, liberal, and high-mind-
ed men according to their ideas of right and wrong ; but we
have reason to believe that some of our fellow-labourers in
other localities have not been so fortunate in their official
connections. It is true that in consequence of a dearth of
candidates of tlie right stamp* in rural sections, and a dis-
inclination for office in cities and towns, men of limited, un-

• School Trusters. —The editor of The Globe, writing on the 5th January, 1875,
Bnys : " Wo are sorry to say that, in general, there is not that amount of oare shown
in tlie sulection of schoul trustees wliifh th-; interests of education require. W«
hold tint among all our local olflcials, there are none who can influence the com-
munity for good or for evil to such an extent as those who have tlve management
of our publif schools. The powers of these ofRcMala are very extensive, and their
duties are both numerous and important. They can tax to any exttmt. Whether
willing or not, city and town councils must comply with their demands, and provide
the necessary funds. They have the choice of all the teachers, and the building
and equipping of the ditferent school rooms are entirely in their hands. We have
only to make this statement to show that school trustees ought to be persons of
more than ordinary intelligence, and of high moral character. It is of far more
importance to have reliable school trustees than to have superior city or town 1
councillors. By all means let us have the best for both, but if there are degrees ot

I I

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINQ.

281

tlieir bcn-
: one-sixth
•orm a per-
to the pro-
( is raised
liicipalities,

d i«irtly hy
atten<lance,
tiool Boards
e Province,
ismiss teach-
ir respective
umish them
^ses. In ai^
er, abuse the

On the con-
1 and miserly
Lai experience
vriably found
ith which we

td high-mind-

ron^

hut w©

r-labourers in

their official

|f a dearth of

ms, and a dis-

)f limited, un-

Tsth January, 1876,
^ountofcareshovm
Lition require. We
I influence the com-

Ive the »uana8''?ifi}*
txtenaive, and their
ly extent, ^l^ether
ILands. and provide

k, and the ^"^^J'^f
fir hands. We have

Iht to b« Pf'*""*^^:

\ It is of far more
tperior cityorto^,
Uhere are degrees otl

sympathetic and prejudiced views sometimes find a seat at
tiie Board. As the late Bishop of Illinoist olwerves, in H*«ak-
ing of the Western States, " It occasionally hnpjwns that a
man of obtuse principles, and little chivah'ous feeling, finds
a seat amongst the worthy and enlightened friends of educa-
tion — a man who, i)erha[)H, in the plenitude of his rare in-
telligence, gives exju-ession to his temporary authority by un-
dermining the influence of, and fostering conspinicies against,
school ofticera — a man who occasionally exorcises factious
opjKJsition towards some teacher who may be of too ster-
ling a character to flatter his weaknesses, or whose position
he may covet for a relative." We believe, however, that in
** this Canada of ours" the majonty of trustees are straight-
forward honest men — lovers of justice and fair play, as they
underatand them. Hence, as corporate bodies, thoir offences
are " sins of omission" rather than " sins of commission" —
a failure to use theii* i)0\yer rather than an abuse of it. It is
often said (and apparently with some reason) that, as a rule,
they are not sufficiently intelligent to be generous in the u:3©
of their authority — that they are negligent in the provision
of suitable school accommodation, and so dull in their appre-
ciation of education as to be incapable of paying good sala-
ries to teachers. In truth, if the teachers bs paid badly the
fault must be referred to the local trustees, not to the State
or Provincial Government. The Government, in this respect
has done its duty ; it only remains for the people to do
theirs (through their school trustees), in a generous and in-
telligent spirit, in accordance with the national will.

The Governments of Canada and the neighbouring States, Europe mni
in proportion to population, have made almost as liberal a compared
provision for the education of the people as European nations

both, let those who are preferable be taken for the trusteeship. Yet, in a vast
number of cases, it is exactly the reverse. It seems to be thought that any one
can do for a school trustee, and instead of the office being sought by respectabie
and trustworthy men, it too often goes a begging, and is all but forced upon iadii-
viduals totally unsuitable, both in character and iutelligence."

t Right Rev. Dr. Whltehouse.
19

i
'A

282

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

make for their fleets and armies, and their eflTortfi have been
nobly seconded by the more intelligent and enlightened sec
tions of the community. TIio mont jirominent buildings in
a Eur(>|)eHn landscajM^ are the cjiHth's of the aristocrjicy ; the
most striking buihlings in F]uro|»ean cities are prisons and
pauper houses; but in American scenes the most im|)osing edi-
fices are public schools and collegiate halls. Every Ameri-
can and CJanadian is oorn|xin\tively well acquainted with the
history and politics of his country, and with the individual
merits of the more prominent public men — whether they
be writers, statesmen, tesvchers, farmers or inventors. As
a necessary consequence he i>osses8es a certain energy of
will, tenacity of puq.ose, and intelligent reliance on self,
seldom, if ever, found in ordinaiy European i)opulation8.
America, in the diffusion of education and aimilgamation
of her heterogeneous people, is perfonning a noble work
— difficult and gigantic. Her educational labours would be
comparatively easy and light were it not for the presence
of an ever-increasing foreign element. Year after year tens
of thousands of Europeans, fresh from the bondage of serf-
dom, land upon her hospitable shores, bringing with them
all the prejudices, poverty and ignorance so characteristic of
antiquated rigimea and Old World institutions. What does
Columbia — the land of Washington and Cartier — do with
these hardy " outcasts " — aliens in race and language per-
haps 1 She gives them a cordml greeting — a hearty welcome
— sends them out to the Great West — presents them with
a little estate — and, if they so desire, adopts them as her
own children, giving them all the advantages and privileges
enjoyed by her first-bom — ^the sons of the soil. Nor is this
all. She establishes public schools to educate them — " to
teach them the love of country, a reverence for law and
order, and a preference of honour, not only to pleasure but
to life."*

