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aNADA

NATIONAL LIBRARY
BIBLIOTH^QIJE NATiONALh \

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NOTES ON PUBLIC SDBJECTS,

HADE DDBINa

1 TOUR IN THE UNITED STATES AND

IN CANADA.

Br HUGH SETMOCR TREMENHEERE.

Hue geminas nunc flecte acies, hanc aspice gentem,

Romanosque tuos.

Virgil.

K I:

VA-

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1852.

U3310

,./■

J' -I

•Sn

LONDON I l-HISTBD BV W. CIOWBS AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.

CONTENTS.

UNITED STATES.

The Public System of Education in the Free States
OP THE Union

The Theory on which it is based — namely, that the
Religious instruction which is not given in the Day
Schools is given in the Sunday Schools — is not sup-
ported by facts, in reference to a large proportion of
the labouring population

PAOE

That the injurious consequences of separating Beligious
from Secular instruction are becoming evident to
some of the most observant persons and the most
zealous supporters of popular education . . 47

Reasons why another effort should be made to bring
all parties in this country to an agreement on the
principles on which a general system might be
founded • . 58

Railways in the United States

Their probable effect on the future price of wheat in
this country 69

■>/'

m^}

Water Supply in the Cities and large Towns

. 105

.*i

CONTENTS— rNITED STATES.

*■ (;■

Th* becret Ballot at the Elections for the State of
Massaohusettb

Note on Bribery at Elections

Extract from Message of the Governor of the State of
New York on that subject «...

The Press

General Remarks

Beneficial results of the present more frequent inter-

^ course between the educated classes of the United

-v/i States and of this country .....

Good feeling towards England prevalent among those
classes in the United States ....

Reasons why more travellers from this country should
visit the United States

Railway travelling, &c. .....

Endeavours of the Press and of the Public Schools in
reference to " Manners"

Hotels, Climate, Scenery, &c. ....

PAOI

114
123

123
126
143

143

144

146
147

147
119

Appendix (A.) Estimated Cost of growing an Acre of
Wheat on a Farm of 200 Acres in the
wheat-growing districts of Ohio . . 157

„ (B.) Cost of Transport of Wheat from those dis-
tricts to Liverpool, and Selling Price there 159

„ (C.) Report to Cincinnati Board of Trade . 162

„ (D.) Extract from Report on Boston Public

Schools 165

CONTENTS— CANADA. » ' . v

CANADA. " *

Not sufficiently appreciated in England .... 173
Extent of Tour in 176 ^ *

Roads, &c 178 • '

Climate 184

Geological Survey 198

Cultivation 195

Railways, open and projected 209

Canals, completed and projected 210

Increase of Towns 214

Field of employment for British capital and labour . . 218

Canadian politics 220

Progress made in the working of Constitutional Government 221
General results of ....... 228

Boston Railway Celebration Note p. 227

State of the Canadian press ...*.. 233 ■•''

Education 235

Upper Canada 235

Prospective good effects of ..... . 244

Lower Canada ........ 258

Inducements for persons of the upper class of society in

this country to settle in Canada 267

Mistakes of previous settlers 267

Country society 270

Occupations of country life 271

Field of exertion in public business 273

English sports 274

Deer Stalking,

Shooting.

Fishing.

Fox-hunting. ,,

Races.

Financial credit and prospects of the Colony . . . 276

w
vi CONTENTS-CANADA.

PAOII

English sentiments and haHts in the Colony . . . 283

Honours emanating from the Crown .... 287

Question of the Representation of Canada in the Imperial

Parliament, or at the seat of Government . . . 288
Possible effect of Railways, &c., in the United States and

Canada, on Emigration from this country . . . 293

Society in Canada 298

The French Canadians 299

Concluding remarks 305

Appendix (E.) Return of Crown, Clergy, and School Lands

, I in Canada 310

„ (F.) On the Custom of the Sub-division of Pro-
perty in Pennsylvania, &c. . . . 312

„ (G.) Extract from a Speech of the Hon. Francis
Hincks, Inspector-General (Chancellor of
the Exchequer), on the Financial Condition
of the Province, delivered before the Legis-
lative Assembly of Canada, July 16, 1851
(Toronto, 1851) 313

„ (H.) On the Extent and Resources of the Great

Basin of the Ottawa 315

\ \

UNITED STATES.

\ 4

■» f

♦ ^

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS,

de.

PUBLIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.

An explanation, and indeed almost an apology,
is due from any one who presumes to offer to
the public any observations upon coun'iies
which he has visited for the first time, after so
brief a sojourn as mine has been in those which
afford the subjects of the following pages.

I can with sincerity say that when I com-
menced a short tour last autumn through a
portion of the United States and Canada, I had
no intention of writing a book. I hoped, indeed,
to bring home with me some useful ideas on
matters to which my time has been for some
years chiefly directed — the education, and the
general condition, of the working population. I
thought also that, instead of tracing again the
beaten tracks of Europe, where at present little

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

is visible but the ruins of politiccil liberty, there
would be more pleasure and satisfaction, as well
as more intellectual profit, in taking a glance,
however hasty, at the great people of our own
race and kindred who are now rapidly filling a
Continent, and also at those more immediately
and closely allied to us, our fellow-subjects in
Canada. But even a hasty glance at those great
and magnificent countries opens so many wide
fields of thought, and fills the mind with reflec-
tions upon so many subjects of the deepest
interest to us in England, that it is impossible to
be in the midst of those subjects without being
carried imperceptibly into as full and complete
an investigation of them as time and oppor-
tunity permit. The introductions I took with
me, and the acquaintances, and, I trust, lasting
friendships, which it was my good fortune to
make in both those countries, placed me at
once at the fountain-head of much valuable
information on various public questions, and
therefore enabled me to make the best use of a
short period of observation. Accordingly, in-
stead of the recreation I went to seek on the

I ■

Wf'S

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

of a

other side of the Atlantic, I found myself in-
volved in inquiries which demanded no small
amount of labour.

The working of the great system of public,
that is, free Education, supported by local tax-
ation, in the different Northern and Western
States of the Union and in Canada, was the
question which chiefly occupied me, and I was
led to examine and consider it principally with
reference to or.r own wants and our own diffi-
culties in England.

The example of the New England States has
been the one hitherto generally referred to, and
the success of their system under their circum-
stances has been regarded as a strong argument
in favour of a similar system in this country.
But it appeared to me that there were many
reasons why it was necessary to extend the field
of observation beyond the New England States,
in order to arrive at a conclusion applicable to
the condition of things among ourselves. Ac-
cordingly, with a view to this inquiry, I visited
in succession the following places: — the two
small manufacturing towns of Newport and Fall

\/^i

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

River, in Rhode Island; some Iron-works on
the Hudson River ; Philadelphia, where there is
a large manufacturing population ; the town of
Pottsville, and the large villages in the Coal
district around, about 100 miles north-west of
Philadelphia; the manufacturing town of Pitts-
burgh on the Ohio; the great and flourishing
principal city of Ohio, Cincinnati, abounding
in manufactures; the commercial and rapidly-
increasing town of Cleveland, towards the south-
western end of Lake Erie. Passing thence,
through Detroit, into Canada at its most western
point, I visited all its principal towns and a
large portion of that fine country ; and, finally,
I terminated my inquiries at Boston, Lowell,
and New York.

At all these places I received the most kind
and ready assistance from every person to whom
I felt at liberty to apply, whether "Super-
intendents" of Education, Chairmen and Secre-
taries of different Boards, members of School
Committees, various gentlemen interested in the
subject and practically acquainted with its de-
tails in their own neighbourhoods, the clergy, or

T'UBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

tlio principal teachers of the different schools;
and I was in many instances aided in collecting,
personally, some statistics applicable to the in-
quiries I had in view, or was subsequently fur-
nished with them from the proper authorities.

I left England on the 2nd of August (1851),
and landed again on the 2nd of December. I was
consequently absent four months, of which I spent
fourteen weeks on that continent, — a brief stay,
indeed, and one which the most kind and warm-
hearted hospitality made me feel to be still
shorter ; but the facilities of travelling are such
that little time is lost in mere locomotion.
With the exception of 150 miles in Pennsylvania,
and 250 in Upper Canada, for which I pre-
ferred hired carriages, for the sake of stopping
at certain points (in some parts of those routes
there was no other conveyance), nearly the whole
of the rest of the tour above indicated was per-
formed by railways or in steamboats, with a
rapidity that greatly economises the available
time of the traveller.

There is unquestionably in England a grow-
ing conviction that, notwithstanding the increased

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

voluntary efforts of the last ten years to extend,
with the aid of the Government, the means of
education for the labouring classes of the com-
munity, those efforts are, and are likely to
remain, insufficient to meet the exigencies of the
present state of society. Some general system,
based on local taxation, appears to be looked to
by certain large parties as inevitable, by others
as desirable. In despair of any agreement
among the different religious denominations as
to any mode of giving religious instruction in
day-schools, the promoters of the Lancashire
education movement propose a system purely
secular. The counter-proposition, under the
sanction of the Lord Bishop of the diocese and
the Very Rev. the Dean of Manchester, aims
at the establishment of day-schools under the
immediate superintendence of the respective re-
ligious denominations, with the possible sacrifice,
however, in many instances, of the ancient paro-
chial relations. Another large party in this
country would, I believe, contend for the su-
perior advantages of the principle adopted in the
United States, and they refer with confidence

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

to the New England schools, and especially
those of the State of Massachusetts, not only as
examples of admirably conducted and eminently
successful schools in all the ordinary branches
of secular teaching, but as proofs of the sound-
ness of the principle resorted to in order to
meet the difficulty of religious instruction. I
have endeavoured to look at this question in
the United States, principally with a view to
this latter proposition; and the conclusion to
which I have been led, by a wide survey of its
working in other besides the New England
States, and by the seriously expressed opinions
of a considerable number of able men of calm
judgment, in various parts of that country, is,
that the mode of solving this difficulty adopted
in the United States is not one which we should
be justified by the facts to follow. y^

It is necessary that I should here say that I
admit to the fullest extent the correctness of all
that has been asserted of the general excellence,
as regards secular instruction, of the public day-
schools in the towns, wherever I had an oppor-
tunity of seeing them, and the efforts making to
improve those in the country ; and I recognize

/■

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

also, with all the best-informed persons I met
with, the fact that, whatever may be its inhe-
rent merits or defects, the present public school
system in the United States is a political neces-
sity; and that, even were any large number of
persons convinced of its unsoundness and its in-
jurious tendencies, it would be impossible at
present to depart from it. The question is, is
it one to be followed elsewhere ? ,

The theory on which the whole public school
system of the United States is based is, that the
religious instruction which is not given in the
day-school is given in the Sunday-school, ex-
ception, of course, being made in regard to the
children of those parents who are able and
willing to instruct their children in the doctrines
of their own faith at home. In considering,
however, a scheme of public instruction having
special reference to the poorer and less educated
classes of society, the above qualification may
be left out of view, and the proposition may
stand as above stated.

It is important to ascertain whether this
theory is carried out in practice. If it be so in
certain parts of the United States, whether this

.*.

-r

IT.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 9

is not SO much due to local circumstances that it
can afford no safe guide for ourselves. If it
fails under different circumstances, whether those
are not precisely the circumstances we have to
deal with in this country.

The first place where I made any inquiry
into this subject was Newport in Khode Island,
one of the oldest towns of the Union, and possess-
ing several branches of manufacture ; its neigh-
bourhood has also of late years been much
resorted to by the wealthier classes from all
parts of America as a summer residence, on ac-
count of its climate, which is moist and tem-
perate, and thought to be somewhat like that
of the Isle of Wight. I am indebted to the
Eev. A. H. Dumont (Presbyterian Minister),
School Commissioner and Chairman of the
School Committee of the town of Newport, for
much information on the general subject of edu-
cation in that State. With regard to the pre-
sent point, Mr. Dumont stated that, until above
eighteen months ago, a portion of the manufac-
turing population was imperfectly provided with
opportunities of public worship and with Sunday-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

schools, while another portion had more than
they could take advantage of: that the attend-
ance at the day-schools of the children belong-
ing to that part of the population seldom ex-
ceeded four years on the whole, and at irregular
intervals : and that at present the efforts of the
different religious denominations succeeded in
causing all, except about 10 per cent, of those
who attended the day-schools, to attend the Sun-
day-schools. But among a small neighbouring
manufacturing community at James Town, Mr.
Dumont was of opinion that, from local circum-
stances, 50 per cent, only of the children who
attended day-school attended Sunday-school ; an
unusual case no doubt in New England, but show-
ing the possibility of such occurring on a larger
scale, and not unlike what may very possibly
occur in many localities in this country.

About twenty miles from Newport is the ma-
nufacturing town of Fall River, containing about
11,000 inhabitants. It has eight cotton mills,
two print mills, a large woollen mill, and extensive
iron foundries. The Rev. Mr. Porter, curate of
the Episcopal church, and Mr. J. Eddie, a

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 11

member of the Congregational Baptists' com-
munity, both of whom took an active part in
education, informed me that, notwithstanding
the efforts of the different denominations, by
advice and by the attraction of clothing societies,
to get the children to attend the Sunday-schools,
such was the indifference of many of the parents and
the reluctance of the children, both those of Ame-
rican parents as well as of English or Irish, that
a considerable proportion of those who attended
day-school did not attend Sunday-school ; that
very many attended neither ; and that those who
attended at Sunday-schools could seldom be
induced to stay after they attained the age of
14 or 15. This impression was confirmed by
the opinions of two of the gentlemen most
largely engaged in the manufactures of the
locality, and for many years acquainted with the
habits of the population. It receives also a
further confirmation from the General Report
of the School Committee of the town for
1849-50, with which I was obligingly furnished.
At p. 4 of that Report it is stated that "the
School Committee are required by law to ascer-

.■■K

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, fcc.

tain each year the number of scholars belonging
to the town on the 1st day of May." It ap-
peared that the number between the ages of five
and fifteen was on the 1st of May, 1850, 2502.
At p. 17 of the same Report is a table giving
the attendance of scholars at all the schools of
the town, including the High School, the 1st and
2nd primary, and the 1st and 2nd grammar
schools. The average attendance in summer was
1244, and in winter 1380 — giving an average
attendance throughout the year of 1304. This
leaves 1198 children (or about 48 per cent.) be-
tween those ages who are not at day-schools ;
and with every allowance for the demand for
juvenile labour in a manufacturing town, it indi-
cates a neglect of the means of education placed
within their reach, especially when the ample
wages of all labour are taken into account. The
Eeport also comments strongly on the irregu-
larity of attendance of those who are registered
as belonging to the schools.*

I was desirous of ascenh.'.ii^ whether the
habits of the persons employed at other iron-

♦ See Note, p. 170.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 13

works in that country differed materially from
those I had seen, and also from the average
specimens of our own. I accordingly visited
one of the largest in the State of New York,
employing on an average about 500 men, Ameri-
cans, Irish, and a few English. I learnt from
the proprietor, who was good enough to show
me his extensive works, that the extravagant
habits usually accompanying high wages in that
branch of trade were conspicuous here as else-
where ; that pains were taken to provide good
education for them in the day-schools, which
were pretty well frequented; but "that there
were none but very young children in the Sun-
day-schools. As they grew into boyhood, they
were apt to be led away from the Sunday-
school by their superiors in age, who felt them-
selves above that restraint; and accordingly,
having had no definite religious belief early
implanted in their minds, they usually, on mar-
rying, adopted that of their wives:" a conse-
quence, I believe, not unusual on this side the
water, under similar circumstances.

I passed a week at Philadelphia, and saw

.■X

» '

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

many of tlio admirably conducted primary,
«eeoiid?ii'y, ami 'grammar schools, as well as the
High School, and received most ready and
zealous nssistance from several gentlemen in-
terested in educ^^ion, in making the inquiries
I desired. In one large and excellent esta-
blishment, containing all the three first-named
classes of schools, numbering, under one roof,
625 children, 1 ascertained by personal inquiry,
by aid of the principal, that within a fraction ot
30 per cent, did not attend any Sunday-school.
In nine other schools — in some of which I was
present when the inquiry was made, in others
not — out of 2129 children, 389, or a fraction
above 18 per cent.; did not attend any Sunday-
school. Allowing, in both instances, for the
children of Jewish parents, and those belonging
to the Society of Friends, the proportion would
not probably be greatly altered. In seven others,
principally girls' schools, contaming 1599 chil-
dren, 148, or a little under 10 ner cent., did
not attend Sundry-schools^ gir'? *>' ''to usuall
found to attend more frequeiuiy than boys.
The difference in the percentage of attendance

rUDLIC EDrCATIDN IN TIIF, UNITED STATES. 15

is probably aLtribuhible, in a groat degree, to
the locality of the school, whether in tho ])ari
of the city « ^'iefly inl»ahited by the manufac-
turing and labouring portion of the comniunit;-,
or by the more easy classes ; the fact being recog-
nized there as elsewhere, that, geficrally speak-
ing, the lower the habits of the poj)ul;ition, the
greater their negligence in attending to the
religious education of their children.

The above facts confirm what was stated
generally to me by a gentleman of the city,
much interested in education, that, as nearly as
could be ascertained, out of a popul ition of
about 400,000, not more than 35,000, o • rather
above one - tenth, (about one-half of those of
school-age,) attended the Sunday-schools : not-
withstanding the exertions of all the rel'gious
denominations, aided by donations of clothing
when required. There are in Philadelphia ron-
foundries, machine manufactories, cotton and
wv)ollen ffictories, establishments for dye ig,
paint-making, lead-tube making, hand-lo »m
weaving, &c. &c. This city, in fact, contain.s, I
was informed, the largest manufacturing popu-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, kc.

lation in the United States. That a similar
result should be found in the coal districts of
Pennsylvania, around Pottsville, and at Pitts-
burgh on the Ohio, might be expected, inas-
much as the working colliery population consists
principally of, probably, not the best specimens
of Scotch, Welsh, Irish, German, and a few
English labourers. The fact was stated to me
by several gentlemen practically engaged in the
mining and mercantile business of those districts,
as one of which they had no doubt, and was
confirmed to me by teachers of schools and other
persons conversant with the subject.

In the town of Pottsville, with a population
of 9000, there were in the day-schools 1000
children. Of these, according to the statement
of a gentleman of the town well qualified to
form a correct opinion, *' about one-third go to
no Sunday-school, and get very little, if any,
religious instruction at home." In the country
districts a less proportion attend Sunday-schools,
as there are not the same facilities as in the
towns and large villages. In confirmation of
this I may add that, in one portion of the dis-

■:y^

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 17

trict, where there was a population of about
1800, there was, I was informed, only one small
Sunday-school. The principal village and the
public school were about two miles off. In
another part of the district, where a large col-
liery population is collected, it was stated by
the schoolmaster of the principal school that —

" There were only t.vo Sunday-schools near, and those
small ones ; and that consequently great numbers of the
children of school-age were running about doing nothing
on Sundays, though on week days six- sevenths of those
of school-age were in the day-schools."

Another person, residing in the district,
stated to me that —

" Hundreds of children in the neighbouring country
districts go to no Sunday-school, and their parents are too
ignorant to instruct them ; they, consequently, get no re-
ligious instruction at all except what they get in the day-
school, which cannot be much, as we read the Bible only
for five or ten minutes daily."

It is to be observed, with reference to the
latter remark, that this is the whole amount of
" religious instruction" permitted in the day-
schools of the United States, with the occasional
exception of a short prayer and a hymn.

•it

■V

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

" Moral instruction" is enjoined on the masters
and mistresses to the utmost extent to which
they are able to carry it in the course of the
ordinary lessons of the school. *

A gentleman extensively engaged as a Mining
Engineer, not only in Pennsylvannia but in
other States of the Union, and himself person-
ally interested in colleries and iron-works, in-
formed me —

" That he had taken an active part in promoting ednc
tion in all the neighbourhoods with which he wa^* con-
nected, and had seen and talked with a great many persons
all over the mining districts upon the subject; and his
conviction was, that, generally speaking, the ciiildren in
the mining districts do not go to the Sunday-schools if
they can help it, although tliey are ready enough to go to
day-schools. The Sunday-schools in the mining districts
do not thrive much. An active Wesleyan minister npay
come among them and get up Sunday-schools, but he only
stays two years ; and wiien ins term is up, another comes,
who may not be so active, and the schools droop, or per-
haps disappear."

Pittsburgh on the Ohio is an important seat
of manufactures for the supply of the " Great
AVest." It possesses, according to a statement
emanating from the local Board of Trade, 13

'■5

iM:.,

■3fr

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 19

EoUing Mills, 30 large Foundries, 5 large
Cotton Factories, 8 Flint and 11 Window
Glass Manufactories, together with many others.
The population was in 1850 (including a large
suburb) about 85,000.

I visited some of the best schools there, and
found them conducted on the same scale of
liberal expenditure, under well-qualified teachers,
as I had seen in the other great towns. With-
out going again into the same details as I have
given above, I may state generally, on the au-
thority of a gentleman to whom I was presented
as being fully conversant with the state of educa-
tion there —

'* That in the public schools of the town there are about
two-thirds of the whole number of children of school-age
(excluding those in some private schools) ; and that of
those attending the public day-schools, from thirty to fifty
per cent., according to the locality, do not attend any
Sunday-school."

The circumstances of the large and rapidly
iiicreasing manufacturing and commercial city
of Cincinnati are, as regards the lower portions
of the population, very similar to those of a like

!,■

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

kind among ourselves. Accordingly, the An-
nual Reports of the Trustees and Visitors of the
Common Schools there speak of the difficulties
attending the general diffusion of education
much in the same manner as we are familiar
with in this country. In the Report for 1850,
at p. 6, the President of the School Committee
states — ■

" There always has been, and must be, in a population
so unsettled as ours, and so heterogeneous, a constant
change in the number of those scholars who commence the
school year ; and long before it closes, the higher classes
(in each school) are much reduced, while the primary
departments are greatly increased. In the more busy
seasons of the year many of our youth of both sexes are
required by their parents to aid them in various domestic
employments ; and perhaps the false notion of permitting
the child to select his own school, and attend as he pleases
upon its instructions, is not among the least of the many
causes which have produced so great fluctuations in the
number and regularity of the attendance of the scholars."

This irregularity of attendance, and the dis-
proportion between those who do attend and the
total number of children of school age, are strik-
ingly shown in the two Reports for 1849 and
1850.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 21

It is stated at p. 5 of the Report for the
former year, that the total number of white
children between the ages of four and twenty-
one, in October of that year, was 33,548.

Of these there were enrolled at the public
schools of the twelve districts into which the city
was divided, including certain additional Ger-
man and English schools, the Orphan Asylum,
and the Central School (for the higher branches
of Education), 11,544 children. The average
number, however, actually in the schools
amounted to only 6004 ; and the average daily
attendance throughout the year to 5090. To
these must doubtless be added a certain number,
not ascertained, attending private schools.

In the Report for 1850, p. 6, the number
enrolled as above is stated to be 12,240, and
the average number in daily attendance 5362.
Adverting to the Census of the previous year,
the Report proceeds to state that, "of the 33,548
children between the ages of four and twenty-one,
perhaps one-half are nominally connected with
the common schools, and the numerous private
institutions and seminaries of learning in the city."

«>.

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

As the common schools are free, and excellent
in their kind, and have the entire confidence of
the population, it is probable that the " private
institutions and seminaries of learning" are
chiefly supported by persons to whom the ex-
pense of private education is no object.

With regard to the irregularity of attendance
of the children, of the lower classes especially, a
gentleman to whom I was referred as one com-
pletely conversant with the subject, thus ex-
pressed himself to me : —

" Tlie indifference and the cupidity of the parents are
the great obstacles to the reguhir attendance of the children:
the consequence is, that not half of those who pass through
tlie schools are educated. And as respects Sunday-scliool
education, notwithstanding all the efforts of the different
denominations to ' look them up,' and to induce them, by
offers of clothing, to attend, numbers of tliose who come to
our day-schools go nowhere on Sundays ; and many are
uncared for altogether."

Cleveland in Ohio is another instance among
the many in the United States of the growth
within the last 30 years of a village into a city
of considerable commercial importance. Its
favourable situation on an eminence above Lake

rUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 2c

JiO

Erie appears to have encouraged the inhabitants
to bestow even more than the usual pains visible
in American cities, upon their public buildings,
squares, and other sources of general embellish-
ment. Among the rest their school buildings
occupy a conspicuous place, and the encouraging
Annual Reports of their acting managers meet
with a ready response in the liberality of the
citizens. It is affirmed in the Report for 1849-50
that " probably not less than five-sixths of those
who are being educated " in the city " are de-
pending for instruction solely" on the public
schools. The Report does not afford the means
of estimating with accuracy the numbers not
under education. It gives, however, the total
number of scholars in the school districts or
wards and in the central high school for 1849-50
as 2081, and the average attendance as 1440;
the Report for 1850-51 giving under the first
head 2304, and under the last 1650. The total
number of children between the ages of four and
twenty-one in 1849 was 4773. It appears that
those under four are excluded by law from their
schools, " and those above fifteen generally ex-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

elude themselves." I gather from the general
tenor of these Keports, urging the building of
additional schoolhouses, that many yet remain
to be included in their schools; and in reference
to the point of the attendance at Sunday-schools,
I am enabled to state, on the authority of the
acting manager of the Board of Education,
" that at least one-third of the children attend-
ing the public schools never see the inside of a
Sunday-school."

I would next refer to the instance of the city
of New York, which I have adverted to after the
above because the fluctuating and miscellaneous
nature of its population makes it less a case in
point in reference to any of the dense manu-
facturing populations of this country. As it has,
however, its points of resemblance, it should not
be overlooked.

The superintendent of common schools for
the county and city of New York, Mr. Joseph
M'Keen, was kind enough to furnish me with
the following statistics, a portion of which he had
prepared for his forthcoming Annual Report.

According- to the census for the past year.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 25

the number of children in the city and county
of New York between the ages of five and
fifteen was 97,959. Allowing for those few
under five and above fifteen who may attend
school, the number of school-age may be stated
at 100,000. The average attendance at the
public, ward, and corporate schools throughout
the year had been 40,055. The average attend-
ance at the Sunday-schools had been ascertained
to be only about 30,000.

Mr. M'Keen stated that the total number of
children who had passed through the schools in
the course of the year had been 107,000; and
that the total number frequenting the Sunday-
schools irregularly in the course of the year may
be estimated at about 60,000. And as there
are always many children at the Sunday-schools
who do not go to day-school, the proportion of
the children attending the day-schools of New
York who do not attend Sunday-school is, from
the above figures, obviously very considerable.

It is clear from the above facts that in several
of the most conspicuous cities, towns, and seats
of manufacturing industry in the free States of

" 1

'
.•-!

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECT3, «ec.

^;l

the Union, containing populations analogous to
those in this country for which there is the most
jiressing need to extend the means of education,
the theory of a complete education, according to
the view adopted in the United States, is not
fulfilled in relation to a considerable proportion
of the children at their schools; inasmuch as,
in the first place, a certain, and in some cases
a large proportion of the children attending the
day-schools do not attend the Sunday-schools ;
and in the next, it is conceded that, of those who
do not attend Sunday-schools, by far the greatest
number, indeed nearly the whole, belong to
parents incapable of giving religious instruction
themselves, or indifferent to it, to the extent to
baffle the efforts of the various religious denomi-
nations to induce them to attend to the religious
welfare of their children. I feel it necessary to
add that these conclusions, founded on personal in-
quiry and statistical facts, are at variance with the
first impressions of very many persons, whether
officially or practically conversant with the sub-
ject or not, whose opinions and impressions I
asked for respecting it. To the inquiry, " Do

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 27

the children regularly attend Sunday-schools,
and obtain there the religious instruction which
is not given at the day-schools ? " — whether ad-
dressed to school teachers, or to gentlemen who
only possessed a general acquaintance with the
actual working of the system of* education — the
very common answer was in the affirmative ;
and it was often a matter of surprise to the
teachers themselves, that, on their asking the
children present who attended Sunday-school to
hold up their hands, so many hands were not
held up. I have learnt in the course of many
inquiries of this nature, that general impressions
are seldom to be trusted from any quarter, and
that they are very apt to be contradicted when
brought to the test of accurate inquiry.

To a considerable number therefore of the
children under education in the public schools
in the places above referred to (including a
tolerably wide range and much diversity of cha-
racter), the education actually imparted will be
almost purely secular ; for the giving five or ten
minutes daily to reading a few verses of the
Bible without comment cannot be called, in re-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJKCTS, &o.

ference to the education of youth, religious in-
struction ; nor can its place be supplied by tho
mere moral teaching which is enjoined, and
practised as far as opportunity offers and the
ability of the teacher extends to give it. And
in reference to all who do attend the Sunday-
schools, it may be added, without, I think,
much fear of contradiction, and without in the
least degree undervaluing the zealous and self-
denying efforts of the immense number of volun-
tary Sunday-school teachers throughout the land,
both here and in the United States, that the re-
ligious instruction given by persons unaccustomed
to teach, and usually not trained to deal with
the subject in the manner most capable of pre-
senting it in all its parts to the minds of children,
cannot be so precise and effectual as when it
forms, as in all our Church and Denomina-
tional schools, a prominent part of the busi-
ness of the school for an hour of every day in
the week.

The conclusion I arrive at from the above
facts, drawn from portions of the United States
having populations similar to our own, is, that

PI ULIC EDUCATION IN TlIF, UNITIID BTATIIS, 29

inasmuch as the great majority of all classes
and (lonominatioiis in this country agree that no
syst< m under the sanction of and aided by the
State could be consented to which did not in
some way or other make effectual provision for
religious as well as secular education, the ex-
ample and experience of the United States, in
so far as the localities above referred to are
concerned, cannot be quoted as having fulfilled
that requirement.

The question remains, in what particulars do
the New England States generally, and Mas-
sachusetts in particular, differ from the localities
above referred to, and to what extent do those
differences affect the point at issue.

In the first place, in the New England States,
instruction of all kinds, religious and secular,
has been zealously attended to from the earliest
period of their history.

The indication of this general feeling in the
New England States is to be recognised in
their earliest laws, as in the follov.ing instance
from the laws of Massachusetts.

The first settlement of the town of Boston

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

took place in 1630. In the year 1637 the fol-
lowing law was passed relating to

" SCHOLES.*

" Sect. 1. — It being one of the chief projects of Satan
to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in
former times keeping them in unknown tongues, so in
these latter times, by persuading from the use of tongues,
that so at least the true sense and meaning of the original
might be clouded and corrupted with false glosses of de-
ceivers ; to the end that learning may not be buried in the
graves of Our forefathers in Church and Commonwealth,
the Lord assisting our endeavour,

" It is therefore ordered by this Court and authority
thereof,

" That every township in the jurisdiction, after the
Lord hath increased them to the number of fifty house-
holders, siialJ then forthwith appoint one within their
towns to teacli all such children as shall resort to him to
write and read, whose wages shall be paid either by the
parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants
in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those
that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint. Pro-
vided that those which send their children be not oppressed
by paying much more than they can have them taught for
in other towns.

" 2. And it is further ordered, that when any town shall
increase to the number of one hundred families or house-

Sic.

as in

so in

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 31

holders, they shall set up a grammar-school, the master
thereof being able to instruct youth so far as they may be
fitted for the University." [May, 1647.1

In the year 1671 the following enactment
was added : —

" Forasmuch as it greatly concerns the welfare of the
country that the youth thereof be educated, not only in
good literature but in sound doctrine,

" This Court doth therefore commend it to the serious
consideration and special care of the overseers of the Col-
lege, and the select men in the several towns, not to
admit or suffer any such to continue in the office or plac
of teaching, educating, or instructing youth or children in
the college or schools, that have manifested themselves
unsound in the faith or scandalous in theiv lives, and have
not given satisfaction according to the rules of Christ." —
[May, 1671. — Ancient Charters and Laws of Massachu-
setts Bay.'\

It is not necessary in this place to do more
than allude to the divergences of doctrine which
so soon began to manifest themselves among the
early settlers ; the second of the above laws in-
dicates its existence, and the desire to keep it
in check ; but the whole taken together are a
striking proof of the manner in which, without
venturing to lay down a test of what " sound

• •'•^'faiir.W r t-*.«*rf*^.(yri*^ f-*-

.>*^'' Vrf-,— ,-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, «tc.

doctrine " was, they endeavoured to maintain
the principle that learning in "Church and
Commonwealth" should proceed together, and
to declare their conviction that it " greatly con-
cerned the welfare" of their country that their
youth should be educated, "not only in lite-
rature, but sound doctrine." And it cannot be
doubted that the existence of these township
schools from that early period has produced
in the New England States (for I believe they
were adopted in all the other States as soon as
they rose into Commonwealths) a general average
of intelligence, and a general appreciation of the
duties of parents in those particulars, beyond
what is found, or what it is reasonable yet to
expect, in the younger States of the Union.

Secondly, the strong religious feeling, derived
from their Puritan forefathers, still pervading
the New England States, imposes a social as
well as a moral obligation upon every father of
a family to attend to the religious education of
his children ; and this duty is to a great extent
fulfilled, I am informed, even in the towns,
with the exceptions hereafter to be noticed. As

«.

iL.„.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 33

regards the rural districts, a gentleman whose
position enables him to express an opinion
founded on a wide experience, the Rev. Dr.
S. C. Jackson, Assistant Secretary to the Board
of Education in Massachusetts, educated in Ver-
mont, and formerly settled for some years as a
pastor at Andover, in Massachusetts, stated to
me that, —

" It is the general practice of the great majority of
families in New England, in the rural districts, even in
remote localities, to attend at the different places of wor-
ship, on the Sunday. The fact is, that nearly all are con-
nected with some place of worship, and attend it more or
less regularly, according to circumstances. It would be
considered disreputable to any man not to be able to say
honestly that he belonged to some congregation."

This religious feeling, fortified by hereditary
association, as well as strong by its intrinsic
power, is a guarantee, in these States, for the
supply, through domestic or Sunday-school
teaching, of the religious instruction which is
not given at the day-schools, beyond what can
be looked for in ordinary communities and
under circumstances less favourable to its de-
velopment.

c 3

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Thirdly, the populations of the New England
States may be described as, upon the whole and
with comparatively slight exceptions, composed
of one great middle class, having at their com-
mand, in their various spheres, the fruits of
honest industry, living in comfort and respect-
ability, and considering ignorance discreditable.

It is very possible that a system of general
education may be adopted by a community cir-
cumstanced as above described, with safety to
the faith and morals of the people, as well as
with benefit to their secular intelligence, which
would be eminently dangerous to the former if
followed by another community under circum-
stances materially different.

And even in Massachusetts there are indica-
tions sufficient to show that, where the circum-
stances of the community do materially differ
from v/hat has been above described, the general
svstem of education is not to be trusted to fulfil
the part required of it, to enable it to correspond
in practice with its theory.

The gentleman above mentioned, Dr. Jack-
son, thus informed me respecting the state of

t i n-nr-^riMim

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 35

England
lole and
)niposed
eir com-
Pruits of
respect-
iitable.

general
nity cir-
afety to

well as
e, which
)rmer if

circum-

mdica-
circuni-
y differ
general
to fulfil
respond

'. Jack-
state of

the case on this point in localities of dense
populations : —

" In the villages and towns — meaning by that where the
population is dense rather than rural — there is a class,
especially foreigners, the most degraded and depressed of
the population, whose children are irregular in their attend-
ance at the day-schools ; and therefore also, for the same
reason — the neglect and indifference of the parents — irre-
gular in their attendance at the Sunday-school."

The Secretary of the Board of Education for
Massachusetts, the Rev. Dr. Spears, very oblig-
ingly gave me a full account of the working of
their system, which, as it relates to many points
beside the one now under consideration, will be
more conveniently given at length in another
paragraph. But, as regards the present point, it
will be seen (p. 44) that he thus gives his opinion :
"Under the present state of things, our system
does not reach the whole population of our
manufacturing towns 5" which Dr. Spears attri-
butes to the fact that " the parents themselves
neglect the education of their children."

And if I might, without impropriety, add the
result of my own personal observation during a
very brief visit to some of the principal schools

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

in Boston, containing several hundred children
each, accompanied by the late Chairman of the
School Committee and of the Board of Educa-
tion for the city, J. Codman, Esq., Advocate,
&c., I would state that, in about one-third of
the school-rooms where the question was put by
the principals of the different schools to the
children, it appeared to them, as well as to
Mr. Codman and myself, that about twenty
per cent. — and, in a few instances, somewhat
more — of the children acknowledged that they
did not attend Sunday-schools. These day-
schools were frequented, as might be expected,
to a great extent by the lower portions of the
population.

But it appears that even in Massachusetts
there has been for some time a growing con-
viction of the necessity of more religious in-
struction being given in the day-schools, and
also of greater exertions being made to obtain
attendance at the Sunday-schools, and to make
them more efficient. The following is the state-
ment made to me by the Rev. Dr. Spears, the
Secretary to the Massachusetts Board of Edu-

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 37

cation, which I insert here at length by his
permission : —

*' The readiest way of explaining the present
state of opinion in regard to the question of the
religious instruction of the children attending
our public schools, is first to refer you to the
7th and 8t^ sections of Chapter XXIII. of the
Revised Statutes of the State. These sections
are as follows : —

" ' Section 7. — It shall be the duty of the president, pro-
fessors, and tutors of the University at Cambridge, and of
the several colleges, and of all preceptors and teachers of
academies, and all other instructors of youth, to exert their
best endeavours to impress on the minds of children and
youth committed to their care and instruction the prin-
ciples of piety and justice, and a sacred regard to truth,
love to their country, humanity and universal benevolence ;
sobriety, industry, and frugality ; chastity, moderation,
and temperance ; and those other virtues which are the
ornament of human society, and the basis upon which a
republican constitution is founded ; and it shall be the
duty of such instructors to endeavour to lead their pupils,
as their ages and capacities will admit, into a clear under-
standing of the tendency of the above-mentioned virtues to
preserve and perfect a republican constitution, and secure
the blessings of liberty, as well as to promote their future
happiness; and also to point out to them the evil tendency
of the opposite vices.*

NOTES ON rUBLTC SUBJECTS, &c.

" * Section 8. — It shall be the duty of the resident minis-
ters of the Gospel, the select men, and the school com-
mittees, in the several towns, to exert their influence, and
use their best endeavours, that the youth of their towns
shall regularly attend the schools established for their
instruction.'

" Previously to the establishment of the Board
of Education in 1836, sufficient prominence was
not given to these sections ; not from any inten-
tional neglect, but from the matter especially
referred to in section 8 being left dependent on
such clerical influence as happened to be brought
to bear upon it. There has been a simultaneous
growth of opinion, both among teachers and
school committees, in favour of more moral and
religious instruction, and that is every day on
the increase. At all the teachers' institutes, and
all the conventions of teachers, v/here the topic
has been brought forward, there has been an
unanimous expression of opinion as to the ne-
cessity of more religious instruction. Secular
instruction has hitherto occupied too much of
the time. Formerly, in many schools, the
Scriptures were used as a lesson-book in all the
classes. At present this is being abandoned,

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 39

; minis-
al corn-
ice, and
• towns
>r their

Board
ce was
inten-
ecially
ent on
rough t
aneous
s and
al and
lay on
s, and
3 topic
en an
le ne-
ecular
ich of
s, the
all the
ioned,

and the practice of using the Scriptures in con-
nexion only with devotional exercises and re-
ligious instruction is taking its place. This is
the result of the progress of individual opinion
upon the subject. Such explanations are given
as are necessary for moral purposes; the re-
ligious tenets of the different denominations
being excluded. Our reason for this is, that we
consider that polemical divinity is not so appro-
priate to the education of young children as
ethical and devotional instruction. The modes
adopted are, reading the Scriptures, singing, and
prayer, extemporaneous or written, according
to the preference of the teacher. Another
reason is, a suitable regard for the religious
rights and opinions of the different classes of
religious denominations. Thirdly, as a general
proposition, in Massachusetts, great reliance may
be placed on the family and the Sunday-school
for the inculcation of definite religious know-
ledge in the rural districts and in the cities ;
but this cannot be said to the same extent of the
manufacturing towns.

" In regard to Sunday-schools, there was for-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, fcc.

merly much jealousy among the religious de-
nominations as to what religious instruction
should be given in them where only one could be
sustained, which was attended by the children of
persons differing from each other in religious
opinions. Within the last half a dozen years a
great unanimity has sprung up, in consequence
of the proceedings of the American Sunday
School Union, which pervades the whole of the
United States, the head-quarters of which are at
Philadelphia. It is composed of the various
* evangelical ' denominations : that is, the
Methodists, Baptists, Independents, and Epis-
copalians. Those who do not join it are the
Unitarians, the ' Universalists,' and some
others. The children of parents belonging to
these various denominations frequently attend
the same Sunday-school ; and even where the
different denominations have Sunday-schools of
their own, they contribute largely to the funds
of the Union, making use of their books, and
giving instruction very much in the spirit of the
Union. In the case of a village where any one
denomination is so much the most numerous

PUBMC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 41

that the rest cannot set up a separate Sunday-
school, the families of the latter would have
ordinarily no hesitation in sending their children
to the school of the majority. This is the
ordinary course of things. In such cases the
particular tenets of any one denomination are
taught in only a subordinate degree ; and it
woidd be possible to attend such Sunday-school
for many Sundays together without hearing one
word bearing on the distinctive peculiarities of
either. The origin of this is, that there is a
arrowing opinion that their respective peculiari-
ties of doctrine are subordinate to the great
truths which they hold in common. It is this
fact which enables us to place so much reliance
on our Sunday-schools for religious instruction,
and on our present mode of giving it in the day-
schools, because this system has the confidence
of nearly the whole community. It affords an
answer to the objection of those who say that
our religious instruction in the day-schools is
too negative, that the positive part of it can be
taught more fully in the Sunday-schools ; and,
in point of fact, it is so taught to the great

\^'

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

majority of the population, both in the cities
and in the rural districts. It must be borne in
mind that the above statement does not apply so
specifically to the manufacturing towns.

*' A few years ago there was some opposition
made to the Board of Education on the ground
of the negative character of its reli.^ious instruc-
tion. The clergy of the difterent denominations,
upon closer examination, and upon observing the
actual working of our system, have, speaking
generally, abandoned their efforts in opposition
to it. I discussed the question with several
leading clergymen of different denominations,
and the question was put to them as to how
they could support * denominational* schools in
the rural districts and in the smaller inland
towns. They were quite satisfied that the pecu-
niary means could not be found in such districts ;
and in the next, that, if means could be found
for sclniols of a certain class, sufficient could not
be obtained to make it possible to introduce the
entire system of primary, grammar, or high
schools, such as we have in every township.
The only places where such ' denominational

riTBLIC EDUCATION IN TIIK UNITED STATES. 43

schools would be possible would be in the large
and populous towns, and even there they have
judged it inexpedient to attempt them, except in
a few instances. The only * denominational '
schools that I am aware of in Massachusetts are
set up by individuals, relying chiefly on the
support of the denomination to which they be-
long, but without any ecclesiastical pledge of
any sort, and these are rapidly declining ; and
even academies, incorporated and unincorpo-
rated, for the higher branches of English and
classical education, are being converted in con-
siderable numbers every year into high schools,
which are frequented by the children of persons
of the highest station in the country. We
have a hi^a school for every four thousand
inhabitants.

