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PREFACE This book is intended for the student of Drawing as well as for the teacher* Its object is to intensify a desire for a deeper study of this fascinating subject. Although it is impossible to present a full treatment of the subject in the space at our disposal, we have endeavoured to briefly outline the full course expected to be covered by an average Public School student. We have endeavoured also to treat the subject in a practical way and according to sound psychological principles. It is fully illustrated with fac-similes of pen and ink drawings by the author. These are presented for the purpose of fully illustrating the text rather than to present copy. The student should draw much for himself, encourage personal effort, learn to do by doing, using the illustrations for the purpose of reference and comparison. For convenient classification and to facilitate the proper development of the course outlined we have divided the book into four parts : Part I. Freehand and Practical Design ; Part II. Mechanical Drawing and Illustration ; Part III. Object Drawing. Part IV. Applied Perspective, Grouping, Shade and Shadow. We desire to acknowledge our obligations for valuable suggestions to Mr. Alex. McQueen, Principal of Victoria Public School, and to the Assistants of Colborne Street Public School. We desire also to acknowledge very valuable assistance and criticism from Mr. R. M. Graham, Principal of the Model School, whose characteristics as a successful student of child nature are well known. S. Jt liATTA. London, February, 1900. k f ^. ( 1 a c I T B G Di< Coj CONTENTS Introductory. Matorial and How to Use ft. ".".■• i^osition. . .^' Eye and Hand. . " " " - - - ' . ' Practice. . . " - - . . Sticks and Angles. """■--." Symmetry. ..'"--.. Straight Line Designs " . " " ' " - - " Simple Curve Desiins." fet\?r"f'*'^^^^^>^I^-««i'»Con.bi;.^^^^^^ . - - - Tabll^r"^^ ^nd Space Filling. - . . Compound Curves. " . " " " - - " - ' Tlio Double Loop. . ' " - - - ■Leaf Forms. . " " - - - The Spiral. ..""--.. Borders. G-m^cdI'';"*''"""'""''" "''^^"~« ^"^ ILLUSTRATION. A Point. - ■ . Lines. Surfaces. -.'""--. Angles. . . " ■ - - . . ' Triangles. .'"•--. Quadrilaterals. . ' * " - - . " The Circle. . " " - Problems— Geometric " . " " ■* Degrees - . " - Pioblem8.-Degree8. - " . " Dictation Drawino Preliminary Exercise.". - Problems. . ' - - Descriptive Outlines ' - " Answers to Dictation Problems ' Constructive Drawing ^'^'''''' *"« Object. The Scale. . " " - - Problems-Scale. . ' The Plan. - " - - Problems— ConstructiVe. " . " . " Page 7 12 13 13 13 -» ' 20 23 2<) 2H 30 32 3() 43 4(5 47 52 5'j 63 04 64 do 65 60 67 08 73 73 75 77 82 83 85 86 86 87 89 CONTENTS Illustration. Practicul. Lettering. Picture Storioa. PART III.— OBJECT DRAWING. Page 95 97 106 The Drawing Book. - - - -'- - . -118 Outlines. -----.... 120 Models — Sticks and Tablets. - - - - - . - 121 Making Models. -..-.-.. 129 Models— Solids. --------- 133 The Cube. --...... 134 The Sphere. -----..-. 1:^5 The Ellipsoid. ........ 133 The Ovoid. --------- 139 Memory Exercise. - - - - - . . 139 Repose. ---....., 14Q Effect of Distance. - - - - - - . - 142 Effect of Position. -------- 143 Foreshortening. .---.... 145 Insects and Animals. ........ 152 Leaves, Flowers and Plants. - - • - - . 1,59 The Circular Tablet, Cylinder and Cone. ..... 1(55 The Circular Tablet. --.-... 105 The Cylinder. - - - - - - . - 167 The Cone. .---.... 172 The Hemisphere. - - - - - - . - 173 Handles. ........ J74 Trees. ---.--.... 177 Drawing from the flat. ....... jgl PART IV.— APPLIED PERSPECTIVE, GROUPING, SHADE AND SHADOW The Horizon. ........ jgy Parallel Perspective. - - - - - - . - 189 The Cube. ........ jjj9 Problems. - - - - - - - - - 199 The Square Pyramid. ....... 260 The Triangular Prisjn. ---.... 207 Angular Perspective. ....... 2O8 Problems. ......... 214 Shade and Shadow. - - ..... 2I8 Blending. ......... 223 Direction of Lines. ....... 223 The Model. -----.... 224 Problems. ........ 226 Grouping. ......... 227 Position of the Picture Plane. ...... 236 The Human Figure. -------- 239 INTRODUCTION A proper understnnding of the process by which the knowledge of an object grows in the mind is an aid to success in following the proper method of developing the study of drawing. Wlien we look at an object an image appears in the mind as soon as we cease to look at it. We think of two things : (1) The image in the mind ; (2) The object outside of the mind that gave rise to this image. Examinations of the drawings of children who have not previously had any acquaintance with the object drawn will help to estimate in how far this mental image corresponds with the original object that gave rise to it. We have found that although they show the influence of ability to represent the image by means of a drawing, the drawing will vary according to the ability to receive and interpret impressions received through the sense of eight. Our experiments, and we are open to criticism, have led us to conclude that the drawing is accurate only so far as the image in the mind is accurate. On the other hand, if an object with which children are already acquainted is ])laced before them and they are asked to draw it, the result is quite different. We hold before a class, in the first grade, an ordinary inflated foot-ball rubber and received something like the following facts concerning it : That it was round, soft, brown, provided with a thing through which to blow the wind, and that this thing was tied with a piece of string. After this discussion a drawing was requested, the object being still before the class. Some at first hesitated, and took a long look at the object ; some moved their heads to one side and tried to see the "thing to blow the wind through" wliich by the way was kept carefully INTRODUCTION out of flight ; others went to work at once. Out of about thirty-five pupils ove thirty made drawings like these : er Flg.l We then put away the rubber and a short conversation took plaoe about men and horses. The class was again requested to draw, but this time a man riding a horse. Tlie great majority went immediately to work with great glee, exhibiting a decided air of " tbafs easy." The result was invariably something like these : Fig. 2 INTRODUCTION In the first case the previous knowledge of the object overcame the power to perceive it as it appeared, and in the second the object was immediately referred to wliat we choose to term conventional drawings either designed by themselves or given to them by some one else. The result of these experiments undoubtedly proves that the principal elements that constitute the chief source of error in drawing are: (1) a previous knowledge of the object and (2) the possession of a conventional image of it. Without extended discussion we desire to outline briefly a few hints resulting from our experience. 1. At the beginning avoid the drawing of objects of which a conventional representation lias been learned. 2. Avoid too, at first, the drawing of an object in a familiar position. This familiarity may be the result of frequently seeing it thus or a picture of it. 3. Do not practice the copying of drawings, except as a means of becoming acquainted with good methods of representation. Even here there is a tendency for the copy to become so impressed as to interfere materially with actual mental images formed by contemplating the object itself, thus preventing attention to special characteristics not suggested in this particular drawing. This danger may be partially overcome by copying drawings of the same object in different positions. AVe do not mean to say that a knowledge of the object to be represented is not necessary. Great speakers are great speakers not only becauae they have attained great power in the word method of expression, but because in addition to this they possess a clear understanding of the subject in hand. The eye reveals to us surfaces only. Rooper says, " A baby stretches out its hand for the moon ; how is it that what seems so near to him looks so far from us? Because in our case the impressions conveyed by the eye are supplemented by the impressions received through the touch, and *he two distinct sets of impressions combined together in the mind furnish us with a conception of a third dimension, besides length and breadth— viz., depth. The child who has not yet got so far as to have sufficiently often united the impressions derived from looking with those derived from touching and moving, cannot rightly interpret the impressions which he receives. The moon seems quite close to him. ' ' The process of assimilation then, if care is not constantly exercised, misleads, and familiarity with an object may, as wo have said, interfere with the actual observation of it. To overcome this difficulty we have advocated the drawing not only from objects, but from the same object in many different positions. Follow this plan as closely as possible ; the proper result will follow and you will be benefited by the process. INTRODUCTION Objects coming before the eye are reflected upon the retina from which the image is conveyed through the optic nerve to the brain, the seat of the under- standing. The longer the object remains or the oftener it is presented to the vision the more perfect is the impression it leaves, and the more familiar its form becomes. This faculty of perceiving, or the powsr of the mind to receive and interpret impressioua, may be cultivated and strengthened— educated by proper exercise properly directed. If an object remains before the mind long enough to mak<; the impression strong, it becomes associated with the feeling and the will Conies into play. We determine to remember the impressions thus received, and to this end the mind seeks to compare the new with the old, rejecting the unlike and retaining the like, until finally the new impression finds a place in the mind. A child, for example, has seen cubical blocks. A trunk is presented. The irregularities of tlie trunk present new impressions and he says it is not cubical. Had there been no irregularity the trunk and the blocks would have coincided, but the difference causes an obstruction. True, the new and the old coincide to a certain extent. They do not however, coincide exactly. The old impressions, say length, breath and height— the like elements, being firmly established, strengthen each other and unite to form a clear image. The unlike, smoothness and irregularity, become gradually obscured, till finally the two are recognized as one in the mind and he says the trunk is cubical. The classification and study of objects according to what are commonly termed type forms is the proper method, beginning with sticks and proceeding to the tablet, then the solid. William James, Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University, in his talks on Psycl;ology says: "No reception without reaction, no impression without correlative expression." An impression that flows in at the e3'es is incomplete and fails to produce the proper effect upon the memory. The most durable impressions are those on account ot which we act. You notice for example, that when a circular tablet is held in an oblique position it appears as an ellipse. This impression as we have said is incomplete and will fail to produce the proper effect upon the memory unless there is reaction. You may say that it appears as an ellipse and still the conception corresponding to this verbal reaction may be inaccurate ; but if the tablet is drawn as it actually appears, there is no room for ambiguity. This expression comes back again in the form of a further impression of what you have done. News of your having acted is received and you see the success or failure of your conduct. This return impression is the completion of the whole experience. The niauy illustrations that follow will, after you have done your iuest, by comparing your efforts with ours, better enable you to judge the result of your having acted. INTRODUCTION The sense of sight is accurate enough, but the perception of the whole object is a mental act ; the judgment of what is seen is made in the mind. This power to judge, drawing seeks to develop. An apple for example, is presented. Impressions come crowding in upon the mind to such an extent that it is impossible to fix attention upon any one of them. The impressions made by the characteristics of roundness, smoothness, color, etc., are so massed and grouped together as to form an indefinite, unanalyzed whole ; but after some concentration this indefinite whole is analyzed, broken up into its constituent elements. Certain of these stand out more prominently and consequently arrest attention, thug forming a foundation upon which the understanding of others is built. In this manner the indefinite mass becomes simplified and brought within the circle of the mind. In representing an object the boundary of the whole should first be defined. The definition may be only mental, but as we have before intimated the impression will be more complete if expressed by an outline. The characteristics of detail should be expressed next, beginning with the most prominent. Just here, again, care must be exercised to avoid the common error of exaggerating those characteristics which absorb the most mental activity. Some are gifted with a peculiar aptitude for this method of expression —drawing. In such cases intuitive effort results in the rendering of truth in many respects, but at the same time a close scrutiny of the work done will reveal many imperfections which might be avoided if the underlying principles governing such expression were understood. Genius and talent may be widely different, yet in the rough they are slightly so. Knowledge will discover the latent powers of both and cause each to develop to the fullest extent. Knowledge of the principles of drawing we say is absolutely necessary in order that the best results may follow. The mechanical work apart from its practical value will develop the proper use of tools and encourage accuracy. Picture stories will aid the imagination. A little color work will add interest and further aid in the development of the aesthetic nature. Freehand and Design will develop manual dexterity, and together with the use of sticks, tablets and solids, aa advocated, will foster con- structiveness. Symmetry will be of practical value in any walk of life, alike useful to the gardener and the dressmaker. We deplore the too prevalent neglect of proper method in the teaching ( f this fascinating and important subject. We believe that the particular side of the child's nature it should seek to develop is, in many respects, by (he means com- monly employed, retarded rather than fostered. INTRODUCTION Drawing, if properly directed, will develop observation, concentration, persev- erance, accuracy, dexterity, constructive ness, imagination, patience, perception of form, love of the beautiful, love of nature and nature's God. It will help to fit a man to enjoy and appreciate life and thus aid in the preparation for the life to come. In conclusion we desire to say by way of encouragement that however unsuc- cessful your best attempts may appear to be, honest effort will develop your physical, intellectual, moral and religious being, the truest aim of all true education. NOTE— The pupils referred to at the beginning of tliis chapter had done but little drawing ; two had attended the Iciudergarteu. Material and How to Use It. 1. Ttvo pencils, an H H for sketching outlines and an H B for lining in and shading. 