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ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION

OP THE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE;

EMBRACIPIO .

II? GEOGUAPHICAL FEATURES, POLITICAL DIVISIONS, PRINCIPAL CITIES ANtt

TOWNS, POPULATION, CLASSES, GOVERNMENT, RESOURCES, COMMERCE.

ANTIQUITIES, RELIGION, PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, LITERATURE, ART.

AND SCIENCE, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, HISTORIC SUMMARY. ETC.,

FROM THE LATEST AND THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCKS.

By ROBERT SEARb

njsvisnn bt
Prof R S. L. LEWIS.

EMBELLISHED WITH NUMEROUS ENQRAVINQS.

AND

3ilnp3 nf (£nropfnii niib 33intic ilnssln.

NEW EDITION.

REVISED, ENLARGED, AND BROUQilT DOWN TO 1881.

NEW YORK:

HURST & CO., PUULISHERS,

132 NASSAU STREET.

'ZM'^

^L.

\^ci<

'■:t

right, 1881, by nunsT& Co ^^:;^>^>.

-4^

'I'

•Nllvi

>*J-^

-4m.

xlik*

-4-

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

HE work which, in a revised and en-
larged form, is Ijcrewith presented to
the public, was in course of prepara-
tion (to the extent, at least, of col-
lecting material out of wliieh to di-
gest the subject-mattei' of its pages),
for a considerable period anterior to
the couimencement of hostilities iu
the late European war. That event,
however, with the solicitude it so
universally created for reliable infor-
mation, as to the character, history,
and resources, of the Muscovite empire, led to its first
edition being put to press at a somewliat earlier day than
might otherwise have been deemed advisable.

Few, comparatively speaking, of tlie works descriptive
of the Russian empire, heretofore published — those of
recent as well as those of earlier date — have extended
their range beyond St. Petersburg and Moscow, with perhnps the provinces
immediately surrounding them. This is probably to be accounted for in
the fact tliat those works have emanated geuerally from tourists journeying
in search of health or pleasure ; and whom the annoying governmental re-
strictions trammelling locomotion on Russian territory, winh the miserable
travelling facilities and worse roadside accommodations everywhere prevail-
ing, deterred from penetrating, to any uur.siderable extent, the vast regions
lying beyond the Muscovite capitals. And the few works not comprised in
this class, forming the exceptions referred to above, do ncit cover, any one
of them, but a fraction of this colossal empire. Thus Finland, the Ger-
man colonies, Poland, Southern Russia, the Crimea, Kaza i, the Caucasian
provinces, Siberia, and other divisions of the imperial domain, have each
had its historiographer, but each has generally formed the subject of a sep-
arate work. Other writers still have limited their pens to sketches of the
people, the government and institutions of the country. To obtain a knowl-
edge, therefore, of the whole empire, called for the perusal of so many vol-

CJIfci*.

i>d:o.ao

PREFACE.

umcs, and some of them not easily attainable this side of the Atlantic, that
Russia has been a terra incognita to a large proportion of American readers.

Prompted by this deficiency in the means of acccessible information re-
garding a country occupying so formidable a position upon the map of Eu-
rope, and leeling assured that if he could furnish an illustrated description
of every portion of the empire — of its institutions and people, its history,
and, in brief, of everything requisite to a complete knowledge of " Russia
and the Russians," full in details, yet carefully condensed so as to bring
the whole within the covers of a single volume, and thus within the means
of all classes of readers — he would essentially subserve tlio cause of poi>
ular education — the Editor of this work undertook the task ; and the more
completely to carry out his design, ho spared no eflbrts to obtain, both in
this country and in Europe, every work that promiicd additional or more
recent information, or which might serve to verify that already in hand.
The result of his labors is imbodied in the following pages. Of the success
which has attended them, it is perhaps more proper he should forbear to
speak, but leave his readers to judge from perusal.

The illustrations (many of whicli are from drawings made expressly for
this volume) have been selected with regard rather to the practical purpose
of rendering more clear the letter-press descriptions, than the minor one of
mere pictorial embellishment. A glance at them, however, will show that
the latter consideration has not been lost sight of

• The reader will bear in mind that in the year 1850 the reigning cznr
had the whole of the Muscovite Empire carefully aligned into political
divisions, governments, or provinces. In the same year (1850) a series
of carefully compiled statements were published by the Russian govern-
ment. These 'tatements gave the areas of land, and the number of the
population of the different sections of the provinces. It is upon these
authorities that all the iigures in this woi-k are based. Between 1850
and the present year (1881) many changes have been made in the
boundaries of the provinces ; but as no official changes have been cer-
tified to by the Russian authorities, we have preferred to give the reliable
figures of 1850. The recent groupings of provinces, even when officially
named, have hardly more than a nominal existence ; while other group-
ings are conventionally recognized, but have no legal status.

Since 1850 Russia has gained in territory by discovery, purchase, and
military occupancy, 2,332,640 square miles. In the same time the in
crease in population — by births, and by the acquisition of new territories
since 1850 — has been 22,241,987. But it is impossible to classify this
great increase, as the Russian Government studiously avoids publishing
to the world the statistics which would show how much has been gained
by natural increase, and how much by the sword.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Bcundnrios — Liililiule nnd Longitude — Siipcrticiitl Arpii — CompnraiJve Dimensions — RuMinn
Ameri'Mi — Ural Moiinliiiiis — Ciiiivngian lliinge — Ai<intic Iliissiit — Altni Rnngc — Forests—
WhiieSea— BiillicS(>H— Its Extent — Gulf of Butlinia— Gulf of Fiiilnnd — Etixine or Black
Sea — Sen of Azov — Piittid Sen — Strait of Eniknleh — Cimpinn Sen — Its Posil ion, Form, nnd
Extent — Its Iglands — lis Fislieries — It« Harbors — Its History — the Sen of Okhotsk — Riv-
ers — the Dwinn — the Obi — the Yenisei — the Dunn — the Niemen — the Dniester — the
Dnieper — the Bong — llie Dmi — Attempts to unite the Don and the Volga — the Koubnn

— the Danube — Its Months — llie Volgn — Its Source and Course — Its Mouths — lis Tribu-
taries — It^ Inundations — Its Commercial Importiincc — LnUes — Lake or Sen of Baikal —

— Lake Lndoirn — Lake Onega — Luke Peipus — Lake Ilmen — Bielo-Ozero — Climate —
Storms — the Miulji'l — the Sumjots — the Vinga — lis Terrible Devastations pagb 18

CHAPTER II.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS — THE BALTIC PROVINCES.

Division-Line of European nnd Asiatic Russia — Genera! Divisions — Table of Areas and Pop-
ulations — Finland: Pliysical Aspect — Climate — Soil — Pi'odiiclions — Animals — Manufac-
tures — Government — People — the Aland Archipelago — Chief Towns — Ali'> — Ilelsingfors
Sweaborg — Tornea — Government of St. PicTEnsovRo: Physical Aspect - Climate — Pro-
ductive Resources — Commerce — Kronstadt — Its Harbor nnd Fortifications ■ - .'■ sviionia : Soil

— Animals — Thrilling Incident — Revel — Its Harbor — Historical Incident— Cntherinthal,
built by Peter the Great — Livonia: Soil nnd Productions — Forests — Wild Animals — Hunt-
ing Scenes — Rurol Industry — Russian Coins — Livonia: Population — Government — Riga
— Dorpnt — Historic Incident of Schloss-Ringen — Courland : Physical Aspect — Soil and
Productions — Animals — Elk-Hunting — Miltau — Libnu — Windnu — History of the Bnltio
Provinces — People — the Lettos and Esthonians — the Jews — the Germans page 41

- -J CHAPTER III.

GREAT RUSSIA.

ARCiiANflRL: Its Extent — Physical Aspect — Climate — Resources — People — Russian Lapland
— the Laplanders — Nova Zenibla — City of Archangel — History — Vologda: Soil, Cliinnt«,
and Productions — City of Vologda — Olonetz: Soil — Resources — Petrozavodsk — Enrgo-
pole — Novgorod: Physical Aspect — Soil and Productions — City of Novgorod — Its History

— Pskov; Soil and Productions — Pskov the Capital — Torepetjs — Velikie-Lo\iki — Tver:
Productions — Manufactures — Commerce — Tver, its Capital — Smolensk: Soil nnd Produc-
tions — Forests — City of Smolensk — Moscow: Its Extent — Physicol Aspect — Climate —
Naturol Products and Manufactures — Yaroslav: Rivers and Lakes — Climate — Resources

— City of Yaroalttv — Its History — Kostroma: Soil and Climate — Products — City of Kos-

CONTENTS.

tromn — NijnoiNovnoroil — Soil ninl PfodiiotioiKi — Mmmfnottiros — Cily of Nijuci-Xoviforoil
— Fiiirs — Vf.ADiMin: Siirfnoe — Soil ii;icl I'roiliicts — City of Vlmliinir — Uiazan: Clinint*

— Forest « — I'l'iiiliiots ninl Mnnufiictiin's — City of Kiiiziiii — Tambov : Ui'koiii'i'ch — ForestH —
Mftniifiii'liMi"4 — City of Tiiriibov — Toi:la ; Ki'soiiri'i-s — City of Toiila — Miirkft — Miiniifiio-
t.uren — IliKlory — Kai.ohoa; Cliiimte iiml I'roiliictions — Miinnfiiotiiros — l''x|)iiit» — City of
Knloii^ii — Orkl: It» IliverR — Soil nntl Proiliictionn — Comiiu-rce — Town of Oivl — KornsK!
]Vo<liivl8 — Kxporls — City of Kourslt — Fiiirs — Voronw : llenoiirces — I'opiilnlion — City nf
Voroiifj pack 81

CHAPTER IV.

LITTLE AND WESTKUN RUSSIA.

Litliiinniii — ltd History nntl People — Tcmkiinkiov : ItsSoil — Lakes nnd Rivera — rnxLicliona

— Ita Ciipitiil, Tclierniijov — Kiiaiikov : Soil iiml I'roiliictioiis — City of Kliai'l<ov — Toltava ;
Its Slli'fiice, Jiioil, nnd UeRoiiroeR — Town of Poltiivii — Kii'.v : I'liynieiil Aspect — Cliin.ite —
Crops — City of Kiev — Aiitiquiliis — History of Kiev — Podoma : Pliysieiil Aspeel — Pro.
dticlions — Kmninietz — Haltii — Voliivnu : I'liycienl Aspect — MiiiiiifiictnreH nrul p^xportu —
People — Jiloinir — Henlitscliev — Minsk : Proiluelive Resources — People — Its Ciipitiil —
MooillLE.': llivers iind Lukes — Pnniiietions — Town of Alogliilev — ViTKrsK : Soil ami Pro-
ductiors — Its Capital — Wii.na : Rivers niiil Lakes — A(;rienllnrnl Uesonrees — AniinnU —
Its Capital — I'Miioational Inalitntions— OeoDNO : Soil ami Productions — People — Town of
Grodno — Uialvstok: Ita Resources — Binlystok, its Capital paok 119

CHAPTER V.

RUSSIAN POLAND.

Former Extent of Poland — Present Limits of Russian Poland — Population — Pliysical Aspect
— Climate and Soil — Productive Resources — Kstates of the Xoliility — llie Peasantry —
Position of the Peasantry — Viiiayies — Domestic and Wiiil Animals — Forests — Minerals —
Manufactures — Commerce — Government — Ri'lij^ioii — Kdueation — People — History —
Krakow, tlie Ancient Capital of Ptdaiid — Warsaw: Puldic Buildin,L;s — Suburbs — Kduon-
tionul Institutions — Manul'aetures and Trade — History — Other Towns paok 137

i I

CHAPTER VI.

SOUTIIKRN RUSSIA.

BESSAnARiA : Its Position and Physical Aspect — Climate and Productions — People — ITIstorv

— Kieliinev — Ismail — Its Ca])ture liy Suwnrrow — Kukuson: Soil and Climate — Industrial
Arts — Kherson, its Capital — Historical Incident: "The Road to Constantinople" — Odessa

— Its Tiade — Its Granaries — IJazars — Vineyards — The Boulevard — Memorials of How-
ard — Nikola jev — Tauripa : Position and Area — Its People — Ekatiikrinoslav : Soil and
Minerals — Climate and Pi-oduets — Game — Manufactures — Don Cossacks (Government):
Physical Aspect — Climate — Productive Resources —The Don Cossacks — Their History —
Krepusts — Nova Teherkask — Tclierkosk — Taganrog — Azov paok 161

CHAPTER VII.

THE CRIMEA.

Physical Aspect — The Baidnr Valley — Productive Resources — Salt Works — Chief Towns-
Population — Criru Tartars — History — Sevastapol — Its Harbor and Fortifications — Ink-
erman, the "Town of Caverns" — Ruins — Simferopol — Camel-Carts — Fair — Races — the
Tchatir Dagh — Cave of Foul Kouba — Kisil Kouba — Pallas' Residence — Kertsch — Ponti-
capaeuni, Residence and Reputed Burial-Plaee of MilJiridntes — Caffa — Baktchiserai (the
"Seraglio of Gardens") — Tartar Houses — Palace of the Khans — Mausoleum of the Khans,
"Valley of Jehoshaphat" — Tchoufut Kal6 — the Kaniite Jews — Mangonp Kald — Novel
Method of Shoeing u Bullock — Decay of the Tartar Race paok 181

CONTENTS. T

CHAPTER VIII.

THE STKPPRS OP SOUTHKRN RUSSIA.
Arcn and Pliyaical Anpt'ot — Uivero — Iliivinc!i — Linmnn — Stnvok« — nimiito — Scnsons —
Excciisive Drounlit — Vi'i(elMli<m — Uuriiin — Siepin'-Fires — Kiii'tli-lliii-t>s — Mice — Wolve*

— Dofjn — Hiiiilni'iMIiint in$T — Binls i)f IVcy — l(>'|>lilcR — Tin' Toiul-Sliowcr — Liznnl" —
Snakes — LooiikIh — Tlii'ir Ihn-nHiaiiniiit — Ili-nU i>f llnrfioii — Tim Tiiltiiiilaliik — The IIoi-k.-
Stenler — Hiitlles of (lie Horses — Attiii'ks of Wolves — Tlirnnliiiin of Or.iin by Horses —
Mnzt>p|m — Sheep — The Tslmbnwn — Milklni( Sheep — Henls of Cattle — The THlicreilnik

-Tullow-Iloiises- Wholesnlu Slmighter- Tiiilow-Miirket paoic 208

CIIAPTEIl IX.

EASTERN RUSSIA.
OoTernmenti of Enstern Rnssin — Astrakiias: Pliysicnl Aspect — Soil — Productive Resonroes —
Snlt- Lakes — Rivers — Climnfe — Aniinnl* — Fisheries — People — TheC«lrnuek8 — Their Ex-
truonliiinry Kini;;riition in n"it-'71 — Ciiy of Astnikhnn — Its Triule mid Popiiliitioii — Sa-
ratov : Prodiicl ions — Sheep — Popiilnlioii — Commerce — City of Siirntov — Other Towns —
ORRNDvna: Pliysicnl Aspect — Soil — Mineral — Town of Orenhiirii? — Its MaMiifactiircs nnd
Trade — Pkrm : Physieal Aspect — Climnto — Gold, Iron, nnd Sail-Mines — Trade — Inhab-
itants — City of Perm — Eknterinbnrg — Trade in Precions Stones — Viatka: Physical Aspect
Productive Resources — Commerce — Population — Vinlkn the Capital — Simuirsk: Climate
and Pro<hiclions — Its Capital — Samara: Area nnd Population — City of Samara — Its An-
nual Fair — Pknza: Soil and Productions — Manufactures nnd Exportu — City of Penzn^
Kazan : Physical Aspect — Agriculture — Gardens — Population — Cheremisses nnd Chuvassoa

— The city of Kazan— The Tartars — Their Costume — Tartar Women — Kremlin of Kazan

— University — Manufactures nnd Trade — Inundation of the Volga — Fomidation of Kazan

— Its History — Its Conflagrations — Oliphant's Sketch of Kazan in 1853 paok ■i-14

CHAPTER X.

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES.

Caucasian Tribes — Okoroia: Its Position nnd Aspect — Rivers — Climnto nnd Soil — Fruit-
Its Vineyards — Wines — Domestic Animals — Roads — Manufactures — Female Georgians —
Classes — History — Teflis — Its History — Oth-T Towns — Siiirvan: Baku — Abclieran —
Naphtha Springs — "Field of Fire" — Olicliers — Russian Aume.nia: Physical Aspect — Giik-
cha, or Blue Lake — Mount Ararat — Vtdcanic Eruption of 1940 — Nakhichevan — Climate
and Soil of Armenia — Inhabitants — Echmiadzin — Armenian Language and Literature —
Erivnn — Akhalzik — Imeritia: Physical Aspect — Natural Productions — Bees and Silk-
worms — Commerce — Minorklia : Physical Aspect — Productions — GuniA : People — Kou-
tnis — Abassia: Its Position — Indnstiy — History — Annpnr — Circassia: Extentnnd Physical
Features — Its Hydrography — Climate — Soil nnd Natural Productions — Animals, Wild and
Domestic — Minerals — People — Villages — the Chase and War — Circassian Women —
Domestic Hnbilfl — Physical Beauty — Ivlucal ion — Religion — Manufactures and Commerce

— History — Caucasus: Physical Features nnd Climate — Stavropol — Other Towns — Dao-
NFiSTAX: Physical Aspect — Bituminous Springs — Climate — Population — Dcibent — Koiibii

— Taohetflchenzes and Lesghinns — The Caucasian War — Its History — Slinmyl, . . .paqk 280

CHAPTER XI.

SIBERIA, OR ASIATIC RUSSIA.

(ta Immense Extent — Physical Aspect — the Steppe — Forests — Moorland, or Tundra — Stan-
ovoy Mountains — Dry Lakes — Sanioides — Ostiaks — Calmucks — Turkish Tribes — Bnrints
•^Tungusi — Yakutes — Tchouktchis — History of Siberia — Todolsk : Soil and Productions
— Tartar Villages — City of Tobolsk — Climate — Tomsk : Soil ond Productions — Tomsk, its
Capital — Ykniskisk : Variety of Soil, Climate, and Productions — Inhabitants — Krnsnoinrsk
Other Towns — Irkoutsk : Physical Features — Climate — Forests — Wild Animals — A
Bear Story — Domesliu Animals — Crops — Minerals — Manufactures — Irkoutsk, the Capital

CONTENTS.

— I»i Police — llie "Double Town"— Yakoiitik : Ttt Riveri — rrodiictive KrMtir<>M —
YHkoiiUk, tliH Cn|iitHl — lU Tniilu — InlntbitiiiiU — Clinmt« — Ukiiothk: I'liyiiciil FentiirM

— I'rudiiott — Town of OklioUk — Kamthciiatka : lit Form and Pliy»i«nl Aspect — Mountain!

— Cliiimto — Foreati — A){i'iuiiltiire — Wild AiiiiiinlK — Iiilialiitunt« — Amiiseinenlii — IIouMi

— Dogi — Koriitk* — Tnule — lliitory — Oovoriiinunt — ALcin'iAM Ihlanm ; Diicorery —
Volcnnio Fornintion — Kiirtliqiinkes — Soil — Oiiniu — Fivli — Inlinbitanta — Mniinera and
Cuttomi — Kvligioii — Quverniiiunt I'aob 828

6. CHAPTER XII.

MOSCOW.
nii'il's-Kye View — Spnsi Vorots, or "Oiite of th«

I.-' VI wi« . t-B I J v« Id lb »i.i- j%i«-iiiiiii .#i|iici-.*jc .ir.T I <|>iioa . ii. iiva. vi ^jfttw v. i>..v

Ri'dt'CiiH'i'" — tlie Nii'liidaa Oitte — Anvioiit I'lilnoe of tlie CznrB — Ttfreiim — Grnnovitaya
Pitlntn — CoronHtioii'llall — the Throne — the ItoUhoi DvorcU — the Mnloi Dvorvtz — Cathe-
drnl of the A««uni|ititin — CalhetlrnI of the Arvlinn)(el Michael — the Falae Dmitri ^Chiiroh
of the Anniincintion — the Senate, Trensnry, niid Arieiinl — Memoriali of the Enrly CtnrB —
Palaccof Arms — "Monnrehnill"— Ivan Veliki — llsUelU— Cathedral of St. Basil — Chapel
of the "llierian Mother of fiod" — (^oiivenla and Monasteries — Maidens' Field — Hospitals —

Theatres — Gontinoi Dvor — Mnniifacliiros and Coinnierco — History.

ospitals ■
.PAflt 301

CHArTER XIII.

ST. PKTKRSBIIRO.

Site of St. Pftercburg — Its Divisions — Ii'on Bridjjje iioross the Neva — Bird's-Eye View — Foun-
dation of the City — Its Perils — Inundation of 1824 — Climate — St. Petersburg in Winter—
the Russian Stove — Double Windows — the Neva in Winter — Breakini; up of the Ice^Ita
Celebration — Street Population — Ncvskoi Prospect — the English Quay — the Mnjik —
Sweeping the Streets, a Punishment for Drunkenness paoe 875

CHAPTER XIV.

ST, PETERSBl'RO — IMPERIAL PALACES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

The Winter-Palace — It« Cunfliigration in 1837 — Its Re-Erection — Its Interior — the Hermit-
age — Its Treasures — the Marble Palace — the Taurida Palace — Its Orangery — Its Oceu-
panta — Hotel de I'Etat Major — the Alexandrian Column — the Old MichailofT Palace— th«
Anitshkof Palace — the New Miehailoff Palace — Little Siunmer Garden — the Red Palace
— the Imperial Library — Museums — Academy of Fine Arta — Educational Institutions —
Government Buildings — the Exchange — the Customhouse — the Fortress, Arsenals, and Bar-
racks — Historical Souvenirs — Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great — Monument to Suwar-
row — Monument to Field-Marshal Romanoff page 899

CHAPTER XV.

ST. PETERSBURG — CHURCHES AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.
Modern Church Architecture — Kazan Cathedral — Isaac Church — Church of St Peter and
St. Paul — Its Spire — Thrilling Incident — Its Vault* — Tombs of the Russian Emperora —
Smolnoi and Nevakoi Convents — Monastery of St. Sergiua — Preobrashensky Church — Trin-
ity Church — Nicolai Church — Roman Catholic Church — Hospitals — the Foundling Hos-
pital 481

CHAPTER XVI.

MARKETS AND MANUFACTORIES OP ST. PETERSBURG.

The Gostinoi Dvor — the Gostonoi Merchants — the Somovar — the Apraxin Rinok — Image-
Sellers — Fruit-Stalls- Pastry-Stands-Tshukin Dvor — Bird-Market — Hay-Market-For-
ten Meat-Market — Seimaiia Ploschnd — Indvbtrial Establishments: Tapestry, Porcelain,
Card, Cotton, and Paper Manufactories — Ship-Building pacib 463

rONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVII.

TIIR OARDKNS AND VILLAS OP ST. PETFR8IIUR0.

OathcrincnliiifT — Ihu Siimnier Clnnlen — Pvlcr'n Wnoilon PiilAce — liie Wife-Mnrket — Iilandi of
th« Ni-vii — Kninnieiioi, or Stone IhIiukI — Ydiigin, Crosn, iiiul Apollieonriei' lilnndi — Count
8lrogon»fr« Gnnlent — Curako Si-lo : llie I'liliice — tlie Ai'fvnnI — tlie Oioumls — Pniilofaky
■n<l Oiitc'liinn — 8tr«lim — r«tei-liolT — tlia Kiii|ir«ii>i' Anniml Fdlet nt PelvrliofT — Olil Cnitl*
of Peter the Great — Marly nnil MunpluiRir — (lie Ilerniitiigo- Cottage of Cutlierino II.—
Ro|)«olia — OrAnienbaiiiii rAOi 400

CHAPTER XVIII.

THK IMPERIAL. UUVERNMENT.

Abioliite Power of llie Sovereign — Orgnnizntion of the Ooverniiivnt by Peter the Great — t1i«
Imptrinl Council — tlio HiMiiitc — tlie Holy Synod — Coiiiiiilil<>« of MiiiJRterR — Locnl Atlmln-
istralion of lliu Goveriiiiienis nml Provinces — llio Jiuliciiil SyDlein — llie Police Syatem — Ita
Corruption — TliievoB nml l'i<'k|iockvtB— PutiiRliinenti — tlie Roil^tlio Knout — Exile to
Biberiu — Depiirture of Kxllce — the Journey — tlu-ir Niitiil>*'r ntul Comlition in Siberia — tlit
Army — It* Orgnniziitlon — the Impei'liil Guiird — Oiinrd of the Interior — the Gendnrniea —
tlie CoiwnokR — ConRciiption — Pay — Militiiry Colonies — Insurrection of 1881 — the Navy

— U» Kxteiit — Its Kfflcivncy — It* History — Public Ucvetiue — Its Sourcei — ExpeiMliturct

— Public Debt (R7

CHAPTER XIX.

THR PEOPLE.

The Nobility — Its DiviHion by Peter into Fourteon Classes — Titles — Powers of the Nobility—
their rxluculion ami Habits — Iheir Viissals — Attciilion to Miinufiictures — the Clergy, Mer-
chanlis and Bur^jhers — their Cln.»giticiition — the Three Guilds — Citizen-Burghers — Re-
spectable Citizens — Suburlmn Inhabitiiiits — the F'rec IViisantry^tlie Serfs — Serf Laws —
Marriages among Serfs and Free Pensonts — Hitbits of the Russian Peasantry — their Villagocv
Coituiiie, Fooil, Ac. — Superstitions and Vices — the Yapor-Biilli — Public Baths. .. .paob Sll

CHAPTER XX.

RELIGION — THE GREEK CHURCH.

Tlie Various Religions in Russia — History of the Oret-k Church — Reforms of Peter the Great
— Points of Difference between the Greek and Roman Church — the Clergy — tlic White and
Black Clergy — Monks — the Clergy of Other Churclics — Incomes of the Russian Clergy —
Nuns — Titles — Hiibit« of the Priests — Devotion of the People to Pictures of their Saints —
Tolerant Spirit of the Russian Clergy faob 033

CHAPTER XXI.

FESTIVALS AND FASTS.
The Easter Festival — Butter-Week — the Kiitshfli — Ice-Mountains — Admiralty Square during
Easter — Equipages of the Grandees — the Wooden Theatres — the Burning Theatre — Ita
Victims — F«!tes — the Great Fast — Its Monotony — Palm Sunday — Easter-Eggs — Holy
Thursday — Good Friday — Enster Eve — Eoster Kisses — Recollection Monday,* Festival-
Day in the Cemeteries paob 447

CHAPTER XXII.

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.
Early History of Literature — Fi ret Grammar of the Language — Michael Lomonosoff — Litera-
ture during the Reign of Catherine II. — CheraskofT, "the Russian Homer" — Other Poets—
Progress of Russian Letters during the Present Century — Nicholas Karamzin — Poets of the
Nineteenth Century — Voyages and Travels — Alexander Pvelikin — Nicholas Gogol —

CONTENTS.

Alexnnder Bestusliev — Historicnl Romnnces — Count Sololioiipe — Femnla Writers — Tli»-
toricnl Science — Stntistics — the Drnnm — Tlientrivnl Ainiisoincnls — Tlientres in St. I'eter*
bnrg — tlie Iliissian Alphabet — tiie Slavonic Dinlculs — Popniiir Instruction — Eiliicationa)
Statistics I'au« 667

CHAPTER XXIII.

MEANS OF TRAVEL.

First Rnilwny in Russia — Railroad from St. Potershnrg to Moscow — Oliphnnt's Description of
a Passnge over tliis Road — Ollior Railways Projected — Roads nnd Roadside Acoonimo-
dntion — SI eJge-Tra veiling — Pustliouscs — Posling — Cabinet-Couriers — Diligences — tlie
Malle-Poste — Post Telega — Drosky — Ivoslit!<liik8 — Pedestrian Privileges paqk 684

CHAPTER XXIV.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — EARLY ANNALS.

Barmntians nnd Scytliiaiis — Slavonint\8 — Varagians — Rnrik — Igor nnd Oleg — the Pet-

chenegans — the Drevlinns — Olgii nnd Sviatoslaff — Yaropdlk — Vladimir — Ynroslav —

Munomaclius — Conflagration of Kiev — Fair'no at Novgorod — Tartar Invasion — Yury

I. — Baton Khan — Yury II. — Ynroslav II. — Alexiinder Nevski — Wars with the Tartars

— Ivan I. nnd II. — Dmitri III. nnd IV.— "Battle of the Giants"- Vnssili II.— Ivan III.

— Destruction of the Golden Horde — Vassili IV. — Ivan IV. the Terrible — Origin of the
Title "Czar" — Formation of the "^trelitzes — Fedor I. — Boris GodunofT — Famine in Mos-
cow — the False Dmitris — Vladislaus — Michael Romanoff — Wars with the Swedes and
Poles — Alexis — Fedor III. — Accession of Peter the Great page 697

CHAPTER XXV.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — PETKR THE GREAT TO NICHOLAS.

Intrigues of Sophia, Ilnlf-Sister to Peter, to obtain the Crown — Joint Reign of Peter nnd Ivan V.,
with Sophia — Insurrection of the Stivlitzes — Deposi'ion of Sophia — Death of Ivan — War
with Turkey — War with Sweden — Pence of Nystadt — War with Persia — Death of Peter

— His Character — His Manual Dexterity and Mechanical Knowledge — II i» Travels — Cathe-
rine I. — Her Previous History — Her Measures — Her Death — Peter II. — Mencliikoff —
Anne — War with Tuikey — Ivan VI. — Elizabeth Pctrownn — War with Sweden — War
■with Prussia — Peter III. — His Assassination — Catherine II. — War with Turkey — Po-
temkin — Suwnrrow — Pai'tition of Poland — Catherine's Death — Her Character — Paul I.

— Events of his Reign — His Eccentri(!itie8 — His Assassination — Accession of Alexander I.
—Treaty of ATiiiens — War with France — Battles of Austerlitz and Eyinu — Treaty of Til-
sit — War with Sweden — Capture of Fiidnnd — Allied War against France — Napoleon's
Invasion of Russia — Battle of Borodino — Cai)ture nnd Conflagration of Moscow — Blowing
up of the Kremlin — Retreat of the French — The European Powers allied against Napoleon

— His Overthrow — Death of Alexander — His Character I'aoe (114

CHAPTER XXVI.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — REION OP NICHOLAS I.

Early Life of Nicholas — His Marriage nnd Family — Death of his Daughter the Grand-Duchess
Alexandra — Her Cenotaph nt Czarsko Selo — Renunciation of the Throne by Const.iiitine^
. Attempted Revolution — Its Suppression — War with Persia — War with Turkey — Cam-
paigns of 1828-'29 — Polish Rev»lutio;i of 1831 — Its Suppression — Asiatic Cholera — Pro-
tection to Turkey in the War with Mehemet Ali — Russian Agency in Crushing the Ilungiirian
Revolution in 1848 — War with Turkey in 1863-'4 — Invasion of the Danubian Principal-
ities by Russia — Destruction of the Turkish Fleet atSinope — Interference of France nnd
England — Declarations of War — Russian Occupation of the Dobrudsclika — The Caucasian
War — Austria nnd Prussia — Greek Insurrection — Movements of the Black Sea Fleet — Siege
of Silistrin — Russian Evacuation of the Principalities — Attack upon Petropaulofski (Kamt-
Bchntka) — Expedition to the Crimoa — Battle of the Alma — Siege ofSevastapol — Battles of
Balaclava nnd Inkerman — Death of Nicholas— Ajcession of Alexander II — Emancipation
oftbe Serfs— War with Turkey, 1876— Treaty of San Stepbano— Treaty of Berlin, paob m

ILLUSTRATIONS.

CHAPTER XXVII.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER II.

E»riy Life nnd Ediicnlion of Alexander II. — Rclntiona with his Brother Conslnntinc — Miir-
ri«ffe of Alexnniler — Mni'iii Alexnndrovnn, tlie present Empress of Riissin — Pfiice Congress
Bt Vienna — Fnihireof iis Negotinlioiis — Russian Sorties at Sevnsliipol — Russian Ingenuity
in Defence — Foiigneses — Second Bombardment of Sevnstapol — Resignation of Canrohert,
and IVIipsier's Appointment — Expedition to the Sea of AzoflF — Cnptnre of Russian Plaee
d'Arniee —Capture of the Mamelon — Attncii upon the Itlalakoff and Great Redan — Dealh
of Lorti Riiijlan — Battle of Traktir Bridge — Third Boinhardiuent of Sevaslapol — Capture
of the MalakotTnnd Assault upon the Great Rcdiin — Evacuation of Southern Sevastnpol by
the Russians — Cavah-y Engagement at Khougill — Capture of Kinliurn — Siege, Assault, and
Capitulation of Kars — Movements of Omer Pacha — Successful Negotiations for Peace —
The Treaty — Conclusion paob 688

ILLUSTRATIONS.

IcE-MouNTAiS8 at St. Petersburg during Easter
(See Description on p. 549) fhontispikce

Ornamental Title with Illustrative Vignettes:
1. Peter the Great at work in n Shipyard in
Holland ; 2. The Building of St. Petersbiiig ;

5. Coronnlion of Catherine II. ; 4. Murder of
the Emperor Paul; 6. Napoleon in Russia.

6. Burning of Moscow ; 7. Battle of Navarino.

Hunting Scene {Initial Letter) paok 8

Map of European Russia (faeinif) 13

Winter Scene in Russia ( Vignette) IS

Peaks of the Altai Mountains 20

Mouths of the Dwina 27

Mouths of the Danube SO

Mouths of the Volga 84

Horseboat with Barges on the Volga 36

Russian Pilots 37

Russian Elk and Bears 45

Finland Peasant* 47

River and Town of Tornen, in Finland fil

Kronstiidt, the Port of St, Petersburg 55

Woman abandoning her Children to Wolves. 61

Preparing for the Chase 66

Elk-Hunting in Courland 71

Gipsy Woman and Child 76

Courland Jew with Dulcimer 78

Lapland Frozen Lake and Mountain Scenery. 83

Shore and Mo\intnin Laplanders 86

The Chase — a Winter Scene 88

Monastery at Novgorod 02

Russian Posthouse 100

Church at Nijnei-Norgorod I ('2

Great Fair at Nijnei-Novgorod IOC

Sumtnory Punishment «t Nijnei-Novgorod . . 100

A Tartar-Wagon page 118

Battle Oliflisk at Poltava 122

Volhynian Peasant-Girl spinning. 129

Russian ViMage — Return of Hunters 3 34

Polisii Bison, or Lilhuanian Wild-Bull. ,. .144

Polish Jew at his Devotions 149

Polish Exiles on their Way to Siberia 165

The Krakow Cathedral 160

Map of Odessa 165

City and Ilarbcr of Odessa 167

The Boulevard at Odessa 169

Cossacks of the Don 176

Cossack Post on the Circassian Frontier. ..177

Cossack Girl of Tcherkask .180

Crim Tartars 183

Map of Sevastapol 186

City and Harbor of Sevastapol 187

Inkernian, the Town of CavernsL 189

Camel Cart lUl

t!ave of Foul Kouba 1 94

Tartar Whip 197

Palace of the Khans 198

Tartar Village 1 99

Tartar Guide 200

Mausideum of the Khans 201

Jewish Fortiess of Tchoufut Kal6 2()£

Mangoiip Kal6 206

Novel Method of shoeing a Bullock 207

Winter-Travelling on the Steppes 212

Summer-Travelling on the Steppes 216

Bird-Hunting on the Steppes 220

Invasion of the Steppes by Locusts 225

Egyptian Locust 227

Itinerant Horse-Dealer 233

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Hiiiif(>r8 encamped on tlic Steppes. , . .PAaK241

Asti'iiklian '•i'15

CrtlmucUa 247

Asti-iikliiin from the Sen 250

Slieep from the Steppes tif llie Ciispian. . . .251

The Volga ntSimliirsk — the Jigoulee 259

(^liiiva»8es of Kiizan 262

Kiizaii Gloves anti Wooden Spoon 203

Iiiteritir of u Tiii'tnr House 26-1

Kiizflh before the Conflagration of 1842. . .26.'>

'I'liM Kremlin of Kazan - 209

Cathedral of Kikolskoi, at Kazan 271

Tartar Mosque near Kazan 279

Types of Caufiwian Kaces 280

Corgians of the Heights of Teflis 286

Tefiis, tlie Capital of Georgia 287

Ararat^ from the Plain of Krivan 291

Chnrch and Monastery of KchiiiiadzlM 295

Imerilian and Mingrelian I'rinces .299

Cirojissians 306

Circassian Females 307

Circassian Armor Manufactory 811

Caiicusians descending the Mountains. . . . 817

Map of Sitier-'i, or Asiatic Russia 321

Kirghiz Merchant in liis Tent 829

Toholsk, Capital of Western Siberia 3ol

Peasant attacked by a Bear 38(5

Yakoutsk 339

Kauiti^chatdales 343

Sumnier-House in Kamtschatka 344

Map of Moscow 352

The Kiemlin, Moscow 355

Cathedral of the Assumption, Moscow. .. .360

The Monarch-Bell of Moscow 30t!

Cathedral of St, Basil, Moscow 369

St. PtTKRSBURO ANn rrs Knvikon.s: —

Inundation of the City in 1824 375

Cast-iron Bridge across the Neva 877

Map of the City 379

Kevskoi Prospekt 360

The Neva in Winter 388

Punishment for Drunki'iiness 396

Nevskoi Prospekt (^gerond viiw) 898

Winter Palace — the Imperial Residence. 401

Hotel de I'Etat Major 411

Old Michailoff Palace 415

St Isaac Square 422

The Bourse 423

Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great. . .427

Office, Hotel des Malic-Post es 430

The Kazan Cathedral 433

Church of St. Isaac 439

Spire of St. Peter and St. Paul 442

Monastery of St Sergius 447

Saloon, Hotel des Malle-Poates 451

The Costinoi Dvor, during Easter 463

St. PKTKRsnuRo AND ITS Envisons:—

Somovar, or Russian Tea-Urn paoe 460

Cake and Tea Stall 467

Frozen Provision Market 461

Palace of CathcrinenhofT 467

Nurse .-."d Children in SummerGarden. .469
Noble's Villa on Island of Kamnienoi. . .471

Imperial Palace of Czarsko Selo 476

Imperial Fete at Peterhoflf 481

Monplaisir, Peter's Cottage at PeterhofF. .486

Battle Scene {Initial LetUr) 487

Punishment of the Knout 495

Exiles on their Way to Siberia 497

Regular Troops of Russia 602

Irregular Tioops of Russia 802

Russian Silv<r Rouble 610

Summer Villa of a Russian Noble 613

Russian Merchnnt 617

The Bourgeoisie — a Russian Picinc 619

Russian Peasant and his Family 623

Russian Peasants building a Cottage 629

Monk of the Greek Church 633

Philarete, Molropolitan of St Petersburg. .685

Bishop of the Greek Church 638

I'riest iir Pope of the Greek Church 638

Deacons of the Greek Church 639

Nun of the Greek Church 643

Russians at Prayer 646

A Russian Carousal during Easter 5r t

Interior of a Russian Chiu-eh 59

Eiister-Kisses 661

The Emperor giving the Easter-Kiss 663

Hyacinth Bitchourin, Oriental Linguist. . . .667

The Great Theatre of St Petersburg 579

Winter-Travelling — Sledges 686

Departure of the Malle-Poste 592

The Post-Telega 593

The Drosky .'i94

Ivoshtshiks 896

Varagians 599

Ivan IV. the Terrible 609

Michael Romanoff 612

Residence of Peter the Great in Holland. .613

Peter the Great 616

The Empress Catherine 1 619

The Empress Elizabeth 622

The Empress Catherine II 626

Field-Marshal Suwarrow 627

Paul 1 629

Alexander 1 633

Napoleon I. in the Kremlin at Moscow. . . .642

Nicholas 1 648

Cenotaph at Czarsko Selo 649

Alexander II 689

The Empress Maria Alexnndrovna 090

Map showing the New Frontier Line 700

• UFSIA, the most extensive and one of the
most powerful empires of cither ancient or
modern times, occupies almost the entire nor-
tliern portion of the eastern hemisphere, em-
bracing^, in its immense area, more than half
of Europe, and one third of Asia. It is bound-
ed on tlie north by the Arctic or Frozen ocean ;
on tlie west by Sweden, the Baltic, Prussia,
and the Austrian dominions ; on tlio south by
Turkey, the Black sea, Persia, Tartary, and
the extensive Chinese territories ; and on the
cast )jy the North Pacific ocean. In its largest
extent, the Russian empire stretches from the
western limit of Russian Poland, at- the eigh-
teenth degree of cast longitude from Green-
wich, to the eastern promontory of the Tchuk-
tchi territory, at the one hundred and nine-
tieth degree east from the same meridian, thus
including one hundred and seventy-two degrees of longitude ; while from
its most northern promontory, at the seventy-eighth degree of north lati-
tude, to tlio most souttiorn point, at the thirty-ninth degree north, it

f'Mui,

i-'

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

comprehends tliirty-niao degrees of latitude. Tookc, in his history of
Russia, computes its extent to bo nine tliousand two hundred miles in
length, and two thousand four hundred in breadtli ; wliilc its superficial
area included within the above boundaries has been variously estimated
from six to eight millions of square miles. Tliis (and it includes only the
contiguous dominions of Russia) is three or four times tlie extent of tho
Roman empire in the height of its grandeur, and in the period of its greatest
territorial amplitude. Exclusive of the above domain, Rusria is mistress
of Nova Zembla and most of the other islands in the Arctic ocean, of tho
Aleutian arcliipolago, off Kamtschatka, of Aland and other islands in tho
Baltic, and also of a very large tract in the northwest part of the continent
of North America,* to the latter of which her claim is founded on the
right of discovery in the sixteenth century.

A better idea may perhaps be formed of the vast dimensions of tho Rus-
sian empire, by taking into view tlie fact tliat it is equal to two Europes,
or the wliole of North America; that it includes witlun its Iwundariea
about one seventh of tlie terrestrial part of the globe, and about one twenty-
seventh i)art of its entire surface. But by far the greatest proportion of
this prodigious superficies is almost uninliabited, and seems to be destined
to iiorpctual sterility ; a consequence partly of the extreme rigor of the
climate in the provinces contiguous to the Arctic ocean, and partly of
almost all the great rivers by which tliey arc traversed having their em-
boucliure in that ocean, and being, therefore, inaccessible for either tho
whole or tlic greater part of the year.

Russia is, in general, level, and comprises some of tho most extensive
plains in the world. The empire, however, is naturally parcelled into tho
two groat divisions of European and Asiatic Russia, by tho Ural mount-
ains, which stretch in a nortli-northcast direction from the Caspian sea to
the Arctic ocean ; forming, through the greater part of their course, tho
boundary between Europe and Asia. Compared with tho Himalaya chains,
the Urals are very low in thoir general elevation, though some of them

• L

• Tlip Iliissian poRsi'ssidiis in Noitli America cnnsisted, in 1855, of % regjoi) in the nortbw«8t part
r'thp r""tiiipiit, "11 t<i tlif ITiiit.'fl Ptiitco in 1867, now fdrmini; the territory of A Inakn. It extends from
Ue)iriri;;'s •trtiita cnstwnid to tlio mpridian of Mount St. Eliai, olong both the Ai-etin ond Pacific
oceniiD ; niid frnni that moiintnin soiiihwiinl, iilong tlio const chain of hills, till it tiiiirhfs tho const
about the fifiy-fifih dcgri-o of noilh latitude, comprising on nren of about four hundred llinusiind
sqiiiire miles. The conntvy is chicflv mountainous: Mount St. Eliiis is the most lofty neiik, beine
nearly cijibleeii llimisnnd feet in liiiplit. Tiie const line is irregular, being indented by large bays,
formed by bold promontories ond peninsulas. The climate is very severe, though not so extreme
ns is felt in similar latitudes on the eastern coasts. Tho country is subject to sudden changes, and
frefpient falls of niin in summer, nnd iif snow in winter.

The Russia Fur Company have n fivv factories on the const nnd irtlnnds, but almost the whole
country is oecnpied by variooH native liilies, chiefly Esquimaux. Tiie eiimnnTce is mainly limited
to the exportation of fnis to Canton, nnil the import of provisions nnd I'gricnltuinl snjiplies friim the
British posseHsions. It is of little value, nnd is constantly declining, as llie sen-otter ami seal are
becoming comparatively scarce. The total population is estimated nt about seventy thousand, inchi.
ding the aborigines. New Archangel (or Buranoll), a phice of oboul oiio thousand inhnbituufi, it
the ri siileiice <if the governoi.

A^/.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. fV,t <«-

reach the limit of perpetual snow, a circumstance which is not remarkable
in their Ijigh latitude. Where tlic road from Moscow to Siberia crosses
these mountains, the chain is about forty miles broad, but the ascent and
descent of the road are so nearly imperceptible, that were it not for the
precipitous banks everywhere to be seen, the traveller would hardly sup-
pose lie was crossing a range of hills. Tlie average elevation of this part
of the range seems not to exceed thirteen hundred and fifty feet, though
some rocky masses rise perhaps a thousand feet higher ; and the base upon
which the chain rests is itself nine hundred feet above the level of the sea.
Beyond fifty-eight degrees, the chain presents several summits which attain
between two and three thousand feet ; but the highest part of the range is
situated to the north of fifty-nine degrees, and the highest of all, tlic Dan-
cshkcn-kamcn, lies to the north of sixty degrees. The summits of this
northern part of the range have been ascertained to I'ise to between eight
and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea ; but the principal sum-
mits are detached mountains, to the eastward of the main range. Lateral
branches also extend eastward to a considerable distance into the plain.
Tiie principal chain bears successively from north to south the names of
Poyas, the Verkhutiirian Urals, the Urals of Ekaterinburg, and the Bash-
kirian Urals. Several low brandies diverge into the governments of Arch-
angel and Vologda ; but the principal subox'dinate or diverging chains are
connected with the Bashkirian Urals. The mountains of Obtsheisyrt, which
diverge from the western sloj)e of the principal chain, arc reall«/ nothing
more than a long table-land of undulating hillocks, extending into the gov-
ernment of Orenburg ; forming, however, the northern limit of the depres-
sion which surrounds and contains the Caspian sea. The chain of Mou-
ghojar extends into the country of the Kirghiz, and seems to be connected
with the plateau called the Ust-Urt, between the Caspian sea and Lake
Aral. Subordinate to this last-named cliain, or part of the same group,
are the Great Burzouk, a chain of low hills, which extends in a series of
rocky clifls along the nortliern shore of the Aral, spreading out toward the
west, and turning into the isthmus ; and the Little Burzouk, which are sit-
uated a little farther to the southeast, and terminate with a promontory at
tlie nortlieastern corner of the Aral. The mountains of Nova Zembla may
also bo considered as an orographic connection or prolongation of the
Urals. The principal summit is Glassowsky, about twenty-five hundred
feet above the level of the sea. This range is very productive, both of the
useful and precious metals, and precious stones.

In all the vast country, extending on the west side of this central chain
to the confines of Poland and Moldavia, there is hardly a single hill. The
Valdai hills, or elevated grounds, between Novgorod and Tver, where the
Volga, the Don, and the Dnieper, have their sources, are nowhere more
than about twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea, the country ex-
hibiting a waving surface, and without any considerable elevations. There
is nothing, in fact, save the forests, to break or interrupt the course of the

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

wind, in all the immonso space interposed between the Ural and the Ca^
pathian mountains.

Another great mountain-range in Western Russia, is that of the Cau-
casus, between the Euxine or Black and Caspian seas, almost at tho
Bouthern extremity of the empire. The western part of tho main cen-
tral ridge slopes toward tho Euxine ; the eastern sinks into tho Caspian in
its southeastern peninsula. From this central chain numerous branches
ore thrown off. One of them, to the north, proceeds througli tho govern-
ment of Caucasus into Astrakhan, and onward to the banks of the Volga,
while the branches to tlio south traA'crse tho greater part of tho gov-
ernment of Georgia, and in the south of that govornmeut link on with
the mountains of Ararat. The highest point in tho range is Mount
Elbourz, wliich stands near the middle of the central chain, and lias an
altitude of about eighteen thousand feet. Tho next highest is Mount
Kasbek, which is nearly sixteen thousand feet high, acrosa whicii is tho
famed Daricl ])ass, which gives Russia her only carriage cominuiiication
with her Trans-Caucasian domains. Tiie north side of the range is much
more abrupt than the south. Great part of the mountains still remains
to be geologically examined, but an admirable section is furnished by
the Dariel j)ass, and has been fully described, particularly by Wagner,
who not only travelled over it, but resided several months among the
mountains of Kasbek, and ascended them to the limit of perpetual snow,
According to him, stratified rocks appear at tlio bottom of the mountains,
and rise to a considerable hciglit on their sides. These rocks consist
chiefly of thick beds of limestone, conglomerate, and clay slate. Higher
up are seen immense crystalline masses composed of granite, sicnite, ser-
pentine, and gabronite. These masses, thougli higher in position, are evi-
dently lower in the geological series than the stratified rocks, which in
many places have been upheaved by them, and in consequence have a
considerable dip. Highest of all is tracliytic porphyry, which forms the
great body of all the principal summits of the central range. That this
trachyte is the most recent of all the rocks is proved by the fact, that in
many places it is seen piercing them, and throwing them into the wildest
confusion.

Judging from the composition and general appearance of tliese great
tracliytic masses, Baron Humboldt and other celebrated geologists are of
opinion that tho Caucasus, and all the loftiest summits of the great moun-
tain-ranges of both liemisphcrcs, were upheaved contemporaneously, and
within a comparatively recent period. Tlie limit of perpetual snow in the
Caucasus is eleven thousand feet, and hence, as some of tho mountains rise
from five thousand to nearly seven thousand feet above this, there is an ex-
tensive range for glaciers. It would seem, however, that tho supply of
moisture which the atmosphere affords, is far less than might have been
anticipated. Scarcely a single lake of any extent is to be found in the
Caucasus, and the scenery thus remains destitute of that which constitutes

onl

jfl
an]

pe^
Tl

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

one of the most magnificent features in the Alps of Switzerland. Numerous
viscades tumble down from the northern steeps of the Caucasus, but none
jf them are remarkable for either volume or height, and the only rivers o4
any consequence which arc fed by them are the Terek, Kouban, and Kour

The minerals of the Caucasus, so far as may be judged from the very im
perfect examination of them which has boon made, are not of great value.
The only mineral which has yet been ascertained to exist in such quantities
as to make it capable of being worked to profit is lead. Vegetation is
very vigorous. Magnificent forest-trees clothe tlie higher mountain-slopes
almost to an incredible height ; lower down, all the finer fruit-trees of the
climate are found growing in wild luxuriance ; while lower still, Avhere
human labor can be made available, almost any degree of culture, however
imperfect, is rewarded with an abundant crop. The ordinary cereals
grow seven thousand feet above the sea level, wliile valuable shrubs, plants,
and flowers, in almost endless variety, deck the valleys and lower plains.
Animal is no less vigorous than vegetable life, and the forests abound with
almost every species of game — among quadrupeds, wolves, boars, jackals,
deer, goats, and hares — among birds, pheasavts and partridges. A large
species of wild cattle, called aurochs., roam at large, and the hares of the
Caucasus have been famed from the remotest antiquity.

Siberia, or Asiatic Russia, consists principally of a vast plain, slightly
inclining to the north. Tliis plain seems to be almost entirely steppes and
marshes, intersected by large, sluggish rivers, which roll down an immense
mass of water to tlie Arctic ocean. The steppes difier somewhat from
each other in nature and aspect. In some places they are like the Ameri-
can prairies, covered with abundance of tall, coarse grass ; in others the
soil is saline, the salt appearing in the form of an efflorescence mixed with
the earth, or in ponds and lakes of salt water, but in general they consist
of very loose soil, and contain many lakes, because the waters, finding no
declivity, remain stagnant. In some places, particularly in the north and
cast, the plain is a bog, as level as the sea, covered with moss, which would
be totally impassable, were it not that the ice, which never thaws deeper
than a few inches, gives a firm underfooting. There are, however, in the
south and west, many pasture and arable districts, wliere considerable
quantities of oats, barley, and buckwheat, are raised, and also large forests.

Toward the south and east, Siberia is in parts mountainous, being sepa-
rated from the Chinese empire by the Altai range, extending from the
eastern banks of the Irtish, a tributary of the Obi, eighty degrees cast Ion
gitude, to the shores of the Pacific, at the southern extremity of the sea
of Okhotsk, opposite the island of Tarakai, one hundred and forty-two
degrees east longitude. Its length, therefore, is little short of twenty-five
hundred miles. The several chains which compose this mountain-system
are chiefly found between forty-eight and fifty-two degrees north latitude,
but some detached ridges advance to forty-five and fifty-seven degrees
north. The breadth of the whole system is probably nowhere less than

.ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

three hundred and fifty miles, and at some places it widens to seven hun«
dred miles and upward. It is, however, not possible to determine it wit>
any degree of exactness, since only the northern declivities of the range
have been visited by travellers, the southern declivities lying within the
territories of the Chinese empire being inaccessible to Europeans.

The most westerly portion of the system, between the river Irtish and
the river Tshulyshman, the upper branch of the Obi, is properly called the
Altai mountains, which name has been afterward used to indicate the whole
system. This portion also bears the name of the Ore AUai, because it
contains numerous veins of the precious metals. It consists of several
ridges, which mostly run west-northwest and cast-southeast. These ridges
advance their western extremities close to the banks of the Irtish, where
they are five or six hundred feet high ; but at a distance of about fifteen
miles from the river, they attain from tlirco to five thousand feet, which
elevation may be considered as the mean height of the greatest part of the
ranges : only where they approach the lake Tcletzkoi and the river Tshu-
lyshman, they I'ise still higher, and this part of the range is always covered
with snow.

Between the Tshulyshman and the great lake of Baikal, the mountains
appear to form two great chains, running east and west. Both chains
unite at about one hundred degrees east longitude, a considerable distance
west of the lake Baikal, at the sources of tlie Selenga, the most considcror
ble river which empties itself into the lake. The united chain is hero
called Goorbi Uhden Dzong, which name it preserves to one hundred and
eight degrees east longitude, running in general east. On the cast side of
the meridian of one hundred and eight degrees cast longitude, and the river
Selenga, the direction of the mountain-chains composing the Altai system
is changed ; they run northeast, and form a very extensive mountain region
east of the lake Baikal. This region is called the Baikalian or Daurian
mountains ; but the highest chain belonging to it, and lying within the Chi-
nese empire, bears the name of tlie Great Khing-Khan. The most easterly
portion of the Altai mountains, between one hundred and twenty-two and
one hundred and forty-two degrees east longitude, lies again nearly due
west and east ; but here it advances to fifty-six degrees north latitude, and
is called by the Russians Yablonni Khrebet, and by the Chinese Khing-
Khan Tugurik.

The Aldan mountains may be considered as a continuation of this latter
chain. They separate from it at the sources of the river Aldan, a tribu-
tary of the Lena, enclose the valley in which it runs on either side, and
continue on the east side along the shores of the sea of Okhotsk up to the
bay of Pershina, the most northerly corner of that sea. From this bay one
branch runs northeast, and terminates at Behring's strait, with the East
cape and the cape of Tchukotshoi-Noss. Another branch turns abruptly
south, and traverses the peninsula of Kamtschatka, terminating at Cape
Lopatka. The highest summit of the Aldan mountains, adjacent to the

PHYSICAL OEOQRAPHT.

road connecting Yakutsk with Okhotsk, was found by Erman to be a little
more than four thousand feet above the level of the sea. But the chain
traversing the peninsula of Kamtschatka contains several volcanoes, somo
of which rise to a great elevation. Erman measured three of them. The
highest peak of the volcano of Shivelutsk (fift^'-six degrees forty minutes
north latitude) rises to nearly ten thousand six hundred feet ; the volcano
of Kliutshuvek (fifty-six degrees four minutes north latitude), about fifteen
thousand eight hundred feet; and that of Tolbatshinsk, a little upward of
eight thousand three hundred feet above the sea. If the Aldan mountains
and the range traversing Kamtschatka be considered as a continuation
of the Altai chain, more than fifteen hundred miles must be added to its
length.

The physiognomy of the Altai mountains in their western and southern
divisions is generally grand and interesting. The rivers, which are very
numerous, flow rapidly with full streams ; and the various forms of the
stratified and metamorphosed rocks of the limestones, porphyry, and gran-
ite, with the Biclki (ichile or snowy mountains) in the distance, lewd to
the scene the charm of perpetual novelty. The banks of the Katunya, in
the heart of tlie mountains, present a landscape of the most impressive
character ; an immense wall of rock, extending from west to east, supports
fields of perpetual snow and glaciers, from the midst of which rise nu-
merous rocky points, jjyramids, and truncated cones ; while in the distance
are seen the two towering peaks named the Pillars of the Katunya. These
peaks, which are supposed to be the highest summits of the Altai mount-
ains, stand on a wide and elevated table-land, lying between the sources
of the Katunya, the Bielaya (falling into the Chuya), and the Berell, which
joins the Bukhtarma. Glaciers, spreading from the bases of the Bielukha,
or snowy cones, su{)ply the fountains of these three rivers. The absolute
height of the Pillars has been estimated, by Dr. Gebler, at eleven thousand,
seven hundred and twenty-three ft^et, or, by Tchihatchcff, at twelve thou-
sand, seven hundred and ninety feet. To the east of these pillars, the
peaks of Chenune-ouzoune and Arhhite increase in number, and present
forms still more deeply serrated. " In the course of all my long wandor-
ings," observes Tchihatchcff, " I do not remember ever to have admireo a
scene more grand or more magnificent." The accompanying view of these
mountains (presented on the following page) is taken from the northern-
summit of the plateau of Saljar, a branch of the chain of the same name.

In the eastern part of the Altai, where the clay slate predominates, the
aspect of the country is more monotonous ; the mountains lose all variety
of form, and assume the character of long ridges. It is on these mount-
ains of slaty structure that the most disagreeable characteristic of the Altai
is chiefly developed, namely, the great extent of deep bog and morass,
through which a horse crossing the hills must wade belly-deep even in the
middle of summer, and not without the danger of breaking his legs, if he
gets entangled in the boughs of the trees which lie buried beneath.

ILLUSTRATED DESCRlPTIOiV OF RUSSIA.

Altai Rahob— Peaks or Chencni-O^zounb, Katvnta, and Amhitb,

The vegetation of the Altai is varied and abundant, and often vigorous.
The local flora, to which ample justice has been done by the labors of Dra
Ledebour and Bunge, assumes the Asiatic character ; the European typo
prevailing from tlie Ural mountains to the banks of the Irtish. The
mountain-forests are composed of l)irch, alder, aspen, acacia, willow, larch,
fir, and the Siberian atone-piue (^Pinus cvmbra). This last tree flourishes
at an al>solute height of nearly seven thousand feet ; and at an elevation
of six thousand feet, where the snow rarely disappears before the end of
May, it attains a great size, often measuring fourteen feet in circumference.
The highest limit of the birch is about four thousand eight Imndred feet ;
the dwarf-willows, and other underwood, cease totally about one thousand
feet higher.

The Altai mountains, and the adjoining ranges to the eastward, are the
native home of the wild shccj) ( Ovis argali), which occupies the crags
and most inacces8il)le rocky heights, leaving the hillsides and elevated
valleys to several kinds of deer ( Cervus elaphus, C. alces, C. pygargus,
«fec.). A marmot, peculiar to these regions, abounds in the vicinity of the
snow. These animals are preyed on by the glutton and the bear. The
royal tiger prowls through the stejjpes on the south, and haunts particu-
larly the reedy shores of Lake Balkhash ; it is not unlikely, therefore, that
his predatory incursions sometimes extend into the Altai.

The most distinguishing feature in the appearance of Russia is her vast
forests. Schnitzler, who estimates the surface of European Russia at about
four hundred millions of deciatines,* supposes that one hundred and fifty-

* ,^ daciatine if equivalent to about two and seven tonilit a'.'ii**.

BIX ml
goverl

PHYSICAL fiEO(iRAPIlY.

BIX millions arc occuplod by forests. Tlioy nro so very prevalent in tho
governments of Novgorod and Tver, Itetwcon Petersburg and Moseow, tint
it has been said a scjuirrcl might travel from the one eity to the other witht
out ever touching the gi'ound. The forest of Volkonjfki, at the source of
tho Volga, is the most extensive of any in Euroj)e. In tho government of
Perm, on both sides of the Ural mountains, containing eighteen millions
of deciatines, no fewer than seventeen millions nro covered by forests!
The forests of Asiatic Russia are also of vast size. In extensive districts,
however, the surface is quite free from wood. Tliis is particularly the
case in the vast steppes or plains in the governments of Astrakhan and
Tobolsk, which in many parts, indeed, are a mere sandy desert.

Tlic northern coast of Russia is indented with immense gulfs and bays ;
and its vast inland seas and lake's penetrate tho land, forming many re-
markable localities ; and the straits connecting them with each other, and
with tho ocean, form so many grand military defences against the approach
of an enemy, and also limitations to external commerce. Tho White sea
is a large gulf in the Arctic ocean, about two hundred miles in length, but
varying in l)readth, the narrowest part l>eing only forty-tivc miles across.
It is mostly covered witli ice during four or five months of tho year. In
its nortliwestern portion it is named tl<e gulf of Kandalask ; and on its
southwestern side are the bays of Onega and Archangel. The Teheskaia
gulf is another inlet in the Arctic ocean, separated from the White sea bj
the Sliemo-Rhonskian peninsula. The strait of Waigatz, still farther east,
is formed by the mainland and the island of Waigatz. The gulfs of Fin-
land, Bothnia, and Riga, are large inlets of the Baltic sea, and form to-
gether nearly the whole western maritime border of Russia.

The Baltic is enclosed by tho shores of Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prus-
sia, and Mecklenlierg, and communicates with the Kattegat by three pas-
sages — the Sound, the fJreat Belt, and the Little Belt. Its greatest length
from north-northeast to south-southwest is nearlv nine hundred miles. Its
breadth is very irregular, and varies from forty to two hundred miles. Its
area, including the three gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, has been
estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand square miles ; and its basin,
which receives the drainage of more than a fifth of the surface of Europe,
is at least nine hundred thousand square miles. Tho shores of the Baltic,
proceeding from the Little Belt in the west, and along the south and east
as far as Dome's point, at the entrance to the gulf of Riga, are flat and
sandy ; and even toward the north, where tho coast assumes a rocky char-
acter, tho beach seldom attains a height of fifty feet. The soa itself seems
to partake of tho character of its shore. It shelves very gradually, pre-
senting scarcely any hnrbors which vessels of above three hundred tons
can enter. Its depth nowhere exceeds one hundred and sixty-seven fath-
oms ; and, in general, is not more than forty or fifty. Owing to the gen-
eral flatness of tho coast, tho Baltic is much more exposed than inland
seas usually are to distant influences. The warm moisture accumulated

ILLUSTn.VTKD DESmiPTION OP RUSSFA.

• •

III' '

over tho Atlantic, and wuftotl along by tho pievuiling west \vin<l, moots
with no interruption till it urrivo.s at tho Ualtic, whon it encounters the keen
blasts of tho Ural niountaiiiH, and of the Ktoppos extending t(» the north of
tho Caspian sea, and is precipitated in heavy falls of rain or snow, which
materially affect the conij)osition of the water of the Baltic, and reduce tho
quantity of salt contained in it to little more than a half of that contained
in tho water of the North sea.

This comparative freshness of the water of the Baltic, and shollownoss
of its bed, disposes it to freeze easily ; and hence, though it rarely happens
that extensive portions of it are entirely frozen over, its shores usually
begin to be covered with ice before the end of Docemlter, and the naviga-
tion of its harbors thereafter continues interrupted till the beginning of
April. Tho shallowness of the water along the shores of the Baltic is
obvious, owing in a great degree to the innnense quantities of mud and
Band deposited by rivers and torrents, the number of Avhich has been esti-
mated at two hundred and fifty ; but it was early suspected that other
causes wore in operation, and the Swedish naturalist Celsius, followed by
the more celebrated Linnajus, maintained that the water in the Baltic was
gradually subsiding, at the rate of about three foot in a century. A more
philosophical opinion, now more generally adopted, is, that tho bed and
the surrounding shores arc gradually rising. Scientific measures have
been adopted, for tho purpose of determining the point ; but, until tho
result is known, it is still a question whether the amount of alluvial depoa
itc is not of itself sufficient to account for the phenomenon.

The Baltic has no proper tides. Its surfnci' is of too limited extent to
feel the solar and lunar influences directly ; and the passages which con-
nect it with the ocean arc too narrow to •■ommunicato the changes of level
which tho tides produce on the ocean surface. There is, however, a slight
irregular change of level in tho Bailie, of which no very satisfactory
account has yet been given.

Tho gulf of Bothnia forms the northern portion of tho Baltic, between
Sweden and Finland. It has fewer shoals than any other portion of tho
Baltic, and H-^ harbors are bettor. The gulf of Finland forms the eastern
arm of the iiultic, having Finland on tho north, and the governments of
Esthonia, or Revel, and St. Petersburg, on the south. The length < ^ thi^.
gulf, from cast to west, is about two hundred find fifty miles ; bre«d)h tit
the entrance, or narrowest part, forty miles ; toward the head, w • • ': j
widest, about eighty miles. It receives but few rivers, and none ot lliera,
with the exception of the Neva, of any great size. The latter enters the
head of the gulf, communicating with Lake Ladoga. The other rivers that
may bo mentioned are the Luga and Narva, which disembogue within a
short distance of clc;.; '~'her, near ihe head of the gulf, on tho south side.
It contains nuroerov?;* i.^ii'ds "f whicr Kronstadt is the largest. There
are various towns o** ".onsi-ibiablo im/»crtance along its shores, St. Peters'
burg occupying it) cistem txtreraity.

PHYSICAL OEOOnAPHY.

The Euxiiio or Black sea lies ov the southern Imrder of Russia, onclosod
by the shores of Russia and Turkey. Its greatest length, from east to
W( is al)0ut seven hundred miles; brciidth, about thrci- hundnul niilcs ;
extent of coast, upward of two thou "id milc^ if ^ area is variously esti-
mated at one hundred and sixty and one hundred and eighty thousand
square miles. It receives some <>'' the largcni j'ivprs in Kurofx.^, and draiui*
a surface of nine liundred and fifty thousand stiuarc niil''"^ ; iss waters aro,
in consequence, only braeltislj. Its dej)!!) >n general is groat, no bottom
having been found in some parts with a line of one hundred and forty faUi-
oms, although, in a few i)lacc8,as the strait of f]nikaleh, it does not exceed
ton, fwmty, or thirty feet; while off tlie mouth of the Dauulic the ^vatux
il 't -) .8 ) gradually from the shore, that the distance from the latl- r may
bo .i8c.li lined within half a mile by soundings alone.

Throuftiiout the whole of the Black sea tiiere aro scarcely awy roiiks,
aini almost everywhere arc excellent anchoring-places. Storms aro i-aro,
and, when they du occur, arc of short duration, seldom lasting more than
twelve hours without considerable abatement. During the summer, ni^rth
■winds i»revail,and south in the beginning of autumn and spring. T]h'. ibr-
mer frequently detain vessels from the Mediterranean in the Dn'fbuielles
and Bosphorus for weeks together. The currents of the Black H' ,i gener-
ally have a tendency toward the Bosphorus or channel of Constm tinople.-
There is no flow of tide in this sea, the slight difl'ercnce of elovati ii tluit
occasionally occurs arising solely fnmi tlie winds and currents. Tin ^outh-
ern coast of the Crimea, and the coast of Anatolia or Asia Minor, an^i Cau-
casia, abound in lofty mountains, which rise up immediately from the mar-
gin of tlic sea, and afford excellent landmarks. On tlie northwest and
north, the coast is generally low, and on this account dangerous, as it can
bo seen only from a very short distance. Harbors and bays arc numer' >iis,
and many of them good ; but there are none of any great extent. Tl )S0
that penetrate deepest into the land arc the gulf of Kerkinet on the noith,
between the Crimea and tlie mainland ; the gulfs of Rassein and Buiyas
on the west, and those of Sinopc and Samsoon on the south. There u:o
no remarkable projections or headlands, excepting those formed by the
western and southern extremities of the Crimea, and Capes Indjeh and
Bozdepeh in Anatolia. The Black sea communicates with the Mediterra-
iican by the Bosphorus (or channel or strait of Constantinople), the sea of
Marmora, and the Dardanelles. ,

There are few fisheries of any importance carried on in the Black sea,
although it abounds with various kinds of fish, including porpoises, stur-
geons, dolphins, mackerel, mullet, bream, Ac. Seals, also, are numerons.
Ono of the most extensive fisheries is at the entrance of the strait of Eni-
kaleh, where considt lable <iuantities of sturgeon are taken. The northern
ports aro fi equeatly shut up by ice for three or four months in the year, or
from about December to March.

Tho Black sea extended, at a ivmotc period, much farther east and north

t
1

It! :!

) !

;

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

than it now does, occupying the whole of the vast plains and steppes that
surround the Caspian and the sea of Aral, in Tartary, neither of which had
then a separate existence, being included in this great inland sea. The
relative level of the Black sea, with the Caspian on the one hand and the
ocean on the other, were long undctennincd points, but seem now to be
pretty well ascertained. It has been found that the Caspian is one hun-
dred and one feet lower than the Black sea, and that the latter is precisely
of the same level as the ocean.

The Black sea was explored at an early period by the Greeks, who, from
their ignorance of the arts of navigation and shipbuilding, represented it
as beset with dangers of the most formidable kind ; and who, it has been
said, gave it the name of " Black" sea {Pontus Euxintis}, as expressive of
the dread and terror in which they held it — a feeling further manifested
by their placing the Cimmerian land of everlasting darkness on its northern
shore. Having gathered courage from experience, the Greeks, at a later
period, formed numerous establishments along its shores, from wliicli tliey
cai'ried on an extensive trade in slaves, cattle, and grain ; and to this day
their vessels arc the most numerous in the Black sea, the greater part being
employed in exporting the grain, hides, timber, iron, and furs, of Russia,
and in importing wine and fruits, and tlie manufactures of England and
France.

The sea of Azov (called by the Russians 3T()re Attowskoc, and by the
Latins Pahis Mceotis) forms the northern subdivijiion of tlic Black sea,
with which it is connected by the strait of Kertsch or Enikaleh (ancientl/
the Cimmerian Bosphorus). Its lengtli, from southwest to northeast (from
the strait of Kertsch to the moutli of the Don), is one hundred and sixty-
eight miles ; its average brcadtli, about eighty miles ; and its area, about
fourteen thousand square miles. The nortliern coast is, for the most part,
bold and craggy, rising about one hundred feet above the water; the east-
ern coast, inhal)ited by Cossacks, is very low, chiefly sandy, and intersected
with lakes and morasses ; the western coast is formed by tlie tongue of
sand, called the Tongue of Arabat, wliich divides it from the Sibachi 3Iorc,
or Putrid sea ; while the Crimea, and the territory of the Cossacks <A tho
Black sea, form the southern shore, on whicli, here and there, are some
hills, visible a considerable distance. Its greatest depth, between Enika-
leh and Bielosaria, on the northern shore, is about eight fatlioms ; and it
diminishes considerably toward the gulf of Don, several banks extending a
great distance from tlie shore. The water is muddy, and, froin tlie numer-
ous rivers running into it, almost fresh.

The sea of Azov has no remarkable current, the strongest never running
moi'C than one mile an hour ; the navigation is generally stopped from No-
vember to March by ice. I'erha])S no body of water of equal extent so
abounds with fish ; the principal fisheries are along the southern coast, be-
tween Capo Dolgava and the strait of Enikaleh, the sturgeon, sterlet, and
other fish, from which are prepared, in large quantities, both caviare and

H,Mi^i«a

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

isinglass. Tlic extreme western part of the sea of Azov, called tlic Putrid
sea, is, during the greater part of the year, little better than a noxious
quagmire, and, at all times, wholly useless for navigation. Tlic strait of
Enikaleh is about eleven miles long, and four broad, tliough the naA'igablo
cliannel never exceeds one mile in bi'eadth. A new island Avas raised in
the sea of Azov, in 1814, by volcanic eruptions. The chief towns on its
banks are Taganrog and Marioupol, on the northern shore, and Kcrtsch,
on the western sliorc of the strait of the same name. The commerce of
the sea of Azov lias been much hindered, not only by the impossibility of
navigating it during four months of the year, but also by the extensive
activity of Odessa, which lias deprived it of much of its trade.

The Cas])ian sea (called by the ancients 3Iare Caspiuni, or Hijrcanium)
lies between the thirty-sixth and forty-eighth degrees of nortli latitude, and
the forty-sixtli and fifty-fifth degrees of cast longitude. Its greatest length,
from nortli to south, is seven hundred and thirty miles ; its greatest breadth,
at its southern jiart, about latitude forty-five degrees north, is two hundred
and seventy miles ; its narrowest part is between Cape Apsheron in Europe,
and Cape Tarta in Asia, being one liundrcd and fifty miles. It is bounded
on the north and west by Russia and Persia, east by the Kirghiz steppe
and Khiva, and south by Persia. Its area is about one hundred and forty
thousand square miles, draining, in Europe alone, an extent of eight hun-
dred and fifty thousand square miles. Altliough, at some points, the Cas-
pian attains a consi<,lerablc depth, Ilamvay having in one i)lace found no
bottom at four hundred and eighty fathoms, it is remarkable for its shal-
lowness generally, especially along its shores, wliere it seldom exceeds
three feet for a distance of one hundred yards from the land. Its eastern
and western coasts, j)articularly tlie former, are deeply indented with bays
and gulfs, while the southern shores are almost unbroken.

The Caspian contains numerous islands, but not many of any great ex-
tent. The largest are on the Asiatic side, the greatest nunil)er on the
European, jjarticularly about tlic mouths of the Volga, and along the coasts
to the northeast and southwest of them, where they lie closely crowded
together in countless numbers, most of tlieni, however, being mere islets.

The waters of the Caspian are salt, but not nearly so much so as those
of the ocean. It has no tides, and no outlets, its superfluous waters being
carried ofi' solely by evaporation. Sturgeons and sterlets are caught in
great quantities ; and there are also salinoii-troiit, perch, two kinds of carp,
and porpoises. Seals abound in the uj)per coasts, and tortoises between
tlio mouths of the Volga and the Ural. Jilany thousand persons arc em
ployed in the Russian upper Caspian fisheries, near Astrakhan, who take
annually upward of seven hundred thousand sturgeons and about one hun
dred thousand seals.

The only ports at nil worthy of the name, on or near the Caspian, nre
Astrakhan, Bakou, Siilian, and Astrabad. The navigation is at all times
difficult, and often jierilous. Some lines of steamships have been estab-

'■* I'- '

^i 1

' ni'

' liiiKu

; jHHil

1 '/ HnHs

! ;

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

lished by the Russians. Persia is bound, by treaty stipulations with Rus-
sia, not to equip or maintain any naval force on this sea. '

The notices of early commerce upon or by way of the Caspian are few
and uncertain. Even for several centuries after the Christian era, its au-
thentic trading records arc nearly a blank. The chief portion of the com-
merce between western Europe and India was carried on partly by ita
waters, about the middle of the thirteenth century — Astrakhan, on the
upper Caspian, and Soldaia, nearly in the same latitude, on the Black sea,
forming the chief entrepots till 1280, when the latter was superseded,
through the exertions of tlie Genoese, for their own establishment at Kaffa ;
which then became the transit station for tlic Asiatic-European trade, and
so continued till 1453, when tlio Turks, having seized Constantinoj)lc, and
barred the Bosphorus, the accustomed trade was forced into other channels,
and the Caspian deserted, except by the few vessels which carried on a
small local trade between lyiuscovy, Persia, and central Asia.

About 1560, an English trading-company endeavored to open up connec-
tions, by way of the Caspian, with Persia and Turcomania, but with no
good results. From that time till late in the seventeenth century, the
annals of navigation give few notices of this sea. At the latter period,
Peter the Great, partly in the hope of diverting the Indian trade into the
direction of his southern dominions, caused the coasts of tlie Caspian to bo
explored by Dutch navigators in his pay. His intention was, as one means
to his end, to found trading-stations on ground ceded by treaty, or taken
by force, on the Persian scal)oard. But tliis lie delayed to do ; and wlien
he died, his project lay dormant, and the Biissians made no encroachment
beyond what Peter had already eflectod, till the reign of Catlicrine II.,
whose conquests in its southern region were not secured till the present
century, under the emperors Alexander and Nicholas.

The sea of Okhotsk, in tlie east of Asiatic Russia, forms a branch of the
North Pacific ocean, and extends from the Knrile islands northwest to the
coast of Siberia, about one thousand miles, with a breadth, between the
northeast coast of China and the peninsula of Kamtschatka, of about five
hundred and fifty miles. It contains several islands, the largest of which,
Sagalin, is situated near its southwestern shore; forms a nu!nl)er of largo
gulfs, chiefly on the north, among others those of Tanish, Gijiginsk, and
Penjinsk ; and receives numerous rivers, of which, however, only one, the
Amoor or Sagalin, is of great magnitude. The shores are covcre<l with
ice from November to April, l)ut the main expanse continues open through-
out the year, and lieing generally deep, without shoal or sandbank, affords
a safe navigation, notwithstanding the fogs and storms with which it is
often visited.

The rivers of Russia are usually divided into five groups, or systems,
corresponding to the seas into which they empty, namely, the Arctic ocean,
the Baltic, the Black, and Caspian seas, and the Pacific ocean. The first
di\ision is Ity far the largest. It comprises in Europe the Dwina, tlie Mo-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ThK MotTTHS or THE DwiNA.

«enc, and Petchora ; while in Asia it includes, among a host of others, the
Obi, the Yenisei, and Lena, three of the largest rivers of that continent.
All these rivers flow from south ^

40 "X.laiuf.

to north, and the last three have
a course of from two thousand
to twenty-five hundred miles.

The Dwina is formed in the
government of Vologda, by the
union of the Soukhona and the
Vychegda, and, after an indirect
course of four hundred miles,
falls into the White sea, about
thii'ty miles below the port of
Archangel, forming a number of
islands, and branching off into
several mouths. Its principal
affluents are the Pingisha, the
Keltma, and the Pinega, on the
right, and the Vage and Emtza

on the left. The Petchora is a large river which has its source in the Ural
mountains, and, after a course of about nine hundred miles, falls into a bay
of the Arctic ocean by a great number of mouths.

The Obi maybe traced from the lake of Altyn, latitude fifty-one degrees
north, if its source be not even followed along the Shabekan river to lati-
tude forty-seven. The Upper Irtish flows into the lake of Saisan, whence
it issues under the name of Lower Irtish, and, after a circuit of great ex-
tent, joins the Obi, below Samarov : it rises about the forty-fifth degree,
and ought perha))s to be regarded as the principal stream. However this
be, the Obi, piercing the Altaian chain, and having received many small
streams, passes Kolyvan, and at s^me distance to the north receives the
Tomm and other large rivers from the east. Below Samarov, as already
mentioned, it receives the great river Irtish, and runs into the sea of Cbi,
a gulf of the Arctic ocean. The Obi is navigable almost to its source, that
is, to the lake of Altyn, and abounds with fish, but the sturgeon of the
Irtish are the most esteemed. After it has been frozen for some time, the
water becomes foul and fetid, owing to the slowness of the current, and to
the vast morasses through which it flows ; but the river is purified in the
spring by the melting of the snow. The shores and channel are generally
rocky, till it receives the Kct, after which the course is through clay, marl,
sand, and morasses.

The Yenisei flows through the central part of Siberia, its basin lying
between tiiose of the Obi on the west and the Lena on the east, and is sup-
posed to comprise an area of nearly one million of square miles. This
river rises in the Chinese territories, not far from latitude fifty-one dogrcea
north, longitude ninety-eight degrees east, and proceeds at first westerly

I ■

I'll i

'I
i!

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

I-

(11

for about five degrees of longitude, to near the point where it leaves tho
Chinese frontier. It then turns nortlnvard, and pursues generally a nor-
therly course to the Arctic ocean, which it enters by a wide estuary called
the bay of the seventy-two islands, tlic mouth of which is in about latitude
seventy-two and a half dogi'ees north, longitude eighty-five degrees east,
about two hundred miles east of the gulf of Obi.

The entire course of the Yenisei has been estimated at twenty-six hun-
dred miles. Its chief afllucnts join it from the east, its tributaries from
the west being of much less importance. Various towns in tlie upper, with
Kx'asnojai'sk, Yeniseisk, &e., in the middle and lower part of its course,
are on its banks ; and Irkoutsk is on its great tributary the Angara,
which flows out of Lake Baikal. As far as Krasnojarsk it runs through a
mountainous country, and thenceforward to Yeniseisk (where its width,
when highest, is about one mile) its banks are elevated and precipitous.

The last of these large rivers in Asiatic Russia is the Lena, which rises
northwest of the sea or lake of Baikal, and pursues a northerly course
till it is turned by a cliain of hills, and thence till near Yakoutsk pursues
a tortuous course to the northeast, a direction of considerable utility, and
aflfording navigation to tlie remote regions. From Yakoutsk, the course
is nearly due north, the channel being of great breadth, and full of islands.
The basin of the Lena covers an area of about eight hundred thousand
.square miles.

The rivers which fall into the Baltic, and its several arms, though of far
greater importance, in an economical point of view, are of very inferior
magnitude. Tlie principal are tlic Neva (on which is built St. Petersburg,
ten miles from its mouth), the Duna,* the Nicmen, and the Vistula. Tho
Duna rises not far from the sources of the Volga, and flows into the gulf
of Riga below the city of Riga. It is navigable up to Velige, in the east-
ern part of the government of Vitopsk. The Niemen rises in the govem-
nent of Minsk, and flows into the Curischc-haf below Memcl ; and the
Vistula flows through Russian Poland, receiving in its course several con-
siderable tributaries.

The rivers which fall into the Black sea and its adjuncts equal those
emptying into the Baltic in commercial importance, and far exceed them
in length of course and volume of water. Among others are the Dniester,
Dnieper, Bong, Don, and Kouban. The Dniester has its source i.. the Car-
pathian mountains, in Galicia, and flowing in a south-southeast direction,
along the eastern frontier of Bessarabia, falls into the Black sea, after a
course of five hundred miles. It has no considerable affluents, and being
in most parts shallow and rapid, is of little service to internal navigation,
except during spring and summer. The Dnieper, which is one of tho
largest rivers in Europe, rises in the government of Smolensk, and, after

• Tho Diina is also snmptimrs cnlled iho Dwina ; but, without prpsuming to decide which ]• the
more correct orlliognijihy, we imvo deemed It better to designate it by the former name, to prevent
it* being ronruunded with the Dwina failing into the White sea.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

a course of twelve hundred miles, falls into the Black sea at Kinbum, near
Oczakow. It is broad and deep, and may be navigated with ease and
safety from Smolensk as far as the city of Ekatherinoslav ; but from the
latter to Alexandrofsk it is interi-upted by cataracts, which are impassable
except for a brief period in spring and autumn. The Boug rises near the
confines of Volhynia, in the northwestern part of the government of Po-
dolia, and at first proceeds east, and then southeast, through that govern-
ment, to Olviopol, where it enters the government of Kherson, which it
traverses almost centi..lly from north to south, and falls into the estuary
of the Dnieper, near Kherson. Its chief affluents are the Ingul, Balta,
Tchertal, and Salonicha. It has a course of above four hundred miles, but
its navigation is greatly obstructed by rocks and sandbanks. The Don
rises in the government of Toula, and flows south, east, and ultimately
southwest. In its course cast, it approaches so near the Volga, that Peter
the Great had undertaken to form a communication between them by means
of a canal : this grand project, however, Avas defeated by the irruption of
the Tartars.* This river, exclusive of its turnings and windings, discharges
itself into the sea of Azov, about four hundred miles from its rise. The
Kouban rises in Circassia, nearly fourteen thousand feet above the level of
the Black sea, in the Caucasian mountains. It flows first north, then north-
west, and ultimately due west ; passes Ekaterinodar, and, traversing a level
Btcppc, presenting to the eye only an interminable plain of reeds, falls into
the Black sea, in the bay of Kouban. This river can scarcely be said to
be navigable. The water at its mouth is so sliallow as to admit only the

* Tlio foIli)wirig uccomit of this nmJ previous nttenipts to open a passage between the Volga and
the Don, by meiina of a cannl, we quote iioni u history of Russia published in the year 1710, during
the lifetime of IVtor the Grout — in the same year, in fact, lluit the above enterprise by that emperor
was suspeuileil : " Tliis passage was fust endeavored to bo cut by Sultan Selim, for the bettor
Inuisporlatiou of bis army to Astrakhan and the Caspian sea against the IVi»ian.«, in 1560, but hil
design was defeated by the routiniud irruptions of the Cossacks and Rosses. This enterprise lay
dead till about 1693, when the czar employed an engineer, Colonel Breokel, to work on the com-
munication ; liiit being very ill used by Prince Doris Alexewilz Galliczyn, governor of the province,
who openly opposed the work, and who would neither furnish men nor materials in pursuance of
the czar's tader, the engineer, to avoid his persecution, fled away to Persia. In 16D9, another engi-
neer. Captain Periy, was emjiloyed in this service, but met with the same discouragement from
Prince Ualliczyn as his predecessor; notwithstanding which, the wbrk was cnnicd on with pretty
good success till the end of December, 1710, when the czar ordered it to bo laid aside till after the
war, since he could not so well spare the number of men required in the present juncture. The
digging work is about half ftnishrd; twelve thousand men, and about five years' time, would serve
to perfect the whole. The channel was to be large and deep enough for ships of eighty guns to
pass. It is to bo dug through near three English miles, in which space there is a large mountain,
between the rivers Lavala and Camishinka: the first falls into the Don, about one hundred and
thirty English miles from the canal, and the last into the Volga, about nine English miles from the
canal. Six sluices are begun, but none finished ; and six more are to be made ia the Camishinka.
In all, from the Lavala to the place where the Camishinka falls into the Volga, are sixty-two thou-
sand three hundred English feet."

Tljo undertaking, though only temporarily suspended, it oppcars, was never resumed. The first
attempt, by Selim II., to connect these rivers, it would seem, was inter. upted by the Russians thcm-
».'l7?s. Another account states that the laborers sent thither by the Turkish sultan " were surpr-sed
anu killed by a body of men of uncouth figures, strange features, and barbarous language," and who
])roved to be the subjects of his Muscovite majesty Ivan the Terrible.

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

smallest vessels. All the tributaries of the Kouban flow, like itself, from
the Caucasus mountains, joining it on tlic left bank : the principal are the
Zelentchuk, Urup, and the united streams of the Laba and Emansu. Its
total course is about four hundred miles.

Among the rivers which empty into the Black sea is the Danube,* which
originates in two small streams that have their sources in the eastern de-
clivity of the Black forest, in the grand-duchy of Baden, at an elevation of
three thousand feet above the level of the sea, and uniting at Donaucschin-
gen. Its general course is from west to east, falling into the Black sea
by three principal outlets, called respectively the Kilia, Sulineh, and the
Edrillis mouths, as represented in the subjoined engraving.

The Mouths op the Dani'EB.

The extent of the basin of the Danube is estimated at two hundred and
seventy thousand square miles ; the direct distance, from source to mouth,
upward of one thousand miles ; and its development — of course, including
windings — eighteen hundred miles. From its source the Danube flows
northeast to Regensberg (Ratisbon), in Bavaria ; when it takes a southeast-
by-south direction, to Waitzcn, in Hungary, previously passing Vieiuia and
Presburg. At Waitzcn it suddenly bends round, and flows nearly due
south to the point where it is joined by the Drave, near Esscg, in Sclavo-
nia ; thence it runs south-southeast to Belgrade, on the northern confines
of the Turkish province Servia, of which it subsequently forms the bound-
ary, separating it from Hungary. Continuing its general easterly course,

♦ Although tlio Danube, through the " rectification" of the Besjartbian fVontier by the treaty
of 1 856, can not now be regarded as a river of Kusfiia, and therefore not strictly within the range of
this volume, yet its position and character, as one of the main internal a.^..-"C8 of European com-
merce (and in which Bussia has an equal interest with other nations) give it an importance that
will justify this description of it, prepared for a former edition, still finding a place on its pages.

/•-

PHYSICAL OEOGRAPKY.

il^;

though not without some marked deviations, to the point where it is joined
by the small river Bercska, it abiuiptly turns to the northeast, and contin-
ues in this direction to Orsova, a distance of about twenty-five miles, when,
by suddenly taking a southeasterly course, it fairly enters the Turkish
European provinces, forming the boundary-line between Wallachia and
Bulgaria. At Rassova, on tlie southeastern extremity of the former prov-
ince, it takes a direction nearly due north to Galatz, when it bends round
to the southeast, and, after a farther course of about eighty miles, falls into
the Black sea, by the several mouths above enumerated.

During its progress from its source, in Baden, to its embouchure, tho
Danube passes through Wiirtombcrg, Bavaria, the archducliies of Austria,
and Hungary, and forms the boundary between the Hungarian Banat on
the north, and the Turkish province of Scrvia on the south ; and between
the Turkish province of Bulgaria on the south, and the Danubian princi-
palities Wallachia and Moldavia, and, until recently, Russian Bessarabia,
on the north.

The great basin of the Danube has l)cen divided into four minor basins.
The first consists of a vast plateau of a pentagonal form, sixteen hundred
and forty feet above the sea level, one hundred and fifty miles in length,
and one hundred and twenty-five miles broad, surrounded by mountains,
and comprising a portion of the principality of Hohenzollcrn, part of tho
kingdom of Wiirtcmberg, and the greater part of the kingdom of Bavaria.
Tliis tract is, by far, the most fertile and most populous through which tho
Danube passes during its entire career.

The second basis belongs to the empire of Austria, having Vienna nearly
in its centre, and comprising the arcliduchy of Austria, Hungary as far
cast as Waitzen, and ^tyria. It is very irregular, and is bounded on all
sides by very high mountains, (icnerally it is well peopled, well culti-
vated, and the inhabitants industrious. The soil is rich in mineral prod-
ucts, and the climate one of the best in Europe. Tlte Danube lierc passes
through a succession of the most picturesque scenery, till it passes Vienna.
Below Presburg it runs with great velocity, and is crowded with islands.

The third basin of the Danube comprises Hungary, cast of Waitzen, and
the principality of Transylvania, and consists of an immense plain, almost
without undulations of any kind, an(^ only about four hundred feet above
the sea level. It is intersected by large rivers, with marsliy banks, and
interspersed with stagnant pools, saline and sandy wastes ; rich, however,
in mineral products, in flocks and herds, and in wines. It comprises about
one half of the entire basin of the Danube. The climate is bad, especially
in the vicinity of the marshes, wliich cover a space of about three thousand
square miles.

The fourth basin comprises Wallachia, Moldavia, a portion of Bcssara
bia, and Bulgaria. This tract is flat, inundated, and marshy along the
banks of tho inver ; dry, mountainous, and difficult, on the borders of tho
basin. It is fertile in products of every kind, yet badly cultivated ; thinly

ILLUSTBATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

)

peopled, with miserable roads and wretched villages. The principal afBu
cnts in this basin are the Aluta, Sereth, and Pruth. The latter tributary
rises in the east side of the Carpathian mountains, in the southeastern part
of Galicia ; flows clrcuitously cast, past Czornowitz, then south-soutlieast,
forming the boundary in part of Moldavia and Bessarabia, and, after a course
of more than five hundred miles, joins the left bank of the Danube, about
twelve miles below Galatz.

In its progress through Turkey, the Danube gradually increases in width
from fourteen hundred to twouty-one hundred yards ; and below Hirsova,
in Bulgaria, it forms an expnnso of water like a sea, and is studded with
islands. Excepting between Dreukova and Kladova, the Danube may be
said to be navigable for steamboats from Ulm, in Wurteml)crg, to the sea —
althougli, in some I'laces, rendered diflieult by the occurrence of shallows
and sandbanks, intersected by narrow and intricate channels. The outlets
of the Danube are separated from each other by several low islands, cov-
ered with reeds and trees. The greater part of the ships bound up the
river enter it by the Snlineh moutli, it being the deepest.* The Danube
receives sixty navigal)le tributaries, and its volume of water is nearly equnl
to that of all the rivers that em[)ty themselves into the Black sea taken
together. Iti^ rapidity is, in many places above Orsova, so great, as to
render any na^igation, except that of steam, impossible; but below that

* The importance of the provisions ninde in tlie treiity of 1 830 for rendering the Diinuhe nnil all
its mouths navigable, will he seen in the following extract from Oliphant's " Russian Sliorc'' of
the Black Sea," published in 1851 : " Prior to the treaty of Adrianople (in 1829) the depth of
water upon the bar at the Sulineh month of the river wna iilmiit sixteen feet. There is little more
than nine feet of water there now. The bar is finmed prinriimlly of alluvial depiisite, and nut of
sand washed up by the Bca; consequently nothini; could be effecte<l mure easily thiiii its removal.
As, howevi'r, it was nut stipulated in the treiity ofAdriimople upon wliom this duly was to devolve,
la the year 1840 Austria enteied into a c(nivention with Rnssi'i, \vh(<iht)y it was npreeil that a lax
should bo levied by this latter power upon all ships enterinp the river at Sulineh; and, i;i eoniideiv
Bticn of this privilege, Russia became bound to keep the miuilh of the river free from all such im-
pediments us now exist. Since that period, the lux has been duly levied; while not only has tho
obligation arising; out of it been totally neglected, but it has ever been the end and aim of Russia to
allow this channel — which she is not allowed to fortify — to fill up, with a view of forcing the river
and the trade through the northern or Kilia branch. This branch was formerly thi^ deep<-sl, and
therefore that preferred by ships. In the hands of tho Russians it ' silted up,* and the watei-s thus
turned into the Sulineh branch, which became the more available. If the Sulineh should 'silt up,'
it is probable that tho Kilia branch would again be opened, and the fortn<8s of Ismail would coiu>
miind the tnule of the Danube.

" So long as tho Sulineh moulh was in the possession of Turkey, cveiy vessel leaving the river
was compellod to dnig a largi- rake behind her. This was sufficient to stir up the mud, which waii
thus carried away by the mere force of the current. Since then, vessels have offered to continue
this practice, but li'ive been positively prohibited from so doing. Indeed, it is absurd to suppose
that Russia will take any steps ' -ding to increase the tni.ie of rival countries, by improving the
navigation of the river on which their prosperity ilepnids, sinijily because she is bound by treaty to
do si>. The conscipn-nce is, that the difTiculty of entering the Danube is far greatiT than it used
formerly to be, and numbers of fiuvigu sliips are lost upon the bar every year. Out Russia is not
satisfied with allowing nature to monopolize the work of destroying the Danubian trade : she hat
an aitificiul barrier, which is even more ruinous to i-ommerce than that at the mouth of the
nvef. The stringent quarantiiio regulations whii-h have been in:pcsed by her render it impossiblb
lor the proiluce of the Tui-kish provinces to find an outlet in :his dirpclion, which is cunsequontly
forced, ut a needless expense, to Vurna and ulhei ports on tho Itluck seu." —

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

point its current is gentle and eqrablc. A nun.ocr of steam-vesscla now
ply on tlio river, between its principal towns. Before stcam-navigatir
was introduced into the Danube, the boats which descended it were ver^
rarely if ever taken back, but wore broken up at the end of their voyage.

The basin of the Caspian has to boast of the largest and most important
of the iivers of Russia, and, in fact, of Europe, the Volga. This river was
formerly considered as constituting a part of the boundary-line between
Europe and Asia; but since tluj limits of these continents have been re-
moved to tlie Caucasus and the Casjiian, its l)asin, with those of its tribu-
taries, lie wholly a\ ithin Europe. From its source to its mouth its length
is estimated at near two thousand miles, l)eing about two hundred milea
longer than the Danube. The area of its l)asin has been siii)]>(jsed to
include upward of six hundred and tliirty-six tliousand square miles, or
consid(!ralile more than twice as much as the basin of the Danube.

The Volga has its source in a small lake at the western extremity of the
government of Tver, in latitude fifty-seven degrees north, and longitude
thirty-two degrees east, two hundred and twenty miles south-southeast of
St. Petersburg ; on the eastern declivity of the Valdai plateau, near the
source of the Duna, the Dnieper, and other large rivers, at an elevation of
about nine hundred feet above the level of the sea. It flows at first south-
east, and afterward northeast, through the governments of Tver and Yaro-
slav ; at Mologa it turns to the south-southeast, which direction it generally
pursues tlirough Yaroslav, Kostroma, Nijnei-Novgorod, and Kazan, to the
confluence of the Kanni, aI)out latitude iil'ty-five degrees north, and longi-
tude forty-nine degrees east, 'i'lieneeforward it runs generally south-south-
west through the govennneuts of Simbirsk and Saratov to Tzaritzin, where,
as previously remarked, it approaches within thirty-three miles of the nmin
stream of the Don.* It then turns again to the southeast through the gov-
ernment of Astrakhan, and j)ours itself into the Casjiian, on its northwest
side, tlirough an extensivf.; delta, l)y more than seventy nmuths (the j)rinci-
pal of which are shown in the following engraving), the western and largest
of these being in latitude forty-six degrees north, and longitude forty-eiglit

" Tho nttcmpl* by Sflhii II. iind I'cttr ilir (irciit to iiiiilc iIk sp riven by iiicniis of a cniinl, biivo
bcpn tnnilo llic niliii-cl-iniittcr nfii rmti' im ]iiij,'i' '29. ()li|i)iiint, in bis " iti:!siiiti Sboirs i>( llic Uliifk
Srii," biis ibc (iplldV.iiig iimiimiUm in icliiliiui Id tin' iililily ;inil iinicliciiliiHty <i(' 9U(li n iiiiii)n lit this
point: " It is inronc<'ivnbI(> bow tbo roiinliy rnn irst gnliilicil wiih 'bo vvrolclii'd inini-roiul which
HOW roniircts two giirli iiiipoitnnt rivrrs n» liie Volgu iiiui the Don. So fur from tbni' bring nny
niilninl iinpiiiiinciit to tlio fonniilioii of n ciiniil iii-ios:) tlio {.-•tlinuis wiiii-h sopiivatrs tbcMi, it in u
pcifrclly Hiniplc iniibiliilxinp, iiml tbo (litTn'rict' of lovel boinf; tdinpiinitivcly trilling. Tbc mlviin-
tnpri to be f;i\ini'J by tbo complotion of siiili u woil; must be iippurtMit. A mere ghmco lit tbo limp
will ahuw tbnt a cnnnl rorty niib'S lonj; iit tliin point woiilil connt'ct thu Bliu'k acii with the Btiltic
anil thi" CiiBpinn, and tbiis porfoct n niost oliiboiute ByDtnii of itilniul roniniuniintioii. Niituro lm»
coitiiiiily ibiiu- nil tliiit ronlil In- rxpcrlcil of lior in ibis irfpoct, iiiiil it fi'cins liiird that a govoinnicnl
vbdiilcl not I'imlili' tbo inbabilaiits to uviiil ibrnisclvrs of tbo iiiilnial lulviinliiiji'.H wbiib tbeir rouiitry
•o oniinciilly ponrsBcs. If wafor-iMiiliiigc oxcols land-ciiriiiigo in proportion to tbc bulk of the
produco to bo roiivoyod, snioly whi-ie iron or timber form tbo artieleg of triinaport, there can be no
doubt nf tile Boperior nieriln of the former, even were the iidililioniil exjienses inclined by the proi-
•nt tygteiii out of tho ipiestiun, or siijiposiiig tbnt ii railway bad superseded the trani-ro^nL"'

^'1

I I

ILLUSTRATED DESCIUPTTON OF RUSSIA.

degrees cast. Throughout its long course it waters, with its tributaries,
•iome of the most productive portions of European Russia, and the nsgion

which was anciently the nucleus

of the Russian monarchy. Tver,
Yaroslav, Kostroma, Nijnci-Nov-
gorod, Simbirsk, Saratov, AstrOr
khan, and several other towns,
are situated on the Volga ; and
Kazan is on one of its tributa-
ries, within a short distance of
the main stream.

The principal ailluen*s of tho
Volga are the Tvcrtza, Mologa,
Shoksna, Unja, Vetluga, and Ka-
ma^ from the nortii and cast, and
tlic Oka and Sura from the west
and south. The Kama, wliich if
by far the largest, is also the la'^t
important tril)utary wiiicii it le-
ccives. It rises in tho govern-
ment of Viatka, and (lows with a
very tort uous course, at first north
easterly, but afterwarrl in general
south or southwest, through tho
governments of Pcnn anil Kazan,
and between those •>! Viatka and
Orenburg. After a course of near-
ly one thousand miles, it joins tho
Volga, bringing with it a volume
of water nearly equal to that of the latter, its basin is supposed to com-
prise about one tiiird part of tiiat of the Volga. Perm is among the towns
on its banks. '

Tlie Oka rises in the government of Orel, through which, and the govern-
ments of Toula, Kalouga, Moscow, Riazan, Tambov, Vladimir, and Nijnei-
Novgorod, it flows in a very tortuous but mostly northeast direction, join-
ing the Volga at Nijnei-Novgorod, after a course of nearly seven hundred
miles. Its basin is supposed to comprise one hundred and twenty-seven
thousand square miles. It has several important affluents. Though r.ipid,
it is navigal)le to Orel, not far from its source. The waters of the Kama
and Oka are, like those of the Volga, remarkable for their purity ; and all
of them are famous for their fish. The Volga is, in fact, believed to be
more prolific of fish than any other European river; and its fisheries are
an abundant source of employment and of food. The fish usually taken
comprise sturgeon, the rose of which furnish tho caviar, of which vast
quantities are sent from Astrakhan to all parts of Russia, with salmon,

F'otrrHS o? the Voloa.

PHYSICAL OEOflRAPHY.

»:o

sterlet, tench, pike, perch, heliiga, &c. The sterlet, a small kind of stur-
geon, supposed to be pcc-'.liar to the Russian and Siberian rivers, is much
prized by the Russian epicures. Exclusive of caviar, the exports from
Astrakhan include largo quantities of cured fish.

From its abounding with islands, particularly in the lower part of its
course, the breadtli of the Volga is very varial)le. At Tver, however, it
is nearly six hundred feet in breadth ; at Nijnei-Novgorod, after it has
received the Oka, about twelve hundred feet ; and at Astrakhan it is usu-
ally one and a quarter miles across. But this is not the case during the
entire year, for, on the melting of the ice and snow in S|)ring, it is subject
to great risings, and inundates large tracts of the surrounding country.
The rise begins in April ; its height varies greatly in difl'ercnt places, but
is greatest in the middle portion of the river's course. At Tver the total
rise is about twelve feet above its summer level ; at Yarosluv and Nijnei-
Novgorod, eighteen or twenty ; at Kazan, twenty-five or thirty ; and at
Saratov, from thirty to forty feet! But downward beyond this point, aft<n'
which the Volga receives no aflluent of any conse<|uence, and its bed be-
comes more capacious, the height of its rise gradiuilly diminishes, being at
Tzaritzin from twenty-five to thirty i'eet, and at Astrakhan only from six
to eight, or seldom as high as twelve feet. The time of subsidence also
varies considerably in diiVereiit parls : at Nijnei-Novgorod the river is com-
monly confined again within its bed by the beginning of June ; at Kazan,
not till the middle of the same month ; and at Astrakhan it does not diniin-
is!i to its ordinary heiglit till after the summer solstice.

As before ol)served, the surface of the Caspian is one hundred feet below
the level of the Black sea, which would give to the Volga (estimating it3
course at two thousand miles ) an average doseent of about five and a half
inches jier mile. From the junction of the Kazan with the Volga, the fall
of the latter, Humboldt says, is greater than that of either the Amazon or
the Nile, and almost as great as tliat of the Oder. Though rather a rapid
river, yet, as it runs through a flat country, with an immense volume of
water, in a bed unbroken by cataracts, though not free from sandbanks, it
is navigable for flat-bottomed boats nearly to its source.

Not far l)elow this point the Volga is connected by a canal with the Duna,
establishing a direct water-comuiunication between the Caspian and tlie
Baltic. The Ivanofska canal, in the government of Toula (which unites
tlie Upa, a tributary of the Oka, with the Don), opens a communication
(though a remote one) between the Caspian and the Black sea ; and, by
moans of the Vischnej-Volotchok canal, between the Mesta and Tvertza
rivers, and the canal between the Sestra and Istra, in the government of
Moscow, Petersburg and Moscow arc directly connected. Other canals
connect the basin of the Volga with that of the Dwina, the lake Onega,
&c. : and nowhere else has so extensive a system of inland navigation been
cfTected by artificial means, with so little labor. This navigation is, how-
ever, euspended by the frost at least one hundred and sixty days each yeaj\

s«

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

— — — ■ -- - ^-^v^-.t-r^-^

IIoisrDoAT, wmi DAiioiEa, on thr Volha.

Thougli tlic situation of tlic Volga, romoto from the gront marts of Eu-
rope, Asia, and Africa, with its onilioucluiro in ilio Caspian, rcndorfj it tif
much less coinuiorciul iiuportaMcc thnii it would lie umlor other clnuui-
staucos, it is still the uiaiu artery of Russia, aud the grand route of the
internal traffic of the empire. It has Iieen estiauiti^d that iu the first thiity
years of the ])resent century, from six to scncu himdred vessels a year cauie
down the Volga to Astrakhan, wiiile from three imndrcd to four hundred
aud sixty sailed from that port to others on the upper course of the river.
Unfortimatidy, it would seem as if the ^'olga !iad been for some considera-
l)le i)eri()d decreasing in depth ; and it is said thai of hito years sandiianks
have accumulated so much, particularly bctweeu Xijuei-Xovgorod and Ka-
zan, that the vessels laden with salt from Perm, which in the early \KXvt of
last century used to hriiig cargoes of from one hundred and thirty to one
liundred and lifty thoiisand pounds, can now only convey cargoes of ahout
ninety thousand pounds; aud, iu the portion of its course now referre<l to,
it is mivigated with dilliculty (.-ven hy the tWo-n^sted vessels of Astrakhan.

Owing to the flatness of the eonutry through which they flow, aud the
vast length of their course, the rivers of Russia are hut little interrupted
by cataracts, geiu'rally flow with a trampiil stream, and afford great facili-
ties to internal navigation. Tlie severity of the climate no doultt prevents,
during a considerable portion of the yeai', all intereoui-si; hy water; and,
as already stated, renders the rivers falling into the Arctic ocean of com-
paratively little value. Luckily, however, the frost, which interruj)ts navi-
gation, affords the greatest facilities to land-travelling.

The lakes as well as the rivers of Russiu are upon a gigantic scale.
The lake or sea (as it is also called) of JJaikal, in the government of
Irkoutsk, Eastern Siberia, is one of the most extensive in the world. Its
greatest length, in a north-northeast and south-southwest direction, is nearly
four hundred miles ; but, where greatest, its breadth does not exceed sixty

PHYHKAl. (iKOfJRAPIIY. VP

miles, niul is in most parts Jiuii 'i less. It i.s of very iiniMiiiiil (lo|itli, sand-
banks and sindlows oci.'iirrin<r alongside of all l»nt nnlatlioniahlo altysses.
It 13 situated in a mountainouf^ country, and recoivcs several eonsidorahlo
rivers, while its surplus water is entirely carried ofl'hy the Angara, a largo
and rapid river, an afllnen) of the Yenisei.

Tiuf fisheries of Lal<e Hiiiknl are very valiiul)le. Great num'icra of seals,
of a silvery c(>lor, are capturid, the skins of which are sold to the Chinese.
Sturjreon, to the extent of ultont one thonsnncl poods' a year ; salmon, &c.,
are also taken; hut the ^'rand oliject of the fishtMy is tlie mnv/, a sort of
herrinj; ( Sa/iiio nutuntualis, vcl vn^iuitoritts), taken in vast numbers (al)out
on<! hundred tliousand poods a year) in August nnd September, when it
ascends tlie rivers. The most f ingu-
lar fish b'yionirin!:' to \\u^ Baikal is the
g-nloiniinka (^Ca/f/foniiinis Jiainilrn-
,s-/.v"), from four ti> six inches in length,
so very fat, that it melts l»ef(n-e the
fire like butter. The latter is never
taken aliv(\ liiit is ca<t dead upon the
shore, sometimes in iniiiieiise (luaiiti-
ties. after storms. It yields an oil.
sold to great advantaiif to the Chi-
nese. The surface of the lak'* is fro-
zi'ii over from November to tln^ end
of April, or the beginning of May.
The pilots and sailors who navigate

the lak(>. speak of it witli much revereiic(>, calling it tlie Iloh/ sea ( Srintore
il/a/7),and the mountains about it the llohf mountains ; and are higldy
displeased with any person wlio speaks of it with dirfrespcet, or calls it
a liike.

In Knropoan Russia, the lakes of Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, Ilmen, and
Bielo-Ozero, are of the greatest extent, liake Ladoga lies between the
government of St. I'etcislnirg on the south, Olonetz on the cast, and Vi-
borg on the north and \\r<t. Its greatest length, from north to south, is
one hundred and thirty miles ; its average breadth is about seventy-five
miles; and its area, six thousand three hundred scpiare miles. It is the
largest lak(! in Europe, and receives no fewer than sixty streams ; the prin-
cipal of which are the Volkhov and Siasi, which enter it on the south, and
the Tvir, which enters it on the east, bearing the surplus water of Lako
Onega. It discharges itself at its southv es^orn exiremiu , by tne Neva,
which falls into the Baltic. It contains numerous islands, many of which
are inhabited, and its shores are much indented, generally low, and send
out so nianv sh -Iving rocks into the water, as to make the navigation very
dangerous. To avoid the danger, a canal, giving the Volkhov a direct
conuuunieation with the Neva, ha.s been cut along its southern shore. It

* \ |mml in «<iiiiil to uliout tliiity-six ])miiit!s. Ten poods tmiko one bcrViOvitz.

Ili'SsiAN Pilots.

■f'^,H-i

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

has numerous strong currents, and violent storms are frequent. It is well
supplied with fish, and contains seals.

Lake Onega lies near the centre of the government of Olonctz, and east-
northeast of Lake Ladoga, next to which it is the largest lake in Europe.
Its greatest length from north-northwest to south-southeast is one liundred
and thirty miles ; its greatest breadtli is fifty miles ; and its area comprises
about four thousand square miles. It is of a very irregular shape, partic-
ulai^y toward the north, where it is much indented, and forms numerous
Cieeks, bays, and islands. Its shores are generally rocky, and its waters
beautifully clear, and well supplied with fish. Its navigation is much im-
peded by shoals and sandbanks. The princij)al streams which it receives
are the Migra, the Shuia, the Vodla and the Vytcgra. Its only outlet is
the Tvir, by which, as previously mentioned, it discharges itself into Lake
Ladoga; but the Murinskoi canal, by connecting its affluent the A'yterga
with the Kayla, an affluent of Lake Bielo, has brought it into conmiunica-
tion with tlie basin of the Volga.

Lake Peipus, or Tchoudskoe-Ozero, is situated between the governments
of St. Petersburg, Esthonia, and Livonia. Its greatest length is fifty-five
miles, and its breadth tliirty miles. The depth is conslderal)le, and has
floated twenty-four-gun frigates. It receives the Eml)ach and Kosa on the
southwest, the Tcherina on the east, and the Jettcha on the southeast ; and
discharges itself on the northeast, by the Narova, into tlie gulf of Finland.
It is well suj)plied with fish. In 1702, a naval engagement took place on
the lake between the Swedes and Russians, in which the latter had the
advnjtage.

Lake Ilmen lies in and near the western borders of the government of
Novgorod. It is nearly in the form of an equilateral triangle, at whose
northern angle stands the city of Novgorod. Its greatest length is about
thirty-three miles, and its breadth twenty-eight miles. It receives numer-
ous streams, and discluirges itself, by the Volkhov, into Lake Ladoga. Its
navigation is rendered dangerous by sudden gusts of wind. Lake Manytch,
on the frontiers of the governments of Caucasus and the Don Cossacks, is
sometimes also called Lake Ilmen.

Bielo-Ozero (White lake) also lies in the government of Novgorod,
about two hundred and forty miles east of St. Petersburg. It is twenty-
five miles long, by twenty broad. Several streams flow into its and it
sends its waters by the Sheksna into the Volga. It is very deep, abounds
in fish, and, by means of canals, communicates with the Onega, the Souk-
hona, and the Dwina.

Numerous other lakes, of less extent, are scattered throughout the coun-
try, which (and the remark will apply to rivers, mountains, and other
natural features of minor importJince, not alluded to in this chapter) will
be incidentally noticed in connection with the governments or provinces
to which they respectively belong.
A country like Russia, extending from the Arctic ocean to the Black

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sea, might be supposed to have every variety of climate ; and this is in
some measure the case. When spring commences in one division of this
vast empire, another experiences all the rigors of winter. With the excep-
tion of the Crimea and the, Caucasian provinces, however, no part of Rus-
sia can be said to bo generally hot ; and even in them the frost in winter
is often very severe. The climate of Russia is, in fact, ])roverbial for its
severity ; and this increases not only as we advance toward the north, but
also as we advance toward the east ; the cold being decidedly greater in
Siberia than in the same latitudes in European Russia, a difl'erence which
is also sufficiently perceptible in the provinces on the east and west sides
of the latter. Tiiis, no doubt, is owing to various causes ; but principally,
perhaps, to the greater cultivation of the western provinces, and their
proximity to the Baltic ; and to the vast extent of frozen sea and land
traversed by the winds from the northeast. Beyond the sixty-fifth degree
of latitude the ground is covered with snow and ice for about nine months
in the year ; and during the other throe months ice is always found at a
little distance below the surfivce. Grain-crops can not be depended upon
in European Russia beyond the tiixty-second degree of latitude ; and the
great agricultural provinces lie to the south of the fifty-eighth degree. The
fruits of tomp<irate clinmtes are seldom met with beyond the fifty-second
degree.

Spring can hardly be said to have any place in the Russian calendar.
The transition from frost to fine weather is usually very rapid. In a brief
period after the snow and ice have disappeared, the fields and trees are
clotlied in the livery of summer, and veg(;tation makes an extraordinary
progress. At St. Petersburg the sununer is as mild and agreeable as in
the south of France ; but there, and in all the northern provinces, it is very
variable. As we advance toward the soutli, it bcconics steadier, and the
heats increase. The autunni, or the period of transition from summer to
winter, is the most unpleasant season in Russia: the sky is generally
cloudy, and rains and storms are very i)revalent. The Crimea, from its
high southern latitude, and its being embosomed in the Euxine, has the
most agreeable ellnmtc in the empire.