* Archbisiop Fenelou.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO.

283

Etvo been

ened sec

lilings in

t*cy ; the

iHonH and

osing edi-

•y Ameri-

I with the

[ndividual

(ther they

itors. A»

energy of

ce on self,

opulations.

iilgamation

loble work

^ would be

tie presence

n- year tens

age of serf-
with them

acteristic of
What does

jr — do with

signage per-
rty welcome
t them with
hem as her
d privileges
Nor is this
them—" to
for law and
pleasure but

The majority of our eminent men are persons who have nighor
grathiated in the trying school of Ex{>erience — men who
have never obtained a college diplunm, not being able in
early life to command the necessary capital. They are
emigimnts or the sons of emigrants, and have ensured their
personal success by the force of their innate abilities. Huch
success is the best of all degrees, and can only be obtained
in the University of Practical Life. The universities of
Europe are aristocratic guilds, and may justly he regarded
as the private academies of the rich. Univeraities on this
continent bt;long to the |)eople, and, like the public schools,
are open to the {>ennile8S child of the friendless widow as
well as to the aspiring son of the ambitious statesman.
There is no national institution of learning amongst us
which a poor boy may not attend, if he can command suffi-
cient funds to pay his board ; and there is no degree which
he may not attain, if possessed of the necessary ment 1
capacity. Weal this doubtless a great convenience, but time
and mental ability are the only " necessary requisites." In •
Europe, education, like wealth, is generally confined to a
class. In America, both are widely (though not yet suffi-
ciently) diffused amongst the masses. Our institutions,
however, have a mighty reflex influence on European coun-
tries, and, whilst breaking down social barriers and remov-
ing the prejudices of ca^w, are causing society to " level
up." Those in authority are beginning to feel that the
welfare and stability of nations and governments depend
on the elevation, education, and consequent prosperity of
the working classes. Hence the tendency of the mother
countries to copy our laws and institutions.

The English-speaking States of North America have popular
made gigantic strides in material wealth during the present ®*'"^**''*"*
century; but public education, witL its corps of faithful
teachers, was (and is) the pioneer of their prosperity.
I Foreign nations are becoming electrified by our example. Our

284 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

wonderful progi'ess has aroused them from the \ethit..^jy of
ages, and foreign statesmen — Kjonscious of the dangers which
would threaten the peace, welfare, and stability of a nation
inspired by bigotry and ruled by ignoi-ance or piejudice — are
desirous of having their people thoroughly educated ; but the
people themselves have not yet responded with the energy
which might have been expected. The fact is, they have been
so long in darkness that their mental eyes cannot bear the
light. This transition stage will soon pass away, and then
the light of knowledge will shine on their hearts and fertilize
their minds. Public education, aided by the benign influences
of real Chi'istianity, will enlighten the conscience, quicken
generous sentiment, and develop every power of the human
being — mental, moral, physical. Whilst imparting courage,
strength, and stability, it will make each individual the centre
of a cheerful and radiant social circle, investing all his actions
with a genial grace, finally impelling him to love and culti-
vate all that is lofty, perfect, and beautiful in human char-
acter. The intelligence and patriotism arising from such
culture cannot fail to promote the public welfare and secure
the national honour. Mental and social elevation arises
chiefly from the promptings of a good and generous heart, and
from the continued activity of the intellectual forces exerted
in the acquisition of knowledge. It is, therefore, the result
of the combined action of natural impulse and mental power.
The right cultivation of these promptings, or impulses, and
the proper development and judicious guidance of these
intellectual energies, comprise all the duties of the teacher,
and convey all we mean by education. Such an education
must elevate each citizen intellectually, morally, socially.
Without it, no man can elevate himself or others ; so that
from the first to the last hour of life, he must remain obli-
vious of one of the greatest sources of happiness, and fail in
one of the most important objects of existence — that of being
a fountain of light and joy to " those who sit in darkness."

THK SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

285

etha.^ of
Ters which
f a nation
udice — arc
(1; but the
the energy
J have been
at bear the
r, and then
md fertilize
n influences
Lce, quicken
the human
ing courage,
al the centre
11 his actions
ire and culti-
human char-
g from such
•e and secure
ration arises
us heart, and
orces exerted
re, the result
lental power,
mpulses, and
nee of these
the teacher,
an education
illy, socially,
hers ; so that
remain obli-
3s, and fail in
-that of being
in darkness."