2. A trying sqwvre which can be easily made out of an ordinary piece of paste- board cut in the form of a triangle having one right angle. This will be very useful in testing square corners and perpendicular lines. 3. A pencil compass for testing circles. 4. Pen and ink if it is to be used for lining in and shading instead of the H B pencil. Use good black ink. India ink is preferable. 5. A knife and piece of sand paper for sharpening pencils. 6. Paper which should be of the best quality. If drawings are to be made with pencil use the best drawing paper. It should have a hard, rough surface ; if pen and ink use a hard, smooth surface paper. 7. An eraser of good rubber, one end of which should be pointed and the other wedge-shaped. 8. A drawing board, light and smoothly finished, about 12x18 inches. The paper may be tacked to this board. This will enable it to be held in proper position before the eye. If a drawing book is used it may be held to the board by two elastic bands. PART I. FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN bher 1. What is Freehand Drawingr? Freehand Drawing is done with the free hand. The hand should not only be unassisted by ruler, compass,- etc., but it should have plenty of room to move in any direction with perfect freedom. Tracing is not freehand drawing. 2 Position. Seek to sit in a comfortable position. Keep the body fairly straight, but slightly inclined forward, so that the eyes are at the proper distance from the work to enable it to be seen to the greatest advantage. Give any support necessary with the left hand. Many recommend keeping the paper always in the same position — squarely in front. As a rule, we believe this is best. The paper may be turned to draw certain curves, so that the hand may form the centre. To prove the correctness of the work, it is a good plan sometimes to view the drawing with the paper in a different position. 3. Eye and Hand. The eye, especially in drawing, plays a very important part in directing the movement of the hand. Hence it is of the greatest importance that the eye as well as the hand be well trained. The eye (a) to judge d stance, {b) to distinguish form, (f) to see proportion, and the hand to obey promptly and accurately. Training the eye should precede training the hand, but at the same time we should strive persistently to train both to act in unison. During the whole of a course in drawing, we strongly recommend constant practice such as we have outlined. Id 14 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN 4. Practice. The following exercises are for the purpose of acquiring facility — the power to make the hand obey. You ought to learn to draw as you learn to write — to a certain extent automat'cally. We do not mean to say that you should be able to perfOrm perfectly all the exercises here given before going any further. We merely submit them as sort of dumb-bell exercise to be taken frequently, in order to keep the hand and eye in proper condition. Straight Lines. Vertical lines are drawn from the top down, horizontal lines from left to right, left oblique lines from left to right, right oblique lines either way, according to the degree of slant. There is no reason, however, why good muscular training is not obtained by drawing lines either way. I. A carpenter in driving a nail keeps his eye on the nail — the objective point. Can you apply the principle involved to the drawing of a straight line ? Place the pencil at a point from which you desire the line to commence. Fix the eye on the point at which you desire i*. to end and at the same time move the hand freely towards that point. t. Make a number of straight lines, say three or four, on an unruled piece of paper as a sample of work you are able to do. Lay these aside and follow carefully the lines on a ruled piece of foolscap. Make a few more on the unruled piece of paper. Compare these with the others. Have you improved ? Fig. 3. ^. Draw a rectangle 6 in. long and i in. wide. By vertical lines divide PRACTICE 15 ty— the earn to liat you re going e to be ion. Drizontal jue lines tiowever, way. abjective , straight line to d and at unruled side and more on [ave you obt te:'"""' ™ '"^ -^"^^ -* P^-'H vertical. hori.o„,aU„d 0«/«. .. Make >he circle free.y. „i.hou, sketching the dia„e.e«. les divide Fig. 4. Do not attempt any definite size at first The nh;«.f v, ,^ . a free circular movement. ^^^^ '^°"^^ ^^ *« obtain 2. Sketch the diameter of some definite l*-no-tK . • the circle. aennite length, i m., 2 m., etc. Draw 3. Sketch the radius of some definite length. Draw the circle ^^^^^^4. Sketch an equilateral triangle. Dra J as large a c" cTe^ you en inside': Outside' "'''"'' '^'^ ^"^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^'^ ^"-g^- Draw a circle point!; ';t^:.r z:;ir^- ^^^^ ^ '-'- ^-^-^ ^^-^^ ^^-e as thaltThe mT^' ^7^^' '''''' ""'''' ^" ^"^'^ ^^^ ^^ -« paper on the drawing ^"^ ' ''' ''^""^^ ^' ^^^ ^^^^ by laying the 16 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN 2. Bend a piece of wire to form an angle. Draw an angle of the same size. Test the accuracy of the work as before. Change the size and try again. Measuring. It is not only good training but it is very necessary that you be able to measure accurately. Not only definite measurements as an inch, an inch and a half, etc., but proportionate measurements as well. Ruler and compass should be used only to test the accuracy of the work. 1. Draw a straight line 2 in. long, 3 in., 4^ in., etc. 2. Draw a curve the ends of which are 2 in. apart, 3 in., 4^^ in., etc. 3. Draw a straight line of any length. A few inches from it draw another line of the same length. Half as long. Twice as long. 4. Draw a vertical line. Draw a horizontal line of the same length. Half as long. Twice as long. 5. Draw an oblique line. Draw another in some other position the same length. Half as long. One and a half times as long. 6. Draw a square with sides vertical. Oblique. 7. Draw a right angle triangle in different positions. 8. Draw an angle. Draw another angle in some other position of the same size. Twice as large. Half as large. 9. Draw a rectangle twice as long as it is wide. 10. Draw two lines of different lengths. Draw a rectangle having its sides equal to these lines. 11. Draw two lines of unequal length. Draw a rectangle having its sides one-half as long as the lines drawn. 12. Draw a line. Bisect it. Use this point as centre and draw a circle. 13. Draw a circle. Draw another circle the diameter of which is one-half of the diameter of the first circle. 14. Draw a rectangle on the black-board about two feet by three feet. Draw a rectangle on paper the sides of which are in proportion to the sides of the rectangle on the board. 15. Make two dots a short distance apart. Draw a line the length of which is the same as the distance between the dots. STICKS AND ANGLES 17 1 6. Draw a line. Divide it into two equal parts. Three. Four. Five. 17. Draw a line. Examine it carefully. Cover it with a piece ol paper. Draw from memory a line the same length. Half as long. Twice as long. 18. Draw a rectangle. From memory draw another the same size. 19. Draw a rectangle. Draw another of different size but having proportionate sides. 20. Draw a rectangle. Draw a straight line the same length as the diagonal of the rectangle. 5 Sticks and Angles. As models, use sticks of a dark color, about 2 Inches long. Lay these to form as many different designs as possible. Draw straight lines to represent these designs. Commence by using two sticks. The position of the line will represent the position of the stick. Here are a few samples : i- DN TIAV Fig. 5. With three sticks something like the following may be ma'^e : circle. 1 lich is 1 ■ 1 1 ^ ^ ee feet. V- sides ngth of H and with four ( 3r five : Fig. 6. 18 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN EM\A/n n Fig. 7. By increasing the number of sticks, a greater variety may be made. By using a large number of sticks, very nice borders may be constructed, after which they should be drawn. Fig. 8. For this exercise, use pieces of wire bent to form angles. Commence STICKS AND ANGLES 19 by using one piece to form a right angle. Lay it in different positions. Draw it in these positions. Next use two, three or four. As with the sticks the number of designs will increase with the number of angles used. V//////////, EEH rLrLru Fig. 9. After some practice in drawing right angles, use acute and then obtuse angles. Very pretty designs may be made by combining the three. nimence 20 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN There are advantages in drawing from models in this way. The designs are more easily made, and only those which are pleasing may be drawn. 6* Ssmunctry. Symmetrical about an axis. By symmetry in drawing is meant that whatever is done to one part of a design is done to every other correspondmg part. u ^ Fig. 10. In the design shown in fig. lo, notice that it may be divided into two parts, the right and the left, separated as shown by a dotted line. If the paper were folded at this line the right side would exactly fit upon, or would coincide with the left. It is therefore symmetrical. Because it consists of two symmetrical parts, separated by a straight line, it is said to be symmetrical about an axis. SYMMETRY ai Our illustration shows the proper method of drawing such designs. Sketch the axis and build up the design part by part, bringing both sides along together. This is a much better way than by finishing one side before commencing the other. If these facts are kept in mind when making the examination, many designs which at first seem very complex will turn out to be quite easily made* Examine the following carefully, sketch the axis, and draw as we have recommended. Fig. 11. 92 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAI, DESIGN Symmetrica/ about a centre. The design in fig. 12 is made up of four similar parts. It is also sym- metrical about an axis, viz., A B or C D. Each part also is symmetrical about an axis. The whole figure therefore is symmetrical about a point at which these axes intersect. It is said to be symmetrical about a centre. Fig. 12 To draw such figures first indicate the centre, sketch lines to define the different parts and proceed to build up in the same manner as before. Other examples are given in fig. 13. Problems. 1. Sketch a vertical line and using it as an axis construct a design consisting of four straight lines on each side. 2. Draw a design, symmetrical about an axis which is three inches long, the design to be made up of simple curves. 3. Sketch a square about 2 in. a side. Indicate the centre by a dot. Construct a design of simple curves symmetrical about this centre. STRAIGHT LINE DESIGNS •3 4 Draw four straight lines to form a design symmetrical about an axis. About a centre. 5. Draw a triangle. Divide it into three equal triangles. In each of the equal triangles construct a design, symmetrical about an axis, so that the whole is symmetrical about the centre of the original triangle. Fig. 13 7. Straight Line Designs. After being able to draw straight lines fairly well in any position, practise placing them together to form a design. The following examples illustrate the principle of symmetry about the centre of a square. Keep this in view in makmg all drawings of this Vind. 24 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAI, DESIGN X • ^ pii/ A g y iiiii K Fig. 14 A. is an example of the Latin Cross, B. the Maltese Cross, C. the STRAIGHT LINE DESIGNS as 7" D Fig. 15 Cross of St. Andrew and I), the Greek Cross. k: :. the Fi-r. 10 26 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN The pentagon and hexagon may be ii.;pH f« „ ^ j of many very pretty designs. SeHg. x6 ^ '"'"^" '^ ^ ^^^'^ 8. Simple Curve Designs. A simple curve is par, of the circumfe^nce of a cirde. Fig. 17 Combine a number of simple curves to form , ^ • are symmetrical about the centre of a sire M "'"k "^'^ ''""^"^ given in fig. 13, page 23. '^"'^'^- ^^"X other examples are SIMPLK CURVieS 27 - as a basis wn below. •^^ J^ Fig. 18 A figure being symmetrical about a centre may be composed of any number of parts, as the following examples which are symmetrical about the centre of a circle will show. See also fig. 24. lowing les are Fig. 19 38 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAI, DESIGN Any of these designs if made smaller may be used as a unit for repetition in a border. Fig. 20 9. Simple Curves and Straierht Lines in Combination. Next attempt combining straight lines and simple curves. The following examples are symmetrical about the centre of a triangle. SIMPLE CURVES AND STRAIGHT LINES 89 Fig. 21 Designs for many articles such as butter dishes, pitchers, vases, etc., are composed of straight lines and simple curves. Problems. Make designs, using only straight lines and simple curves, of the following : 30 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN 1. A teacup. 