" Our usual arrangement is this. Our town-
ships are about six miles square. In or near
the centre is the village, the churches and
chapels, and the high school. Around these,
about a mile distant from the centre, are the
grammar-schools; and nearer the extremities of
the township, and elsewhere where needed, the

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

primary schools. We have two agents, who
are sent where required, to give advice as to
the best localities for these schools. One of
these agents, Mr. Banks, was Speaker of the
House of Representatives of the State, and the
year before a Commissioner of Education : the
other agent is Mr. Greene, Professor of Didactics
at Brown University, New Providence.

'* We have teachers' seminaries, established in
1836 or 1837, two for both sexes. The term
is in one a year and four months, and in the
other a year and a half. We intend to raise the
qualification for entrance, and then make them
schools for teaching.

" Under the present state of things, our system
does not reach the whole population in our
manufacturing towns. The parents themselves
neglect the education of their children, and the
manufacturing companies sometimes evade the
spirit of the law which requires a certain amount
of attendance at school of children under a
certain age. It is not the special duty of the
school committees to correct this evil, and it will
probably be necessary for the towns to appoint

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 45

its, who
ce as to

One of
' of the

and the
ion: the
)idactics

lished in
'he term
i in the
raise the
See them

r system

in our
emselves

and the
ade the

amount
under a
y of the
id it will

appoint

some person of influence, or with more or less
of legal authority, to look after such children
and bring them to school. A gentleman at Rox-
berry, Mr. Ritchie, employed by the city autho-
rities, has made this experiment, and he has
informed me that he has so far succeeded as to
be of opinion that the attendance of all the
children of school-age can be secured in this
way, by the appointment of an ofl5cer of this
kind. The condition of our population is such
that there could be no difficulty in any family
as to clothing the children decently, so as to
attend the schools. If there are a few excep-
tions in our manufacturing towns, those towns
themselves could easily make provision for that
purpose."

On this plain and candid statement of the
progress and present state of opinion in Massa-
chusetts in regard to the question of religious
instruction, it is in this country scarcely neces-
sary to observe that the mode of imparting it
in the day and Sunday-schools of that State, as
above described, is one which, after long and
vehement discussion among all the religious de-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

nominations of England and Scotland ten years
agu, was unanimously rejected as dangerous to
the faith, and as tending inevitably to confound
all distinctions, and to weaken and eventually
to destroy in the mind all firm hold of the
essential doctrines of revealed religion.

It is at once noticeable, by any one who
attentively considers the sections of the revised
law relating to moral and religious instruction
above quoted, that the list of moral virtues is no
more than may be found in the works of many
excellent heathen writers, and does not include
many of the distinctive virtues of Christianity.
And when the necessity for something more
positive and more distinctively Christian is felt,
and the attempt made to act upon that feeling,
nothing more precise is found possible, under
what is called a general system, than a mode of
teaching which the reason and convictions of all
the religious denominations in this country with
one voice decided to be one on which Christianity
could not be taught.

I took all the means in my power to ascer-
tain what were the various currents of opinion

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 47

•t

ti years
rous to
aifound
lutually
of the

le who
revised
Tuction
es is no
f many
include
stianity.

5 more

in the United States with respect to the actual
effects traceable upon morals, character, and
religion, of the mode of religious teaching in the
public schools. On a question so delicate and
difficult, and involving so much of political as
well as other considerations, there will of course
be many and great differences of opinion.
Many gentlemen of distinguished ability, for
the conscientiousness of whose convictions it is
impossible not to entertain the greatest respect,
while by their personal character they inspire
le highest regard, informed me that they could
discover nothing objectionable in the principle,
and could recognise no injurious consequences
as traceable to the system in its mode of action.
Others, equally estimable and equally eminent,
informed me that they looked upon it as ** a
great experiment," of the ultimate results of
which upon the religious character of the people
they confessed their apprehensions, but that in
the actual state of public opinion they consi-
dered no other system possible. Other gentle-
men again, both lay and clerical, with equal
opportunities of observation and means of arriv-

■

I i

I-

i '■ i\

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

ing at a right conclusion, spoke in the most dis-
tinct and emphatic manner of the visible effect
which, in t leir opinion, the small amount of
instruction m the distinctive doctrines of Chris-
tianity, and the lax mode of teaching them in
the Sunday - schools, were producing on the
religious convictions and moral practice of the
mass of the people.

Dr. Spears adverts to the abandonment by the
clergy, with whom he discussed the question,
of their endeavours to found denominational
schools, on the ground that they were unable to
see their way towards obtaining the pecuniary
means for them. I heard the most earnest de-
sires expressed by many clergy of the New
England States, of the State of New York, and
of Pennsylvania, for the establishment of such
schools, could the means be found, for the sole
reason that they were distinctly sensible of the
effects the present system was producing in
loosening the hold of definite Christian prin-
ciples on the minds of the people. In an inter-
view I had the honour of having with the Bishop
of Massachusetts, he stated that he should un-

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 49

doubtedly prefer, in the interests o^ religion,
parochial schools, but that, under present cir-
cumstances, he considered them, except in a
few instances, unattainable. Some of the prin-
cipal clergy of the Church of England in New
York are exerting themselves with some mea-
sure of success with that object, and their views
were expressed to me very strongly in the same
sense. The portion of the press devoted chiefly
to religious matters has frequently adverted to
the same point; and at a recent public meeting,
composed of persons of all religious denomina-
tions, the apprehensions above described were ex-
pressed, as resulting from the imperfect religious
education of the people. I am able to state on
what I believe to be undoubted authority that
the Bishop of Pennsylvania (who was absent
from Philadelphia during my stay there) is
anxious, for the sair.e reasons, for the establish-
ment of similar schools.

I might multiply the individual opinions of
observant and calm - judging men in various
parts of the United States, who expressed them-
selves to me to the same effect, but probably the

NOTKS ON PUBLIC SUBJKCTS, &c.

cxpcrienee of the j^jiitlcinan who furnislicd nie
with the following statement of his opinions
will he siiffieient, in addition to what I have
ahove stated, to show in how grave a light;,
and with what apprehensions for the i'uture,
(apprehensions which have been publicly ex-
pressed in terms far stronger than I have thought
it necessary to repeat,) the present experiment
on so momentous a subject as the religious
education of the people is considered by large
classes of persons in that country.

The Rev. Dr. Edson, Hector of St. Anne's
Church, Lowell, to whom I was directed as
thoroughly conversant with this subject, ex-
pressed himself to uie to the following effect : —

" It was twenty-seven years last IMareh since I first
cauie to Lowell, which was tiien a village of about six
hundred inhabitants. Public worship was then lield for
the first time in tlie village, and the service was performed
by myself. Lowell is now a town of about forty thousand
inhabitants. I have resided here as a minister of the Epis-
coi)al Church ever since, and during the whole time have
taken an active part in education as a member of the
School Committee, and otherwise. Seeing that the system
of public schools established by law was the only one pos-
sible under tiie circum:^tances of the country, I have

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN TIIK UNITED STATES. 51

appllod myself with all tlio zeal in my power to make it
efficient ; and I hav;; endeavoured to cause the deficiency
of reli|ri()U8 inatruction in the day-schools to be supplied,
by encouraging Suixhiy-schools to the utmost of my oppor-
tiniities. To the children of n.y own Hock I have given
all the doctrinal instruction in my po'ver in the Sunday-
school, and by other nutans. I have interested myself
generally in favour of Sunday-schools, seeing in them the
only mode under our systeni to imprint on the minds of
those who most require such teaching, the princi})les of
revealed religion. My experience, however, of now nearly
thirty years, as a pastor, has, I am sorry to say, forced
upon me the painful conviction that our public school
system has luidermined already among our population, to a
great extent, the doctrines and principles of Christianity.
I perceive also its effects distinctly in the modes of tliouglit
and action of the young people who flow into Lowell from
the neighbouring States, and, in fact, sup[)ly the demand
for labour that is constant here. I find in my frequent
intercourse with them that they possess a knowledge of
noi>e, or nearly none, of the distinctive principles of the
Christian faith, and that many are in a state of uiind be-
yond that of mere indifftireiice, though not precisely in that
of those imbued witii the principles of the Frenclt and
German schools of infidelity. I find in them a considerable
indifference as to what sect they may belong to, thinking
all religions alike, and generally showing a great ignorance
of the Bible, which they profess to take as their guide. I
find many not only unable to repeat any of the Ten Com-
mandments, but entirely unaware of there being any Ten
Commandments at all. I find them generally well grounded

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

in the ordinary elempiits of what is called oommon educa-
tion, and clever and acute as to all worldly matters that
concern them, but very lax in their notions of moral obli-
gation and duty, and indisposed to submit to any authority
or control whatever, even from a very early age. This
exhibits itself, among other ways, in the irregular nmnner
in which they attend school, Sunday or day school. I have
taken much pains with regard to ihat subject in Lowell,
and I have, I aw sorry to say, come to the following con-
clusion. In the first pl'ce, we have the Irish population.
These are well looked after by their priests, and I have no
doubt tlat nearly the whole of them attend some Sunday
or other catechetical instruction. Looking, then, solely at
the American population, and the few foreigners not
Irish mixed with it, I believe that less than half of the
whole number of children between the ages of five and six-
teen attend any Sunday-school, or do so only most irregu-
larly. It is easy to infer what sort of hold the Bible, its
precepts, and its doctrines, can be likely to have on minds
thus loosely prepared for the temptations of life. There is
in tlie minds of the great majority no principle of deference
to authority. There is indeed a school of persons in this
country, and a very numerous one, who think it wrong to
try to influence a child in its adoption of any form of reli-
gious belief. Very commonly also no point of doctrine
seems to have been effectually and thoroughly explained to
them, and taught as from authority. All doctrines seem to
have been treated as the deductions of individual opinions,
and left pretty much to a child's own inference. The
moral effect of this is visible in relation to all authority,
beginning with the parental. It is no new remark that,

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 53

unless a child is from his earliest years taught to reverence
an authority higher than, and in support of, the parental,
he will very soon begin to question and resist the parental.
That this evil is already nearly universally felt and ac-
knowledged in this country there is no longer room to
doubt. From throwing off authority in regard to religious
matters, and holding doctrines loosely, the step is easy to
abandoning them altogether ; and accordingly it consists
Avith my observation here during several years past, that
the great majority of those now growing up cannot be said
to hold more than belongs to mere natural religion. I look
upon this very prevalent condition of mind with very groat
apprehension, for all history shows that this is only the
first downward step to complete irreligion and infidelity,
and thence to the corruption of morals such as was exlii-
bited in the heathen world. I much fear that we are
making sure and not very slow strides in that direction ;
and while I deeply lament it, I am free to confess I see no
present remedy for it in this country. Allow me, how-
ever, to say, that it gives me the greatest satisfaction to
learn that in England you are alive to these dangers. I
earnestly pray that you may not fall into them ; and if you
tliink that the result of my experience here, and of the
sincere convictions it has forced upon me, can be of any
service in your country, I beg you will make any use of
them you think proper."

I owe it to Dr. Edson to state that he is a
gentleman very highly considered in his own
neighbourhood, and that neither theoretical nor

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

party bias appeared in the least degree to enter
into the expression of his opinions, which evi-
dently were the result of earnest and sincere
conviction.

That the result of such a system of education
would be of the nature above described, has
often been argud on general principles. Into
those arguments this is not the opportunity to
enter. My present concern in dealing with the
subject, at a moment when probably public
attention in this country may soon be again con-
centrated upon it, is to contribute some few
facts and opinions which may tend to show, that
the example of what has occurred and is occur-
ring on that subject in the United States cannot
be referred to as a solution of our own diffi-
culties, or as a safe guide in a path upon which
we have not yet entered.

If the example of the United States does not
assist us in solving the religious difficulties in the
way of establishing a general system of element-
ary education, the most cursory observation of
what has been done there, and is still doing, with
so much zeal and energy for secular education

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 55

at least, cannot fail to leave a deep impression
on the mind of an Englishman who witnesses it.
He will see in the cities and larger towns large
buildings, for the purposes of day-schools, three
or four stories high, divided into class-rooms,
and affording accommodation under one roof for
1000 or 1500 children.* He will find in every
village and township one or more buildings ap-
propriated to this purpose, according to the
needs of the population, and the greatest libe-
rality exhibited in the expenditure upon books
and apparatus, and generally in the salaries of
the teachers. As an instance, I may mention
that of the village of Storey, eight miles from
Boston. Speaking of this, and of several others
similarly circumstanced, Dr. Spears stated to me
that —

" The disposition of the people to vote money for edu-
cational purposes is so great that it needs to be checked in
many cas's. In the township of Storey, the whole real

* As a proof how little regard is paid to expense in the fitting
up of these class-rooms when the question of the efficiency of the
school is concerned, it may be mentioned that the plan now be-
coming common, because most approved of, is to give every
child a sn)all desk and a chair to himself, or at most two are
placed at one desk, with a chair each.

!|i

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

property of which is valued at only 500,000 dollars, not
less than 17,000 dollars were expended last year in the
erection of five new schocdhouaes, besides the ordinary
expenses of maintaining tin three grammar and two
primary sc-iiools. It has been publicly mentioned on the
best authority, with regard to the city of Cambridge, con-
taining 16,800 inhabitants, that it pays annually more
money in taxes in support of its public schools than is paid
for instruction, from every source, in tlie University there
(the Harvard), which is regarded as the richest endow-
ment and the most expensive University in the rountry.
Such instances of a similarly liberal expenditure are very
common."

This liberality of expenditure for the pur-
poses of education is rapidly extending itself over
the whole length and breadth of the vast free ter-
ritory of the United States. It has already for
some years been conspicuous in all the cities and
principal towns, as will be seen from the fol-
lowing statement, which I copy from the ' St.
Louis Intelligencer,' in order to show that even
in that remote quarter — in that astonishing city
of nearly 100,000 inhabitants, on the banks of
the Mississippi, nearly a thousand miles direct
west from Philadelphia and Baltimore — the
education of the whole people is as zealously

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 57

provided for as in most of the older settled
cities of the Union, at a cost per head far ex-
ceeding what is applied to such purposes in the
common schools of this country.

Cost of education per child in the public
schools of —

St. L(mis
New York .
Boston
Philadelphia
Baltimore .
Cincinnati .

Dollari.*

. 9

. 10

. 15

. 7

. 10
. 6

Cents.

50
92
42
88
84
3^7 +

I may add to this — one of many facts which I
might mention, illustrative of the extent to which
at least secular education has been carried in
some of the States under their present system —
that in the state of Connecticut, with about
400,000 inhabitants, only 500 were found, on
a late inquiry, not to be able to read, and those
were Irish. I mention this oii the authority of
a gentleman now representing a portion of Con-
necticut in Congress. Any one from England
visiting those schools would be also greatly

* = 4s. 2d.

t Report for 1851, p. 14.

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

struck with the very high social position, con-
sidering the nature of their employment, of the
teachers, male and female ; he will observe with
pleasure their polite and courteous bearing, of
such importance as an example of good manners
to the children; he will admire the complete
order, quiet, and regularity with which the whole
system of instruction is conducted by the exer-
cise of mild, temperate, and, generally speaking,
judicious authority; and he will perceive how
great an amount of elementary secular instruc-
tion is given to those who stay a sufficient length
of time to derive the full benefit of the oppor-
tunities of improvement there afforded. And I
must confess that he will be likely to feel it as
a just subject of reproach to his own country,
that her very tenderness and zeal in the cause of
religious truth, her very apprehension lest in
her desire to attain an acknowledged good she
may be betrayed into a step fraught with evil —
or, to descend to lower ground, her religious
jealousies and animosities — ^^should interpose to
keep all education, both secular and religious,
from the minds of tens of thousands of our fel-

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 50

low-citizens: at a time, too, when secular edu-
cation is more than ever needed as a means of
temporal prosperity and advancement, and when
socialism and a vast and dangerous flood of
" revolutionary literature " of the worst kind is
occupying the ground left bare for its reception
by the absence of all culture, secular or religious.
How long, it may well be asked, is the Govern-
ment of this country to be paralyzed by sectarian
jealousies ? and to what further extent are the
very foundations of religious truth and social
order to be undermined while the dispute rages
as to the best method of preserving them ?*

* See further on this subject, pp. 235-262.

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

RAILWAYS.

We are in the habit of hearing from time to
time of the number of miles of railway completed
and projected in the United States, the cost of
their construction, and other particulars relating
to fchem; we hear also of the comprehensive
system of railway communication projected in
Canada, and probably soon to be carried into
effect. The fine series of canals in Canada, and
the great public works of the same kind in the
United States, are also occasionally brought to
the notice of the public in this country. I am not
aware, however, that, considering the full de-
velopment which they will have attained in the
course of the next few years, their probable bear-
ing unon two questions that most nearly concern
us in England — the increase and transport of
agricultural produce, and emigration — has yet
been adverted to with the particularity and dis-
tinctness which the subject deserves.

RAILWAYS.

111 passing over the countries through which
these main routes take, or are about to take,
their course, I was much impressed with the
considerable amount of influence that they were
likely to exercise in a few years on those in-
terests. Up to the time of my leaving the
United States (1 9th November last) no railway
map had been published giving a complete idea
of this subject, and I accordingly collected for
my own information the maps of various com-
panies, by which I ascertained what were to be
the main arteries through which the cities of the
Atlantic sea-board were to communicate with
the vast West, and to what distant points in that
wide and magnificent regiv^n they were to pene-
trate. From those materials, including the im-
perfect railway maps now in use, I have caused
the annexed map to be prepared, showing also
the principal lines in Canada, in progress and
proposed. The lines of latitude are given as on
a globe, in order the better to exhibit the rela-
tive positions, in point of latitude, in reference
to this country, of our own possessions in North
America.

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Let any one take this map in hand and trace
the lines, completed and projected, communicat-
ing from the sea-board with the interior.

Beginning with the South, he will find a line
projected from Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico,
to take up the trade of the Mississippi at Cairo,
and to be continued in a direct line north to
Chicago, on Lake Michigan; thus opening a
line of country comparatively unsettled, but full
of resources, and affording another inlet for
manufactures to the great West.

Next, on the Atlantic sea-board, from Sa-
vannah in Georgia, and Charlestown in South
Carolina, converging lines (meeting in the
northern part of Georgia) run through those
territories, the " Upper Country" in each of
which, or the district removed from the sea, is
capable of a great increase of production ; thence
through the highly fertile but still comparatively
thinly-peopled States of Tennessee and Ken-
tticky, to Evansville on the Ohio, J across the
lower portion of Illinois to St. Louis — that great
and increasing entrepot for the trade of the
West, situated just below the junction of the

RAILWAYS.

Missouri with the Upper Mississippi, command-
ing 10,000 miles of inland navigation, and
having already, though still in its infancy, a
trade equalling nearly one-third of the whole
foreign commerce of the United States.

The next great projected line westward is
from Baltimore, penetrating, in spite of great
obstacles, the Alleghanies and the Laurel Ridge
south of Pittsburgh ; crossing the Ohio at
Wheeling ; opening another rich and abundant
mineral region ; descending on the one hand
on Cincinnati, and proceeding on the other to
St. Louis.

The shortest and the cheapest line, however,
to St. Louis from the Atlantic sea-board, will be
the one from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh (the
Pennsylvania railroad), carried on from that
important manufacturing town, by the " Penn-
sylvania and Ohio Railroad," throup:! the centre
of the grtut wheat - growing district of Ohio,
the four counties of Columbiana, Stark, Wayne,
and Richland, of ibout 500 square miles each
in extent; crossing five lines of communication:
with Lake Erie by railway and canal, and four
with Cincinnati, and striking directly across the

r<\

=<it

P I

,'a

^'OTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

rich valleys and fertile prairies of Indiana and
Illinois, by the Belfontaine and Tiuliaiia aini the
Terre Hauue and St. Louis railways, to St. Louis.

This line will be compLited, it is coiifidcatiy
stated, from Philadelphia to 3t. Lo lis — a direct
line of 927 miles — in Uie course of next year.

From St. Louis the line is already com-
menced across the fertile State of Mist-.^ri to
the city of Independence on the Missouri, a
furtbtr distance west of, I believe, upwards of
'250 mile^, and it is expected that it will be
opened in the course of 1854.

Again from St. Louis northward there are
already direct lines of canal and river communi-
cation with Chicago on Lake Michigan, with
the fine territory of Wisconsin, with Minesota,
whose name has yet been scarcely heard beyond
the regions of the west, but which is so rapidly
growing into a State that it is expected she
will apply for admission into the Union in about
three years from this time ; and through the
upper part of Minesota it is proposed that there
shall be a railway from the bores of Lake
Superior to the Upper Mis »)pi, "a work
like' to be soon undertak ;/-/

RAILWAYS.

Again — such is the competition now going on
among the Atlantic cities for the vast trade with
the west, which they foresee will rapidly surpass
by many fold its present great development —
Philadelphia has projected, and will, it is as-
serted, very soon carry into effect, a line passing
through her rich anthracite coal-field, and the
small but valuable bituminous deposit near it.
and proceeding direct across a comparatively
unopened portion of her fine territory to Erie
on Lake Erie, a convenient depot from whence
she hopes to bring another full stream of the
grain and flour trade from the Upper Lakes to
her own wharfs, and to send thence into the
interior the manufactures, groceries, &c., des-
tined to pay for the raw produce.

Again, and sixthly, there are the great lines
of communication which the energy and enter-
prise of New York have, both long since and more
recently, opened for themselves towards the north
and west : the fine railway from New York
to Dunkii k on Lake Erie (469 miles), which is
now ben\.;, continued along the lake shore to
Cleveland, by a li' e "which is nearly a dead
level, and has not a turn, except slight ones at

! 1

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

a few of the stations ; " from whence it will
soon communicate with Toledo, Detroit, Michi-
gan city, and Chicago, and across Wisconsin to
Galena on the Upper Mississippi, a total dis-
tance from New York of about 1400 miles ;
two-thirds of the distance being through a line of
country as yet very thinly occupied, but capable
of supporting a great and wealthy population.

There are next, seventhly, the comparatively
long-established routes of the Erie Canal, and its
branch from Oswego, on Lake Ontario, and also
the Buffalo Railroad, by which the wheat and
flour of Wisconsin, Northern Illinois, Michigan,
Northern Ohio, and a part of Upper Canada,
flow down to New York ; and also the com-
munications, directly northward, by railway and
canal, between New York and Lo'ver Canada,
by Lake Champlain.

Eighthly, there are the lines by which Boston
claims her share in the traffic of the West and
North : through Albany to the West, through
Ogdensburgh with Upper Canada, and through
Burlington to Montreal.

Ninthly, Portland has put in her claim on
behalf of her fine harbour and diminished dis-

RAILWAYS,

tance; and her railway communication with
Montreal and Quebec is rapidly approaching
completion, to be extended eastward to the
other British provinces as soon as the capital
can be found to do it.

Tenthly and lastly, there is the great " Im-
perial Line," to connect the whole of the British
provinces, and upon which the Legislatures of
the three provinces, in a very praiseworthy
spirit of mutual accommodation, have at length
agreed ; starting from Halifax, bending to St.
John's, New Brunswick, continuing across the
fine, but yet scarcely opened, territory of New
Brunswick to Quebec ; thence by the right, and
now also, according to a recent scheme, by the
left bank of the St. Lawrence to Montreal;
thence to Kingston, Toronto, and Hamilton, and
onwards in a direct line through the heart of
Upper Canada to its extreme western corner
opposite Detroit in Michigan. A branch, now
in progress, diverges from Toronto to i^ake
Simcoe and the Georgian Lake, and another is
projected to cross the country from Toronto,
through Guelph, to Goderich, on Lake Huron ;
.: U ird from Hamilton to Niagara ; a fourth from

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Goderich through Brantford to the upper end of
the We]i,'Mid Canal, on Lake Erie, nnd onwards
to a }ioiiiJ: « PI usitc Buffalo, a portion of this line
being now in progress : all these, therefore, are
about to bring through Canada a large portion
of the great traffic froi^ '^^e upper lakes to the
ocean, and to open new regions of the most
fertile soil. The works on the Great Western
Line from Hamilton westward are much ad-
vanced, without aid from this country. A
branch from it is under discussion, from London
to Sarnia on Lake Huron ; and one is in the
course of construction to connect Gait and

Guelph with the main line.

Already a large proportion of the vast scheme

of communication in the United States, between
the Atlantic and the teeming regions of the
West, is completed, as a glance at the accom-
panying map will show. Another large portion
is under r-ontract, and will be finished at the
latest in three years from the present time ; and
the minds of men e so set upon having the
rest, that the < an !)e no reasonable doubt of
its being done before the lapse of many more
years after the next three. The townships

i AiLWAYS.

through which the lines pass readily adopt the
plan of executing the earth-work and the hridges,
while the companies obtain the money for the
rails and the rest of the cost, by issuing deben-
tures, where necessary, on the security of the
line. It is asserted, on apparently competent
engineering authorit^y, that lines constructed on
this plan usually have to pay at least 10 per cent.
on the capital borrowed. Nevertheless the thing
is accomplished, and confers great benefits on
every locality within reach.

The first point which struck me on being
brought into contact, as it were, on the spot,
with the ideas suggested by passing along or
across nearly all these main r(3utes to the West,
was the effect that the opening of so many new
Mnes of communication, and so much new and
fertile land, might have upon the future price of
wheat in this country.

Professor Johnston has so recently dealt with
this subject, that I might well have felt satisfied
with what he has laid before the public upon
it; but as ^-rustworthy sources of information
fell in my way, as probably facts and opinions
from some of those countries are yet rare in this,

NOTES ON rilBLIC SUBJKCTS, &c.

and as the effect of the great railway develi)p-
ment now in progress has not, as far as I am
aware, been fully considered, I do not hesi-
tate to record here the substance of what I
learnt respecting a point of such particular in-
terest.

My informants were some of the principal
merchants in the different places I visited in
the West, and in particular some immediately
connected with the grain trade at the manu-
facturing city of Pittsburgh, and at Cleveland,
the chief shipping port for the grain of Ohio,
Indiana, and Illinois.

" The great wheat-growing district in Ohio comprises
the four counties of Columbiana, Stark, Wayne, and Rich-
land, in the northern part of that State, lying chiefly be-
tween the towns of New Lisbon, Canton, and Mansfield,
having their cliief mart at Massillon, near their centre,
and connnunicating, by canals and railways at their centre
and their eastern and western extremities, with Luke Erie
towards the north, and with tlie Ohio towards the east
and south. These four counties, comprising a space of
about 2000 square miles, produced a surplus last year
(according to tlie information of a gentleman engaged
for the last twenty years in the trade) of 4,000,000
busliels of wheat; and this year their harvest has been
good and their surplus proportionate. Six more counties

RAILWAYS.

ill Ohio wore estimate*! to liave produced about half as
niiic'Ii Hurpliis as the above.

" The hind is fur from being- cultivited up to its capa-
bilities. The usual course is to grow at first notliing' but
grain, until the land shows signs of exhaustion ; then
clover, which is again broken up after a few years. Tho
farms are, on an average, about 160 acres each, or a
•quarter-section,' of which 80 to 90 will be under culti-
vation, and the rest in wood. Very few turnips are grown,
though the climate is suitable for them. Generally little
stock has been kept hitherto; perhaps half a dozen cows,
and a horse or two to sell, and a small flock of sheep. The
stock are fed on hay and oats and a little Indian corn.
Farmers of the better class are now taking to a proper
rotation : clover, wheat, Indian corn (manured), oats
(seeded). The price of wheat at Pitt;;.burgh for several
years until the two last has been from 80 cents to a dollar
per bushel (of 60 lbs.). For the last two years it has been
about 60 cents. Massillon rules the price, as tho chief
mart, and the place from whence the wheat is ship[)ed on
the canal for Cleveland. The average price of wheat for
the last seven years throughout the wheat region of Ohio
has been 70 cents ; below it tMO years, and much above it
one. With wheat at 70 cents the farmers of Ohio can
only employ labour at harvest-time : when it goes down to
GO cents, few of them can afford to employ labour at all.
Two-thirds of them are independent in their circumstances,
and will not force their wheat into market unless they can
get 65 cents. Prices having been lower, a good many
have grown less wheat, and have gone into raising stock and
horses. A considerable number have done this already.

" The many new lines of railway now in progress through

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

a i

Ohio will open more excellent wheat land. Already the
rich alluvial valleys of the Scioto in the centre, and of
the Miami river in the western part of the state, grow a
large quantity of wheat, the principal part of which finds
its way northward by the Miami Canal to the lake at
Toledo, or by the Ohio Canal to Cleveland ; the point at
which it is more profitable to send it in that direction than
to the south, for Cincinnati and New Orleans, being, for
the Miami, as low as near Dayton, not many miles above
Cincinnati. By the same canal the wheat of northern
Itsdiana comes down to Toledo ; and the railway now
crossing it, from Terre Haute across southern Illinois, will
add to the quantity. The northern part of Illinois is
already supplied with canal communication to Chicago, on
Lake Michigan, and will be still further opened by the
railways in progress. These districts, hovyever, together
with Wisconsin and Iowa, are finding spring wheat a more
certain crop than winter, as the latter is apt to be ' winter
killed.' The value of spring wheat is less by about 20
cents a bushel. A good deal of wheat is raised up the
Missouri river ; and in Minesota there is an immense body
of valuable wheat land, into which emigrants are now
moving. There, and in the ' oak openings ' in Wisconsin,
the land is so lightly timbered, and the prairie grass, some-
times so difficult, is there so easily broken up, that a thou-
sand acres have been seeded down in one year by one
employer: and the average produce has been 34 to 36
bushels per acre. Many farmers there have farms of 1000
and 2000 acres. The country is very healthy. Central
and southern Michigan also grow good wljeat, a large por-
tion of which is winter wheat.

" The productions of these new countries will, during

RAILWAYS.

periods of small demand from Europe, bring down il»e
price of wheat at Milwaukie, Chicago, Detroit, and Cleve-
land (the principal places of shipment from the * Great
"West *) to something under 60 cents per bushel."

From the above facts the question arises, Can
the farmers of Ohio continue to raise any large
quantity of wheat if prices go down permanently
to that point ?

I took a good deal of pains to ascertain with
accuracy, if possible, what was the actual cost
of growing a bushel of wheat in the principal
wheat districts of Ohio. On going into the
calculation minutely with more than half a dozen
of the most substantial and intelligent farmers I
met. with, they stated to me that they them-
selves had never made the calculation, nor ever
estimated the actual value of their land, build-
ings, and stock, or the costs of cultivation.

" It was sufficient for their purposes to know that, if they
wanted to sell and ' go West/ they could get 40 or 50
dollars an acre for land that had cost perhaps but a dollar
and a half, and that they should get besides a good allow-
ance for the buildings if they were of a good and per-
manent kind. At the beginning of the present century
nearly the whole of Ohio was a wilderness. Those farmers

■'H^

K I

lit' i

/ 4 NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

who took originally wild land, and brought it into culti-
vation, built their own houses and farmbuildings them-
selves, at times when they had nothing else to do, and
have therefore a difficulty in estimating their real cost.
And as regards the price of land, it varies much with its
quality, locality, and condition, whether exhausted or not
by over-cropping ; but it may be said to be from 25 to 40 and
50 dollars per acre for land in a fair state for occupation."

Taking, therefore, the case of a farmer of
200 acres of land, worth forty dollars per acre
— of whom there is a large class in Ohio, and
a class possessing intelligence and capital, and
capable of turning their attention to other crops
and to stock as soon as they found the profits
of wheat-growing diminishing — I went over the
calculation with several of them, all of"*-whoni
said they should not continue to raise wheat if
it continued much below 65 cents ; arriving in
every case at the same result, namely, that a
price below that point would afford a very small
return, and would operate as an inducement
to the most intelligent among them to apply
their land to other purposes. I give the figures
in the Appendix (A, p. 157), which, however,
must be regarded only as an approximation,

RAILWAYS.

though derived from many nearly concurring
statements.

The next point is the cost of transferring it
from the grower in the interior of Ohio, first to
the chief shipping place, Cleveland, and thence
to New York. This I ascertained to be on an
average about 10 cents per bushel to Cleveland,
and 20 more to New York. The particulars
will be found at page 159, Appendix B.

At the time of my being in Cleveland (at the
end of September last) the farmer in the interior
of Ohio was only getting 55 cents per bushel for
his wheat, instead of 65, the price below which
he will not bring it freely to market. Adding,
therefore, 10 cents per bushel, the cost of bring-
ing it to Cleveland, and 20 cents more to New
York, Ohio wheat at that time was deliverable
at New York for 85 cents per bushel.

For the purpose oC determining at what price
wheat purchased at New York for 85 cents per
bushel could be sold at Liverpool, I applied to
some gentlemen engaged in that branch of busi-
ness at New York, and subsequently, by the
obliging assistance of a friend, to an eminent

fc2

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

• I

mercantile house at Liverpool ; and as their
accounts very nearly tallied, I give with the
more confidence the full statement which was
very kindly furnished to me by the house at
Liverpool ; for which see Appendix B, p. 16L

From this it appears clear that when red
Ohio is deliverable at New York at the price
at which, under present circumstances, it will
come freely to market, namely, 65 cents to the
grower, or 95 purchaseable free on board at
New York, it cannot be sold at Liverpool (all
charges included) under 5.s\ 6^. per bushel of
(50 lbs., or 6s. ^\d. per bushel of 70 lbs., the
usual selling weight at Liverpool. While, if
any shortness of crop in America, or any brisk
demand from Europe, should raise it to a dollar
iree on board at New York, the equivalent
selling price at Liverpool would be 56'. Oc/. per
bushel of 60 lbs., and (js. 8fc?. per bushel of
70 lbs.

At the •"ime when the above facts were ob-
tained at Cleveland, the prices of wheat at the
two other principal shipping places for the pro-
duce of ''the West' were nearly the same as

RAILWAYS.

at Cleveland. At Chicago (September 25) the
prices quoted were —

" Wheat from teams —

Spring . . . .
Winter (for milling)
Ditto inferior

53 c. per bushel.
60 to 67 c.
50 to 56 c."

At Milwaukie (September 24) the prices for
*' prime samples of winter wheat " were higher ;
*' millers were paying 70 to 75 cents." "White
Michigan, well cleaned, is generally from 10 to
15 cents per bushel higher than red Ohio."*
The cost of transport from Chicago and Mil-
waukie (at the further end of Lake Michigan)
to New York is, notwithstanding the distance,
only a few cents per barrel of flour (representing?
in quantity 4i bushels of wheatf) greater than

* "The flour of Ohio will be, however, from 25 c. to 50 c.
per barrel better than Michigan or New Yoik, as the Ohio flour
takes up more water, and has more nutriment in it. The New
York (Gennessee Valley) and Michigan are sold at New York
chiefly for confectionary purposes."

t But in commercial value five bushels. "The miller gives
one barrel of flour for five bushels of wheat, at ordinary prices ;
he reckons that four and a half bushols make a barrel of superfine
flour, and that the ' offal' pays for the barrel, leaving him half a
bushel of wheat Ua his profit. At present, however, prices are
so low that the millers are asking more than five bushels for a
barrel of flour."

^^if^imm

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, kc.

from Cleveland, the trade being carried on by-
large schooners taking a cargo of from 2000
to 4000 barrels (at five to a ton of 2000 lbs.),
and the expense of the few additional days of
navigation being but trifling.

At those dates the demand for wheat at New
York was very slight ; "it was being shipped
more as a remittance against bilk than for profit,
of which it afforded a very small margin."

Under present circumstances, therei'ore (espe-
cially that of a large surplus existing in Ohio
from two years' harvests, and which is held
back at present prices), and notwithstanding the
probable increase of production in the " far
West," which, however, is likely to cause a
diminished production in the great wheat-grow-
ing State of Ohio, it would seem that there is
yet no sufficient reason for concluding that any
large amount of wheat from the United States
could be sent to Europe to supply a continuous
demand unless it could command prices higher
than have been attainable for the last two years.

The above, therefore, being the prices below
which no large quantity can now be had from

RAILWAYS.

the United States, it may be asked whether the
state of the question is likely to be materially
altered by a reduction of the cost of transport
from the interior to the sea-board, consequent on
the completion of the great system of railways
soon about to penetrate in almost directly straight
lines to the heart of these large wheat-growing
regions.

Several gentlemen connected with some of
these lines, as engineers, directors, or otherwise,
expressed to me a very sanguine opinion that
they should be able to cany a large quantity of
flour to the sea-board, from Ohio and the far
West, by the lines now under construction, at a
cost not only below existing lines, but below that
of the canals.

In support of the latter opinion are certainly
the following facts, stated to me by one of those
gentlemen. *' The Dunkirk and New York
Railway is now (October 1) carrying flour to
New York (and they have contracted to do so
up to November 1) as cheap as the (Erie) canal,
viz. 56 cents per barrel for 469 miles, or a
little above a cent per ton per mile. We

i?i

!>' ll

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

are at present shipping flour f^-om Cleveland,
via Buffalo, as follows : —

"To Buffalo 12 c.

By Erie canal to New York 56 c.

Cost of barrel of flour at Cleveland
(October 1)

3 25
3 93

" From Cleveland to New York, via the Wel-
land Canal, —

" Freight 65

Cost of barrel of flour (October 1) . 3 25

3 90*
" The railway, therefore, is now carrying: as
cheaply as the Erie, and cheaper than by the
route through the Welland Canal,

"Railways made at a greater cost and with
heavier gradients charge more ; but it is ex-
pected that the western railways through Ohio

* At that time, and as a confirmation of the above, the statement
of the prices current in New York (September 27) was as
follows : —

" Less wheat pressing on market. Demand for home and ex-
port moderate. No sales. Dol. c.

" Flour — Canadian . . .40 per barrel.
,, Ohio . . . .40
,, New Michigan and Indiana 4 12

~,i.

RAILWAYS.

will charge about a cent per ton per mile.
They will ^>e made at a moderate cost, and
will be reniarkably level and straight. The
average cost of the Ohio roads will not be
above 20,000 dollars per mile completed. The
Columbus road has straight stretches of from
9 to 20 miles, and only 4 miles of curvature in
135 miles, and those at some of the stations ; the
Cleveland and Ashtabula (and thence to Erie)
Railway has * straight stretches ' of from 7 to 20
miles ; the Pennsylvania and Ohio mns along
the backbone of the State, right through the
great wheat - growing district from Pittsburgh
westward ; the * Pennsylvania,' from Pittsburgh
to Philadelphia, has also comparatively easy gra-
dients and small curvatures. They will, there-
fore, attain high speeds ai d carry cheaply."

If these expectations f.re realized.; a barrel of
flour will (probably in the course of 1853) be
carried from Massillon, the great inland mart
for flour in Ohio, to Philadelphia for 44 cents,
being 440 miles, at the assumed and probable
rate of one cent per ton per mile.

From Cleveland to New i ork, by the " Lake

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

'I I

Shore" ^oads, which will be opened in 1852,
and by the New York and Erie liailway, will
be 633 miles. The cost of transport of a
barrel of flour from that place to New York
would, at the above rate, be 63 cents.

From Cleveland to New York, via Pitts-
burgh and Philadelphia, will be, by the rail-
ways now in progress, 583 miles ; consequently,
a barrel of flour would reach New York by that
route, at the above rate, for 58 cents.

From Cleveland to Philadelphia, via the
same roads, is 493 miles ; therefore, at the
same rate, a barrel of flour would reach Phila-
delphia from Cleveland at a cost of 49 cents.

Fra)n Philadelphia to Crestline, the point of
inters'iction between the great western line of
the Pennsylvania and Ohio and the Cleveland
and Cincinnati line, is 541 miles; consequently
a barrel of flour would reach Philadelphia from
that point, at the above assumed rate, for 54
cents.

In estimating the probabilities of these re-
ductions being in fact realized, it is necessary to
bear in mind three considerations : first, that the

RAIT WAYS.

great Atlantic cities, in projecting and nearly
bringiiif^ to completion th( above lines, have
been actuated by a spirit ')t v(ry sharp rivalry
in the endeavour to dra^^• towards themselves as
large a share as poss .h ' tV- - pidly develoj)-
ing traffic of the *' gi it ;" secondly, that

the Reports of the L Hugress in Ohio

speak confidently of then ig well supported
by the local traflSc alone, which will enable them
to carry the " through " traflSc to Philadelphia
at the lowest possible charge ; thirdly, that, " as
the canals are State property, they can, if
pressed by competition, reduce their tolls to the
lowest point sufficient to keep them in repair."
Fourthly, that the average time that a barrel of
flour is on its passage from Cleveland to New
York, viA the canals, is 1 6 days, and that there
would therefore be a saving of perhaps six to
eight days' interest on every transaction— a
small item, doubtless, but yet not to be left out
of the account.

The above considerations lead, it would ap-
pear, legitimately to the conclusion that when
these lines of railway are completed, which will

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WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

be, it is expected, in the course of 1853, there
will be a reduction of several cents in the cost
of transporting a barrel of flour from the great
wheat-growing districts of the United States to
the Atlantic sea-board.

Another point for consideration in reference
to future prices of wheat is the effect that
will be produced by the opening in Ohio, Indi-
ana, and Illinois, of so much new land by the
passage of these railways through them. The
extent of such land must be considerable. It is
stated that " the Columbus line alo^ie opens new
land along almost its entire length of 130 miles."
A large and valuable tract will also be opened
by the proposed railway from Cincinnati to St.
Louis (see p. 63). The advantages of being
near a railroad, in States so abounding in re-
sources as Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, will
doubtless attract settlers ; and as new settlers
can raise their crops at the cost of not much
beyond their own labour, and look forwar:\ as a
part of their future remuneration, to a continued
rise taking place in the value of land, they will,
probably, not be very particular as to the price

■

RAILWAYS.

they will obtain for their wheat, if they grow
any. It must be remembered, however, that in
those new lands wheat does not make any ne-
cessary part of a rotation ; and that a settler will
grow Indian corn and other crops, with a view
to stock, if he finds it pays him better. Also
that the older settlers will be disposed to do the
same ; and that the process already commenced
among them of diminishing their wheat cultiva-
tion would be stimulated by any further fall of
price.

Again, the railways, by opening cheaper and
readier communications with the great cities,
will tend to the increased production of stock, as
well as of butter, cheese, &c. The extent to
which this will be carried will, of course, depend
principally upon the demand afforded by the
increasing markets. The probable growth, there-
fore, of the great cities and of the smaller towns,
becomes an important element in the inquiry.

Little need be said of the well-known rapidity
of growth of the Atlantic cities during the last
30 years : — of New York, from a population of
123,706 in 1820 to 517,000 in 1850; of Phi-

^?*ie.

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

ladelphia, from 119,325 to 411,000 witbin the
same period; of Boston, from 43,298 to 138,788;
of Baltimore, from 102,313 in 1840 to 169,125
in 1850. The continual development of the
vast resources of the " Great West" causes a
constant stream of supplies of all kinds to flow
through them towards it, while their increasing
demands for labour are fed by the perpetual
influx of foreign immigration. But less is
known of the manufacturing and mercantile
capabilities of the towns and cities of the interior
beyond the Alleghanies, and within or border-
ing upon the vast basin of the Mississippi.