The storms of Russia are a peculiar characteristic of the climate of that
country. They are divided into three classes. The least violent and most
common is called the miatjcl. The second and severer kind occurs more
rarely, and always in autumn or winter: it is the samjots. This storm is
dangerous, and wo betide the traveller who finds himself exposed to its
fury on an open country-road ! l^scape from it is out of the question. The
driving shower of snow renders it an impossibility to keep the eyes open,
and no horse will advance a step, fl(^gged and spurred as he may be. The
best and only possible means of safety, to a traveller thus exposed, is to
throw himself fiat on the ground, and let himself be snowed over, especially
if he can reach the shelter of some little elevation which prevents the wind
from getting a hold of him ; otherwise it will take him up with irresistible

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

force, and wliirl hiin like a feather in the air. But the sanijots, terrible
though it be, is a mere sliadow of the viiiga: the former it is jKissible to
survive; but nothing' witlistimds the latter. Fortunately, unniistukeabk)
indications announce its coming for some days beforehand. Then nobody
sets out upon a journey, not even to the next village, though it be but a
mile or two off. Precautions are taken for tlie safety of the house, by pro-
tecting it, on the north side with heavy stones, and hy propping it up, as
well as barns and stables, on the south side. The tabiincn (troops of wild
horses) scamper with all haste to the nearest forest ; droves of cattle and
flocks of sheep seek shelter wherever it is to be found. "Whatever tlie ^torra
overtakes upon the open i)lain — man or beast, caravans drawn by oxen or
by horses — is lost, "without a chance of rescue.

An icy shower of snow is the forerunner of the terrible blast : it falls so
thick, and drives so horizontally througli the air, that to witli!«tand it is
impossible. This jn-elude to tlic luirricaiie is soon followed by the formi-
dable blasts and circling whirlwinds which succeed it, and which gather
up from the earth, like chaff from the tlirashing-floor, the objects exposed
to their violence, and hurl them to and fro in the air. And yet the rage
of the unfettered element is not here at its height : 'for Aviien tlio storm
.seems to have exhausted its fury in tlie manner described — often raging
thus during a period of several days — then first begins the real tein])Ost,
a blast which nothing- can resist. It ujn-oots whole torosts, tosses the lof-
tiest iir-trees into the air like blades of straw, and often conveys them,]iigh
above the eartli, wliole miles away! It levels staliles and barns, nnroofs
houses, and throws down church-towers, so that the district it has visited
appears, after its destructive passage, and for distances of several days'
journey, like a land ravaged by fire and sword. On all sides arc seen
herds of dead cattle, trees u])rooted, and villages )verthrown. In ex])osed
situations, tlie vi/iga has been known to lear up isolated stables — to trans-
port through the air their fragments and the cattle they contained — and
far, far from the spot, to hurl these down shattered upon fields and roofs !
Witli varying fury the monster rages for some days, leaving behind him,
on his departure, death, destruction, and lamentations. Happily, he C(mies
but seldom ; his visits are not for every generation : but when ho does
come, all that his icy breath touches is devoted to annihilation.

It should per]ia[)S be added that these terrii)le tornadoes arc more par-
ticularly a feature of the climate of Southern Russia, and especially tlio
steppes, and are incidentally .illuded in that connection on a future page.
The more northern sections of the empire are comparativclj free from
Euch unwelcome visitations of the terrific storm-king —

governmen

"AVlio liowla over Riii'>>iii'a <lf«(ilato |>Iain8,
Wlicic n ileal Ii-c<p1(' sil.'iioi! ever ri'if^iia,
Uiilil lie comes with liis tniiiijiet-brentli,
Tu chant h'm niillieii) of feir and death."

.. V

POLITICAL DIVI. IONS.

CHAPTER II.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

IT was incidentally mentioned, iu the previous chapter, that the Russian
CMipiro is parcelled into the two great divisions of European and
Asiatic Russia by the natural Itoundary of the Ural mountains. In
its upper part, the Ural range forms such a conspicuous natural barrier,
that its title to lix the frontiers of Europe and Asia, so far at least as the
governments of Archangel and Vologda extend, has been universoUy rec-
ognised. To the south of this, however, authorities have diflered as to
what constitutes the true division-line of the two continents. Some, in
giving the boumlary, (piit the Ural chain at the sources of the Vishera, a
tributary of the Kama, follow it down to its junction with the latter-named
river, thence down the Kama to its junction with the Volga, and iinally
follow the Volga to its mouth in the Caspian sea. This boundary has the
uuM'it of being well defmed, and of giving a prominence to the Volga, whoso •
miglity (lood would seem almost to entitle it to be the boundary of a conti-
nent. The line, however, UTore generally adopted by nuulern geographers,
and which is the one adhered to in the maps generally relied on, is to
follow the Ural chain southward till it reaches tiie sources of the river Ural,
and thence follow the course of this river to its nK)uth in the Caspian. This
boundary-line is deenu-d the preferalile one, as it has the advantage of being
at once simple and dclinite. IJetween the Caspian and IJlacIc seas, the
central chain of the Caucasus is now gen(!rally considered as tlu; natural
boundary-line of Europe and Asia; and conseiiuentl) the Trans-Caucasian
provinces, (Jeorgia, Russian Armenia, Sliirvan, Sic, more strictly belong
to Asiatic Russia. Hut, as the same i)hy3 cal region prevails on both sidea
of the Caucasian range, and the provinces on both sides are embraced in
the sanui political government, we have, as the most convenient mode of
describing them, included them all under the ilivisiou of European Russia.
The divisions of the Russian empire have dilVered materially at dilVerent
periods. Peter the Great made souic important changes in the distribu-
tion that had existed previously to his epoch. The whole, however, was
remodelled and placed on a new footing by Catherine II. in 177;"). Sho
divided the entire empire into three great regions — those of the north,
middle, and south. Each of these regions was subdivided into govern-
ments, of which there were at first forty-two, and at the end of her reign

1 I

ILLU8TKATED DESCRIFnON OF EUS6IA.

fifty. Alexiinder, in 1822, followed very nearly the divisions fixed by
Ciitherine. They arc given in the table below. Since that time, for
reasons of State, police, or war, they have been at times re-arrangeil.
The whole Empire is subdivided into a number of subordinate gov-
cniments (exclusive of certain territories called j)rovinccs, or ohlasts, not
formed into governments). Of these governments, by far the greater num-
ber belong to European Russia, which includes tI)ose classed under the
general divisions of the Baltic Provinces, Great and Little Russia,
Western, Southern, and Eastern Russia, Russian Poland, and the Cau-
casian Provinces ; while the vast tract of Asiatic Russia has been divided
into only two governments — that of Western Siberia, including the prov-
inces of Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Ycnesei ; and Eastern Siberia, comprising
the provinces of Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, Okhotsk, and Kamtschatka.

The following table, made up from the latest and most authentic sources,
gives the names, with the superficial area in square miles, and population,
of the governments and provinces into which the different sections of the
empire are divided: —

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

A>i> la S«. Ml Tor IKCO.

Thk Haltic I'n'jviNCCs :—

Finlnnii 144 000....

St. I'ftsrulmrg 18.(1(10....

E-thoiiin. 7,'j:)l)

l.ivonin. 17,n40. . . .

Couiiaiid 10 000 ... .

Total 197,170.

..1,.M9 000
. . IWI.oon
.. :il7.(HK)

. pno 000

..4,-J4 1,000

Qbbat Rcssia:—

Arclmngd 3.50,000

Vol. ig.lii 1 ,')(), (XH)

Olnni'tz ()7,(I(K

Novgorod .'tiiMVi

l'«kov CI.IHV)

Tver 24,1 K)0 1

Smolensk 21 OIK) 1

Moscow IL.'iOO 1

Yaro-liiv 17,000 1,

Kostroinii af,400 1

Nijiiei-Novgoi oil 20, 100 1

Vliiiliinir 17,.'iO0 I

Riuznii 14.000..

TRinbov 24 (KK) 1

Toiila 12,000 1

KHlougn I(),,"itiO 1

Orel, or Orlov 17,000 1

Koursk l(i,()O0 1

Voronej .10 000 1

2."iP.000
fllO.OiH)
2(!H,0(K)
<l2fi.(KK)
7'.>I.(HI(P
.T"i4,0(K)
.l'.H,(H)0
402.000
,lh.¥(m(J
,07(1,000

wn-'.ooo

.27I,(X)0

,:t'i;i,(ioo

,78I>(KXI
,2,')l,500
,02o,500
,,"■): (.1,000
,714.000
.(ill 1.0(H)

rni.iTICAt, DIVISIONS. Aii> i> So. Ml. Por \m)

.•^oi-TiiKHS U(;s«ia: —

He"i.r liin 16.000 HOB.CXK)

Klii:r^(jii ;«i,oO() H')!I.O()0

'J'liiiriilii :iO.I)()0 ,')H4,00()

Kkiitli.riiio'lnv :1.">,(K)0 (-(iH 000

Don C iw.-Hi.k9. .III.OOO 7itl,IX)0

Total..

.170,000 :i,H.">7,000

AsTHAKiiAN Province*: —
A-Inikhun 43,000 200,000

.•^iinitoi* 7:),0(K) 1 i:i.\xm

Orenburg' 12C,(XK) l,'ii<7,000

Total 917,2(j0

LiTTLB Russia;—

Teliernigov 53.000 . .

Kharkov ai,OiK)..

Poltiiva 22 000. .

22,004,000

l,4.'i!).000
I,4!I7,IHKI
l,H20i/(lO

Tot.il..

...244,0(X).

.4,030,000

Kazan I'rovinces:—

I'eroi 127,n(X) . . .

Viiilkn r>2.,'i(lO...

Sirilliirsk* 24,000...

•'••nzn I4.(H)0 ..

Kazan 2:i,.VK) . . .

...I(r70,000

...i.(;yf;,(K)o
. ..i,:i4,'i(ioo
...1,100 oi'j
... 1 :)70()0()

Total.

.241,000 7,11)0,000

Kiev 20.500 l,(k»?,0()(i

Total xe.SOO 6,414,000

WcsTEaN Russia : —

Podolia, or Podolsk ,,000 1 ,737 ()0()

Volliynia 2!) ()(H) 1 .4 T4,IK)0

^fiii^k 37.000 l,()(i7.0(Xl

Moghilev i!),:to() <1.5i)lK)0

y>'»'l'«l« lU.^M) HO-VKHI

Wilna 24400 HHHOO:)

Grodno i.',,ooo 92:),0()0

Bialystok 3,400 28.',0()0

HuMiAN Poland 47,(>I0 4,811.000

ToUl 807,310 18,949,000

Caucasian PaoviNcrs:—

(ieor-i« Iji.OOO...,

^'Iiirvnn 9,200

Armenia 8.()()() . . .

Imrrilin 4,KI0...,

Mingrcliii 7,200 . . ,

Ciiir.a 1 ,500. . . .

Ahassia 2.040

(-'ircrtssia 32,250

(.'aiieasua 40.(KI0

Dagbratan 9,300

Tout 138,920.

. .100,000

. 1,")G,0(IO

. Itio.WlO

. 170,000

. 4311,000
fi5 0()0

. .VJ.OOO

. KiO.OOO

. l.'i(l.(K)0

. 190,000

.8,217000

SiRRBIA : —

Toiiolsk fi94,000 9e's000

I'om.k 380.000 779,(K»

''■'"■■•'i-* 945.000 20,'>.0()0

''"l"""»k l.')O,(H)0 507,000

^"(•""t-k 1,4(M),(KK) Ifil.OOO

Oi''"'t'l< 170,0(K) 8.000

hanitsehiixka, &.C 81,000 3000

Totiil

Orand Total .

3,fc23,000 a,li;i2 000

...... 6,01H,3(iO 65,554,000

' Tli«M (ovrriimonM imliide in llieir ainiiunta tha >m (W,OnO *i

Jj^""; |i"l'Ul«li"ii(l,lie.l«IO) of tl.j now cut 'inKriit ut SiwaZ

""■" of i>urliun» ul tliein, \iy iinperi»l iiku* uf Dnctmbnt IS, IIM

THE BALTIC PROVINCES —FINLAND.

THE BALTIC PROVINCES.

Finland, called by the inhabitants Snomenrvma, or Land of Marshes,
lies between the sixtieth and seventieth degrees of north latitude, and the
twenty-first and thirty-second degrees of cast longitude, forming the ex-
treme northwestern portion of tlie Russian empire, including tlic province
of Viborg and the Avestcrn portion of Russian Lajdand, which are politi-
cally connected witli it. It has on the north the Norwegian province of
Finniark ; on the east, the governments of Archangel and Olonetz ; on the
south, the lalce Ladoga, the government of St. Petersburg, and the gulf of
Finland ; and on the west, Sweden and the gulf of Bothnia. Its length
from north to south is seven liundred and thirty miles ; its average breadth
is about one liundred and eighty-five miles ; and its area one hundred and
forty-four thousand square miles. Its greater portion is a table-land, reach-
ing generally from four to six hundred feet above the level of the sea, and
interspersed witli liills of no great elevation. In the north, however, are
the Mauselka mountains, with an average height supposed to be between
three and four thousand feet.

Tlie coasts, parti'-ularly in the soutli, are surrounded by a vast number
of roclty islands, separated from the mainland and from each other by intri-
cate and narrow cliannels, rendering the shores of Finland easy of defence
in case of hostile attacli by sea. But the chief natural feature of the coun-
try is its myriads of lakes, wliich occuj)y a large proportion of its surface ;
and some of which, as the Enare, Saima, Paiyane, and others, are of con-
siderable size. Tlie greater number of these are in the soutli and east ;
they have frccpiont communications with each other, and generally a])ound
with islands, the natural strength of whose situation has been taken advan-
tage of to cover them with batteries, some of them imi^regnable save to
want or famine. There are no rivers of any importance.

The climate is rigorous ; even in the south the winter lasts seven months
of the year, and the summer season, which commences in June, terminates
in August. Dense fogs are very frequent ; heavy rains take place in au-
tumn, and in May and June the thaws nearly put a stop to all travelling.
In the north the sun is absent during December and January ; but during
the short summer, while that luminary is alm.ost jierpetually above the hori-
zon, the heat is often very great, and near Uleaborg the grain is sowed and
reafMid within six weeks !

The principal geological formations are granite, which very easily disin-
tegrates, hard limestone, and slate. The soil for the most part is stony
and poor ; but how barren soever, Finland is more productive than the
opi)osito part of the Scandinavian peninsula ; and when it belonged to the
Swedish crown, it furnished a good deal more grain than was necessary
for its own consumption, and was termed the granary of Sweden. Barley
and rye are the kinds of grain chiclly cultivated, and the rye of Vasa is

-•fi

Jamm

ILLUSTRATED DKSCrdPTION OF RUSSIA.

celebrated for its excellence : wheat and oats are but little grown. Tlie
peasants arc obliged, from the huniidity of tlio atniosijhere, to dry all tho
grain in ovens, after which it will Ivcep for fifteen or eighteen years. Tulse,
hops, hemp, fhix, and a little tobacco, arc raised ; and potatoes were intro-
duced about tlie year 17<.i2, but they liave not yet been l)rought into gen-
eral use. Only a small proportion of tlic surface is under cultnre. Tho
land requires a largo quantity of manure, and that in common use is wood-
ashes, procured by setting fire to the forests and underwood, alter wliich
operation heavy crops arc sometimes obtained. Tho natural jioverty of
the soil is such that, excepting in the southern province of Tavastehus,
where it is deprived of a continual supply of artificial stimulus, the crops
rapidly fall oft', and the cleared land is soon abandoned for another portion
of soil, tho wood on Avhich is purjio.^ely destroyed. This plan of manuring
the land, though well enough aduitted to bring the fens covered with brusii-
vvood under cultivation, is highly injurious to the forests, and consciiuently
to one of the chief sources of national wealth. The forests are very exten-
sive, and reach as far north as latitude sixty-nine degrees. They consist
principally of pine and fir ; but they contain also beecli, elm, jKiplar, oak,
ash, birch, &c.

Tin. jer, deals, potash, pitch, tar, and rosin, are among the most imjjor-
tant products of Finland. Cherries and a|ii)les I'ipen at Vasa, and a spe-
cies of crab-apple grows wild in the west; but other fruits, except a few
kinds of berries, are rare. Next to agriculture, cattle-breeding and fishing
are the chief occupations of the people. Pasturage is scarce and indilVer-
eut, and forage rare ; but cattle, goats, and hogs, which are fed upon leaves,
straw, &c., are comparatively numerous. In the north, the peasants pos-
sess large herds of reindeer.

Bears, wolves, elks, deer, foxes, beavers, polecats, and various kinds of
game, abound in Finland. Seal and herring fisheries are established on
many parts of the coast ; and the salmon and strtciuliug ( C/iipca lunrngtis)
are caught in great quantities in the lakes, supjtlying the inhabitiuits with
an important part of their food. Irori-niines were formerly wrought, but
at present only bog-iron is procured. Lead, sulphur, arsenic, nitre, and a
little copper, are met witli ; salt is very scarce, and is one of the chief
articles of import.

The manufactures of Finland are quite uisignificant. Except the j)rod-
ucts of a few iron-forges, and glass, sailcloth, and hose factories, they aro
entirely domestic. The peasant prepares i.is own tar, potash, and char-
coal ; constructs his own boat-furniture and wooden utensils ; and weaves
at home the coarse woollen and other fabrics he uses. lie often lives ono
hundred miles from any town, and is therefore thrown for the most i)art
upon his own resources and ingenuity for the supply of his wants. In
some districts the inhabitants never repair to a town but to obtain salt.
The exports consist of timber, butcjier's meat, butter, skins, tar, and fish,
to other parts of the empire and to Sweden, Avith which countries the prin

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND.

46 .

RuseiAN Ki.K AND Hears,

cipal iiitoroirsc is niainfaiuod. Tlierc are a few good roads, made by the
HwodcH w'.ile they were in possession of the country ; but they do not
extend fur into the interior. Post-norsies are i'nrnislied, us in S\ve';len, by
the adjacent farmers. In conunereial dealings, tlie Russian is tlie currency
csta!)lislied by hiw ; but Swedish pauer-money is in circuhition, and is geu-
crally ])referred by the j)0])nhition.

Administratively, Finland is diviih'd into eight Ifviies, or governments,
viz., Viborg, St. Michuel, Xyland, Tuvasteluis, Abo-Hiomel)org, Vasa, Ku-
opia,and Uleuborg-kaiaini ; and the.se again are subdivided mio fog-clerier,
or districts, /uvrddcs, &c. Tlie chief towns are Ileh^ingfors, the present
capital ; Alio, tlie former cui)ital ; Tavustehus, Yasa, Uleaborg, and Tor-
nea. A Russian military governor resides at Ilelsingfors, which is one of
the great naval stations of the Baltic, and is strongly fortified. Finland
has a diet, composeu of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, citizens, and
])casantry, and a code of laws and judicial system similar to that of Swe-
den ; but tlie diet is rarely convoked, except to consent to the imposition
of fresh taxes, a senate more recently established having replaced it in the
exercise of its functions. The annual revenno derived by the crown from
Finland is about one million dollars ; the whole of it is, however, expended
in the country. Among their privileges is the one that none but a native
Finlander can hold any office of trust in the country. Tiio regiments
raised in Finland arc also not promiscuously intermixed with the general

■ ^m

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

'»'

forces of the Russian empire ; and their fleet, by far the best-manned por-
tion of the Russian naval force, forms a distinct squadron under the Fni-
nish flag. Almost all the population are Lutherans, under the bishops of
Abo and Borgo ; except in the government of Viborg, where they belong
to the Russian (Greek) church. Public education is very backward ; thcr
is a university at Helsingfors, besides schools in all the towns, Init there is
a great deficiency of country-schools.

On the western coast, and in the Aland archipelago (which is included
in Finland),* the inhabitants are mostly of Swedish origin, and in the south-
east of Russian descent ; but the great majority of the population are Finns.
The latter have, by many geographers, been identified with the Fenm of

* Tlip Aliina nicliiiirliigo is ii pniup of islnnds nt the pnlrnncp of llie gulf of BiHhniH, hctwppn
fifty-nine cli-grrcs fifty ininntt-s and sixty degrees tliirty-twci niimites north Intitniic, nnd niiirteen
degrees ten niinntes imil twenty-one degrees seven minutes enst longitude, consisting of more limn
eighty inhnliited nod npwiiid of two hundred uniuhahited Iflets nnd roeks (nhdron), oernpyinir nn
Rren of ahout fiiur hinulred and seventy square riili-s, ami divided into three olilong cliwlers liy tlio
•traits of Delet nnil Lnppvnsi. The Bultic hounds them to the south ; on tlie west the firails of
Aliindgliaf srpriralcs them from Sweden, itt width heing ahont tweniy-fo;n- mih'f ; and on the east
the stiaita of Wnltuskiftet, whieh nre seurcely two mih-s hroad where they are narnwi st, nnd iiliout
fiiurleen where they are hroiulest, interpose between them nnd the FirdaM<l shore. The piiiicijial
islands are, Aland, whieh gives name to the gnmp, .lemlaml, Lumparland, Ekeroe, I'liiilne, Kum-
Inire, Br end'ie, A'onloe, and ilanmie. The poie.dation of the whole group is fouitiin thousand,
entinly of Swedish extnution. — Most of the islands stand at a considerahle elevaliou ahove llio
level of the sen, and are intersecled liy chains of granite rcadis, whieh ocensioiudly lise into peaks,
and nre full of hollows. There nre no rivers, hut nniny small lakes. The surface is either a thin
layer of clay or rich mcudd, sinlestone, or sninl. The cUnaite, though keen, and at limes severe, is
more temperate than that of Finiaml. There are extensive fmesls, chielly of lurches and pinet;
th" pasture-grounds are very poor, excepting near some parts of the coast; and thi' nrahle jiiiid, on
which rye and hnrley arc mostly grown, pr<iihioes a sulllciency fop domestic cmisumpfion, the hesl
yielding seven-fold. Hops, cahhages, parsnips, carrots, and other roots, potatoes, and a little llax,
ure likewise raised. Nuts form an article of export. The horned cattle, of which there are upward
of twelve thousand, are small in size, and few of the cows have horns; the latter furnish the "Aland
cheeses," whieh nre much sought after, au.1 naide princijially in the island of Fouloe. Of sheep
there are nliove thirteen thousand, the wind of which is ciuiverted into coaise stuffs and .s,ii|<liiih ;
horses nnd goats are also hreil in consideinhle nund)ers. The fisheries are productive, paitienlarly
of heriings {ftrdm/in/(r) arul seals, of the first of wliich six thousand tons nnd upward are anuually
enlted. Waterfowl ahound. The expfutg consist of salt meat, hutter, cheese, hidi-s and skin i, dried
nnd salted fish, wood for fiiel, &c. ; nnd the imports of salt, colonial produce, iron-ware, woollens,
cottons, nnd other manufacttu'cs, &c. — The Alanders are excellent seami'ii, and luivigate small
vessels of their own that tra<lo with the adjacent parts; they are Swedes in their Hinginige, nam-
ners, nnd usages. There are a mmiher of good harhors, many of which have been fiirtilied hy th«
Russians, who keep up a disproportionately large military fiare in the islaTuls, as well as a miiner.
ous llotilln, called the " Skaerenfioit." — The islands ccuitain eight parishes and as nuiiiy chun-heg,
nnd seven churches or chapels of eese. Aland, the '".rgest island, is nearly circular, being nhout
seventeen miles in length nnd sixteen in breadth; it contains above nine thoesnnd iiduilutants, and
hag nn excellent harbor nt Ytlernaeg, on the wegt side, capable of contain iig the whole Russian
fleet; nnd n citadtd in which, it is said, sixty thousand men might be quartered ! It is divided by
a nniTow strait from Ekeroe, the westernmost islaiul, which has a telegraph, nnd ig iahahited by the
pilots who are emphiyed by the Russian government for conductijig the mails and travellers. On
the eastern coast of Aland is the old castle of Castleholm, new in nuns. Kumlinge has n popula-
tion of three thotisaud, — These islands were wrested by Russia frimi Sweden in 1809; and give
the former a position from whieh they may easily make u descent on the Swedish roust. The firgt
victory of the Russians over the Swedes, in the war with Churles XII., wag gained ir. the neighbor-
aood of these iglands, by Peter the Great, in 1714. ,

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND.

rSA^ANT.I or FlNLASt..

Tacitus, ard the PInrtni of Ptoloir.y. There are, liov»'cver, circuinstances
whicli give rise to consideriililo doui»t resspecti'ig such identity. The Finns
call themselves Sonvnialaisrtlo, or " iuiuibitants of the marshes." They
.have no analogy with the Slavonian or Teutonic races. They arc of mid-
dle height, and robust, flat-faced, with prominent cheek-bones, light, red-
dish, or yellowish-brown hair, gray eyes, little beard, and a dull, sallow
complexion. They arc courageous, hospitable, and honest ; but obstinate
in the extreme, and it is naid unforgiving and revengeful. They have not
the gay disposition of their Slavonic neighbors, but arc grave and unsocial
Almost every one is a poet or musician.

V.Vl

ILLUSTRATKD DKSCIUPTION OF nURSIA.

'I Hi

The customs and linl)its of tlio Finns Imvo boon liandod down (inio iin-
nioinoniil and tlioir costume foroilily l)r()n,t;lit tlioir sujiposod oastoni ori.yin
to the mind of Mr. Elliot, wlio ohsorvos, in his " Letters from tlie North
of Kuiopc:" '<I could fa uey myself in Asia. The ])oasants wear long,
loose robes, of a coarse woollen manufacture, secured by a silken cincture,
like the kumn^erbuiid of the nnissidmans. Their dress, exce|.t the Kiiro
l»ean hat, resemliles tliat of the J'oopiirrios of Cal)ul. In l?ussia or Old
Finland, the i)easants wear a cloak or caftan, sometimes called a k/id/uiit,
resemblii.g in form, as well as in name, the eastern dress." 'J'lu! Finns
make fre(iuont use of hot vapor baths, and ^falte-Hrun considers it certain
that it was they who conninniicated the custom to their lUissian con-
querors.

The Finns were i)ajians, living under their own independent kings, till
the twelfth century; about the middle of which Finland was com|uered l)y
the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. The province of VilK)rg was
conquoreil and annexed to Kussia by Peter the Croat, in 17-1. The re-
mainder of the country became part of the Russian doi'dnions (also by
conquest) in 1800.

Abo (pronounced Oho'), t'.o former capital of Finland, lies on tlie river
Auraj(»ki, between the gulfs of IJothnia and Finland. The streets of the
town strike a stranger at first as enormously wide, though they by no
means exceed the usual dimensions of Hussiaii towns ; but the low style of
building, almost universal in this town, and the number of sites at juesent
unoccupied by houses, joineil t ) the solitary ajjpearanee of its almost de-
serted thoroughfares, give an air of desolation to the wliole place. Tlie
glory of Abo has indeed dejiarted. It had once a Ihuirishing port, and a
Avell-attouded university: its trade is now inconsiderable, and its university
is removed to Ilelsingfors, the Russian capital of Finland.

A destructive fire, the ravages of wiiich are even now not fully repaired,
came to gi\o the final blow to the already sinking fortunes of Abo. This
fearful conflagration, which took place in the year lS:27,cfmsunie(l nearly
the whole city, including the miivei-sity and its valual)le lilirary, and other
public l)uibiings. The fire raged for two whole days, and was not extin-
guished until seven hundred and eighty-six houses, out of eleven hunilred,
wore a mass of blackened ruins. "When the town was nibnilt, the public
edifices, as Avell as the houses, were j)laced at a consideralilo distance from
each other, and the town now covers nuich more gnuuul than formerly,
though its inhabitants' do in)t exceed twelve thousand, which, from I)eing
spread over so large a surface, do not give one the idea of amounting even
to that nunil)or.

Abo is the most ancient city in Fiidau' • its history being coexistent
with the reign of Eric the Saint, that is, from lir)0 to 1100, the period at
which Christianity was first introduced into this wild and cold region.
The castle is as ancient as the town, and arrested more than once the on-
ward march of the Russian armies. It was in tlie dungeons of this build-

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND.

mg that Eric XIV. was imprisoned previouB to liis death, which took placo
Boine time afterward at Orebv»>us. The castle is now used as a prison, and
is garrisoned hy half a batta..^.j of infantry. The cathedral of ALo is also
highly interesting — not, however, on account of its external appearance
which is coarse and heavy, but for the architectural structure of its inte-
rior, which is of three epochs ; but this cathedral is more particularly wor-
thy of interest from its having been the cradle of Christianity in Finland :
here the first episcopal chair was instituted, and for centuries the first
families wore buried. The vaults of the chapels arc filled with their re-
mains, and some of their monuments arc not unworthy of mention. On one
of thorn is an epitaph to Caroline j^Iorsson, a girl taken from tlie ranks of
the people by Eric XIV., and who, after having worn the Swedish diadem,
returned to Finland and diod in obscurity, while her royal husband, as has
been before stated, ended his days in a prison. In the same chapel, and
at the end of it, are two stat\Jos in white marble, the size of life, kneeling
on a sarcophagus, supported by columns of black marble : tliese are the
wcaltliy and powerful Clas Tott, grandson of Eric XIV., and his wife. In
another chapel is the monument of Stulhnndsk, one of the generals and
heroes of the Thirty Years' War. The fire of 1827 completely gutted this
church, and not only were tlie altar and organ destroyed, but even the
bells were melted by the devouring clomont. Subscriptions have restored
the cathedral ; and a ■, at'iotic Finn, a baker by trade, who had amassed
about tifteen thousand do.iars in his business, and was without a near rela-
tive, left that sum to i)urthaso an organ at his death. Effect was given to
his wishes, and an organ of five thousand pipes, the largest in northern
Russia, now raises its decorated and painted head nearly to the roof of
the building.

Gustavus Adolphus founded an academy hero in 1G30, which Christina
his daugliter subsequently elevated into a university. Abo, like Amiens,
llyswick, and Cintra, is distinguished by a treaty, being the spot on which
the relations between Russia and Sweden were eettled by a peace during
the last century. Here, too, Alexander and Bornadotte concluded in 1813
that treaty which arrayed Sweden against France, and placed the Swedish
monarch, a Frenchman, in the anomalous position of fighting against his
own countrymen.

The town of Hclsingfors is, historically speaking, comparatively of mod-
ern creation, having been founded by King Gustavus Vasa in the sixteenth
century : its name came from a colony of the province of Helsinfflaml, in
Sweden, which had been established in the neighborhood for several cen-
turies. In 1639, however, the town changed its site, and the inhabitants
moved their wooden houses nearer the seashore ; and on the spot where
Hclsingfors now stands — war, plague, famine, and fire, ravaged it, each
in its turn, and the end of a century found it with a population of only five
thousand souls. At the present time it numbers sixteen thousand, exclu-
sive of the garrison.

' ■ ^

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUHSIA.

Tlic Rus.oinns liavo prrcafly anjrMiciitffl niid iiriprovcil FI('lsiiifrfor5 sinco it
came into tiioir poHscHHioii, iimrc iiarticiilarly ,'!iiiu'o (lie year ISIU, wiicn it
bijcamo tlio cajtital of Finlaiui ; tiio r<Miii»val to it of tliti university of Ai)o,
and tlio senate, after tlio conllagration <if that town in lH27,als() materially
incroaHed it« importance. Tlic streets mv Ioiils liroad, and lai<l (lut at
right angles, as in most Russian towns. Tlie houses an; largo and regular,
and 0, handsome granite quay extends along the water in front of tin; town.
Among the Ihic huildinga worthy of mention is tho senate-house. Tho
chambers in which tlie various branches of the assembly meet, for tho ordi-
nary jiurposes of business, are simple, and furnished in good taste. The
large hall, intended for the meeting t)f the senate on gr(!at occasions, con-
tains a splendid throne for the emperor, who once presided in person ; it
is hung with jwrtraits of former (i^wedish) governors of Finland. Tho
remains of the library, saveil from the fire of Abo, is at i)resent preserved
in this building. It consists of about eighty thousand volumes, chiefly edi-
tions of the clasoics taken from tho monasteries, during the " seven years'
war." An extensive collection of sag-as, or traditionary records, and
other documents, relating to the history of Finland, unfortunately fell a
prey to tho llames.

Another handsome building is tho university, which 1ms twenty-four fac-
ulties and twenty-two professors, and where may be seen the act which
incorporated that of Ai)o, with the signature of the illustrious Oxenstiern,
the Swedish prime minister under Queen Cliristina. The latter is one of the
oldest institutions of learning in Russia, having been founded Ity Gustavus
Adolpluis, as an academy, in 1G30, and subsequently raised to a university
by Cliristina, as before stated. Printing was not introduced into Finland
till 1G41, eleven years after the academy was founded, when Wald,a Swe-
dish printer, established himself at Abo.

The approach to llelsingfors by Avator is exceedingly striking: the har-
bor is viry extensive, and well protected by the works and fortress of
Swcaborg, capable of containing twelve thousand men ; these are built on
seven islands, and from the extent of the fortifications, and the strong! h of
their position, it has been termed by the Russians the Gibraltar of the north.
The original fortress was i)uilt by Count Ehreuswerd. field-marshal of Swe-
den, and completed in 1758. After the eonqniiest of Viboi'g and lugerma-
nia by Peter the Great, it was the last strou^rhold of the Swedes. In May,
1808, after two months' siege, though defei.ded by fifteen hundred men, it
capitulated to a Russian force scarcely sufticient to man the walls. This
fortress has ac(piired a recent notoriety from its unsuccessful bondiardmont
by the English and J\"ench Baltic fleet in August, 1865.

There arc several agreeable walks in tlie neighl)orhood of llelsingfors ;
and tho town is much resorted to during tho summer-months by visiters
from St. Petersburg, Rovcl, <fec.

Tornea lies on the northwest frontier of Finland, on a peninsula in the
river Tornea, where it falls into the gulf of Bothnia. It has but about one

thousand
1602, cons
erable tra
planks, tai
less so, pe
the sun is
the horizo
Tornea
1736, by t
mus, accoi
dcterminai
however, .
there is a
between tl
that mcasi
along with
by the trej
Vexed i
eomo of tl
more powi
the Finns,
kingdom,
empire, bu
Tliey can
— no anxi
ferent: t
that unco
Austria ;
Narva, an
tunes of
kindness,
the scrupi
the wliole
wanderiii
will so so(
This rema
the more
fentcd to

The go
the empir
of nortli
longitude
on the no
east, Pskc

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ST. PETERSBURG.

thousand inhabitants. This little to'.vn, which was built by the Swedes in
1602, consists of two principal streets of wooden houses. It has a consid-
erable trade in the exportation of stock-fish, reindeer, skins, furs, iron,
planks, tar, butter, pickled salmon, Ac. The climate is very severe, thougli
less so, perhaps, than might be expected from its high latitude. In Juno
the sun is visible, from a mountain in the neighborhood, at midnight, above
the horizon.

Tornea is celebrated in the history of science for the visit made to it in
1736, by the Frencli academicians Maupertuis, Clairaut, Monnier, and Ca-
mus, accompanied by the Swedish astronomer Celsius, with a view to tho
determination of the exact figure of the earth. The operations do not,
however, appear to have been conducted with sufficient accuracy; and
there is a discrepancy of about two hundred toises (twelve hundred feet)
between the length of the degree, as determined by the academicians, and
that measured by the Swedish astronomer Svanborg in 1801. This town,
along witli the grand-duchy of Finland, was ceded to Russia by Sweden,
by the treaty of Fredericksliausen, in 1809.

Vexed as the Swedes — a proud and martial people — must be to see
eome of their finest provinces torn from them, and transferred to their
more powerful neighbor, the separation was to the full as keenly felt by
the Finns. Not only from forming an influential and integral part of a
kingdom, were they at once reduced to a petty pKovince of a boundless
empire, but their ancient ties of friendship and affection were torn asunder.
They can have no great synipatliy with Russia — no fellowship in her glory
— no anxiety for her distant conquests. Rut witii Sweden it was far dif-
ferent: the steel-clad Finns formed, under the mighty Adolplius, a part of
that unconquered army that humbled to the dust the imperial pride of
Austria; and, in later days, they siuired under Charles XII. tlie glories of
Narva, and their stubborn valor retrieved for a moment the waning for-
tunes of tlie fatal day of Poltava. The very jjcople are tho same : tho
kindness, the open-hearted frankness of manner, tlie unwearied civility, and
the scrupulous honesty, of tho Swede, are alike to be met with throughout
the whole of the \\>.'>ion» provinces of Finland. The traveller, during hia
wanderings, will hardly meet with a people so attaching, or wltii whom ho
will so soon find liimself on terms of intunaey, as the Swedes and Finns.
This remark perhaps re(iulres (luallfication as applied to the peasantry of
the more eastern provinces, of the unmixed Finnish race, who arc rcpre-
Beuted to be habitually grave and taciturn.

The government of St. Petersbukg (being that In Avhlch the capital of
the empire is situated) lies between the fifty-eighth and sixty-first degrees
of nortli latitude, and the twcnty-eiglith and thirty-fourth degrees of east
longitude ; having the gulf and government of Finland and Lake Ladoga
on tho north, Olonctz on the northeast, Novgorod on the east and south*
east, Pskov on the south, and Lake Pelpus and the government of Estiionia

f'i f '• "'

O'V

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

or Revel on the west. Its greatest length from aortheast to southwest is
two hundred and sixty-five miles, and its breadth ninety miles, comprising
an area of about eighteen thousand six hundred square miles. It is, for
the most part, a low flat, coA'ered to a considerable extent with lakes and
swamps, excepting small portions of the north and south, the former being
broken by the low liills of Olonetz, and the latter partly traversed by a
ramification of the Yaldai mountains. The whole of its drainage is carried
into the gulf of Finland, cither directly by the Neva, Louga, and Narova,
or indirectly by the Volkhov, Siasi, Pacha, Tvir, and Oiat, which have
their mouths in Lake Ladoga.

The climate is severe, and the soil by no means fertile ; not above one
third of the surface is under cultivation, and the grain produced falls far
short of the consumption. The forests are very extensive. Tlicrc arc no
minerals of any consequence. Manufactures have advanced with rapid
strides, particularly in the capital, and trade, both foreign and domestic, is
very extensive.

For administrative purposes, the government is divided into eight dis-
tricts. The gTcater part of it belonged to ancient Ingria, which, during
the Avar between the Swedes and Russians, in the time of Charles XII.,
became the principal theatre of hostilities, and in consequence suffered
dreadfully. Ultimately, Peter the Great succeeded in conquering it, and
it was finally secured to Russia by the peace of Nystadt.

St. Petersburg, the capital (wliich is fully described on future i)ages),
had, up to the breaking out of hostilities with Turkey and the western
powers, the most extensive foreign trade of any city in the north of Eu-
rope. This arises not so much from its great population as from its being
the only great maritime inlet on the gulf of Finland, and from its vast and
various communications with the interior. By means partly of canals, but
principally of rivers, St. Petersburg is connected with the Caspian sea,
goods being conveyed from the latter to the capital, a distance of fourteen
hundred and thirty-four miles, without once landing them. The iron and
furs of Siberia and the teas of China are received at St. Petersburg in the
same way ; but, owing to the great distance of these countries, and the short
period during which the rivers and canals are navigable, they take three
years in their transit by water ! Immense quantities of the less bulky and
more valuable species of goods are also brought to the city during the wiii-
ter upon the ice in sledges. The j)rincipal article of export is tallow ; and
next are hemp, flax, iron, co])pcr, grain (mostly wheat), timber, potashes,
canvass, linseed and hempsecd, with their oils, furs hides, leather, cordage,
caviare, wax, tar, <fec. The chief imj)orts are sugar, and other colonial
products ; cotton yarn, raw cotton, and cotton-stuffs ; dye-stuffs, wines, silks,
woollens, hardware, fine linen from Holland, &c. ; salt, lead, tin, coal, &c.

Kronstadt, properly the port of St. Petersburg, and the principal station
of the Russian navy in the Baltic, is situated on the long, flat, and arid
itiland of Kotlia, near the eastern extremity of the gulf of Finland, and

^^■i

.....,,

about twc
an irrcgul
the mouth
side of R
pass at a
bo brougl
detached
Ricsbauk,

The 8p
coutain8 i
houses, lit
gular red-
wood, \il
number n(
is entered
ant's divij
tricts. I(
of granite
sels. Tli(
Catherine

Kronsti
a largo w(
Trinity cl
handsome
churclies,
the two Cl
occupied
other pub
witli twcn
senal, bar
the Great
by liis o\v
promcnad

The ha
three sect
tiou of III
middle hi
sels ; and
only by i
thirds of t
the depth
harbor ne
from May
opposite f-
The popu

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ST. PETERSBURG.

about twenty miles from St. Petersburg. The town is built in the form of
an irregular triangle, on the southeastern extremity of the isle, opposite
the mouth of the Neva, and is strongly fortified on all sides. On the south
side of Rotlin is the narrow channel, through which only one vessel can
pass at a time, from the gulf to the capital, and scores of guns could here
be brought to bear on an enemy, by means of n fortress erected on a
detached islet ; or, if arriving on the opposite side, by the batteries of
Riesbank, and the citadel of Kronslot.

Tlie appearance of Kronstadt is respectable. It is regularly built, and
coutaina mnny straight and well-paved streets, and several squares. The
houses, liuwever, are all low, being generally of one story, with those sin-
gular rcd-and-grccn painted roofs common in Russia ; and are mostly of
wood, \'ith the exception of those belonging to the government, which
number nearly two hundred, and are nearly all built of stone. The town
is entered by three gates, and is divided into two sections, the command-
ant's division and the admiralty, each of which is subdivided into two dis-
tricts. It is also intersected by two canals, which have their sides built
of granite, and arc both deep and wide enough to admit the largest ves-
sels. The one, Peter's canal, is used as a repairing dock ; and the other,
Catherine's canal, for commercial purposes.

Kronstadt contains three Greek churches : that of the Transfiguration,
a largo wooden edifice, built by Peter the Great, and covered with images ;
Trinity church, and St. Andrew's church, in the Byzantine style, with a
handsome cuj)ola. There are also two Greek chapels, and three other
churches, one each for Lutherans, English, and Roman catholics. Between
the two canals stands a handsome palace, built by Prince Menchikofi", now
occupied as a naval school, and attended by three hundred pupi's. The
other public building? deserving of notice are the marine hospital, fitted up
with twenty-five hundred beds ; the exchange, customhouse, admiralty, ar-
senal, barracks, cannon-foundry, &c., and the small palace in which Peter
the Groat resided, and in the gardens of which are several oaks planted
by his own hand. The shady alleys of the gardens form the principal
promenade.

The harbor of Kronstadt lies to the south of the town, and consists of
three sections : the miUtary or outer harbor, which is the great naval sta-
tion of Russia, and is cnpable of containing thirty-five ships-of-the-line ; the
middle harbor, properly intended for the fitting out and repairing of ves-
sels ; and the innermost harbor, running parallel with the last, and used
only by merchant-vessels, of which some hundreds might lie in it. Two
thirds of the external conunerce of Russia pass through Kronstadt, although
the depth of water at the bar is scarcely nine feet, and ice blocks up the
harbor nearly five months in the year ; the shipping season continuing only
from May to November. Kroiutadt has constant communication with the
opposite shores, and steamers now ply regularly between it and the capital.
The population in winter is about twenty thousand, exclusive of the gar

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OF RUSSIA.

risou, and marine ; but including tlicsc, in summor, it is not less than sixty
thousand.

The Rev. J, 0. Chonlcs, who accompanied Mr. Vandorbilt in his excur-
sion to the principal seai)Oi-ts of Europe in his I)cautiful stoani-yacht the
" North Star," in I808, mentions an interesting- characteristic of that nor-
thern latitude which they witnessed, June 21, while anchored in the road-
stead of Kronstadt : "• Tliis is the longest day [of summer], and the sun did
not set till nearly ten o'clock, and a rose again belbre two ; and all the
interval was one continued bright * ,ig^'t, so tliat we could read the s.jiall
type of a newspaper on deck with g.cat ease. At half-jjast twelve, a bright
halo indicates the proximity of the sun to the horizon during his absence.
All were on deck to witness the sun rise, and I do not think we shall soon
forget the novelty of twenty-four hours' daylight in one day."

The remaining Baltic provinces — Kstiioxia, Livonia, and Courland —
are situated on the south of the gulf of Finland, and to the east of the Bal-
tic ; and, from their importance in an agricultural point of view, rank high
among the tributary lands of the g'-oat ;-,uiocrat. They arc also known as
the German provinces, the higher classes having still retained the language
and customs of their German ancestors. These jn'ovinces present an in-
teresting field to both the student of history and the etiinograj)her.

Esthonia (anciently Esthhtml, or Revel) is situated between the fifty-
eighth and sixtieth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-third and
twenty-ninth degrees of east longitude; having on the east the government
of St. Petersburg, on the south Lake Peij^us and the government of Riga,
on the Avest the Baltic, and on the north the gulf of Finland. Its area, in-
cluding the islands belonging to it, is about seven thousand two hundred
square miles.

The surface of the country is generally flat, but diversified in parts with
undulating hills. It contains many small lakes and streams, but has no
navigable river. Its shores are bold and rocky. The climate is rigorous ;
the winters are long and severe, and fogs and violent winds are common
throughout the year.

The soil is in great part sandy, and rather infertile : the cultivable lands
are supposed to co.npare with those w^ich are uniiroductivc, including the
forests, &c., as one to three. Agriculture is the chief employment of the
population, and more grain is produced than is sufficient for Jiome con-
sumption : it '' principally rye, barley, and oats ; but wheat and buckwheat,
besides flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco, are also raised. The greater part
of the grain not reijuircd for food is set apart for the purpose of distilling
spirituous liquors, large qunntities of which are consumed by the lower
orders of the people, who are much addicted to the vice of drunkenness.
Diflfei'cnt species of pulse ar(j extensively cultivated, and form a large pro-
portion of the nourishment of the peasantry. Fruit-trees arc neglected :

'"t

i'j

iA,h)

ont certai
common f
good man
province
markets.

The ox
sheep, go(
breed of t
fish, but t
Among t\
wolf,* bad

• The wolf
the pro tan ts i
oftcnptt to th<
uaiy.th? how
nial femnlo al
itants of that
given in the <
a journey to i
yonnjfest of w
party ; the wt
turn back, wii

"The first)
of a pine-fure
look of alnrm,
dered her fror
urge* into a gi
moit hungr}' o
intention geeni
depend* on th
for itt prptervi
urcs to apppiis
the licnrt are <
man to act in i
it an object of
of the bloodt)
contciout of w
when the ditcc
on the tledge.
tide. Preitini
crowdt cloter
throw mo into
wild tumult 01
done. To etc
to arcolemto t
hind her, nnd I
•nguith ; only
— ocdupies hei
her. All nt or
ennrmoui wolf
mitted itt leaf
retting-place, 1
e'er draws the
doned, it becoi

THE BALTIC PnOTINCES — ESTHONIA.

Dut certain wild fruits are very abundant. The pine, fir, Ac., are the most
common forest-trees ; but the oak, elm, and beech, Ac, are mot with. A
good many head of live stock are roared, and some are driven into this
province from other and distant ones, to be fattened for the St. Petersburg
markets.

The oxen and horses of Esthonia are very indifferent, as well as the
sheep, goats, &c., though active endeavors have been made to improve the
breed of the latter. Poultry is abundant. The lakes do not contain many
fish, but the fisheries on the coasts arc of importance to the inhabitants.
Among the wild animals, may bo enumerated a few elks ; and the bear,
wolf,* badger, fox, Ac, inhabit the forests. -

* The wolf ii the mott cnmmon of all the wil<l animals in Esthonia. It is so great a torment to
the peasants and shepherds, that the month of December, when cold and hunger drives the wolves
oftenest to the dwellings of man, it is called by them " Vilkv Afehnct,'' or Wolf's Month. In Jana>
uary,'th9 howling of 'ho wolves is a common nocturnal music. The following account of an Estho-
nial female abandoning her children to wolves, thrillingly illustrates the danger to which the inhab-
itants of that region are exposed to attacks from these ravenous beasts. It olso explains the scene
given in the engraving on pngo 61: "An Esthonian woman, during the winter of 1807, undertook
a journey to a' distant relation, not only without any male companion, but with tliroo children, the
youngest of which was still at the breast. A light sledge, dniwn by one horse, received the little
party ; the woy was narrow, but well beaten ; the snow on each side deep and impassable ; and to
turn back, without danger of sticking fast, not to be thought of.

" The first half of the journey was piissed without accident. The road now ran along the skirt*
of a pine-furest, when the traveller nuddenly heard a suspicious noise behind her. Casting bock a
look of alarm, she sow a troop of wolves trotting along the rond, tlio number of which her fears hin>
dered her from estimating. To escape by flight is lirr fust thought; and witli unsparing whip she
urges into a gallop the horse, which itself snufTd the danger. Soon a couple of the strongest and
most hungrj' of the beauts appear ai. her side, and seem disposed to stop the way. Though their
intention seems to be only to attack the horse, yet the safely cf both the mother ai..' the children
depends on the preservation of the onimal. The danger raises its vnluo ; it seems entitled to claim
for its preservation nn extraordinary siicrifice. As the mariner throws overboard his richest trea^
nret to appease the raging waves, so hern has necessity reached a height at which the emotions of
the heart are dumb hcforo the dark commands of instinct ; the latter nione suffers the unhappy wo-
man to act in this distress. She seizes her serond child, whose bodily infirmities have often made
it an object of anxious care, whose cry even ofTonds not her ear, and threatens to whet the appetite
of the bloodthii-sty monsters — she sei/.es it with an involuntary motion, and before the mother in
conscious of what she is doing, it is ciut nut, and the last cry of the victim still sounded in her carsi
when she discovered that the troop, which hnd remained some minutes behind, again closely pressed
on the sledge. The anguish of her soul increases, for again the murdet-breathing forms are at her
side. Pressing the infant to her heaving bosom, she casts a look on her boy, four years old, who
crowds closer and closer to her knee. ' But, dear mother, 1 am good, am I not 7 You will not
throw me into the snow, like the bawlert' — ' And yet I and yet !' cried the wretched womon, in the
wild tumult of despair, 'thou ait good, but God is merciful! — Awny!' Tho dreadful deed wot
done. To escape tho furies that raged within her, the woman exerted herself, with powerless lashi
to accelerate the gallop of the exhausted hoi-se. With tho thick and gloomy forest before and be-
hind her, and the nearer and nearer trampling of her ravenous pursuers, she almost sinks under her
anguish; only the recollection of tho infant that she holds in her arms— only the desire to save it
— ocdupies her heart, and with difficulty enables it to bear up. She did not venture to looK behind
her. All nt once, two r<>ugh paws are laid on her shoulders, and iho wide-open, bloody jaws of an
enormous wolf hung over her head. It is tho most ravenous beast of tho troop, which having partly
missed its leap at the slitdge, is dragged olong with it, in vain seeking with its hinder legs for a
resting-place, to enable it to get wholly on tho frail vehicle. The weight of the body of tho mon-
c'er draws tho woman backward. Her arms rise with tho child: half torn from her, half aban-
doned, it b«comcs the prey of tho ravenois bcott, which hastily car.'ies it off into the forest. Ex-

<iO

n-LUSTRATKl) DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

A fiiw mineral products are obtained in this province, Imt tlicy arc of no
£;roat consequence. Nearly all tlie manufuctures arc domestic : the jjeaa-
aairy weave their own coarse woollfus, and some very tolerable linen
atuffs. In the islands, the building of boats is a principal employment.
Distilleries are common in every j)art ol" the country, the free use of stills
being one of the m(»st important of their ancient privileges that the Estho-
nians preserve. The chief exports are grain, si)irits, salt lish, and hidec ;
among the chief imports arc lnrrings ami salt.

The port of Revel is the centre of the tnido of the government. Foi
administrative ])urposes, the province is under the superintendence of tho
governor-general of Riga, and coii-iists of four districts (Revel, Ilapsal,
Weissenstein,aiid Weseiilierg) ; Itut it has its own provincial council, judi-
ci;;l court, etc. Nearly all the iiduibitiuifs an; Lulhcnms. A compara-
tively, very small jjroportion of the pojndation is educated.

Revel (called by the Russians Ko/i/nui), the capital of Esthonia, is sit'i-
ated on a small bay on the souili side cf the gulf of Finhmd, two hundred
miles west-southwest of .St. Retersbuig. Its iiopulation is about fifteen
thousand. The city proper, included witiiin the ramparts, is small ; and
L'though it has many good brick houses, its streets are narrow and irrega-

Ijiiusli'il, filMiiiicd, sriisclcs^. ulii" diiip'. llu> iriiis, nnrl (■(iiiliriiii'i> Iht jiinini-y, i^'iinnuit wlu'tlii'i' »lie it
di'livi'ii'd tVoiii lirr iiinniirs iir imf.

"MiiiMlitiif lliu toji'st ^rciWA iliiiiiicr, null iin !ii.<ii1jI<mI riiiiiiliniijip, to wliicli it iiiili--iiiuil li'Hila,
ir)peMis lit II nioili'mto ilistiuirc. The limsi', l< I'l to it^i'lf, (mDuvvji lliis new piilli; it ciitri's llmiii^h
u I open patn ; piiiUin^ mid fiiiiiiiiiifr it sliimls still; iilid, iiniid ii cirflc iiC piMHiiiis wlm ciow.l lolitid
with gniid-niitiiicd •iirpiisc, llin iinliiippy wiiiiiiiii fprovi'ia from lipr Miippfiiction, ti. tlirovv )ii
with n loud irri'tim of nngiiisli nrid horror, i.ilo iho iimis of tlio iiciirciit liiimiiii hrinp, wlio iippniiii to
her n« n giiiirdiaii niigel. All Inive ihc'r work — the nii>(ivi<« of llin hoimo llie kill lu'li, the thiinhpr
the bain, the eldest »oii of the fiiniily, with liiu u\e in liin hiiiid, tin- wood whieli lie liad jiist eleft
— 'o nssist the iinfortuiiiilp woinnn ; nnd, witli a nnxtiiie of oiiiiosity and pity, to lenrn, liy n liuiidrpd
inquiries, the cirrumstiinrei of lier siiiRiilar ii])penniiiep. Hefreihed hy whiitevcr cnn bn prorurod
at the monipiit, the ntninper gradiiiilly reeoveis ilip po«iTof »peeih, and ahilily (o pivp an iutclli-
pihlp account of the dreiidfiil dial which she hnn iin<lei;;(ine. The insensihility «il!i which fenr and

distress had Blepled her lieart hi'gins to disappear; hut new terrors seize hei llip dry rye seeks in

vuin a tear — slip is on the brink of hoiindless misery. Hut 'ler narrative had ulso excited conflict-
ing feelings in the bosnins of her ouditorn; though ]>ity, conimiserulion, dismny, and ablioiTcnre,
imposed alike on all the same involuntary silence. One only, unuhlo to command the ovpi-jm-.ireriiig
emotions cf !iis heart, advanced before the rest — it was lliP young man with the axe; lii» cheeks
wprp pplp with nffiipht — his wihlly-rollinp eyes flashed ill-omened fire. 'What!' he exclaimed;
'three children.— thine own children I — the sickly innocent — the imploring boy^the infant <iurk-
linp — all cast out by the mother, to be devoured by the wolves! Woman, thon art unworthy to
live!' And, at the same instant, the uplifted tteel descends witli resistless force on the skull of the
wretched woman, w ho falls ilead at his feel. The perpetrator then calmly wi|)e« the blood off the
murderous iixe, and returns to Ids work,

"The dreadful tale speedily cuine to the knowledge of the mngistrntes, vho caused the uncalled
avenger to bo nirested and brought to trial. He was, of course, sentenced lo the punishment
ordained hy the laws; but the sentence still wanted the sanction of the emperor. Alexander caused
nil the circumstances of this crime, so extraordinary in the motives in which it originated, to be
reported to liiin in the most careful and rUtailed ii aiiiier. Here, or no'*here, b« tiiought himself
CAiled on to exercise tlie godlike preiogalive of mercy, by coinmiiting the sentence passed i n the
c:iniinnl into a coiidemnalion to labor not very severe; und he accordingly sent lie young mon t*
tV.9 fortress of Uiinainunde, at the mouth of the Dunn, there to be confined to labor during dia
cmiieror'f pleasure."

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ESTHOXIA.

Otf

lar. There are several Lutheran, a Roman catliolic, and some CJrcok
churches, all stone edifices ; and various charitaMc and educational estab-
lisiiincnts, the latter includin>>; a pyninasium, episcopal seminary, and a
school (prusion^ for nobles. The castle, a modi-in edifice, is appr(»priated
to the provincial authorities : the municipal officers, who arc elected by the
city, reside in the town-hall. The admiralty is the principal remaining
public buildinjr. The suburbs, consistin|r mostly of wooden houses, cover
a large extent of ground along the shore. Revel is much resorted to as a
walering-pluce, and has some good warm baths, a theatre, several clubs or
casinos, and three or four public liliraries, one of which, the property of
the city, is said by Possart to contain ten thousand volumes.

Tliis town is one of the stations for the Russian fleet, and has a harbor
defended by several batteri(>s. This port, which was materially improved
in 1S'20, is deeper than that of Kronstadt, though more difficult of en-
trance. The roadstead, formed by some islands, is well sheltered. The
long durati(»n of the frost is the principal drawliack on Revel as a naval
stafion, thougli tluit is a disadvantage which it shares in common with the
other Russian ports in (he Haltie.

Tliough not connecffd with the interior by any navigable river, Revel
has a consideral)Ie trade. Its i)rincipal exports arc grain, spirits, hemp,
flax, timber, and otlu'r Haltie produce ; the imi)()rts consist of colonial
produce. li(>rrings from Holland and Xiu'way, salt, cheese, wine, toliacoo,
fruits, dye-stufl's, cotton yarn, stufl's, and otlier nnmufactured goods, &c.
* 'lortion of the customs' revenue is enjoved bv the town.

Revel was founded by the Danes in 121H, and afterward sold by them
to the knights of tlie Teutonic order. In l"»t»1,it came into the poss<'ssion
of the Swedes ; Itut, as before renuvkcd, in treating of the province, it waa
taken from them by the Russians in 1710.

Like ancient Thelu-s, Revel is enterccl by seven gates ; they arc all pic-
turesque erections, decorated with various historical mementos, the arms"
of tlie Danisli domination, tlie simple cross of the order on the municipal
siiield t)f the city. The Sihiuicvtlvtfottc \i celebrated for a daring act of
nuigistcrial justice, which tunk place iu 1 onf). At all times a petty ani-
mosity had existed between the rich burghers and the lawless nobility of
the ju-ovinee, wlio troul»leil the eonimeree of tlie city, and laughed at the
laws of the former; iind, on one n casion, the atrocious murder of one of
liis own peasants in the streets of Revel, l)y Baron Uxkidl, of Reiscnberg,
so exasjierated the magistrates, tluit they menaced the murderer with the
utmost severity of tiie law if ever he came within tlieir Jurisdiction. Nev-.
ertlieless, and despising their threat, tlie baron, attended by a slender reti-
nuc, entered the city in mere bravado ; when the magistrates, true to their
word, seized liim, and after duo trial he was condennied and executed in
full view of his friends, without the walls, beneath the Svhmiedepforle.
Long andrsanguinary were tlie disputes which followed this act; and, as
some pacification to Uxkiill's memory, the burghers walled up the gate

«4

ILLUSTRATED DKSCIIIPTIO.V OF ni'SSFA.

way, which was not rooponod till the begimiinj? of tin? |irt'scnt ooiifiiry.
In the summer thoro is an uiiiuml fair, calI'Ml tin) Jahniiiirkt, which la
held beneath the old olin-trees before the church of St. Nicholas — n most
interesting scene to the stranger — and forms the; morning lounge of tho
inhabitants during that season of the year. In the evening, Cutherinthal
is the favorite promenade. This is an imperial limttirhfosn, or i)alace, at a
little distance from the town, suiTounded with fine trees and well-kei»t
grounds, or what is li 're termed "t'm siipcrhrr jxirk,'^ wiiich during six
weeks of the summer months is thronged with lashionalile groups, who eat
ices, drink chocolate, talk scandal, and make love, as j>eople do elsewhere.
This residence, whii-li is literally a bower of verdure redeemed from a
waste of sand, is tho jdeasant legacy of Peter the Oreat to the city of
Revel. Being a frc(iuent visiter to Revel, it was here that he iirst erected
a modest little house boneath tho rocks of the Laoksbrrg, from the win-
dows of which he could overlook his infant fleet riding at anchor in tde
bay, and which still exists. But a few years previtms to liis death, the
present palace, within a stone's throw of his Dutch house — for all Peter
the Great's own private domicils testify whence he drew his first ideas of
comfort — was constructed, which he surrounded with pleasure-grounds,
and presented to his consort, by the name of Calherinlhal. This gift he
increased by the purchase of surrounding estates to the amount of several
millions of dollars — sufiicient to have assured to the empress, in case of
need, a fitting retreat from the frowns of Russian fortune. These estates
have been gradually alienated and bestowed on private individuals, and
Catherinthal is reduced to little more than its gardens. It has been tlio
temporary sojourn of all the crowned heads of Russia in succession ; and
the treaty of peace concerning Silesia (wrested from Austria by Frederick
the Great soon after his accession), between the two most powerful wo-
men of coeval times whom the world has ever known — Maria Theresa of
Austria, and Catherine II. of Russia — was ratified hero.

LivoxiA (called by the Russians Lijliandiin, and by the Germans Liv-
land, or Liejland} is situated on the Baltic, having on the north the gov-
ernment of Esthonia ; on the east the lake Pcipus, separating it from tho
government of St. Petersburg, and the governments of Pskov and Yitepsk ;
on the south the latter and Courland ; and on the west the gulf of Livonia.
Its length from north to south is about one hundred and sixty miles, and
its average breadth one hundred and seventeen miles. Including the island
of (Esel, in the Baltic, it has an area of about seventeen thousand three
hundred square miles.

The coast and the greater part of the surface of this province arc flat and
marshy ; but in the districts of Venden and Dorpat are some hills of con-
siderable elevation ; Eierberg, one of these, being nearly eleven hundred
feet in height. There are several extensive lakes : the principal, Virtserf,
which is twenty-four miles in length, by from two to six in breadth, com-

THE DALTIO PHOVINCES — LlVONrA. W

munlcatos with tlio luko Pcipus hy the Eiiiliach. HcHidoH tlio lust named,
the ehief rivers are tlie Duiia, which forma the southern boundary, the Evst,
and the Holder-Aa.

The soil of Livonia, though in some parts loamy, is in general sandy ;
but, being al)unduntly watered, it is, by pn)por manuring, rendered very
productive. Rye and barley are the ])rincipal crops, and more of both is
grown than is required for home consumption. Wheat and oats are less
cultivated ; bucltwheat is raised on sandy soils ; flax, hops, and pulse, aro
also produced, and the potato culture is on the increase: fruits aro of very
indifi'erent tjuality. In some districts, agriculture is tolerably well con-
ducted. The forests aro an important source of wealth, and supply excel-
lent timber. Tiiey abound also Avitli game, of which every landowner is
the sole proprietor of all on his domain. In this manner, many noblemen,
in addition to the bears and wolves, the latter of which are sonietin js very
destructive to the cattle, may count whole herds of deer, elks, foxes, and
lynxes, among their live stock. IJut as in any of the Gennan ])rovinces it
is never customary for one noble to exclude another from his hu'. ting-
grounds, each landholder is privileged to sport over the whole country.
The rich landowners sometimes invite all their neighbors for twenty miles
round to a great hunt (tlie [(reparation for which is seen in the engraving
on the following page). The field is then taker> for eight successive days
against tlie shy iuhal)itants of the forest, in sledges, droskies, and coaches,
or on horseback, accompanied by multitudes of peasants and dogs. The
meal- are taken under the shade of a lofty fir-treo, from which a lynx has
just been expelled, or in the den of a bear which lias just been overcome,
or in the lair of a newly-s' .' elk. SonuM iines a corps of musicians accom-
panies the party, and cards and dice are sebh^ni wanting. It might bo
imagined that Tacitus hail made his remarks on the ancient triiies of
Germany, in these haunts of their unsophisticated descendants ; excc|)t
that, instead of savages clothed in bearskins, tliese hunters are always well
dressed, sometimes young and liandsome, and generally well educated and
intelligent. The a.ssumiiig of the tog-a virilig was th<> great era in the lifo
of a Roman youth. The fowling-piece is here an emblem of ♦'•■, ■ iine sig-
nificance. Even little boys, as soon as they can stand alone, arc initiated
into the merry life of the hunter, and father, son, and grandson, often hunt
together. The first elk shot by a nobleman's son is talke 3 of half his lifo ;
and the last bear compiered by an old man, before his death, is long thought
of with mournful pride by his friends. In some noble families the passion
for hunting has taken such deep root, that every member of it is a modern
Nimrod ; while in others, few in numbers, a dislike to sporting is an heredi-
tary characteristic. There arc many noblemen to be found who were never
out of their forests and wildernesses, who in the seventy years of their
existence have used up more than a hundred calfskins for hunting-boots,
and who have expended more saltpetre on game than their forefathers
required to conquer the country !

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

PnEPABINO rOB TUB CHAIR.

The rearing of live stock, though not altogether neglected, does not re-
ceive adequate attention ; the breed of black cattle is, however, in the
course of being improved. Horses and sheep are very inferior. The fish-
eries, both on the coast and in the frosli waters, are important. Clialk,
alabaster, and other calcareous materials, are aljundant.

Rural industry and the distillation of si)irits arc by far the most impor-
tant occupations. The manufactures of this government are, however,
more extensive tlian those in its vicinity. The peasantry spin linen yarn,
and weave their own cloths ; and in the towns, especially Riga, there are
sugar-refineries, and tobacco, woollen-cloth, cotton, linen, glass, and other
factories, which employ about four thousand hands, and produce goods to
the amount of eleven or twelve millions of roubles* a year.

* Till' rtymolopy of tbf wmil " rouMc" in fVi)m tlir Rinsiun wnrd ruliit, to rut, or liew off; ai
in foiTTipr times silver wus cuiront only in Imrs, liuni wliicli it wng custoniiiiy for ii ilclitor to strike
off with n lininmor nnil cliisol tlio nmotint wliii-h he hiul to pny. The rouble is of two kin<U, very
different in vuliie: the silver rouble (wliirli is the |j|isi» of nil finnncinl tmnsnrtions), worth about
•cventy-fivo cents, and wliich is (lividerl into inie hundred gilvei- "ropeks;" iind the piiper rouble,
about equal to a franc, or nineteen cents, nnd which is di\idi'd into one huiuired copper copekt.
The paper rouble was oiigiuidly of ihe snini! value as the silver rouble, but it bccamo vriy much
depreciated in consequence of the vast quantities issued to meet the want* of the government, A
ukaso of July 13, 1843, created i>. new paper money (liilleln de credit), of the nominal value of the
■ilvcr rouble, an<l intended to supersede llie old paiier rouble. Although guarantied by • fund

The 1
and the
nians, I
Lives, t
derived
the tow]
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hold rea
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But, aftc
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Livoni
Baltic pr
and lias |
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The othe:
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from its c
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the Russo
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iliiiii.'i wiir-tln
thut wbiuh bef

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — LIVONIA.

^'M' -I

The northern part of Livonia formerly constituted a portion of Esthonia,
and the southern a part of Lithuania. The population consists of Estho-
nians, Lithuanians, Russians, Germans, and (along a portion of the coast)
Lives, the most ancient inhabitants of the country, and from whom it has
derived its name. About eighty-five thousand of the inhabitants reside in
the towns, and these, as well as the nobles, clergy, &c., are chiefly of Ger-
man descent. Until 1824, the Esthonians and Lithuanians were in a state
of predial slavery ; now, however, they are free, but without the right to
hold real property. The prevailing religion is the Lutheran ; there are
only about twelve thousand individuals of the Greek church, and other
professions of faith. Education is tolerably advanced in the towns, and
the university of Dorpat, in this government, is the first in the empire.
But, after all, few of the inhabitants are said t_ be receiving public in-
struction.

Livonia has a governor-general, whose authority extends over other
Baltic provinces ; but it has its own provincial assembly, magistracy, &c.,
and has preserved many peculiar privileges, among which is that of exemp-
tion from the state monopoly of ardent spirits. It was divided into nino
I districts by Catherine II. Riga, the capital, is the centre of its commerce.

The other chief towns are Dorpat, Pernau, Fell in, and Arensbui'g in the
island of (Esel.

Riga, the capital of Livonia, is situated on the Duna, about nine miles
from its embouchure in the gulf of Riga. Its population, including tho
garrison of ten thousand men, is about seventy thousand. About two tliirds
of the resident population are Lutherans, the rest consisting of members of
the Russo-Greek churdi, Roman catholics «Src.

Riga is- strongly fortified. It consists of the town, properly so called,
and the suburbs ; the former l)eing entirely enclosed by the fortifications.
The streets in the town are narrow and crooked, and the houses generally
of brick. In the suburbs, which are much more extensive, the streets arc
broad and regular, and the houses mostly <>f ^ood. One of the suburbs
lies on the left bank of tho river, the communication with it being main-
tuined by a bridge about twenty-four hundred feet in length.

Among the public buildings are the cathedral, consecrated in 1211, and
rebuilt in 1.547 ; the church of St. Peter, built in 1400, with a tower four
hundred and forty feet in lieight, being the most elevated in tho empire,
and commanding a fine view of the city and adjacent country ; the castle,
the seat of the chancellery, and of the general and civil governors ; hall of
the provincial states, town-house, exchange, arsenal, &c. A magnificent
column, surmounted by a colossal bronze statue of Victory, was erected in
1817, by tho mercantile body, in honor of the emperor Alexander and the

?■;.!?>!

H^i

dopoHitrd in the rniiltn nt the fortress of St. Potersbnrs, nnd rccelvablo in payment of taxes, custntns,
niii) ill fiict all debts wliutover, tlio heavy einisston oaUtul for to meet the exi);enciFS of the gnvvTiinii-iit
tliii iii^ wiir-timos has caused them to fall rapidly in value, and they rvaohed as Rreat a depinciatiun as
that which befell the old issue.

mimm

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Russian army. Among the literary establishments arc a gymnasium, a
lyceum, a school of navigation, and various elementary schools, a public
library, an observatory, a society of Lettonian literature, «fec. In the library
are contained a curious arm-chair that once belonged to Charles XII., a
very old bible, some letters written by Luther to the senate of Riga, and
a ball which is said to have been fired by Tetcr the Great in the siege of
1710, and lodged in the wall of the library. The esplanade and gardens,
both in and near the town, are well laid out. There is a celebrated festi-
val held here on St. John's day, the 24th of Juno, called " the Flower-
Feast;" also one wliich bears the singular title of the '■'• Hugger Sorroiv,"
in commemoration of a siege in which the inliabitants suffered greatly from
famine.

The manufactures of Riga arc of no great importance, tliough of late
tliey have materially improved. Tliose of cotton, cloth, and rugs, arc the
most important. There are also various sugar-houses, tobacco-manufacto-
ries, breweries, &c.

Owing to her situation on a large navigable river, Riga is the entrepot
of an extensive country ; and is, in respect of foreign commerce, the next
town in the Russian dominions to St. Petersburg. Grain used to be the
principal article of export, but it is now far sur])assed by flax and llax-
secd, the exj)orts of wliich have iucroasod very rapidly. Tlio other great
articles of export are hcmj) and henipHced, timber, including masts and
deals, hides, tallow, coarse linen, and canvass, &c. The imports consist
principally of sugar, and other colonial products, dye-stuffs, wines, cotton,
cotton-stuffs and cotton-yarn, woollens, salt, hcri'ings, &c. There is a bar
at the mouth of tlie river, which has usually from twelve to thirteen feet of
water ; and it is custonmry for vessels drawing more than this to load and
unload the whole or a part of their cargoes at I3older-Aa, a small port out-
side the bar. The entrance to tlie river, at Dunamunde, is guarded by a
fort, where is also the customhouse. The shi])s arriving at Riga vary from
one thousand to fift.^en hundred a year. If we may depend upon tlie offi-
cial accounts, the city has increased very rapidly, though it has occasion-
ally suffered consideral)ly from inundations.

Dorpat lies on the Embach, and on the high road between Riga and St.
Petersburg, one hundred and fifty nulos northeast of the former, and ono
hundred and seventy miles southeast ol llie latter city. It has over four-
teen thousand inhabitants. The history of this town io a stirring and
Btormy one. The Russians from the east, the Teutonic knights from tho
west, the quarrels of both with the aboriginal Esthonians, and tho bloody
wars between the Russians, Swedes, and Poles, more than once laid it in
ashes. Its university was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1(382, the year
of his death (wliile leading his troops at the great battle of Lutzcn, againHt
the Austrians), and, after various vicissitudes, it took refuge in Sweden,
to avoid the Russian army, in 1710. Professors, students, libraries, muse-
ums — all departed; and returned only under tho auspices of the emperor

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — LIVONIA.

Alexander in 1802. It now contains forty-ilve professors, and six hundred
! T more students, and has a high reputation in Russia.

Among the professors at this university one name may be cited of great
fame — that of Struve, whose astronomical labors have procured him a
well-earned reputation throughout Europe. The observatory on the Dom-
berg, from the character of the work done there, is ranked among the most
celebrated institutions in this brunch of science. Here is a great refract-
ing telescope, the work of Frauenhofcr, mounted in such a manner that tho
iron roof, revolving round a vertical line, affords complete protection from
the weather without hindering the view of any point in the heavens. This
was desigi.od and constructed by Mr. Parrot, and so beautifully is it exe-
cuted, tliat one hand is enough to impel and guide the machinery which
moves the telescope and roof. The emperor Alexander presented the tele-
scope to the University. Struve was at the head of the observatory neai*
St. Petersburg, and the telescope which he dii*ected toward the heavens
is on a far more gigantic scale than his old friend of Dorpat. Some of the
ai)paratus wliich was used in measuring a portion of the meridian of Dor-
pat is to be seen here. Tiie library has a very curious locality, being situ-
ated in the ruins of the old Dom. The views hence are very fine. The
broad crown of the hill, adorned by numerous avenues of trees, is called
Cathedral phice : the ruins of a church, destroyed in 1775, by a fire which
consumed nearly tho wliole town, explains the origin of this name.

On the Douiberg are like vise the schools of anatomy and natural history,
tlie museums, ttc. The philosoi»hical instruments are remarkable for their
having been made for the most part by a Russian artisan of the name of
SamoilolT. Of all the collections of the university, that of the botanical
garden is the most comj)lote ; it contains more than eighteen thousand
plants, some of which are not to be found in the other botanical gardens
of Europe.

Dorpat, like Revel, had once its corps of Schwarze Haevpter, or " asso-
ciation of citizens for the defence of the city." It is now a mere convivial
club. Among its treasures is a magnificent goblet of glass and gold, two
feet high, on the side of which arc engraved a beetle, a humming-bird, and
a butterfly. Whoever could only drink to the beetle, was fined two bot-
tles ; whoever reached the humming-bird, only o'ne ; and he whose draught
attained as deep as the butterfly, was exempt from fine.

With tl)e exception of tho Dom, no vestige remains at Dorpat of the
ancient Gothic nucleus of the town ; all is new. The fortifications have,
as at Frankfort and Hamburgh, been converted into agreeable promenades.
A granite bridge over the Embach, which is navigable up to Dorpat, adds
not a little to the apjwarance of the town.

Near Dorpat is the picturesiiue ruin of Schhss Riiig-en, formerly one of
tho largest castles of Livonia. These ruins are a perpetual monument of
tho ferocious feuds between two neighboring noblemen, tho lord cf Ringen
and tho lord of Odempa. An old family quarrel between them had been

i kl

mma

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

heightened by various personal insults into the deadliest mutual hatred.
Notwithstanding this, they sometimes, when their interests demanded it,
visited and entertained one another with outwc id civility. One day the
lord of Ringen invited the lord of Odempii to a banquet. The latter came,
enjoyed the feast much, and was particularly pleased with one costly dish,
which his host strongly recommended to him — so much so, that he wished
to know what it was made of; but this Avas a sc^ ;ct, said the lord of Rin-
gen. As the visiter was returning to Odemp.i, however, a servant was
sent after him, with u message, that if he roju.'mb' i'cd wliat the Persian
king Astyages, son of Cyaxares, served up to his servant Ilarpagus, he
would kn w how the delicate dish wliich had pleased him so much was
composed. The horror-struck liither flew home to seek his only little fon,
but sought him in vain : the lord of Ringen had served up to him for dinner
his own son's heart and brains !

The infuriated nobleman attacked Schloss Ringen that same night with
all his men ; and, though the lord of Ringen was prepared for the attack,
yet the superhuman fury of the iaiher, and the justice of his cause, over-
came all opj)osition. The castle was stormed, reduced to ruins, and the
hearts and brains of its defenders thrown to the dogs.

The histories of these old Livonian castles are often very romantic and
tragical ; and, though these bloody feuds have been modified by the spirit
of the age, the animosity of ncigliboring nobles now develojjs itself in in-
terminable litigation.

CoURLAND (which the Slavonians call Kors, and the Germans Knrland')
is bounded on the north by Livonia and the gulf of Riga, on the west by
the Baltic, on the south by Wilna and a small p )rtion of Prussia, and ou
the east by Vitepsk. Its greatest length from n '»thwest to southenst 'li
two hundred and thirty miles ; its breadth varies i>)m one hundred and
fifty miles, and diminishes from west to east, till it tci 'ninates almost in a
point. It comprises an area of a))out ten thousand square miles.

In the neighI)orhood of Mittau, the capital, the surfoco is diversified by
bills of very moderate height — Iluneinberg and Silberberg, the highest,
not exceeding five hundred feet ; but elsewhere, and particularly toward
the «;()ast, it is flat, and contains extensive sandy tracts, often covered with
heaths and morasses. AI)out two fifths of the whole government are occu-
pied by forests, and there are no fewt;r than three hundred lakes, mostly
of small extent ; but Usmeiten, the largest, has a circuit of twenty-four
miles, is in many jilaces twelve fathoms deep, and abounds with fish. The
principal rivers are the Aa and the Windau. Tlie latter is al<ove one hun-
dred and fifty yards wide at its mouth, and ])enefited by being connected
with the Niemen by a canal, commenceJ in 1825. The extent of the sur-
face occupied by swamps and lakes produces frecjuent mists, rendering tho
air both damp and cold ; but tho climate, notwithstanding, ia said not to
be unhealthy.

Agric
more ad
the land
and hea
yields 1;
neigliboi
oecds th
is indifl'c
of the fo
sidered 1

The li
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the Gem
disappea
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fifty, are

inhabitar
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the bhej)
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ccssful.
that of b(
it is in m

i^mL

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — COURLAND.

Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and is in a
more advanced state than in some of the neighboring governments, though
the land is generally of a light, sandy texture, and requires to be frequently
and heavily manured. The best soil is on the frontiers of Livonia, and
yields large crops of barley and oats, but very little wheat. In the same
neighborliood a little hemp and flax are grown. The grain produced ex-
ceeds the consumption. Fruit-trees thrive tolerably well, but the produce
is indifTerent. Tobacco, too, is grown, but only in patches. The timber
of the forests consists of birch, alder, beech, pine, and oak, but is not con-
sidered fit for shipbuilding.

The horses, cattle, and sheep, are generally of inferior breeds ; but at-
tempts luvve been made to improve the last by tlie introduction of the me-
rino. I'' all tlic larger forests, tlie gigantic elk of tlie north abounds ; but
the German nobles take such delight in luinting it, that it seems likely to
disappear in some districts. Elks are most numerous in eastern Courland,
on the frontiers of Livonia, wliere twenty or thirty, and sometimes forty or
fifty, are often killed iu one day's hunting. The original (or Slavonic)

Elk IIONTiNo in Cou»land— " In at thk Dkat'i."

iulmbitanta of the country, behave more generously to this noble animal ;
and a female elk is often seen feeding, with her young ones, along with
the sliepherd and liis (lock. The elk has never been tamed, and all at-
tempts to turn its gigantic strength to the service of man have been unsuc-
cessful. Its Hesh, whieli is a very frequent dish hero, has a taste between
that of beef and venison. Tlie skin forms extremely hard and thick leather ;
it is in many places impenetrablo to a musket-ball. An elk is seldom killed

' 1^

•^;;a:,;i

ILLUSTRATED DEfsCRIPTION OP ET'SmA.

by tho first or second sliot ; tlioy sometimes oven escape witli four muskot-
buUcts in tho body. The bear has quite abandoned this province ; hares
and deer are common, and the wild liog is a frequent ^uest from Lithuania.
The fishing, particularly along the coast, is of an average annual value of
about fifteen thousand dollars. The minerals are confined to a little iron,
limestone, and amber. The manufacturua are insig liCcant, with the excep-
tion perhaps of tiles, which are made to a consideral 'o extent. Distilleries
also arc numerous.

Mittau, the capital, is the only town of any size ; the principal seaports
are Libau and Windau, both on the western coast. About half of *ho in-
habitants belong to the primitive race of Lettes. Th-y chiefly o{ cipy tho
rural districts, and, up to 1820, were divided into peasao!'^ and ^inl- . At
present they are free, -iul do not jtossess any proj)c; ly. The picvniling
religion is Lutheran -the Greek cliurch, notwithstandiiig the proselytinj;
attempts of the Ru.'^siaii,-.. liarely counting lift<'fu thousand adherents.

Mittau (Lettish, Jchava), the capital of thi above government, is situ
ated in a low, fiat, and sandy dit^'uL, on the river Aa, over which is a
bridge of boats, twenty-five miles , uu!hw'--t of T?i;;.>. It covers a very
largo space, of wliicli, however, a consitKjrabI*} jiortion is occupied by gar-
dens, and is on tlso whole very ijulifiercu'.'/ i)uih ; tho houses are chiefly
of wood, painted greoji or rediliaii-brown. Many uf the streets arc narrow
aii'l crooked, but some are also wide, straiglit, and regular. The moat
iui cresting building is the castle, the residence of the old dukes of Cour-
land (who governt'd the pro^ ince after its recovery from Poland until its
incov{)oiPtion with Russia in 1705). It had almost become a mere ruin,
when, in 173U, .\farshai Biron, tlio favorite of the empress Anne, when ho
was chosen chief of the Courland chivalry, comnjenced a palace on tho
samo site, which h.' (.ouipleted after his return from exile. It stands on
an island, surroundeu hy the canals of the Aa,and is built in the Vei-sailles
style. A fire nearly dei^troyed it in 1788, when it was rebuilt, and bubse-
quently became '.he residence of Louis XVIII. of France, when travelling
under the title t)f Count do Lille. It is now inhabited by the chief officers
of the city, and a portion of it is set apart for the imperial family.

Among tho otlier buildings of Alittau, may bo mentioned four churches
— a Greek, a Roman catholic, a Lutheran, and a reformed; three Jewish
synagogues, a umseum, a library of twenty thousand volumes, an observa-
tory, a gyumasium with nine professors, a hospital, an orphan and a lunatic
asylum, a casino, and a theatre capable of containing three thousand spec-
tators. Its manufactures, v.hich are of little moment, include linen, hosiery,
soap, and leather ; and its trade is very limited. The population is about
thirteen thousand. ,.

Libau (Lettish, Lepeia) is situated on the Baltic, beside the lako Libau,
being the most southern Russian port on that sea, and therefore possesses
an importance from its becoming navigable earlier in the spring than any
other. It is walled, and entered by a gate from the north. Its streets are

narrow,

ular. 1

Roman (

lum. T

water, a

has, how

Ooni'lanc

it. Its

oi\, ^ uiti

Its popul

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the most

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The pi
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worship ]
the rest c
ceaseless
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and thren
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aters, wlic
forefather
founded li
wortliies <.
(^Schwert
Bremen ni
tho foundi
In the fi
ily enlargt
and despi.^
sion to tin
the shores
reported t
sentation (
describing
Christian
They were
anny with
tho arms o
of such foi
half a cent
wide throu

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY.

narrow, and mostly unpaved ; and its market-place, though large, is irreg
ular. The houses arc of wood, and only one story high. It has Lutheran,
Roman catholic, and Calvinistic churches, a hospital, and an orphan asy-
lum. The port, tljough commodious, has only from eight to twelve feet of
water, and can not, therefore, be entered by vessels of much burden. It
Itas, however, a considerable trade : the greater part of the produce of
Coiirland, as cattle, linseed, grain, hides, tallow, tfec, being exported from
it. Its imports are chiefly colonial products, manufactured goods, wine,
{»i], f uits, &c. The distance from Mittau is one hundred and five miles.
Its jiopulation is about five thousand.

Windau is situated at the mouth ol Ihc river of the same name, and is
the most northern town in the government of Courland. It forms a sort
oi'u. uiaturc copy of Libau, and its importance is mostly a i)rospective one.

The provinces on the eastern coast of the Baltic were originally peopled
by tribes of Wcndish origin, who held fast to tlicir heathen rites and idol-
worship long after Christianity was pennancrtly established tliroughout
the rest of Europe. Warlike, restless, and jdratical, they were engaged in
ceaseless struggles with the Danes and other powers of the north, but,
above all, with the Ilanso Towns of Oermany, crippling their commerce,
and tlirentouing the very existence of the infant mercantile republic. A
j)owerful fleet was speedily equipped, and a landing effected on the coast
of Livonia. A species of crusade was preached against these warlike idol-
aters, whose stuliborn attachment to the dark rites and ceremonies of their
forefathers defied the zeal and ehxpienee of the military prelates who
founded Riga and Yorkeel toward the close of the twelfth crntury. These
worthies established the order of the '* Brethren of the Cross and Sword"
{Schwert Bruder}, the members of which were principally natives of
Bremen and Lulieck, to the former of which cities Albrccht von Apelden,
the founder of the order, belonged.

In the full spirit of the name they bore, these warlike adventurers speed-
ily enlarged the territories of the Ilaiise Towns. Ignorant of the lunguago
and despising the habits of the natives, their principal weapon of conver-
sion to the true faith was that swoi-d by which they held their footing on
the sI>ores of the east sea ; though on one occasion the bislioj) of Riga is
reported to have edified the minds of heathen Wends by a dramatic repre-
sentation of a variety of scenes from the Bible, while all writers con<',ur in
describing the cruelties practised upon the unbelieving natives by these
Christian warriors as of the most revolting and barbarous description.
They were not long permitted to pursue their career of conquest and tyr-
anny with impunity. On t!ie north, they were compelled to recoil before
the arms of the Dane ; while the Russians, alarmed at the near approach
of such formidable neighbors, roused the natives to avenge the wrongs of
half a century of oppression : and the flame of insurrection spread far and
wide throughout Livonia and Estiionia. Many Gerumus were cut off by

WHHMMi

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

the insurgents ; but at length Bishop Bernhard, falling upon their tumultu-
ous forces with his disciplined chivalry, routed the Wends and their allies,
and slew them mercilessly. The Russian town of Dorpat was taken, and
a German colony established there, in 1220. The capture of tlic isle of
(Escl, to the rocky fastnesses of which the best and bravest of the Livo-
nians had retired as a last refuge, and the voluntary conversion of the
Courlanders, coni])lctcd tlie j)0\vor of tlie brotlicrhood.

In 1230, Frederick II., onipcror of Germany, conferred the conquered
provinces as an imperial fiof on Valquin, the grand-master of the order;
and everything seemed to ])romise the rapid rise of a mighty kingdom —
when a sudden attack of the Litliuanians laid low the grand-nuxster and
his hopes of conquest, and nearly annihilated the entire forces of the broth-
ei'hood. The scanty relics of this powerful body now called for aid on
their brethren the Teutonic knights, who were anxiously seeking a fairer
lield for military achievements than the East, where they were alike ha-
rassed by the open violence of the niussulman,aiid the jealousy of the rival
orders, the Templars and Ilos])itallors'. The i)resence of these hardy war-
riors restored the Christians to tiicir former superiority in the Held ; and
these new-comers soon rivalled the knights of the cross and sword in cru-
elty, burning whole villages that had relapsed into idolatry, and making,
in the words of one of their own bishops, " out of fnu'-ltoni men the most
wretched slaves." As allies of the Toles, they built on the Vistula the
fort of Nassau ; and, sallying forth thence, took by storm the holy oak of
Thorn, the chief sanctuary of the Prussians, and beneath its far-spreading
arms, as in a citadel, the knights defended themselves against the frantic
attacks of the idolaters.

A general rising of the natives, and a war of extermination, reduced tho
numerous forces of the knights to a few scanty troops, and their anqjlo
domains to three strongholds ; and, after various alternate defeats and
victories, they were rescued from entire destruction by a crusade, under
the command of the Bohemian monarch Ottokar the Great, v. ho founded
the city of Konigsberg in 12G0, and gave for a time new life and vigor to
the falling fortunes of the northern chivalry.

Internal disscTisions, and the conse(]uent establishment of a second grand-
master, who held his seat at Mergentheim, weakened the growing power
of the reviving brotherhood ; and the fatal battle of Tanenlterg, in 1-1 ^'»,
gave a mortal blow to the importance of this " unnatural institution." But
the knights still retained the whole eastern coast of the Baltic, from the
Narova to the Vistula, and it was not until the end of the fifieenth century
that the arms of Poland compelled them finally to relinquish their claims
to the district of eastern and western Prussia.

The ancient spirit of the order awoke once again in the grand-master
Tlettcnberg, who routed the Russians in ir)02, and compelled the czar to
agree to a truce for fifty years ; but the sti[)idated time had ^"> sooner
elapsed than the Russians again invaded them : and, too feeble any longer

to resii
and tin
Polish
Poles,
empire
an indc
and coi
during
or duke
of the e
by Russ
Russian
The c
Mittau,
"In Jn
session <
The astc
roso in c
were eas
the galle
gard. 1
the only
tion of tl
during t
nobles ai
Toutonit
for the

TIk; III

and man

Baltic pi

that is c

as diflere

sian, and

quite as

most refi

Courland

ince, difl(

parts; an

whether

Mittau.

In com
meuts of
are very
most imp
Runoo, «fe(

THE BALTIC PROVINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY. 75

to resist such powerful enemies, the knights were glad to purchase peace,
and tlie undisturbed possession of the province of Courland as a fief of the
Polish crown, bj' surrendering Esthonia to Sweden, and Livonia to the
Poles, Avliilo the districts of Narva and Dorpat were incorportcd with the
empire of Russia. Still the brotherhood existed. Without importance as
an independent power, but valuable as an ally, its friendsliij) was sought
and courted by the various intrigues and commotions of the Russian throne
during the early part of the eighteenth century. The o' ^ce of grand-master
or dulce of Courland was last held by Marshal Biron, the Frencli favorite
of the empress Anne ; and, in ITDf), on the fall of Poland, and its partition
by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Courland was fully incorporated with the
Russian emi)iro by Catlicrine II.

The only surviving relic of the Teutonic knights, besides the palace near
Mittau, is the beautiful hall of the preceptory at Marienberg, in Prussia.
"In June, 1800," says Menzel, "the king of Wiirtemburg took pos-
session of Mergoutlieim, the principal settlement of the Teutonic knights.
The astonished inmates beheld with fury the new protestant officials, and
rose in open rebellion against the j)roposed traflio with their rights. They
were easily subdued and savagely punished ; for they were condemned to
the galleys, and compelled to work in chains in the royal gardens at Stutt-
gard. Thus ended the f. --famed order of the Teutonic knights." Almost
the only mention of tiie order in the later history of Germany is the eleva-
tion of the Swedish general Horn to the grand-mastership of Mergentheim,
during the Thirty Years' War, in order to enable him to treat witli the
nobles and cities of the empire as an equal. The ancient palace of the
Toutotiic knights at Prankfort-on-the-Main is at present used as a barrack
for the Austrian garriscm.

The iidial)ilants of Ksthonia, Livonia, and Courland, have, in language
and maimers, much in common — much that is characteristic of the German
Baltic provinces of Russia ; but a more practised eye will discover much
that is characteristic oidy of particular parts. The Livonian German is
as diflerent from the German of Cotnland, as the Saxon is from the Prus-
sian, and the Bavarian from the Austrian, and they despise one another
quite as intensely. Upon the whole, the Livonian is considered as the
most reiined and cultivated, the Esthonian as the best soldier, and the
Courlander as possessed of most natural ability. Even within each prov-
ince, differences may bo observed between the inhabitants of different
parts ; and a practised eye and oar, for instance, can readily discover
whether a German of Courland comes from the neighborhood of Libau or
Mittau.

In comparison with the Germans, Lettes, and Esthonians, the other ele-
ments of the population, tlio Swedes, Poles, Jews, gipsies, and Russians,
ore very insignificant. Of these, of course, the Russians are by far the
most important. A few small islands, Wrangclsholm, Nargen, Worms,
Runoc, Ac., are inhabited by a race of Swedish origin, who preserve much

ILLUSTUATED DESCRIPTION OF HUSSIA.

of their original Swedish character. Tho nobility of Swedish origin have,
however, become thoroughly Germanized.

Tho Poles are Amnd occasionally in the towns, but they arc few and
ecattercd, and arc completely lost among the r<'st of the population.

The gij)8ics wander homel(\«H (hrough Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland,
as through other countries, and continue their old nonnulic way of life,
in spite of tho severest laws against tlioin. They are less numinous in
Livonia than in Courland. They omphty themselves much in the same
way as in other countries, namely, as horse-stealers, cattle-dealers, tinkers,
A'C. They are in many cases still permitted to renuiin under the conunand
of their own chiefs or gipsy kings, because they pay more respect to them
than to any other anthorities, and because these chiefs can be made re-
sponsible for the offences of their snl»Jeots. For instance, if a gipsy king
is threatened with punishment for the thefts of his people, the offender ia
soon discovered.

\Wvl1

iwsawrwc

GiFiv Woman and Cuaa

The Jews are seldom to bo met with anywhere but in Courland, for in
Livonia and Esthonia a Javf is actually jjrohibited from remaining more
than twenty-four hours in any town or city. In Courland, however, thoy
are found everywhere — in the towns, villages, and estates (edeUiufen) —
where they occuijy themselves in agriculture, and in differeut mechanical

arts, as

lors, til

hacknc}

the com

iiiiig aiK

induce t

ehattels

complett

and tho

sunk is 1

of Courl

the most

'J'he ol

race are

and total

title.l '• (

conujieiic
' Jaw sh.'ill
troubled
fact that,
even deci
Jews cau
property
ously oxji
sliellerinu
manner."
These
try, had r
Russian a
inent in si
poor Jew,
selves to i
be transp(
property
collected,
sellors or
them, and
wish it wa
occupatioi
for prose r
rich prese
of gratitnc
by the tea
endeavorc

THE BALTIC PnOVIN('E8 — GENERAL SUMMARY.

arts, as sniitlis, carpenters, masons, <tc. In 11 towns they are also tai-
lors, tinkers, glaziers, slioeMuikerH, brokers, and shopkeepers ; but tho
hackney-eoaelimen in the towns, and tho innkeepers and brandy-dealers in
the eountry, nn; almost exclusively Jews. They practise a variety of can
ning and artful tiieks in dealing out (heir brandy to the peasants, ami
induce them to drink by taking credit, receiving various little goods ami
chattels in j)ayment for their spirits, and so on. In this way they often
completely ruin the poor liCttes and Esthonians.

More tliiin a tliird (»f tlie beggars and mendicants of Courland arc Jews,
and the depth of want and nusery into which these Jewish I)eggar3 are
sunk is fearful to contemplate. As smugglers, the Jews on the frontiers
of Courland and the Lithuanian jtrovinces arc so expert as often to defy
the most rigorous pre(;autions of tlie Russian government.

The old ordinances of the dukes of Courland against this unfortunate
race are ridiculous enough, and aim at nothing less than the immediate
and total annihilation of Judaism in the country. Tliey arc generally en-
tilh^d ''Ordinances for the total al)olition of the Jcnvs," and some of them
commence tiius : " It is our earnest will and pleasure tliat in six weeks no
Jew shall anywhere remain within our dukedom." How little tlie Jews
troubled themselves about tho ducal will and pleasure, is proved by tho
fact that, instead of six weeks, on(! hundred years have j)assed without
even decieasing their nnnil)ers. Another diu'al edict conunands that "all
Jews caught in the streets shall have their horse and cart and all their
l)roperty taken from them, shall be severely flogged, and then ignomini-
ously expelled from the town." It is also added that all persons receiving,
sheltering, or succoring Jews, " shall be punished in the most exemplary
manner."

These edicts, though they doul)tles8 banished many Jews from the coun-
try, had no lasting eflects, for all the gaps were soon filled again. The
Russian government, though it has not attempted total abolition, or banish
meat in six weeks, has yet attemjtted to curb, restrain, and put down tho
poor Jews, in various ways. At one time all Jews were to conline them-
selves to agriculture ; at another time all Jews without property were to
be transported to Siberia, where the government would j)rovidc them vith
property. Ry an imperial ukase, issued in 1840, all poor Jews were to m
collecteti, and brought together out of every town, by their respective tc^xm-
sellors or advisers {rnt/isherrn'), to Mittau. There the rabbins assemi.ieu
them, and set forth to them the condescending grace of their emperor, whose
wish it was that they should henceforth be employed in agriculture — an
occupation so much to be preferred to all others, and so peculiarly adapted
for preserving men in the i)aths of morals and religion. " Endowed with
rich presents by the charitable citizens of Mittau," we are told, " and full
of gratitude to their generous benefactors, the emigrants set forth, followed
by the tears and prayers of the compassionate." The rabbins, no doubt,
endoavorod to persuade the poor creatures that they were going to a land

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP BUSSIA.

COriLAND JlW, WITH Dl-LCIXIE.

of promise, but unfortunately the province of Kherson, their destination,
has a very different character.

The Russians of the Haltic provinces may be divided into those who
only wander for a time about tlie country, and those who pre completely
domesticated. The Itussian serfs easily got permission of their lords to
wander out into the world and seek their fortunes, provided they paid a
certain yearly sum as ohrok, or service-money. Quick and shrewd in
everything, though they never do anything tlioroughly well, they are very
useful in provinces like those of the Baltic, where industrious and intelli-
gent workmen are scarce, and where they supply tl deficiencies of the
indolent and unskilful natives. The strong, li ely, active serf of Russia

will perl
thonian.
laying o
will rati:
ticularly
from est
The 1
p(!(l(llor
about th(
and fane
of these
often onj
tne futur
fruit afto
nies, and
ings, (fcc.
of towns
sian wlio
(lax in til
cut a figii
aiid to-MK
donifj^tic!
the subiii
in fisliiii^
rivers, ai
are ihr
that wh
nuuK' by
The \\
PX('epti(
friH' till
erable I'j
i^'c, and
inlial)it
incroasii
burgliers
The v
Russians
and aspn
warnj ra
them froi
If we
Baltic pr
The
laborers,

()V

TIIK BALTIC PROVINCES — fiKKKRAL SUMMARY.

\\\\\ perform throe times as much work in a given time an a. Lotto or Es-
thonian. In all labors which require skill and cxpiMlition, hucIi as tho
laying out of a garden, tlu! building of a house, ttc, the Ciernian iiolileman
will rather employ Russian workmen than their own serfs. Tliey are par-
ticularly expert as carjtenters, and make a good deal of money wandering
from estate to estate with their tools slung at \\\nv ginllcs.

Tho Russians have a greater genius and pn'dilection for the trade of
peddler and itiruMiuit merchant than for any meehanicnl art. They travel
al)out the country in little one-horse carta, vending Russian books, i)ictureH,
and fancy wares, as well as earthenware, tobacco, Ac. Ibit th(! Russians
of these provinces do not confine themselves to medianiciil pursuits ; they
often engage in speculations of various kinds, in spring they will buy uj)
tnc future jjroduce of the gardens from th(! lords of the soil, to sell the
fruit afterward by retail in St. Petersburg. Sometimes they form compa-
nies, and undertake for certain sums the erection of bridges, pulilic! l)uild-
ings, Ac. Souujtimcs they liire large piecc^s of land in the neigliborliood
of towns, where they grow vegetables for the use of the citizens. A Rus-
sian who yesterday entered the stirviee of a merchant to pack hemp and
llax in the harltor, will to-day turn coachnum to a noltleman who wishes to
cut a figure, with a fine, handsome, long-bourded Russian on his coach-box,
and to-morrow will return home with what he has earned. The Russians
domesticated in the provinces either live in the villages as jjoasants, or iu
the suliurbs of the towns as citizens. The former eliielly employ themselves
in fishing. The Russians are the most expert fishermen in the world on
rivers, and their nets generally haul the pond or stream into which they
are thrown completely ch^ar of all living creatures ; so much so, indeed,
that when ponds are hired for a certain time, a stipulation will often be
made by their owners that no Russians shall iisli in them.

The Russians who inhalut the suluirbs of tlie towns are almost without
exception of low origin; but many of them in some way niaiiaged to
free themselves from serfdom, and have also raised themselves to consid-
eralde rank and weallh, particularly those who trade between Riga, Revel,
Ac., and the interior of Russia, in wood, flax, hemp, tallow, Ac. They
inhabit the daily spreading and rising suburbs, demanding, with ever-
increasing loudness and impatience, an ecpiality of rights with the Gorman
burghers within the cities.

The vegetal )le-gardeners in the environs of the towns arc exclusively
Russians ; they spread themselves all round the cities with their cabbage
and asparagus gardens. None know better than they do how to turn every
warm ray of sunshine to the advantage of their plants, and how to protect
them from the severity of tho northern climate.

If we cast a summary glance over tho whole population of the German
Baltic provinces, we find —

The original inhabitants, tho Lettes and Eathonians, are agricultural
laborers, with a very few exceptions.

Ifi

I ^

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The Germans are the aristocracy of the country, and consist of the
nobility, living on their own estates, of the merchants and tradesmen in
the towns, and of the literaten.

The most rising and industrious class are the Russian settlers and travel-
ling mechanics and tradesmen. The Jews are scattered through the prov-
inces as innkeepers, small shopkeepers, and beggars, and the gipsies as
thieves and horse-dealers.

The whole population of the German Baltic provinces is about one and
a half millions, and the population decreases in density toward the north.
Of one thousand inhabitants, about nine hundiod are Lcttos and Esthoni-
ans, iifty Germans, thirty Russians, five Swedes, and fifteen Jews.

As regards the primitive inhabitants of these provinces, the interesting
but almost unnoticed races of the Lettes and Lithuanians are a perpetual
and puzzling enigma. *' lionely and unconnected »vith any of the surround-
ing nations," says Kohl, " they occupy their little nook of northern land,
evidently unsimilar and unrelated to any European nation, and bear affinity
only to the tribes that inliabit the far East, at the foot of Dawalagiri, or
on the shores of the Ganges. ' Esnii,'' I am — says the Lithuanian : ^Asmi,'
I am — says the Hindu of the Himalayas. ^ Eimi,^ I go — says the Lctto
of the Baltic : ^AimV is the Hindu word for expressing the same idea. On
the Niemen, ^ Divas^ is the word for God: on the Ganges, ^ Daivas' signi-
fies the same. It is unnecessary to know more Sanscrit than can be learned
from Ruekert's poems, to be struck by the extraordinary Indian character
of the pronunciation, language, and tones, of the Lithuanian and Lctte.
Tl , languages are the same in form ; the pronouns, adverl)s, and numerals,
are similar ; the names of the commonest animals, of the different parts of
the human l)ody, «tc., are the same in the Sanscrit as in the Lithuanian.
Indeed, whole Sanscrit sentences may easily be jmt together, winch the
peasant of the Niemen will at once understand. From these and many
other proofs there can Imrdly r nmin a doubt that the Lithuanians and
Lettes must ha\c come more directly from the primeval birtliplaco of tho
human race than any other European nation.

"The oldest historians of these trilics of the Baltic describe them aa
governed by a supreme high-priest, called the ' Kri/ivo,'' and l»y subordinate
priests, the ' Vcidrlnten.' (Jroves of oak and other trees arc named as the
residences of these priests, and the tem])les of the deities they worshijipcd.
This caste of ju'iests was pro1)ably of Hindu origin and character, and lasted
until Christendom and its poi)es expelled the heathenism of tho north."

po]
Ural mo
west, a (
Vologda
on the n(
of Russii
long by c
Arctic tic
tude, am
at about
trenie po
Its area i
The lai
ual sterili
an almost
in the mi(
on th.s si(
pied witli
inco ; par
partly wi
Onega, I)
Owing
not bo dej
the land i
ble quanti
governinei
but fishing!
domestic i
tho nortliM
Among th(
and in tho
Bpocios of

GREAT RUSSIA — ARCHANGEL.

CHAPTER III.

GREAT RUSSIA.

ARCHANGEL (or Arkanohklsk), wliicli is by far the largest govern-
iiiont as regards territorial extent, and yet the smallest in point of
))0|)ulation, in Great Russia, oeeupies the whole eountry from the
Ural mountains on the east to the grand principality of Finland on the
west, a distance of over nine hundred miles; and from the frontiers of
Vologda and Olonetz on the south to the Arctic ocean and tiie White sea
on the north, aljout four hundred miles. It includes the eastern portion
of Russian Laphuid, and also Nova Zembla (six hundred and fifty miles
long by one hundred and fifty wide), and some other large islands in the
Arctic ocean. Its most eastern limit is about sixty<-ight degrees east longi-
tude, and its most western thirty degrees east; its most southern point is
at about latitude sixty-one degrees north, and its most nortiiern the ex-
treme point of Nova Zembla, in about latitude seventy-six degrees north.
Its area is ai)out three hundred and fifty thousand square miles,

Tiie largest portion l)y far of this vast territory is condemned to ])erpet-
ual sterility. Tlie part of it within the arctic circle consists principally of
an almost boundless expanse of sandy and mossy ])lains, having ice, even
in the middle of summer, always a little below the surface. The country
on th.s side the arctic circle consists, also, of immense plains, j)artly occu-
pied witli forests that cover more than iialf the entire txtent of the prov-
ince ; partly, but in a very inferior degree, by low pastur^^-grounds ; and
partly with lakes, morasses, Ac. The principal towns are Archangel,
Onega, Dwina, Mezen, and I'etchora.

Owing to the severity and variableness of the climate, grain croj)S can
not bo depended upon : in couseciueuco, even in the southern district, whore
the land is most fertile, the_, are but little attended to ; though considera-
ble quantities of hemri and flax are raised. Tlie principal wealth of the
government consists in its immense and apparently inexhaustible forests ;
but fishing and hunting are the chief employments. The reindeer is tho
domestic animal of tho Laplanders and Samoides, tho former occupying
tho northwestern and the latter the northeastern }»arts of the government.
Among the trilies now mejitioned, dried fish occupies the place of bread ;
and in tho more soutliern districts, tho inner barks of trees, and certain
spocios of mosB, are intorciixod with meal, or substitutod for it in the

6 '

• at

III I

m/§

Mil

■M

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

making of bread. Horses and Odttle arc diminutive, and but little atten-
tion is paid to tlieir treatment. The district of Kholmogory, on the Dwina,
a little below Archangel, where the pasturing is exceedingly good, must,
however, be excepted from this remark. A breed of Dutch cattle, im-
ported into this district by Catherine I., and distributed among the inhab-
itants, still preserves its superiority ; and the calves of these cattle, being
well fed, furnisli the delicate white veal so much esteemed at St. Peters-
burg and other markets.

Ship and boat building, and the preparation of })itch and tar, are carried
on to a considerable extent. A good deal of coarse linen is made by the
peasantry of Arcliangel, and of the contiguous districts ; and they also
manufacture a good deal of cordage, and immense quantities of mats, with
leather, tallow, turpentine, j)otash, <tc.

The poi)ulation of this province, though originally Finnish, is now essen
tially Russian. TIic Samoides, who are almost at the bottom of the scale
of civilization, though spread ovt'r an immense surface, do not exceed six
or seven tliousand individuals. They are exempted from the obrok, and
from compulsory niilitary service, paying only the iKsaak, or tribute im-
posed on the Russian Asiatic tribes. The Laplanders, who are a little
more advanced, do not anu)unt to more than two thousand individuals.
They are suliject to the capitation tax.

Russian Lapland (called by the natives Samcanda, by the Swedes Lapp-
mark, and by the Russians Ld/i/dudiia') comprises that portion of the coun-
try under the name of Laphind, lying between the river Tornea on the west
and the White sea on the east, and is divided between the governments
of Archangel and Finland. It has an area of about seventy thousand
square miles, being of somewhat larger extent than that portion of Lapland
lying in Sweden and Norway.

From both position and physical conformation, Lapland is one of the
most forbidding regions of the glolie, consisting either of riiggcu mount-
ains — some of them covered with perpetual, and many of them only for a
short period free fi'oni snow — or of vast monotonous tracts of moorland
wastes. This extensive territory appears to have l)een at one time wholly
occupied by tlie peojdc to whom it owes its name ; but its soutiu-rn and
better portions have been gradually encroached upon by Swedes, Norwe-
gians, and Finlanders, tili the Laplanders proi)er lave,in a great neasuro,
been cooj)ed up within the arctic circle. Tlierc they retain their distinc-
tive features and ancient customs, and find ample scope to follow their
favorite modes of life, either as mountain La|tlanders (FJelde-Finner) , lead-
ing a nomadic life, and pasturing largo reiiuleerherds ; or sen or shore
Laplanders {Sde-Finner), who, too poor to possess such herds, have been
obliged to fix their residenco upon the coast, and subsist chiefly liy lisliing.
T!ic origin of the Laplanders, as a race, ha.s greatly puzzled ethnographers,
in consequence of their presenting a combination of physical properties not
possessed exclusively by cither the Mongolian or the Caucasian stock, but

1 ■ ■

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, ■

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GREAT RUSSIA — ARCHAXGEL.

I. Phiikr ),aplandeb. S, 3. Mountain LAFLAvoEBa.

belonging partly to the one and partly to the other. The prevailing opin-
ion, however, is, that they are only a variety of Tschude, or Finns. Their
chief characteristics t're — low
stature, seldom exceeding four
feet nine inches high ; great
muscular power, shown both in
their agility and in a strength
of arm, enabling them to bend
a bow which an ordinary Nor-
wegian could not handle ; a
large head ; dark, long, and
glossy Iiair ; small brown eyes,
obliquely placed, and without
eyelids ; high and i)roniinent
cheek-bones; wide nio'itli.with
ill-dcfnied lijis; a scant 'board;
and a skin of a yellow, dingy
hue, prol)al)ly rendered deeper
than nature has made it, from
living in smoky ealiins, and
neglecting hal)its of personal

cleanliness. Their dress, at least that of the mountain Laplander, is com-
posed almost throughout of reindeer-skin. With the hair turned outward,
it forms an upper coat, a kind of trousers, sandals and shoes, gloves, and
a conical cap. In suunner, the reindeer-skin is often exehango'd for a
woollen coat, which, in the female, is converted into a kind of pelisse, and
reaches to the ankles. The cap of the female also is distinguished l)y its
loftier jieak, and some attempts at ornamont ; and her slioulders are not
unfre((uently covered with ii small shawl or j)laid, on occasions of display.

Tiie Laplanders are not deficient in either intellectual or n.oral cajjacity.
They are simple-hearted, hospitable, and apparently inclined, as far as
their knowledge goes, to practise the duties of Christianity, which they all
profess, under the form of Li'.l!ieranisn\ in Norway and Sweden, and that
of the Greek church in Russia. The greatest exception to this practice is
an excessive fondness for ardent spirits. A more harmless vice is the ex-
cessive use of tol)acc((. The number of Laplanders in Russia, Sweden, and
Norway, is not supposed to exceed iwenry thousand of all descriptions.
Prol^ably one third of them ore nomadic.

N'y^a Zembla (called by the Russians Novaia ZemUa) consists of two
large ;«'!ands in the Arctic ocean, forming a dependency of the government
of Arclutngel, and extending from latitude seventy-one to seventy-sii.
^i^rwe north, and from fifty-three to seventy-seven degrees east longitude.
Tit^-y are separated from each other by the narrow strait, Matotchkin Shar ;
&om the wlc of Vaigatz on the south by the strait ; and ft cm the mainland
on the east by the sea of Kara. Their greatest length from northeaet to

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

southwest, as before stated, is six hundred and fifty miles, and their breadth
one hundred and fifty miles. The far greater part of the interior is unex-
plored ; and even the northern and eastern coasts, where ice makes access
almost impossible, are very imperfectly known. The southwestern and
western coasts, which have been examined, arc in the former direction
genjrally low and flat; and, in the latter, bordered by sandstone cliffs,
which, though not elevated, are very precipitous. The general slope of
both islands appears to be toward Matotchkin strait, on which the mouths
of at least fifteen small streams have been counted. Lakes also are numer-
ous. The whole territory is wild and desolate in the extreme. The coasts
swarm with seals, various kinds of fish, and vast flights of water-fowl. The
interior, which is partly covered with stunted shrubs, short grass, and moss,
is frequented by "oinUeer, white bears, ermines, and arctic foxes. Nova
Zembla has no permanent inhabitants, but is visited by Russian hunters
and fishers. Tae.«c islands were discovered by the English in 1583.

ArchancL'L the capital of the government, is the principal city and port
of trade in f. ' north of Russia. It is situated on the right bank of the
Dwina, ab&-;i .iiirty-five miles above where it falls into the White sea, in
latitude sixty-fonr ^reos north. Its population, including that of the
small dependent village of Solcnibi)lsk, is about tliirty thousand. It is
almost entirely built of wood, and has been materially improved since the
fire of 1793. The principal building is the Gostinoi dtvor, or bazar, for
the exhibition and sale of mcrcliandise, and its protection against fire. It
is of stone, and of great extent. The marine hospital also deserves to be
noticed. Archangel is the residence of a 'general and civil governor, and
of an archbishop. There is an ecclesiastical seminary with nine professors,
a gymnasium, a school of commerce and navigation, and some other edu-
cational estal)lishments.