Tills is what every citizen should strive to be — each in bis
respective sphere of usefulness*

Tlie right education of the young is the best guarantee of f'^'^^l*'''.'"
the welfare of all classes in the future. But manhootl, and e<iu.»ti..n.
even age, should not be forgotten. Philosophers and states-
men, while attending to the interests of the child, should
not overlook the welfare of the adult. They are indebted
to the present, as well as to the future. To discharge this
debt in a wise and patriotic manner they must create
facilities for the education of adults by establishing "Night
Schools," and making arrangements for the delivery of peri-
odical courses of lectures on technical subjects — Natural
Philosophy, Mechanical Arts, etc. In such a population as

• We have stated elsewhere that good home Kovcmment was the fsscntial basis
of good school government, and that the rliildren of amiable, high-minded, and
int<'Iligent parents generally inherited, more or less, these noble characteristics.
In referring to these matters, Herbert Spencer justly remarks that it is very
erroneous for teachers and others to ascribe all the faults and difticnlties to the

like certain governments, that

gove

children and note to the parents ; or to assume,
" the virtues are with the rulers and the vices wit
ftrom the truth," says he, "that we do not hesitate to affirm that to parental mis-
conduct is traceable a great part of the domestic (and school room) disorders com-
monly ascribed to children. . . . The truth is, that the difficulties of moral
education are necessarily of dual origin — and necessarily refult from the (-ombined
fanlts of parents and children. If hereditary transmission io a law of nature, as
every naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current proverbs
admit it to be; then on the average of cases the defects of children mirror the
defects of their parents. . . . The most glaring defect in our progrfimmes of
education is entirely overlooked. . . . Though some c.ire is taken to fit youth
of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is ttiken to fit them for
the still more imp rtant position they will ultimately have to flll^the position of
parents. , . . While many years are spent by a boy in gaining knowledge of
which the chief value is, that It constitutes what some cidl ' the education (»f a
gentleman ;' and while many years are spent by a girl in those decorative acquire-
ments which tit her for evening parties ; not an hour is s)>ent by either of them in
preparation for that gravest of all resiumsibilities— the management of a family.
. . . Not only is the need for su<'h self-instruction unrecognized, but the com-
plexity of the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction is
least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be jiut forward for leaving the Art
of Education out of our (nirrimlum. Whether as bearing upon the happiness of
parents themselves, or whether as affecting the characters and lives of their children
and remote descendants, we must admit that a knowledge of the right methods of
juvenile culture, i)hy8ical, intellectual and moral, is a knowledge second to none
in importance. Thi.s topic should occupy the highest and last place in the course
of instruction passed through by each man and woman. As physical maturity is
marked by the ability to produce offspring, so mental maturity is inarked by the
ability to train those offspring in a proper manner. The subject which involves all
other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should
culminate is, the Theory and Practice of Education." Few will read these remarks
without admitting the existence of the evils allndod to— evils which are more
general than is commonly believed. It behoves evei^ good and patriotic citizen
to assist in removing "such glaring defects. This can be done only by the creation
of a higher intelligence, by the more general diffusion of education amongst all
classes, ages, and conditions of men.— O. V. L.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

Influences
of age on
eilucatiou.

ours, composed as it is of a large foreign adult element,
anxious for and needing improvement, there should be
suitable and comfortable provision made in cities and towns
for the accommodation of all who may desire instruction in
the Public School subjects. These students should, when
practicable, be placed in charge of the local Public School
teachers, the salaries of these officials being supplemented in
pi'oportion to their increased duties and responsibilities.
Night Schools should be established during the winter
months, for the benefit of young men — labourers, clerks,
artisans, and all others, irrespective of age or condition, who
might be willing to conform to the rules and regulations
necessary for the successful government of such institutions.
Night schools have been established, by the bounty of wealthy
citizens, in many p?irts of England, France, and Ireland, and
are the source of many blessings to the adult population in
their immediate vicinity. It remains for some of our
American commonwealths to make them State institutions,
and thus give them a legal or recognized existence on this
Continent. Night schools should be merely supplementary
to, not rivals or substitutes for, day schools. Both institu-
tions should, of course, be carried on in the same building
and under the management of the same School Boards.

None are too old to leam ; yet it cannot be denied that
the influence of long established habits will, in some cases,
make the minds of old people impervious to impressions
which would have been happily received in younger years.
" After a certain age (writes the amiable Archbishop
Fenelon) men lose their pliancy, and become fixed in their
habits, which have grown old with them and become, as it
were, a part of theii* constitution." Much, however, as we
admire tli precepts of the good prelate of Cambray, we cannot
concur v ch him (and other worthies) in believing that old
men may become conscious of the existence of objectionable or
injurious habits, and even sigh over their presence, earnestly

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING.