In the course of next year the important ma-
nufacturing city of Pittsburgh, on the Ohio, will
be brought within twelve or fourteen hours of
Philadelphia — exchanging its present slow and
expensive communication by the Pennsylvania
Canal and Portage Railroad for the excellent
line of the Pennsylvania Railway. The popu-
lation of Pittsburgh has increased, even with
such imperfect facilities as it has already enjoyed,
from 7250 in 1820, to upwards of 80,000 in
1850. The following account of the industry

RAILWAYS. 87

and prospects of this remarkable city was given
me by one of* its principal merchants : —

" The manufactures of Pittsburgh took a start in ni2,
when we were cut off from supplies from England, and
they have been making great progress ever since. The
published statement of our Board of Trade shows that we
have now 30 large iron-foundries and several small ones,
13 rolling-mills, 5 large cotton factories, 8 flint and 11
window glass manufactories, 5 white lead factories, a copper
smelting and rolling mill, besides numerous smaller
branches of skilled labour, such as the making of locks,
steel springs, axles, saws, gun-barrels, files, shovels,
spades, soda, 7 phial furnaces, &c. &c. Our fine bitumi-
nous coal lies in nearly horizontal layers of from four to
nine feet thick above the level of the river, and cropping
out on its banks ; the enormous extent of this formation is
well known. About 12,000,000 bushels are raised an-
nually for our own consumption, and delivered at the
factories and iron-works at from a cent and a half to three
cents per bushel of 76 lbs. ; for domestic purposes we
pay four cents to four and a half per bushel. We export
also down the river annually 12,000,000 bushels more. The
total annual value of our manufactures is estimated at
50,000,000 dollars. The iron-furnaces are in all direc-
tions from ten to fifteen miles round. Those that have not
depended too much on borrowed capital, and are also well
situated — tliat is whose sites have been chosen with judg-
ment in reference to facilities of getting the materials, and
for taking advantage of the water-carriage — are flourishing,

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

and do not want protection, having easy water-carriage and
lime and coal near. The finest kind of iron-ore is found
on the * hanging rock ' on the Ohio, and chiefly in
Clarion County, about 50 to 100 miles N.E. up the
Alleghany river and the Clarion, which is a branch of it ;
some is brought also from Tennessee and Missouri. There
are many furnaces also on the Monongahela, a few miles
above the city. The cotton is brought up from Tennessee,
and most of the cotton-yarn can now do without protection.
Woollen factories would take root here, if there was
capital for them. There is a flannel and blanket factory
on the Alleghany, a few miles off. The hills all round us
are very favourable for sheep ; all through the southern
and eastern counties of Ohio sheep do well ; and there are
great capabilities for sheep runs all over the northern
parts of Virginia adjoining us.

'' We, in common with all the towns and cities on the
rivers west of the Alleghanies, have the great advantage of
participating in an inland navigation of at least 10,000
miles, extending over the whole of the vast basin of the
Mississippi. The Monongahela and Alleghany, uniting
at this spot, place us at the head of the navigation of the
Ohio (the two first-named rivers being navigable from 60
to 200 miles upwards), and thence we communicate with
the Wabash, the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Illinois,
the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Arkansas, the Red
River, and all the canals connected with them. We have
also the great advantage of a fine and healthy climate ; we
are 700 feet above the sea-level, and have no marsh or stag-
nant water near — nothing but dry hills all round us. Our
resources are enormous, and we have as yet far too little

RAILWAYS,*

capital for our purposes. More will probably come to us
when our communications with Philadelphia are com-
pleted. Nothing can deprive us of our great natural ad-
vantages ; and the continually increasing population in the
' great West * will afford us a growing market. Hitherto
capital has been scarce, and we have to pay very high
rates of interest for it, on the best freehold securities.
Our exports to New Orleans and other places in the south
are paid for by sugar, molasses, groceries, * dry goods,' &c.
The workmen in many occupations here are paid chiefly
through the * stores * with these goods. The contractors
who supply many of the foundries, glass-houses, &c., with
coal, receive in payment iron, glass, nails, groceries, &c.,
on account, which they must dispose of at the market
price ; and on settling, the manufacturer gives his note
of hand at four to six months. The employers who pay
:n cash command the best men, and if cash-payments could
be more general we could turn out articles of manufacture
at a much lower price, notwithstanding the high rate of
labour — 75 cents to a dollar a day."*

Another gentleman gave me, as a proof of the

* Colliers earn from a dollar to a dollar and a half a day. An
attempt was lately made to reduce them to a dollar and a quarter,
which caused a strike, in which they succeeded. The colliers
consist of about one-third Welsh, one-third German, the rest
Irish, with a few English and Scotch, and a very few Americans
born. Those who are engaged in supplying the " river trade "
are subject to frequent interruptions of work, while the river is
not in a proper state for navigation. The rest are pretty steadily
employed at the above wages.

, I

■ 'I

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

prosperity of the city, the following facts as to
the rise in the value of land : —

!•

" The city authorities wanted lately a spot for a * House
of Refuge,' and tried to get a ' cheap lot.' They nego-
tiated fur thirty acres about six miles from the city, and the
lowest sum that they could get it for was 600 dollars per
acre. The proprietor of eighteen acres of garden -ground
between three and four miles below the city, now let for
25 dollars per acre, could at this moment get 12,000 dol-
lars for them, being at the rate of near 670 dollars per
acre. Two years ago ordinary farmiiig land could have been
had within five miles of Pittsburgh at .50 dollars per acre ;
it is now held for a much higher sum. On the whole, our
manufactures are flourishing, and, with the exception of
some of the iron (the foundries) and some of the cotton,
do not want protection. Oliio and all the Western States,
and also the South, are for free-trade. Our tariff may
want amendment in some particulars ; and the ad valorem
system is objected to as giving rise to frauds. Our great
lines of railway will be finished westward to the Mississippi,
and perhaps to the Missouri, in three years, and probably
soon after to Chicago ; all of which will tend to the in-
crease of our business here."

There is every probability, therefore, that
Pittsburgh will afford a growing demand for
other agricultural products besides wheat. And
as regards the actual price of wheat at that city

RAILWAYS.

as compared with New York, it may be interest-
ing to record the following figures : —

When I was at Pittsburgh (September 24) the
price of flour was —

Ordinary ,
Superfine .
Wheat .

d. c. (1. c.

3 15 to 3 25 per barrel.

3 50

60 to 65 per bushel.

At New York, about the same date, the
** Price Current" stated —

" Prices very low, and have probably touched the bot-
tom. For flour —

d. c. ,

Wisconsin 3 75

Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan . 3 75
Fancy Michigan . . . . 3 81 to 93
Pure Gennessee . . ..40
Extra ditto 4 76."

The prices, therefore, at Pittsburgh and New
York were, considering the cost of transport to
New York, nearly the same, the price in Pitts-
burgh being slightly the highest, if estimated at
the usual cost of carriage from Massillon.

Four hundred and seventy-seven miles below

1 I

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

'i.

Pittsburgh, by the waters of the Ohio, and 350,
when the railways are completed, by land, is
Cincinnati, the " Queen City of the West,"
beautifully situated in a fold of the Ohio, and
on a small rising plain between encircling hills ;
— almost the creation of this half-century, and
one of the many astonishing evidences of Ameri-
can energy and industry with which that country
abounds. Its population in 1800 was 750; in
1820 it was 9602 ; and in 1850 it amounted to
116,108. It is more popularly known for its
" hog-trade " and its great slaughter-houses. But
its numerous and increasing manufactures have
not, I apprehend, attracted the notice they de-
serve. In the Annual Report to the Chamber
of Commerce, dated August 13th, 1851, is given
" a full and complete statement of the manufac-
tures and industrial products of Cincinnati."
Of these the Report states, " The number and
products of the several manufactories and work-
shops in 1851, compared with 1841, show the
great and unprecedented increase of this depart-
ment of business, and present in a clear light
the future destiny of our city."

RAILWi^YS.

The number of the different branches of manu-
facture is 180. This number is so remarkable,
and embraces so many different kinds, that I
think it would be acceptable to many persons in
this country to have an opportunity of consider-
ing it. I therefore add it to the Appendix (C),
p. 162. Their rapid extension is confidently an-
ticipated, from the effect of the lines of railway
now being constructed, which will connect Cin-
cinnati with St. Louis on the one hand, and with
the sea-board at Charleston on the other, through
Lexington in Kentucky ;* even more, however,

* " We present in connection with this report a full statement
of the manufactures of Cincinnati, which affords a very clear idea
of the importance and magnitude of this branch of business. In
our last annual report we took occasion to notice the advantages
of this place as a manufacturing city, arising partly from her cen-
tral position, partly from her natural resources, and partly from
the numerous channels of communication, natural and artificial,
which connect her with the surrounding country. For many of
the leading articles of our manufactures tho 5;outh has been, and
will continue to be, our most important mnikec ; and everything,
therefore, which is calculated to extend the trade in that direc-
tion must be regarded with favour by the friends of these in-
terests. The statistics alluded to show that the increase in the
manufacturing business has been rapid, and it is now so extensive
that it is necessary the markets for the products should be ex-
tended in every accessible direction. It is gratifying, therefore,
to observe that important connections will shortly be afforded by

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

from the fact of the line to St. Louis *' passing
at many points" in a total distance of 327 miles,
** through inexhaustible beds of iron and coal "
(p. 5). Another valuable district of coal and
iron will also be opened to Cincinnati by the
railway through Chilicothe, about 100 miles off,
into Virginia and on to Baltimore.

In connection with the rapid development of
their trade and manufactures is discussed the
question of the supply of provisions, and es-
pecially the price of wheat, to their large popu-
lation ; and, at page 7, the remarkable statement
is made, that during the whole of the past year
the relative value of wheat and flour has been
higher at Cincinnati than at New York. The
passage is evidently deserving of consideration
in this country : —

W''

the projected railroad lines ; and while the Hamilton and Dayton
railroad, with Indiana connections, and the Ohio and Mississippi
railroad, will benefit this trade much, the line constructing from
Covington to Lexington, in Kentucky, which will be extended
through the south, and have its terminus on the seaboard, will
prove more important than either ; and, indeed, we consider it to
be utterly impossible now to estimate the advantages this road
will be to our manufacturing interests.'' — Report to Chamber of
Commerce, p. 3.

UAILWAYS,

" Breadsluffs. — The market for flour, throughout the
year, as will be seen by the weekly average prices below,
presented an unusually hteady appearance ; and the lowest
monthly averayje was i$3 15 [for the month of July], and
the highest g 3 G8 [for the month of December]. From
the large crop of wheat in 1850 it was expected that the
receipts of flour at this port would show a large excess
over last year ; it being expected that they would reach at
least 600,000 bbls. They have not proved, however, as
heavy as was anticipated, although the increase on last
year is 50 per cent. It is now very evident that the sup-
plies at this port have not increased in proportion to tiie
amount produced, and unless our railroads are extended
into the surrounding country we cannot look for anj other
result. There are three channels of transportation through
our State which are rapidly attracting the produce busi-
ness of the interior from this point; so much so, that the
relative value of breadstuffs in this market is now, and has
been during the year, higher than in New York. The
value of a barrel of flour at this time in our market is
(wholesale) g! 3 20, while in New York it is g 4. Freight
from this city to New York is 9oc., and other charges
would increase the expense to g 1 15; so that flour pur-
chased here at S3 20 would not net the shipper in New
York over g 2 85 or g 2 90, allowing for the difference
in exchange. The only reason why flour should not be
at g 2 90, instead of g 3 20, is the inadequacy of supplies
to the demand." — p. 6.

As also are the following, which prove incon-
testably the great amount of surplus of wheat

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

;|:,-

during the last two years in Ohio, and confirm
the statement that the Ohio farmers will not
send their wheat freely to market when the price
is mider 65 cents per bushel.

" In our Report of last September we had occasion to
state that the prospects were highly favourable for a pros-
perous season. The crops were good, especially wheat,
the yield of which in Ohio we estimated at 30,000,000
bushels. This estimate provnd to be very nearly correct,
the official reports showing the crops in sixty-two counties
to have been 25,137,174 bushels. The remaining twenty-
six counties, from which we have seen no returns, would
doubtless increase the amount to 33,000,000 bushels.
This yield was greatly larger than that of any previous
crop. In Kentucky, Indiana, and other western States,
the crop of this grain was also unusually good, as has been
fully shown by the supplies that have been sent forward
through the several outlets. The fact that the stock of
wheat in the country at the commencement of the past
year was larger perhaps than ever before, led many to look
for very low prices early in this season ; but we took occa-
sion to predict that prices would not recede, as expected,
until the close of the season, and not even then, unless the
prospect of the harvest of 1851 should be favourable.
One reason given for the conclusion arrived at was, that
farmers would retain a very large proportion of the grain
should low prices prevail ; another, that low prices would
induce a heavy consumption ; and another, that Europe,
notwithstanding the favourable result of her own harvest,

RAILWAYS.

■rect,

inties

enty-

vould

shels.

vious

tates,
been
ward
k of
past
look
occa-
cted,
s the
able.
, that
grain
ould
rope,
Irvest,

would, at moderately low prices, increase her demand ;
and the result of the season shows we were not far astray.
The increase in supplies of flour sent forward was not in
proportion to the increased yield of wheat ; and until
within the last month or two fkir average prices have been
maintained. The lowest monthly average in this market,
prior to July, was g 3 43, and the highest g 3 68, and
the average for the year is about $ 3 50. In New York
prices have receded to a low point, and it is remarked that
flour was lower in that market since August 1st than ever
before. The European demand during the year, notwith-
standing the low prices current abroad, v^s- good, and the
exports from the United States to Great Britain and Ire-
land, during the eleven months ending August 1st, were
1,493,345 barrels of flour, against 792,742 barrels at the
same time last year; and 1,318,905 bushels of wheat,
against 332,939 bushels last year."^ — p. 1 .

" The crops throughout the west, with scarcely an ex-
ception, were again large the last season ; and the supply
of cereal products is larger in tlie west, and we may say in
the United States, than ever before. This abundant yield,
following, as it does, a harvest scarcely less productive
than that which has recently been gathered, tends ta
destroy confidence in the market ; and on the eastern sea-
board prices have already reached an unprecedentedly low
point, and in this market they are tending in the same
direction ; and the probabilities strongly favour prices very
little above,, if not below, a producing points The con-
sumption (as is always the case during seasons of low
prices) will doubtless be heavy, and we may also look for
a continued good European demand, notwithstanding the

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

good harvests which have been gathered in Great Britain,
as well as in most of the continental countries; but all this
will not be sufficient to absorb the surplus stocks to such
an extent as to enable holders to obtain prices equal, or
nearly equal, to the average of the last season. There
will doubtless be a much heavier surplus stock held at the
close of the season of 1851-2 than that now in the
country.

" (Indian) Corn is also giving way, under the favour-
able prospects of the growing crop ; but a partial failure
of this crop in some of the southern States, and a total
failure in others, will give it some advantage over flour.
It is also probable that an increased European demand
will exist, though the low price of flour will restrict its
consi'.mptio'^ abroad."^ — p. 2.

The Report comments on the remarkable fact
of the relative value of wheat being at Cincinnati,
within a few miles, comparatively, of the place
of its growth, higher than at New York, and
points to the numerous lines of railway now under
construction and being completed, as " feeders "
both of the population and their trade. Of the
one then projected and since determined on to
St. Louis, it thus speaks v —

" The road, as at present surveyed, is nearly on a
straight line ; and the distance from Cincinnati to St.
Louis is reduced to 327 miles. This road traverses a
beautiful and fertile country, everywhere susceptible of

irs

»>

the
to

)n a
St.
ses a
lie of

FA' '/ATS.

the highest cultivation, crossing in its route the valleys of
the two "White rivers and that of the Wabash — all famed,,
the world over, as unsurpassably rich and productive. At
many points it passes through inexhaustible beds of iron
and coal. We doubt whether any line of equal length
could be projected in the country that would compare
favourably with this for all the varied products of the
west.

" The road in its course intersects at eligible points
six distinct and important lines of railroads, all either com-
pleted or in course of construction. These roads must
necessarily throw upon it an amount of business that it
would now be impossible to estimate." — p. 5.

And aflker noticing the great increase in the
export of cheese, it concludes by congratulating
the community that they have now " many
things besides wheat to sell ;" and that they are
"wiser than of yore, and have not put *all their
eggs into one basket.' "

The commercial importance of the great city
of St. Louis is well known. It has already
nearly 100,000 inhabitants, and, being about to
be brought into direct communication with
Philadelphia by a continuous line of railway, it
will doubtless assume a still higher place. The
distances will be divided in round numbers as
follows : Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, 350 miles ;

100

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Pittsburgh to Cincinnati, 350 ; Cincinnati to
St. Louis, 327 — a little above 1000 miles. A
line from St. Louis to the City of Independence,
on the Missouri, direct west for, I believe, up-
wards of 250 miles more, has been already
determined on, and, indeed, commenced.

There are springing up, besides, in the West
many second-rate cities and towns, of which
little has yet been heard in this country : such
as Chicago, which, within the last ten years, has
grown from a small village to a city of upwards
of 30,000 inhabitants ; Milwaukie, which in the
same time has increased to above 20,000 ; being
the principal shipping places for the wheat of Illi-
nois and Wisconsin. Detroit, Cleveland, San-
dusky City, and Toledo, better known, are also
rapidly increasing, by commanding the grain
trade of Michigan, Ohio, &c. These and other
inland towns are rising into importance, and will
become more and more large centres of demand
for all kinds of agricultural produce.

It remains to say a few words on the price of
agricultural labour. I believe it may be stated
in general terms, that, over the wide space (in

RAILWAYS.

101

the free States) from the Atlantic to the ex-
tremity of Ohio, the usual wages of agricultural
labour are 50 cents a day and board and lodg-
ing, the latter being estimated at a dollar and a
half more per week ; the whole equalling about
I85. 10c?. a week of our money. This applies
chiefly to the best labourers in steady employ,
and living with the farmers. In the well-farmed
counties of Chester and Lancaster, in the
eastern part of Pennsylvania, the rates are said, in
some cases, to be rather above this ; the price of
farming-land being also in those counties often as
high as 120 or 150 dollars per acre, and the farmer
not considering himself remunerated for growing
wheat unless he can obtain a dollar a bushel.
On the other hand, towards the western part of
that State, in answer to some inquiries on the
subject, I was informed that wages were often,
in winter, as low as 50 cents per day, without
board and lodging (=125. 6d. per week), and
that many were then out of employ. The price
of wheat when I was in the interior of Penn-
sylvania in September last was, at Bedford, a
town of about 1500 inhabitants, and 31 miles

lii

102

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

west of the railway, 62 to 65 cents per bushel
of 62 lbs., " and had been at that point for about
two years; but previously to that, about a
dollar per bushel was the average price." In
winter, wages, according to another account,
went down sometimes to 1 dollar and board and
lodging (=105. 2d.) per week. Harvest wages
are 1 dollar 50 cents (=6s. 3d) per day. In
the neighbourhood of HoUidaysburgh, on the
line of the railway, wages were said to average
throughout the year 7 to 8 dollars per month,
and board and lodging 6 dollars, equivalent
to about 135. 4c?. to 145. 7d. per week. Again,
after passing through the AUeghanies, I found
that, on their western slopes and through
Ohio generally, agricultural wages for steady
men were stated at 50 cents per day and board
and lodging, or 4 dollars 50 cents, equalling
18s. 10c?., per week. This was the rate given me
by four English farmers who had settled near
Blairsville, about 50 miles east of- Pittsburgh ;
the same was also stated to be the usual rate
near Greensburgh, about 30 miles in the same
direction ; the usual value of farming land being

RAILWAYS.

103

throughout that region (of red sandstone) about
35 dollars per acre. There, also, occasional
labourers only received 50 cents (25. Id.) per
day, without board, &c., and many were said to
be out of employ in winter. Much was said by
farmers of the high price of labour; but notwith-
standing the approaching completion of many
lines of railway, which would set free much
Irish labour, they did not expect that the
price would be materially brought down, inas-
much as there were three great demands which
would tend to keep it up : first, that of the
extreme West ; next, that which would be
created by the opening of new land along the
lines of railway ; and thirdly, the growing pros-
perity of the cities west of the AUeghanies, as
well as of those on the sea-board.

The above, therefore, are, I believe, the prin-
cipal elements in the problem, of much interest
to this country, as to what will be the probable
paying price at which American wheat can be
delivered in any large quantity at Liverpool.
Some of the above particulars have been ad-
verted to in various published statements on the

a. , --•#^B- (,,,„?(««♦.' i

104

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

subject ; others, however — such as the effect of
the railways now in progress, in opening new
land so much nearer to the Atlantic sea-board,
and cheapening the cost of transport thither —
have hitherto, I think, scarcely received due
consideration. Without pretending to be able
to draw any very definite conclusion from what I
have ventured to put together, it may, perhaps,
be allowable to say, that the question cannot be
altogether disposed of by the alleged fact that
in the United States the growth of the con-
suming is equal to that of the producing popu-
lation.

Of the extent to which the question may be
affected by the circumstances of Canada, and its
great capabilities of production, I shall have
something to say in a future page ; to which I
shall also defer what I wish to add on the
manner in which the opening of these great and
new fields of well-remunerated industry bears
upon the question of emigration from Ireland
and from the United Kingdom generally.

WATER SUPPLY.

105

WATER SUPPLY;

MEANS OF CLEANLINESS IN THE CITIES AND LARGE

TOWNS.

To any one wlio has had opportunities of ob-
serving the state of some of our large centres
of mining and manufacturing population, the
general aspect of cheerfulness and cleanliness
pervading the manufacturing portions of the
cities and towns of the United States, presents
a contrast by no means flattering.

The absence of smoke, arising from the use
of wood or of anthracite coal, is of course at
once a great point in favour of the trans- Atlantic
cities of the sea-board, and suggests a keen
desire that the celebrated " Smoke Bill," which
has so often made its appearance in Parliament,
may one day end in something less evanescent.

106

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

But what is of more importance for our con-
sideration, the public opinion of the United
States will not permit the health, the comfort,
and — as far as morals are affected by material
things — the morals of the community to be sacri-
ficed by the reckless and irresponsible use of
capital in the manner so prevalent in parts of
our mining and manufacturing districts. Any
one conversant with those districts could point
to many localities where large capitalists have
covered whole square miles with buildings for
the labouring classes, without the smallest regard
to drainage, ventilation, cleanliness, decency,
cheerfulness, or comfort of any sort.

Under the municipal arrangements of the
United States, and in the face of the public
opinion dominant there, such things cam ])<
done ; and in being permitted to do them here,
that class of the community are continuing to
furnish, most unfortunately, I believe, for them-
selves and for the general interests of the country,
rightly considered, the most forcible arguments
to the worst opponents of our social system.

It would, perhaps, be unfair to compare

WATER SUPPLY.

107

Lowell, the creation of the last five-and-twenty
years, with only 40,000 inhabitants, where only
water-power is used, and in the laying out of
which town the different companies had the ex-
perience of England before them as a guide and a
memento of what to avoid — Lowell, with its wide
streets, ornamented with trees, like all American
towns, after the manner of the Parisian Boule-
vards, and its neat houses and gardens — with
the dense masses of population gathered together
upon our coal-fields. Moreover, if need were, it
would be easy to enumerate a long list of in-
stances, in this country, where either large com-
panies, or individuals of wealth and of eminent
station, have, both in the manufacturing and the
mining districts, housed the hundreds — nay, the
thousands — of people in their employ, with an
attention to comfort and even elegance which I
have never seen equalled out of England. But
the average state of things is that which most
demands attention, and I would rather refer, as
a standard of comparison, to the extensive and
wealthy manufacturing and commercial city of
Philadelphia, as an instance worthy of observa-

.• ' ;•''

ON PiilSI.U J*f BIECTS, &e.

tion i\\ reference to this count^y^ The manu-
facturer, and consequently the manufacturing
popuifation of that city, are rapidly increasing ;
and if any </rt4» visits the side of iiVe city where
this increase is taking place, and compares it, in
his own mind, with twenty places that will
instantly occur to him if he is conversant with
South Staffordshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Mer-
thyr and Dowlais, Lanarkshire, &c. &c., he will
find his convictions strengthened that such neglect
of matters of vital moment to the best interests
of the labouring classes in our country, as is
there exhibited, ought not to be.

It is not needful to state wb^'. means are
taken to prevent them in the United States.
We have means enough of our own if they
were but used. Better it will be that they
should be used, and that quickly, before others
are den^.-aded not quite in accordance with our
present notions.

The *' luxury of cold water" it* one which
certain of our great companies seem to think
unnatural to man — of cold water, at least, in
abundance iv i pmity. It is rather tantalizing

"WATER SUPPLT.

109

to one who leaves London in tlit- l)e^nniiig of
August, to find himself, in tei days, in cities
across the Atlantic where bath-rooms are almost
as numerous as bed-rooms in every private house
of any pretensions to the comfort that even a
modera^«i c-mi^etency can command, and where
tho nnro^t of water is let in at the highest habit-
.il le part of every building, in unlimited quantity,
and for i most moderate payment. It is some-
what amusing, too, to see the Irish maidens in
Philadelphia (in their usual vocation of house-
maids, there as elsewhere) tripping out in the
early morning, upon the broad brick foot-pave-
ments, and screwing a small hose of an inch in
diameter to a brass cock concealed under a little
iron plate near the kerb-stone; then, with an
air of command over the refreshing element, di-
recting a copious shower against the windows,
shutters, front door, white marble steps, elegant
iron railing, green shrubs, small and much-
'.erished grass-plot, heavy-blossomed creepers
hanging on neat trellis-work, and, finally, upon
the grateful acacias, or the silver maple, or the
catalpa, or the alanthus, or the mountain-

110

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

If'

ash, above her head. Next advances a graver
character, whose business it is to " lay the dust."
He drags after him a snake-like hose some fifty
feet long, one end of which he has screwed upon
the stop-cock fixed to a post by the side of the
pavement, while from the brass pipe of the other
end, which he holds in his hand, he throws a
strong jet over the street, and a considerable dis-
tance beyond the point at which he has arrived
when he has come " to the end of his tether."
He then removes the screw end to the next
cock, which is at the proper distance to enable
him to reach, by the jet from the hose, the point
where he left ofi^. The jet is also eminently
serviceable in cleansing streets, courts, and
alleys, which can never be sufficiently purified
by mere sweeping; and also for clearing out
drains and sewers, and preventing accumulations
which cause offensive and noxious exhalations.
It is recommended for that purpose in the
" Report of the General Board of Health on the
Supply of Water to the Metropolis " (London,
1850, p. 231) ; and experiments with it are ad-
verted to which had been made at Sheffield and

WATER SUPPLY.

Ill

elsewhere; apparently without a knowledge of
the fact of its successful and very popular use in
the United States. No one who has seen it in
operation there, and who has also experienced
the comfort and luxury of an abundant supply
of fresh, sparkling, cool, and, what is of more
consequence than all, most agreeably soft water,
in the hotels and private houses, can fail to feel
himself under the temptation to encourage a
wish, that the individual members of our large
London Companies, and they alone, might be
confined to the use of their own hard and muddy
water for the rest of their lives.

I find in the " Report of the Watering Com-
mittee of the City of Philadelphia for 1849,"
(published January, 1850,) the following state-
ment, showing " the number of dwellings, &c.,
in the city, supplied with the Schuylkill water to
the 3 1st December, 1849 *, with the amount of
water-rent, &c." —

Doll. Cents.

11,543 Dwellings . . . . at 5

4,107 Baths „ 3

1,101 Wash-pavements . .,,30
7 ditto . . .,,50

112

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Doll.

Centi

548 Water-closets

. at 1

6 ditto

. » 2

222 Wash-basins

. » 1

2, 258 Single dwellings and

back

tenements

. „ 2

34 Back tenements .

,, 3

Then follows an enumeration of the amounts
paid by taverns, bakeries, hotels, stables, steam-
engines, factories, workshops, stores, &c. 8cc.

The first Keport of the Boston Water Board
was published in December, 1850. It would, of
course, require some time before the water could
be generally introduced. There were, in this first
year, 13,463 "water-takers;" and of these, 1202
had obtained " the right to attach a hose for
washing windows, sprinkling streets, washing
carriages, or other purposes," at the same cost as
at Philadelphia. The rate for the ordinary
water-supply is fixed according to the amount of
the assessment of taxes for each house.

There is no need to refer at any length to the
celebrated waterworks capable of supplying, it is
said, five times the present population of New
York. The water was introduced in 1842, at

WATER SUPPLY.

113

the cost of nearly 3,000,000?. According to
the Report of the Croton Aqueduct Depart-
ment for 1850, "The income from the water
has never equalled the interest on the debt,
though each successive year making a closer
approach to it." The deficiency, which has
been supplied by general tax, is then shown;
and it appears that it was, in the year 1842, as
nuch as 20 cents on every 100 dollars of valu-
ation, whereas in 1850 it had diminished to
6i%V The two last Annual Reports, which are
the only ones I have an opportunity of referring
to, do not give any statistics as to the number
of '* water-takers." Several of the smaller towns
of the Union have either already followed, or
are preparing to follow, the good example set by
the large cities in respect to this essential element
of health and comfort.

"11

■■(.

,' ill

114

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

BALLOT.

As I was among probably the few Englishmen
who witnessed the recent proceeding of taking
the votes at the State elections in the city of
Boston, for the first time, by Secret Ballot, it
may not, perhaps, be undesirable that I should
record what I witnessed, and the opinions I heard
expressed concerning it.

The cause of the change in the mode of
voting was the following. At the election last
year for the office of senator to Congress, the
votes were given by the " General Court " (the
Assembly and Senate) a considerable number
of times without either candidate being able to
obtain the required majority of two-thirds of the
whole number of electors. At length one party
carried the proposition that the votes should be
given by secret ballot. The result was, that one
of the candidates was elected by a majority of
The successful party subsequently caused

one

a measure to be passed by the State legislature

BALLOT.

115

makini

? the voti

me bv secret ballot compi

ilsorv

at the State elections.

It is an error which, judging from the
speeches and writings of a certain school of
politicians in this country, seems to be endowed
with a strong vitality, that the example of the
United States can be quoted in favour of the
secret ballot. The term " ballot" in the United
States has never, for the honest portion of the
community, meant anything other than a par-
ticular mode of taking votes, openly and os-
tentatiously given. What became of the votes
when given, how they were counted, what
bundles of false ones may have been smuggled
in, how vain the attempt to scrutinize the result
and to expose fraud — even in the notorious case
of a candidate whose known and stanch sup-
porters numbered at least half the constituency,
and who yet was beaten, according to the ballot-
lists, by a majority greater than the whole con-
stituency taken together — these questions may be
answered by the plea of imperfect arrangements
or blunders of administration ; but in regard to
the principle of protection by concealment, it is
and has been a thing little known or thought of

116

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

in the United States. Nor could the conceal-
ment of a vote have been of the smallest use to
any individual to enable him to " save his
place ;" since the party succeeding to power is
said almost invariably, and as a matter of course,
to make a *' clean sweep " of all the offices and
places filled by their opponents. The mere fact,
therefore, of an appointment by one party is,
in the common course of politics, a ground of
exclusion by the other, from the highest down
to the lowest employments. Attempts to in-
fluence votes by intimidation must also, from
the circumstances, be most rare, whatever may
be the case in regard to " bribery and coiTup-
tion ;" which, if the public statements of public
men are to be always held as seriously made,
must be not unknown to popular and very large
constituencies in the United States.

But intimidation was the alleged motive for
the recent adoption of the " Secret Ballot" at
the State elections at Boston. Two days before
the late election (on the 7th November last) I
had the good fortune to be invited to attend a
meeting of about 5000 electors, in the old and
renowned Fanueil Hall ; at which meeting some

'■ .il

BALLOT.

117

most forcible and eloquent addresses were de-
livered by distinguished speakers, chiefly on a
matter of principle connected with the forthcom-
ing election, which they felt most deeply ; but no
portions of those addresses exceeded in vehement
denunciation and close argument those passages
which condemned and repudiated for themselves
and their auditors the secret ballot. They treated
it as an insult to their character as free men,
and they asserted, — and the assertion was re-
sponded to by the cheers of the whole assembly,
— that he who was afraid to exercise the franchise
in the face of the world was unworthy to
possess it. The alleged acts of intimidation
were adverted to, and it was argued that, even
if true, it was no sufficient reason for forcing on
the whole constituency a measure repugnant to
the best feelings of every honest man, for the
sake of sheltering a few timid ones ; and in the
second place, the broad ground was taken that
the franchise is a solemn trust ; that every man
is interested in knowing how every other man
exercises that trust ; and that he who is not in
a position to exercise it fearlessly in the face of
day, is not a man to be invested with it at all.

118

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

i >

I went to two of the polling-places to see
the process. Persons were in attendance dis-
tributing printed lists of the candidates of the
three competing parties. The voter took which
list he pleased, put it into an envelope, and
handed it to the persons sitting in a portion of
the room parted off, who were appointed to re-
ceive it. I saw no attempt at concealment or
mystery ; the voting which I witnessed was as
open as if no envelope had been used. It was,
indeed, in the power of any one to have taken
all the three lists and an envelope, and, stepping
aside, to have put into the envelope, secretly,
the list he preferred. But, as was argued by
one of the speakers at the meeting above re-
ferred to — a manufacturer and a large employer
of labour — it would have been most easy for
any one wishing to influence votes, to cause the
voters, whom he could not trust, to put the
proper list into the envelope in the presence of
an agent attending for that purpose.

The particular mode adopted, therefore, would
not have ensured a protection from intimidation,
if any powerful parties had been determined to
exercise it, and any others were in a position to

BALLOT.

119

be subject to it. And the general arguments
used against secret voting, at the large meeting
just mentioned, were as strong, and assumed as
high ground, as any that could be used in
England. I was informed that the same feeling
was common to a large proportion, all but a
majority, of both the Whig and Democratic
parties in the State.

I have been induced to touch upon this sub-
ject more for the sake of recording the high
principle on which so large a party in that
state (Massachusetts), and, I believe, in the
United States generally, reject and repudiate
the secret ballot, than with the view of describ-
ing the particular mode which I witnessed of
endeavouring to carry it into effect. But as the
ballot is still made in this country a topic of
" popular " oratory, addressed to certain por-
tions of the community, I thought it incumbent
on me, as I undertook to advert to it at all, to
seek for information upon its average practical
working in the United States, from persons
whose position, and opportunities of observation,
would place their testimony beyond dispute. I
accordingly add the following, which has been

120

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

addressed to me by a gentleman of long political
experience, and of the highest personal charac-
ter, but whose name I, of course, am precluded
from giving. To state it, would be to draw
down upon himselfj from a portion of the press
of the United States, a series of comments
which would probably amount to what we should
call persecution. I therefore, in full confidence
in the integrity of my informant, take upon
myself the responsibility of the truth of his
statements.

The ballot, in America, is looked at by the honester
])ortion of the people merely aa an expeditious mode of
voting. It is ' ily by persons of a very opposite character
that it is sought as a veil or blind — as a convenient instru-
ment of fraud — by which they are frequently enabled to
make the smaller appear the greater number, and to trans-
fer the victory from the conquerors to the conquered — from
the majority to the minority of the electors polled. For,
far from the undue influence of money, party-spirit, or any
other evil thing, being controlled by the ballot, I believe
it to have been immeasurably increased. It has only
changed the course of corruption. Instead of buying hun-
dreds of voters, the candidate has only to buy one or two
of the judges, with whom the result of the election must,
in almost all cases, ultimately rest. And how are the
judges,, acting under such corrupt influence, and making
their felse returns, how are they to be detected ? Cer-

•BALLOT.

121

tainly not by a scrutiny of the ballot-box. 77m/ would
show no evidence of the fraud. Let every precaution
which the experience of this country has suggested be
taken ; let clerks be appointed to record on tally-lists the
names of the voters as they hand in their ballots to the
judges ; let connnittees, composed of the friends of the
respective candidates, stand on the outside, prepared to
write down the names of the voters as they come up to the
box; — what can these arrangements do more than prevent
tlie judges from receiving illegal votes? They cannot
prevent them, or any one of them, from abstracting tickets
from the box, and replacing them with an equal number
of a different complexion. If care be taken to replace
those abstracted with an equal number of other ballots,
then the whole number of tickets in the box will corre-
spond with the number of names on the tally-lists, as well
as with the lists of the committees on the outside. Perhaps
this can be done with greater facility when the poll is
closed and the tickets are being counted off. The tickets,
being counted and then put into parcels (say) of ten each,
are then tied up in bundles. Now, if a judge be prepared
with a supply of bundles in his pocket, it requires but little
slelglit of hand to substitute them for the true ones ; and,
if he is only careful to return as many as he has taken
away, how is the fraud to be detected, except by taking
the opinion of every voter (as has been done in several
instances, and especially in the recent case of the Penn-
sylvania district election), which is, after all, but a return
to the viva voce system, as the only certain test of truth ?

Frauds of the kind which I have been describing are,
I believe (nay, I am morally certain), of common oc-
currence in this country ; and what is there to preclude

< Hi

122

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJIXXS, &c.

'I
iM it

them from being, under like circumstances, equally com-
mon in England ? Why should not a thousand pounds be
able to accomplish in the latter what has been so fre-
quently effected by less than a thousand dollars in the
former ?

Sir Charles Lyell tells us that a member of the Missis-
sippi legislature had declared to him " his conviction that
the repudiation of the State debt there would not have
been carried in his county but for the facility afforded by
secret voting. The same individuals who openly professed
a more honourable line of conduct must (he said), out of
selfishness, have taken advantage of (he ballot-box to evade
an increase of taxation, otherwise there could not have
been a majority in favour of disowning their liabilities."
And, from all accounts, much the same may be said of
Viany other repmliating counties and states. It has been
crlten asserted, and I believe with perfect truth, that Ballot
Ims been the parent of Repudiation. How fully these
th..;gs bear out Pliny in those passages of his 3rd Book,
XX., and his 4th Book, xxv., to which you referred, —
'' Quotocuique," &c., and " Quis sciet ! " *

Whoever, in this country, has perseverance
enough still to recommend the bailot to public

• Vceor ne prooedentc tempore ex ipso remedio vitia nascan-
tur. Est enini pcriculum ne tacitis suffragiis impudentia irrepat.
Nam quotocuique cadem honestatis cura secrete, qua; palam?
C. Plinii Ep., lib. 3. xx.

Scripseram tibi verendum esse ne ex tacitis suffragiis vitium
aliquod existeret : factum est, . . . Tantum licentioe pravis ingeniis
adjicit ilia fiducia, Quis enim sciet ? Poposcit tabellas, stylum
accepit, demisit caput, neminem veretur, se contemnit. Lib. 4. xxv.

BALLOT.

123

favour, must not seek to support his arguments
by the principles or thi- practice of the United
States.

Intimidation, or any other form of interfer-
ence with the rights and the independence of the
elector, will always in this country be stigma-
tised as it deserves ; and neither that nor any
other abuse of power, wherever it is disposed to
show itself, can eft'ectually or for any length of
time resist the wholesome effects of public ex-
posure.

NoTK. — Bribery at Elections. — Having adverted above to the
alleped " bribery and corni|)lion " that goes on at certain elec-
tions in the United States, not\vithstandin;j: wliat is in this country
popularly considered a panacea for it and so many other evils —
namely, large constituencies — I ieol bound to add the following
justification of the assertion.

Extract from " The Message of the (lovornor of the State of
New York to the Senate and Assembly," for the year 1850: —

" The alarming increase of bribery in our popular elections
demands your serious attention. The preservation of our liberties
depends on the purity of the elective franchise, and its indepen-
dent exercise by the citizen ; and I trust you will adopt such
measures as shall effectually protect the ballot-box from all cor-
rupting influences." — New York Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 8,
1850.

Extract from the " Message of the (Jovernor of the State of
New York to the Senate and Assembly," for the year 1851 : —

" The increase of corrupt practices in our elections has become
a subject of general and just complaint. It is represented that,
in some localities, the suffrages of considerable numbers of voters

124

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

have been openly purchased with money. We owe it to our-
selves and to posterity, and to the free institutions which we
have inherited, to crush this hateful evil in its infancy, before it
attains sufficient growth to endanger our political system. The
honest and independent exercise of the right of suffrage is a vital
j)rinciple in the theory of representative government. It is the
only enduring foundation for a republic. Not only should the
law punish every violation of this principle as a crime against the
integrity of the State, but any person concerned in giving or
receiving any pecuniary consideration for a vote, should, upon
challenge, be deprived of the privilege of voting. I submit the
subject to your consideration, in the hope that additional remedies
may be prescribed and enforced."

Tlie interpretation to be given to this passage is not, if I am
rightly informed, to be confined to the lower Irish of the large
cities, or to the State of New York. There is a certain class of
persons, somewhat numerous in the United States, who live by
'• working the elections," which, as they are j)retty frequent,
give them ample occupation. There is another class, that of
" trading politicians," who look for their reward in various shapes
during the tenure of office of the party which they espouse.
There is, finally, the large, and in some places not badly organ-
ized, class of Irish labourers, whose votes are apt to turn the
scale on very many occasions. These are, it is notorious, often won
to the side of the party in power, whatever it may be, by being
employed out of the public funds, at by no means inadequate
wages, for special jobs, just previously to the period of elections.
The practice has given rise to a common euphony for bribery,
" pipe-laying." It arose from an alleged manoeuvre at New
York during the progress of the introduction of the Croton water.
After a j)criod of inaction, the authorities, as is reported, were
suddenly seized with an extraordinary degree of zeal in breaking
up the streets and laying down pipes — in some instances, it is
said, long before they were wanted ; and Irishmen were brought
into the city from all quarters to assist in that beneficent expendi-
ture. It is further said that many of these pipes had to be taken
up again, having been laid in a manner that did not meet with
subsequent approval.

BALLOT.

125

Another term appears frequently in the public prints which
requires a little explanation, for the benefit of our optimists in
this country : it is the term " log-rolling," and is derived from
the " backwoodsman's craft," and from the neighbourly assistance
common on the outskirts of civilization. When a settler has cut
down his timber, and sawn it into convenient lengths forgetting it
off the land, his neighbours assemble with their oxen and chains,
and in a few hours drag the whole oiFhis "clearing." When
summoned, he is ready to do them the same turn. Political and
electioneering " log-rolling" means, therefore, " Help me in my
job, and I will help you in yours." There is evidently a slight
difference in principle in the two processes, which, however, docs
not prevent the political " log-rolling" from being successfully
resorted to. In the first case — that of the backwoodsman — the
end is attained by all pulling one way ; in the second, thougli
ostensibly each party is pulling different ways, the end, somehow
or other, turns out to be the profit of both.

It may be desirable to illustrate this by an instance. A mem-
ber of a State Legislature wishes to obtain an appropriation of
20,000 dollars for some public work in his county ; he secures the
support of other members by promising to vote for a similar grant
to theirs. Some 50,000 or 100,000 dollars of the public money
will therefore be spent, where a tenth part of the sum would
be all that would be strictly necessary for the public service.
Authentic instances of this kind are freely mentioned to any one
who may have the curiosity to inquire into this phase of the
working of the United States Legislatures, some of which are, of
course, more conspicuous than others in this particular.