Notwithstanding its high northern latitude, and the lengthened period
during which it is annually inaccessible, Archangel has a pretty extensive
coinmercc. It owes tliis to its situation on the Dwina, one of the mo.st
important rivers of Russia, and which has been united by canals with the
Volga on the one hand, and the Neva on the other. The greater part of
the articles of export are brought l)y this channel, mostly from a consider-
able distance, and some even from Siberia. The princijial are ^r-in, llax,
hemp, timber, iron, linseed; vast quantities of mats, potash, * low, tar,
pitch, train-oil, canvass and coarse linen, furs, cordage, <tc. The exports
vary materially in different years, principally according to the demand for
grain in foreign countries. The value of the imports, which consist prin-
cipally of colonial produce, spices, salt, M'oollons, cottons, hardware, &c.,
is always much less than that of the exports. The harbor is at the island
of Solembolsk, about one mile below the town ; and the ships are princi-
pally loaded direct from the prams, rafts, <tc., that bring the produce dowu
the river. There is a bar at the mouth of the river, with from thirteen to
fifteen feet of water; and vessels drawing more than this must, of ct^urso,

■W

GREAT RUSSIA — VOLOGDA.

partly load and unload by means of lighters iu the roads. There is a gov-
ernment dockyard, with slips for building ships, about twelve miles below
the town, where also are situated warehouses belonging to the merchants
of the city. A fishing company was established here in 1803. Exclusive
of the ship and boat building, and the manufacture of cordage and canvass
before referred to, there is a sngar-rcfinory, several breweries, «S:c.

The entrance to the Dwina, where Archangel was soon after built, was
discovered by the famous Richard Chancellor, an English navigator, and
founder of the " English Russia Company," who was the companion of Sir
Hugh Willoughby in his voyage of discovery, in 1554 ; and from that pe-
riod down to the foundation of St. Petersburg, it was the only port in the
empire accessible to foreigners. In returning from his second voyage on
behalf of the same company, attended by the Russian embassador and suite,
Chancellor perished on the coast of Norway, in 1556. .^

Vologda, the largest government of European Russia, after that of Arch-
angel, lies between the fifty-eighth and sixty-fourth degrees of north lati-
tude, and the thirty-eighth and sixtieth degrees of cast longitude, having
on the north, Archangel ; on the west, Olonotz and Novgorod ; on the south,
Yaroslav, Kostroma, and Yiatka ; aivd, on the east, the Ural mountains,
separating it from Tobolsk. It comprises an area of about one hundred
and fifty thousand square miles.

Excepting in the east, where it is covered with the Ural mountains, tho
surface of this province is generally an undulating plain, comprised in the
ba.sin of the Dwina, which is its largest river. Tho general slope of tho
country is accordingly to tiie nvyrthwcst. In the south and southwest, the
soil is fertile, but elsewhere it is sandy or thin, and tho greater part of tho
surface is covered with marslios. and Ibre.'it.'' of pine, birch, oak, &c.

Though tho climatt; varies %iih the situation, it is, generally speaking,
very severe; it is far, however, from being unhealthy, and instances of lon-
gevity are frequent. The grains principally cultivated are rye and barley ;
but the produce of grain is insuflioient for the consumption of the inliabit-
aiits. Ilonip, Hax, and hops, succeed, as do beans and peas. Cattle and
horses are numerous and good ; but a large part of the government being
unoccupied and in a state of nature, the chase necessarily occupies much
attention (a characteristic representation of which, in winter, is presented
on the following page). The forests, the principal source of wealth, are
of great extent, those of the crown alone covering eighty millions of acres.
Granite, marble, salt, flints, copper, and iron, are all obtained in Vologda.
It has a largo number of manufacturing establishments, ]n'incipally for
woollen and linen fabrics, soap, leather, potash, gills': wares, and paper.
Distillation is also very extensively carried on. Furs, tallow, pitch, wooden
articles, masts and timber, turpentine, and other raw products, are the
groat articles of export ; being sent, for the most part, into the governments
of Archangel and Tobolsk.

«,

'V:

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

*/isac^rbsc

Th« Chase in Winteb.

The population of Vologda is principally Russian, but includes some
Zyrlans or Surjans of Finnish stock ; and, in the north, are some wander-
ing Samoide tribes. Public instruction, owing to the thinness of the popu-
lation, is necessarily very limited ; but it has been materially increased of
late years. This ♦erritory is divided into ten districts. The chief towns
are Vologda, the capital, and Velikioustioug.

The city f^l Vologda, the capital of the above government, is situated
near its southwesteni extremity. It is built on both sides of the river
Vologda, and is supposed to be one of the most ancient towns in Russia.
The greater part of its houses are stil' of wood, but the buildings in stono
are increasing, and several of its churches are of that material. It has two
cathedrals, one of which was rebuilt in 1832. The palaces of the arch-
bishop and governor, the prison, gynmasium, hospital, various asylum!*, and
an episcopal seminary, are conspicuous edifices. Near the town is a famous
convent, founded in 1871.

Vologda has manufactures of soap, potash, cordage, bells, and tallow-
candles, for which last it is famous over all the north of Russia. Its trade
is considcrHble, which is principally with the Baltic, Germany, and Eng-
land : alj*o to Siberia, even to the boundaries of the Chinese empire. Its
population is supposed to be from twenty to twenty-five tiiousand.

• The government of Oloxetz lies between the sixtieth and sixty-fift'i de-
grees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and forty-second degrees of east
longitude ; having on the north and northeast, the government of Archan-
gel ; on the southeast and i^outh, Vologda, Novgorod, and St. Potersbui^;

. \

and on

Onega, i

The T

nately r

Onega if

the lake

Ac. Pc

thirty-tw

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The S(

Kargopc

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produce

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GREAT RUSSIA — OLONETZ.

and on the woHt, Lake Lu-loga and Finland. Its area, including Lake
Onega, is about sixty-seven thousand square miles.

The western part of this government resembles Finland, it being alter-
nately mountainous and marshy, or covered with lakes, ('f rlie latter,
Onega is by far the largest. The principal rivers are the Onega (by which
the lake Latcha discharges itself into the White sea), Vodla, Tvir, Suna,
ttc. For twenty-throe weeks in tlio year the mean temperature is below
thirty-two degrees Faiironhoit, and mercury sometimes freezes. Bleak
winds arc abnost constant; but tlie country is tolerably healthy.

The soil is thin, atony, and not very fertile. Except in the district of
Kargopole, into which some improvements liave been introduced, agricul-
ture is very backward. Tlie grain produced is insuflieicnt for the Nsanty
of the population. The peasantry are supported chiefly on turnips, car-
rots, and other vegetables, of which their bread partly consists, and on the
produce of the chase, fisheries, <fcc. Jleinp and (lax are grown for expor-
tation ; but the principal source of wealth consists in the forests, which are
of great extent, tho^* Itelouglng to the crown covering twenty-five millions
of acres. Pasturage is not al)und;int, and few cattle are reared. iMarblc,
granite, serpentine, alaliaster, X-c, are found : and there arc mines of iron,
copper, and even silver, though tljoy are but little wrought.

The poverty of tiie country obliges many of the iiiliabitants to emigrate
annually into the adjacent governments, to tak'> charge of cattle, hew mill-
stones, &c. ; and in sumnu;r tlie number of . .isentees is estimated at about
u third {)art of the entire po|)ulation. These circvunstances are hostile to
manufacturing industry ; and, exclusive of tlie imperial cannon-foundry it
Petrozavculsk, it lias only a few tanneries and iron-forges. It exports raw
produce to St. Petersburg and Archangel ; from which cities grain, salt,
spirits, and colonial and manufactured goods, are imported.

The government of Olonetz is under the same military jurisdiction as
that of Archangel, and is divided into seven districts. Education is under
the sup(!rintendcnce of the university of St. Petersburg, and is very limited.
There is but one printing-press in the province, and that is owned by the
state. The iidud)itants are principally of the Greek church, and subordi-
nate to the archl»ishop of Novgorod.

Petrozavotlsk, the (japital of Olonetz, is situated on the Lossolenka,
whore it falls into Lake Onega, two lnuidred miles northeast of St. Peters-
burg. It is poorly built, has two wooden churches, a school and infirmary,
an important cannon-foundry, a gunpowder, fulling, and several saw mills,
and nuinufactories of iron and copper, ^vhieh find their market at St. Pe-
tersburg. It contains about eight thousand iiiliabitants, many of whom are
employed in the iron-works and imperial foundries.

Kargopole, another town in this government, possesses a flourishing
trade, and Olonetz is not unworthy of notice, as it was there that Peter
the Great first attempted to build a ship-of-war, to be employed on the lake
against the Swedes.

5 I M

IS i

ILLUSTRATED DESCUII'TION OF fiUSSIA.

Tho government of Novcjouod lies between the fifty-sovcnth and sixty-
first degrees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and fortietli dcigrees of
east longitude; having, on the east, the gc 'Tnment of VoU)gda; on tho
Bouth, those of Yaroshiv, Tver, and Pskov ; < the west, the h»ttcr and St,
Petersburg; and, on the north, the hist named and Olonctz. Its length,
from nortlieast to southwest, is about four liundrod miles; its breadth va-
ries from forty to one hundred and sixty miles. It contains an area of
about fifty-five thousand square miles.

Tho surfuoo of the country, whicii iu tho nortli is low and level, rises
gradually toward tlie southwest, where tlie A'aldui plateau reaches an ele-
vation of one thousand feet above the level of the sea. The gov<jrnmcnt is
well watered : the principal rivers being the Volkhov, Mosta, Chexna, Mo-
loga, Lovat, itc, sonu^ of which run toward tho Volga, and others tosvard
the lake of Ladoga. Among the lakes are those of Bielo-Osero, Vojc, and
Union. The climate, csj)ciually in the north, is more severe than in tho
government of St. Petersburg, not being tempered by the sea-breezes.

Except in a few districts, the soil of Novgorod is not eminent for fer-
tility, and night-frosts often spoil the crops. Scarcely any orchard-trees
are met with, but hemp and Ihvx arc grown for exportation, and rye, oats,
and barley, are extensively cultivated. Timber is an important product;
a large part of the government is covered with Ibrcsts, those belonging to
the crown amounting to seven millions of acres. Few cattle are reared.
Next to agriculture, fisliing is a principal occupation. The salt-s))rings of
Staraia-Rous furnish an adequate sup; ly of salt for this government and
that of Tver. Manufacturing indusf? y i.- vj'ry backward : there are a few
copper, glass, tile, leather, woolh'!'; ; as, ii';d other factories. The popu-
lation have, however, a turu for coUisuovoo, and tho diffcrent<,fair3 aud
markets are well attended. *

Novgorod is divided into ten districts. Among its chief towns are Nov-

1 1, Tikhvin, and Valdai. Except some Lutherans among the Finnish
iuiiabitants, the population is principally of the Greek church. Education
is very little difl'used. The capital has a gymnasium, and there are schools
there and in other parts of tho government. There is not supposed to l)o
a single printing-press in the province. Tliis territory was made a sepa-
rate government in 1770.

The city of Novgorod (called Veliki, or "the Great"), formerly the
most important in the empire, and capital of the government of Novgorod,
lies on tho Volkhov, near its escape from Lake llmcn. It is about one
hundred miles south-southeast of ih. Petersburg. Its population, which,
at the present time, does not exceed fifteen thousand, was estimated to
have amounted, in the height of its prosperity, in the fifteenth century, to
four hundred thousand, though this, probably, is much beyond tho mark.
At this period, Novgorod, with London, Bergen, and Bruges, constituted
the four principal foreign depots of the Hanseatic League ; but the fall of
the League, and still more the massacres perpetrated by the bloodthirs^

rium, ail

who visi

which w

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OREAT RUSSIA — NOVQOnOD.

l^U'barian Tvan Vassiliovich IV., in loTO, proved fatal to this great cinpo-
;\um, aiul it soon after fell into all but iiTomediaI)lo decay. La Motrayo,
who visited it early in the last century, gives the following description,
which will apply nearly as well in the present day : —

" Nothing is more deceitfid than the view of Novgorod from a distance:
its extent, ain: the number and hiiight of its towers and spires, stjom to
announce one of the finest cities in Europe ; but, on nearing it, the travel-
ler perceives thn its walls and houses are only of wood ; and on entering,
he finds it ill built and wretchedly paved. Only the churches and a very
few private i sidenccs are of stone or brick. There ninv bo from eighty

besides which,
'^lining princi-

princi pally
ruins or by fields.
It is divided into

to eighty-live churches, including those of the monast< >
the castle, a large fortress bristling with artillery. "
pal edifice."

The town, in fii<t, though compr'sing a large ^pa<
of scattered groups of miserable habitations, separated
M'hich it is evident had once been covered with houses,
two parts by the Volkhov, hero crossed by a handsome bridge of eleven
arches, which is almost tlie only modern structure in the city. The piles,
A'c, of this l)ridge arc of granite ; tlie rest is chiefly of timber. Its entire
length is two hundred and seventy yards, and the breadth of its central
arch eighty-five feet. In the Tor^ovaiii. or market town, arc the govern-
or's residence, an ancient palace of the i zars, and most of the shops and
warehouses. The Si)J)is/c(ii(i, on the opposite bank of the Volkliov, is about
one and a half miles in circuit, and surrounded by an earth rampart and a
ditch. In it arc the Kremlin^ or citadel, the cathedral of St. Sophia, built
after the model of St. Sophia at Constant inoi)le, the archbishop's palace,
and tlie various tril)unals. The citadel is in many respects siuilir to the
Kremlin of Moscow, having a stone wall, flanked with man\ round and
square towers. The cathedral, built between 1044 and 10')1,and repaired
in 18i)2, has some remarkable bronze gates, with sculptures in allo-relicvo,
representing passages in scripture history ; and niuny of the paintings on
its walls are curious, being said to datr frcmi a |' -riod previously to the
revival of the arts in Italy. Among its buildings, the monastery of the
Annunciation, of which we give a view on the following page, is a remark-
ably elegant structure.

Novgorod is the seat of a military governor, whoso authority extends
over the adjacent government of Tver. It has a few nmnufactures of sail-
cloth, leather, and vinegar, and some trade in grain. Though not the
original capital of Kuril: ; it became the seat of the Russian government in
8G4. In the beginning of the eleventh century, the inhabitants obtained
considerable privileges, that laid the foundation of their liberty and pros-
perity ; and as the city and its contiguotis territory increased in population
and wealth, they gradually usurped an almost absolute independency : so
that, in effect, No\gorod, in the middle ages, should rather be considered
a republic, under the jurisdiction of an elective magistrate, than a state

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33 WIST MAIN STRIET

WEBSTER, N.Y. UStO

(716) •73-4503

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

mM90/'irrt. #«

MONASTBIV OF TIU ANNVMCIATION, AT NOVQOBOD

suojcct to a regular line of hereditary monarchs. During the twelfth, thir-
teenth, and fourteenth centuries, Novgorod formed the grand entrepot be-
tween the countries-east of Poland and the Hanseatic cities ; and its wealth
and power seemed so great and well established, and the city itself bo
impregnable, as to give rise to the proverli-

" Quia contra Deos et tunpfuim Xorogordiam f"

" Wlio Clin rt'sist the Gods mid (iieiit Novgorod t"

But in 1477 it was obliged to submit to Ivan III., great-duke of Russia. So
great was its riches, that in 1480, Ivan, after he had conquered the re-
public of Novrogod, despatched from the city to Moscow three hundred
chariots laden with articles of silver and gold. In 1554, it was visited by
the famous Richard Chancellor (to wliom we have referred in treating of
the government of Archangel), who describes U as the "great mart town
of all Moscovic, and in greatnesse beyond Moscow." But not long after,
it was subjected, as already stated, to the scourge of the destroyer, and
fell, never to rise again. The foundation of St. Petersburg took from it
all hope of ever recovering any portion of its ancient prosperity.

Pskov lies chiefly between the fifty-sixth and fifty-eighth degrees of
north latitude, and the twenty-eighth and thirty-second degrees of east
longitude ; having, on the north, St. Petersburg and Novgorod, of each of
which governments it formerly made a part ; on the easl, Tver and Smo-
lensk ; on the south, Vitepsk ;. and on the west, Livonia. lis greatest
length, from northwest to southeast, is two hundred and two miles, and its
greatest breadth one hundred and ten miles, comprising an area of about
twenty-two thousand square miles.

The surface of the country is nearly flat, with a slope to the north, th*

GREAT RUSSIA — PSKOV.

direction taken by most of the rivers. None of these are of considerable
size ; but the government is, notwithstanding, well watered. » At the north-
western extremity is the lake of Pskov (twenty-seven miles long by fifteen
broad), connected by a strait, three miles wide, with that of Pcipus. The
whole government belongs to the basin of the Baltic, the river Duna, which
drains the southeast, carrying its waters into the gulf of Riga, and the
Velikaia, Chelon, and Lovat, with other small tributaries, carrying the rest
of the drainage into the gulf of Finland. Toward the southeast the coun-
try is traversed by the Valdai hills. Immense numbers of blocks of granite
lie scattered in all directions. Marshes are numerous. The atmosphere
is usually damp, though, on the whole, the climate is far from unhealthy.

The soil is thin, and not very fertile ; but, owing to the fewness of the
inhabitants, more grain is grown than is required for home consumption.
The produce averages twenty millions of bushels a year, of which upward
of five millions may be exported. It consists chiefly of rye, barley, and
oats, the proportion of wheat being small. A good deal of hemp and flax
is raised. The forests are cxtcnsivo, and abound with game. Cattle are
not of great importance, and bees arc less reared than in most provinces.
Manufactures have increased during the i)rcscnt century, but they are still
of no great consequence. The leather of this government is much esteemed,
but its principal wealth consists in its grain and natural produce.

The government is divided into eight districts ; the chief towns are
Pskov, the capital, Torepetz, and Velikie-Louki. Its population consists
mainly of Russians, with sume Lithuanians and Finns. Public education
is little extended, and until of late years but few printing-presses were
to be found in the government.

Pskov (or Pleskov'), the capital of the government just described, is sit-
uated on the Velikaia, one hundred and sixty-five miles southwest of St.
Petersburg. It contains about ten thousand inhabitants. The city covers
a large space of ground, and is divided into three parts, the Kremlin or
citadel, the Middle Town, and the Greater Town, all surrounded with an
earthen mound. All the private houses, and the greater part of the public
edifices, are of wood. The finest buildings are in the Kremlin. Among
others are the cathedral, of very little architectural merit, but gorgeously
decorated ; and the palace of the ancient princes of Pskov, now occupied
by the archbishop. The number of churches amounts to thirty, but more
than a third of them are in disuse. Tiie principal manufacture is Russian
leather ; and there is a considerable trade in hemp, flax, tallow, hides, &c.,
with Narva, and other seaports, on the gulf of Finland. A great annual
fair is lield here in February, at Avhich large quantities of woollen, silk,
and cotton fabrics, leather books, jewellery, «fec., are sold. Pskov is the see
of an archinshop ; and possesses a theological seminary, a bible-society,
and a well-managed hospital. It is said to have been founded by the prin-
cess Olga, toward the close of the tenth century, but is mentioned " bis-
torj as early as 903.

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Toi'opctz, another important town in this government, is situated on the
Toropa, two hundred and forty-five miles south of St. Petersburg. Tho
population is about ten thousand. It is entirely surrounded by lakes and
rivulets, and communicates by the Toropa with Riga, which renders it a
place of some trade. It has thirteen churches, including a catliedral, and
two convents. A few of its houses are of brick or stoue, but tho major
part are of wood, the streets also being paved with planks. On an island
in the Toropa i^ a dilapidated fort. This town, under the name of Kri-
vitch, is mentioned as early as the introduction of Christianity by Vladimir,
about 990. It was the capital of a republic, which lasted through tho
whole of the twelfth century, but which in the thirteenth became subject to
hereditary princes. Toward the end of the fifteenth century it belonged
to the Poles, but it was retaken by the Russians in 1500.

Velikie-Louki, the other town previously mentioned, contains about
seven thousand inhabitants, several churches, and about thirty manufacto-
ries of leather, which is transported to the St. Petersburg markets, a dis-
tance of three hundred miles, by water. This town was, in 1611, taken
and burnt by the adherents of the pretender Dmitri.

The government of Tver extends from the fifty-sixth to the fifty-ninth
degree of north latitude, and from the thirty-second to tlic thirty-eighth
degree of east longitude ; having Novgorod on the nortli, Yaroslav and
Vladimir on the east, Moscow and Smolensk on the south, and Pskov on
the west. It has an area of about twenty-four thousand square miles.

The surface of this government is generally more elevated than that of
other parts of Euroi»ean Russia ; and several large rivers, particularly the
Volga, rise within its limits. In its weatcrn part are several lakes. The
Volga has its source in the lake of Selig' And afterward traverses the
government in nearly its whole length frt ost to cast.

The climate is severe, and the soil is but indifferently fertile. The har-
vests arc precarious, and scarcely ever produce more than sufficient for
home consumption. A good 4. al of hemp and flax, with beans, «fec., are
grown; but few kinds of fruit succeed. Tho forests are extensive, partic-
ularly in the north, and about one million of acres of forest-land belong to
the crown.

Its manufactures are of little consequence, but increasing ; those of dye-
ing-materials and spirituous li'piors are the principal ; and there are others
of bricks, glass-ware, ropes, leather, woollen-cloths, &c. This government
is, however, distinguished for its commercial activity ; and the capital of
its morchanti; has been estimated at seventeen millions of roubles. The
trade centres mostly in Tver, the capital, and is facilitated by tho Vish-
ni-Volotchok canal, which establishes a water-communication between the
Baltic and Caspian seas. Tlio district of the government traversed by this
canal is inhabited by a tribe of Carelians, and in the capital is a German
colony ; but the population is mostly Russian, of the Greek church. Thig

GREAT RUSSIA — TVER — SHOLEKSK.

government. is divided into twelve districts ; the chief towns are Tver, the
capital, Torjok, Rjev, and Bejetsk.

Tver, the capital of this government, is situated on the Volga, which is
hero crossed by a woorlcn bridge five hundred and fifty feet in length, and
on the high road betW(3cn Moscow and St. Petersburg, ninety miles north-
west of the former. Its population is about twenty-five thousand. In re-
spect of the regularity of its streets and buildings, Tver ranks next to the
two Russian capitals, but wants their bustle and animation. It is divided
by the several rivers into the town proper, suburbs, and citadel. The last,
surrounded by a rampart of earth, comprises the governor's residence, an
imperial palace, tlie cathedral, and seminary ; and its numerous towers and
cupolas give it, at a distance, an imposing appearance. The cathedral is
a square edifice, with a lofty spire, surmounted by a gilt copper dome, and
surrounded, lower down, by four similar domes. The seminary, founded
in 1727, for the instruction of seven hundred pupils in the sciences and
ancient languages, is established in a convent built in the thirteenth cen-
tury. There are numerous churches, government buildings, barracks, inns,
a theatre, <fec., and several public promenades, planted with trees.

This city owes Its present regularity and beauty to a fire which almost
totally destroyed it in 17G3 ; after which the empress Catherine II. ordered
it to be rebuilt on a uniform jjlan. Some houses are of stone, but the
greater part arc of wood ; and tlie paving is mostly of the same material.
An impost is levied upon every horse that passes the gates, expressly to
pave the streets.

Tver is a place of considerable trade, a large part of its population being
merchants, or engaged in the navigation of the Volga. It is an entrepot
for grain from the south destined for St. Petersburg, and for goods con-
veyed overland to and from Riga. It is of considerable antiquity, having
been the capital of a principality as early as the middle of the thirteenth
century. The town has frequently suflered from the plague, and been
taken by both the Tartars and Poles ; but it has remained, with little inter-
ruption, attached to the dominion of the Russians since 1490.

The government of Smolensk lies between the fifty-third and fifty-seventh
degrees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and tliirty-sixth degrees of
east longitude, having the governments of Pskov and Tver on the north,
Moscow and Kalouga on the east, Vitepsk and Moghilev on the west, and
Orel and Tchernigov on the soutli. It comprises an area of about twenty-
one thousand square miles.

The surface of this government is mostly an undulating plain, in some
parts marshy ; in tlie north is a more elevated plateau, in which the Dnie-
per and several other rivers have their source. The soil is generally fer-
tile, and more grain (principally rye) is grown than is required for home
consumption. Hemp, flax, tobacco, and hops, are cultivated. Cattle-
breeding is less attended to ; but a good many hogs are reared.

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The forests are very extensive, and are, in fact, the chief, sources of
wealth. Game is very plentiful ; and bees are reared almost everywhere.
Iron, copper, and salt, are found. Its manufactures are few, being nearly
confined to leatlier, glass-wares, pitch, <fec. ; with sawing-works, distilleries,
and a few carpet-factories, in the capital. The raw produce of the govern-
ment is exported, in large quantities, to Riga, Wilna, and Moscow.

Smolensk, the capital of the government, is situated on the Dnieper, two
hundred and thii'ty miles west by south from Moscow. This city is of
considerable antiquity. It was, in the ninth century, in a flourishing state,
and independent until the year 881, when it submitted to Novgorod. Its
population at the present time is about thirteen thousand. It lies on both
sides of the river, and is surrounded by a massive wall, flanked with tow-
ers. It appears to advantage at a distance, but is in reality a poor town,
the houses being mostly of only one story, and built of wood ; though since
it was burnt by the Russians, previous to their evacuation of it in 1812, it
has been partially .rebuilt of stone and brick. The fortifications, however,
remain pretty much in the same state as when Napoleon left them. Large
apertures made in the walls have never been repaired, and the inhabitants
seem poor and miserable. Here the French army, retreating from Mos-
cow, had expected to rejoin the divisions left on the Dnieper and the Duna,
and find their stores ; but on their arrival they learned that Napoleon had
altered his plans, that the ninth corps had not even halted in Siavlensk,
and that the provisions were all consumed. " A thunderbolt," writes La-
baume, " falling at our feet, would have confounded us less than did this
news ; the little that remained in the magazines was, in spite of the guard,
pillaged by the famished soldiers, who would not wait for the regular dis-
tribution of their rations. Tliis pillage led for the moment to abundance.
At the unexpected view, our hearts once more expanded. One laughed
with 'joy as he kneaded his bread, another sang as he cooked his meat;
but most of our party, eagerly seizing the brandy, quickly caused the wild-
est gayety to succeed to the most distressing sadness." On the 14th of
November, 1812, Napoleon held here his first council of war. An iron
pyramid has been erected in the city to commemorate tlie resistance made
by the place to the French on the occasion above referred to. The city
has three cathedrals, in one of which is a bell weighing forty thousand
pounds ; twenty Greek churches, tliree convents, a Luthei*an and a Roman
catholic church, a seminary, gymnasium, a military school for nobles, sev-
eral hospitals, and carpet, hat, soap, and leather factories.

A singular incident in Polish history is associated with this city. In
the frequent wars between Poland and Russia during the middle ages,
Smolensk fell into the hands of the former, whose victorious legions, forget-
ting their own country and kindred, held the city captive several years,
abandoning themselves to riot and debauchery with the Russians, ^^eing
thus deserted by their husbands, great numbers of the Polish women mar-
ried the serfs on their estates, and armed them for defence. The intollU

gence of
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GREAT RUSSIA — MOSCOW.

gence of these acts soon reached Smolensk, and the infuriated Poles com-
menced their homeward march, breathing vengeance. A great battle was
fought near Warsaw, in which the serfs, encouraged by the women, were
the victors, and the diflFerences in question wei - settled by a compromise.

The government of Moscow (Slavonic, Moskva) lies between the fifty-
fifth and fifty-seventh degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-fifth and
thirty-ninth degrees of east longitude, having the government of Tver on
the north and northwest, Smolensk on the west, Kalouga and Toula on the
sonth, and Vladimir and Riazan on the cast. It is of a very compact and
somewhat circular form ; its greatest length from northwest to southeast
is one hundred and forty miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and
ten miles. It comprises an area of about eleven thousand five hundred
square miles.

The surface of the country is generally low, but undulating. No mount-
ain occurs, and scarcely anything deycrviug liie name of hill. The princi-
pal heights are the river-banks, many of which rise considerably above the
channel, and occasionally form very pleasing and picturesque scenery.
The whole government belongs to the basin of the Volga, wliich, however,
drains only a small portion of the north directly, the rest of the drainage
being conducted into it by the Oka, and its tributaries the Kliasma and
Moskwa. The tributaries of these streams, within the government, though
small, are numerous. The only navigable streams are the Oka, Moskwa,
and Kliasma.

The climate is said to be temperate ; but the range of the thermometer
far exceeds that of the same latitude in western Europe, and the winter
cold is extreme. The soil is only moderately fertile, and does not pro-
duce more grain than supplies two thirds of the consumption. More thau
one half of the wliole surface is occupied by wood, and the wants of the
capital cause no inconsiderable portion of ground to be occupied with gar-
dens and orchards. The pastures also are extensive, and great care and
skill are displayed in the rearing of both cattle and horses. No metals
are wrought ; but freestone, limestone, gypsum, and potter's clay, are ob-
tained. Large masses of granite, not forming part of the strata, but in
the form of boulders, are scattered over the surface, and are turned to
good account.

All kinds of textile manufactures are carried on to a great extent in this
government, and give employment to a population at once more dense and
more industrious than exists within the same space in any other part of
Russia. Not only in towns, but in hamlets, and in almost every cottage,
the sound of industrial employment may be heard. Almost all the inhab-
itants belong to the Greek church. For administrative purposes, Moscow
is divided into thirteen districts.

The city of Moscow, the ancient capital of the empire, and the present
capital of the hiernrcliy,will be found fully described on future pages.

ILLUSTRATED DESCIUPTION OF RUSSIA.

The government of Yauoslav (Slavonic, Jarosluvl) lies cliiefly between
the fifty-seventh anil fifly-ninth degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-
seventh and forty-lirist degrees of east longitude, having the governments
of Novgorod anU Vologda on the nortli, Kostroma on the cast, Vladimir
on the south, and Tver on tiie west. Its length from north to south is
about one hundred and sixty miles, and its greatest breadth is nearly the
same. It has an area of about seventeen thousand square miles.

The surface of the country is almost wholly flat, being only occasionally
broken by the high l»anks of its streams, or by low ridges ; in aoxwq parta
it is marshy. It wholly belongs to the basin of the Vdlga, wliieh traverses
the government in its centre ; the other chief rivers are its tributaries the
Mologa, Shcksna, <S:c,, all of which have, more or less, an easterly direction.
The lake of Rostov, in the south, is eight miles long by six broad, and
there arc nearly forty other lakes of less size.

The air is pure, and the climate healthy, though the winter is severe,
and tlie sununer comparatively short. The soil is only moderately fertile.
R\'e, barley, Avhcat, oats, peas, «fec., are grown ; and Schnitzler estimates
the annual produce of grain at about three niillicms of c/icltcerts :* a quan-
tity insufficient for the inhabitants, who are jjartly supplied from the adja-
cent provinces by means of the Volga. Its hi;j..ij and flax arc excellent,
and cherry and apple orchards arc numerous. The gardeners of Yuroslav
and Rostov are famed throughout Russia, and many are met with at St.
Petersburg. Timber is rather scarce. The rearing of live-stock, except-
ing horses, is little pursued ; but the fisheries in the Volga are inij)ortant.

This government is, however, more noted for its manufacturing than its
rural industry. Linen, cotton, and woollen stuffs, leather, silk, hardware,
and toljacco, are the i)rincipal manufactures : but, independently of these,
the peasants are almost everywhere partially occupied with weaving stock-
ings and other fabrics, and making gloves, hats, harness, wooden shoes,
and various rural implements. Commerce is facilitated by several naviga-
ble rivers and good roads.

Yaroslav is subdivided into ten districts ; the chief towns are Yaroslav,
Rostov, and Ouglitch. Its population is Russian ; and the women are pro-
verbial (among Russians) for their beauty. Only about one seventeenth
part of the inhabitants reside in towns. In respect of education, the gov-
ernment is comprised under the division of Moscow, and has numerous
public schools and several ecclesiastical seminaries.

The city of Yaroslav, the capital of the above government, is situated
on the Volga, at the mouth of the Kotorosth, two hundred and twelve railea
northeast of Moscow. It is Avell built, though mostly of wood ; and is de-
fended by a fort at the confluence of the two rivers. In its broad main
street, which is ornamented with trees, are many handsome stone houses ;
and three convents and numerous churches contribute to give Yaroslav an

* A Ruf »ian " chetwprt" i* equal lo 5.362 Winchetter bushelt. Its capacity, howerer, vuiM
•omewhat in different localitiet.

GREAT UUSSIA — YAROSLAV — KOSTROMA.

imposlnpf appearance. Tlio DoniidolT lycoum in this city, fouiulod in 1803,
has a good library, a cabinet of natural history, a chemical laboratory, and
printing-presrf, and ranks immediately after tlio Russian universities. It
was originally endowed with lands, to which thirty-five hundred and sev-
enty-eight serfs were attached, and with a capital of one hundred thousand
silver roubles ; since which it has received other valuable benefactions.
The same educational course is pursued as in the universities, and lasts
three years. The establishment is placed under a lay-director and an
ecclesiastic, and has eight professors, two readers, and forty professionary
students. Yaro^lav has also an ecclesiastical seminary, with five hundred
students. A large stone exchange (^Gosliniri dear'), a hospital, foundling-
asylum, house of correction, and two workhouses, are the other chief public
edifices.

Tiiis city is the residence of a govcnior, and the see of an archbishop.
It has about forty different factories, including three of cotton, four of
linen, and two of silk fabrics, eight tanneries, and several tobacco, hard-
ware, and paper-making establishments. Its leather and table-linen are
much esteemed. The position of Yaroslav on the Volga contributes to
promote its commerce, which is very considerable. Its manuiactures are
sent to Moscow and St. Petersburg, and a great many are sold at the fair
of Makariev, in the government of Kostroma. Two annual fairs arc held
in Yaroslav.

This is a city of considerable antiquity, being founded in 1025, by the
famous Yaroslav, son of Vladimir the Great, who annexed it to the i)rinci-
l)ality of Rostov. It fell under tlie dukes of Moscow in 1426. Peter the
Great was the first to give it connnercial importance, by establishing ita
linen manufactures, since which its prosj)erity has been progressive. The
population of the city is about thirty thousand.

The government of Kostroma is c u; itcd principally between the fifty-
seventh and fifty-ninth degrees of norih iatitude,and the fortieth and forty-
eighth degrees of east longitude, having the government of Vologda on the
north, Yaroslav on the west, Vladimir and Nijnei-Novgorod on the south,
and Viatka on the east and southeast. Its greatest length is two hundred
and seventy miles, and its breadth one hundred and seventy miles. It has
an area of about thirty-eight thousand square miles.

The country consists of wide, level plains, varied only by gentle accli>'i-
ties and elevated river-banks. The northern part is cold, humid, and
swampy. Many of the swamps are covered with wood, and some of them
contain bog-iron ore. What is arable is cold, and of indifferent fertility.
Occasionally there are considerable extents of healthy ground, partly cov-
ered with wood. The southern part, near the Volga, has an opener and
drier soil, consisting mostly of clay, loam, and sand, but still only of mod-
orate fertility.

The climate is severe : the winter is long, and the weather stormy ; the

1!1

'IH

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V Iw 1

lii

i^n

100

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTION OF HUSSIA.

summer is short, and is frequently misty. The chief river is the Volga,
which, shortly after entering the government in the southwest, is joined
by tho Kostroma from the north ; then, after a short turn to the south*
southeast, proceeds almost due east, when it receives its important tribu*
tary the Unga, and soon after, by a southerly courno, quits tho government.
There arc numerous lakes. Of these, tho Galitz is ten miles long by five
and a half broad, and tlie Tchuchloma is above five miles in diameter.
Many of the houses in this government, and indeed through all tho soulh
and east of Russia, are constructed of timber, and liave very j)oculiar forms.
An interesting example of such structures is shown in tho accompanying
engraving.

POST-HOVIB ON TUR RoOTB FBOM KoSTBOM A TO VaKOSLAV.

Large quantities of hemp and flax arc raised in tliis province. These
two crops form an imi)ortant element in providing employment for tlie
inhabitants. Indeed, the governments of Yaroslav and Kostroma may be
considered as the chief seats of nmnufacturing industry, from which eastern
Europe derives its supplies. Damask and linen weaving, with the numer-
ous processes connected with them, give employment to a largo population,
in both the towns f nd throughout the district. Russia leather, also, both
red and black (tho former of cow, the latter of horse hide), is made in
large quantities, and of first-rate quality. The bog-iron raised is usually
smelted by the inhabitants themselves in small furnaces, and formed into
the various implements required for their own use. The forests, scattered
o7cr the district, employ many hands in felling trees, cutting them for
timber, firewood, or charcoal. Even the bark of the lime-tree is turned to
profitable account, being largely employed in making mats, for which tho
district has long been celebrated. The fishing, also, is very productive.
Many of the peasants are masons, carpenters, &c., who seek for employ
ment in the summer season in the contiguous governments, returning homo
in the autumn.

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GREAT RUSSIA — NIJNEI-NOVGOBOD.

101

The city of Kostroma, tlio capital of tlie above govcrnmont, is located
on tlio Volga, at the confluence of tlic Ko»tronia witli tliat river, two hun-
dred miles northeast of Moscow. The popuhitiou of tlio city is rising
twelve thousand. It is of great antiquity, having been built in the twelfth
century, and, as is usual with old Russian towns, is surrounded by a ram-
part of earth, of which advantage has been taken to form a promenade.
Its situation is elevated and agreeable, and, liuing the seat of both the civil
and military government of the district, it contains a great number of pub-
lic buildings, which, together with most of the dwellings, are constructed
of stone. It has fifty churches, a monastery, an ecclesiastical college, a
gymnasium, and a large stone building, or bazar, for the security, exhibi-
tion, and sale of merchandise. Its nmnifactures, among which that of
Russia leather has long been famous (and including also those of linen,
Prussian blue, soap, and tallow, a bell-fi)undry, &c.), make Kostroma one
of the most iinpurtant towns on the Volga. Several fairs are held here,
which are numerously attended by the merchants and country-people.

NiJNEi-NovGOROD, or Lower Novgorod (vulgarly, Nijeg-orod), is situ-
ated in the central part of European Russia, on both sides ojf the Volga,
between the fifty-fourth and fifty-seventh degrees of north latitude, and the
forty-first and forty-seventh degrees of east longitude. On the north ia
the government of Kostroma ; on the east, Kazan and Simbirsk ; on the
south, Penza and Tambov; and on the west, Vladimir. Its length from
north to south is one hundred and eighty-five miles, and its greatest breadth
one hundred and thirty-six miles, comprising an area of about twenty thou-
sand square miles.

The surface of the country is flat, or gently undulating. The soil, which
consists principally of sand and black friable mould, is exceedingly fertile ;
and being (for Russia) well cultivated, this is one of the most productive
provinces o.' the empire. Exc'u*»ive of the Volga, sevcal of its afliuents,
including the Oka, Betlouga, Plana, Ac, traverse difl'ereni paits of tho
gover n.iout, which is well watered, at the same time tlia* it is not marshy.
There are some very large forests, those of the crown u..iounting to about
thirteen or fourteen millions of acres. The produce of the grain-crops con-
siderably exceeds the consumption. Hemp and flax are very extensively
cultivated. Great numbers of cattle and horses arc bred, and the imperial
government is taking tho most efiectual measures to improve the latter.

This is a considerable manufacturing as well as a rich agricultural dis-
trict. Coarse linen, canvass, and cordage, are the principal manufactured
products ; there arc also some iron-works, with numerous distilleries and
tanneries, soap-works, glass-works, &c. Its commerce is extensive and
growing. The exports consist of grain and flour, cattle, horses, leather,
and tallow ; the manufactured articles specified above, with iron, timber,
potash, mats, glass, &c. In carrying on this trade, vast advantages are
given by the central position of the government, and its rivers and canals.

102

ILLUSTRATED DESCHII'TION OP Ul'SSIA.

Nijucl-Xuvjioroil ( A7yVi»-<>n>7, or Nijiiii), llio i'a|iitul of tin' ultovit jjov-
Wi'incnt, is .situiilcil in tlio iiiifilo formed liy tlu> coulliioiico of tlio Oku with
tho Vulgu. Its ^tatioiiury populiition is uImmiI forty tliousiiiul. It stuiids
partly on a stt'op liill, uliout foiii- liiiiKlroil foct iii lifi<,dit, the suimuit of
which is occii|)icd by tho Kri'inliii or I'itadt'l, and partly on tho K)\v {{round
along the sidos of tho rivors. Tho oitadfl, fn tho raniparts of which
thoro is a noltlo view of tho Vol^ia, Oka, and fuvw .1 ling counliy, contains
the govonunont-ofhcos, two cuthodrals, liuilt aftor tho model of that of
Moscow ; an obelisk, aovcnty-livo foot in height, erected in huuor of tho
dolivorors of their country, thu patriotic citizen Minin and Prince Pojuraki ;
and other public buildings.

Tho upi»er part of tho town has sovoral good streets ; and being orna-
mcntod by numerous churches, placed in conspicuous >ituations, has au
imposing appearance. The lower town consists principally of a very long
street, bordering on tho Volga. With the exception of the principal puU
lic buildings (^induding tho elegant church of tho iloly Women, shown ia
our engraving), and a few private houses, the rest of the city is constructed

CinracH or the Holt Wombn, at NuNci-Noroonov.

of wood. Among tho establishments arc three convents, a bazar, a gym-
nasium, and four j)riniary schools, au ecclesiastical scnunary, and a largo
military school. Tho town is ancient, having boon founded in 1222. Tho
Krcndin was surrounded by strong walls anil towers in 1508.

A bridge of pontoons loads across the Oka to the S|)londid new bazars
erected on tho loft bank of that river for the exhibition and sale of uiei'-
chandise brought to the fair. Those, which are divided into i)arallel rows,
or streets, are constructed of stone, roofed with iron, having. covered gal-
leries in front, supported by eight thousand iron pillars. They are built
on piles, and, to guard against the danger of inundation, the ground on
which they stand was raised about twenty feet. Being enclosed ou thrco

GRKAT RUSSIA — NIJNKI-NOVnonon.

103

Bides l>y canals, and on tlio fourth liy u navigiiMe inlet of tlio Olxii, thcro
is ovt'iy facility foi- tlic doliv(My and sliipnicnt of nn'rclinndiso. Tlio ostalv
lisliMicnt is of vory fjrcat ••Ntcnt, (;oni|iiij<ing al)ovo t\V(>nty-fivi' hundred
IxMiths ; and is adniittrd on all hands to he at onco thn hup>st and most
jM'i'fi'ct of its kind tluit is anywhcit' to Itc inrt with. Ini'luding the cliuiTh,
dodiratcd to St. Macarius, the patron-saint of tiic fair, it is said to have
cost in all ahout tdovon niiilions of rmilth's.

Nijnci-Novptrod has various nninnfai'turcs, hut it owes its jrrout iinpor-
tanct; almost entirely to its. eonnnerce. It is the j^rand entreput for tho
trade of the interior of the empire, and ha.-<, in iUet, a greater eomniainl of
internavigation than any other eity of tho Old W»»rld. IJesides the grain,
cattle, and other products of the surrounding country, the Kama, the prin-
cipal allliieiit of th(! Volga, conveys to Nijuei the salt of I'erm ; the g(dd,
nilver, copper, and other metallic treasures, of the I'ral mountains; tho
furs, itc, of .*^iiieria; and even (lie teas of China. The silks, shawls, and
other nuM'chandise of central Asia, ami the fish, caviar, Ac, of southern
Russia, come up tin? river from Aslrakhan; while the manufactured goods
of England and western Kurope, the wines of France, tho cotton of tho
Uidted States, and tho sugar of Hra/il, are conveyed to her from St. Pe-
torslairg and Archangel, with lioth of which, as well as with Moscow, sho
is conni'ctetl Ity navigalde rivers and canals. These advantages, joined to
her situation in a fertile countrv in the centre of the momirehv, were so
highly a|)prcciatcd ly Peter the (Jreat, that it is said he at one time in-
tended to have nnvdo Nijnci the ca[(ital of his empire ; and it is, perhaps,
to he regri;tted that he did not carry this project into cflect.

Latterly the commercial importance of Nijnei-Xovgorod has hoen vastly
increased. Prcviouslj* to 1H17, the great fair, now held hero, was held in
a less convenient situation at Makarev, in the same government, lowei*
down on tho Volga (^which nnist not bo confounded with Miikari(t\ in tho
government of Kostroma, where fairs ire also held). Put the buildings
for the accommodation of the merchants at Makarov having boon accident-
ally burnt down in 1810, government took advantage of the circumstance,
to remove tho fair to Nijuei. It begins on tho first of July, and contiuuos
for a month or six weeks, and is well known, not only over all Russia, but
over most other countries of Europe and Asia. It is carried on within tho
bazars already noticed, which were constructed by government for the ac-
conunodation of the traders, to whom they are let at moderate rents. Tho
produce disposed of is classified as follows, viz. : first, Russian ])roduc0,
raw and nmnnfactured ; second, merchandise from the rest of Europe, con-
bisting principally of numufacturcd and colonial products ; and, third, prod-
ucts of China, Bokhara, tho Kirghizes, and other Asiatic nations.

The concourse of strangers during the fair is quite immense ; so much
so, that the population is then increased, according to the lowest estimates,
by from one hundred and fifty to two hundred thousand individuals. Here
aro seen dealers from India, China, Tartary, Pokhara, Persia, Circassia,

104

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Armenia, and Turkey; and from Italy, Poland, Germany, France, England,
and even tlie United States. Theatrical representations, shows of wild
beasts, and other diversions, arc got up to entertain the multitude, but tho
engrossing spirit of trade overrides all considerations of nicre amusement.

Laurence Oliphant, who was j)rcsent at the fair in 1852, thus graphically
describes its appearance, in his late work on Russia: —

" To us, as strangers, the earnest, business-like appearance of the people
was especially striking. There was evidently no time to bo lost in merry-
go-rounds or penny shows. Here foi-tuiies were to be lost or won in a few
short weeks. The rich merchant had brought valuable wares from distant
lands at an enormous exjiense ; the poor peddler had trudged many a weary
mile with his heavy pack: both had staked their all on the residts of their
transactions in the allotted time, and wore in no humor to trifle with it.
It had evidently never struck them that Nijnei fair was a place to which
people would resort for cither pleasure or instruction, or for anything but
gold ; and certainly, interesting though it was, some such motive as the
last would be required to induce a second visit.

" The fiiir is held on a low, sandy spot of land, formed by tho junction
of the Oka and the Volga, and which is subject to constant inundation in
winter. The substantial part of it, inhabited by the wealthy merchants,
is arranged in twelve parallel streets, composed of neat two-storied brick
houses, the lower part forming the shops and warehouses, which are pro-
tected by covered verandahs. Each street terminates at one end in a
pagoda, indicating the Chinese quarter" (a representation of which is given
on the opposite page) ; " while at the other it is coiuiected with a square,
where the governor's house and public offices arc situated.

" This respectable nucleus is encompassed by a deep border of tempo-
rary wooden huts, inhabited by an indescribal)le swarm of ragged Tartars,
Tchouvasses. Kirghiz, and Calmucks, besides the peasantry of tho neigh-
borhood, who frequent the fair with provisions, frtiit, and all sorts of farm
and country produce. A long bridge of boats across the Oka connects this
busy peninsula with the hill on which is situated the town of Nijnei, com-
manding an extensive view of tho whole scene. Both rivers arc covered
with every conceivable shape and description of boat and barge ; some
from the distant Caspian, laden with raw or spun cotton, Persian shawls,
Georgian carpets, and Bokharian skms, or dried fruits : these vessels, of
square, unwieldy construction, are elaborately painted and ornamented,
and on their decks are erected curious wooden habitations, from the peaked
roofs of which flutter gaudy flags, while out of the carved windows peep
eastern maidens. Others, rude and strongly built, have come down tho
Kama with Siberian iron or tea ; while the more civilized appearance of a
few denotes their western origin, and these have threaded their way from
the shores of the Baltic, laden with the manufactured goods of Europe.
On board this singular mixture of craft is found as siu^ :lar a mixture of
inhabitants, wholo families coming from their distant homos to take some

■ 1.
1 ■ .

GREAT RUSSIA — NIJNEl-NOVOOROD.

105

Chinisb Qoabtib or the Gbiat Faib at Nunbi-Novoobod.

share in what — now that the London Exhibition exists no longer in that
cajmcity — may resume its old title of 'the World's Fair.'

" Our al)ode was situated in a suburb, on the opposite side of the river,
so tliat it was necessary to cross tlie bridge of boats every time we wished
to visit the fair ; and here the confusion was always the greatest. Wa
were obliged to struggle our way, if on foot, amid sheepskins, greasy
cnougl) to scent us for the rest of our lives, thereby adding to the store of
(leas with which we had started from our lodging. AVomen, with waists
immediately under their throats, and petticoats tucked up to their knees,
tramped it gallantly through the mud, and made better progress than we
could. A Cossack on horseback rode up and down the bridge for the pur-
pose of keeping order amid the droskies, which, heedless of the rules of the
road, dashed in every direction, ai)parently bent upon splashing those they
did not run over. Drunken men continually stumbled against us ; and
when at last we reached tlic slough on the opposite side, tlie confusion and
huljbub were greater than ever. The mud in the shallowest parts was at
least two feet in depth, and nearly everybody waded about in it with Ru&.
sian leather jack-boots. Numbers of small shops surrounded the bespat-
tered jiopulace, while a few miserable attempts at shows only proved how
little they were appreciated.

" At the corners of the streets running into this delectable hole were eta-

'tionod Cossacks, who sliowered blows upon offending Mujiks (or peasants)

with their licavy-lashed whips, without regard to the nature of the oflence

or the size of the victim. Turning up one of these streets, and pcnetinting

farther into the fair, other scenes and pleasantcr forms meet the eye. The

106

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

SVMHABT Pl'MSHXENT OP A Ml'JIK BV A CoSSACX, AT NmNEI.

gay dress of tho Georgian forms a pleasing contrast to the everlasting
sheepskin ; and, as we enter the shop of the Teflis nicrcliant, beautifully-
embroidered slippers, rich ta-
ble-covers, and tho finest silks,
are spread out temptingly be-
fore us In the next shop

are handsome furs and skins
piled in every available corner,
and the owner of the valuable
collection stands at tlio door,
his Jlowiiig rube and dignified
dcinoanor betokening his east-
ern origin. Aaron was, in fact,
a Bokharian Jew, who delight-
ed to show us his costly wares,
even though there was no chance
of our becoming purchasers ; and, finally, regaled us with almonds, split-
peas, and raisins — flattered, perhaps, by tlie admiration we expressed at
the belt ho wore, the buckle of which, composed of solid silver, was set
with tunpioises. JJut it would be hopeless to attenij)t a descrij)tion of the
costumes of the different merchants and shopkeepers, or to emuncrate the
variety of articles exposed for sale.

" The Bokliariaiis, IVrsians, and fJeorgians, iuhabit one quarter, which
is likely to prove tlie most interesting to the .tranger; and I recognised,
in the countenances of many of the representatives of these nations, a strong
resemblance to some old Afl'ghan and Persian horse-dealing friends. It is
a convenient arrangement, no less for the sight-seer tlian the nuMchant,
that the fair is divided mU) quarters, devoted to tlie sale of different mer-
chandise. Tlie Ketaiski Red, or Cliiiu'se division, is at once distiugulsh-
able liy the rows of square leather boxes which contain the tea. No Chi-
naman, however, showed his pigtail in the crowd, much to our disappoint-
ment — the transfer being made at Kiahta, whence the tea comes overland
to the Kama, down which river it is conveyed to tiio Volga. In tlie cut-
lers' quarter 1 was surprised to find so great a preponderance of Hussiaa
ware ; still Slieflield maintains its own, and the i)riees are nnich lower than
in St. Petersl)urg : indeed, this is the case with all English or foreign
goods, wliich, though sulyect to a most exorbitant duty on entering Russia,
may be procured more cheaply here, on account of the comparative facility
with which they can be exposed for sale. The guild dues at St. Peters-
burg ar3 so high, that the merchant, after jiaying two thousand rouldes
(^assig-nation) for his position in the first guild, and two or three tiiousand
roubles more for his shop on tho Nevskoi Prospekt, has but little margin *
left for his j)rofits.

" The whole system seems most elaborately devised to destroy all entop-
prise, and to depi-ess as much as possible tho spirit of trade, in a country

GREAT RUSSIA — VLADIMIR.

107

wliicli naturally possesses it in but a very linutod degree ; and it must be
long ore tlic rcfourcos of the coimtry can be properly developed wliilc the
government seeks its own aggrandizement regardless of the prosi)erity of
tlie community — since the protectit)n it affords to home manufactures, by
the duty on foreign goods, is eiTectually neutralized by the exiienscs attend-
ant upon the sale and manufacture of the homo jn-oducc itself. At Nijnci,
however, these difficulties do not exist : the only expense is house-rent ;
and t!ius it happens that foreign goods are to bo procured more cheaply
here than they can be at a seai)ort seven hundred miles nearer the country
■yvhcnice they come ; and, in some instances, the manufactured articles of a
Russian town some hundreds of miles distant, are to be found here exposed
for sale at lower ])rieos than in the very town where tliey have been pi"o-
duced — an anomaly which is (piite in accordance with the political econ-
omy of the country. The palpable result of all this is, that the variety of
goods l)rought to Nijnci for sale far exceeds wlmt it would be were there
not so many attendant advantages to counterl)alance the expense of trans-
port ; and the traveUcr has oidy to wander along the narrow, insigiiificant-
looking streets of tlie fair, to find articles wliich he would be unable to
obtain mi the handsomest shops of St. Petersburg and Moscow."

The government of Vladimir lies between tlie fifty-fifth and fifty-seventh
degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-eighth and forty-tliird degrees of
oast hjiigitude, Iiaving the governments of Yaroslav and Kostroma on the
nortli, Xijnei-Novgorod on the east, Moscow and Tver on the west, and Ria-
zan and Tambov on the south. It comprises an area of about seventeen
thousand five liundred square miles.

The surface of the country is almost a level plain, watered by numerous
rivers, the principal being the Oka in the southeast and the Kliasma, a trib-
utary of the Oka, running tlirougli tlie centre ; botli of wliicli have, more
or less, a northeasterly course. The soil is not genorally fertile, and a
hirge part of the government is covered with forests, marshes, jkioIs, and
heaths. Rye, barley, oats, summer and winter wheat, millet, jieas, hemp,
and fiax, are grown; but the crops of grain are insufficient for the home
C(3Iisumption. The gardens and orchards arc pretty numerous, and well
attended to ; and Vladimir is liimoiis for its cherries and apples. A good
many cucumbers and some hops are raised. Cattle-rearing is a secondary
business, and is far behind. The forests arc of vast extent, those belonf-
ing to the crown alone covering about one ninth jiart of the entire surfiice.
Extensive and valualilo beds of iron-oro liavc lieen found in the forest of '
Jilourom ; and at Vixa, on the Oka, are soiuo of the most extensive iron-
works in Russia. .

The poverty of the soil, and other concurring circumstances, have turned
the attention of the inhabitants toward manufactures, which appear to have
succeeded better in this than in most other Russian governments. The
cotton manufacture, which is by far tlic most extensive, is principally car-

i A

': i

' '•>

I A

« i

108

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

ried on at Chouia and Ivanova, where, in connection with other branches
of industry, it employs about one hundred thousand work-people. Tho
manufacture of woollen and linen is of less importance ; but about five or
six thousand hands are employed in iron-foundries ; and about fifteen hun-
dred in glass and crystal works, exclusive of those employed in the pro-
duction of leather, earthenware, itc.

The various products of tiic government are sent down the Kliusma and
Oka, or else to Moscow, by moans of land-carriages. Graig, cotton-twist,
and flax, from the neighI)oring governments of Kostroma, Yaroslav, and
Nijnei-Novgorod, are the chief articles of import. Vladimir is divided
into thirteen districts. The chief towns are A^'ladimir, the capital, Chouia,
and Mourom.

Vladiuiir, the cajjital of tho above government, is located near the Kli-
asma, and on one of its small tributaries, one hundred and ten miles north-
east of Moscow. Its population is supi)osed to be about ten thousand.
Vladimir occupies a site rather more elevated tlian the rest of its govern-
ment. It is surrounded by a ditch and earth rampart, and, like almost all
the ancient towns of Russia, is divided into three portions. Its jirincipal
street is long, wide, and lined with houses of wood and stone intermixed.
The cross-streets are mostly mean. The principal structure is the cathe-
dral of the Assumption, a square edifice, surmounted by five domes, and
richly ornamented inside, though nnich loss magnificent than formerly.
There are about a dozen other churches. The former palace of the arch-
bishop now serves for a semiimry. The governor's house, courthouse, gym-
nasim, a nunnery, &c., are brick edifices.

Vladimir is not considered a wealthy town, or a principal emporium,
owing partly to its distance from any large navigable river, and partly to
the proximity to Moscow. Being, however, on the great road to the fairs
of Nijnei-Novgorod and Irbit, and on the grand line of communication be-
tween European Russia and Siberia, it often presents a busy and cheerful
aspect. Some of its inhabitants are occupied in making linen-cloths and
leather ; and many others in the cultivation of fruit, particularly cherries,
which are grown in great quantities in the neighborhood. The era of its
foundation is uncertain : some authors place it in the tenth, and others iu
the twelfth century. Vladimir was, however, the capital of the grand-
duchy of Russia from 1157 till 1328, when that distinction was transferred
to Moscow.

The government of Riazan lies between the fifty-third and fifty-sixth
degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-eighth and forty-first degrees of
east longitude, having the government of Vladimir on the north, Tambor
on the east and souch, and Toula and Moscow on the west. It has an area
of about fourteen thousand square miles.

The surface of tho country is generally flat. Tho Oka, running from
west to east, divides the goveruuicnt into two unequal portions of very

GREAT RUSSIA — RIAZAN.

109

different aspect. The country south of tliat river is the more elevated ;
the air is wholcsone, and tlie soil fertile : in the north, on the contrary,
the country is generally low, marshy, and covered witli woods, or destitute
of culture. More grain is grown than is required for home consumption,
the average produce being between twenty-five and tliirty millions of bush-
els a year. The forests, which arc very extensive, cover above a third
part of the surface : those belonging to the crown comprise about four hun-
dred and twenty-eight thousayd deciatines, or twelve hundred and eighty-
four thousand acres. Hops, tobacco, and garden- vegetables are, in some
districts, raised in large quantities. The proprietors of the pasture-lands
let them to graziers belonging to the Ukraine, who bring thither large
herds. The breed of liorscs is good : the imperial government has a. depot
(Vetalons at 8kopin. Bees are sui)j>osed to produce about two hundred
and fifty thousand roubles a year. There are a few iron-mines and stone-
quarrios.

The manufactures of this government have made some progi*ess. Those
of glass and hardware occupy the first rank ; and there are otliers of Avool-
len, cotton, and linen fabrics, cordage, ])otash, suap, <tc., with dyeing-
establishments, tanneries, and distilleries. A portion of tlic manufactured
goods is sent to Moscow, and, by way of the Oka, down the Volga ; but
the principal exports are the raw products of the government, consisting
of grain, cattle, honey, lard, iron, timber, and wooden articles.

The population of Iliazan is principally Russian, but partly of the Tartar
stock. The government is subdivided into twelve districts. The chief
towns are Riazan, the capital, Zaraisk, and Kasimov. Education is very
backward^ the pupils at schools and other semiimries amounting to only
about one in a thousand of the popiilation.

The city of Riazan, tlie capital of the above government, is situated on
the Troubege, a tributary of the Oka, one hundred and ten miles south-
east of Moscow. Its population is about ten thousand. It consists of two
distinct portions : an irregular fortress, with an earthern rampart, enclo-
sing numerous churclies, the episcopal palace, formerly the residence of
the princes of Riazan, the consistory, «S:c. ; and the town proper, in which
are also numerous churches, witli a fine edifice for the government-offices,
several convents, a seminary ami public library, hospital, (fee. The town
has greatly increased in size and importance within the last fifty years ;
but most of the houses are still of wood, and planks occupy the place of
pavements in the streets.

Riazan is the seat of a military governor, with authority over the gov-
ernments of Riazan and Tambov, and of the chief judicial courts of each
government. It has a gymnasium, to which a society of arts was attached
in 1820 ; a school of drawing and architecture, founded in 1824 ; schools
for the children of official persons, «fec. ; and several of the principal manu-
factures in the government. The old town of Riazan, destroyed by the
Tartars in 1568, is distant about thirty-three miles southeast.

110

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The government of Tambov is situated principally between tlio fifty-sec-
ond and fifty-fifth degrees of north latitude, and the fortieth and forty-third
degrees of east longitude, having the governments of Vladimir and Nijnei-
Norgorod on the north, Penza and Saratov on the cast, Voroncj on the
south, and cliiofly the latter and Riazan on the west. lis length from
north to south is about three hundred and fifty miles, its breadth varying
from one hundred to two hundred and fifty miles. It contains an area of
about twenty-four thousand square miles.

Tlie surface of the country is flat, except in a few parts, where it is
slightly undulating. Its j)rincipal rivers are the Tsna and Mocksha, tribu-
taries of the Oka, flowing north ; and the Vorona, a tributary of the Don,
flowing soutli. In the north the soil is sandy and marshy ; a large propor-
tion of the country, princip.illy the marshes, being covered with forests :
in the east, or steppe — so called from its being bare of wood — tlie soil
consists principally of a black mould, and is comparatively fertile. Grain
is the principal product ; but, according to the official accounts, the crops
are extremely variable, and scarcities frequently occur. The crop of 1802,
for example, was estimated at fifty millions of bushels, and that of 1821 at
only thirty millions of bushels. In 181'2, an abundant year, about four
and a half millions of bushels were exported to Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Hemp is extensively grown ; the value of the quantity exported amounting,
according to Schnitzler, to one million of roubles a year.

The forests along the Mockslia supply a good deal of timber for ship
and boat building ; and the inhabitants are there principally wood-cutters,
carpenters, coopers, or pitch and tar makers. The peasantry are well
treated, and in good circumstances. Cattle (principally brought from the
stei)i)es of the Don, the Volga, and the Caucasus) arc numerous, and are
extensively fattened for the neighboring governments, and for Moscow and
St. Petersburg. The horses belonging to the gentry are good, and have
been much improved by the stud kept by the OrlofT family ; but the horses
of the peasantry are wretched.

The manufacture of woollen cloth is carried on to a considerable extent
in this province. Peter the Great established an extensive cloth-manufac-
tory, for tlie service of government, at the village of Boudari. This, how-
ever, was burnt down in 1836 ; but, having been since rebuilt on a great
scale, it now gives wnployment to about two thousand males, and twelve
hundred females : the consumption of wool is stated at fifty thousand poods
a year ; and besides furnishing four hundred and forty thousand arschines*
of cloth annually for the army, it produces other goods worth one and a
half millions of roubles. The province also possesses numerous forges,
distilleries, tallow-factories, mills (of which a very fine one belongs to
Count Koutaisoff"), &c. The principal towns are Tambov, the capital,
Morchansk, Chatsk, Elatma, Lipetsk, «fec.

The city of Tambov, the capital of the above government, is situated at

* A Russian ar$ehine is ubout three fourths of an English yard.

GREAT RUSSIA — TAMBOV — TOULA.

Ill

about the centre of the province, on the Tsna, tlirec hundred and eighty-
five miles southeast of Moscow. Its population is twenty-five or thirty
thousand. The town, which is about two miles in lengtli, by one mile in
breadth, was originally founded and fortified in 1636, as a defence against
the incursions of the Nogai Tartars. The houses arc principally of wood ;
but there are various stone churches, a large monastery, gymnasium, civil
hospital, a military orplian asylum, &c. la the school of cadets at Tam-
bov, about onc! hundred pupils, sons of nobles, are instructed in French,
German, military exercises, &c. ; and the most intelligent are afterward
sent to the corps de cadets at St. Petersburg. A high school for young
ladies was founded in 1834, and there arc various otlier schools. Manu-
factures of woollen cloths, alum, vitriol, &c., are established ; and the town
has an active general trade.

i r

TouLA, one of the most populous of the Russian governments, lies prin-
cipally between the fifty-third and fifty-fifth degrees of north latitude, and
the tliirty-sixth and tliirty-ninth degrees of east longitude, having the gov-
ernment of Moscow on the north, that of Riazan on the east, Orel on the
south, and Kalouga on the west. Its length is about one hundred and
thirty miles, and its breath is about eighty-five miles, comprising an area
of about twelve thousand square miles.

The country slopes generally to the north and east, in which direction
the Oka (lows, forming its liorthwestcrn and northern boundary. The Don
rises in this government. The surface is an midulating plain, and, though
not very fertile, it jjroduces a good deal of grain, with beans, turnips, mus-
tard, liax, hemp, tobacco, potatoes, and other vegetables. The jjcasanta,
almost everywhere, have gardens in whicli they grow fruit, &c. ; the cli-
nuite being tolerably mild and healtliy. The rearing of cattle, horses, and
sheep, is extensively carried on. Iron is abundant, and in the neighbor-
hood of the capital, iron-mines extend over an area of ten square miles ;
but the metal is of inferior quality, and iron is one of the chief imports into
the government. A bad sort of coal has also been met with ; but wood
and cliarcoal contiiuie to be the principal fuel used in the forges and other
factories. Forests cover about one sixth part of the surface. Dr. Lyall
says that, south of Toula, there is not so profuse u waste of timber in the
construction of peasants' houses as nearer St. Petersburg. Indeed, some
of the houses are not built in the usual way, with trunks of trees mortised
together at the corners, but consist of wattled wicker-work. The dwellings,
or rather the huts, of the peasants, which range along both sides of the
road, are more paltry in their appearance and more simple in their struc-
ture than those between the capitals. Indeed, they gradually become more
miserable as we proceed south, till we come to regions where stone abounds.

Except in the capital, there are hardly any manufacturing establishments
other than tanneries, breweries, and distilleries, the last two bei.ig on a
very extensive scale. The exports consist principally of grain, hemp, and

112

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

flax, with cutlcryjewellery, (fee, from Toula; the latter, with Biclev, being
the chief scat of coinmorcc. Li tliis government is tlie canal of Ivanov,
uniting the Oka with the Don, excavated by the Swedish prisoners in Rus-
sia early in the eighteenth century.

Toula has been a separate government since 179G : it is divided into
twelve districts. The chief towns are Toula, the capital, Bielcv, Vienev,
Odiiiev. Its inhabitants arc nearly all Russians, with some German colo-
nists. In respect of public instruction, Toula is subordinate to the univer-
sity of Moscow.

The city of Toula, the capital of the above government, is situated on
both sides of the Upa, one hundred and ten miles south of Moscov/^. The
population, including the government Avorkmcn, but exclusive of troops, is
probably between forty and fifty thousand. This town, tlic " Slicftielii and
Rirmingham" of Russia, is one of the most interesting in the empire. Seen
from a distance, it has an imposing aj)pearance. A very handsome church,
with white columns, appears above the town, which occupies an extensive
vale, and is filled with sj)ires and domes. The entrances on both the north
and south sides are through triumj»hal arches, made of wood painted to
imitate marble. It is divided into several quarters, the communication
between them being ke|)t up by a number of wooden and stone bridges ;
and there arc several suburbs.

There are two convents and twenty-six churches in Toula, all of stone ;
but the edifices which chiclly attract the stranger's attention are the gun-
manufactory ; the gymnasium for the government ; Alexander's school,
opened in 1802, for the education of youth, at the expense of the nobility ;
the foundling-hospital, a branch of that of Moscow ; the house of correc-
tion, ))rison, arsenal, theatre, ^ij-os/iwo? ^/ror, or Iniilding for the preserva-
tion and sale of merchandise, «fcc. Tiie shops in the latter present more
activity and industry than are usually met with in Russian towns, and some
of the merchants are reputed rich. There is a continual mixture of wood
and stone houses ] but some streets are lined on both sides with stone
edifices, many of which are massive and in good taste.

The musket-manufactory, though commenced at an earlier period, is
indebted for its origiiml importance to Peter the Great. It was remod-
elled and improved Ijy Catherine II. in 1785 ; but its present excellence
is mainly owing to Mr. Jones, an English mechanic from Uirmiiigham, who
was invited into Russia in 1817. About eight thousand men and ten tliou-
sand women aio employed in this factory, besides four or five thousand
hands in subsidiary occupations. Abouf, seventy-five thousand muskets
and fifty or sixty thousand swords are aiini'.ally made here, exclusive of
great numbers of carbines, pistols, bayonets, pikes, &c. The metal em-
ployed comes wholly from Siberia, and is of excellent quality. The work-
men in the gun-factory enjoy peculiar immunities and privileges ; they form
a separate body, and have their judges selected from among themselves.
They are divided into five trades — barrel-makers, lock-makers, stock-

^. ■■'■

■-■■■■»

GREAT RUSSIA — KALOUOA.

118

makers, fr.mishing-makcrs, and makers of small-arms. The arms made at
this factory have been ridiculously depreciated by some travc-Uers, and as
extravagantly extolled by others. The exploits of the llussian armies
speedily showed the entire worthlessness of the statements made by tho
English traveller Clarke as to tho badness of the Toida muskets ; and, in
point of fact, though they want tho neatness and finish of the muskets of
Birmingham, they arc of very good quality. Some also of tho firearms
and swords made here are very highly finished, but these are comparatively
high priced.

Among tho other fabrics of Toula arc mathematical and physical instru-
ments, jewelry, and platina-wares, with silk and hat fabrics, tanneries, Ac.
The town is the residence of a military governor, with authority extending
over the governments of Toula and Tambov, Riazan, Orel, Voronej, and
sometimes Kalouga.

Ancient Toula, which existed in the twelfth century, did not occupy the
site of the modem town, though it was on the Upa, at no great distance.
The present city was founded in 1509, by Vassili-Ivanovich, who fortified
it with a stone and brick wall, Ac. Its defences, however, were insufiS-
cient to prevent its being frequently plundered by the Tartars, it being on
the high road to Moscow from the Crimea. It has often suffered severely
from fire, tho last visitation being in 1834.

The government of Kalouoa lies between the fifty-third and fifty-sixth
degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-third and thirty-seventh degrees
of east longitude, having the government of Smolensk on the west, tlie lat-
ter and Moscow on the north, Toula on the east, and Orel on the south.
It has an area of about ten thousand five hundred square miles.

The surface of the country is an almost uninterrupted plain, watered by
numerous rivers, of which the Oka and its tributaries are the principal.
There are also several small lakes, and occasional morasses. The climate
is one of the most temperate in Russia, bei^g tolerably mild for the lati-
tude. AVinter sets in about the end of November, and disappears in March.
The soil is mostly either sandy or hard clay, and not fertile. The forests
occupy more than half the surface of the province, and the arable lands
rather more than two fifths ; but a good deal of manure is required to ren-
der the latter even moderately productive, and the agricultural produce is
not adequate to the consumption of the inhabitants. Rye is principally
grown ; but barley is a favorite crop, and other cereals — wheat, oats, mil-
let, and also buckwheat and beans — are likewise cultivated. Hemp and
flax are grown to a large extent ; and, though much of it is worked up in
the district, a considerable surplus remains for export, along with oil and
oil-cake. Cattlo are not numerous, and but little valued ; but there are in
the government two extensive studs for the breeding of superior horses.
The fisheries are insignificant, and but little game is met with. Bog-iron
is found, but in no great qua)\tity, and a good deal hus to be imported to

114

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

supply the various iron-works, which nro numerous, owing to the abun.
ance of fuel : a Idrgo quantity of iron, both pig and malleable, is produced.

This government being so little suitable for agriculture, the attention of
its inhabitants has been naturally turned toward manufacturing industry :
in this respect, Kalouga ranks immediately after the governments of Mos-
cow and Vladimir. A large number of workmen are employed in distille-
ries and manufactures of sailcloth, linen and cotton goods, leather, soap,
candles, and hardware. The manufacture of beet-root sugar has been for
some years introduced. Nearly all the peasants' families employ a consid-
erable portion of their time in weaving. Many of the merchants in this
government are opulent, and some have commercial transactions with for-
eign governments, through Archangel. The chief exports are oils, spirits,
potash, honey, linen, sailcloth, and other manufactured goods. The prin-
cipal commercial towns are Kalouga and Borofsk.

The government is divided into eleven districts, and is under the same
military governor with Toula. Its scholastic institutions are under the
university of Moscow, but they are extremely deficient ; and until recently
it had but one printing-press, which was the property of the crown ! The
inhabitants are nearly all of the Russian stock.

The city of Kalouga, the capital of the above government, is situated on
the Oka, near where it suddenly turns eastward, one hundred and five
miles southwest of Moscow. Its population is about forty thousand. Al-
though comprising no more tlian about four thousand houses, it is said to
occupy a space of ten versts* or a little short of seven miles in circumfer-
ence, and is divided into three quarters by the Oka and its tributary the
Kaloujeka. It is an ill-built town, with narrow, crooked, and badly-paved
streets, and wooden houses. Tiicre are, however, some good public edi-
fices, as the high church, government-house, town-hall, and theatre. Of
the twenty-four churches, twenty-three are of stone ; a convent, also a stone
building, gymnasium, seminary for poor children of noble birth, foundling-
asylum, several workhouses and hospitals, and a house of correction, are
the other chief public establishments.

Kalouga is one of the most important manufacturing and commercial
towns in the empire. It has five sailcloth-factories, employing four hun-
dred weavers and one thousand spinners ; between thirty and foity oil-
factories, numerous tan-yards, some sugar-refineries, and manufactures of
woollen cloth, cotton fabrics, hats, paper-hangings, earthenware, soap, vit-
riol, &c. Besides carrying on an extensive internal trade, its merchants
make largo exports of lambskins, Russia leather, and wax, to Dantzic,
Breslau, Berlin, and Leipsic ,,.. =

The government of Orel, or Orlov, lies between the fifty-second and
fifty-fourth degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-third and thirty-ninth

* A vtrit ii three thouiand fire hundred feet, three vertta being thus alioul equal to two BnglUi
milet, or tun vertti to teTen miles, as above stated.

of the
one pri
The in
but the
Ore
Oka, tw
old fort
either
wood,
ward ol
immens
vious to
but sev<
tauneric
for whi(
in the c
water,
central
of the
and oth
see of
and has I

GREAT RUSSIA — OREL.

lift

degrees of oast longitude, having the governments of Kalouga and Toula
on the north, Smolensk on the northwest, Tchernigov on the southwest,
Koursk on the south, and Voronoj and Tambov on the east. Its greatest
length from north-northwest to south-southeast is two hundred and sixty-
two miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and twelve miles, compri-
sing an area of about seventeen tliousand square miles.

This province, though generally flat, lies high, and is intersected by sev-
eral ridges of limestone, between which deep, romantic valleys occasionally
occur. TliQ river-banks also are usually high, though sparingly wooded.
The western and larger portion of the government is watered by the Desna,
and several tributaries, and belongs to the basin of the Dnieper ; the cen-
tral and northern portion, watered by the Oka, which here has its source,
belongs to the basin of the Volga ; the whole of the eastern portion is
drained by the Sosna and its tributaries, and belongs to the basin of the
Don. The soil, though somewhat light, yields all kinds of grain, far be-
yond what is required for home consumption, together with large quanti-
ties of excellent hemp, a little flax, and some good hops and tobacco.
Cattle are numerous ; and considerable attention is paid to the rearing of
stock, and improving the breed, particularly of horses.

Manufactures have made very little progress in this government, and
are almost entirely confined to articles of primary necessity ; but the trade
is considerable, and includes large exports of grain, flour, flax, hemp, honey,
iron, steel, and iron-ware. Education, nominally under the superintendence
of the university of Moscow, is in a very neglected state. There is only
one printing-press within the government, and it belongs to the crown.
The inhabitants are very industrious, and generally in good circumstances ;
but they have little enterprise.

Orel (or Orlov'), the capital of the above government, is situated on the
Oka, two hundred miles south-southwest of Moscow. It is defended by an
old fortress, and is divided into three quarters. The streets are narrow,
either not paved at all, or paved badly, and the houses are generally of
wood. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1848, when up-
ward of twelve hundred houses (fifty of them of stone), four bridges, and
immense quantities of grain, and other merchandise, were destroyed. Pre-
vious to the fire, there were twenty churches, eighteen of them of stone,
but several even of them suffered greatly. It has manufactures of linen,
tanneries, ropewalks, worsted-mills, «fec. ; but it depends chiefly on trade,
for which it possesses admirable facilities, standing on a navigable river,
in the centre of a fertile country, and possessing direct communication, by
water, with the Baltic, Black, and Caspian seas. It hence forms a great
central entrepot for the trade which is carried on with all these quarters
of the empire ; and, in particular, is a principal purveyor of grain, cattle,
and other provisions, for both St. Petersburg and Moscow. Orel is the
see of a bishop ; possesses an ecclesistical seminary, and a gymnasium ;
and has several important fairs. Its population is about forty thousand.

116

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

The government of KouasK is sidjalod in the southorn pnrt of dront
Russia, between the fiftieth and fifty-third dcf^roos of north Intitudc, uiitl
the thirty-fourth and thirty-ninth degrees of east longitude, having the gov-
ornmont of Orel on the north, Tchernigov on the wes: l*olta\'i and Khar-
kov on the south, and Voronej on the east. Its grcato^^t length from east
to west is one hundred and seventy miles, and its greatest breadth fntni
north to south one hundred and fifty miles. Its superficial area is about
sixteen thousand square miles.

The surface of this government is undulating, with numerous little hills
and gentle acclivities ; consisting of a rich, fruitful soil, and is ptudiled
over with towns and villages. The acclivities coIl^fift of f<hell-marl. Mii < •
stone, and sandstone; and on the banks of almost all the stream.', hiyery
of chalk appear. The chief river is the Scm, which, rising on tlic ea'tcm
confines of the district, traverses it from cast to west, ta its iv.iv to join
the Dnieper. The Donet also has its source here, and watoi > part of tho
south. The climate is mild and dry ; and the rich soil produces abundaut
crops, at comparatively little trouble and expense. Grain is kept in caves
(siVo.v) sometimes for six or ten years together, and there is always a large
surplus for exportation. Apples, plums, and cherries, abound. Agricul-
ture, and its usual attendant, tip: rearing of cattle, for whicli tlic pastures,
which are excellent, afford ample provision, employ the greater part of tho
inhabitants, and leave oidy a small surplus for other occupations. These
are chieHy nianufaetiir's of army-clolhiiig, and other coarse stuffs for tho
use of the peasniitiy; also leather, soap, saltpetre, spirits, eartlienware,
&c. The exports are grain, cattle, leather, wax, and honey. There are
in this government upward of three hundred thousand free peasants. Pub-
lic instruction has made no considerable progress, there being only about
one pupil to every four hundred inhabitants.

Koursk, the capital of the above government. Via on the Tuskar river,
near its junction with the Sem, two hundred and eighty miles south by west
from Moscow. It has a population of about thirty-four thousand. It had
a citadel and ramparts, but the former is In ruins, and the latter have been
converted into public walks. The situation of the town is elevated ;. the
houses are principally of wood, but maiij are of sljne ; the streets are t, ar-
row, crooked, and ill paved. There a' ■ two '■•o:ivent8,nun;' u us churches,
with a gymnasium, a normal school, u iiuspiiai, a foundling-hospital, Ac.
It is a thriving, industrious town, having numerous tanneries, tile and
earthenware works, wax and tallow factories, &c. It carries on an exten-
sive commerce with St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Odessa, sending to them
cattle and horses, tallow, leather, wax and honey, hemp, and furs. Tho
'^.., 'rons «'.atain numerous gardens and orchards.

Korenrda Pousty^n, a convent in the vicinity of Koursk, is celebrated
for a miraculous image of the Virgin, and for a great fair held annually on
the ninth Friday after Easter, resorted to equally by merchants and pil-
grims. The value of the horses, cattle, and other articles exposed to salo

but

■ I

GREAT RTTRSIA — VORONEJ.

IIT

at tlii^ fiiir has sotnctiinos utnoiintcd, iicoordiitg to tho oflftcial tccounts, to
about thii'iv millions of roubles; but tliia uiuloubtudly b iprouily above the
tkifevafto of tho -al«»».

Tho govcMi lu'ni of VoKONW (fioriiflimcK W(>rom4z) is situated between
the forty eighth and fil'iy-thini degrees of worth latitude, and tho thirty-
eighth and r«rty-Hec()nd dogreos yf cast longitu h ; having, on tho north, the
governn.cnts (if TiinilM»v iiiid Riaznii ; on llie east, Saratov nnd ''lo 'i^ritory
of the Hon CosHucks ; on the soutli, tlie latter nnd tli<' goverunu >( Ekath-
erinoslav ; and on the wont, Kharkov Romr^k, and Orel. It v >ntaiD8 «i
orea of about thirty thousand square miles.

Tlie surfuee of the country is undiilsnting, and tho «oil in genorat wood:
tliis being, in fact, one of the most productive governiHents i i the c !>ire.
Its principal rivers are tho Don, and some of its tributaries, '"lie ci. late
is coniparalively mild, the rivers being covered with . for dy tw or
three months of the year, and the Kovernment produciu;. most o ' -d-

ucts of temperate climates. In jrood yoars a surplus is raised .1 ul) t
seven and a half millions of bushels <>f grain beyond the home con ' .

liesides wheat, peas, and beans, '>j)pievS, tobacco, hemp, and ^, are
grown ; and, in the gardens, melons, eucambers, onions, Ac., in lar quan-
tities. Watermelons, indeed, aro ciiHivated for the markets of ^ *cow
and St. Petersburg, being planted in open fields covering whole a of
land. In some parts of the provinci canes and reeds are used ft .uol,
but in general the forests furnish a si.fficient supply 0! firewood. i»k '
arc numerous and luxuriant; pine-wo ds are few. Cattle, horses ina
ehccp, are extensively bred. Honey is au important proouct. Iron, no-
stone, and saltpetre, are among the minerals. Manufactures of c( se
woollens and other fabrics are rapidly in rcasing, while the number ol h-
tilleries has latterly decreased ; but wo nu! not awaro whether tho produc-
tion of spirits undergoes any corresponding decrease. Tho exports fror,
the government consist principally of com, cattle, skins, honey and wax,
fruits, «fec.

Tins government is divided into twrlvo di-tricts : the chief town is Voro-
ncj, the capital. Except a colony of ( Jerma is near Ostrogojesk, and some
gipsies, the population consists, in the south, of Cossacks and White Rus-
sians ; nnd in tho north, of Great Russian.'-. Yoroncj is under the same
governor-general witli Riazan, Orel, Tambov, and Saratov.

The city of Voronej, the capital of the above government, is situated on
the river of the same name, near its conduence with tho Don, and two hun-
dred and ninety miles south-southeast of Moscow. Its population is about
twenty-fivo thousand. The town stands on a steep height, and might easily
be rendered a fortress of some strength, as it is not commanded by any
other hill, and is partly surrounded by a marsh for several months of the
ycui . It consists of three portions, the upper town, lower town, and the
buburbe. It has some spacious streets, but a g^-cat many which are very

til

118

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

mean: the suburbs are as blo'^k and gloomy as a country village. The
principal street has a noble appearance, its sides being lined with massy
and handsome edifices, many of them the property of the crown, as the
governor's and vice-governor's liouses, the tribunals, postofficc, commissa-
riat, academy, &c. The Moscow (^Mosknvkaya) street is also very fine,
and in it are the archbishop's palace, with an adjoining cathedral. The
shops, or bazars, are very respectable.

Voronej has some twenty stone churches, two convents, an exchange
(or gostimi dvar^, for the warcliousing, exhibition, and sale of merchan-
dise, an episcopal seminary, schools for the children of the clergy, military,
civil employes, and citizens, a hospital capable of accommodating three
hundred sick persons, military orphan asylum, Ac.

This is one of the most flourishing towns in the south of Russia ; and its
mei'chants have long carried on a lucrative trade with the Black sea and the
Crimea, and travel annually to Tobolsk to buy furs, which tliey afterward
take to the great Gorman fairs. The town has also some soap, tallow,
leather, and woollen-cloth factories. It is supposed to be among the oldest
Russian towns, and is spoken of as existing in the twelfth century. Here
Peter the Great built a palace, and established a dockyard, arsenal, Ac. ;
but the latter establishments were afterward removed successively to Ustea,
Tavrov, and Rostov : and nearly all traces of the palace and magazines
have been obliterated by the frequent fires from which the town has since
suffered.

I {!

very hj
settler

LITTLE BUSSIA — TCnKBNIGOV.

119

CHAPTER IV.

LITTLE AND WESTERN BUSSIA.

LITTLE RUSSIA comprises the four govcrnmcnta of Tchebnigov,
Khakkov, Poltava, and Kikv. The remaining governments de-
scribed in this chapter constitute Avhat is now denominated Westebn
Russia ; but most of the territory covered by these provinces is that an-
ciently known as Lithuania (called by the Poles, Litwa; by the Germans,
Littauen, or Lithauen; and by the French, Lithuanie') . This territory,
which, in the eleventh century, was tributary to Russia, threw off the yoke
in the thirteenth century, and became a grand-duchy under Ringold. One
of his successors, named Gedcmin, subdued part of Russia ; and another,
called Jagellon, by marrying the Polish princess Hcdwig. toward the end
of the fourteenth century, became king of Poland, and thus united the
grand-duchy to that kingdom. The courage and military skill which the
Lithuanians had gained during their wars with the Teutonic knights, they
turned against their neighbors subsequently with great effect. Their ar-
mies penetrated to the Dnieper, and the shores of the Black sea ; and by
their union with tlie Polish crown, all the Lithuanian races were for two
hundred years united under one head, constituting one of the most warlike
and powerful monarchies in Europe at tliat period.

On the first partiticm of Poland, in 1773, a considerable portion of Lithu-
ania was a|)propriatod by Russia, and formed into the governments of Mog-
bilev and Vitepsk ; the remainder, still united to the Polish monarchy,
constituted six woiivods, or provinces — Wilna, Troki, Polozk or Vitcp^k,
Novogrodek, Brzesc, and Minsk — the first two forming Lithuania proper,
and the other four Russian Lithuania. By the subsequent partitions of
Poland, in 1793 and 1795, Russia obtained as much of Lithuania as formed
the governments of Wilna, Grodno, and Minsk ; while Prussia obtained a
portion which is now included in the government of Gumbinnen, in the
province of East Prussia.

The original inhabitants of this region, including the Baltic provinces,
as remarked in a previous chapter, were two tribes, Lithuanians and Lettcs,
which probably migrated from the confines of India at a very early period.
The difference b'^twcen tlieso two branches of the same race is evidently of
very long s>dnding, and dates back perhaps to a period antecedent to their
sottlomcnt in Europe. The descendants of both nations manifest but little

'i. If!

1.-.J ■iUiU.^.^Ba*^. SMT^,,

120

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

energy', strength, and resolution ; their manners and customs are similar,
but they exhibit many distinctions of character. The Lottos have never
shown the greatness and strength, nor shared the glory of the Litliuanians,
in their palmy days. They are of a softer, gentler, and more timid nature,
than the latter, and have never been able to defend themselves in war.

The government of Tchernigov, or Czernigov, is situated chiefly be-
tween the fiftieth and fifty-third degrees of north latitude, and the thirtieth
and thirty-fifth degrees of east longitude. It is bounded on the north by
the govcrninont of Smolensk ; on the northeast, by Orel ; on the cast, by
Koursk ; on the south, by Poltava; on the west, by Kiev and Minsk ; and
on the northwest, by Moghilcv. Its greatest length from nortlieast to
southwest is two hundred and forty miles, and its greatest breadth from
east to Avcst is one hundred and eighty miles, comprising an area of about
twenty-three thousand square miles.

The surface of the country, with the exception of a hilly district along
the Dnieper, is a continuous flat, and the soil is almost unusually fertile.
It is watered by numerous streams, the Dnieper flowing along at its west-
ern frontier, and the Desna, with its chief affluents, passing nearly through
its centre. It has also numerous lakes, though none arc of great extent.
All kinds of grain grow in abundance, but the crops often sufl'er greatly
from hosts of locusts. Hemp, flax, tobacco, and the opium-poppy, grow
well, and the gardens, in addition to the ordinary vegetables, produce hops,
melons, <tc.

There is no deficiency of wood for either timber or fuel. The horses of
the government arc of the Uki'aino breed, small, but active, and capable
of enduring any fatigue. Great numbers of cattle, sheep, and swine, are
reared. The oxen, in particular, are of a large size, and become remark-
ably fat. Hunting and fisliing yield but little produce ; but much honey
and wax arc obtained from bees.

The chief mineral produce is saltpetre, porcelain-earth, chalk, and a little
iron. Manufactures were long insignificant, but have made considerable
progress during the last thirty years. The distilling of brandy is carried
on to a very great extent, and the inhabitants, unfortunately, are too much
disposed to drink it. The interior trade of the province is almost wholly
confined to the four annual fairs, which are held at Nejin. The principal
exports are cattle, grain, brandy, honey, wax, and potash. The population
almost all belong to the Greek church. The most important towns are
Tchernigov, the capital, Nejin, Mglin, Staradoub, Novgorod-Sicvorsk, &c.

The city of Tchernigov, the capital of the above government, is situated
on the right I)ank of the Desna, eighty miles north-northeast of Kiev. It
is a j)lace of great antiquity, and contains numerous buildings of antiqua-
rian interest. Its ramparts have been converted into pleasing promenades.
It is the seat of an archbishop, and has eight churches — one of them, St.
Sophia, supposed to have been founded in 1024 — three monasteries, a gyin-

LITTLE RUSSIA — KHARKOV.

121

nasium, and an orphan-hospital. Three important annual fairs arc hold
here. The population is about eight thousand.

The government of Kharkov, or Charkov (Slavonic, Slobodisch Ukraine")
is situated between the forty-ninth and fifty-first degrees of noi'th latitude,
and the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth degrees of east longitude, having the
government of Koursk on the north, Voroncj on the east, Ekatherinoslav
on tlie south, and Poltava on the west, and comprises a superficial area of
about twenty-one thousand square miles.

This, like the other governments of Little Russia, has a flat, monotonous
surface, and a very fertile soil. It is divided into two basins, the larger
occupied by the Donet, and Oskol, a considerable stream which joins it
from the north ; the less by tributaries of the Dnieper : none of its rivers
are navigable, at least for any considerable distance. It has nearly two
thousand square miles of forests, though the country is for the most part
open. The climate is very mild, though the winter is rather severer than
is usual in the same latitude, in consequence of there being no shelter from
the north wind. The rivers freeze about the beginning of December; and
break up in March. The summer is often very hot.

Agriculture is the principal employment. All sorts of grain are raised,
the produce in ordinary years amounting to above twenty-five millions of
bushels, of which five millions are exported. Flax and hemp, tobacco,
hops, «fec., arc also raised, and the potato is extensively grown. The cat-
tle arc excellent : there are few peasants without bees. With the excep-
tion of distilleries, which are numer jus, and some tanneries, and establish-
ments for the preparation of tallow and saltpetre, manufacturing industry
can hardly be said to exist. The population consists of Little Russians,
Great Russians, and Cossacks. Some regiments of cavalry arc colonized
in this government.

Kharkov, the capital of the above government, is situated at the conflu-
ence of the Kharkov and Lopan, four hundred miles south-southwest of
Moscow. It is built of wood, and has narrow, crooked, and dirty streets,
which are without pavements ; but the houses, being whitewashed, present
a gay and cleanly appearance. The ramparts, by which the town was for-
merly surrounded, have been converted into gardens and public walks. It
is the residence of the provincial authorities, and has a cathedral, a gym-
nasium, an ecclesiastical seminary, a museum, botanical garden, &c.

Kharkov is the seat of a university, founded in 1804, and having upward
of fifty professors. It possesses a library of twenty-one thousand volumes,
and a valuable collection of medals. This town is tlio seat of a considera-
ble commerce. Four fairs are held here each year, of which that called
Krechtchenski (which continues from the third to the fifteenth of January),
and tlie Trinity, are the most extensive : one of the fairs is exclusively or
principally for wool. The population is about thirty-five thousand. Tlie
other important toAvns of the government are Akhtyrka, Bogodoukov, &c.

;f i

* < -nmiiitt m m ^ A ;i

128

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The government of Poltava (or
Poltawa) lies principally between the
forty-ninth and fifty-lirst degrees of
north latitude, and the thirtieth and
thirty-sixth degrees of east longitude,
having tlie government of Tcliernigov
on the north, Kharkov on the east,
Ekathcrinoslav and Kherson on the
south, and Kiev on tlie west. Its
greatest length from nortii-noi-thwest
to soutii-soutlicast is two hundred and
twelve miles, and its greatest breadth
a hundred and forty-
five miles. Its area
is twenty-two thou-
sand square miles. ,
The surface con-
sists of an extensive
and monotonous Hat.
Its soil is excellent.
In some parts there
is scarcity of wood.
Besides the Dnieper
(wliich flows along
its entire southwest
ern boundary), the
principal rivers are
its affluents the Pir-
iol,thc Vorskla,and
the Sula. This and
the adjacent govern-
ments form wliat is
termed the graimry
of Russia. It is one
of the best-cultivated districts of thr empire: the return of the grain-crops
is said to be as six to one, the total produco being about tliirty millions of
bushels, of which about eight millions are exported. The grazing-grounds
are excellent, affording pasturage for large herds of the fine Ukraine breed
of oxen, and for immense flocks of sheep, the breed of which has latterly
been much improved. Some of the peasants have above one hundred bee-
hives. Manufacturing industry has not made much progress ; but there
are fabrics of cloth and linen, with numerous distilleries, and establish-
ments for the preparation of tallow, candles, «tc. Large quantities of grain,
tallow, and other products, are yearly sent from this government toOdossa,
and even to Moscow, St. Petersburg, <fec.

OlCLIlK AT FOITAVA.

Podoli

LITTLE nUSSlA — KIEV.

123

*■ Poltava, the capital of the above government, lies on the Vorskla, four
hundred and forty-five miles south-southwest of Moscow. It stands on an
eminence, and is built principally of wood, with broad and straight streets.
There is a good square, with brick houses, embellished with a granite mon-
ument (presented on the opposite page), in honor of its deliverer, and the
regenerator of Russia, Peter the Great. It is surrounded by a rampart,
and has twelve churches, of which one is a cathedral, a gymnasium, a con-
vent, and a school for cadets. The trade, chiefly in cattle, grain, hemp,
and wax, is considerable ; and the annual fairs, three in number, are very
important. The pojiulation is about ten or twelve thousand.

Charles XII. of Sweden, having besieged this town in 1709, Peter the
Great marched to its relief; and in its vicinity, on the 27th of Juno of the
same year, was fought the famous battle of Poltava. The Russians gained
a complete victory. The Swedish army was entirely destroyed : it lost
above nine thousand men left dead on the field of battle, and from two to
three tliousand made prisoners in the pursuit ; while the residue, consisting
of about fourteen thousand men, under General Lewcnhaupt, after escaping
from the battle, were compelled to lay down their arms and surrender on
the 12th of July. Charles, with only a small escort, effected his retreat
across the Bong, and took refuge in Turkey. This great victory estab-
lished tlie jiowcr of Peter on a solid foundation, and secured not merely
his empire, but tlie success of his vast projects and plans for the civilization
and imj)rovement of his people.

The government of Kiev (^Kieio, Kief, or Kiow, by all of which names
the province is known) lies lengthwise along the right bank of the Dnieper,
between the forty-eighth and fifty-second degrees of north latitude, and the
twenty-eighth and thirty-third of cast longitud' : bounded north by the gov-
ernment of Minsk, west ^y Volhynia and Podolia, south by Podolia and
Kherson, and east by Tchornigov and Poltava, from which last two gov-
ernments it is separated by the Dnieper. It is two hundred and ten miles
long, with an average l)readtij of one hundred and seventy, containing an
area of about twenty thousand five hundred square miles.

The surface is in general flat and monotonous, but undulating ; intersect-
ed occasionally by acclivities and hills, of moderate elevation, along the
course of the Dnieper and other streams. The Dnieper hills extend into
Podolia, where they merge into the Carpathians, of which they may be
considered the last ramification, and throw off a branch, which, taking a
northwestern direction, traverses the whole of the southern district. North
of this branch the soil is rich, consisting of a loam, in which clay and sand
arc so happily mixed with vegetable mould as to yield the most abundant
crops. South of these hills the land is poorer, inclining to sand and moss,
but even there rich tracts are not unfrequcnt. The slope of the country
ia chiefly in two directions : the larger toward the Dnieper, which is the
chief, and indeed the only navigable stream, and runs along the eastern

\-i\-

ii' i

V : j

124

ILLUSTRATED UESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

and northeastern confines of the district above two hundred and twenty
miles ; the other in the direction of the southwest, to^vard the basin of the
Boug. Botli of these rivers have several tributaries in the government.
There are no lakes of any extent, but in the northern parts considerable
marshes exist.

The climate of this province is remarkably mild and dry. The rivers
freeze in December, and are again open in February. In summer, the heat
is so great, and the quantity of rain so small, that the channels of many
streams become dry. Large crops of all kinds of grain are raised, and the
return is said to be generally as six to one. Cattle are numerous, largo,
and of a fine breed, and much attention is paid to the dairy ; the horses
are small, but hardy. The forests are not very extensive, but the timber
is of excellent quality. Manufactures, exclusive of those carried on in the
houses of the peasantry, can hardly be said to exist. The principal trade
oi" t'ae province is in the hands of the Jews. There is a large export of
grain, cattle, honey, wax, and tobacco.

The city of Kiev, the capital of the above government, is six hundred
and fifty miles south of St. Petersburg. It stands picturesquely, crowning
several heights of undulating ground, on the right bank of the Dnieper,
here crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, and properly consists of
three towns, each of which has its separate fortifications and suburbs. The
first is Petchersk, or, as it is called, the New Fort, which crowns a rugged
steep to the south, and is a place of strength, having a rampart with nine
bastions, and regular outworks. Besides the barracks, magazines," and
official residences connected with the garrison, it contains several churches,
of which the most remarkable is that of St. Nicholas Thaumaturgus, which
is built of wood, and stands near the tomb of Oskold, a celebrated prince
and saint, who is said to have been converted to Christianity in Greece.

In the same neighborhood stands the famous monastery of Petscherskoi^
surrounded by a wall eleven hundred yards long ; so called from the Rus-
sian wovd pestchera (a cavern), in which the monks are said to have dwelt
befoi'C the monastery was built. This cavern, said to have been hollowed
out by St. Anthony, contains a number of catacombs, forming a kind of
labyrinth, filled with the bodies of saints and martyrs. His remains are
therein preserved at the extremity of the labyrinth. This passage is about
six feet high, but extremely imrrow, and blackened by the torches of the
numerous visiters. About eighty bodies are here preserved, ranged in
niches on both sides of the passage, in open coffins, enveloped in wrappers
of cloth and silk, ornamented with gold and silver. The stiflened hands
are so placed as to receive the devotional kisses of the pilgrims ; and on
their breasts are written their names, and sometimes a s'.iort record of
their virtuous deeds. Tlie""^ saints had died a natural death ; but the most
distressing part of the scene is a row of small windows, behind which the
deluded martyrs had built themselves into a stone wall, leaving only those
apertures at which to receive their food : these little windows close at onco

mg, in
Kim

LITTLE RUSSIA — KIEV.

125

their dwelling and their tomb. The catacombs of Theodosius arc to the
south of those of ^t. Anthony, and arc on a much smaller scale and simpler
plan. They contain but forty-five bodies, and these remains are not so
highly venerated as those in the otlicr catacomb.

Tlie pilgrims to this monastery and catacombs amount annually to as
many as fifty thousand, or more ; some from one part of the widely-extended
Russian empire, some from another. A few will toil even all the weary
way from Kamtschatka, collecting on the road the offerings of those who
are not able or not sufficiently devout to undertake the journey themselves.

A short distance from the road which leads from Petchersk to the Podol,
stands a handsome monument, that marks the fountain in wliich the chil-
dren of Vladimir the Great were baptized. It is a stone obelisk, one hun-
dred and fifty feet high ; and close to its base is a wooden crucifix, bear-
ing, in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, the words — " Jeswa of Nazareth, the
Kii>^ of the Jeivs." Tiic administration of the baptismal rite to the Rus-
sian people, at the period of the conversion of their renowned grand-duke,
took place very near the spot on which this monument stands.

Tlie second town is Kiev proper, and occupies a height toward the north,
lower than that on wliich Petchersk stands, and less regularly fortified.
It contains the venerable cathedral of ^t. Sophia, founded, in 1037, by the
grand-duke Yaroslav-Vladimirovich, to commemorate a victory. The chief
object of interest in it is a marble tomb of its founder, the only one of the
kind known in Russia, and said to give a good idea of the arts tliere in the
eleventh century. Most of the houses in Kiev proper belong to this cathe-
dral and the convent of St. ilichacl.

The site of the Old Town (as Kiev proper is called), in remote ages,
was the Slavonian Pantheon. There the worshippers of Perune, Horsa,
Lado, and other idolatrous deities', rendered homage to their savage gods ;
and there the rough Christian Vladimir erected the church of St. Basil
(still standing), on the spot long desecrated by the temple of Perune, the
Russian Jupiter.

The third town, called Podol, occupies the lower ground, and is inhat^
ited chiefly by the middle and lower classes. It is regularly laid out, in-
tersf^rsed with trees and gardens, and presents a strong contrast to the
old parts of the city, where at almost every turn the picturesque presents
itself in great variety. Kiev has (in all its different quarters) some thirty
churches ; its streets are generally broad, and it contains an archbishop's
palace, prison, town and military hospital ; a university, founded in 1833,
attended by about fifteen hundred students ; an academy, a gymnasium,
and a printing-press for the Scriptures and ritual-books of the Greek
church. It has some manufactories of leather and pottery, and a bell-
foundry, and is celebrated for its confectionery. Its trade has become
extensive, particularly since Odessa was built ; and it has a largo annual
fair in January, which lasts three weeks.

Kiev possesses considerable historical interest, as the spot on which

>i}

,'"

126

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

Christianity was first planted among the barbarous hordes of the steppes
of Russia, and as having been, for a considerable time, the recognised
capital of the empire. But it subsequently underwent many vicissitudes;
being sometimes subject to the Lithtianians, the Tartars, and the Poles.
In 1686, however, it was finally ceded to Russia, and has ever since con-
tinued in her possession. It has a population of about sixty thousand.

The government of Podolia, or Podolsk, lies between the forty-seventh
and ilfticth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-eighth and thirty-
first degrees of cast longitude ; and is bounded on the north by Volhynia,
on the northeast by Kiev, on the east and south by Klierson, on the south-
west by Bessarabia, and on the west by Austrian Galicia. Its greatest
length from northwest to southeast is two hundred and fifty miles, and its
greatest breadth eighty miles, comprising an area of about fifteen thousand
square miles.

The surface of the country, though on the whole level, is considerably
diversified, being traversed from northwest to southeast by a low branch
of the Carpathians, which gradually descends toward the cast, and is finally
lost in a kind of steppe. None of the hills of this branch have a height
exceeding five hundred feet. They form the water-shed of the govern-
ment, sending its waters on the northeast side to the Boug, and on the
southwest to tlie Dniester, and ultimately through both to the Black sea.
There are no lakes of any consequence. The climate is temperate, bring-
ing both the vine and the mulberry to maturity ; and the air is generally
salubrious, though in some quarters endemical diseases occasionally prevail.
The soil is very much encumbered with stones, but is, notwithstanding,
of remarkable fertility, producing an amount of grain which, after satisfy-
ing the home consumption, leaves about one third of the whole for export.
The principal crops, after the difierent grainc, are hemp, flax, tobacco, and
hops, together with beans and various fruits. The culture of the vine is
on the increase, though not yet of much importance ; and orchard and gar-
den husbandry is conducted in a negligent manner, notwithstanding which
large quantities of fine melons, gourds, cherries, <tc., are raised. The
meadows and pastures are extensive, and of great luxuriance, rearing im-
mense herds of cattle, which arc of an excellent breed, and much prized in
Germany, to which they are extensively exported. The sheep yield but
indificrent wool. A good many hogs are raised, as well as poultry and
bees. The forests are estimated to cover nearly three millions of acres,
only a small proportion of which belongs to the crown ; they furnish excel-
lent 8hi|>timbcr. Game is scarce, but the fisheries ars highly productive.
Saltpetre, lime, and alabaster, are the principal mineral products. Taken
as a whole, this province ranked as one of the most valuable of Poland, as
it now does of the Russian empire.

Manufactures have made but little progress ; except distilleries, there
arc only a few woollen-cloth, leather, potash, and saltpetre factories. The

WESTERN RUSSIA — PODOLIA.

127

trade, in addition to tho export of grain to Odessa, and cattle to Galicia
and Germany, embraces a consideral''- number of small articles, and is
almost entirely in the hands of the Jc

Podolia is divided into twelve districts. It is one of the ten govern-
ments privileged with respect to its judicial administration and the distil-
lation of spirits. Education is under the superintendence of the university
of Kiev, and is in a ntiscrably-ucglectod state. There is only a single
printing-press. The province is under the military governor of Kiev. The
inhabitants arc principally Poles, but include some Russians, and about
one hundred and fifty thousand Jews. Most of the Poles and Russians
belong to the Greek church.

Kaminietz (Polish, Kaminiec Podohki), the capital of Podolia, is situ-
ated on the Smotrycz, about twelve miles from its junction with the Dniester,
two hundred and fifteen miles southeast of Kiev, and three hundred north-
west of Otlcfisa, It is irregularly laid out, with narrow streets, and wooden
houses. It has, however, some conspicuous edifices of stone and other
solid mat(!rials ; including the cathedral, dedicated to St. Peter and St.
Paul, a Gothic building containing fifteen altars and a nave, supported by
one hundred and fifty columns. Near it is a column supporting a statue
of the Savior. The church of the Dominicans, originally constructed of
wood, in 1300, was rebuilt in stone after the expulsion of the Turks in the
eighteenth century. There are in all five Roman catholic and four Greek
churches, and one Armenian church, a fine edifice, completed in 1707. Tho
Roman catholics have several convents. The other chief public buildings
are the government library, circle school, and new gymnasium. The pop-
ulati(m is about fifteen thousand.

The town was formerly walled, but its works were levelled, by order of
the Russian government, in 1812, though Balbi says they have been since
restored. It is, moreover, defended by a citadel and another fortress : the
former, situated on a steep, isolated rock, overlooking the town, might be
made impregnable, but it is commanded by some more lofty adjacent heights.
Kaminietz was, however, for a lengthened period, the principal bulwark of
Poland on the side of Turkey. It was founded by the sons of Olgherd, in
1331, after that prince had wrested Podolia from the Tartars. It waa
soon after fortified, and in 1374 attained the rank of a city. It remained
attached to Poland till its final capture by the Russians in 1793, except
from 1072 to 1009, during which it was in the possession of the Turks.

Anjong tiie chief towns of the province, after Kaniinietz, is Balta, situ-
ated on the Kadynia, near -the southern boundary, and capital of a circle
of Podolia. Before the annexation of this part of Poland to Russia, one
half of tlie town belonged to tho palatinate of Brcslau, and the other to tho
khan of Tartary. Some excesses committed by a party of Cossacks hero
in 1767, were one of the ostensible causes of the war which broke out soon
after between the Russians and the Turks, during which the towu of Balta
was laid in ashes by the former.

'■■'

■n

128

ILLUSTILVTED DESCRIPTION OF nUSSIA.

The government of Voliiyxia, formerly belonging to Poland, lies princi-
pally between tlic fiftiotli and fifty-second degrees of north latitude, and
the twenty-fourth and twoiity-ninth degrees of east longitude, having on
the northeast and north the governments of Orodno and Minsk ; on tho
cast and southeast, Kiev; on tho south, Podolia; on the southwest, Aus-
trian Poland ; and on the west, tlio palatinate of Lublin. It has an area
of al)out twenty-nine thousand square miles. ,

The surface is in general an undulating plain ; and the hills, which arc
the last ramifications of the Carpathians, though they nowhere rise to three
hundred feet al)ove the level of tho sea, give an agreeable variety to tho
scenery. The Boug rises in this province : the other principal rivers arc
the Styr, Goryne, A'c., tributaries of tho Pripct. Along some of tliese arc
extensive marshes and beds of turf ; but in general the land is very fertile,
producing at an a'/erago a considerable surplus of grain above the con-
sumption. A good deal of flax and hemp is also grown. Agrictilturc is,
however, not more advanced than in the Lithianian provii\ces ; and tho
gardens and orchards, particularly the former, are much noglected. Tho
climate, though comparatively mild, is not warm enough for the vine. Tiio
forests comprise ock, beech, lindens, firs, pines, Ac., and are very exten-
sive, though only about two hundred square miles of forest-land belong to
the crown. The pastures are excellent, and well adapted for the fattening
of cattle ; a good many sheep, hogs, and poultry, are kept. Volhynia has
a breed of horses smaller than the generality of those of Poland. Fishing
is an occupation of some importi pfc; bog-iron, millstones, potter's clay,
nitre, and flint, are among the minora' products.

Tiiough agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants, the manu-
facturing industry of Volhynia is greater than that of most otiier parts of
Western Russia. The women, almost everywhere, spin and weave differ-
ent fabrics; and leather, glass, and earthenware, paper, potash, tar, chqr-
coal, &c., are generally made. The principal exports are, however, grain,
cattle, hides, flour, wool, wax, honey, and other rural produce. The trade
is principally in the hands of the Jews, of whom there arc about forty tliou-
sand in the government. The rest of the population consists of Riisniaks,
with Poles in the towns, and some Great Russians, gipsies, Tartars, Mol-
davians, and Germans. The inhabitants arc mostly of the Greek or united
church.

Volhynia is divided into twelve districts. The principal towns arc Jito-
mir, the capital, Berditsehcv, .'^toro-Konstantov, O.strog, and Kremenets.
Public education appears to be less backward in this than in most of tho
Russian governments. Volhynia, like Podolia, is subordinate to tho mili-
tary governor of Kiev, but is one of the Polish provinces which preserves,
in some degree, its ancient constitution and laws.

Jitomir (Polish, Zj/tomir, or Zytomierx^, the capital of the above gov-
ernment, is situated on the left bank of the river Teterew, six hundred and
seventy miles south-southwest from St. Petersburg. It is the sec of both

i f

W*!8TEBN RU.Sf.. I — VOLir A — MIN t

VoLHVNIAN Pr*i*NT (ilHL E.N'iAOFD IN Sri.NNI.va.

a Greek and a Roman catholic l>ishoi) ; has manufactures of loatlicr and
hats, and an active trade in linen, silk, and woollen goods, wax, honey,
Hungarian wines, salt, and tallow. It al:;'o has four important annual fairs.
Its population is rising thirty thousand.

Berditschev (Polish, Bcrdijczt'w'), another town in the government of
Volhynia, twenty-live miles south of Jitomir, is an ill-built place, but con-
tains several churches, and a largo Carmelite convent, in the church of
which is an image of the Virgin Mary, the object of pilgrimages. It car-
ries on a considerable trade in grain, wine, cattle, honey, wax, and leather,
and is celebrated for its (pKirterly fairs. At these, goods to the value of
tlirce millions of dolhus are disposctl of, and much business is dimo, espe-
cially with Austrian dealers. An almanac of great repute is printed hero.
Its population is about twenty thousand, comprising many Jews.

The government of Minsk lies between the fifty-first and fiftj'-sixth de-
grees of north latitude, and the twenty-fifth and thirty-first degrees of east
longitude, bounded north and northeast by the government of Vitepsk, cast
by Moghilcv and Tchernigov, south by Kiev and Volhynia, and west by
Grodno and Wilna. lu shape it bears a considerable resemblance to an
isosceles triangle, with its vertex in the north, and its base resting on the

iSW

!■> ,111

•s

is '■■

-'•■ tK .MIIi l. Uu.-uw.j

130

ILLUSTRATED DESCIUI'TION OP UUfWIA.

souUi : its grt'ativ^t l(.'ii}ith from north to Houtli i« two luimlrod niid ninety
niiloH, and its av('ra^:;o Itrcadtii one hundred tnid lift), eoniprising an area
of about thirty-stjvcn thousand s(|uare miles.

This government, thongli generally flat, is traversed in the north hypart
of the great dorsal ridge whieii forms the water-f<hed between the Imsina
of the Baltie and the IJlaek sea. T(» the former Ici.sin the northern portion
sends its waters by the Duna (whieh, besides ftnining the norlht-rn I'ound-
ary of the government, reeeives the Desna from within it), and by tin; Nio-
men or Memel, whieh, together with its fluent the Vilia, rises in the gov-
ernment. To the latter basin the southern portion sends its waters liy tho
Pniejjer, whieh, besides bounding the government on th(^ southeast, receives
from it the IJerezina and the Pripet, eaeh augmented by numert)us trilmta-
rics. In this southern portion large marshy tracts extend on both banks
of the I'ripet, and in spring arc generally under water, giving the whole
country the appearance of one vast lake. In such eireumstanees, anytiiing
like a regular system of agriculture is altogether impracticable. Where
the surface is more elevated, and less exjiosed to inundation, it is to a great
extent covered with sand, or with a jjoor, sandy soil, it being only in par-
ticular patches that a fertile loam occurs. I'arlcy and oats iire grown iu
far greater tpiantity than might be expected in the circumstances, and fully
equal to the consumption. Hemp anil Ihix are also raised in considerable
quantities, and hops and tobacco occasionally.

Tilt! cliief wealth of the country is in its forests, whieli occupy a largo
part of the surface, and, where the groinid is dry, yield excellent timber.
A great proportion of the inhabitants are enq)loyed in felling it, and pro-
paring it for market. Neither manufactures nor trade have made much
progress. Tlie former are in a great measure confined to linen-weaving ;
the latter consists ehiedy of wood, mats, potash, meal, henq), flax, honey,
wax, and some horses and horned cattle.

The inhaliitants are mostly Ilusniaks, of the orthodox or united Greek
church, but Roman Catholicism is generally professed by the higher classes.
Tho women are Iiandsome, and appear on the salibath decked out in all
their finery. Tlic Jews in this province numl)er about one hundred thou-
sand. Fui administrative purposes, Minsk is divided into ten districts or
circles — Minsk, the cajtital, Wilnika, Desna, IJorisov, Igunien, Boltrowisk,
Slutsk, Pinsk, Mozyr, and Retschitza.

Minsk, the capital of the above government, is situated on the Svislotsch,
four hundred and thirty miles southwest of St. Peter.sburg. It is irregu-
larly built, with narrow and dirty streets. The houses are generally mean,
and of wood, but some fine edifices occur among the palaces of the nobility.
It is the see of a Greek archbishop and of a Roman catholic bishop, and
contains two castles, several Greek and catholic churches, a Greek monas-
tery, a synagogue, and a gymnasium. It has manufactures of woollen cloth,
hats, and leather, and considerable trade. Its population is fifteen thousa'nd.
Under the Poles, Minsk was the capital of the palatinate of the same name.

rr S

WESTKUN nU^l A — M0(; HILRV.