2. A flower pot. V A \asf 4. An ink bottle. 5. A lamp. 6. A stair post. ^ <£k.^_^ \ 2 Fig. 22 10. Ornament. The purpose of ornament is to add interest. To discuss fully the principles of ornament in a work of this kind would be impossible. The following hints should be carefully observed • 1. All ornament should be appropriate to the purpose for which it is mtended. Examine the designs submitted in Ba,J(:^ouuds or Spacefilling. 2. All units should be pleasingly repeated and balanced. 3. There should be a feeling of restfulness. 4- Avoid excess. Too much drawing will destroy the effect. Draw only what is necessary to produce the desired result. 5. Strive to obtain variety. 6. Be original. Do not be content with making mere copies. ORNAMENT 31 UNIT Fig. 23 7. Design and ornament for a purpose. BBBai 33 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN Problems. 1. Sketch the outline of a square. Ornament it to make a unit suitable for an oilcloth. Repeat the ornament to show the method of proposed repetition. 2. Draw a straight line design suitable for a border. Show the method of repetition. 3. Make a carpet design and show the method of repetition. 4. Draw a design suitable for the border on a table cloth. 5. Construct a design based on the square to be used on a window blind. Fig. 24 11. Backgrounds or Spaoe-fillinflr. A very pleasing effect is produced especially in ornamental work by the use of an artistic and appropriate background. It will serve to emphasize the design itself as well as to produce a finished appearance. It is unnecessary to give any specific direction as to the manner of making the background. A few examples appropriately used will be sufficient to give suggestions, and by exercising a little mgenuity a large number of designs may be invented. BACKGROUNDS 33 suitable )roposcd method , window ^k by the iphasize It is liking the It to give If designs d4 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN In addition to the examples of what may be made for background we submit the following simple designs to show how such backgrounds may be used. Fig. 25 Various other applications may be noticed in many of the designs that follow. For others examine oilcloths, carpets, etc. BACKGROUNDS 35 kground we inds may be designs that m WBtik Fig. 26 I. Sketch the following designs, print a suitable motto and fill in the background. 3« FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN 2. Make designs for the months. 3. Draw a rectangle about 6 in. x 2 in. Within the rectangle print WELCOME. Fill in the background. 4. Use an ornamented square in an oilcloth design. 5. Draw a circular design similar to fig. 24 suitable for a ceiling centre piece. . Tablets. By using the square, circular, and triangular tablets, many pleasing designs may be made. Commence by using four or five squares. Arrange these and draw them in as many ways as possible. By increasing the num- ber of tablets of course a greater variety of combinations may be obtained. The circle : Fig. 27 TABLETS 37 angle print iling centre iny pleasing s. Arrange ig the num- obtained. Fig. 28 38 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAI, DESIGN The triangle : tm Fig. 29 Sticks and tablets may also be used in combination with good effect. Fig. 30 TABLETS 39 Here are two examples suited for linoleum. They show what may be done with the square, triangle and circle in combination. Fig. 31 Very nice borders may be constructed by using the square as a unit. At D D D OOOOOO DCOCOO Fig 32 first sketch horizontal lines as axes upon which to lay the models and make the drawing. After some practice, however, the eye should be the only guide. m 40 FREEHAND AND PRACTlCAIv DESIGN nxxo^DxEMnx Fig. 33 The triangle : ^^::z:^ r^ r^ f^ I V 1 ^IK Fig. 34 TABLETS The circle will give examples something like the following : 41 OODDOOO Fig. 35 The appearance of ihese may be much improved by ornamenting the repeated unit or filling in the background. 4a FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN n m m m w ▼▼▼^▼^ ^919191913131 Fig. 36 These, with combinations of the sticks, square, triangle and circle will give an endless number of very pretty designs. See f g. 37. After some practice in d.awing from designs made as we have suggested, invent new ones without the aid of the models. Do not be content with copying something that someone else has made, or merely making a new COMPOUND CURVES 43 Fig. 37 design, but endeavor to make all drawings for a purpose and as pleasing as possible. S'lf 13. Compound Curves. A simple cun ci as before stated is part of the circumference of a circle. It therefore bends regularly ; in other words it changes its position at every point. A simple curve if continued will make a circle — it is struck from one centre. Fig. 38 44 FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN A compound curve does not bend regularly throughout its whole length. It is struck from two or more centres. The degree of curvature may change at every point in the ellipse (i) or at intervals as in the^^SSSSSSSSSST^ s svvk:^^'^^^^ J^ ^j[^ 1 a i I m»>»»}»»»)})m I 0) o \97777>WV^WMM f^lAN OF TOR fL^N or- 0OTTOt\i1 «CAt.C«.^f/r. Fig. 82 2. Make constructive drawings of a chalk box. 3. Draw the side and the end elevations of an ordinary kitchen table. 4. Draw the side elevation of a sideboard. 5. Draw the front elevation of the teacher's desk. 6. A tenon 6 in.x3 in. and 6 in. long is cut on the centre of the end of a square stick of timber i ft.xi ft. This fits into a mortise in another beam of the same size and both are held in position by a pin passing through the tenon. Make constructive drawings to a scale of one-twelfth showing fully the method of construction. Show also a perspective view of the joint. CONSTRUCTlVIv PRORLKMS 91 1. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I4i |M 111125 jVJ '^^ 1111= lllllT ''^ m II 2,2 It" i^ 2.0 I.I 1.8 1.25 U ill 1.6 vj <^ /i '^/ %/ c% z'. y >^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4503 9a MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION Our illustration of problem 6 (Fig. 83) is much reduced in size, but since the scale is also reduced you will have no difficulty in reading it. 7. Make constructive drawings of a square mallet having a round handle 18 in. long, face 6 in.x6 in., height of head 12 in., scale one-third. 8. A spool is 1 2 in. long and 6 in. in diameter at the ends ; length of cylindrical part 6 in. ; diameter of the hole i in. ; scale one twenty-fourth. Make the constructive drawings. Sp^^r^oN P FROrt T £l c VA T/ON •^a Door Stem ift %tt. Scale, Fig. 84 CONSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS 93 9. A T-shaped steel bar of a watch is made of material one-sixteenth of an inch square. Total length one-quarter of an inch ; length of arms one- eighth of an inch ; scale 8 in. to the in. Make the drawings. 10. Make constructive drawings of the following, showing fully the method of construction and exact size : (a) A ball club. (3) An axe. (c) A shelf. {d) A kitchen table. {e) A trunk. 11. Show the method of construction of the corner of a chalk box. 12. Make the plan, front and side elevations of three steps suitable for entrance to a front door. 13. By refe ence to Fig. 84 which is submitted as an answer to No. la, write the following in feet and inches : (a) Total width. (d) Total height. (c) Height of each step. (d) Thickness of material. (!z/jy/'jz/7?7i'^L Fig. 85 ILLUSTRATION Art will awaken a sense of pleasure in the beautiful. It will adhere to truth in the idea if not in fact. Jliustration portrays fact faithfully. Endea- vour to combine the two and strength will be gained by putting to practical use the strength already attained. 1. Practical. The power developed in the study of this subject may be put to prac- tical use at once. The illustration of school work will frequently help to impress facts better than any other method that can be employed. There are some, it is said*, who call up a picture in the mind of every- thing they intend to do. We all do this to a greater or less degree. The more perfect the mental image the more accurately we can describe in words. Why not make the hand as spontaneously obedient to the mind as the tongue is ? We use the tongue to aid us in impressing facts upon the mind, why not the hand ? You read, for example, that, in the War of 1812, the contesting parties were the British and Americans ; the American plan was to attack at three different points known as the west, centre and north ; that Maiden and Detroit are in the west. Lake Champlain and Quebec in the north and Queenston and Niagara in the centre. All this of course may be impressed upon the mind by consulting a map, but it will be much more firmly impressed if, while following the course of the war in the written account, these facts are again reproduced in a picture. 95 MECHANICAl, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION ILLUSTRATION— PRACTICAL 97 Not only in history is illustrative drawing of practical use, but in almost every other subject on the Public School curriculum, especially geography, literature, physiology and arithmetic. DfAGRAM /£. SAu// —Cerebdlum ^.Medulla OoiQ/iyatta ^'S/Hdna/ Cord -Vertebral Coiu/rtf/v Fig. 8G D/AGfiAM U. sAtunHm Htmrt liiftf mmi fLmmU. Fig. 86 is a tracing from a fourth book pupil's notes on physiology. Fig. 87 is a brief way of stating many geographical facts concerning: 1. Inclination of the earth's axis. 2. Shape of the earth. 3. Summer and Winter. 4. Positions of circles named. 5. Circle of Illumination. i i It 'hi S'l MECHANICAI, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION 6ec.zl Fig. 87 6. Poles and axis. 7. Summer and winter solstice. 8. Day and night. On page 94 are three illustrations of that familiar Fourth Reader lesson the Bell of Atri. Do not be discouraged even if first attempts are not what you would like them to be. %. Letterinff. A little care in the use of letters will give drawings and diagrams a better appearance. Lettering itself is good freehand practice and when mechan- ically done, developes proper use of the ruler and compass. Apart from this there is a correct form for each letter of every series. This should be noted. One of the most commonly used styles is the gothic. It has the advan- tage of being plain, easily made and easily read. It is especially adapted to rough illustrative work. LETTERING ABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOPQRS TUVWXYZ abcdef ghijklmnpoqrstuvwxyz . Fig. 88, Gothic The GrOthic is suitable for To Let^ Price 2^Cf For Sa/e, Notice^ etc. It may be variously modified or ornamented to suit the taste of the per- son using it or the purpose it is intended to serve. It may be high and narrow {condensed), short and broad {extended), of light, skeleton appearance {light-faced), heavy and thick {bold-faced), or shaded, ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS TUVWXYZ 1234567890 ■» ■''it Fig. 80, Gothic Condensed. r 100 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION Fig. 00, Gothic Ornamented. Ill There are two common miStaices made in lettering. The first is a failure to discriminate between, as printers say, the Cap and Lower Case letters, that is, capitals and small letters. To one who understands the difference, a card lettered as in fig. 91 appears quite ridiculous. The second mistake is a failure to keep the slant of all letters of the LETTERING 101 same series the same. No matter how well each letter is made, if the slant varies the general appearance is bad. House to Fig. 91 Compare fig. 92 with fig 91. HOUSE TO LET Fig. 92 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUY WXYZ 1234567890 abcdefgliijklmnopqrstuYwxyz Fig. 93, Roman ^1 Roman and Italic are the styles used in printed books. The making of this letter is good practice but it is not simple enough in construction to be of Vwry great convenience in ordinary illustrative work. \m i loa MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS TU V WXYZ 1234367890 alcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Fig. 94, Italio • # / • / ' ? t «" i23^567S^0 Fig. 95, Script LETTERING 103 Script is a very common style and particularly suitable for pen work. It is quite appropriate for addresses, invitations, etc There are very many designs. t234567890 abcbetgbijhlmnopqrstuvwj^S Fig. 9C, Old English Old English is extensively used in engrossed addresses, certificates, etc. The following Pencraft alphabet is also suitable for pen work. T| 123^567890 Fig. 97, Pencraft 104 MECHANICAL, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION The De Vinne alphabet is an artistic and easily-read style. ABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOPQRS TUVWXYZ abcdefghijklm nopqrstuv wxyz 1234567890 Fig. 98, De Vinne For the purpose of drawing attention to the peculiar formation of similar letters we submit an alphabet of the Antique. In this alphabet com- LETTERING 105 pare carefully b and d, b and q, d and p, p and q, n and u. Notice, too, that all capitals are of the same height and all lower parts of the small letters are of the same height. ii ABCDEFGHIJKLM NOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqr stuvwxyz . 