Also in the matter of Government contracts of all kinds, if
common fame is to be depended upon, the amount of jobbing and
corruption, especially in times of war, would astonish the acute
Parliamentary critics of our army and navy and miscellaneous
estimates. It is asserted that one of the principal reasons why
war is so popular in the United States is the wide field it opens
for these practices. The Florida and Mexican wars abounded in
examples of them, some equalling anything that could have oc-
curred in the most corrupt period of our own Government during
the last century.

126

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

THE PRESS.

It had never come in my way, previously to
my landing in New York, to read an American
newspaper, and all I knew of them was by
description, and through such extracts as are
copied occasionally into the daily London papers.
It was, therefore, a new and pretty ample field
of study, between the intervals of riding, driving,
and walking by the sea at Newport in Rhode
Island, enjoying for ten days its refreshing cool-
ness, and the abundant and most friendly hospi-
tality of the numerous pleasant families who
have their villa residences in that favourite
neighbourhood. Papers from New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Charles-
town, New Orleans, Richmond (Virginia), Cin-
cinnati, St. Louis, Independence (Missouri),
Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago — three at least from
some of those places and two from others —
tempt the curiosity of a stranger; and if the

THE PRESS.

127

whole of the above are not found at the gigantic
hotels at Newport, you are not long before
making their acquaintance on the desks round
the walls of the reading-rooms in the hotels of
the different cities.

Raising my eyes from the daily study of all
that was attractive in I know not how many
square yards of paper (no slight matter consider-
ing the usual smallness of the print), I was
tempted for some time to ask myself whether
it were really true that I, as an Englishman,
was meeting with nothing but civility, cordiality,
and kindness from every one I fell in with,
while probably every individual among them
had been just reading, in some paper or other,
the most virulent denunciations of England, the
bitterest taunts against her policy, the most
undervaluing remarks on her power, and the
most depreciating estimates of the individual
character of her people.

After a three months' course of these papers,
I think I am safe in saying that the ordinary
tone of more than two-thirds of them is of that
quality, whenever they take occasion to discuss

128

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

anything in which England, or English customs,
or English character may be involved ; and that
in a moment of the least political excitement, a
still large portion of them join in the same cry,
and it then requires no ordinary courage in the
editor of an American newspaper to deal out to
England, or any one of her actions, the simplest
meed of fairness.

I asked very many persons what was the
meaning of all this, and the answer I invariably
received was, " Oh, you must not mind what
our papers say ; we don't read such trash as
most of them contain ; it is written to catch the
Irish votes at the elections."

With all deference to my numerous and most
respectable informants, I am not satisfied that
this answer goes to the root of the matter.

For a solution I think it is necessary to begin
with the beginning; and that beginning is, in
a nation all educated on one plan, the public
schools.

In the course of my visits to these schools, in
the range of country which I have already de-
scribed, I asked permission to look, among the

THE PRESS.

1291

IS,

other school-books, at the book of histor}^ in
common use. I found there were several, some
preferred in some parts of the country, and some
in others. I looked through them all. They
contain either a very brief resume of history^
both ancient and modern, or of modern alone,
principally that of England, so brief, however, as
to be entirely unimpressive to the minds of youth,
being very little more than a mere dry detail
of facts and dates. The staple of these books is,
as is very natural, American history, from the
landing of the Puritans to the termination of the
last war. The most prominent part is, as na-
turally, given to the history of the war of inde-
pendence. Of the spirit of their forefathers in
undertaking that war, and of their courage in
carrying it to a successful issue, they have much
reason to be proud. The exploits of that war
(and the successful ones of the last) figure, of
course, conspicuously in those histories. The
error of the British Government and people in
provoking the struggle is chastised with no
sparing hand ; while the power of the American
people, as exhibited in beating the British Go-

130

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

vernment, and the glory thence resulting, occupy
a conspicuous place. As long as such histories
are written in a fair and simply patriotic spirit,
without seeking to perpetuate hostile feelings,
and without either unjustifiable exaggerations or
unfair concealments (and I cannot say that some
of the books I looked at were free from such
defects), no one can complain that American
children should read principally American his-
tory ; but a young person who has been in-
structed in a course of history in which a few
years and a few events are made to assume such
prominence, while the history of previous cen-
turies and subsequent events are all but un-
known, will be apt to have very exaggerated
ideas of his own nation and a very slender one
of any other.

By way of exemplifying the exceedingly
meagre summaries of history, ancient and mo-
dern, that accompany some of these Ameri-
can histories, I will refer to the following
passage from the *' Report of the Annual Ex-
aminations of the Public Schools of the City of
Boston," for 1849 (page 13) :—

THE PRESS.

131

'* The text-book of history now in use in our
schools is not a good one. It is very brief,
not very accurate, and very uninteresting. It
appears to be nothing more than a very dry
detail of the leading facts of history, related in
no connection except that of chronological order,
and utterly destitute of anything to awaken and
interest the attention. We will give an illus-
tration of its character. In the part devoted to
Grecian history, the names of Miltiades, Themis-
tocles, Aristides, and Leonidas are not intro-
duced in the narration of the Persian invasions ;
and the name of not a single inhabitant of
Greece, who lived between the time of Solon
and that of Epaminondas, is mentioned in the
course of that part of the history. Yet this
period of nearly two hundred years was prolific
of great men, and is probably the most important
era in the history of civilization." To prevent
any possible misapprehension, I add the whole
passage in the Appendix (D), p. 165, together
with the questions in History, at an examination
of candidates for the High School at Lowell.

For similar instances, in reference to modern

132

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

times, and to the history of England in parti-
cular, no one need be at a loss who will take
up any of the Histories in use in the schools of
the United States. It would seem that " heroic
examples," that "pathetic incidents," that "sen-
timents that either exalt or fortify, or soften
and melt the human heart " * — those main
instruments for the inculcation of a high tone
of thought and the creation of expanded sym-
pathies in the mind of youth — were to be
found almost exclusively within the brief period
of the United States' history, from the war
of independence to the present hour. It may
be said that the number of those who are
taught in schools, or who acquire afterwards
even the elements of any such comprehensive
knowledge of history, or are possessed with the
feelings that arise from it, are few in any
country. The material difference, however, be-
tween most other countries and the United
States is, that in the former the numerical mass
do not govern, and that in the latter they do.

* Sir James Mackintosh. Vol. i. p. 118 of his ' Memoirs
and Life,' by his Son. London, 1836.

THE PRESS.

133

Ignorance, therefore, or, what is perhaps worse,
contracted ideas, are there of m /lo political mo-
ment, and afford a greater hold for the senti-
ments and passions that the declamatory writings
above described inspire.

And that these writings do take that hold on
the numerical mass of the people in the United
States — by which expression, the numerical mass,
I mean to exclude the higher, the educated, the
commercial, and the better sort of the trading
classes generally, and some of the most enlight-
ened of the rural classes as they have been de-
scribed to me — is abundantly evident to any one
who even for a short time freely mixes with them.
How, indeed, can it be expected to be much
otherwise, when to the universal mass, prepared
or unprepared by intellectual training, young or
old (for mere boys very soon turn politicians),
comes the daily stimulus of the democratic
press, flattering their vanity, pandering to their
passions, and striving to fill them v,'ith exag-
gerated notions of their self-importance ? Neither
is there much difference between the democratic
and a large part of the Whig press in that par-

134

NOTES ON i^UBLlC SUBJECTS, &c.

ticular. The writers in these papers seem to
delight in fanning and keeping alive national
animosities ; and it is both strange and unnatural
to see the most studious and unceasing en-
deavours made to maintain those animosities
between us and our brethren of the same race
and kindred on the other side of the Atlantic,
when between ourselves and the French they
have all but expired.*

Of all this the people of England are in
general profoundly ignorant, and, it must be
added, profoundly indifferent to it. In the
mean time that democratic press is occupied in
nursing the popular ambition by holding forth
the doctrine that it is the " manifest destiny " of
the American people to absorb the whole con-
tinent and its adjoining islands. It stirs up
the warlike spirit which pervades the whole

* Unfortunately our own press not uncommonly presents ex-
amples of a mode of comment on \fvhat it disapproves in the
conduct of the American government and people, the caustic
satire of which burns deeper than the arguments. Every dis-
paraging word is caught at, and its import magnified, and every
sarcasm, from whatever quarter, in book or pamphlet, speech or
newspaper, is quoted and re-quoted for years, as proofs of the
bad disposition of the English people towards everything Ame-
rican.

THE PUESS.

135

(

country ; it systematically teaches them to
undervalue the power of England, and to look
upon her as weak and declining ; and it inspires
them with an evident desire to try their strength
with Great Britain, in the confident expectation
that it would give them very little trouble to lay
her prostrate. That during the excitement on
the Cuban affair, of which I had good opportu-
nities of watching the course, the democratic
press should pour forth even more than its usual
quantity of declamation in its endeavour to stir
up the passions and promote the objects above ad-
verted to, might be expected ; but I confess I did
not expect to see so many of the Whig papers at
that time fall in with the same tone. The con-
duct of some few of them was manly and honour-
able. They resisted from the first the popular im-
pulse towards that unprincipled aggression. But
it was lamentable and of evil augury to read, in
other papers of that party, leading articles, the
premises of which were for, and the conclusions
against, that act of piracy; sentences one day
condemning the offender, yet defending the
offence ; another day sentences taking the oppo-

RMNBB

136

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

1)0 quoted as proDis

site line, and so written as
of consistency shoidd the turn of events render
the " cry for Cuba " an avaihible one at the next
elections. The trinmiinj^ of some of the Whig
papers during several weeks displayed as com-
plete a want of principle as the aggression, and
a less amount of determination than the demo-
cratic papers exhibited in their bold and un-
scrupulous adoption of it from the beginning.

I should be sorry to be thought for a moiuent
to imply that any number of the upper classes
in the United States, commercial or professional,
or of the respectable and intelligent trading
classes in their various grades, or of the rural
population in the New England and parts of the
other settled States, partake in these feelings
or opinions. The cultivation and knowledge of
the former, and their acquaintance with foreigu
countries (for it is rare to meet with an American
in easy circumstances, in the cities, who has not
been to Europe), and the general high average
of intelligence among the latter, prevent any
such supposition entering one's mind. But the
proportion which these classes bear to the whole

THE PUE8S.

137

population, even of the cities, is comparatively
small ; and it is upon the lower portions of the
people in the cities and towns, upon the inunl)er
of persons of unsettled occu])ations that con-
gregate in them to prey \n some way or other
upon the comnnmity, and upon the less intel-
lifi:ent of the 23,000,000 people scattered over
the vast extent of territory from the Atlantic
and the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi and
the Missouri, that these papers speculate, when
they create or keep alive the excitements ahove
referred to. And that they operate upon con-
genial ground I do not doubt ; not so much from
the numerous instances I met with in distant
villages and towns towards the West, and in
intercourse with a great v^iiety of people in the
middle and lower grades of life, whom a traveller
has no difficulty in conversing with whenever he
pleases, — among whom, with a great degree of
practical knowle(lf2:e of their own neighbourhood
and its various interests, I was invariably struck
with their almost entire ignorance of anything
beyond it, — but from the opinions of a coiisid^T-
able number of the most observant and intel-

IMfi

MMH*

.^».W

M
ll

138

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

ligent persons who have been long conversant
with the real state of opinion and the average
modes of thought in the remote parts of the
country.

This high opinion of themselves and low
estimate of other powers, which pervades, I be-
lieve, the numerical mass of the people of the
United States, renders it by no means impro-
bable that they may at any moment, in a period
of popular excitement, hurry along the upper
and more sober-minded classes of the com-
munity, and their Government, into a course of
national policy which those classes might in
reality condemn, but which they would have no
power to arrest or alter. Such an instance, to
refer to no others, occurred in the case of the
Mexican war, which was condemned by all their
best statesmen, and against which they were
warned in the most earnest manner by nearly
all that deserved to exercise any moral weight
in the community. But the popular current
was too strong for them, and they were finally
led to acquiesce in what they could not prevent ;
one imprudent step of the Government, in risk-

THE PRESS.

139

ing a small body of troops in an exposed position,
having been held to commit irretrievably both
Government and people. Such periods of po-
pular excitement must be expected to recur at
no very great intervals, where their causes fall
in with the principles of a large, not to say pre-
ponderating body in the State ; where so many
eager expectants are ever on the watch to profit
by them ; and where an unscrupulous Press is
ever at hand to mislead the popular mind, and
to play upon the excitable temperament of the
people.

When such occasions arise, I believe there is
no more effectual mode of keeping the peace
than to show unmistakeably to those persons
who pull the wires of these popular excitements,
that there is no weakness in the counsels of
Great Britain, nor any failing in the strength of
her arm, if need be, to sustain them. Those
persons, indeed, know full well that no more
than a minute fraction of that strength was ever
put forth in the unfortunate collisions that have
hitherto taken place between Great Britain and
the United States. The great mass of their

m>lltaim0m

Yljili 'ji«lwil«»'iii»

NJiM tlitil^l^y/

140

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

readers are profoundly ignorant of that fact. It
will not be the fault of these newspaper writers,
if their fellow-countrymen are not some day
rather roughly awakened to their error.

I think it necessary to justify what I have stated respecting
the Whig press by an instance. It shall be the last, in point of
time, of a long list that I might have referred to.

I have been, since August last, a diligent reader of one of the
Nevjr York Whig papers, which was described to me, and I think,
on the whole, rightly, as the one most ably and respectably con-
ducted.

In its number of December 13, 1851, is a copy of a speech
which its editor was to have delivered, if he had an opportunity,
at one of the banquets in honour of M. Kossuth. To this in-
tended speech the editor attaches his own name at full length.
The sentiments, therefore, were not uttered on the spur of the
moment, but are deliberate. The editor had recently returned
from Austria, to the government of which country he had been
accredited as the minister of the United States. In this intended
speech occurs the following sentence, in reference to the recent
affair of the Prometheus, which had been fired into by a British
man-of-war, and compelled to pay port-dues to the Government
of Nicaragua : —

" But we are asked to interfere in European politics! With
whom, and against whom ? Why, with England, and against
Russia! With England, who is daily striving to get a foot-hold
upon our southern border ; who respects not the faith of treaties
recently made ; and who but yesterday, as it were, dishonoured
our flag on the coast of New Granada ; and from whom we have
just demanded the most ample apology, under a threat of war."

This gentleman, who had been recently filling one of the most
honourable diplomatic situations which his country could confer,
sees, it would appear, nothing indecorous in charging the British
Government with a wilful disregard of the faith of treaties ; and

THE PRESS.

141

this, without waiting to see whether the British Government
Mouli or would not disavow the act of the commander of the
British vessel.

Neither, apparently, does this former minister see anything
unbecoming in holding such language as that of " demanding a
most ample apology, under a threat of war."

It might be somewhat curious, though not to the present point,
were I to add an extract from a speech delivered in the Senate of
the United States by Mr. Senator Foote, printed in the very next
colunm to that occupied by the above intended speech, and in
which Mr. Foote designates this gentleman by his name at full
length, and charges hirn, by his title of the "late minister
to Austria," with •* more than fiendish malignity," and with
*' sj)reading abroad the most reckless assertions;" and volunteers
to show that " every falsehood and un[)rincipled statement " made
by him had been amply refuted ; with more in the same peculiar
style.

How fa ' '-■-■ amenities may be held to neutralise each other
I am unable to say.

An American friend, for whose character and abilities I have a
very high esteem, and to whom I have submitted this volume,
was of opinion that I should suppress the two last paragraphs, on
the ground that they were of no public interest.

I very respectfully beg to differ from him. I think it desirable
that a portion, at least, of the public in this country should have
an opportunity of being acquainted with such facts, and drawing
from them their own conclusions.

My friend is also of the opinion that I have attributed " too
much authority to the newspapers " in his country. Doubtless,
among the class of cultivated and intelligent gentlemen to which
he belongs, they have a very limited influence. But I cannot
abandon a very strong impression, from all I saw and heard, that
among the mass of the population they have a great deal.
Nothing can be more repulsive to an English taste than the ser-
vile flattery, the reckless abuse, the suppression of truth, and the
propagation of falsehood, that is continually meeting the eye in a

142

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

vast majority of the newspapers of that country. The facility
with which they can be set on foot gluts the market, and reduces
the profits to so low a point, that very few men of character and
ability will condescend to embark in t at species of occupation.
Many newspapers ; se established by tradesmen a^ vehicles for
their own advertisements — many to serve a temporary political
purpose, which they advocate unscrupulously for a few weeks,
and then disappear. The above facts convey their own moral,
for consideration in this country.

.■K- -^:

\ .

GENERAL REMARKS.

143

GENERAL REMARKS.

-»—

The best results are taking place from the
greater frequency o.^' intercourse between tlie
upper and educated classes of both countries,
occasioned by the facilities of steam navigation.

It is almost a part of the business of the mer-
cantile and the principal members of the retail
trading classes to go to Eurc?pe to extend their
connexions, to gain information in their parti-
cular line, or to lay in their own stocks. Of
the wealthier and the professional classes,
nine oui of ten go to Europe the moment they
are able to accomplish it ; and it is rare to find
any person who inherited even a moderate com-
petence, or has obtained the means by his own
exertions, who has not been there.

In the course of many most agreeable con-

.•-r^.'s;

144

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

versations with individuals of all those classes
who had visited England, the only thing I felt
disposed to regret was, that, generally speaking,
they had seen very little except the town life ;
the manufacturing districts and the capital bein^
usually the principal points of attraction, accord-
ing to their respective occupations or pursuits ;
the wealthier persons, and those travelling for
mere information and pleasure, passing on to the
Continent after a short stay in London. Th3re
are, of course, many exceptions among the latter,
who, in the course of their sojourn, see various
specimens of our modes of country life. It is much
to be desired that that phase of British social
life and institutions should be more generally
and better known to those who visit England
from the United States ; a nearer acquaintance
would probably remove some lingering misap-
prehensions on both sides. But whether an
educated American has travelled or not, he is,
if I may allege my own experience, ever ready to
display the greatest cordiality and kindness to
any one from this country, on the slightest in-
troduction. Indeed, even without it, in the

i I

GENERAL REMARKS.

145

casual intercourse of hotel life, or in travelling,
I invariably found every one disposed to con-
verse, if conversation was volunteered, and
most willing, if opportunity offered, to perform
any act of courtesy and politeness. I cannot
adequately express the gratification I have ex-
perienced from the personal intercourse it was
my good fortune to have with very many
among the highly-cultivated families of the
upper class in different parts of the country.
That in the course of travelling you are not occa-
sionally forced into juxtaposition with persons
of a very different description, to whom some of
the severe things that have been said and written
of portions of American society might apply, I
will not assent. But I am able to say that, in the
ten weeks I was in the Unitied States — a great
part of it spent in what may be popularly called
rather " out of the way " parts of the country,
though short of the great, half-settled, anomalous
West — I met with nothing that the commonest
good -humour and forbearance would not make
light of. If the manners of some are much too free
and easy to consist with the simplest principles

146

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

of good-breeding, and the habits of others ob-
noxious in many respects, the traveller in a
country not his own is, I think, bound to re-
member that he came to these annoyances — if
such he feels them to be — and not they to him,
and that probably, if he were to come again
when he was twenty years older, he would mid
that many of them had disappeared. And if he
looks above these secondary matters, and sets to
work to endeavour to understand the *' form and
pressure," the meaning and the bearing of the
vast society that is, within this century, to fill
up the great valley of the Mississippi, with all
their present experiments in govemmentj in re-
ligion, in laws, and in social life, he will, if he
be one of English training, find subjects of
reflection, speculation, and inquiry, which the
application of a year or two, if he had time for
it, would scarcely satisfy. It was everywhere
a subject of regret among the educated portion
of the community that so few Englishmen not
connected with mercantile pursuits visited them.
I believe it would be greatly to the public benefit
! Doth sides of the water if more did so, and if

GENERAI. REMARKS.

147

we saw more of the upper class of American
society here.*

Whoever from this country visits the United

* On the subject of manners, which has proved so attractive
to other pens, I do not intend to say more than one word, and
that shall be neither offensive nor flattering.

I suspect that, if all people in this country were compel'ed,
if they travelled at all, to travel in third-class carriages, or,
which comes to nearly the sanie thing, if a general average of
comfort were struck between first, second, and third, and there
were no escape fiom the mode of travelling that resulted from it,
the process would not be agreeable to sensitive minds. Hap-
pily, the use of tobacco in its most repulsive form is all but
unknown to us, and, therefore, you would not find persons guilty
of practices resulting from it, that are inexpressibly disgusting,
and from which, moreover, you have often no exemption,
whether you are sitting near persons of the most respectable
exterior or otherwise. (It must be remembered, however, that
it is most rare to see any one in the rank of a gentleman in the
United States offending in that particular.) Neither, if you had
just risen from a chair on the deck of a steamboat, to take a
momentary look at a passing view or to reach anything, with a
most evident "animus revertendi," would you be likely to find
that a " gentleman " standing near you, and having a keen eye to
number one, had taken the chair from under you and appropriated
it to himself; and also that it required no slight tact and good
humour to induce him to surrender it again. Similarly with
regard to your seat in a railway carriage. Nor would you,
probably, be often addressed in a manner that wouiu not sound
quite appropriate to "ears polite." If, however, there is one
thing on which the press of the United States is unanimous,
it is in condemning and endeavouring to correct what remains
of these " disagreeables." They need no one's aid or inter-
ference ; and, indeed, in this, as in many other matters cf no

148

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, 8co.

States for the purpose of mere travelling, will
probably at first experience a little difficulty
in conforming to the mode of life in the great

concern to us, such interference and harsh comment have led to
much mischievous irritation.

I was informed, and indeed I saw evidence of it in all parts
of the country, that the root of these matters was being attacked
in the public schools.

The following was a statement made to me on the subject by
a gentleman of large experience, holding an important public
office in the education department of one of the e.jtern States : —

" We are aiming at the reformation of manners in all our
public schools, and in our normal schools, teachers' institutes,
and county associations of teachers. Manners are made a pro-
minent subject of criticism daily in all the teachers' institutes of
the State. Any impropriety of speech or demeanour is com-
mented upon, without, however, reference to the individual.
Several of our leading writers on education have held that the
national manners ought to be corrected through the public
schools."

In a considerable number of the many public schools I
visited in different parts of the United States I had been struck
with the entire absence of good manners on the part of the
children, whenever any circumstance gave occasion for exhibiting
their ordinary demeanour. There was a marked want of any
outward demonstration of deference and respect, and, on the part
of the teacher, what appeared to me a most singular submission
of himself to the children. Nothing was put to them as from
authority, but the most trifling command was conveyed in a tone
and in language implying that it was for them to judge whether
they would obey it or not ; and in some addresses to the children
I heard somewhat inflated appeals to them as responsible for their
own actions, and soon about to become citizens of the greatest
and most glorious Republic that the world had ever seen, with

.7:^.-1^ -,. ...^ .

GENER.\X REMARKS.

149

est
Uh

hotels. Private sitting-rooms are seldom asked
for, except for families, and therefore not always
to be had by persons travelling alone, or if so, at
in some cases rather a high rate. The early
dinner-hour is at first felt to be a constraint ; but

other topics in the same strain, all tending, as it seemed, to
produce a most undue notion of themselves in the minds of the
children, and a complete independence of all control, parental or
any other. In other schools I observed nothing of the kind ;
but, on the contrary, the master or mistress maintaining their
proper position and speaking with authority, yet asserting it
with all due mildness.

I asked a gentleman, holding an ofRcial position in the cduca**
tion department of one of the States, for a solution of this. His
answer was as follows : —

*• What you have noticed has been the result of a reaction
against the Puritan severity in the management of children, which
has carried many among us to a contrary extreme. It produced
a school of thinkers who maintained that nothing but ' moral
suasion ' should be resorted to in the management of children.
They are called ' non-resistants ;' they think that no force should
be used in the management or training of children, but only
appeals to their affections, their conscience, and their reason, and
that human nature can be depended upon largely for bringing
them right. These doctrines have been carried into the public
schools in numerous instances. The effect is, that the master
appears in a false position before the children, and the principle
of deference to authority is loosened, or rather not established
at all. Opinion is now beginning to set the other way, and we
are endeavouring slowly to reproduce ■ more authority in our
schools."

Both manners and principles will, I apprehend, in time feel
the benefit of the gradual diffusion of these sounder views.

150

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

there is more trouble in deviating from, than in
adhering to, the usual practice. At some of the
best hotels at New York the hour is later, five
to half-past, but in the other cities fro. a two to
three. French cookery is the rule in the cities,
and an imitation of it in the country and on
board the steamboats. Those remarkable river
steamboats, some of them of astonishing dimen-
sions, have been often described. They are
bold conceptions, and admirably adapted to
their double purpose of freight and passenger
traffic. But on surveying with surprise the
luxury and splendour of their decorations, you
are tempted to ask yourself for what potentate
of the East or West they were originally con-
structed, and how they contrived to get across
the Atlantic. Everywhere you meet with
uniform civility and attention, and even in
the smallest country inns universal cleanliness,
though often a scanty supply, according to
English notions, of the materials of the toilette.
The high wages of servants, and the difficulty of
obtaining good ones, are, I believe, among the
principal causes of the custom of so many people

GENERAL IlEMARKS.

151

breakfasting, dining, and taking all other meals
at the same table ; and the general absence of
conversation is the natural consequence of such
a number of persons being brought together,
unacquainted with each other, and perhajis
mutually unwilling to form acquaintances they
know not with whom. Meals, moreover, on
such occasions, are popularly said to be *' matters
of business," to be got over as quickly as
possible. Not so, however, at some of the
best hotels, where the numbers you meet are
smaller, and where mutual confidence springs up
rapidly among people evidently of similar tastes
and similar social position.

The autumnal climate is, as is well known,
generally delightful, but this year there was a
period of unusual heat in September, the ther-
mometer being for some days from 92'' to 95"
for the greater part of the day. It w-?3, iiow-
ever, so far endurable, that it did not seem to
prevent any one going about his ordiuary occu-
pations. From 95^ the mercury sank, in less
than thirt}"-six hours, to below the freezing-point
in and in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and,

(

152

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

I believe, over a wide extent of country. The
rapid alterations of temperature are among the
most trying incidents to the climate of the
United States. Its general brightness and dry-
ness are said to be among the causes of the
alleged excitability of the American character.

No one who has seen will ever forget the
gorgeous autumn tints of an American forest,
wherever the "hard woods" and not the pine
predominate. That "lustrous woodland" is un-
equalled by anything of the kind in Europe.
But to an eye accustomed to the luxurious love-
liness, the exquisite outlines, the picturesque
combinations of the south of Europe, the general
aspect of the scenery in the United States (I
speak of its northern portions) is monotonous.
There are scenes on the Hudson, on the Catskill
Mountains, in other directions in the State of
New York ; c.mong the AUeghanies ; on the
banks of the Susquehanna and the Juniata; on
the Ohio ; in Vermont, among the AVhite Moun-
tains — to say nothing of Niagara, which needs .
no mention — doubtless of great beauty ; but they
are widely apart, and few in comparison with the

GENERAL REMARKS.

153

great extent of country. The aspect of the
country towns, too, is monotonous, as well as that
of the villages, though they are bright and clean,
with unvarying white houses and green Vene-
tians, and white church-spires and public build-
ings. Here and there a few good specimens of
Gothic and Elizabethan, and also of the Roman
style, show a growing taste in architecture. The
public building's generally in the towns and cities
are of fine dimensions and solidly constructed.
One peculiarity in the cities is that of the lines of
railway passing on a level along some of the prin-
cipal streets. The trains are, however, drawn
by horses from the point where they enter the
suburbs, or soon after. Another unusual sight to
an English eye is the habit of carrying the electric
telegraph wires along the streets, into the heart
of the cities. I counted six-and-twenty lines, on
one occasion, visible from one spot. They are
very loosely hung (partly, I believe, on account
of the great changes of temperature to v/hich
they are exposed), and altogether seem put up
in a very " rough and ready " manner. But of
this no one will complain who finds that he can

{'1

:■} I

154

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

send a message from New Orleans to Quebec and
Halifax, or from New York to Chicago, and re-
ceive an answer in a few hours, and for a very mo-
derate payment. It is singular to see along the
common road, in the remote forest, the solitary
wire stretched, or rather dangling, from tree to
tree, or from the rudest, and by no means the
most upright, poles, crossing and recrossiug the
road to cut off angles, quite unprotected, but
usually the trustworthy and all but instan-
taneous messenger of thought between minds
perhaps a thousand miles asunder. Even small
country towns often have their electric tele-
graph, conducted for many miles along the
common township road from the main line.
The chief characteristic, however, of the towns
and villages is the breadth of the streets, the
excellence of the foot-pavements, and the or-
namental appearance of the trees which are
so commonly planted along their sides. The
portions of the cities, also, that are inhabited
by the wealthier classes, partake largely of this
element of cheerfulness and beauty, — a matter
doubtless often before adverted to by travellers, but

GENERAL REMARKS.

155-

which it would be most desirable to imitate more
frequently in our own land. The exceeding good
taste of many private residences which I had
the good fortune to see indicates the spread of
real refinement The public evidences, however,
of the increase of mere luxury are very numerous,
and excite many reflections on matters of public
policy. With the temptations of wealth and
luxury all around, and the standard of expense
in all the ordinary social relations continually
rising, how are ill-paid public men to be expected
to stand alone in retaining a republican simpli-
city, and to keep themselves undefiled by cor-
ruption ? On the slavery question I do not touch,
not because I feel in the least degree indiflferent
to it, but because I have a strong opi.iion that
all comments on it from this country do more
harm than good. It is a heavy weight on the
minds of the most thoughtful inhabitants of the
United States from one end of the country to
the other. Interference of any kind only tends
to exasperate feelings already, perhaps, too much'
heated for calm consideration. If it could be
put aside and forgotten for five years, it would

156

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

be a great gain for all parties. A practicable
solution might then, perhaps, be arrived at.
We may rest assured that nothing that can be
said on this side of the water can add to the
impression of the momentous fact that the
slave population are already 3,000,000, and
in the lifetime of many now in existence will
possibly be 6,000,000. Still less do taunt
and crimination become us, whose predecessors
brought to that country the first elements of the
present tremendous problem (funesta dote d' in-
jiniti guai). These, and many other things that
he may meet with, may not suit the ideas of an
Englishman of the present day ; but if wrong,
there are plenty of minds in the United States
engaged in the effort to correct them. I
have no desire to meddle with them. I am
writing, not for American, but for English
readers, and because I believe that I have had
a few things to say which may not be un-
deserving the consideration of my own country-
men.

ifihfigfcWiTrl^i 1 1

APPENDIX.

( A. ) Vide p. 74.

Estimated Cost of growing an Acre of Wheat on a Farm of
200 Acres in the wheat-growing districts of Ohio.

Doln. Cents. Dolt. Cento

Two ploughings after fallow - - - 2

Two harrowings and seed - - - 1 75

Weeding, &c. - - - - -

Harvesting and carrying - - - 2
Threshing, at 3 cents ; cleaning and stacking,

3 cents ; 20 bushels, at 6 cents. - - 1 20

Carrying to mill, 10 miles, at 2 cents (20X2) 40

Cultivation and delivery to miller

Interest on Capital invested in land at 6 per

cent., say at 40 dollars per acre -
Interest on Fanning Capital for 2C0 acres,

650 dollars, or 3 dollars 25 cents per acre,

at 6 per cent. _ ^ _ _

Interest on Farm-buildings for 200 acres, 3000

dollars, or 15 dollars ])er acre, at 6 per

cent. - - - - - -

Taxes (State, County, Roads, Schools, Poor),

Appraisement of 1 per cent, on 76 per cent.

of the Capital and Buildings, 3ti 0=^2775

dollars on 200 acres, say per acre - - - 14

10 99

- 7 35

- 2 40

20
90

158

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Return.

PoI>. Ccnia

20 bushels,

at f cents.

20 , ,

66 ,,

25 , ,

66 , ,

13 75

25 , ,

60 ,,

26 , ,

66 ,,

16 25

Under their present system their straw is of little
value to them. The common assertion was, thas: tha
averaj-j' produce was net above twenty bushels p.^r
acre, and also '>hht they did not bring their wheat
freely to market ^nril th ? price was at least 65 cents.
If imerejjt and taxe^ wo^-e reduced by one-half, it would
not, prob»l)ly, make any material difference in the
actUol result, as it would be an indication of less pro-
duce or of produce of inferior value.

With regard to the above statement, another gentle-
man, having good means of judging, said to me —
** Tiiere are many farmers in Ohio, living in great
corrfort, with houses and buildings worth at least
2000 dollars, who live at more cost, and hire labour,
and who cannot get on as they have been accustomed
with wheat under 75 cents to 80 cents. These men
will probably have made their own bricks for their
buildings on the spot, and have had a saw-mill near to
prepare their timber, and have done a great deal of
the labour themselves. It is common to say that * the
West ' can grow wheat at 50 cents ; but the cost of
<;ransport from the interior will be in proportion to dis -

■■■■'^- '■; v;-TTi ¥'<■ •'•'f^ ^^'^

APPENDIX— (B).

159

tance, unless close to the lakes, where a few hundred
miles in addition do not make much difference. My
opinion, however, is, that there is no rule yet for price
in the West. The main elements of cost there are
labour and the distance from the lakes. The great
difficulty is to harvest the crop."

(B.) Vide]). 76.

Cost of Transport of Wheat from the above-mentioned districts
to Liverpool, and Selling Price there.

According to information from the best sources at
Cleveland, at the end of September last, the prices and
cost to New York were as follows : —

Per buahel
offlOlbn.

The farmer in the interior is now getting for red*

wheat - - - - - - 65 cents.

Freight to Cleveland - - - - 10 „

66 „
" We are now vshipping ' Ohio red ' from Cleveland
to ]Sew York at 65 to 67 cents, the lowest prices we
have known for some time. The cheapest mode of
transport to New York is through the Welland Canal
to Oswego, and thence on by canal. The usual cost
by that roiite is 18 cei;:o to 20 cents per bushel. We

* The wheat of Ohio is principp.lly red.

<ik':-'X ^■•^^'

160

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

are now delivering it at 85 cents per bushel at New
York. The Oswego route is about 1 cent per bushel
cheaper tlian through Buffalo. The great mass of the
wheat goes through in spring and autumn ; at mid-
summer freights are about 10 per cent. less. At these
prices wheat is not delivered freely by the farmers,
and any demand would raise the price. They will
send it on freely at 65 cents, which would make it 95
cents at New York."

The present selling price of wheat at New York
(November 15, 1851) is quoted thus : —

Centa

per buabel.

White Genessee

- 96 to 98

White Michigan and Ohio -

- 86 „ 90

Red Ohio - - -

- 82 „ 84

Mixed Canada

- 84 „ 86

The following is the statement of the cost and
charges at New York, the charges from New York to
Liverpool, and the selling price at Liverpool, referred
to in page 75 : —

APPENDIX— (B).

161

)

Wheat from New York, Baltimore, or Philadelphia,
to Liverpool.

1000 bushels at 80 cents

Measuring and delivering on board . •
Urokera^e i per cent. 4 dollars, and

petty charges 2 dollars 60 cents . .
Marine insurance on 870 doUarit at 1,^

per cent

Dn. cents
30 '
6 60
13 5

Commission 2} per cent.

Exchange at par.

Freight on 26 tons 15 cwts. 3 qis., at

1&«. and a per cent

Dock and town dues, entries, &c. . •
One month's rem and Are insurance
Cartage, porterage, receiving, storing
turning, and delivering to buyer .
Brokerage i per cent., commission and
guarantee ^^ per ceiii,, interest on
capital 1 percent., 4 per cent, on j£238

At 3 months and 3 davs.

£. s. d.

21 1 10
2 13 4

1 19 2

6 12 11

9 10 5

Drs. cents.
8U0

«S

649
21

65
24

870

£. s. d.
195 19

41 17 8
£i31 16 8

(. d.

I.
Pa r-

s. d.

Free on board at

New York, &c.

3 11 4 6g

To sell
at Liverpool.
4 9 I 5 64

Free on board in New York.

At 80 cents, exchange at par
)> 90 , , , ,

„ 95 , , , ,

' „ 1 dollar , ,

Per Winches-
ter of 60 lbs

s. d.

3 11

: i^

* nil

4 lOj

Per Bushel
of 70 lbs.

4 10]

5 4*

5 8

To sell at Liverpool and

pay first cost

and charges as above.

Per Winches-

ter of 60 lbs.

Oi\,

Per Bushel
of 70 lbs.

I. d.

5 6\

6 10,'b
6 U
6 sl

6 si

{

162

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

( C. ) Vide p. 93.

The Manufacturing and Industrial Products of Cincinnati. Re-
port to the Board of Trade. g. . ." 1 851, by Mr. Charles
Cist, editor and publisher »[ '. i T.n.'iaiLi in 1851.'

PACTOKIES, SHOP*, WOKKH, MM.I.g,
YARDS, KTC.

Agricultural machines

Alcohol and spirits, win'' ilistillers ,

Animal cliarcual factory

Apple-butter maken .'

Atcliitecta

Artincial (lower factnri^^l

Awnin;;, tent, liai,' m il;ers

liai^i^ing factories

Hakerg

Band and hnt box .» ikors

Hasket, cradle, mai.ers

]k>ll and hiMi touiideH

Hellows make ,

Blacking pastu muKerij

Blacksmith aliops

Blinds, Veuetian, iihops

Block, spar, and pump makers . . .

Boiler yardi^

Bonnet -bleachers and pres.<iers . . .

Bookbinderies

Boot and shoe makers

Brand, stamp, and blind chisel )

makers )

Breweries

Brick-yards

Brick-masons and plasterers • . . .
Bristle and curled hair dressers . . .

Britannia-ware factories

Brush makers

Bucket and tub factory

Burr mill-stone makers

Butchers

Camphine and spirit-gas makers . .
Candy and confectionery makers . .
Caps, men's and boys , makers . . .

Carpenters and liuilders

Cars and omnibuses, railroad . . . .

Carriage factories

Carpet weavers

Carvers in wood

Castor-oil factory

Charcoal, pulverized

Chemical lalioratnries

Cistern biiiUlers

Cloak and visite makers

Clothing; factories

Coflfee roasters

(^omb factory

Composition roorcrs

Coopers

Copper, tin, and sheet iron workers .

3
1

52
1
2
8
2
2

15
106

3r,

108

li,i)

1811.

No. Hdii. Product

132

«2

294

20
90

108
10)2

60
175
466

42
8

157

645

20
12

813
20

176
208

Dollars.

17,000

12,000

78.650

259,000

9,000

2,800

81 ,000

12,600

11.000

311,400

26^172
106,000

100,700
488,000

6,800

126,000
87,500

208,650
16,600
12,840
19,000

10,;)00

l,09s,ri5

19,000

54,000

418,600

127! 000
46,000

68,000
21,3'^0

l,2£?

18,.. »0

167,000
211,300

1851.

No. lids. Product

1
3

140

374

20H

121

2^4

108
1
1

4
63
42

12
9

15
40
66

2:!8

44-.
60
30

132

223
27
18
97
33

136
176U

Dollars.

.16,000

60S, 200
.i.1,000
6,000
82,000
14,200
45,000

270,000

637,602
36,000
1H,000

209,500
18,000
24,000

235,39a
40,000
21,000

349,000
22,000

122,000
1,182,650

13,500

172

.^66,000

367

807,1)00

876

408,650

104

48,800

38,690

60,600

84,200

24,000

600

2,850,000

17,200

128,120

.-^9,000

2320

2,116,000

110

1>>8,447

212

247,400

51; . JOO

7,000

55,000

18,500

226,000

7.'), 000

3,000

950

;, 947, 800

38.000

18,000

40,000

796

387,000

240

258,000

APPENDIX -(C).

163

rACTORIKS, SHOP!), WORKI, MM.LI,
YAIllllt, KTO.

(yopper-plate printers

('orani;e and rope makers

Curers of beef, tonnueo, &c

Cutlery, gurf(ical and di-ntul instni- )

meats, tailors' shears makers , . )

Da^uerreotypists . .

Dentists

Die-sinkers

Domt-stic liquor fa(;tories

Dyers and scourers

Eu^e tool makers

, , grinders

Kngravers

Fancy jol) printers ........

Feed luxl ffuurinfi: mills

Fire engines, hydraulic apparatus I

builders 3

Flooring mills

Florists

Foundries and engine shops

Frin,. >, tassel, X:c., niikers

Fumil lire factoritis

Gas and coke works

Cias-fltters

Gas burner cap Cactory

Gilders

Glass works, cutters, Vc

(.' ve&ctories

01. "

G".- ■ leaf and den . foil makers .

, , ,jen factory

Grates, Sec, factorit-.

Urouiid - nice and drug mills . . . .
,, stard ,, . . . .

, , iitar'jle dust , , , . . .

Gunsmiths

}Iatters ....

Ilat tilock factoric

Horse-sHoers

Hose, l)elts, &c., factories

Hot-air furnace builders

Ice packers

Iron, rolling-millings

, , safe, chest, and vault factories .

, , railing factories .

Japanned filter maker

,, tin ware factory

Lever lock factory. . .'

Lightning rod factory

Lithographers

Looking-glass factories

Machinists

Marble workers

Masonic and Odd Fellows' regalia >

embroiderers )

Mathematical and optical instruO

ment makers j

Matmaker

mil.

No. Mils. Product

i:<

1
25

8
18

13
I

10 HO
8 37

43
13
31

503

335

181

148

4
17
42

Dollars.

81 ,000

4
83

668

I
664

312

394
II

311

26
77
10

nuo

700
950

540
60O

550

7t)0
750
000

657
400
Olio

000

000
842
000

109

000
400

ono

OHO
500

ono
000
ouo

000

1851.

No. Hdn. Ihroduct

32
36

3
16
15
19

1
14

2
14

44
4
136
1
2
1

10
2
3
5
1
1
2
6
2
2
6

40
1

12
4
1

14
5
3
S
1
1

10
1
4
7

12
3

130

110

80
5
46
24
72
18
30
85
65

4695

1158

3:5

367

550

120

164

24
3

Dollars.
50,000
180,000
135,000

40,000

80,000

92,000

5.000

726,000

88,000

97,900

80,000

60,000

30,000

1,690,000

63,000

351,200

120,111)0

3,676,51)1)

20,000

1,660,000

65,000

45,000

5,000

39,000

40,000

20,000

28,000

11,000

3,500

45,000

140,000

15,000

3,500

35,000

445,000

4,500

48,000

9«J,000

60,000

150,000

1,050,000

96,000

6,000

52,000

53,000

150,000

yo.ooo

48,000
1.10,000
190,000

21,000

40,000
7,240

164

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, Ac.

'11

II ^

rACTomid, ihopi, work*, mill*,

TABD*, ITO.

MaUrcM makenand iipliolitorert. .

Millincn

Mineral water factories

Mineral teeth tHctory

Morocco leather yurui

Musical InNtriiment milkers ....

Music piibliHherH

Nut and watlier milker

Uil, castor, factory

I, lard and stearine factory, . . .

, , linseed milU

, , vitriol laboratory

l'ackin)(-box ami •rri;,'et itor factories

I'ainterM and iilu/. ;rs

Paper makers

I'utenf medicine factories

Pattern maken

Perfumers

Picliles, preserves, sauce makers . ,

Plane, &c. makers

Planing miichine factory

Platform sciile makers

Plough makers

Plumbers

Plujj, bung, &c. factory

Potters

Pork, beef, and htm curers' factories

Printing ink factories

, , press factory

Publishers

Hoofers' patent

Saddlery, harnea't and collur makers.