287

b element,
should be
and towns
bruction in
luld, when
blic School
^>mented in
)n8ibilities.
bhe winter
ers, clerks,
iition, who
regulations
nstitutions.
r of wealthy
[reland, and
>pulation in
)me of our
institutions,
ence on this
»plementary
ioth iustitu-
iB building
loards.
denied that
some cases,
impressions
Linger years.
Archbishop
[xed in their
)Come, as it
ever, as we
y , we cannot
ing that old
sctionable or
:e, earnestly

desiring their removal, and yet not have sufficient fortitude,
or energy of will, to resist and overcome such infirmities ; nor
can we believe that "the faults of age are hopeless," or that
"youth is the only season in which nature can be corrected."*
Without referring to history, many of us could adduce
instances from personal observation which would prove the
contrary. All men, of all ages, are capable of improvement;
but '* in youth," as the royal teacher well observes, " the
power of correction is unlimited." In some respects people
advanced in life are more susceptible of improvement than
the young; but manhood and age have a multitude of cares
which are apt to wage war for the dominion of the mind.
The child, be he ever so ignorant, is, therefore, the more
hopeful subject, and, on the whole, will probably be the
more successful student.

Free libraries, cabinets of natural history, fine arts collec- 8upj»ip-
tions, and museums of the industrial arts, should be estab- Pubik-
lished in connection w ith the Public School system in towns, system.
Similar institutions should be established at central places
in the country, the adjoining townships combining to shai-e
the expense and advantages of same. These institutions
might embrace the following departments : —

1st. A free reading-room, open to all who will conform to
to a few simple regulations. Also an elevating resoi-t, in
the shape of an attractive, neatly-furnished room, where
young men could meet to exchange opinions on current
events and other topics.

* More than 150 years have elapsed sincp the good and amiable Fenelon put
the foregoing words to the account of Mentor. But the world has changed since
then, and our increasing knowledge of human nature has kept pace witli the lapse
of time. Feuelon's own life and example attords many proofs that old men may
break old habits and form new ones— that they may learn to the latest hour of
their lives— thit they may rise stijierior to Fortune, and derive pleasure; and profit
in the evening of their days, not only from their own continued cidture, but from
their laboura as practical educators. We a])i)entl the jiassage alluded to in the
foregoing: — "La vieillesse n'a plus rieu de souple, la longue habitude la tient
comme enchainee ; ell n'a plus de ressource contre ses defauts. Semblables aux
«rbres dcmt le tronc rude et noueux s'est durci par le nombre dea annees, et ne
pent plus se redresser, les hommes a un certain age ne peuvent presque plus ae
plier eux-memes contre certaines habitudes qui ont vieilli avec eux, et qui aont
6n trees jusques dans la moelle de leurs os. Souvent ils les connaissent, mais trop
tard ; ils gemissent en vain ; la tendre jeunesse est le seul age on I'homme pout
encore tout sur lui-meme pour so corriger. "— Xea AvtniMrts De Tekviaque.

I i

288

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

111!

2n(l. A free public library for the U8e of ineml)er8.

Srtl. A free course of lectures on litei'ary and historical
subjects to be delivered each session by men of acknowledged
ability, as orators, teachers, and philanthropists.

4th. A popular course of lectures upon scientific subjects.

5th. A literary society affording opj)ortunities for mental
improvement, and general culture in writing and speaking.

Gth. A gymnasium where persons of leisure may find
pleasant and profitable recreation in physical exercise.

By these and similar means the people will be refined,
educated, and ennobled. As they grow in intelligence they
will acquire a more philosophical knowledge of their various
callings j the forces of nature will be more fully subdued to
man's use ; the cost of production will be lessened, and
labour economised to the highest degi'ee. The people can
then acquit themselves to greater personal advantage, and
therefore command higher wages. Their duties will be
discharged with greater avidity — more facility and less
labour — because the light of science will guide their least as
well as greatest efforts. Under such arrangements the toils
of daily life will become potent instruments of self culture,
mighty levers of elevation to the human race, because
labour will thenceforth be applied with intelligence and
"practical ease," being the mere physical expression of the
knowledge and power stored up in the workman's mind. To
effect this object, "labour and refreshment" — physical toil
and mental education — must succeed each other at regular
intervals ; and life be so diversified in its aims, aspirations,
and employments, as to call forth all the latent energies of
the body and soul, inspiring the love of truth and imparting
a sense of pleasure to its acquisition. The knowledge
arising from the prosecution of original enquiry and the
cultivation of . cientific habits cannot fail to lessen labour
and increase production, whilst elevating the people and
increasing the comforts of life.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACIIINQ.

289

•B.

historical
iwledged

subjects.
)r mental
leaking,
may find
ise.