181

The irDVoi'iuncMil i)f M(Mimi.i:v,(ti- Moiiilkk ( Polish, .T/"o/»iVoj/'),li<-'S mostly
bctwot'ii tlif lifty-Mt'coiul aiitl lirty-lirtli dcgruos (»f north lutitiule, uiid tho
twfiity-iuiith and thirty-Mt'cond (k'gn'os of oant loiigitnde. It is lujiindod
norlh liy the ffovcriiinent of Vitepsk, east Ity Snioh'ii^k, Hotitheast and
South l»y Tchernigov, and west Iiy Minsk. Its greatest h'njrth from north
to south is two hundred and ten mih's,and its eentral breadtli one himdred
iind twelve, containing nn area of altont nineteen thousand .square miloa.

Thtnijrh containing!; part of the water-sh«'d which divides Kuropc into two
great Itasins, the fiurfaec of this province; is jreneially fhit, consisting; of a
very extensive; southern and a nincli smaller northern phiin. The former
behiujrs to tlio Dinni, and semis its waters to it Ity two small triltularics ;
the latter to the Unicper, which, hesiiles travcrsinjj n great part of it cen-
trally, and forming part of its sonthw\s|t'rn lioinidary, is also angnici'tcd
within it liy the I)rulz on tlie right, and the Soj, with its uibut:
nnd IJesed, on the left. Hesides these rivers, the government I >
snuiU lakes, and numerous largo .'iwamps. TIio climate is coni^.^.
tnild f<u* the latitude.

Much of the soil is fertile, and, though under very imperfect culture,
prctduces good cr(»ps of rye, liarley, oats, hemp, and llax ; in other parts,
the soil consists cither of a cold, damp, hungry clay, or of a loose and
almost sterile sand. A consideralile ptntion of the surface is well wooded
with oak and fir, ami furnishes excellent ship-tindier, particularly masts,
which ar(! floated down the rivors to the Illack sea, and supply tiie dock-
yardii of Odessa, Sevastop(d, «.tc. All along the hanks of the rivers are
rich meadows, on which large numbers of fine cattle arc fed. Sheep also
are numerous, and have hci-n v(>ry niucli iin|ir()ved I»y crossing witii tho
breed of Saxony. The river.s abound witli fish, and the forests with game.
lUig-iron ore occurs in extensive beds, and is worked to a very limited
extent.

The manufactures and trade arc almost wludly In the hands of the JcWs,
and very insignificant. The former include a few coarse woollen, linen,
and cotton tissues, candles, soap, glass, and leather; the latter is chiefly
in timber, floated north by the Diina to the l>altic, or south by the Dnieper
and its tributaries to the lilack sea. There is also a snuiU export of hemp,
flax, tallow, and potash.

For administrative purposes, the government is divided into twelve dis-
tricts ; its chief towns are Moghilev and Mstislaw. The inhabitants are
mostly Russians and Jews, with some Poles, Lithuanians, Moldavians, and
AVallachs ; and their circumstances are, for the most part, far from com-
fortable. Their religion is partly that of the Greek and partly of tho
Roman catholic church.

Moghilev, the capital of the government, is situated on the right bank
of the Dnie})cr, two hundred and twelve miles west-southwest of Moscow.
It consists of four quarters, two of which arc surrounded by a rampart,
and form the town, properly so called ; the third, built on a height, forma

'^■'iifiTmiitmiii^Tii^TMiiii ..111 ii^L'-^

182

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

the Kremlin, or citadel ; the fourth is a suburb. Tlie town is tolerably
well built, partly of stone and partly of wood, and the streets are wide and
paved. Near tlie centre is a large octagonal square, surroimdcd by hand-
some stone buildings ; among others, the bazar, and the palace of the Greek
archbishop. The number of churches is twenty, of wliioh the Roman cath-
olics have five, and the Lutherans one. The Jews, who are numerous, have
two synagogues. There are also four convent.*, two occlesiiistical semina-
ries, a gymnasium, higli school, hospital, several poorhouses, and a prison.
The staple manufacture is tobacco ; and an extensive trade is carried on
with Riga, Memel, Dantzic, and Odessa, in leatlier, wax, honey, potash,
oil, and grain.

Moghilev, besides being the residence of the principal authorities of the
government, is the licadquarters of the Russian " army of the M'est ;" and
is the see of both a Greek and a Roman catholic arclibishop, tlie latter hav-
ing authority over all the Ronmn catholics of Poland and Russia. Many
of the Russian nobility reside here ; and a great i)art of the ground in the
vicinity is occupied by gardens. Its fairs are well attended. The epoch
of its foundation is unknown. After several times changing masters, it
was finally annexed to Russia in 1772. It has a population of about six-
teen or eighteen thousand.

The government of Vitepsk ( Vitebsk, or Witepsk') lies principally be-
tween the fifty-fifth and fifty-seventh degrees of north latitude, and the
twenty-sixth and thirty-second degrees of east longitude ; having the gov-
ernment of Pskov on the northeast, Smolensk and Moghilev on the south-
east, Minsk and Courland on the southwest, and Livonia on the northwest.
Its area is about sixteen thousand eight hundred sqimre miles.

The surface of the country is generally level, though on the banks of the
rivers there are occasionally some low hills. The rivers and small lakes
are numerous : of the former, which all flow toward the Baltic, the Duna
is the principal. Notwithstanding the soil is but of medium fertility, and
agriculture is in a very backward state, more grain is produced than is
required to supply the wants of the inhabitants. Ilemp and flax are grown
on a largo scale, with peas, beans, hops, fruits, Ac, in the smaller enclo-
sures. The forests are very extensive, two hundred and seventy thousand
acres of forest-land belonging to the crown. The grass-lands are also ex-
tensive, and a good many horses and cattle are reared, though of inferior
breeds. The sheep yield only coarse wool ; and honey is also of inferior
quality. The mineral products and manufactures are insignificant; the
last being, with the exception of a few cloth-factories, almost wholly re-
stricted to distilleries and tanneries.

The trade of the government is facilitated by the Duna and the canal of
Berezina : it is chiefly in the hands of the merchants of the principal towns,
many of whom are Jews. This government is divided into twelve circles.
The chief towns are Vitepsk, Wieliz, Dunuburg, Polotzk, and Rcjitsa.

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WESTERN RUSSIA — VITEPSK — WILNA.

188

Vitepsk, the capital of the above government, is situated on both banks
of the Duna, where it receives the Vitcba, three hundred and thirty miles
south by west of St. Petersburg. Its population is about eighteen thou-
sand. It is irregularly built, and is surrounded by old walls : it has nu-
merous Greek and some Roman catholic churches, convents, and Jewish
synagogues. Though by far the greater number of its houses arc of wood,
it has some dwellings of stone, a high school, a bazar, an old castle, sev-
eral hospitals, &c. ; with manufactures of woollen cloths, and tanneries.
The grand-duke Constantinc, uncle of the present emperor of Russia, and
viceroy of Poland, died at Vitepsk on the 27th of June, 1832.

The government of Wilna, or Vilna, lies principally between the fifty-
fourlh and fifty-sixth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-first and
twenty-seventh degrees of east longitude, having the government of Cour-
land on the nortli, that of Minsk on the east, Grodno on the south, and
Poland and Prussia on the southwest. It has an area of about twenty-
four thousand four hundred square miles.

This province is a vast plain ; there being only, in different parts, a few
sandhills, reaching sometimes to the height of two hundred feet, and
abounding with fossil, shells, &c. Its principal rivers arc the Wilna, a
tributary of the Niemen, and the Nienion, which forms its southwestern
boundary. Lakes are numerous, piuticularly in the east and northeast.
The soil is partly sandy and partly nuirshy ; but in many places it consists
of a fertile alluvial depositc. The climate, though severe, is not so cold
as in some of the adjacent governments : the mean temperature of the year
is about forty-five degrees Fahrenheit.

Agriculture is almost the sole occupation of the inhabitants, and rather
more grain is grown than is required for home consumption. Rye is the
grain pi'inclpally cultivated. Hemp and flax are rarely grown ; and hops
and pulse are raised in gardens : fruits are neglected. The forests are
very extensive, a large proportion of forest-land belonging to the crown :
and there is a considerable trade in deals, timber, tar, potash, and other
woodland products. Lime-trees are very abundant ; and to this cause is
attributed the excellence of the honey, for which this government is famous.
The breeding of stock is neglected ; the horses are, however, strong and
active, though of small size. Game is very plentiful : elks, wild boars,
bears, wolves, &c., are numerous ; occasionally the urus, or wild bull, is
met with ; and fox, martin, and squirrel skins, are articles of trade. The
mineral products are unimportant. Manufactures have increased a little
of late ; but they are still quite inconsiderable.

Dr. Granville says of Chavli, a town of some two thousand inhabitants,
in this government : " It consists of a long street of low, gable-roofed huts
of wood, and presenting a general appearance of the most squalid misery.
This may be considered as a fair specimen of the second-rate towns in the
government of Wilna, and indeed all over Russia and Poland." Tho

■'•^t^immmt-^v^^jg,..

5ri«tMa.,;M..uv.^ - — -tMirijMmiMiaiajL.

'JumMMtwmtnkim m

134

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

RutSTAN VlLLAOK— I'ABTT Or IlVNTMl,

acconipanyinp: engraving shows one of these villages, where a party have
just arrived from tije chase.

The trade of this government, whicih is almost entirely in the hands of
the Jews, is principally in timber and agricultural produce, sent down the
Duna to Riga, or by land into Prussia. Wilna is divided into eleven dis-
tricts ; the chief towns are Wilna, the cajtital,' and Kowno. It is not sub-
ject to the government monopoly of ardent spirits ; and preserves several
of its old forms of administration. As respects education, it is, though far
behind, in advance of many of the otlier governments.

Wilna, the capital of the above government, and formerly the capital of
Lithuania, is situated at the confluence of the Wilenka and Wilna, ninety
miles northeast of Grodno. It is surrounded by undulating hills, and en-
closed by -a wall. Its streets are narrow and crooked, and its houses
mostly of timber, though it has several hundred dwellings built of brick
or stone. Fornierly a royal castle of the Jagellons existed here, but noth-
ing is left of it except its ruins. The cathedral, founded in 1387, has some
good paintings, and many chapels, one of which, appropriated to St. Casinnr,
and built wholly of marble, is very handsome. The body of the saint is
preserved hero in a silver coffin, made by order of Sigisrauud III., king of
Poland, and weighing, it is said, three thousand pounds !

Tho church of St. John is surrounded by the buildings of the university,
founded in 1578, and suppressed by tho Russian government in 1832.
Here arc in all about forty churches, numerous convents, a mosque, and
four synagogues, a magnificent town-hall, an arsenal, exchange, theatre,
two hospitals, barracks, magazines, <fec. Tho governor's palace, and some
residences of the nobility, ain; lino buildings.

WESTERN RUSSIA — GRODNO.

135

Previously to its dissolution, the university of Wllna was in a flourishing
state, and possessed an observatory, collections in mineralogy and anatomy,
and a library of fifty-two thousand volumes. A niedico-chirurgical school,
to which arc attached the botanic garden and some of the university col-
lections, an ecclesiastical seminary, and two gymnasia, arc the principal
public schools : the greater part of the university establishment has been
removed to Kiev. The city also possesses deaf and dumb and foundling
asylums, various other charitable institutions, a few manufactures, and a
considerable trade.

WiJna was founded in l!322, and is reported to have had, in the middle
of the sixteenth century, one hundred thousand inhabitants, though this, no
doubt, is a gross exaggeration. Its present population is about forty thou-
sand. Tt has undergone nmiiy vicissitudes, and often suffered severely from
fire. It was taken l)y the Russians in 1794.

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The government of Grodno is situated between the fifty-first and fifty-
fourth degrees of north luiitude, and the twenty-fourth and twenty-eighth
degrees of east longitude, extending two hundred and seventy miles from
north to south, and two hundred and thirty from east to west at the broad-
est part, comprising an area of about fifteen thousand square miles It la
bounded on the north by the government of Wilna, on the east V)y Minsk,
on the south by Yolhynia, and on the west by Russian Poland and the
province of Bialystok.

The surface of the country, with the exception of a few chalk-hills, is
nearly an entire level, and a great portion of it covered with forests of
pine and swamps, the former belonging chiefly to the crown. There are,
however, extensive tracts of fertile land, which produce heavy crops of
rye and barley, exceeding the home consumption. Hops, hemj), and flax,
arc likewise raised in considerable quantities. Fruits and vegetables are
grown, but do not abound. The cultivation of bees occupies much atten-
tion, and large quantities of excellent honey and wax are obtained. The
forests abend with wild boars, wolves, and bears ; elks and roebucks are
also met with. The principal rivers are the Niemen, Boug, and Narew.
The climate is extremely rigorous in winter, and the air is often damp and
misty. Horned cattle and sheep are raised in considerable numbers. The
minerals, of which there arc few, consist of iron, limestone, building-'" one,
clay, and saltpetre. The manufactures, not very extensive, consist chiefly
of woollen-stufls, hats, and leather. The principal articles of exportation
are grain, cattle, wool, leather, hops, honey, and wax, sent chiefly to Riga,
Memel, and Kiinigsburg.

Tiie greater part of the inhabitants are Rusniaks, except in the n* rth,
whore Lithuanians prevail. The nobles are principally Poles, and com-
prise about one twenty-fourth part of the whole population ! The Jews
number about seventy thousand. There are some Tartars and colonics of
German artisans. The jirevuiling religious are the Roman catholic and

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'f»-W».j»M(,.^„^rt..

13G

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

united Greek church. The government is divided into eight districts. Its
chief towns are Grodno, Novogrodek, Slonim, and Volkovitohk.

Grodno, capital of the above government, is situated partly on an emi-
nence, and partly in a valley, on the riglit bank of the Nienien, two hun-
dred and ten miles northeast of Warsaw. It is irregularly built, and con-
sists of stone and wooden himses intermingled. Two or three of the streets
are well paved and tolerably well kept, but the others arc in great disor-
der, and excessively dirty. It contains three handsome palaces, one of
which was erected by Augustus III., king of Poland. I'he market-place is
spacious and convenient. There are nine Roman catholic churches, two
Greek, one Lutheran, and a synagogue ; a gymnasium ; a medical school,
with a library, founded by King Stanislaus Augustus ; a cabinet, contain-
ing objects of natural history; a botanic garden ; and some fine residences
of the nobility. Woollens, silk stufls, linen, hats, cards, firearms, <tc., are
manufactured, and there are three annual fairs. There is also a consider-
able trade on the Nienien. Grodno is as old as the twelfth century, and
was formerly considered the second town of Lithuania, and even disputed
the superiority of Wilna. Its population is about sixteen thousand.

BiALYSTOK is a province which formerly belonged to Poland, but was
ceded to Russia by the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, between Napoleon and Al-
exander. It has the government of Grodno on the east, and is surrounded
on all other sides by Russian Poland. It is divided into four districts —
Bialystok, Sokolka, Bielsk, and Drohiczya — comprising an area of throe
thousand four hundred square miles.

The surface is flat, with some slight undulations ; the soil is generally
sandy, bu<^ not infertile. It is bounded on the south by the western Boug,
a navigable affluent of the Vistula, which is its principal cliannel of com-
munication. The forests arc extensive and valuable (two hundred and fifty
thousand acres belonging to the crown), abounding with game, bears, wolves,
Ac. Agriculture is the cliief employment, and considerable quantities of
grain (especially rye and wheat), with linseed, hops, and timber, are sent
to Dantzie and Elbing. The nobles are numerous, being estimated at nine
thousand families, or fifty thousand individuals ; but the great bulk of them
are steeped in poverty, many being compelled to cultivate their little patches
of land with their own hands, or hire themselves to others. Manufacturing
industry is all but unknown, and only the most common and indispensable
trades are carried on.

Bialystok, the capital of the above province, is a handsome town of about
eight tliousand inhabitants. Its houses are constructed generally of brick,
with the gables to the streets, which are straight and well paved. It has
a criminal court, gymnasium, <fec. The castle and fine domain formerly
possessed by the counts of Braniski (who held the office of grand hetman
of the Polish crown), called the " Versailles of Poland," is the distinguish-
ing feature of the town.

RUSSIAN POLAND.

CHAPTER V.

RUSSIAN POLAND.

POLAND (called by the Latins, Sarnuitia; l)y the Polos, Pofska, signl-
fyinjr "Flat Laud," or "PUiiu Cuiintry ;" by the Germans, Polen;
and by the French, Pulog-ne) was formerly the name of an indepen-
dent and extensive country of central Ennjpe, comi»risiMg the territories
between the forty-eighth and fifty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the
(ifteentli and thirty-third degrees of east longitiulo ; including, with Poland
proper, Lithuania, .Samogitia, Courland, tlie Ukraine, Podolia, and other
provinces, now Ijelouging to Russia, witli Oalicia, belonging to Austria, the
province of Poscn, and some other districts in Prussia. In its greatest
prosperity it had altout eleven millions of inhabitants, and an area of two
hundred and eiglity-four thousand scjuare miles (being about equal in extent
to France, England, and Scotland). Stretching, as will be seen, from the
frontiers of Hungary and Turkey to the Baltic, and from Germany far cast
into ancient Muscovy, the territory thus bounded formed one vast and re-
markably compact kingdom, divided into Great and Little Poland in tho
west ; Masovia and Podlachia in the centre ; Volhynia, Podolia, and the
Ukraine, in the east; and Lithuania in tlie northeast: the principal subdi-
vision was into thirty-one pahUina/ s and starostys (or districts).

The existing kingdom of Poland, however, constituted by the congress
of Vienna in 1815, which is now united to the Russian empire, and com-
monly denominated Russian Poland, is of comparatively limited dimen-
sions, extending only between the fiftieth and fifty-fifth degrees of north
latitude, and the eighteenth and twenty-fourth degrees of east longitude;
having on the north, Prussia proper and tho government of Wilna ; on the
east, Uie governments of Wilna, Grodno (with the province of Bialystok),
and Volhynia ; on tlie south, Austrian Poland ; and on the west, Prussian
Poland (the grand-duchy of Posen) and Silesia. Its greatest length from
east to wrst is about three li'indred miles, and its greatest breadth from
north to south two hundred and fifty, comprising an area of forty-seveu
thousand six hundred square miles, being a little larger than the state of
Now York.

Of tho population, about three fourths consist of Poles, one tenth of
Jews, and the remainder princi[)ally of Russians, Germans, Tartars, and
gipsies, the whole amounting to about fire millions of souls.

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1 ^

■•■■«l»S-*lM»««to*«..a

188

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The whole country, except in the south, where are some scattered offsets
from the Carpathian mountains, is an extended plain, with a general slo'pe
toward the Baltic, in which its principal rivers have their embouchure.
These are t^e Vistula (with its tributaries the Wieprz, Bug, Narcw, Pilica,
&c.), the Nicmen, and the Warta. The "Vistula, after bounding the king-
dom for a Icnfthened distance on the south, traverses its centre, leaving it
near Thorn. The Nienicn, Bobr, and Bug, bound nearly all the eastern,
and tlic Prosna, a U'ibutary of the Warta, a considerable part of tlie west-
ern frontier. These rivers are all more or less navigable. There are
innumerable smaller streams, Poland being an extremely well-watered coun-
try ; and, in the nortli, cast, and west, are a great number of lakes and
many very extensive marshes.

The surface, though flat, is abundantly diversified, presenting alteniatoly
fertile grain-lands, savage steppes, rich pastures, sandy wastes, dense for-
ests, and dreary swamps. The climate is rigorous : the cold of winter is
oftv'n as great as in Sweden, in a latitude ten degrees higher ; and in 1799
the thermometer descended to twenty-nine degrees below zero (Fahrenheit).
In summer, however, the heat sometimes rises to one hundred and twenty
degrees (Fahr.) ! The mean temperature of the year at Warsaw is about
forty-six degrees Fahr. The atmosphere is humid, rainy and cloudy days
occuj)ying half the year.

Between the Vistula and the Prussian frontier the soil is generally fer-
tile, the most productive districts being in the governments of Kalisch ai d
Sandomir, and the neighborhood of Warsaw. In the northeast are also
some very fertile tracts ; but even there, and in the governments of Ployk,
Lublin, ifec, the surface is in great part waste.

"The traveller in Poland," says IJurnott, "sometimes finds himself in
an expanse of surface almost without a liouse, a tree, or any single object
large enough to attract his notice. Soon, however, are descried the skirts
of some vast forest fringing the distant horiz(m ; and, on entering it, wo
proceed for eight or ten miles, more or less, winding with the road, through
lofty pines, &c., precluded fi'om the sight of all object? but trees and shrubs.
Sometimes, in the midst of a forest, we meet with a small spot of ground
(for example, of ten or twenty acres) cleared and culti\ated ; its sides
prettily fenced by the green, surrounding woods. Sometimes a snmll lake
is found thus situated, its borders oi-namented in a similar manner : and
these, generally sjxsaking, are the prettiest scenes which Poland furnishes.
These forests, in some ])laces, are fifteen and even twenty miles in all
directions. Indeed, if wo exclude morasses and the level pasture-lands,
perhaps not more than half the country, speaking generally, is cleared.
At distant intervals are found plains of some extent, aflbrding rich pas-
turage. The best are those contiguous to the Vistula, some of which are
periodically overflowed by that river. Such are those in the neighborhood
of Warsaw, which supply that town with good butchers' meat,"
This description was written early in the present century ; and, though

RUSSIAN POLAND.

189

a considerable proportion of forest-land has been cleared in the interval,
it is still substantially accurate. Of seven hundred and forty-one thousand
acres (wl)ka) of land comprised in the kingdom, two hundred and fifty-five
thousand are supposed to be arable ; two hundred and five thousand in
forest ; one hundred and seventy-one thousand in natural pastures, rivers,
and marches ; forty-six thousand in meadows ; thirty-eight thousand occu-
pied with roads and buildings, and twenty-six thousand in gardens.

Poland has, for a lengthened period, been the granary of a great part of
Europe. But Volhynia, Podolia, and Galicia, formerly inebided in the
Polish dominion, were the principal grain-growing provinces ; and ■\k'ithin
the limits of Russian Poland, except in one or two southwestern provinces,
the land, according to Mr. Jacob, is so poor, that it can scarcely be made
to yield a medium crop of wheat more than once in nine years. The soil
is mostly thin, sandy, or sandy loam, resting chiefly on a bed of granite,
througli which the heavy grains gradually percolate. South of the Pilica,
however, the appearance of the land and the face of the country improve ;
and as wo proceed southward to the Vistula, the surface becomes more
undulating, and the soil stronger and more tenacioMS. In this quarter
there are extensive tracts of clayey loam, requiring three or four horseS' to
plough it, and yielding, when tolerably well managed, excellent crops of
wheat and outs. Whore, in this district, anything like a system of rota-
tion is adopted, the crops are very heavy.

Some of tlie estates belonging to the nobility of the highest rank are of
enormous extent ; and, not long since, those of Prince Czartoryski and
Count Zamoyski, taken together, occupied a space nearly equal to half the
extent of England, or larger than the states of New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Massachusetts ! In the times of the republic, the former contributed
twenty thousand and the latter ten thousand men to the army. Owing,
however, to the j)ractice of dividing the land equally among the children,
unless a majorat be established in favor of the eldest son, which is some-
times the case, much of it is possessed in smaller allotments. These, how-
ever, wo should still call large, for they mostly vivry from five or six thou-
sand up to thirty or forty thousand acres each. The rent and price of
land are generally low, depending much more on the number of peasants
than the extent of the farm. The crown-lands, comprising one third part
of the whole surface, or about ten millions of acres, include perhaps two
millions of acres of wood, the remainder being chiefly arable land, leased
to tenants, who, in consequence, acquire right to the services that may be
legally demanded from the peasantry. The tenants of the crown are ex-
empted, as well as their peasants, from some taxes to which the other
occupiers of land are subject, and in consequence the crown-estates are
better stocked with peasants. With this freedom from taxation, and am-
ple supply of laborers, the rent of eight millions of acres of land is said to
have amounted in a given year to no more than four millions of florins
(about half a million of dollars), or somewhat less than six cents the Eng-

•■'•*-'*W«i»»«tf«aw»

140

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIOX OP RUSSIA.

Hsh acre. But a large extent of land is inchulcd in this average that is
literally of no value ; so that the rent of the cultivable land may be fairly
set down at from twenty to thirty cents per acre. In point of fact, how-
ever, the money-rent of land, in a country like Poland, without towns and
without a market for its produce, aflbrds no tost whatever of its real value.
Lands belonging to i)rivate individuals arc rarely, indeed, ever let, except
for services to be performed on the other parts of the same estates ; and
the value of the land is to be determined, not by the amount of the money-
rent it will bring, but l)y the amount of subsistence it aflbrds, or the number
of individuals it will maintain in an average state of comfort, according to
the customs and habits of the society.

Formerly the whole lands of the republic were the i)roperty of the no-
bility or gentry, and could not be held by any one else. The possession
of land was, in fact, of itself a proof of nobility ; and the owner of an estate
of three acres in extent voted in the elections of nuncios, and, in respect
of political rights and privileges, was on a level witli the richest nobleman
m the country. But this state of things is now wholly changed. Landed
property is no longer the appanage of a particular class ; but may be indifi
ferently held by nobles, l)urghers,and peasants. Jews only are prohibited
from becoming proprietors of the soil, thouuh they have numerous mort-
gages thereon. When they foreclose, the lands must consequently be sold ;
and as the Jews, who engross the greater jmrt of the money-cnitital of the
country, can not become purchasers, the prices they yield are very trilling.
Latterly, however, some modifications have been made in the regulixtious
respecting the Jews, and various privileges have been conceded to them.

The most numerous class of cultivators are peasants, who are a species
of quasi proprietors of the lands they occupy, holding them under condition
of working a stipulated number of days in each week on their lord's de-
mesne, and paying him, in addition, specified quantities of poultry, eggs,
yarn, ttc. The extent of their holdings varies according to the quality of
the land, the quantity of work to be performed, and of payments in kind
to be made. On a large projjerty examined by Mr. Jacob, the peasants
had each about forty-eight acres of land, for which they were bound to
work two days a week with a pair of oxen. If their further labor was
required, they were paid at the rate of six cents a day for two days more ;
and if beyond that number, they received twelve cents a day. On another
property the peasants had about thirty-six acres, for which they worked
two days a week with i,wo oxen ; when called upon for extra labor, they
wore paid twelve cents a day for themselves and their oxen for the next
two days, or, without the oxen, six cents.

Under the republic the Polish peasants did not, in fact, enjoy as much
consideration as the blacks of our southern states in the present day. They
were the absolute property of their masters. Down to 1768, a lord who
had killed his serf was merely amerced in a small fine ; and, though in
that year the oflence was made capital, such an accumulation of evidence

RUSSIAN POLAND.

was required to j)rove tlic fuct, tliat the cimctinoiit was rendered quite nu-
gatory. It was curttoniury to nuikc the serfs work live days a week on tho
estates of their lords; the hitter also might seize on whatever. wealth the
scr!"^'. iiud accunuilatod, might indict on them corporal jmnishmcnt, and
n,.^iit sell thorn us if tliey had l»een so nmiiy head of cattle. The boasted
freedom of Poland was, in triitli and reality, merely the license of the gen-
try to trample under foot the mass of tho people, browbeat their sovereign,
and sell their votes. It is due, however, to the nobility, to state that s.me
anmng them — as the Znmoyskis, Czartoryskis, and others — perceived the
mifiorable conseijuences of such a state of society, and were most anxious
for the inq)n)vemeiit of the jieasantry on their estates, of whom they eman-
cipated considerable numlters. Generally, however, the Polish gentry
were not inclined to establish or give eOicai^y to any regulations in favor
of the |)casantry, of whom they «carcely considered as belonging to the
.same race of beings with themselves, or as entitled to tho conunon rights
of humanity. Under these circumstances, none will be surprised to leara
that the Polish peasantry, at the dismemberment of the republic, in 1774,
were in the lowest state of degradation, being at once ignorant, indolent,
addicted to drunkenness, jmor and improvident in the extreme.

The servitude of the peasants was modilied by the constitution of 1791,
and it was wholly abolished in the grand-duchy of Warsaw (nearly identi-
cal with the present kingdom) in 1807 ; the labor and services due by the
peasants to their lords having since been regulated and defuicd by law.
Owing to the ignorance of the jieasantry, the influence of tliis great and
salutary change was for a lengthened period less considerable than might
have been sujtposed. Though the peasants may now leave one part of the
country to settle in another, they must first pay off any debt that may be
owing their lords ; and from inalnlity to do this, and various other circum-
stances, they do not often quit the estates on which they were born. "When
a young peasant marries, his lord assigns hiiu a certain quantity if land,
sufficient for his maintenance and that of his family in the way in which
they have been accustomed to live. Should the family grow numerous,
some little addition is made to the grant. At the same time, the young
couple obtain a few cattle, as a cow or two, with steers to plough their
land. These are fed in the stubble, or in the open places in the woods,
as tho season admits. The master also j)rovides them with a cottage, with
implements of husbandry ; in short, with all their little movable property.
Owing to tlie powerful influence of old habits, but few peasants i.nprovo
the little stock committed to their management ; their conduct beimr most
frequently marked by carelessness and a want of forecast. This, however,
is by no means uniformly the case : there have been many itancos oi' ac-
cumulation ; indeed, several of the peasants have become p.oprietors, while
others have hired a larger extent of land. But it will requii-e the lapse of
a lengthened series of years before any very general change can be made
in the habits and condition of the bulk of the people. „

■-■ncriUjii^.^^

142

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP BUS8IA.

Speaking generally, the houses of tlic Polish peasantry arc miserablo
hovels. Tliey arc all built of wood ; even those of the better class have
merely the ground-floor. On the exterior they arc, in every point of view,
humble, very often mean in appearance : the interior is occasionally some-
what better, though you look in vain for anything like comfort. There
are usually two or three ordinary rooms, whitcwasltcd, though only ono
scives, for the most part, as a sitting-room. The floors are sometimes of
earth only, but more frequently planked. A bed stands almost always in
every room.

The villages, which ore of the most wretched description, arc thinly
scattered, rather along the skirts tlian in the midst of the forests, and some-
times in vast bare heaths, where no other object is to bo seen. They con-
sist of from ten to fifty miseniblc hut.s, rudely constructed of timber, and
covered over with straw, turf, or shingles ; and afford so imperfect t shel-
ter, that the inhabitants arc glad to stop up the chimneys in winter, and
to be half smothered with smoke, rather than die of cold. Each of these
huts consists generally of only one apartment, with a stove, round which
the inhabitants and their cattle crowd together. Bad as these villages are,
you may travel ten miles, even in the clear part of the country, without
seeing one, or indeed beholding any human habitation. The common diet
of the peasantry is cabbage ; potatoes sometimes, but not generally ; peas,
black bread, and soup, or rather gruel, without the addition of butter or
meat. Tiioir chief beverage is the cheap whiskey of the country, which
they drink in quantities that would astonish the best customers of the gin-
palaces of England or of this country. Their houses generally have little
that merits the name of furniture ; and their clothing is at once coarse and
disgustingly lilthy. These, however, arc only their general characteristics.
The condition of the peasantry depends much on the character of their
lords, and upon the more or less embarrassed state of the property on
which tliey may be settled. On the estates of opulent and enlightened
landlords it is wholly different from what it is on the estates of those of an
opposite description, and may indeed be said to be decidedly comfortable.

It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to state that, from the labor applied to
the lords' estates being rendered as compulsory service, it is performed in
the most negligent and slovenly manner possible. All the operations of
husbandry are very ill executed : the ploughing is shallow and irregular;
the harrows, with wooden tines, do not penetrate sufficiently to root up
weeds in fallowing ; so that the land is always foul, and in bad order.
The same want of attention prevails in thrashing. In short, the natural
effects of the system of duty-labor are strikingly visible in the whole adrain-
istrat" ^n of most of the large estates where it is followed ; and is hardly
even prevented from exhibiting itself on the estates belonging to the few
proprietors who have intelligent and active managers, and are free from
pecuniary embarrassments. The common course of crops is the old system
of a whole year's fallow, followed by winter grain, and that by Bummer

gram,

RUSSIAN POLAXD.

143

grain, and tlion a fallow again, so that one third of thu hind 1,'cara notliing.
Tlic winter erop, in the north of Poland, conaist.s of wheat and rye, the
latter being to the former nearly as nine to one, the little manure that is
preserved being laid out on the wheat-land. In the southern part of tho
kingdom the wheat bears a larger proportion to the rye, amounting, on tho
more tenacious soils, to one fifth, and in some eases to one fourth part, or
upward. On a well-managed farm in tho province of Liililin, the quanti-
ties of seed and produce are said by Mr. Jacob to have l)ecn as follows :
Potatoes, about twenty bushels to the acre planted, and about two hundred
bushels raised ; wheat, two bushels sown, and from sixteen to twenty
reaped ; rye, two bushels sown, and from twelve to fifteen reaped ; buck-
wheat, throe bushels sown, and from ten to fifteen reaped. The barley
and oats scar';ely yield four times tho seed.

The stock of cattle is small in proportion to the extent of land and tho
nunilier of the inhabitants. The Polish horses, formerly held in high esti-
mation, have much degenerated, and a good breed is to be mot with only
in a few studs. A miserable race of colts is employed to transport mer-
chandise, and field-labor is almost wholly performed by oxen or cows.
The latter are small, and generally kept in bad condition, both as to food
and condition. They arc mostly stall-fed, but, from negligence, yield very
little butter, and no good cheese. Previously to the revolution of 1831,
the total number of sheep in Poland was roughly estimated at three mil-
lions ; but, tliough the country is extremely well adapted to sheei)-breeding,
the Polish breeds were greatly inferior to those of Saxony, and there were
very few (locks of fine-wooUed sheep. Latterly, however, the Polish wool
has improved very much in point of quality ; and is now sent in large (jnan-
titios to the markets of Leipsic, Berlin, and Breslau, where it sometimes
brings a very high price. Hogs, tliough not very numerous, aro of a good
breed, originally from Hungary.

The burdens laid directly on the land arc not very heavy. Tithes aro
moderate, and principally compounded for at fixed rates. A small sum is
levied in each district for the repair of roads, bridges, and other local pur-
poses ; but that and the land-tax do not exceed twenty-five per cent, on the
presumed annual value of tho land, which is usually far below its real value.
Tiie other taxes fall equally on the different classes of the community.
That on beer is let to farm by the government to the brewers. Heavy
duties are laid on foreign commodities, such as sugar, coflce, wine, &c.
The great nuiss of the population can not, however, afford to purchase such
luxuries, but content themselves with honey, dried chicory, and whiskey.

The forests are highly important, and in the governments of Augustow
and Plock they cover more than a third part of the surface ; though in
some of the other governments they have been much neglected, especially
in the territory adjacent to Krakow, whore, however, the place of wood-
fuel is supplied by coal. Scotch pine, black fir, alder, aspen, oak, beech,
ash, maple, linden, and elm, arc the principal forest-trees, and the Polish

f i

I i

(!S

144

ILLUSTRATED DKSCUIl'TION OF RUSfllAi

miiri,tt

PDLHII UHON (UM'S), OB l.ITIIVANUN Wll.D-nrLL.

oak and fir timltor is of very superior quality. Most of the larfror forests
lieloiitr to the crown, ami are felled in jwrtioiis aiinuully, so as to cut tliom
every fifty ye;irs.

Among the wild animals of Poland nniy be ppeeified the bison (Polish,
zuhr), Wmud in the vast forests of the province of Plork, traversed l)y tho
Xarew. The emperor Alexander prohiltited the chase of the bison, of
wliieli, peiliaps, the only renniant in Europe is now to be found in Plork
and the adjoininjr province of iJialystok. Tiic other wild aninnds iiu bulo
the elk, roebuck, wild boar, badgers, foxes, hares, Ac, tho skins of which
last form articles of exjtort.

Alinerals are more numerous and valuable than might have been expected
in so Hat a couniiy. IJog-iron is found almost everywhere; l»ut llie prin-
cipal mining districts are in tiire south, in the government of Sandomir and
in Austriaiu Poland. Coal is raised in consideralde quantities at JJeiidzine,
Reden, Niemcy, Ac. Zinc, which is exported in consideral)le (juantities, is
found iu the vicinity of Krakow; lead at Olhusz; and copper at Kielce.
Iron of excellent (juality is also mined in Sandonnr.

Tlie domestic manufacture of woollen and other stufl's is universal through-
out Poland, almost every agricultural family having a loom for the nuinu-
facture of the coarse clotiis recpiired for their consumption. The yarn used
to be partly imported from foreign countries, but lately a large spinning-
factory has been estaldished at Girardow, which occupies five hundred
hands, and produces, besides yarn, a quantity of linen cloth. In 1829, the
woollen cloth made in the country was estintated at seven millions of Polish

RUSSIAN POLAJO).

145

oils, worth upward of Hcvcnty millions of florins, about a tenth part of
which was sent into Russia. During the disturbed period which followed,
the production of Polish woollens sank to one third of what it had pn.'vi-
ously Ikhmi ; but it his lately revived in consequence of the importation of
Polish cloths into Russia, duty free, where they are in extensive demand
for the clothini; of the troops, and for other pur|ioso«. They are also sent
in consideralile quantities to Kiachta, on the borders of Chinese Tartary.
Leather is the manufacture next in importance ; and then follow linen and
cotton faiirics, sailcloth, pnj)or, bleached wax and wax-candles, alum and
other chemical products, glass, j)rintinK-tyj)e8, jewelry, cai riages, itc. den-
erally, however, these articles arc produced on a very small scale ; and,
notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, they are mostly, from the want of
skill on the part of the workmen, at once high-priced and inferior. Poland,
in fact, is an agricultural country ; and, except a few of the more bulky
and coarser articles, it would, were the citizens permitted to resort to the
cheapest markets, derive almost all its manufactures and articles of luxury
from other countries, in exchange for grain, wool, timber, tallow, flax, spir-
its, and such like articles. Spirits arc distilled in every village from rye
and potatoes, but their sale is still, as form(>rly,a manorial right, eacii lord
of a manor having the exclusive sale of spirits witliin iiis domain. There
are breweries in Warsaw, and in some other large towDs ; and mead, and
drinks made from raspberries, cherries, «tc.. principally in the southern
provinces, are favorite beverages of the people. Of late years several l»eet-
root sugar factories have been establi.shed.

The trade of Poland is almost wholly in the hands of the Jews. The
internal commerce is carried on chictly by means of fairs, at which, also, a
c^Hisiderable portion of the foreign trade is conducted. During the revo-
lution of 18;{1, '82, the exjxjrts decreased greatly, while the importtf were
considerably augmented. Since that period, however, the Imlance has been
in a great measure restored. England, Holland, and France, take oft",
through Dantzic, most of the grain which P(tlaiid has to export. Ibit in
years when prices are high in the former countries, and when, consequently,
there is a great demand for breadstufts in Dantzic, a good deal of the sup-
plies brought to that port come from Galicia. Goods arc conveyed in
summer by h^ avy wagons, and in winter by sledges ; but the roads aro
generally bad, and during the insurrection were much cut up. Latterly,
however, the imperial government has been exerting itself for their im-
provement. Steam-n: vigation is but in its infancy ; and merchandise is at
present mostly forwmded down the rivers by flat-bottomed boats to the
Prussian ports. But Russia seems to be endeavoring to put a stop to the
intercourse between Poland and the Prussian ports on the Baltic, by con-
structing a great commercial road from the southwestern angle of Poland
to the Baltic ; and a railway has been projected to convey from Warsaw to
the harbors of Windau and Libau, in Courland, the goods which formerly
went to Tilsit or Mcmel, or by the Pregel to Konigsberg. A similar pur-

146

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

pose is served by the canal of Augustow, connecting the Narew and Vistula
with the Nicincn, and which is continued to the Baltic by the Windau
canal, in the government of Wilna. The canal of Augustow is ninety-six
miles in length, from five to six feet in depth, and of sufficient breadth for
two large boats to pass each other with ease. It has seventeen locks, and
several convenient basins in different parts of its course. It was wholly
completed between 1821 and 1829, and is now the means of an active
traffic. Notwithstanding these measures, the Vistula must be regarded as
the great natural highway of the country, and Dantzic (formerly belonging
to tlic Polish monarchy) her proper sliipping port.

Previously to 1881, Poland had its two legislative chambers, those of
the deputies and the senate ; but after the unhappy attempt at a revolution
that then broke out, Russia suppressed these chambers, and Poland is now
governed nearly in the same way as the other portions of the empire. The
council of administration for the kingdom consists of three directors-gen-
eral (of the interior. Justice, and finance), a comptroller-general, and other
persons appointed by the emperor. The reports of this council are submit-
ted to the emperor by a secretary of state for Poland residing in St. Pe-
tersburg. There is also in that capital a department for Polisli affairs, to
whicli the government of Poland is confided. The legislative ])owcr is
vested in the sovereign, and the proposed laws for this kingdom are sub-
mitted for his sanction by the Russian council of state. The local admin-
istration of Poland is exercised by civil governors, Avith the same powers
as those established in tlic difTorent governments of Russia.

The civil and commercial codes at present in force arc, for the most part,
the same as in France : the criminal code is modelled on that of Prussia
and Austria. Personal and religious liberty are nominally guarantied ;
and those who do not interfere with politics are as secure in Poland as
anywhere else. But those who wish to enjoy this security must have a
care not to find any fault with any action of the government. The press
is under the control of censors, who are stricter here than even in Russia.
Justices of the peace decide in civil causes up to the amount of five hun-
dred florins ; above which the latter come before the tribunals of original
jurisdiction in the capitals of the different governments. At Warsaw, be-
sides a court of appeal, there is a supreme court of cassation, and commer-
cial tribunals are established in all the principal towns. Criminal causes
are tried in separate tribunals, of which there arc four in the kingdom.
Political offences come under the cognizance of a council of war, or a com-
mission specially appointed.

Until lately, upward of three fourths of the Poles belonged to the Roman
catholic, or the united Greek church, the Greco-Russian communicants
being but few in number. But of late the Russian government has, by
every means, been endeavoring to shake the spiritual dependence on the
court of Rome, not only of the Poles, but of the united Greeks throughout
the empire ; and the measures in this respect appear to havo boon attended

nUSSIAN. PULAND.

147

Vfith so much success, that, previously to 1840, from three to four millions
of the united Greeks, including most of those of Poland, had joined the
orthodox Greek church. Until 1832, the Greco-Russians had no prelate in
Poland ; but at that period an arcliimaitdrite was appointed, who resides at
Warsaw. The bishop of the united Greek church resides at Helinc, in tho
government of Lublin. The Roman catholics have an archbishop and eight
i»ishops, nominated by the pope on the recommendation of the emperor of
Russia. There arc a number of convents possessing territorial revenues ;
but the sccuLm' clergy receive a regular stipend from the government, tho
landed possessions formerly belonging to them being now public property.
Tho parish-priests, however, receive titlies, the amount of which is some-
times considerable. The Lutherans and Calvinists, amounting together to
about two hundred and fifty thousand persons, are principally Germans.
There are a few Mennonites and Moravians, and some Mohammedans.

Previously to 1830, education in Poland was scarcely diffused at all,
except among tlie nobility and upper classes residing in the towns, and the
total number of persons receiving instruction at that period is said not to
have exceeded sixteen thousand, or about one in two hundred and sixty
of the population. After the suj)pression of the insurrection, the schools
were shut for several months, and, when rc-opencd, were organized upoa
tho same plan as those of Russia. Private schools are subject to the same
inspection on the part of the government as public schools. The number
of pupils in public and private schools amounted in 1839 to about seventy
thousand, or one to every sixty-two individuals. In 1838, an order was
issued by the Russian government, directing that there should be a teacher
of tlie Russian language in every primary school ; and that all children
attending such schools should be obliged to learn the Russian language.
It was also, at the same time, ordered that no individual should be era-
ployed as a tutor unless he possessed a testimonial, signed by the proper
authorities, certifying his ability to give instruction in the Russian lan-
guage ; and that no person unacquainted with Russian should be promoted
to any civil or military employment.

This regulation, as was to be ex|K'cted, gave much offence to the Poles,
and was the theme of much declamation in this and otlier countries. Rus-
sia, no doubt, wishes to secure her hold over Poland ; and everything that
tends to Russianize the latter, and to give her people the same tastes,
habits, and modes of thinking, as the Russians, must necessarily contribute
to this end : and it is undoubtedly thought that, of all the means to bring
about this consummation, the gradual substitution of the Russian for the
Polish language will be one of the most effectual. Nevertheless, this meas-
ure is one of great injustice and hardship to the conquered race ; indeed,
among the numerous degradations to which foreign domination subjects tho
Poles, there is none to which they appear more keenly sensible than this
attempt to complete their national destruction by tho extirpation of their
native tongue, which is said to bo one of tho richest -<z<f) sweetest of tho

<^*Bt^>. .-..aw.

-■«Wf.,-Wwf»Wu#M(,..

148

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Slavonian dialects, and having a strong afiSnity to the Latin, the latter being
much spoken by the higher classes.

The Poles are the descendants of various Slavonic tribes, who, in the
sixth century, having proceeded up the Dnieper, entered the basin of tlic
Vistula, drove out the Finns — the original inhabitants — and made tli em-
selves masters of the whole country, from the Warta eastward, and around
the shores of the Baltic. They arc a remarkably fine race of people, being
well formed, strong, active, ardent, and daring. In their general aj)pear-
ance, they are said to resemble the western Asiatics rather than the Euro-
peans, which has led some ethnographers to the belief that they are of
Tartar origin. Tlni gentry arc haughty and brave, but, at the same time,
frank and generous. The peasantry, however, bowed down by continual
oppression, are cringing and servile ; their Avhole behavior evincing the
state of abject servility from which they are now being emancipated. Tlic
nobility arc very numerous in Poland, amounting at present to not less
than two hundred and eighty-three thousand individuals ! According to
the old laws of the rej)ublic, the nobles were terrigena;: every person who
possessed a freehold estate, how small soever, or who could prove his de-
scent from ancestors formerly possessed of such an estate, and who had
not debased himself by engaging in any sort of manufacture or commero
was a nobleman or gentleman, the terms being in Poland synonymoir.
The gentry were all held to be equal to each other, the titles of ])rin». ,
count, <tc., which some of them enjoyed, not being supposed to add any-
thing to their real dignity. Under the repul»lic, the nobility were every
thing, and the rest of the people nothing. The former were the absolute
lords of their estates, and of the boors by whom they were occupied. They
enjoyed the royal privilege of maintaining troops, and constructing fortres-
ses ; and they only could elect the sovereigns. No noble could be arrested
without previous conviction, except in cases of high-treason, murder, or
robbery on the highway ; and then only provided he were taken in the fact !
His house was a secure asylum to all to whom he chose to extend his pro-
tection, whatever might be their crimes. Even his vassals could not l}e
arrested, nor their ofl'ects seized ; they were exempted from all jjayment
of tolls and other direct duties; and though the king might bestow titles,
he had no power to create a nobleman or gentleman, that being the exclu-
sive privilege of the diet. lla|)pily, however, this state of things 1ms been
wholly changed. Under the vigorous government of Russia (and the same
remark applies to those divisions of Poland under Austria and Prussia),
the oppressive privileges of the nobles have been suppressed ; they can no
longer tramidc with imi)unity on their inferiors, nor commit offences with-
out subjecting themselves to the full penalty of the law ; and a poor gen-
tleman no longer considers it a degradation to engage in some department
of industry.

Though modernized in a considerable degree, the richer Polish nobles
continue to live in large castles, in a state of rude hospitality, entertaining

great
visit t
still ke
by the
The
try, an
about
exclus

RUSSIAN POLAND.

149

POMIN iKW J.V Hit DBVOTIOMt.

great nambcrg of their dcpcndciits and such strangers as may happ m to
visit them. At those feasts the ancient custom of sitting below the sail is
still kept up, the best dishes and the most costly wiues being appropriated
by the elite of tue guests.

The Jews are more mimcrous in Poland than in any other European coun-
try, amounting *.o some four hundred and twenty-live thousand, of whom
about four fifths live in towns. They arc, as already stated, in the almost
oxclusivu possession of the commerce of the country ; they also are the

j J^^«((f.i UJULttliWWt^-iJj,^,

150

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIITION OP RUSSIA.

greut mauufact irers and sellers of spirituous and fermented liquors ; ad-
vance money on lands and goods ; are the only jewellers and silversmiths ;
and carry on all pecuninry dealings. Those in tlic towns arc mostly all
burgesses, and they may be said to engross all the most lucrative business.
But notwithstanding all this, the majority of the Israelites arc extremely
poor. Tlioy scom also to Ite in a lower state of civilization than any other
class. Even the richer individuals, thor.gh they occupy the best houses in
the towns, api)ear to caro little for cleanliness or comfort ; and the lower
orders live in a state of filth and discomfort that '.ould be intolerr.bin any-
where else.

There are in Poland many instances of longev**y, and, on the Avholc, the
country ma;- be said to be healthy; but the people are, notwitlstanding,
especially lial)le to endemical diseases, such as small-pox and feve-s, which
freijuciitly make great havoc. Among the diseases peculiar, or nearly so,
to J'oland and the Lithuanian jirovinces, the plica polonica is tlie most
remarkable. This is a disease of the head, which terminates by afl'ecting
the hair, which it dilates, softens, and clots into one undistinguished mass \
This disgusting malady spares neither age nor sex, gentry nor peasants,
though it is more frequent among the latter than the former. Various the-
ories liave been formed to account for its origin : most probably it is occa-
sioned by the bad water, unwholesome food, and filth of the peoi)lc.

Poland suffered much from ihe outl)reak of 1831, in consequence partly
of the destruction of property, and partly of the proscriptions and oj)pres-
pive measures of the imperial government which followed its suppression.
Within the last few years, however, the country has again begun to revive.
The population and revenues have considerably increased ; houses and
other buildings have multiplied ; old roads have been materially improved,
and new ones projected ; so that, on the whole, however depressed in some
respects, the country is certainly advancing in improvement.

The Polish army, which befon; 1831 amounted, in time of peace, to
thirty-five thousand men, is now amalgamated with that of Russia.

Poland was first raised to the rank of a kingcjom liy the emperor of Ger-
many, in 102.^, when Boleslaus Khrabry became its sole monarch. Ho
belonged to what has been called the Piast dynasty, l)eing one of the do
scendants of Prince Piast, who, as early as 840, had been acknowledged
chief of all the Poles who dwelt between the Vistula and the Warta. His
reign was long and flourishing, and the prosperity which he had commenced
was continued and extended under his successors, Boleslaus H. and HI.
The latter n onarch, however, under whom Christianity had been intro-
duced into the country, counterbalanced the good which he had done, and
laid the foundation for a lengthened series of civil wars, and all sorts of
disasters, by following the practice then common in Europe, of dividing
his dominions, in 1139, among four sons, with only a nominal superiority
in the eldest. The unity of the kingdom was thus destroyed, and its fur-
ther developmout impeded )ty civil dissensions, which did not terminate till

[

bUSSIAN POLAND.

151

1308, when the different portions of the monarchy were again united in the
person of Ladislaus Lokietek, whose merits as a sovereign would have
been more conspicuous if thcj' liad not been in some measure eclipsed by
those of liis son Casimir the Great, in whom all the qualities of a good and
wise prince seem to have been hapj)ily combined. His reign, wliich begau
in lt}83,and terminated in 1370, is the most brilliant in the Polish an'ials ;
Btill, however, tlie foundations were laid in it of that anarchy that desti'oyed
the kingdom.

Casimir, having no children of his own, the male line of t'e Ffasts thus
became extinct; and being anxious tliat the crown shou':! 'ioolve, at his
death, upon liis nepliew Louis, king of Hungary, in preference to the legiti-
mate lieirs, he obtained for that purpose the sanction of a general assembly
of the nobles, and .Louis agreed to tlie conditions under which they offered
him tlie crown — establishing, in this way, a precedent for similar interfe-
rence on future occasions. Li like manner, Louis, in his turn, was anxious
to secure the succession to his youngest dauglitcr, Kedwig ; but as tliis
could not be obtained without innovating on the constitution, he endeavored
to accomplish it by courting the nobility, and bestowing uj)on them privi-
leges with so lavish a hand, as virtually to make them masters of the crown
itself. Hedwig was crowned in 1382, and, by her subsequent marriage
with Jagellon, grand-duke of Lithuania, united that duchy to Poland. The
house of Jagellon continued to occupy the Pc'":.h throne for about two cen-
turies, and the monarciiy was thus truly hereditary ; but at each change
of a sovereign an assembly of the nobles or diet was held, at which the
new sovereign was formally elected to the throne.

On the death of the last of the Jagellons, in 1572, the throne of Poland
became, substantially as well as formally, elective ; and it was called, not
a kingdom, but a republic. Henceforth, on the death of a sovereign, the
nobility or gentry repaired in vast numbers, sometimes to the amount of
one hundred thousand, on horseback, and armed, with crowds of attend-
ants, to a sort of camp in the neighborhood of Warsaw, to elect his succes-
sor, who had to subscribe, and make oath to observe, the pacta conventa,
or conditionti ander which ho had been elected. These were such as to
reduce the royal authority within tho narrowest limits, to secure and ex-
tend the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and to perpetuate the degra-
dation of the mass of the people, who, being serfs (jiieicoJnik) in the fullest
extent of the term, were not supposed, in fact, to have any legal existence !

At the death of Sigismund Augustus, the last of the Jagellon dynasty,
Sweden, France, Austria, and Russia, all brought forward their candidates,
and endeavored to carry the election by such appliances as the exigencies
of the occasion might seem to justify — by violence, intimidation, intrigue,
and bribery. Henry Valois, of France, was the successful competitor, but
his reign was short and inglorious ; and i\o great name occurs in the list
of sovereigns elected under this monstrously vicious system, except that of
ihe famous John Sobieski, the last great king of Poland, who mounted tho

152

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

throne in 1674, having been highly successful as a general since the year
1048, anil wliosc reign is rendered memorable by his numerous victories
in Moldavia and Wallachia, and by his terrible overthrow of the Turkish
Liesicging liost under the walls of Vienna in 1G83.

Exclusive of the dirts' for the election of the sovereigns, ordinary dicta
vcre hold, at least, once every two years, at which all matters connected
with the government of the country were discussed and decided upon. It
is easy to sec, from what has hncn already stated, that this form of govern
ment could not fail to produce great i)arty contests and disorders, and that
it umst have afforded every facility to the surrounding powers for acquiring
a preponderating infii!cnce in the diet. Probably, however, the abuses
already noticed might iiavc been repaired, but for the principle, if \>e may
so call it, iirst introduced in 1052, that no decision could be come to upon
any matter submitted for consideration unless the diet were unanimous.
Hence the singular and extraordinary privilege of the libermn veto, by
which any single member of the diet was permitted to interpose his abso-
■ ate veto, and, by doing so, could nullify its whole proceodings ! And,
which is even more extraordinary, this absurd privilege, which allowed the
whim, cajtrice, or bad faith of an individual, to prevent the adoption of any
measure, liowcvcr necessary and however generally approved, was, for a
lengthened period, regarded by the Poles as the palladium of their liberties !
It is plain, from these statements, that latterly the whole powers of the
state were engrossed by the nobles, or gentry, many of whom, tliough en-
joying the sante political rights and franchises as the others, were misera-
bly poor. In consequence, corruption, intimidation, and such like arts,
had full scope in tlie Polish diets, particularly in t''ose held for the elec-
tion of sovereigns ; and latterly the crown was, in fact, either sold to the
higliest bidder, or the election was decided under the infiuenco of foreign
force. And if, wliile tiic government was in this state of abasement, we
jear in mind that the whole people, witli the exception of the nobles or
gentry, were scM-fs, on wliom every indignity migiit bo practised by their
masters, it will 1)0 seen that tlie subversion of such a state of things might
reasonably be expected.

Even before the election of John Sobieski, schemes of dismemberment had
been suggested I)y tlie ncigiiboring powers ; and though the brilliancy of
his reign, and other encouraging causes, prevented them from assuming
any definite shape, the disorganization of the internal government, and the
anarchy which prevailed at every new election, made it obvious to all but
the infatuated Poles themselves, that their execution was only postponed,
and would sooner or later be effected.

■j'i*'-

Augii
king:

* The dii'ts roniistod — first, of tlic aenuto, compcied of the biahnps, palatinet, or pcrpptual gov
rriiorii of proviticps, catteUans, or govornor* of towns, and the grand officcit of iho crown; nnd
w-cotid, of the nu.iciot, or representatives of tlie nobles, or gentry. These bodies did not, howcvor
doliberuto i<-pnrotcI)', but together; and, as will be immediately tt'en, they cnui.t comn t> no 'ito
lution without being unor.in. 'ns.

RUSSIAN POLAND.

168

The partition of Poland had, in fact, been proposed by the Swedes, in
the reign of Casirair V. (a short while previously to the election of John
Sobioski), as the only method by which the disorders that agitated the
country could be put an end to, and the inconvenience thence arising to
the surrounding states be obviated. But it was not till more than a cen-
tury after that the first actual partition was agreed upon, in 1772, by the
emperor of Austria, the empress of Russia, and the king oi Prussia, Fred-
crick the Great, the latter of whom is said to have first proposed the plan
of dismemberment to Maria Theresa, fearful lest Catherine II. should get
the whole territory. By this partition, about a third part of the kingdom
was dismeml)ercd, and added to the dominions of the partitioning powers,
their respective shares being as follows : to Prussia, a little over t' en
ll'.ousand ; Austria, twenty-seven thousand ; and Russia, forty-two thousand
square miles.

But it was not to be supposed that, having once begun to share in so
ricli a spoil, these powers would rest satisfied with this acipiisition. The
pretexts for further interference still continued uiidiminislied. Poland, as
before, remained a prey to all sorts of disorders ; and the Russian embas-
sador, r-'d not the king, was the real sovereign.

In 17v the majority of the nobility and gentry then assembled in a
diet, which had been made permanent, being desirous to raise their coun-
try from the miserable state into which it had fallen, and stimulated by
the events connected with the French Revolution, drew up the projet of a
new constitution on a more liberal and broader basis, abolishing tlie liberum
veto, and making the crown hereditary, on the demise of King Stanislaus
Augustus, in the Saxon family. This constitution was accepted by the
king ; but the great bulk of the nation did not, and could not, take any
interest in the change : and ti:o government were wlioUy without the means
of supporting the new order of things. Russia had little difficulty in fo-
menting fresh disorders ; and the unfortunate Poles, with an imbecile .sov-
ereign, without forces, and abandoned and betrayed by their pretended
allies, were again compelled to submit to a fresh dismoinberment of their
country. By this second partition, in 1793, Prussia obtained twenty-two
thousand five hundred, and Russia ninety-six thousand live hundred square
miles.

Provoked by these repeated indignities, the Poles awoke from their stu-
por, and, headed by the heroic Kosciusko, rose in rebellion in 1794. But
it was too late ; their means were totally inadequate to the struggle in
which they had engaged. After displaying prodigies of valor, Kosciusko
was defeated and taken prisoner (10th of October, 1794), and Praga, the
suburb of Warsaw, being taken by storm, that city forthwith surrendered ;
and there being no longer any obstacle in the way, a dismemberment of
the remaining territories of the republic took place in 1795, and Poland
was finally obliterated from the map of Europe. Stanislaus Augustus, the
last Polish king, degraded into a pensionary of the Russian court, died at

154

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

1:1 1

St. Petersburg in 1798. Tlicse successive partitions had given Austria
forty-five thousand square miles of Polish territory, with five niillions of
inhabitants ; Prussia, fifty-seven thousand square miles, with two and a half
millions of inhabitants ; nnd Russia, one hundred and eighty thousand
square miles, with four millions six hundred thousand inhabitants.

The powers who dismombcrod Poland had, in reality, nothing better to
allege, in justification of their measures, than the robber's jtlea, that the
power to commit an act makes it at once riglit and exi)cdiout! But, how
objectionable soever the motives by which they were influenced, and how
dangerous soever the precedent which they established, there can be no
reasonable doul)t that their measures have been decidedly advantageous to
the great bulk of the Polish people. The vices inherent in Polish society
were such that it is idle to suppose they could have been eradicated by any
remodelling of the couhiitution. There was no middle class (or none worth
notice) in the country ; nothing between nobles, jealous of their rank and
privileges, on the one hand, and newly-enmncipated serfs, brutalized and
degraded by a long course of ojipression, on the other. To restrain the
first within the limits prescribed by law, and to raise the second class, was
a M-ork that cotdd only be undertakon i)y a powerful government, such as
there were no means of forming out of native materials. It is to be regret-
ted that Russia ol>tained the lion's share of the spoil ; but even in Russian
Poland the condition of the people has i)een >"cry decidedly changed for
the Ijctter, and in Austrian and Prussian Poland the improvement in their
condition has lu'cn signal and extraordinary.

A dawn of hope ai)pcared in 180(5, when Napoleon, during the campaign
of Friedland, extended his protection over the Poles ; and shortly after, in
accordance with the terms of tlie treaty of Tilsit, formed the grand-duchy
of Warsaw, which, increased in ISOO by the addition of western Oalicia,
which he wrestc'd from Austria, extended over an area of sixty thousand
square miles, and contained three millions seven hundred and eighty thou-
sand inhabitants. Ibit Napoleon, having now formed an alliance, oflFensivo
and defensive, with Alexander, against England, could not carry out his
original desire and intention of re-establishing the ancient kingdom of
Poland. After his fall, the congress of Vienna (1815), composed mainly
of the spoliators themselves, naturally enough confirmed these sjjoliations ;
but by an arrangement which, in the circumstances, looks more like insult
than generosity, erected the city of Krakow into an independent rej)ublic.

About two thirds of the Russian share wan completely incorj>orated with
the generi government, and ceased to retain any distinctive appellation ;
but the remainder was erected, as before remarked, into what was called
the kingdom of Poland, and received a separate constitution from the em-
peror Alexander, drawn up in a more liberal spirit than might have been
anticipated. It appears, however, to have been more liberally devised
than faithfully executed. Unfortunately, too, the disgust occasioned by
tlio brutality of the grand-duke Constantino, commande^iu-chief of tlio

-I

RUSSIAN POLAVD.

155

Polish Exilm on thcib wat to Sibmia.*

Russian forces in the kingdom, conspiring with the excitement produced
l)y tlie French revolution of 1830, and the abuse of Russia in intemperate
and ill-judged speeches in the house of commons and chamber of deputies,
which made i'^ be believed that England and Franco were ready to assail
that power, prvjoipitatcd the Poles into an insurrection. They made a gal-
lant stand in defence of their liberties, but in the end every vestige of their
independence was totally destroy'd. The confiscation of the property,
and exile to Siberia, of the leading patriots, followed as a matter of course.
The name of the kingdom remains ; but its peculiar privileges have been
subverted, and it is now substantially and in fact a part of the Russian
empire.

The city of Krakow, the ancient capital of Poland, and which, by the
congress of Vienna, in 1815, was erected into a free and independent re-
public, with a territory of four hundred and sixty square miles, after main-
taining a feverish existence till 1846, was seized upon by Austria, and
incorporated with her kingdom of Galicla. The cathedral of Krakow, a

• Tliis illustrnlion ii clmwii mnitily from the cejebrntcd pninting of tho Polish exiles, by Sir Wil-
iinni Atliin, tho tcone of whirh i* thus hnppily alliiiled to by Christopher North : " They aro but
one fiiniily, liut in theii .iferiiif;g they repieient those of all gent to Sil)erin, and cold und bate
would be thiit heart which molted not before such a picture. Toward evening, fatigue ha« weighed
them down — one and all on the rondxido ; but there is no fainting, no hystcricg. That man in
Poland was a patriot — in the steppe* of Siberia he i« but n father! With humble, almost humili
ated eumestnegH, he beseeches the Bashkirs to let his wife and daughter, and other children, vi
himself, rest but for an hour! Tho Bashkirs are three ; -^nd he who refuses, dues so without cni>
elty, but, inexorable in his ^nse of duty, points toward tue distance, a dim dreary way along th*
wildMness, not unoccupied by other wretches moving toward tho mine* i"

i^i:

I ' V >■

;l a

156

ILLUSTRATED DBSCRIPTlON OP RUSSIA.

view of which is given at the close of this chapter, is a mngnificcnt struc-
tmc, and justly celebrated fidiii its being the resting-place of the remains
of the kings and many illustrious men of Poland ; among others, it con
tains the tombs of Casimir the Great, of John Sobicski, and of Kosciusko
and Poniatowski, '• the last of the Poles."

Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is situated on the Vistula, six hundred
and fifty miles southeast of St. Petersburijj. Its population, including its
suburbs, in ISoO was one hundred and sixty-four thousand. The city, which,
with its gardens and suburbs, covers a great extent of ground, is on the
left or west bank of the river, which is Ikm-o about seven hundred feet
broad, being connected with the suburb of Praga on the right, by a bridge
of boats. A suspension-bridge was some years since projected instead of
the latter, but the project has not hitherto been carried into effect.

Warsaw, being situated partly in a plain, and partly on an ascent grad-
ually rising to the river's bank, has a magnificent appearance from the St.
Petersburg road. But though the contrary has been affirmed by some
travellers, the impression of grandeur is not supported on entering the
town. It has, indeed, nuiny fine palaces, public buildings, and noble man-
Bions, and, latterly, its private houses have been improved by prohibiting
the construction of new buildings of wood. But its streets, though spa-
cious, arc badly paved, badly lighted, and dirty ; the greater part of the
houses in the city, and still more iu the suburbs, are mean and ill-con-
structed, above one-fourtli part of their number being at this moment of
wood; and tiie whole town exhibits a painful contrast of wealth and pov
erty, civilization and barbarism, luxury and misery. The suburbs of Praga,
on the east bank of the river, once strongly fortified and extensive, is now
all but deserted. Tiiere are still, however, several other suburl.'s of large
extent ; and those adjacent to the city projier are included within its ram-
part and ditch.

The principal public building is the zamek, a huge edifice, formerly the
palace of the kings of Poland, and that in which the emperor still resides
when he visits Warsaw. The hall of the Polish diet, a splendid gilt ball-
room, and the national archives of Poland, are in this building ; and the
fine paintings of Canalctti, Bacciarelli, <tc., with the library and other
treasures, have been removed since 1831 to the Russian capital. There
are several other royal palaces. That called the palace of Casimir, whicli
was appropriated to the university, has in its square a statue of Coperni-
cus. The Palais de Saxc is a large building in one of the finest squares.
At the back of this palace are the principal public gardens in the interior
of Warsaw, which resemble in some respects the park at Brussels, though
considerably larger. Another handsome public garden, much frequented
at the fashionable hour of twelve, belongs to what is called the government
palace. This latter is, perhaps, one of the most chaste and really beautiful
architectural elevations iu the Polish capital. It is strictly in the Italian
style, and contains the national theatre, customhouse, high tribunals, and

Augii
dect
with
in m<
equc!-
is vei
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An
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oral

erect(

This

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adel

and b

RUSSIAN POLAND — WARSAW.

157

offices of tl>o minister of the interior. The palace of tlio minister of iinaiico,
wiiich is quite modern, forms, witli the now exchange, a very imposing
olyect at the end of the street leading to the Brcslau gate. The Maricvillo
bazar is a large squarr*, the four sides of whicli consist of covered arcades,
with dwellings for the merchants above, and shops for the merchandise
under them ; the latter amount to about three hundred, beside several
warehouses. A great number of churches arc to bo found in the city, some
of which are of really colossal dimensions, as the cathedral of St. John, and
tho church of the Holy Cross. In the former arc an altarpiecc of great
merit by Palnm Nova, and a largo standard wrested from the Turks by
Pobieski at the siege of Vienna. The Lutherans have also a magnificent
church, erected at an expense of one hundred and twenty -five thousand
dollars, and superior in beauty and boldness of design to all the catholic
churches in the place, having a dome and tower of prodigious elevation.
Which way soever a traveller turns, he can not fail to pass some one of
the monuments which stand in the squares to commemorate tlie reign of a
sovereign, or the achievements of a Polish warrior. Tho colossal statue of
.'^igismund III., cast in bronze, gilt, and placed on a lofty pillar of niarblo
of the coMiitry, produces a very good elTeet ; and the equestrian group in
bronze of Poniatowski, <fec., by Thorwaldsen, is also worthy of admiration.

Independently of tho public gardens, Warsaw may be said to have in its
vicinity some of the finest drives and promenades in Europe for width and
extent. The numerous avenues of the Ujasdow, ]>lanted with lofty limo
and chestnut-trees, arc the rendezvous of nearly the entire population of
Warsaw on Sundays and otlier holydays, and are admirably calculated for
horse and sledge-races, both of which take place here. In the immediate
vicinity is the royal villa, formerly the country residence of Stanislaus
Augustus. The palace is built in the Italian style : Bacciarclli's paintings
decorate one of the principal rooms ; and it has a ball-room, ornamented
with colossal statues in whiie marble; a chapel, with some curi')us works
in mosaic, <fec. In the park is a stone bridge, on which is erected tho
equesti'ian statue of John Sobioski. The view of tho Vistula from the park
is very fine ; and a large island lying in the middle stream is much fre-
quented in summer by tho amateurs of aquatic expeditions.

Among the other public buildings may be specified the Radzivil and
Krasinski palaces, tho barracks, mint, six hos[»ital9, five theatres, and sev-
eral good inns. Since tho insurrection of I80I, a strong citadel has been
erected partly in the view of protecting, but more of overawing the town.
This citadel was built from the j)roduce of a loan raised in Poland ; and,
in 1835, when tho emperor Nicholas visited Warsaw in his way from the
congress of Tiiplitz, he distinctly informed tho civic authorities that on tho
first disturbance breaking out in the city, tho guns of tho citadel should
level it with the ground ! A cast-iron obelisk has been erected in the cit-
adel in honor of his predecessor, inscribed, " To Alexander, the conqueror
and benefactor of Poland !"

168

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Tlio university of Warsaw, established 1m 1810, had faculties of theolof^y,
jarisprudeiiec, uiediciuc, philosophy, belles-lettres, and fiuo arts, aud a
lihrary eoutaiuiuf^, it is said, oue hundred and fifty thousand voliunes of
printed books, exelusivo of rare manuscripts, with an observatory and bo-
tanic gardens, cabinets of natural philosophy, zoology, mineral, models, and
coins, and printing and lithographic presses. Unfortunately, however, tho
university no longer exists, having bcer> suppressed 8ub8e(piently to tho
late ill-fated insurrection, its fine liitrury being then, also, removed to St.
Petersburg. Of late years there has been a Roman catholic college at
Warsaw, with twelve professors; but the adherents of the Russo-Grcek
church arc rajndly increasing here, as in all other countries subject to
Russia, and have now a cathedral and other churches in the city. Tho
Jews, of whom there are about twenty-five thousand, have several syna-
gogues ; the Armenians, too, have their places of v.orship, and the English
have a chapel. Among the educational estal)lishments, arc numerous su-
perior, special, and elementary schools; all of them being modelled on tho
new system, and having attached to each a native Russian, as a teacher of
his own language, a considerable proficiency in which is now an indispen-
sable (pialification for holding any puljlic office, how trilling soever.

Warsaw has, also, a deaf and dumb asylum, a musical conservatory,
societies of friends of literature and natural science, a bil)le society, Ac,
and some newspapers, and other periodical publications. Tln-se, however,
are subjected to a rigorous censorship, and arc, consequently, worth little
or nothing. Its manufactures comprise woollen and linen cloths, saddlery,
leather, carriages of diflcrcnt kinds, ironmongery, paper, and tol)acco, with
chemical and cotton printing-works, and numerous breweries. Warsaw is
the great connucrcial entrepot for Poland ; and has two large fairs, in May
and September, attended by traders from many parts of Europe and Asia,
five banks, an insurance society, «frc.

In comparing this city with St. Petersburg, Dr. Granville says, •' Th' ro
is a notable dilTcrcnce between the general aspect of the iidiabitont? of
Warsaw and those of the capital he had just left. The women here jo
handsomer than the men : at St. Petersburg the impression I received /as
of an opposite nature. The absence of those semi-Asiatic costumes, w' ich
are so prevalent in all the streets of the Russian capital, tends, in a g eat
measure, to give to the capital of Poland a more European aspect ; but
there is something else that contributes to produce that cfiect. The I )lea
arc uniformly merry ; they are loud chatterers, fond of amusement, ai I as
partial to living in the open air, doing nothing, as the Parisian fain ints
and the habitues of the Palais Royul, the Tuileries, the Boulevards, o the
Luxembourg ; to which class of people I should be tempted to con )aro
them in many respects. They also do business differently : their shopt and
public places of amusement are more like those of any other Europear 0117
farther south ; and their mvnage appears to be much nearer to that iW»
French than of the Russians."

nUSSlAN POLAND — KALISCII — LUHLIN.

160

Warsaw, tlioii^li a very ancient town, was not the capital of I'dIihuI till
IftOO, after the union with liitliuania ; when the Polish dietwa.i transferred
to it from Krakow. Tho city was occupied by the Swedes in the middle
of the seventeenth century, and surrendered, without opposition, to Charles
Xll. in 1703. In 17S)i}, tho inliahitants expelled the Russian garrison
ja't'vioUNly in occupation ; and the town was successfully defended against
tho Prussians, in tho succeeding year, by Kosciusko. Hut the suburb of
Praga, being soon after taken and sackcMl by the Russians under Suwar-
row, l)y whom a largo portion of the inhabitants were put to the sword, tho
city, threatened with a similar fate, submittt < the concpierors. In 1795,
AVarsaw was assigned to Prussia: in 1800, J\q was made the capital of
tho grand ducliy of Poland ; and in IHlo, she became tho capital of tho
new kingdiin of Poland. She was the principal seat of the ill-fated insur-
rection of IS:U.

Kalisdi, another Polish city, capital of the palatinate of the same name,
is situated on an island in the Proma, one liundred and thirtv-two miles
west-s(nithwest of Warsa\. . It i. conside. I one of the fniest cities of
Poland, and one of the principal places in . int of mercantile wealth and
trade. It is surrounded by a wall, llanKci with towers, and entered by
four gates ; and has ten churches, fhrcc convents, r. • synagogue, a Roman
catholic gymnasium, with a fine I'orur ■', and extensive scientific collections;
a military scliool, theatre, public garden, house of charity, and three hos-
pitals. The streets are spacious, and well paved, and some of thom adorned
with trees. The houses arc well laiilt. Tho most remarkable edifices are
the palace of the voyvodes, in which the courts of law arc now held ; the
catlu'dral of St. Joseph, the cliur'h of St. Nicholas, and that of the Lutho
rans. It has linen, woollen, and leather manufactures ; and six fairs are
held annually. Kalisch was founded about 055, and was long the resi-
dence of the dukes of CJreat Poland. At a little distance from the city the
Swedes were defeated by the Poles, in 1700 ; in 1835, a grand military
review was held here, attended by the emperors of Austria and Russia, and
the king of Pruasir. -n the 18th and 19th of July, 1852, a considerable
[)ortion of the city v,r. burned down. The population of Kalisch is about
fifteen thousand, of whom al)out one fifth are Jews.

Lultlin, tlie capital of the palatinate of Lublin, is beautifully situated
on a height ab(jve the left bank of the Histritza, ninety-four miles southeast
of Warsi>w It consists of the town, properly divided into a high and a
low town, and surrounded by walls and ditches, and of a large suburb ; but
it is poorly built, most of tho houses being of wood, and the streets uneven
and irregular. It is tho see of a bishop, and the seat of a superior appeal
court ; it contains eighteen churches, one of which is a ca.'^odral, and at
least three others arc handsome structures ; an elegant townhouse, a pal-
ace, which belonged to Sobieski ; a Piarist college, a diocesan seminary,
central schools, an old monastery, a military house of correction, a theatre,
an orphan and several other hospitals ; possesses agricultural, scientific,

'-■»«- !..!fft,V-!».

'■!*»«-'i<«*i>'iy:,»J.ji»ais«-4jiMa.*v.,~t-..a^

160

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

and musical societies ; and has manufactures of woollen and linen cloth, a
trade in cloth, corn, and Hungarian wine ; and three annual fairs, one of
which lasts a montli, and is numerously attended by German, Greek, Ar-
menian, Russian, Turkish, and other dealers. On a steep height near tho
town are the remains of an old castle, built by Casiinir tlio Great. Its
population is about thirteen thousand.

The palatinate lies wholly within the basin of the Vistula, which bounds
it on tho west ; it is extensively covered with woods and marshes, but has
several tracts of good arable and pasture land. Its only mineral is bog-
iron ore.

Plock, capital of the palatinate of that name, is situated on the right
bank of the Vistula, sixty miles northwest of Warsaw, on a height. It is
walled, divided into the old and the new town, and has no less than twenty-
five squares, of which one, in the old town, is very regularly built. It has
a handsome cathedral, and ten other Roman catholic churches ; a bishop's
palace, in which the courts of justice hold their sittings ; two monasteries,
and a convent, a synagogue, Piarist college, a gymnasium, and several ele-
mentary schools ; a theatre, an orphan asylum, and poorhouse ; and a con-
siderable trade, particularly in skins ; and several large fairs. Its popu-
lation is six thousand.

Sandomir is another Polish town of considerable importance, situated on
the Vistula, fifty-six miles southwest of Lublin. It is surrounded by a wall
and fosse, and is entered by six gates. It has an old castle, seated on a
rocky height, a collegiate church, four monasteries with churches, a syna-
gogue, and a gymnasium. It possccses considerable general trade, and has
a population of about three thousand.

\?--

r,
I

flOVTHEBN BVSAIA. — BiiMAUADU.

A0»

CHAPTER VI.

SOUTHERN RUSSIA.

THE governments which are classed under the general name of SouTil-
E... Russia, arc BEasARABU, Kheuson, Ekatiierinoslav, Taurida
(with the Crimea), and the Don CosflACKS ; and include that portion
of the enipiro resting on the Black sea and the sea of Azov, and extending
from the government of Astrakhan on the cast, to the Pruth, an important
tributary of the Danube, on the west. Previous to the alteration of tho
Bessarabian frontier of Russia by the treaty of 185(3, those rivers formed
the entire boundary line between tho empire and tho principalities of Mol-
davia and Wallachia, the occupation of which by the armed forces of Rus-
sia led to the late war between that government and Turkey and tho west-
ern powers of Europe. Tho territory covered by these governments con-
sists principally of the steppes, an interesting feature of Russian topogra-
phy, which will form the subject of a future chapter.

BissARABiA, once the eastern division of Moldavia, and now tho most
southwestern government of European Russia, is principally situated be-
tween the forty-sixth and forty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the
twenty-seventh and thirty-first degrees of east longitude. It is bounded
north and east by the Dniester and the Black sea, and south and west by
Moh^i.la and the Beckowina, part of Austrian Galicia. It thus forms a
strip of territory three hundred and twenty miles long, by fifty of medium
breadth, and comprises an area of about sixteen thousand square miles.

On ncaring tho maritime borders, tho province gradually widens, and
naturally divides itself into two portions. The portion named by tho Tar-
tars Budjak, is composed of a flat, reaching to the seashore, between the
mouths of tho Danube and the lower course of the Dniester, and has the
common aspect of tho Russian steppes, being chiefly suited to tho breeding
of stock. No trees, a few shrubs only, are observed near the rivers ; tho
lakes, or stagnant waters, are covered with reeds ; and in the plains be-
tween the marshes, tho ox, buffalo, and bison, w^ander among pastures
where tho herbage rises to tlie height of their horns. Tho horse and the
sheep exist in a wild state. The northern portion presents a hilly country,
beautifully undulated, covered with noblo forests, and extremely fertile.
Wheat, barley, and millet, are the only species of grain thr?t aro raised,

-!w:>t.'.4»i*j».|i«ii(a».

l'}£

ILLUSTRATED PESCBIPTION OP RUSSIA.

yielding from sixty to a hundred fold. Hemp, flax, and tobacco, are also
produced in considerable quantities.

The climate is in general mild, salubrious, and agreeaile ; the grape,
the finer kinds of fruit, and melons, growing in the open air. The chief
mineral product is salt, obtained from lakes in the Budjak. SaUpetro,
coal, alabaster, marble, and lime, are also found there. Akermann, Ben-
der, Kichinev (the capital), Biltsy, and Choczim, are its chief towns.

In the Budjak territory are met Russians, Cossacks, Germans, Jews,
Bulgarians, Swiss vine-di'cssers, gipsies, together with Greek and Arme-
nian traders. Tiie northern part of the provijice, again, is almost entirely
inhabited by the Moldavian race, the line of their villages extending along
the Dniester, to near Akermann.

Bessarabia was the fairest and most productive portion of Moldavia at
the beginning of the present century, and perhaps has more capabilities,
natural and commercial, than any portion of the R^issian empire of the
same extent. Yet, till very recent years, it lias been strangely neglected,
being poorly cultivated, and in many places almost deserted. The Russian
government has established, in different parts of the territory, colonies of
Bulgarians, Germans, Cossacks, and even some heretofore-wandering gipsy
tribes.

The people of Bessarabia arc essentially agricultural ; few of them take
to trades : tlie few of those that exist in the country are entirely of the
domestic kind. Of what is understood by the term manufactures, there
are none, with the exception of tanneries, distilleries, and tallow and soap
works. A good deal of inferior wine is made. The breeding of cattle is
an important occupation of the inhabitants.

The Moldavian peasants are generally frank, cheerful, and hospitable ;
but are said by the Russians to be indolent. Ilommaire de Hell, however,
asserts tliat in the Moldavian villages the houses are usually kept in the
neatest order, and generally surrounded with gardens and fruitful orchards.
The education of the people is at the lowest ebb.

Bessarabia once formed the eastern district of the Roman province of
Dacia. After various vicissitudes consequent upon the fall of that empire,
it was invaded by the Asiatic Turks, and became a portion of European
Turkey. It was ceded to the Russians by the treaty of Bucharest in 1812.
.' t first, the Bessarabians were allowed to retain their peculiar laws and
privileges undisturbed ; but misunderstandings soon arose, and since 1829
tlie administrative institutions of tlie country have been assimilated to those
of the rest of the empire.

Kichinev, or Kichcnew, the capital of Bessarabia, is situated on the
Biok, a tributary of the Dniester. Formerly only a small, miserable town,
it is now adorned with numerous liandsome buildings, both public and pri
vate. It has fourteen churches, a gymnasium, and ten other schools ; a
library, and numerous manufactures of woollen cloth, &c. It has a popa
lation of forty -five thousand.

ir-

\ r.

SOUTHF.nN nUSSIA — KHERSON.

163

Ismail (by the late rectification of the Bcssarabian frontier, now belong-
ing to the principality of Moldavia) is situated on the left bank of the Kilia
branch of the Danube, forty-three miles above the Black sea, and one hun-
dred and twenty southwest of Odessa. It contains a magnificent palace,
a Greek and an Armenian church, and a cloister. Its harbor is good, but
its commerce is not as great as formerly ; the chief exports arc grain, hides,
tallow, &c. The customhouse and quarantine are of the first class. Ow-
ing to the shallowness of the water over the bar of the Kilian mouth, ves-
sels bound for I^•mail generally enter the Danube by the Sulineh or middlo
mouth of the rivor.

Til is town was long in possession of the Turks. In 1790, a large Russian
army, under Suwarrow, laid siege to it, but were repulsed by tlie garrison
in eight successive assaults on the fortress. Tlie Turks shouted and jeered,
but Suwarrow determined to renew the attack. Among the eccentricities
of this famous general, was his habit of walking out alone in his camp long
before daybreak, and saluting the first sentinel on duty whom he met with
a loud crow like a cock ! On the night of tlie first of December, knowing
that the Turks were keeping a religious festival, Suwarrow issued the fol-
lowing laconic proclamation to his troops : " To-morrow morning I shall
rise at four o'clock, wash myself, say my prayers, give one loud crow, and
take Ismail r^ He kept his word: his troops rushed forward to the ninth
assault; and although the Turks manfully dofoiided the walls, the Russians
finally scaled them, carried the fortress by storm, and put most of the gar-
rison to tlie sword. The whole town was then given up to rapine and
pillage, and made a heap of ruins. From this wanton destruction it has
never fully recovered, but it is improving. Its present population is about
twenty-two thousand.

The maritime government of Kheiuson, or Chersox, lies between the
forty-sixth and forty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-ninth
and thirty-fourth degrees of east longitude ; and is bounded on the north
by the governments of Poltava and Kiev, on the northwest by Podolia, on
the west by Bessarabia, on the south by Taurida and the Black sea, and
on the cast by Ekatherinoslav. Its greatest length from east to west is
two hundred and forty miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south
about one hundred and sixty miles, containing an area of thirty-six thou-
sand square miles.

With the exception of that part of the government which borders on
Podolia, and consists of the last ramifications of the Carpathians, and a
tract of hilly land on the banks of the Dnieper, the whole surface is one
uninterrupted steppe, destitute of trees, but covered with long grass. .The
soil consists generally of a mixture of loam and sand, not unfavorable to
vegetation. The fertility increases inward from the sea, but ceases on
approaching the hills. There is some good ground on both sides of the
Boug, but between that river and the Dnieper, and along the shores of the

•■■■:r- 'i.Wff^.-

♦-.'fi-uM«jWfe;\;;»iit.-.

164

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUaSIA.

Black sea, a dry, barren sund prevails. In many parts the soil is strongly
impregnated with saltpetre. The chief rivers of the government are, the
Dnieper, which waters both its northern and its southern frontiers ; tlio
Dniester, which separates it from Bessarabia; and the Boug, which trav-
erses it a little to the west of its centre. It chief lakes arc the Boloin,
Jaiskoie, and Sasyk.

The cli' ate is diversified, and subject to great fluoiuations. In winter
the river."! aro frozen for a short tinio, and in sun mcr the lieat rises to about
ninety 'Jogro< 3 Falircnhcit. Even this heat is ."ten followed by cold niglits,
and by i een blasts from the north, which injure vegetation. Still both the
vine and the mulberry thrive. Among the hills of the north good timber
grows, and is extensively used l.y the navy of the Black sea.

Agriculture is in a defective state, but considerable attention is r~id to
gardening, and cherries, melons, and all kinds of vegetables, are plentifully
raised. Pasture being both good and extensive, the rearing of cattle may
be regarded as the staple employment. The easy communication by the
Black sea enables Kherson to canv on a good transit trade, particularly
by its port of Odessa; but its own exports arc only wool, tobacco, tallow,
butter, clieese, caviar, and cattle. Its principal towns are Kherson (the
capital) and Odessa.

The inhabitants are chiefly of Russian dc iccnt, including Cossacks, but
the number of Germans has been estimated at twenty-iive thousand ; and
there is a considerable mixture of other races, as Moldavians, Wallachians,
Tartars, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, <fec.

Kherson, tlie capital of this government, lies on the right bank of the
Dnieper, about fifteen miles above its estuary. It is a place of great ex-
tent, and -,.'• regulai'ly built ; but is in a very dilapidated state, ai'id has lost
almost all \^^ former importance in consequence of the rise of Odessa. It
is divided inio four parts — the citadel, the admiralty, the Greek, and the
military suburbs. In the first are the different government offices, and the
residences of the governor and other officials, the courts of justice, the
cathedral, the arsenal, and barracks. In the second are extensive docks,
building-yards, and storehouses, which have almost ceased to be used.
The Greek suburb is inhabited pilncipally by citizens, and contains three
churches (a Greek, a Roman catholic, and a Russian) and an extensive
market-place. The military suburb has only throe streets, one church, and
a number of mean housc^s, occupied chiefly by mechanics and sailorj. The
port, owing to neglect, has become difficult of access, and its trade, with
the exception of that in timber, which is still extensive, is chiefly transit
to Odessa. The chief public works are the establisnments for the washing
"nd cleaning of wool, one of which employs six hundred hand , The pop-
ulation is about thirty thousand.

Howard the philanthropist died of fever here, on the 20th of January,
1790. Over his grave, about three miles north of the town, is an obelisk,
erected by the emperor Alexander I.

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — KHERSON.

165

Kherson was founded in 1778, by Prince Potemkin, the powerful and
wealthy favorite of Catherine II. When that empress made her famous
tour to the Crimea in 1787, accompanied by Potemkin and an immense
suite, the prince, in order to excite still further her already-Inordinate am-
bition for conquest, caused a guide-post to be erected on the route, with
this significant inscription : " The road to Constantinople!''^ The hint w^aa
not lost : the very next year Catherine once more engaged in war with the
Turks, in which the Ottoman empire would have been uttcily subverted
but for a combination of the western powers. Prince Potemkin I'es buried
in the vault of the cathedral in Kherson. The emperor Paul ordered his
body to be taken up and deposited " in the first hole that could be found,"
but the command was in some way evaded.

Odessa, the j)rincipal mercantile city of southern Russia, is situated on
the northern shore of the Black sea, ninety nt'les we- -southwest of Kher-
son, and three hundred and
ninety uiiles north of Con-
stantinople, The growth of
this emporium has been quite
extraordinary — its founda-
tions having been laid, by
order of the empress Cathe-
rine 11., so late as 1702, af-
ter the peace of Jassy, with
the Turks. It was intended
to serve as an entrepot for
the ooinniorce of the Russian
dominions on the Black sea,
and has, in a great measure,
answered the intention of its
founders. It has been said,
indeed, that a better locality
might have been chosen ; and
in proof of this, it u stated
that there are no springs nor
fresh water within three miles of the town ; that the vicinity is comparar
lively barren and without wood ; and that, not being on or near the mouth
of any great navigable river, its cominunicatious with the interior are difiB-
cult and expensive. That these considerations have great weight is clear ;
but, on the other hand, the situation has the advantage of being central
and salubrious. The bay, or roadi^tead (the figures on which in the above
engraving give in fathoms the depth of the soundings) is generally open
and easy of access, is extensive, the water deep, and the anchorage good.
The port, which is artificial, being formed by two moles, is fitted to accom-
modate throe hundred ships, and has a lazaretto^ on the model of that of
Marseilles. The inconvenience arising from the want of water has been

I'uiiomhtmtt
X /tUtMiratlkf
3. Laii.tittto

Map of Odessa.

;^*'
',j^'

Vi^fi^.^.,

• ^"'**^*-"'^-'*«**'«***w^ ...,.,.».......

166

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

obviated by tlie cutting of a canal, by which it is conveyed to the town ;
and, on the whole, it may bo doubted whether any position could have
been chosen so well suited to serve as an entrepot. Latterly, the vicinity
has also been signally improved by the foruiafioii of ni.^Tiy gardens, and by
the planting oi extensive vineyards.

The town is well built of soft, calcareous stono ; but the houses being,
for tht; most part, detached from each otii-r, (iscro arc but few handsome
streets. But a more serioisu deAct is, tlia* th'? .•■! "c^t: arc <jui 'rally un-
paved ; and after rain tiio fjiound is so deep that, aotjrUinp Ui Mr. Eliott,
" it is not uncoiiimon for gentlemen to be oiiilged to leave their carriages
in quagmiros in tho middle f the slrceu, and to send oxen to drag them
out!" Some ycavs since, a caricature of the t^U-ects was puMi hod, which
represented a Frenchman, ju?t arri od fr nu Marscilioa, u.ckinj;, up to his
knees ia the mud, und exclaiming, '■'Jr me ftxe id!'" and under this was
written, " How lo establish one's ,'■ If at Odcsr^a!" I*, dry weather, owing
to <lie limestone clitl on which the city stai'd-?, il is excessively dusty. But
souiu uf the juiiicipal streets are now oitlior paved or macadamized, and in
ihij rcftjjefa the city has been materially ijnproved. Toward the sea the
city iti dei'i;U(lcd by some batteries, and on its eastern side is a citadel,
wliich couunands the town and port. The space comprising the city and
a small surrounding district, to which Ihc franchise of the port extends, is
bounded by a rampart.

Though it can not be called a manufaeturing town, Odessa has some fab-
rics of coarse woollen and silk goods ; and has extensive tallow-refineries,
breweries, distilleries, rope walks, «fcc. The trade includes, among other
articles, grain, linseed, wool, iron, hides, copper, wax, caviar, isinglass,
potash, furs, cordage, sailcloth, tar, beef, Ituttcr, and tallow. The last ia
the second great staple ; but the first, and that which has made the name
of Odessa familiar throughout the commercial world, is grain, the larger
part of which is shipped to Great Britain.

The granaries in Odessa are worthy of notice ; they are remarkably well
built with the stone found here. That of Sabanski/, now occupied as a
schoolhouse, situated on the ravine to called, is of immense extent, and
has an imposing appearance from the streets looking toward the Lazaretto.
The public slaughtering-houses are also on a large scale : many thousands
of cattle are there annually boiled down for their tallow ; it is a singular
but not a very agreeable spectacle.

Favored as Odessa is by its position on the sea, " it is surrounded on the
land side," says Murray, " by a dreary steppe of so intractable a soil, that
trees and shrubs, with the exception of the acacia, rarely attain any size,
and in many places will not even live. The narrow strip along the sea-
shore above mentioned is the only oasis of vegetation in the neighborhood
of the city. Artesian borings have been made in the town to a depth of
six hundred feet, for water, but hitherto without success. Fuel is likewise
very dear."

80UTHEBN BU8SIA — KHERSON.

167

.i^K-

1 !'^

View or thc Citt and liAnooB or OoKSSiL

Odessa enjoys an etahlissement des Bains, situated at thc foot of the
Boulevard, wliich is much frequented during thc summer months, espe-
cially by Poles, who come here to sell their grain, and disburse their money
in pianofortes, English agricultural imi)lemcnts, &c. German mineral
waters arc sold at an establishment in the town garden. Another institu-
tion worthy of mention is thc Richelieu lyccum, a commercial college, in
which the sciences and ancient and modern languages are taught by pro-
fessors, chiedy German. There is, perhaps, no town in the world in which
80 many diiVercnt tongues may be heard as in the streets and cofl'eehouses
of Odessa, thc motley population consisting of Russians, Tartars, Greeks,
Jews, Poles, Italians, Germans, French, <fec. At thc Parlatoire of the
Quarantine they may be heard in perfection. This is the place where the
captains of vessels and the brokers and merchants of the town meet to
settle their business ; and here in little cells, but separated from one an-
other by a wire grating, so that no contact can take place, parties can
discuss their aflfairs without being overheard. There is a botanical garden
near Odessa, but the difficulties of soil, drought, and frost, arc highly in-
jurious to the growth of plants.

The Greek and other bazars merit mention. There is no regular mar-
ket-i)lace ( Go5/mot dvor), as in other cities, but the Privosdni bazar is an
excellent spot for observing local and national peculiarities, especially of
the Moldavians, Jews, and gipsies. The latter are, for the most part,
smiths ; they live in tents, eat hedgehogs, and hociiss as in other countries.
The women braid their hair into twenty tails, like the Tartars, smoke all
day long, and, notwithstanding their wild and savage appearance, are not
destitute of beauty ; they have fine black eyes and well proportioned figures.

168

ILLUSTKATEO DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

There arc, in the iioighboihood of Odessa, as previously remarked, largo
vineyards. In that of Count Woronzoflf arc from sixty to eighty thousand
vines; the wine made from these grapes, however, ia not so good as that
of the Crimea. Vast numbers of melons are also raised in the gardens in
the environs of the city ; some of tliem are of the most delicious flavor, and
so clicap that half the population live upon them and black bread during
the summer : tlie universal favorite is tlie watermelon, which, if placed in
ice for a short time before diinier, is in this season a most grateful fruit.
The stone-fruit is very poor.

Admiral Ribas was the first person who made any improvements in
Odessa, but he was thwarted in his plans. In the year 1803, his measures
were renewed ; the population, however, as in all commercial towns of sud-
den growth, was not formed of the best materials, being composed mainly
of adventurers from all parts of the Levant, runaway serfs, and other
itinerant persons.

When the emperor Paul ascended the throne, in 179G, ho gave the town
considerable juuvilcges ; but its prosperity i& chiefly owing to tlio duke do
Richelieu, a French immigrant, wlio was subsequently appointed governor,
and wlio, by his Judicious administration, brought the commerce of the
town into a very Hourisliing state. The principal streets were laid out by
him, and his amiable and charitable disposition was such, that his departure
was sincerely regretted by all classes. With every opportunity of enrich-
ing himself, he is said to have left Odessa with a small portmanteau con-
taining liis uiiiform and two shirts, the greater part of his income liaving
been disbursed in relieving the distresses of a portion of tlie population,
who were always arriving in the greatest state of destitution.

By an imjierial ukase, in 1817, Odessa was declared a free port for a
period of thirty years. In 1822, however, a rumor having spread that the
freedom was about to be abolislied, the foreign merchants wero on tho point
of quitting tlie town, wlien the order was res> tuded, and Count Langeron,
the governor, wlio had advocated this measure, dismissed. Tlie port has
remained free up to the time of and since tho late war, and, through tho
exertions of Count Woronzoflf, has become tho most flouiishing one in tho
Black sea. His house, a princely mansion, is on the cliff at the end of the
Boulevard, and, when resident here, ho is particularly attentive to foreign-
ers passing through.

The exchange is situated at the other extremity of the Boulevard ; the
interior is handsome : balls aro held in the principal room during tho win-
ter season, and are very numerously attended. The theatre is in tho large
square, near the Hotel de Richelieu. Italian operas and French plays are
performed here throughout tho year. There is likewise a Russian theatre,
for the accommodation of the Slavonic inhabitants.

The principal promenade is on the Boulevard, which on Saturday even-
ings is, by a sort of comir.c\ consent, left to the Jews, who reside here in
great numbers. There is in the centre of this walk a bronzo statue of tho

SOUTHERN UU8SIA — KIIERSO^f.

171

dukt: do Ilicliolleii ; ho is looking toward the soa, and facing a monster
Htaii'fuao, which has been built on arches, and remhos IVom the Boulevard
to tliu shore: this has cost an cnorMious sum of money, and ils strength as
well as use is so [jroblematical, that an Odessa wag observed that Kichclieu
" would, in all probability, bo the first person to descend it !"

Tiie museum and library are in the same house with the bureau of the
military governor, ■<ituated opposite the IIulvl de Pelersbour^, and in the
very centre of the Boulevard. The library is small, but well chosen ; tho
museum contains many objects of antiipiity from the site of ancient Greek
colonies in this part of tlu; world, particidarly from those of 01bia,Cherso-
nesiis, Kerteh, Sisi)polis, A'c. Some of the vases and medals are worthy
of obseivation, and a gold one of the ti)ne of Alexander the Great is in
reniiirkable preservation. And last, though not least in interest, is a jap-
anned Hat (• mdlestiek, once the property of the philanthropic Howard: it
is preserved with great care. The sight of this relic will call up a host of
feelings connected with the remembrance of his fate, and emotions of ad-
miration and respect for his unwearied exertions in the cause of humanity.
Howard's last words to his friend Priestman are characteristic : " Let no
moiniment or monumental inscription whatsoever mark tho spot where I
am buried ; lay nie quietly in the earth, place a sun-dial over my grave,
and let me be forgotten." A plain brick obelisk, before alluded to, erected
by the emperor Alexander, marks tho spot where the dust of the philan
thropist repo.ses ; but, beyond this, his dying wish has been regarded, sav
ing, of course, its concluding clause : he will not soon bo forgotten.

The prosperity of Odessa sustained a severe check in the recent wai
during wiiich its trade was cut ofl"; and it was bombarded by tho Anglo-
French licet, under Admiral Dundas, who destroyed a great part of tho
fortilications, and sunk many Russian ships-of-war in the harbor. Tho
population is probably about sevonty-fivo thousand.

The town of Nikolaiev is situated at tho confluence of tho Ingul and
Boug, thirty-six miles northwest of Kherson. It is fortified, encloses a
large space, and is remarkably well built, with wide streets and a well-
planted boulevard. Tho honses are generally whitewashed or yellow-
washed, which gives them a vew nheerful aspect, and they are surrounded
by large gardens. It has '» cotlndral, richly decorated internally ; town-
house, with two fine colonu. ic.~; ; and tho admiralty, a very complete estab-
lishment, in the form of a square ; extensive dockyards, provided with m»
chinery, which is almost all British ; and a harbor with deep water. In
tho yards of this town, vessels of tho largest size are built, and there is an
excellent hydrographical school, in which naval cadets are trained. The
barracks for tho seamen are extensive, and there is an observatory in tho
vicinity of tho town, tho view from which is very fine. Tho governor'a
house was built by Prince Potemkin.

Nikolaiev was founded in 1791, and niado tho seat of an admiralty, and
the principal station of the Russian navy iu the Black soa. The progress

172

IMAISTIUTED nhXrmi'TION Ol' •» '«aiA.

it mmlo iit first was very rapid ; Itut it soon broamo stntioimrv, iimi, Imt
for tlu> sii|ijiort which it rt'tu-ivcs IVoiii tlio jiovcninit'iit, would soon di'diiio.
Tho chief iiuisrs of this arc, tlio noijrldiorliood of IvhtMson, tlio foiiiiidiil»l(5
C()iii|»c'litio!i of ()(U'ssa, tlio want of good water, and scarcity of fiiei. Tiie
])0{adation is altout tliirty thonsand.

Tho frovcrnnuMit of Talkika is situated Itetwocn tlic forty-fourth and
forty-oijihlh ilejiroo8 of norljj hititndo. and the tliirty-socoiid and tliirty-
Povenlh decrees of cast lonjritu'ie. It consists partly of the Crimea, or
Criin Tartary,as it is souu'tiuies railed, and partly of a tract on the nionnt-
uins lyinji: between liic Drucpcr, the Hlack sea. the so.-k of Azov, and tho
government of Kkathcrino-hiv. Its area (ineludinj^ tho Crimea) is aliout
tliirty thonsand Sijuaro miles. *

The nniiniand part of the povcrnment, which, though the least interest-
ing, is the most extensive;, cinisists almost entirely of vast, and in numy
parts sterile plains, denominated tiie Stf ppc of the Nofi^nis,l'\om the Tartar
tribes, by whicli it is jirincipally occupied. "These," says Or. Clarke,
•' are a ycry diflerent people from the Tartars of the ('rimea ; they are dis-
tinguished i>y a more diminutive form, and by the dark, copper color of
their complexions, which is sometimes almost black. They boar a rennirk-
ablc resemblance to the Laplantlers, although their dress and nninner havo
a more savajre character." About twenty thousand (Jermans are colonized
to tho eastward of tho river Molotchna.

The peninsula of tin; CiiiMKA is one of the most interesting portions of
the Russian empire ; and a sketch of it, ade(piato to its importance, could
not be given here, without extending the chapter to too great a length.
A description of it is therefore reserved for another chapter.

The government of Ekatherinoslav, or Iekatkrinoslav, as its name is
Bomctimos spelled, is situated between the forty-seventh and fiftieth degrees
of north latitude, and the thirty-third and fortieth degrees of east longi-
tude. It is bounded on the north by the governments of Poltava, Kharkov,
and Voronej ; on the east by the Don Cossacks ; on tho south by Taurida ;
and on the west by Kherson, with a separate portion in Don Cossacks, at
the month of the Don. Its territory comprises an area of about thirty-fivo
thousand square nules.

The government is divided into two sections by the Dnieper, which in-
tersects it in a semicircular course, from north to south, about three fourths
lying east and one fourth west of that river. Tho eastern portion belongs
to the steppe country of southern Russia, being flat, monotonous, without
trees, often without water, and with a loan, saliferous soil. Tho western
portion is more imdulating, and more fruitful. The Donetz forms a part
of the northoaste boundary, and there are sundry smaller streams, chiefly
affluents of 'lie Dnieper, and lakes and morasses arc numerous.

The minerals arc granite, lime, chalk, salt, and garnets. Tho climate

80UTIIKRN RU'SIA — EKATHEIIINOSLAV — DON COSSACKS.

173

Ifl mo(l(?nito ami hoaltliy: tlio winter is Hlutrt, mul tlin rivciH nrc not very
(Irinly iVozi-n ; the Ninnnior h very warm, and often witliont rain. Wheat,
spirit, luiiley, and oat^, are raii^ed in quantity Mullii'ient lor loeal eo!iMnin|>-
tion ; and hemp, llax, poppies, peas, vep>lal»le.><, and IVnitM, are also culti-
vated, (iiapts and muliiiTricH IVefpiently suller from IVo.st ; l>iit nielona,
cherries, A-c, suecei'd well. IJut the ehief wealth of the j?overnm«'nt eon-
sists in its innnmtMalde herils of horseti, oxen, sheep (nuiny of them mori-
nus), goats, and .^twinc. ISees yield a lar;;«> return ; and the silk-cnltnro is
earried <»u Ity the (! reeks at Marioupol, and the Armenians at Nakiehcvan.

In tli(^ steppes, wolves, foxes, hares, wild-eats, bustards, pelieans, pnr-
trid);es, quails, diieks, snipes, tte., are found ; and in the rivers lislj are very
plentiful. Wood is wlndly wanting- in the cast, and quite insuflieient in
quantity in the west ; fuel (Consequently is scarce, and the poorer elassea
are fain to luirn dunjr, litter, and heather. The houses are of clay, thatched
with rushes.

Of manufaeturin^r industry there is little; .still some cloth, leather, can-
dles, and Ijeer, are niatle, and tiilluw-snieltinjj; carried on ; and there aro
over two hundred distilleries. The exports are ehielly fish, tallow, and
other animal substances. The population consists principally of Kussiana
and Cossacks ; hut there are several other races, anions whom may bo
mentioned ten thousand (Jerman colonists. Education is in a very low
condition. The government is divid»!d into seven districts.

Ekathcrinoslav, the capital of this government, is located on the right
bank of the Dnieper, two hundreil and fifty miles northeast ol' Odessa.
The streets are long, broad, badly filled up with housei?, and very dirty.
It is the seat of an archlushop, whose Jurisdiction extends over the neigh-
boring governments of Taurida and Kherson ; and has three churches, a
theological seminary, a gymnasium, ten public schools, government-onices,
law-courts, barracks, several bazars, a public park, and botanic garden.
In the vicinity is a large palace, in a ruinous condition, with extensive
pleasure-grounds attached ; once the residence of Prince I'oteinkin, who
liere entertained Catherine Jl. in 1784, at which date the city was founded,
the empress laying the first stone, in presence of the emperor Joseph II.
of Austria. It has some cloth-mannfactures, and an important annual
wool-fair. In its district arc one Roman catholic and sixteen Memnonito
colonies: the latter came, in the end of the last century, from the vicinity
of Dantzic and Elbing, in Prussia. Its population is about twelve thou,
sand. Among the other important towns may be mentioned Paulograd and
Novomoskovsk.

lil

The government of the Don Co.ssacks lies between the forty-seventh and
fifty-second degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-seventh and forty-fifth
degrees of cast longitude. It is bounded north l)y the governments of Sar-
atov and Voroncj, west by Voroncj and Ekathcrinoslav, south by the sea
of Azov and the Caucasus, and east by Saratov and Astrakhan. Its greatest

174

ILLUSTRATED DESCUIPTION OP RUSSIA.

length from north to south is three hundred and thirty miles, its breadth
from east to west varying from one hundred and thirty to two hundred and
seventy-five miles. It comprises an area of about fifty-three thousand
square miles.

This government consists, for the most part, of one of those extensive
flats called steppes; but there is seme hilly land, particularly toward the
north, which may be regarded as forming one of the last ramifications of
the Caucasian chain. The soil is in general so very sandy as to be scarcely
St for cultivation. Toward the, north there is some tolerably arable land,
and along the banks of the rivers even a rich alluvium is foii"'l ; but tho
soutli, where not absolutely waste, affords, at the best, an inferior pasture.
The whole surface belongs (o the basin of the Don, which forms a kind of
semicircle around its centre, and, toward the eastern part of the govern-
ment, approaches the Volga so near as to be, at one point, not more than
forty miles distant from it.*

The Don, besides watering the province centrally, receives several im-
portant tributaries within it, and, after the confluence of the Manytch, haa
a breadth of about one thousand yards. The climate is, on tlie whole,
mild and agreeable ; but in winter both intense cold and violent storms
occasionally prevail.

The chief employment of the inhabitants is the rearing of cattle ; but,
where the soil is suitable, all the ordinary cereals and legumes are culti-
vated, and yield good crops. Hemp and flax arc also grown, and good
wine is produced — part of it scarcely inferior to the light French wines,
and part resembling IJurguiuly. From several lakes in the south large
quantities of salt arc ol)tained. Fish, including sturgeon, salmon, and
carp, abound, and form a princij>al article of food. The caviar of this
government is in great request, and forms a considerable export.

The people from whom this government derives its name are not confined
to it, but form the principal part of the poi)ulation of several extensive dis-
tricts in Russia, wlicre, according to the localities which they occupy, they
receive different designations, and arc called Don Cossacks, Cossacks of
the Black sea, Konban, Volga, Ural, Siberian Cossacks, &c.

Tiie origin of the Cossacks is involved in considerable obscurity. Their
very name has been the subject of keen dispute, but the prevailing belief
now is that it is of Tartar derivation. In general, it may designate any
light-armed trooper; but it is often used in a mere vituperative sense, and
applied to any member of a vagrant horde which roams or makes incursions
into a district, and lives on the plunder of its inhabitants.

Though the Cossacks possess several characteristics by which they are
easily distinguished, they do not appear to have sprung from one original
stock. There is evidently a mixture of blood among them. They bear a

• See notico of nttcmpfs to unite these rivers by means of a canal between two of their tribnia-
riei, on pnge 29 ; aUo remiirks of Oliphant on the pmcticabilily nnd advantage! of directly uniting
the main trunks of the rivets at this point, on page 33 : marginal notet.

i .

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — DON COSSACKS.

175

close resemblance to tlie Russians, but are of a more slender makn, and
have features which are decidedly more handsome and expressive. They
have a qi.ick, keen eye, and an ear which is ever on the alert; and are
active, spirited, and br.ave. Their intellect is good, and they often exhibit
a remarkaWc dc^voc of acuteness. Educavion, accordingly, has mode some
progress among them ; and their old capital, Tcherkask (or Staro-Tcher-
kask), contiiins a gymnasium, in which the proficiency of tlie Cossack
pupils would not suflcr by comparison with that of any other town of the
Russian empire. Their language is a mixture of Russian, Polish, and
Turkish ; tiieir religion that of the Greek church, to which they are very
strongly attached, and the superstitious practices of which they are par-
ticularly careful in observing. In many of their domestic habits they con-
trast favorably witli the Russians. They arc much more cleanly, and pay
a greater regard to personal appearance. Like them, tliey often drink to
excess, but seem more alive to the degradation wluch results from it; and,
accordingly, when they do indulge in bacchanalian orgies, have generally
the sense to keep them private.

" Don Cossacks," remarks Oliphant, " are the most compound beings in
the universe. According to Clarke, they are a mixture of Circassians, Malo-
Russians, Russians, Tartars, Poles, (treoks, Turks, Calmucks, and Arme-
nians I Others contend tliat they are almost of a purely Slavonic origin ;
and this seems to me tlie jjrubable conjecture, as I could trace nothing
whatever in tlieir physiognomy to warrant the supposition of a Mongolian
descent. They are, moreover, bigoted adlicrents of the Gre«k churcli, and
have been Christians from the date of tlie first records we have of their
existence. lUit if ethnologists have l)oen at variance in accounting for
their origin, etymologists have been no less at a loss in deciding on tho
derivation of their name, and have ended by leaving it an open question
whether Cossacks are so called from the rescm))lancc of tliat word to those
in other languages, which signify, respectively, ' an armed man,' ' a sabre,'
' a rover,' ' a goat,' ' a promontory,' ' a coat,' ' a cassock,' and a district in
Circassia."

The nuxrtial tendencies of the Cossacks are very decided, and have from
time immemorial formed their distinguishing feature. Tiie whole structure
of society among them is military. Originally, their government formed a
kind of democracy, at the head of whieli was a chief, or hctmun, of their
own choice ; while, under him, was a long series of officers, with jurisdic-
tions of greater or less extent, partly civil and partly military — all so
arranged as to be able, on any emergency, to furnish the largest military
array on the shortest notice. The democratical part of the constitution
has gradually disappeared under Russian domination. The title of chief
helmdn is now vested in the heir-apparent to the imperial throne, and all
the subordinate hetmans and other officers are appointed by the crown.
Care, however, has been taken not to interfere with any arrangements
which fostered the military spirit of tho Cossacks ; and hence all the 8ul>

t;l

Itk!

'iu

^at%-.A^^^j:iaa&.,: n

'.««*«».. ...^,,

176

ILLUSTIIATED DESCRIPftON OF RUSSIA.

tjnuiam. sc.

Cossacks or thi Don.

divisions cf tho popalai'.oii into polks and minor sections, with military
hcadc, end cf the vilJa<^es into stanitza, still remain.

Tiu'ciij.'-liout the ciapiro, wherever particular alacrity, vigilance, and ra-
pidity of movcwnont, arc required, the qualities hy which the Cos^saclc is
dislinpiiijiliod mail; him out lor enij)loyment. His proper sphere, undoubt-
edly, is r,o act as a " light-armed trooper," and to be, as tlie celebrated
Suwcrrow emphatically expressed it, " the eyo" of the army, protecting
its rear in retreat, or pushing forw?.rd in advance, and making it almost
impo^cibie ihv a flying enemy to escape. How admirably the Cossacks aro
adapted to these purposes, was made known to all Europe during the dis-
astrous retreat of the French from Moscow.

The Russian government, however, has found other fields for the exer-
tions of these fierce warriors. When a frontier is to bo guarded, the quali-
ties required very much resemble those wliich make the Cossack so valuable
to an army in the field ; and, accordingly, colonies of Cossacks have been
planted on all the borders cf southern Russia, along the Kouban and the
Terek, and form a most cflective barrier against sudden incursions by half-
civilizx'd tribes.

In the Caucasus, however, the Russians have met with a foe of a difler-
ent stamp ; and, instead of having merely to ref)el sudden incursions, are
obliged to fight for every iiich of ground on wliich they plant their feet.
In this way tliey have been conntraincd to fix ujHti a series of strong posi-
tions, on wliich tliey have constructed a kind of forts, called krepos,'s. The
nature of these, the sudden attacks to which they aro exposed, and the
mode of giving the alarm, so as to call in the aid of ncigliboring posts, are

SOUTHERN RUaSiA — DON' COSSACKS.

177

Krkpost, or Cossack Tust, on thr Cibca^sian Fbontier.

Well cxliiltited in llic accompanying irrapliic and very faitlifnl illuptration.
In tliis service, Cossacks ohiclly arc employed ; and, tliouj.'!! tliat r'^iinrk-
al)le quickness of ear, by which they can catch the slightest Honnf\><, at
almost incredible distances, may fit tiiem \v<'ll for it, it certainly must be
a service alto<rether uncongenial to tlieir nature and habits. The Cossack
is almost constantly on liorseback, and is in hi •■ clement when scouring the
open fields. Hero he i'' cooped up within a narrow space, and dare not
venture a hundred yard- 'cyond it, without exposing himself to the deadly
aim of a Circassian. So monotonous is this mode of life — so dift'erent
from tliat which he had botni accustomed to lead — that the Cossack ofto.i
abandons himself to despair, and disaj)points the Circassian, by becoming
his own murderer.