1234567890 Fig. 99, Antique An excellent exercise is to choose some style of letter and print neatly a few lines of some favorite poem. The style of letter used in ** Youth and Age," may be termed an Art Gothic and is quite suitable for the work suggested. In addition to the styles already given fig. 100 and 10 1 are added for practice. it 'I .;! zo6 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION ^ilcFt?vrr\g , , , vv^l^ I w^r^ try jayl [)^\ &' §H^* A!\d p'sj' ^'^*^ 'i^'\' 1 w1§\rv»^ try §^^• — ns?(l. abcdcfgKijklmnopqrstuvw^cijz i23456Td90 LETTERING X07 1234567890 Fig. 101. 3. Pietare Stories. The illustration of a story — telling the story by pictures — is very difficult work to do well. All drawing should be suggestive. If it tells nothing it is not interesting, only in so far as it affords a method of practice or displays the dexterity of the person executing it. Many artists draw beautifully yet never become famous, while others, by a few strokes of the pen, leap into prominence at once. Why ? Simply because they are able I Si ' H I :*;• -■v>-. "wm loS MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION to suggest much and do it in an interesting manner. Drawing then, at least in this department, should first tell something, and secondly, tell it in as pleasing a manner as possible, or in such a manner as the circumstances demand. Fig. 102 We submit for example a picture, copied from some old Indian manuscript, supposed to say : The Chiefs, Black Wolf, Raven, Fast Bear and Sitting Bear hold a war council round the fire where grass was high. They dig up the hatchet, have plenty of arrows and start on foot to a Cheyenne (cut-arm is the Cheyenne sign) village on Beaver Creek, where they expect to have a fight and stampede a herd of fat ponies. This of course may not be regarded as displaying great artistic ability. True, some one else may have been able to do it much better. Its primary object, however, was to tell the story and we suppose it did. We shall be able to present but very few illustrated stories — only t .to throw out a few suggestions along this line. The following are fi^m work done in the primary grades. PICTURE STORIES 109 •»«»ri///i,,,."«..«»"iisl fMi^o.\».».il#«. . ,7. . •^•..^/t.q •^ til'.!.! /»«rw'*«^«»'nir»» .. l"'N|fk|t|« •• >% ItU af f'k-'^lilWS 7&Af >*/VO /^'« ^/Or FluytMOk A K/r,ff. ! Fig. 103 Do not be discouraged if you are unable to make pictures worthy of competition with those of others .who have had much greater experience. They, too, passed through the primary stage and probably did work then that :{ t m no MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION could not creditably compare with yours. Be content with doing each time your very best. These little fellows in the pictures may not be much like real men. It may be too that our little artists were influenced by the drawings of some one else. \^^e shall not discuss this point, but be content with saying that they are simple stories, told in a simple child-like manner. Illustrate the following stories : 1. A dog and a cat were firm friends. They ate out of the same dish and slept on the same mat. 2. John and Mary, a little brother and his sister, started out to school together one fine morning in May. They had to cross a long bridge. Just after crossing the bridge they saw a large dog coming to meet them. They were very much afraid but ran quickly and were soon safe in the school- house. 3. Tommy had a beautiful pony. On Saturday he rode him to the fields to pasture. One day the pony became frightened at a iarge hog that ran from under a tree on the side of the road. Tommy did his best to hold on, but the pony jumped to one side, threw him off and ran aA'ay. Tommy was not hurt much but felt very sorry because he had to walk home. Fig. 104 With practice comes development in the power to see, as well as a growing ability to suggest more of what is seen. The characters soon PICTURE STORIES III partake more of the nature of the original. The stories too will contain more of literary merit. Plenty of material is found in the reading books. It is good practice to write these lessons neatly and fill in suitable illustrations as you proceed. Fig. 105 Much practice will result in quite presentable pictures. These ought to be carefully preserved if for no other purpose than the pleasure they will afford in looking over at some future time. Ml ■i] ^ 4: ■ 7 c 1| ZZ9 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION It is not always necessary that a number of illustrations should be mado to tell a story. One picture well made and carefully composed will often •ell all that is required. Remember that progress will depend largely, not upon the amount but upon the quality of work done. Fig. 106 Fig. 106 and 107 are given merely for the purpose of showing what may be done and not to furnish copy. PICTURE STORIES 113 g what Fig. 107 ; Compositions may be illustrated. If time will not allow this to be done fully, a suitable initial, such as is shown in Fig. 108, will amply compensate for the time spent in drawing it. 3- thl m 8-i •»i^^ 114 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION Fig. 108 PICTURE STORIES 115 ^*/#tr A Wf f ^J®^®' T a LRw JblouJnf M^^^Wi yj^c^ tiltma (j\Ai&6fm AAwluLLy. jLdt ua^ Jul/ 'IfUft MJ^Ju/yyu (X WiAM'YlUCJL tJuud/ (yjuUlMj^ AvYvund AMJUrYva/ru mwu' AaJU i/ytjMi OJ^ JLoudt (Uy -rw covJUi. \^ '&(}^^ JlMJIji/^ia^MJLA^l 'IJAywAtioxMAoA^ "iojex/ o/nA' AAxnv Zy AMJU Ait/iy cub tiwu/ ywiVTruuIvalxiiid % ot uAiaJJ toinv jJtauOi^ Ii6 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION PART m. OBJECT DRAWING m Object Drawing is the representation of an object on a flat surface as it appears when viewed from a certain point. This point is the eye of the spectator, it includes Model and Memory Drawing. There is, in fact, but little difference between them. If the sense- impression gained by viewing an object is retained to be of use in re-presenting it on a flat surface, when that object is not in view, such representation is termed Memory Drawing. On the other hand, if the re-presenting is done while the object is still in view, the sense-impression is carried but a short time, and the term applied is Model Drawing. In reality the only difference is in the time intervening between the receiving of the sense-impression and the expression of it. In many respects, Memory Drawing is the more fascinating, simply because the variety of objects, their positions and conditions are unlimited. Not only is this true, but landscape, animals, birds, flowers, etc., are constantly changing, thus presenting something always new and which will always arouse human interest. Drawing from the flat or copying drawings will give instruction in the methods of others, and help to gain facility in the use of the medium. It may be termed the primary stage. Model Drawing seeks to develop the observation of the object itself. It may be termed the intermediate stage. Memory Drawing calls for the clearest perception of form and most accurate method of expression. It is the highest stage. 117 ii8 OBJECT DRAWING 1. The DrawinflT Book. We strongly recommend using a drawing book. It should be well bound and made of good material, such as we have mentioned in Materials and Their Uses. This book of all others should be a model of neatness. =li^ f04 9 ~r Farallel Line Borders T-i 8' Fig. 109 f li" THE DRAWING BOOK "9 1. Do your best every time. 2. Use only the best material. It will pay. 3. Never roll or fold your drawing book. 4. If pencil is used, insert tissue paper leaves to keep the drawings from becoming blurred. 5. Avoid frequent rubbing, as it tends to give a dauby, dirty appearance. 6. Avoid a heavy sketch, as it spoils a clear cut appearance. 7. If pen is used, on no account should the rubber be used until all pen work is finished and well dried. The rubber spoils the surface of even the best paper and causes the ink to blot. 8. A plain rectangle or border of straight lines drawn round each figure will add to its apppearance. A few straight line borders are shown in fig. 109. v. Ji^l? Fig. 110 9. If the leaves are small, place but one picture on each page ; not more than four. Strive, by an artistic and symmetrical arrangement, not only to make each drawing, but the whole page, look well. Z20 OBJECT DRAWING lo. If drawing sheets are used, they should be carefully preserved and afterwards sewed together. Leave a margin of two inches on the left for this purpose. 2. Outlines. Outline Drawing is representing by a continuous line or lines the limits of an object. An outline drawing of the first tablet for example is made by drawing four straight lines to define its exact boundaries. These lines must be of equal length and the angles at the corners must be right angles to suggest its equal sides and square corners. There is no other simple way of suggesting objects except by shading. The outline is easier to make and the natural one to begin with. Hamerton says : " The mental processes by which man has gradually become able to draw, in our modern sense of the word, may be followed as the development of a chicken in the egg, by examining specimens in the various stages of formation. The first idea of drawing is always delineation^ the marking out of the subject by lines, the notion of drawing without lines being of later development. The historical development of drawing may always be seen in the practice of children when left to draw for their amusement. They begin, as the human race began, with firm outlines representing men and animals usually in profile." The outline should be a line of even thickness and clearly cut so that the space enclosed by it should represent the form of the object you desire to suggest. To make outlines proceed as follows : 1. Observe clearly the general outline of the object. 2. Examine the form, relative size and position of the parts of this general outline. 3. " Block in " roughly the space to be occupied by the drawing or sketch the type form that will be used as a basis upon which to construct the outline. 4. Commencing with the parts proceed to build up the outline by MODELS-STICKS AND TABLETS Z3I placing them together, keeping constantly in view the general outline, and observing at each step the form, size and relative position of each part. 5. Arrange the detail. 6. Strengthen the outline. 7. Erase construction lines and other unnecessary markings. The outline should be sketched very lightly at first with a hard pencil. If you are not satisfied with any part of the sketch do not use tlie rubber^ but correct the direction of the lines at once without rubbing. The rubber must be used only to clean up the drawing and erase construction lines after the outline has been perfectly defined. Some successful teachers of drawing advocate what is sometimes termed Mass Drawing. Even in this method a distinct definition of the boundaries of the object must be kept in the mind, so that really the only difference between Mass Drawing and Outline is that in the first the outline is kept in the mind, while in the latter it is represented by lines. Outline as before stated is, we believe, the natural method to begin with. 3. Models— Sticks and Tablets. A line represents either edges — the meeting places of surfaces — or defines boundary. 1)1 I <■■:> Fig. Ill 123 OBJECT DRAWING In addition to the objects Immediately at hand procure : 1. A number of straight sticks of different lengths and of dark color. Ordinary matches will do if nothing better can be had. 2. The following tablets which may be cut from an ordinary piece of cardboard : The square, rectangle, right angle triangle, equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle, circle, semi-circle, ellipse and oval. Fig. 112 Sticks. Such objects as houses, fences, etc., cannot be brought to the school- room or study. Representations of them may be made with the sticks. In fact, these toy houses, fences, etc., will serve the purpose very well at this stage of the work. Suppose the first model to be a house. Lay a long stick for the foundation ; two more for the walls ; another long one for the ceiling ; two MODELS— STICKS AND TABLETS 133 D of medium length for the roof. Much shorter ones will do nicely for a door and a window. Here it is. Before attempting to draw, examine the model very carefully. The height is a little greater than the width. The roof projects slightly over each of the sides. It consists of two parts. The lower part is a rectangle, the upper part a square. The door is rectangular and a little longer than the window. The foundation is horizontal, the sides vertical and the roof oblique. Sketch a horizontal line to represent the foundation. Compare the width of the foundation with the length of the side. The side is slightly longer. Sketch the sides, first indicating by points the position of the upper and lower ends of the lines that will represent them. Compare the length of the ceiling with the foundation. Sketch the ceiling. What fs the relative position of the highest point ? It is directly above the centre of the ceiling. Compare the height of the triangular part with the height of the rectangle. It is about one-half. Indicate the highest point Sketch the roof. This outline sketch should be made very light and now compared care- fully with the model. If no corrections are necessary proceed to fill in the detail — the door and the window. Compare the width of the door with the width of the house, the height with the height of the rectangle ; the distance between the door and each wall with the total width, etc. I ;:i! |;:ii In the first practice of Model Drawing, too much attention should not be plven to propor- tion. Strive to obtain correctness of form. Avoid the too common practice of drawing aline at random and changing the direction if it is not correct. To aid in this respect, indicate the ends of the line by dots, after which it may be drawn practically correct, Ixjth in proitortiouate length and direction. 