B refined,
ence they
ir various
ibdued to
3ned, and
)eople can
atage, and
)s will be
and less
ir least as
ts the toils
slf culture,
because
rence and
ion of the
mind. To
ysical toil
at regular
spirations,
nergies of
imparting
:nowledge
and the
len labour
leople and

Natui*e never intondetl that the advantages of life should Sorrow« nn.i

, ,. , , , 1 /. • J'lys of life.

be monopolized by one class, ca.ste, or onler of men, as is the comiuon
generally the case in Europe. She is no respector of castes all.
or cla.sses, and doubtless intended that the trials and bless-
ings of life should be the common property of all. The
tendency of the present age is to ignore all distinctions not
aiising from peraonal worth — to rebel against any claims to
superiority based on the merits of ancestors, or on the power
of ill-gotten wealth. It has often been a matter of surprise
to us that Christianity, and kindred influences, have not
long ago succeeded in establishing recij)roc!il charity and an
identity of interests amongst all classes, in these highly-
favoured countries, liowever, the prejudices and delusions •
inherited from former ages are gradually evaporating ; and
although the present hour is not so full of light as we could
wish, wo have reason to hope for a bright to-morrow. On
this continent, where the civilization of the East and West
have met together, and the children of the Orient and Occi-
dent *• have kissed each other," the people think, speak, and
act for themselves, and enjoy the comforts as well as the
toils of life. Yet even here there is room for much improve-
ment. The people need more discrimination, more judg-
ment, more education — in a word, more real Christianity.
The age of intellectual enquiiT has dawned upon the world. The age of

° 1 ^ I ^ intellect.

Men now ask for reasons for what they are required to do,
suffer, or believe. They are no longer content to be " like
dumb driven cattle." They are " up and doing." Hence-
forth they will and must think for themselves. It therefore
behoves wise legislators and prudent teachers to lead them
t/O think justly, strongly, irapai-tially, and at the same time
inspire them with the love of tnith and justice — the first
principles of Science and Religion. The aff*ections, feelings,
Kid enlightened opinions of the people — arising from i-ational
conviction and the teachings of eternal truth — are now the
only real basis of stability in human institutions. In every

290

THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING.

Oriiwth of
iiiiiid.

civilized land the pomps and vanities of physical force are
paling before the mighty energies and pulsations of the
human mind, directed an they are by popular education and
Divine intuition. No social or political ordinance can
possibly survive the sweeping changes of the present and
future ages, unless it has its foundation in the human heart ;
hence the advisability, if not necessity, of studying more
accurately the principles of those laws or natural forces
which control human action.

The mental energies of an educated people grow larger
-^fcnd stronger in the presence of danger — and in times of
doubt, difficulty, or uncertainty — so that no obstacle, royal
or democratic, can enervate their intelligence, or perma-
nently withstand their onward march. If it be true (and
it is) that the mind makes the man, it is equally true that
mind makes the nation. In truth, it is the highest, greatest,
and most god-like force in the universe ; yet it can never
attain its full development in the human being without the
fostering aid of generous, sympathetic, and intelligent in-
struction. As education and civilization advance, the
volume of mind — increase'! by ever-increasing rills and
streams from the fountains of thought — will make the
nations illustrious, and attain such an irresistible sweep as
to overwhelm all opposing obstacles. The force of mind
will increase from age to age until all other powers and
forces are subject to it. Enlightened public opinion, even
now, causes men to acknowledge it as intrinsically glorious
— one of the noblest emanations from the Creator. Great
thoughts are the characteristics of great minds. Once kindled,
they transform the hearts of men into living fii-es, whence pro-
ceed those mental sparks, or ideal germs, which time and
circumstances develop into great deeds. It may be regarded
as an axiom in international politics, that the more int^jp
ligent and energetic races of men are endowed with tnl
greatest mind — national and individual — and they are sure,

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

£91

force are
l8 of the
ittion and
Mice can
)8ent and
an heart ;
ing more
ral forces

ow larger
a times of
acle, royal
or perma-
true (and
jr true that
it, greatest,
: can never
without the
elUgent in-
vance, the
rills and
make the
lie sweep as
ce of mind
lowers and
►inion, even
lly glorious
)or. Great
ace kindled,
whence pro-
;h time and
be regarded
more in
jd with
ey are sure,

it^P
tW

therefore, sooner or later, to subdue their neighbours, men-
tally, morally, or physically. It is unnecessary to quote
examples to sustain this statement : the history of man,
from the first page to tlie last, em[»hatically confirms its
truth. When this greatness of mind and activity of will
are widely diffused amongst a people, their nation, in a
certain sense, becomes omnipotent and immortal. Such
were Greece and Rome in the past, and such may our own
country be in the future.

It should be the ambition of all good citizens to assist iiiii»«>r

. l)ul.lic

in the creation and general development of such an inter duUci.
lectual greatness, of such moral and physical excellence,
as will secure individual freedom and well-being, whilst
perpetuating the unity and omnipotency of a strong, healthy,
national will. The absence of such an ambition, or the neg-
lect to cultivate it, indicates a want of real patriotiHin and
vital religious sentiment. Influenced by the presence of such
noble aspirations, true teachers express in actions the love
they feel for their country and their God. They seek the
higher truths through the medium of the lower — the spiritual
and mental through the temporal and tangible. They zeal-
ously study the manifestations of nature, life and thought,
and thus approach nearer to the Divinity, whilst obtaining
a key to the right intei-j^retation of individual and national
existence, past, present, and to come. As patriotic men
they must cordially and generously share their superior
lights with less-favoured citizens ; and further, they must
aim at the correction or gradual development of public
opinion, so that the national voice may ultimately do honor
to vigour of physique as well as to vigour of mind. They
must also remember that no nation can be justly regarded
as educated until the great majority of its people are made
|lly conscious of the fact, that voluntary breaches of the
^s of health or bodily development are criminal offences,
mjurious to the family or the community — pliysical sins for