Novo Tcherkask, or Nnn Cherkask, the capital of the country of the
Don Cossacks, is situated "orty miles ii( rthcast of Azov, on an eminence,
on iho riglit bank of the Aksai. It was founded by the hetmau, Platoff, in
1800, (he inundations to which Tcherkask, the former capital, wa.s exposed,
having rendered it necessary to remove the seat of govcrfiment to a more
elevated position. "In I is anxiety to avoid tlu; floods of tlie Don," says
Oliphaiit, " the hetninn hus fallen iuio the opposite extreme, and })erched
the new capital on a most unfavoraole site. Eight iriiles distant from the
river, it is unable to benefit by the increasing traffic which passes along ita
stream, and the approaches are steep and inacccasililc in almost every
direction. The only advantage which is afforded l;y its lofiy situation is
an extensive view to the southward, and in clear weather the snow/ peaks

i 1 1 ■

I' .
;1J

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

of tlio Caucasus are said to be distinctly visible. The population amounts
to about ten thousand. The streets arc broad, but the houses mean ; and
it is remarkable that the practice of raising them, as it were, upon stilts,
like cornstalks in a farmer's '/i^if^'-arJ,' which was no doubt necessary in
the old inundated town, has been continued by the working-classes in the
new : altogether it is a stra<rgling, ill-laid-out place, in no degree calcu-
lated to realize the expectation raised by its approach through an ostenta-
tious archway." Among the public buildings and institutions are the
cathedral, a large hospital, an arsenal, and a gynina.«ium, where the Latin,
French, and German langtuigcs, with history, geography, mathematics, «fec.,
are taught.

Tcherkask, the former capital of this government, is situated on the
right bank of the Don, on an island formed by that river, the Aksai, and
one of its branches, called the Va^ilievka. It is thirty-seven miles east-
northeast of Azov, and eleven south of Novo Tclierkask. The streets are
narrow and crooked ; and the houses, Avhich arc of wood, arc for the most
part built on piles, and raised five or six feet above the ground, on accoiuit
of the inundations above referred to, to which the town is subject, from the
beginning of April till the end of June. It has several pultlic buildings,
some of them constructed of wood, including seven churches, an academy,
several schools, a prison, and a town-hall. It is the scat of a considerable
commerce ; and fishing is carried on to some extent.

The foundation of this town is attributed to a colony of Greeks. Under
the Ru>sians it became the chief place of the Don Cossackts, and such it
continued till the seat of government was removed to Novo Tclierkask.
Its population is about fifteen thousand.

'J'a^anrog is a fortified seaport town situated on the north shore of the
northeast ungh; of the sea of Azov, denominated the gulf of the Don, about
ten miles from the mouth of that river. The foundations of Taganrog
were laid by Peter th« Great, in I^>98; but it afterward fell into the pos-
jjcssion of the Turks ; and it was n</t till the reign of Catherine II. that it
bc^-ame of any <M>i)siderable importaw;*.'. It has ten churches, of which
three arc built of stone ; a gynHiasi^Hi, a poor's hospital, ^^c. It was in-
tended l>y its illustrious founder to r<'|^uce Azov, the ancient emporium of
the Don, the poi't <jf whicii had hcc/f'm «M but in.Jicccssil)le ; and its whole
c<^nsequonce is d«M'i-\<;<! from this circuint»l»r>ce,or fiom its being the cntre-
j>6< of the commerce of the vast . luntries **»vers(M!l by that great river.
Tli« exports consist princij/ally of i^'aiin, j/artictilariy wheat ; iron and hard-
ware from Toula; with ';or<skigo. Ufxjn an4 -"MciiAh, copp*')ir, tallow, wool,
Icatlicr. furf, wax, ashes, <;aviar, isinglass, £t^;. The impo-rt* consist prin-
cipally of wine, oil, fruit, dry sait^ries, *v/*U>« and wooiUtn g'yids, spices,
dye-stufl's, tol>a/;<jo, sugnr, cotfee, <fec. tSy far tlic kr^ni^t portion of the
trade was forflaerly carried on with Con#tftfitinople, Hmyma,, and other
Turkish ports ; and there is an extensive coasting-trade with Odessa and
oti>er Russian porta.

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — DON COSSACKS.

179

Seeing that Taganrog was built to obviate the difficulties that had to bo
encountered by vessels entering the Don, through the shallowness of the
Wf-ier, it might have been supposed that care would be taken to piacc it in
a position in which it should 1)C, in as far as possible, free from this defect.
This important consideration scorns, however, to have been in a gicat meas-
ure overlooked. The gulf of the Don is seldom navigable by vessels draw-
ing more than from eight lo nine feet of water ; and even these can not
approacli witliiu loss than about seven hundred yards of the town. They
arc principally loaded by carts, drawn each by a single horse, the expenses
being very considerable.

To obviate these inconveniences, it has been proposed to make Kertsch,
on the western coast of the strait of Enikaleh, a depot for the produce of
the sea of Azo. A new port Avas also established a few years since at
(rheisk, on the eastern coast of the sea ; but its bay is rapidly filling up.

Taganrog has a j)opulation of about twenty-two tln»iisand. A steamer
leaves twice a mouth for Odessa, performing the voyage in ten days ! A
glance at the map will show that in any other country the passage would
not occupy three. Oliphant remarks that, " Notwithstanding the present
increasing trade and population of Taganrog, I do not think that its pros-
perity is at all of a permanent character. Tlie harbor is one of the most
inconvenient in Europe, and has by degrees become so shallow, that ships
are obliged to anchor at a distance of twelve or fifteen miles from the shore.
There seems no doubt that it is rapidly lilling up. So recently as the year
]7iK5, Professor Pallas records tlie launch of a large frigate upon waters
that lijiliters can now with difficulty navigate ! As if nature were not doing
enough to ruin Taganrog as a port, almost every ship that arrives contrib-
utes something to the same end. The Russian government has strictly
prohibited the throwing overboard of l)allast, with which the majority of
tno vessels that annually visit it are laden ; and tiic customhouse officials
are enjoined to ste that this order is complied Avith, by measuring the
draught of water of every ship at Kertsch, and comparing it with that
which she requires upon her arrival at Taganrog. Of course, by this reg-
ulation, government has only supplied a nev/ source of prol'it to the customs'
officers, without in the least attaining the object desired. A bribe at
Kertsch, in jiroportion to the amount of ballast to be discharged, has the
instantaneous effect of lightening the ship ; so that after she has thrown
overboard a cargo of stones at the entrance of the Taganrog harbor, her
draught is fout'd to correspond, with singsilar exactness, to the measure-
ment taken at Kertsch ; and thus th"^ expense, which would havo been
incurred by landing the ballast, is reduced to the more moderate sum lo
which the bribe may have amounted. The consequence of this system is,
that the destruction of the harbor will proceed in exact proportion to the
increase of the trade and mercantile importance of the town, until it be-
comes so eminently prosperous, that no ship will be able to approach ii
at ail!"

■■*«*»*f»f«Mfc'o^*^^

'^■^■"-■^■■■f^j^tofili'^

». faJiJt "to lirwfUJC i:

180

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Jforoovcr, the new port of Berdianski threatens to prove a most for-
midable rival, as it affords facilities for discharging and loading cargo un-
equalled by any other harbor in the sea of Azov. It is situated at the
mouth of the Berda, and ships of considerable tonnage can lie close in-
shore. Marionpol, too, is a large Greek colony, and, though not pos-
sessing any great advantage as a jiort, it contains an indefatigalde popula-
tion. Indeed, to the mercantile skill and enterprise of the Orecks is to be
attributed that increasing importance which the grain-trade of the southern
provinces of Russia has recently assumed.

The onii)eror Alexander, Avhoso reign will always form a memorable and
brilliant era in the history of Russia, expired at Taganrog on the 19th of
November, 182'),

Azov is a fortified town, situated on an eminence on the left bank of one
of the arms of the Don, near the noniwastern extremity of the sea of Azov.
This town Avas founded at a very early period, by Carian colonists engaged '
in the trade of the Euxine ; and was called by them Tannis, from the river
(Don, then Tanais), of which it was the pen. In the niiddle ages it was
called Tana. It came into the possession of the Venetians after the taking
of Constantinople by the Latins, ii))d was held by them till 1410, Mhen it
was sacked, and its Christian inhabitants jmt to the sword, by tlie Tartars.
The latter gave it the name of Azov, which it still retains. Formerly it
had an extensive trade, being the emj)orium of all the vast countries trav-
ersed by the Don. But owing to the gradual accumulation of sand in that
channel of the river on which it is built, and the consequent difficulty of
reaching it by any ])ut the smallest class of vessels, its trade has been
entirely transferred to Taganrog ; its fortifications have also fallen into
decay; and it now consists only of a cluster of miserable cabins, inhabited
by abou*; twelve hundrod individuals. This town, with the intervening
district, .'a under the neighboring government of Ekatherinoslav.

COMACK OlRI. or TCHUXAtK.

jj i4

80UTHEUN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

181

CHAPTER VII.

THE CRIMEA.

THE peninsula of the Crimea (the Chersonesus Taurica of the ancients)
lies betwoeii the fuity-fourth and forty-sixth degrees of north latitude,
and the thirty-second and thirty-seventh degrees of east longitude. It
is united on the north to tlie niaiidand by tlie isthnius of Perekop, five
miles in width, and lias on its cast the Sirache, or Putrid sea, the sea of
Azov, and the straits of Enikaleh, by whicli it is separated from the isle of
Taman, being everywhere else surrounded by llie Black sea. It is esti-
mated to contain about fifteen thousand S(|uare miles.

Tlie Crimea is divided into two distinct parts, one lying north and the
other south of the river Salghir, which Jlows from, west to east, and is the
only stream of any importance in the peninsula. The former consists
almost entirely of vast plains, or sleppcs, destitute of treei?, but covered
with lu.\uriant pasture, except where they are iiitcvs[)crsed with heaths,
salt-lakes, and marshes. The climate of this region is far from good —
being cold and damp in winter, and oppressively hot and very unhealthy
in summer, particularly along the Putrid sea.

The aspect and climate of the other, or southern portion of the penin-
sula, are entirely ditTerent. It presents a succession of lofty mountains,
pictiuesijue raviue^ and the most beautiful slopes and valleys. The mount-
ains, formed of strata of calcareous rocks, stretch along the southern coast
from Cafl'a, on the east, to Haladava on the west. The Tchadyadap^, or
Trent mountain, the highc.-t in the chain, rises to the height of more than
five thousand feet above the levi'l of the sea, and several of the other sum-
mits attain to a considerable elevation. Tlic climate of the valleys, and
of the slopes between the mountains and the sea, is said to be the most
delicious that can bo imagined ; and, besides the comnuui products, such
as grain, flax, hemp, and tobacco, vines, olives, fig-trees, mull)erry-tree!j,
pomegranates, oranges, &c., flourish in the greatest profusion.

Professor Pallas, Dr. Clarke, and others, have given the most glowing
descriptions of this interesting region. According to Clarke, "■ If there
exist a terrestrial paradise, it is to be found in the district intervening
between Kutchukoy and Sudak, on tlie southern coast of the Crimea. Pro-
tected by encircling alps from every cold and bligliting wind, and only open
to those breezes which arc wafted from the south, the inhabitants enjoy

:;!/!

■.m

; i ■ %

■■■■mWBM -...i^,,

■»«ll»<,i»k,.fcta»U,

■■-«-*«|«i,,

182

ILLUSTRATED DESCnilTION OP RUSSIA.

every advantage of climate and of situation. Continual streams of crystal
water pour down from tlie mountains upon tlicir gardens, whtMc every spe-
cies of fruit known in the rest of Europe, and many tliat are not, attain
the highest perfection. Neither unwholesome exhalations, nor chilling
winds, nor venomous insects, nor poisonous rej)tile8, nor hostile nciglibors,
infest their blessed territory. Tiie life of its inhabitants resembles that of
the golden age. Tlie soil, like a hot-bed, ra])idly jjuts forth such variety
of spontaneous produce, that labor becomes merely an amusing exercise.
Peace and plenty crown their board ; while the re])oso they so much ad-
mire is only interru])tcd by harmless thunder reverberating on rocks above
them, or by the murmur of the waves on the l>each below."

But if tliis description be as faithful as it is eloquent, it will not certainly
apply to any otiier portion of the Crimea, not even to the famous valley of
Haider. At certain seinions of the year tlie fniest parts of the peninsula
are infested with swarus of locusts, which freipiently commit the most
dreadful devastation, nothing escaj)ing them, from the leaves of the forest
to the herbs of the pliiin. Tarantulas, ceutij)edes, scorpions, and other
venomous insects, are also met with in most ])arts ; and even to the south
of the mountains the air in autunni is not everywhere salubrious, and ma-
lignant fevers are not uncou>.nion.

Owing to the thinness of the population, and their want of industry, the
Crimea, which in antiquity was the granary of Athens, and whose natural
fertility is 'nowise diminislied, does not produce a tenth part of what it
might do. The steppe or northern portion is, in general, more suitable for
grazing than for tillage, and is depastured by immense numbers of sheep,
horses, and i)lack cattle. Some of the rich Nogai Tartars are said to havo
oa many as fifty thousand sheep, and one thousand horses ; and tlio jmorer
classes have one hundred of the former and ten of the latter ! Thousands
of cattle often belong to a single individual: camels also are abundant.
The breed of horses is improved by crossing with Arabian stock. Tho
sheep are mostly of the large-taiU-d spoeios peculiar to the Kirghiz Tartars.
The buflulo is domesticated, and yields a rich milk ; ahd the culture of bees
is a good deal attended to. Tliough tliey liave renounced tlicir migratory
habits, the Tartars, who constitute the bulk of the pojiulation, have little
liking to, or skill in, husl>andry. PLxelusive of milk and other animal food,
they sul)sist chiefly on millet; producing, however, in some years, as much
as one million of ))ushels of wheat for exportation. The mountainous, or
southern portion of the peninsula, furnishes large quantities of indifferent
wine, with flax, iruits, timber, honey and wax, Ac. ; but tho cultivation of
grain is so little attended to, that, even in the best years, its inhabitants
have to import a large proport' m of their supjtlies.

The most important and valuable product of the Crimea is the salt do-
rived from the salt-lakes in the vicinity of Porekop, Caffa, Koslow, and
Kertsch. It is monopolized liy the government, and yields a considerable
revenue. The quantity exported from the lakes near Kertsch amounts to

BOUTIIERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

from tliirty to thirty-fivo thousand pounds a year : the lakes of Pcrokop are
even more productive. At Koslow there is only a single lake. In 1833,
the dilTorent hikes of the Crimea produced the immense quantity of fifteen
millions, sixty-fivo thousand jjoods (two hundred and forty-two thousand
tons), of which about 'ight and a half millions of poods were sold in the
course of the year. From twelve to fifteen thousand men are employed in
the works ; each pood cofts to the treasury four copecks, or thereabout, the
expense of production beinj? seldom greater than from six to ten coj)ecks.
Government sells this salt at eighty copecks per pood, except the portion
destined for the consumption of the peninsula, which only pays fifteen
copecks. Salt exported is charged Avith a duty of five copecks.

Exclusive of salt and grain, tlie other principal articles of export are
wine, hotuiy of an excellent quali' v, wax, Morocco-leather, hides, a consid-
erable (piantity of inferior wool, witli lambskins which are highly esteemed,
<fec. Silks and cottqys, in the style of the Asiatics, form the basis of the
import trade ; and there are also imported woollen-stuffs, wine, oil, dried
fruits, tobacco, jewelry, drugs, and spices. The only manufacture worth
notice is that of Morocco-leather.

The principal towns are Kertsch, Caffa (or Thcodosia), Balaclava, and
Koslow (or Eupatoria). Sevastapol, the finest harbor in the jioninsula,
now possesses a world-wide celebrity. Baktchiscrai was the old capital
of Crim Tartary, under the khans; Simferopol is, however, the niodeni
ca})i>"'. not of the Crimea only, but of the entire government of Taurida.

^.le pcjiulation consists of Tartars, Russians, Greeks, Germans, Jews,
Armenians, and gipsies. The variety of different nations found in the
Crimea, and the fact that each lives as in its own country, practising its
peculiar customs, and preserving its
religious rites, is one of the remark-
able circumstances that render the
peninsula so curious to a stranger.
The number of Tartars has declined
considerably by emigration and oth-
erwise, since the occupation of tho
country by the Russians ; but they
still form the nucleus and principal
buily of the population. They con-
sist — first, of Nogai Tartars, linng
in villages, who pique themselves
on their pure Mongolian blood ; sec-
ond, of Tartars of tlie steppe, of less
pure descent; and, third, of those
inhabiting the soutiiern coast, who
are a mixed breed, largely alloyed with Greek and Turkish blood, and
desj)i3od by the others, wi>o bestow on them the contemptuous designation
of 2W, or renegade. They are all, however, attached to tho Mohammedan

CniM Tabtabs.

184

ILLUSTUATED DESCRM'TION OP RUSSIA.

faith, nud Simferopol is tlio scut of one of tiic two intijtis of '!ic Rufsian
empire.

Til" Tartars are divided into tlie el>us!<e» o<" nolilen («/( Tirt.*), of whom
there iue ultout tuo hmidred and lil'ty, pric'th { mullahs ),i\\\^ p' iinantH. A
mulhih if at the head of every parish, an i ,.t>;hinji; \» nudcrtakiMi witliout
his consent. The peai^antn ploiinh his ianu, how and reap hif grain, and
carry it home ; and it is sehioni tliat the proprietor takes tithe of the priest.
In Slimmer, the feet and lej^s of the peasantry are hare ; Imt in winter tliey
are elotlied after the Russian fasiiioii. 'I'hey are simple in their manners
and dress ; and their sobriety, ehastity, cleanliness, and hospitality, ha\i'
been highly eulogized, and probaldy exaggerated. They live principally
on the produce of their flocks and herds; are wedded to roiuine prat-tices;
and if they be not, as I'allas seems lu have supposed, decidedly averse to
labor, they, at all events, arc but little disposed to be industrious. The
emigration that took jdaee after the occajtatioii of the country by the Rus-
sians, was owing (piite as nuieh to the eftbrts of the latter to convert the
Tartans into husbandmen, as to the excesses they committed. In their
diet they make great use »)f honey, anil are much addicted to smoking.
Every family has two or more cojties of the Koran, which the children aro
taught to read ; but, in despite of this, and of the schools estalilished in
tiicir villages, they are, for the most i>art, exceedingly ignorant.

The Greeks established themselves in the Crimea, and founded several
colonies npon its coasts, nearly six centuries before tin- Christian era. The
country fell successively into the possession of Milhridatcs, king of I'ontus,
iuxn of the Romans, (Joths, iluns, <tc. In 1-^7, it was taken pos.session
of hy the Tartars, forming one of the western coiuiuests of the terrible
h< rdes issuing from central Asia, under Zinghis Khan, which overran the
Chinese empire, Persia, and other countries. About the same time its
ports were much resorted to by the Venetians and Genoese ; the latter of
whom rebuilt CafTa (the ancient Tlwodosia), and made it the centre of
their power and of the extensive commerce they carried on in the Kuxine.
In 147."), the Turkish sovereign Mohammed II. expelled the Genoese, and
reduced the peninsula to the state of a dej)endency of the Ottoman empire,
leaving it to be iroverned by a k/ian, or native prince. This state of things
continued for ab,(U three centuries.

The khans had moved the seat of government from the rocky fortress of
Tchoufiit Kale to the valley of the Djurouk Su, and, as tributaries of the
Porte, had r-'igned in their palace of IJaktchiserai (Bag'tche Serai^ for
nearly three hundred years, when the bloody war which had been relent-
lessly carried on between Russia and Turkey, and of which the Crimea
had been in some degree the theatre, terminated in the treaty of Kainarje.
Dcvlit Ghiri, who had been invested M'ith the dignity of khan by the sul-
tan, was now deposed ; and his brother Jehan, who for some time past had
been retained a hostage at St. Petersburg (though ho nonunally held the
office of a captaiu in the imperial guard), was placed upon the tbrouc hy

80UTIIBBN RUSMA — THE CUIMEA.

the shape • ''
to tho throii'

Diiriiiir th
most atrocioii-

tlio onipross Cnthcrino —an n«'t which was in diroct violation of tho princi-
pal article in thi« treaty, in wliich tlio iMilo|H;ii(|fiife of the Crimea, as well
aH the free choice "f its sovereigns, had been expressly stipulate*!.

JJat it was not enoniih that a prince should l»c thus forced upon a conn
try, in opposition to the will of tin; ptMiplc: a mere puppet in the hands of
Russia, h(! was coni|ielled to aliow a marked prcfereiiee for the power to
wliieh he owed his crown, and to introduce so many Uiissians into his ser
vice, that ho soon increased the hatred and disgust of his sul»jects, whoso
feelings (»f disall^ction wore secretly fomented l»y Ilussian emissaries, until
they lii'oke out into an open revolt of so serious a cliaracter i •< ivi *■• ligo
tiie khan to f' Taman, where he remained until assistan ;\!"(i',i\i in
Ml army, which invaded the Crimea, an ■ io;n'.u.v( •.lira
he iiad been forced.
(he occupation of the province liy the IJiissians, tho
iclli' s were perpetrated u|ion those wiio had been insti-
gated to share in the revolt. So anxious did Russia profess herself to
prevent the nM-urrenec of such an event, that a proposal was nuule to tho
kiian to n'tire from the throne upon a pension of one hundred thousand
roiildes a year, resigning his crown into the safe keeping of the imperial
government — an ofl'er which was entitled to some consideration in tlio
presence of an overwhelming army ready to cnforee its acceptance. Tho
luckless prince, whose residence at tho Russian court had taught him to
estimate truly the value of promises emanating from such a quarter, per-
sisted for some time in his refusal, but he found himself ultinmtely obliged
to submit to the terms proposed ; and, as ho had but too justly anticipated,
was confined as a prisoner at Kalouga, in which character ho was, of course,
considered undeservin;.' of his pension !

,\ftcr in vain petitic ling to bo sent to St. Petersburg, Jehan was con-
signed, at his own vtpiest, to tho tender mercies of the Turks. By them
he was banished to Rh(»(les, whore ho soon after fell a victim to the bow-
string: So terminated the inglorious career of the last of the khans. An
imperial iik iso, issued by the empress Catherine, annexed this magnificent
province to her fast-extending entpire.

?evastai)ol,* tho late great naval station of Russia on the Black sea,
occupies part of a considerable jteninsula on the southern side of the ex-
cellent roadstead of the same name, near the southwestern extremity of the
Crimea, rising from the shore in the form of an amphitheatre, and consist-
ing of a nmnbcr of well-built streets, which either stretch south in parallel
rows, elin)bing a steep acclivity, or run transversely east to west. The

* This sketch of this late important naval 8tution of Russia, it is proper to infoi-m the reader,
was prepared for tlie first edition of this work, published in 1854, and of course describes Sevas-
topol, as is was anterior to the late war, of which it became the preat battlc-p;ronnd. From the
interest which now attaches to this locality, the editor has deemed it preferable to retain this dc-
tscription, exhibiting Sevastnpol as it stood intact in the day of its prosperity and presumed im-
pregnability. The detail of thrilling events which resulted in its fall, and iibandonraont by Uussia
as a naval station, will l>o found in tlio historic summary wliich closes tho volume.

■' '!.

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33 WIST MAIN STRUT

WHSTIR.N.Y. MSM

(716) •73-4S03

180

ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTION OF BUSSIA.

roadstead, entered from the west, stretches east for about three and a half
miles, forming a deep hollow between lofty llmcstone-ridges, which com-
pletely shelter it both on t'.ic north and south, from which the prevailing
winds blow. Its breadth at the entrance is about thirteen hundred yards,
immediately widening out to about one mile, and again diminishing till not
more tlian six or seven hundred yards at its head. The average depth at
the entrance, and for some distance within, is ten fathoms, but afterward
shallows east to not more than four ftithoms. Tiio harbor proper is a creek,
which opens from the roadstead, and stretches south along the east side of
the town. It is above a mile and a half long, and at its entrance four hun-
dred yards wide. In addition to its natural advantages, it has had all the
improvements which art and unbounded expenditure could give to make it
complete. The admiralty, arsenal, and public offices, are on the western —
the hospitals, barracks, and magazines, mostly on the eastern side of the
harbor. Toward the land side, no defences appear to have been thought
necessary, but both the roadstead and harbor are protected by three batte-
ries of the most formidable description. Two of these, called Constantino
and Alexander, defend the roadstead, one being situated on each side of
it ; the third, called Nicholas, is situated in the haven itself, fronting the
town. These batteries, which, according to some, are of the most perfect,
and, according to others, of very indifferent construction, cculd bring twelve
hundred guns to bear upon any fleet attempting to force a passage. The
fortifications were commenced in 1780, when it was a mere Tartar village.
The population, including military and marine, now exceeds forty thousand.
Oliphant, who visited Sevastapol in 1853, thus remarks : '* Nothing can
be more formidable than the appearance of the town from the seaward. We
visited it in a steamer, and found that at one point wo wore commanded
by twelve hundred pieces of artillery. Fortunately for a hostile fleet, we
afterward heard that these could not be discharged without bringing down

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

187

Crrr and UABaok or S>VASTArrx.

the rotten batteries upon which they are placed, and which are so badly
constructed that they look as if they had been done by contract. Four of
the forts consist of three tiers of batteries. We were, of coui"se, unable to
do more than take a very general survey of these celebrated fortifications,
and therefore can not vouch for the truth of the assertion that the rooms
in which the guns are worked are so narrow and ill-ventilated, that the
artillerymen would be inevitably stifled in the attempt to discharge their
guns and their duty. But of one fact there was no doubt : that however
well fortified may bo the approaches to Sevastapol by sea, there is nothing
whatever to prevent any number of troops landing a few miles to the south
of the town in one of the six convenient bays with which the coasts, us far
us Gape Kherson, is indented, and, marching down the main street (pro-
vided they Virere strong enough to defeat any military force that might be
opposed to tliem in the open field), sack the town, and bui-n the fleet.

*' I was much struck with the substantial appearance of many of the pri-
vate houses ; and, indeed, the main street was handsomer than any I had
seen since leaving Moscow. New houses were springing up in every direc-
tion, government works were still going forward vigorously, and Sevasta-
pol bids fair to rank high among Russian cities. The magnificent arm of
the sea upon which it is situate ia an object worthy the millions which have
been lavished in rendering it a fitting receptacle for the Russian navy.

'' As I stood upon the handsome stairs that lead down to the water's
edge, I counted thirteen sail-of-tho-line anchored in the principal harbor.
The newest of these, a noble throe-decker, was lying within pistol-shot of

i'^H

I^H

^l^^n

188

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

' 1
^

the quay. The average breadth of this inlet is one thousand yards ; two
creeks branch off from it, intersecting the town in a southerly direction,
and containing steamers and smaller craft, besides a long row of Irulks
which have been converted into magazines or prison-ships. Tlie hard ser-
vice which has reduced so many of the handsomest ships of the Russian
navy to this condition, consists in lying for eight or ten years upon tho
sleeping bosom of the harbor. After the expiration of that period, their
timbers, composed of fir or pine wood never properly seasoned, become
perfectly rotten. This result is chiefly owing to inherent decay, and in
some degree to the ravages of a worm that abounds in the muddy waters
of the Tchernoi Retcka, a stream which, traversing the valley of Inkerman,
falls into the upper part of the main harbor. It is said that tltis pernicious
insect — which is equally destructive in salt water as in fresh — costs tho
Russian government many thousands, and is one of the most serious obsta-
cles to the formation of an efficient navy on tho Black sea It is

maliciously said that, upon the few occasions that the Russian fleet in this
sea iiave encountered a gale of wind, the greater part of the officers and
men were always searsick ! It is certain that they have sometimes been
unable to tell whereabout they were on their extensive cruising-ground ;
and once, between Sevastapol and Odessa, it is currently and libellously
reported that the admiral was so utterly at a loss, that the flag-lieutenant,
observing a village on shore, proposed to land and ask the way !"

Inkerman, the " Town of Caverns," lies near Sevastapol. The curiosi-
ties of this locality consist in the remains whicli exist there to tell of races
long since departed. Tlie precipitous cliffs, between which flow the Tcher-
noi Retcka, are honeycomlKid with cells and chapels. The origin of these
singular caves is uncertain ; but they are supposed to have been excavated
by monks during the reigns of the Greek emperors of Constantinople in the
middle or later ages. When the Arians who inhabited the Chersonesus
were persecuted by the Greek church, then predominant, the members of
that sect took refuge in these singular dwellings, whose lofty and inacces-
sible position rendered them to a certain degree secure. The largest
chapel, which presents all the characteristics of Byzantine architect;ure, is
about twenty-four feet long by twelve broad. Sarcophagi, usually quite
empty, have been found in many of the cells ; these latter are often con-
nected with each other, and are approached by stairs cut in the living rock.
Perched upon the same cliff, and of much earlier date than the caverns
which undermine them, are the ruined walls of an old fort. Whether they
are the remains of the Clenus of the ancients, built by Diophantes, King
Mithridates'fi general, to strengthen the Heraclean wall, or of the Theodori
of the Greeks, or of some Genoese stronghold, is still a very open question.
There can be no doubt, however, that the seat of government of the prin-
cipality of Theodori stood formerly on this spot ; but it is probable that its
inhabitants were composed of Greek colonists, and not of Circassian tribeSi
as some writers have supposed.

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIIfEA.

189

11. i".

•I--,',

'i l!

INKMMAN, THS •• TuWN OF CaVKBIM."

The ^iew from the high-road to Baktchiscrai of the valley of Inkerraan,
with its perforated cliffs and ruined fortress (as represented in tlie accom-
panying engraving), is as remarkable as it is beautiful. A romantic old
bridge in the foreground spans the sluggish stream, wliich winds amid the
most luxuriant vegetation.

Simferopol (or AkmctcheC), the capital of Taurida and the Crimea, lies
in a central position, forty miles northwest of Scvastapol. It stands in a
fine but not very healthy situation on the river Salghir, and consists of two
parts : one new built by the RussiaiiS, in the European style ; the other
old, and occupied by the Tartars. The streets in the former are wide and
regular ; and it contains the government offices, irnd a cathedral, Baid by
Dr. Lyall to be by far the handsomest ecclesiastical edifice he had eecn in
Russia.

The following is Oliphant's description of the modern capital of the
Crimea, and its environs, as they appeared to him in 1853 : " When the
Crimea was ceded to Russia in 1781, the picturesque old capital of Bak-
tchiserai was considered unworthy of being the chief town of the new prov-
ince, and a gay modem city was laid out upon the plains of the Salghir,
dignified with an imposing ancient Greek name, and built in true Russian
taste, with very broad streets, very white, tall houses, decorated with very
green paint. If the population consisted entirely of Russians, the interior
of the town would be as far from realizing the expectations which its out
ward appearance is calculated to produce, as Kazan or Saratov ; but for-
tunately for Simferopol, it was once Akmetchet (or ' The White Mosque'^^
and the inhabitants of Akmetchet still linger near the city of their ances-
tors, and invest the cold monotony of the now capital with an interest of
which it would be otherwise quite unworthy.

** Formerly the s^icond town in the Crimea, and the residence of tho
kalga sultaHf or vico-khan, Akmetchet was a city of groat importance,

190

ILLUSTRATED DESCBIFTION OF RUSSIA.

adorned with palaces, mosques, and public baths. It has now exchanged
the eastern magnificence of former days for the tawdry glitter of Musco-
vite barbarism.

" The streets inhabited by Tartars are composed entirely of blank walls,
and would therefore be the dullest places imaginable were it not for the
people who traverse them. The houses are only one story high, and each
is enclosed in a separate courtyard. The parchment windows which look
out into it are placed so low as to be quite hidden from the street ; and so
the unfortunate females have not the ordinary amusement of eastern ladies,
and no black eyes glance out of latticed windows upon the passenger as ho
passes beneath them. The Tartar women of Akmetchet, however, do not
lose much by their seclusion. The streets have none of thfe life and bustle
of a town like Cairo. The shops are few and far between, very small and
poor, and kept by ugly, unveiled women. The beauties walk about cov-
ered up to the eyes with the white '■ftretdje^ which reaches as low as the
knee. Were it not for the bright-colored skirt which flutters beneath it,
and the loose drawers that fall over tiny yellow boots, they would look
precisely like animated bundles of white linen. The men occasionally
wear the turban and flowing robe of the true oriental ; but their costumes,
always picturesque, vary so much as to be almost indescribable.

" We soon got tired of wandering through this maee of narrow lanes,
always confined between high, blank walls, and changed the scene by sud-
denly coming upon the fashionable promenade, where the band was playing
in cool, delicious gardens, to the gay world, who delight to assemble hero
and stroll upon the banks of the Salghir, away from the heat and dust of
the town. The present governor, Pestel, a brother to ' Yes, it comes at
last,' is, I understand, 'in high favor with the emperor. His house is a
substantial, handsome-looking mansion. There are extensive barracks sit-
uated a little outside the town, but the hospital alone is always in use ; the
rest of the building is only occupied occasionally by troops passing to and
from the Caucasus.

*' ThcT are no less than two hotels in Simferopol, and in the one we
were at they actually gave us a sheet each, but, of course, no means of
washing ! Our windows looked out upon the principal street, and were
always interesting posts of observation. Sometimes a lumbering nobl(y
man's carriage, piled with luggage, and stored with provisions for a month,
rattled into the town — the family being about to return to St. Petersburg
for the winter, after spending the summer at their country-scat in the
Crimea ; or an unpretending vehicle, exactly similar to ours, jogged quietly
past, crammed with Armenian merchants, some of whose legs, protruding
from between the curtains, were presumed to belong to Armenians, from
the perfume of Turkish tobacco which was diffused over the street during
their transit ; or a file of camel-carts, filled with straw, moved sedately
along, stopping every now and then for a few moments while the drivers
spoke to friends, when all the camels lay down : no amount of experience

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

Cmrl-Cam*

seemed to show them that it was hardly worth while to do this consider-
ing how soon they would have to get up again, and the great exertion it
involved. Accustomed only to the camels and dromedaries of still nioro
eastern countries, the appearance of this Bactrian camel was quite new to
me. The two humps are generally so long, that, unable to sustain them-
selves, they fall over, and often hang down on each side of the animal's
back. The neck and legs are covered with long, thick hair, from which
the Tartar women weave cloth of a soft, woolly texture.

" In strong contrast to these singular carts, pert droskies wef: continu
ally dashing about. Though so small and light, all the public droskies
hero have two horses, generally very good ones, while the heat of the sun
has rendered it necessary that they should, for the most part, bo supplied
with hoods ; so that the atrocious little vehicle of St. Pctersbul'g is con-
verted at Simferopol into quite a respectable conveyance. Next door to
our hotel was rather a handsome Jewish synagogue, in which school
seemed perpetually going on. Simferopol contains about fourteen thou-
sand inhabitants, of which comparatively a large proportion are members
of this persuasion.

" Fortunately the annual fair, which takes place in the first week of
October, was being held during the period of our stay ; and then it is that
the greatest variety' of costume, and all the characteristic features of the
Crimea, are most opportunely collected for the traveller's benefit. To be
properly appreciated, the fair of Nijnci-Novgorc' should be seen before
that of Simferopol, which wo found infinitely more striking, perhaps be-
cause wo were completely taken by surprise when, quite unaware of its
existence, we chanced to enter the market-place one afternoon. It is sel-
dom that two races so widely dificring in manners and customs, springing
from origins so distinct, are brought into every-day contact in such a pal-
pable manner as in Crim Tartary ; and this mixture is the more interesting
from the improbability of its existing very long in its present unnatural
condition.

" An enormous square, many acres in extent, contained an indiscriminate
DIMS of booths, camels, carts, droskies, oxen, and picturesque ^rouns.

192

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Here may be seen the red-bearded Kussian mujik, in jackboots and sheep-
skin, in close confabulation with a gayly-drcssed Tartar, who has just gal-
lopped acrofs the steppe, and who sits his horse as if he were part and
parcel of him. He wears a large, white fur-cap ; a red-striped, embroi-
dered jacket, fitting clo.^e to his body, with wide, open sleeves ; while his
loose, dark-blue trousers are girded with a bright-colored sasli, amid the
folds of which the massive handle of his dagger apjiears ; and his slippered
feet are thrust into clumsy stirrups at the ends of very long leathers. His
horse is a wiry little animal, possessing an infinitely greater amount of
intelligence than beauty. Farther on among the crowd, and distinguished
by his green turban, floats the robe of some pious fiadjr; nor docs he seem
in the least scandalized by two young ladies in a drosky, not only devoid
offerecdje, but even of bonnets, and wearing only the jaunty little caps of
the Parisian g-risetfe. We might very fairly suggest, however, the propri-
ety of their profiting, in some degree, from the example of the muffled
females over the way, who seem afraid to expose to the profane gaze of
men the dyed tips of their finger-nails ! In the narrow lanes formed by
carts and tents, Greeks, in a no less gay though somewhat different cos-
tume from that usually worn in their own country, are haggling with Rus-
sian Jews in long black beards, and long black cloaks reaching down to
their ankles. It is an even bet who will have the best of such a bargain !
Savage-looking Nogai's, and Cossack soldiers, are making purchases from
Armenian or German shopkeepers. There are large booths, like gipsies'
huts magnified, which have no connection with the ragged representatives
of that wandering race who swarm at the fair, but which contain quantities
of most tempting fruit — huge piles of apricots, grapes, peaches, apples,
and plums — of any of which one farthing will buy more than the purchaser
can conveniently carry away with him. Besides these bootlis, there are
heavy carts, with wicker-work sides, and ungreased, angular wheels, which
make that incessant and discordant creaking familiar to those who have
ever heard a Bengal bullock-hackery. Presiding over the whole scene,
not in the least disconcerted by the uncongenial forms which surround
them, are hundreds of camels, in all sorts of positions, chewing the cud
with eastern philosophy, and perfectly submissive to very small, ragged
Tartar boys, who seem to have entire charge of them, and who do not
reach higher than their knees. Rows of shops enclosed this miscellaneous
assemblage, containing saddles, knives, whips, slippers, tobacco-pouches,
and Morocco-leather boots, all of Tartar manufacture, besides every de-
scription of every European article. It was some satisfaction to feci, as
we moved through the busy throng, in plaid shooting-coats with mother-of
pearl buttons, that we too were adding another variety to the motley cos-
tumes of the fair at Simferopol.

" But the charm of Simferopol does not consist in the variety of races
which inhabit it. Though it seems to lie in a plain, as approached from
Kertsch, a great part of the town is situated upon the precipitous edge of

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

103

the steppe, whence a magnificent view is obtained immediately below ; and
at the foot of abrupt rocks, two hundred feet high, runs the tiny Salghir,
dignified with the name of a river, and, if not entitled to it from its size,
worthy the appellation by reason of the lovely valley which it haa formed
in its northern course. Orchards and gardens, containing every sort of
fruit-trees, and abounding in rows of tall poplars, line its banks, until the
hills, becoming higher and more thickly wooded, form a ridge, which is
connected with the Tchatir Dagli (or Tchadi/ailag'^, a noble background,
and which does full justice to this lovely picture. Nor did a closer ac-
quaintance with the details of this view detract from our original impres-
sions on beholding it.

*' We determined to take advantage of the glorious weather to make the
ascent of the Tchatir Dagh (the ^Mountain of the TenV of the Tartars,

Trapezxis of the Greeks, and Pafata Gora of the Russians) We

reached tlic giddy edge of the limestone cliff which forms the highest peak,
a few moments after sunrise, having attained an elevation of over five thou-
sand feet above the sea. "We were well repaid for the fatigue of the ascent
by the maghificcnt view we obtained from this point. Immediately at our
feet, and so directly beneath us that a stone might be dropped perpendicu-
larly upon the trees two thousand feet below, lay charmingly-diversified
woods and meadows ; curling wreaths of blue smoke ascended from clumps
of trees scattered over the park-like scenery, while large herds of cattle
seemed from their diminutiveness to have been peppered out upon the rich
pasture-laud

" We soon accomplished the steep descent of the first thousand feet ;
and, mounting our ponies, attempted to pick our way over the rocks, to
some caves, reported to be worth seeing. Our path — or rather where our
path would have been, had one existed — lay over a large extent of strati-
fied limestone, of a gray color. The rugged surface, strewn with huge
fragments of the stone, was frequently indented by hemispherical hollows,
in which grew clumps of trees, and which, had they not occurred so fre-
quently, might have been mistaken far the craters of extinct volcanoes.

" Whatever may have been their origin, they were the cause of incessant
annoyance to us as we wound round them — the rocks becoming so sharp
and jagged, that wo were obliged to lead our horses a great part of the
way. At last we descended into one, and the guides pointed to a small
under a rock, into which we were expected to crawl, telling us it was the
entrance to the cave of Foul Koiiba, a view of which is presented on the
following page. Armed with a tallow-candle, I forthwith crept into the
hole, scrambling on hands and knees amid a quantity of human skulls and
bones, which rattled dismally as, one after another, we crawled among
them. For twenty or thirty yards we thus proceeded, occasionally obliged
to lie down perfectly flat upon the wet mud and bonos, and burrow our
way along — a mode of entry which reminded me of an unpleasant experi-
ence 1 OQce endured in descending into an Egyptian mummy-pit.

101

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIOX OF RUSSIA.

:^'^^-'^

~ Cavb or Foul Kouba.

" At last WO were enabled to stand upright and look around. A spa-
cious chamber, about forty feet high, seemed supported by some huge sta-
lactites. The largest of these was at least fifty feet in circumference ; and
if the cave had been lighted up Avitli such torches as those used at Adels-
burg, instead of with three tallow-dips, I have no doubt their varied colors
would have produced a striking effect. I followed a clear stream through
a small opening into what appeared another chamber, but could get no
one to accompany me on an exploring expedition, as my companion felt
too unwell to enter the cave at all. Montandon, however, says that Mon-
sieur Oudinet, a Frenchman, penetrated half a day's journey into this cave
without reaching the end. The innumerable skulls and bones lying strewn
about in all directions told a melancholy history — a party of Genoese had
been smoked to death here, during their wars with the Tartars in the thir-
teenth century.

" We were glad to get into the fresh air again, and, very hot and dirty,
started for Kisil Kouba, another cave not far distant. The entrance to
this was magnificent ; and, after descending gradually for about a hundred
yards, the cave increased to a breadth of thirty or forty yards, while its
height could not have been less than sixty feet. Her , however, the sta-
lactites were comparatively poor, though occasionally well-colored. It has
never been fully explored ; a stream, which wo did not reach, becoming too
deep to allow of its extent being ascertained."

The celebrated traveller and naturalist Pallas lived for fifteen years in
(he town of Simferopol. It was his own wish to emigrate thither ; and, to
enable him to gratify it, the empress Catherine II. made him a present of
an estate in the best part of the Crimean peninsula. But, being cut off
from the society he had enjoyed in St. Petersburg, and exposed to family
annoyances, Pallas became dissatisfied with the country and with the cli-

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SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIUEA.

196

mate he had so highly pancg^'rizod. Having sold his estate, ho left Sim-
feropol in diHgust in 1811, and returned, after an absence of forty-two
years, to his native city Berlin, where he died in the course of the same
year. *

Kcvtsch, a seaport town of the Crimea, occupies the site of the ancient
Pantirnpaeum, on a tongue of land forming a peninsula of the same name
on the Htrait of Enikaloh, connecting the sea of Azov with the Euxine, one
humlrnd and thirty miles cast-northeast of Simferopol. It is regularly and
beautifully built, chiefly of stone obtained from the fine quarries of the
ncighborhoud, and possesses great natural advantages for commerce. In
18*27, it was declared a free port, and an extensive lazaretto was built, at
which all the vessels coming by the Black sea perform quarantine. The
number of vessels which touch at it in passing out of the sea of Azov aver-
ages four htmdred annually, and the number of coasting-vessels is from five
to six hundred. The greater part of the inhabitants arc employed in com-
merce. It exports building-stone, and large quantities of salt, obtained
from the neighboring lakes ; and its herring and sturgeon fisheries are very
productive.

The ancient town of Panticapaeum was the residence and reputed burial-
place of Mithridates, king of Pontus. A mound in the vicinity is said to
be the tomb of that formidable and inveterate enemy of Rome ; but this is
contradicted by the most authentic accounts, which represent Mithridates
as ha\ing been buried, by order of Pompey, in the sepulchre of his ances-
tors at Sinope. The modern town of Kertsch is of very recent existence,
and has risen up as if by magic; and, by its increase, has prejudicially
ofiected some of the other ports. Its population is about twelve thousand.

Cafia, Or Fcodosia (the ancient Theodosid)^ is another seaport town,
situated at the western angle of a magnificent bay in the southeast of the
Crimea. It is walled and well fortified, and contains numerous public
buildings, of which the most worthy of notice are the three churches — a
Greek, Roman catholic, and Armenian ; two mosques, a spacious and com-
modious quarantine, and a college, founded by tlie emperor Alexander,
chiefly for gratuitous instruction in the modt.'a languages. There is also
a botanical garden, and a museum, which is rich in the antiquities of the
neighborhood. The site and excellent harbor of Caff'a would seem to mark
it out as a place of great trade, but it has formidable competitors in Odessa
and Kertsch, and does not seem destined to recover its lost importance.

Caffa is a place of great antiquity, having been founded by a colony of
Greeks from Ionia, in Asia Minor. It received its name of Theodosia
from the wife of Leucon, king of the Bosphorus, who took it after a long
siege, and soon made it a place of great importance. In the middle ages
it passed into the hands of the Genoese, by purchase from the khans of the
Crimea, and became the seat of an extensive commerce with the East, by
the way of the Caspian and Astrakhan. At this time it is said to havo
had a population of eighty thousand ; but, having been taken by the Turks

196

ILLUSTnATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

in 1474, its prosperity rapidly declined. Much has been done for it since
it come into the possession of Russia, and it is still one of the most impor-
tant towns in the Crimea, but its population probably docs not exceed
eight or ten thousand.

Baktchiserai (the " Seraglio of Gardens^*') is one of the most renmrka-
ble towns in Europe. It is situated on the Djurouk-Su, about fifteen miles
southwest of Simferopol. It is the capital in which the khans or Tartar
sovereigns of the Tauridian peninsula long held sway, as dc])utlcs or tribu-
taries of Turkey, before Russia established herself in the Crimea. Bak-
tchiserai is a place of great interest, both historical and local. The Tartar
impress is still strong upon it. It stands at the bottom of a narrow valley,
hemmed in by precipitous rocks, and watered by a small rivulet, by no
means of the most limpid appearance, and con.sists almost entirely of a sin-
gle street, buijc along the side of this rivulet, and lined with bazars and
workshops, in which the Tartar toils, in primitive simplicity, in the pro-
duction of articles of the very same form and quality as furnished by his
forefathers two centuries ago! The town contains several moscjues, which
are usually embosomed among trees, and whose minarets rise high above
the houses, and is ac'.ornod with numerous fountains. The number of
houses in the town exceeds two thousand, inhabited by about ten thousand
persons — the majority of Tartar blood, the rest Russians, Greeks, Arme-
nians, and Jews. The Karaite Jews, a peculiar section of that people,
carry on a considerable trade in common stuff-goods, mercery, and colonial
produce.

The main street above alluded to is nearly a mile long, and so narrow
that two carts can scarcely pass. Fortunately this is a contingency which
does not often arise ; and tlio busy throng that traverses it, whicli consists
almost entirely of Tartars, Karaite Jews, and gipsies, is extremely incon-
venienced by the appearance of a wheeled vehicle at all. In mixing with
this nondescript populace, Oliphant renmrks that his attention was divided
between the variety of feature and costunie which it exhibited, and the
wonderful display of goods exposed for sale in the open shops. These are
devoid of any front wall, and are closed at night by the wooden shutters
which in the daytime form a sort of counter. Upon this the owner sits
cross-legged, earnestly engaged in the manufacture of the article he sells,
and only allowing himself to be distracted from his occupation by the arri-
val of a customer.

From the manner in which these shops are arranged, the mombera of
each craft would seem to bo collected into divisions specially appropriated
to them. Thus, immediately on leaving the khan, or Tartar inn, and turn-
ing up the principal street toward the palace, a bazar is passed in which
sheepskin-caps are fabricated. Beyond these cortie the workers in leather,
encompassed by piles of saddles, richly-embroidered belts, tobacco-pouches,
and absurd-looking whips, with a large, flat piece of leather at the end of
the lash, and a knife concealed in the handle, like the one in the accompa-

SOUTIIEnN' IIUAHIA — THK CRIMEA.

107

I'AkTA* Whip.

nying engraving. Opposite mo slipper-nmkcrsi and tailors ; while the cui-
lors occupy a great extent of territory, und are fumed for tho *^xcellout
Tartar kuive? which they mumifucturo.

•' Wc were so long moving al)oiit from ono set of those
affaMo Hhopkecpers to another," says Olipluuit, *' that it
was lute iti the day before I began to wonder whether wo
were never coming to a food-(iuarter. Hitherto, since
leaving Sevastapol, wo had feasted our eyes only, whilo
our guide had subsisted entirely on pipes. Upon Ids now
suggesting that wo should go to a cook-shop, wo willingly
proceeded in search of one; and were attracted, by sundry
whiffs redolent of mutton, to a largo corner-house, whence
arose a cloud of fragrant steam. Here a numl>er of |)coplo
were standing in the open street, diving into huge, project-
ing caldrons of soup, whence they extracted Sfjuarc pieces
of fat, which they devoured with great relish while strolling
about among the crowd. Not entirely approving of this
al-fresco modo of dining, and fearing tiiut we might stand
a chance of being run over while discussing an interesting
morsel, we were glad to discover that it was not necessary
to present a ticket of admission to a liatchiserai soup-
kitchen : so wo entered, and seated ourselves on a narrow
bencli, behind a very filthy plank intended to serve as a
festive-board. Being fully exposed to tho street, we were in a most con-
venient position for tho loungers in it to satisfy their curiosity regarding
us, and accordingly we were mutually edified by staring ot oii<' another.

"Our attention, however, was soon diverted to the head-cook, who
brought us a boiled sheep's head in one hand, while with the other he at-
tempted to catch the gravy that trickled through his fingers upon a loaf of
black bread. These ho set down before us on the cleanest part of tho
plank wc could jiick out, and evidently considered that our every want
was supplied. Wc forthwith proceeded with our penknives to discuss the
sheep's head, which seemed to have been previously stripped of everything
but the eyes ; and, with the addition of some Uhatibs (square pieces of fat
strung upon a reed), succeeded in accomplishing a meal, which sustained
us for the rest of the day : not that it would be possible to starve in Bak-
tcliiserai ; the heaps of delicious fruit with which the street is lined for
some hundreds of yards would always furnish an abundant, if somewhat
unwholesome meal. Grapes, figs, pomegranates, peaches, nectarines, and
apricots, tempt tho passenger to refresh himself at every step ; while, as
if in gentle remonstrance with his imprudence, innumerable fountains of
the purest water gush out of the hillside, murmuring invitations to the
thirsty soul which it is difficult to resist. From one of these, which has
ten spouts, the sparkling streams fall upon slabs of marble. A continual
babbling goes on in every direction as the clear little rivulets seem hurrying

198

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

away from the filth of the town, determined to lose themselves as speedily
OS possible in the waters of the Djurouk-Su."

The far-famed palace of the khans occupies one side of a small square
at the extreme end of the main street. Crossing tlie moat, a painted gate-
way with projecting eaves is passed, and the singular collection of build-
ings which then meets the eye on every side is no less a^^tonishing tlu\n
delightful. To the right of a large grass-grown court stands the rambling,

Palace or the Khans.

disjointed palace, with gaudy walls and highly-decorated trcllis-work, fes-
tooned with vines, and small lattice-windows looking out upon fragrant
gardens ; wliile above all is an octagonal wooden tower, with a Chinesc-
iooking roof. On the left are a number of two-storied buildings, with
A'erandahs supported by ornamented posts, and near them a mausoleum
and mosque, with two tall minarets — the mark of royalty. A handsome
fountain, shaded by willows, stands opjwsite the private entrance ; behind
it the court is enclosed by the walls of an orchard, situated on a rising
ground, which is intersected by terraces.

Looking beyond the immediate objects, the view is no less striking.
The palace seems to be in the arena of an amphitheatre, of which the flat
roofs of the Tartar houses — stuck, as it were, in rows against the sides of
the mountains — represent the seats.* All over these mountains caves occur

• The Tartnri", unlike oilier people, genernlly prefer tlie steep siile of n liill for the »ito of thtir
villiigcg, i-ullier thuii lliosii level situntioiig vulgiirly know.i n» "eligible building-lots." By excava-
ting a opiice out of the hill, in proportion to the uccommodution r(M|uire(i, the architect is saved the
trouble of building a back wall, while he simply fills up with mud the angles at the sides. The
roof, wliirh thus, us it were, projects out of the hill, is perfectly flat, und covered with mould. It
(tends beyond the front walls, and, supported by posts, forms u sort of verandah. Thus, when
ihe traveller passes below one of these cottages, the roof is not visible nt all; while, if he be above
them, they would have the effect of diminutive di^ying-grounds for grain or coffee, were it not for
the smoke thet issues from the conical mud-chimneys. These servo not only at apcrturet for the
■moke, but also us a means of verbal communication with thd InDrior of the houiei. On a dark

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

199

ilii

Tabtab Villaob.

frequently, resembling pigeon-holes. Nothing can be more unique than
the aspect of the town from the courtyard of the palace, wliile gigantic
rocks, of grotesque shape, are poised in mid-air, threatening destruction
to all that remains of the capital of this oncc-miglity empire.

Entering the principal vestibule of the palace, the celebrated " Fountain
of Tears," immortalized among Russians by a poem of Alexander Pushkin,
is seen. Tk:s hall opens, by means of arches, to the gardens of the serc^Uo;
and, from it, dark staircases ascend and terminate in narrow passages,
which again lead to spacious galleries, brilliantly decorated.

Wandering through the latter, the visiter loses himself at last in a laby-
rinth of small apartments, scarcely differing from one another, connected
by doorways, in which swing heavy satin brocades. lie glides noiselessly
through them over the soft Turkish carpets, as if treading the chamber of
death. There is something appropriate in the mysterious silence which
characterizes all his movements, surrounded as he is by a luxury so fresh-
looking and real, that it seems as though its possessors had but just van-
ished for ever from the fairy scenes they had conjured around them. Here
are broad crimson divans ; richly-embroidered curtains carefully suspended
over the latticed windows ; and tapestry o*" costly satin, elaborately worked,
concealing the walls, or hanging quaintly from semicircular projections
over the fireplaces — a flimsy splendor, which was not allowed to fade and
vanish with its original possessors, but is retained in all its gaudy coloring,
as if to mock the memory of those to whoso effeminate tastes it once had
ministered.

H'i '

nighl an equratriiin miyht conily mistake his way, and, riding ati;aiglit over one of these roiifa, make
Ilia upprnrance nt the front door in a manner tuu abrupt to be altogether consistent with good
breeding. The engraving which wo give on this page present* a characteristic view of one of tha
numerous villages or humlet* of th« Crim Tartars.

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

i !

—sr.-

Tabtab Gcide.

But Muscovite sovereigns have condescended to lodge in the former
aliodc of the khans ; and the guide, of course, imagines that the most in-
teresting object in the palace is the bed in Avhicli tho
empress Catherine II. slept. The room of Maria
Potoski, however, is fraught with more romantic as-
sociations. Here for ten years tha infatuated count-
ess resided, hoping to effect a compromise between
her conscience and her passion for the khan, by a
life devoted to religious exercises, while content to
reign, at the same time, supremo in the palace of the
infidel. The apartments appropriated to her arc lux-
uriously arranged ; and a lofty hall, with fountains
plashing upon slabs of marble, bears her name. Ad-
joining it is a Roman catholic chapel, which was built
expressly for her use by the amorous khan.

Many of the rooms are ornamented with represen-
tations of birds, and beasts, and creeping things, in
every variation of grotesque form ; wliile, as if to
compensate for this direct violation of the Koran, fragments of that sacred
record are inscribed upon the walls. One of the most singular chambers
in this most singular palace is a largo glass summer-house, surrounded by
a divan, and decorated in a most unorthodox manner, in wliich a fountain
plays into a porpliyry basin. It opens upon a flower-garden, at the farther
end of which, shaded by a magnilicent old vine, is a marble bath, prepared
for t!i'o empress Catherine by tho considerate gallantry of Potemkin, and
supplied by cascades from the fountain of Sclsabil. Tlie fiivorite lived
enclosed among delicious gardens, in the now-deserted harem, during the
residence of liis royal mistress in tho palace, from which it is approached
by a succession of pavilions and verandahs. Attached to it is the octago-
nal tower ; and authorities differ as to whether the khans reserved it for
the use of their women or their falcons. As it is exactly like a large
wooden cage, no light is thrown upon the subject from its construction.
From between the bars a singular panoramic view is obtained of the town
and palace. The palace first became the residence of the khans in the
year 1475.

"Having seen the former abof^^ of the khans," says Oliphant, "we
thought we would now visit their present resting-place. So, leaving the
fountains to play and babble in silent halls, and the divans to grace unten-
anted rooms, and the trees to blossom and perfume the deserted gardens,
wo entered the vaulted chambers in which the most illustrious khans re-
pose. Here a venerable old hadje held tremulously aloft the dim, flickering
light, to enable us to look over the turbaned tombstones. Passing out, wo
walked through the cemetery, where vines cluster over the crumbling ruins
that tell of departed greatness ; and all seemed travelling the same road
which tho occupants of these sculptured sepultures have already taken."

SOUTHERN HUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

901

Mai'solbum or Tiic Khans.

Tlie valley in which Baktchiserai lies almost concealed, terminates in a
narrow go'rge, containing caverns occupied only by gipsies. From this
gorge the way emerges upon a dark, mysterious glen, heavily wooded with
oaks and beech-trees. A winding path dives into its inmost recesses, and
through a nuize of tombstones, formed in the shape of sarcophagi, and cov-
ered with Hebrew inscriptions. This is the "Valley of Jehoshaphat" —
for centuries the cemetery of the Karaite Jews, who still love to lay their
bones beside those of their ancestors ; so that the sleeping inhabitants of
the valley of Jehoshaphat far outnumber the population of Karaites in any
one town in the Crimea.

The little path extends for nearly a mile, always surrounded by theso
touching mementoes of a race who, in whatever part of the world they may
be scattered, still retain the profoundest veneration for a spot hallowed by
such sacred associations. The grove terminates suddenly near a frightful
precipice, from the dizzy edge of which a magnificent view is obtained.

A few miles distant, the conical rock of Tepekerman rises abruptly from
the broken country, its beetling crags perforated with innumerable myste-
rious caverns and chambers. Beyond, the Tchatir Dagh, with the elevated
eea-range, of which it is part, forms the background of the rich and varied
landscape.

Following the line of the calcareous cliffs, a point is reached where tho
prospect in the opposite direction is still more striking. To tho right, tho

hm
'■ ni

202

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

dilapidated old fortress of Tchoufut Kale crowns the nearest height, while
the monastery of Uspenskoi, built into the face of the overhanging rock,
appears as if it had been excavated by the inhabitants of Stony Pctra,
rather than by monks of the Greek church. Here, too, compressed within
narrow limits, lies the old Tartar capital, almost hidden by the gardens
which clothe the valley in a mantle of richest green. Lower down, the
precipices soften into gentle slopes, and the cultivation spreads over a
great extent of country, through which the Djurouk-Su meanders until it
falls into the Black sea, that bounds the western horizon.

When the Tartar khans deserted Tchoufut Kal6 for the lovely vale
below, this singular stronghold became again exclusively the residence of
the Karaite Jews, who had lived there from time immemorial, and wiio are
naturally bound to it by the strongest feelings of reverence and afl'cction,
since it has been alike the cradle of their sect, and the rock upon wiiich
they have ever found a secure refuge in times of persecution. Singular as
it may seem, perched upon this almost inaccessible cliff is the headquarters
of a sect whose members are scattered over Russia, Poland, and Egypt.

As the population was said to be entirely Jewish, Oliphant remarks that
he expected to find Tchoufut Kale filled with picturesque groups of hand-
somely-dressed men and lovely maidens ; but he passed through the arch-
way, and along the streets, to which the living rock answered the purpose
of pavement, and still, to his astonishment, not a soul wa? to be seen ! A
few dogs flew at him, and obliged him to perambulate the rest of the town
armed with stones. It seemed quite empty, for not only'were the public
thoroughfares deserted, but he could get no answer at any of tlio doors at
which lie knocked ; so that he was beginning to suspect that the last inhab-
itant must have recently got some one to bury him in the valley of Jchosh-
aphat, when a liusky voice murmured something through a crack in a shut-
ter ; and presently a decrepit, stone-blind old man, who might have been
the individual in question, hobbled out with a stick, and offered to conduct
him to the synagogue.

This edifice is a plain building, differing in no respect from an ordinary
Jewish place of worship. It contains some magnificently-bound copies of
the Old Testament in manuscript. The books of Moses only are |)rinted
and taught in the schools. The Karaites profess to have the Old Testa-
ment in its most genuine state.

The derivation of their name has been ascribed to kara and i7e, words
signifying, in Arabic, "black dog" — a not unlikely epithet to be applied
by Mohammedans to this despised race. A more generally received and
probably correct derivation, however, seems to be from the word kara^
"scripture" — because they hold simply to the letter of scripture, not ad-
mitting the authority of the Talmud, or the interpretation of the rabbis.
Like all Jews, they display extraordinary care in the education of their
children, who are publicly instructed in the synagogues. About five thou-
sand Karaites are resident in Poland, who acknowledge the old rabbi of

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

203

JCWISH FoKTBKSt OF TcHOl'rVT KaLS.

.1 %

Tclioufut Kale as their spiritual chief. They are said originally to have
emigrated from the Crimea.

As almost all the Karaites are engaged in trade or manufacture, and as
they observe the most scrupulous honesty in their dealings, it has naturally
followed that they are a prosperous and thriving community ; while, as if
an exception had been made in favor of this portion of that interesting
people wljose unhappy destiny has been so wonderfully accomplished, prob-
ably the only settlement exclusively Jewish which still exists is the fortress
of Tchoufut Kale. Its population has, however, dwindled down to a very
small remnant, since trade has increased, and additional facilities have
been afforded for settling in more convenient positions than upon the sum-
mit of one of the highest crags in the Crimea. The population of the sea-
port of Eupatoria is composed mainly of Karaites, nearly two thousand of
whom are now resident there — and some of these are wealthy merchants.

All devout Karaites scattered throughout the Crimea, when increasing
infirnJities warn them of approaching dissolution, are brought to Tchoufut
Kale to die, and to have their bones repose beside those of their forefathers
in the lovely vale of Jehoshaphat.

There arc only two entrances to the fortress, and the massive gates are
locked every night. Down a long flight of steps cut out of the living rock
is a well of delicious water which supplies the inhabitants, the situation of
which, at the bottom of a valley, and far below the walls, would render
the impregnable position of the fort utterly valueless in time of war. At
this well is usually stationed a man who fills the water-skins borne by don-
keys to their master above, neither the consigner nor the consignee accom-
panying these sagacious animals on the numerous trips which are, never-
theless, so essential to the comfort of the inhabitants.

Following the bank of the ravine, the monastery of the Uspenskoi (or
the "Assumption of the Virgin Mary") is reached, where galleries are

i i

204

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

suspended upon the face of a lofty precipice, beneath the stupendous rocks
out of which the chambers are hewn, and out of which also arc cut the
flight of steps by which they are approached. The monastery is said to
have originated at the time of the persecution of the Greek church by the
Mohammedans, when its members were not allowed to worship in build-
ings. In some places the windows are mere holes in the face of the rock,
while in others the front is composed of solid masonry. A wooden veran-
dah before the church is supported over the massive bells.

About twenty thousand pilgrims resort hither annually in the month of
August. Altogether it is a curious place, and harmonizes well with the
strange scenery in which it is situated ; so that the monks deserve some
eredit for adding to the charms of a spot already possessing so many at-
tractions ; and this is probably the only benefit their presence is likely to
confer upon the community.

Tlie ruins of the celebrated fortress of Mangmip Kale, a view of which
is given in the engraving on the opposite page, crown the summit of a hill
that terminates tlie vale of Balbeck, on the route from Baktchiscrai to
Yalta. Tlie uncertainty which hangs over the history of these fragments
of former greatness, tends to invest them with a mysterious interest jiecu-
liar to themselves. They are strewn so extensively over the surface of
the rock as to leave no doubt of the magnitude and importance which once
distinguished the city that crowned tliis mountain-top. They bear the
traces of almost every race whicli has inhabited the Crimea, are pervaded
by the very essence of antiquity, and arc regarded by the Tartars with tho
profoundest veneration. And they are worthy of it, for tliey are their own
historians ; and an account of their former owners, and the vicissitudes
these stones have undergone since they were first hewn from the solid rock,
may at a future time be extracted from them by some antiquarian who has
made it the study of his lifetime to worm himself into tho confidence of
such impenetrable records.

Meantime, authorities differ very widely upon tliis matter. The name
is frequently pronounced Mangoute. The latter syllable, signifying GofhSy
may perhaps lead us to suppose that it was derived from tho possessors of
that principality, of which this was atone time the capital. The Goths
were expelled from the lowlands by the Huns in the fourth century, and
still continued to live in an independent condition, defending themselves
in their fastnesses from the attacks of those barbarians who successively
possessed themselves of the remainder of the Tauric peninsula. According
to some authorities, Mangoup remained the capital of tho Gothic princi-
pality until it was taken by the Turks in the sixteenth century ; while
others suppose that, after the conquest of the Crimea by the Khazars, it
became a Greek fortress, and so remained until it fell into the hands of
the Genoese, at the same time with the Greek colonies on the coast. This
is probably the correct view, as the greater part of the remains are Gre-
cian. Professor Pallas calls Mangoup " an ancient Genoese city, which

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA.

206

Manoovf Kalw.

appears to have been the last resort of the Ligurians after they were driven
from the coast." Still tlie chapel, which is here excavated from the rock,
and the imnj^es of saints, which he describes as painted on the walls, may
be traces of the Christian Goths no less than of the Genoese ; but it is
extremely improbable that such is the case.

In 1745, Mangoup was occuj)ied by a Turkish garrison for twenty years,
after which it was taken possession of by the khan of the Crimea. It had
been for many years inhabited almost exclusively by Karaite Jews. These
gradually dwindled away, until they totally disappeared about sixty years
ago, and have left nothing behind them but the ruins of their synagogue
and a large cemetery, containing tombs similar to those in the valley of
Jehoshaphat.

There is very little loft of the massive buildings which once adoi'ned this
famous town, except the foundations. The lofty calcareous promontory
upon which the fortress is perched, is about a mile long, and a quarter of
a mile broad. Upon three sides it is surrounded by frightful precipices,
while that by which alone it is accessible is defended by castellated towers,
placed at intervals in the massive wall. At right angles with it, and inter-
secting the narrow promontory, are the remains of another wall ; and the
most perfect building now existing is a squai'e fori; built into it, two stories
high, and pierced with loopholes for musketry. The upper, edge of the
plateau is perforated by small chambers cut out of the solid rock, and ap-

IBHK**

«^BBi'

hB^R'

aUml

IbB^h*

n^H^i

hIH;

Q^^^>i

\!^Kmi

l^n^Hl

!s^^B^m:^

mHi

^B^KK)

IS^Bt'

'i^HI

n^B

S^KKM

■K

IHHI

206

ILLUSinATED DESCRIPTION OF HUSSIA.

preached by stairs from the upper surface. Many of these chambers are
from fifteen to twenty feet square, and connected bj stairs ; but the work
of exploring requires nerves rather stronger than people who inhabit
houses instead of eagles' nests usually possess ; and the steps hewn out of
the face of the giddy cliff, Oliphant thought, were more picturesque to look
nt than agreeable to traverse. Who the dwellers in these singular cells
can have been, it is difficult to conjecture ; but they were probably inhalv
itcd before the town was built upon the rock above.

If the ruins of Mangoup Kale possessed no other merit, they serve at
least as an attraction to mount the cliffs upon which they are situated, and
the labor of the ascent is amply repaid by the view alone. A correct idea
of the configuration of this part of tlie Crimea is also obtained from the
fortress of Mangoup Kale. A precipitous limestone-range extends nearly
east and west, parallel to the sea-range ; and upon the edge of the stupen-
dous cliffs are perched the forts of Tchoufut Kale and Mangoup Kale.
The whole of the country intervening between these ranges is intersected
by lovely valleys, and watered by clear mountain-streams ; their banks are
highly cultivated, and frequent tufted groves betray the existence of tho
villages which they conceal. This tract is inhabited solely by Tartars,
who seem to cling to their highland glens with the tenacity characteristic
of mountaineers. They are a hardy, hospitable race, totally difl'erent from
their lowland brethren.

No Tartar ever dreams of walking from one village to another; but
when he wants to pay a visit to his neighbor, like a true country-gentleman
ho rides over to him ; and if he has not so good a horse as the squire, he
has scenery at least which the other might covet, and can beguile the way
with a contemplation of its beauties, if competent so to enjoy himself. To
the traveller furnished with a government order, the Tartars are bound to
provide horses at any village where it may be produced. These are often
poor-looking animals, but active and sure-footed, and admirably adapted
for the rocky passes which they are obliged to traverse ; indeed, they do-
serve great credit for the way in which they seem to cling to a mountain-
side, for they are shod with a flat plate of iron, with a hole at the frog,
which may be useful in stony deserts for protecting the hoof, but must
cause many a slip over the smooth rock. Not content with shoeing their
horses in this fashion, the Tartars treat their oxen in like manner. Their
singular process of shoeing these animals is well illustrated in the engra-
ving at the close of the chapter, on the following page. The animal is
placed upon the broad of his back, and there secured — a man sitting upon
the head. The four legs, tied together, thus point straight up in the air,
and the smith hammers away at his leisure, enabled by his convenient po-
sition to operate all the more skilfully. There is something excessively
ludicrous in the operation ; though, to judge from the scene presented in
the engraving, with tho assistant seated upon its head, in all probabilitj
the poor brute finds it no laughing matter.

"HTHEKN nUSBIA — THE CBIHEA.

SOT

" It was melancholy to think," remarks Oliphant, " that the inhabitants
of these lovely valleys wore gradually disappearing under the blighting
inliueiicc which Russia appears to exercise over her raoslom subjects. Of y
late years the Tartars have been rapidly diminishing, and now number
about a hundred thousand, or scarcely half the entire population of tho
Crimea. Tlieir energy, too, seems declining with their numbers. Whole
tracts of country susceptible of a high state of cultivation, and once pro-
ducing abundantly, are now lying waste ; their manufactures deteriorating,
tlieir territorial wealth destroyed, their noble families becoming extinct,
their poor ground down by Russian tax-gatherers, and swindled out of
their subsistence by dishonest sub-officials.

*' Ere long tho flat-roofed cottages, now buried amid the luxuriant vege-
tation of clustering fruit-trees, will crumble into dust, and with them tho
last remains of that nation who once occupied an important position among
European nations. Is the only Mohammedan state still existing in the
West to share tho same fate o,s the kingdom of Crim Tartary ?"

•HOVTWa * 1tDU«ai

-;vN>-u».-ii'v -• >.

208

XLLUSTBATED DESCBIFTION OF BUBSIA.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE STEPPES OF SOUTHERN RUSSIA.

THE STEPPES of soutlicrn Russia (or at least portions of tliom) liavo
been casually noticed, in the descriptions which have been given in
the immediately preceding chapters on the governments of this divis-
ion of the empire. But they form so characteristic and so interesting a
feature in •) physical aspect of tlie country — as much so as the prairies of
our wester states, and which, in fact, they much resemble — that we will
give place to a general description of them here, even though it may involve
a slight repetition of what is incidentally ])resented in other chapters.

The steppes, as they are generally called, extend from the borders of
Hungary to those of China. They constitute an almost uninterrupted
plain, covered in spring and autunm by a luxuriant herbage ; in winter by
drifting snows, heaped up in some places, and leaving the ground bare in
others ; and in summer by clouds of dust so excessively fine, that even on
the calmest day they hang suspended in the air, having the appearance
rather of a vapor exhaled from the ground, than of earthy particles raised
by the agitation of the atmos{)here. The sliglit undulations that occur
assume but rarely the character of hills, but artificial hillocks or tumuli
are frequently met with, the origin of which it is impossible to trace
through the darkness of bygone ages. The most singular characteristic,
however, of the steppe, is the absence of trees, on a soil remarkable for ita
richness and the luxuriance of its herbage. For hundreds of miles, a trav-
eller may proceed in a straight line without encountering even a bush,
unless he happen to be acquainted with the few favored spots known to the
Tartar sportsmen, to whom they answer the purpose of game-preserves.
Countless herds of cattle roam over these noble pasture-grounds, on which
a calf born at the foot of the Great Chinese Wall, might eat his way along,
till he arrived a well-fattened ox on the banks of the Dniester, prepared
to figure with advantage at the Odessa market ! The poor animals suffer
much during the hot and dry summers, when every blade of grass is parched
up; but the careful herdsman, who has provided himself Avith an abundant
stock of hay, is able to keep his beasts alive till autumn returns to gladden
them with fresh abundance.

Wherever a ridge of hills occurs, of suflScient height to afford protection
against the northern blasts that come sweeping in an unbroken course from

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. ^

209

the sliorcs of the Arctic ocean, tho character of the country is cliangod. In
the Crimea, fur instance, tliough tlic northern portion partakes of nil tho
rude characteristics of the steppe, tho south coast, sheltered hy tho central
mountains, enjoys a climato equal to that of Italy, and allows the vino and
the olive to bo cultivated with as much success as in Provence.

A country constituted by nature as are the Russian steppes, is evidently
destined rather for a wandering and pastoral people, than for a settled and
agricultural population ; for in regions where but few prominent objects
occur, there is but little to attach man to any particular si)ot. The Russian
government, however, has undertaken tlie task of converting the nomadic
tribes into settled agriculturists, and the steppe itself into one vast grain-
field. German and Bulgarian colonists have been tempted, by the offer of
peculiar privileges, to establish thomsclvcs in diff"ercnt parts of the country,
in the liope that their example might gradually wean the native tribes from
their roving habits. Where the colonists have been located in the vicinity
of large towns, the plan has been attended with partial success ; but the
foreigners soon discover the capabilities of the countiy, and in proportion
as their means increase, rarely fail to invest their surplus capital in tho
purchase of flocks and herds, the numerical amount of which constitutes
tho customary standard by which wealth is estimated throughout the
steppe.

Tiie rivers winch intersect tho steppes, and which in spring are swollen
by the rapid thaw of the accumulated snows of winter, cut deep furrows in
the surface ; and as they frequently change their courses, thoy occasionally
leave dry ravines that break in some measure the uniformity of tho coun-
try. Little importance would be attached, in other parts of the world, to
the trilling elevations and depressions thus formed ; Imt in the stcppo, the
slightest variation of surface becomes a landmark of importance, and sepa-
rate denominations are given by tiio inhabitants to every peculiarity of
shape which tho ground is made to assume under the action of water.

Many of the rivers — indeed, all but the principal streams — arc fed only
by the rain and snow, and their beds, consequently, arc dry in summer.
Each of these ravines terminates in a waterfall, formed originally, no doubt,
by the terrace that bounds the Black sea, and which in some jjlaces rises
to the height of one hundred and eighty feet above the water level ; but in
proportion as tho water wore away a channel for itself, the waterfall grad-
ually receded, and, in the course of ages, made its way farther and farther
into the interior of the country.

The elevation of the ground being so nearly alike throughout the whole
of the steppe, tho ravines formed by tho action of tho rain-water arc of
nearly equal depth in every part of the country. They are seldom less
than a hundred feet deep, and seldom exceed a hundred and fifty. These
I'avines, or vuipolotsh, with their lateral branches on each side, as their
edges are at all times exceedingly abrupt, offer to the traveller, as well as
to the herdsman driving his lowing and bleating charge across tho plain,

210

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

an impassable barrier, to avoid wliich it is often necessary to go round for
many miles. Tlio consequence is, that several roads or tracks ore alwayH
sure to meet at the head of a vuipolotsh, which tlius becomes a spot of somo
importance tliroughout the surrounding country. In winter, the ravine is
usually filled by the drifting snow, and is tlicn extremely dangerous to
any ouo not well acquainted with the country. Men and cattle are at that
season often buried in the snow-drifts, and their fate is ascertained only
when the melting of the snow leaves tiicir bodies exposed at the foot of
the precipice.

The foregoing description does not, of course, apply to the larger rivers
that are supplied with water throughout the year. The banks of these
are less abrupt, but their elevation, though, more gradual, is about the
same, being seldom less than a hundred nor more than a hundred and fifty
feet over the level of the water. Tlic beds of these largo rivers are in
general remarkably broad, and arc almost always fringed with a bolt of
reeds, six or eight feet high, that forms au excellent cover for every de-
scription of water-fowl.

While the action of the rain is exercising so powerful an influence in tho
interior, the sea, as may easily be supposed, is not idle on the coast. A
very remarkable cliaracteristic of tho Black sea is, that at tho mouth of
every river a large lake is gradually formed by tho action of tlic sea, and
some of them are unconncoted with the sea. These lakes arc known along
the coast by the name of liman. These limans are suj)posed to liuvc been
formed by the action of tho sea driven into the mouth of the river by tho
violence of the i)revailing storms, and constantly underminiii'/ tlie terrace
of tho overhanging steppe. During tranquil weather, an < ppositc action
is going on. Tiie rivers are always turbid with the soil of the steppe, and
their water, arrested in its course by the tidcless sea, deposites its sedi-
ment in front of tlie liman, where a low strip of land is gradually formed.
This natural mound, by which every lima}% is in courso of time protected
against the further encroachment of the sea, is called a peressip. Where
the supply of water brouglit down by a river is tolerably large, the peressip
is never complete, but is bi ■cen by an aperture called a gheerl, that forms
a communication between tite liman and the sea. Many limans, however,
are fed by streams that bring down so feeble a volume of water, that tho
mere evaporation is suflBcient to carry off the whole surplus, ynd the pereS'
sip in such cases becomes perfect, forming a barrier that completely cuts
off all communication between the river and the sea. Limans so circum-
stanced exercise a baneful influ'>nco upon tho country, in consequence of
the offensive effluvia that arise fro:n the stagnant water in summer.

Occasionally in passing over thj steppe, the traveller perceives a slight
depression of the surface, as if a i> i> ''t,/ giapt had ?.aid his hand upon the
plain and pressed it down. In dwV rn^a. ^asine, oalled stavoks byi the
natives, the rain collects, and (n;aw;L ih", soil soon absorbs the water, the
place generally retains some moi^'ture long after tiie rest of the country

'■'... S'

SOUTH EnN RUASIA — THE STEPPES.

211

■., s^

has been parched up l>y the riiiinmcr heats. T'l'* xtovok, it may easily ho
BUpposocI, is, nt Mch a time, on ()l»joct of no 'rifling irni>^>rtaii(,'c to tlio herdw-
man, and is ciuciully guarded ngainst the iniruHtf'n of stju jiov s. A belief
prevails upon the steppe timt the stavoks are liolcs fornted by the ancient
M'.ngolians, who dug out the earth to form 'heir tiinii.ii ''lit there is i*o
gocd reapon to suppose that the depression has originated otherwi o than
l>y a slight sinking of the subjacent strata.

The climate of the steppes is one of extremes. In summer, the litmt is
as intense as the cold is severe in winter, the waters of the Black sea exer-
cising apparontb but little influence in tempering the atmosphere. Tliig
is accountcti fo' '.»y (ho obrupt rise of the coast, which arrests the strata
of air inii>t">Ui;itcl/ ab'i,e the surface of the water, and leaves a free course
only to liiddc jK>rtion- of the air that fly at a higher level. The steppe,
thcr-'l'iu'c, ha .< ually an arctic winter and a tropical summer, and enjoys,
oni y (1 iring spring and autumn, short intervals of that moderate tcmpera-
tui'' tvj which its gcogrujihicul position, in the temperate zone, would app»;ar
to iMititle it.

The core or substance of the long winter of the stepi>o is formed by tho
three montlis of December, January, and February, during which all tlio
energies of nature appear sunk in an unbroken sleep ; but tliough unbroken,
it is by no means a (piiot sleep that Danie Nature is allowed to enjoy during
tliis [icriod of the year, for the snow-storms are of frequent occurrence, and
so excessively violent, that even the mo-^t seasoned veterans of the steppo
stand in uwe of them. Every road or track is frecjuently altogether eflaced,
the ravines are filled up, and cases even occur vhere men and cattle are
suddenly caught by a drift of snow, and completely buried under its accu-
mulating mass. The emperor Nicholas once, in travelling in a sledgo
across the steppes, was capsized in a steep ravine, and was taken up with a
broken clavicle. To the more violent of these storms no traveller attempts
to expose himself; and even the government couriers are excused if, during
the three days — their usual duration — they remain closely housed at tho
station which they happen to have reached.

The winter of the steppe, in intensity of cold, frequently surpasses tho
severest seasons known on the shores of the Baltic ; and the cutting blasts
from tho north, sweeping hug»^ masses of snow into tlic Black sea, often
CO ' V with a thick coating of ice for many leagues from the shore. The
steppe, accordingly, participates in all the severity of a Russian winter, but
enjoys few of the advantages which to the northern Russian go far to
redeem tho intensity of tho ct)ld. In northern Russia, and even in tho
Ukraine, tho snow remains on the ground during tho greater part of tho
winter, and the sledges quickly wenr the surface of tho road into a smooth
mass of ice, over which tho heaviest goods may be transported with a speed
and facility surpassed only by a railroad. The Russian, therefore, usually
prefers the winter months, not only for travelling, but also for the convey-
ance of heavy goods from ono place to another. To the denizen of tho

212

ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTIOX OP RUaSIA.

Wintib-Travellimq on thb STKrrss— Slbdoks.

steppe this natural railroad is unknown. The storma that prevail through-
out the greater part of tlie Avinter keep the snow in a constant state of agi-
tation, and prevent it from " caking" on the ground. The snow, in conse-
quence, never uniformly covers the stoi)pc, but seems to lie unequally scat-
tered over it in dril"ts, according as the wind may have wafted it ahout.

When the snow molts on the steppe, the sj)riiig may l)C said to commence.
This usually takes j)lac'e in Ajiril, but May is sometimes far advanced be-
fore the mass of water has had time to find its way into the rivers. During
this meUing season, tlie whole surface of the steppe is converted into a sea
of mud, tlirongh which neitlier man nor beast can wade without positive
danger. Through every ravine rushes a torrent of the dirtiest water that
can well bo imagined, and about the dwellings of men the accumulated fdth
of the winter is at once exposed to view, by (he disappearance of the snowy
mantle that, for a season, had chaiitably covered a multitude of sins. Thi>>
operation is frequently interrupted l)y the return of frost, and the descent
of fresh masses of snow — for there is no country, perhaps, where Winter
makes a harder light for it, before he allows himself to be beaten out of
the field. Vriien at last boisterous old Ilycms has really been forced to
beat his retreat, a most delightful period of the year succeeds, and the
eteppe, covered with a beautiful and luxuriant herbage, smiles like a lovely
oasis between the parched desolation of the summer and the dreary M'asto
of the winter. The whole earth now seems clad in the color of IIopo,
while the sky assumes that of Truth ; and though it is certainly monoto
nous enough to behold nothing but bliie above and green below, yet the
recollection of past hardships, and the consciousness of present abundance,
make the season one of rejoicing to the notivo, and even excite for a while

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

21b

the admiration of tho stranger. The latter, however, is certain, before
long, to grow weary of a spring unadorned by a single flowering shrub,
unvaried by n single bubbling brook.

Thunder and lightning are frequent throughout May, but the thunder-
storm on the steppe is, comparatively, but a poor kind of- spectacle, there
being neither trees nor rocks for the lightning to show his might upon, nor
mountains, by their reverberating echoes, to give increased majesty to the
pealing artillery ot heaven ; but these discharges of atmospheric electricity,
though they want the grandeur of the Alpine tempest, are dear to tho peo-
ple of the steppe, where tlicy are always accompanied by either showers
or night-dews, so that as long as it thunders there is no lack of fodder for
the cattle.

In June, the lightning ceases to play, and the periodical drouglit an-
nounces its approach, the whole month passing frequently away \vitliout
depositing a particle of moisture on the ground. The consequences of this
begin to manifest themselves in July, when the heated soil cracks in every
direction, opening its parclicd lips in supplication for a few drops of water
that are not vouclisafcd. Ilcavy and tantalizing clouds, it is true, sweep
over the steppe, but, instead of sliowering their blessings on the thirsty
land, htiiry away to the Carpathian mountains or to the sea. The sun at
this season rises and sets like a globe of fire, but the evaporations raised
froiji the earth by tlie mid-day lieat seldom fail to give a misty appearance
to the sky toward noon. Tl\e heat, meanwliile, is rendered intolerable by
its duration, for anything like a cool interval never occurs, and shade is
not to be thought of in a country wliere liills and trees are alike unknown.

Tliis season is one of great sufl'ering to all living beings on the steppe.
Every trace of vegetation is singed away, except in a few favored spots ;
the surface of the ground becomes browner and browner, and at last com-
pletely black. Men and cattle assume a lean and haggard look, and the
wild oxen and horses, so fierce and ungovernable in May, become as tame
as lambs in July, and can scarcely crawl in August. Ponds dry up, wells
cease to furnish water, and tho beds of lakes are converted into sandy
hollows. Water now rises in price, and becomes an article v.hich it is
worth a tliief's while to steal. The few springs that continue to yield
must have a guard set upon thorn night and day, or tho legitinmte owner
will scarcely keep enougii (o slake liis own thirst. At this season thou-
sands of cattle perish on tho steppe of thirst ; wliile, as if to mock their
8uflerings,tlie liorizon seems laden with humid clouds, and the parched soil
assumes to tlie clieated eye in the distance the appearance of crystal lakes
and running streams !

In nuuiy respects tlie summer on the steppe is more cruel even than in
the Salmra of Africa, or in tlie Llanos of South America, for in neither of
these docs the moisture so completely disappear from the soil, and in the
African desert, wherever there is water, a little terrestrial paradise of
date-trees and flowering shrubs is certain to bo grouped around ; but in

( ;S?

214

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

the steppe, even the rivers flow only between grass, and reeds arc tlio only
shrubs by which the banks arc fringed, while from the parched and gaping
earth not even a cactus or an aloe peeps forth, into which a thirsty animal
might bite to moisten its lips Avith the juice.

In August, the dryness of the atmosphere reaches the extreme point ;
but, before the end of the month, the night-dews set in, and thunderstorms
are occasionally followed by rain. The leaden, dusty sky becomes clear
and blue again, and everything reminds you that the delights of autumn
are approaching. The temperature of September is mild und refreshing,
and the detestable black dust of the steppe, kept down by frequent show-
ers, no longer gives to every creature the complexion of a negro. A fresh,
green herbage quickly covers the Avholc plain, and man and beast in a short
time recover their strength and spirits.

Delightful the autumn of the steppe unquestionably is, but short and
fleeting are its charms, for October is already a gusty Scythian month,
marked by cold rains and fogs, and usually closing amid violent storms ;
and as to November, that is set down as a winter month even by the most
seasoned Russian.

Every plant or herb on the steppe, on which the cattle will feed, is
known by the general name of trava; and every woody, wiry stem, from
which they turn away, is ruthlessly classed in the condemned list of bvrian.
The thistle deserves the first place among the burian of the steppe. We
have but little notion in this country of the height to which tlio thistle will
often grow in soutlicrn Russia, where it not unfrequently assumes the form
and size of a tree, overshadowing with its branches the low-sunken dwel-
lings of the troglodytes of the steppe. In places peculiarly favored by the
thistle, this description of burian will sometimes grow in such abundance,
as to form a little grove, in which a Cossack on his horse may comi)lotely
hide himself!

Another description of weed that stands in very bad odor in the steppe,
has been aptly denominated wind-witch by the German colonists. This is
a worthless plant that expends all its vigor in the formation of innuniera-
blo threadlike fibres, that shoot out in every direction, till tlie whole forms
a light globular mass. The little sap to be obtained from this i)lant is bit-
terer than the bitterest wormwood, and even in the driest summer no animal
will touch the wind-witch. It grows to the height of three feet, and in
autumn the root decays, and the upper part of the ])lant becomes com-
pletely dry. The huge shuttlecock is then torn from the ground by the
first high wind that rises, and is sent dancing, rolling, and hopping over the
plain, with a rapidity which tl)c best-mounted rider would vainly attempt
to emulate. The Germans could not have christened tlie plant more aptly ;
and, in bestowing on it the expressive name by which it is known among
them, they no doubt thouglit of the national legends long associated with
the far-famed, witch-haunted recesses of the Blocksberg. The wild dances
with which fancy has enlivened that ill-reputed mountain are yearly imitated

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

215

by the wind-ioilches on the steppe. Sometimes they may be seen skipping
along like a herd of deer or wild horses ; sometimes describing wide circles
in the grass, sometimes rolling madly over one another, and sometimes
rising by hundreds into the air, as though they were just starting to par-
take in the diabolical festivities of the -Blocksberg itself! They adhere to
each other sometimes like so many enormous burs, and it is not an uncom-
mon sight to see some twelve or twenty rolled into one mass, and scouring
over tlie plain like a giant in his seven-league boots. Tliousands of them
arc yearly blown into the Black sea ; but with tliis salto mortale ends the
vntcWs career, who loses in the water all the fantastic graces that distin-
guished her while ashore.

As next in importance among the burian of tlie steppe, the bitter worm-
wood must not be forgotten. It grows to the height of six feet, and some-
times, in a very dry summer, the cattle Avill not disdain to cat of it. All
the milk and 'butter then become detestably bitter, and sometimes particles
of the dry wormwood adhere to the wheat, in which case the bitter flavor
of the plant is imparted to the bread.

Botanists reckon about five hundred species of plants as native to the
steppe, and each species usually grows in large masses. For leagues to-
gether the traveller will see notliing but wormwood ; and, on leaving so
bitter a specimen of vegetation, he will come to a tulip-bed, covering many
thousands of acres; and, at the end of that, to an equal extent of wild
mignionette, to which cultivation has not, however, imparted the delicious
perfume which recommends it to the horticulturist of more civilized lands.

8u3imu.Tbavk|,lin(« on the STKrrM — a Tabantas8E.

For days together the tarantasse will then roll past tlie same description of
coarse grass, ungainly to look ujion, but on whicli the sheep thrive admi-
rably, and which is said to give to Tartar mutton a delicious flavor that
the travelled epicure vainly looks for in Mie gorgeous restaurants of Paris,
or in that joint-stock association of comfort and luxury, a London or New
York club.

A siugular ])honomenon of the steppe manifests itself when man invades
it with his plough. The disturbed soil immediately shoots forth every

216

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

variety of burian, against wliich the fanner must oxert unceasing vigilance,
or else farewell to the hope of a productive harvest. If the same land is
afterward left fallow, the burian takes possession of the field, and riots for
a few j'cars in undisturbed luxuriance. A struggle then goes on for some
years longer between the weeds and the grass ; but the latter, strange to
say, in almost every instance, triumi)hs in the cud, and a beautiful pasture-
ground succeeds, which goes on improving from year to year, till it attains
its higlicst degree of perfection. A reaction then ensues: a species of
coarse grass, known by botanists under the name of stipa pinnata, ttykes
possession of the ground, which it covers with its hard and woody stems,
till the farmer, taking advantage of the tirst dry weather in spring, clears
away the whole plantation by setting fire to it.

The burning of the steppe is the only kind of manuring to which it is
ever subjected, and is generally executed in spring, in order that a fresh
crop of grass may immediately rise, like a young plicenix, frpm the ashes.
Tiiis department of Tartar husbandry is usually managed with much cau-
tion, and the conflagration rarely extends beyond the limits intended to be
assigned to it; but sometimes a fire rises by accident, or in consequence
of a malicious act of incendiarism, and then the conflagration rages far and
wide, sweeping along for hundreds of leagues, destroying cattle and grain-
fields, and consuming not only single houses, but whole villages in its way.

These fires are particularly dangerous in summer, owing to the inflam-
mable condition, at that season, of almost every description of herbage.
The flaming torrent advances with irresistible force, towering up among
the lofty thistles, or advancing with a stealthy, snakclike stop through the
parclied grass. Not even the wind can always arrest its destructive course,
for a fire of this kind will go streaming in the very teeth of the wind, now
slowly and the rapidly, according to the nature of the fuel that supplies
its forces. At \es the invader finds himself compressed between ravines,
and appears to have spent his strength ; but a few burning particles blown
across by a gust of wind enable him to make good his position on new
ground, and he loses no time in availing himself of the opportunity. A
well-beaten road, a ravine, or a piece of sunk ground in which some rem-
nant of moisture has kept the grass green, arc the points of which advan-
tage must be taken if the enemy's advance is to bo stopped. At such
places, accordingly, the sheplierds and herdsmen post themselves : trenches
arc hastily dug, the flying particles are carefully extinguished as they fall,
and sometimes the attempt to stop the course of such a conflagration is
attended with success. Often, however, the attempt fails ; and the despair-
ing husbandmen see one wheatfield after another in a blaze, their dwellings
reduced to ashes, and the afi"righted cattle scouring away over the plain
before tlie advancing volumes of smoke !

The course of one of these steppe-fires is often most capricious. It will
leave a tract of country uninjured, and travel for eight or ten days into
the interior, and the farmer whose land has been loft untouched will begin

•im

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

217

tu flatter himself with the belief that his grain and his cattle are safe , but
all at once the foe returns with renewed vigor, and the scattered farm-
houses, with the ricks of hay and grain grouped in disorder around, full a
prey to the remorseless destroyer. The farmer, however, is not without
his consolation on these occasions. The ashes of the herbage form an
excellent manure for the ground, and the next crops invariably repay him
a portion of his loss. Indeed, so beneficial is the cfl'ect, that many of the
large proprietors subject tlieir land regularly every four or five years to
the process of burning ; but the operation is then performed with much
caution, wide trenches being first vlug around the space within which it is
intended that the fire should remain confined.

To the same process likewise are subjected the forests of reeds by Avhich
all the rivers of the steppe are fringed ; but this is deemed so dangerous,
tliat the law imposes banishment to Siberia as the jjcnalty of the offence.
Nevertheless, there are few places where the reed?? are not regularly burnt
away each returning spring — at which season, during the night, the
Dnieper and Dniester appear to be converted into rivers of lire. There
are two motives for setting fire to the reeds, and these motives are power-
ful enough to completely neutralize the dread of Siberia : in the first place,
the reeds serve as a cover to multitudes of wolves, which, when driven by
fire either into the water or into tlie open plain, are easily destroyed by
their remorseless enemies the shepherds and herdsmen. The second mo-
tive is, the ho[M3 of obtaining a better supply of young reeds by destroying
the old ones. The reeds, it must be borne in mind, are of great value
in tlie steppe, where, in the absence of timber and stones, they form the
chief material for building.

The animal is not more varied than the vegetable kingdom ; and both,
to the naturalist, seem poor, though to the less scientific observer the steppe
appears to be teeming with life. Uniformity, in fact, is more or less the
distinguishing characteristic of the country, and the same want of va. iety
that marks its outward features prevails throughout every class of its ani-
imate and innaimato productions ; but though few the species, the masses
in which each presents itself are surprising. Eagles, vultures, hawks,
and other birds, that are elsewhere rarely seen except singly, make their
appearance on the steppe in large flights. The reed-grounds fairly teem
with ducks, geese, and pelicans ; the grass is alive with swarms of little
earth-hares ; larks, pigeons, thrushes, rooks, and plovers, are met with
everywhere ; and even butterflies, and other insects, appear in formidable
masses. Among the latter, the locust (of which we shall have more to say
by-and-by) plays a very important part. Few of these animals can be said
to be peculiar to the steppe ; but, though found in other lands, they are not
found there under similar circumstances, and the peculiar character of the
country exorcises a powerful influence in modifying the habits and instinct
of animals. .?; • l... ,s^. u.i . *

The traveller has no sooner crossed the Dnieper, at Kremcntchoug, in

MM
III:

218

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

the government of Poltava, than he sees a little animal gliding about every-
where through the grass, and even along the high-road. This little animal
is called by the Russians, sooslik; by the German colonists, earth-hare;
and, by the scientific, Cylillus vulgaris. It is a graceful little creature,
and quite peculiar to the steppe, never found in woody regions, and rarely
even in the vicinity of a bush. It is particularly fond of the bulbous plants
that abound in the steppe, and multiplies astonishingly. In manner and
appearance it is something between a marmot and a squirrel, smaller than
the former, and differing from the latter in tlie color of tlie fur and the
shortness of its tail. The soosliks burrow under the ground, and hoard up
a stock of food for tlie winter. Their holes have always two entrances,
and it is easy to drive them from their cover by pouring water in at one
end, for to water they have so great an avei'sion, that they are always
observed to decrease in numbers in wet seasons, and multiply astonishingly
in dry ones. The lively and frolicsome character of the sooslik is a con-
stant source of amusement to a stranger. Tlic little creatures are seen in
every direction ; sometimes gamboling together in tlie grass, at others sit-
ting timidly at the doors of their houses, to watch the approach of an
enemy. If a man or other strange oliject draws near, they rise upon their
hind legs, like miniature kangaroos, and stretcli their little heads up so
high, that one niiglit almost fancy they had the power of drawing them-
selves out like a telescope. Their little furs are used by the women as
edgings for their dresses, and entire cloaks and dressing-gowns are often
made of them. Of all the quadrupeds of the steppe, the sooslik is by far
the most abundant ; it affords the cliief article of food to the wild dogs,
and is a constant object of chase to wolves, foxes, eagles, hawks, and other
animals of prey.

The next in importance among the quadrupeds of the steppe is the
mouse, which frequents the granaries in immense numbers ; so much so,
that the farmers will sometimes set fire to a whole rick of grain, (re the
mere purpose of destroying the mice.

Tlie wolf of the stepj)e is a smaller animal than the forest-wolf, and dis-
tinguishes himself from the wolves of other countries by liis subterranean
propensities. Natural caverns become elsewhere the refuge of the wolf,
but on the steppe he burrows like a rabbit, and it is there by no means an
uncommon thing to find a nest of young wolves several fathoms deep in the
ground. In the neighborhood of Odessa, and the other large towns, these
four-footed sheep-stealers are but seldom met with ; but in no part of the
world do they abound more than in the woodland districts by which the
steppe is skirted, and from these haunts they sally forth in countless num-
bers, to prowl around the flocks and herds of the open country. Every
farmhouse in the steppe is surrounded by fences twelve or fourteen feet
high to protect them against the inroads of the wolves, yet these banditti
of the plain are incessant in their attacks, and cases are by no means un-
common of their carrying off even infants from the cradle.

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

219

The dogs of tlio steppe are the most vulgar and ■worthless of all the curs
in the world. They are long-haired, long-legged, long-headed, and long-
tailed, and have evidently more wolfish than doggish blood in tlieir veins,
Their prevailing color is a dirty grayish-brown, and, though little cared
for by the southern Russian, their number is incredible, and fully equal to
what it can bo in any part of the Ottoman empire. Yet the southei'n Rus-
sian never tolerates a dog in his house, nor ever admits him to that famil-
iarity which the race enjoys with us, and to which the cat and the cock
are constantly courted by the tenants of the steppe. Still, whether as a
protection against tlie wolf, or whether in consequence of that carelessness
which allows the breed to multiply unchecked, every habitation on the
steppe is sure to bo surrounded by a herd of dogs, that receive neither
food nor caresses from the hands of their owners, but must cater for them-
selves as well as they can. In spring, the season of abundance, when all the
cattle and horses of the steppe run wild, the dog likewise wanders forth
from the habitation of his master, and the puppies born at that period of
the year are not a bit tamer than the wolves themselves, until the samjots
of winter drive them back to the farmyards and villages. In summer, the
dogs hunt the mice, rats, and soosliks, suck the eggs of birds, and learn
even to catch a bird upon the wing, if it venture too near the ground ; but
in winter they are certain to congregate about the towns and villages, where
swarms of shy, hungry, unowned dogs, are seen lurking about in search of
any kind of garbage that may be thrown away. Dozens of them may often
then be seen gathered about the body of a dead animal, and gnawing away
eagerly at its frozen sinews.

In the country, the dogs are a subject of complaint with every one, and
with none more than with those who devote some care to the cultivation
of their gardens. Tlic'dog of the steppe is passionately fond of fruit, and
will not only devour the grapes in the vineyards, but will even climb into
the trees in search of pears and plums ! The better the dog is fed, the
more eager ho will be after fruit, which is supposed to cool his blood, after
too free an indulgence in animal food.

Like the wolves, the dogs of the steppe burrow in the ground, where
they dig roomy habitations, with narrow doors and spacious apartments, in
which they find shelter against the heat of summer and the cold of winter.
The half-savage state in which the dogs live, leads them often to pair with
the Avolves, and a kind of cross-breed ensues. These mongrels are usefLl
in hunting wolves, whom they attack with greater animosity than any other
dogs will do ; and, when old, they are usually destroyed, their skins being
nearly of the same value as those of genuine wolves.

Among birds, none abounds more on the steppe than the bustard, or
drukhva, as the Russians call it, which may be seen grazing in every direc-
tion. It migrates from northern Russia on the approach of winter ; but
near Odessa, and about the mouths of the Dniester and Dnieper, it gener-
ally remains all the year round. Bustards are usually scon in parties of

J, I

I <

1 1

220

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION' OP RUSSIA.

BiBD-Btmrma on trk BrirrBi.

from twelve to twenty, but their gregarious habits increase in proportion
as the winter advances, when from eighty to a hundred will often be found
togetlier. This, however, arises not so nmch from the sociable projieusi-
ties of the bird, as from the more limited extent of pasture to which it is
then obliged to confine itself. If, terrified by the approach of a real or
supposed enemy, one of these large flocks rises, the birds do not remain
together, but fly away in difl'erent directions to tlieir several nests. In
June or July, they nmy be observed feeding with their young, and on those
occasions the male bird is usually seen anxiously watching over the secu-
rity of his mate and little ones, whom he never fails to apprize of any dan-
ger that may seem to be drawing near. His vigilance is so great, that it
is extremely difficult to get a shot at them. The Ruesians maintain that
the bustard knows exactly how far a gun will carry, and never gives tho
alarm a moment sooner or later than is really necessary I Nevertheless,
tho Cossacks, who are the chief sportsnicn on the steppe, contrive to out-
match the bustard in cunning. Sometimes they creep like snakes through
the long grass, and come unobserved upon their prey ; sometimes they lure
the male birds by means of a little instrument made out of tho windpipe of
an ox, on which the treacherous hunter contrives to imitate with astonish-
ing accuracy the cry of the female. The most remarkable kind of bustard-
hunting, however, takes place in winter. The birds at that season creep
under tho thistles and other high weeds in search of some shelter against
the severity of the cold, ^v'^hile in this position, if a hoar frost comes on,
their wings become so incrusted with ice, that they lose the power of flying,

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

221

and thoy then fall an easy prey to foxes, wolves, and, rbovo all, to man.
The Cossacks, on horseback, run them down with ease, and kill them with
the blow of a whip. If the hunter has chosen his time well, and is nimble
in the chase, he may expect good sport. Indeed, there are men among
the peasantry of the steppe who have become comparatively rich by a few
successful bustard-hunts. One man, it is said, killed a hundred and fifty
bustards in one morning with his whip, and sold them at Odessa for four
hundred and fiftv roubles. In the north, ten or fifteen roubles are often
given for one of these birds.

Eagles, vultures, and other birds of prey, are sufficiently abundant, and
have probably always been so ; but of lute years, since a portion of tho
steppe has been brought under the plough, a number of granivorous bird?
have made their ajipearance that were formerly altogether unknown there,
and others that were formerly rare have multiplied in a striking manner
Of singing-birds, the lark is the only one known on the steppe ; but iu tli*
gardens about Odessa, the nightingale is occasionally heard.

Of reptiles there is no lack ; frogs, toails, and snakes, abounding in every
part of the country, notwithstanding the drynes.s of the soil. Toads, par-
ticularly, display their ugly forms in every direction ; and after a shower
of rain they sometimes show themselves in such numbers, that it is dithcult
to walk a dozen paces without becoming the involuntary instrument of de-
struction to several of them. Sometimes a remarkable phenomenon occurs
in the summer months, known as the toad-shower. In June or July, and
sometimes even in August, after a short but heavy shower of rain, the
ground is suddenly covered with myriads of small toads, and no one can
say whence they come, or whither, after a little while, they go. Of the
numbers of these toads, strange stories are told. Millions and millions
are seen covering the ground, like an army of locusts. It is quite disgust-
ing to walk among them, for in stopping on the ground a man may crush
forty or fifty of them at once. Ti»e wheels of a cart would be saturated
Avith the juices of the dead toads, and incrustod with their loathsome bodies !
In size they are stated to be all extremely diminutive, about as large as
the young toads that appear early in the sju'ing, but much more lively and
active. Immediately after the shower, they are seen in the greatest num-
bers ; but they soon disappear, and on the following day not a trace is to
bo found of them, nor is it observed that, after one of these showers, the
number of toads by which the rivers and ponds are peopled is ever mate-
rially increased.

Lizards are also numerous, and sometimes not less than eighteen inches
long. A Cossack looks upon them with great dread ; but a Cossack stands
iu awe of every animal formed diflcrently from his horse, his ox, or his dog.

Of all reptiles, however, the snake is the most abundant, though much
less so in those parts of the country tliat arc most thickly settled, particu-
larly in those where the German colonists have been located, for the
southern Russian is generally too much afraid of a snake to kill it, even

i
I

IN.

I:',

:lf -I

222

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

though it take up its abode under the same roof with him. " Let a snake
alone," says tlic Russian, '* and he will let you alone ; but if you kill it, its
Vholc race will persecute you !" They believe in the existence of some-
thing of a corporation spirit among the snakes, and maintain that the
relatives of a dead snake will never rest till they have avenged his death.
The snake, they believe, is in the habit of dispensing poetical justice tow-
ard murderers in general, but more particularly toward those worst of
murderers, the killers of snakes !

Tlie largest snake of the steppe is the Coluber trabalis, which, according
to some, has been seen of the length of eighteen feet, but instances of nine
or ten feet long are of frequent occurrence. Legends are not wanting
among the Cossacks of gignntlc serpents that, at no very remote period,,
infested the reed-grounds of the Dniester, whence they sallied forth to kill
men and oxen, and now and then to amuse themselves by running down a
rider and his steed, no horse being fleet enough to effect its escape, if one
of these ogre snakes had once fairly started in chase of it ; b'jt these fabu-
lous embellishments were hardly wanting, the plain truth being often for-
midable enough. The colonists of two adjoining villnges noticed for sev-
eral weeks that large tracks were continually made through their grain-
fields, as though a sack of flour had been dragged througli them. They
were at a loss to think who the trespasser could be, till one day a young
foal was found half killed in the field, and from the appearance of the
wounds it was immediately suspected that a large snake must be prowling
about the villages. A few days afterward these suspicious were confirmed
by the arrival of four or five carts that came galloping into the village. It
was hard to say whether the drivers or the horses were most frightened.
They had been camping out during the whole night on the steppe, r.s is
commonly done l)y agricultural laborers, the great distance of the grain-
fields from the farmer's house making it often impossible for his men to
return home every day ; indeed, during the busy season, they often remain
on the steppe from Monday morning till Saturday night, and spend only
the Sunday at home. They gave so formidable an account of the huge
snake by which they and their horses had been scared, that the schuhe
(the first magistrate of the village) thought it his duty to order a levy en
masse, and invited the neighboring colonists to join in the snake-hunt.
About a hundred young men were got together, who sallied forth, armed
with guns and clubs, and spent the whole day in beating every corner
where the insidious game was likely to lie concealed. They found nothing,
however, and were quizzed and laughed at on their return. But the schuhe
kept his party on the alert, and the next day the snake was again seen by
some shepherds, who had fled with their flocks in dismay, but not before
the huge reptile had killed one of their horses before their faces. The
schulze and his posse comitatus took the field again, and this time they
succeeded in getting sight of the enemy. Several shots were fired. The
snake was wounded, and immediately took to Qight, leaving a track of

SOUTHERK RUSSIA— THE STEPPES.

223

blood to mark its course, which was pursued for some time till lost in the
recd-grounds of the Dniester, where the creature probably died, for it
was never lieard of afterward. The length of the animal was estimated to
bo at least twenty feet.

In the vicinity of the German colonics, few snakes arc now seen ; but in
the more remote parts of the steppe there are still districts in which they
abound to sucli a degree, that no herdsman will venture to drive his cattle
there.

Tiie snake, however, is an enemy of little moment when compared to a
small insect that visits the steppe from time to time, and often marks its
presence by the most fearful devastation. This insect is the locust. It is
sometimes not heard of for several years in succession, and tlicn again it
shows itself, more or less, every season for four or five years together.
"NVlien tiic German colonists first came into the country, about forty years
ago, the locusts had not been heard of for many years. There were two
species of them known to exist, but they lived like other insects, multiplied
with moderation, and were never spoken of as objects of dread. About
1820 it was first observed that tlie locusts had become decidedly more nu-
merous. In 1824 and 1825 they began to be troublesome ; but in 1828
and 1820 they came in sucli enormous clouds, that they obscured the sun,
destroyed the harvests, and in many places left not a trace of vegetation be-
hind them ! The poor colonists were in despair, and many of them thouglit
the day of judgment must be at hand. They apj)lied for advice as to what
they ought to do, but tiieir Russian and Tartar neighbors could suggest
nothing, the oldest among them having no recollection of such scenes of
devastation, though they remembered to liave heard of similar calamities
as iiaving occurred in the days of their fathers. Under these circum-
stances, the Germans set their wits to work, and devised a system of oper-
ation, by means of which many a field was rescued from the devouring
swarms.

The colonists established for themselves a kind of locust-police. Who-
ever first sees a swarm approaching is bound to raise an immediate alarm,
and give the earliest possible information to the schuize, wlio immediately
orders out the whole village, and every man, woman, and child, comes
forth, armed with bells, tin-kettles, guns, pistols, drums, whips, and what-
ever other noisy instruments they can lay tlieir hands on. A frightful din
is then raised, which often has the efl"ect of scaring away the swarm, and
inducing it to favor some quieter neighborhood with its presence.

If the locusts have an aversion to noise, they are still greater enemies
to smoking, against which King James I. of England himself did not enter-
tain a more pious horror. The colonists, accordingly, on the first' appear-
ance of a fresh swarm, get together as much straw, vine-branches, and dry
dung, as they can, and with these, fires are lighted about the fields ond
grounds which it is thought most desirable to protect. This expedient,
however, is often a complete failure; for when one of these countless

•m

n .11

224

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

swarms has dropped upon the ground, and proceeds grazing along in the
direction of the tire, tlic mere weight of tho gcjieral mass forces the fore-
most rniil<a into tlic Hanios, wliero a few tlioiisands of them pcriMli, perhaps,
but their bodies extinguish tho Hro, and leave a free field for the advancing
enemy.

Soinotimos the colonists succeed by means ofsmoko in scaring a swarm,
and making it take to the air again, and then great skill is shown in. ma-
king it fly away from tlie fields whicli it is wished to preserve. If a lake
or tlic sea be near at hand, it is thought a great point to drive the locusts
into the water, into which they fall in such enormous masses, that their
bodies form at Inst little floating islands : upon these their more fortunate
companions establish themselves, to the height of twenty or thirty inches !
If a strong wind blow from the shore, these pyramids of locusts arc, of
course, driven out to sea, and nothing more is heard of tliem ; l)ut if the
Avind be not strong, they work their way back to ihc slioro, where they
soon dry their wings and prej)are themselves for fresh depredations. Tlio
millions, meanwhile, that have found a Avatery grave, give a blackened huo
to the foam of the breakers, and lie scattered along tho coast in long lines,
that look like huge masses of seaweed thrown up by the waves. The cun-
ning of the locusts on these occasions is surprising. A swarm that, with
the aid of a strong wind, has been driven out to sea, will often return to
shore, not attempting to fly in the wind's teeth, but beating to windward,
M'ith a succession of tacks, in regular seamanlike style !

The locusts appear to be awar'^ that, in the village-gardens, they will
find many things to please their palates ; and, accordingly, they selilom
fail to go a little out of their way when they see a village to tho #ight or
left of their line of march. Tlic terror of a village attacked by one of
these swarms may be more easily imagined than described. Fancy a heavy
fall of snow, each flake a little black, voracious insect, and these, as they
fall, covering tho ground to tlie depth of two or three inclies, while tlic air
still continues obscured by the myriads that remain fluttering about ! Tho
roofs of the houses, and every inch of ground about them, are covered by
a thick mass of crawling vermin, crackling, hissing, and buzzing! Every
aperture of the house may be carefully closed, yet tliey come down ♦ho
chimney by thousands, and beat against the windows like hail I During
the locust-3'cars, many of these swarms settled upon Odessa, covering tho
streets and piil)lic places, dropping by hundreds into the kettles and sauce-
pans in tlie kitclicns, invading at once the ballroom and the granary, strut-
ting in tlic public walks by millions, and displaying their ugly antics aliko
in the hovel of the beggar and the fine lady's boudoir.

The locusts of southern Russia arc divided into two species : the Russahi,
or Russians (^Gryllus migralorius) , which are al)ont an inch and a half,
and the Saranni (^Gryllus vastatof) , vi\\k\\ are about two inches long.
Roth are equally voracious and equally dreaded, and both are equally pro-
duced from eggs deposited in the earth in August and September, by means

and

citli

inc

the

thci

whii

wati

mor

u fe
aro

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

227

of a piercing-tube or oviduct with which the female is provided. The ani-
mal does not, however, bore merely with ite piercer, but thrusts its whole
body into the ground, in order that the eggs may be deposited as deeply
as possible. There the eggs continue through the autuum and winter, and
it is not till the end of April or the beginning of May that the young locusts
begin to creep out of their holes.

I ?i,.

, 'li

EovPTiAN Locust.