124 OBJECT DRAWING Sketch the door ; the window in the same manner. Compare the whole sketch again with the r-odel. Make any necessary corrections without the use of the rubber. Line in. Erase any lines not required. r^.z:^-^DrrXXTZ Fig. 114 Construct other models and draw in a similar manner. In fig. 115 are a. few outlines for the purpose of comparison. MODELS— STICKS AND TABLETS "5 Fig. 115 Tablets. IJ • ; ■■■m ■'■ ;« isi "5 are Draw the square, rectangle and triangle in the same manner as the house, giving attention, first, to the general form, and second, to proportion. An envelope, a sign, a sheet of paper, a slate, and many other objects are similar in form to the square or rectangle. Use as many of these as can II 126 OBJECT DRAWING be had for models. Draw others from memory and compare the drawing with the original. There are three methods of drawing the circle. First : Sketch two or even three diameters, intersecting at the centre. Draw the circumference touching ^he ends of the diameters. Second : Make a dot to represent the KEEP orr the: GRASS " ^^ ^ Fig. 116 centre. Draw the circumference. As you do so endeavor to keep the pencil point always the same distance from the centre. Third : Draw the circum- ference freehand without any aid but the eye. This is the best method. See Practice in Freehand Drawing. Fig. 117 Such objects as a button, a fan, a coin, resemble the circular tablet in form. The outlines of such objects are based on the circle. MODELS—STICKS AND TABLETS 137 M W 128 OBJKCT DRAWING .^JffJ^^Xlt^^-rj'/'^/f. » FiK. 119 Draw the ellipse and oval in the same manner as the circle. Fig. 119 gives suggestions for models constructed by using sticks and tablets in combination. Build others and draw their outlines. MAKING MODELS 129 4. Making Models. It is impracticable at present in most public schools to make models of clay. A very good set, comprising the type forms, may be purchased at almost any stationer's. If, however, these are not to be had, a very servicable set may be made by following the instructions here given. The best material is a white, stiff paper. Manilla is better than card- board. i The Cube. «igl?Sk \ iiiiMiy Jtff Fig. 120 Icks and Lay out the plan as shown in fig. 120. Cut neatly round the out- side and fold at the lines. Stick the shaded flaps with mucilage. The six equal squares correspond to the six faces of the cube, and may be made any size desired. «30 OBJECT DRAWING The Square Prism. Siiimmniiiii K^ Fig. 121 The square prism is made in the same manner as the cube, the only difference being the relative size of the squares and the rectangles. These of course should be made to correspond with the faces of the prism. The Cylinder. The curved surface of the cylinder is represented by the rectangle, the shorter side of which is equal to the height and the longer side to the circumference. MAKING MODELS »3i I I Fig. 122 V 1 ,6 ' ibe, the ;tangles. 5 of the TAe Triangular Prism. The central rectangle represents the base ; the other two the slanting surfaces. The two triangles which represent the ends should be made exactly the same size. If the prism is a right-angled triangular prism, the triangle should of course be right angled. (Fig, 123-4.) scungle, le to the The Square Pyramid. The four triangles represent the four triangular faces. They should be of exactly the same size. The square represents the base. (Fig* 125.) ^^jgg^ii 13a OBJECT DRAWING Fig. 123 Fig. 124 MODELS— S DLIDS 133 m Fig. 125 T^e Cone. The circle represents the base. The curved side of the upper part of the figure must be the same length as the circum'crence of the circle. (Fig. 126.) 5. Models -Solids. Use the cube, sphere, spheroid and ovoid. We desire to again impress the fact that object drawing is the represen- tation of objects, not as they are, but as they appear when viewed from a certain point. The cube, for instance, has six faces, but place it in any posi- tion and three are all that can be seen at the sai/ ^ time, and it may be so placed that two or only one may be seen at the same time. Many entirely different pictures therefore may be made of the same object. Draw only what is seen at one time. 134 OBJECT r RAWING _r U:- Fig. 127 Place the cube squa-ely in front and on a level with the eye. Pass the pencil round the limits of the visible part. Represent it by a square. In 1 MODELS— SOLIDS 13s ^ [7 / # ^ ti a d Fig. 128 fact it appears exactly as the square tablet when held in the same position. Truly it is an entirely different object Previous or present knowledge, how- ever, should not be the guide now. LJ 1 D-D \^. ^ i! Fig. 129 ■« 136 OBJECT DRAWING In the same manner outlines of all cubical objects, when in a similar position, are based on the square or rectangle, drawn in proportion to the visible surface. Fig. 129 represents a trunk as it is seen at three different times. In A one end only is visible ; in B the back and in C, the front. Place such objects as a table, a cupboard, a fanning mill, a clock, a sideboard, a box, a wheelbarrow, etc., in such a position that one side only is visible and draw the outline. See fig. 129. The Sphere. Fig. 130 Pass the pencil round the visible part of a sphere. It describes a circle. All objects such as an apple, a tomato, a ball or 'a peach, because they resemble a sphere, are said to be spherical. The basis of their outline is a circ'e. It is true the objects mentioned differ from the sphere in points of detail and the outline in many cases, in order to suggest the object, must be modified. Take note of the irregularities which make this difference, and, while the circle is used as a basis, so modify it, that if a hole were cut in the paper round the outline it would allow the object to fit snugly into it. See opposite page for outlines of spherical objects. Ii{i MODELS— SOLIDS 137 ^V-^ , ^-^ 135 OBJECT DRAWING The Ellipsoid. Fig. 131 The Ellipsoid, itrheii .he side is visible, is represented by an ellipse. This ellipse becomes shorter, as the end is turned towards you, until it becomes a circle. An object similar in form to the ellipsoid is said to be elHpticaL Two examples are shown in fig. 132. Fig 132 MODELS-SOLIDS X39 The Ovoid Fig. 133 The Ovoid is represented by an oval which is the basis of all objects of this class. A pineapple and a pear are shown in fig. 134. Memory Exercise. Sketch a circle. Recall the image of some familiar object. Think carefully over any peculiarities of form it may possess. Examine the mental image as carefully and in the same manner as the original object would be examined. Use the circle as a basis and sketch the outline (page 141 ). Follow the same method with the square, ellipse or oval. Repose. An object is said to be in repose when it rests upon something. This something may be a table, a board, the ground, etc. To suggest this, draw a horizontal line a little above the lower part of the outline. This line will represent the farther edge of the support. Z40 OBJECT DRAWING Fig. 134 Thr same effect is produced by representing the shadow, as this in itself will suggest the idea of a support. Fig. l.T) MODELS— SOLIDS 1 itself 141 142 OBJECT DRAWING 6. Effect of Distance. Hold the pencil as indicated in fig. 136, at arm's length, and per- pendicular to a line from the eye to the object. Move the hand so that the point of the pencil is in a direct line with the eye, and one end of a desk in front. Slide the thumb along the pencil so that it will mark a point in line with the eye, and the other end of the desk. The dis- tance thus marked represents the apparent length of the desk. Fig. 136 Repeat the experiment on another desk of the same size and in the same position, but standing nearer to you. The distance now indicated represents the apparent length of the second desk. Compare these apparent lengths. Measure, in the same manner, the apparent size of any object at any distance from the eye. Move the object farther away and measure again. Compare the measurements taken on the pencil. What caused the difference? The pencil was, in both cases, held the same distance from the eye. The distance between the eye and the object must have been the cause. The conclusion then is that //le apparent size of an object will vary with the distance the object is away. The farther away; the smaller an EFFECTS OF POSITION 143 per- that d of mark i dis- in the Idicated \]ect at leasure caused listance [st have |/// vary iller an object will appear. Objects of the same size, but at different distances, will appear different. Those farther away appear smaller than those which are near. Fig. 137, copied from a photo- graph of three yachts, illustrates this point very clearly. It is known that these yachts are all of the iame size, and that the masts are all of the same height ; yet, by comparing the actual size of each in the pic- ture a vast difference is noticed. The camera represented them, not as they actually were, but as they appeared at different distances away. Compare the objects in any good photograph and notice the same point clearly brought out. Place a number of apples of the same size on the table at different distances from the eye. Compare their apparent size very carefully and note the result. 7. Effect of Position. Hold a square tablet in a vertical position directly in front of the eye. Measure the height and width as directed in sec- tion 6. Compare the measurements taken. They are the same. Tip i Fig. 137 144 OBJECT DRAWING Fig. 138 the tablet slightly back from the vertical, measure and compare as be- fore. The height is now less than ihe width. Cont* to tip it back until it finally appears as a straight line. See fig. 139. SS 7r-_J^rT- ^r^^ ,^SKtmr% ^^jij%3^.^ Fig. 139 Again place the tablet in its former position. Turn it gradually to the right or left. Compare again. What is the result? See fig. 140. FORESHORTENING 145 Fig. 140 Hold tie model in any position and compare the apparent width with the height. Change the position and compare again. What is the result ? Thus it is seen that not only distance but position will change the appearance of objects very much. In fact, accurate drawmgs cannot be made unless di mce and position are carefully considered. The appear- ance of an object will change with every change of position, so that if the result desired is an interesting picture, that position which will best illustrate the most interesting characteristics should bs chosen. If, on the other hand, the aim is to develop the power and habit of seeing intelli- gently, choose a position which is not familiar as this will compel the closest attention. In fig. 141 eight positions of a book are shown, yet this number is comparatively small when compared with the very many positions in which it may be placed. ir ,3 1' [ually to 140. 8. Foreshorteningr. We believe it is safe to say, that because an illustration looks right to the cultivated eye, it is drawn correctly. We assume then that fig. 142 is a correct drawing of a cube for the reaso 1 stated. 146 OBJECT DRAWING Fig. 141 By actual measurement of the edges in the picture, it is found that they are of different lengths, while the edges of a cube are all of the same length. The representation of edges or surfaces, as they appear when not extended directly in front of the eye, is termed foreshortening. This is one of the greatest difficulties in object drawing, and constant care is necessary in order that foreshortened edges or surfaces be accurately represented. FORESHORTENING 147 ;^i Fig. 142 Think of an object when sketching its outline as if it were being traced on a transparent plane held between the eye and the object. There is no better way of becoming convinced of this than to hold a piece of glass between the eye and some object, and tracing the outline on the glass. lat they ; length, xtended J of the in order 1 1 A --iZ ■A \ i-y ^ — n_. pm^ m^ _117 - m: :-"~=:^ ^ "■ c 143 — B Fig. A good model for this experiment is a T stick made of two pieces of wood about i8 inches in length. This model should be placed in different positions and traced as we have suggested. 