292

TOE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO.

which nature will, sooner or later, inexonihly demand satis-
faction. The moral and vital energies necessary for the
right conception and accomi)liHhment of such worthy designs
must be infused into the j)eoplo by the more general dif-
fusion of science and the more lil)eral encounigement of
physical training ; and our legislators must be inspired
by the conviction that the intelligence of a community
depends more on the high average of education, as distri-
buted amongst the many, than on vast stores of know-
ledge monopolized by a few : nor must it be forgotten
that the god-liko principles and noble ideas inspired by
knowledge are of more importance than knowledge itself —
being, as they are, the true source of magnanimity and mental
energy. In an age and country like ours, the great object
of the philanthropist, legislator, and patriot should be the
creation and accumulation of such powers and influences
as may be necessary to awake, and educate aright, the slum-
bering energies and latent capacities of all classes and all
ages ; and this object will be best accomplished by making a
more liberal national (and local) provision for public educa-
tion, so that men and women of largo and enlightened minds
may be employed, at good salaries, to take charge of the
Nation's schools, and thus send streams of light and mental
life into every homestead in the land.
Conclusion. In conclusion we would say that teachers owe it to them-
selves, and to their profession, to avoid and rise above the
din and conflict of professional, political, and sectarian strife
— ^to lay broad and deep the foundations of intelligence, truth,
and fraternity — so that, with Divine favour, they may be
the better able to secure, difiiise, and perpetuate the many
blessings, public and private, which flow from the judicious
development of a free and comprehensive system of educa-
tion such as that which has made this Province the \is\
and life of our JSTew Dominion,

ml satis-

for tho

r designs

enil <lif-
jment of

inspired
mmunity
OH distri-
)f know-
forgotten
ijpired by
;e itself —
tid mental
oat object
Id be the
influences

the slum-
es and all

making a
blic educa-
ined minds

ge of the
md mental

it to them-
above the
arian strife
Bnce, truth,
ey may be
the many
le judicious
a of educa-
e the lig^

APPENDIX.

KOTlCE TO PARENTS AND OtJARDIANS.*

The Rei>ort (see p. 296) wliich is prepared witli great care
and accumcy, furnishes each parent or guardian with a
minute and exact stateniont of hir, son's (or ward's) jirogress
and standing in eveiy subject of study. Strict attention to
the following particulars is requested :

1. No one but the parent or guardian should sign tho
Report. Should circumstances {)revent duo attention to this
point, special arrangements should be previously made with
the Principal.

2. The pupil's progress, as manifested by each Report,
should be minutely observed, to see whether he is getting
up or down in his Form (or Class), whether his averages are
becoming lower or higher, and whether his demerit marks
and detentions (if he has any) are increasing or decreasing.
Sixty demerit marks will caase the suspension or dismissal of
the pupil ; but as soon as any pupil has twenty-five demerit
marks recorded against him, the Principal will notify the
parent or guardian of the fact, and the pupil will take home
a daily report, to be signed by the parent or guardian, and
returned to the Principal.

• the following pages (293 to 298 inclusive) have been selected from papers
kindly furnished us by the Principal of the Upper Canada College, George R. R.
Cuckburn, Esq., M.A., to whom we are also indebted for many valuable sugges-
tions contained in the foregoing work. The selections alluded to fUrnish a sample
of one of the most perfect systems of Registration of Merit to be found in any school
on this continent. l*hey will richly repay patient perusal, and we can say, from
iractieal experience, that teachers who may introduce such a Record of Progresg
'nto their schools, will reap an abundant harvest. No other system can surpass it
as a medium of stirring up mind or exciting scholastic enthusiasm. — 0, V. L,

•v'i

294

APPENDIX.

3. Whenever the Report is unflatwfactory in any of theHo
particulars, the parent ought to call imnietliately at the
College (or School) and enquire into the matter, as prompt
attention to this particular may often save the pupil being
dismisseil, or suspended, or put back a whole session.

4. No pupil is advanced with his Form (or Class) at the
end of the sepsion, who, in the writUm and oral examina-
tions upon the studies of the Form (or Ciass) fails to obtain
in each subject the " Minimum Value for Promotion,"'
(see p. 297). ♦ • * j^o pupil, on completing the
course, will obtain a Certificate of Distinction, who fails to
obtiiin honors in every subject, and Firat Class honors in
Classics and Mathematics.

5. Parents and guardians are respectfidly informed that
their sons or wards have certain lessons proscribed for every
evening, and they are particularly requested to allow no
arrangements to interfere with the due preparation of them.
From one to three hours are required for that purpose,
according to the Form and ability of the pupil. * * *

6. Writing and Book-keeping are marked according to
an average, ranking from 1 to 6 and 1 to 10 respectively,
and those averages are determined by the attention shown
and progress made by the pupil.

■ '■

of these

\f at the
s prompt
pil being
[1.

ifi) at the
examina-
to obtain
)raotion," ^
sting the

fails to
lionors in

rmed that
for every
allow no

1 of them,
purpose,

# ♦

;ording to
ipectively,
on shown

APPENDIX.