The millions of mothers that in ai'tumn sank under the load of their
eggs, now start up sixty-fold into renewed life. They have no wings when
first born, but their logs immediately acquire vigor, so that they are soon
provided with the powers of locomotion. They at once begin to eat, and
a rich, grassy plain, if they are undisturbed, will perhajjs be eaten bare in
a few days ; if disturbed, they commence their peregrinations fortlnvith,
and the army seems to increase as it marches along. They go on rustling
and crackling, and crawling over one another in heaps. They almost
always proceed in a straight line, scarcely any object sufficing to impede
their course. They climb over the roofs of the low houses, over fences
and walls, march through the streets of towns and villages, not avoiding
cither man or beast, so that the wheels of a cart will at times sink several
inches deep into a mass of locusts, while a pedestrian walking through
them will often have them up above his ankle ! Enormous quantities of
them fall down into the ravines, and are carried away by the streams,
which arc sometimes so thickly covered with the black carcasses, that the
water is completely lost to sight ! The march of these young locusts is
more dreaded even than the flight of the old ones : not having yet got their
wings, they are not to be frightened away either by guns or drums ; and
to attempt to destroy them were hopeless, on account of their numbers —
u few hundred thousand, more or less, making but little diftcrence. They
aro most greedy, too, when young; and, as the grass and grain are just

228

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

then most tender, the devastation is the more difficult to repair. It is true
that, while in this state, their ravages ai'e confined within narrower limits,
on account of the slow rate at which they advance, an army of young locusts
being seldom able to march more than two miles in a day.

In three or four Aveeks thoy attain their full size. In the fifth week their
wings are formed, and they begin to fly. From this time on, they cruise
about tlie country in huge swarms, till about the middle of September,
when, after an existence of four months, thoy all perish, but not before duo
provision has been made for their multiplication in the ensuing year. The
largest swarms appear in the steppe about the middle of August, when
they arc sujij^osod to be joined l)y considerable reinforcements from the
south. Their fliglit is clumsy, and always accompanied by a rustling noise,
which, when a swarm of fhcm flies along, is as loud as that made by a
strong wind blowing through a grove of trees. Tliey can not fly against
the wind, but, as luxs already been observed, they know how to work their
way to windward, in true nautical fashion. The height to wliich they rise
depends mucli upon tlie state of the weather. On a fine day they will raise
themselves nearly two himdred feet above the ground. In gloomy weather
they fly so near the ground, that a man walking through a swarm will
often be unable to endure the blows inflicted by tliein as they fly up against
his face, but will be obliged to croueli togi^tlier and turn liis back to the
current till it lias passed away. AVIion flying- at a great hciglit, if they
discover a fresh piece of pasture-ground, they sink slowly down till they
are about six or seven feet from tiie surf\iee, when they drop like a shower
of stones. As soon as it rains, tliey always droj* to the ground. They are
rakish in their hours, for tliey oftt-n fly about merrily till near midnight,
and seldom leave their roosting-places till eight or nine in the morning.
A cloud of locusts is mostly of an oval form, some three hundred yards
broad, and about two miles long. Sometimes a ch^ud will be seen to sepa-
rate into two or three parties, that afterward unite again. What the thick-
ness of such a cloud nuiy be, it is difficult to say ; but it must be consider-
able, for not a ray of sunshine can pierce the mass, and the shadow cast
on the ground is so dense, that, on a hot summer's day, it dift'uses an agree-
able coolness around. The sudden darkness occasioned l>y the njjpearanco
of a swarm of locusts on a fine day, is quite as great as that which would
be caused by a succession of black, rniny clouds. In calm weather a cloud
of locusts will fly about fourteen miles in eight hours.

The ground honored by the visit of owe of these swarms always assumes
the appearance of a field of l)attlo. In their eagerness to feed, they often
bite each other ; and, when falling down, many break their wings, and aro
unable to rise again with the rest of the swarm. It is difficult to cstiraato
the numbers of one of these winged armies. The people of the country
maintain that, when a large cloud of locusts falls, it will cover a piece of
ground nearly three miles long and one broad, and in many places the
creatures will lie three and four deep, and scarcely an inch will remain

BsaaMM

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

220

uncovered ! If there happen to be a tree near the place, it will seem ready
to break under the sudden load. Now, allowing for each insect a surface
of two inches by one, and making no account of the patches where they
lie three or four deep, it would follow that a small swarm, covering only
one square mile, must consist of not much less than two thousand millions
of locusts ! And every one of them, as the Russians say, has the bite of a
horse, the greediness of a wolf, and a power and rapidity of digestion un-
equalled by any other animal on the face of the globe !

Though there are some descriptions of food for wliich the locust shows a
partiality, the creature is seldom difficult in its choice, but eats up every
green plant that comes in its way. The leaves and young branches vanish
from tlie trees in a trice ; a rich meadow is presently converted into a tract
of black earth ; the bank of a river is stripped with magical rapidity of its
reedy fringe ; and not a particle of stubble is left to mark the place where
the green grain was waving but an hour before ! The sound of the little
animal's bito as it grazes, Joined to the rustling of its wings, whicli it always
keeps in motion while feeding, may l)e distiuotly heard at a considorr'>lc
distance : to any one near the spot, the nuise is (piite as great as that matlo
by a large fiock of sheep eagerly cropping the grass. If the grain is quite
ripe, the locust can do it little harm ; but whatever is still greon is certain
to be I'.evoured. Sometimes a farmer, on seeing the enemy's approach, will
try to save a Hold of nearly ripe grain by cutting it down and carrying the
sheaves home inunediately, but the attempt rarely succeeds, for the inva-
ding host advances its line of march, undismayed by the mowers, and will
cat away tlie lilades faster than the scythe can cut them.

Tiiore are few tilings locusts are fonder of than Indian corn, and it is said
to l)e a curious sight to behold a field of it vanishing before their ravenous
teeth. The maize grows to a great height on the steppe, and makes a very
imposing appearance as it approaches maturity. A small number of locusts,
however, are able, in a few seconds, to perforate the plant like a honey-
comb, and in a few minutes not a trace of it is left. Each plant is quickly
covered with insects, while others are industriously working away at tho
root. Blade falls rapidly oa blade, and at each fall a little swarm rises,
to settle (piickly down again with renewed voracity. If tlic corn was
ucarly ripe, the fanner has, perhaps, the consolation of seeing a yellow
stublile-lield remaining, to tantalize him with the recollection of the hoped-
for abundance.

In the costly gardens of the Odessa merchants, the locust is particularly
destructive. It does not touch the melons, cucumbers, nor the growing
fruit on the trees, but it ruthlessly devours the leaves and the stalks, leav-
ing the fruit scattered on the ground, to wither with the bodies of the slain
destroyers. The leaves, tendrils, and young branches of a vine, will be
completely eaten away, but the grapes will be found scattered like so many
berries below. Every tree in tho garden, meanwhile, is bending under tho
unwelcome load ; whilo the crackling of the branches, the tearing of tho

230

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

bark, and the rustling of the wings, raise a din quite as loud as that of a
carpenter's workshop, in which a score or two of men are sawing, boring,
and planing ; and when at length the swarm takes its departure, it leaves
behind it a scene of such perfect desolation as no other animal in the world
can equal. Even the dung, of which it leaves an enormous quantity behind,
is injurious to the soil on which it falls ; and, for a long time after a field
has been visited by a swarm of locusts, the cattle manifest the greatest
aversion to the place.

"Here we are in the land of the tshabaums,''^* is a common expression
with Russian travellers on entering the steppe, where the first objects that
usually present themselves to the stranger are some of the numerous flocks
of sheep belonging to tlje wealthy nobles of Russia, some of whom count
their woolly treasures by hundreds of thousands ! To tlieir owners, these
flocks possess an interest beyond any that the steppe can oflcr ; but, to a
stranger, the wild and exciting life of the tahuntshiks is certain to present
more attraction. We arc accustomed to speak of the loild horses of the
steppe, but the expression must be received with some allowance ; for, in
the proper sense of the word, wild horses have long ceased to inhabit any
part of the steppe subject to Russia, nor have we any authentic record of
the time when this noble animal ranged free and uncontrolled over the
plains bordering on the Euxine. At present, every taboon, or herd, has
its owner, to whom the tabuntshik has to account for every steed that is
lost or stoien ; and it is not till v^^e reacb. the heart of Tartary, or the
wastes tha , stretch along the sea of Aral, that we meet, for the first time,
the horse really in a state of nature.

Altl.ough, in a statistical point of view, the sheep constitutes a more
important part of the pastoral population of the steppe — ten flocks of
sheep, at least, occurring for one herd of oxen or ho"ses — yet we shall
venture, in our remarks on the nomadic life of this part of the empire, to
assign the prominent place to the taboons, or breeding-studs, which serve
to mount nearly the whole of tlie imperial cavalry, and frou) v.-liich, in a
moment of emergency, the government might deilvc, for the e<juipiueut of
an invading army, resources the extent of which are but little dreamed of
in the more civilized regions of Europe.

Many of the Russian nobles possess enormous tracts of land in the steppe.
The scanty population has made it impossible to bring any very consider-
able portion of their estates under the plough ; and most of the wealthy
landowners have, consequently, foi.*>d it to their interest to devote their
chief attention to the breeding o*" sheep, cattle, and horses. Even at a
very remote period it appears to have l)een the custom of the lords of the
steppe to follow a similar course of practice. The horses, more light of
foot than cither sheep or oxen, may be easily made to range over a larger

• Tthahfitm \* tlip ioiitli Rimninn wciid fm- ii ulieplierJ. TabufUthik \» the ntuno piven to ihn
•nnn churf^fil with tha cnro of a herd of hui'tc*. ■

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

281

expanse of ground, and thus obtain support from land too poor to afford
pasturage to any other description of cattle.

A small number of horses, placed under the care of a herdsman, are sent
into the steppe, as the nucleus of a taboon. The foals arc kept, and the
herd is allowed to go on increasing until the number of horses is thought
to be about as large as the estate can conveniently maintain. It is a very
rare thing, however, for a taboon to contain more than a thousand horses ;
but there are landowners in the steppe who are supposed to possess eight
or ten such taboons in different parts of the country. It is only when the
taboon is said to be full, that the owner begins to derive a revenue from it,
partly by using the young horses on the estate itself, and partly by selling
them at the fairs, or to the travelling horse-dealers in the employ of the
government contractors.

The tabvntshik, to whose care the taboon is intrusted, must be a man of
indefatigable activity, and of an iron constitution, proof alike against the
severest cold and the most burning heat, and capable of living in a con-
stant exposure to every kind of weather, without the shelter even of a bush.
When on duty, he scarcely ever quits the back of his steed. He eats there,
and even sleeps tlicrc ; but he must beware of sleeping at tlie hours when
other men sleep, for, while grazing at night, the horses arc most apt to
wander away from the luMd : and at no time is it more necessary for him
to be on his guard against wolves, and against those adventurous dealers
in horse-flesh who usually contrive that the money which they receive at a
fair shall consist exclusively of profit (a characteristic specimen of which
gentry, wlio are mostly gipsies, may bo seen in the engraving overleaf).
During a snowstorm, the poor tabuntshik must not think of turning his back
to the ^cmpest ; this his horses are but too apt to do, and it is his business
to see that they do not take fright, and run scouring before the wind.

The dress of a tabuntshik is chiefly composed of leather, fastened together
by a leathern girdle, to which the whole veterinary apparatus, and a variety
of little fanciful ornaments, are usually appended. His head is protected
by a high, cylindrical Tartar cap, of black lambskin, and over the whole
he throws his sreeta, a large, brown, woollen cloak, with a hood to cover
his head. This hood, in fine weather, hangs behind, and often serves its
master at once for pocket and larder.

The tabuntshik has a variety of other trappings, of which he never divests
himself. Among these, his harabnik holds not the least important place.
This is a whip, with a short, thick stem, but with a thong often fifteen or
eighteen feet in length. It is to him a sceptre fliat rarely quits his hand,
and without which it would be difficult for him to retain his riotous sub-
jects in anything like proper order. Next comes his sling, which he uses
like the South American lasso, and with which he rarely misses the neck
of the horse whose course he is desirous of arresting. The wolf-club is
another indispensable part of his equipment. This club, which generally
hangs at the saddle, ready for immediate use, is throe or four feet long,

ILLUSTKATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

??'■

1. 1
jt

•'i

with a thick iron knob at the end. The tabtintshiks acquire such astonish-
ing dexterity in the use of this formidable weapon, that, at full gallop, they
will hurl it at a wolf, and rarely fail to strike the iron end into the prowl-
ing bandit's head. The club skilfully wielded carries almost as certain
death with it as the rifle of an American backwoodsinar . A cask of water
must also accompany the labvntshik on every ride, for he can never know
whether he may not be for days without coming to a well. A bag of bread
and a bottle of brandy are likewise his constant companions, besides a mul-
titude of other little conveniences and necessaries, whicli are fa^<^ened either
to himself or his horse. Thus accoutred, tlic tiibnntshik sallies forth on a
mission that keeps his dexterity and his powers of endurance in constant
exercise. His thousand untamed steeds have to be kept in order with
no otlicr weapon than his harabnik, and this, as may easily be supposed,
is no easy task.

Tlie hardships to Avhich they are constantly exposed, and the high wages
which they consequently receive, make the tabuntshiks the wildest " dare-
devils" that can be imagined ; so much so, that it is considered a settled
point tliat a man who has had the care of horses for two or three years is
unfit for any quiet or settled kind of life. No one, of course, that can gain
a tolerable liveliliood in any other way, will embrace a calling that subjects
him to so severe a life ; and the consequence is, that it is generally from
among the scamps of a village that recruits are raised for this service.
They arc seldom witliout money, and, when they do visit the brandy-shop,
they arc not deterred from abandoning themselves to a carouse by the finan-
cial considerations likely to restrain most men in tlie same rank of life.
They ought, it is true, never to quit the taboon for a moment ; but they
will often spend whole niglits in the little brandy-houses of the steppe,
drinking and gambling, and drowning in their fiery potations all recollec-
tions of tlie last day's endurance. \Vhen their senses return with the re-
turning day, tliey gallop after their herds, and display no little ingenuity
in repairing the mischief that may have accrued from the carelessness of
the preceding night.

The tabuntshik lives in constant dread of the horse-stealcr, and yet there
is hardly a labvntshik on the steppe that will not steal a horse if the occa-
sion present itself. The traveller who has left his horses to graze during
the niglit, or the villager who has allowed his cattle to wander away from
his house, does well to ascertain that there be no taboon in the vicinity,
or in the morning he will look for tiiem in vain. The tabuntshik, mean-
while, takes care to rid himself, as soon as possible, of his stolen goods, by
exchanging them away to the first brother-herdsman that he meets, who
again barters them away to another : so that in a few days a horse tb-i
was stolen on the banks of the Dnieper, passes from hand to hand till it
reach the Boug or the Danube ; and the rightful owner may still be inqui<
ring after a steed, which has already quitted the empire of the czar, to enter
the service of a moslcm, or to figure in the stud of a Hungarian magnate *

80CTHERK RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

■ejBW-R08CRTS.<S«

iTtNIKANT HoMB-DBALI*.

Accustomed to a life of roguery and hardship, and indulging constantly in
every kind of excess, the tabuntshik comes naturally to be looked upon by
the more orderly classes as rather a suspicious character ; but his friend-
8hip is generally worth having, and his ill-will is much dreaded. At the
horse-fairs, he is always a man of great iirtportance. His horses are driven
into the market in the same free condition in which they range over the
Bteppo, for if tied together they would become entirely uugoveniable

234

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

When driven through towns and villagea, the creatures are often fright-
ened ; but tliat occasions no trouble to their drivers, for the herd is never
more certain to keep together than when made timid by the appearance of
a strange place. In the market-place, the taboon is driven into an enclo-
sure, near wliich the owner seats himself, while the tnbnntshik enters along
with his horses. The buyers walk round to make their selection.

After saying so much of the tabuntshik, it will be but fair to give some
account of tho life led by tlie riotous animals committed to his charge.
During what is called the fine season, from April to October, the taboon
remains grazing day and night in the steppe. During the other six nionllis
of the year, tho horses remain under shelter at night, and are driven out
only in the day, when they must scrape away tho snow for themselves to
get at the scanty grass underneath. The shelter alluded to consists af a
space of ground enclosed by an earthen niound, witli now and then some-
thing like a roof toward the north, to keep off the cold wind. There tho
poor creatures must defend themselves as well as they can against the mer-
ciless Boreas, who comes to them unchecked in his course all the way from
the pole. The stallions and the stronger bea:?ts take possession of the slied ;
while the timid and feeble stand in groups about the wall, and cre(;p closely
together, in order mutually to impart a little warmth to each othei. Nor
is it from cold that they have most to sufler on tliese occasions. Early in
winter they still find a little autumiml grass under tlie snow, and the ta-
buntshik scatters a little Iiay about the stable to helj) them to amuse tiie
tedious hours of night. Tiie customary improvidence of a Russian estab-
lishment, however, seldom allows a sufficient stock of hay to be laid in for
the winter. As the season advances, hay grows scarce, and must be re-
served for the more valuable coach and saddle horses, and the tabuntshik
is obliged to content himself with a portidn of the dry reeds and straw
stored up for fuel ! It will therefore hardly be matter of surprise to any
one to learn that the winter is a season of sickness and death to the horses
of the steppe. After the mildest winter, the poor creatures come fortli a
troop of sickly-looking skeletons ; but when the season has been severe, or
unusually long, more than half of them, perhaps, have sunk under their
sufferings, or have been so reduced in strength, that the ensuing six montlis
are hardly sufficient to restore them to their wonted spirits.

From the hardships of an ordinary winter, the horses quickly recover
amid the abundance of spring. A profusion of young grass covers the
ground as soon as the snow has melted away. The crippled spectreo that
stalked about a few weeks before, with wasted limbs and drooping heads,
are as wild and mischievous at the end of the first month as though they
had never experienced the inconvenience of a six months' fast. Tho stal-
lions have already begun to form their separate factions in the tabooriy and
the neighing, bounding, prancing, galloping, and fighting, goes ou merrily
from the banks of tho Danube to the very heart of Mongolia.

The most tremendous battles oi'e fought when two taboons happen U

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

235

meet. In general, the tabuntshiks are careful to keep at a respectful dis-
tance from each other ; but sometimes they are away from tlicir duty, and
sometimes, where a right of pasturage is disputed, they l)ring tlicir herds
together out of sheer malice. The mares and foe' on such occasions keep
aloof, but their furious lords rush to battle witli an impetuosity of which
those who are accustomed to see the horse only in a domesticated state
can form but a poor conception. The enraged animals lash their tails and
erect tlicir manes like angry lions ; their hoofs rattle against each other
with such violence, that the noise can be heard at a considerable distance ;
they fasten on one another with their teetli like tigers ; and their scream-
ings and Iiowlings are more like those of the wild beasts of the forest than
like any sounds ever heard from a tamo horse.

The spring, though in so many respects a season of enjoyment for the
horses, is not without its drawbacks. Tlie wolves, also, have to indemnify
themselves for the severe fast of the winter. The foals, too, are just then
most delicate, and a wolf will at any time prefer a young foal to a sheep
or a calf. He is therefore constantly prowling about the tahoon during
the spring, and, as the weaker party, trusts to cunning rather than strength.
For a party of wolves openly to attack a taboon at noonday would be to
rush upon certain destruction ; and, however severely the wolf may bo
pressed by hunger, he knows his own weakness too m'cU to venture on so
absurd an act of temerity. At night, indeed, if the taboon happen to be a
little scattered, and the wolves in tolerable numbers, they will sometimes
attempt a rush, and a general battle ensues. An admirable spirit of conli-
tion then displays itself among the liorses. On the tirst alarni, they come
charging up to the threatened point, and attack the wolves with an impetu-
osity that often puts the prowlers to instant (light. Soon, however, if they
feel themselves sufficiently numerous, they return, and hover al)out the
taboon till some poor foal straggle „ few yards from the main body, when
it is seized by the enemy, while the mother, springing to its rescue, is
nearly certain to share its fate. Then it is that the battle begins in real
earnest, the mares forming a circle, within which the foals take shelter.

The horses, when they attack wolves, charge upon them in a solid pha-
lanx, tearing them with their teeth, and trampling on them with their feet,
till it becomes hard to say what kind of an animal the skin belonged to.
With one blow the horse often kills his enemy or stuns him. If, however,
he fail to strike a home blow at the first onset, he is likely to fight a losing
battle, for eight or ten hungry wolves fasten on his throat, and never quit
him till they have torn him to the ground ; and if the horse be prom{)t and
skilful in attack, the wolf is not deficient in sagacity, but watches for every
little advantage, and is quick to avail himself of it : but let him not hope,
even if ho succeed in killing a horse, that he will be allowed leisure to
pick the bones ; the taboon never fails to take ample vengeance, and tlio
battle almost invariably terminates in the complete discomfiture of the
wolves, though not, perhaps, till more than one horso has liad a leg perma-

236

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

i I

iiently disabled, or has liad his side marked for life with tlie impress of his
enemy's teeth.

The wolf's system of warfare, however, is a predatory one, and his policy
is rather to surprise outposts than to meditate a general attack. lie relies
more on his subtlety than his strength. He will creep cautiously through
the grass, taking especial care to keep to leeward of the toboon, and ho
will remain crouclied in ambush till he perceive a mare and her foal gra-
zing a little apart from the rest. Even then ivc makes no attempt to spring
upon his prey, but keeps creeping nearer and nearer, with his head leaning
on his fore feet, and wagging his tail in a friendly manner, to imitate, as
much as possible, tlie movements and gestures of a watch-dog. If the
mare, deceived by tlic treacherous pantomime, venture near enough to the
enemy, he will spring at her throat, and despatch her before she have time
to raise an alarm ; then, seizing on the foal, he will make off with his booty,
and be out of sight perhaps l)efore either herd or herdsman susj)ect his
presence. It is not often, however, tliat tlic wolf succeeds in obtaining so
easy a victory. If tlic marc detect him, an instant alarm is raised, and,
sliould the tabuntshik bo near, the Avolf seldom fails to enrich him with a
skin, for which tlie fur-merchant is at all times willing to pay his ten or
twelve roubles. The wolf's only chance, on such occasions, is to make for
the first ravine, down which he rolls head foremost, a gymnastic feat that
the tabuntshik on his horse can not venture to imitate.

As the summer draws on, the wolf becomes less troublesome to tho
taboon ; but a season now begins of severe suflering for the poor horses,
who have more perhaps to endure frc m the thirst of summer than from the
hunger of winter. The heat becomes intolerable, and shade is nowhere to
be found, save what the animals can themselves create, by gathering to
gcther in little groups, each seeking to place the body of his neiglibor
between himself and the burning rays of a merciless sun. The tabuntshik
often lays himself in tlic centre of the group, for ho also lias nowhere else
a shady couch t(, hope for.

The autumn, again, is a season of enjoyment. The plains arc anew cov-
ered with green, the springs yield once more an abundant supply of water,
and the horses gatlier strength at this period of abundance, to prepare
themselves for the sufferings and privation of winter. In autumn, for tho
first time in the year, the taboon is called on to work, but the v/ork is not
much more severe than the exertions which the restless creatures are daily
imposing upon themselves while romping and rioting about on the steppe.
The work in question is the thrashing of the grain.

A thrashing-floor, of several hundred yards square, is made by cutting
away the turf, and beating the ground into a hard, solid surface. The
whole is enclosed by a railing, with a gate to ot the horses in and out.
The sheaves of grain are then spread out and laid in strata over each other.
In small farms, where only eight or ten horses arc disposable for this kind
of work, each horse is expected to thrash his thirty or forty sheaves ; but

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

237

in larger cstablislimcnts, whoro half a iaboon can bo set to work at onco, a
Bcoro of slioavcs is the utmost o v allowed for each thrasher. On sjich a
lloor, suppo.sin}.'' tlio taboon to consist of a thousand horses, five hundred
fcoro of sheaves will bo laid down at once. The taboon is then formed
into two diviisions. The Idbiints/iik and his assistants drive their five hun-
dred steeds into the enelosiirc, and, when once in, the more riotous they
arc the better the work will bo done. The gate is closed, and tlien begins
a ball of which it requires a lively imagination to conceive a picture. The
drivers act as musicians, and their formidable hnrnbniks are the fiddles
that keep up the dance without intermission. The horses, terriHed partly
by the crackling straw under their feet, and partly by the incessant crack-
ing of the wliip over their heads, dart half frantic from one extremity to
the other of their temporary prison. Millions of grains are (lying about in
the air, and the laborers witlu)Ut have enough to do to toss back the sheaves
that are flung over the railing l)y the prancing, hard-working thrashers
within. Tliis continues for about an hour. Tlie horses are then lot out,
;he grain turned, and the same performance repeated three times before
noon. By tluit time, about a thousand bushels (^sfwffvl) of grain have l)een
tlirashed, after a fashion tliat looks more lilio a holyday diversion tlian a
hard day's work. Tiiis description, of course, applies only to an agricul-
tural establishment on a verv large scale; and it nuiy not be amiss to add
that, in sucli a tlirashing opt "'Jon, more grain is wasted than \?. raised ott
many large farms in this country.

Siieli is still the wild and choquered life of the horses on the steppe, and
such it was in the days of Mazeppa ;* but such scenes arc becoming scarcci
in southern Russia, in proportion as the population becomes denser, and
some of the larger estates have been ])arcelled out among a greater number
of owners. Should the Russian government succeed in the favorite plan
of introducing a regular system of agriculture into this portion of the em-
pire, the large taboons must gradually disappear, or recede farther and
farther toward the confines of Tartary. Such a time, however, is yet com-

• John Mazkppa, liplmin of tin- Cosgnckn, wliom Lord Byron hiii miiilo iho horo of n poom, waf
born nliout tlio niiiiillc of tlio iirvcntopntli erntnry, in tlic province of I'odolin, of a poor but noble
Polisli fiiiiiily, unci lnTiinit' pii^c to Julni Ciiainiir, king of Poliinil, In this situation, Mnzoppn hnd
nn o|i|iortuiiily of nt'qniring viiricui<i iiarful n(-oon)pli.-<linuMit8 ; but nil intrigue \\n% the founiiatiun of
liis fiitiirP rlcviilion. A I'olisli iioblcninn liaviiig »urpri«i>il Miir.i'p|m witli lii» wife, orilcml liim to
be tied nnked upon a wild liorsp, nnd commiltpd to liis futp. Tlio nnimnl bud boon lired in the
Ukritino, nn j dirci'ti-d bis courto tbitiiiT, wboru D(uno poor poasiinti found Inm bnlf ilcnd, nnd took
cure >f liim. Vlifir wurlikc, roving llfo •uilfd bis cli!4|io!iition ; bo miulo biinsclf ronspiruous nnd
bolovo \ by bis ib-xtority, bodily strongtii, nnd couiurp ; bis knowledge nnd sngiicity proc-urcd him
the po»t of scrretMry und ailjiitnnt to the betmin Sninoilowitx ; nnd, in 1GS7, be was cipeted in hit
pinre. Ho gniiipd the confideDro of Peter thu Greiit, who loniled him with honors, nnd ho wnt
finully mnde prince of the Ukrnino. But (hough ii princp, he wai still u vnssnl, nnd his restleit
•pirit nmdc him renolve to throw off the yoke of subordiiiiition. He joined with Charles XII., who
hnd just given n king to Poland, nnd nimod, by liig nssistnnre, to throw olf all n1leginnei> to Russia.
For a long time the intri^'ueg of Mnieppn ngniiist Peter were disbelieved by the latter; but nt length
he openly joined the Swedish monarch, who, by his lulvice, fou.i^ht the tUlul battle of PoltUVO. He
lliun sought rufugo ut Bender, in Turkey, whelu hu died, in 1709. '

fin- '

';'[;

I. i

:1^

it '^f

'«

2ns

ILLUSTRATKD DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

p;ini(ivfly distant. TIio sfoppo yioldrt ^'rain, indeed, in nhimdnnco, when
(idtivivtod ; hut the dilTioulty of tn»n.><port, and the absence of all material
for tlie eouf traction of good roads, oppose serious ohstaclos to tlic growth
of grain, except in favored localities — as, for instance, in the iniinediato
vicinity of rivers or of the sea.

Tlio life of the tshahairn, or shepherd, presents a singular contrast to
that of the rakish tabuntshik; but the sliepherd's quiet, unobtrusive course
has conii)arafively little to attract the attention of the stranger. The lords
of the steppe, indeed, are far from undervaluing their pcacefid flocks ; and
when the wealth of one of the princely owners is spoken of, his sheep gen-
erally serve as the standard l»y which the amount of his worldly posses-
sions is measured. There are iiidividiuils in tlie steppe who are said to
own ufiward of one hundred thousand woolly subjects, and most of these
flocks have increased to their present amount within the last thirty or forty
years. The Wallachian slicejt is the most prevalent race. It is remarka-
ble on account of tiie huge size of its tail, which consists of little else than
a lump of fat, in great esteem among the Russians and Tartars. Merinos
have, of late years, been likewise introduced, and arc rajjidly increasing in
numbers.

The tshctbawn is, for the most part, a quiet, peaceable being. His char-
acter is naturally modified l»y tiie hai»its of his usual associates, and, aa
he is not obliged to range over so wide an e.xii'ut of the country as the
tttbunlshik, lie is aide to carry about with him a multitude of comforts, in
whicli the guardian of the horses must never hope to indulge. The Isha-
bawn has usually one or two large wagons, drawn by oxen, in which ho
carries with him his provisions and his cooking-utensils, togt.'thcr with the
skins of the sheep tiiat die, and those of the wolves that he has been fortu-
nate enough to slay : for the tshabawn, witli all his quietness, is as zealous
a wolf-hunter as the (abtoUshik, and (juite as willing to increase his lawful
gainings by tlie sale of a score of shaggy hides in the course of the season.
Of the fat-tailed sh(!ep tlierc are two distinct races, the Wallachian and
the rulmuck. The former really carries its fat about in its tail, which
grows into a shape something similar to a pear, swelling at both sides to
an enormous size, and tapering to a point at the extremity. The Calmuck
sheep, which is rarely found in the western steppee, does not really carry
its fat in the tail, but rather in two huge cushions, from thirty to forty
jiounds in weight, that strongly remind the stranger, who sees them for
the fust time, of the Ilottenton Ycnus. With both, the fat in or about the
tail is considered more valuable than that obtained from any other part of
the animal.

The severe cold of a Pontine winter, and the parching summer l)y which
the dance of the seasons is so strikingly diversified, arc replete with trials
and sufierings for all the animals most useful to man. The hurricanes that
sometimes sweep across the plain arc frequently attended by the most dis-
astrous consequences to the flocks. These make uot the least attempt to

BOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE 8TKPPE8.

280

resist tlie violence of the stortn, but nm away in a perfect panic before t)»e
wind, und are blown by tlioutiandH into tiio i^treuni8 and ruvineii by which
the stciipcs are intersected. The dull Uudsitin shepherdH, on these occa-
sions, are of little value, and the do^s are not much above their masters ia
[)oint of intellif^onee. The most sensible members of these communities are
gi!Merally the goats, without wlioin a Tontine shepherd would never l)o able
to keep his woolly charge in any kind of order. To every hundred sheep,
tin'rcfore, three or four goats are invariably associated, to make up, by
their wit and sprightliness, for the silliness of their companions ! Until
tlie autunmal storms are no longer endurable, the sheep remain on the
steppe, and then return to winter in the miserable enclosures, where a little
shelter against the north wind is mostly the only protection ever consid-
ered necessary.

The movements of an oltnra, or flock, are, of course, much less erratic
than those of a taboon. If the tshahuwn comes to a line pasture-ground,
ne seldom leaves it till the grass has been eaten away ; and even when on
the march, his encampment for the night is often only two or three inilcH
from the spot whence ho started in the morning. In good weather, to
guide the tloek is an easy task. Tiie tshahawn follows his wagon, and the
sheep follow him, his men hanging upon tlie flanks and the rear, to drive
in stragglers, and to accelerate the progress of those who are all too dila-
tory in their movements. Their long irliks are the sceptres with which
the shepherds occasionally enforce their authority. These are crooks,
nearly twelve feet in length, and may at any moment be converted iito
most formidable weapons, of either attack or defence. The wolf who has
lasted one blow from the irlik of a tshubawn, is seldom fated to experience
a second.

In bad weather, and particularly duri j the autumnal storms, matters
wear, as we have already hinted, a \ mv diflorent aspect. The wolves in
spring are a constant plague, but a \ igii.: a tshabawn may be on his guard
against these rapacious beasts ; and, besides, the more the wolves show
themselves, the greater will lie tlu» nuuil)er of skins to be disposed of at the
end of the season. Against the snowstorm of the steppe, however, vigi-
lance can avail but little ; and whereas the wolf can but rarely succeed in
the capture of even a single sheep, thousands may be buried in the snow-
drift of a samjot, or blown over the edg'" of a precipice into a raviiif, or
into the yesty waves of the easily-agitat d Euxine. Not a year ] hisses
away of which the tshabawn has not to recount various disasters caused
by the samjots.

In fair weather, the scene is, of course, a very different one. In his
roomy wagon the tshabawn carries with hinv a multitude of little comforts;
and if he comes upon a piece of good grazing-ground, he establishes him-
self there for days together. His little kitchen is immediately put into
order ; one kettle simmers away for himself and his men, and another for
bis dogs — a fierce and formidable set of animals, that are invaluable in a

4 1

240

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

countrj' swarming with wolves. While one of the party acts as cook, the
others arc not without their occupation. One has pcrliaps been stripping
the skin off a dead sheep ; another has been acting the pliysician toward
the sick members of the ottara; Avhile several have found ample work in
milking — for in a large flock tlsere are often not less than five or six hun-
dred sheep to be milked ! The milk, ))laced in wooden vessels, is exposed
to the sun, and converted into a kind of cheese, known througliout the
steppe under the name of brinse. This cheese, as .soon as the whey has
been drained off, is packed into goatskins, with the fur turned inside. The
skin gives it a peculiar flavor, but this, according to the opinion of the
southern Russians, is one of its chief recommendations. Nor are the shep-
herds without their sports while the mamaliga is simmering away in the
socialtle kettle. A day rarely passes away without a wolf-chase ; a hare
may frequently be run down ; and, if the traps are attended to, many a
piece of fenthered game may be nmde to vary the monotony of their daily
bill of fare. Nor are they without frequent guests to share tlie j)roduco of
their ciiase. Parties of hunters scouring the steppes in pursuit of game,
peasants from Podolia and other parts in search of work, soldicr.s on fur-
lough, deserters from the army, and runaway serfs from the interior of the
cmi)ire, are eani^taiitly wandering about tlie stej)pe ; and the tshahawn,
witli that ready hosjjitality seldom found wanting in any nomadic tribe,
makes every stranger welcome to his frugal meal. The i)oor fugitive may
pass tlie night securely under shelter of the tsfiabairn's dogs, wliom no
uninvited stranger ever ventures to ai)proach, and in the morning the Avan-
d:i'er will seldom ijo dismissed without some fresh token of the kindness
of his host.

When the evening meal is done, if the M'eatlier is flne, and no wolf in
view, men and dogs are sure to pass an hour or two stretelied before thei'
blazing fire of dry reeds and grass. There the ts/nihairns confer on tli
politics of the steppe, or discuss the relative merits of tlie giazing-ground
to which it will be most exj)edient to direct their next march. The council
ended, the arrangements for the night renmin to be nuide. The wagon is
the lodging of tlie principal tshahinrn — the ataman or chief of the ottara,
as he is frequently called — and here also the guests of the eneampriont
are usually accommodated. The other tshabavms drive the sheep as closely
together as possible, and then form, with their dogs, a complci/'o circle
round the flock. Each man throws his furs, that serve him for Hiattress
and coverlet, on the spot assigned to him, and between every two beds tho
same measured interval occurs. The next thing is to make tho beds for
the dogs. This is soon done. So many dogs as there are, as many rugs
arc provided ; and as each dog kuows his own rug by tho smell, all that is
necessary is to lay the rug on the spot where it is wished the dog should
take up his station for the night, and a complete cordon sanitaire is formed.
A camp thus fortilied may generally defy the wolf; still there are few
nights pass away without an alarm, for the wolves will hover for many

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

? '1

ntNTERS KNCAMTED ON THE STimt.

successive days and niglits around a flock, in the hope of opjivin;^, sooner
or later, an unguarded ])oint, or of taking advantage of tlie i)anic into
wliich the otlara is sometimes thrown by a sudden storm.

The wi(U?, imlioundcd extent of the stepjto makes almost cverytliing wild
that dwells there ; and as the horse assumes in a short time an air of wild-
ness, so also the ox that ranges over the grassy ocean is a very dillbrent
kind of animal from the ox attached to a well-ordered farm. On the stej)po
also you hear of house-oxen and steppe-oxen. Tiic former are attached to
the household, work for their owner, and graze only near his house.

Tlic breed of cows that prevails on the stepi)e gives but little milk. The
Genuan colonists have, in consequence, introduced cattle from (Jermany,
and the same has been done by many of the ))rincip;il landowners. The
cattle of foreign breed, however, are still insigniiicant in numbers com])ared
to the original race. Tliis race, which extends over Southern and Western
Russia, and a part of Moldavia, is large, long-legged, with long horns, and
always of a white or silver-gray color, diflering in many i)oints from the
Polish, the Hungarian, or the Tartar breeds.

Such a herd of wild oxen is called a tshcreda, and the herdsman who
has the charge of it is called the tshereilnik. A ts/innla consists of from
one to eight hundred head of cattle, and is a source of more ])rofit to its
owner than a taboon, inasmuch as an ox, for his tallow, will always com-
luaiid a purchaser more readily than a wild, vicious, unbroken horse.

In nuiny respects the life of a tshcredni/c bears a great resemblance to
tlmt of a labuntshik. In sunnncr the cattle are out in the plain, and in

:'f

•i

'-i2

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

winter tlicy are scantily protected by their airy sheds. The bulls and cows
that arc kept for breeding are never sold, but live and die on the steppe ;
but the young beasts are sold to the prekasfitshiks, the commissioners of the
St. Petersburg and Moscow cattle-dealers, or the great tallow-boiling estab-
lishments. These men are continually travelling about from herd to herd,
and, as soon as they have bought a sufficient number of oxen, send them oflF
to their places of destination, under the care of their gontshiks, or drivers.

The tsheredniks, like the tshabawns, serve on foot, the ox being less
wild, and more easy to manage, than the horse. The ox is more choice,
indeed, in his food, but then his "meal is more quickly despatched, and his
afternoon nap lasts all the longer. He bears the rain but ill, and is very
impatient of heat, but in a snowstorm ho is less apt to get frightened, and
pursues his course regardless whether the samjots blow from the front or
the rear. He will also endure thirst much better, and can go for two days
together without drinking.

With the wolf the ox is much on the same terms as the horse, though
it has been observed that a wolf attacks a tshereda much less frequently
than a laboon. The ox, on account of his long horns, is a much more for-
midable enemy than the horse, and generally pins his enemy to the ground
at the first attack. Nevertheless, the wolf docs hover occasionally about
the herd, and, if a lame or sickly ox happen to lag behind his compauions.
he frequently falls a victim to his vigilant and remorseless foe.

Tiic markets of St. Petersburg and Moscow are supplied with beef almost
entirely from the herds of the steppe. It is also there that Russia derive!
her chief supply of tallow ; and, in addition to the home consumption, about
one hundred and fifty thousand tons of tallow are exported annually to
other countries, while llu:;sia-lcather is noted and ia demand for its supe-
rior quality throughout the civilized world.

At a very early period of history — perhaps so early as the times of
Berodotus, but certainly in those of the Milesians — tallow was an article
of export from .S';ythia. At present the large tallow-manufactories, or
salgans^ as they are called, arc exclusively in the hands of the natives of
Great Russia, who liave their establishments in all parts of the steppe.
They buy the oxen up, as above remarked, by thousands, and after fattening
them up for a season, drive them to the saltans to be slaughtered. If the
season is good —that is to say, tolerably moist, so that the animals may
fatten well — the speculation is likely to turn out well, but a long-continued
drouglit is ruinouf: in its consequences. The tallow-boilers remain empty,
and the i)oor, meager ox has nothing left but his skin with which to pay
the price of his board. After such a season, the owners of the saltans
usually close their books, and declare thenisclves insolvent fn* they are
Bcldom possessed of much capital, and generally carry on their operations
with the money advanced by tlie merchants of the seaport towns.

Near the end of summer the tallow-boiler begins to drive his oxen in
small parties toward the salgan, a spacious courtyard, surrounded by the

SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES.

24a

buildings necessary for the manufacture. There are large shambles in
which to slaughter the oxen, and houses containing enormous boilers, in
which to boil down their meat. Other buildings are set apart for the salt-
ing of the hides, besides which there are countinghouses, and dwellings for
tl>e workmen. !•- summer the whole establishment is untenanted, save by
dogs and birds of prey, who hover about all the year round, being attracted
by tlie nauseous smell of the place ; for during autumn the soil becomes so
saturated with blood, that the smell continues for the rest of the year,
despite the samjots of winter andthe northwest Ptorms of the spring.

To get the o.xeu into the saJgan, neither force nor blows would always
suffice, but there are attached to every place of the kind a number of tame
oxen, who are taught to entice their bellowing brethren to their fate. These
traitors arc brought out and mingled with the herd : they afterward lead
the doomed and despairing multitude to the scene of slaughter ; and when
once the victims have entered the courtyard, the gate closes upon them,
and they never come out again except as beef, tallow, and leather.

About one hundred oxen are driven into the yard at a time, and of these
twenty or thirty go into the slaughterhouse, in which six or eight butchers
are kept briskly at work, who are spoken of as liorrid-looking ruffians in
sheepskin jackets, leaflu-rn breeches, and high boots, unsmearcd by aught
save the gore in whic': < v * instantly wade. The villanous stench and the
awful spectacle in the i::. •! ;erhou.se are said to exceed any tliat the mind
of man can imagine. The business is usually carried on in the wet season,
so that the whole salgan is soon converted into a swamp of blood and mud !

As great expedition is required, the business of the slaughterhouse is per-
formed hurriedly, and the poor animals arc subjected to much unnecessary
sun'oring. It would require more hands and more time tlian can be afford-
ed in a salgan^ to put an ox to deatli in the artist-like manner customary
.xniong our butchers. In the salgan the beasts arc left loose : the big-booted
iiiiirdcrers enter the place with tlieir heavy axes, and, striking each animal
u tremendous blow on the back, break its spine, and so bring it to the
•;ar(h. Then snorting and bellowing tlie poor victims lie upon the ground,
twenty or thirty of them at a time, helpless and unresisting, and a consid-
erable time elapses before the whole of them can be put out of their pain.

The ox has but little fat upon his loins and back ; and, therefore, after
the wkin has been drawn off, three or four poods of meat are cut off, to be
offered afterward for sale in the bazar. None but the poor, however, buy
it; for the blow on the spine always has the effect of injuring the meat.
The remainder of the carcass is then cut up, and everything east into the
boiler, with the exception of the intestines, which are given to the swine,
of whom there are always a large number at every salgan, wallowing in the
miry gore, and undergoing the process of being fattened up for the mark< it.

At every salgan there are usually from four to six boilers, evch largo
enough to contain the meat of ten or fifteen oxen. The fat collects at the
top, and is skimmed off with large ladles ; and, before it has quite cooled.

J: I

i <1'

244

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTTON OP RUSSIA.

Ul'

it is poured into the casks in which it is aftcnvai'l shipped. This first fat
is the best, and is quite white ; the second has a yellowish tinge. If a suf-
ficient number of casks is not at hand, the hides arc sewn tjgethor, and the
tallow poured into them, till they again assume a form somctliing like that
of the living animal ! Of these tallow-stufied oxen a large number are usu-
ally seen standing about the safgans. Anotlier harvest of fat is obtained
by afterward subjecting the mash o*" bones and meat to huge presses ; but
this after-tallow is of a very inferior '^ality, and is rarely exported. It is
Used for greasing wheels, and where or a coarse kind of grease is re(]uired.
The tallow is always in demand, and such is the eagerness to obtuin it,
that not only is a part of the price often paid beforehand, while the oxen
are still grazing on the st(.ppe, but the wealthy merchants of Odessa and
their clerks arc constantly parading their gay hal)iliments among the filthy
abominations of the salgan, and crying out "incessantly "or tallow, tallow,
and more tallow ! The casliicr, meanwhile, is busy in the countinghouse.
Tlie steward of the estate comes in to receive the rent of the land on which
the herd has fattened during the season ; the workmen come in for their
wages ; cattle-dealers conio in to cr ntract for so many hundred oxen ; while
some niercliant standing by is ready, in his eagerness for the greasy t; :as-
ure, to pay in advance for the tallow that has yet to be grown under the
hides of those oxen ; a colonist comes in to bargain for the fattening up of
some two liundrcd hogs, which he afterward receives back walking masses
of hog's-lard, too yellow and coarse, however, for the market, till the grunt-
ers have l)oen a little refined by sundry feeds of grain ; Greeks from Con-
stantinople come, as tlioy did in the days when Olbia flourished ; a wealthy
nobleman perhajjs is anxious to rent the whole salgun for a few weeks, hav-
ing some thousands of oxen ready for the k'^ttlo, but no establishment of his
own to l)o:l them into fat and silver roubles ; a swineherd comes in to buy
sundry wagon-loads of the pressed meat wherewith to treat his interesting
charges on the stejipe ; soa])-boilers are there to bargain for the fat, turncr8
to buy the horns, and taniicrs to carry away the hides ; the Turkish cap-
tains come eagerly to obtain the tallow in its greatest purity at the fountain-
head, for tallow is too much esteemed liy the gourmands of Constantinople
to be idly wasted in eiilightoiiing tlieir darkness: in short, however busily
Death may be at work, there is, meanwhile, no want of cither life or bustle
in the snlgan. Nor is it men alone that are eagerly running to and fro.
Hie shaggy, long-haired dogs of the stepi)e arrive in swarms to l)atten on
the refuse, or to lap tlie thickening gore in the loathsome well into which
it has been drained. Kven more numerous are the wliito sea-gulls, who,
under their dovelike plumage, hide the hearts of vultures. They become so
tame and bold in the sa///c«, that they walk fearlessly among the workmen,
and will scarcely rise f' om their meal when driven with a ?tick. Such is
the hideous scene presf.nted by one of these dens of murder, where, in addi-
tion to its other accouipaniments, the air is heavy with myriads of insects,
that seem to have bcjn bred by the soil, soaked as it is with blood !

EASTERN RUSSIA — ASTRAKHAN.

24&

CHAPTER IX.

EASTERN RUSSIA.

HE governinonts wo have for con-
venience grouped in this chapter,
under the general designation of
City or astrakhjin. Eastkijn Ri'ssiA, arc thosc Cover-

ing principally the territory of the ancient Tartar kingdoms of Astrakhan
and Kazan. They arc gent .-ally known, and are classed in the table on
page 42, under those more distinctive names. Hy a ukase of December 18,
IBrjO, a new government was formed in Eastern Russia on the left bank of
the Volga, and named Samara, consisting of three districts of the govern-
ment of Orenburg, two districts of Saratov, and the districts of Samara
and Stavropol in Simbirsk. As we have not the means of giving its bound-
aries, or of ascertaining thei)''oportions of its area and population contril>-
uted by each of the above governments, its lines are of course not marked
on the .nap, and its description is included in that of those governments.

The government of Astrakhan lies on the nortliwest coast of the Cas-
pian sea, between the forty-fourth and fiftieth degrees of north latitude and
the forty-third and fifty-first degrees of east longitude, having the Malaia
Ouzen for its northeastern and the Manytch for its soutliwestern boundary.
It is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Volgn, which traverses it
from northwest to southeast. Its coastline, inuuding minute sinuosities,
is about five hundred and twenty miles in length, and is crowded through-

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

out its whole extent with small islands, rocks, and shifting sandbanks.
The entire length of the province is three hundred and seventy miles, and
its greatest breadth two hundred and fifty miles, containing an area of about
forty-three thousand square miles.

This government consists almost wholly of two vast steppes or plains,
separated from each other by the Volga, the greater portions of which are
an arid, sterile desert — forming, in fact, a portion of the stepper described
in the last chapter. The -largest tracts of this description are the deserts
of Naryn and Sedok : the former, in a ' h occur hills of moving sand, is
situated on the northeast side of tlie go ; the other on the southwest.
The wliole of Astrakhan was at one pi^iiod submerged by the Caspian, as
is evident from tlie saline nature of tiie soil, and the shells it contains ;
and as botli are upward of eighty feet below the level of the sea of Azov,
should any convulsion of nature cause a depression of the intervening land,
Astrakhan would again be overwhelmed by the ocean !

The soil consists generally jf mud, salt, and sand, intermixed, and in
some parts of extensive salt marshes, rendering it almost wholly one wide
and sterile waste, destitute of wood ; the few trees it lias to boast of being
met with on the banks of its rivers onl". liiese are oaks, poplars, birches,
and some mulberry-trees, the latter of which are found in greatest numbers
along the Aktuba. Notwithstanding the general sterility of the country,
a few fertile tracts are met with on the skirts and delta of the Volga, in-
cluding some excellent pastures. Here grain is grown, but not in sufficient
quantity to maintain the population, with some fruits, herbs, vines, tobacco,
and cotton.

Salt lakes and ponds are numerous throughout tlie province ; the largest
of the former, Baskutchatsk, is situated to the cast of the Volga, and is
about twelve miles in length and five in breadth. Wlien evaj)orated in
summer, these lakes and jiools leave thick crusts of culinary, and, in some
cases, Epsom salt. In this district, low hills of gypsum and rock-salt also
occur ; the former vary in size and elevation, the highest rising about sixty
feet above the level of the steppe : they are mostly of semicircular form,
and many of them arc crater-shaped at the top. The salt-liills rise to about
the same height, and contain gem-salt, above which is sandstone, and over
that the conmion yellow sand of the steppe. The salt is colorless, firm, and
contains clear and perfectly transparent cubes.

The principal rivers of Astrakhan are th Volga (a description of whicli,
with a map of its several mouths, is given on a previous page), the Aktuba,
which runs parallel to it at the di^itance of two or three miles, and the
Sarpa. The Kou** ., which once formed a part of the southern boundary
of the province, and represented on the maps as falling into the Caspian,
-> 'cs not now reach that sea, being absorbed by the sands some sixty miles
inland. The climate is extremely hot in summer, and equally cold in win-
ter ; and is unhealthy to all but natives, from the quantity of salino par-
ticles with which the atmosphere is impregnated.

EASTERN RUSSIA — ASTRAKHAN.

247

Pasturage and fishing constitute the chief occupation of the inhabitants :
the former of the rural and nomadic tribes ; the latter of the population on
the coast and banks of the Volga. The live stock consists principally of
sliecp of the Calinuck or broad-tailed breed. Cattle and goats are also
reared, the latter chiefly for their skins, from which Morocco leather is
made. The breeding of horses likewise obtains some attention, but they
are diminutive and ill-conditioned. Some of the nomadic tribes have also
largo herds of Bactrian camels.

The fisheries of the Volga are of great value, no stream in the world
being more abundantly stocked with fish, particularly between the city of
Astrakhan and the Caspian, a distance of about twenty-five or thirty miles.
On this ground, an immense number of vessels and boats, and many thou-
sand persons, are employed in spring, autumn, and winter, in taking fish,
cliiclly sturgeon, from the rocs and bladders of which large quantities of
isinglass and caviar arc manufactured.

Tl»e population of Astrakhan is composed of a gi'cat variety of races,
including liusf'ans, Cossacks, Tartars, Cahnucks, Armenians, Persians,
Hindu J, &c. The most numerous
are the Calmucks, who occupy largo
tracts of country to the east of the
Volga, Of all the inhabitants of
the Russian empire, tlie Calmucks
are the most distinguished by peculi-
arity of features and manners. They
are, in general, raw-boned and stout.
Their faces are so flat, that the skull
of a Calinuck may l)e easily known
from otiiers. They have thick lips,
a small nose, and a short chin, with
a complexion of a sallow brown.
Their clothing is oriental, and their
heads are almost exactly like those
of the Ciiinese. iSome of tlie women

wear a large golden ring in tlieir nostrils. Their principal food consists
of animals, tame and wild , and even their chiefs will feed upon cattle that
have died of distemper or age, though the flesh may be putrid : so that in
every horde the flesh-niarkct has the appearance of a lay-stall of carrion !
They oat likewise the roots and plants of their deserts. They eat freely,
but can abstain from food for a long time. Both sexes smoke continually.
During the summer they remain in the northern and in the winter in the
Boutheru deserts. They sleep upon felt, or carpeting, and cover themselves
with the same.

Tlie Calmucks are a branch of the Mogul or Mongol nation, which origi-
nally inhabited the country to the north of China. In the latter part of
Uio seventeenth century, the Torgot and Derbet divisions of this ti'ibe

'•!?!]

Calmucks.

Jiifi

248

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

descended to the banks of the Volga, extending their wanderings over tho
country of the Don Cossacks to the shores of the sea of Azov. About this
time Ayiika Khan ruled over the whole nation. Shortly after his death,
and while weakened by internal dissensions, the Cahnucks fell an easy
|»rcy to the designs of the Russian govcnunent, and remained subject to
the imperial sceptre, until, in the winter of 1770-'71, offended by the dc-
ppotic measures of the empress Catherine II., half a million of tlic tribe
wandered rather farflier than usual, and ended by pitching their tents in
the dominions of " his celestial majesty" the emperor of China — a warning
to despotic governments not to trouble their nomadic subjecis with tho
arrangements of the " home department."

It was, indeed, as remarkable an emigration as the revenge that j)ronipted
it was signal ; and Ave arc irresistil>ly reminded by it of the only parallel
instance whicli history records, of those wanderings in tho desert of Sinai,
undertaken under somewhat similar circumstances ; and if tlie sojourning
in the wilderness was of nnich longer duration in tho one case, the dL^tanco
travelled in the other Avas immeasurably greater. Unfortunately, a largo
portion of the Calmucks were left behind, having been prevented by an
unusually late winter from crossing the A^olga. Tliose who reached China,
after a journey of eight montlis, were most cordially welcomed by the em-
peror, who allotted for their occupation the lly country in the province of
Soongaria, and granted them many privileges, in consideration of their
voluntary submission to his rule.

To judge from the condition of the Calnnicks who remained behind, their
l)rethren in China probably made an exchange for the belter ; and doubt-
less those who were left suffered for the indejjcndent conduct of this por-
tion of the triljo. They are in a great nieasui-e confined to the province
of Astrakhan, and those who are immediately subject to the crown pay a
tax amounting to sevent3'-five rouljles a family. There is a committee for
the administration of Calniuck affairs at Astrakhan, the president and some
of the members of which are Russians.

Besides tliose who are under the dominion of the ?rown, there are sev-
eral divisions of the tribe, each governed by separate princes. One of tho
most celebrated of these has built a palace on the banks of tho Volga, not
far from Astrakhan.. This appears to be the nearest approach to a settled
habitation that any of these restless beings have attained to ; and so great
is their dread of a more composed life and industrious habits, that, when
they are angry witli a person, they wish "" ho may live in one place, and
work like a Russian I" Their principal animal food is horseflesh, together
with koumiss, or churned mare's milk, from which a kind of S|)irit is dis-
tilled. Camels arc the indispensable attendants of their wanderings.
They pay the greatest respect and veneration to their llamas, or priests,
who, like their Russian neighbors, take every advantage of the supposed
character for sanctity with which they arc invested, to impose upon a bar-
barous and superstitious poopic; uud there ai'o now engrafted on their

EASTERN RUSSIA — ASTRAKHAN

249

original Buddhistic faith a number of mystic rites and ceremonies, which
arc by no means orthodox additions. Their priestliood is in a measure
subordinate to tlic Grand Llama of Thibet.

The Calmucks and NogaVs arc the only nomado tribes which inliabit the
country to the west of the Volga. They share, to some extent, the steppes
to the eastward of that river with the Kirgliiz, who profess Moliammedan-
ism, and, though a smaller tribe, occupy the territory allotted to them upon
more independent conditions than do the Calmucks.

The city of Astrakhan, the capital of the government of that namo, is
situated on an elevated island in the Volga, about thirty miles from its
embouchure in the Caspian sea. It is irregularly built, having crooked
streets, which are mostly unpavcd and dirty, being covered with mud in
winter and with sand in sunniier. Some of the houses are of brick or
sandstone, but by far the greater number are of wood. There arc in all
about one hundred and fifty streets, fifty stjuarcs or public areas, eight
market-places, eleven wooden and nine earthen bridges.

In the upper i)art of the town stands the catlicdrul, from the towers of
which, says Dr. Gajliel, "a fine view of the city is obtained, with its l)road
streets and canals bordered by trees, the haven covered with ships, and of
the broad, majestic Volga, with its beautiful green islands." The cathe-
dral is in the form of a parallelogram, with four snmll gilt and painted
cupolas on the roof, and a large one in the centre for the admission of
liglit. Its walls inside are hung with coarsely-painted pictures, set in costly
frames, mostly of silver filagraue-work. There arc, besides, some thirty
stone and three wooden churches, and fifteen mosques ; many of the former
are richly ornamented and gaudily furnished. The other public buildings
of note are the archiepiscopal palace, the government-oflRces, and the three
factory-halls for the Russian, xVsiatic, and Hindu dealers, or merchants.
An interesting architectural antiquity is a small disused Moresco church,
in the fort of Peter the Great, said to have been built by order of Ivan IV.

Astrakhan is the seat of a Greek and Armenian eparchy, and also of
Greek and Armenian archbishoprics. It contains a high court of civil and
criuuiial jurisdiction; likewise a CJreek theological seminary, a botanic
garden, a gymnasium, and upward of twenty superior and ordinary schools,
with about one thousand scholars of all ranks. The manufactures are in-
considerable, not giving employment to more than two or three hundred
woik-peoplo ; they comprise silks, cottons, woollens, shagreen-skins, Mo-
rocco-leather, and soap. The fisheries form the staple trade of the city,
immense quantities of fish, caviar, and isinglass, being exported to foreign
countries. In the fishing-seasons, from twenty to thirty thousand persons
connected with the fisheries resort to the city.

The haven of Astrakhan is now so sanded up as to leave only about six
feet depth, of water ; so that large vessels have to land their cargoes on an
island nearer the Caspian. A few steam tug-boats are employed in taking
vessels up and down the river. In 18-A6, three iron steamers were started,

250

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

fift

HI]!

AnTRAIUlikN r»nit Ylll SlA.

to ply between Astrakhan and the other ports of the Caspian. Previous
t3 that period, there was but one steamer on the Volga, and it was of only
forty-horse power.

Fresh water being soarco in the city, some attempts w jre lately made to
obtain an increased supply l»y means of Artesian wells, but none was found
ai a depth of four hundroil foot. From some of the borings, however, there
issued streams of carbon ic liydrogen gas, which readily l)urnt with a clear
flame. TIic jmpulation, as in the case of the province generally, consists
of various races ; but most of the trade of the place is in liie hands of the
Tartars and Armenians, the latter of whom are also the chief cultivators
of the land in the vicinity. The city was once fortified in the oriental
manner; and many vestiges of Tartar residence are met with in the neigh-
borhood, including numerous graves, the stones of which have been taken
by the inhabitants to form ovens. Several of the old embattled towers,
and portions of dilapidated walls, still remain. In summer, when the ther-
mometer seldom fiills below ninety-eight degrees Fahrenheit in the daytime,
the air is filled with gnats and other small insects, which are a source of
much annoyance. The resident population of Astrakhan is about fifty
thousand.

Saratov is an extensive government lying between the forty-eighth and
fifty-third degrees of north latitude, and the forty-second and fifty-tirst de-
grees of east longitude ; having the governments of Penza and Simbirsk
on the north, that of Orenburg on the east, of Astrakhan on the south and
southeast, and Tambov, Voronej, and the country of the Don Cossacks, on
tlie west. Its length and greatest breadth arc about throe hundred and

EASTEnW RUSSIA — SARATOV.

251

fifty milos each, and it comprises an area of about sevonty-throo thousand
Hqiiare iniloH.

Tlio V()l<;a intcrHccts this province from north to south, dividing it into
two portions of nearly equal size, but differing considerably in general
character. Tiio eastern division is a Avide steppe, destitute of wood, and cov-
ered in many parts with salt-lakes, from one of which about two hundred
thousand tons of salt are said to be annually obtained. The western divis-
ion is in part hilly, and, though stony toward tlio south, has some tolerably
fertile tracts in tiio north, where agriculture is the chief occupation of tho
inhabitants. Rye, wheat, oats, millet, and peas, arc raised, and in ordi-
nary years the |)roducc, after supplying the demand for home consumption,
loaves a consideralde quantity for exportation. Potatoes, Jlax, and hemp,
are also produced ; and tho cultivation of tobacco, hops, and wood, has
been introduced by Gcrnntn and other colonists. The climate, in somo
situations, is siifRcieutly mild for tho culture of the melon, graj)e, and mul-
iierry. The principal forest-trees are oaks, poplars, Siberian acacias, and
firs. Tiie woods are mostly in tho northwest, and those belonging to tho
crown are estinuitod at about eighteen hundred square miles ; but tho sup-
ply of timber is not adequate to the home demand.

The rearing of live stock is conducted on a large scale in Saratov; and
the more wealthy proprietors are endeavoring to improve ihe breed of
shee}> l>y the introduction of merino flocks. In addition to tho common
breeds, Olipiiant mentions having seen, near tho city of Volsk,in this prov-
ince, '* an iminense herd of sheep, which
seemed, from their conformation in cer-
tain (juarters, to have been created ex-
)>rcssly for the purpose of being melted
into tallow, as their wool — of a very in-
ferior description — was of little value.
What added to tiie grotescpieness of
their appearance, was their perfect in-
nocence of anything like tails ! Nature
seemed to have compromised this ab-
sence with a fieeey ' bustle,' which sat
upon them in the most ridiculous and

undignified manner. However, to these bustles does Volsk owe its pros-
perity : largo herds of sheep, graced In this peculiarity, being driven up
annually from the steppes of the Caspian to the towns on the Volga. The
consignee of the flock wo were then contemjdating was said to bo tho rich-
est merchant on the river — the countless millions of roubles which ho was
reputed to jmssess throwing Rothschild far into the shade !"

The roaring of boos and of silkworms is on the increase in this govern-
ment. Tho fisheries in the Volga furnish large supplies of fish, especially
sturgeon, for both homo consumption and exportation. Next to salt, mill-
stones and a little iron arc tho chief mineral products.

SHKitr raoM thi Stiipis or tiii CuriAif.

< -i

ii>i

252

ILLUSTRATED DICSCRII'TION OF nUSSIA.

I '(

■
1

The population of Saratov is very mixed, irieluding Tartars niul Kirghiz,
and on 'the Volga arc numerous colonics, foundtnl principally l>y Ocrman
and other innnigrnnts from western Kurope — originally attracted thither
by grants of land and privileges conferred l»y the empress Catherine II., in
1703. The colonists are free, and in most respects sultjeet only to their
own jurisdiction. They conduct the most important manufactures of the
government, which consist of linen, cotton, and woollen fahrics, hosiery,
iron-ware, leather, and earthenware. There are numerous Hour-mills and
distilleries.

This government is favoralily situated for commereo : it communicates,
by the Volga, with Nijnei-Ncvgorod and the Caspian sea; and, l»y the
Medvayditsa and Don, with the sea of Azov. The Tartars liave a largo
trade in sheepskins, and the Calmucks in horses of a very licet though weak
breed. About live thousand ni'-rchants, trading in grain, salt, lisli, caviar,
cattle, tallow, tobacco, and fruits, had a ft;w years since an aggregate cap-
ital of about twelve millions of roubles. The imperial governmcMit derives
a greater revenue from this province, in j)rc»portion to its j)opulalion, than
from any otiier in the empire. It is divided into ten districts. Tlie pop-
ulation arc mostly of the CJreifk, protestant, and Mohanunedan religions.
Education, except in the schools of tiic colonists, and of the capital town,
is at a very low ebb. A recent traveller states that drind\enness is very
common among all ranks of the inhaliitanis, and tiiat the lower classes in
the towns on the Volga arc more generally degraded and immoral than
the people of any other (puirter of the globe which he has visited.

Siiratov, the capital of this govenunent, and called iiy the Hiissians the
" Queen of the Volga," is situated on tlie right baidc of that river, thrco
hundred and thirty-five miles south-southeast of N'ijnei-Novgorod, and three
hundred and sixty north-northwest of Astrakhan. The population (inclu-
ding military), according to the oflieial accounts, exceeds forty thousand.
It consists of an uj)per and lower town ; but, though founded so lato as
16t3o, it is neither regularly laid out nor well built. It has sonjc good and
even handsome stone residences ; but most of its houses are of wood, and
it has frequently been in great part destroyed by fire. There are about a
dozen Greco-Russian churches, some convents, a protestant and a Roman
catholic church, a mosque, and a fi^ostinoi dvor, or bazar, a large stone
building for the warehousing, exhibition, and sale of merchandise. Since
1833, a new and handsome archbishop's palace has been constructed ; and
there are several hospitals, a gymnasium, and an ecclesiastical seminary,
established in 1828, and having about live hundred students. The inhal)-
itants manufacture cotton fabrics, cotton and silk stockings, clocks and
watches, leather, wax-candles, tallow, vinegar, beer, &c.

Owing to its intermediate situation between Astrakhan on one hand, and
Moscow and Nijnei-Novgorod on others, Saratov has an extensive trade,
its exports being principally grain, salt fish, hides, cattle, and native man-
ufactui'cd goods ; and its imports, tea, coffee, sugar, iron, glass and earth-

EASTEHN RUSSIA — OUKN'MUIUJ.

258

oiiwarc, woollen, silk, nnJ cotton HtullH, peltry, Ac. It has tlirco Inrj^o
niiniial fairs. Tito otiicr important towns of the province are Tznritzin,
Volsk, Ale.xandrov, Kuniycliin, I'etrov.Mk, Atkarsk, &.c.

Tilt) goveriiinent of Ouknhdiuj lies mostly in Europe, but partly in A.«ia.
It is situated cliielly between the forty-seventh and fifty-seventh decrees of
nortli latitude, and the forty-eighth and sixtieth dogreea of cast longitude.
It is bounded on the north by the government of Perm ; on the northwest
by Viatka ; on the west by Kazan, Simliirsk, and Saratov ; on the south-
Wi'Mt by Astrakhan ; on tin; south by the Caspian sea; on the southeast and
east by the steppes (if the Kirghiz; and on tlie northeast by Tol>ol»k. It8
irreatest Icnj^th from norliiwfst to southeast is eight hundreil miles, and its
breadth al)out four himdred and fifty, containing an area of about one hun-
dred and twenty-eight thousand stpiare miles.

The surface of this province is greatly diversified, consisting partly o'
lofty mountain-ranges, partly of elevated plateaux or tal»le-lands, and partly
of low and marshy plains. The principal mountain-chain is that of the
Ural, which, entering the government in the north, traverses it in a south-
ern l)ut somewhat circuitous direction, and divides it into two uiuMpial por-
tions. The eastern portion, by far the smaller of the two, belongs wholly
to the l)asin of the Arctic ocean, its principal rivers are the Tol)ol, Alniga,
Oufa, and Mijas. It contains numerous lakes — all, however, of small
dimonsiona; and is extensively occupied by swamps and morasses. The
western p<irtion belongs to the basin of the Caspian, which receives its
waters partly through the IJiela, Samara, and other trilmtaries of the
Volga, but to a much larger extent directly by the Ural, and its tributaries
(>r, Sakmara, llek, A'c.

A considerably part of the government is densely wooded, but a still
larger part is occupied l)y immenst! steppes, on which trees are rare ; and
natural pastures arc roamed over by vast herds of cattle and sheep. The
best agricultural districts are on the northwest, where the surface is com-
|)osed of hill and valley ; and the soil consists generally of a black, fertile
loam, capalile of raising all kinds of grain, and actually raising it in such
abundance, notwithstamling the very imperfect culture it receives, <';:if. x
consideral)le export into the neighboring governments takes jdacc.

The minerals are extremely valuable, and furnish a large source of rev-
enue to the state. They include the precious metals, particul rly gold,
which abounds along the chain of the Urals ; and in tin; plaihs on either
side of it, but especially on the east, copper, iron, and salt. The working
of these, and the different operations connected with them, employ a great
number of hands ; but manufactures, properly so calle<l, have made little
progress, though many home-made articles are very beautiful, especially
light worsted shawls, and other fabrics mailo by tho females, similar to
those wrought in the Orkney and Shetland islands of Scotland. The trade,
however, particularly with the nomadic and other tribes, is very extensive.

A' ■ I

i I'j

1 :

I'f I

;>'4

^'3

» -

254

ILLUSTRATED DESCMPTION OP RUSSIA.

«r

The principal articles arc grain, horses, cattle, sheep, hides, furs, honey,
wax, metals, salt, tallow, and fish.

Orenburg, the principal town of this government, is situated on a slope
above the right bank of the Ural. It is fortified, and has spacious and
regular though miserably-paved streets. The houses, though only a few
are of stone, and the far greater number are of wood, are of a lively, pleas-
ing appearance. It has a protcstant, a Roman catholic, and eight Greelj
churchorj, ^U built of stone ; two mosques, governor's house, and public
offices ; an exchange, a merchant-house, and a customhouse ; a Bashkir can-
avansary, a handsome building, witli two turrets, wiiere the business con-
nected with the Bashkirs is managed, but no trade is carried on ; an agri-
cultural scliool, and the district and military schools, &c.

The manufactures of Orenburg consist chiefly of woollen cloth (part of it
army-clotliing), leather, and soap; and there are very extensive establish-
ments for smelting tallow. The trade with the Kirghiz, and other inhab-
itants of the interior, is very extensive. It is not, however, carried on
within the town, but about two miles from it, to the east of the left bank
of the Ural, where tiie caravans from Bokhara and Khiva stop ; and a car-
avansary, usually called the tauschhof {exchange court), or menovbi-dvor,
has been erected, the whole being protected by a camp of Cossacks. In
the vicinity of the tauschhof are the immense smelting-houses referred to
above, in which, in the course of a summer, the tallow of more than fifty
thousand sheep is melted down. The population of Orenburg is about
fourteen thousand.

Pkrm (with the governments yet to be described in this chapter, com-
prising the Kazan province s) lies between the fifty-sixlh and sixty-second
degrees of north latitude, and the fifty-third and sixty-third degrees of
cast longitude ; and is bowndcd on the northwest and north by Vologda
and Toliolsk, on tho east by Tobolsk, on the south by Orenburg, and on
the west by Viatka. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is
five hundred and wenty miles, and its breadth about four hundred, con-
taining un area of o'le hundred and twenty-seven thousand square miles.

This government, being traversed from north to south by the Ural chain,
is divided into two unequal portions, a western and an eastern — the for-
mer, of course, in Europe, and the latter in Asia. The Asiatic portion, tho
lesser of the two, belongs to the basin of the Arctic ocean, which receives
its waters through tributaries of the Obi. Of these, the most important
are the Sosna, Lobva, Tura, Xeiva, Irbit, Pishma, and Iset. In the south
it contains several lakes, of wliich the largest is tho Majan.

The European portion belongs to the basin of the Caspian, with the ex-
ception of a small portion in the northwest, drained by the Petchora, and
of course belonging, like the eastern portion, to tho basin of the Arctic
ocean. By far tho most important river in tho European portion is the
Kama, which, entering tho govcniraent on the northwest, proceeds through

EASTERN RUSSIA — PERM.

256

it in a very circuitous direction, receiving numerous tributaries on cither
bank : of these, the largest are the Vishera, Kosa, Kosva, Obva, and Tcliy-
sovaia, with its affluent the Silva.

From the principal Ural chain, the surface descends in a succession of
parallel terraces. On the loftiest summits snow and ice continue for nine
months in the year, and hence the climate, naturally rigorous, from its high
latitude and inland position, lias its rigor greatly increased. Beyond the
sixtieth degree, regular culture becomes impossible, and the far greater
part of the surface is occupied with forests and marshes. Extensive for-
ests also stretch far into the south, and the soil being generally not very
fertile, large tracts remain uncleared.

Tl\e gyvcnimcnt is rich in minerals, and possesses extensive auriferous
tracts, on wliich vast numbers of the inhabitants are employed in collecting
gold, and there are also apparently inexhaustible beds of both iron and
salt. The immense qAiantities of fuel required in order to work these ex-
tensively and to advantage, give a great adventitious value to the timber
of tlie forest, mid make the surface covered by it of far greater value than
it could be in any other form. Game, both large r..id small, is common in
the forests, and many of the inhabitants gain a livelihood by hunting ; fish,
including both sturgeon and salmon, abound in the rivers.

With the exception of several branches of industry immediately connected
with tlie mines, there are few manufactures. Tiie chief are soap, leather,
tallow-candles, potash, and glass. The trade derives great facilities from
the Kama and other navigable streams, and has acquired some importance.
The jiriMcipal articles are metals, marble, wood, salt, fur, tallow, and tar.

Nearly thrif fourths of the inhabitants are Russians, and belong to the
Cireek church ; the rest consist of Tartars, Tcheremisses, Bashkirs, &c. ;
and though many of them have nominally embraced Christianity, not a few
are Mohammedans, and among others diflerent forms of paganism arc said
to prevail. The governments of Perm ami Kazan are under one military
governor. Some exertions have been made to extend education, but the
number of scholars to the population is only one in near'y three hundred.
For administrative purposes, Perm is divided into trt'clve circles.

The city of Perm, and the capital of this government, is situated on the
right Itank of the Kama, below the confluence of the Tchysovaia,nine hundred
and fifty miles east by south of St. Petersburg. It is built with consider-
able regularity, in straight and sj)acious streets, and is the seat of an arch-
bishopric. It has two churches ; several other public edifices, surmounted
by spires ; a gynuiasium, theological seminary, a civil and a military hos-
pital ; extensive copper and iron smelting and refining works, which give
employment to the greater part of the population ; and a considerable trade
with the inland districts. The inhabitants number about ten thousand.

Ekaterinburg, lekaterinenburg, or Yekaterinburg- (Catherine's borough),
capital of the Ural mining district, is situated on the Asiatic slope of the
Ural mountains, in the government of Perm, and one hundred and seventy

III

:;f

2o6

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

miles southeast of its capital city, on both banks of the Iceth or Iset, at an
elevation of nearly nine hundred feet above the sea level. The general
external appearance of Ekaterinburg very much resembles that of one of
the manufacturing towns of Europe. The streets are long and straight,
but unpavcd, liaving, however, planks or logs laid on each side for foot-
passengers. The principal street runs parallol with the river, and is inter-
sected by numerous smaller streets, leading directly to the bank of the Iset.
A number of the houses are of wood, but there are also a great many of
stone, built in a handsome and substantial style, and possessing as much
internal comfort as exterior elegance. On the southeast bank of the river
the buildings arc spread over an extensive plain, which is connected with
the city by a handsome bridge ; these buildings include the government
magazines, mills, factories, etc., and enclose an extensive square or mar-
ket-i)laoe.

The principal part of the town, however, is on the ojjposite side. Here
the streets are spacious and elegant, and the stone edifices, the habitations
of mercliants and mine-proprietors, exceedingly handsome. In this quar-
ter there are a public granary, a public sale-room, a convent, and several
churches.

The cutting, polishing, and engraving of precious stones, forms a princi-
pal branch of industry in Ekaterinburg, and the art is here brought to the
greatest perfection. Men, women, and children, are met with at every
stej), offering bargains of these tempting valuables, consisting chiefly of
topazes, amethysts, crystals, jasper, &c. "The greatest neatness," says
Mr. Erinan, " is observable in the dwellings of tliose who work in these
gems, who, even when in possession of considerable wealth, retain their
native siinj)licity of dress and manners." The in-door dress of the women
is the ancient sarafan, and a covering for the head, called a kako.shnik,
having a i)road, staring border, and sometimes covered with jewels. This
head-dress is worn by married women alone; long, plaited tresses forming
tiie distinction of the unmarried, who do not cover the head. The young
men deliglit in flowing locks.

Ekaterinburg was founded by Peter the Great, in 1723, and named in
honor of his empress, Catherine I. It is regularly iortified, and, being sit-
uated on the great road leading from Perm to Tobolsk, is regarded as the
key of Siljcria. Parties of exiles fre<iuently pass through llie town, num-
bering annually, it is stated, aljout live tliousand. The women are gener-
ally in wagons ; the men following, in couples, on foot. The population
is from fifteen to eighteen tliousand.

The government of Vlvtka lies between the fifty-sixth and sixtieth de-
grees of north latitude, and the forty-sixth and fiity-fourth degrees of cast
longitude, having the government of Vologda on the north, Perm on tho
cast, Orenburg and Kazan on the south, and Nijnei-Novgorod and Kostro-
ma on the west. It contains al)out tit'ty-thrcc thousand square miles.

EASTERN nUSSIA — VIATKA.

267

The slope of the country is toward the west and south, in which direc-
tions the Viatka, a tributary of the Kama, flows, traversing the govern-
ment K-^^irly in its centre. The Kama, which forms part of its eastern and
southern boundaries, also rises in this government. The surface is gener-
ally undulating, and even mountainous towai'd the east, where it consists
of the lower Uralian ranges. The soil is mostly good, though encumbered
in parts with extensive marshes. The climate is severe in winter, but not
usually unhealthy.

Agriculture is the principal occupation of tlic inhabitants, particularly
along the banks of the large rivers ; and in ordinary years more grain is
grown than is required for liomc consumption. Rye, barley, and oats, are
the principal gral.'S ; very little wheat is raised, but peas, lentils, and buck-
wheat, are grown, with large quantities of hcnip and tiax. The surplus
produce goes chiefly to the northern provinces of the empire. Potatoes are
not much cultivated. Fruit is not pliMitifnl ; apples scarcely ripen. The
forests are very extensive: they consist mostly of firs, intermixed with
oak, elm, alder, lime, birch, and other trees. Cattle-breeding, though a
secondary branch of industry, is still of importance ; and a good many
small but robust horses are reared. Sheep are few. Furs, tar, iron, and
copper, are among the chief products.

Manufactures, though not extensive, appear to be on the increase : there
arc factories for woollen cloths, linen and cotton stuffs, paper, soap, pot-
ash, copper and iron wares, &c., erq)l()ying eight or ten thousand hands.
xVbout two million yards of woollen (and perhaps nearly doulilc that quan-
tity of linen) cloth are supposed to be annually made in the houses of the
peasantry ; and large (juantities of spirits are distilled. Near Sarapoul is
an extensive manufactory of arms ; and at Votka, anchors, gun-carriages,
and iron machinery of various kinds, are made on a large scale. The gov-
ernment exports grain, flax, linseed, honey, tallow, leather, furs, silk goods,
iron, and copper, to Archangel, and grain and timber to Saratov and As-
trakhan. It receives manufactured goods from Moscow and Nijuci-Novgo
rod, tea from Irbit, and salt from Perm. Viatka, the capital, is the great
emporium of the trade. The goverimient is subdivide'.! into eleven districts.
Viatka, Slobodoskoi, Malmych, and Sarapoul, are the chief towns.

The inhabitants consist of various races — Russians, Votiaks (of a Fin
nish stock, and from whom the j)rovincc has its name), Tartars, Hashkirs,
Toptiars,<tc., professing many dift'erent religions. The MohamnKMlans are
estimated at about fifty thousand, and the Shanianists and idolators at some
tliree or four thousand. In IHlU, there were only nine public schools, in
which about eleven hundred and fifty pupils were receiving instruction ;
but the numlter has since materially increased. This government is united
under the same governor-general with Kazan ; but the Tartars and Finns
arc subordinate to the jurisdiction of their own chiefs.

Viatka, the capital of this government, is situated on the river of that
name, near the confluence of the Teheptsa, two hundred and thirty miloR

Fi!

"■i;

ir ;

258

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

west by north of Perm, and two hundred and fifty northeast of Nijnei-Nov«
gorod. Its population is about eight thousand. It has several churches
of stone, one of which, the cathedral, has a silver altar with bas-reliefs^
and cost one hundred and thirty thousand roubles. Here arc numerous
convents, with an episcopal seminary, gymnasium, and high-school, founded
in 1829. The city was annexed to the Russian dominions by tlie grand-
duke Vassili-Ivanovich, about the middle of the sixteenth century.

The government of Simbirsk lies on both sidec of the Volga, between
the fifty-third and fifty-sixth degrees of north lf'*itudf , and the forty-fifth
and fifty-first degrees of east longitude ; having on ■ tie north the government
of Kazan, on the east that of Orenburg, on the soutli Saratov, and on the
west Penza ai i Nijnei-Novgorod. It contains an area of about tv onty-foui
tliousand square miles.

It consists mostly of a gently-undulating plain, having a black and gen-
erally very fertile soil. The Volga passes througli this government, and
near its southern bgrder it takes a bend to the eastward for a distance of
a hundred and twenty miles, enclosing a mountainous peninsula, and form-
ing an isthmus only nine miles across. The view on the opposite page
shows the majestic Volga at this point. The river is here two miles wide,
rapid and deep, and, for the first time, its left bank entirely changes its
character: rising to a height of sc n or eight hundred feet, the beetling
crags overliang the miglity stream, and give an unusual boldness to the
ecene. Indeed, nowhere does the Volga, throughout its entire length,
afford such striking views as are presented at tliis divergence.

Besides the Volga, the province is watered by the Sura and other, afflu-
ents of the former. The climate is in extremes, the summer being very
hot, and the winter equally cold. The Volga is uiruially frozen over for
about five months. Rye, wlieat, and other grain, are raised in quantities
more than sufiicient for home consumption. Ilcrap is it:''gely cultivated,
with flax, tobacco, poppies, Ac. Except among the CalmucAS, the rearing
of cattle is not much attended to. In the north, the forests are abundant.
Distilleries are numerous, the Russian grain-brandy being made here to
perfection ; and besides the coarse goods manufactured I)y the peasants,
th^re are establisliments for the manufacture of cloth, coarse linen and
canvass, and coverlets, with glass-works, soap-works, candle-works, &c.

Simbirsk, tlio cajntal of this government, is situated on an isthmus be-
tween the Volga and the Sviaga. For a place of nearly twenty thousand
inlial)itants, it wears a mean and insignificant appearence — its situation,
indeed, being its chief recommendation. It stands partly on an eminence,
which commands a fine prospect, and partly on a plain. From tlic terrace,
near the governor's house, a magnificent and expansive view is obtained
over the basin of the Volga, which here spreads itself in narrow channels
through the low land, beyond which the high hills of the Tigoulee bound
the prospect to the south, while in every other direction the steppes soom

EASTERN RUSSIA — SIMBIRSK — SAHARA.

26S

f •;

VWW OM TH(t VoLOA AT SlMBIMK — TUB JtOOULBI

illimitable. Immediately at your feet arc cottages and gardens, and on
the opposite bank of the river arc some large villages. The white sails of
many pashaliks, glistening on the broad surface of the stream, and the
occasional passing of a steamer, complete a charming picture.

Tlic streets of Simbirsk arc broad and straight. Tlie houses are mostly
of wood, but neat and commodious inside. Tiiere are numerous churches,
which, with one exception, are all of stone, and two convents. Near the
terrace before alluded to, and in the centre of a square from which the
principal streets diverge, stands a statue of Karamsin, the celebrated Rus-
sian liistcrian. Tlie town is in a fertile country ; onu, besides large quan-
tities of grain, exports the produce of the fisheries on the Volga. There
is an annual horse-fair held here ; and the place is a good deal resorted to
by the sur>'ounding nobility.

The new government of Samara, as before remarked, has been formed
out of tliree districts of the government of Orenburg, two districts of Sara-
atov, and of the districts of Samara and Stavropol in Simbirsk. It com-
prises an area of nearly forty thousand square miles, and its population
may be estimated at about one million, six hundred thousand,

Tlie capital of tlie government is the city of Samara, situated at the con-
fluence of the Samara with the Volga, five hundred and fifty miles east-
southeast of Moscow. It contains two wooden and three stone churches ;
has manufactures of leather and soap ; and carries on an extensive trade.
The town is built on a sloping bank, is growing with great rapidity, and
already r mbers a population of fifteen or twenty thousand. It is said to
be the busiest port on the Volga. Backed by an immense grain-growing
country, it supplies a great part of fae interior of Russia with wheat. No
less than nine millions of poods are shipped here annually, and carried
down either to Astrakhan, and so across the Caspian, or, on the backs of

-m

260

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA,

camels, from Orenburg to the adjacent countries ; or cunvoycd by water to
St. Petersburg. Much of the sudden growth and prosperity of the city is
doubtless owing to the introduction of ; team-navigation on tlie Volga.

At the great annual fair held here, the numerous races assembled at it
are suid to be even more diversified than at Nijnei-Novgorod. Situated
only about two hundred and fifty miles fr >i!i the Asiatic frontier, a largo
trade is carried on with the inhabitants of those distauS steppes, who flock
hither in great numbers, the representatives of each triVo wearing a difl'er-
ent costume. The rapid increase of the popul ition of this town is but in
accordance with the prospering condition of the new go^ eminent f wl'Icli
it forms the capital. There is not a more highly-favored region tlir.ugh-
out the whole Russian empire than Samara; and those iuhul.itants i)i "ho
neighboring districts, wii), belonging to the crown, iiavo Iv'.u allowi.nl to
migrate to this land of plc;ity, have done so to such an extent, that ilic
population has doubled it-elf within the last fowyenvs. Whcic tlie Yolj^.i,
more capricious Hum ;isual, n aches tlie nio?t ca,'teily point of its Avholo
course, the city of Sanuiru has sprung :i;.. ; ;ind, fornung a sort of port lor
the town of Orenburg, which is situatet! y>n the Tortar fr-mtior, it helps to
connect the distant regions !)eyond with the Cis-Yolgan countries, and
ti,i!s, as it were, completes the last link of V- ropeaji civilization in this
direction.

is}

The .government of Penza lies principally between the fifty-third and
Ifty-fifd) degiv-.-is of nortli latitude, and the forty-second and forty-seventh
degrees of east longitude ; liavini , the government of Nijnci-Novgorod on
the north, Tambo. on the west, Saratov on the south, and Simbirsk on the
east. Its greatest length from east to west is one hundred and seventy
miles, and its greatcc^^t In'cadth one hundred and forty-five, comprising an
area of about fourteen li Musand square miles.

As a whole, tliis provinti; is an extensive flat, somewhat monotonous, but
occasionally intersected by small hills, which in tlic southwest form the
water-shed between the basins of the Volga and the Don. To the latter
basin only a very small portion of the government, drained by the Khoper
and its tributary the Vorona, belongs ; the affluents of tho Volga are the
Soura, Insara Isa, Moksha, Vad, and Vicha. The climate is mild and
salubrious, though the winter cold is occasionally severe.

The soil is fertile, and well adapted for raising all kinds of grain and
roots. Hemp and flax are extensively cultivated, and tobacco and hops
occasionally grown. The principal fruits are apples, pears, and cherries.
Tlie forests are extensive, and consist chiefly of beech, oak, birch, and
alder. Considerable attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, particularly
horses, of which several good breeding-studs are kept. The rearing of
bees is so general as to form one of the most important branches of rural
economy. All kinds of game abound, but fish aro very scarce. The prin-
cipal mineral is iron, of which valuable mines are worked in the vicinity

EASTERN RUSSIA — PENZA— KAZAN.

261

of Troitsk. Millstones arc also quarried extensively. Tlie manufactures
are chiefly confined to the cottages of the peasantry, where great quanti-
ties of flax and wool are spun, and coarse stuffs woven ; but there are sev-
eral blast-furnaces and other iron-works, soap-works, glass-works, sugar
refineries, tanneries, and, above all, distilleries, which arc both numeroui
and on a large scale. The chief exports arc grain, flour, brandy, leather
K'ap, ^vax, honey, potash, wool, and timber. Education, nominally unde
tlio su!K"i!Mtendence of the university of Kazan, is miserably neglected
and tli<' V .'*' printing-press in the government belongs to the crown.

i'cii;';.. iio capital of this government, is situated on a height near th
junction of the Penza and Soura, two hundred and ten miles south-south-
east of Nijnoi-Novgorod. It is meanly built of wood, with the exception
of the cathedral, which is of stone. Besides the cathedral, there are eleven
pari* u-c!ii) ches. The principal manufactures are leather and soap, and in
thc-o a considerable trade is carried on. Penza is the residence of the
:ov(;fi!or ; the see of a bishop conjoined with Saratov ; and possesses sev-
eral courts of justice, a theological seminary, and a gymnasium. The pop-
ulation is about twelve thousand.

The government of Kazan coniifriscs that portion of the territory of the
former kingdom which lies between the fifty-fourtli and fifty-seventh degrees
of north latitude, and tl»c forty-sixth and fifty-second degrees of east lon-
gitude ; and is boundiid on tlic north by the government of Viatka, cast by
Orenburg, soulli liy Simbirsk, and west by Nijnci-Novgorod. Its average
length is two hundred and fifteen miles, and its lireadth one hundred and
twenty-five, containing an area of about twenty-three thousand five hun-
dred s(juare miles.

On entering the government from the west, the ground descends at first
gradually, but afterward more rapidly, almost to the level of the Volga,
and spreads into a plain clothed with the richest green, intersecting an ele-
vated plateau on the right bank of the Volga, and terminating three or
four miles toward the east in a range of hills. From this point, the ground
on the left bank of the Volga rises rapidly, and strikingly contrasts with
the low plains on the opposite side. The summit of this table-land is cov-
ered with well-grown oaks, which form the commencement of an exten-
sive forest. Many of the hills consist of a brilliant-white, slaty limestone,
the sti'ata of wliich have a considerable dip, and arc occasionally pierced
by natural j)assages, one of which, about two hundred and thirty feet in
length, terminates in an alabaster cavern sixty feet wide. Though the
surface is thus occasionally diversified by hills, and a low branch of the
Ural mountains comes in upon the southeast, the general appearance is
that of an extensive plain, watered by large navigable rivers.

The Volga, proceeding from the west, winds along in t tortuous course
for nearly a hundred and fifty miles ; the Kama, from the cast, after flow-
ing nearly one hundred miles, joins the Volga, whoso united streams, occu-

t >^

262

ILLUSTBATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

pying a channel nearly eight hundred yards wide, proceed south. In ad-
dition to these, are numerous smaller tributaries and lakes, which, though
individually not of large extent, are scattered throughout the district. The
climate, on the whole, is mild. TIio winter is keen, but not protracted.
Both spring and summer are usually serene, and in autumn all the vegeta-
ble productions of the same latitude como freely to perfection. Among
others, apples, pears, cherries, plums, and apricots, abound.

Agriculture is extensively carried on, but not in a very perfect manner.
In some parts, however, the Tartars seem to be careful husbandmen, and
are particularly attentive to the harvesting of their grain. Hemp is grown
to a great extent, and of excellent quality ; and the oil obtained from its
seeds, and from a kind of pistachio-nut whicli abounds, forms an important
article of commerce. Flax, in both quantity and quality, is deficient.

The inhabitants generally seem fond of horticulture. Almost every cot-
tage has its garden, and patches of tobacco are oflon seen, particularly in
the neighborhood of the Tartars, who raise it for tlieir own use. The rear-
ing of cattle forms a profitable employment in the meadows and pastures
of the rich flats which border the numeious streams. There, also, much
attention is paid to the dairy ; the cows yielding a rich milk, of which large
quantities of butter and cheese are made.

The Russians form .learly a half of tlie whole population. Tlic greater
part of the remainder are Tartars, Cliercmisses, and Chuvasses. The
Chereniisses, who are most numerous in the western part of the province,
are much smaller and weaker than the Russian peasantry, and are charac-
terized by a peculiar shyness of both look and demeanor. Their dress,
which is tlie same for both sexes, consists of white linen trousers, and an
upper garment of the same material, fastened round the loins with a girdle,
and generally embroidered in various colors on the breast and shoulders.
Strips of cloth, which they wind round the log, from the foot to the knee,
are always black. Both men and women allow their long, black hair to
hang about them in the wildest disorder.

The dress of the Chuvasf-cs very
much resembles tliat of the Chere-
mi.ssics, the cliief differci:co being
in tlio females, who wear a plate
of copper hanging from the girdle
behind, and strung with all kinds
of metallic ornaments, which keep
tinkling as they walk ; while from
their necks are suspended large sil-
ver breastplates, about eight inch-
es long and six broad, formed of
coins. The men wear high black
hats, tapering to the middle, but
wide at the top and bottom, like an hour-glass. The above ongrutlng

«f«fMrJL it.

Chvvassbs or Kazan.

EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

268

represents some of these eingular people bearing fuel at a wood-statiou on
the Volga. The Chuvasses are remarkable for timidity. This quality,
which the first accounts of them mention as their most strilting feature,
heems still, notwithstanding their long intercourse with Russia, to continue
unimpaired. They, as well as the Cheromisses, Votiaks, and other tribes,
arc supposed to have sprung from a combination of the Finnish and Mon-
golian races, but they far mo'v nearly resemble the latter.

In the ncighborliood of the city of Kazan the Tartars predominate, and
are easily distinguished from the Russians by the dark color >)!' their lean,
muscular, and, ns it were, angular visage ; by the close-fitting cap on their
closely-shaved skull ; and a certain smartness of gait and demeanor. They
have made considerable progress in civilization, and often contrast favora-
bly with tiie Russian peasantry.

The inhabitants of the government, generally, are active and industrious.
Besides agriculture and wood-cutting, fishing in the numerous lakes and
rivers of tl»e district \f a profitable occu-
pation, and employs a great number of
hands. Tiie province, moreover, posses-
ses numerous manufactures, the inhabit-
ants excelling in leather-embroidery, and
has an extensive trade, both internal and
external, which tlie large navit ible rivers
greatly facilitate. Indeed, boat and barge
building, fin* the traflSc of tlie A'^olga, is
not an unimportant branch of trade.

The city of Kazan, tlie ancient capital
of the Tartar khans, and, next to St. Pe-
tersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, and perhaps

Odessa, the most important city in the empire, is situated between the left
bank of the Kasanka (about four miles above where it empties into the
Volga) and its tributary the Bulak, occupying a tongue of land which
gradually rises like an island to a considerable height above low plains
subject to inundation. It is four hundred and sixty miles east of Moscow.
Kazan covers a space nearly six miles in circuit, and consists, like most
other Russian cities, of three parts — the Kremlin, or fortress, on a con-
siderable eminence ; the town, {)ioperly so called ; and the slobodes, or
suburbs, inhabited principally by the Tartar population. The town is well
built, and has broad and spacious squares and market-places ; but in the
suburbs the houses are principally of wood, and the streets, not being
paved, are consequently in spring and autumn so wet and muddy as to be
almost impassable to pedestrians.

The greater part of the Tartar houses are built of wood, two stories
high. Some, however, are of brick. The lower story of each serves for
a barn, storehouse, &c., or is let for hire ; the upper floor is inhabited by
the owner. There is neither porch nor portico in front, the entrance to

LCATIIM UloVII and WoODKI^SroON

i:! 1

ILLUSTUATKD DESCUII'TION OP IIUSSIA.

|l '

t ;•!

Intrriob or A Taktar llotaK.

tlio |»rcmi.-!os bciiijj; tliroii^Ii a jrate, Icadiii}; into jrardons with which each
hou.so iw .surmiiiult'd. Tlio aliitvc cniiraviii^; shows the interior of one of
the Tartar houses of the meaner class. On the It'll hand is constructed
the p(t(/i, or fuTplaee, wliieii serves for wanning the room, and for culi-
nary pui'poses.

The Tartars of Kazan are in general well fornietl .ind handsome; their
eyes are blaelc or gray : they iiave a keen, piercl.ig look, a rather length-
eneu 'orni of face, a long noso, li[»s somewhat thicker than those of Euro-
peans, a Ijlaek l)eard, carefully trimmed, nud the hair entirely shaven from
the head, which is covered with a smuil cap, calleil a Uhi trika ; their ears
arc large, and standing out from the heat! ; they have a hmg neck, very
wide shoulders, and a broad chest — such is the description Dr. Fouk.s
gives of their form and piiysiognomy. They are, moreoviir, tall and erect,
and their gait is niunly and imposing. The doctor remarks that whenever
ho entered a Tartar mos(pic he was always struck with the line and noble
featuroa of their elders, and he asserts his belief that the ancient Italian
artists might have chosen from among this race most admirable subjecla
for their sacred pictures. He is n(jt so favorable, however, in his descrip-
tion of the Tartar women. He does not consider them good-looking; but
then he had an ojiportunity of seeing only the wives and daughters of the
poorer classes. In general, the Tartar women are uiiddle-»ized, and rather
stout; like the men, they stand erect, but walk badly and awkwardly, a
circumstance principally owing to the heavy dress they wear. They sooa
grow old — so much so, that a woman of twenty-seveu has the look of one
of forty: this is owing to the custom they have of painting their faces.
Their complexion is rather yellow, and their faces are often cov.M-ed with
pimjtles and a rash, which proceeds partly from the habit of constantly
lying on feather-beds, and partly from their heavy and over-warm clothing

The same authority, in a few words, thus describes the character of this
race: " They are proud, ambitious, hospitable, fond of money, cleanly, tol-
erably civilized (taking all things into consideration)) intelligent in com-

'/" ■

y\v

EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

267

rj("rRO, inclined to boasting, fiioiidly to each other, aobor in every way, and
very induytrioiis." Wliat is piirtlculiuiy striiung is tlio tonacity witli wliich
the Turtiirs here, as elsewhere throughout the empire, have retained their
national eharaclcristics, customs, and manners, although nearly three con
turios Imve elapsi'd since this race was subdued l)y the Russians.

The dress of the Tartars of Kazan of the better class is so different from
that of every other nation, that it deserves a description. They wear a
shirt {koulmiufk) made of calico, sometimes white, sometimes red ; their
drawcM-s {schtunn) are worn very wide, and are made likewise of calico,
or occasionally of silk ; their stockings, called i/aiik, ar ; of cotton or linen.
A species of leather stockings, generally of Morocco-loaOier, called itchiffi,
red or yellow, are worn over the stockings, or sometimes are substituted
for them. Their slippers, called kuhvt, arc made of black or green leather.
Over the shirt they wear two garments, somewhat in tlie shape of a Euro-
j)ean frock-coat without a collar : the under one, having no sleeves, is made
of silk; the upper, with sleeves likewise of silk, is called knsaki. Ovei
these they wear a long, wide robe, generally of blue cloth, called tchekmen^
which is attached to the body by a scarf (^poda). In a pocket of this gar-
ment they keep their pocket-handkerchief, called tchaoulok. Their heads,
which are shaven to the skin, are covered with a species of skullcap, called
tnkia: this is covered, when they go out, with a hat {hourick) made of
velvet or cloth, and ornamented with fur : the rich Tartars use for this
purpose beaver-skins of great value.

The Tartars get their heads shaved every fortnight, and trim their beards
once a week ; onco a week they go to the bath. A very singular predilection
exists among the lower classes — that of finding pleasure in being bled.
This luxury they enjoy at least once a year ; the spring is generally chosen
for tlie enjoyment. A barber of Kazan (for it is the barbers who bleed
then;, as they did formerly in England and other parts of Europe) assured
Turnerelli that he had let blood for upward of five hundred Tartars in ono
day, each of whom had paid him from fifty copecks to a rouble for the op-
cration. lie hud in this manner earned upward of ono hundred dollars
for blood-letting alone ! This was indeed profiting by the bloodshed of his
fellow-creatures.

The costume of the Tartar women of the higher classes is very rich and
elegant. They wear a species of robe of rich thick silk or satin, the sleeves
being very largo and long, sometimes oven falling as low as the grounc'J
the uj)per j)art of these robes is onibroidored in front with gold. Over
this they wear a kind of capote, very wide, and generally made of gold
brocade or sonje similar stuff gorgeously embroidered. They wear on their
head a silk cup bordered with fur, which hangs down on ono side and ends
in a point having a golden tassel attached to it ; this cap is also sometimes
adorned with precious stones, and ancient 2;oW and silver coins. Their
hair falls behind in long tresses, the ends of which are tied up with bows
of ribands. Sometimos these trosscs are covered with long bands, to which

208

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

■5;

■■f

are attacliod various coins and ornaments. The Tartar women wear, more-
over, a i)rofiision of pearls, necklaces, gold and silver bracelets, finger-
rings, car-rings, chains, &c. The dress of one lady of rank, including her
jewelry, sometimes costs not less than two thousand dollars !

Tlic Tartar women, as in all Moliannnedan countries, are kept secluded
in the houses and harems of their laisbnnds and parents. Tliey arc allowed
to remove their thick veils in tlioir bedrooms alone: not tiieir husbands'
lirothers, nor even their own uncles and cousins, are permitted to behold
their features. They perform no labor of any sort, the concerns of the
household being confided to old women and male attendants ; the younger
females having nothing to do but to dress, cat, tlrink, sleep, and jdease
their husbands. They marry very early, sometimes in tlieir twelfth year I
\. rich Tartar woman has hardly left her bed, when she begins her daily
task of painting her face red and white ; then she clothes herself in her
gaudy vestments of gold and silver texture, and puts on her various orna-
ments ; and then throws herself on the soft Turkish sofa, on which she lies
almost buried. The soriiovar (tea-urn) is then brought her. She makes
the tea herself, and drinks cup after cup oT it until the perspiration flows
down her ftice, washing away at the same time all the paint with which
she had adorned her face : this necessarily requires two more hours at the
toilet, when she is ready for her breakfast, which consists of a variety of
greasy dishes. This over, she again throws herself on the sofa, and re-
mains there, half-sleeping, half-waking, till a female friend |irol»al»ly drops
in to see her, upon which the somorar again makes its appearance, and our
fair Tartar drinks again rs much tea as she did in the morning — to say
the leas' not less than seven or eight cups. The harmony of her face is
again destroyed l>y the copious flow of perspiration that ensues, and she is
forced to paint her face afresh, in order to appear at dinner in all her
charms in the presence of her husband. After dinner, tea is once more
presented : indeed, this beverage seems indispensable to the Tartars ; they
affirm that it is absolutely necessary to Av'mk it, in order to facilitate diges-
tion after their meals, and Dr. Fouks states that they eat three times as
nuicli as the Russians. Having partaken a third time of tea to her heart's
content, our Tartar lady then enjoys a naj). On awaking, she sometimes
takes it into her head to go and j)ay a visit to some female friend : for this
purpose she changes the dress she wore in the morning for a still more
expensive one; she then gets into a square, pristm-like, two-horse carriage,
and arrives at the house of her tjcquaintance, where, completely buried ia
the thick veils which cover her head and face, she makes her way to tho
apartment of her friends, scarcely daring to show the point of her nose as
eh'! p.isses along. The Tartar women of the riclier class do not even enjoy
the privilege of breathing the fr sh air. They dare not go into their small
gardens without covering themselves from head to foot, lest they should
meet one of their male relations living in the same house! They hardly
dare to look from their windows into tho street, Icet they should be seen

EASTEim RUSSIA — KAZAN.

269

l)y some passer-by. Such is the life of the higher class of Tartar women.
Monotonous and tedious as it is, tliey do not, however, complain, nor even
find it painful : on tlie contrary, tliey look upon the mode of living among
European women as sinful in the extreme ; they believe that a European
female will never go to heaven, and give thanks to God that he created
them Mohammedans !

•»ft^..-,iiilS!,Sfi— «*

TiiK Kbemlin or Kazan.

The citadel or krcmlin of Kazan j)resents a very picturesque appearance.
It is still surr()un(l(Ml l)y a sioue-wall of groat heigiit, which was built by
the Tartars, and is liankcd by fourloon tDwers. •Tliore were also, at the
period of the Tartar dominion, twelve dill'orcnt entrances; tho;<e have been
reduced to three. One of them, the Spuskic vorota (" Gateway of the
Savior"), passes through the lower portion of an ancient and curious tower,
which has a claim to notice from the originality of its architecture. The
interior of this tower has been recently convened into a military church,
and is the fashionalde place of prayer. Above the gateway is suspended
a miraculous image of the Savior, before which hangs a silver lamp, lighted
on holydays and days of devotion.

Near the Spaskiv vorola -stands a small yet singularly-constructed church,
dedicated to St. Cyprian and St. Justin. It was founded by Ivan the Ter-
rible, on the very day that Kazan fell into the power of the Russians :
Prince Kourbsky, in his annals, i'<forms us that it was commenced in the
morning, and linished before the setting of the sun. It formerly posses;<ed
several objects of antiquity, l)ut these were consumed by one of the fires to
which Kazan has been subjected.

Beside this church rises the monastery of the Transfiguration, founded
a few years later, and which is held in great veneration by the Russians,
in consequence of its having been the jjlaco of interment of a certain saint
called Yarsanofia, who was likewise the first abbot of this monastery. It
has several times been ravaged by the tlamca ; and at the period when the

!i m

270

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

M;!J

rebel Pougatclicff laid siege to the fortress, it was almost entirely de-
stroyed. Opposite this convent is situated the Etat Major and the mili-
tary prison.

The Cathedral of the Annunciation, a vast and imposing edifice, is the
archicpiscopal scat of the diocese of kazan. The architecture of this
church, which is of the Byzantine order, is exceedingly curious ; its belfry,
in particular, presents an extraordinary appearance. This cathedral was
built in the year 1561, according to a plan furnished by Ivan the Terrible.
From tlic year 1596 to 1742, it was four times entirely consumed by tiio
flames ; and in one of these fires, that of 1672, not only was the church
destroyed, but even the colossal bells were melted down by the fury of the
conflagration. Most of the precious objects that were formerly to be found
here have also been consumed at difl'ereiit jun-iods — among the rest, the
books of divine service, presented by Ivan IV. ; the pontifical robes and
ornaments, and several bells, gifts of the same sovereign ; the autograph
letters of 8t, Goury to Ilerrman, abbot of the monastery of Sviask, and
numerous other relics and antiquities. At the present day, however, may
be seen, among other curiosities, a gospel in manuscript, the only one of
the books given by the czar Ivan that has been saved from the flames. In
this cathedral, according to the annals of Kazan, was at one time likewise
preserved a nail of the holy cross !

Among the remains of Tartar architecture in the kremlin is that extraor-
dinary structure the tower of Souyounbccka, or Sumbeka, which rises in
the western portion of tlie fortress, near one of the gates at which the Rus-
sians began the attack when they laid siege to the tower. The beauty of
its architecture the gracefulness of its form, and its perfect construction,
can with difficulty be imagined by those who have not seen it. It is of a
square shape, and composed of several stories, which gradually diminish
in size toward the top ; the last has a sharp, stceplc-likc form, ending in a
point. It may be seen on the left in the foregoing view of the Kremlin.
From the extremity of this lengthenrd cone rises an arrow of lirass, which
supports the Russian eagle placed above two crescents — an emblem of the
history and fate of this town. Above the eagle is affixed a gilded globe,
which is supposed by many to be of pure and solid gold. The Tartars
attach a particular interest to this globe, for they suppose that it contains
precious documents which relate to their liberty and religion. This tower
is l)uilt of bricks, strongly joined together by a very compact and firm kiiul
of mortar, wliich is doubtless the reason that this edifice has suff"ered so
little from the ravages of time and the severity of the climate. It is two
hundred and forty-five feet high : a staircase, formed in the interior, leads
to its different stories ; but the dilapidated state in which it now is, renders
it very difficult, and even dangerous, to ascend.

Close to this tower, and joined to it by a wall, is another building like
the former, square, and of very considerable dimensions, the second story
of which is surrounded by a vaulted gallery resembling the aisles of o

EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

Gothic church. This edifice is likewise built of bricks : as its architecture
resembles that of the tower, and is completely Asiatic in style, the period
of its construction is evidently the same ; there is no doubt that it served
for a palace, or some similar building.

This edifice and the adjoining tower have been perpetually the subject
of dispute and discussion to learned antiquarians. Some, averse to every
tradition that bears a tinge of romance and poetry, pretend that the popu-
lar opinion, whicli states that the tower and palace existed before the con-
quest of Kazan, is founded on error ; and tlicy assure us that the czar Ivan,
after the taking of tliis town in 1552, built these two edifices as monuments
of his victory and tlic downfall of the Tartars. Others .•-upposc, on the
contrary, that these ruins arc a portion of the celebrated palace of the
ancient kluuis : they say that the beautiful and unfortunate Sumbcka, whoso
name tlie tower bears, concealed therein her youthful husband, to protect
him from the liatred of the Kazan grandees, who subsequently assassinated
him. It was also on the tomb of this prince tiiat, by order of tlic czar, tlie
unfortunate Sumbeka was delivered up as a prisoner to the Russians.
Huch is the tradition commonly believed by the people, the truth of wliich
is, moreover, corrol)orated by several authors who have written on the
subject.

The " Convent of our Lady of :zi-'-^'=---^

Kazan" is situated on a consid-
erable eminence, and forms one
of the most prominent buildings
of the city. It contains two large
churches : one for winter service,
heated by the aid of ovens ; and
another, larger in its diii-ensions,
for the sinnmer months. TI.,; ar-
chitecture of the latter is noted
for its simple style, which gives
it a grave and imposing appear-
ance. The convent stanus apart
from the church ; it is a large,
plain Ituildiiig, with nothing re-
markalile in its construction. Its
Inmates are limited to fifty, ex-
clusive of nunierous novices.

Many of tl\e other churches
contain spr-cimens of an architec-
ture even more elaborate than
those of Moscow. Among t' em
may be named, as remarkable ed-
ifices, the cathedral of Nikolskoi, and that of Peter and Paul, more modem
than the fir3t named. The city has in all about thirty-five churches, nine

C'ATHXDnAL or Nikolskoi, at Kacar.

»«

t! f.

111'

11. i|:

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I I

272

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

convents, and sixteen mosques. Among the convents, the monastery of St.
John the Baptist is an extensive edifice of an imposing aspect.

In the middle town, wliich adjoins the kremlin, tlie grand appcarai\ce
of some of the private house?, and the great extent of the bazar or gostinoi
dvor, attest tlie hiah im))ortance of Knzan at an early period. The bazar
is surrounded by lofty buildings, chiefly of stone ; and exhibits an immense
quantity of furs i)iled up in the fur-stalls ; an endless variety of vegetable
productions and fruits, both green and diied ; and great supplies of fish,
brought from the diflcront provinces bordering on the Volga.

The chief ol)ject of interest in the lower town is the university, built of
white hewn stone, a.; i its principal fronts adorned with Corinihian columns.
It was founded to ho a school of modern civilization, in a semi-barbarous
district, and well fu1!u.> i's purpose. Besides the diiferent branches of
natural science, the studv of er stern languages is carried on at the very
source ; M-hile that of na'ional history is encouraged, not only by the pecu-
liar character of the library, but also by a ramarkably rich collection of
Russian and Tartar cou^s.

In addition to the usual branches of manufacture, Kazan has some which
are peculiar to itself. One is the preparation and staining of Russia-leather,
a business in which the Tartars are particularly expert ; and another, the
making of a particular kind uf sonp, called vwcfo, which, cut into small
pieces, and packed in boxes, is sent over all Russia. The town is well
situated for a transit trade, carrying the manufactures of P^urope north and
cast into Asia, and bartering them for the peculiar. productions of thoso
regions. In this way, particularly by the trade in iurs and tea, many of
its merchants are said to have uccunuilated great wealtli.

Kazan annually undergoes an extraordinary change, al)out the last of
April, owing to the inundation of the Volga, wliic'', swollen by the vast
quantity of melted snow pouring into its channel, overflows its banks, dia-
charging its waters in every direction over the level plains in its vicinity.
The inundation in the noighboriiood of the city often covers a spare of
from twenty to thirty miles. Although travellers sufler no small dcgrc«
of inconvenience from this flood, tlve inhabitants of the banks of the Volga
derive from it coiisiderable advantages : U> Kazan it U^ri)niej' a rich sourco
of prosperity, from .lie facility it aRbrds of transporting the di<ffi 'ut prod-
ucts of the j)rovince.

The aspect of the town at tills period !:> Impfmufi and mag-nificen4. It»
numerous clnirches, with their gilded dono s and P/ty l)elfrie« ; the Tartar
mosques with their minarets, surrounded by glitt. 'King crescents : in fine,
it thousand singular structures, of every form and color, seem to '.x; grow-
ing out of tlie iiii!nense mIicH of water whieh»lies .arounH tl^m.

About tli« end of May the inundation, which lasts for nearly a month,
begins to stib!»ide. Thf waters are not long in disappearing. The oa'.ii
they covered l)ecomes niud<ly and i-Umy after their departure, iait a l>urn-
iug sun sotMi restores it uj its former state. The grn,iW springa up in the

EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

plains, which for a short time look fresh and green ; but this verdure lasts
only as long as the earth Temains damp from the eifects of the inundation,
and in a few days these plains become arid and parched, as is their wont.

The town itself — which, in consequence of the thuwing of the snow and
the unfirm nature of the soil, becomes a perfect bog, in which the horses
plunge to their very haunclies — now experiences a change still more in-
supportable. The mud, dried up by the heat of *,he sun, is succeeded by
dense clouds of dust, wliich sweep through the streets of the town, depri-
ving the unfortunate pedestrian of t'le means of breathing, and rendei'ing
his clothes as white and powdered as those of a miller. Then, to avoid
being suffocated by the heat anc^ dust, the greatest part of the inhabitants
make a precipitate retreat from the town — the landholders to their estates,
and the lack-landers to those of tlieir friends wliose hospitality affoi'ds them
a refuge from the sensible calamity of a sojourn in town during thio unpro-
pitious and unhealthy pcriol.

The first foundation of the city of Kazan took place about the year 1265
Tradition gives the following angular account of its origin and of its name :
Baton, or Bati/i (the name is written in both ways by learned orientalists),
a celebrated khan of the Colden Horde, about tlie middle of the thirteenth
century, was in the habit of frequenting this valley, to enjoy liis favorite
amusement of hunting wild beasts, with which, according to the statement
of certain historians, this country was at that time tcrril)ly infested, and
also with serpents of enormous size. It was on the banks of the river
called at the present day the Kazanka, and on the spot where the kremlin
of Kazan now stands, that the repast of the sovereign and his companions
was prepared in a large caldron, according to the custom of tlie nomadic
tribes. On one occasion, however, one of the attendants charged with this
culinary office, while occupied in filling the caldron with water, let fall tho
precious utensil, which was not long in sinking to the bottom of the river.
The good khan Batou and his hungry comrades were deeply clmgrined,
when, in consequence of the utter solitude of tlie spot, which precluded all
possibility of replacing the lost utensil, thej found themselves reduced to
the disagreeable necessity of going without a dinner on that ill-omened
day. The impression created by that involuntary fast on the minds of
these hungry disciples of Ni^nrod was so powerful, that thenceforward the
riv(M% which had been the cause of this painful privation, received from
them the soubriquet of " Kazan," or the " River of the Caldron." Some
time after, the idea having occurred to Batou of founding a city on the
hmk» of th&t stream, he conferred tho name of tho river on the town.
With fftgaf-* to the word Kazanka, which designates at tho present day
tlie Hvor thai iows at the foot of tlie kremlin, it is evident that its termi-
Mtk« 8jrM«l>!c, ka, is a corruption of the original name, which the Rus-
lAins ad^>tcd to tho character of their language, subsequent to their con-
quest of the country.