148 OBJECT DRAWING The drawing paper represents this transparent plane. Draw on it in the same manner as the tracing is done on the glass. In order to do this, think of the relative position of a point as being to the left or right of, above or below some other point, the position of which has been indicated. Measure at first as outlined in section 7. After some practice however, this will be unnecessary, except as a means of testing work done. The eye becomes so trained that distances can be fairly judged without measuring. In sketching outlines, of the T square for example, try to think of a as being to the left of ^, as far as i is to the left of 2, and below as far as 3 is below 4. See fig. 143. C Fig. 144 The same principle may be applied to the drawing of any object when any part is foreshortened. In the illustrations of the tablet, fig. 144, a is to the lejt of b as far as C is to the left of D, and a is below b as far as B is below A. Cut a piece of dark-colored card-board, about an inch in width and 6 inches long. Place this model as suggested in fig. 145, on the desk a couple of feet in front. Make an outline drawing of the model as it appears from where you are sitting. A i>Unnb lino, made of a wliite piece of string and a liglit weight, if held between the eye and the object will aid in fixing the relative position of jwints. FORESHORTENING 149 ■-,X ■■''I m Fig. 145 Care must be taken to make all measurements when the pencil is at the same distance from the eye. To make sure of this, fasten the pencil by a piece of s'ring to the coat and take all measurements when the string is taut. To aid in seeing the model more clearly, it is a good plan to lay it on a sheet of white paper. ' As a guide, sketch a horizontal line across the paper so that it touches the nearest corner. Sketch another in a similar manner on the drawing paper. Choose a point A to represent the nearest corner of the tablet. Measure the distance the corner B is to the left of A. When taking this measurement hold the pencil horizontally, and at right angles to a line from when is to bBis land 6 :ouple from I eye and Fig. 14G the eye to the object. Mark this distance (A to i), on the guide line to the left of A. The distance from A to i will determine the size of the drawing, as all other distances are measured in proportion to it. Hold the pencil vertically to measure the distance B is above the guide line. Indicate this -!5»" tmam WKM ISO OBJECT DRAWING by sketching a line perpendicular to the guide line and above it. The left corner is A to i to the left of A, and i to B above A. In the same manner mark the positions of all other corners. D is A-2 to the right, and 2-D above A ; C is A 3 to the left, and 3-C above A. By joining these points by straight lines the outline is completed. Fig. 147 Pig. 147 further illustrates this principle and shows its application to the drawing of a group of leaves. The subject of foreshortening is further dealt with, in the sections on perspective. There is this, however, that we desire to emphasize : while the principles, outlined in sections referred to are necessary, success will largely depend upon ability to think of prominent points in an object as being to the left or right of, above or belouf some other point already indicated. The best objects to use as models for first practice are those having prominent points indicating the meeting of edges or surfaces. See fig. 148 and fig. 149. PROBLEMS 151 Fig. 148 Problems. 1. Draw a garden rake ; {a) as it appears when lying on the ground, handle to the right ; {b) hanging on the wall so that the head is above the eye, handle pointing down ; ( m- i86 OBJECT DRAWING 1 i 1 [ 1 1 If I ! 1 t Fig. 190 PART iv: APPLIED PERSPECTIVE, GROUPING, SHADE AI^HD SHADOW. -^^- ^d' «-. 1. The jt^^ .izcn. Look out over a large body of water, a lake or the sea, or look down a long level road. The sky seems to slope downward to the earth. On the water where there are no trees or hills the place of meeting a pears to be a horizontal line. This Horizon Line is always on a level with the eye. Stand at the edge of the water. The sails of a boat, a few rods from the beech, appear above the horizon. See fig. 191. But stand on the bank above the beech where the eye is much higher than before and the scene is changed. The horizon can be seen plainly above the sails, or at least nearer to the top. Other objects that seemed to shut out the horizon before are now be- low it. See fig. 192. No two persons then see the same horizon line unless tlieir eyes are on the same level. Notice, too, that the position of an object may be termed relative^ that is, although the object may remain stationary, its position in relation to the eye and to other objects changes when the position of the spectator is changed. We move to the right or left of an obstacle to see what is behind it ; the same result would be obtained were we able to move above or below. 187 M'r r:^ iS8 APPLIED PERSPECTIVIv Fig. 191 The horizon is not always visible. It may be shut out from view by other objects, such as trees or buildings. For convenience, however, especi- ally when drawing from memory, it is better to indicate the position of the Fig. 192 horizon line. It will serve as a guide in representing objects below or above the level of the eye. See fig. 193. In fixing the position of the horizon line it is very necessary to consider the conditions under which an object is likely to be seen. A table, for ex- PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE— CUBE 1S9 Fig. 103 ample, is about half the height of an ordinary person. It is generally seen when the spectator is on the same ground. If standing, the height of the hori- zon line from the bottom of the table should be about double the height of the table. Compare the height of the object with the height of the eye above its lowest part and fix the position of the horizon line accordingly. 2. Parallel Perspective. The Cube. A pane of glass about 16 inches wide and 20 inches long, two small cubes about 6 inches a side, a table and a pointed piece of hard soap are required for the following experiment : Place the glas in a vertical position on t! e table. Place one of the cubes near the left and on the farther side of the glass, so that one of the races is in contact. Place the other near the right and a few inches awav, but having one face parallel to the glass. Sit or stand directly m front, on w^ r^ 190 APPLIED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 194 that side opposite to the cubes, so that the eye is slightly below the top, but above the cubes. The appearance is shown in fig. 1 94. Indicate on the glass, by making dots with the soap, the position of each visible corner of the cubes. While doing this, it is best to keep one eye closed. Be careful to keep the eye always in one position. Remove the cubes and join the points by straight lines to represent the edges. The drawings thus made are perspective outlines of the cubes in this po.ition. Perspective Drawing signifies looking through^ which suggests something through which to look. This something is an imaginary, transparent plane somewhere between the eye and the object. It is represented in our experi- ment by the pane of glass which we shall call the picture plane. It is always perpendicular to the direction in which we are looking. The drawing paper, as we have before intimated, represents this picture plane. Drawings should be made on paper as if the object were seen PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE-CUBE X9I ^ Fig. 195 through and traced upon it in the same manner as upon the glass. To actually do this with an opaque piece of paper is impossible. Important principles, however, may be deduced from this and other expertments to aid in representing on paper what we see. An examination of the drawings, (Fig. 195), shows that the outline fig- ures representing the faces which were parallel to the picture plane are perfect squares. So are those faces of the cubes. The sides of the squares are vertical and horizontal. So are those edges of the cubes. It is easily seen too, that no matter how the cube is turned, those faces which are kept parallel to the picture plane, are represented by perfect squares the sides of which will be oblique if the edges of the cube are oblique or vertical and horizontal if the edges are so. Notice too, that the edges which were vertical are represented by vertical lines and that those edges which were horizontal and parallel to the picture plane are represented by horizontal lines. 193 APPLIED PERSPECTIVE jFirsf Principle : Surfaces or edges which are parallel to the picture plane are represented as they actually are, that is, they are not foreslwrtened. By reference to the same figure it will be seen that the two faces which were parallel to the picture plane, although represented by perfect squares, are not represented by squares of the same size. These two faces of the cubes are of the same size, but the farther face is represented by the smaller square. All vertical edges, although represented by vertical lines, arc represented by lines of different lengths. The edges of the cubes are all of the same length, but the farther edge is represented by the shorter line. Read also Effect of Distance. Second Principle: The farther an object is removed from the picture plane the smaller will be the representation of it. &tL Fig. 196 Receding edges are those which if produced towards the picture plane will cross it. Produce the lines representing receding edges until they meet. If the experiment has been performed accurately it will be found that these lines will converge to meet at a point {a vanishing point), and that this point is on a level with and directly in front of the position of the eye when viewing the objects. It is the Centre of Fision. See fig. 196. JM PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE-CUBE 193 Third Principle : Ail receding edges which are perpendicular to the picture plane are represented by lines which converge to meet at the centre of vision. These three principles, if understood, will be a great help, especially in memory drawing. Care, however, should be exercised to guard against being entirely guided by them. They will not solve all difficulties. The centre of vision is a fixed point upon which the eye is directed. All other points are described as relative to it. The horizon passes through the centre of vision. It is represented in the drawing by a horizontal line called the horizon line. The position of tiie person viewing the object or landscape, as the case may be, is such that the eye is directly opposite and on a level with the centre of vision. He or she is represented by a vertical line crossing the horizon line at the centre of vision. This line is called the Spectator. See fig. 197. Above and to the left. HORIZON CV Above and to the right. L I N R. Below and to the left. O H < W Oh Fig. 107 Below and to the right. [plane they Id that It this when The position of an object is described in reference to these imaginary lines and points. Fig. 198 shows the positions of nine cubical blocks, each in a different position, and all having one face parallel to the p'cture plane. In tliese experiments the picture plane is s ipjiosefl t > l>e in contact with tlie object or group to be represented. The ground therefore is a horizontal line touching the bottom of the nearest object. 194 APPI,1ED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 198 Each position may be de cribed as follows : — 1. To the left and above; sides of the parallel face (parallel to the picture plane) oblique. 2. To the left and above ; sides of the parallel face vertical ; right side in line with the spectator. PARALLEI. PERSPECTIVE— CUBE »95 3. To the right and above ; sides of parallel face vertical. 4. To the left and below ; sides of the parallel face vertical ; top in line with the level of the eye. 5. Directly in front ; sides of the parallel fa''e vertical. 6. To the right ; top above and lottom below the level of the eye; sides of the parallel face vertical. 7. To the left and below ; sides of the parallel face vertical. 8. In front, slightly to the right and below ; sides of the parallel face vertical. 9. To the right and below ; sides of the parallel face oblique. Notice, in all these drawings, that there are but two classes of lines, representing two classes of edges : — 1. Edges whi h are parallel to the picture plane, represented by lines drawn in actually the same position as the edges they represent. 2. Receding edges, represented by lines which converge to meet in the centre of vision. Place an ordinary chalk box directly in front but below the level of the eye, so that the nearest face is parallel to the picture plane ; edges vertical and horizontal. The nearest face is parallel to the picture plane and therefore not fore- shortened. Represent this face by a rectangle, the sides of which are in proportion to the edges of the box. The size of the rectangle will determine the size of the finished fi ure. There are two receding parts visible. Represent them by lines con- vergirg to meet at the centre of vision. Compare the height of the box with the distance that the eye is above the ground (that upon which the box rests^ The height of the box, in this case, we suppose to be about one-third of the height of the eye from the ground. Sketch the horizon line, so that the distance between the bottom of the rectangle and the horizon line is about three times the height of the rectangle. Choose a point, in the horizon line directly above the rectangle, to represent the centre of vision. 11 ■ ^ 196 I APPLIED PERSPECTIVE JioRnoH c yj Us^K bl ! ) 11 1^!^ Fig. 199 Compare the height of the farther visible edge with the height of the box and sketch a horizontal line in a corresponding position to represent the farther edge. This line is between the converging lines already drawn. The inside visible ccners are vertical. Represent the visible parts by verti- cal lines. These vertical lines are between the horizontal lines representing the tops of the sides. APPLIKD PER.SPKCTIVK— CUHE 197 !l Fig. 200 Line in and represent shade and shadow. See fig. 200. It is not advisable in a first attempt to represent the thickness of material. This may be attempted after the principles have been fairly well understood. Fig. 201 shows the construction lines which may be used in outlining a cha^k box from memory. The outline is strengthened so that the lines re- quired may be clearly seen. The position may be described as below the eye and to the lefc. Fig 202 is a shaded dr^iwing of the same box, built upon an outline made in the same manner as fig. 201. An edge may be parallel to the picture plane ami still l>e vertical, horizontal or oblique. Since the picture plane is supposed to be vertical, all vortical edges are parallel to it, but all hori- zontal or oblique lines are not parallel to the picture plane. i t i 1 198 APPtlED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 201 Fig. 203 requires no explanation. The principles before stated are ap- plied here as one face of each cubical block is parallel to the picture plane. Fig. 204 is a finished drawing of the same group. Although many objects are cubical in form, they do not possess the hard, exact outline of a cube. Care should be taken, in such cases, to lepre- sent such points of detail that will give the object a natural appearance. The square tnMct is an excellent model to use in the first exercIseB of this pection. Since It practically rtpresenls one surface of a vulte, it may be used to advantape Ijefore drawing from the culy the spectator is naturally in front. FIk. 212 would form part of a group of objects in such a position as fig. 204. The measuring of distance into the picture— from the picture plane— is not treated here as it properly belongs to Linear Perspective. Be guided iu this matter by iu- structioQS given iu Fbresliortcning, w \ Jt J^ aoS APPLIED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 213 . 