295

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API»BNDIX.

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■OS

▲rPENDIX.

307

o I

1 O t? 1

M> S^

Sfi

<e ^

UPPER CANADA COLLEGE,

RESULTS FOR THE SESSION.

ExAMtNATiuN Mark-, accokokd to Okorob Wiltoit.

Subjects.
(Third Fwm.)

8hakH|N-aru

Lutlii (J rniu mar

Anthniutic

Algfttrti

Geometry

Natural Phlloaonhy. . .
KukUhIi CompoHitiDn. .
Etiglixh (irHniinar ....
Kn({li>«>i Uict.'itiDii, Stc.
M(><|. Hmt.A Literature
Mtxlern Oottgraiihy . . ..

Cheiiiitttry

PbyHiology

Fr. Trans., Kcading, Ac

Prencli Grammar

German

liuok-keeping

50
150

l'J5

1^5
75
50
50
60

100
75
75
75

lUO
50

HO
75

§^|

X>£

55
50
35
25
25

60
40
:<5
35
45
25
45
»5

Valiw actually
obtataML

1st

Examln.

48
100

«7
104

29 aba

Total value actually obtained ,

Average of Average Ranks . . .

Session Average Rank

6.15
2.21

3.94

1,038

2lid
Examin.

Remarks

on Ut

Exauiioa-

tiou.

69
49
126
100
110
60
40
35
46
85
70
65
60
85
40
90
70

1,180
1,0S8_

2,218*

Rt* marks

on 'inil

ExamiD»«

tion.

«PL4

Session Absolute Raiik, 4, in a Form of 23 Pupils.

iBt Ex., tabf.

2nd Ex

For careless Penmanship and bad Spelling in each Subject, five per cent, of tbe
" value actually obtained will be deducted.

* I have filled up the 1st and 2nd Examination Columns merely to illustrate the
manner of working. To find the 8e».sion Average, by which the Session Absolute
Rank is settled, and Prizes, &c., distributed, add the Ist and 2nd Examination
totals together, then divide by 1,000, and subtract quotient (2.21) ttvm the Average
of Average RonJui (6.16).

298

APPENDIX.

UPPER CANADA COLLEGE.

Jieport ending 0/ Form VI.

RESULTS FOR THE SESSION.
Examination Marks.*

Subjects.

Latin

Latin Grammar

I^atin Composition ....

Greek

Greelc Grammar

Antiq. Anct. His.& Geog

English

English Comjiosition..
Modem History A Geog

Arithmetic

Algebra

Geometry

Mensuration and Trig. .
Chemistry* Physiology

French

French Grammar . . .

-a
>

200

1^0

125

150

100

V 9 1 V

e o

3 C

'150
, 56
! 56
jll2
56
48
|»3

I >)0

! y3

|112
!112
75
56
75
45

120
45
45

36
45
75
PO
90
60
45
60
36

Total vAlue actually obtained

Average of Average Ranks.

Session Average Rank.

100
37
37
75

45 37
39 32

62
30
37
62
75
75
50
37
60
30

Value actually
obtained.

1st I 2nd
Exami- 1 Exami-
nation, nation.

d
0-3

no (3

Session Absolute Rank in a Form of Pupils.

Please to examine carefully the above Report, compare it with the preceding (if
any), and the notice to Parents and Guardians on page

N.B.— This Report to be carefully preserved by the Parent or Guardian. The
duplicate is kept by the Pupil.

1st Ex

2nd Ex.

Pupils answering ♦hree-fourths of Maximiim Vaht« of any Subject, are entitled
to First Claris Honours in that Subject, wliile those who answer two-thirds secure
Becond Class Honours. Those answering one-half of the Maximum Value are
placed in the Third Class.

* Teachers will easily perceive, by above Report of Examination Marks, how
they might prepare similar programmes, embracing the Public School Subjects.

O. V. I..

APPENDIX.

299

feeding (if
ian. The

re entitled
IrdB secure
lvalue are

larks, how
ibjects.

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300

APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX.

801

§f5

a^ o

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s o

CLIFTON PUBLIC SCHOOL.

FUTH CLASS.

Report of.

o
o

ending .

. .for the term of 4 weelet
.187

Subjects or Study, etc.

Dt'ixjrtment 100

Spelling, Dictation, and Derivation. ... 40

Reading 40

Geograpliy and use of Globes 40

Writing and Book-keeping 60

Arithmetic — Mental and Written 80

Natural History 20

Composition 40

Grammar and Analysis 60

History — Ancient and Modem 40

Algebra , 30

Drawing and Mapping 40

Botany and Chemistry 40

Natural Philosophy 20

Geometry and Mensuration 50

Reviews

Days absent Times late

Ranks in a class of pupils.

MEniT Mabkh.

Possible. Obtelned

o
a
o

a
o

Parents are requested to examine, sign, and return this Report,
»nd to visit the School as often as convenient.

Parent or Guardian.
Hold Master.

302

APPENDIX.