Saddle-tree makers

Sail makers

Saleratus factories

Sand-paper factories

Sarsaparilla cough-cand' factories. .
Sash, blind, and door fai tones . . .

Sausage factories - .

Saw mills

Saw factories

Screw-plate factories

Sheeting, yarn, and candlewick fac- 1

tories • j

Shirt and stock makers

Silver and gold worker^i

Soap and candle factories .....

Spectacle makers

Spoke factories

Stainers, ulass

Stair builders

Starch factories

Steamboat builders

Stencil cutters

Stereotypers

Stockini; weavers

Stone cutters

Stone masons

1S41.

No. lids. Product

2H
148

10
3

30
18

• •

4
•I

ll)2

90
15
31

75
36

122

Iff

306

818

Dollars.
64,800

85.000

31,000

• ■

36,000
3!), 000
78,000

(18,000
3,500

95,000

37,9"0
48,000

12,000

a^'ioo

«,ouo

23^100

71,700
21,000
73,000

40,000

56,500

322,940

45,000
508,500

12,000

83,000

101,000

1N51.

No. lids. Product

15
5

38
1
2
1
3
5
7
3
3
4

650

124

«5

6:i2

IWO
91)
30
45
12
96
12
36
24

i:i5

8
80

2-iao

6;i6

828

820

!B6

206

410

250

.^0

710

554

349

428

Dollars.

95,000

880,000

165,0(10

S,0il(i

67,000

89,500

50,00U

20,000

60,001)

3,015,900

863,000

135,000

120,000

385,000

330,000

660,001)

25,500

120,000

25 , 000

167,000

30,000

60,0(iO

45,000

195,000

12,000

36,000

5,760,000

15,000

52,000

1,246,540

36,000

346,600

4,500

9,000

50,000

12,000

92,000

318,000

162,000

411,000

6,700

16,600

636,000

157,000

90,000

1,475,000

9,000

70,500

15,000

24,000

98,000

4>'8,000

5,000

46,000

13,000

222,000

308,000

APPENDIX-(D).

165

rAOTOHIIR, BHOPH, WORKI, MIt.M,
VAHDN, KTC.

Strtw hat nnci bonnet factories , .

Htucco workers

Tailon

Tanners and curriers

Tobacco, rlKHr, anil HniilT fkctorlrs
1 runl(s, carpet bags, 8(U. malicrs .

Turners .

Typefounders

Undertald'rs

Varnisii factories

Veneer i ,

VinuKtr • I

Waddmg

■Vai;nn nnal<ers

Vail paper stainerx

Wasli-lioards, zinc fiictories^ ■ . •

V^liite lead I'actories

WiK malccrs

Window tiliade factories

AVine manufacturers

WireworUers

Woolciirders

Wrouglit nail malcers

Whisliy distilleries

1811.
No. lids. I Produ(!t.

AO
81
86

18
3

8*1

8»A
18«
358

87
85

06
43

H
HI

18
18

Dollars.

6,000
876,000
335,000
SS.'i,000

8^875
45,400

30,500

104,300
34,400

1811750

6,000

73,000

13,000
30,000

145)000

1H31.
No. lids. l>roduct.

30
68

30
8

14
8
8

86
1

48
4
3
4
8
-J

40
5
4
4

H15

3S0

1310

875

143

181

511

»0

136

•Hi

183

400

500

110

Uotlars.

60,01)0

IV.OOM
938,000
965,000
031,000
506,000
159,000
100, OOU

76,000
135,000

66,000
16»l,750

85,000
i:{8,000

30,000

85,000

385,000

7 , 500

60,000
150,000

69,000

10,500

9,000

9,857,020

(D.) Firfep. 131.

Extract from Rkpobt on Boston Public Schooi^.

" In history we do not think that the attainments of
the pupils are such as could he wished. Nor is the
mode of teaching in this study a good one. The fault,
however, is not to be attributed either to the pupils or
their instructors. The classes generally have shown a
very fair knowledge of all that could be learned from
the sources of learning at their command. The text-
book of history now in use in our schools is not a good

166

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

liS

^■1

one. It is very brief, not very accurate, and very un-
interesting. It appears to be nothing more than a very
dry detail of the leading facts of history, related in no
connection, except that of chronological order, and
utterly destitute of anything to awaken and interest
the attention. We will give an illustration of its cha-
racter. In the part devoted to Grecian history the
names of Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, and
Leonidas are not introduced in the narration of the
Persian invasions, and the name of not a single inha-
bitant of Greece who lived between the time of Solon
and that of Epaminondas is mentioned in the course of
this part of the history. Yet this period of nearly two
hundred years was prolific of great men, and is pro-
bably the most important era in the history of civiliza-
tion. It embraces the time of the Persian invasions.
It was the age of Pericles, of Alcibiades, of Plato, of
Xenophon, of Herodotus, of the great dramatic poets
— in short, of nearly all the most eminent intellects of
ancient Greece. It is but justice, however, to the
author to say, that the principal defects of this book
are inseparable from the plan on which it is compiled.
A history of the world in a duodecimo volume of 300
pages cannot be otherwise than meagre in its in-
formation, and a book of larger size would be too
expensive.

■' History might be made the most interesting and
one of the most profitable studies to which the atten-
tion of children could be directed. It so abounds with

APPENDIX— (D).

167

the materials of reflection, there is so much in it to
impress the imagination, to elevate the moral senti-
ments, to touch the heart and enlarge the mind, that
it is much to be desired that its capabilities as the
means of moral as well as intellectual culture should
be duly improved. But this cannot be done while
pupils have no other books than those which are con-
fined to the detail of facts, the mere husks and dross of
history, without comment or improvement. A child
may learn that the Athenians defeated the Persians at
Marathon and Salarais, that they were in turn repelled
with disaster from Syracuse, that Alexander overran
Asia, that the Romans expelled their kings and con-
quered the known world, without having awakened in
them one glow of feeling or being made aware of the
materials for reflection and for a higher instruction
than the mere knowledge of facts which these and
other such great events in the world's story might pre-
sent to their view. And such is all the advance that
can be expected from the book now in use. In the
course of our examinations it was not much used, and
such attempts were made as the limited time permitted
to draw out what knowledge the children had, and to
awaken their interest in this study, but it was generally
found that, while they could tell very readily what
was in their text-book, the information derived from it
had not been conveyed to their minds in such a manner
as to induce a desire for greater research. In short,
we do not think, from what appeared at the examina-

168

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

tions, that history is a favourite study, or that the
quality of the knowledge of it which can at present be
obtained is of a very valuable or durable kind. A
book is wanted which, while it narrates facts, should
also contain such reflections as would awaken the in-
terest of the children, and, if this were supplied, there
is no branch of study that would so much contribute
to mould aright the intellectual and moral habits of
children as history. We have occasionally met with
pupils in the schools whose answers showed that they
had read more and better books of history than their
text-book, and they were generally among the most
intelligent and meritorious. Could a school history be
found which converted the dry outlines of events into
such life-like pictures as are presented in the pages of
Herodotus, or as are drawn in the Cyropaedia of Xeno-
phon, or in the delightful narrative of Livy, the effect
on our schools would be very soon perceptible; and
history, instead of being what it now appears to be, a
very imperfectly studied and ill-relished task, would
become one of the most delightful recreations, as well
as one of the most improving studies, that could be
adopted for their improvement."

By way of further illustration of the subject of the
text (p. 131), I add the questions in history proposed
to the candidates for admission to the High School at
Lowell, which I find in the ' Twenty-fifth Annual
Report of the School Committee of the City of Lowell,
for the year ending December 31, 1850.' — p. 21.

APPENDIX-(D).

169

The public schools of the city of Lowell consist of
" forty-six primary schools, nine grammar schools, and
one high school in two departments."

The candidates for admission into the high school
were presented from the nine grammar schools.

" History. — 1. In what year was America discovered
by Columbus ? 2. What people colonized the West
India Islands ? 3. Who was the conqueror of Mexico ?
4. Who first circumnavigated the earth? 5. Under
whose patronage did John and Sebastian Cabot sail ?

6. What river was first explored by James Cartier?

7. Which of the United States was first settled by the
English ? 8. To whom was Pocahontas married ?
9. Did Virginia favour the cause of Cromwell, or of
King Charles ? 10. What adventurer gave the name
to New England, and made a map of the country ?

11. With what Indian chief did the Plymouth colony
make a treaty of peace, which continued fifty years ?

12. What war terminated this peace? 13. Under the
jurisdiction of what colony was Maine placed in 1652 ?

14. By whom and where was " King Philip " killed ?

15. Why was Canada hostile to New England in the
wars which arose between France and England ?

16. What made Louisburg a place of great import-
ance in King George's war? 17. Of what religious
sect were the New Haven colonists ? 18. What State
was colonized by Roman Catholics? 19. Of what
religious sect were the first settlers of Pennsylvania ?
20. What were the feelings of the Indians towards

170

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

William Penn? 21. Which of the United States was
colonized under the direction of Oglethorpe ? "

III

Note to page 12.

I have since received a return, made by the sixteen different
denominations at Fall River, of the average attendance at the
Sunday schools in that town. I am indebted to one of the
principal manufacturers of that place, Mr. A. Robeson, for this
information. The number returned as the average attendance
is 2026. It has been shown that the total numbers between the
ages of five and fifteen were, in May, 1850, 2502. Twenty per
cent., therefore, of the children between those ages are not in
habitual attendance at Sunday-schools — a number corresponding
with that exhibited by other localities subsequently mentioned.

The number of teachers is given as 341 , and the number of
adult classes as 62.

It must be remembered that it is very much the habit in the
United States for the upper as well as the middle and lower
classes to send their children to the same Sunday and day
schools. The above statistics, therefore, apply probably to nearly
the whole of the population.

■w~-

was

rent
the
the
this
nee
the
per
in
ing

CANADA

the
ver
lay
rly

ii!

^61!*^

CANADA.

" The people of England are by no means
aware how fine a country they possess in
Canada," said an Upper Canadian gentleman to
me, a few days after I entered the province ;
and I am inclined to subscribe to his assertion.
Books, especially travellers' hasty and imperfect
sketches, such as my own, can do little more
than convey a few facts and a few general im-
pressions : it is necessary to have passed through
the heart of the country, to have seen its
splendid agricultural capabilities, to have wit-
nessed the enterprise that is now at work in
drawing them forth, to have mixed with its in-
telligent and loyal people, to have observed how
much they have done for the improvement and
embellishment of their country by great and
noble public works ; by their canals, roads, and
buildings for general purposes in towns, and how

174

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

rapidly its great resources, agricultural and com-
mercial (not to speak of incipient and very
promising branches of manufacture), are being de-
veloped, before a right estimate can be received
of the value of this favoured portion of the most
important of the colonial dependencies of the
British Crown, the provinces of North America.

My justification for attempting to say any-
thing on the subject of that country, after so
orief a visit, is the strong impression it has left
upon me that neither Canada in particular, nor
the British North American provinces generally,
are appreciated as they ought to be by the people
of England ; and having passed through both
Upper and Lower Canada, from the extreme
western point opposite Detroit, to Quebec, and
taken all the means that came in my way to
inform myself on some of the interesting points
concerning them, I feel a desire to impart to
others a portion of what I have myself gathered.

It may be useful to mention briefly the mode
of travelling I adopted, and the time occupied in
my tour.

1 entered Upper Canada, on the 3rd of Oc-

CANADA.

175

tober, from Detroit, by steamboat, through Lake
St. Clair, up the " T^^ames "

" (Arentem Xanthi cognomine rivum) "

to Chatham in seven hours. I drove to London

" (Parvam Trqjam, simulataqiie magnis Pergama)"

67 miles, in fifteen hours (the roads being un-
usually bad after heavy rains), changing horses
and carriage twice ; stayed a day there, and thence
to Woodstock, 32 miles, in four hours and a
quarter, the owner of the horses, who drove, only
puliing-up twice, for five minutes each, to water.
Remained a couple of days in the neighbourhood
of Woodstock, and proceeded thence to Ham-
ilton, 50 miles, in nine hours, baiting two.
Coasting the upper end of Lake T^rie to Lewis-
ton, a few miles up the Niagara River, and
thence to the Falls by carriage, across the lower
Suspension Bridge, and along the Canada side
to the Clifton Hotel, immediately opposite the
Falls, six hours. Stayed four days at Niagara,
and then back to Hamilton by land, taking " en
route " the most interesting portion of that fine

176

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

■|.

national work the V' 'Hand Canal, the succession
of locks neflv its highest level ; distance 47
miles; time, changing horses once, eight hours.
A day at Hamilton, and thence by steamboat to
Toronto, in five hours. Remained five days at
Toronto, during which I drove some distance
inland to see farms. By steamer to Kingston,
in half a day and a night, coasting the shore.
At Kingston a day, and then, leaving Upper
Canada after a stay of nineteen days, 1 divided
the remaining part of the month, and up to No-
vember 5th, between Montreal and Quebec. I
am sensible that so short a visit of scarcely five
weeks can givf> l»tit the slenderest title to say
anything abcu" a. country then seen for the first
time, notwithstaiitlmg any amount of diligence
in seeking for information, or access to the most
trustworthy sources for obtaining it. I have only
to say to those who may be willing to receive it
on the above terms, '* valeat quantum."

Few Englishmen will be induced to visit a
country for pleasure or information without
knowing something first about the hotels, roads,
and means of conveyance. Ellah's hotel at

CANADA.

177

Toronto, and Young's at Hamilton, are kept in
the English manner ; and at the Clifton House
at the Falls there are private sitting-rooms, with
bedrooms adjoining, the magnificci ' spectacle
of the Falls being immm te^ oppo te the
windows. At Sword's hotel ec, you

may also live, if you please, ' " iglish

hotel. At Woodstock and Lum here are

very respectable hotels; and at Delaware and
Chatham such as are suitable to the smaller
kind of country towns. Of the above 1 speak
from experience, and I believe that any one ex-
tending his range of travel to the other country-
towns of the province, would find a similar fair
average of comfort. If he enters this country
from the States, he will be glad to find at those
hotels what is not very common in the country
he has left — good, well-fed beef and mutton, and
the humble, though useful, accessories of good
English knives and forks, and other minor
articles of manufacture for domestic purposes,
which we are too much accustomed to in abund-
ance and perfection not to miss greatly wherever
tariffs are high enough to forbid their general use.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

^4^

1.0

I.I

I!: I4£

1^ IM
lllllli

2.0

IIPS II 1.4 1.6

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4VV % ^

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

.\v

178

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

The roads of Upper Canada are, as far as I
have seen, quite as good as could be expected in
a country of such extent and so newly settled.
The worst which I encountered was the un-
finished one from Chatham to London, part of
a fine line completing the main communication
through tlie province from east to west (from
Hamilton to Windsor, opposite Detroit), and
which has been left in its present state in con-
sequence of the Government having abandoned
the charge of local works. It is, however, now
surrendered to the counties through which it
passes, and will, I understand, be taken in hand
again next spring. From London to Woodstock
there is a macadamized road, over which you may
drive in fine weather at the rate of ten miles an
hour. From Woodstock to Hamilton, through
Paris (the great rival European capitals have fur-
nished ambitious names to very peacefiil spots on
the margins of bright streams, surrounded by a
few score acres of " clearings," and beyond those
a belt of beech and maple and the towering
pine), about a third of the road is macadamized,
and the rest was being planked, and was nearly

A 'ai^ia^^J Ml

.'^

CANADA.

179

completed. The road more commonly used, by
Brantford, was then in some places temporarily
out of order. The greatest portion of the road
from Hamilton to the Falls is good, and in part
macadamized. From Toronto to Lake Simcoe
a macadamized road runs in a straight line for
42 miles. There are other main roads of com-
munication, partly macadamized, partly planked,
or in process of being completed in one way or
the other: as, from Hamilton to Toronto and
Kingston, from Hamilton to Gait and Guelph,
from Woodstock towards Goderich, from Coburg
to Rice Lake, and several others.

The cross-roads, especially those leading to
shipping ports on the lakes or to market-towns, did
not seem, as far as I had an opportunity of observ-
ing, to be in as good a state as the farmer would
find it his interest to put them. If by help of a
good road he can take to mill or market three
times the load in half the time, and with much
less wear and tear of cattle and carriage than he
can on a bad one, a liberal expenditure to obtain
a good road is one of the best of economies.
But the struggle between the more and the less

180

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

enlightened farmers on this point has to be gone
through in Canada, as was the case in times past
in every county in England. In Canada the
especial value of good roads, in enabling the
grower of wheat to send his produce early to
market before the season for shipping closes,
appears likely to hasten conviction in that par-
ticular.

In Canada, as in the United States, the public
conveyances, called stages, in the form of
those seen in old prints of the time of Eliza-
beth, roll through the country in a manner
somewhat strange to unaccustomed eyes. These
"stiiges" are apparently washed but once in
their natural lives ; but they are drawn
usually by four good horses, and driven by a
man on a low seat, with his knees not much
below his chest, after a fashion which would dis-
turb the thoughts of an old disciple of "The
Road, the Turf, and the Chase." The spirit of
adaptation, a common and valuable one, has
evidently prevailed .'e ; for whereas in England ^
we have adapted the road to the carriage, in
Canada they have prudently adapted the carriage

CANADA.

181

to the road; and accordingly these springless
vehicles, poised on their broad bands of leather,
rear and plunge very safely over and into the
numerous mud-holes of the unfinished roads;
while the light vehicles in private use, with their
high fore-wheels (well enough for hoi-ses that
never shy or attempt to turn short round), bound
over them without doing any very great violence
to the ril s and back of the occupant.

I had heard, before I entered Canada, many
comparisons to its disadvantage in regard to
enterprise and activity in various matters, and
not least in regard to roads ; and I had seen
statements to that effect in various newspapers
of the United States. It was therefore with
some degree of surprise that I found myself
travelling occasionally at the rate of eight and
ten miles an hour on roads superior to any I
had met with in Pennsylvania or Ohio. I en-
deavoured to ascertain what number of miles of
macadamised and of plank roads had been made
in the province, but no sources of information
that I have been able to refer to give any general
summary of them. In an able publication now

182

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

coming out and nearly completed, "Canada,
Past, Present, and Future," by Mr. W. H. Smith
(Toronto, 1851, 2 vols. 8vo.), I find detached
accounts of the sums spent on roads in different
counties of the upper province, under the head of
" Public Works," and which, therefore, exclude
the various smaller lines of communication made
by private companies and by the townships ; and
a great stimulus has been given to the operations
of the latter in those matters by the Municipal Act
of 1849, to be adverted to more especially in a
future page. On the roads, however, that have
been made by the public, I gather, on enume-
rating them, that there had been spent, up to
December, 1849, in the

Western District, on 4 roads, exclusive of

bridges ....
County of Middlesex on 2 roads
Norfolk 1 ,,
Lincoln, Haldimand, Welland 1 , ,
Wentworth, Halton 2 , ,
York county and Toronto roads
Canada Company's roads and bridges, to
Feb., 1848

£49,365
74,079
33,333
28,788
80,520
157,664

27,493
^451,242

,; ; :ijJ^;J„«fci:f^

CANADA.

183

On the "Welland Canal .
Cornwall Canal

> »

This does not comprise the whole of the upper
province, the work from which I extract the state-
ment being yet incomplete ; nor is the number of
miles given ; but it shows no very great lack of
public enterprise in that particular, for a popu-
lation which in 1824 was only 151,000, and
which had risen in 1849 to 720,000.

Between those periods there had also been
expended by the upper province —

. iPl, 400,000
515,000

besides the sums spent on the St. Lawrence
Canals and the Chambly Canal by both provinces.
Roads had also been made by private com-
panies, but the cost of obtaining a special Act of
the Legislature for each prevented their being
very numerous. In 1849 a general Act passed,
with very simple provisions, enabling any five
persons to form themselves into a joint stock
company for making roads. The readiness with
which the land-owners and farmers of Upper
Canada have availed themselves of these powers,
is made evident by a "Return of the several
Companies" under the Act of 1849, "autho-

184

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

rizing Joint Stock Companies to construct Roads
and other works; the amount of Capital sub-
scribed in each, whether for roads or other works,
and the extent of the road contemy^lated by each
Company," presented to the Provincial Parlia-
ment July 18, 1851. No tabular summary is
appended to the Report, but I have put the
whole together, and found that thirty -seven
companies have registered themselves to make
that number of roads, and have a subscribed
capital of 228,146/. There can be very little
doubt, therefore, as to Upper Canada being
pretty well supplied with roads before many
years have elapsed, whatever may be her present
deficiencies. The last part of the return asked
for, as to the number of miles to be made, was
not complied with.

Climate. — Many erroneous impressions prevail
as to the climate of Canada, and especially of
that of the Upper Province. Extreme heat in
summer, extreme cold in winter, deep snows,
late springs, frosts injurious to vegetation, have
been the characteristics usually attributed to the
whole country. Accurate scientific observations.

CANADA.

185

and improving agricultural skill, are rapidly
dissipating these opinions. A vei*y interesting
little Tract has lately been published, which
places these matters in a right light : — " A Com-
parative View of the Climate of Western Canada,
considered in relation to its Influence upon Agri-
culture," by Mr. Henry Youle Hind, Lecturer
on Chemistiy and Natural Philosophy at the
College of Toronto, &c. &c. (Toronto ; Brewer,
M'Phail, & Co., 1851). In this Tract Mr.
Hind shows very convincingly the " decided
superiority" of Western Canada " for agricul-
tural purposes, over the State of New York, the
northern part of Ohio and Illinois, the States of
Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, the Far West, and
the whole of New England — in a word, over the
wheat-growing States generally;" and that the
emigrant " in prefemng any part of the United
States" for farming purposes " is actually se-
lecting for himself «, climate of greater winter
cold and summer heat, and not only more un-
healthy, but also far more hazardous to the agri-
culturist than that which obtains in the Canadian
peninsula." — (p. 1.) ^

186

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Admitting that what is yet known of the
climate in relation to agriculture is as yet imper-
fect and elementary, it is still strongly confirma-
tory of the supposition that " the peculiar
situation of the Province among the great
Lakes" gives it many advantages. These are
enumerated as

1. In mildness, as exhibited by comparatively
high winter and low summer temperatures, and
in the absence of great extremes of temperature.

2. In adaptation to the growth of certain
cereals and forage crops.

3. In the uniformity of the distribution of
rain over the agricultural months.

4. In the humidity of the atmosphere, which,
although comparatively less than that of a truly
maritime climate, is greater than that of local-
ities at a distance from the Lakes.

5. In comparative immunity from spring frosts
and summer droughts.

6. In a very favourable distribution of clear
and cloudy days for the purposes of agriculture ;
«nd in the distribution of rain over many days.

7. In its salubrity.

CANADA.

187

Mr. Hind adds that " the meteorological
data introduced are chiefly derived from the
admirable and extensive series of observations
which have been made at Her Majesty's Obser-
vatory at Toronto, under the direction of Captain
Lefroy, R.A., F.R.S. ; the Reports of the
Regents of the University of the State of New
York*, Forrey*s Climate of the United States;
the American Almanac; and Dr. Drake's
Work on the Diseases of the Valley of North
America." — (p. v.)

The direct influence of the Great Lakes in
elevating the winter temperature is shown by the
high mean temperature of Toronto as compared
with other places north and south of it, but
away from their influences ; and by a compari-
son of the occasional minimum temperature of
Toronto, eleven degrees below the freezing-
point, with the occasional minimum of places
west of the Lakes, or in the great valley of
the Mississippi; at Fort Crawford, Wisconsin,
— 32 ; Fort Howard, Wisconsin, — 32 ; Fort
Snelling, Minesota, — 40 ; St. Louis, Missouri
(five degrees south of Toronto), — 25 ; Cuba,

188

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

New York, — 2G ; Louisville, New York, — 35 ;
the higher tem})erature of Toronto being trace-
able partly to the fact that ** the surface-water of
the open Lakes is never less than 32°, and gene-
rally about 33-5°," or " about T or 8" above the
mean temperature of Toronto during the three
winter mouths." Another table shows as con-
clusively the much greater equability of tempe-
rature of Toronto than of the western States, in
the far greater differences between the summer
and winter mean temperature in the latter ; in
other words, " the great and often dangerous
extremes of temperature" in the western States.
The summer mean temperature of Toronto, on
an average of ten years, was 64*51°. The sum-
mer mean of Fort Crawford, Wisconsin, is given
at 72-38''; Council Bluffs, Missouri, 75-81°;
Muscatine, Iowa, 69°; Fort Winnebago, Wis-
consin, 67-97"; Detroit, 6733°; (Berlin, 63-2°;
Cherbourg, 61*9°; Greenwich, 60-88°; Pen-
zance, 61-8°).

The effect of clearing the land of forests is
next adverted to in its relation to climate, by
enabling the sun*s rays to penetrate the soil,

rfl»i MH I'M

CANADA.

180

"diminishing thereby the duration of frost and
snow in the winter months, and retarding their
advent in the autumn months." In connexion
with this subject the advantages and practicability
of draining are touched upon, and instances are
mentioned of drains in a clay subsoil, (one of
which I saw,) two feet, two feet ten, and three feet
six deep, and about one-third of a mile long,
which ran the whole winter ; " the thermometer
when introduced into water coming from them
never falling below 34 degrees, while when ex-
posed to the air it sank to zero." These
drains were made of rough pine slabs, with
the clay firmly stamped over them. Another
was formed of "road metal," in a rich vege-
table mould, having a depth of two feet six,
and a length of 250 yards, and it also ran all the
winter.

The frequent recurrence of spring frosts in
districts remote from the lakes is next mentioned,
from which the lake district is comparatively
free. The effect of the clearing of forests, on
this point, is noticed, on the authority of Hum-
boldt and others.

W.I

'I'l

■)!

• ^

190

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

" The extensive forests with which the greater part of
Western Canada is still clothed, tend, by their nocturnal ra-
diation, to diminish the temperature of the nights during
the summer season. Humboldt has clearly shown, that by
the reason of the vast multiplicity of leaves, a tree, the
crown of which does not present a horizontal section of
more than 120 or 130 feet, actually influences the cooling
of the atmosphere by an extent of surface several thousand
times more extensive than this section. The upper surfaces
of the leaves first become cool by nocturnal radiation ;
these again receive heat from the next lower stratum of
leaves, which is, in turn, given off into space. The cooling
is thus propagated from above downwards, until the tem-
perature of the whole tree is lowered, and, as a necessary
result, the air enveloping it. As the forests of Western
Canada disappear before the rapid encroachments of the
settler, we may look for a rise in the minimum temperature
of the spring, summer, and autumnal nights. Late spring
and early autumn frosts will probably become rarer as the
country becomes more cleared.

" Notwithstanding the cold produced by the radiation
of heat from the leaves of forest trees during summer
nights, there is no reason to suppose that the destruction of
forests elevates the mean temperature of the year. From
observations extended over thirty years, at Salem in Mas-
sachusetts, it appears that the annual mean temperature of
the year oscillates in that neighbourhood within a degree
about the mean of the whole number of years. The win-
ters in Salem, instead of having become milder during the
last thirty-three years, as supposed from the destruction of
forests, have become colder by 4 deg. Fahrenheit. — (Forrey,

CANADA.

191

quoted by Humboldt.) The tendency of the destruction
of forests is, ccBteris paribus,

"1. To elevate the mean temperature of the summer
months.

" 2. To lower the mean temperature of the winter
months, but to shorten their duration.

" 3. To accelerate tlie advent of spring.

" 4. To dry up swamps and shallow springs, and to
diminish the supply of water in creeks.

" .5. To hasten the disappearance of snow from exposed
districts.

" The comparatively gradual approach of spring, in the
Canadian Peninsula, is a great advantage to the husbandry
of the country. High maximum means of temperature, at
that season of the year, with low minimum means, are
treacherous, and often indeed ruinous to the agriculturist.
Their influence on health is also very detrimental. Com-
pare Toronto with Muscatine, Iowa, to the west of the
Lakes, in these respects.

Toronto.

Muscatine, near Iowa City.

March.

April.

March.

April.

1845
1846
1849

Mean.

o
35-68

26-25

33-24

Min.

6-6

5-4

15-1

Mean.

42°13
39-06
38-74

Min.

15-5

9-3

15-5

Mean.
40-3
40-3
37-3

Min.
o

20-
10-

Mean.

o
55-1

52-7

44-3

Mia.

16-
28'
22-

Mean .

31-72

39-97

13-4

39-3

12-6

50*7

22*

" Hence, April, with a mean temperature at Muscatine
of 50°'7, sufficient to force on vegetation, suffers occasional

-ffiT' :?^ "

192

N0TE8 OF PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

mean minimum temperatures of ten degrees below the
freezing point ; whereas the mean April temperature at
Toronto is nearly eleven degrees b^low that of Muscatine,
and effectually arrests the progress of vegetation until the
danger arising from killing frosts is greatly diminished.
These are important considerations in estimating the adap-
tation of a climate to the purposes of agriculture.

" The destruction of forests seems to have a marked
effect upon swamps, springs, and running streams. In all
parts of the country neglected saw-mills may be seen, hav-
ing been abandoned by their proprietors owing to the
* want of water.' It is indeed a constant and yearly in-
creasing complaint, that springs and rivers are drying up,
and that the supply of water in mill-creeks is year by year
diminishing. This decrease may reasonably be ascribed to
the destruction of forests, whereby extensive swamps are
exposed to solar radiation, and that supply of moisture
which they received in the summer months from the con-
densation of the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, by the
leaves of the trees overshadowing them, being altogether
cut off. The frequency of extensive swamps is one ac-
knowledged cause of the retardation in the advent of
spring, and the production of early spring frosts ; it is evi-
dent, that with the progress of the settlement of forest-
covered tracts, these causes will gradually exert less influence
in producing one of the most objectionable features in the
climate of this country."* — p. 25 — 27.

* Whether from climate or other causes, the proportion of
persons of florid complexions and robust frames appeared to me
much greater in Canada than in the United States.

CANADA.

193

of
lie

The comparatively even monthly distribution
of rain is alSb of great benefit to Canadian hus-
bandry. By the tables given at p. 30 it is
shown that while at Muscatine the rain fall for the
year 1849 was 57*9, nearly 50 per cent, of which
fell in two months, June and August, it was
at Toronto 32*18, and pretty evenly distributed
throughout the year. In the months of May,
June, and July it appears that the number of
rainy days at Toronto were in each of those
months respectively 8-6, 10-4, 10*5, 7-8. The
bearing of this fact on the important matter of
turnip husbandry is very evident, as well as upon
many other forage crops; and the general hu-
midity of the climate is shown to be only 7°*5
less than that of Greenwich.

Geology. — The admirable Keports of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada which are published
" by order of the Legislative Assembly," and
are in a very convenient form for reading and
reference, give so complete an account of the
geological distribution of the various strata and
their agricultural capabilities, as far as the suiTcy
under Mr. Logan has yet been carried, that

• 1 1

■■' ' ^"-

194

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

'i!

no emigrant or landowner can be at a loss for
the fullest information as to the best purposes
to which to apply his land, or as to the " eco-
nomic materials " it contains. These Reports
show what vast resources lie yet undeveloped in
the splendid lands of Canada. It is most strik-
ing to one who has never before witnessed such
prodigality of nature, to see whole districts of
many square miles in extent composed of alluvial
deposits from 30 to 80 feet deep of soil in some
places so rich as to bear good crops of wheat
for several successive years without manure ;
and others of nearly equal value resting on red
sandstone, trap, serpentine, limestones, and other
strata most favourable for agriculture; the evi-
dences of the strength of the soil being manifest
over all that still remains in the state of aboriginal
forest, in the noble trees that occupy the ground
in every stage of vigour and decay. There are
also for many miles in succession (as along the
Grand River), soils too rich for wheat; others
of a good sandy loam, suitable to, and requiring,
the usual English rotations ; other tracts of rich
black mould, but requiring drainage — too rich at

CANADA.

195

ler

iSt

lal

Ind

iire

fers

S»

lat

first for wheat, but which have been cropped
with wheat for thirty or forty years with-
out manuring. — (Report for 1849-50, p. 92.)
" The natural growth of these lands " (along the
valley of the Thames, Western District) *' is oak,
elm, with black walnut and white-wood trees of
enormous size ; the black walnut timber is already
becoming a considerable article of export. Fine
groves of sugar maple are also met with, from
which laige quantities of sugar are annually
made," p. 93. The rich soils of the neighbour-
hood of London, Woodstock, Zorra, Goderich,
Gait, Paris, Brantford, Port Stanley, Port Dal-
housie, St. Catherine's, Hamilton, Toronto, Lake
Simcoe, Coburg, &c. &c., are in the course of
being analysed, and the results of several of the
analyses have been already published. The
scientific agriculturist therefore has these valuable
preliminary points of information ready to his
hand.

Farming. — In consequence, perhaps, partly of
the very fertility of the soil, there is undoubtedly a
great deal of very bad farming in Upper Canada.
Judging from the state of the farms of a very

.•■,71; js-

f^^^mimmmm

h''

196

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

large proportion of the smaller occupiers, one is
led to conclude that they must have taken to the
business without much previous knowledge of it.
They very seldom follow any proper rotation,
but, as a general rule, '* grow wheat as long as
the land will produce it." Root crops are but
little cultivated by them, their management of
stock therefore is very primitive ; the young
stock are nearly starved during the winter, and
require the feeding of more than half the sum-
mer to recover the weight they have lost during
the severe season. Many also die for want of
proper food, for in addition to the want of nour-
ishment they are seldom kept under shelter suf-
ficiently in the winter months. Root crops
being neglected, fodder is scarce, and no skill or
economy is shown in the preservation and use of
manure. The land is foul, and the grain when
brought to market has usually a large admixture
of dust and seeds. The value of land is con-
tinually rising ; the small proprietor therefore
thinks himself sufficiently remunerated for his
labour in clearing the land and bringing into cul-
tivation by the price it will fetch, notwithstanding

CANADA.

197

its comparatively exhausted state, whenever he
chooses to " sell out."

There are, however, large and rapidly in-
creasing exceptions to this state of things. Over
large tracts of some of the best land in the
province is now to be seen as good farming as
one could desire to meet with. Gentlemen of
independent property have set the example in
many of the most eligible situations for settlers ;
substantial farmers from England and Scotland
have followed, and have introduced with success
all i;he best practices of "the old country." I
saw in the neighbourhoods of London, Wood-
stock, Paris, Hamilton, Toronto, admirably
managed farms ; and whole townships elsewhere
— such as especially some north and east of
Toronto, and north-west, north-east, and south-
east of Hamilton — are described as being of
similar excellence. Great attention has been
paid to the importation of the best stock from
England and Scotland; the markets, therefore,
of Toronto, Hamilton, Kingston, &c., &c., are
supplied with meat of excellent quality and well-
fed. An objection to the growth of roots and

198

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

crops that had been entertained by the sma^' /
fanners without much capital or enterprise —
namely, the difficulty of preventing their freezing
in the winter — had been easily overcome by the
superior class of farmers, by storing them pro-
perly in cellars under or near their cattle houses,
and I accordingly saw many fields of well-
cultivated turnips, mangold, and white Belgian
carrots, and heavy crops of each. Wool bears a
good price (I5. to Is. Sd. per lb.), and is much
sought for by agents from the manufacturers of
New England, as well as by the rising woollen
factories in Canada, as at Sherbrooke, in the
eastern townships, and elsewhere. The country
is becoming well settled in all directions, and
land within a reasonable distance of a market is
worth from 20 to 50 dollars per acre, buildings
included. In many cases, occupiers of their own
land take also an adjoining farm on lease ; in
others, tenants are found for separate farms. In
one case, which was mentioned to me, the terms
for a farm of 120 acres, about forty miles from
Toronto, were 501. per annum for the first year,
60/. for the second, and 75Z. for the remainder of

CANADA.

199

a seven years* lease. On some farms which I
went over, the land was as clean, and the whole
details of husbandry put out of hand as skilfully,
as on a good average farm in England.*

Climate and Cultivation of Loicer Canada. —
Still more general, I believe, has been the mis-
apprehension as to the climate of Lower Canada
and its effect upon agriculture in that province —
a misapprehension which has arisen in a great
degree from the want of precise and scientific
inquiries. In the month of August, 1850, a
" Report of the Special Committee on the State
of Agriculture in Lower Canada " was presented
and printed by order of the Legislative Assembly.
This Report is one of much interest; it has
cleared up many errors, and laid the foundation
of a greatly amended state of things.

At pages 130-2 of that Report, tables are
given, comparing the mean temperatures of
Montreal and Toronto for a period of thirty-
four months, from 1847 to 1849, no farther

* Lest I should be thought to be dealing with a subject of
which I have no experience, I feel it necessary to add, that I
have had a small model farm in hand for the last ten years, and
have given some attention to farming matters for the last twenty.

,jit^»'-m:, irirs*-*-.

200

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

(lata being accessible ; and it results from that
comparison that the difference of temperature
between Upper and Lower Canada for three
years was only 1° 48': the mean of Montreal
being 46° 4', and that of Toronto 45° 50'. With
reference to the result, the Report states (p. 7),
that "daring the mid-winter months, when the
temperature is much lower in Lower than in
Upper Canada, it is of little consequence to the
plant whether the cold varies a few degrees more
or less, as the snow protects the earth from the
too violent action of the frost." In proof of the
little difference in the climate of Upper and
Lower Canada, as regards its influence upon
agriculture, the natural productions of the soil
are the same in both sections of the province.
.... The cultivated products are also the same,
with the exception of certain fruits (peaches,
melons

this

grapes, &c.). At page 129 of the Report,
shown

dclail

" In Lower Canada the new land is covered with tim-
ber ; tlie greater part of the trees being from two to three
feet in diameter — the larger the timber the better the soil
— and therefore the elioice of land is generally directed by
the growth of timber on it. Where beech, maple, hickory,

».«*■■ r.<.rfi>..«*^'«-' '

) t

CANADA.

201

butternut, and chesnut grow, we find a good soil of yel-
low or hazel loam ; wliere elm, white ash, white ouk
butternut, and red oak grow, the soil is strong; where
white-pine, hemlock-pine, birch, and spruce grow, the soil
is sandy ; cedar swamps, though often composed of good
soil, are not desirable, unless easy to drain ; black ash, soft
maple, or plane swamps, are mostly on a clay or marl, and
if well drained make lasting meadows; wliere there are
small poplar and small white birch, the soil is poor, being
light loam on white clay.

" The foregoing may be taken as a descriptive list of
forest trees in the Lower Province, and the soils on which
they grow. The soils most congenial for orchards are
light loams or gravel. Apple-trees thrive much, also, on
rocky or limestone land. A great variety of apple, pear,
peach, plum, cherry, grape-vines, and other fruit trees may
be found in the neighbourhood of Montreal ; the apples
from thence are considered superior to any other. Cherries,
chesnuts, walnuts, hickory, hazel, and filbert nuts, grow
wild, as in Upper Canada, — as do gooseberries, strawberries,
raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, and black currants.

" The emigrant farmer, therefore, may be told with
truth, that although the season appears short, and the cold
intet)se, at certain periods, the winters are more pleasant
and salubrious, and the summers warmer than those of
England ; the seasons more uniform, and the air more
clear and dry."

Eemarks have been often made on the bad

farming of the French Canadians and their

backwardness in following in the steps of modem

.jj>r>4Ui'^

\\i

202

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

improvements. In one of the numerous and
valuable comnmnications to the Connuittec, ap-
pended to the Report, some ('acts are stated which
will suggest more charitable and equitable eon-
oll^^ns on that subject : —

•' Our first settlers from old France were not ag J ;ul
turists, but either fishermen or the sons of good f^in<Uit;»; lu
tlie latter of whom seignories were grant(d. On their
arrival in the country, the land— as is the v > with a! J new
land, from the continual decomposition oi Aegetable matter
— was rich, and although the seitlers only worked one-
third of the year, with their economical habits, the ground
produced much more than they consumed ; the remaining
two-thirds of their time they spent in .smoking, dancing,
ceremouies of the church, and on the road going to Court
or market.

" Education was not thought of; the children went on
the oame way: and yet, without any improvement to their
land, ii still yielded more than sufficient for their families.
Another generation comes on, and they begin to complain
of the crops fulling off, and not producing as formerly,
but for the want of education could not imagine the cause ;
and, unfortunately, the Seigniors, who actually were
as much interested as the farmers, were not acquainted
with agriculture or car°c! hvit little about it. This has
continued until all the ok! truv-— in thf '. .ids of Cana-
dians of French origii > so worn out from continual
cropping, they will not produce enough for their subsist-
ence, and the proprietors are all in debt."

1 I

CANADA.

203

To this is to be added the fact, that to this
day they are, generally, unacquainted with our
I.'iiiguage, and ''labour und^r the additional
disailvantage of havuig no agrieultur;> 1 works
published in their own." (pp. 64, 1 16.)

The principal defects in their system of M^
tivation, as enumerated by tlie Committee ^p. 2 1)^
are —

" First, the want of an appropriate rotatiun of crops ;
secondly, tlie want or bad application of manures; tliinlly,
the little care bestowed upc i the breeding and keepin
cattle ; fourthly, the want uf draining in certain plat
fifthly, the want of attention u iven to the meadows, and ti,
production of vegetables for feeding rattle ; sixthly, th
scarcity of improved agricultural implements."

And the consequence ' is, that " they do not
derive from the soil more than one-fourth of what
it can produce." (p. 21.)

Among the means pointed out in that Report
for the improvement of the agriculture of the
lower province (such as th> opening of new
roads, the survey of the Cro' n lands, and the
adoption of a better principle in the award of
prizes in the Agricultural Societies aided by the
State), was the publication ol a short tract,

i, I

,ff^V

f:^

204

NOTES ON rUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

setting forth, in plain terms, how a French
Canadian could improve his cultivation by very
easy processes within his own reach. A tract of
this kind has been written (Traite sur la Tenure
generale d'une Terrc dans le Bas-Canada), and
*' published by order of his Excellency the
Governor-General (the Earl of Elgin and Kin-
cardine), and presented and recommended by him
to the cultivators of Lower Canada." (Quebec,
1851.) It is described as having been written
"by an inhabitant of the district of Montreal,
who has put in practice, with the greatest success
during more than twenty years, the system which
he recommends ; and who, having commenced
without capital, has become a proprietor of lands."
A copy of this excellent little treatise was
presented by the Governor General (through the
Koman Catholic Archbishop and the parochial
clergy) to every individual French Canadian oc-
cupying land. It is easy to conceive with what
feelings of respect and gratitude so valuable a
mark of interest in their welfare, and so useful
a guide to their future prosperity, was received
by the loyal, warmhearted, and courteous inha-

¥M'-

CANADA.