3. Angular Perspective. Angular perspective is the representation of an object or group of objects the edges of which are neither parallel nor perpendicular to the pic- ture plane. In the accompanying illustration (i) is represented in parallel perspec- tive and (2) in angular. I li ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE 209 Fig. 214 In addition to experiments similar to those outlined under Parallel Perspective carefully perform the following : — Place a number of sticks, about a foot in length, each in a vertical posi- tion on the table in front. Notice that although your position may be changed to the right or left they always appear to be vertical. To be fully Fig. 215 mm 2IO APPLIED PERSPECTIVE convinced that this is true, tie a weight to a piece of string and hold this plumb line in line with the eye and each stick. Change your position and repeat the experiment. First Principle : Vertical edges are represented by vertical lines. Place a piece of string, about three feet long, under the cover of a book so that about equal portions are on each side. Close one eye, pull the Fig. 216 string tight and slowly raise the hands until the string is in such a position that the two sections are in direct lines with the eye and two edges of the book. Change the position of the book and repeat the experiment. The book and string will appear as shown in fig. 216. Second Principle : All parallel receding edges are represented by lines which converge to meet at the same point. ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE an Fig. 217 Repeat the experiment allowing the book to lie flat on a level table and the string to intersect at a point vertically above the edge to which it is attached. The point of intersection is on a level with the eye— in the horizon. (Fig. 217.) Place something under the book so that the farther edge is raised. Proceed as before. The point of intersection now is above the horizon. (Fig. 218.) Change the support so that the edges recede downward. Where is the point of intersection now? (Fig. 218.) «! //bAVZO/V Fig. 218 tI9 APPLIED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 219 Change the position of the book so that the edges recede towards the right and notice that the point of intersection is to the right of a point direct- ly in front of the eye. (Fig. 219.) c V; rioni2.0N ^^^© ^' —^~— -— -^ ■ — . Fig. 220 ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE 213 Allow the edges of the book to recede towards the left. Where is the point of intersection now? (Fig. 220 ) Third Principle: The converging or vanishing point for lines representing parallel edges will he : — (/) In the horizon when the receding edges represented are horizontal. (^) Above the horizon when the edges represented recede up:c\ird. ( j) Belorv the horizon when the edges represented recede downzcard. {4) To the right of the centre of vision when the edges represented recede towards the right of the spectator. (5) To the left of the centre of vision when the edges represented recede to the left of the spectator. Here again, do not rely entirely upon the principles just laid down. The eye and hand will be cultivated by exercise, and by trusting them con- fidence in their ability is increased. A knowledge of these principles will aid the eye to see and the hand to represent more accurately what is seen. Draw the cube in different positions. Apply the principles of this sec- tion. Fig. 221 It is net always convenient nor yet possible to show the vanishing point for converging lines and great care is necessary in representing receding : ^Iff^ 214 APPLIED PERSPECTIVE edges. It is well sometimes to produce the lines as far as the paper permits, as this will give a better opportunity to judge of their correctness. Under ordinary circumstances it is safe to assume that if a picture looks right the drawing is correct. (Fig. 222.) HoRIZ. ON L/NE, Fig. 222 Problems. Draw the following objects according to the instructions given : — I. A chalk box : — (rt) Resting on the bottom ; \ osition horizontal ; end, side and top visible. (l>) Resting on the bottom ; horizontal ; end and side visible. {c) Resting on the bottom ; end visible. {d) Resting on one end ; cover removed ; horizontal ; end, side and part of the inside visible. {e) Nearer end resting on the ground ; farther end supported by a block ; end, side and part of the inside visible. (/) Farther end resting on the ground ; nearer end supported by a block ; end, side and part of the inside visible. The plumb line is an excellent device to show the distance that one point appears to the right or left of another. i 1 .91 \ I !i i-ROBLEMS 215 (g) Farther end resting on the ground ; nearer end supported by a block ; end and part cf the inside visible. (A) Suspended by a string ; end up ; lower end, side and part of the inside visible. side by a by a |to the Fig. 223 2. A chair in five different positions. (Fig. 223.) 3. A cylinder lying on its curved surface. 4. A pen box in three positions. The same experiments as outlined with the string may be performed successfully with a pane of glass as in Parallel Perspective, lU., ^ ip 2l6 APPLIED PERSPECTIVE Fig. 224 5. A funnel in five positions. 6. A stove-pipe elbow. 7. A school globe. 8. A washboard in five positions. 9. A trunk ; bottom, side and end visible. 10. A table in five positions. See fig. 224. PROBLEMS 217 .■ 'i Fig. 225 11. Draw five objects found in the parlor, each in such a position that one edge recedes from the picture plane at an angle greater or less than a right angle. See fig. 225. 12. Sketch the outline of a pile of three planks, lying one across the other. 13. Draw a chair below the level of the eye so that a line connect- ing two of the legs does not recede at right angles to the picture plane. i ^w^ 2l8 SHADE AND SHADOW 14. Draw a box; lid open at right angles iv. the top ; no faces parallel to the picture plane. 15. Draw a three-legged stool ; no edges parallel to the picture plane. 4. Shade and Shadow. The suggestion of shade and shadow is possibly the most difficult de- partment of drawing, yet the most powerful means of representing an object. S/mde is not a material substance, but merely an effect produced upon some part of an object because of its receiving less light than some other part. T/i/s shaded part is always opposite to the light. It is necessary to exercise great care, especially when drawing from memory and in grouping, in order that shaded parts are placed in proper position and properly graded. If the light falls from the left, shaded parts will be seen on the right and vice versa. Because shade is an effect produced on the object itself, it is really part of the object. Fig. 22G Shadow ib an enec' produced in the same manner as shade. Shadow, however, dififs from thade in that it is not a part of the object, but an effect produced outside of it because of the object intercepting the light. In fig. 226 the dark side of the cylinder is termed shade, the dark effect upon the ground, shadow. RELIEF 219 The application of shade and shadow will aid in making the drawing of an object stand out from the background and from surrounding objects. This effect is called relief a.nd is well illustrated in fig. 226. It will aid, too, in giving prominence to any part of a picture. The house, for example, in fig. 227, attracts attention before the trees, the hills or the ship. Emphasis is given to the house. li 11 i i n Fig. 227 Ihe Compare the drawings of the cylinder in fig. 228. A much better idea of the roundness of the object is given by B than A, although one is an exact tracing of the other. Shade and shadow here again aid in suggesting roundness or thickness. This is termed solidity. That medium which requires the least attention is the best for a be- ginner, Por outline drawing and sketching there is nothing better than the p^ 220 SHADE AND SHADOW Fig. 228 pencil. For shaded work, too, the pencil has advantages over charcoal, brush or pen. These of course have their advantages, but the pencil is quite suitable for all ordinary purposes and requires comparatively no attention from the student, thus allowing all the energy to be directed to the object. With the pencil, too, any grade of drawing may be done, from that of simplest outline to the many gradations of shade and shadow in the most complicated subject. Pen and ink as a medium for drawing is one always obtainable. It has the advantage of compelling the utmost care on the part of the user, as well as developing a certain dexterity in the use of this partic- ular medium, a very important matter when we consider how much it is used in the ordinary business of every-day life. The methods that follow have been found to be the best when pencil or pen is used : — I. Cross hatching : This is done by drawing quick, short lines across one another, grading the shade by {a) the number and {b) the blackness of the lines. PARAIvLEL LINES 221 Exercises like the following should precede an attempt to make a shaded drawing. Sketch a rectangle 6 in. by i in. Divide it into six equal squares. The white paper of the left square represents the lightest shade — the hig,hest light. Draw quick, short parallel lines across the second square to represent a shade darker than that of the first. In the third draw two sets of similar lines crossing each other to represent a shade sti 1 darker. In the fourth square three sets, etc., until in the last a perfect black is obtained. Great care should be exercised to make a proportionate grade of shade from a very light to a very dark. The number, strength and closeness of the lines should be considered. (Fig. 229.) I ! :==_. .- .. -tiiiiiMllitt^aMaauaifflgi Fig. 229 2. Parallel Lines : By this method the lines are drawn in the same manner but all practically in the same direction. Sketch a rectangle and divide it into squares as before. Allow the first to remain white. In the second, draw light horizontal or vertical lines some distance apart to represent a shade darker. In the third, increase the num- ber of lines by drawing them closer together. Proceed in the same manner in the other squares, making each square proportionately darker, until in the last the darkest shade is represented. (Fig. 230.) A very pretty effect is produced by using almost the same number of lines but representing the darker shades by darker lines as in fig. 231. 222 SHADE AND SHADOW Fig. 230 A combination of these is a better method than either. These methods are adapted to the use of pen or pencil, but more espe cially the pen. Even when the pencil is used, if the lines are drawn as in fig. 230 a richer shade is produced than by using the flat side. The white of the Fig. 231 paper as seen through the lines gives a cleaner, clear-cut appearance. The method that is best to use is largely determined by the object represented. i I Fig. 232 BLENDING 223 Fig. 232 shows the proper method (B) and the wrong method (A) of laying on the lines, unless of course the object is to suggest a rough surface. 3. Pencil: By this method the side of the pencil is used, the gradation of shade being produced by pressure. The use of two or three differently graded pencils is a good plan. Use the hard for light and the soft for dark shades. The stump is a very useful instrument in pencil shading. It is made of soft paper, tightly rolled and sandpapered to a point like a pencil. With it rub lightly over the pencil shading. In this manner the lines left by the pencil are well blended, producing a very pretty effect. Be careful in the use of the stump, as much less color is required. The amount of color left on it after rubbing hea/y lines is often quite sufficient to produce the lighter shades. Blending. By this is meant a even gradation from the lightest to the darkest. There is no distinct line between the shades. Fig. 233 shows the different effects of crosshatching and parallel line shading. M Fig. 233 Direction of Lines, The direction of the line is a very important mattet- to be considered as a reference to fig. 234 will show. As a rule, when parallel lines are used. 234 SHADE AND SHADOW vertical surfaces are shaded by vertical lines, horizontal surfaces by horizontal lines and oblique surfaces by oblique lines. Curved surfaces arc often nicely shaded by curved lines. This, however, is not always necessary. There is one serious objection to the use of curved lines in representing a curved sur- face. It is this, that curved lines are very difficult to make uniform in strength and direction, a very necessary matter in suggesting a smooth surface. Fig. 234 Fig. 235 shows the method of applying crosshatching in representing the smooth, curved surface of a sphere. Many of the figures in The Circular Tablet^ Cylinder and Cone illustrate parallel line shading as applied to curved surfaces. The Model. It is almost impossible in an ordinary school room to obtain the proper conditions of light to afford good examples to begin with. As a rule, there is no definite outline in nature and the more indefinite the shades and shadows are the more difficult it is to suggest them. Use such objects under such conditions that the shades and shadows are as definite as possible. To obtain the best results observe the following directions : — onzoni.';! en nicely There is rved sur- liform in smooth fTfrnT'JTT ■l S resenting \Cirai!ar curved proper there is shadows thadows blowing THE MODEL 335 Fig. 2;}5 Begin with a w^hite cube made of plaster of Paris or white paper placed upon a white ground. Allow the light to enter the room from the left side only, slightly above and to the rear. Place the cube a few fe^-t in front and below the eye level so that three faces are visible. Sketch the outline in the usual way. Examine the shades on each face carefully. It is not so neces- sary that the exact shade of each face should be represented as it is to give 2i proportionate value to each. The vertical face to the right is the darkest ; the vertical face to the left the lightest, and the top, although lighter than the right side, is darker than the left. Represent the lightest shade first and grade each accordingly. See fig. 236. Examine the shadow. It is darker nearer the cube. Sketch its outline. Observe in the shadow that its darkest part is slightly darker than the dark- est side of the cube. I % ■ n 236 SHADE AND SHADOW Fig. 236 Curved surfaces should be attempted after some ability has been at- tained in representing flat surfaces. Prodkms. 