Kazan soon became a rich and flourishing town. About a hundred and

Ill' ■It M

•IN

274

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

iif

forty years after its foandation, it was besieged, for the first time, by Ymy
Drnitricvitch, brother to the grand-duke of Moscow. The town, after a
protracted and desperate defence, fell into the hands of tlic invader, who
quitted not the spot till he had razed every structure it contained to tho
earth. Its inhabitants were cruelly massacred. Kazan remained during
forty succeeding years a wilderness.

The second founder of Kazan was the unfortunate Oulou Makhmet, khan
of the Golden Horde, who had been driven from his dominions by the
Ycdiguai Saltaiia, a Tartar prince of Yaick. Makhmet, who had. accord-
ing to the annalists, eig'hty-three sons, and almost as many wives, after
wandering from desert to desert with his family and followers, finally set-
tled on a spot not far from the ruins of the desolated town of Kazan. He
did not, however, remain there long, but removed to a place about forty
miles distant, where 1.:; i'uaiidcd the present city. This event marks the
period of its second foundation, which took place in the year 1445.

Kazan remained in l!io hands of the Tartars till about 14(35, when it
again foil into ihc poteossion of the Russians, Ivan III. succeeding in its
reduction after I severe campaigns. But the Tartars were unsubdued,
and in 1552 a( \ took up arms against the Russians. They were once
more reduced by Ivav. i Terrible, who attacked Kazan at the head of a
numerous army. Fn' six weeks they made a vigorous resistance ; but tho
city was ultimately taken, scarcely any of its valiant defenders surviving
the event. By this capture of Kazan the Russian dominion was perma-
nently established over the territory of the lower Volga.

When Baton, the original founder of Kazan, bestowed on this town tho
ominous title of the " Totvn of the Cufdron,^'' ho seemed as it were to have
devoted it to tlic devouring element, which so often since that period has
reduced it to ashes. Probably tlie history of no town ever aflbrded a suc-
cession of such teri'ible conllagrations as that of Kazan. During the Tartar
dominion we learn from its annals that it was several times devastated by
lire — partly arising from accident, partly from the fury of enemies who
besieged it. Hubsequent to its falling under the Russian sway, at nino
distant periods the flames have ravaged this unfortunate town. These
fires, which seemed to increase in their fiiry and the extent of their rav-
ages at every fresh occurrence, form nine remarkable and fearful epochs
in the history of Kazan.

The first, which occurred in the year 1595, consumed the greater part
of the town, and all the most remarkable buildings in the kromlin.

The second lire, 1672, broke out in that part of Kazan near the kremlin.
All tli> cliiirches it contained fell a prey to the flames; and four colossal
bells, which were sent from Moscow by Vassili-Ivanovitch, and which were
Buspended in the belfry belonging to the cathedral, were totally melted
down by the violence of the conflagration.

The third, 1094, ravaged nearly a mile in circumfercnco of the town.
The fi;ostinui duor, with its numerous shops and magazines, six monasterioa,

EASTEHN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

several cliurches and streets, and the suburbs known by the names of the
Zasecpkin, Krasnaya, and Feodoroffskaya, were reduced to ruins.

The fourth, 1742, broke out in the middle of the night, burnt a very
considerable portion of the town, consumed some twenty churches and as
many monasteries, and once more ravaged the gostirwi (Ivor and the streets
in its vicinity.

The lifth, which occurred only seven years after, began in the Tartar
town, which it reduced to ashes. Three palaces — those of the governor,
the commandant, and the archbishop — twenty-throe churches, six monas-
teries, all the bridges on the canal called Boulac, the chancery of the gov-
ernor with its archives and papers, the arsenal with its contents, several
streets and pari.shes, and a great number of men, cattle, and barks, fell a
sacrifice to this conllagration.

The details of tlic sixth, 1757, arc but little knowTi ; but history informs
us that it was as destructive and as terrible as any that liad preceded it.

The seventh, the work of the rebel Pougatcheff, who wherever he passed
brought with liim ruin and desolation, occurred in the year 1774. At that
period the whole of th(} town, with the exception of the kremlin and the
Tartar suburl)s, wore reduced to ashes ! Two thousand and ninety-one
houses, seveuty-four government-l)iiildings, the gustimid (Ivor, with seven
hundred and seventy-seven magazines or warehouses, and thirty churches,
became a prey to the flames.

Tlic eighth fire took jjlaee in the year 1815, on the 15th of^eptcmber, and
is still fresh in the memory of many of the inhabitants of Kazan. It is
said by cye-wituesses that in less than twelve hours the whole of the town,
with its suburbs and villages, presented little ehso save a mass of burning
embers ! Several woods and forests «..n the outskirts of the town likewise
took fire. Tiie eo!'!higration spread for miles around, dostroyii:g every
oi)ject that it encountered. In a word, on that awful occasion, eleven hun-
dred and seventy-nine private hou^Jos, eight hundred and ten govdnment-
buildings,one liuiidred and sixty-six t^treets, several ehurclies, monasteries,
mauiifactories, and nuigazines, were reduced to ashes !

Wliat was uiuch to l)e regretted likewise was the destruction of the ar-
chives of the town, with many valualilc manuscripts relating to its iiistory.
As long as tliere remained aiiytliing to consume, the fire lasted ; and when,
for want of fuel, it became extinguished, Kazan presented a scone of inex-
pre.si:>iblo desolation.

Such were the eight terrible conflagrations whifh, in less than the space
of tliree iumdred years, ravaged Kazan : but tliis devoted town was yet
destined to cxiterience a new one, probably more violent and more terrible
than any that had preceded it. We refer to tliat series of conflagrations
which ravaged so large a portion of the city during the monfl.s of August
and September, 1842. The first fire commenced during the night of the
2Gtl\ of August, and in a short time destroyed a whole street of houses and
stores, a college, and many fine houses. On the 3d of September the fire

I ; ■
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I '

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276

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OF RUSSIA.

showed itself in another part of the city. But those were nothing move
than precursors of the terrible conflagration of tlic 5th of September.

A mure tempestuous morning than that on wliich tliis terrible conflagra-
tion took place was never known in Kaaan — a town whose hurricanes
form one of the prominent features in its historical records. The wind
raged with an incredible violence. Several preceding months of dry and
scorching weather had gathered in the streets a deep layer of dust and
sand ; this, raised aloft by the fury of the whirlwind, so darkened the air,
that at the distance of two or three yards nothing could be distinguished.
The fire broke out in the street called Prolomnaya, at a hotel, known by
the name of the " Hotel of Odessa," an elegant and costly structure, newly
built ; and, driven over the city by the liigh winds with unparalleled ra-
pidity, consumed in the !3pace of twelve hours thirteen hundred houses,
nine churches, one convent, warehouses where largo quantities of merchan-
dise were placed on deposito, a great number of stores, and some institu-
tions of learning. The university was in imminent peril, but was saved
with the loss of the wooden circular moveable tower of tlie observatory.
The burning brands, carried by the wind to the other side of tit e Kazonka,
communicating the flames to tlie heaps of hay, and thence to the neigh-
oring villa -jes, they were rapidly reduced to ashos.*

On tlie morning of the 6lh of September, one half of the city, recently
80 beautiful, presented nothing but a heap of smoking ruins. Tlie fire had
hitherto sparcd»that quarter of Kazan inhabited exclusively by the Tartars,
ai^d known by the name of the Tartar town, or suburbs ; but the followers
of Mohammed were not destined to l)e long exempt from the calamity which
had befallen their Christian co-inlialyitants. While the latter were mourn-
fully contemplating tlie ruins of their houses and their homes, a terrible
fire suddenly broke out in the above-mentioned quarter. It was about ten
o'clock in the morning. Fortunately for the Tartars, the hurricane which
had raged on the preceding day no longer existed, otherwise the whole of
the Tartar town would inevitably have fallen a prey to the flames. As it
was, the fire caused a fearful ravage : several streets were burnt, and some
hours elapsed before the conflagration could be efieetually extinguished.

The close of that day brought little or no alleviation to the sufferings of

• The Amprican minigfi'r at tli<> court of St, Petersburg, Colonel Todd, win at Kii7.un on the day
of this dianatroun fire. He liad nnived then-, with twi> travelling-compiinions, on the pn-vimu
niglii. nnd had taken up hii quarter* in a hotel in the I'roliimnaya. Tliere llie (lami'f liad snrpriiiiMl
him, Mid he had remnvrd to an apartment in tlic " House of the No)>ility," Driven ihence shortly
■fter by the projfre*-' "f 'be ronfliii^ration, he stiiight a refuge in a tbinl hotel on 'be Boulac, The
flame* were not kint: >n reurbing bini in his new pbice of ri'digf, and, fiw the fourth time on that
eventl'ul day, he removed with bis suite to a distant inn on the suburbs. The •aniii fiite foMowod
him there ' At last, weiuy of flying from one abode to another, he resolved to return to Moscow.
He accordingly ordered his tiiivelling-rairtngo to bo harnessed, and set out from Kazan, to which
cuiiosilv bad carrie<l him, and which he hud seen in such n teriible »tnte of calamity. He left with
the goveinor-genernl of the town four hundred roubles for the benefit of the sufferers. We note
tliis act of generosity with double pleasure ; for it is agreeable to reflect that the first donation given
on this disastrous occiknion for tho bnnefit of Kuzun, was from the hand of an American citixen.

EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

277

the unfortunate inhabitants. The night, like the prccding one, was passed
under the cold and comfortless canopy of heaven.

On the following morning the tocsin again rang, to announce the break-
ing out of a fresh fire. It commenced in a street called Sabatchi Pereou-
lok^ or Dog street, which it reduced almost entirely to ashes.

This daily occurrence of fresh firos now awoke a conjecture among the
inhabitants of Kazan that this repetition of horrors owed its origin to wil-
ful incendiarism. They now recollected that, during the first conflagra-
tion, fires had broken out in several parts of the town in a totally opposite
direction to that in which the flames were borne by the wind — a circum-
stance difficult to be accounted for in any other manner, A singular mys-
tery likewise enveloped the two succeeding fires : by degrees this terrible
supposition became as general as it seemed probable. The police became
on the alert. Its researches seemed to authenticate beyond doubt the ex-
istence of a gang of incendiaries in the town. Upward of fifty persona
were in a few hours apjtrchcnded upon suspicion : some had been found
with matches and other combustible nuvterials about their persons ; several
had been caught in the very act of setting fire to divers houses.

The fourth day came, and with it a fourth fire ! It broke out in that
part of tlie Boulac which the flames had previously spared, reduced to ruins
upward of twenty-five houses, and the gniin-niagaziue of a merchant named
Roinanofi", which contained flour to the amount of a hundred thousand
roubles.

A committee for the discovery of the supposed ^ .ispiracy was now cs-
taltlished. It was composed of the leading members of the inhabitants of
Kazan. The latter assembled daily to invent measures for the safety of
the town : unfortunately, little or no success followed their arrangements.
Every succeeding day brought a fresh attempt on the part of the incendiary
gang: in less than tlie space of a week, twenty repeated efibrts were made
to destroy the remainder of the town ! Fortunately, however, the vigilance
of the inhabitants kept pace with the perseverance of the villains who
seemed to have conspired to leave Kazan a desert. Day and night senti-
nels were stationed before every house, to have an eye on the passenger.
Yet, notwithstanding all this caution, the evil did not cease : the hand of
the incendiary found means to elude the general vigilance.

The 19th of .September was signalized by new misfortunes. The fire
broke out in another part of the city, till then preserved, and destroyed
twenty houses. Subsequently, several attempts were made to renew these
horrors, but they fortunately proved abortive. The redoubled vigilance
of the inhabitants, the measures taken by the police, and, most of all, the
approach of winter, with its heavy rains and falls of snow, by degrees di-
minished the general anxiety. The goods, furniture, and properly, which
had hitherto remained in the fields, were brought back to the town ; and
their owners, many of whom during this period of horrors had bivouacked
like gipsies in the open air, now turned to seek a refuge for themselves

It 4

278

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

mid tlicir fumilics in those quarters of the towu which had escaped the con-
lla^n-ation.

But Kazan did not long remain in the state of desolation and ruin t(»
which this frightful conllagratiou had reduced it. iko a pha-nix, llie town
Boon rose again from its ashes, move hright and s|ilendid than ever. The
riches of its inhabitant.'', the vast and lucrative trade it carries on with
almost every part of the empire and with the East, and the grout and active
co-operation of tlic emperor Nicholas, who generously resolved that tliis
ancient city should he immediately restored to its former splendor, com
bined to produce the same cluinge as took place in Hamburg after ii grout
fire— a change which gave to both cities a beauty uidtnown to them before.
Ere a year had elapsed, Kazan was again rebuilt, under the skilful direc-
tion of numerous architects sent from St. Petersburg to superintend and
hasten its reconstruction ; so that entire streets, whose houses were for
merly of wood, could now boast of hanusoMic brick habitations, of a new
and more pleasing style of architecture.

Fortunately, all the ancient structures of Kazan remained unniolcsten
and unaltered ; indeed, the fire seems to liave respected these monuments,
most of which escaped from the devouring element, or, if they were at-
tacked by it, thanks to their thick walls and solid architecture, wore able
to set its power at defiance. This fire, therefore, while it gave fresh beauty
to the modern portion of Kazan, did not in any way deprive the town of
that antique historical character which gives it so great a charm in the
eyes of the traveller. The population is ab( af fifty thousand.
■ The following sketch of Kazan is from Oliohsuit's "Russian Shored of
the Black Sea." His "'impressions'' jio^--. '^ m re than ordiiiaiy interest
from their freshness, his passage tlroug!. f^i'>-siu being, as we have before
had several occasions to remark, as recent a.-; ? ;i53 : —

" Situated on a gentle eminence, in the midst of an extensiA'e plain, its
inai". >'■ red roofs rising one above another to the walls of the kremlin,
which ci'owns the hills to the extreme left, tall spires and domes appearing
in every direction, and betokening the magnitude of the city while adding
to its beauty, Kazan presented a more imposing aspect than any town 1
had seen in Russia, and seemed to vio with Moscow as to exhibiting in the
most favorable manner the characteristic buildings of the eouMJi-y. Twi-
light was just failing us as we entered the broad, deserted streets, and
reached the principal hotel, where wo secured rooms, and then sallied

forth to see a.; much as we could by lamplight At an early hour on

the following morning we were up at daybreak, and on our way to tho
kremlin by four o'clock. We passed a number of houses which had been
recently burnt down ; indeed, the town seemed to have suffered from fire
in all directions. The Kazansky, or main street, traverses the entire ridge
of the hill ; and, from the corners of the various intersecting streets, good
views are obtained over the town upon each side. Following along it, past
handsome, well-built mansions, and through the colonnade of a large bazar,

EASTEIIN RUSSIA — KAZAN.

279

or •roslinui dvor^ wo roaclicd tlio krciiilin, and, from tho terrace in Iront
of tho goveti.jr'a house, revelled in a most glorious prospect. Stretching
away to the north, the oyc ranged over a vast expanse of country, thinly
dotted '.vith villages and church-spires; while our position coninian»I d a
panoramic viow of the town, which in no way belied my impressions of tlio
previous evening. To the south, tho Volga, with its steep banks, boinided
the prospect, while the Tartar villages in tho foreground, with their singu-
larly-built mosijues, seemcf! to iunte a visit. Ono of the latter was a
curiously-fasliioned little euifico (as may be seen in the engraving given
below), in its construction totally unlike any other building I ever saw.
The elTect of the scene was completed by tho sun most op])ortunely vising,
as it were, out of tho steppe, tipping spire and dome, until w '^Ivos

felt its genial infhunco.

" Kazan has advantages which few other inland towns p.
capital of an ancient kingdi in, it is not tho mere creation of g ,

kept alive, as it wore, by law, and tenanted by compulsion: it icsid upon
foundations long since laid, and owes its present prosperity to its position
on the great highway from Sil)cria to Moscow aud Nijnei-Novgorod. It
tlius becomes an emporium for tho productions of that distant part of the
empire which par?s through it. It boasts, moreover, manufactures peculiar
to itself. Tho inhabitants arc well known to excel in leather-embroidery:
for workmanship of this sort Kazan is celebrated al' over eastern Europe."

TaBTAB ticvqUI NIAB Kaiah

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ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTTON OF nCSSrA.

TvrEs OF Cavcasian Races.

CHAPTER

CAUCASIAN PROVINCES.

►HE Caucasian country has a very it
regular outline, and forms a sort ol
isthmus between the Black sea and
the Caspian. It is Ijundcd on tho
north by tho governments of Don
Cossacks and Astrakhan ; on the
west, by the sea of Azov, the strait of Enikaleh, and the Black sea ; on tho
south, by Turkisli Armenia, the river Arras, and Persia ; and on the east,
by the Caspian sea. The principal feature of the country is the colebrutcd
mountain-chain of Caucasus, which has been fully described on previous
pages. This region includes several ancient kingdoms, states, and prov-
inces, wliich have acquired historical celebrity.

The inhabitants of the Caucasian country include a great number of
tribes, evidently derived from a variety of stocks, and speaking a diversity
of languages. The vignette at the head of this chapter presents tyj)es of
some of tho more important of these tribes. Tho portrait seen on tho kft,
marked 1, represents a Tcherkessian, or Circassian ; 2, a Mingrelian ; 3, a
Nogai Tartar ; 4, a Georgian ; 5, an Ai-menian ; 6, a Lesghian ; 7, a Cos-
sack of Terek. Tiiese tribes are all distinguished by one noble quality —
an almost inextinguishable love of freedom ; and in bodily constitution aro
at once eo robustly and so elegantly formed, that what is known as the
Caucasian race is universally acknowledged to be the finest type of man.

The Russians first got possession of this country in tho time of Peter the
Great, who even extended his dominion along the Caspian sea into Ghilan ;
but in the reign of Anno the military establishments were withdrawn to
Kizliar, and a lino of forts carried along tho Terek for the defence of the

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — OEOROIA.

281

frontier. Mozdok was built in 1763, and from that point the lino waa
extended gradually westward to the sea of Azov, along the northern bank
of the Kouban. The wars in which the Russians have been engaged with
Turkey and Persia, having led them again to the south of the Caucasus,
tliey have been anxious to establish their authority over the intervening
mountain-tribes, who, if not reduced to subjection, are likely to prove most
troublesome and dangerous neighbors. In the course of time they may
effect their complete subjugation, but as yet their progress has been
very slow.

•i

The government of Georgia (Russian, Groozia; Persian, Chirdjistan ',
the ancient Iberia) is situated near the centre of the Russian possessions,
on the south side of the Caucasian range, between the fortieth and forty-
third degrees of north latitude, and the forty-third and forty-seventh de-
grees of east longitude. It has the province of Shirvan on the east : an
Armenian mountain-range on the south, which separates the basin of the
Kour from that of tlie Arras ; a branch of tlie Caucasus on the west, form-
ing part of the watcr-slied between the Caspian and Black seas ; and the
central chain of the Caucasus on the north. Thus, surrounded on three
sides by mountain-ranges, Georgia is in a great measure shut out from
communication with the neighboring countries, there being but one pass
either across the Caucasus into Circassia, or across the western range into
Imcritia. The length of the province from nortliwest to southeast, meas-
ured on the best ma])S, is about one hundred and seventy-five miles, and
its average breadth from one hundred to one hundred and ten miles. It
contains about eight(;en thousand square miles.

The surface of Georgia is mostly mountainous, consisting of table-lands
and terraces, forming a portion of the soutlicrn and more gradual slope of
the Caucasus. The country, however, slopes from the south and west, as
well as the north, to the centre and southeast, which are occupied by the
valley of tlie Kour, an undulating plain of considerablo extent and great
fertility. Between the mountain-ranges there are also numerous fertile
valleys covered with fine forests, dense underwood, and rich pasturages,
watered by an abundance of rivulets.

All the rivers have more or less an easterly course. The principal is
the Kour, or Mthwari (the ancient Cyrus). This river rises in the range
of Ararat, a little northwest of Kars. It runs at first north, and afterward
northeast to about latitude forty-two degrees north, and longitude forty-
four degrees east, from which point its course is generally southeast to its
moutli, on the western shore of the Caspian. It is in many places of con-
siderable breadth, and sometimes several fathoms deep ; but its great ra-
pidity pixivents its being of much, if any, service to navigation ; and hence
rafts only are used upon it. Its principal affluents are the Aragwi from
the north, which unites with it at Mtskcthi, the ancient capital of Georgia,
about ten miles northwest o'* Teflis ; and the Arras (the ancient Araxes)

.*""H >ii

282

ILLUaTHATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

from the south, which joins it not far above its mouth, where its course
deflects southward.

The climate of Georgia, of course, varies greatly, according to elevation.
Tt is, however, generally licalthy and temperate, being much Avarmer than
that of Circassia, or the other countries on the northern slope of the Cau*
casus. Tlie winter, which commences in December, usually ends with
January. The temperature at Tcflis, during that season, is said not to
descend lower than about forty degrees Fahrenheit; and in the summer
the air is excessively sultry, the average temperature at the end of July,
in one year being, at three o'clock in the afternoon, seventy-nine degrees,
and at ten o'clock in the evening, seventy-four degrees Fahr.

Tlie soil is very fertile ; and agriculture and the rearing of cattle are
the chief employments of the inhabitants. Wheat, rice, barley, oats, Indian
corn, millet, the Holctis sorffhum and H. bicofor, lentils, madder, hemp,
and flax, are the most generally cultivated articles ; cotton is found in a
Avild state, and is also cultivated.

Georgia is noted for the excellence of its melons and pomegranates ;
and mai\y other kinds of fine fruit grow spontaneously. Vineyards are very
widely diffused, and the production of wine is one of the principal sources
of employment. It is strong and full-bodied, with more bouquet than Port
or Madeira ; but from having generally little care bestowed on its manu-
facture, it keeps badly ; and casks and bottles being for the most part un-
known, it is kept in buffalo-skins, smeared with naphtha, which not only
gives it a disagreeable state, but disposes it to acidity. But notwithstand'
ing these drawbacks, and its extensive consumption in the Country, consid-
erable quantities are exported. Mr. Wilbraham says that " the Georgians
have the reputation of being the greatest drinkers in the world : the daily
allowance, without which the laborer will not work, is f 'Ottlcs ; and
the higher classes generally exceed this quantity ; on gra jcasions the
consumption is incredible." According to Smith and Dwijht, " the ordi-
nary ration of the inhabitants of Tcflis, from the mechanic to the prince, ia
said to be a tonk, measuring between five an(i 3ix Imttles of Bordeaux !
The best wine costs about four cents the bottle, while the common is less
than a cent."

The multiplied oppressions to which the inhabitants have been long sub-
jected, and the fertility of the soil, have gone far to extinguish all Indus
try. The peasant thinks only of growing grain enough for the support of
himself and family, and a small surplus to exchange at the nearest town
for other articles of prime necessity. The plough in use is so heavy as to
require six or eight buffaloes for its draught, and often double the number
are used ; the harrow is nothing more than a felled tree ; and a great quan-
tity of the produce is wasted owing to the grain being trodden out by buf-
faloes.

Domestic animals of all kinds are reared. The horses and homed cattle
equal the best European breeds in size and beauty ; and the long-tailed

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES— GEORGIA.

288

siiccp afford excellent wool. Game, including the stag, antelope, wild-
boar, hares, wild-goats, pheasant, partridge, (fee, is very abundant ; bears,
foxes, badgers, jackals, lynxes, and it is said leopards, are common. The
forests consist of oak, beech, elm, ash, lindon, hornbeam, chestnut, walnut,
and many other trees common in Europe ; but they are of little or no use.
The mineral products of the country, thougli nearly unexplored, are be-
lieved to be various: iron is plentiful oi; the flank of the Caucasus, and
coal, na])htha, «fec., are met with.

The houses of the peasantry, even in the most civilized parts, are noth-
ing more than slight Avooden frames, with w.alls made of bundles of osiers
covered over with a mixture of clay and cowdung, and a roof of rush. A
room thirty feet long and twenty broad, where the light comes in at the
door ; a floor upon which they dry madder and cotton ; a little hole in the
middle of the apartment, where the fire is placed, above wliich is a copper
caldron attached to a chain, and enveloped with a thick smoke, which
escapes by either the ceiling or the door, is a picture of the interior of
these dwellings. In the houses even of the nobility, the walls are some
times built only of trunks of trees cemented witli mortar, and the furniture
consists of a very few articles.

The roads, except that across the Caucasus to Tellis, which has been
improved by the Russians, are in a wretched state. The vehicles in use
are of the rudest kind, and all commodities, except straw or timber, are
transported upon horses, mules, asses, or camels. The inhabitants never
riiJe except on horseback. Coarse woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, leather,
shagreen, and a few ther articles, are manufactured. The arms made at
Teflis have some reputation ; but most of the other goods arc very inferior,
and only enter into home consumption.

Georgia, as before intimated, composes one of the Trans-Caucasian prov-
inces of Russia. Their government is wholly military : and how little
soever it may square with our notions of what a government should be, it
is not ill fitted for the circumstances of the country; and there can not be
a question that its establishment has been most advantageous to the great
majority of the population.

The Georgian ladies have usually oval faces, fair complexions, and black
hair, and have long enjoyed the highest reputation for beauty in the East ;
the men are also well formed and handsome. This superiority in the phys-
ical form of the Georgians and other contiguous Caucasian tribes, and the
low state of civilization that has always prevailed among them, explains
the apparently unaccountable fact that these countries have been, from the
remotest antiquity down to our times, the seat of an extensive slave-trade.
Latterly, the harems of the rich mussulmans of Turkey, Persia, «fec., have
been wholly or principally supplied by female slaves brought from Georgia,
Circassia, and the adjoining provinces ; and they also furnished male slavea
to supply the Mameluke corps of Egypt and various other military bodies
with recruits. ...;..: • i ., , • .i-

,•!; ■

284

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

In modem times the Georgians have been divided, with the exception
of a few free commoners, into the two great classes of the nobles and their
vassals or slaves. Previously to the Russian conquest, fho latter were th.-
absolute property of their lords, who, besides employing them in all man*
ner of manual and laborious occupations, derived a considerable part of
their revenue from the sale of their sons and daughters ! Indeed, tho
daughters of the rtbbles not unfrcqucntly shared the same fate, being sacri-
ficed to the necessities or ambition of their unnatural parents !

The Russians have put an end to this traffic ; and they have also deprived
the nobles of tho power capitally to punish their vassals, and set limits to
their demands upon them for labor and other services. There can not
therefore be, and there is not, a doubt with any individual acquainted with
the circumstances, tliat the Russian conquest has been of signal advantage
to tlic bulk of the Georgian people. It is probably true, however, that tho
Russians are quite as much disliked by the nobles of Georgia as by thoso
of Circassia ; and those travellers who live with them, and credit their
stories, will be amply supplied with tales of Russian barbarity and atrocity.

With a settled state of affairs, Teflis, the capital, might again become,
as in the days of the emperor Justinian, a thoroughfare for the overland
commerce between Asia and Europe. Tiic Georgians belong to the Greek
church, and, since becoming subject to Russia, have been subordinate in
ecclesiastical matters to a Russian archbishop at Tefiis, who has three suf-
fragans south of the Caucasus. The clergy are generally very ignorant.
A high-school in the capital has been recently erected into a gymnasium ;
and in addition to it, there are a few small schools, in which, however,
very little is taught. No serf is, or at least used to be, instructed in read-
ing, but all the nobility are more or less educated : the females of this class
teach each other, and are commonly better informed than the males. Tho
Georgian language is peculiar, differing widely from the languages spoken
by the surrounding nations.

Georgia was annexed to tho Roman empire by Pompcy the Great, anno
65 B. C. During the sixth and seventh centuries it was long a theatre of
contest between the eastern empire of Constantinople and the Persians.
In tne eighth century, a prince of the Jewish family of the Bagratidos es-
tablished the last Georgian monarchy, which continued in his line down
to the commencement of the present century. The last prince, George XI.,
before his death in 1799, placed Georgia under the protection of Russia
(though up to that time it had been regarded as nominally a dependency
of the Persian monarchy) ; and, in 1802, it was incorporated with the Rus-
sian empire. In the Crimean war (1854) between Buesia and Turkey,
the frontiers of Georgl.; and Armenia were early the theatre of important
military operations, »ind the Russians falling back, Georgia was declared
independent.

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — GEORGIA.

285

Tt'flls, or Tiflis, the capital of Georgia and of the other Trans-Caucasian
provinces, is situated near the centre of the country, on the right bank of
the Kour, three Imndred miles east by north of Trcbizond, in Turkey, in a
contracted valley formed by irregular mountains, parallel with the stream
on the side of the city, and hills coming down in a point quite to the wa-
ter's edge on the other. A circular fort covers this point, and, together
with a small suburb, is united to the city by a bridge of a single wooden
arch, thrown over the river ; while the ruined walls of an old citadel crown
the top, and extend down the side of a part of the opposite mountain.

The old and native part of the city is built upon the truly oriental plan
of irregular narrow lanes, and still more irregular and diminutive houses,
thrown together in all the endless combinations of accident. Here and
there European taste, aided by Russian power, has worked out a passable
road for carriages, or built a decent house, overlooking and putting to
shame all its mud-wallcd and dirty neighbors. A line of bazars, too, ex-
tending along the river, and branching out into several streets, together
with much bustle and business, display some neatness and taste, and is
connected with two or three tolerable caravanseries. Several old and
substantial churches, displaying their belfries and cupolas in different parts,
complete the prominent features of this part of the city.

In the northern or Russian quarter, officers, palaces, government-offices,
and private houses, lining broad streets and open squares, have a decidedly
European aspect, and exhibit in their pillared fronts something of that
taste for ?howy architecture which the edifices of their capital have taught
the Russians to admire.

Teflis has the appearance of an excessively busy and populous place.
Its streets present not only a crowded, but, unlike many oriental cities, a
lively scene. Every person seems hurried by business. Nor is the variety
of costumes, representing different nations and tongues, the least noticea-
ble feature of the scene.

The Armenian cathedral is a large and somewhat striking edifice.
There are likewise two mosques ; and, among the other places of worship,
is a German protestant chapel. The city has also a French and a German
hotel ; they are represented, however, as being, in most respects, the re-
verse of what they should be. House-rent is high, but otherwise living ia
not expensive. Teflis has many remarkable sulphureous hot springs, their
temperature varying from one hundred to one hundred and twelve degrees
Fahrenheit ; and to these, it is supposed by some, the city owes its name.
Over some of these the Russian government has erected the crown-baths,
a plain edifice, but which, by being kept in good order, differs widely from
all the other bathing-establishments in the city, and realizes a handsome
i"Ovenuo.

Teflis is very favorably situated for trade, and its commerce is pretty
extensive, having greatly increased during the period of Russian occupo*
tion. Almost all the trade is, however, in the hands of the Armenians.

w ■■

jii '■

T.; ! ;
li ' ■

iffi'

286

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

RcoKGiANt or THE IIiiaiiTS or TarLit.

In 1830, scarcely half a dozen mercantile houses existed belonging to any
other foreigners, and only one European consul (a Frenchman) resided

here. In the same year, the
Russians founded a school
at Tcflis, which has since,
as already remarked, boon
erected into a gymnasium ;
and there are some other
schools.

Toflis, as well as Geor-
gia in general, has for a
long while been celebrated
for the beauty of its wo-
men ; and, according to the
missionaries, Dwight and
Smith, " this has not been
overrated, for we have nev-
er seen a city so largo a
proportion of whoso fe-
males were beauM'*!?! in
form, features, or complex-
ion, us Tedis."
Tcflis docs not boast a very high antiquity. It is said to have been
built in 469 by Vachtang, the founder of a dynasty which ruled from the
Euxinc to the Caspian. It was taken by the Tartars under Zinghis Khan,
in the thirteenth century ; subdued by the Turks in 1576 ; sacked by Aga
Mohammed Khan, shah of Persia, in 1795 ; and finally fell into the pos-
session of the Russians, with Georgia, in 1802. It suficrcd greatly from
the ravages of the cholera in 1830. It is the residence of tlie governor-
general of Caucasus, and of a Georgian and Armenian archbishop. There
are four newspapers published here in the Russian, Georgian, Persian, and
Armenian languages, respectively. Its present population may bo i-eck-
oned at from thirty-five to forty thousand, the great majority of whom are
Armenians, with some mussulman families.

Among the other chief towns are Elizabetpol, or Ganjah, ninety miles
southeast of Tcflis ; Signak, fifty-six miles east by south ; and Akhaltsike,
a hundred and ten miles west, once the capital of a Turkish pachalic, and
having forty thousand inhabitants, but now only thirteen thousand, chiefly
Turkish Armenians : it has some fine churches and ruins. Warzich, in the
volcanic region of the Trapovanie and the Kour, formerly the favorite resi-
dence of the Armenian queen Thamar, is an extraordinary spot. It is a
complete city, hewn out of volcanic stone, and contains three large churches,
entirely cut out of the rock, subterraneous passages, innumerable chambers,
finely sculptured, and the queen's summer and winter palaces. The whole
country around is covered with lava and volcanic products of various kinds.

>
o

•4

■' If

THE CAUCASIAN PnOViyCES — SHIRVAN.

289

Tlio provlnco of Shirvan lies on tho south of the Caucaang, principally
between the fortieth and forty-second degrees of north latitude, and tho
forty-seventh and fiftieth degrees of east longitude ; having tho Ciippian on
the cast, Daghestan on the nortli, Georgia on tho west, and tho river Kour
on tho south, wliich divides it from Talysch, formerly a portion of tlio Per-
sian territory of Ghilan. It comprises about nine thousand squaro miles.

Sliirvan (^Shinoan, or Gtiirvari) was formerly a province of Persia. Its
climate and natural productions are much tho same as those of Georgia.
It consists chiefly of a well-watered plain, which produces cotton, rice,
wines, and fruits of various kinds ; but along the shore of tho Caspian
there is a flat tract almost a desert. Tho inhabitants of this province are
chiefly Mohammedan Persians.

Baku, or Badku, tho capital of Shirvan, is situated on the southern
shore of the peninsula or capo of Abchoran on the western coast of the
Caspian sea, of wliich it is one of the most frequented ports. Tlio walls
of the town were formerly washed by the Caspian, but they are at present
about five yards distant from it : the sea, however, has gained upon tho
land in other places, the ruins of ancient buildings being found at the depth
of nearly twenty feet. It stands on a declivity, the summit of which is
crowned by tho palace of the fonner khans and Persian kings ; is dorouded
by a double wall and deep ditch, constructed in tho time of Peter the Great,
and has two strong forts, under whose protection vessels can anchor in
from four to six fatlioms water, within eighty yards of tho shore, iii a spa-
cious road, sheltered from all quarters.

The town is ill built, with crooked and narrow streets. Tho houses aro
small, with flat roofs coated with naphtha. The Virgin's Towtn* is tho
most striking object in the place. There are, however, several spacious
mosques, public squares, marts, and caravansaries ; a Greek and an Arme-
nian church, and some Tartar schools.

The chief exjiorts of Baku and its neighborhood are naphtha, salt, and
saffron ; in return for which it receives, principally from Persia, raw silk
and cotton, rich carpets and sliawls, rice, &c. ; and from Europe all kinds
of ironware and cutlery, cotton, linen, and woollen manufactured goods —
thus becoming an entrepot through which an important trade is carried On
between the East and the West. The adjacent island of Salian luis impor-
tant fisheries. Baku has a population of about six thousand.

The jurisdiction of Baku extends over thirty-two villages, with nineteen
thousand inhabitants, of whom one thousand are Turkomans. The khan-
ate of Baku was formerly attached to Persia, but wrested from it by the
Russians, under Peter the Great, about 1723. It was restored in 1735,
but retaken in 1801 by the Russians, to whom it now belongs.

The peninsula of Abchoran, or Apsheron, is rocky and barren, destitute
of trees, and the water, obtained only from wells, is very brackish. It is
ill many respects a most singular region, and is particularly famous for its
naphtha-springs. The quantity of naphtha procured in tho plain to tho

M ff

200

ILLUSTRATKO DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

ioutlicast of tho city of Baku is enormous. It is of two kinds, black and
white, and its principal sources arc about six miles from Baku. Tho black
oil shines with a rcddisli tint in the rays of tho sun, and is used for burning
and for coatinpj roofs. The supply seems inexhaustible, some of tho wells
yielding fifteen hundred or two thousand pounds a day, and on beinpf emp-
tied immediately fill up again ; tho entire annual yield is upward of four
thousand tons !

Near these springs is tho Artech-gah, or '• Field of Fire" nearly naif a
square mile in extent. A stream of white oil hero gushes from tho foot of
a hill ; it readily ignites and burns on tho surface of tho water: and in
calm weather people amuse themselves with pouring it into tho sea, whore
they set fire to it, and it floats away, giving the voters the appearance of
a sea of fire. The poor people obtain a cheap light and fire for cooking
by driving a clay pipe or reed into the ground, and burning tho gas which
rises through it. Tho Persian ghebers or fire-worshippers likewise send
tho gas in bottles to their friends at a distance. Tho " Field of Fire" is
in constant motion, and emits a flame without heat. Occasionally tho whole
region seems to be in flames ; and it appears as if tho fire rolled down
thi mountain-sides in largo masses, with incredible velocity, presenting on
a winter's night a scene of wonderful sublimity. In ancient times the burn-
ing field was one of tho most celebrated ateshj/ahs or shrines of graco
among the ghebers or parsees of Persia, and frequented l)y thousands of
pilgrims. They have still several temples here, and many of them spend
their days in worship and in penitential exercises so severe as often to
cost them their lives. Tho peninsula is likewise celebrated for numerous
volcanoes, which discharge immense quantities of mud.

Russian Armenia comprises that portion of the former kingdom of that
name which lies soutli of Georgia and north of the Arras and Mount Ara-
rat, being two liundred miles in length and about one hundred and thirty
in breadth. It formerly constituted the Persian province of Erivan, by
which name it is now sometimes known. It contains about eight thousand
square miles.

The country consists of a mass of mountains, crowding on each other
and filling up the whole space with volcanic amphitheatres. One of the
largest of these amphitheatres is occupied by tho great fresh-water lake
of Oukcha (blue lake), called also SiW»,.tho surface of which is five thou-
sand three hundred feet above the level of tho sea. In the northwestern
portion of the lake is an island called Sivan, with a monastery, twelve
hundred yards from the shore. The lake is said to be unfathomable, and
has the dark-blue appearance of deep water. A branch of the river Zen-
gue, which passes the town of Erivan, carries the surplus waters of the
lake to the Arras. The whole country in the neighborhood is volcanic.
The soil of the valley of tho Arras is extremely fertile, and the mountains
are covered with pasture. Directly south of Erivan a small portion of the

THE CAUCAHIA.V PR0V1NCR8 — ARMRNIA.

291

Russian territory oxtoridH to the southwcstward of the Arras, and in tho
southwest corner of thin portion stantla tlio famous mountain Macis (%rt-
dag^h^^ or Ararat, a view of which is herewith given.

Abaiat. raoM tiii rtAiN nr Khivan

It consists of two mountains — the (ircat Ararat, on tho northwest; and
tlio Less Ararat, on tho southeast: their summits, in a direct lino, being
about seven miles apart, and tiieir bases inscnsilti)- blending into each other
by the interposition of a wide, level, upland valley. The summit of tho
Great Ararat is seventeen thousand three hundred and twenty-three feet
above the sea-level, and fourteen thousand Miree hundred and twenty feet
above the plain of tho Arras. The northeastern r^lope of the mountain is
about fourteen miles in length, and the southwestern about twenty miles.
On the former, visible even from Erivan, thirty-two miles disl.iut, is adecp,
gloomy, crater-like chasm. Tlie mountain is covered with perpetual snow
and ice, for about three miles from its summit downward, in an oblique
direction. On the entire northern half, from about fourteen thousand foot
above the sea-lcvel, it shoots up in one rigid crest to its summit, and then
stretches downward on its southern side to a level not quite so low, forming
what is called the " Silver Crest of Ararat." Little Ararat rises thirteen
thousand and ninety-three feet above the sea-level, and ten thousand one
hundred and forty feet above tho plain of the Arras ; and is free from snow
in September and October. Its declivities are greater and steeper than
those of the Great Ararat ; and its almost conical form is marked with sev-
eral delicate furrows, that radiate downward from its summit.

The top of the Great Ararat was first reached, October 9, 1829, by Pro-
fessor Parrot, who reports it to be a " gently-vaulted, nearly-cruciform sur-
face, of about two hundred paces in circuit, which at the margin sloped off
precipitously on every side, but particularly toward tho southeast and north-
east. Formed of eternal ice, without rock or stone to interrupt its conti-

292

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIPTION OP HUSSIA.

nuity, it was the austere silvery head of Old Ararat." Toward the cast,
this summit is connected, by means of a flattish depression, with a lower
Bummit, distant four hundred yards, and in like manner covered with ioe.
After remaining on the summit three quarters of an hour, determining the
height, and making various observations. Parrot descended to the monas-
tery of St. James ; the third day J..'ter, he left it. The observations of
Parrot have been in every respect confirmed by another Russian tra.cllcr,
named Abich, who reached the summit of the Great Ararat without difli-
culty, July 29, 1845. He, with six others, remained an hour on the top,
witliout experiencing any inconvenience from cold, so much felt by Parrot
and Iiis companions.

All travellers attest the volcanic nature of the Ararat mountains, as cvi-
d^.nced by the .-^tones found on all their slopes, undoubtedly the products
of a crater. They are composed chiefly of trachytic |)orpliyry, and on tlicm
pumice and various descriptiou<5 of lava have been met with. Reinogga
avers that he saw the CJreat Ararat send forth smoke and flame for three
days in 1785 ; but this is believed to be one of the many romances which
that traveller has related. No such occurrence was remembered, in 1843,
by individuals resident on the mountain at the period indicated, and no
eruption is found recorded in the clironiclcs of tlie monastery of Echmiad-
zin, though they extend back over a period of eight hundred years. All
doubt as to the volcanic nature of the two Ararats was put an end to on
July 2, 1840, when an eruption took place from the head of the great
chasm, which destroyed the monastery and chapel of St. James, the village
of Arguri, and their inmates. Dr. Wagner, an enterprising Oernian trav-
eller and naturalist, who visited the spot in 1843, gives in substance the
following account of that event, as related by .*^ahatel Chotscliaieflf, brother
to Stephen Aga, village elder of Arguri, honoral)ly mentioned l)yboth Par-
rot and Dubois, and confirmed by other two eye-witnesses: —

" On July 2, 1840, half an hour before sunset, the atmosphere clear, the
inhabitants of Armenia were frightened by a thundering noise, that rolled
loudest and most fearfully in the vicinity of the Great Ararat. During an
undulating motion of the earth, lasting about two seconds, whicli rolled
from the mountain east and southeast, and wrought great destruction in
the districts of Sharur and Nakhichevan, a rent was formed in the end
of the great chasm, about three miles above Arguri, out of which rose gas
and vapor, hurling with immense force stones and earth over the slope of
the mountain down into the plain. The vapor rose very quickly higher
than the sunmiit of Ararat, and seems to have been wholly of aqueous com-
position ; for in the same night a heavy rain fell in the vicinity of the mount-
ain — an unusual occurrence in this country during summer. The vapor
at first was of various colors, in which blue and red prevailed. Whotlicr
flames burst forth could not bo ascertained ; but the pillars of vapor or
emokc had a rod tint, which, had the eruption taken place during the night,
might possibly have exhibited llamc. Tho blue and red tint of the vapor

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA.

298

soon became dark black, and immediately the air was filled with a very
disagreeable smell of sulphur. While the mountain continued to heavo,
and the earth to shake, witii the unremitting thunder, along with the sub-
terranean cracking and growling, miglit bo heard the whiz, as of bombs,
caused by tlio force with whicli stones and largo masses of rock, upward of
fifty tons' weight, were hurled through the air ! Likewise, the dash of the
stones as tiiey met in the air in their (light, could be distinguished from
the tliinidcring noise iijsuing from the interior of the mountain. Where
these large stones I'ell, there in general they lay ; for, in consequence of the
gentle declinatlun of the ground at the foot of the mountain, to roll far was
iinpossil)le. Tlio eruption continued a full hour. When the vapor had
cleared away, and the shower of stones and mud had ceased, the rich vil-
lage of Arguri, and the monastery and eluipol of St. James, were not to be
seen: all, along witii iheir inmates, were buried under the mass of stones
and mud that had been ejected. The earthquake, which accompanied the
eruption, destroyed six thousand houses in the neighboring districts of
Nakhichevan, Sliarur, and Ardubad. Four days after a second catastrophe
occurred, which spread still farther the work of destruction at the foot of
tlie mountain. After the rent in the chasm, wlience issued the vapor and
stones, had closed, there renuiincd in the same place a deep basin filled
with water by the melting of the snow, by the rain, and by a streandet
from above, so as to form a small lake. The mass of stone and clay, which
formed a dam, and surrounded the lake like the edge of a crater, was burst
by the weight of water, and poured down the declivity of the mountain
with irresistible force a stream of thick mud, which spread into the plain,
and partly stopped up the bed and altered tlio course of the small river
Karasu. A part of the gardens of Arguri that had escaped the eruption,
were destroyed by this stream of nnid, which carried trees, rocks, and the
bodies of the inhabitants of tiio village, down into the plain, and to the
bed of the Karasu. This stream of mud was three times repeated, and
was accompanied by subterranean noises."

That Noah's ark icsled on the top of Mount Ararat is not to be credited.
The difliculty of the descent, and the low temperature of the atmosphere,
which must have killed many of the animals, alike preclude the supposi-
tion ; and, moreover, the Scriptures do not say it rested on the top, but
merely " on the mountains of Ararat." If this be the mountain there re-
ferred to — which is somewhat doubtful, seeing that the olive does not grow
near it — the ark must have rested on one of its lower slopes. Nakhiche
van, cigiity miles oast of Erivan, claims the honor of being the oldest city
of the world; and tradition affirms that Noah fixed his residence here after
descending from Ararat.

The name Ararat is said to hi derived from Arai, a king who lived 1750
years B. 0. lie fell in battle, in an Armenian plain, which was henco
called "ilrai-ilro/" — the fall of Aral. Before him reigned Amassis, tho
sixth from Japhct, who called tho country Amasia; honco tho name Massis^

294

ILLUSmATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

or 3Iacis, by which alone Armenians in the present day know the mount-
ain. By the Turks and Persians it is called Agri-dag-h. The third sylla-
ble, doffh, means mountain; but philologists are not agreed on the signifi-
cation of Ag-ri.

Owing to the great elevation of the c'j'mtry, the climate in most parts is
rather severe ; but though the winters last long, the summer heats are suf-
ficient to bring all the fruits of the earth to perfection. Although severe,
the climate is, however, considered healthy.

The soil of Armenia is reckoned, on the whole, productive, though in
many places it would be quite barren were it not foi the great care taken
to irrigate it ; to such an extent, indeed, is the system of irrigation carried
on, that in summer many considerable streams arc wholly absorbed for this
purpose. Wiieat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton, are raised ;
and, in some of the valleys, apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts, arc
grown. From the nature of the country, the rearing of stock is carried on
to a greater extent than agriculture. The horses are spirited, fleet, and
fiery. Pines, birches, poplars, and beeches flourish, but there are no thick
forests except in the northern parts of the country. The flora is not so
varied as might be expected in mch an Alpine region ; in several respects
it resembles the vegetation of the Alps of Tyrol and Switzerland.

The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock ; but besides
them, in consequence of the repeated subjugation of the country, various
other races nave obtained a footing. Of these the principal are tlj-^ Tutko-
mans, who still maintain their nomadic habits, and from whom t' 3 country
has received the name of Turkomania. Of the Armenians, but about one
half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
various countries ; and, l)eing strongly addicted to commerce, play an im-
portant part as merchants. They are found all over western Asia; about
two hundred thousand are in Constantinople and its vicinity ; numbers are
in various parts of the Russia empire, Hungary, and Italy ; some in Africa
and America; and a large number in India, chiefly in the great marts of
Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Everywhere they are engaged in banking
and trading. In pliysical structure, they belong to the Caucasian race,
and, in general, are well made. Their eyes and hair are black, their look
lively, noses aquiline, and their complexion somewhat swarthy. The women
are remarkable for the delicacy and regularity of their features. Like the
Jews, whom in many respects they resemble, their ruling passion appears
to bo an inordinate love of gain, but they arc generally esteemed honest.
Their mental capacity is good, and those who are educated are distin-
guished by superior cultivation and refined manners ; but the mass of the
people inhabiting their native country, in consequeaco of centuries of neg-
lect, arc grossly ignorant and superstitious.

The Armenians embraced Cliristianity in the fourth century ; and, in
A. D. 536, separated from the Greek church, being dissatisfied with tho
decisions of tho council of Chalccdon. In doctrine, they hold that there

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA.

295

13 only one nats in Christ, and that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the
Father alone, i hey have seven saf^raments, but, in the mode of using
them, differ in several respects from the Roman catholics. They adore
saints and images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their hierarchy differs
little from that of the Greeks. The catholicus, patriarch, or head of the
cliurch, has his seat at Echmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan. A minority
of the Armenians, chiefly those residing in European countries, acknowl-
edge the i)ope, and conform, in doctrine and church-government, to the
Roman catholic church. They are called United Armenians.

i^i'irwHiji 6 1

Patbiarciial Chvich and MoNASTSiv or Echmiadzin.

»?-.^'iv. ^T^

The monastery of Echmiadzin, the seat of the catholicvs, or head of the
Armenian church, lies in the valley of the Arras, thirteen miles east of Eri-
van, near the villnge of Vagarhabad, which is also frequently though im-
properly called Echmiadzin. The monastery is surrounded by a wall thirty
feet high, entered by four gates, and flanked by towers, which, as well aa
the walls, are built of brick, excepting the base, and furnished with loop-
holes, giving to the whole structure the appearance of a large quadrangular
fortress. The mojmstery was founded in A. D. 524 ; but the church it
contains dates from the time of St. Gregory " the Enlightcncr," who intro-
duced Christianity into Armenia, though various additions have been made
to it in later times. The monks have here a printing-press and a seminary ;
but little good is to bo expected from their labors, as they arc unlearned,
ignorant, and superstitious.

The Armenian language belongs to the most distant offshoots of the
Indo-Germanic root ; but still, in its form and structure, has much that it
is peculiar, and to the ear it is harsh and dissonant. The old Armenian
language, also called Haican, which is that of literature, may now be con-
sidered a dead language. In the new Armenian language, which is divided
into four dialects not differing greatly from each other, there are many
Turkish words, and the construction of sentences is regulated by the rules
of Turkish syntax. With the exception of some songs collected by Arch-
bishop Mosea Choroncnsis, no specimens of the earlier Armenian literature

t }XA

296

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

have been preserved. After the introduction of Christianity, a grc.it ta-sto
for the Greek hvngii.igc and literature arose, and a number of works in
Greek and Pyri.'vc were translated into Armenian. Before A. D. 40G, the
Armenians had no alph.ibct of tlicir own, but used indilfcrcntly Greek,
Syriac, or Persian characters. In that year, however, Mcsrop Masdoty
invented the ITaican alph.abct, consisting of tliirty-cight letters (thirty con-
sonants and eight vowels), called, from its inventor, 3Ii'sropian, and which
still continues to be employed along with the modern alphabet.

Armenian literature flourished from the fourth to the fourteenth century.
Of this period, many writers have obtained a name chiefly as historians and
chroniclers. Their works, which might throw considerable light on the
history of the East during the middle ages, have hitherto been little con
suited. Armenian literature began to siidi in the fourteenth century, and
since that ])eriod scarcely any original work of importance has appeared ;
but, in all their wanderings, the Armenians have preserved a taste for
native literature, and have set up printing-presses wherever they have .set-
tled : so (hat we find Armenian works printed in Amsterdam, Venice,
Leghorn, Lcmberg, Moscow, Astrakhan, Constantinople, Smyrna, Echmi-
adzin, Ispahan, Madras, Calcutta, Batavia, <Src. The most interesting col-
ony is that on the island of l^an Lazaro at Venice, founded by the abbot
Mechitar Pedrosian in 1717, who there established a monastery, academy,
and i)rinting-prcss, whence important Armenian works have continued to
be issued down to the jjresent time.

According to the native historians, the name Armenia is derived from
Aram, the seventh king of the first dynasty, who about B. C. 1800, gave a
settled character to the kingdom. The Armenians call themselves Iluics,
or Ilaicaiis, and trace their origin, in their traditions, to Iluic or Iluiro,
the father and patriaixh of the people, a contemporary of the Assyrian
king Belus. Armenia subsecpiently fell into the hands of dilTercnt rulers,
and was exposed to many attacks. The Romans and Parthians had many
fierce conflicts for its possession, in one of which the consul Crassus was
defeated ; but at last, under the emperor Trajan, Armenia Major became a
Roman province. It afterward recovered its independence, and was under
the rule of its own kings. .*^apor, king of Persia, attempted its subjuga-
tion in vain, and it rcnuiincd free until G50, when it was conquered by the
Arabians. After this, it several times changed its masters. In the thir-
teenth century, it was overrun by the Moguls under Zinghis Khan. In
15o2, the Turkish sultan Sclim II. conquered it from the Persians.

In 1G04, Shah Abbas, emperor of Persia, in order to protect his domin-
ions on the side of Armenia against the Turks, resolved to carry off the
inhabitants, and to lay waste a largo portion of the country, so that it
might no longer be able to support an army I This monstrous resolution
was executed with the most revolting barbarity. The inhabitants, driven
off like cattle;, perished by thousands, while their houses wore burnt down,
and every vestige of civilization obliterated. A part of the survivors were

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA.

297

settled in tlio suburbs of Ispahan, the old Persian capital, where they were
kindly treated ; but the greater number, being located in an unhcalihy part
of the province of Mazunderan, were soon swept off by disease.

Until recently, Armenia was divided between Turlf^y and Persia ; but
the former ceded to Russia, by the treaty of Adrianople, in 1829, a con-
siderable portion of her Armenian territories ; and Russia had previously
(in 1827) acquired the entire province of Erivan from Persia. These ac-
quisitioMS have been consolidated into the government of Armenia.

Erivun, or Jnvan, the capital of Russian Armenia, is situated on the left
bank of the Zcngue, or Sang-a, a considerable river that flows from the lake
Gukcha, or Sivan, to the Arras, thirty-three miles north-northeast from the
foot of Mount Ararat, on tlie border of the great plain of the Arras, and
one hundred and six miles southwest of Tcflis. The site of tlie town is
three thousand three hundred feet above the sea-level. It stands partly
on a hill, and j)artly on the margin of the stream, which is here crossed by
a handsome stone bridge of several arches, and is very unhcalliiy during
the sununcr heats. It contains about two thousand houses, interspersed
with numerous gardens, and ruins of various dates, the whole fortified and
protected by a citadel placed on a steep rock, more than six hundred feet
in height, overhanging the river. This fortress, whicli is about two thou-
sand yards in circumference, is encompassed by a double rampart of earth,
flanked with towers : it contains the ancient palace of the khans, called
Sardar, now the residence of the governor ; a fine mosque, a cannon-foun-
dry, barracks, «fec. The town is irregularly built, with narrow and dirty
streets ; and tlie liouses, which are built of boulders, and mortar made of
clay and straw, give it a mean appearance. It has, however, a handsome
bazar, witli nearly eight hundred shops, besides several caravansaries, five
Armenian churches, one Russo-Greck church, an Armenian convent, fivo
mosques, some aqueducts of a curious construction, &c. An old tower,
described by Chardin, has since been pulled down, and its materials used
for building. The town has some manu.'actures of cotton-stuff's, leather,
and earthenware ; and, being on the caravan route between Persia and
Russia, it has a considerable transit-trade. Its population is about twelve
thousand, who are principally Armenians.

Tiie epoch of the foundation of Erivan is unknown. It was taken by
the Persians in 1635. The latter retook it in 1724 ; but it was again cap-
tured by tho Persians, under Nadir Sliah (commonly called Nadir Kouli
Khan), in 1748. The Russians were repulsed in an attempt to take it ia
1808 ; but they succeeded in 1827, and wei'o confirmed iu its possession
by tho ensuing treaty with Persia.

Akhalzik, Akalzik, or Akiska, is situated in a district of tho same name,
one hundred and ten miles west of Teflis, on tho left bank of the Dalka, ten
miles from its junction with tho Kour. It is without walls, but defended
by a strong citadel, built on a rock, which, when it belonged to Turkey,
baffled all tho attempts of tho Russians to reduce it. Akhalzik is tho seat

298

ILLUSTRATED DESCMPTION OP RUSSIA.

of a Greek archbishop, and contains two churches, a synagogue, and sev-
eral mosques — one of which, that of Sultan Ahmed, is built on the model
of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and has a college and library attached to
it. The latter was accounted one of the most curious in the East ; but the
Russians have removed about three hundred of the most valuable works to
St. Petersburg. The neighborhood produces silk, honey, and wax, with
excellent fruits, raisins, peaclics, apricots, and figs. Some manufactures
are carried on, and the inhabitants prosecute an active trade with various
places on the Black sea. Foimorly a large slave-market was held here,
which the Russians suj)prcsHod when they acquired possession of the town.
In the vicinity are some alkaline springs. The population, which includes
Armenians, Georgians, Turks, Russians, and Jews, is about fifteen thousand.
The former Turkish paclialic of Ahkahik, or Tcheldir, as named by the
-Turks, forms now a political and administrative subdivision of Russian Ar-
menia. It is a mountainous country, watered by the Kour ; the climate is
healthy, though the extremes of heat and cold are very great. The soil is
fertile, producing maize, barloy, tobacco, flax, and cotton, with excellent
fruits. Game is abundant. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are raised,
and much attention is paid to bees and silkworms. The population consists
chiefly of Georgians, Turks, Armenians, and Jews. \f^

Imehitia, Mingrelia, and Gukia, tlio three most western Trans-Cauca-
sian provinces, occupy tiie whole basin of the Rioni, enclosed on three
sides by mountains, and open only toward the Black sea.

The province of Imeritia, or Imerethi, is bounded on the north by the
Caucasus, east by Georgia, south by Armenia and Guria, and west by the
Black sea and Mingrelia. Its greatest length from north to south is ninety
miles, and its greatest breadth al)0Ht seventy-five. It contains about four
thousand eight hundred square miles.

The surface of the country has a general slope westward to the Black
Bca, but is mostly very uneven and rugged, being traversed by ramifications
of the Caucasus. Tiie only streams are the Rioni and its tributaries. Tiio
climate is excellent, and the soil generally fertile. All the higher mountain-
slopes are covered with magnificent forests ; many of the loftier valleys
afford luxuriant pasture ; and in the lower grounds, notwithstanding the
indolence and unskilful management of the inhabitants, heavy crops of
wheat, barloy, maize, tobacco, hemp, and madder, are raised. Fruit-trees
grow spontaneously ; and chestnuts, walnuts, apricots, cherries, «fec., are
found in abundance in every quarter. The vine also is said to grow spon-
taneously, and is often found entwining itself with the trees of the forest.
Domestic animals are not numerous, but game is very abundant.

Considerable attention is paid to the rearing of bees and silkworms.
There are no manufactures deserving of the name ; and the trade, almost
wholly in the hands of Armenians, Greeks, aid Jews, consists chiefly in
exports of the raw produce of the country — particularly wine, grain, silk,

THE CAUCASIAN PnOVINCES — IMEBITIA — MTNOnELIA.

299

wax, skins, wool, and friHt ; and imports of woollen, linon, and silk goods,
copper and iron ware, cutlery, salt, and colonial produce. The trade iu
Blaves — males for the army, and females for the harems of the Turks —
was once the most important in all, but has been put down by the Russians
since tiiey acquired the control of the country.

Imeritia, in the fourteenth century, formed part of the kingdom of Geor
gia. It afterward became independent, and was governed by its own pvip
ces ; one of whom, in 1804, voluntarily mado it over to Russia.

laiBiTiAN Pamca

MlNOBKLIAN r«INCB.

The pi evince of Mingrelia (the ancient Colchis, and the scene of the
fable of the Golden Flee«e and the Argonautic expedition) is bounded
on the north by the Caucasus, on the east by Imeritia, on the south by
Guria, on the southwest by the Black sea, and on the northwest by Abaa-
sia. Its area is about seven thousand two hundred square miles.

The surface of this province is generally mountainous, but slopes gradu-
ally to the south, particularly toward the Rioni, its principal stream. The
mountains are generally covered with magnificent forests ; and both the
lower slopes and valleys are fertile, yielding good crops of millet and
abundance uf oxcoUent fruit. A good deal of silk and honey are likewise

800

ILLUSTRATED DFSCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

{irodticcd. Mingrclia became a vassalage of Russia in 1803, but is gov-
erned by ils own prince, Avho takes the numo of dadian.

The province of Guria, or CiURIFX, is bonndcd on the north l)y Imcritia
and Mingrclia, on the cast by the district of Akhalzik in Russian Armenia,
on the south by the pachalic of Trcbizond in Turkey, and on the west by
the Black sea. It contains fifteen hundred square miles.

The country is chiefly forest; the soil is very fertile. The inhabitants
are principally Georgians, with a few Armenians. Guria, the same as
Mingrclia, is governed by a native prince, who acknowledges the czar's
supremacy. Ignorance and vice arc very prevalent, and even few of the
nobles can understand their own language. The general condition of the
people, however, is said to have been greatly improved through their con-
nection with Russia. The noble can no longer deprive his servant of life,
or sell him to a foreign master, as formerly.

Koutais, Kolais, or Khoulliaissi (the ancient Colalis), the capital of the
western Trans-Caucasian provinces, is situated on the left bank of the
Rioni, about one hundred and twenty miles west-northwest of Tcflis. It
is embosomed in fruitful gardens ; has in its centre a market-place, in the
form of a large ami)hitheatre, where the inhabitants lounge away much of
their time ; and six churches, a seminary with one hundred pupils, and a
[lublic garden tastefully laid out. It is the residence of a governor and a
bishop. The inhabitants, consisting, besides Imeritians, of a great number
of Armenians and Jews, are chiefly employed in vine and garden culture.
The population is about three thousand.

The old town of Colalis, or Culaisis, the capital of ancient Imeritia, is
situated on the right bank of tlie Rioni, to the westward of the modern
town, and is reached by a stone bridge over the river. It is little more
than a heap of ruins, among which, however, lie broken columns, and capi-
tals covered with inscriptions.

The province of Abassia, Abkasia, or Abkhazia^\9 bounded north and
west by the Caucasian range, which separates it from Circassia; east by
Mingrclia ; and south by the Black sea. It is about two hundred and sixty
miles long, by less than thirty in breadth.

This country is composed wholly of the southern side of the Caucasus
mountains — some of whose snow-covered peaks are here from twelve to
thirteen thousand feet high — and of the low plains intervening between
these mountains and the sea. The prevailing geological formations are
greenstone, porphyry, black slate, and Jura limestone.

Immense forests of the fmest trees (oak, alder, chestnut, «&c.) clothe the
mountain-sides, stretching down to the plains, whose Italian climate, ripen-
ing maize, figs, pomegranates, the fruits of central Europe, grain, and ex-
cellent grapes, invites to profitable cultivation ; but the country is a waste,
its numerous ruins alone proclaiming its foi'mer nourishing condition. Nor

THE CAUCAST\N PR0VINCK8 — ABA8SIA — CIRCASSIA.

801

do the Abnssians excel in cuttlc-rcaring or commcrco — a little of the lat-
ter, in felt mantles, fox and polecat skins, honey, wax, and boxwood, being
carried on — any more than in njrricnltiire. On the contrary, with such
indifl'crcnce are these branches of industry pursued, that by their incana
they do not obtain a sufficient subsistence; wliich, therefore, they eke out
in the rnnnncr most congenial to their tastes, by plunder and robbery —
occupations whicli, in them, haA'c become a second nature. They were
formerly well known as pirates on the Black sea, and many of them prose-
cuted their fortunes in Kgypt, where they rose by their bravery to eminent
military rank among the Mamelukes. The slave-trade with Turkey for-
merly constituted one of the chief employments, and tended greatly to
reduce the population. Notwitlistanding the watclifulness of the Russians,
slaves are still secretly exported. The women arc beautiful, and arc much
sought after in Turkey.

The Alinssians belong lo the Circassia-.i race, and distinguish among
themselves five tribes — Abassian» {or Abf:ascs) proper, Bsubbcs, Tsehc-
beldics, Aschawcs, and Imuozahanes. Al)assia, under the Byzantine em-
perors, formed an independent state, separate from Georgia. In the elev-
enth century, by heirsliip, it fell to the kings of Georgia, under whom it
decayed ; and in 1457 it fell inider the supremacy of tlie Turks. In 1771,
the Abassians asserted their independence ; and, after various fortunes,
about 1823, the reigning prince, Michael Bey, called on the Russians to
occupy the country, which they did, by stationing troops at Anapa, Souk-
gonm-Kaloh,Tambor, Pitznnda, Gagra, and other towns. Anapa, situated
on tlie Black sea, was formerly the chief emporium of the Turkish trade
with the Circassian tribes, and from it tlie Georgian and Circassian slave-
girls were supplied. TIio fort was constructed by the Turks in 1784, when
the Russians took possession of the Crimea and the island of Saman. In
1791, the Russians carried it by storm. It was afterward restored to the
Turks, who strengthened the fortifications. By a snbscqncnt treaty the
Russians again acquired possession. Its trade is chiefly in hides, tallow,
wax, honey, «S;c. The population is about three thousand.

CiRCASSiA (Russian Tcherkeskaia Zemlia), the largest and most impor-
tant country in the Caucasus, occupies nearly the whole northern slope of
that range of mountains. It lies between the forty-second and forty-sixth
degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-seventh and forty-fourth degrees
of east longitude. At its northwest corner it reaches the Black sea, but,
with this exception, it is bounded on the soutli and west by the main ridgo
of the mountains which divide it from the Trans-Caucasian provinces. The
northern limit is formed by the rivers Kouban and Terek, which separate
it from the government of the Caucasus. Toward the cast it terminates at
the junction of the little river Sunsha with the Terek, at which point a host
of small streams divide it from the country of the Lcsghians. In extreme
length, from northwest to Bouthcast, Circassia is about four hundred and

802

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

seventy miles ; in its greatest width, about one hundred miles ; in its least,
about forty miles ; and, at an average, seventy miles. It contains thirty-
two thousand square miles.

The physical features of Circassia have been generally described in the
notice of the Caucasian range on a previous page, and what is peculiar to
Circassia is only the consequence of that country's occupying the northern
slope of the mountains. With the exception of the lowlands on the banks
of the Kouban and Terek, the whole territory is broken into precipitous
mountains, pmnll table-lands, and valleys of tin; most picturesque and ro-
mantic description. Its hydrography belongs to two systems, the waters
of Kabardah (the eastern section) being all conveyed by the Terek to the
Caspian, and tliosc of wosforn Circassia by the Kouban to the Black sea.
The former river rises near the Kazbek, and, forcing its way through the
pass of Pariel (the ancient ^'^ Ccnicnsian Gate"'), receives, directly or indi-
rectly, thirty-live streams befi)re it quits the Circassian country. Of these,
the Malk, whicli joins it at its eastern Itend, is scarcely inferior in size to
the principal river. It rises near the eastern bases of the Elbrouz, and is
itself the recipient of a considerable number of tributaries. The Kouban
rises on the northern base of the Elbrouz, not far from the sources of the
Malk, and receives the water of more than fifty rivers, thirty of which fall
directly into its bed. It lias every reason to be considered exclusively a
Circassian river; for, though no part of its northern bank be inhabited by
Circassians, it does not receive a single tributary, in its whole course,
that does not rise witiiin their territory. A similar remark will apply, in
a modified sense, to the Terek, which, like the Kouban, docs not rci-eive a
single stream from the north, and only one of consequence after entering
the Tartar country east of Little Kabardah. The country between the
sources of the Malk and Kouban is watered by various streams ; and when,
it is recollected that, in addition to these, inmimerablc torrents pour from
the upper ranges of the mountains, it will be evident that no land can be
better irrigated. Tlic water is in general clear and good, but occasionally
impregnated with mineral and other extraneous matters. The tributary
streams become flooded in winter, and extremely shallow during the heats
of Slimmer ; the currents of all arc extremely rapid, as are those also of
the Terek and Kouban, except where tlie latter forms morasses, which it
does in some parts of the flat country, when its course becomes sluggish,
and its water thick and muddy.

The climate, soil, and natural productions of Circassia, arc also the same
with those of the Caucasus generally ; but the temperature is rather lower
than on the southern slopes, except on the banks of the Kouban, where the
greater depression more than compensates for the difference of aspect, and
where the extensive marshes and the exuberant vegetation create miasma,
which render it more pestilential than any other district in the whole region.
There is a greater proportion of bare rock in Circassia than in Georgia
and the other countries south of the main ridge ; but on every shelf, and

THE CAUCASIAN PBOVINCES — CIRCASSIA.

803

in every rift, trees, grain, vegetables, and fruit of almost every kind, are
produced from most fertile soil.

The animals, also, are on the same sralc of abundance and variety,
whether the wild or domesticated tribes bo considered — the quadrupeds,
birds, fishes, insects, or reptiles. The Circassian horses arc nearly as fa-
mous, and quite as good, as those of Arabia. Cattle of all kinds are abun-
dant in the extreme ; and, in addition to the herds forming the numerous
stocks of the i)astoral population, the aurochs and argali (wild ox and
sheep) still wander among the mountains, with the ibex and another beau-
tiful variety of the goat. Game of all kinds, winged, hoofed, or clawed,
are found in equal abundance, but diflcring in kind, in the mountains and
plains ; nor are boasts of prey, as jackals, wolves, boars, lynxes, and tiger-
cats, «fec., nnioh loss numerous, though tliey seem to be but little regarded
by tlie natives. Wild-boars are found, especially among tlie swamps of the
Kouban, and it is allirmed that the tiger is not wholly unknown. The rep-
tile and insect tribes are equally numerous. In one of tlie campaigns of
tlie Russians, besides the thousands wlio fell victims to the bad air, it is
stated by Spencer that nmnbers died/ro/» the mortified biles of moschelocs.

Both natives antl Russians believe that the mountains abound in gold
and silver, but apparently on no good grounds. Iron, however, lead, and
copper, are found ; and saltpetre is very abundant. Salt is nowhere found
witiiin the limits of Cireassia; and since Russia has excluded the natives
from the brine-pits in the Caucasian steppe, and sealed their ports against
the trade of Turkey and Persia, they have been almost totally dej)rived of
that necessary.

The Circai-sians are divided into five classes. 1. Pschi, or pschech
(princes). "2. i/orA; (ancient nobles). 3. The freedmen of these princes
and ancient nobles, who, by their manumission, become themselves noble,
and are called uork otuork. 4. The freedmen of these new nobles, called
befj^ualia. 5. The vassals, or tcho'kotl. Between the ancient and recent
nobility there is no real distinction, except that, in military service, the
latter are still under the command of their former masters ; nor is there
any great practical diflerencc between the begvalia and the tcho'kotl or
vassals. The latter are, of course, the laborers, and are subdivided into
such as are engaged in agriculture and such as serve the superior classes
in the capacity of menial servants. Of the former, many are wealthy, nor
is the state of any, one of great degradntion, since there are very few if
any offices of labor which prince or noble would consider derogatory to
himself. To every princely house belongs a certain number of uork, pr
usden, as they are called by the Russians ; and the latter are the direct
proprietors of the vassals. Of these last, though all are unquestionably
slaves, those engaged in agriculturo can not bo sold singly ; and the sale
of any is so rare as almost to bo prohibited by custom. On the other hand,
it appears the vassal may transfer his duty to another us Jan; which is, of
coarse, a great protection from ill usage. The vassals pay no money-tax,

111 "-^i

804

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

and though they arc compelled to supply their lord with all ho wants, yet
this, from the olicck upon the iiohle's power just alludi-'l to, oxtend.i no
further, tisimlly, than to bare ncco.<<!«arieH ; since, should the latter carry
his deniaiids too far, he runs the risk of loHinp his vassal all«)s;t'llior. The
relation l)et\veen prince and usdan is precisely the same a.s that between
ustfan and vassal : the nol)le must supply tlic necessities of his sovereifrn ;
but slioidd the exactions of tlio latter become excessive, the former nniy
transfer liis nllepiance to another prince. The nnf/rn must pay the d(>bts
of f heir prince, and the vassals those of their vsdcn ; and in each case tlio
inferior must make pood all losses sustained iiy his superior, whether from
rol»bcry or accident: by which arranjicment it is evident tliat all losses or
expenses are defrayed, ultinmtely, by the vassal. The head of the princely
house is the leader in war ; and his iisdcn are bound to attend him with all
thei'' retainers, or as many as may be required.

There is no ))eople, not even the Aralts, among whom pride of birth is
carried to a greater lieight than among the Circassians, especially those of
Kabaidah. In this district, if an vsdan were to marry or seduce a prin-
cess, he would forfeit his life without mercy; and tiie same result wonbl
attend the attempt of a bv^valia or vassal to ally himself to a nol)lo house.
An Abassian prince is, in tliis respect, considered equal only to a Circas-
sian KSildn, and can obtain a Circassian wife only from that class. Tho
rigorous eiiforcement of this custom has preserved tho dilTerent ranks very
distinct, though Pallas has oltserved, even in tho Kaltardahs, some traces
which indicate a descent from Tartar mothers. It must be observed, how-
ever, that there does not appear to l)c any lostriction upon a man's taking
a wife or a concubine from an inferior cla^s; and tho issue of sucli connec-
tions take rank from the fatlier, l)ut arc not accounted equal to the de-
scendants of a j)urc stock from both parents. Thus, there are princes of
tho first, second, and third class, «tc., according to the greater or less
degree of inferior blood which they inherit from their maternal ancestors.
Tliis state of society, closely reseml)ling the feudal institutions of the flotliic
ages, jeoms to imply the division of tho Circassians into two distinct peo-
ple, a c 1. qucring and a conquered race ; but when or how the present
relations were established, is involved in impenetrable oltseurily.

The whole of the Circassian and Abchnsian tribes live in si, u!l vilLi^rca
scattered liere and there, without theslighi^ t approach toany'hlut; i'
bling a city or walled town ; indeed, the prince or nolde has n. i" x.iqi.vi--
able aversion to any castle or place of artificial strength, which he regards
as pnly btted it restrain his state of wild freedom. lie lives, tlierefore, in
the centre of iii;' village, which usually consists of forty or fifty houses, or
rather lints, forin d of plaited o;;iors, plastered within and witliout, covered
with straw or g;r,s •, and -i- langcd in a circle, within the area of which tho
cattle arc secured Ui ngiit. TIicso jnimitivc dwellings, which strongly
rescmlde, in h/\u\ rnv. appearance, tho humbler residences in Arabian
towns, have, ho /ever, the peculiar recommendation of being unoxccption*

TnK CAUCASIAN PROVlNCra — CTRCAR8IA.

805

ably cloan, which is also tlu; c.Mf. with the pcrpons, drcfls, and cookory, of
the iiimaton. From lli • slmdcr imtnro of tho huildings, thoy arc ovidontly
not forinod for lonp: otidtirivn >% and a Clrc(»*Hiftu village is, in fact, l»y uo
DicaiiH a fixture. The ni^cumulftti(»i '>f dirt iu tlioir noipliliorhood , tJui iiytnt-
curity of tlic position, lu, ! fioqucnlly oven fli*^ onpricc of the inhri''itant»,
cause tlicm to 1)0 from timo to (iino abandoned. Ort such occasio ■« the
dwellings are destroyed, tho house liold utensils packed up, and tho whole
colony migrate in search of a new abode. While stationary, however,
there is much comfort in a Circnssiau's hovel, for f'loso wli" (;an dispense
M ith superfluities; but, as maybe supposed, their d()mesti( urrani;emcnts
8 re of tho most simple kind.

Tno usual occupations of tho higher classes are the vttasc and war, on
wliieh expeditions, or those of a predatory kind, they dcfiart with no other
provi.><ion than a little millet or wheat, and that without tho sli<>htcst fear
of suflering from want, since every man who posse.'^ses and can uso a riflo
is hurc of finding provision on every hedge. In these cxf'oditicMis tho Cir-
cassians carry with them tent-covers of felt, but chiefly fi>r the purpose of
protecting themselves from sudden storms, as, in fine we: ,licr, tho hardy
mountaineer throws himself on the ground, and sleeps with mo o;,hcr cover-
ing than the heavens. While in his hut, the Circassian, of whatever rank,
ivS his own carpenter, weaver, carver, and shepherd. It do(>> not appear,
however, that the higher classes often take part in agricnlti ;il pursuits,
not so much because it is considered derogatory, as from tlia; species of
indolence ((piito consistent witli great occasional exertion) whcii recoils
from regular and continuous lal)or.

The occupations of the women consist in spinning and ncodlewo-Tv. They
make the clothes of their household, down to the very shoes, and ilso sad-
dle-cushions, housings, and horse-trappings, and sheaths for the warriors'
swords and poniards. They frecpiently excel in embroidery, ai' skilful
dairy-women, and sometimes oven noblewomen may be seen takiii_ a part
in field-labor. As in other half-l)arbarous societies, the greater poiMon of
labor falls upon tho females ; but their condition is far superior in ' 'ircas-
«jia to what it is in most other eastern countries.

As Mohanunedanism is little more than a profession among these p-^ople,
their hal)it^, with the cxceptiim of .some formal ol)servancea with regard to
food, have undergone but little change by its introduction. Tho soxea
mix freely together while unmarried, and, undor the restriction of caste,
love-matches arc prol)al)ly as numerous hero as in other parts of the world.
The husband has, however, to purchase his bride of her father ; and nei-
ther husband n<>r wife, from the moment of their union, is permitted to
appear iu tlie pi osence of the parents for a year, or until the birth of the
first child. It is a still more remarkable custom, that tho hui5band must
never lie seen in company with his wife ; and though the latter is permitted
io receive without restraint tho visits of strD:igers, yet the former is never
present on such occasions, and the matrimonial correspondence is always

306

ILLUSTRATED DESCIHPTION OP nUSSIA.

carried on by stealth, and in the utmost secrecy. The greatest insult that
can be olTered to a prince or usdan, is to inquire after the health of his
wife or family ! TIio son of a prince is committed, at the age of three
days, to the care of an usdan, by whom he is brought up, and never again
seen by his fatluM* till he is n^.arried : the son of an usdan remains in the
paternal houscliold till he is three or four years old, when he, in like man-
ner, is consigned to the care of a stranger ! The foster-father stands in
every respect in the place of the natural parent. lie receives no payment
for iiis trouble, but claims all the duty and service of his ward. The cr.use
of this very reinarkalile custom is said to be the wish to prevent the effect
of iiidulgence consequent on a liomc education, in enervating the character ;
but tlK)ii.i:li it destroys the usual affection subsisting between father and
son, it establishes another not ' jss strong between the guardian and his
ward, which is usually as intense as any exhibited in the social connections
of other countries.

Tile daughters are brought up at home, and at the ago of ten or twelve
years have their waists enclosed by tight-fitting stays, or a broad band of
uatanned leather, xrhick is never rcmoeed nor loosened till they arc mar-
ried. On the wedding night the husband cuts this boddicc open with his
dagger, an operation which is frequently attended with danger. As a fiiio
waist is considorod the great beauty of a Circassian, men are also subjected
to a very heavy compression on that part, but nothing to that which the
fcujales endure. The girdle remains on the latter for a period varying

from two to six years (a girl

i^.~Vw/,x-/'-i unmarried at seventeen rarely

finds a husband), during which
time the victim is growing; —
and, in addition to this, they
are (still further to " improve"
the form) so sparingly fed, that
the young unmarried females
have often a look of ill health.
The finest-looking women aro
the young wives.

The Circassians have long
been proverbial for their beau-
ty of form and figure, especially
the women ; and, though they
have in this respect been eon-
founded with the Georgians, yet
all the accotnits of the modern
and the most accurate travellers
ci»cAMi4». concur in descriliing them as an

extremely handsome people — tall, finely-formed, slender in the loins, small
iu the hand and foot, elegantly-featured, with keen, lively eyes, frcbh com*

rUE CAUCASIAN PQOVIKCES — CIBCASSIA.

!K-

'--^^V::;-

C'lllCASSIAN FBMALIt*.

plcxions, and remarkably intelligent countenances. Their bearing is manly
and dignified ; but they liavc a kind of lofty gait, which perhaps indicates,
and may, at all events, be easily mistaken for, haughtiness. Tlie dress of
the men consists of shirt, tunic, and cloak, much resembling those of tho
Calinucks, but formed of better materials, and in general richer. Tho
female costume is not very diflcrcnt except in being longer. The men
crop the hair, leaving only a single lock hanging from the crown ; they wear
thick mustaches ; and the warriors and learned classes (priests and physi-
cians) suffer the whole beard to grow. Tho women's heads liave luxuri-
riaiit tresses, but both sexes eradicate every appearance of hair on all other
parts of their bodies, by means of a caustic ointment of unslaked lime and
orpimcut. The princes and usdcn rarely go out unarmed ; and in his coat-
of-raail, helmet, musket, pistols, bow, quiver, and shield, tho Circassian
chief forms a most imposing and picturesque oliject. In this dress they
pay their visits of state, and in this also they rido out on their warlike or
predatory expeditions. ,

Tho Circassian, liko tho Arab, is a strange mixture of ferocity and hos-

I'H

303

ILLUSTRATRD DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

I< i

pitality, Tho unfortunate traveller who approaches his country without
securing the protection of sonic chief, is seized as a slave by the first native
who meets him ; but, on the other hand, should this protection be extended,
the whole power of the host, or konak, as ho is called, is sti-ained to pro-
cure, not only the safety, but the accommodation of the guest. The form
of granting protection is remarkable. The wife of the konak gives the
stranger her breast to suck, after which ceremony ho is regarded as hor
son, and the whole tribe as his adopted bretliren. Robbery and i)liinder
are considered honorable occupations : but the charge of thieving i.s ac-
counted an insult, Itecaiiso it imjilios detection! The custom of blood-
revenge, called thlil-uasa, is vMy .«inii!ar to that of Arabia: in cases of
murder, the friends of the murdered arc allowed to take the life of tho
homicide, or that of any of his relatives within the fourth degree. Tlio
ransom by fine is, according to the Prussian traveller Pallas, never taken ;
but Spencer (a British traveller), on the contrary, affirms that it is almost
always jireferrcd.

The exclusive nature of Circassian marriages has been already noticed.
It is, liowevcr, as little inconsistent, that while a Circassian prince would
unhesitatingly slaugliter an vsthin of his own tribe, or an Abchasian, who
should ])resunie to wed his daugliter, he jviH as unhesitaliiifffi/ sell her to
Turk, Persian, Turkoman, Nogai Tartar, or Calnnick ! Sj)encer, who pro-
fesses to admire every institution of these ])eople, has ingejiiously discov-
ered tlmt this practice has temlod to rrjinc and civilize tlie inhabitants of
the Caucasus! lie admits, indeed, that it has occasioned wars and feuds
innumerable among tlie petty tribes, from the rai)acity with which they
have overrini eacli otlicr's territory in search of l>eauty for the foreign mar-
ket. The greater ])()ition of the females thus sold have, however, always
been from among the Trans-Caucasian people — the Imeritians, Georgians,
Mingrelians, and Al)assians — the Circassian slave-trade having been chiefly
connned to tlie male sex, from which they supplied the Mameluke and other
^lavc-troojjs of Egypt and Turkey.

The laws of Circiissia rest only on long-establislied custom. They are
administered in a council of elders, but not always liy the reigning prince,
if any other of his rank possess the requisite qualities in a higher degree.
The council consists not of princes and ustlni only, I)ut also of the wealthier
and more aged vassals, who. in the judgment-seat, are regarded as on an
(^qualify witli the higher classes. The laws tliemselves arc based upon tho
;>i-inciple of retaliation, and the business of "tho court" seems to consist
of little else than the assessment of damages. Uobbery of a prince is pun-
is!!ed l>y tho restitution of nine times the property stolen ; of an usdun, by
simple restitution, and a fine of thirty oxen. Tiie prince or tisdan can
scarcely commit a robl)cry on a vassal, since his abstract right to all the
prop.'rty of the latter is tacitly acknowledged ; and the punishment of rob-
bery by one vassal of anotlver, appears to vary with tho circumstances of
the case. Fine, as among the Arabs, scorns almost tho universal punish*

% I

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — CIRCASSIA.

809

mcnt, except in cases of murder and adultery ; in both of which cases the
punishnicnt is left in the hands of the injured party. The offending wife
lias her head shaved, her ears slit, tlie sleeves of her garment cut off, and
in this trim is returned, on horseback, to her father ; who, if he can not
soil, generally kills her. Tiic paramour is certain of death, being a marked
man by all the husband's tribe. l\»lygamy is allowed, but very rarely
practised. The Circassians are very attentive to their breeds of horses,
and have distinct marks to show the noble races from wliich they have
descended. The stamping a false mark upon a fiUy is a forgery for which
nothing but life can atone !

Learning is a complete blank. The Circassians have not even an alpha-
bet, and consequently neither book nor manuscript in their own language.
The few who read, and they arc very few, use tlie Tartar or Arabic tongues,
l)oth of vhich, the former especially, are very generally understood. Ev-
ery tribe would .seem to speak a modified language, since, within a narrow
space, not less than seventy-two dialects, or patois, have been enumerated ;
and one particular spot, wliere this variety is more remarkably exhibited,
lias been sunianicd, by Abulfeda, an oriental writer, Jubel-el-Alason (" the
Mount of Tongues"). Tiiese dialects totally differ from any other lan-
guage at present known : their iironunciatiou consists of strange, uncouth,
deep, guttural sounds, whicli European letters can hardly express, and
European organs vainly attempt to articulate; and, what is singular (con-
sidering the absence of written characters), and adds to the perplexity of
tlie philologist, there is a secret dialect, apparently an old bf.rbarous gibbcr-
isli, peculiar to tlio princes and usden, and used by them chieily on their
predatory excursions.

The religion of tlie Circassians exhibits a strange jumble of Christianity,
Mohaminedanism, and paganism. Tlie first, unfortunately, has scarcely a
nominal existence, and is chiefly discernible in a superstitions reverence
paid to the cross, figures of which, in stone, are set up in many localities,
which in consequence often become famous trysting-places, and at which
some kind of worship is paid. The paganism appears in the homage which
is rendered, principally by the vulgar, to two spirits, a good and a bad —
Merein, a benevolent deity, and Tschih!', the spirit of thunder. Mohara-
medanism, as before remarked, is the nominal faith, and exists in a more
definite form. In some districts, considerable influence is possessed by its
tnolla/is or priests, who latterly, in addition to their proper duties, act as
teachers, and keep a few schools, in which — as there is no printed vernac-
ular — Turkish, Tartar, Arabic, and occasionally a little Persian, are taught.
The true Circassian education is that which the youths receive who are
trained to war from their earliest years, and never cease from it till they
are able to take the field.

Arts, manufactures, and commerce, are at the lowest ebb among the Cir-
cassians. The doctors are simply conjurers or sali^ts, who profess to cure
diseases by charms and the roughest applications of actual cautery. Their

■;fi

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810

ILLUSTRATKD DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

success may bo surmised from the fact that, notwithstanding the length
and inveteracy of the war with the Russians, very low instances of maimed
Circassian warriors are to be met with : to be wounded among tltcso peo-
ple is generally to die. Of artificers and slcillod mechanics, there are only
cutlers, armorers, and goldsmiths ; wlio, liowcver, exhibit great ingenuity
in the construction and decoration of the warriors' arms. A view of the
interior of one of their armor-manufactories is given on the opposite page.
Tlio art of preparing gunpowder has been known for ages in the Caucasus,
and the abundance of saltpetre renders the inhabitants independent of otlicr
countries for this important clement of warfare ; their mode of manufacture
is, however, very primitive. It has been already stated that tho women
arc the great manufacturers of clotlies, Avhieli may be said to be tlio only
manufacture which these people possess. They formerly traded with Per-
sia and Turkey for tlieir chain and other armor, and with Tartar tribes
northward for salt ; the equivalents on their part being their children and
cattle. The Russians have annihilated both trades ; and this is said to be
one great cause of the liatred entertained against them by the Circassians.

The Circassians having no annals, and very few traditions, tlicir early
history is almost a blank. Much ingenuity and labor have been employed
in endeavoring to trace their origin through the afliuities of language. Tho
success as yet has been very partial ; but there can bo no doubt that they
came from the East. Authors ditfcr, however, as to tho nation or tribe
from which they have descended : some maintain that they were originally
Medes ; while others affirm that they arc a branch of tho Arabians, whom
they greatly resemble in their laws and customs : indeed, the Kabardahs
claim this descent, and there is a common tradition among the Circassians
that the whole people are descendants from Ishmacl. They may be divided
into two great classes: the Circassians proper, or Tchcrktssians ; and tho
Tschetschenzes, who inhabit Lcsghia, or western Daghestan. They take the
common name of Adighc or Adeches, a name denoting a mountain-ravine
on the sea. But the word Tcherkessia is Tartar, and literally means cut
the road; that is, highwayman or robber, one who makes communication
unsafe. It also boars this signification : tcherk, to cut off, and ke«, the
head. The general name given to these ])cople in tho Caucasus is Kasack,
whence some have inferred that they are of the same rac; with tho Cos-
sacks of tho Don and the Volga, which is doubtless an error, for tho word
Cossack has a general and not a national signification, and means a man
who leads a wandering and martial life.

From these regions Greece received her first inhabitants, and in return
appears to have sent back colonists, who settled on tlio Circassian coast,
and ultimately fell under the Roman domination. In more modern times,
between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, they became subject to tho
kingdom of Georgia, whose queen, Tamar, is said to have spread a knowl-
edge of Christianity among them. In 1424, they throw off tho Georgian
yoke, asserted their independence, and not only maintained it, but oxtondod

ARMOR MANXTFACTORT IN ORCASSIA.

h *

iki

THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — CAUCASUS.

313

tlicir boundaries so far, tliot tlicy were at last brought into fierce coiidict
with the Tartars, who iiltimately prevailed and made the Circassians their
tributaries. They continued so till 170">, when they rose against tlieir
ojjprcssors, and, by a deci.><ive victory, effected their freedom.

Their lirst connection with Russia took place iti l.^iSf), when the princes
of the licsch Da<;h submitted to the czar Vassili-Ivanovich. From that
time the Russian j)o\ver has been constantly increasing in the Caucasus.
In 17S1, Russia ac(]uired the Kouban as a frontier; and, in 1784, the
Turks built the fort Anapa, and thence directed their efforts to stir up the
Circassians against their great enemy. Anapa, takeii by tlie Russians in
1807, was restored to Turkey in 181:2, at the peace of Bucharest, owing to
Najmleon's expedition to Moscow. The quiet which followed this treaty
was used by tlie Turks to convert the Circassians to Islamism, and thus
inij)lant in them an ever-cjuring enmity to Russia. In 1820, Anapa again fell
into tile hands of the Russians ; and, by the treaty of Adriaiio])le, thoy also
acquired all the other Turkish possessions on this coast. Upon this they
ground their claims of sovereignty over Circassia, wliieh in fact was never
under Turkisli rule. Tlie claim was intlignantly scouted by the Circas-
sians, who, knowing tliat, uiuler the vigorous government of Russia, their
robberies would be repressed, as well as their traffic in slaves, llcw to
arms, and for many years maintained a brave but unequal struggle ; most
of the countiy meanwhile, with the exception of some inountaiii-fastnesses,
falling under tho sway of tlie czar. Tiiough till recently (when tliey rose
in a general rebellion during the Russo-Ttirkish conUict in 18o4,the result
of which was then impossil)le to foresee) no open war has for some time
existed between them, a single-handed l)order warfare has long been car-
ried on with the Cossacks that on all sides surround and vatch them.

The province of Caucasus is bounded on the north by the governments
of the Don Cossacks and Astrakhan, on the cast by the Caspian sea, ou
the south by Circassia, and on the west by Circassia and tlie sea of Azov.
Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is almut three hundred and
eighty miles, and its greatest breadth from nortli to south is one hundred
and seventy miles, comprising an area of forty thousand square miles.

Tliis province is traversed from north to south, near its centre, by a low
ramilicalion of tiie Caucasus mountains; but, with this exception, the sur-
face is flat, coiisisting generally of an alluvion, which toward the cast ap-
pears to bo of very recent formation. It is not traversed by any river of
importance (the Kouma, since the lower part of its course was lost in the
sand, no longer deserves the name), but is watered on part of its northern
frontier by the Manytch, and on the southern by the Kouban and the Terek.

The climate is in general very mild, and there arc some fertile tracts,
particularly in the neighborhood of the Terek, but a great part of the allu-
vial Hats is covered with salt pools and marshes, which make the soil whero
they prevail altogether unlit for cultivation. The injury is, iu some moaiy-

314

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

urc, compensated by the largo quantities of excellent salt wliicli is obtained
from them. Some of tlio steppes yield tolerable pasture, on which numer-
ous herds of cattle are reared.

The chief products of the soil arc grain, including Indian corn, and wine.
The mulberry thrives well, and considerable attention has recently been
paid to the rearing of silkworms. Kecs also are carefully attended to,
and honey and wax form a considerable article of cxjmrt.

Owing to tlic neighborhood of tlic warlike moiuitaineers of the Caucasus,
a considoral)le army is always maintained witliin the province, and most
of its towns are fortified. The population is composed of a great variety
of half-savage tribes — Cossacks, Tartars, Circassians, Ac, witli some Rus-
sians and Armenians.

Stavropol, the new capital of the province, is a neat, fortified town, situ-
ated near the Kouban. Choorghiovsk, or Geon^-ievsk, iho old capital, and
still tlic residence of tlie governor-general of Caucasus, is a small town,
situated on a steep height near the left, i)ank of the Kouma, or Podkoumka,
uinety miles southeast of Stavropol. It is regularly built, and contains a
government-house, one Greek an<l one Aiincnian church, six hospitals
(mainly for the use of the army), a lazarcllo, and several granaries. The
iidiabitants are composed prineipally of Cossacks of the Volga, who are
engaged in agricultural pursuits, and Russians and Armenians. The envi-
rons are picturesque, and the air pure. The population is al>out three
thousand.

Konstantinogorsk, twenty miles southwest of Cheorghievsk, is celebrated
for its sulphur-baths; and at Kislavodsky there is acid-water. Karass, a
neat town situated between the two last-named places, at the foot of the
Beseh Dagli (five mountains, four thousand three hundred feet high), is
remarkable for a colony ol' (lermans and Scotch. Mozdok is a commercial
town, and one of the principal military stations on the line of the Terek.
It was built in 1703, under Catherine II.

Kizliar is situated on the left bank of the Terek, fifty miles above ita
month. It is dull and sombre: a few of the Iiouses are of brick, but tho
greater part are of wood. The situation being low, and exposed to inun-
dations, is very unhealthy. The inhabitants are chieliy employed in agri-
culture. Kizliar, being an entrepot for the traffic between Astrakhan and
Persia, carries on a j)rosperous trade, which is wiiolly in the hands of tho
Armenians. The exports are wine, brandy, oil of sesame, cotton and silk
stufls. The popL-Iation, exclusive of the garrison, is about ten thousand.

The triangular portion of the Caucasian country bounded by tho river
Terek on the north, the Caspian on the east, the summits of the Caucasus
on the southwest, and Circassia on the northwest, is generally known by
the name of Daghestan, a name derived from the Tartar Tagh start, sig-
nifying a mountainous country. It lies between the fortieth and forty-third
degrees of aorth latitude, and the forty-sixth and forty-uiuth degrees of

THE CAUCASIAN PRrVTNCEa — DAOnESTAV.

cast longitiiJc. Its greatest length is about two hundred ""Ucs, and its
liroiidth forty, comprising about nine tliousand throe hundred larc miles.
This is exclusive of the western portion, called Leghislan, or LesgUiay
which is estimated to contain six or seven thousand square miles.

Dugljcstan consists partly of plains, but, as its name implies, chiefly of
mountains, offsets from the Caucasus, which separate deep valleys as they
traverse the province southeast, toward the plains lying along tl»e Caspian
sea. They arc chiefly of limestone. In the southern parts of tlie provinco
arc numerous bituminous springs, some of which arc worked, and afford,
in addition ia petroleum, an inexhaustible supply of black and white naph-
tha, while others have for ages emitted a burning stream, known by tho
name of Indian fire. (For a description of similar springs, see Shirvan,
the adjoining Trans-Caucasian province.)

Notwithstanding tho generally mountainous character of Daghestan, it
comprises many valleys and level tracts of great fertility. Its climate is
various : on the plains it is warm and unwholesome ; on the slopes of tho
mountains it is more temperate and healthy ; but still more decidedly so
on the higher elevations. Agriculture is carefully attended to, and good
crops of grain are produced; also silk, cotton, madder, flax, saffron, and
tobacco. Tlie vegotal)los and domestic animals are nearly the same with
those of Europe. Tlie wild animals are tigers, panthers, buffaloes, and
camels, the latter also l)eing domesticated.

The population of the lowlands is composed of a mongrel race of Per-
sian, Arabian, Syriac, Turkish, and Tartar origin, mixed with tho original
Caucasians. They are of middle size, strong, and active. The mountains
arc inhabited by a variety of Caucasian tribes : among tho most prominent
are tlie Insgushes, tho Lesghians, the Kists, tho Kumiks, and, above all,
tho T^chctschenzes. The mountaineers are generally tall and well formed.
They are bravo and hospkable ; but revengeful, given to falscliood, theft,
and intrigue, and noisy and boisterous in their convivialities. The people
generally are careful agriculturists and industrious fishermen, taking stur-
geon and turtle in such quantities as to form a considerable export trado
to Persia and Russia. The religion is chiefly Mohammedan, and their lan-
guage is composed of dialects of tho Tartar tongue, mixed with Armenian,
Persian, Turkish, and Hebrew. Tho principal towns aro Derbcnt, Tarki,
Nizabad, and Kouba.

Derbeut is an ancient but decayed town on tho Caspian, and formed for
many centuries the key of tho Persian empire in this quarter. It is sur-
rounded by strong walls, built of large stones ; and on the summit of tho
hill, on the declivity of which tho city stands, there is a fort or citadel, of
a triangular figure. The streets are very narrow, and tho houses mostly
of one story, with a terraced roof. Largo quantities of saffron are grown
in tho vicinity, and the inhabitants prepare rose-water and opium ; but the
trade of tho place is small. Its population, composed chiefly of Georgians,
Armenians, and Jews, is about twelve thousand. In tho neighborhood is

m ^ -

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816

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

a famous tomb, said to be tliat of forty Saracen heroes, wlio were killed in
batJlc against the " iiifidels," wlien Dcrlieiit was taltcn by the califs. The
Moiiaiiiniodati Lcsgliians still iiiukc pilgiiiiiagcs to it. Kouba, fifty miles
southwest of Dcrbeiit, is a coiiMidciablo town ; and at IJcrcikloi, twenty miles
northwest, resides the khan of the Kaitaks, who bears the title of ouzmci,
and exercises a sort of sovoreignty over (he Aknshas and the Kubashas.

Tiie Tschetschonzes and licsgliians inhaljit the northwestern portion of
Daghestan, bordering on Circassia; and the latter arc said to l»c the most
predatory and ferocious of all the Caucasian nations. They arc mostly
Mohammedans, but a few vestiges of Christianity may be traced among
them. Tliey are divided into numerous tribes, whom the nature of their
country kcejis so isolated, that no such thing as a general confederacy or
national union can be maintained among them. Their language has no
analogy with any known tongue except that of the Samoides, of northern
Siberia, to which it bears a distant resemblance: it is divided into numor-
ous dialects, which have been reduced to eight classes, and the pe( pic
using them comprise so nmny small states. The first of th(>se is tlie Avaf,
which includes the Avars and fourteen other tribes resembling them. The
Avars are believed to be the renuiins of (lie Avars, or Huns, who took ref-
uge in tliis part of the Caucasus, and are prol)ably of the same primitive
.stock with the Magyars of Hungary. The other chief trihes of Lesghians
arc the Aknshas, the Kubashas, and the Kafii-Kiuniks. The Akushas dwell
on the Koisou, and form a rejjublic, composed of about thirty villages. The
Kubashas also live near the Koisou, in a large town oi the same name,
and eight dependent villages. They are a peaceful tribe^ and are known
throughout the East as tlie Zer-kherans, or makera of coats-of-mail : they
manufacture splendid armor, and fine cloth or shawls, which they exchange
for cattle and produce. The Kasi-Kumiks dwell on a branch of the same
river, and are governed by a khan, whoso authority extends over a hundred
villages. He resides at Chahar, and can raise six thousand men. Thoy
are zealous Mohammedans, and fiercely opi)osed to the Russians.

The Lesghians had long been the terror of surrounding nations ; but, in
1742, they were driven by the arms of Nadir Shah to seek protection from
Russia, and swear allegiance to the czar. It was during this war, that the
Bhah (having retaken the Trans-Caucasian provinces wrested from Persia
by Peter the Great) attempted with forty thousand men to penetrate the
defiles of the Caucasus, but was defeated at the pass of Dariel,the dangers
of which passage in ancient times gave origin to the Persian proverb —
" When the king is too happy, let him enter Dariel !"

Daghestan is the seat of the Caucasian war waged by Shamyl and his
followers, the Lesghians, the Tschetschenzes, and other tribes of the eastern
section of the Caucasian range. This fierce conflict between the mountain-
eers of Daghestan with the Russians began about the commencement of tlie
present century, on the absorption of this territory, with Georgia, by the
Russian empire. It was formerly interrupted from time to time, but has

■

TIIR CAUCASIAN mOVINCES — DAOHESTAN.

819

now rngod witliont rc!«pito for soinc twcnty-fivo years. On iho Russian
Bido, Ziziiin«»ir, ii prince of f3eorji;iiin origin, was one of tiic first wlio, al»out
forty yours apo, struek tlie Tschetsclicn'/.os witii awe. One of liis most ablo
successors was YorniolofT, ccjually rcspoctod and dreaded I»y tlie Caucasian
tribes. ll>> was recently living in Moscow, more tlian eighty years old,
and in a kiml of silent disgrace witli the emperor. I'askiewitch replaced
YerniololV for a few years, and in 18:52 was followed liy IJaron Rosen, to
wliose administration are ascribed the disasterd sullerod by Russia from
W\2 to is;ui.

About tlie year 1823, a sect of religious enthusiasts sprang up aniong tho
vh'nins or Moha/nmedan clergy of the Caucasus. Sheik-Mansour wns tho
forcrunniT of liiis sect. Nearly thirty years after his death, Khasi-Mollah
or Kliiisi-Mdhammed, standing upon the new creed, raised the standard of
rcdigiotis I'anaticism for the defence of the national independence. Tho
principal feature of this new theology is the lielief in a certain perfectibility
of the w(irii-(»iit forms of Islamism. Khasi-Mollah claimed to l)c directly
inspired and advised l>y fJod ; and the revelations thus received were com-
niuniealed iiy him to his immediate companions, called nturidcs or miirshi-
des, who formed a warlike priesthood, and a kind of body-guard for tho
prophet. He was soon surrountled l»y numerous believers from all parts of
l)aghc.«<tiin, and especially from among the Lesghians and Tschetschenzes.
Khasi-Mollah warred for two years against the Russians, but finallv,at tho
storm of the village of Himry, in \HV,'2, he met tlie death of a hero and of
a prophet, lighting to the last, and, even after ho had fallen, exciting his
companions by inspiring songs. All the miirulcs fell with him on the battle-
field. Among them was a young nam named Shamyl : struck by two balls,
and pierced by a bayonet, he lay there, bathed in his blood, among tho
corpses of his companions.

The hi.-^tory of Sliamyl's escape after this battle is still unknown. A few
months fn»m the catastrophe of Himry, he was the first miiridc near tho
new liiiaii, named Hamsad Hey, who was assassinated by some of his rivals
In 1834. Sliamyl succeeded him, raised the standard of Khasi-Mollah, and
the war of extermination began. He was born in 171>7. at the same villago
of Himry, and at the age of thirty-seven became the chief of the Tschets-
chenzes. In person lie is of medium size, with light hair ; his eyes, covered
by long and bushy brows, are full of lire ; his beard, though white, does not
give him the appearance of age. He is very al)steniious, eats little, drinks
water, and sleeps but a few hours. For a long time the fastness of Akulcho
was his residence, whence he darted upon the foe. " Mohammed was tho
first, Shaiiiyl is the second prophet of Allah I" is the war-cry of Daghestan.

In 1839, the Russian general Grabbe attacked Shamyl in his retreat of
Akulcho. The fortress was dismantled by heavy artillery, but the Tschcta-
chcnzcs did not suffer at all. Sheltered in vaults and crevices, they rushed
out to fire their d«.adly rillcs, and then disappeared. Several assaults wore
thus repulsed by them ; but finally the rocks were mined, and at tho fotu'th

320

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

assault, after horrible Woodshed, the Russians took tho fortress, on the
22d of Aupist. But Shaniyl was not to bo found among tho dead. With
a few mvrides ho liad retreated to tlic caverns of tho mountain. There
they constructed a kind of raft, wliieh they threw into the stream at tho
foot of the rocks. They sprang on this floating conveyance, while they
were firod at from botli banks of tlic river. All perished but one, who
leaped into the current, reached a sure spot, and disappeared in the nu>nnt-
ains. This was Shannl. After this defeat, lie visited the western tribes
of the Caucasus, and preached among them the holy war against Russia,
but without success. On his return he selected a new abode in the fortress
of Dargo, situated in an almost imiiregnable position, ftrabbc attacked
him there in 1842. When the Russian army had completely entered tho
primitive forests and defiles around Dargo, it was surrounded by the war-
riors of Shaniyl. and more than half of it destroyed. This was the most
terrible defeat sustained by Russia during this whole i)rotracted contest.

The war continued to be disastrous for the imperial trooi)S. Tho com-
manders were changed again and again, and hnally Prince Woronzow waa
sent there with unlimited powers. At that moment the authority of Shamyl
was absolute and extensive. He ruled the Lesghiaiis (including the Avars),
the Tschetschenzcs, the Kists, and the Kuniiks. Shamyl, not only a war-
rior. I)ut a legislator, had established over the unruly princes of these tribes
a kind of theocratic moimrchy ; he had united tribes hitherto hostile to
each othiM*, organized a numerous military force, and in 184o commanded
alK)ve five tliousan<l of the best cavalry in the world. His body-giuird was
tl'.en a thousand nien. When Woronzow took the command of the Russian
army, liis first idea was to avenge the defeat sustained at Dargo. He cut
roads through the forests, and iudiM'd felled the trees entirely for miles of
country. Heroic l\>als on l)oth sides signalized this campaign ; but [)argo
wns finally taken and destroyed in the course of the year 184"). In 184G,
SluMuyl descended with nearly twenty thousand horse upon the western
side of the Caucasus, invaded the lval)ardians, and, not being al)le to i)ring
them to his side, pilhiged the coinitry, and returned to Daghestan without
the Russians overtaking him.

F^ttni that time, Woronzow gradually proceeded to enclose Shaujyl in
an iron circle, and the area of his activity was narrowed more anil more.
From time to time, he has been wont to rush from his retreat upon tho
enemy, and to inllict on him the severest blows, but has not l)een able to
carry on the war on a large scale. A visionary priest, an eulhusiastie
prophet, a warrior and a legislator, for a moment it seemed his destiny to
become the sovereign of the Caucasus, and to secure his country again.«t tho
cncroachinents of Russia. More recently this has appeared imjiossililo,
nn<l it renianis to ha seen whether it can be revived by the closing of tlio
Turkish war.

•SI

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Pi.

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i^tj

RIBEBIA — OEXEHaL FEATtTRES.

89<t

CHAPTER XI.

SIBERIA, OR ASIATIC RUSSIA.

SIBERIA, or Asiatic Russia, comprises all the north of Asia, extend-
ing from the Arctic ocean on the north to the Altai chain of mount-
ains on the south, and from the Ural nionntains on the west to the
Pacific ocean on the east. Bchring's strait on the northeast divides it
from the continent of North America. Its length ''••om west to east can
not be less than four thousand miles, and its breadth from north to south
varies from one to two thousand miles, the whole comjjrising an area of
about three millions, eight hundred and twenty thousand square miles.

This immense territory has nuicli less diversity of surface than might bo
presumed from its extent. Assuming tlie meridian of one hundred aud five
degrees as a line of demarcation, two regions will be formed — a western
aud an eastern — exhibiting a very marked dillercnce in the configuration
of their surface. Both regions have their greatest altitude in the south,
and may be considered as a vast inclined j»laue, sloping gradually north to
the Arctic ocean : but the eastern region is traversed in different directions
by several mountain-chains ; whereas the western region, with tiie excei>
tion of the chain of the Ural on the western and that of the Altai on the
southern frontiers, forms a vast plain, almost unbroken by any greater
heiglits than a few hills and the banks of the rivers which wind across it.
This plain, toward the south, has a height of about two thousand feet above
the sea, b'-.t toward the north is so near its level as often to become exten-
sively inundated.

For convenience of description, this plain has been arranged, according
to its productive powers, in four divisions — the steppe or pastoral, the
agricultural, the woody, and the moorland or tundra. The steppe, occu-
pyiug the moat elevated part of the plain, extends from the southern fron-
tiers north to latitude fifty-five degrees ; and from the western frontiers,
within these limits, cast to the banks of the Irtysch. The greater part of
it consists of what is called the steppe of Ishim, and has a bare and almost
sterile surface, often incrusted with salt, but also occasionally covered with
a scanty vegetation, and sometimes even enlivened by tracts of green pas-
ture, over which the nomadic tribes roam with their flocks and herds.

The agricultural division extends north to latitude sixty degrees, though
its exact limits can not be properly defined by a parallel of latitude, since

824

ILLUSTUATED DESCRIPTION OF nUSSlA.

tlicy more strictly form a waving lino cncroacliing or cncroaolicd tipon liy
the other divisions, according as tlie conligiiration of the snrfaco and prcp-
ertics of tlic soil are favorable or Jinfavoralde to agricidlnral operation?.
In many partr, whore it borders on the steppe, it has much of tlio same
character, and has oidy occasional tracts which have been or can be advan-
tageously brought under the plough ; and in many other parts, as the same
vegetative powers which may Ite employed in growing grain naturally grow
trees, pr^neval forests are often found ; but still the term (li^n'rufftinil is
properly applied to it, as it is only within its limits that agrieidture is suc-
ccssl'ully prosecuted on an t^xtensive scale, and occupies a consideralde
proportion of the inhabitants. The divisicm thus named has an extent of
about two hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and, under favoral)le
circumstances, might furnish sultsistenee to a very large population ; but,
as yet, it is only the more fertile alluvial tracts adjacent to the riveis tliat
have been brought under anything like r»*gular culture. AVithin this divis-
ion, though not jtroperly belonging to it, is the sfrp/if of Bdraha, situated
lictween the Irtysch and the 01)i. Tiie southern portion greatly resembles
the .steppe of Ishim, though on the whole it is not so arid, and has a more
abundant vegetation. The northern jMirtidU, tliough Hat and swampy, is
covered with nearly continuous forests of liirch and tir, haunted by numer-
ous wild animals, including the beaver.

This portion of the Haraba or Ihtnihinza steppe may therefore be con-
sidered as the eomruencement of the wooded division, wliieh extends north
to latitude sixty-tour degrees, and in ]>arts to sixty-six, though in the
higher latitude the trees are seldom of vtM-y vigorous growth. The whole
of this division is covered witli vast forests of l)irc!i and ditVerent species
of fir and pine. It is not at all adapted to agriculture, but barley and rye
are occasionally cidtivated. Wild animals are very numerous, and many
valuable furs are obtained.

The last division is that of the moorland or tumirn, ccmsisting of a low,
monotonous Hat, covered with moss, and nearly destitute of trees. It ex-
tends along the shores of the Arctic ocean, and has so rigorous a climate,
that even in summer ice is found a ^*^\\ inches below the surface. Here
the reindeer exists in vast herds, l)oth wild and d(»m"sticated ; white bears
and foxes are al.-o numerous, and furnish valuable furs ; and the coasts and
mouths of the rivers are frequented by immense shoahs of fish and flocks
of fowl. One remarkalile feature in the western part of the tutuira is an
isolated n.:'untain-mass which rises with steep sides to the north of 01)-
dorsk, about latitude sixty-six degrees, and forms a kind of range divided
into five summits, the loftiest of which attains the height of about five
thousand feet.

Siberia to the cast of longitude one hundred and five degrees, forming
nearly one half of the whole territory, has a much more diversified surface
than the western region ; and, owing partly to its general ruggedness and
elevation, and partly to the greater severity of its climate, has much less

r .

SIBERIA — GENERAL FEATURES.

325

land adapted for agricultural purposes. The sea of Okhotsk has a bold
and rocky shore, and tlic country behind rises with a steep ascent till a
mountain-range is formed, wilii a general altitude of nearly three thousand
feet above sea-level. This range, under the name of the Stanovoy mount-
ains, runs nearly parallel with the coast, till it reaches the frontiers of
China, where it takes the name of the Jablonnoi mountains, and proceed-
ing west, continues for a long distance to form the boundary between the
two empires. It then takes the name of the mountains of Daouria, and
throws out numerous ramifications, which, continuing westward, throw
their arms round Lake IJaikal, and cover almost all the southern part of
the government of Irkoutsk. Other ramifications, proceeding northward,
form the water-sheds of the numerous affluents of the right bank of the
Lena. On both sides of this river the surface continues elevated, and
forms a table-land, tlie interior of which is still very imperfectly known.

The best portions of Ea.^tern Siberia occur in the south of the govern-
ment of Irkoutsk, where, in tlie lower and more open valleys in the vicinity
of Lake Baikal, cultivation has been attempted with success, and the oak
and hazel, unknown in other parts of Siberia, are found growing freely.
In ilmost tlie whole of the same government, where the configuration of
the surface does not present invinciljle obstacles, all the grains of Europe
are grown, and even the mountains and Iiills are covered during the greater
part of the year with good pasture. Still (iirther north, in the government
of Yakoutsk, as far as the town of the same name, grain is cultivated in
patches in the upper vale of tiie Lena, though the far greater part of it is
covered witli fir and pine, with so nuicli intervening space between the
trees, that a good deal of herbage springs up, and helps to nout-ish the
numerous herds of cattle kept by the Yakutes, and grazed chietly on an
immeuse tract of low land which e.v tends from the Lena eastward to the
Aldan.