205

bitants of Lower Canada, when coming to them
under such sanctions. There can be no shadow
of doubt as to the effect it will produce in correct-
ing the errors of their old system of management,
and bringing out the resources of their fertile soil.
What they are capable of under good guid-
ance, or under the stimulus of example, has been
already shown in several localities, to an extent
sufficient to justify more favourable anticipations
from the future. Proofs of this were mentioned
to me in reference to the neighbourhoods where
good farming had been introduced by English
or Scotch settlers ; and the communications at-
tached to the Agricultural Report above men-
tioned, sufficiently attest the capabilities of the
land when properly treated. In one of them (at
p. 122 of the Report), it is affirmed that there
are many instances in Lower Canada of men
who twenty or thirty years ago commenced
with nothing but their skill and industry, and
who, having raised themselves to comparative
independence, " have leased worn-out farms at
from ten to twenty shillings per arpent" (1
arpent 18 perches = 1 English acre). Many

206

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

could be pointed out " who have not only paid
these rents, but have purchased several farms
for themselves." Many prejudices had been dis-
pelled by the enterprise of these good farmers,
such as the idea that winter wheat could not
be grown with success, that good root-crops
could not be raised, &c. &c. At the Agri-
cultural Show at Quebec, on the 28th October
last, I saw as good turnips, mangold, carrots,
parsnips, kohl-rabi, and other roots, as I ever
met with at an average Agricultural Exhibition
in England. If this could be done in the neigh-
bourhood of Quebec, still more could it be on
the fine land round Montreal, nearly a degree
and a half more to the south. Accordingly, at
the extremely interesting farm of Major Campbell
(late secretary to the Governor Gei.vral), at his
seignory of St. Hilaire, about 25 miles from
Montreal, on the line of the Montreal and Portland
Railway, I saw, a few days later, excellent root-
crops, some stored for the winter, some still in the
ground, and an establishment which approaches
very nearly, in the completeness of its building
arrangements, and in the scientific skill with

CANADA.

207

which the whole is managed, to the best speci-
mens of high farming in this country.

One of the most valuable districts of Lower
Canada is that of the eastern townships. It has
hitherto, from certain local circumstances, been
imperfectly settled, though affording every in-
ducement to attract both agricultural and manu-
facturing capital. While this great tract of
4,886,400 acres of land, of which less than a
third can be considered, according to good autho-
rity, as unproductive, has been all but neglected,
an emigration of no less than 25,000 persons
took place from Lower Canada in the five years
ending with 1849. To endeavour to check this,
and to open the eastern townships to settlers
generally and to the Lower Canadian population
in particular, an inquiry took place this year, the
result of which has been a " First Report of the
Special Committee appointed to inquire into the
Causes which relate to the Settlement of the
Eastern Townships of Lower Canada." Printed
by order of the Legislative Assembly, Toronto,
1851 (June). This territory is thus described
at p. 11 of the Appendix to that Report.

! iB

208

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

" Tliis vast territory promises to become, at no distant
period, tlie richest, the most populous, and the most flourish-
ing part of Lower Canada; not only on account of its
climate, milder than that of the shores of the St. Lawrence,
of the immense extent of excellent and fertile soil which it
includes, and of its abundant streams of water, but also,
and more especially, because that part of our fine country
borders on the territory of our industrious neighbours, and
must be traversed by the main lines of connnunication
between the two countries ; as by the railroad from Mon-
treal to Melbourne on the St. Francis, and from Melbourne
to Portland on the Atlantic, and soon hereafter, we trust,
by that from Melbourne to Quebec."

The recommendations of that committee are —

first, to lay a tax on wild lands; secondly, to
establish an efficient road-law; thirdly, to open
good lines of communication and to improve
existing roads ; and there can be no doubt that
these suggestions will forthwith be taken into
consideration by the Legislature.

This being the state of the case with regard to
the climate, soil, communications, present condi-
tion and prospective improvement of agriculture,
in these noble provinces, let any one take up the
map of British North America and consider
what will be the effect of the completion of that

CANADA.

209

Tiiagnificent, imperial system of railway com-
munication, wliich, starting from Halifax, is
about to pass from Nova Scotia, through New
Brunswick, to Quebec, and from thence to
Montreal, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, and
through the entire length of Upper Canada to
its western extremity, opposite Detroit; there
to meet the already constructed railway across
the State of Michigan to Chicago, and onward,
towards the Mississippi, which will be reached
by a line now in progress, within the next
few years. I speak of this great main line
through the British provinces as "about to be
completed," because the Legislatures of Canada,
New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, have agreed
upon a basis of co-operation, Canada making
herself responsible for four-twelfths, New Bruns-
wick for five-twelfths, and Nova Scotia for three-
twelfths of the cost, the Imperial Government
being expected to guarantee the necessary loan,
which will enable these provinces to borrow the
money, 7,000,000/., at three and a half per cent. ;
and because half the portion from Quebec to
Montreal is open, and the line from Hamilton to

I
I

.11 !

f I

^%::&.

210

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

'\l •

New Windsor (its western terminus), partly
under contract.* Let the branch lines from the
main one be then traced ; from Prescott on the
St. Lawrence, to Bytown on the Ottawa, now
under construction ; from Toronto to Lake Sim-
coe, 50 miles north, and on to Lake Huron,
already commenced ; thus following out sugges-
tions as to opening this rich and valuable line of
country by a railway, from which the most pro-
fitable results are anticipated : again, the proposed
branches from Toronto to Guelph andGodcrich;
from Ilamilton to Niagara, to connect with the
lines through the State of New York ; from Brant-
ford to Goderich, on Lake Huron, on one side,
and to Port Maitland and the mouth of the
Welland Canal, on Lake Erie, and beyond, to a
point opposite Buffalo, on the other.

Let the magnificent canal communications be
next considered, — both those that exist and those
that are projected, and which will at no distant
day be, without doubt, effected. The first are

* A guarantee of the whole sum at once will clearly be for the
interest of this country, as it would secure the contemporaneous
constri'.otion of the best-paying portions of the line, — those from
Quebec westward.

CANADA.

211

b be

lose

Itant

are

^r the
leous
I from

well known ; those that enable a vessel of 350
tons burden, laden at the extreme end of Lake
Michigan, to pass through the Welland Canal,
and thence by the Rapids of the St. Lawrence,
to Montreal and Quebec, laden with 3000 barrels
of flour below and 1000 upon her deck. The
second are the improvements now in progress in
deepening Lake St. Peter, which it is proposed
to continue until ships of 1000 tons burden can
come up from the ocean to the wharfs at Mon-
treal — upwards of 500 miles inland from the
mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Point
Gaspe ; the construction of a large canal from a
point somewhere nearly opposite Montreal to
Lake Champlain, with a corresponding enlarge-
ment of the canals from that lake to the Hudson,
which wall enable the large vessels laden on the
upper lakes to proceed by that route to New
York without " breaking bulk ;"* the construc-

* For aa account of this proposed canal, and for many in-
teresting and valuable facts relating to the resources of Canada,
and best means of giving them further development, I would refer
to a Prize Essay on ' The Canals of Canada, their Prosj)ects and
Influence.' Written for a premium oft'ercd by His Excellency
the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, K.T., Governor-General of
British North America. &c. &c. By Thomas C. Kcefer, Civil
Engineer. — Toronto, A. H. Armour and Co. 1850.

i\ 1

i I

'. I

212

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

tioii of a short canal (of only one mile) at Sault
Sainte Marie (a plan projected also by the
United States), in the narrow strait above Lake
Huron, and which will open the whole of Lake
Superior, — that vast inland sea, — with its newly
discovered mineral resources of copper and iron,
to the commerce of the St. Lawrence, and give
another impulse to the already rapidly increasing
settlement of the territory of Minesota* — a name
hitherto probably scarcely heard of in England,
but the name, nevertheless, of a fertile region
nearly as large as England, and one so attractive
to settlers that it is expected, within three years
from the present time, to be sufficiently peopled
to be able to demand admittance into the Union.f

* The purchase from the Indians of the whole of the remainder
of the territory, not before sold by them, is just completed.

t The following extract, from an able Report by the United
States Consul at St. John's, New Brunswick, to the Secrerary of
the United States Treasury, on the Trade and Commerce of the
British North American Colonies (Washington, 1851), adverted
to again at p. 279, will be read with interest in connexion with
the subject of the anticipated effect of the proposed Lake Cham-
plain Canal on the future development of the trade and com-
merce of Canada : —

" It is proposed to construct a canal on a large scale near
Montreal, to unite the waters of Lake Champlain and the St.
Lawrence : this, if carried out, will unquestionably prove to be

•-'W.;>»*»*»'»*!..-- •«*•„,«<•■»

CANADA.

213

corn-
near
le St.
to bo

Let any one who has considered these pro-
vinces thus far now glance for a moment at their

of great benefit to the inland conimercv. generally, and the Imn-
bering districts of Eastern Canada. You can, however, judge
of its merits, and better appreciate its importance, by the foU
lowiny extracts from a report of a Committee (of which the
Hon. R II. Walworth was chairman), appointed by a meetings
lield at Troy, in July, 1849, of which meeting Major-General
Wool was president, to whom was referred the duty of visiting
the site of this great undertaking, and an extract from a report
made by the Montreal Board of Trade on the same subject, of
which board Thomas Ryan, Esq., is president.

*' One source of revenue from the canal anticipated by your
Committee, is the transportation of large quantities of coal from
Pennsylvania and other States situated upon our great western
lakes, for the manufacture of iron, and the transportation of such
iron for the use of the western States. It is well known that a
very considerable region of country in northern New York is
filled with the richest and most extensive beds of iron ore in the
United States, or perhaps in the world. Many of these beds
which have been opened, and are now being worked, are situated
upon the very borders of Lake Champlain, or within a short
distance from it. The present capabilities of the iron works in
the vicinity of these mines, or on the shores of the lake, are
about 60,000 tons of iron annually, the production of which
quantity of iron will require about 120,000 tons of coal. The
future capability of these extensive mines for the production of
ore, and the extent to which iron works may be erected in that
region where water-power is so abundant, are incalculable, and
can only be limited by the wants of the country. The present
price of coal at Erie, is from one dollar fifty cents to two dollars
per ton ; and the estimated price of tonnage and tolls, supposing
it to be the same in this as in the Welland Canal, is about seventy-
seven cents. All other expenses of transportation to points upon
Lake Champlain, would not exceed from seventy* five to one

I I

214

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, Sec.

f (I

great and flourishing towns ; — Hamilton, be-
neath a bold escarpment and enfolding hills

hundred cents, making the price of tiiis coal, wlion dolivered on
the shores of Lake Champhiin, only from three dollars fifty cents
to three dollars seventy-tivo cents per ton. Tiiis is much less
tliun the coal can bo obtained for from any other (luarter, cs[)e-
cially when the wood for the manufacture of charcoal shall have
been cut olF, as it must be in a very few years. And this canal,
by opening a direct communication with the western States and
the fertile region of Upper Canada, will furnish a new and con-
stantly increasing market for *.\\c iron of northern New York, and
will supply return cargoes for the vessels which bring down the
coal.

*' Again, connected as this canal would be with the Ottawa,
as well as other rivers which flow iito the St. Lawrence, either
above or below Montreal, the shons of which rivers arc now
lined with immense forests of the most valuable pine timber, it
would bring to Lake Champlain, and through the Champlain
Canal to the Hudson River, the products of those forests ; and
will thus chea])cn that species of lumber, which, from its scarcity,
is now commanding exorbitant prices. This, of itself, it is be-
lieved, would for many years afford a very handsome revenue to
the canal. A large Ji inch of trade would also be oi)oned with
Newfoundland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia; for there is but little
doubt that their fish, oil, gypsum, coal, &c., could be delivered
on Lake Champlain, and even at Troy, at a less cxi)enso for
transportation than the same articles are now delivered at these
points by way of Boston and New York. But when there is
added to this the trade of northern Pennsylvania from Lake Erie,
the trade of Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa,
Minesota, and the fertile peninsula of Upper Canada ; when it
is considered that the lands now cultivated in this extensive
region of country boar but a small proportion to the wild lands,
and that such will be the gradual increase of production then,
that the Erie and Oswego canals, even when enlarged, will be

Si* ,

111

V^jf*' '

t-iitlJ^f '

■ ---V i-"«'3WTO&ij^

CANAl V.

215

bc-
hills

and

carcity,
is be-
tiue to
d with
t little
vercd
ISO for
these
icre is
Erie,
Iowa,
len it
insive
ands,
then,
11 be

richly covered with the primeval lores ^
undulating plain on which it stands di\ . ified

totally inadequate to such increased commerce ; by this single
improvement, steamers and vessels from all the ui)])er and
western lakes, as well as from the (Jidf of St. Lawrence, can
reach Burlington, Whitehall, and all the other ports on Lake
Chaiiiplain, without breaking bulk. The flour, jjork, beef, coal,
and all the products of the west, can, by means of the railroads
now in course of construction, be distributed in the interior, and
also be landed at Boston, at a less expense, with less depreciation
of value by transport, and in a shorter period than by any other
route.

" To the city of New York the construction of this work is
of the greatest possible importance. With the Champlain Canal
of sixty-six miles to Troy, or seventy-two miles to Albany, en-
larged to the same size as the proposed canal, vessels fiom any
western lake port could, without breaking bulk, discharge at the
port of New York, and then could there reload with emigrants
and merchandise direct for the west.

" From Lake Eric to New York, by the St. Lawrence and
Lake Champlain, there would be about 194 miles of canal navi-
gation, with 702 feet lockage, against 3G3 miles of canal, with
6i)8 feet lockage, by way of the Erie Canal. In the one case
there would be no transhipment from the lakes to New York, but
a continuous water communication, affording navigation for
vessels of 350 tons burden. In the other case there would bo
two transhipments, and, by the present size of our canals, a water
communication navigable by boats of 75 ton- only. It must also
be borne in mind that vessels, in descending the St. Lawrence,
need not be delayed by passing through the locks in that river,
as loaded vessels may now descend the rajjids in safety, and are
only compelled to use the locks in the ascending voyages."

Having mentioned with some particularity the resources and
advantages of other favoured portions of Canada, I am reminded
by the reference to the district of the Ottawa in the above ex-

21G

NOTES ON PUBLIC HIIIWIXTS, Stc.

with t'oliap^e, cultivution, Jiiul villas ; t\\v inlot
from the Lake, which forms its harhoiir, pro-
sciitin^ an agrceahly varied outliiu' ; the villas
generally in a thoroughly correct style of archi-
tecture, and surrounded hy groimds as well ke])t
and as neat as art and care can make them ; the
streets wide, the houses suhstantial, the ])ul)lic
buildings creditable, the shops and wholesale
warehouses showing every sign of a thriving and
exuberant trade:* Toronto, spreading over a
wide and gently rising plateau on the lake shore,
handsomely built, increasing most rapidly, pos-
sessing public buildings which in dimensions, in
correctness of taste, and in solidity of construc-
tion, are surpassed by few of a similar kind iu
the second-rate towns in England; its wealth
steadily accumulating, under perhaps the compa^
ratively slow but yet the certain course of the

tract, that it would be an injustice to it not to add some account
of its vast capabilities. I accordingly give in the Appendix (II),
p. 315, some extracts from a public document concerning it.

* It is to be regretted that the j)lariting of trees for shado
along the foot-pavements of the principal streets, which gives so
pleasing an appearance to the towns in the United States, has
not yet, except in a very few instances, been adopted in
Canada.

»"_*.-*^... ^

CANADA.

*il7

strict business principles uiul incrcuntile honour
of the " old country ;" its numerous neat and
well-kept villas, and houses of* larger pretensions
attaehiHl to eonsiderahle farms at a further dis-
Uuice from the town, attesting the effect of the
process:* Kiiifjfston, also showing signs of pros-
perity and progress; distinguished even among
the towns of Canada for the grandeur and cor-
rectness of design of its public buildings (market-
houses, public offices, &c.) ; occupying an im-
portant ])()sition at the head of the Ilideau
Canal ; guarded by its strong fort, which com-
bines in the landscape with the varied outline of
the town, the inlet forming the small dockyard,
the woody islands, and the surrounding country :
Montreal, alive with commerce, pleasing the eye
with the graceful forms of the hills around;

liccount

(II),
It.

shiulo
Ives so
^s, hu3
Itcd in

* It was lately publicly stated, on undoubted authority, that,
MJiilo at one of the great couuiiercial towns on the other side oi
the lake, in the State of New York, the individuals composing
the leading mercantile firms had nearly all changed three times
over within the last twenty years in consequence of failures, the
persons in leading positions as merchants, &c., at Toronto, had
been the same during the whole time, or had transmitted their
wealth and position to their sons ; and that many who were be-
ginning their career at the commencement of that period, had
been pursuing it without reverses and were now wealthy.

218

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

i !

some of its old narrow and somewhat picturesque
streets reminding one of Europe; its public
buildings,* erected and in progress, equally sub-
stantial and creditable: Quebec, with its un-
dying interest, its beauty of position and outline,
its crowd of masts along the wharfs, its fleets at
anchor below the citadel, or in the *' Timber-
coves" beneath overhanging cliffs and foliage, its
quaint old streets, its imposing fortifications, and
its busy population.

Let all these circumstances be weighed ; the
great natural resources of these provinces, the
energy now at work in developing them, the
inducements thereto held out by the home growth
of a consuming population, and by the expanding
flicilities of transport either to the home or the
foreign market ; and it will be seen how extensive
a field is there opening for the still further
employment of British capital and labour.

♦ In the term " public buildings," wherever I have used it, I
do not mean to include the churches, although several in each town
are in an excellent style of architecture. The cathedral at Mon-
treal has very slender claims to any merit of this kind ; yet 1
fear it is often considered, by visiters from the United States, as
a specimen of the cathedrals of Europe.

CANADA.

219

it, I
town
Mon-
yetl

Ites, as

The ordinary interest of capital in Canada is 6
per cent. The ordinary price of common labour
in Upper Canada is 25. to 35. (sterling) a day ;
and as all common articles are admitted under a
low revenue tariff of from 2i to 12 J per cent,
the usual articles of consumption, including pro-
visions, are cheap and good. The principle,
indeed, of the Canadian tariff is to levy pretty
high duties on sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco, wines,
spirits, and other articles not produced either in
the colony or the mother country, and to place
revenue duties, as low as the wants of the pro-
vince admit, on manufactures.

The annual accumulations of British capital
were stated, during the discussions on the in-
come-tax and on the railway mania of 1846, as
amounting to some 60,000,000?.; they have since
been estimated at 75,000,000?., of which vast
sum about one half finds employment in invest-
ments as fixed capital, in new buildings of various
kinds — as houses, manufactures, bridges, roads,
&c. &c. — while a large portion of the other halfj
which cannot be profitably occupied in extending
existing fields of investment, is obliged to seek

, i

1 ;

220

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

for new ones. The amount of British capital
already employed in Canada is very great; a
considerable number of the leading merchants
being either connected with large mercantile
houses in London, or being independent off-
shoots from them. A supply, also, of excellent
agricultural settlers has of late years come to the
colony. That there is an ample and a growing
field for more, the facts above adduced show-
without a doubt. The question is, are there any
reasons, in addition to those exhibited, why it
should flow in that direction ?

This opens the consideration of Canadian poli-
tics, which, however, I shall touch upon but briefly.

The politics of Canada were, for many years,
" a sore subject" in England. Whenever public
attention was called to them, it was generally in
relation to complaints as to the mode of govern-
ment, terminating in insurrections; complaints
(and most just ones) as to the suddenness of the
alterations of our tariff, and the want of con-
sideration shown to the Canadians at the time ;
civil disturbances, threats of throwing off all
connexion with the mother country and "annex-

apital
it; a
;hants
antile
t off-
lellent
to the
owing
show
re any
vhy it

n poli-
)riefly.
vears,
public
ally in
overn-
ilaints
lof the
cen-
time ;
ff all
nnex-

CANADA.

221

ing" themselves to the United State* And
whoever, in his desire to look more closely into
those matters, consulted the public press of the
colony, found it (with a few and occasional
exceptions) dealing in accusations of the blackest
kind against opponents, imputations of the lowest
and most corrupt motives, personalities, and
other marks of bitter animosity, and very seldom
rising to a tone of calm and searching discussion
on the important questions of the day. It re-
quires a nearer view and a better acquaintance
than books or newspapers can give, to form a
just estimate of the beneficial change that has
latterly taken place, and of the point at which
those provinces have arrived in the process of ini-
tiation into the working of constitutional govern-
ment.

There is no need to revive in this place the
facts relating to that great cause of difference a
few years ago between the Executive and one of
the parties in the province — the Rebellion Losses
Bill. They are unhappily too familiar to every
one in the colony. The result of the course of
policy then pursued has, however, been this —

.'/frr-T^

222

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

;(i, .

1 1

it has shown most unequivocally to the whole
people of Canada that they are bond fide and to
the fullest extent in possession of the great privi-
lege of Constitutional Government. This is
unquestionably a great point for them to have
established, and worth a great deal more than the
temporary feelings of irritation which accom-
panied the passing of that celebrated Bill. I
think I perceived that those feelings had been
considerably softened down in the great majority
of persons that I met with, although it still re-
mains as a deep cause of offence in the minds of
many. They cling to the idea that the Governor-
General (Lord Elgin) should have refused his
assent to the Bill, and should have sent it to
England either with or without a recommenda-
tion that it should have been disallowed by the
Crown. To have done the former, as was argued
at the time in this country, would have been to
place the Crown in direct antagonism with the
French and the Liberal party in the colony ; to
have done the latter would have been to shrink
from a responsibility which on great occasions it
is often the first duty of a servant of the Crown

CANADA.

223

to assume. In either case the Crown would have
been brought into direct collision with powerful
and exasperated parties in the province, and,
what would have been still worse, the repre-
sentative of the Crown would have been lowered
to the position of a partisan. I believe it is now,
after two years of reflection, pretty generally ad-
mitted that, considering the failure of former
attempts to carry on the government on the
basis of the ascendancy of race and party, and
considering the then embittered state of public
feeling, the discontent engendered by commer-
cial distress, and the hostility to British rule in
Canada manifested by certain classes in the
United States, even as late as the year 1848, it
was a critical moment in the destinies of this
colony, and that it is fortunate that it terminated
as it did. Where the contrary opinion still lin-
gers, it appeared to me to be the result of too low
an appreciation of the constitutional position and
duties of the Executive. This is far from being
unnatural, considering the comparative novelty of
constitutional government in the colony, and the
long habit, contracted under the old mode of

'^TWW*t»P< " . ^V-:C '

224

NOTES ON rUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

administration, of looking at the Queen's repre-
sentative as the supporter and ahuost the insti'U-
ment of one party alone. It may be, as it is still
argued, that the experiment of constitutional
government was introduced too soon, that neither
the state of intelligence of the mass of the people,
nor the condition of the public press, was such as
to justify so sudden a change. But it is admitted
on all hands that there is no returning to the
past — that what has been done cannot be undone
— and that all that remains from henceforward
is to make the best of matters as they now exist.
It is therefore natural to conclude that, the more
constitutional questions come to be studied,
as they arise in the course of public affairs, the
more will the point, which in England is so
familiar, become plain and obvious, that the true
place of the representative of the Crown is one
above and aloof from the personal considerations
of party, and one which keeps in view only the
just and impartial administration of public affairs
with reference to the great general interests of
the country.

A circumstance, exemplifying this principle.

CANADA.

225

litions
the
IfFairs

Its of

iple,

was agitating the colony during my stay there,
in consequence of the appointment to office, in
conjunction with the party which had a majority
in the Legislative Assembly, of two individuals
personally very obnoxious to the party out of
power. It was the simple constitutional course,
and any other would have had the disadvan-
tage, in addition to being unconstitutional, of
making political martyrs, and therefore placing in
such hands a great accession of popular power.

Two other circumstances are also worth advert-
ing to, as indications of how entirely the govern-
ment is now being carried on in accordance with
the Parliamentary principles of this country.
I. This very change of the "personnel" of the
administration, adverted to in the last paragraph,
was in part the result of a measure of a distin-
guished member of the ministry having been
voted against by some of his usual supporters,
aided by members of the old Tory party and some
of the Radical section of their own. The minister
v/hose measure was by that vote condemned by
an influential portion of his own party, took the
dignified course of resigning oflfice — the measure

226

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

i ■

It >

that was condemned having been the year before
strongly supported by both parties. 2. The general
election was about to take place, and all parties
were busy with canvassing and addresses. The
Ultra-Radical party, which apparently draws its
inspirations from the most *' advanced " portions
of the American democracy, adopted the line of
attempting to bind their candidates by pledges
on every question of the day. A very firm stand
was made against this unconstitutional attempt at
dictation, by some of the men of highest position
in the colony, who refused to submit to what
would utterly destroy the House of Representa-
tives for every useful purpose as a deliberative
body, by converting its members into a mere
meeting of delegates to register the decisions of
irresponsible committees.

These are the processes by which a real feel-
ing is brought home to public men of their
duties and responsibilities, by which statesmen
are formed, and the public mind educated in the
working of constitutional government. And it
must be evident to any one who calmly observes
what is passing in those provinces, that, in the

CANADA.

227

feel-
their
;men

the
id it
Tves

the

short time during which they can be considered
to have been in possession of real responsible
government, they have made great and im-
port? ^^t steps in its practical assertion according
to its true theory. This consideration cannot but
raise the Canadian people in the estimation of
every Englishman who visits that colony, and of
every one else acquainted with the privileges
which they enjoy under their essentially fi^ee
constitution.*

* It was, doubtless, a sense of this well-established and im-
portant fact that showed itself in the cordial and animated re-
ception which the authorities and people of Boston gave, in
the month of October last, to the Governor- General of these
provinces, and to the large body of distinguished Canadians who
accompanied him. The occasion was a railway celebration, on
the completion of the Vermont central line from Montreal to
Boston. The mayor and corporation of Boston, and other
eminent persons of that city, had repaired to Montreal to invite
the Queen's representative, the ministers and the leading members
of the Canadian Parliament, the municipal authorities, and the
most prominent individuals of the latter city, to a friendly fSte
in commemoration of an event pregnant with great prospective
commercial advantages to both those wealthy communities. The
invitation was accepted; the Governor-General, surrounded by
his ministers, and a large assemblage of persons of distinguished
position and character in Canada, was received by the authorities
and the whole people of Boston, not only with the most muni-
ficent hospitality, but with marked demonstrations of honour
and respect to himself as Her Majesty's representative, and the
constitutional head of the Canadian people. The Canadian

:; >^

[

228

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

The general results of the complete introduc-
tion of Constitutional Government in Canada

ministers also, and the distinguislied individuals with them, met
with a reception that spoke a sense of their being fully appre-
ciated as representing a people holding a place among the free
governments of the world. In that light the celebration was
looked upon even by the local papers in distant parts of the
Union, where I chanced at the time to see them, and it was
spoken of in a very gratifying manner.

In point of fact, as I have undertaken to express an opinion
on the present constitutional state of the government of Canada,
I cannot withhold my conviction that it possesses a far greater
degree of real freedom than it could acquire by any imitation,
such as the ultra- Radical party are apparently aiming at, of any
of the peculiarities of the constitution of the United States. The
Executive in Canada, holding j)recisely the same relative position
as the Crown with us, has far less direct power and patronage
than the President of the United States. The ministerial re-
sponsibility, also, is far greater and more immediate than any-
thing that can exist under the system of the United States
Government. In Canada they are, as with us, members of Par-
liament, and ready and obliged to answer in their places any
questions, and to meet any charges brought against them. The
ministers of the United States are not permitted to enter the
Legislature, nor can they be displaced by a hostile vote ; during
the whole term of their being ministers, they are entirely free to
act in any way thf y choose, under the direction of the President
(who may, if he pleases, act in the most important matters
without them), and, if they satisfy him, it matters not to them
what the rest of the nation may think of them or their measures.
And it should be remembered also by that ultra-party, that the
adoption of portions of the United States' system of government,
without the whole, would form a constitution far less guarded by
constitutional checks than that of the United States; for this

CANADA.

229

met

may, I think, be stated as follows : — First. That
although many most estimable persons continue
to think the experiment had better not have been
tried, all now acquiesce in it, and are prepared
to make the best of it ; while the great majority
of the community look with satisfaction and
hopefulness on the change that has taken
place from the old mode of administering the

simple reason, that the judges of the Supreme Court of the
United States hold in their hands a supremo and arbitrary power
of declaring what is and what is not consistent with the written
constitution, and can, consequently, disallow and annul any
attempt of any ultra-party to go beyond it. The British con-
stitution, being an unwritten one, and the venerable result of tho
wisdom of successive ag"s, has no such arbitrary check; and
while it rests on the good sense and moderation of an enlightened
public opinion, will never need such. Let, however, nii.abcrs
overbear weight of character and authority, and our constitution
has no ulterior appeal, and must be swept away. Our needful
and useful reforms have hitherto been kept within that dangerous
boundary, and it is to be hoped ever will be. There was no
constitutional point which I had an opportunity of discussing
with able and intelligent men of all parties in the United States
and in Canada, which was adverted to by them with greater
interest than this ; for it is there deeply felt, that, of all the
nations of the civilized world. Great Britain alone has, tlirough
the shock of long-past as well as recent convulsions, preserved
the principle of authority and the sentiments of respect and
reverence, and has, tiierefore, the better chance of preserving, as
of old, wisdom in her councils, and the blessing of Providence
on her course.

230

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

affairs of the colony, and at the same time feel a
not unjustifiable pride in the reflection that they
now possess a system of government, in all the
most important respects precisely analogous to
that of the British Constitution. Secondly. That
the Conservative party are recovering the good
feeling that a large j)ortion of them so entirely
lost at the period of the unfortunate occurrences
at Montreal in April, 1849,* of which a signal
proof was very recently given in the presentation
of an Address by the Mayor and Corporation of
Montreal, and a large number of the inhabitants,
to the Governor-General, on the occasion of his
return from the gratifying and in all respects
important reception at Boston. That address
bespoke an entire oblivion and reconciliation in
respect of the past. It was responded to in a
spirit and in words that will long live in the
hearts and memories of the people of Montreal.

• Most fortunately, and by the wise forbearance of those in
authority, no blood was shed ; and consequently no rankling
wound was left in the breasts of either party. Had the British
arms been call-^d in to support by force either of the exasj)erated
parties at that critical moment, half a century would not have
effaced the mischief.

CANADA.

231

ng
sh

Thirdly. Animosities of race appear to be fast
disappearing — a great result in every point of
view. French Canadians and English are learn-
ing to act together as a great united Cana-
dian people, having the same object in view —
the honour and prosperity of their magnificent
country. Fourthly. The French Canadians are
loyal and contented, and are partaking, as I
have taken occasion to show, in as great a degree
as can yet be expected, in the onward move-
ment of the active races around them. Fifthly.
Authority, law, and order, have been strengthened
by the public example of the harmonious working
together of the two great powers of the State,
the Legislative and the Ex( cutive. Sixthly.
Attention is less distracted than formerly, from
the great questions of public improvement, — rail-
ways, canals, roads, education, agriculture, — on
all of which the public mind in Canada is now
bent with great energy, — little less, apparently,
and judging from the public prints, than exists
among ourselves.

All this tends to show that government and
society in Canada are upon a sohd basis ]So

232

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

other fact .could have so much weight as this in en-
couraging persons, who may think of emigrating,
to ally themselves and their fortunes with the
vlestinies of that country, or in bringing com-
mercial capital to its shores. As for the "an-
nexation" movement of a few years ago, the
mention of it now only excites a smile ; and if
universal rumour is to be trusted, those who, in
a moment of temporary irritation, were most
forward in it, are the last to wish to hear any
allusion to the subject. A newspaper which was
set on foot to advocate those ideas, died away in
a few months. The discussion provoked by it
had the good effect of making only more clear to
the understandings and feelings of the whole
Canadian people the fact, that they were and
would be of far greater importance, as a people,
while connected with Great Britain, than they
ever could be as one of the States of the Union ;
that they had already within themselves all the
guarantees of law, order, and good government,
and all the elements of material prosperity, with
the important addition of the aid of British credit
and British capital; and that they had good

CANADA.

233

)ii;
I the
mt,

rith

bdit

)0d

reason to be proud of being part and parcel of
this empire, and of a country which enjoys,
beyond all other countries, the blessings arising
from a temperate and rational freedom.*

One of the greatest aids that could be now

* Canada has, in point of fact, more freedom of action than is
possessed by the individual States of the Union, and consequently
more than she would have if she wore one of them. An illus-
tration of this is now before the public in those countries. All
the States bordering on the great lakes are anxious for the free
navigation of the St. Lawrence, which Canada is ready to grant.
The general Government of the United States has opposed ob-
stacles to this, arising out of the imagined interests of some of
the other States, To any such measure which Canada might
think advantageous to her interest, the Imperial Government
would not think of interposing the slightest obstacle.

Also, under any right estimate of happiness, Canada has the
advantage, in a comparative immunity from the perpetual strife and
intrigue of elections, and from the ostracism of wealth, talent,
high principle, and wisdom to which Universal SuiFrage is al-
ways more or less inclined.

Since the abovi was written, the General Election has taken
place, and T cannot help thinking that many circumstances re-
lating to it, which I see mentioned in the public papers, may be
fairly taken as confirmatory of the soundness of the policy pur-
sued in that country during the last few years. It is said that
never was an election in Canada so free from violence; that
" annexation" has been almost unheard of; and that the attacks
were few upon the Union of the Provinces, the change in the
seat of Government, and the Governor-General. It is much to
be hoped that this may be regarded as the inauguration of a
long period of moderation, peace, and mutual efforts for the
common welfare.

234

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

given to the prosperity and dignity of these fine
provinces would be an elevated and purified
daily press. With a very few exceptions (and
those not always and altogether such, according
to my own limited observation), the press of
Canada does injustice to the political, moral,
social, and intellectual character of the people,
and is not of a tone to qualify it to speak for a
cultivated and intelligent society.* It rarely, as
far as I could observe, attempts any calm and
philosophical discussion of the topics of the
highest moment to the future destiny of the
colony, moral and social ; but is rather occupied
in stimulating, instead of striving to allay, the
exasperations of party struggles, which are always
apt to be most bitter among men only beginning

* The state of the press in Canada makes it necessary for me, to
prevent any possible misrepresentation and imputations of motives,
to say that I have not, nor ever had, nor ever expect to have, the
slightest personal interest in Canada, or in anything that concerns
it. The interest I have taken in it is of a purely public nature,
and such as any Englishman may be allowed to take in a question
of great public importance, — the material and moral progress of
our colonies ; and what I have thus essayed to write upon it
has arisen, as I have before said, from the mere accident of my
turning my steps in that direction, instead of another, during an
autumn tour, without a previous acquaintance with half a dozen
individuals in Canada.

CANADA.

235

me, to
lotives,
Ive, the
Incerns
lature,
lestion
ress of
Ipon it
]of my
ing an
dozen

to learn to act together on the great arena of
public life, under a system of political freedom.
An improvement in the tone of the press would,
by degrees, educate the public taste above that
which now only tends to lower it, and with it,
to a certain extent, the estimation in which the
colony must be held elsewhere.

It must be admitted that such writing as
appears in some of the papers that are the
present organs of party, would not be found in
them unless it was in harmony with the tastes of
a considerable number of subscribers ; and the
admission must lead to the inference that educa-
tion has a great work before it in that colony.

Education in Upper Canada. — The manner
in which the great question of elementary edu-
cation has been dealt with in Upper Canada
is eminently deserving of earnest and impartial
consideration : not only from the effect it is
likely to produce in Canada itself, but on account
of its more general interest In order to explain
the provisions of the Act under which the
system now in force has been established, I
cannot do better than quote largely from an

■f*^

236

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

"Introductory Sketch of the System of Public
Elementary Instruction in Upper Canada," by
the Chief Superintendent of Schools (the Kev.
Dr. Ryerson), on the occasion of the ceremony
of laying the first stone of the " Normal and
Model Schools and Education Offices for Upper
Canada " at Toronto, on the 2nd of July of this
year (1851).

For thirty years previously to 1841, annual
Parliamentary grants were made in aid of com-
mon schools, but expended without system and
to very little effect. In that year the first school-
law w";s pfiosed. In 1845 Dr. Ryerson made
an extensive personal inquiry into the common-
school systems of America and Europe, the
result of which was embodied in a Report, and
afterwards in two laws of 1846 and 1847, sub-
sequently enlarged and improved by the present
law of 1850.

Dr. Ryerson states (p. 5) that the system
embodied in this law is derived from what ap-
peared to him most excellent in all those which he
examined. 1. He derived the machinery of the
law from that in force in the State of New York,

CANADA.

237

ftem
ap-
he
the

lork,

which was, however, " defective in the intricacy
of some of its details, in the absence of an
efficient provision for visitation and inspection of
schools, religious instruction, and uniform text-
books for the schools." 2. He considered the
principle of supporting scLools in the State of
Massachusetts the best, but requiring modifica-
tion, in order to substitute the free action of each
locality for the compulsory requirements of the
State. 3. He preferred the books of the Na-
tional Board of Education in Ireland. 4. He
considered the system of training teachers, and
the principles and modes of teaching prevalent
in Germany, superior to all others. "Another
feature, or rather cardinal principle," which is
embodied in the law, is that of " not only making
Christianity the basis of the system and the
pervading element of all it^ parts, but of recog-
nizing and combining, in their official character, all
the clergy of the land, with their people, in its prac-
tical operation " (p. 7) ; maintaining at the same
time "absolute parental supremacy in the religious
instrurtion of their children, and upon this prin-
ciple providing for it according to circumstances."

238

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

5<i

1 1

The general organization is thus described
(pp. 7-12):--

" The system of public instruction is engrafted upon
the municipal institutions of the country. We have muni-
cipal councils I counties, of townships, of cities, of towns,
and of incorporated villages. The members of county
councils are elected by the councils of townships and towns
— one or two for each. The members of township, city,
town, and village councils are elected by the resident free-
holders and householders of each municipality.

" The municipal council of each township divides such
township into school sections of a suitable extent for one
school in Cuch, or for both a male and female school. The
affairs of each school section are managed by three trustees,
who hold their offices for three years, and one of whom is
elected annually by the freeholders and householders of
such section. The powers of trustees are ample to enable
them to do all that the interests of a good school require —
they are the legal representatives and guardians of their
section in school matters. They determine whatever sum
or sums are necessary for the furnishing, &c., of their
school and the salaries of teachers, but account for its
expenditure animally to their constituents, and report fully
to the local superintendent, by filling up blank forms of
annual reports which are furnished to them by the Chief
Superintendent of Schools from year to year. The town-
ship council imposes assessments for the erection of school-
houses, or for any other school purpose desired by tiie in-
habitants of school sections through their trustees. The
inhabitants of each school section decide as to the manner

CANADA.

239

•e —

heir

lum

leir

its

illy
of

iief
n-

.ol-
in-
he
\er

in which they will support their school according to the
estimates and engagements made by the trustees, whether
by voluntary subscription, by rate-bills on parents sending
children to the schools, or by rates on the property of all
according to its assessed value, and opening the school to
the children of all without exception. The latter mode is
likely to supersede both the otliers ; but its existence and
operation, in connexion with each school, depend upon the
annual decision of the inhabitants of each school section, at
a public meeting called for that purpose.

'* The duties of teachers are prescribed by law, and their
rights are effectually protected. No teacher is entitled t(
any part of the school fund who does not conduct his school
according to law, and who has not a legal certificate of
qualifications from a county Board of Public Instruction ;
nor is any school section entitled to receive any aid from
the sciiool fund in which a school is not kept open six
months during each year by a teacher thus recogr ized as
to both moral character and attainments. The law also
requires a public quarterly examination to be held in each
school.

" The inspection of the schools is made by local super-
intendents, who are appointed by the county councils, and
who may be appointed one for each county, or one for one
or more townships, at the pleasure of each county council.
Each local superintendent is entitled to at least one pound
( four dollars) per annum for each school under his charge.
He is often allowed more. He is required to visit each
school at least once a quarter, and to deliver a public lec-
ture on education in each school section once a year, be-
sides apportioning the school moneys to the several school

I J

240

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

sections within his jurisdiction, giving checks, oa the orders
of trustees, to qualified teachers upon the county treasurer
or sub-treasurer, aiding in the examination of teactiers, de-
ciding various questions of dispute and reference, corre-
sponding on school matters, and reporting annually to the
Chief Superintendent, according to the forms prepared and
furnished by him.

" Besides the local superintendents, all cleigymen recog-
nized by law, judges, members of the legislature, magis-
trates, members of county councils, and aldermen, are
school visitors, to visit all the schools, as far as practicable,
within their respective charges and mtmicipalities. Their
visits are voluntary ; they are desired ' especially to attend
the qu.'irterly 'examination of schools, and at the time of
such visits to examine the progress of the pupils, and the
state and management of the schools, and to give such
advice to teachers and pupils, and any others present, ns
they may think advisable, in accordance with the regula-
tions and instructions whicli shall be provided in regard to
school visitors according to law.* The law also authorises
the holding of general meetings of school visitors in any
municipality, on the appointment of any two visitors, ' to
devise such means as they may deem expedient for the effi-
cient visitation of the schooL^, and to promote the esta-
blishment of libraries and the diffusion of useful knowledge.'
The school visits of the clergy in Upper Canada amounted
last year to 2566 ; the number of visits by tiie other school
visitors was 9970 ; and 5852 visits were made by local
superintendents, being an increase of 2879 over those of
the preceding year.

" There is a Board of Public Instruction in each county,

he orders
treasurer
chers, de-
ce, corre-
ally to the
jpared and

men recog-
ire, magis-
ermen, are
practicable,
ies. Their
ly to attend
the time of
ils, and the
give such
present, as
the regula-
in regard to
]o authorises
(itors in any
Ivisitors, ' to
for the effi-
?, the esta-
noNvledge.'
la amounted
(ther school
le by local
Iver those of

tacli county,

CANADA.

241

consisting of local superintendents and the trustees of
grammar-schools in such county. These county Boards
consist largely of the clergy of different religious persua-
sions, associated with some of the most intelligent lay
gentlemen in each county ; so that the country has the
best guarantee that its circumstances will admit for tlie
moral character and intellectual qualifications of teachers.
The teachers are examined, and arranged into tliree classes,
according to a Programme of Examination prepared and
prescribed by the Council of Public Instruction for Upper
Canada.

" The municipal council of each county is responsible
for raising at least an equal sum for salaries of teachers in
the several townships within its jurisdiction with that
which is annually apportioned to them out of the parlia-
mentary appropriation by tlie Chief Superintendent of
Scliools. The county councils also appoint the local trea-
surers of the school fund, and the local superintendents of
schools, and provide for their salaries. Special provision
is also made for the security of the school fund against the
diversion of any part of it, and for the prompt payment of
it to teachers at the times specified by law. Both the
county and township councils have authority to raise any
sums they shall think proper for public school libraries
under general regulations prescribed according to law. A
parliamentary appropriation has been made for the esta-
blishment of school libraries, to be expended on the same
conditions with the appropriation for the support of
schools.

" The law also pro v.Jes a system adapted to the cir-
cumstances of cities, towns, and incorporated villages. In

242

NOTES ON rUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

i'i

> i

each city and town there is one board of trustees for the
management of all the schools in snch city or town — two
trustees elected for cacii ward, and holding office for two
years — one retiring annually. In each incorporated vil-
lage not divided into wards there is a board of six trustees
elected, two retiring from otiice and two elected each year.
These boards of trustees, thus constituted, appoint the
local super! ntenchnt, and determine upon the number and
kinds of schools, the employment of teachers, and all the
expenses necest-ary for the schools in each such city, town,
or incorporated village ; and the municipal council is re-
quired in each case to raise the sum or sums estimated by
the board of trustees for all their school purposes, and in
the manner that they shall desire. There is also the same
provision for the establishment of libraries in each city,
town, and village, as exists in respect to their establish-
ment in each township and county.