1. Draw an ink bottle. Show shade and shadow. The light falls from the left. 2. Draw a book in three positions : — (a) Light from the right. (i) Light from the left. (c) Open ; some of the leaves vertical ; light from the left. 3. A piece of two-inch plank about 3 ft. long and a foot wide stands on the ground, directly in front and below the eye, the two-inch face towards you. Outline the plank and represent shade and shadow. The light falls from the left. 4. Draw a group of three apples ; light from the right. 5. Sketch the outline of an ordinary straw hat, shade it and show the shadow. The light falls from the right and above. UNITY 227 5. Oroupingr- Grouping is the drawing of more than one object in a picture. Attractive groups show Unity^ Harmony^ Variety and Repose. been at- "alls from tands on ; towards ight falls ihow the Fig. 237 Unity is obta'ned by placing the units of a picture in such a manner as to form a connected whole. Give much attention to arrangement. Make 228 GROUPING one picture and not a number of pictures closely placed together. Compare A and B of fig. 237. 7 ^*ff Fig. 238 Harmony is the result of making the group pleasing by observing the character of the objects and their artistic arrangement. Select those objects having something in common and so arrange them that the whole may have a pleasant appearance. The geese, the barrow and the gardener, seen in the rear of a large residence, produce a harmonizing picture. (Fig. 238.) HARMONY )are 229 Fig. 2:39 Fig. 240 230 GROUPING Variety is obtained by grouping such objects that are unlike each other in shape, size or quality. Be careful that a desire to produce variety does not destroy the harmony Similar objects should be placed in different positions or so that they are partly hidden. Slightly emphasizing parts will also add variety. (Fig. 240.) Fig. 241 Repose gives a feeling of rest to the eye. So arrange the parts that each will appear to be perfectly at rest. Shadows will aid in this respect. (Fig. 241.) The same general directions previously given for drawing single objects apply to the drawing of groups. Conceive of the group first as a whole and proceed to build it up by placing the parts together. GROUPING «3i Fig. 242 First endeavor to see only the general outline of the whole group Lose s^ght, m fact of all points of detail. Think of the group as the sal houette shown in fig. 243. ^ ^ " Fig. 24;{ «r. c^r f ^ *^f """^""^ '''""^'" '° ^S- ^'^^^ ^^'^^ proportions of the whole are satisfactorily arranged, fill in the detail as in fig: 245. 332 GROUPING Fig. 244 Fig. ^45 The brief hints given in this section must not be regarded as arbitrary, as it is impossible to lay down any hard i nd fast rules. Let every picture tell its own story. This story, of course, will depend largely upon the mood and tempermcnt of the composer, and even then interpretation by different persons may be entirely different. To some fig. 239 suggests but little, but there are others to whom it tells a long,, long story. In addition, strive to obtain : — 1. Variety of lines both in character and direction. 2. A light, free touch of pen or pencil. 3. Pleasing and suggestive positions of the units composing a group. At the same time avoid : — 1. Long unbroken lines. 2. Undue emphasizing of lines. 3. Lines which are heavy and cumbersome. 4. The employment of more lines than are absolutely necessary. GROUPING 233 Fig. 246 -f; 234 GROUPING 5. The use of mechanical means in drawing lines. It is often desirable to break up a hard a- d mechanical outline. Examine the illustrations of the old well on page 233. Fig. 247 The outline sketches on page 235 will suggest a number of groups. Procure such objects as are given and group them. Make the drawings in the usual way. GROUPING 235 236 GROUPING Problems. Draw groups of the following : — I. A camera, case and tripod to suggjst that the owner was examining his kit previous to a trip into the country. (Fig. 186.) 2. Pail, broom and mop. 3. Axe and block of wood. 4. Cube, sphere and cylinder. 5. Rake, hoe and shovel. 6. Opera glasses and case. 7. Knife, pencil and scribbler. 8. Hat and coat. 9. Boots and rubbers. 10. Chair and table. I I. Lamp and books. 1 2. Cup, saucer and teapot. 1 3. Pump, fence and water-trough. 1 4. Hand-sleigh and wood pile. 15. Globe and chalk box. 16. Bat, ball and lacrosse stick. 17. Rocking chair, table and lamp. 18. Knife, fork and plate. 19. Mucilage bottle and brush. 2 0. Glass, bottle and spoon. 6- Position of the Picture Plane. What may be termed the focal capacity of the eye is, on an average, aboul 60 degrees ; that is, we are able to see at one time all objects within two lines drawn from the eye at an angle of 60° to each other, 30' on each side of the line representing the direction in which we are looking — the line of sight. POSITION OF PICTURE PLANE 237 Fig. 249 iin ich |ne Fig. 249 represents the part of a room that may be seen without chang- ing the position of the eye. If the distance between the eye and the black- board were lessened, less of the room would be visible, and vice versa. The farther away a group of objects is, the more of the group is visible, unless, of course, the distance be so great as to cause it to be indistinct. The whole view visible at one time is in the form of a circle of such a size that, if lines were drawn from two opposite points on the circumference 238 GROUPING to the eye, they would form an angle of 60°. The centre of vision is the centre of this circle and the horizon passes through this centre, so that in reality, every time the position of the eye changes, a new picture is presented to the mind. There is a new C. V. and a new horizon. This focal capacity of the eye often necessitates many changes of posi- tion in getting a view of even one object. This is especially the case when viewing a large object like a building, or when viewing an object close to the eye. A person in reading a newspaper is able to see a small portion of it at one time. The position of his eyes must be changed frequently before all has been seen. Fig. 250 In fig. 250 the dotted lines represent the different lines of sight at different positions of the eye. It is quite necessary to move the eye in this THE HUMAN FIGURE 939 manner to get a view of many objects. Our impressions of an object, then, are often the result of many pictures being presented to the mind at different times. True, the time intervening between the presentations is very short, so short that the view is taken in almost at a glance. The picture plane is always perpendicular to the line of sight. There is, therefore, a new plane every time the eye changes its position. It is clear that if all these planes are combined to form one plane, it would be the shape of the inside covering of a sphere. The natural position of the body is vertical and the muscles of the eye are in their easiest position when the line of sight is horizontal. A photo- grapher, in setting his camera, is careful to place it in this position. Pictures are hung upon the wall, when above the eye, in such a position that they appear as they would if vertical when on a level with the eye. In memory drawing, it is safe to be guided by principles governing the representation of objects as they would appear on a vertical plane. Cubical objects, represented as the box seen upon the floor in fig. 249, are, strictly speaking, a part of another larger picture. This is true of almost €very drawing. ^ The best view of an object, however, is obtained when it is at or near the centre of vision, and, as before intimated, care must be exercised to guard against placing it so far from the C. V. as to cause distortion. This is often noticed in a photograph where the focal capacity of the lense has beea insuffieient to cover the whole plate properly. I at "khis 7. The Human Figure. We fully recognize the fact that efficiency in drawing the human figure cannot be attained without a long course of hard study. Our object, how- ever, in introducing the subject here, is not to outline a course of this kind, but to merely suggest another means of excellent and interestitig practice which will tend to cultivate the power to see and to express what is seen. 240 GROUPING Rg. 251 B^ by drawing diflTcrcnt articles of clothing in different positions. Hang a coat, for example, on the wall a few feet in front. A dark coat THE HUMAN FIGURE 241 against a light background or a light coat against a dark background is the best. Sketch the outline. (Fig. 251.) Try at first to use as few lines as are necessary to suggest the outline and folds of the cloth. Avoid the too common error of scratching down lines promiscuously without regard to their significance. Every line should mean something. Do not draw a line until satisfied that it is required to make the drawing more suggestive. Notice the very few lines used in fig 254- Fig. 252 The face is more easily outlined in profile, although it is more diflficult to give expression in this position. In first attempts, do not be discouraged 242 GROUPING 253 if a likeness is not obtained, but be quite content with getting fair propor- tions in general. See drai^ings on page 247. Study carefully the construction of the hand, (fig. 252). Compare length with width, length of fingers with each other and with the whole hand. Notice the number and length of joints, etc. Draw the left hand in different position's. Such exercises as this will aid in the expression of the whole figure, although the detail of the hands may not be shown. (Fig. 253.) THE HUMAN FIGURE 243 ^ 244 GROUPING THE HUMAN FIGURE 245 Fig. 256 246 GROUPING Study the feet in the same manner. Good practice may be obtained by rawing a pair of boots in different positions. When posing a model for a first attempt, it is best to have the face shown in profile and the arms so arranged that the hands are not fully visi- ble. See fig. 254. The three outlines shown on page 247 illustrate the method of making a quick sketch. No. 3 is after a character sketch by that well-known pen- and-ink artist, Phil. May. Although such drawings as these are apparently made quite freely, a great deal of care is necessary in their production. The space at our disposal will not allow but few drawings of the human figure. The few presented will give some idea of the methods that may be employed. Our object is attained by merely suggesting it as a model for practice. Problems. 1. Draw your left hand. 2. Make an outline sketch of your left foot as it appears when extended in front. 3. A lady is sitting by a table upon which lies a book that she is read- ing. Make a drawing of the lady, chair, book and that part of the table supporting the book. 4. Make an outline sketch of a little girl ; face towards you ; arms folded. 5. Copy the drawings shown on pages 244-5-8-9. 6. Draw a lady's head showing the arrangement of the hair, (i) back view ; (2) side view. 7. A boy sits in a rocking chair, reading the newspaper. Make a draw- ing showing a side view of the group. 8. Draw from memory, the right hand holding a pencil. 9. A little girl is writing a letter to her grandma. Illustrate by a draw- ing. 10. Make an outline sketch of a boy standing in a position to catch a ball. 1 1. Two boys are standing by a large box, talking. Draw the group. THE HUMAN FIGURE 247 12. Copy any good picture of Queen Victoria, Lord Roberts or Mr. Gladstone. 248 GROUPING Fig. 258 IHE HUMAN FIGURE 249 aso GROUPING 13. Little Will and his large Newfoundland dog are having their picture taken. Show by a drawing what the group would look like. 14. Sketch an oval about 4 inches long. Inside the oval sketch the Queen's head. Show two Union Jacks, one draped on either side. 15. Copy outline sketches of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and Sir John Mac- donald. In letting this little book pass from our hands, we desire to express the great pleasure we have enjoyed in preparing it. The work will fall short of its purpose if it does not lead the teacher, into whose hands it may fall, to allow the activities of children the greatest free- dom even to the extent of encouraging, under his judicious guidance, their flights of fancy in a humorous direction. During the progress of the work we have had as our constant compan- ions — in imagination — the bright and pleased faces of thousands of the children of the public schools, to whom we hope, through its pages, soon to speak in reality. In so far as we have been enabled to interpret their diffi- culties, we have endeavored to suggest a means to surmount them. We believe that a training along the lines herein suggested will be a means of removing many of the clouds, lightening many of the burdens and doing away with much of the drudgery that too often accompanies the student's work in this otherwise fascinating subject. - ure the ac- :he ito ;e- 2ir ri- le to fi. ^e g