TIME TABLES.

In pages 100-103 of this work, we pointed out the
absolute necessity of a good " Working Time Table." We
believe that the construction of such a plan of work is no
small test of a teacher's administrative ability, especially
when there is a great inequality between the number of
classes and the number of teachers. Such a duty is a matter
of more than ordinary difficulty to young teachers wto have
had little or no professional experience, or Normal School
Training. We therefoi-e append a few specimens, which
may be of some assistance. In the construction of a Time
Table, teachei-s must necessarily be governed by circura-
stances — by the number of pupils, teachers, studies, classes
and class-rooms. They should not be too hasty in changing,
or prescribing a plan of work ; but once fixed or adopted, it
should be scrupulously followed. Let the teacher first pre-
pare, and work for a week or two by, a trial Time Table in
which due provision is made for the more essential subjects.
He may, in the meantime, distribute the less important
subjects according to their relative value and the time at his
disposal, making sure that, while each class (or section) is
reciting, the others are engaged in the work of preparation.
He will thus provide suitable work for all classes at all
times during school hours. The following Tables are copies
of those in use at a Canadian Public School, in which
there is a registered attendance of 360 pupils, and an aver-
age of 230. This institution may be regarded as a fair
average specimen of the Graded School. It has five class
rooms; but only four teachers — a head master and three
lady assistants. The pupils are graded, according to their
attainments, into four divisions, each division being sub-
divided into two sections.

AI^PEKDIX.

303

t the
We
is no
3cially
jer of
natter
ohave
School
which
I Time
drciim-
clasBes
mgiiig,
pted, it
•st pre-
able in
ibjects.
fortant
at his
ion) is
xation.
at all
copies
which
la aver-
a fair
^e class
three
lo their
Lg sub-

In rural districts, schools cannot, of course, be graded in
this manner ; still the following tables may afford such sug-
gestions as will materially aid the young teacher in the con-
struction of a plan of study suitable to the attainments,
requirements, <fec., of his pupils, and the peculiar circum-
stances of his locality.

304

APPENDIX.

A GRADED PUBLIC SCHOOL OF FOUR DIVISIONS.

TIME TABLE— Fourth ob Pbimary Division.

Hours.

Length
of Time.

Subjects.

9.00 to 9.10

Opening Exercises.

9.10— 9.45

Tablet Lessons (Ist Sec.) '

9.45—10.00

Singing, &c.

10.00—10.30

Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec. )

10.30—10.50

Intermission.

10.50—11.20

Arithmetic (Mental).

11.20—11.30

Calisthenical Exercises.

11.30—12.00

Reading and Spelling (Ist Sec. )

12.00— 1.00

Intermission.

1.00— 1.40

Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec. )

1.40— 2.00

Writing on Slates or Black Board.

2.00— 2.10

Calisthenical Exercises.

2.10— 2.30

Arithmetic (on Slates or Black Board.)

2.30— 2.50

Intenuission.

2.60— 3.20

Object Lesson.

3.10— 3.20

Singing.

3.20— 3.50

Reading and Spelling (Ist Sec.)

3.60— 4.00

Closing Exercises.

APPENDIX.

306

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GEOLOGY AND GENKSIS HARMONIZED.

iHETWipECORDS OF CREATION;

OR. GEOLOGY AND GENESIS ;

THEIR PERFECT HARMONY AND WONDERFUL CONCORI*.

By OEORUE VUTolt LK VAUX, M.C.P.

With Numerous ///uxtfations. Foolscap, 8vo., pricr ^s. cloth.

We can rccomnieml Mr. T.c Vanx Jis an ahle and intcrestinij guide to
a popular appreciation of (jeoli>t;it..il .SciL-nce. Sfeitator.

The author, combines an unl>oun(leti admiration of science with an
unbounded admiration of the; Written Record. The two impulses are
balanced to a nicety ; and the consequence is, that difficulties, which to
minds less evenly poised, woidd be serious, find immediate solutions of
the happiest kind. — I.otuioti Rr, ii^,s>.

Mr. Le Vaux very feasibly reconciles the two Records. — Builiier,

A most instructive ami readable book. We welcome it as aitling in
a most important discussion, and comnieiul it to those interested in the
subject. I'lvd ni^'cUcal A/ai^a'Jtii:

Vij^orously written, reverent in s[)irit, stored with instructive geological
facts, ami designetl to show that there is no ttiscrepancy or inconsistency
Inrtween the VVord and works of the Creator. The future of Nature in
connection with the j^lorious destiny of man is vividly conceived.-
iyatcJinian.

A valuable contribution to science and the evidences of revelation,
and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those wlu» would
set God s Wor.vs against His Word. No real difficulty is ilurked, and
no sophistry is !elt unexposed. — T/u A'ocl.

A very able book, . . . An admirable exposition of the History
of the I'larth, as indicated by (leology and sketchetl in Genesis. Ii will
be read with much interest and profit. — Ri,^ht A\t. Dr. U'/i//i/:uiiSi!,
Biihop oj Illiiiflis.

LONDON :— I.ocKWDon & (>>., Stationer's Hall Court. E. C.