" At the head of the whole system we have a Council of
Public Instruction and a Chief Superintendent of Schools,
both appointed by the Crown. The Council has the entire
management of the Provincial Normal and Model Schools,
recommends the text-books for the schools and books for
the school libraries, and makes the regulations for the
organization, government, and discipline of common
schools, the examination and classification of teachers, and
the establishment and care of school libraries throughouj.
Upper Canada.

" The Chief Superintendent, who is ex-officio member
of the Council of Public Instruction, and provides accom-
modations for its meetings, apportions the school fund to
the several municipalities throughout Upper Canada, pre-

(

CANADA.

213

lember
iccom-
funil to
a, pre-

pares the general scliool refrulations, and submits them, as
well as that of text and library books, to the consideration
of th(5 Council ; prepares the forms of reports and modes
of all school pr<iceediiigs under the Act, and gives instruc-
tions for conducting them, as well as for holding teachers*
institutes ; decides questions of dispute submitted to him ;
takes the general superintendence of the Normal Scliool ;
provides facilities for procuring text an(i library books,
and provides and recommends plans of school-houses ; pre-
pares annual reports ; corresponds with local school autho-
rities throughout Upper Canada, and employs all means in
his power fi)r the promotion of education and the diffusion
of useful knowledge. He is responsible for his official
conduct, and for all moneys that pass through his de-
partment.

*' Such is an epitome of the system of public elementary
instruction in Upper Canada. The foundation may be
considered as fairly laid, and something has been done
towards rearing the superstructure. In 1846 provision
was made for the establishment of a Normal School, and
the sum of 1500/. a-year was granted towards its support-
The school was opened in the autumn of 1847, and since
then 618 teachers have been trained, a longer or shorter
time, by able masters, including practice in teaching in a
Model School established for that purpose. Last year a
grant of 1000/. per annum was made to facilitate the
attendance of teachers in training at the Normal School,

and 15,000/. for the erection of buildings The

number of schools in Upper Canada, under the care of the
department, is 3059 ; the amount of money available
during the year for the salaries of teachers, besides all

244

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

Ki.„

other expi'ijses comiectod with the scjiools, was 88,53n/. ;
the iiuniher of pujMls in the schools reported was 151,891.
" There has been an annual increase in^the statistical
returns of each branch of the common scho^ system during
the last five year. The system is to a great extent volun-
lary. Each municipality exercises its discretion as to
whether it will or will not accept the parliamentary appro-
priation upon the conditions specified, and each school
section does the same in regard to the terms on which aid
is oflx»red in supjwrt of its school. The general regula-
tions and oversight are such as merely to secure a fulfil-
ment in each locality of conditions which are required by
the Legislature — the collective wiridom and voice of the
country — and to maintain a standard of teaching that will
prevent funds provided for the promotion of knowledge
from being prostituted upon ignorance and vice. The
working of the common school system is a great social
development ; yet in its infancy but, instinct with life and
energy, and fraught with results which can be more easily
conceived than described."

•

A system of general elementary instruction
combining all these advantages — free scope to
local action, efficient superintendence, provision
for the supply of good teachers and well-selected
books — must by degrees exercise great influ-
ence on the intellectual development of the
mass of the people. The Normal school is also
to afford instruction in the best principles of hus-

CANADA.

245

The

social

fo and

easily

uction

)e to

vision

ected

influ-

If the
s also
f hus-

haiulry, illustrated by practice on the land of the
establishment. The amount of success now at-
tending the whole scheme is very encouraging ; the;
chief superintendent in his last published Keport
(Toronto, 1850), mentions, in illustration of this,
the following among other facts — that, as com-
pared with the neighbouring State of New York,
the average attendance of the children in propor-
tion to the whole number on the register is greater ;
that the schools under qualifiec teachf s are kept
open longer; that the proportion (f teachers in
the Normal school was mucV -rreater; thai the
schools in the rural districts au superior to those of
New York, although the school law of the latter
has been in existence thirty years; that the
school books are better ; and the amounts raised
by school-rate bills and by local assessments are
as large in proportion as in that State. And as
regards the proportion of children attending
school to those of -viiool age in the province,
it appears that, for the year 1849, of 253,364
children between the ages of five and sixteen,
there were on the school rolls 138,465 — a num-
ber still much too few, but indicating, as coni-

,1 H

■■\

246

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

pared with previous years, a progressive improve-
ment.

The point in this general system, of greatest
interest in England, is that of the arrangements
for religious instruction. The material distinc-
tion between this system and that of the United
States is in the provision for doctrinal teaching.
It will be seen by the following extract from
the "General Regulations for the Organization,
Government, and Discipline of the Common
Schools in Upper Canada," that this is left open
to an arrangement between the parents and the
teacher.

((

In regard to the nature and extent of the daily reli-
gions exercises of the School, and the special religious
instruction given to pupils, the Council of Public Instruc-
tion for Upper Canada makes the following regulations and
recommendations : —

"1. The public religious exercises of each school shall
be a matter of mutual voluntary arrangement between the
trustees and teacher, and it shall be a matter of mutual
voluntary arrangement between the teacher and the parent
or j;uardian of each pupilj as to whether he shall hear such
pupil recite from the Scriptures, or Catechism, or other
summary of religious doctrine and duty of the persuasion
of such parent or guardian. Such recitations, however,
are not to interfere with the regular exercises of the school.

CANADA.

247

" 2. But the principles of religion and morality should
be inculcated upon all the pupils of the school. What the
Commissioners of National Education in Ireland state as
existing in schools under their charge, should characterize
the instruction given in each school in Upper Canada.
The Commissioners state that ' in the National Schools the
importance of religion is constantly impressed upon the
minds of children, through the works calculated to pro-
mote good principles and to fill the heart with love for
religion, but which are so compiled as not to clash with
the doctrines of any particular class of Christians.' In
each school the teacher should exert his best endeavours,
both by example and precept, to impress upon the minds
of all children and youth committed to his care and in-
struction, the principles of piety, justice, and a sacred
regard to truth, love to their country, humanity and uni-
versal benevolence, sobriety, industry, frugality, chastity,
moderation and temperance, and those other virtues which
are the ornament of society and on which a free constitu-
tion of government is founded ; and it is the duty of each
teacher to endeavour to lead his pupils, as their ages and
capacities will admit, into a clear understanding of the
tendency of the above mentioned virtues, in order to pre-
serve and perfect the blessings of law and liberty, as well
as to promote their future happiness, and also to point out
to them the evil tendency of the opposite vices.

" By order of the Council of Public Instruction for
Upper Canada. u j^ George Hodgins,

« Recording Clerk, C.P.T.
" Education Office, Toronto,

Adopted the 5th day of August, 1850."

ill

248

N«)TES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

In order to illustrate the working uf the ar-
rangement, it is necessary to refer to the Statis-
tical Table of the " Religious Faith " of the
teachers. (Keport of 1850, p. 26.) From this
it appears that in the year 1849 there were be-
longing to the Church of England 737 teachers,
to the Church of Rome 335, to the Presbyterians
751, to the Methodists 727, to the Baptists 206,
to the Congregationalists 52, to the Lutherans
6, to the Quakers 26, to the Universalists ], to
the Unitarians 1, to other persuasions not desig-
nated 366 (= 3209).

The school trustees are recommended to ap-
point to the schools in their district, as far as
practicable, teachers whose religious opinions are
in unison with those of the majority of the inha-
bitants. It will therefore commonly happen that
the parent can send his child to a school in which
the " Catechism or other summary of religious
doctrine and duty " of his own persuasion is em-
ployed by the teacher.

Should this not be the case, the minority in
any particular locality have, to a certain limited
extent, a remedy. By the 19th section of

i !' I

[ty in
nited
n of

CANADA.

249

the Act it is provided that, " on the appli-
cation in writing of twelve or more resident
families," the school trustees are authorized to
establish a separate school in case the teacher
of the existing school, being a Protestant or a
Roman Catholic, is of a different religious deno-
mination from the applicants.* The number

* Sect. XIX. And be it enacted, That it shall be the duty
of the Municipal Council of any township, and of the Board of
School Trustees of any city, town, or incorporated village, on
the application in writing of twelve or more resident heads of
families, to authorize the establishment of one or more separate
schools for Protestants, Roman Catholics, or coloured people,
and, in such case, it shall prescribe the limits of the divisions or
sections for such schools, and shall make the same provision for
the holding of the first meeting for the election of trustees of
each such separate school or schools, as is provided in the fourth
section of this Act for holding the first school-meeting in a new
school section : Provided always, that each such separate school
shall go into operation at the same time with alterations in school
sections, and shall be under the same regulations in respect to
the persons for whom such school is permitted to be established,
as are common schools generally : Provided secondly, that none
but coloured people shall be allowed to vote for the election of
trustees of the separate school for their children, and none but
the parties petitioning for the establishment of, or sending
children to a separate Protestant or Roman Catholic school,
shall vote at the election of trustees of such school : Provided
thirdly, that each such separate Protestant, or Roman Catholic,
or coloured school shall be entitled to shaixj in the school fund
according to the average attendance of pupils attending eacli
such separate school (the mean attendance of pupils for both
summer and winter being taken), as compared with the v.hule

■(

V ;

n %

250

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

of *' Separate Denominational Schools " is
stated, at p. 27 of the Report above quoted,
at 59, showing an increase of 27 above the
previous year, notwithstanding the discourage-
ment given to their being set on foot, by the
Act itself. ** It is to be observed," says Dr.
Ryerson, in his * Circular addressed to the
various Officers concerned in the administra-
tion of the School Law ' (p. 76)i " that a sepa-
rate school is entitled to no aid beyond a cer-
tain portion of the school fund for the salary
of the teacher. The school-house must be pro-
vided, furnished, warmed, books procured, &c.,
by the persons petitioning for the separate
school. Nor are the patrons or supporters of
a separate school exempted from any of the

average attendance of pupils attending the common schools in
such city, town, village, or township : Provided fourthly, that no
Protestant separate school shall be allowed in any school division
except when the teacher of the common school is a Roman
Catholic, nor shall any Roman Catholic separate school be
allowed except when the teacher of the common school is a Pro-
testant. Provided fifthly, that the trustees of the common school
sections within the limits of which such separate school section or
sections shall have been formed, shall not include the children
attending such separate school or schools, in their return of
children of school age residing in their school sections.

CANADA.

251

>»

local assessments or rates for common school
purposes.

As contrasted with the school laws of the
United States, that of Upper Canada is distin-
guished by two great leading peculiarities.
1st. It admits the principle of daily doctrinal
teaching. 2ndly. It affords aid towards the
establishment of Denominational Schools. A
certain ground of anticipation therefore exists
that in the schools of Upper Canada a consi-
derable amount of doctrinal instruction will be
given, and that consequently the distinctive
principles of the faith and persuasion to which
each family may be attached, will be early
implanted in the day-school, by teachers of
their choice, trained in the art of teaching, and
therefore affording some guarantee that they
will be competent to teach it. The risk is con-
sequently diminished of a generation growing
up, as is apprehended by some and asserted by
others in the United States, firmly attached to
no religious faith, and therefore already em-
barked on the downward course to infidelity, and
from thence to every phase of moral corruption.

252

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, ka.

To a certain extent, the enactment (3ect. 32)
by whicli " all clergymen recognized by law,
of whatever denomination," and many of the
mosl distinguished of the laity, are constituted
visitors of schools (the former, both where they
reside and where they have paetoral charge), has
been acted upon by the clrgy The Report of
1849 states, that 2848 visith iiad been vnade
* by clergymen " in that j ear ^ without, iiow-
ever, dietinguislting thdr detiOminations. The
total nniKber of schools in operation wf»s 2?71 ;
there had been thereiure little more than one
v'sit per school. The iiicreasi' in sJe number
of visits was, however, 594 above the previous
)oar. The Chief Superintendent informed me
that the clergy of the Church of England in
general co-operated with the system, and that
in many instances they took an active part in
superintending the schools in their districts.
The rector of Toronto is a member of the
Council of Public Instruction. If the existing
plan is the only one possible under the circum-
stances of the colonv, it is satisfactory to know
that the clergy are inclined to make the best

la-V

me
id in

that.

t in
'icts.

the
Iting
iuu!-

lOW

Ibest

CANADA.

253

of it, and to improve such opportunities as it
affords for definite religious instruction.

The public grammar-schools, established by
an amended Act in 1819, afford a higher edu-
cation for all who desire it, and are an appro-
priate supplement to the system of elementary
schools. The Act contemplates these schools
being set on foot in every district of the pro-
vince, with a salary to the teacher of 100^. per
annum. By sect. 6 ten children may be sent
to them by the trustees, to be taught gratis, to
be selected from the most promising scholars
of the common schools.

Above these district schools is the Upper
Canada College ; and above that, in order, the
University of Toronto. The fine building for
the latter is in course of being erected. And
by a provision in the admirable municipal law
of the province, of 1849, power is given to the
county councils to defray the expense of send-
ing to the College or to the University as
many of the pupils of the different public
grammar-schools *' as shall be deserving, and
in the opinion of the respective masters shall
be of competent attainments for entering into

254

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

competition for any of the scholarships, exhi-
bitions, or other similar prizes offered by such
University or College for competition among
such pupils," their parents being unable to
incur the expense.

Such is the legislative provision for public
education in Upper Canada ; and, as far as the
means of secular education are concerned, it
affords every facility for extending a full mea-
sure of it throughout the whole country. To
its religious basis — with reference chiefly, I was
informed, to the higher institutions — a large
number of the members of the Church of Enjx-
land have taken strong exception ; and have
consequently, with the powerful aid of friends
in England, commenced a college near To-
ronto for the higher branches of study, and as
a place of education for young men preparing
to enter the Church. The building has already
made some progress, is in a very appropriate
collegiate style, is well situated, and has several
acres of ground attached to it, very capable of
representing the " silvas Academi," and adding
to the charm of a residence there. And, indeed,
long since, and without any such appliance?.

riate
eral
e of
ling
?etl,
ice?,

CANADA.

256

the education of the Church of England has
given to the colony men who are among its
most distinguished citizens, and who would
have been an ornament to any country. But
whether in rivalry (not bitter, it is to be hoped)
or in harmonious union, the two agencies toge-
ther — those of the State and those of the reli-
gious bodies that fear tlie consequences of lax
religious teaching — are embarked in a career
of energetic action for diffusing the rays of both
secular and religious knowledge throughout
the whole community, that may be expected to
raise the standard of intelligence and of high
moral and religious principle to a point satisfac-
tory to the warmest friends of the colony.*

* There is a question still pending betw^on the Church and
the other religious societies, relative to the disposal of the clergy
reserves, which will require much Christian forbt ■• c on both
sides. Although a very delicate one for a stranger lo meddle with,
I would just wish to eay to every strong advocate for their seculari-
zation, that it is greatly to be desired, belbre he made up his mind
definitely on that subject, that he would come to England, and
calmly inquire into the effcc produced on the national character ;
on the strength, permanence, and diffusion of religious belief
and religious principle ; on the harmonious and friendly inter-
course between rich and poor ; on the national taste, manners,
and cultivation ; on the self-respect, natui. , ity, and good

breeding of our lower classes (except where tiiey have been sub-
ject to most unfavourable circumstances) ; in a word, on every

liil

256

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

Wlien this result takes place, the sliallovv
opinions and dogmatical style of writing to
which reference has been made above, and which
now find so much favour, will yield to sounder
v.< vv:. and a better tone in expressing them.
It is impossible for any one who at present, in
passing through Canada, puts Jiimself at all in
the way of hearin^r the floating opinions among

good element of our sccial state, by that provision of our fore-
fathers, by which it has been secured that there shall be ui least
one educated gentleman in every parish, and that one the
pastor of the flock. Like many of the other " happy accidents,"
(or rather benevolent dispensations of an overruling Providence,)
to which we are indebted for the place we at present fill in Lho
world, the eftects of the institution of tithes, under the modern
impulse of a higher sense of responsibility, could never have been
foreseen. The crude and short-sighted theories of a jealous and
mistaken liberalism may intercept such ad- ntages from an 'ven
locality or country. In such cases, the generations tiiat ar^ to
ooMie will look back on the present with a very dirferent eye li i
that which we, in this country, turn reverently towards those that
have gone before us.

A large majority in the last Provincial Parliament were in
favour of i-( <'onsidering the existing settlement of this question.
It is anticij-iited that the disposition of the present Canadian
Legislature will tiot differ from that of the last. The Government
of Lord John Ri.ssell adopted the opinion that the Act of the
Parliament of this country, relating to it, should be repealed. If
t!ic Imperial Parliament shou" I follow this course, and therefore
refer the matter ; » the good sense of the Canadian Legislature,
the last question of .•'ny importance would be removed, on which
a Constitutior il issue could be raised as to the right of the Colony
to manage ir wn at^uirs.

CANADA

257

persons may casually converse with — in tlie
log-liiit, 111 the recent ''clearing/' in the frame-
house which indicates the growing prosperity
of its owner, in the road-side inn with the yet
untouched forest close by, enveloping the small
openings of cultivation — without being struck
with the many superficial views propounded on
public questions, very much after the manner
of the democratic papers in the United States.
Again, among other classes in the colony, there
is visiMe a dislocation of opinion, and a con-
sequent tendency to a subdivision and breaking
up of parties, religious and political, which
may, and very probably does, arise from the
prevalence of a superficial education, taking up
its ideas and principles at hazard, and holding
nothing firmly. The more manifest therefore
is the need of all the supports, that the institu-
tions for education of all kinds in the colony
can give to the cause of true enlightenment,
practical good sense, and right feeling.*

* Amongst the means resorted to by some of" the democratic
papers in the United States to encoiirage ■. feeling of sympathy
with their opinions among the suipil hut active ultra-Radical
party in Canada, is that of a " Canadian Correspondence," con-
sisting of letters representing the Canadian people as living under
a Contemptible form of government ; as oppressed by the mother

;-i

258

NOTi:S ON PUBLIC SUPJKCT8. &c.

ii I

ElementavTj Education in Lower Canada. —
The subject of elementary education in the

country ; us treated like cliildrcn liuving no will or power of
their own ; as being of no weight or estimation in the world ; as
poor, and without enterprise, in comparison with the people of
tlic Unit('<| States ; as having little influence in directing their
own affairs, and as in reality anxious to emancipate themselves
from all ties with England, and to become one of the " great and
independent States of the Union." Though the '* annexation
cry " is believed to be extinguished in the minds of ninety-nine
hundredths of the people of Canada, these continued suggestions
that they would bo better oH' under a pure Democracy, cannot
but make some impression on the loss-informed minds, and pro-
duce a feeling of doubt and distrust as to the real merits of our
own social and political arrangements, and the substantial bless-
ings they confer upon a peoi)le capable of receiving them. To
some of those worthy and warm-hearted persons from the " Old
Country," whom I found pondering over those papers and those
ideas, in the solitude of the " backwoods," or in the thriving vil-
lage, I would wish to say, in the words of a philosophic poet —

'' Love thou thy land, with love far- brought
From out the storied Past, and used
Within the Present, but transfused

Through future time by power of thought.

« * * *

" A land of settled government,

A land of just and old renown,

Where Freedom broadens slowly down

From precedent to precedent."

Tennyson-.

If they would take those words into their minds and hearts
they would distrust

" the braggart shout
For some blind glimpse of freedom,"

and learn to beware of

*' The falsehood of extremes."

CANADA. I

259

hearts

Lower Province lias for many years past
engaged tlie attention of the motjt enlightened
persons in it. In 1842 Dr. Meilleur, the
present Superintendent of Education, presented
a Report to the Governor- General (Sir Charles
Bagot), proposing several amendments in the
existing law. Many of them were adopted in
the Act of 1846, which was, however, further
improved hy the Act of 1849, the one now in
force.

If education has not yet spread more widely
among the French population, it is '* not for
wantofpuhlic advocates; for various patriotic
individuals, besides the clergy of all denomina-
tions, appear to have from time to time devoted
themselves to the duty of zealous pioneers in the
noble work ; and among these Dr. Meilleur, as
already alluded to."* Again the same pub-
lication speaks of " the continued untiring
exertions of the clergy of all denominations,
but more particularly those of the Catholic
Church, and of the benevolent religious ladies

* Extract from * Remarks on the State of Education in the
Province of Canada,' Montreal, 1848.

260

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

of the various cliari fable Orders, in beljalf of
the extension of general education in all its
branches " (p. 54) ; such as, elementary schools,
philanthropic asylums, and " the higher semi-
naries and colleges."

Nevertheless that it is now making a more
satisfactory progress is shown by the Report of
Dr. Meilleur for 1850 (Toronto, 1851), in
p. 5 of whicli he states that, in the year ending
July 1850, " the number of schools had in-
creased by 166, and that of the children attend-
ing them by 5221 " above the previous year.
In the same period also "there had been esta-
blished more than sixty new school munici-
palities ;" and *' the advancement of the
scholars in learning" is affirmed to be as
satisfactory as the increase in the means of
obtaining it. There are also " 64 model
schools in operation, and 44 superior girls'
schools." There are no statistics for Lower
Canada showing the proportion which the
children attending school bears to the whole
number of school age. It is acknowledged,
however, to be still very low, as compared with

CANADA.

261

girls'

otlier countries, and with the Upper Province.
Dr. Meilleur urges further improvements in
the law in the following particulars : —

1. A literary qualification for School Com-
missioners. 2. The establishment of a Normal
School. 3. Deputy Superintendents. 4. Public
Libraries. 5. A Journal of Education.

The provisions for " Dissentient " or Deno-
minational Schools are peculiar and deserve
attentive consideration.

The School Acts of Lower Canada (of 1846
and 1849) throw no obstacles in the way of
Denominational, there called Dissentient
Schools. They do not, like the Act of Upper
Canada, limit the aid to the cases only where
the differences are between Protestant and
Roman Catholic, but they enable every deno-
mination, if it pleases, to have its own school,
and to receive its proportion of aid both
towards the building and the support of the
school. By sect. 26 of the Act of 1846
(9 Vict. c. 27), it is provided that, when *'any
number whatever of the inhabitants professing
a relig-ious faith different from that of the

262

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

' I

1'! :(

majority" wish for a separate school, they may
have one, and if it is attended by fifteen chil-
dren they will be entitled to an allowance out of
both the general and local school fund ; and
the trustees of that school are empowered (by
sect. 18 of the Act of 1849, 12 Vict. c. 50) to
collect both the Assessment and the School
fees from the " inhabitants so dissentient," and
at whose instance the school was established.

The clauses of those Acts given below will,
I feel assured, be read with interest by all
persons who are desirous of informing them-
selves on this difficult question ; and no one, I
apprehend, after the above statement, will be
disposed to say that the French Canadians are
not making vigorous exertions to remedy the
results of past reluctance and backwardness in
the matter of elementary education.*

* Act of the Provincial Pailiament of Canada, 9 Vict,, c. 27,
s. 21. Among the duties of the School Commissioners of each
municipality are the following: —

" TentJili/.— To cause to be levied by assessment and rate, in
the manner hereinafter provided by this Act, in each munici-
pality, a sum equal to that allowed out of the Common School-
fund for each municipality, and to report their proceedings in
this respect to the superintendent; and to enable the School

CANADA.

263

L c. 27,
|of' each

[■ate, in

iiunici-

Jchool-

lings in

1 School

Inducements for Persons of the Upper Class
of Society in this Country to Settle in Canada.
— The consideration of the subjects last touched

Commissioners to receive from the Superintendent of Education
their share of the Common School-fund, they shall furnish him
with a declaration from tiie secretary-treasurer that he has ac-
tually ;\nd bona Jide received, or that he has placed in the hands
of the School Commissioners for the purposes of this Act, a sum

equal to the said share accruing to such Commissioners.

* * * *

" Twelfthly. — They shall fix the fees per month to be paid dur-
ing the eight school months for each child of age to attend
school, by each father or mother of a family, tutor, or curator,
to the secretary-treasurer above and over the rate levied, and for
the use of the school district (arrondissement) paying the same ;
such fees not to exceed in any case two shillings per month, nor
less than three pence per month, at the discretion of the Com-
missioners, according to the means of the parents,'' &c.
With respect to " Dissentient Schools," it is provided by
" Section XXVI., that when in any municipality the regulations
and arrangements made by the School Commissioners for the con-
duct of p.ny school shall not be agreeable to any number whatever
of the inhabitants professing a religious faith different from that of
the majority of the inhabitants of such municipality, the inhabit-
ants so dissentient may collectively signify such dissent in writ-
ing to the chairman of the said Commissioners, and give in the
names of three trustees, chosen by them for the purposes of this
Act ; and such trustees shall have the same powers and be subject
to the same duties as School Commissioners, but for the manage-
ment of those schools only which shall be under their control ;
and such dissentient inhabitants may, by the intervention of such
trustees, establish in the manner provided with regard to other
schools, one or more schools, which shall be subject to the same
provisions, duties, and supervision, and they shall be entitled to

264

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

upon was suggested by the inquiry as to
wliether there were not increasing attractions

receive from the superintendent or from tlie School Commissioners
such sum out of the general or local school fund as slmll be ])ro-
portionatc to the dissentient population they represent : Provided
always, that whenever the majority of the children attending any
school now in operation, and the school-house, shall belong to or
be occupied by such dissentients, the said school-house shall con-
tinue to be occupied by them so long as the number of children
taught in such school shall amount to the number required by
this Act to form a school district, and the entire amount of
monies raised by assessment on such dissentients shall be paid to
the trustees of such school, together with a due proportion of the
building-fund.

" XXVII. — And be it enacted, that to entitle any school to
its allowance out of the general or local school-fund it shall be
requisite and suilicient that such school has been under the
management of School Commissioners or Trustees appointed in
the manner provided by the next preceding section ; tiiat it has
been in actual operation during at least eight calendar months :
that it has been attended by at least fifteen children (periods of
epidemic or contagious diseases excepted) ; that the returns liavo
been certified to the School Commissioners or Trustees by the
master, mistress, or teacher, and at least two of the Commis-
sioners or Trustees ; that a public examination of the schools has
taken place ; that a report signed by the majority of the School
Commissioners or Trustees and by the master has been transmitted
to the Superintendent of Schools, according to the form pre-
scribed by him for that purpose, every six months, that is to say,
before the first day of July, and the first day of January, in each
year ; and, finally, that a sum equal to the allowance made by
the legislature for the municipality has been raised as hereinbe-
fore provided.

"XXIX. — And be it enacted, that the trustees of dissentient
minorities shall also be elected fur three years, except that at the

519 to

ictions

iiissionors
11 1)0 pro-
Provided
idiii!:? any
ong to or
shall con-
f children
quired by
.mount of
be paid to
tion of the

school to
It shall be
under the
)pointcd in
hat it has
months ;
periods of
turns Iiavo
!es by the
Commis-
ichools has
ihe School
•ansmitted
form pre-
is to say,
, in each
made by
hereinbe-

llissentiont
Ihat at the

CANADA.

265

in Canada for the safe and satisfactory employ-
ment of British capital and labour ; meaning

end of each of the two first years one of the trustees shall retire
and be replaced or re-elected by such dissentients ; children from
other school districts, of the same faith as the dissentients for
whom the school was established, may attend the same whenever
such dissentients shall not be suflBcientiy numerous in any district
to support a school alone : Provided that the individuals of the
dissentient minority shall not ,be elected nor serve as School
Commissioners, nor vote at the election of the School Commis-
sioners ; and that in like manner the individuals of the majority
shall not be elected nor serve as school trustees, nor vote at their
election."

Provisions as to the cities of Quebec and Montreal : —
"XLIII. — And be it enacted, that in the said cities no rate
shall be levied for the schools, but the treasurer of each city
shall pay out of the funds thereof to the said J3oards of Commis-
sioners, and in proportion to the jwpulation of the rcliylous per-
suasion represented by them, a sum equal to that coming to such
city out of the Common School-fund, to be employed by them
for the purposes of this Act ; and if such payment be refused,
the School Commissioners or their Secretary may apply by
petition to the Court of Queen's Bench sitting in Superior
Term, who, upon proof of the service of such petition upon the
treasurer, shall take cognizance of the matter, and shall determine
the same in a summary manner, and may, if right shall require
it, compel payment by all legal means and process."

The Act 12 Vict., c. 50, makes the following additional pro-
vision for " Dissentient Schools:" —

" XVIIl. — And be it enacted, that anything in the twenty-
sixth section of the above-cited Act, or in any other part of the
said Act contained to the contrary notwithstanding, whenever
the trustees of Dissenti'^nt Schools shall have been chosen and
shall have established one or more Dissentient Schools in any
school municipality, and the said trustees shall not be satisfied

4 i

2G6

NOl'ES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

by those terms commercial and farming* capital
and ordinary agricultural labour. But from

with the arrangements antecedently made bj the School Com-
missioners ol' the said municipality relative to the recovery and
the distribution of the assessment, they may, by a written de-
claration to that etiect, addressed to the president of the School
Commissioners, at least one month before the first day of Ja-
nuary or July, in any year, acquire the right of receiving them-
selves, for the following and all future years during which they
shall continue to be such trustees of dissentient schools, accord-
ing to law, the assessment levied on the inhabitants so dissen-
tient, who shall have signified their dissent in v. riting, conform-
ably to ^he said above-cited Act, or who shall hereafter signify
the same at the times and in the manner hereinbefore provided,
and the said trustees shall in such case be entitled to obtain a
copy of the assessment in force, of the list of children capable of
attending school, and of other documents in the hands of the
School Commissioners or of the secretary-treasurer, and connected
with the future government of the Dis^ientient Schools ; the said
trustees may and shall also receive the aiiount of the vwnthhj fees
payable in respect of the children of such dissentient parent or
masters, and may institute ali suits or prosecutions, and do all
other things necessary for the recovery of the said assessments
and monthly fees; and they, the said trustees, shall be a
corporation for the purposes of their own Dissentient Schools
and school district, and shall be entitled to receive from the
superintendent shares of the General School-fund bearing the
same j)roportio!i to the whole sums allotted from time to time
to such municiixility as the number of children attending such
Dissentient Schools bears to the entire number of children
attending school in such municipality at the same time, and a
similar share of the building fund ; and the said trustees shall
have the right to constitute their own school districts inde-
pendently of the school districts established by the Commis-
sioners aforesaid, and shall have the same rights and shall be

^. ..^y

capital
t from

ool Com-
[jvory and
rittcn dc-
lie School
ay ot" Ja-
ing them-
hich they
is, accord-
so dissen-
conform-
ter signify
])rovided,
I obtain a
capable of
ids of the
connected
the said
mthhjfees
parent or
nd do all
isessments

hall be a
t Schools
from the
baring the
lie to time
jding such

children
le, and a
Itecs shall
lets indc-

Commis-
Ici shall be

CANAT>*

267

what I observed in the colony I was strongly
impressed with the opinion, that there was also
a fine field of occupation and ambition open to
settlers of a different class — namely, to young*
men of education and moderate independence
who are now crowding the professions in Eng-
land, or to gentlemen of small fortunes and
large families, and with no very definite
prospects of providing for them.

The mistakes that have been made by several

subject to the same duties and penalties as the said School Com-
missioners, in respect of the collection and application of the
monies by them received, of the rendering and examination of
their accounts, and of all other matters whatever in reference
thereto, and may be removed and others appointed by the Gover-
nor in council, or by the Superintendent of Schools in all those
cases in which School Commissioners are liable to be dealt with :
Provided always, that if after such declaration of separate ma-
nagement, there slmidd be no subsisting assessment, or if the
assessment should not appear to them a proper one, the said
trustees may, in the months of July and August in each year,
proceod to make such assessment for the future conformably to
the said Act upon the inhabitants so dissentient as aforesaid ; and
provided also, that the said trustees shall be, and they are hereby
held to furnish to the superintendent a written statement, under
the oath of at least two of them, of the number of children
attending such Dissentient Schools at least one month previous
to the said first days of January and July, to enable the said
superintendent to make the proper apportionment of the said
general and building funds."

_jc: '

w:f^

mmtmmm

2G8

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, kc.

( I

persons of the above description, in selecting*
their place of settlement too hastily, in invest-
ing nearly the whole of their capital in wild
land with bad roads or none to it, and at a
long distance from markets, and also in build-
ing largely, and employing at fi^'st too much
labour, have had some effect in discouraging
otliers of the same class. Many gentlemen,
eminent as men of business in the colony, ex-
pressed to me their regrets at those failures,
and stated that the safe course to take in such
cases on arriving was to purchase stock in the
different banks of the colony, which are consi-
dered perfectly safe investments, and which
yield six per cent., and to wait patiently for a
year or two. This would afford opportunities
for studying the different localities, for making
acquaintance with the society to be found in
each, and for deciding on the district which
promised to afford most prospective advantages
in accordance with the particular views and
objects of the individual. It would probably
not l)e long before some property would be for
sale in that district, which would offer a very

«fi»l :#"^

CANADA.

269

selecting
II invest-
in wild
ind at a
in build-
30 much
ou raging*
ntlemen,
lony, ex-
failures,
2 in such
ck in the
re consi-
d wliich
tly for a
rtunities
making-
bund in
t which
srantages
9WS and
irobably
Id be for
r a very

good investment either for a part o .he wliole
of the capital at command.

Persons of the above class are now frequently
leaving England as emigrants, for our colonies
on the other side of the globe. Without in the
leuv* degree undervaluing the advantages pos-
sessed by those magnificent dependencies, there
are several points in favour of Canada in addi-
tion to those that have been already described,
which ought to be well weighed by any one in-
tending to emigrate, and which have not, as
far as I am aware, been yet placed before the
public as distinctly as they deserve,

The points which I have hitherto touched
upon have been so'l, climate, institutions (as
similar to our own as circumstances admit),
the strong and all but universal loyalty of the
people and their attachment to this country, the
splendid commercial and agricultural prospects
now opening, the iiopes of a higher tone of intel-
ligence, and the provisions, such as they are, for
the maintenance and diffusion of religious truth.

But, in supposing the case of young men, or
others, accustomed more or less to countrv life

■~ :t^'-

f V

270

KOTI'S ON riliLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

' I

in England (and such are those most lil; /j to
be disposed to embark in the country life of
the colonics), there are other considerations
besides the above, which v,',>uld operate very
forcibly in determining their choice of a colony,
namely, points having reference to habits and
modes of life sucli as they have been familiar
with at home.

In the first place, a new settler of the class
supposed would find in the large towns and in the
several comparatively thickly-inhabited country
neighbourhoods above mentioned, a nucleus
of cultivated and highly intelligent society,
with whom it would give him the greatest satis-
faction to associate. Secondly, these towns and
neighbourhoods will, within a few years from
die present, be brought into almost close juxta-
position by the grand system of railway com-
munication, which has been determined upon
and in part commenced ; multiplying thus, as
in the old countr}^ his resources of society,
occupation, and pecuniary profit; while that
same great railway system will, by itself and
by its results, shorten materially the already

CANADA.

271

little-regarded time and dist;mcc botwccu him
and England. Thirdly, in regard to all the
details of county and parochial business, he
may hold [)recisely 'lie same position, and find
precisely the sam occupation thai he would
in England, and indeed more; for the admirable
new munici^)al * L ^)per Canada, of 1849,

(12 Vict., c. ^ ^ a T'lore extensive powers
than are pot c. by vestries. Poor Law

Boards, or magistiatcs in this country. It is
worth while to enumerate some of its provi-
sions. It is an Act for " the erection of muni-
cipal corporations, and the establishment of
regulations of police, in and for the several
counties, cities, towns, townships, and villages *
of Upper Canada." Boards of '* councillors "
are elected in each, and constituted a corpora-
tion for, among various other and more usual
purposes, purchasing land and building school-
houses, making drains and watercourses for
general drainage, including that of land,
making roads, granting powers to joint-stock

* Villages of 1000 inhabitants may be incorporated under this
Act.

^>.

^^'^^o.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

121 12^

110

SKA ■

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.25 IIU

« 6" —

►

Photographic

Sciences
Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. M580

(7 1 6) 872-4503

.7"

272

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

companies to make them, ** destroying and
suppressing the growth of weeds detrimental
to good husbandry," regulating fences, " en-
dowing fellowships in the University of To-
ronto," &c., " making a provision for the
expenses of pupils attending the University of
Toronto, &c., whose parents are unable to
incur such expenses," taking precautions
against fire, exercising many of the powers of
a Board of Health, abating nuisances, esta-
blishing public fountains, laying out public
cemeteries, purchasing land for an industrial
farm for the employment of thb poor, or
persons under sentence of the law, &c. &c.
Fourthly, if he gives his attention to the public
business of his neighbourhood, and displays a
capacity for public life and a desire to enter
into it, it would probably not be long before
his services would be sought for by some con-
stituency to represent them in the Legislative
Assembly, or (according to tne practice of this
country, in not confining constituents, in the
choice of their representatives, to persons resi-
dent among them) he might offer himself to

[

CANADA.

273

the electors in any city or county in the pro-
vince. A gentleman, therefore, whose pecu-
niary means in this country would be insuffi-
cient to enable him to exert his talents in the
noble arena of political life, might, instead of
wasting his energies in a subordinate position
here, find in that country a fitting sphere of
useful and honourable exertion. Fifth! v, if
rightly used, the power placed in the hands of
the Governor-General to nominate members to
the Legislative Council or Upper House of the
Provincial Parliament, is capable of giving
dignity and political weight to that body, and
making it an object of ambition and a just
reward of meritorious services. The high posi-
tion and character of every Governor-General
will be a guarantee that no unworthy motives
will influence such appointments ; and if mis-
takes are made, they will not escape the cen-
sure of a vigilant public opinion. In placing
these appointments, as well as those of justices
of the peace, in the hands of the Governor-
General, not only is there a better security for
their being made with an exclusive regard to

274

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

the public interests, but the principle is im-
portant, as maintaining the analogy with that
of the British Constitution. In a new country
every such principle is of the greatest practical
value, as a support of the whole system of
government on its existing basis. Sixthly, the
settler whom I have supposed, would find, in
the different country districts I have already
enumerated, many of the resources, in the
way of amusement, of English country life.
Of the ordinary field-sports there are some
by no means to be despised. Whoever likes
hard work and a rough life, may take two or
three Indians as guides and follow the moose
and reindeer through the forest a« long as he
pleases, "camping out" and livlii^ /his rifle.
For common shooting, there is plenty of quail,
woodcocks, snipes, wild-fowl, &c., also prairie
grouse in abundance within three days' tra-
velling. Fishing is to be had in the lakes and
streams ; but the best sport of that kind is the
salmon-fishing in some of the tributaries of the
Ottawa, and amidst the wild and magnificent
scenery of the Saguenay, wherever the saw-

CANADA.

275

is im-
;h that
juntry
'actical
tern of
ily, the
ind, in
already
in the
ry life,
e some
er likes
s two or
3 moose
g as he
lis rifle.
)f quail,
prairie
lys' tra-
ikes and
id is the
es of the
Tnificent

;he saw-

mills have not destroyed the fish. A small
pack of fox-hounds is kept at Montreal (twelve
couple), and they afford some sport for about
two months in the year — enough to keep that
of the "old country" in remembrance. They
have occasionally some sharp runs of thirty
minutes, over a country of " posts and rails," and
** snake-fences," * the latter rather awkward.
Another jjack was also kept at Coburg. I
heard also of a third small pack. There is no
doubt that as the country gets more cleared
fox-hunting will flourish ; as well at least as
those almost universal " snake-fences," and the
quantity of oover, will allow. Races also figure
in the list of the annual amusements of all the
principal places in the colony. Some of the
best English blood has been imported, of which
I saw specimens, out of winners of the Derby
and St. Leger. In these, as in all other matters
of graver import, it appeared that English

* The fence common to Canada and the States, made of rough
slips of timber twelve to fourteen feet long piled upon each
other, each length making an obtuse angle with the other, and
the upper bar (often five or six feet above the ground) resting oh
cross pieces, which project like chevaux de frise.

276

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

usages, manners, habits, and feelings, had
taken deep root and were widely diflPused
among the mass of the people ; and that where
the contrary was visible, in the remoter local-
ities, it seemed to arise from accident and igno-
rance, and not from any settled preference for
anything else. Indeed it may be safely said
that in no country out of Great Britain would
the younger sons of her nobility and gentry
find themselves so much " at home," or have
a nobler field of usefulness before them, or a
finer scope for all the active and manly
enjoyments of country life, than in Canada.
Seventhly, The financial credit of the colony
is in so sound and satisfactory a state, and
the prospects of increasing wealth and revenue
so » great, that they may well inspire confi-
dence in the future, in any one disposed to
go there. According to the Return of the
Public Accounts of the colony for the year
1850 (Toronto, 1851), it appears (p. 66)
that the total amount of the public debt was
4,512,468/. 145. 9c?., and that there had been
applied to its redemption, since the union of

» i

CANADA.

277

the provinces in 1841, 518,483/. 125. 6c?.
(being the excess of revenue over expenditure),
including 62,366/. 105. 7d. invested in Eng-
land on account of the sinking fund for the
guaranteed loans. All future investments are
to be on account of the latter. There was, as
far back as last summer, as I was informed, a
sum of nearly a quarter of a million, either in-
vested or ready to be so, on account of the last
three years, for the same purpose. The annual
interest of the debt is at present (p. 89)
197,029/. 3s. bd. ; and it appears by the same
" Abstract of Revenue and Expenditure," that
in the improbable case of any serious falling* off
of revenue, or any unwillingness to increase
taxation to meet it if it occurred, the sums now
voluntarily applied to two heads of expenditure
only — those of Education and Agricultural
Societies, amounting together to upwards of
66,800/. — might be applied to the payment of
one-third of the annual interest of the debt.
But as the revenue for the year 1851 was up-
wards of 800,000/., and as the interest of the
debt is about 200,000/., there can be no doubt of

278

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

» «

the completeness of the security for its payment.
Since the great commercial changes which
were effected in 1846 and subsequently, the
Imports into Canada have risen as follows : —
In 1848 they were 2,058,798/., in 1849,
3,002,599/., in 1850, 4,245, 517/.* The value
of Exports of domestic products for the year
1849 was 2,327,564/., and for 1850, 2,669,998/.
The growing inland trade with the United
States in all the most important staples of the
colony (timber, wheat, flour, oats, ashes, &c.),
is one of the most encouraging features. Great
however as has been the recent increase of that
trade (32i per cent, during the last year), it is
exceeded by that with Great Britain, which,
during the same time, "notwithstanding all
assertions to the contrary, had increased at the
rate of 44 per cent., and with tlie Sister Pro-
vinces of British Nortli America, under the
operation of reciprocal Free Trade, about 100
per cent.'' (Speechf of the Inspector-General,

* Montreal Banker's Circular, quoted in Scobio's Canadian
Almanac, p. 58 (Toronto, 1852), which contains an excellent
summary of all the statistics of the colony.

t I add a further and very instructive extract from the same
speech in the Appendix (G), p. 313.

-^,^tr-^ •Jtl<!iPipi|,P- \'r^^fm^ '^' ' " 'T' ^^jpf!!' iWi>'--^y'

CANADA.

279

tlie Hon. Francis Hincks, to the Legislative
Assembly, July 16, 1851, Toronto, 1851.)
Although therefore the sudden and rapid
changes in our commercial legislation in those
and previous years, occasioned great losses in
the colony, and much very natural irritation at
the want of due consideration for the circum-
stances and the interests of Canada, shown at
the time by some of our public men then in
power, a new career of prosperity has com-
menced; and as no further changes, except
beneficial ones in the shape of further relaxa-
tions of commercial tariffs, are to be antici-
pated, trade and commerce are now upon a
firm basis. And by none are the future pros-
pects of Canada, and indeed of the British
Provinces generally, considered brighter than
by the best-informed of their enttrprising
neighbours ; as will be seen by the following
passage which I extract from a very remarkable
document lately issued at Washington. (A
Report of the Trade and Commerce of the
British North American Colonies with the
United States and with other Countries, em-

'it

280

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

bracing full and complete Tabular Statements
from 1829 to 1850. Presented to the United
States Senate by Thomas Corwin, Secretary
to the Treasury, Washington, 1851.) The
facts brought out in this document will greatly
strengthen the conviction of the mutual advan-
tages to be derived from the proposed measure
of reciprocal free-trade between those colonies
and the United States. The Report is drawn
up by Mr. J. D. Andrews, United States Consul
at St. John's, New Brunswick. At p. 34 thei'e
is the following passage : —

" A cursory glance at the resources of Canada will
impress the most casual observer with a profound sense of
the influence she must soon exert over the general com-
merce of this continent. To her unsurpassed physical
capabilities are added majestic internal improvements,
reflecting credit on a government and people who projected
and completed such admirable auxiliary pathways from
the ocean to the interior, to facilitate the transport of the
products of the industry of her population from that in-
terior to the markets of the world. If the sanguine antici-
pations of the Canadian go>^ernment and people are real-
ised, by the SU Lawrence becoming one of the great
channels through which the vast supplies of merchandise
required for the consumption of the population of the
interior and far west will be carried, the revenue derivable

1 1

CANADA.

281

from these canals, the tolls upon which it is in contempla-
tion to reduce, will form a large item to the credit of the
colonial exchequer."

" Occupying a most extensive country, of an area of
nearly 55,000 square miles, stretching from the 42nd to the
50th degree of north latitude, abounding in forests of the
finest timber and minerals of great value, and with a soil
fitted to afford exhaustless supplies of food to man ; a
country, moreover, blessed with a healthy and invigorating
climate, favoured witli unparalleled facilities for sea, river,
and lake navigation, watered throughout by streams
which furnish an unlimited amount of water- power, and
are stocked with the most valuable descriptions of fish :
bordered by a sea-coast indented with bays and admirable
harbours, which are open to the most valuable sea-fisheries
in the world ; possessing such superabundant resources,
and sustained and stimulated by an energy of character
which they have inherited witli us from a common source,
these colonists are destined to become a great and flourish-
ing people, and to exercise no mean influence on the inte-
rests of our northern continent."

Neither is the protective duty now so much
complained of, arwounting to 20 per cent.,
against Canadian wheat imported into the
United States, likely, according to the best
opinions, to last long ; nor if it did, could it
do much harm to the Canadian grower. The
above able Report shows (p. 48) that nearly

282

NOTKS ON rUDLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

the whole amount of the wheat imported from
Canada to New York and 13o8ton was balanced
by exports of wheat of their own growth to
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfound-
land, and that under the recent arrangements
between Canada and those provinces, the latter
were expected for the future to derive their
supplies direct from Canada.

*' Within the last year arrangements have been made
by Canada with three of the lower provinces for a free
interchange of their natural productions. The experience
of the last season has induced persons fully competent to
judge in commercial matters to express the opinion, that a
very large trade will be diverted to these provinces from
New York, unless the present restrictions are removed,
for the vessels which can advantageously take flour from
Canada to the lower provinces, under the present free-trade
arrangement, will carry back sugar, molasses, and the heavy
foreign commodities, which they have for the last few years
purchased in New York and Boston." — (p. 47).

Again (p. 46) the following reason is given

why the protective duty is in fact of very little

advantage to the American grower : —

*' It is urged as an objection to the proposed reciprocal
free-trade, that the American wheat-grower, who is taxed
heavily to pay the expenses of our government, will have
to contend on unequal terms with the Canadian, who has

1 1

CANADA.

288

ed from
alanced
jwth to
wfound-
jements
le latter
^e their

een made

or a free

ixperience

ipetent to

on, that a

tices from

removed,

our from

Free-trade

le heavy

:'e\v years

given
:y little

eciprocal
is taxed

will have
who has

coinpurutively light taxes to pay ; in other words, that fur
this reason tlie American needs protection against the
Canadian farmer.

*' But when we produce more than we consume, there
is no need of protection. Tlie surplus production thrown
upon the markets of the world establishes the price of all
consumed. Canada and the United States export a sur-
plus of wheat to the same foreign markets. The prices at
Mark Lane, to a great extent, iix the prices uf the Ameri-
can market."

It is an acknowledged wish in the colony
that more settlers of the class of English gentry
might be induced to go there, in addition to
those who have already adopted it as their
second home. And as long as the sentiments
and habits of " the old country " find a
response, and a fair field of growth and action
in the new, there will be that very powerful
motive, in addition to the fine material pro-
spects of the colony, to lead such persons
towards it. That class of men, conjoined in
political and social sympathies and interests
with the great middle class of this country, has
never yet learnt to submit to the dictation of
mere numbers. It is convinced that the social
and political institutions of England conduce

(.^.«.^.^%-'%W

284

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

more thau any others to the formation and
maintenance of a system of rational and tem-
perate freedom ; that they lay the foundation of
that national character which alone makes such
a system possible ; that they encourage a strong
sense of religion, and a firm attachment to the
doctrines that are the bulwarks of its exist-
ence ; that they lead to a high degree of intel-
lectual cultivation, a high standard of social
refinement, and an elevated sense of personal
honour; that they dictate those common
Christian courtesies which smooth the path
of social life and cause its ordinarv tenor
to be even and unruffled ; and that they thus
produce upon the whole a greater amount
of happiness, national and individual, than
can be found elsewhere. For under them,
the domestic virtues, founded on domestic dis-
cipline, are most common; and, in public
matters, " the great councils of the nation " are
directed in a spirit of moderation, and can be
enforced, when the call arises, with strength
proportioned to the need.

The laws, the public policy, and the social

i I

CANADA.

285

habits of the people of Canada are, to as great
an extent, probably, as difference of circum-
stances permits, in harmony with these ruling
sentiments of this country, and I believe that
there is nothing more important to the future pro-
spects and to the well-founded happiness of that
noble colony, not only that no violence should
be done to those sentiments by the course of
legislation there, but that they should be fully
recognised, respecied, and cherished, by every
legitimate and available means. For be it
observed that it possesses a mode of government,
as analogous as under the circumstances is
possible to that of the British Constitution.
But let it also be borne in mind by every well-
wisher to the colony, that without the incfci-
tutions, or the nearest practicable approaches
to them, which form the national character
that makes the British Constitution practicable
at all, it will be the hardest of all problems to
preserve it.*

* Having used above the expression " Christian courtesies," it
may be added that even the infidel confessed that, *'at all events,
St. Paul was a perfect gentleman." The ultra-democratic theory
of social and political life, which so unduly exalts the individual,

286

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

! ^

In the Canadian Constitution the aristocratic
element is recognised. The Governor- General

is at variance with every precept of Christian humility. " In low-
liness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves." " In
honour preferring one another." " Put on humbleness of mind,
meekness." " Be courteous." I must admit that I was occa-
sionally reminded of these passages during my stay in the United
States, and sometimes also in remote comers of Canada. Tiie
ultra-democratic theory, as represented in the expression of one
of the preachers of that doctrine, *' I am equal to everybody,
and nobody is better than me," when carried into effect in
manners, can hardly, one would imagine, be less disagreeable to
those who hold it, than it is to those who, not holding it, unfor-
tunately come into close contact with it. Self-exaltation in theory
can do no otherwise than lead to intense selfishness in practice,
and an entire and a very repulsive disregard for the feelings,
thoughts, wants, and wishes of others.

One of the phenomena in the condition of society in the
United States, is the relaxation of parental control. The fact is
admitted ; its causes and effects afford a very wide subject of
speculation.

In addition to ultra-democracy, socialism is very prevalent in
the western States. One of the most widely circulated of the
New York papers is, in its principles, ultra-democratic and
socialist, and is the one of greatest influence in the west. Social-
ism has also its special organs among the large German popula-
tion of the remoter States. Canada also is favoured by inspira-
tions from the same source, not improved in spirit or sense by
passing through the medium of some of the worst specimens of
ou'' own people, "friends of every country but their own."
The doctrines which those persons are endeavouring to impress
upon the small body of their followers in Canada, would, if
reduced to practice, very soon complete the usual round from
tyranny to slavery. " Haec natura multitudinis est ; aut servit
humiliter, aut superbe dominatur." These words of 1800 ;ears

CANADA.

287

is appointed by the Crown. In him, as the
representative of the Crown, rest the appoint-
ments to the Legislative Council, the appoint-
ment of Judges and Justices of the Peace, and
the nomination to several administrative offices
of dignity and importance. On the Governor-
General's recommendation also, titles of honour
are conferred by the Crown on individuals in
the colony, for distinguished services. The
Companionship of the Bath has, I am informed,
been so conferred in a few instances of late
years. Such acts are spoken of in the colony
with the greatest satisfaction. They contribute
to make the colonists feel, what they are so de-
sirous of feeling, that they are in fact and in
truth '* part and parcel of the British empire ;"
and they aid in removing one of the greatest
causes of the reluctance which men of ability
or ambition have to emigrate — namely, that
by so doing they cut themselves off from all
chances of sharing in the honours emanating
from the British Crown. I could not, without

ago are receiving ample illustration in the present day, in the
New World as well as in the Old.

288

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

1 '

1 1

I ■

»'

impropriety, dilate upon this subject, but it is
one which I heard frequently discussed in all
its bearings, both in its political aspect and in
reference to the increasing wealth of the colony
and the consequent increase in the number of
those capable of sustaining an elevated social
position.*

In close connexion with this branch of the
subject was another, which at this particular
juncture, when the state of our own represent-
ation is about to be reviewed, deserves to be
again brought under discussion.

It is felt in Canada as a great and serious
grievance, that there is no person in the House
of Commons capable, by the possession of inti-
mate personal knowledge and of direct personal
interests, of adequately representing the wants
and feelings of the colony. They attribute to
this, the abrupt and entire sacrifice of an im-
mense amount of the capital of the colony,
which many among them allege to have been
made by the acts of the Imperial Legislature

* The recent Act relating to intestacies was not regarded as
likely to have any effect in opposition to those sentiments.

CANADA,

289

but it is
;d in all
;t and in
le colony
imber of
id social

h of the
articular
epresent-
^es to be

1 serious
le House
n of inti-
personal
le wants
ribute to
an im-
colony,
ave been
^islature

regarded as
lents.

in the process of the changes from a protective
to a free-trade policy. Questions also are still
continually arising, in which they assert that
their interests are misunderstood, and their
claims to attention undervalued. They affirm,
and I believe with very great truth, that their
character as a people, that their country, their
resources, their position as an element of
strength to Great Britain, are not appreciated
as they ought to be by the people of this
country. Judging from what I heard in vari-
ous quarters, I should say that if, on due con-
sideration, it should be found possible to open
the doors of the House of Commons to a couple
of representatives from this great and flourish-
ing community, it would be a boon which they
are worthy to receive, and which it would be
advantageous to this country to grant. Or if
this should be incansistent with theory, or
likely to lead to inconvenient consequences, it
would not, one should imagine, be a matter of
any great difficulty to assign to a " Represen-
tative of the colony at the seat of Govern-
ment," in the capacity, as it were, of a colonial

290

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

*' Charge d' Affaires," a recognised position of
dignity, beyond that of the " Colonial Agent "
of former times. The position might be a new
one, and out of the common course of diplo-
matic representation ; but so is the fact new,
that Great Britain possesses, on the other side
of the Atlantic, a dependency growing up
rapidly into a great and noble, a wealthy and
powerful community, whom it is her duty and
interest to attach to herself by every available
tie of sympathy and affection.

As an additional reason for taking this step,
it is urged that, when a man of capacity and in-
dependence leaves this country in early life for
the colonies, he feels, as matters now stand, that
he cuts himself off, to a great degree, from the
hope of being thought much of, or perhaps even
known, in the most distinguished society in the
world. He attains eminence, probably, in the
colony to which he devotes his life and services.
In the mean time a generation has grown up,
his own contemporaries, occupying the foremost
places as statesmen,, lawyers, men of science and
literature, stirring politicians, merchants, and

CANADA.

291

(sition of
Agent "
36 a new
)f (liplo-
act new,
ther side
wing up
ilthv and
duty and
available

this step,
y and in-
ly life for
:and, that
from the
laps even
ty in the
y, in the
services,
rrown up,
foremost
ience and
ants, and

men of note in the various other careers of public
service or private enterprise. If the leading
men of the colonies knew that a way was open
to them which would enable them to make their
appearance, of right, and in a recognised and
defined position, on this wider and much-coveted
stage at home, it would doubtless be a great gain
to all parties. It would encourage men of the
upper classes of this country to embark in the
stirring and expanding field of colonial life, and
it would go a great way towards extinguishing
the sense of contrast between colonial life and
that of England.*

Again, when a citizen of the United States,
of no great mark perhaps in his own country,
comes to this, he naturally feels a desire to see,
if he has the slightest pretensions to be admitted
into it, something of the remarkable society con-
gregated at a certain season of the year in the
metropolis. He has the minister of his own
country to apply to; and, accordingly, the in-
habitant of the smallest state of the Union, or
of the most distant city in the great valley of the
Mississippi, has a ready mode of access, if it be

) I

292

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

meet that he should have it, to some portion at
least of that distinguished society. I heard it
frequently asked in Canada, *' Why should the
inhabitant of Maine, Vermont, or New Hamp-
shire, be better off in that respect, when he
visits England, than an inhabitant of Canada
and a subject of the British Crown? Why
should not the rising men of the colonies, on
temporary visits to England^ have oppor-
tunities of being properly introduced at the
house of the representative of their colony in
London ? " One of the most painful results of
a separation from this country would then be
obviated — that of cutting off, to so great an
extent, the opportunities of social acquaintance
and intercourse with the best men of the day.

Were the option given to Canada — the first
in importance of our colonies^ — there would be
little doubt, I apprehend, of her soon finding
fit men to represent her ; and as little, it may
fairly be expected, that her legislature would
consult its own dignity in assigning to him an
income befitting his station among the leading
persons of this country.

CANADA.

293

jortion at
'. heard it
lould the
w Hamp-
when he
■ Canada
I? Why
onies, on
e oppor-
id at the
colony in
results of
i then be
great an
uaintance
the day.
—the first
would be
n finding
le, it may
ire would
him an
le leading

The former ties which used to be deemed of
value in binding our colonies to us — those of
trade, in an exclusive sense, have been greatly
loosened, if not almost entirely put an end to.
Our market is now not much more to them
than any other. Among the great remaining
ties — those of relationship and affection, of
security under the British sceptre, and a par-
ticipation in British commercial credit — is that
of honour.

The honours emanating from the British
Crown, and the honour of representing in Eng-
land a new and vigorous nation of our own bone
and blood, are ties stronger than gold, as they
are loftier than anything that gold could pur-
chase.

Emigration. — If the facts that I have brought
together in the first portion of this volume,
relating to the great prospective demand for
more capital and labour in the United States,
consequent upon the opening of the vast system
of railway communication now in progress
towards the west, together with the additional
facts just given to the same point respecting

294

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

/■

Canada, should be in any measure new to any
one interested in the agricultural districts of
this country, I apprehend they cannot fail to
excite in his mind some very serious consider-
ations, especially if he should be connected
with any of those southern counties where
wages are lowest, or with a neighbourhood
where strong competition for farms has hitherto
kept up rent above what the tenant can meet
in the present state of his agricultural skill,
without encroaching upon his capital. The
increasing demand for labour in the United
States will, in all probability, enable the Irish
emigrant to obtain, for many years to come,
the high rate of wages he can now command,
either on the railways or in the far West, not-
withstanding the great stream of emigration
that is still setting towards that country from
Ireland. The agricultural capabilities of Ire-
land and the low price of land are already ope-
rating as a strong attraction to many enter-
prising farmers of capital in this country, who
are taking their labourers with them. Canada
— not now more distant in point of time from

'-..- v^ I-' — ,-

CANADA.'

295

England than York was from London in the
early part of the last century — is drawing
many of the same class to her exuberantly fer-
tile soil. In Canada the English farmer and
the English agricultural labourer find them-
selves in the midst of their own countrymen
(for many coming from the same counties have
settled near each other), surrounded by asso-
ciations similar to those they have left behind
them — the same manners, the same habits, the
same kind of farming, the same form of govern-
ment, the same or even a more direct system
of control over the local affairs of the neigh-
bourhood. Every farmer, therefore, and every
agricultural labourer with whom I conversed
in Canada expressed himself pleased and con-
tented with the change, as far as the increased
means of living were concerned ; for it would
be unjust to them and to this country were I
not to add, that the almost universal sequel to
these expressions of content on that score was,
" But, after all, there *s nothing like * the old
country,' for those that can live in it." The
English farmers and labourers whom I met

.^6

¥(fTF.» ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, Ac.

witili in tiie UiiikMl Slates were but few. They
liad been successful, and they s[)okc in coirlial
terms of the kindness and general civility of
the people among w^hom they had settled; but
there was much in manners and habits which,
to use the expression of one of them, " went
against the grain ;" and they generally com-
plained of the climate. The insulation also in
which they lived — so far from neighbours
whom they had known before, and kindred —
seemed to weigh upon them.

While the Irish emigrant, therefore, will
chiefly be attracted towards the United States,
the English or Scotrl^ emigrant will probably
continue to prefer setting up his new resting-
place in Canada. And there is in that country,
in truth, a great and enticing field for every ele-
ment of British character. By what means a
still further encouragement can be given to
the best settlers of all classes to go tber<\ is a
subject occupying th; attention of • 1? t^'. men
of business in the colony. A direct communi-
cation between Liverpool and Quebec, by large
crew-steamers, is projected, and will, I believe.

'-"^ wfth^"'-

■jisC:

rANADA.

297

very soon be carried into effect. The great
line of railway from Haiifix to Quebec, untl
thence through the entire length of the two
provinces, will, when completed, lead at once
to a much higher appreciation in thin country
(>^' the value and attractiveness of that. It is
devoutly to be hoped, in the interest of that
suffering and most deserving class of men, the
agricultural labourers in our southern counties,
who are existing on the low rate of wages there
prevalent, that they may have intelligence
enough to see the prospects held out to thoni
in that new society of English habits, Engl sh
sympathies, and English principles, and that
they may be enabled to join it. One of the
leading wants in America is cheaper labour ;
and capitalists are taking the means to facilitate
its introduction. It is possible that, before many
years are over, it may be leaving our own
shores even more freely than would accord
with the present interests of some among us.
There is no need to follow up the reflections
which these facts open. They will suggest
themselves, in all probability, to those who

298

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

/ !

have been hitherto wasting in a useless struggle
the energies that are wanted for the full deve-
lopment of the agricultural resources of this
country.

Society in Canada. — I cannot omit to re-
count the very agreeable impressions I received
of the society I had the good fortune to meet
with, both in the great towns of Canada and in
the country. It adds greatly to the charm of
travelling in a new country, to find at every
halting-place so much that recalls the mode of
life, and is in harmony with the ideas, manners,
and habits of England. I feel impelled to ex-
press in the very warmest terms the gratifica-
tion I experienced in the many opportunities I
enjoyed of cordial and friendly intercourse
with persons of both the leading political
parties in the colony, and with others who live
apart from public life. The presence also of
even the few British regiments in the different
parts of the colony cannot do otherwise than
contribute to keep up an English standard in
many things. There is much in Canada to
reconcile the emigrant, to a certain extent, to

Bttn

ttm

8 struggle
full (leve-
ls of this

lit to re-

[ received

e to meet

da and in

charm of

at every

mode of

manners,

led to ex-

gratifica-

tunities I

itercourse

political

who live

e also of

different

vise than

ndard in

lanada to

extent, to

CANADA.

299

what nothing can altogether compensate him for
— his separation from the society of England.*
The French Canadians, — There is no more
interesting circumstance throughout the wide
range of our Colonial or our Indian Empire,
than that of the existence, under British
rule, of the 700,000 French in Lower Canada.
Side by side with them, and under the same
form of government, are rather more than the
same number of individuals of our own kindred
and language, principally in Upper Canada.

* In reference to the number of British troops in Canada, I
would beg the gentlemen of the " Peace Party" in this country,
who are bo anxious for the reduction of all our means of main-
taining it, to go and study, even for a short time, the present
temper of the democracy of the United States. They will find
abundant evidence to convince them that there is no people, even
among the military nations of Europe, so penetrated with a war-
like spirit, and so inclined to aggression. To weaken our means
of defence in Canada, is to prompt and invite another demon-
stration of " sympathy " from the other side of a long and ex-
posed frontier. The aristocracy of the United States (let no
one start at the name — the feeling exists in as great strength as
in Europe), as represented by the professional, commercial, and
the wealthier of the trading classes, is far too enlightened, and
too generally impressed with a high sense of right and wrong,
to partake of this spirit; but they are yet numerically and
socially weak, and consequently liable to be overborne by tlie
mass of the people-

i'^,,.,^'._tf. ■>.,. ..-^t^^^^^

vsi

300

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, ke.

Christian charity and political wisdom will
have achieved no greater triumph than that of
harmonizing under one sceptre these hitherto
discordant elements.

The entire extinction, in the breast of every
well-disposed Englishman of the present gene-
ration, of that bitter spirit of hostility towards
our French neighbours, which was engendered
by the long and deadly strife of the last war,
has been brought about partly by better ac-
quaintance, partly by the Christian temper
happily prevalent in this country.

It would be strange indeed if the old feelings
of alienation and disrespect which have well
nigh totally expired here, should be designedly
kept alive by the people of our own stock in
Canada, against those of the French race who
are so closely allied to them by the ties of
citizenship and of mutual interest.

I was extremely glad to hear from the lips
of many persons who had the best right to
speak upon the subject, that the idea of govern-
ing the country with reference to English ideas
and feelings alone (or, to use an old phrase, of

mmsUfi

itammna

^gjgt^l^^j

CANADA.

301

'* swamping the French Canadians"), had been
practically abandoned, and that there was every
disposition to give them a fair share of, and
their due weight in, the administration of
public affairs. The consequence has been
political peace, and an increasing degree of
social harmon3\ ** Maintenant," said a French
gentleman to me, in conversing on this subject,
" tout est calme, et nous sommes tous contents.
Nous avons un Gouverneur que nous prisons
beaucoup, et que nous aimons tous ; et ce qui
est encore beaucoup, qui est honore de la con-
fiance de sa Majeste." Public demonstrations
of late have clearly proved this. And if the
English part of the Canadian people have cause
to regret the slowness which the French por-
tion display in making up their minds to the
adoption of changes in their old laws and
usages (such as the Feudal tenure and other
matters now under discussion — if, indeed, they
are not obstructed in regard to changes in the
former by some English interests), they may
find encouragement in several things that have
been already effected, and in the many indica-

.Hi
'Pi

302

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

tions given both by the French representatives
in the Legislative Assembly, and by other in-
dividuals, of a considerable movement of mind
in the way of solid and progressive improve-
ment.

Physically, the French Canadians struck me
as being far superior to any of the peasantry
of France, except the Normans, from whom
they are descended. They seemed to me as a
race athletic and robust, and with florid and
healthy complexions. They have the same
charm of manner that is still found among
their European brethren, wherever the lower-
ing and in reality anti-social spirit of repub-
licanism has not trodden it out. The graceful
courtesy of address, the respect for the feelings
of others, the warm and cordial interchange of
little kindnesses, the genial flow of animal
spirits, the frank and fearless joke and the
keen play of " badinage," remind you of how
much they have derived from those past gene-
rations which cherished and diffused all these
smaller elements of the happiness of life, as the
healthy accessories and the indispensable garni-

CANADA.

303

ture of the greater. A gross, unimaginative,
and selfish philosophy was unahle to distin-
guish between the abuse and the use of those
ingredients of cultivation ; between the hol-
lowness and servility of the mere courtier, and
that dignified self-respect of the gentleman,
that *' proud submission, which kept alive,
even in servitude itself, the spirit of an exalted
freedom." The civilization of the New World
owes something, I think, to the French Cana-
dians, for keeping alive a reflection of the best
manners of the old.

But on what grounds of policy or justice it
could ever have been proposed to "swamp"
the French Canadians, I am at a loss, after
seeing themselves and their country, to con-
ceive. You cannot resist saying to yourself,
Do they not number half the population?
Have they not a history of which they have a
right to be proud ? Are they not strongly and
sincerely attached to their own peculiar insti-
tutions, which have descended to them through
many generations, which they enjoy under the
solemn guarantee of England, and from which

1 1

■ i

ill :

<•■

)?iS

304

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

nothing but slow conviction could ever induce
them to swerve in the minutest tittle ? Have
they not to the full, and in a manner no less
remarkable than gratifying, transferred to the
British Crown those warm feelings of loyalty
which with them are a part of their religion ?
Do they not speak of our Queen with as much
deep homage of the heart as any one of our-
selves ? Have they not wealthy, well-sup-
ported, and energetic establishments of charity,
education, and religion, which are calculated
in many instances to put our own lukewarm
efforts to shame? Are they not a people so
singularly well-conducted and free from crime
that there is no such thing as even a parish
constable from one end of the French Canadian
territory to the other ? * Now that they are
treated with consideration and justice, are they
not among the most devoted of all her Majesty's
subjects ? And can there be any closer bond
of union among themselves, or firmer basis of

* When any one is taken into custody, he is handed on from
county to county by the *' Capitaine de Milice," until ne is de-
posited at one of the towns.

CANADA.

305

attachment to the British Crown, than that
strong nationality which they preserve intact,
and in fearless security, under its protection,
and in defence of which they would pour out
their last drop of blood ? *

Concluding Remarks. — The respect and
admiration I couceived for that splendid
colony, on seeing it from one end nearly to
the other, were in nowise diminished by
what I witnessed or heard of the French
Canadian portion of it ; nor were the antici-
pations of its future progress in any degree
lessened. And should any one in this coun-
try be disposed to undervalue it, either in
itself or as " part and parcel " of the British
dominions, I would beg of him to go and pass
through the length and breadth of that fa-
voured and magnificent land. Let him picture to
himself its thirty millions of acres of soil, than
which finer and richer never came from the
beneficent hand of Nature ; let him survey
that splendid river, bearing to the ocean ves-
sels that have navigated its parent waters for

* See Appendix (F), p. 312.

306

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

two thousand miles; let him examine its canals
— those noble works of skill and science that
have as it were smoothed the rapid, and made
a stepping-stone of the rocky ridge that throws
Niagara over its brow ; let him walk through
those towns on the margin of those lakes and
of that river — towns which wealth has already
decorated, and which a sober and correct taste,
and solid comfort and convenience, have
already stamped with a thoroughly English
character. Let him then look at the varied
and in some parts picturesque scenery, either
glowing in the hot summer's sun, or arrayed
in the gorgeous tints of an American autumn,
or reposing under the bright and silent win-
ter's sky. Let him see the many and various
fruits of the earth pouring into those towns
daily, as from the very lap of Plenty. Let
him think of the genuine English feeling,
grounded on the participation of British free-
dom and the pride of British origin, which
pervades that land ; and the no less deep and
elevated sentiments of French nationality, with
which, in singular and beautiful union, a chi-

CANADA.

307

valrous loyalty to our Queen is mingled as the
colours in a prism, distinct yet united. Let
him see and consider these things, and then
ask himself if that is a country of which to
speak lightly, as one that may possibly be torn,
or may one day fall away, from the British
Crown ?

I should have deemed the trifling incon-
veniences of a long tour amply repaid by one
scene alone. On tlie north bank of the St.
Lawrence, six miles below Quebec, the rushing
mountain-stream, the Montmorenci, upwards
of 100 feet broad and 250 feet high, leaps over
a wooded cliff" into the bed of the mighty river.
Standing on a bold promontory, with this
beautiful fall on your right, you have before
you and on your left the broad expanse of the
St. Lawrence, flowing majestically between a
framework of rising ground, here abrupt with
escarpments of varied outline and hung with
foliage, there undulating away to a distance
until it meets an amphitheatre of mountain.
Receding bays and jutting eminences break
the line of water and of land. Numerous neat

308

II' ' ^

h .

/ '

Sir;

ii;

1*1 f

I. I

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

cottages of the "habitants" dot the course of
the main roads. Projecting full into the
middle of the river, about six miles off, rise the
town and the citadel of Quebec ; the latter, in
form not unlike Ehrenbreitstein, and worthy
of the comparison and the name. Upon its
lofty brow waves the British flag. The equal
heroism of Wolfe and Montcalm has invested
that spot with an undying interest. TLu chi-
valry of the latter makes his memory as dear
to the descendants of the defeated, as the youth
and genius of the former can exalt him in our
eyes. It is a spot where the glory of both
nations has an enduring reco?.'^, and to which
both must ever look witli an equal pride.
Gazing upon it in the distance, I could not but
remember also our own reverses on that wide
continent, and those men, no less brave but
less fortunate, who fought without success in
their country's cause.* In the city of Mont-
calm and of Wolfe now sits the Parliament of
the United Canadian Provinces, under a Con-

* 'Owe ATTOvraf 'ofioitoc rj ttoXiq rije avriig a^iwaatra
Tifirjc ida\p£Vf ov\i tovq KaropOuaavraQ avrwy . . . ^ikqiwq.

itfs:

■■♦..^i..^ % .* f * ■*-< t i

CANADA.

^09

stitution essentially British ; and the singular
and gratifying spectacle is now being given, of
the French and English combining their in-
telligence and their public spirit towards the
useful, just, and harmonious working of a
common government.

The whole scene, under the mild rays of an
autumn evening, was one which, for a union
of the beauties and sublimities of nature with
associations equally touching to every French
as to every English heart, has not its equal in
the world.

im m our

IIIIIB ■ '

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^■!'

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!li

APPENDIX.

(E. )

Report of Select Committee on Crown, Clergy, and
School Lands (surveyed), 1845.

Upper Canada
Lower Canada

Acre*.

18,153,219
17,655,942

35,839,161 I

How disposed of :—

Upper Canada :

For support of Protestant Clergy

2,407,687

For education —

King's College, Toronto . 225,944
Upper Canada College . 68,642
Grammar schools . . 258,330

547,916

808,560

2,485,413

10,404,663

1,500,000

Indian reservations not disposed of .
To Canada Company ....

„ United Empire Loyalists
Land remaining on hand

18,153,219

/LERGY, and

Acrea.

18,153,219
17,655,942

35,839,161

2,407,687

547,916

808,560

2,485,413

0,404,663

1,500,000

8,153,219

APPENDIX— (E.)

311

iwer Canada :

Jesuits' estates not appropriated

664,080

Indian reserves, near St. Maurice

87,000

Seignonal tenures, granted to

individuals . . . 7,496,000

Free and common soccagu . 3,847,629

Included in the above . . 1,687,233

On hand .... 3,907,000

R- 9.14. 862

17,685,942

From the Census of 1848 it appears that, of the
18,358,800 there given as the total surveyed acreage of
Upper Canada, only 521,130 acres were returned as
imfit for cultivation. — {Scobie^s Almanac for 1850, p. 50.)
I have found no return for Lower Canada.

It may not be uninteresting, as a means of comparison,
especially with reference to the statement which follows
at p. 315, relating to the extent and resources of the
Ottawa region, to add here the area of tlie United King-
dom expressed in square miles and acres, on the authority
of the Population Returns.

Area of' the United Kingdom.

England . ,
Wales . .
Scotland . .

Great Britain
Ireland . .

Total

Square Miles.

50,387

7,425

32,167

Acres.

32,247,680

4,752,000

20,586,880

89,979 57,586,560
32,512 20,808,271

122,491 78,394,831

■*««■

312

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

M!l

( F. ) Vide p. 305.

On the Custom of the Subdivision of Property 'n
Pennsylvania, &c.

It is instructive to remark the different effect which
the custom of the equal division of property has pro-
duced among the French Canadians and the Pennsyl-
vanian Germans, as compared with the law of compul-
sory division in France and in the Rhenish and other
provinces in Germany, where the Code Napoleon was
introduced at the time of the French conquest.

The French Canadians and the Pennsylvanian
" Dutch," as they are called (from the word Deutsch),
having the opportunity of " going West" and getting
as much land as they like for a dollar and a quarter
per acre, or, if they go to the frontier of the States, for
nothing at all, will not subdivide their inheritances
below that which they find they can live upon in what
they deem sufficient comfort. I was informed in Penn-
sylvania that, on the death of a proprietor, a jury of his
neighbours is usually summoned to assess the value of
his land, and to give their opinion whether it ought to
be divided. If the division would bring each property
below about one hundred acres, they generally decide
that it should not be divided, but be offered to each

APPENDIX— (F.)

313

ROPERTY m

son in succession, until one consents to take it, and to
pay off the portions of the other children. The value
put upon the land by the " Jury" was, it .was said,
generally such as to make it pretty easy to the occu-
pant to save or raise the sums needed to clear off the
incumbrance. Among the French Canadians the
habit has been, according to the " Report on the State
of Agriculture in Lower Canada " quoted in the text,
to hold " too much land considering their means,"
renting or purchasing the portions of those who have
emigrated ; and they are recommended, in a sensible
communication at p. 79 of that document, to " confine
their attention industriously to the cultivation of fifty

acres.

Wliat would the French or German pear.ant, starv-
ing upon his few patches of mortgaged land, give, if it
were possible, and not a bitter mockery, to recommend
him not to reduce his holding below 100 or even 50
acres ; and what an amount of misery does he not owe
to that rash and presumptuous generation, which com-
mitted errors under the guise of philosophy and phi-
lanthropy, that the experience of the present age is at
its wit's end to repair ?

(G.) See p. 278.
Extract from a Spkech of the Honourable Francis
HiNOKS, Inspector General (Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer), on the Financial Condition of the Pro-

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

vince, delivered before the Legislative Assembly of
Canada, 16th July, 1851 (Toronto, 1851).

Speaking of the larger proportionate consumption of
imported articles by Canada, in consequence of her
low tariff, Mr. Hincks states : — " In order to show the
effect of this policy, I shall refer to some of the leading
articles of manufactures imported inio the United
States and Canada. The most important of these are
cottons, woollens, iron and hardware, silk and linen.
With regard to silks and linens, the protective duties
may be considered as inoperative, there being no ex-
tensive manufactures in either country. Of these
articles the importation into the United States is from
40 to 60 per cent, greater, having reference to popu-
lation, than into Canada, which is not surprising, con-
sidering the greater wealth of the inhabitants, and the
fact that these articles are consumed by the higher
classes. Perhaps the proportionate increase ought not
to be so great on cottons, woollens, iron, and hardware.
Still we may fairly assume that the consumption of
these articles would be greater than in Canada, and
that under a similar tariff the imports would be 10 to
20 per cent, higher. But, sir, what is the fact ? The
imports of cotton goods are, in proportion to popula-
tion, nearly four times as great as into the United
States, woollens nearly three times as great, and iron
and hardware nearly double. These, Mr. Chairman,
are instructive facts, — instructive as proving to the
Mother Country the value of the colonies as a market

I Assembly of
>51).

jnsumption of
[uence of her
jr to show the
of the leading
» the United
t of these are
ilk and linen,
itective duties

being no ex-
f. Of these
States is from
Bnee to popu-
irprising, con-
tants, and the
by the higher
;ase ought not
and hardware.
)nsumption of

Canada, and
ould be 10 to
le fact ? The
ion to popula-
to the United
reat, and iron
^r. Chairman,
roving to the
es as a market

APPENDIX— (G.H.) 315

for British manufactures, and instructive to ourselves
as showing the cost to the consumers of a protective
tariff."

(H.) See p. 216.

On the Extent and Resources of the Great Basin
of the Ottawa.

Having mentioned with some degree of particularity
several of the regions of Canada most abounding in
agricultural and other resources — such as the splendid
peninsula of Upper Canada, the rich territory north of
^ Lake Ontario, the fine country of the eastern townships,

and others — it would be an act of injustice not to notice
the great basin of the Ottawa, the chief seat of the
lumber trade, a region hitherto very little known, but
nevertheless one of the most surprising in the variety
and extent of its resources, in that teeming land of
undeveloped wealth and power.

I find an account of it in a volume entitled ' Pro-
ceedings of the Standing Committee (of the Provincial
Parliament) on Railroads and Telegraph Lines,
together with the Minutes of Evidence. Ordered by
the Committee to be printed, July 14th, 1851. —
Toronto.' From this I shall take the liberty of
abridging some of the interesting statements there
given.

The great basin or region of the Ottawa occupies an
area of 80,000 square miles. One-eighth only has

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &c.

been surveyed and organized into townships or seigno-
ries ; another eighth would include all the extent over
which lumbering operations are carried on, leaving
three-fourths wholly unoccupied, except by a few hun-
dred families of the aboriginal inhabitants, and of this
there is an extent equal to all England quite unknown
except to the agents of the Hudson's Bay Company.

The length of the course of the Ottawa is about
780 miles, or 50 miles shorter than the Rhine.

Many of its tributaries, falling into large lakes
towards its upper waters, have not yet been traced, but
fourteen, which have, possess an aggregate length of
2153 miles ; some of them are as large as the Hudson,
the Shannon, the Thames, the Tweed, the Spey, and
the Clyde ; one, the Gatineau, larger : and after re-
ceiving all these tributaries " when at the highest
and the north waters are passing, the volume of the
Ottawa, by calculated approximation, is fully equal to
that passing Niagara — that is, double the common
volume of the Ganges."

Many of these rivers, as well as the Ottawa itself,

present long uninterrupted reaches of navigable
water," with "unlimited water-power" at their falls
and rapids. One of the former, the Chaudiere, six
miles above Bytown, " is arrayed in every imaginable
variety of form," and not the least interesting feature
it presents is the " Lost Chaudiere," where a body of
water, greater in volume than the Thames at London,
is quietly sucked down and disappears underground.

APPENDIX- (H.)

317

The extent of this grand region, its geological cha-
racter, the line soil and climate, and the attractive
features of a large portion of it, its vast forests of valu-
able timber, and its great mineral resources, are more
particularly described in the following extract : —

" Taking a bird's-eye view of the valley of the
Ottawa, we see spread out before us a country equal
to eight times the extent of the state of Vermont, or
ten times that of Massachusetts ; with its great artery
the Ottawa curving through it, resembling the Rhine
in length of course, and the Danube in magnitude.

" This immense region includes a variety of geolo-
gical formations, and presents all their characteristic
features, from the level uniform surface of the silurian
system, which prevails along a great extent of the
south shore of the Ottawa, to the rugged and romantic
ridges in the metamorphic and primitive formations,
which stretch far away to the north and north-west.

" As far as our knowledge of the country extends,
we find the greater part of it covered with a luxuriant
growth of red and white pine timber, making the most
valuable timber-forests in the world, abundantly inter-
sected with large rivers, fitted to convey the timber to
market when manufactured.

" The remaining portion of it, if not so valuably
wooded, presents a very extensive and advantageous
field for settlement. Apart from the numerous town-
ships already surveyed, and partly settled, and the
large tracts of good land interspersed throughout the

318

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, &o.

timber country, the great region on the upper course
of the western tributaries of the Ottawa, behind the
red pine country, exceeds the state of New Hampshire
in extent, with an equal climate and superior soil. It
is generally a beautiful undulating country, wooded
with a rich growth of maple, beech, birch, ehn, &c.,
and watered with a lake and stream, affording nume-
rous mill-sites, and abounding in fish. Flanking the
lumbering country on the one side, which presents an
excellent market for produce, and adjoining Lake
Huron on the other, the situation, though compara-
tively inland, is highly advantageous.

" In the diversity of resources, the Ottawa country
presents unusual inducements alike tc agricultural
industry and commercial enterprise. The operations
of the lumberers give an unusual value to the produce
of the most distant settlers by the great demand they
create on the spot, while the profits of lumbering yield
those engaged in it a command of wealth which other-
wise could not be had in the country.

" The value of the resources of their forests to the
inhabitants of the Ottawa country will be evident on
comparing the value of their exports with those of
other countries. Take, for instance, the state of Maine
(as American enterprise is so much talked of), with all
its commercial advantages, and the enterprising cha-
racter of its people. When their population was up-
wards of 500,000, the exports amounted in value to
1,078,633 dollars , whiie the value of the exports of

!«

APPENDIX— (II.)

319

the Ottawa country amounts to double that sum, with
less than one-third the population.

" If such be the case now, how much more will it be
so when, in addition to the more extensive prosecution
of agriculture, the unlimited water-power which the
Ottawa and its tributaries afford is even partially
applied to general manufactures, as well as to that of
deals. It woulvi be impossible to conceive an un-
limited power presented in a more available form than
that which the Ottawa offers in its many divided falls ;
while she lavishes invitingly unparalleled power to
manufacture them, she offers her broad bosom to bring
the cotton of the soutli and the timber of the north
together.

" Nor are the mineral resources of the Ottawa coun-
try to be overlooked. And here the Gatineau offers its
services, with an unlimited supply of excellent iron,
and within a mile of its navigable water, close to its
lowest falls, affording unlimited water-power, and
abundance of timber for fuel ; and there are equal ad-
vantages for its working on other parts of the Ottawa.
The plumbago, lead, and copper, the marble, and the
ochres of the Ottawa country will yet become of com-
mercial importance.

" To judge of the importance of the Ottawa country,
we should consider the population which her varied
agricultural and commercial resources may ultimately
support. Taking the present condition of New Hamp-
shire as data, without noticing its great importance in

320

NOTES ON PUBLIC SUBJECTS, Sec.

I i

commercial advantages, the Ottawa country, when
equally advanced, which is not much to say, should
maintain 3,000,000 of inhabitants. But taking Scot-
land as our data, which the Ottawa country surely
equals in soil, and might with its peculiar advantages
resemble in commerce and manufactures, the valley of
the Ottawa should ultimately maintain a population
of 8,000,000 of souls."

When it is considered that the above is a description
of a section only of the British colonial possessions in
North America — and a description, as particular, of any
of the rest would present facts and circumstances not
less calculated to fill the mind — and when it is remem-
bered also that the area of this one region alone — the
grand basin of the Ottawa — comprises an extent of
80,000 square miles, or only 9979 square miles less
than the area of Great Britain, I would ask whether
the Canadian gentleman whom I have referred to at
p. 173 had not some reason for his assertion, " That
the people of England are by no means aware how fine
a country they possess in Canada" ?

LOXDON : PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AIil> SONS, STAMFORD STREET.

untry, when
say, should
taking Scot-
untry surely
advantages
the valley of
a population

a description
>ossessions in
cular, of any
mstances not
it is remem-
n alone — the
an extent of
miles less
ask whether
sferred to at
tion, " That
'are how fine

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P(
P(

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PUBLISHKD IIV MR. MURRAY.

PHILOSOPHY IN SPOUT MADK Pr^iKNCE IN EARNEST;

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