The northern part of Eastern Siberia consists of two distinct portions —
the one extending from longitude one hundred and five degrees east to the
lower valley of the Lena, and the other from that valley eastward to Beh-
ring's sea. The former portion is very imperfectly known ; but, from the
modes of life pursued by the Yakutes, who have taken possession of it, it
is presumed that it coi.sists chiefly of pasture-ground well adapted for the
rearing of cattle, or of moorland wastes, on which no other animal than
the reindeer is able to subsist in numerous herds. The latter portion, as
far as the Kolima, is traversed from north to south by chains of low hills,
separated from each other by wide valleys or open plains, and generally
overgrown with stunted larch and birch. In these valleys and plains are
numerous lakes, generally well supplied with fish, and bordered by low
banks, on which a rich grassy sward is often seen. Another remarkable
feature in this locality is the number of albuti/, or dry lakes, consisting of
a ki'id of wide basins, so far below the general level of the surface as to
havtj become filled with water when the rivers overflowed their banks, and

826

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

yet so shallow that the clefts produced l»y the wintcr-fropt form natural
drains, through which the water escapes, and leaves the lakes almost dry.
The alluvial bottom, owing to the richness of the soil, immediately on the
arrival of summer, Jiecoines clothed with the fmest turf. "When the drain-
age is less comj)lete, extensive morasses are formed, covered only with
moss or stunted larches, and so destitute of jjroper pasture, that the dis-
tricts in which they jirevail are ahnost uninhabited. To the east of the
Kolima, brancl-.es from the Stanovoy mountains stretch northward, and
form a series of ranges which freipientiy rise from two to three thousand
feet. Some of these penetrate to the noithern coast, and are seen forming
precipitous clifls at .'^wialoi Xoss, Cape North, and other headlands. Other
ramilications from the Stitnovoy jtursue an opposite course, and traverse
the rennukal)le j)eninsula of Kamtschatka ahnost centrally to its southern
extremity.

The races and tribes scattered over .^^iberia are so numerous, tliat little
more can be done here than to give the names of the more important. At
least two thirds of the ^ hole population is Russian, and consists either of
voluntary immigrants, who have found it their interest to settle in the
country, or of exiles and tiieir descendants. In regard to the exiles, Sibe-
ria is merely a penal settlement ; and hence that portion of the population,
which, as coming from Europe, ought to be the most civilized, is not likidy
to be the most exemplary. In those cases where the exile lias been awarded
for ]iolitical causes merely, the individuals may be more unfortunate than
vicious ; but when it is the penalty of ordinary crimes, the imlividuals Ijcing
convicts in the usual sense of the term, must taint society in the same way
as in Van Diemen's liand and Australia.

A more unsophisticated, and fai' more interesting population, is furnished
by the indigenous tril)es. Beginning at the Ural niouutains, and proceed-
ing eastward, we find the Samoyedes, or SamoUles, in tiie northwest. Im-
mediately south of these the ().-tiaks occupy both sides of the Olii, up to
the confluence of the Irtysch, the northern part of the steppe of i>araba,
and the whole of tlie woody legion eastward to the banks of the Yenisei.
They live Ity fishing and hunting, and, though their physical structure is
by no means roitust, they display both great dextt.'rity and courage in at-
tacking the larger and fiercer animals, of both the land and water. Some
of them have eml)raced Oliristianity, but the great nnijority are pagans, and
continue addicted to S/taiiiiniism.

In the south, among the Altai moinitains, the Calmucks predominate,
but have laid aside a number of the usual peculiarities of their race. They
subsist chicHy on th" produce of their horses, catlh', and sheep, and culti-
vate a little grain and tobacco. They liave some skill in mechanical arts,
particularly in the working of iron, and manufacture their own gunjtowder.
Though not iJiuUlhists, they are generally addicted toother forms of super-
stition.

Among tl.c eastern slcpes of the Altai are several Turkish tribes, known

SIBERIA — INHABITANTS — HISTORY.

82T

by the names of Bcruisscs, Bcltires, Sagai, and Katscliinzes. The last
extend eastward to tbo banks of the Yenisei.

The Buriats, the most nmneroiu^ of all the Siberian tribes, dwell chiefly
on both sides of Lake Baikal, and eatstward as far as the Onon. They aro
of Mongol origin, and arc closely allied to the natives of the northern jtov-
incus of Ciiina, in both language and customs.

The Tungusi ( Tunguzes, or Toongooscs) arc the most widely dispersed
of all the native tribes. They arc found along the shores of the Arctic
ocean, from longitude one hundred and ten to one hundred and seventy
degrees cast ; along tlie banks of the Yenisei as far south as the mouth of
the Ui)pcr Tongouskai ; and along the sea of Okhotsk as far as the town
of that name ; and thence southwest to the frontiers of China, in Daouria,
and to the north of Lake Baikal. Parts of these extensive tracts they
occupy exclusively, but others they hold in common with the Yakutes and
some minor tribes. They are considered the best formed of the native
Siberians, are very expert horsemen, live chiefly by hunting, possess such
skill in the working of iron as enables them to prepare their own firearms,
and are generally addicted to Shamanism. Among their great amusements
are cards and cliess. For the latter they carve chessmen very elaborately
out of the mammoth's teeth.

The Yiikutt's, as already mentioned, live intermingled with the Tungusi,
and confine themselves almost wholly to the rearing of horses and cattle,
and the j)rcparation of dairy-jjroduce from them. The herds of many of
them amount to several thousand head. They have made considerable
progress in civilization, ami pay some attention to the education of their
chiUlren. Tiioy are of Tartar origin, and not a few of them are nominal
converts to Christianity, though the nmjority still adhere to Shamanism.

The Tchouktchis occupy the peninsula formed in the northeast of Sibe-
ria, by the Arctic ocean on the north and tlie sea of Okhotsk on the south.
They are very Jealous of their independence, and can scarcely be said to
be nominally subject to Russia. Their language proves them to have a
common origin with the Esquimaux. They consist of two distinct tribes,
the oi'C sedentary and the other nomadic. The former, inhabiting the sea-
shore, subsist by fishing, in which they show great courage and dexterity,
and, tliough not much given to hunting, kill common and white bears, and
jwlar ;oxc3 ; the latter live intermingled with the Koriaks, and occupy the
iiiierior, where they feed large herds of reindeer, and subsist almost entirely
on their produce.

Sil)eria appears to have been partly conquered by Zinghis Khan and his
successors, but did not become known to Europe till the year 1580, when
a Cossack, called Yermak Timofeyew, who had long robbed the vessels
which navigated the Volga, finding himself hotly pressed by the czar of
Moscow crossed over into Asia with his accomplices. Their number suf-
ficed to form a small army, and their courage soon enabled them to acquire
extensive settlements. These Yermak oflered to the czar, on condition of

■i I

• J— c

ILLUSTllATED DESCUIPTION OF RUSSIA.

ol'taiiiiiig i»anlon. Tho oflor was acccpteil, niul thus Russia for tlic first
tinio ulitaiiK'il a footing in A>ia. The territories thuH conciuereil belonged
to the Tartar i)riuee Kiit.-^lmin Khan, and ineludcd his re.sidoneo, wiiieh,
•jailed liy the natives Is/ar, and by the Cossacks Sibir, has given name to
the whole country.

The eon(iuests of Yerniak continued eastward, and, though interrnptcd
for a lime by his deatli in loH4, were gradually extended, till the whole
country west of the Ol»i was snbjeeted to the czar. In lti04, the town of
Tonit^k was founded, and became a centre from which new exjjeditions
were fitted out and new conquests made. Private adventurers, instigated
chiefly iiy the hope of plunder, proceeded in all directions to the southward,
where, not without serious reverses, they succeeded in expelling tho Kir-
ghiz; anil to the eastward, where they entered the basin of the Lena, sul)-
dued the Yakutes, and finally, after passing the Aldan mountains, reached
the sea of Okhotsk. In the neighliorliood of Lake I'aikal a formidable
resistance was made by the JJuriats, but their subjugation was finally com-
pleted in lt)r)8. The town of Nertcliinsk, which has since liecome so cele-
brated for its mines, w as then founded, and, two years after, that of Irkoutsk.

A further extension of conquests to the south brought the Rnsso-Cossack
adventurers into collision with the Chinese ; and both governments taking
part in tlie (inarrel, a wai, threatening the existence of one or other of the
empires, became imminent. It was, however, prevented, partly by tho in-
teivention of the Jesuits resident at Pekin, and a treaty in 1G8D definitively
fixed the boundaries of the two empires. A second treaty, in 1727, con-
firming the former, regulated the commercial intercourse, and confined it
to the two localities of Kiakhta and Mai-matshin.

Never has so large a territory been acquired at so little cxi>ense. Rua-
sia, almost without any expenditure of her own means, and chiefiy by tho
aid of a I'aw Cossack adventurers, in little more than a century more than
doubled her area. Tiie greater part of it, indeed, is a frozen, inhospitable
region, which must always remain comparatively worthless ; but vast tracts
enjoy a climate and j)osscss a soil well adapted for agriculture, and seem
destined, whenever the tribes roaming over them can bo induced to scttlo
down to a sedentary life, to become the abodes of u dense population, wno,
in addition to the resources of paituro and agriculture, will find almost
inexhaustible wealth in mines and fisheries.

Silicria is divided, as reniaiked in a previous chapter, into the two great
governments of Westkrn and Eastern Sibert ». : the former comprising the
provinces of TonoLSK, Tomsk, and Yeniseisk ; and the latter those of la-
KOUTSK, Yakoutsk, OKHOTSK, and Kamtschatka.

ToHoLSK, the westernmost government of Western Siberia, comprises a
large portion of the basin of the great river OI)i, or tho country between
the fiftieth and seventy-third degrees of north latitude, and the sixtieth and
eightieth degrees of cast longitude : having on tho east the government ot

WE8TEUN SIBERIA — TOBOLSK,

829

A KiBOHis MstcHAirr m hu Tint.

Yoniscisk ; on tho south, Tomsk, and the territory of the Kirgliiz ; on tho
west, tlie goveniinonts of Oienlturg, Perm, and Archangel ; and on t)io
north, the sea of Kara, gulf of Obi, &c. Its area is about seven hundred
thousand S((uare miles.

Tile surface of this vast province includes th) four divisions into which,
according to its productive powers, as described a few pages back, tho
plain of Western Siberia is divided. Tiie tundra, or northern portion, is
the most sterile inuiginable, consisting of all but boundless moors and
morasses, interspersed here and there with some stunted shrubs, and occu-
pied by only a few Ostiak tribes, who subsist chiefly by fishing, and tho
cliaso of fur-beariiig animals. Sucli is the severity of the clinmte, that this
portion is usually covered with ice and snow for about nine months of tho
year; and, during the otlier months, ice is always found at a little distance
below the surface.

The agricultural portion includes extensive tracts watered by the Irtyseh,
a part of the Ishim, and the Tobol. Though not generally fertile, this dis-
trict comprises some very productive tracts, and it has a considerable num-
ber of towns, tliough r-nv of them are of any great size. Even in this
part of the government, the climate is very severe ; for, though the summer
lioats bo sometimes oppressive, they are but of short duration, and tho
winters aro long and excessively cold. Rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat,
are the principal crops.

Iron and copper are extensively raised in various parts of the Ural chain,
and gold and silver aro produced both there and in the Altai. Soap and
tallow works, tanneries, mat-manufactories, &c., are found in different
parts : but tho commerce of the government is of more importance than its
manufacturing industry. Except the clergy, and persons in tho govern-
ment employment, all the inhabitants aro more or less engaged in traffic,
exchanging their sablo and other furs, cattle, cassia, fresh and dried fish,

ti '

830

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

and game, wifli the Kiipsian traders for grain, flour, hardware, &c. Tho
merchants of Tobolsk, Tounien, and the principal towns in the south and
M'cst, send every sunnnor boats laden witli flour and other provisions, l»y
■way of the Irtyseh and Obi, to T^erczov and other small towns in tho nortii,
which return with cargoes of fis^h, and witli valuable furs, pi-ocurcd from
the Ostialis and other tribes. These furs arc afterward partly sent, with
snap, tallow, and hides, 'o tho fair at Xijnei-Novgorod ; partly to the Kir-
phiz, to 1)0 bartered for horses, eattlo, and cotton-goods obtained through
Bokhara: and jiartly to Kiaklita, on the Chinese frontier, where they are
exchanged for tea, silk-falu-ics, and other Chinese products. The govern-
ment, in common with the rest of .'Liberia, lies under the greatest disadvan-
tages with respect to wafer-conununicntion : the frozen shores of its northern
coast are iMacccssil)lc for the purposes of trade ; and its rivers, although
equal in magnitude to any belonging to the Asiatic continent, are covered
with ice during the greater portion of the year. The most common mode
of travelling, as likewise of conveying goods, throughout a great |>ortion
of the government, is, as in the northern part of Europe, in sledges drawn
by dogs or reindeer.

Mr. Bell and Captain Cochrane agree in representing tho Tartar villages
in the agricnluiral part of the government as neat, clean, and comfortable.
Their white, plastered cliinmeys and ovens reminded the latter of his own
country (Scotland). The houses consist in general of one or two rooms.
Near the hearth, is an iron kettle, ami at one end of the aj)artment a bench
covered witli ma^s or skins : on this all the family sit by day, and sleep by
night. The walls are of wood and moss — a layer of moss between every
two beams. A S(piare hole is cut out for a window, and, to supply tho
want of glass, a piece of ice is often i)ut in ; two or three pieces will last
the whole winter. They use no stoves, and have neither chairs nor stools.
The furniture consists of a few earthenware utensils, and a set of tca-tablo
appendages. The women never eat nor drink till the men have done, and
then seldom in their presence.

Owing to the thinness of the population, and the immense distances be-
tween the dilTerent towns, education is very little difi'used, and l)esides tho
schools in the capital, there are, perhaps, hardly a dozen in tho rest of the
government. Except Tobolsk, the capital, there are no towns of note.

The city of Tobolsk, the capital of Western Siberia, and of the govern-
ment of its own name (and, indeed, of the whole of northern Asia), is sit-
uated on the Irtysch, close to its junction with tho Tobol. The town
proper is l)nilt j)rincipally on tho flat summit of a hill commanding an ex-
tensive view, and is surrounded by a strong brick wall with square towers
and bastions. When approached from the west it has a remarkably flno
appearance, and it really co. tains some good and solid buildings — most
of the goveinment-offices, and the residences of the Russian and German
settlers, being within the' walls. Along the banks of the river are suburbs,
enclosed by a ditch and palisade, and inhabited mostly by Tartars. The

^^mm

II-

•8

WRHTKRN aFIlKniA — TOMSK.

888

BtrciMs, wliicli cross pncli other iit ri^rlit niitrlc."!, ixro pononilly pnvod with
Wood. Amoiijj; ilH piililic ('(liliccs, thf iiio.st rrniiirkalilc arc, tho ciithiMlral,
ill Iht! llyzaiitiiit' style of architci'tiiii', with live! nipohis, (he arclilii.shop'.s
and jrovcnior's piihieeM, a iiioniiMteiy, and n hirg'' hospital. It has uhuut
twenty eliiirehes, ehielly of wood, as are most of the hoUsieH.

The cliiiiJite in winter is very severe, so iiiiieh so as soiiietiiiies to freezo
iiieiciiry ; iiiitl, next to Vakoutsk, Toltolsk is one of the c(d(U'st ti>wiis in
Silieria: l»iit the dress and houses of the inhaliitants bein^: fitted to resist
its inlliieiii-e, it is not .''o disiigreenblo as niioht bo supposed, and, in other
respects, it is not nil unpleasant residence. Tho rivers fnrnish an ine.x-
liaustiltle supply of finli, and provisions, fur, and >rnni(< of all kinds, aro
cheap and aitnndaiit ; and simps, theatres, and places of piililic aiiiiisiMncnt,
arc numerous. IJeinij on tho great road from Russia to China, it is well
supplied with most Karopeiui and Chinese jxoods ; and French wines, Kiiu-
lisli porter, ami hooks of all kinds, are to l>c met with. I>(,i)ell says, " The
society of Tobolsk may fairly staml a comparison with that of some of tho
liest provincial towns in Russia." Amonir the inhal)itants aro many de-
scendants of the Swedish oflicers, ."cut thither after tin* battle of Toltava,
to whom Tolidlsk is mainly indeltted for its superior civilization.

This city, which was foiiiuled in ]'>Xl, is the resideiKc of i\w •••ovornor-
peiieial of Western Siberia. It has two ecclesia.-tical and several Lancas-
trian schools, and various charitaltle institutions. No convicts or male-
factors are siMit thither from Kiiropean Russia, although persons bani^^lu'd
to Siiteria for political olVences are smnetimes per:iiitte(l to resiile in To-
bolsk. The poiailatioii is from twenty to twenty-live thousand.

Tho government of ToM'<K lies principally between tho fiftieth and six
tictli degrees of noitti latitude, and the seventy-fifth and ninetieth degrees
of cast longitude. It has the government of Tolxtlsk on the west, that of
Yeniseisk on tho m« th and east, and the Altai range on tho south. Its
area is al»ont xhvw hundred and eighty thousand sijuare miles.

This province l»eloiigs to the pastoral and agricultural divisions of Sil)0-
ria, and in its general features closcdy resi-nililes the more southern j)arts of
the governments of Tobolsk and Yeniseisk. Large quantities of gold aro
obtained from tho various goltl-washings in this governmont. It has very
few manutactiiroB, but there aro extensive forges :it Kholyvan and Barnaul.
Since IHoH, Tomsk h.ts comprised a portion of th' ixoveriiment of Omsk, the
other part of tho latter government being includt 1 in that of Tobolsk.

Tomsk, tho capital of this governmont, is situated on the Tom, a tribu-
tary of tho Obi, six hundred and fd'ty miles east by south of Tol)olsk. It
has about two thousand houses, and from ten to twelve thousand inhabit-
ants. Here aro workhouses for exiles ; coarse cloth, leather, and soap
iiianufactorios ; barracks, pulilic magazines, military and other hospitals ;
an orphan-houso, a dispensary, &c.

There arc a number of handsome houses in Tomsk, but tlie town is irreg-

334

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

ularly built, except the part that occupies a hill overlooking the river Tom
and the country round. Next to Krasnoiarsk, Tomsk is said to be tho
cheapest and most plentiful spot in Siberia. Its principal buildings aro
the cathedral and another churcli, the tribunals, treasury (in which are
the magazines of furs collected as tribute from the various native tribes),
and two convents. The inhabitants carry on a brisk trade with the Cal-
mucks and Ostiaks, in cattle, furs, &c. ; and the town is an emporium for
.^jr- . distilled liquors and Chinese goods. It was founded in 1604.

The government of Yeniseisk lies to the cast of the governments of To-
bolsk and Tomsk, and on the west of the governments of Yakoutsk and
Irkoutsk, extending from the Altai mountains to the Arctic ocean. Its
area is nine hundred and forty-five thousand square miles.

This government includes almost every variety of climate, soil, and pro-

' ductions, peculiar to Siberia. Its southern inhabitants, like the patriarchs

of old, dwell in tents, and, with their flocks and herds, lead a wandering

-'^ life, changing from place to place as circumstances may direct, or Provi-

■'^ ' dence guide them. Those who reside in the centre have fixed residences,

and enter into all the pursuits of agriculture and traffic ; while the more

northern tribes are in a, state approximating to savage wildness, and evince

|} all the cunning and ferocity of their native wolves. Tiie destruction of

\§ the latter constitutes their chief occupation and support; and after thus

supplying themselves with clothing, the superfluous produce of their toil is

disposed of to the Russian merchant, chiefly in barter <br knives, tobacco,

beads, or such other necessaries or luxuries as their own country denies,

or savage taste directs.

This province is admirably adapted for commerce, the fine and majestic
river Yenisei running through its centre from south to north, and pouring
its voluminous waters (the accumulation of numberless tributary rivers)
into the Frozen ocean. Its horses and horned cattle are also more esteemed
than those of any otlicr part of Siberia.

Krasnoiarsk (from AVa5««t, " red," and ynr, " cliff"), the capital of
the aI)ove government, lies on a low tongue of land between the Yenisei
and Kacha, at their junction, in a plain of great beauty and fertility, two
hundred and ninety miles east by soutli of Tomsk, and in tho direct route
from Western Siberia to Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, &c. It is a place of consid-
erable trade. The principal street is wide and well levelled, and is inter-
sected at right angles by similar cross-streets, and in the middle of the
town are two handsome squares. Many of the houses arc built of brick,
though the most of them are of wood, painted outside with bright colors.
It has a cathedral and three other churches, and a synagogue ; spacious
public offices, the last generally of stone ; and a large public factory, or
workhouse, for the employment of the numerous artisan-convicts, in which
the tanning of leather, and the construction of droskies, sledges, and all
sorts of carriages, arc carried on. There are numerous Tartar graves in

EASTERN SIBERIA — IRKOUTSK.

3C5

the neighborhood, and a fine collection of the antiquities which have been
discovered is one of the most interesting sights of Krasnoiarsk. The dis
ti'ict of country subordinate to this town is the most productive in the
whole province for grain, cattle, horses, &c. Provisions are very plentiful
and cheap ; fish and game are also in abundance ; and the neighborhood
is famous for wild-goats, tlie Hesh of which is said to be equal to venison.
Krasnoiarsk within the last twenty-five years has risen considerably in im-
portance ; and it has now a brisk traffic in Chinese goods and agricultural
produce. Its population is about eight thousand. Some of the other more
important towns of the government are Yeniseisk, Suganskoi, Kanskoi,
Korgina, Tonka, &c.

The government of Irkoui"SK lies in the southern part of Siljcria, be-
tween the forty-ninth and sixty-third degrees of north latitude, and the
ninety-sixth and one hundred and twentieth degrees of east longitude. It
is bounded on the north and east by the government of Yakoutsk, from
which it is separated by the Lena and Vittim ; on the southeast and south
by the Chinese empire ; and on the west by the government of Yeniseisk.
Its length from east to west is about eleven hundred miles, and its breadth
about one thousand miles, comprising an area of one hundred and fifty
thousand square miles.

This territory is divided between three river-basins — the Amur, Amoor,oT
Saghalien, the .'smallest of the three, which drains the eastern portion, and
carries its waters through Mantchouria, in China, to the sea of Okhotsk ;
the Lena, in the north, which it drains in a great measure directly, and by
its tributary, the Vittim ; and the Yenisei, in the centre and west, receiving
its waters through the Angara, supj)lied by numerous small streams, but
more especially by Lake Baikal, which lies wholly within the government.
The last two basins belong to the Arctic ocean, and are separated from
that of the Amur by the Daouria mountains.

Tlie greater part of the government having a northern exposure, tlic cli-
mate is more severe than usual under the same latitude, and in winter
mercury often freezes. The sui.imer is of short duration, though very
w;irm ; the air generally clear and serene. A great part of the surface is
occupied by forests, which furnish excellent timber, and abound with all
kinds of game. Bears are numerous, many of whom, during the sevcro
winter of 1821, impelled by hunger, made their appearance in the imme-
diate vicinity of Irkoutsk. One was killed within a peasant's cottage, and
two in the very streets of the town. They were so emaciated, that tho
skins were of no value.

A singular accident took place in the summer of the year above named.
A peasant who resided at about four miles from the town, had a dancing-
bear, which was considered so tame, that ho had been exhibiting it, on tho
day in question, within the house of tho commandant of Irkoutsk, for tho
amusement of the children. Oa their return homo, Mr. Bruin becoming

I-:;

886

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Pkaiint attackkd bt a Ben.

Btul»l)oin, and refusing to travel as fast as lii.s master wislicd him, tlie latter
proceeded to heat him ; when the infuriated animal turned round, seized
upon him, and literally cruslied iiim to a niunnny !

The j)asturos of this Lfovernmeiit maintain jireat nnmhors of cattle and
sheep, the latter lieiiij;' ehielly of the native or liat-taiUnl variety ; tiie hreeds
of cattle sent here and throajrhout Siberia have gc'iierally diminished in
size, but improved in hardihood. The principal cidtivated crops arc rye
and barley ; lienij) and flax also succeed well. There is not much fruit.

Many indications of volcanic agency arc discoveralde, particularly in the
northuM'U part of the government, and earthipiakes are not unfrecpient. In
the jihiin along the Angara, below the town of Irkoutsk, a fine-grained
fiandstonc, of the carboniferous system, prevails ; and strata of pure coal,
nine frit thick, have been found in it. The mountains are generally gran-
itic. Tlie minerals are very valiialile, and i-'diule gold, fomid chiefly in
the lateral valleys wiiich run from the central lidge of the Jabloiuioi, sil-
ver, lead, zinc, and tin. The principal mines are situated in the eastern
part of the government, and are wrought, in the direction of the stock, over
an oxtent of one liundred and sixty miles. In working the tin, splendid
cells of rock-crystals, with green, yellow, and blue cnu'ralds, and with to-

EASTERN SIBERIA — IRKOUTSK.

337

pazcs, arc met with. Salt is found in great abundance in lakes and brine-
springs, but is not turned to much account.

Manufactures exist to a very limited extent, and consist chiefly of ^L»ap,
leather, and glass. A considerable trade is carried on with Ciiina, through
Kiakhta ; and in furs, which, after metals, constitute the principal articles
of export.

A considerable proportion of the Russian inhabitants are descendants of
exiles from the West. The natives in greatest number are the Tungusi,
Mongols, and Buriats. The religion of the Greek church is generally pro-
fessed, but many continue addicted to tlie practices of Shamanism. For
administrative purposes, the government is divided into six districts op
circles, of which Irkoutsk is the capital.

Irkoutsk, the capital of the government, is situated in a plain, about
twelve hundred feet above the sea-level, on the Angara, at the confluei.ce
of the Irkout. It is divided into two parts by the Angara, which is here
about one thousand feet wide, surrounded by a wall and ditch, and well
built, consisting of wooden houses, which are all neatly planked outside
and painted yellow or light gray. The streets, though not paved, havo
wooden pathways for foot-passengers, and are kept in good order. Its
ag''< i< climate, picturesque situation, the good breeding and wealth of
its i:' 1- ants, and its adaptation for commerce, conspire to make it the
most important and flourishing city of Siberia, as well as one of the first
town^ of the Russian empire.

One of the chief ornaments of Irkoutsk is a noble quadrangular j)arado,
one side of which is occupied by the residence of the governor, and other
public ofhces ; and most of the houses have kitchen-gardens behind them.
The principal buildings include a great number of churches (one of them
a cathedral), most of which have been erected at the expense of rich and
pioi's merchants ; two convents ; a handsome exchange, built of stono, and
surrounded by stately poplars and pines; an admiralty, with dockyards on
the Angara ; the offices of the American Company, which would be consid-
ered spacious and ornamental in any town of Europe or of the United
States; a school of medicine, a gymnasium, and several other schools; a
public library of five thousand volumes, a mineralogical cabinet, two hos-
pitals, a workhouse and house of correction, and a large and well-vontilated
prison ; the gostinui ilvor, or bazar, supplied with articles of Chinese and
European manufacture; and in its vicinity arc the markets, supplied with
fish, flesh, meal, with its motley crowd of Buriats, Russian women, Ac.

The manufiictures consist of woollen and linen cloth, hats, leather (com-
mon and Morocco), soap, and glass. There are also several distilleries.
The trade is in hay, tea, and other articles imported fiom China, and more
especially in fur, for which the Russian American Company have here largo
warehouses.

Irkoutsk is the see of an archbishop; and, being the residence of a gov-
ernor, is regarded as the capital of Eastern Siberia. The police of the

888

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

city is so excellently regulated, that a person can not walk out after dark,
without being challenged in all directions by a watchman. As a substi-
tute for the watchman's rattle or ciub, and as a mode of communicating
with each other, these guardians of the night carry with them a mallet,
with which they beat a plank of wood, when the signal is rci>cat(Ml in suc-
cession l)y each <'f them. The society of tlic upi)er class is quite Europcar
in its charade »ut many persons belonging to it have the misfortune or
stigma of being exiles. The inhabitants generally appear to be very com-
fortable. The population is from twenty to twenty-five thousand.

Kiakhta (or Kiac/i/n'), and Mai- natshin (or Maimacheri), constitute a
sort of double-town (or more properly two towns, on the boundary between
this government and the Chinese territory of Mongolia, one lnnidred ..iid
seventy miles southeast of Irkoutsi. ; the one town, called Kiakhta, belong-
ing to Russia, and the other, called Mai-nuUshin, to China). It stands on
a small river of the same name, two thousand feet aI)ove the sea-level, and
was founded in 1728, on the conclusion of the commercial treaty between
the Russiai'..^ and the Chinese. It derives its importance from l)eing the
only recognised entrepot for the trade between .'lo two countries, and pre-
sents a singidar ai)pearance from the striking contrasts it exhibits. In the
Russian portion of tlie town, the houses of merchants of the better class
have stairs and balconies in front, occnsionallv j)aintcd and cml)ellished
with architectural ornaments. Toward Mai-matshin, or the Chinese por-
tion, a narrow do.)r opens in front of a long wooden luiilding, and leads
into the inner (piadrangle of a Russian warehouse. On tlie opposite side,
a corresj)onding door ojjens upon a wooden barricade, and this barricade
is the barrier of Cliina, tlie door of which is closed at siniset, when Cl.inese
and Russians must betake themselves to their respective quarters. The
Russian side lias an eagle above it, with the cipher of the reigning cmix'-
ror. The Chinese side, forming the entrance to ^[ai-matshin, is surniGunted
with a cone or pyramid. The eflect )>roduce(l in passing it is described by
Ennan as ahiiost magical. The solar lines of the Russian side arc, all at
<Hice, succeeded by fantastic, gaudy finery. The streets consist of a lied
of well-beaten clay, kept neatly swept, but so narrow that two camels can
scarcely pass each other. On either side are walls of the same clay, with
perforations, forming windows of Chinese paper. These walls are the
f.idcs of houses, but are not easily seen to be so, in consequen(;e of the flat-
ness of tlie roofs, and the gaudy paper lanterns and flags with inscrij)-
tions, wlii-:;!! line the streets, and stretch across from roof to roof. There
are two 13addliist temples in the town, containing five colossal images and
numerous smaller idols. The trade carried on is very extensive. The
Russians receive tea to the amount of about five millions of pounds annu-
ally, together with silks, nankeens, porcelain, sugar-candy, tobacco, rhu-
bark, and musk ; and give in exchang" furs, skins, leather, woollen and
linen cloth, cattle, and reindeer-horns, from the latter of which a gelatine
is obtained that forms a much-esteemed delicacy among the Chinese.

EASTERN SIBEItlA — YAK0UT8K.

889

Avcen
1 1.11(1
•lonu;-
ils on
1, and
twecn
ijj; the
(1 pro-
Ill tlic
r class
Uislicd
80 por-
1 leads
side,
icade
.incsc
The
ciiiiio-
untod
)od l>y
all at
a bed
Ih can
y, witli
re the
the flat-
iiiscriiv
There
1108 and
The
8 annu-
i, rhu-
llen and
gelatine

The vast govcrnnncnt or province of Yakoutsk extends from the Altai
or Stanovoy mountains on the south to the Frozen ocean on the nortii, hav-
ing the governments of Irkoutsk and Yeniseisk on the west, and Okhotsk
and the Pacilic ocean on the east, and occupying at least tlirec fifths of
Eastern Si'ocria, or one million four liundred thousand square miles.

The province is watered hy the great rivers Lena, Yana, Indijirka, and
Kolima, which supply vast (juantitics of fish. Iron, salt, and excellent
talc, are thj chief mineral products: game, of many kinds, is abundant.
Large herds (jf cattle, A'c, are reared near the town of Yakoutsk ; and,
notwithstanding the severity of the winters, rye, barley, and even wheat,
uro said t(» succeed well thiougliout the province, except in those parts
which are so fur north as to render the summer too short to ripen grain.

Vakovtik.

VakoUvsk, the capital of this government, is situated on the Lena, about
eleven humliotl and fifty miles northeast of Irkoutsk, and has all the char-
acter of liie cold and gloomy north. It stands on a liarren flat, near the
river. The; streets a''e wide, but the houses and cottages arc poor in ajn
[•earance, and surrounded by tall wooden fences. Here are five churches,
a convent, a stone building {gostindi (Ivor) for commercial jiurposos, and
an old wooden fortress with its rained tower, built in ltJ47, by the Cossack
conquerors of Siberia. The town has, however, undergone great improve-
ments in the last forty years. The Yakute huts have been replaced by sulv
stantial houses ; the windows of ice, or talc, have given way to glass in the
better class of houses, and the more wealthy iiihabitauts begin to have
higher rooms, larger windows double doors, «fcc.

'i\

ii~(^

340

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Yakoutsk is the centre of the interior trade of Eastci-n Siberia. All the
most costly furs, as well as the more common kinds, walrus-teeth, and fos-
sil remains, are brought here for sale, or barter, during the ten weeks oi
summer, from Anabor and Behring's straits, the coasts of the Polar sea,
and oven from Okhotsk and Kamtschatka. It is not easy to iumgine the
mountain-like piles of furs of all kinds seen here ; their value sometimes
amounts to ncarl/ ^rec millions of roubles. Almost all the Russian set-
tlers in Yakoutsk nploy their little capital in puirhnsing furs from the
Yakutcs during ti. j winter, on which they realize a good profit at the timo
of the fair, when they sell them to the Irkoutsk merchants.

As soon as the Lena is clear of ice, the merchants liegin to arrive from
Irkoutsk, bringing with them for barter, grain, meal, the jnmgcnt Circas-
sian tobacco, tea, sugar, rum, CiiiiiCfie cotton and silk stufls, yarn, cloth of
inferior qp lity, hardware, glass, <fec. IJut at the annual fair there is not
the appearance of animation and bustle which might naturally be expected.
The goods are not exposed for sale, and most of the j)urchases arc eflectcd
in the houses or enclo, ares of the citizens.

The traveller Dobell says that the inhabitants of Yakoutsk are hospita-
ble and gay. Several balls were given during his stay, and the dress,
manners, and aj)pearance of the people, far surpassed what he expected in
80 remote a situation. The variations of climate here are extraordinary ;
for, though, on the whole, cold predominates to a very great extent — the
thermometer in winter often falling to fiftii-six degrees below the zero of
Fahrenheit — the heat in summer is sometimes not inferior to that of tho
torrid zone ! Yakoutsik has a population of about six thousand.

The government of Okhotsk forms a comparatively narrow tract, about
one thousand miles long, with a breadth varying from eighty to about two
hundred miles, stretching along the sea of Okhotsk, which washes it on tho
south, and partly separates it from the peninsula of Kamtschatka, and is
bounded on the northeast by the country of the Tchouktchis, and on tho
northwest and southwest by the government of Yakoutsk. It has an area
of one hundred and seventy thousand square miles.

The coast-line of Okhotsk \a indented by several large sea-arms, among
which are those of Penjinsk, Oijiginsk, and Tanish ; and its interior is
traversed centrally, and nearly throughout its whole length, by tho chain
of the Stanovoi mountains, which here form the water-shod between tho
Pacific and tho Arctic oceans ; sending to the former numerous compara-
tively short and rapid streams, which fall into the sea of Okhotsk, and
giving rise to several large rivers — the Omolon, Kolima, and Inaijirka —
which flow into the latter.

Notwithstanding the rigor of the climate, there aro considerable tracts
of heathy pasture and scattered clumps, chiefly of alder and birch, fre-
quented by animals valual^le for their furs. The coasts are well supplied
with fish, and are often visited by large shoals of tho whale-tribo. The

long
|r is

lain
tho

lara-
and

la — •

[acts
jfre-
llied
iTho

EASTERN SIBERIA — OKHOTSK — K AMT8CHATKA.

341

Gill;' domestic animals aro reindeers and dogs. Amber is occasionally
found along the shores of the gulf of Pcnjinsk. The government is chiefly
used as a penal settlement for the most hardened offenders, and the inhab-
itants consist, for tho most part, either of them, or their desccpdants.

Okhotsk, the capital of this government, is situated on a narrow tongue
of land projecting ilitu the sea of Okhotsk, at the mouths of the Okhota and
Kuchtiu. It consists of several irregularly-placed clusters of indilTcrent
log-houses, including a large magazine belonging to the Russo-American
Trading Couipany ; a church, several government-offices, a school of navi-
gation and iin infinuary. The building-yards annually turn out or repair
a considerable number of small vessels; and the harbor, though so shallow
as not to admit large vessels, yet, being the best in the sea of Okhotsk, has
a considerable trade. The population is about one thousand.

Kamtschatka, a long and rather narrow peninsula, lies be' ^een the
fiCty-llrst and sixty-lirst degrees of north latitude, and the one hundred and
fil'ty-liflh and one hundred and seventy-fourth degrees of east longitude.
It is bounded north by the country of the Tchouktchis, west by the gov-
ernment and sea of Oklu)t»k, soutli au utheast by the North Pacific, and
east by the sea of Kamtschatka. Its lengtii is eight hundred and seventy
miles ; its breadth is very irregular, owing to numerous deep indentations,
which exist on the eastern and contrast with the regular uniformity of the
western side. At the middle, where it is widest, tiie breadth is two hun-
dred and eij^hty miles ; toward tlie nortii it varies from eighty to one hun-
dred and fifty miles ; while in the south it narrows rapidly on both sides,
till it terminates in the low and narrow tongue of land which forms Capo
Lopatka. It contains eiglity-four thousand square miles.

Tlie country, as seen from tlie sea, is rugged and desolate. Through its
whole lengtli, from north to south, it is traven ;d by a lofty chain of the
Stanovoy mountains, crowned with numerous volcanoes, many of them ex-
tinct, but many also highly active. That of Kliutshewsk is sixteen thou-
sand five hundred feet in height. It is particularly described by Erman,
who, in 1820, ascended witliin eight thousand feet of the summit, and
saw it in sublime activity, pouring forth a continuous stream of lava, which,
at first opposed in its progress by masses of snow and ice, soon burst the
barrier, and precipitated itself into tho sea, with a noise which was heard
for a distance of more than fifty miles ! This mountain rises from a large
base, which swells in an elliptic curve, furrowed by deep ravines, and
crowned by four cones. Tliere is nothing in its structure resembling a
granitic mountain, or any other primitive rock. It is an augitic, amor-
phous, and strongly-blistered mass, with large crystals of Labrador felspar.
The volcanoes of Kamtschatka are evidently part of a continuous lino of
volcanic action, which commences in the north of tho Aleutian isles, near
Russian America, and extends, fust in a western direction, for nearly two
hundred miles, and then south, without interruption, through a space of

If: '■;

If' ^l

842

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

between sixty and seventy degrees of latitude, to the Moluccas, where it
sends off a branch to the southeast ; while tlio principal train continues
west, through Sunihawa and Java, to Sumatra, and then in a northwestern
direction, to the bay of IJengal. No part of Kanitschatka appears to be
of primary formation. Supposing it divided into two sections, l)y a lino
drawn near its centre from north to south, the eastern section is wholly of
igneous origin. The western section may be divided into two bands : one
of which, comparatively narrow, running north and south, consists of the
tertiary formation ; while the remainder, forming the western side of the
peninsula, is wholly secondary.

The only river of any extent is the Kamtschatka, which rises at the foot
of a mountain-knot in latitude fifty-four degrees, and at a level far lower
than might have been anticipated in a country abounding in lofty mountain-
ranges, the height of the source, above the b^vel of the .sea, being not more
than thirteen hundred feet. It has a course of al)out throe hundred miles,
and is navigable for about one hundred and fifty miles. Its basin, fonning
the valley of Kamt.schatka, becomes hemmed in i)y precipitous rock.s toward
the mouth of the river ; but, farther south, it swells out sometisnes to forty
miles, and is by far the most fertile part of the ]>eninsula.

The climate is very severe, and much more so on the eastern than on
the western coast. On the seacoast, vegetation does not begin before the
end of April ; but in the vale of Kamtschatka, in good shelter, it is a month
earlier. Notwithstanding the severity of the climate, forests of considera-
ble extent occur, consisting of several species of birches, pines, poplars,
and willows ; while there is an undergrowth of shrubs, on which numerous
berries grow, among others the raspberry and currant. On many of the
tutulras, or moor-levels, jtartieularly when tlic ground is dry or strong,
grows a Lonicera, called by the inhabitants Jimohsl, bearing a close re-
semblance to the Lonicera carulea of our gardens, with berries of a par-
ticularly pleasing taste, and said to lie very nourishing. The natural pas-
tures are also numerous, and their rank luxuriance sometimes so great as
to make journeying across tliem almost impossiido.

Agriculture is necessarily restricted to a ^^yi favored spots, as both cli-
mate and anifnals fit for proper tillage are wanting. Erman, however, says
that on the southern slopes, near the village of Kliutshe, are seen patches
of turnips and potatoes, and also stems of hemp of the tallest growth.
He adds that both summer and winter sown wheat, barley, and oats, thrive
80 well, that, were the surrounding plains carefully cultivated, they could
furnish enough to supply the greater part of the inhabitants of the penin-
sula with bread-grain. In the same neighborhood, also, he got richer and
finer-flavored cow's-milk than ho had ever tasted.

The wild animals were at one time very plentiful, but have been much
fjiinned by the hunters. Among them may be mentioned reindeer, wild-
sheep, bears, otters, and beavers. The skins annually obtained, consisting
chiefly of those of the fox and sable, have been estimated at thirty thou-

EASTERN SIBERIA — KAMTSCHATKA.

848

iand ! Wild-fowl abound. Ducks, of which at least twelve kinds are onu
meruted, are seen in all quarters ; and lakes which, from being fed chiefly
from hot springs, never freeze, are the winter resort of flocks of swans.
The rivers and coasts teem with fish. Tn the former are several varieties
of salmon, some of them peculiar to tlic peninsula ; and on the latter aro
shoals of herrings and cod. Large numbers of seals are caught, and whaloa
occasionally make their appcarauco.

The Kaintscliatdalcs aro
a i)ecnliar race, and pre-
sent muny rcinnrkal)lo fea-
tures. Tiioy are in general
below the common height,
have broad shoulders, and
a large head. Tuc face,
and particularly tlie nose,
is long and flat, the eyes
small and sunken, the lips
thin, and tliey have scarce-
ly any board. Their legs
are short, yet they walk
much, and with rapidity.
Notwithstanding the rude-
ness of the climate, they
enjoy gwat vigor of consti-
tution, and are proof against every vicissitude of the seasons, and are sub-
ject to few maladies. Tlieir character is mild and hospitable, and they
live tog«!ther in great harmony. Indolence may be considcrcl as their
predominant vice.

Their principal food is fish, which they devour with eager avidity, and
without the least regard to cleanliness or delicacy. Having caught a fish,
Ihey begin with tearing out the gills, which they suck with extreme grati-
fication. Tiicy cut out, at the same time, some slices of the fish, which
they devour raw, and mingled with the blood. The fish being then gutted,
and the entrails given to the dogs, the rest is dried, and is afterward eaten,
sometimes dressed, but more commonly raw. The fish, however, which is
reckoned most delicious, is salmon, dressed in a peculiar manner, called
tckaouitcha. As soon as it is caught, they bury it in a hole in the ground,
whore it remains till it sours, or, properly speaking, becomes perfectly pu-
trid. In this state, when a European can scarcely approach without being
suffocated by the stench, the Kamtschatdale feeds upon it as upon the most
dolicious morsel ! Their plates aro never washed, and serve indifferently
the dogs and their masters ! The eggs of the wild-duck aro also collected
by the natives, and, being preserved in the oil of fish, form one of their
iavorite articles of food.

The manners of the Kamtschatdales are lively and cheerful. Their

Kamtsciutoalm.

r I t

TLl.USTRATED DRSCRIPTIOK OP HtJSSTA.

Pongs ni'c full of pay iniagos ; and tlicy possess tho talent of mimicry in a
romarlcjililo ilogroo. Tlicy are passionately fond of dancing, in which cx-
crciiso thtv shake o(T tlioir natural indolonco. Their favorite dance con-
sists in imitating the nwjtions of tho boar — its gostnros and nttitndes in
pnrfiiing its prey, and in all other actions and situations. They aro also
fond of singing, and have ngrpoabln voices, hnt their tunes arc very rudo.
UnttirttMKitely, (liis mirtli is often jiiirchased nt the expense of decency ;
and tlie rules of chastity are little regarded by cither sex. The women,
at a particular season, go out to collect roots and vegetables for winter
consumption ; and this is a giand holyilay with them.

They have two kinds of habitations; one for winter, and the other for
summer. The winter haliitations are sunk some feet under the ground ;
the walls ai'o formed of trees laid over each otiuu', and plastered with clay ;
tho roof is made slanting, and covered with coarse grass or rushes. Tho
interior consists of two rooms, with a large lamp, fed with train-oil, and
placed so as to warm both rooms, and at tin* sanu" tiiwe to answer tin; pur-
poses of cookery. The.ic houses arc often large enough to contain two or
three families ; and fifty persons have been km)Wn to take np their al)odo
in one of them. In that case, tho dirt, stench, and the smell and Boot issu
ing from the lamp, aro such as only a Kamtschatdale could endure.

The snnnner-houso is of a
more singular constnictiim.
A numl)er of posts, f)laced at
regular distances from each
other, and, soiving as pillars,
raise it to the lieight of ten to
thirteen feet from the ground.
These posts support a plat-
form, made of rafters, and
covered over with clay, which
serves as tho floor, whenco
the house ascends from live
to eight feet, the roof covered
with thatch or dried gi
This apartment composes the whole habitation, and here all the family eat
and sleep. There are several summer-houses to ono winter-house, and tho
inhaliitants pass on a plank from ono to the other. The object of this
singidar con.'itruction is to have a space sheltered from the sun and rain,
yet open to the air, in which their fish may be hung up and dried. It is
afTordcd by the rude colonnade which supports these structures, to the
posts and celling of which the fish aro attached.

Another striking ))Oculiarity of Kamtschatdale manners consists in the
use of dogs for the purpose of laltor and draught. Great attention is paid
to the rearing of the sledgc-dog, a pack of which, consisting of from si.K to
twenty, every Kamtschatdale justly regards as ono of tho necessaries of

SDimiB-HoCIC IN KAJTriCHAIXA.

EASTERN SIBKRIA — KAMTSCirATKA

845

life. Tlicso dogs aro not remarkably largo, tlioiigU strongly built, rather
long, with a high stop, and short, smooth huir, of u color varying between
yellowish-fawn and jet-black : iii their general appearance they resemble
the mountain or shepherd dogs of Kuropo. They arc sagacious, and seem
to enter into the very feelings of their masters. In summer, when their
services are nut rotpiired, they aro set loose, and left to provide for them-
selves, l»y ranging over tlie country, and along the sides of lakes and riv-
ers ; but, at the approach of winter, they return home in the most punctual
nu\nnor. Tlioy aro haruossed two and two, in trains perhaps of forty dogs,
to sledges called narlds, consisting, in tlieir must primitive form, of a box
of boards al)out tiiree fc(;t along and one and a half in widlli and height,
fastened to wooden runners, with wliieh they often travel, at a rapid pace,
forty miles a day. Tlicy an; used in tliis manner, not oidy for travelling,
but for conveying all sorts td' connnodities from place to place, one particu-
larly widl trained l»i'ing placed in front as l''ader. The driver usually sits
sidewiso, like a lady on horst-back, and urges the dogs by throwing at
them a slick, which he afterward catches with great dexterity. Occasion-
ally parties travel in company , and then, tlus eagerness and impatience of
the dogs, and the rivalry of the k\ij(Kirshi/>s, or drivers, are worthy to bo
compared with the exertions of the high-blooded horses at our race-courses ;
nor docs tho management and driving of the dogs reciuire much less skill
and attention than are needed in the latter case, to arrive at perfection,
and gain the pabn of victory.

Al)ont a tliird of the iiduibitants are RussoCossacks. The remainder,
forming the imtive population, consists of Koriaks, or Korjaks, and Kamt-
pchatdales, the latter of whom we have already described. Tho former
belong to the nomadic tribes of the north, and appear to have chosen Kamt-
schatka as an asylum after tiieir defeat by the Tchouktchis. The western
coast, from Tigil northward, and indeed tho whole penins\da beyond lati-
tude fifty-<!ight ilcgroes north, is occupied by thcni. They arc of middle
stature, lank and sinewy, with black, smooth, and rather long hair. Their
language dilTcrs so mncli from that of the Kaintschatdalcs as to indicate a
different stock. Their great occupation is hunting tho reindeer. Tho
Kjrtfitsciuitdales present considerable diversity of both speech and cxte-
ri'.i . and the Sedankaers, on the west, regard themselves as a difterent
race from tho inhabitmts of the valley of the Kamtschatka. One of the
best features in the national character is tho love of hospitality. The
stranger is always sure of a welcome reception. The inhal)itants are nom-
inal converts to Christianity, but in some parts, particularly in tho north-
cast, the old superstitions aro said to linger. There evil spirits, and what
are called kutcha, aro tho objects of worship.

The trade of Kamtschatka, owing to the exactions of tho Russian gov-
ernors, who, in consequence of their great distance from St. Petersburg, or
even Tobolsk, have few checks on their own cupidity, is of course extremely
limited. Taxes are taken in skins ; and tho people complain bitterly that

''t

846

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

no equitable system of taxation has been autliorized by the imperial gov
crnmont. Ilcncc, wholly left to the mercy of individual officers, they justly
apprehend the insecurity of property, and want the chief motive for im-
proving the natural rosourcos of the country. Labor is confujed to the
supply of merely temporary necessities ; domestic comforts are little known
or cared for, and allluenee is scarcely ever attained even by the nn)st provi-
dent and laltorions. Furs and dried fish are exported from the port of St.
Peter and St. Paul, chiefly by the Russians and Dutch, who bring in ex-
chnngf rice, (lour. colVee, siiu^iir, lirandy, and whiskey.

Kamtsehatka was first known to the Russians in KIDO ; but it was not
until lt)'.»(! that Vladimir .Vtlassov, with a body of Cossacks from Ana-
dirsk, invaded tite peninsula, and made great part of it tril)ntary to Peter
the Groat. Succi'ssive expeditions were afterward sent, and the Russians
advanced farther and farther into the country, erei^ting forts and levying
trilaite. Tlie concpiest was completed in 170(5, all Kamtschatka being
surveyed and occupied by the invadeis.

Tiie sway which they liavt; estaldished is represented as trenerally mild,
with the exce|)tii>n of tlie inerjiiality and favoritism in taxation. The na-
tives are permitted to ehnose tlieir own majii.st rates, in the same manner,
and with the sanu> i»o\vers. as tliev have alwnvs been accustomed to. The
country is diviiiod into tour o.strofrs, or districts, each of which is governed
by a (oitin, or lieutenant, who is merely a peasant, like those whom he gov-
erns, and has no outward mark of distinction. He has another under him,
called yesaovl, who assists him in tlie exercise of his functions, and, in \m
absence, acts as his deputy. Their business is to preserve peace, enforce
the orders of government, and collect the tribute, in furs, for the governor
of Irkoutsk, the (pumtity of which varies according to the character of the
governor, and the favor whicli ]»arlieular persons happen to enjoy. For-
merly it consisted of one sable from each individual, or more, if paid in an
inferior sort of skin.

The inhabitants, like all savage nations coming in contact with civilized,
have suflered deeply from the connection. Tho introduction of ardent
spirits, their avidity for which knows no bounds, has been productive of
most pernicious eflccts. Tho Russian traders, who arc well aware of this
weakness, sell it at an extravagant price, and inveigle them to give their
most precious effects in exchange for it. The small-pox also has been
introduced, and has made dreadful ravages?. The conseqiienco is, that
their number, which was at first estimated at fifteen thousand, has been re-
duced to one half or one third. Tho Russian and Cossack soldiers have
generally adopted all the habits of the natives, disuse bread, and even sell
tiie ration allowed by the government ; live dirtily on fish, uso dogs for
labor and travelling, and clothe themselves in skins. There is a class of
criminals, convicted of murder and other atrocious crimes, who, as a pun-
ishment equal to death, are banished to this remote and inhospitable re-
gion : they amount to about one thousand, and are kept under tho strict

TIIK ALKUTUN ARCIIIPELAOO.

847

dent
vc of
f tliis
their
Itoen
that
en ro-

hllTO

n sell
gs for
ass of
a pun-
)lo re-
strict

gimnl of tin; Cossacks and Unssiaii militia. The cominandor of the troops
rositlo.s at, St. IV-tcr and St. I'aiil, wliich for some years has boon the chief
place. Its population, however, is oidy alioiit one thousand, while Nijnoi-
Kanitschatlia, the former capital, has Rcarccly a hundred and fifty persons.
TlxM'e is an occasional and varying popidatitm of merchants, hunters, and
Boanien, who make a toniporary residence in Kamtsclmtka.

Tiio Alei'TIan Islands (from the Russian word Aleut, "a hold rock")
arc an extensive range of small islands belonging to Russia, in the Nort*"
Pttcifii! ocu'an, situated hctwcon Cape Alaska, in North America, and ti.'
peninsnla of Kaintsehatka, in Asiatic KuHsia; extending from longitude
one hundred and sixty-three degrees west to one hundred and sixty-six
degrees east, or for ahout six hundred mil(;s, and ft> ning, it may be said,
a connecting chain between the Russian possessions of both hemispheres.
They were fonnerly divided into three groups — the Aleutian, \ndreno-
vian, and Fox islands ; i»ut are now all comprehend d unde.' the namfi
Alrutidn, and are subordinate to the government of Irkoutsk.

The fust known of these islands was discovered, in 1741, by Bohdni^
the oelcl)rate«l Russian navigator, whose name it l)ears,and who died thoTO ;
the otiiers were <liseovered, at dilVerent jieriods afterward, by Mi- ous Rus-
sian adventurers, who sought these regions in (piest of furs pailicularly
the sea-otter. They were sulisequently visited by Captain Cook in 1788,
who deterniinetl tlieir exact positions. Those nearest Kamtschatka are
I'ehring's and Miednoi, or Cojiper islands : the first situated in latitude
fifty-live (leg es north, ami longitude one hinidred and sixty-six degrees
east. Southeast of the latter are the small islands of Attoo, Semitshi, and
Agattoo, between latitude fifty-four and fifty-five degrees north. The An-
drenovian group, or central part of the chain, lies between latitude fifty-
two and fifty-four degrees north, and comprehends the islands of Kiska,
Amcliitka, Tanaga, Kanaga, Adagh, Atcha, and Andia, with a number of
smaller islands. Of the grouj) nearest Cape Aliaska, called by the Rus-
sians L^awiV- Oslrova,ov Fox islands, the principf' ;>•; Oomnak, Oonalashka,
and Oonimack. Reyond these, to the northeast, lies the largo island of
Kodiak, generally considered as belonging to the group called Schumagin'n
islands, on which there is a village of about f .ir hundred inhabitants. Th*
largest of the wholo chain are Beh ring's i-sland and the island of Oona-
lashka.

The Aleutian islands are of volcanic formation ; and, in a number of
them, there arc volcanoes still in active operation. At present, there are
upward of twenty-four in this state, varying from three to eight thousand
feet in height. In 170(5, a volcanic island, now called Joanna Bog-oslowa,
rose in the middle of the lino or chain of islands. It was first observed
after a storm, at a point in the sea from which a column of smoke had been
Been to rieo. Flames afterward issued from the new island, accompanied
by a frightful earthquake. Eight years after its emergence, it was found,

»:r

348

ILLUSTUATED DESCRrPTION OF RUSSIA.

in some places, to bo so hot tliat it could not be walked upon. It is now
several thousand foet high, and twenty or thirty miles in circumference,
and is still increasing in size.

Eartlu]uakcs,al8o,of the most tcrrilic description, are of frequent occur-
rence in this rogion, agitating and altering the bed of the sea and surface
of the land throughout (he whole tract. The appearance of the islands is
singularly disnuil and barren : lofty walls of black lava rise jKirpendieularly
from tlie sea ; and beyond, steep mountains of rock shoot up to the clouds ;
while the coasts arc so encompassed vith reefs and breakers as to render
navigation among tliem exceedingly dangerous.

The soil is, in general, very poor ; but, in some particular spots, escu-
lent vegetables thrive well ; and some of the most eastern of the islands
produce pt)tatoes, and maintain considerable numbers of domestic cattle,
although the latter do not generally thrive on these islands. Springs of
water are iiuinorons ; and valleys clothed with a rich herbage, and capable
of supporting herds of cattle throughout the year, are to be mot with in
some of the islands, especially Oonalashka. JJears, wolves, beavers, er-
mines, and river-otters, are plentiful; while the Fox islands, as their name
implies, altonnd in foxes — black, red, gray, and brown. Tiie kinds of
fish most usually caught are salmon and halibut ; the latter frequently of
immense size. Seals and whales are abundant on the coasts.

The inhabitants — who seem to be a mixed race between the Mongolian
Tartars and the North American Indians — arc below the average stature,
but stout and well proportioned. Tiiey have a round face, small eyes, a
brownish complexion, a flat nose, and black hair. In the females, the com-
plexion is of a lighter sliade, and the hair approaches to brown. The
dress, which is common to both sexes, consists of a frock of seal-skin, fast-
ened round the neck, and descending below the knees. This simple drees
is often ingeniously sewed and adorned with glass-beads, white goat's hair,
and snmll red feathers. In their native state, they pierced the lower lip,
the nose, and the ears, to suspend in them bones or crystal rings. The
women wore around the neck, sis well as the hands and feet, chaplets of
variegated stones ; and more especially, when they could procure it, am-
ber. Tliey also tattooed the body, adorning it with various figures ; and,
when the female belonged to a family of distinction, depicting on her per-
son a symbolical representation of the deeds by which they iiad acquired
renown — the number of enemies slain, or beasts of prey destroyed.

The most striking feature in the constitutional temper of the Aleutians
is a kind of passive quiescence and patient endurance, amounting almost
to insensibility. Left to themselves, they will pass whole days in alisolute
idleness, scarcely opening their lips to give utterance to a single syllable,
or making the least exertion to satisfy the cravings of appetite ; and, on
the other hand, when placed under a master, they will toil at any task
which may be appointed them, slowly, indeed, but without interruption,
until it is accomplished. Instances aro even given in which they have

_.„ ..i«W«-*-*5«»';

THE ALEUTIAN ARCHIPELAOO.

849

carried tins implicit obedience so far as to sacrifice their lives in endeav-
oring to perform impossible tasks, whicli senseless or tyrannical masters
had imposed upon them !

In tlie ordinary relations of life, the Aleutians exliil)it much that is ami-
able. Parents are treated Avith great respect and deference, and children
are the ol)jects of the fondest afleotion. Tlie husband is addressed by the
wife as father, and he applies to her the name of mother. The whole fam-
ily appear to cling to each other, and take a deep interest in whatever
aftects their common honor and welfare. To this happy state of domestic
life there must, however, be numerous exceptions. The existence of polyga-
my, aiid the still more monstrous practice of polyandry, seem almost in-
consistent with the very idea of what is iisually understood by a family.

As might be anticipated, from tlie ,.. isive qualities of the Aleutians, they
are not remarkable for llieir courage. Provided the destruction of *.iieir
enemy can be accomplislied, it seems absolutely indilVorent to them whether
it l)e by force or stratfigem. Tlic cljief employments are hunting and fish-
ing, and in both tliey show great dexterity. Tliey will face tlie l)ear simply
armed with a gun or a bow ; and iiave even l)een known, when these wea}>-
ons have failed, to encounter and overcome him with a knife. I»ut the sea
seems to be tlieir proper element. In tlie pursuit of the whnle and the
seal, tliey are equally skilfid and intrepid. The boat wiiich they employ
is a kind of canoe, called a bauliir, consisting of a frame of wood or bone,
covered with seal-skin. It is long and narrow, in general holding only a
single person, whose bust rises out of a circular hole cut in tlie skin, which
stretches from gunwale to gunwale, like a deck ; and is so light, that a man
can easily carry it. Fleets, consisting perhaps of one hundred of these
baidars, each managed l)y double paddles about eight feet long, will ven-
ture fifty or sixty miles to sea, and encounter all the ])erils of a stormy
ocean, in quest of the sea-otter. While the men are thus employed, the
women occupy themselves in covering canoes, and making mats, baskets,
and other articles of straw, whi<'l. display much neatness and dexterity.
The food in common use is of the coarsest description — whale's flesh, al-
most in a jiutrid state, and fish often of similar quality. Could anything
add to the disgust whicli the very idea of such a meal inspires, it would bo
the filthy manner in which it is cooked ; both the place and the utensils
being allowed to remain in the dirtiest state imaginable. Notwithstanding
the grave and almost demure manners of the Aleutians, they are not stran-
gers to amusements, and even theatrical representations. They have both
songs and dances, and a kind of dramas, in which some striking incident
couuected with their history is exhibited. The popularity of these is so
great, as to have more than once collected crowds which caused a famine.

The religion of the Aleutians was a ramification of Shamanism — a su-
perstition before alluded to, prevalent in Siberia. They acknowledged a
higher Deity, or Creator, but paid no worship to him, under the idea that
ho had left the charge of the world to certain good and evil spirits, called

i . : V

f'.

850

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Kovgakh, and AgUkdiakh. They worshipped the elements, and the licav-
enly bodies, particularly the sun and the moon, which were supposed to
have great power in human affairs: the sun, when blasphemed, striking tho
blasphemer blind by its rays ; the moon killing him by the stones which
she throws down upon him ; and the stars compelling him to count them —
a task, the performance of which cost him his reason. They had neither
temples nor idols ; but near every village, on a rock, or other eminence,
was a supposed holy place, which the old men alone, and the priests, or
shamans, were permitted to visit. On these, with mysterious ceremonies,
they deposited offerings, consisting usually of the skins of wild beasts, or
the feathers of aquatic birds. Amidets, or charms, were also in general
use, some of tliem being supposed to secure their fortunate possessor against
all accidents, and bring him off scatheless and victorious in every combat.
The most effectual of these talismans was a girdle, composed of cords or
grass, with a particular arrangement of knots. In regard to the immortal-
ity of the soul, and tlic origin of the human race, the views of the Aleutians
must have been originally derived from a Divine source. The strongest
proof of their belief of the former is derived from one of the most horrid
of their practices. On the death of a chief, his slaves were sacrificed on
his tomb, (hat they niiglit go and continue their services to him in (lie other
world ! The general idea was, that the discml)odied spirit returned invisi-
ble to its family, whom it accompanied for good or evil in all their excur-
sions. It is even said (o have I>ecn invoked by them, particularly when
engaging in war, to avenge some insult that had l)een offered to (lie family.
The original form of government was patriarchal. Every village, which,
from (he fre(|uency of intermarriage, in fact formed only one family, was
governed by its toiun, or chief; and a union of villages, under some supe-
rior toion, on whom valor or wisdom conferred the dignity, formed a kind
of sta(e. Under the dominion of Russia, all the primitive institutions and
habits of (he Aleutians have been greatly modilied, and many of them have
ra,iidly dit^appeared. Unquestionaldy, the best virtues of .savage life havo
thus l)een lost; and one of the first effects of civilization was the introduc-
tion of its worst vices, and one of its most disgusting diseases. Rut these
are partly compensated by numerous blessings. The Aleutians have already
ac(iuired some skill in mechanical arts. Many of them havo learned to
read, and actually peruse the Scriptures in their own tongue. Their aban-
donmen* of Shamanism for the religion of the Greek church, and the deep
interest which they seem to take in its ritual, is probably much less tho
effect of conviction than of deference to the authority of their masters ; hut
the fact that there are already four churches in tho islands, thronged by
native worshippers — that the vindictive spirit which at one time prevailed,
and made family feuds implacable, has in a great measure disappeared —
gives reason to hope that the Aleutians, instead of being regarded as sav
ages, will, at no diiitant period, be cutitlcd to claim a place among civil
izcd men. j. .

,Ati»il**W*-afW«6*»*'W**'-'**'

VORCOW.

361

CHAPTER XII.

MOSCOW.

raa

lyTO city has made a more conspicuous figure in the liistory of modern
[\ Europe than Moscow. It was one of the last scenes in the eventful
drnina of a period fraught with occurrences of mingled wonder and
terror. Lon,n tiie wonder of the world for its extent, and for the riches
of its nobles, it became still more conspicuous in tiie annals of the world
for the dosolalion which it suffered when at the height of its grandeur ;
and no stronger instance perhaps exists of the power of human labor, or
of the resources of mankind, tinin the appearance which Moscow, risen
from her ashes, pres'^'its at this day.

The assertion sometimes made, that no city is so irregularly built as
Moscow, is in some respects true : none of the streets arc straight ; the
houses, large and small, public buildings, churches, and other edifices, arc
mingled confusedly together, but it gains by this the advantage of being
more picturesciue. Tlie streets undulate continually, and thus offer from
time to time points of view whence tiie eye is ai)le to range over the vast
ocean of lioiisetops, trees, and gilded and colored domes. But the archi-
tecture of Moscow, since the conflagration of 1812, is not quite so bizarre
as, according to the accounts of travellers, it was before that event ; nev-
ertheless it is still singular enough. In 181:5, tlie point chiefly in view was
to l)uild, and build quickly, rather than to carry any certain j)lan into exe-
cution ; the houses were replaced with nearly the same irregularity with
respect to each other, and the streets became as crooked and tortuous as
liefore. The whole gained, therefore, little in regularity from the fire, but
each individual house was Iniilt in much better taste, gardens became moro
freciueiit, the nmjority of roofs were made of iron, painted green, a lavish
use was made of pillars, and even those who could not be profuse erected
more elegant cottages. Hence Moscow has all the charms of a new city,
with tlie pleasing negligence and picturesque irregularity of an old one. lu
the streets, we como now to a large, magnificent palace, with all the pomp
of Corinthian pillars, wrought-iron trellis-work, and imposing approaches
and gateways ; and now to a simple whitewashed house, the abode of a
modest citizen's family. Near them stands a small church, with green
cupolas and golden stars. Then comes a row of little yellow wooden
houses, that remind one of old Moscow ; and these arc succeeded by oao

852

ILLUSTRATED DESCTCPTION OP RUSSIA.

of the new colossal erections for some public institution. Sometimes the
road winds tlirough a number of little streets, and the traveller might
fancy himself in a country town ; suddenly it rises, and he is in a wido
" place," from which streets branch oR' to all quarters of the empire, while
the eye wanders over the forest of houses of the great capital ; descending
again, he comes in the middle of the town to the banks of a river planted
thickly with gardens and wood'^'.

MOSCOW. ^,^

I. Krf^nilin.

2 Ciiiir.'li .if Ht. Riu-il.

:). Illipirrlll I'.iImi-i'.

i. Military Sclioul.

5. Convent nt K wo Dfvitohi'l,

*! ('iinvi'iit (if ou> I.n'iy t»l the Don.

7. C.MIvrllt (il St. II., 'Irl,

8. CuiiVeiit of ^'iln()llo■ 4koL

9. H.itj'itnl of Ht. I'm.l

10. llo>|iilRl (il .'^t (Mill. Tins.

11. liiHliiulp of Ali-x>in.l«r.
1'.'. Kuiin<lling Hu-pitHl.

The exterior wall of Moscow is upward of twenty miles in extent, of a
most irregular form, more resembling a trapezium than any other figure.
Within this are two nearly concentric circular linos of hou/cvan/, tlie one
at a distance of about a mile and a half from the krcm/in* completed on
both sides of the Moskva; tlie internal one with a radius of al)out a mile,
spreading only on the north of the river, and terminating near the stone
bridge on the one side, and the foundling-hosj)ital on the other. 'J'he river
enters the barrier of tlio vast city, to which it has given a name,! nbout
the central point of the western side ; and, after winding round the D. -
vitchei convent like a huge serjjcnt, and thence flowing l)cncath the Tartar

' In the uncirrit Sliivcinii-, kremi, or krrmen, sijjnifiPd " itonp ;" und any fuitificd pliict' ii n kremt.
Many Rnssiiin towrm, its »<> liiivc nliciKly lind i>cca»!iin «(>vpi-nl linioi to ninition, Imvc llirir krrml,
or, n» it ig iiioif iimiiillv tfiniril, thrir krrmliii. Tliiit oC Moscow i«, by pro-Ptiiitipnco, the kri'mliii.

t iloncotr; — Afoakva U ihf Uii«i<iiiM iiioili' of npi'llinj; llio uoinu oT llie rivor und ti<wn i AfoMCUt,
till' Latin; Moncou, liiv Kreiicii; ujkI iloskaii, tin* Gennnii,

_-l«»Uj<»~..-»>^<«~-

MOSCOW — THE KBEMLIN.

353

battlements of the krcnilin, and receiving tlie scanty stream of tl.e Jaousa,
issues again into tlic vast plain, till it meets the Oka, which joins the Volga,
the king of the nortliern rivers, at Nijnei-Novgorod.

On the north of tlie Moskva, streets and houses, in regular succession,
reach to the very harrier ; and though a vast proportion of ground is left
unoccupied, owing to the enormous width of the streets and houluvards,
the cartlien rampart may truly be said to gird in the city. But in the
other quarters, and particularly to tlic south, the city can hardly l)e said
to extend farther than the outward Ijoulovard. Beyond this there arc vast
convents — the Devitchei, Donskoi (our Lady of the Don), and tlie Simon-
ovskoi ; liuge hospitals — the Galitzin, the St. l*aul, and the Chcremctieff,
the largest of all ; the race-course, and the beautiful gardens of the princess
Galitzin along the banks of the Moskva; fields, and lakes, and marshes,
bu', all these are within the outer enclosure of the outer wall. This will
account for its seemingly scanty population (estimated from the last census)
of three hundred and sixty thousand ho'iIs.

The centre of this vast collection of buildings is the kremlin, which, with
its l»cautiful gardens, forms nearly a triangle of somewliat more than a
mile in circumference. Tl»e original founder of the city settled, witliout
doubt, on the kremlin hill, which naturally remained the nucleus of the
city at a later period. Adjoining tliis to the east comes the Kitai Gorod
(Chinese city), which still preserves its ancient fence of towers and but-
tresses. Encircling these two divisions, and itself bounded bj' the river
and inner boulevard, lies the Bvloi Goroil (White city). Tlio space en-
closed between tiie two circles to the north of tlie Moskva, and l)ctween
the riv^r and tlie outward boulevard on tlie south, is called the Zmelnoi
Gorod (Green city). Beyon t the boulevards are tlie suburbs.

Previous to the conflagration of 1812, each of the four quarters was sur-
rounded by a wall and bastions: l»ut all perished in that mighty blaze,
except the eml)attled enclosure of the Kitai GorOd, which escaped almost
unscathed ; and the pious veneration of the worshippers uf St. Nicholas
soon restored the broken walls and crumbling turrets of the kremlin,
" black with the miner's blast," to their present perfect state. The de-
fences of the remaining districts have wisely been dispensed with, and a
style somewhat resemb'ing that of its previous architecture was observed
in repairing the destruction caused by the fire. But this remark does not
apply to the interior of the kremlin, whe"e the arsenal and the new impe-
rial palace are in modern taste, ;ind quite out of character with th ) ancient
buildings within the walls.

Before entering the kremlin, it is well to view it from one or two points
on the outside ; and the most favorable spot for this purpose, on the south
side, is the bridge of Moskva Rek(i. From the river that bathes its base,
the hill of the kremiin rises, picturesquely adorned with turf and shrubs.
The buildings appear set in a rich frame of water, verdani foliage, and
snowy wall — the majestic column of Ivan Veliki rearing itself high above

■~»* • - I

[■^ ;i^-

!"l

- 1 /

ii.

■i ■)

ao4

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

all, like the axis roiuul wliich tiic whole moves. The colors are every-
where most lively — red, wliitc, green, gold, and silver. Amid the confu-
sion of tlie numorour small antique edifices, the Bohhoi Dvoretz (tho
large palace built by the emperor /Mcxandcr) has an imposing aspect.
The churches and ;.iilaccs stand on the plateau of the krennlii! aa on u
mighty sulvcr; the little red ar* gold Church of the Czars co(juett!ug near
the border like some pretty littk maiden, and the paler-colored cupulas of
Milchilooski and Uspcn<! i churches representing the broad ((Wpulenco of
a mcrchiint's wife. The Mafui Dvoretz (Little pahii.t'), anoi iho to.-.vort,
of the Miracle, draw uiodcstly bnok, as besec ;•> hermit?' and lii^lo people.
All these buildings stand on the summit of lb',' kremlin, like its crown —
th-^'»:-clves again crowjied with a iii'ltitude (>■■' cupolas, of which every
church has at least five, and one has tiixteen, glitteriirjr in gold an(i silvf?r.
Tiio aitpoarauce of tho whob' is most pi -turosquc Mid iuteiostiu)!;, and it is
certuiiUy one of the most striking city-views in Europe.

The northern pldo of the kremlin is the least attractive: a pli'in hij^li
wall with two lmUss ;-;vparntcs it, from the Krasnoi Plosciiad (tiic Red
place). The most adorned \s tin* northwest side. Here, in former times,
was tlie Swan-lake. 1* is now drained, and its l)ed forms the site of the
Alexander garden, ■\\hich strcJchcs from the !Moskva to the giant wall of
th'' krcmlii!,

Wiiat the Aernpolis was to Athens, and the Capitol to iJome, the krein'
lin is to Moscow. It is surrounded by a strong and lofty wall, embattled
with many towers and turrets, and several gates. The most important of
these is, bey ■iid (loul)t, the i^pass Vorota (the gate of the Re'locmer). It
is the purUi siicra and porta Iruimphalis of Moscow. Through it entered
the triumphant warriors of Vassili-Ivanovicli, after the conquest of Kazan
and Astraklian, and those of Michael and Alexis, after the victories ob-
tauicd in the Ukraine. Over tins gate is a picture of the Savior, under a
glass, and before it hangs a large, ill-formed lamp, in a massive metal
frame ; this is suspended by a heavy chain, and under it, to wind it up,
stands a complicated old machine, that jarred and rattled here in the time
of the czar Michael. A man, whose sole business it is to wind it up, has
a table beside him with wax-tapers, wliich ho sells to be lighted before the
picture. This shrine is an object of the greatest reverence with the Rus-
sians, although few know what it rej)resent3, it hangs so high, and tho
colors are so faded.

This gate forms a passage through the tower, of about twenty paces long,
and every one, be he what he may, Mohammedan, heathen, or Christian,
must take off his hat, and keep it off, till he has passed through to the other
side. Any one jjassing through, and forgetting to uncover, is immediately
reminded of the fact, nor would it be safe to neglect the hint. This gate
obtairod its sacred reputation in the course of centuries, through many re-
puted miracles wrought by its means. Often, as tho people relate, the Tartars
bavo been driven back from it ; miraculous clouds have veiled the defend-

MOSCOW — Tin: kremlix.

355

tiled
nt of
It
to red
iizaii
i ob-
der a
metal
it up,
5 time
lias
e the
Rus-
d the

long,
listian,

other
iiatcly
Is gate
Iny re-
[artars
icfond-

GlKKKAI. VtKW or TR* KlIHLtK, MnSCOW.

ers of t!io kronilin, wlio Pou<rht its sliolter, whWa the purHuinf:^ Tartars were
iiiialilc to find the entrance. Even tlie prcseiioe of the " temple-phmdering
(iaiils," aocordiiig to the Russians, only sorvod to increase the renown of
tills gate. They tliought the frame of the pictnrc was of gold, and endeav-
ored to remove it. But every ladder tlioy planted broke in the middle I
This enraged the French, who then hrou-rht a cannon to batter down door
and picture together; Init, do what they would, the dry powder was pos-
sessed Ity the devil of water, who was too nmeh for the devil of firo, and
would not explode ! At last they made a great fire with coals over tho
touch-hole: the powder was now subdued, but it exploded the wroujj; way,
blowing: the cannon into a thousand pieces, and some of the French artille-
rymen into the liargain, while gate and picture remained unharmed I Tho
spoilers, now overmastered by dread, wiiiulrew, acknowledging the miracu-
lous power. Such is tho story told by the taper-seller at the gate. The ori-
gin of the custom of uncapping at the " Floly Gate " is unknown ; several tra-
ditions are e.\tant, vet the authenticitv of anv fact is lost in the darkness
of ages ; but the feelings of devotion are still fresh and powerful, and it is
a (|uestion how weighty a bril)c would be sufficient to induce a Russian to
pass this archway, Ity either day or night, without uncovering his head.
Tlie emperor himself bares his imperial brow as he approaches the Spaskoi;
the officer and soldier in all the pomp and circumstance of war do the same ;
and thus tradition says it has been since the wooden walls of the first krem-
hn were raised. The greatest care is taken not to allow dogs to enter by
the Savior's gate — a proof that in a religious point of view tho Russians
look upon this animal as unclean.
The Nicholas gate, although not so privileged as tho Spass Vorota^ hay

■m

:vs3i

85a

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIITION OF PUSSIA.

alao a wonder-working picture, that of St. Nicholna, over it. It was iiojir
the entrance of this gate that Napoleon's powder-wagons, exph)dotl and
destroyed a large part of the arsenal and other buildings. The gate oa-
capcd with a rent, which split the tower in the middle as far as the frame
of the picture, which stopped its farther i)rogrc8s. Not even the glass of
the picture, or that of the lamp suspended before it, was injured. So says
the inscription on the gate, and the remarkable rent is eternalized by a
stone differing from the rest in color.

All the gates of the krcndin are connected by a strong and lofty wall,
which encloses it in the form of a vast triangle with many towers. Within
this wall arc contained all the most interesting and historically important
buildings of Moscow : the holiest churches, with the tombs of the ancient
czars, patriarchs, and metroj)olitans ; the remains of the ancient palace of
the czars, the new one of the emperor Nicholas, the arsenal, senate-house,
Ac, and architectural memorials of every period of Russian history — for
every Russian monarch has held it his duty to adorn the krcndin with some
monument.

The two most important remains of the old palace of the czars are the
Terema and the GraiwviUtija Palatn — the former containing the gymna-
sium, the latter the coronation-hull of the czars. The main body of the
palace was so much injured by the French, that no restoration was possil)le.
In its place a new palace was erected, called the Bohhoi Dvoretz (Great
palace), or, from its builder, the Ale.vandvrski Dvoretz. The ruins of
both the others are by the side of it, and connected witli it by stairs and
galleries. They were so desolated by the Fn>nch, that door and window
stood open to wind and tempest. The coronation-hall was restored long
ago, and the emperor Nicholas also repaired the Terrma.

Terema, or terem, is the name given in every Russian peasant's house
to the upper part of the l)uilding, round which, sheltered by the projecting
roof, a balcony runs, and where the daughters and younger chile" 'en of the
house are lodged. It may easily l)e imagined that the terema jdays no in-
significant part in the love-songs of the people. This part of the old palace
of the czars is called pre-eminently the Terema. The building consists of
four stories, of which the lowest is the largest, gradually diminishing, till
the up]>er floor is so small as only to contain one room. On the space thus
left by the retreat of the upper story from the eeilinj; of the under, a bal-
cony is formed, with steps both within and without, ascending from one
terrace to the other. On the lowest floor arc the throne and audience-
chambers of the czars ; the upper one was the dwelling of the czarovnas
(princesses) and the children. All these rooms have been repaired in the
old Russian taste. The stoves are very peculiar in form, and all the plates
of which they are composed ornamented with paintings. The walls are
ornamented with decorations almost outvying the gorgeous glories of the
Alhambra. They display an extraordinary confusion of foliage, vine-trel-
lises, singularly-imagined flowers, woven in arabesques, and painted with

MOSCOW — lUPERIAL PALACES.

85f

the gnyost colors. On tlio pnintod brniuilii's arc perched birds, yellow,
blue, gold, and silver ; squirrels, mice, and other small animals ; on every
bough liangs a load of costly fruit, and all' sorts of knots and figures in gold
arc entwined among them. Here and there arc portraits of the czars, ar-
morial bearings, houses in miniature, and what not. Originals for these
fancies were found in old churches, but of course the work of the modern
artist is much more elegant, richer, and bettor executed.

Frt)m one of the terraces of the Teremr. there is an entrance into the
little church of the Redeemer, which was also plundered by the French,
l)ut re-endowed most magnificently with gold and silver vessels by the em-
perors AU'xaiidor and Nicholas. Tliis is ornamented with twelve gilded
cupolas, the size of chimneys — the sight of which, no doubt, in the days
of childhood, delighted many a czar. It was on the terrace-roof of the
Terenia, whence tlicre is a splendid view of the city and its environs, that
NapoK'on phicod himself on the first day of his very short stay at Moscow,
to behold the beauties of his short-lived and fatal conquest.

Connected also with tlic liotslioi Drorc/z is tlie singular building of quad-
rangular or euliiciil foriu, tiie dranovildija Pubtln. On the second story
is the coionation-liall of the czars, a h)W and vaulted ajiartment, the arches
uniting in the centre, where they rest n{»on a thick, square column. The
crimson-velv> ( hangings used at Nicholas's coronation still ornament the
walls ; tliey arc eniltroidered in gold, with eagles bearing thunderbolts,
and with tlie initials of the emperor: a golden candelabriun is worked be-
tween each of these. The tlirone, niuler a velvet canopy, is opposite the
entrance, and over the windows are the armorial bearings of the difierent
governments of Russia. Tlie pillar in the centre is divided by circular
slielves, on which the regalia are displayed on the day of the coronation.
Here the emperor sits enthroned, after the ceremony in the cathedral,
adorned for the first time with all the imperial insignia, and dines amid
his nobles. After that royal feast the room is untrodden, save by the curi-
ous stranger, until death calls the reigning czar to the sepulchre of his
fathers, and the gorgeous banquet is spread anew for his successor.

A long, low passage, llu; walls of which were richly painted and gilded
with barliarous devices, led to the room of state of the rulers of the olden
time. They knew not of seat or throne, save the deep niches cut in the
painted walls ; and where, unless they far out-topped in stature the degen-
erate mortals of later times, tliey must have sat with their royal legs dan-
gling most uncomfortably in mid-air, as the niches arc between three and
four feet from the ground.

It has been remarked tliat, on the spot where the main body of the old
Tartar palace stood, the emperor Alexander erected the Bolshoi Dvoretz
(Great palace). It is very lofty compared with its facade, but the whole
effect is good when viewed from the base upward. The interior is not
striking for either its decorations or furniture ; nevertheless, the palace,
though of such recent erection, is not without interest. The rooms, which

858

ILLUSTRATKD DRSCUiniON OP RUSSIA.

have been at various times inIiiiI)itoil by members of the imperial family,
are in exactly the same state us when tlioy left tlicm ; and the servants
who show tlio bnildiiij; announce the history of each room — as the throne-
room of the em|M'ror Aloxiiii(lor, the lialli-room of the empress Mai'ia Feo-
dorovna, tte. Almost every room is illustrated by silent memorials of
those who once ocenpied the apartments. In the apartment of the emj)0-
ror Alexander is a pocket-handkerchief which he left hen' Itefore ho set
out for Taganrog ; there are also some instruments which indicate what
his occupations were — as a rule, quadrant, Idnck-lcad pencil, India rubber,
Ac. His bedroom is as simple as it can well be: a bed with a straw-mat-
tress, half a dttzcn leather-covered chairs, and a small looking-glass, make
up the whole furniture.

The Mnloi Dmntz (Little palace"), adjoining the Grnnin'itdifa Pa/tifn,
was built by the emperor Nicholas, antl nothing like magnilicence has l)e(in
displayed ; on the contrary, the furniture and geiieral arrangements are, as
in the private ]>alace at St. lVtersl)urg, of the simplest kind. 'I'his was
the emperor's n^sidencc before his elevation to the thri>ne, and, having
spent the lirst years of his married life here, he was mucii attaclmd to it.
The musket of a common soldier is shown in one of the rooms, as a favor-
ite piece of furniture, an.l with it Nicholas used to go through the manual
exercise, while giving his little sons their i'wr-l lessons in the art of war.
Some Polish eagles are to lie seen here. From the windows of this palace,
the emperor, when residing at Moscow, shows himself to his admiring bul)-
jects, who assemble to sec him on the parade-ground below.

There are some interesting jiictiires here, by Hernardn Uelolto de Cana-
Ictto, representing scenes in I'oli.-h history, (hie is particularly interest-
ing and beautifidly executed, portraying very faithfidiy iIm; "Election of
Stanislaus Augustus by the lUel of Warsaw, in 17<I4." The king is r(>j>-
rescnted as crowned in the open air, on the field of V(da ; and round his
throne sit tlie nobility and clergy, the former with their swords drawn.

In one of the rooms is the mattress of the emperor Nicholas, on which
he lay without any other bed between, and stalled so hard and light, that
a shutter, in the ab.scnco of it, would not have inconvenienced his imperial
majesty I The lilirary in the emperor's cabinet contains all the works that
have been written concerning Moscow, in French, Russian, and German.

In another of the apartments, and under a glass case, are a n\iml)er of
loaves, which have been presented to the emperor on his various visits to
Moscow. When the sovereign arrives, it is customary for the ffolova, or
chief person, attended by some of the principal citizens, to wait on him,
and present on a silver salver and a gold salt-cellar, bread and salt, re-
questing him to taste the bread of Moscow. The emperor thanks him,
breaks off a piece of the roll, eats it, and then invites iho ifolova to cut
his bread — that is, to partake of a splendid dinner, ; epared at the palace,
at which he if. presented to the empress and the dillercnt members of the
imperial family.

tity of
The

the sh
gold, I
Moses,
coffin
sand d
the Cfi

i:-

MOSCOW — CATIIEOnAL OP THE ASSUMPTION.

It is (lifliciilt to sny how inniiy clmrclios tlicro arc in Moscow, tlio several
ftccoimts (liflbr so widely. Some f[)eak of (ifteeii liiiiKlroil, others five lum-
drcd, :iii(i one writer plaeea thi-ir niimher under three hundred. Some
inelude eliii|>e]s, j)ul»li(! and private, and tlioj^c" in eonvent.s,in the category;
also the wint<!r and snninier cliurehes, separately, for tiiere ix one for each
Hoason, a.s well as those which are joined together — and this mode of eal-
cidation would soon swell their nuinl)crs to thou-^iinds There is exapger-
atioii in ihis, hut there are some churches in the old capital which do in
fact conxist of several joined togetiicr, of which each has its own name,
and is quite separate from the rest; in this nianiit'r the church of the Pro-
tection of the Holy Virgin might he set doWn as twelve.

It is siiflicicnt to say. therefore, that the buildings in Moscow destined
for Hi vine service are almost coimtless, but the quintessence and holiest
of them all, in the eyes of the Russians, is on the height of the krendin.
This consecrated spot, the Snbnnun Phscliad (Cathedral place), has been
surrouinh't' by the emperor Nicholas with a lofty and magnific-ent iron gra-
ting, and ctuil.;::'^ ♦lie U..p< nski Siihnr (cathedral of the Assuuipfion)i tho
Arkhanf^clskoi Sahor (church of the Archangel Michael), and (jur Lady of
the Cave. It is hard to say which is the most important, but i)erhaps tho
preference bcdongs to the Usprns/coi Stihnr, as the emperors are crowned
in it, and tlie patriarch of the Creek church formerly ofliciated here.

The name of a cathedral leails a western Kuropean or an Anujrican to
expect great space and lofty arches, in M'hich the voice returns in echo,
and the eye loses itself in distance; but these expectations will not be ful-
filled in a Russian one. According to the national taste, a church must
be crowdt'd with pictures and shrines: and thus, in this cathedral, eye and
spirit are bewildered with the glitter of gold and the glare of color. The
whole church is gilt within; oven tho heavy pillars that support the five
cupolas are covered with this material from top to bottom, and tho walls
tlio same ; and on this golden ground large fresco-paintings have been exe-
cuted, the subjects taken from tho JJiblc. Tho figures aro gigantic, and
distinguished by ostonishlng strength of grimace ; they are said to have
been painted by foreign artists at the command of the czar Vussili-Ivano-
vich, but they are entirely Russian as well as the church, liid tlie artists
must have yielded to the national spirit. There is more t'ihUhg than gold
in this church, for the French seem to have distinguish* J ^ho true metal
from the false better hero than in the castle-chapel, where they left a quan-
tity of gold, mistaking it for coj)j>fcr.

The priests contrived, however, to secure a pretty littlo salvage out of
tho shipwreck of 1812 — among other things a Mount Sinai of pure ducat
gold, a present from Prince Potcmkin. On tho summit stands a golden
Moses, with a golden table of the law ; and within the mountain is a golden
coffin to contain the host : it is said to weigh a hundred and twenty thou-
sand ducats. A i>il)le, the gift of Natalia Narishkin, the mother of Peter
the Great, is so large, and the cover so laden with gold and jewels, that it

-1

8i;o

II,Li;sTllATKD DracUMTION OP RUSK/A.

ri'(|uircs two tiicn to cany it into tlio clmrcli ; il is said to weigh a i< . . livd
ami twcuiy pouuJs. Tho cmorulds on vhc cover org an invh lonu,und tlia

.**

Catiiediia' or thi Aiiiiim.''TI(in, Mo»co%.»

whole Itiiuling cost one million two hundred tiiouHand roubles, a sum for
wliicli all the boolts in >I>.:^''ow miglit bo handsomely bound,
>\niung the other rcnurkablo objc s in this church is the groat chcstuui-

* A yiuw of the inu-ri of ttii* cathedral is gWrn on pogu 659.

oil.
qiiantitji
turi! coi
washed
Two

MOSCOW — IIOUSK OF THE HOLY SYNOD.

861

cd
.l>«

\m Tot

colored wooden tlirono-scat of Vlmlimir tlio Groat, oiicloflod within a lioiiao
of lirass-work, wliic^h tho UiisHiiiiiH siiy is an imitation of tlio tomb of Christ ;
and also a niiracuhtus pirtiire of the Savior. Iloru too is to l>o Huon a imil,
chtimod to l>o of the tnio cross, a robe of the Savh)r'«, an<l part of one of
tho Vir^iin Afary's. There is lil'-nvise a pieture of hi'r, whieh, it is said,
was painted by St. fiiilu", and bntught from Constantinople by one of tho
parly ezars! The face is dark, almost Idaek, the head eneireled with a
jrlory of precious .stones, and the hands and body gilded. From the cen-
tre of (he roof is snspendi^d a crown of nnissivo silver, with forly-ei^ht
chandeliers, all in a sinjih; |»ieee, and weijrhinjj: nearly three thonsand
ponnds. The pi«;tiires of tlu; saints on the walls an; twenty-tliree hinulred
in nnndier: and i)esides these there are portraits of the ancient (Jrtfck and
Roman hisforian.s, whose names, to prevent confasioii, are attached to their
resemblance.

The cathedral of the Assamplion was foinidi'd in \'V2'>, and ri'l»nilt in
147-. Here are the tomlis of the patriarchs of the (ireek clinreh, one of
whom, St. i'hilip, and honored by a silver monninent, dared to say to Ivan
the Terrible, '* We respect yon as an iniajre of the Divinity, bat as a man
yoa [tartake of the dust of tin; earth 1" The most notalde object of tho
whole c<dlection, howevtn', is the golden shrine of the patriareii Nicon, in
the sacristry, whoso nioiddi'ring skeleton is hero preserved, together with
his wooden spoon. When he held the crosier, it was mightier than tho
sceptre in Russia, for he governed the indolent prince Alexis-Michaelovieh
(father of IVter the (Ireat) ; lait a coiispiraey of the nobles drove him from
power to the Hielosersk convent, whtie he Inul begun his career as a priest.

Ikddnd the cathedral of the Assnnipti<ai stands tlu! house which formerly
belonged to the patriarchs of Moscow, now called the Si/noddlni Dum, be-
cause a section of the " Holy Synod" has its oflice.s here. It contains the
library of the {latriarchs, their trea.'-iiry, and tlujir wardrolio ; and in the
chnrcii attached to it is preserved tlio niir, the holy oil that is used in ba))-
ti/ing all the children in Russia.

Tho books arc kept in ghf^s cases in the church it.self ; and in the niid-
<lle, round the jiillai that sustains tho vaulted roof, the vessels used in pre-
paring and preserving tho oil are ranged on .semicircular shelves. At tho
baptisni of tho child, tho priest crosses, with a small camers-hair pencil
dipped in the oil, the mouth, eyes, ears, hands, and feet : the oyes, that tho
child may only see good ; tho ears, that they amy admit only what is good ;
the moalh, that ho may speak as beseems a Christian ; the hands, that ho
may do no wrong; tho feet, that they may tread in tho path of the just.

The holy oil, the mir, wiflch is to effect all this, is of course no connnou
oil. The linest Florence is used, mingled with a number of essences, tho
quantity and quality of which arc strictly delined ; but tho soul of tho mix-
ture consists of some reputed drops from tho oil-Husk of tho Magdalen who
wa.shed the feet of tho Savior !

Two groat silver kettles, tho gift of Catherine II., aro used in the prepa-

?.62

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

ration of the sacred oils: four weeks elapse before the mass is perfectly
iniiiolcd, before the due number of prayers have been made, and before,
aiuid pious psalmody, every drop has been relined and signed with the
cross. From the kettlt*S the oil is poured into silver jars, thirty in num-
ber, the gift of the emperor Paul, and those arc scaled with the seal of the
synod, and placed on stages round the central pillar of the church. The
quantity made at one time — about throe and a half gallons — supplies all
Russia for one and a half or two years. Every bishop either c(»mes him-
self or sends a conlidontial poison to Moscow, to fetcii a supply for his
diocese, who receives it from the metropolitan. The cost of the whole is
about five thousand roubles. Everything employed in the oi)eration is
silver, as well as the kettles and the jars to keep it in, the sieve for strain-
ing, the spoons lor stirring, itc.

Among the patriarchs' books there arc a number of rare bibles in differ-
ent languagos, so incstinialtly precious, (hat they are always kept under
lock and key, and shown to no one. Tlius, in time, they Avill be eaten by
the worms without any person being llio wiser. The four gospels, trans-
cribod by the daugliter of Micliaol Roiniinoft". and sister of the czar Ale.\is,
are shown here. Every let tor is carefully and beautifully painted. There
is j)robably nowhere to be found such a monument of pious industry of so
recent a date.

The Arkhaiii^efsftoi Sabur (oathodnil of the Archaugel Michael), also in
the kreudin,altiiough dedicaLod to tlie angel of the flaming sword, has such
very diminutive windows, that all the light of its jewels, and all the glitter
of its gold, are barely sufTicicnt to enlighten its blackened walls. The
shrine that shines the brightest in the night of this church is that of a little
boy, in whose name more l)lood has boon shed than in that of any child in
the world, and whose memory is now worshipped here. It is the last false
Dmitri (Demetriis), who has long rested hero, and enjoyed the homage
of all Russia ; and as he now makes no claim to an earthly kingdom, he
enjoys his share in the heavenly kingdom uncontested. Of course, the
Russians Jo not esteem him the false but the real Dmitri. The fact they
adduce in i)roof of this is exactly what raises in others the greatest doubt.
They say that, after the body of the royal child had been in vain sought
for in Uglitsh, where he was murdered by the emissaries of Boris Godunoff,
it aro.se, coflin and all, from the ground, at Cod's command, and presented
itself to the longing people, whereby its genuineness was j)alpiil)ly mani-
fested ! Be this as it may, the mummy of a boy of five or six years of age,
magnificently clad, is exposed on festivals in an open c(tfTin. Every part
is veiled but the forehead, which is kisstid by his adorers. Above the cof-
fin is tl portrait of the little canonized prince, attached to a pillar, and
set in a raised frame of the finest gold. Being well concealed, it escaped
the French in 1S12.

How strong is the affection the Russians still feel for this last offshoot
of the old Rurik dynasty was recently testified by a gift niade to the young

the

MOSCOW — CHURCH OF THE ANNUNCIATION.

363

iffslioot
young

tnnrtyr, liy tlio iiiliabitaiits of Uglitsh, of a now silver candlestick, as tall
as iui onlinary man, wilh a profiisely-clocorated pedestal, and a largo, flat
top. On this top is a cavity in the centre for the reception of a tliick wax-
candlo, with a number of smaller cavities around, for candles of different
dimensions.

A whole l)ody must necessarily take precedence of a few dro))s of blood.
Hence, a few drops claimed to be of the veritable blood of John Baptist
after ho was beheaded, are little regarded by the Russians, althongh set in
gold, with diamond rays like the centre of a star. One would think that
the blood of John Baptist was immeasurably dearer to Christendom than
that of this royal child ; but in l{us.sia the Christian religion is everywhere
oversliadowed by the Riissiun. The pictures of Paul, Peter, and the other
apostles, arc seldom seen, in either the churches or private houses ; whereas
St. Vladiuiirs, Dmitris, Nicholases, and Gregorys, are mot witli at every
turn. Even tlie Savior and Mary his mother must take a Creek or Rus-
sian title liefore they enjoy meet reverence. The ll)crian Boshia 3Iater,
and sho of Kazan, are (juite other godheads from tlio suffering Virgin.

Tlie czars down to Peter the Great (since wiiom the sovereigns have
been buried in the fortress of Peter and Paul, at St. Petersburg) lie in the
church of the Archangel Michael. Their portraits, as large as life, arc
painted in fresco round the walls, each wrapped in a white mantle, by his
own tomb, as if watcliing it. Tiiey are all evidently made after one pat-
tern, and that no very choice one. The tombs arc nothing better thai:
heaps of i)rick whitened over. On tlie walls and cover of the sarco|)hagi
are inscribed the names and paternal names of the czars, with the years of
their birth and death. The tomb of Ivan the Terrible and his ill-fated son
arc hero.

A portion of the screen in this church is one sheet of pure gold. Close
to tliis cathedral is an odil-looking church, which is constantly thronged
with devotees. It is said to bo the most ancient in Moscow. Tho walls
are of immense strength.

The churcli of the Annunciation has its floor paved with stones of all
sizes and shapes — jasper, agatt>, and cornelian. Hero is the royal seat of
the czars, made of wood, covered with silver gilt, and shaped like a sugar-
bowl, with a cover to match. Tliis church is rich in relics of all tho saints
in the calendar, not a few in number ; but the most remarkable olijoct is a
fresco-pain ling on tho wall, re|)rosenting an assembly of good and evil
spirits, tiie latter headed by Satan himself, breathing llanio and smoke, and
horned, hoofed, and tailed ! *' Tho French," says Kohl, " left a largo ham
in picklo on tiio kremlin. Tho priests repeated with deep emotion tho
story o*" tho French stabbing their horses in tliis c'".nrch, and people from
tho provinces never hear this without shuddering, and swearing eternal
hatred to that nation."

In addition to tho churches and j)alaces already cnumoratod, there is in
tho kromlin an immense pilo of buildings called '' tho Soiiato," within tho

\i^

itilfiilll

364

ILLUSTRATED DESCRTPTION OP RUSSIA.

walls of wliich arc the offices of all the various departments of the local
govcriimoiit. This building forms one side of a triangle, the remaining
two being comjiosed of the treasury and arsenal. In the vestibule of the
treasury, or OrovjicPalfast, is a collection of busts of noble Poles, " quiet
memorials of very unquiet gentlemen," mostly of the seventeenth and eigh-
tecntli centuries, finely executed, and evident likenesses; and on this, the
ground-floor, there is also a very curious and large collection of the state-
carriages of former sovereigns. Among them is that of a Russian patri-
arch, whirli has tale windows ; likewise a very small one that lielonged to
Peter the Great when a child ; and a sledge fitted up like a drawing-room,
in whicli the empress Elizabeth and twelve of her suite used to dine when
on her journeys itetwecn the two capitals : it is not unlike tiie cal»in of a
ship, with a talile in tlie centre ; the interior is well but not lu.xuriously
fitted up. Some of these ancient equipages have whole fir-trees for their
axles'. One of them is said to Iiave been built in England.

Here also is a model of an ill-conceived and extravagant design for a
palace, which Catherine II. is said to have contemplated erecting on tiio
kreinlin hill. Everytiiing, with the exception of the old churches and
tower, was to have lieen levelled with the ground, and this giant palace,
forming a screen roinid the whoh;, was inten<le<l to replace them. The
circumference of the walls of this bi'ilding wuiild have been two miles ; tho
model is said to Iiave cost twelve tiiousand dollars! Luckily, some new
freak of fancy interfered to save the krenilin from this threatened desecra-
tion ; and the model, beautifully executed, and capable of being taken en-
tirely to pieces by means of nmnerous sliding panels, remains a memorial
of the skill and dexterity of the artist.

Here, too, is preserved the alarm-liell of" the mighty Novgorod," which,
in the days of its power and celebrity, was looked upon as the palladium
of that proud city, and tlie removal of which to Moscow was considered
by the citizens as tiie final blow to its prosperity. Its size, tliough con-
siderable, is here scarcely appreciated, from the immediate contrast with
the " monarch bell," in the adjoining square.

The chief attraction, however, is in the upper etory of the treasury,
where, in a suite of rooms, are collected and arranged the crowns of the
early czars, warlike ti'ophies and trappings, and a host of historical knii;k-
knacks too numerous to mention. In one room is a man's saddle and
trappings belonging to Catherine II., on which she used to exhibit herself
to her loving subjects in the uniform of her guards — a very favorite amuse-
ment of that empress; and certainly, to judge from the fidl-length picture,
the costume became her bravely. Tiie bridle-head and reiiis, as well as
the stirrups and saddle-cloth, are most lavishly strewn with diamonds,
amethysts, and large tuniuoises.

Nor an; memorials of tiie great Peter wanting. Among them are his
huge pocket-book, of coarse leather; his immense drinking-cup ; also a
glasa cup, with a ducat enclosed m it, blown by tiic czar himself j and nu

Hji, i-WKK -•■■ ftff***""*^*'

MOSCOW — TREASURY — PALACE OF ARMS-

-THE MONARCH BELL. 865

mcroiis s|ieeinicns of hi? mechanical slcill and unwearied industry. A
curious model of a ship, of silver gilt, sent to him from Holland, is worthy
of notice.

A large recess is occupied witli a most miscellaneous assortment of
clotlii's, belonging to five or six successive occupants of the Russian th.rone ;
the coarse brown frock of Peter the Great is ranged beside the spleiididly-
eml)roidercd robes of his consort, and the still more gorgeous apparel of
the second Catherine. Here, too, is the canopy of state beneath which,
at the coronation, tlic emperor walks from his palace to the cathedral of
the Assumption ; while the whole extent of one long wall is occupied by an
array of boots, from tiie masssive and iron-bound jack-boots of Peter to the
delicate bcavcr-skin of the emperor Alexander, apparently but little fitted
for a Ru,«sian winter.

In a court near the treasury, or, as it is sometimes termed, the Orushei-
nai/n Palata (palace of Arms), are arranged tlie cannon taken by the Rus-
sians during the disastrous retreat of the French in 1812. A tropliy com-
jjo.sed of tliein, erected in the most conspicuous spot in the krondin, would
make an excellent pendant to tiic column in the Place Vendume at Paris,
erected by Napoleon from cannon taken at Marengo and Austerlitz. Most
of these guns, and others, arc ranged in long rows, willi small sliields,
erected on staves, to indicate to which nation they oiigiiially l)elonged.
The ar.senal, to tiio right of the .senate, contains a maga/ine of weapons
t<ufticieut to arm a hundred tlioussand men, and a collection of standards of
Russia's enemies. The s|.oils of Pougatcheft" are the only objects of inter-
est. Tlii.-^ reliellious ('ossack once terrified tlie Russian empire with can-
non at which Russian children would now laugh. They are nulliing more
ti'.'ui clum.'*y iron tubes, and the coarse seam of the joining i.s visilde. The
flag curried before this plunderer is worthy of the oril nance, being of coarse
sackcloih, with a ]\ladoniux painted on it. 1'iiis rag ^as fastened to a staff
which looks as if it iuul been fashioned by a l>ill-hook. Tlie standard, how-
ever, possessed, in all prol)ability, a kind of sanctity, for a breacli in tho
centre is carefully repaired with an iron ring, The muskets arc principally
of Toula manufacture, and in a press are kepi specimens of the muskets of
other nations.

Close to tho tower of Ivan Veliki, and reared on a nmssive pcdostal of
granite, stands the mighty bell, most justly named " the Monarch" (^Czar
Kolokof), for no other in tho world may dispute its sovcrijignty. It was
cast by the command of tho empress Anne, in IT^JO, and bears her figure
in Mowing robes upon its surface, beneatli wliich is v deep border of (low-
ers. It is said that the tower in which it originally hung was burnt in
1737, anl its fall buried the enormous ma.s,s deep in the earth, and broko
a huge f/agmont from it. There it lay for many years, visited in its sub-
terraneous abode l)y the enterprising traveller only, and carefully guarded
by a Russian sentinel. In tho spring of 1837, exactly a century after it
fell, tho emperor Nicholas caused it to bo removed, aud, rightly deeming

<iJl

i,;i:i

. s

866

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

; %

Thc Qrb^t TIkll or Moicow.

it to be one of the greatest wonders of this wondrous citv, pincod it upon
its present pedestal, with the broken frafrnient beside it. Tiie fracture
took place just above the boruoriii*; of (lowers that runs round the bell,
and this piece is about six feet hifrh and three feet wide. Thc height of
the whole bell is twonfy-ono feet tlircc inches, and twenty-two feet five
inches in diameter, and it i,'< in no part less than three inclics in thickness.
Seen from even a short distance, surrounded as it is on all sfdes by object!
on fuch an 'ininense .scale, with tiie lofty Iviui Veliki towerinjr imniediatoly
behind it, the i nprc8i*ion of its mag'nitude is by no inean^ Htrikinp: it i?
otdy whc'i thc spectator comes near to it, and stands be.-''!'' thc broken
fragment of this metal mountain, or descends the stairs that l^-a^ l)eneath
it and looks up into its capaci^>us cavern, that he becomes wnsible of its
enormous l)nlk. This giant communw^a'tor cf sound has Ijo^b *on.socratcd
as a chapel, and the entrance to it is 1>y an iron gate, an^i d'/wn a few
Steps tliat dcsceiic^ into a cavity formed by the wall and tiie wf^avji.tion
under it.

The "Czar Kolokol" is kii^ily venerated, for tlM> rflligi<;«*i« (V'clinjp^ of
the people were called into action when it wa* cai»t atid wery «»^ ti^ho
had u fraction of thf precious metals threw into the nv-Winfr mmh t^-rao
v^riv.g of cither silver or gold ; the decorative part? of it awe in hm r«l'<rf,
And badly executed. Thc largest lx;ll in FraiK^. that of Rouen, «rei((h«
but t!:irty-rfix thousand pounds ; the famo«« " Tom" of Lincoln, in Kokand
<*nst in liUO, and afterward cracked, was not quite ton thousand p'^iinds,
though thc new one is somewhat larger; tttc srrcat fire-bcU in the --owor of

Europi

MOSCOW — THE TOWER OF IVAN VELIKI.

SfF

tlic city-hall at New York is only about twenty-one thousanrl pounds; but
llic btll of the krcmlin weighs between three and four hundred tliousaud
])ounds I The value of this mass 'f metal, estimated from the present price
of copper, must be upward of a million and a half of dollars. Bell?, as
well as everything; else connected in the remotest degree with ecclesiastical
purposes, arc hold in great rcfpect by the Russian pco[)l(\ but that of the
krenilin is recommended to especial veneration by the name of the "Eter-
nal Bell."

The tower of Ivan Veliki (John the Groat) is amosi singular building;
risin^" without ornament of any kind to the height of mf)rc than two hun-
dred feet, s. '.•mounted by a gilded dome, upon which, as on all the otlu?!'
gilded domes within the kremlin (about sixty in number), the cross is dis-
ph\yed above the crescent. This tower, the kl'ticst and most remarkal)lc
iu Jfo. cow, is the campitnile to the church of St. Nicholas the Magician.
The suniiuit is gained by a good staircase, and the view from each story,
which ser es as a belfry, stimulates the visiter to renew his exertions to
roach the top. In the first of these stories hangs, iu solitary grandeur, a
boll, whicli, but for the mightier one below, would appear stupendous. It
woigiis sixty-four tons ; it is consequently four times as heavy as the famous
boll of I^>u^•n, and six times that of the city-hall in New York. To
ring it is, of course, impossible : even to toll it requires the united strength
of throe men, wlu), pulling with separate ropes, swing the vast clapper
round, making it strike tho boll in throe difleront places. Standing under
it, and with iiis arm stretclied out above his hoad, the traveller, even if a
lall man, will fail to touch the top. In the bellry above that in which this
is suspended svre two other bells of far smaller but still of immense propor-
tions ; and above thet^c are forty or fifty more, whicli diminish in size in
eaoii tier successively. Tlie tones of these various bells arc said to be very
lieautifid.

A superior dexterity in easting metal;», traditionally preserved in this
part of the earth from the earliest times, is proved by the bells now hang-
ing in this tower, which were cast soon after tlie erection of tho church in
1000. Tlie largest, described above, is held so sacred, that it is sounded but
three times a year, and then aione; the others arc rung all together, and
an extrafudinary noise they must make : but this din and jumble of sounds
is that which is most [)leasing t(; Russian ears I On Easter eve a death-
like silence reigns in all the streets, until on a sudden, at midnight, tho
tiiunders of the guns of tho kremlin, and the uproar of its bells, supported
by those of two hundred and fifty other churches, arc heard. The streets
and church-towers are illuminated, and a dense throng of four hundred
thousand people seems inspired with but one thought and feeling: with
mutual felicitations and embraces, all repeat the words " Christ is risen,"
and all evince joy at the glad tidings.

The viev; f»"om the summit of this tower is one of the most remarkable lu
Europe. Ciustcred round it are the numerous gilt domes of the churches

»««»*» laii.uu j.A>«» ^

868

ILI.USTOATKD DESCRIPTION OP IIUSSIA.

within the krcnilin, and those of tlic ancient and peculiar building called
the tower of the krcnilin ; among these arc grouped the treasury, the
bisho])'s jialace, and other modern edifices, strangely out of keeping with
the ea.steru architecture of the place, all of which are enclosed by the lofty
embattled walls and fantastic towers of the fortress.

Near tlic " Holy Gate," the green towers of which are surmounted by-
golden eagles, is the cathedral of St. Basil, grotesque in form and color ;
and winding under the terrace of the kremlin gardens la the Moskva, the
silvery though narrow lino of which may be traced far into the country.
Roui'd this brilliant centre stretches on every side the city and its suburbs,
radiant in all the colors of the rainbow, which are used in the decoration
of the roofs and walls of the churches and houses ; the effect of this mosaic
is }ieightcned by the foliage of the trees which grow in many parts of the
town as well as on the banks of the river. The Greek f,!-ade of the found-
iiiig-liospital attracts attention from its extreme length and the style of its
architecture, in such striking contrast with that of the town generally.
Tlie old monasteries, with their bright-blue domes spangled willi golden
stars, and minarets gilt or colored, particularly of the Simotov and Don-
s^.rd, surrounded by groves of trees, lie scattered on the skirts of the town,
licyond these are the Sparrow hUh, on which Napoleon paused ere he de-
scended to take jtosscssion of the devoted city. No view of any capital in
Europe can be compared with that of Moscow from this tower, except that
of Constantinople from the Galata or J*eraskier's, which surpasses it in
beauty, for the horizon here is one unbroken line of dreary stcpi)e, while
at Stamboul tlie distance is formed by the sea of Marmora and the snowy
summits of Olympus. In St. Petersburg, all is whitiwash, and stiff and
stately, I»ut in her ancient rival all is picturesque ; the city sooms to work
gradually upon the teelings as by a spell: her wild Tartar invaders and
boyard chiels of the olden tine rise up in the imagination and jieople again
in fantastic array the wide terrace of tlie old fortress ; while the deeds of
the foreign invaders of our own times impart a thrilling interest to the
scene — the northern limit of the long career of Napoleon's comiucsts.

Descending from the tower of Ivan Veliki, the traveller may jmss by
the emperor's palace to the western gate of the kremlin, which, like the
other three entrances, has a lofty, tapering ur.ver of green and white, and
a gilt eagle for its vane. Here a liight c steps lead into the kremlin
gardens, which bound the whole western part of the fortress ; these are
beautifully laid out, and on this spot fireworks arc let off on the eve of
every ft.'stival.

The cathedral of St. Basil, also called the church of the Protection of
Mary, is situated on the Krnsnoi Ploscfi ad (R(;d place), between the walls
of the kremlin and those of the Kitai G'orod (Ciiinesc city), and an euiflco
more bizarre, in point of both form and color, can not well be imagined.
Standing alone at the extremity of tliis Avide area, the Vassili Blagennoi
Bocins erected in tiiis conspicuous situution as if to show how grotesque a

■' ' " " " wt n -

MOSCOW — CATHEDRAL OP ST. BASIL.

309

Cathedbal or St. Baiil. Moicov

building the ingenuity of man could devote to
the service of his Makoi*. There are no less
than twenty towers and domes, all ofdilTcrent sliajms and sizes, and painted
in every possildc color : some are covered with a network f)f fiivcn over i\
surface of y(?llow. another dome is a i)ri<rht red witli broad white sta'ipcs,
and a third is t>lldeil I Some historians afli'-m tliat it was hnilt to coin-
nieniorate the capture of Kazan : others tiiat it was a whim of Ivan tlio
Terrible, to try iiow many distinct chapels could be erected under one
roof. Oil a gi>t>« extent of ground, in such a manner that divine service
could Ite perfitnut^d in all simultaneously without any intf*rferonee one with
another. It is also said that the c:car was so delijihted with the architect,
an Italian, who had thus admirably gratiiied his wishes, that when the edi-
fice was finislied he sent for him, pronounced a warm panegyric on hia
work, and tiien had his eyes put out. in order that he might nevt>r Oi 'Id
such another! — a strange caprice of cruelly, if trub — punishing the man,
n')t lor failing, but succeeding, in gratifyn.j; his ciuployer.

The entire structure is far f>'om forming a whole, for nu nain building
is discoveralile in this architv-ctural maze; in every one of the towers or
domes lurks a separate cliurch, \n e\ery excrescence a chapel ; or they
may bo likiMied to chimneys expanded to temples. One tower stands forth
prominently amid the confusion, yet it i.s not in the centre, for there is in
fact neither centre nor side, neither beginning nor ciul : it is all here and
tliere. Strictly speaking, this tower is m* towtn* at all, but a church, and
the chief om; in tlic knot of churches, th<e " churcli of the Protection of
Holy Mary." This '^o-ver, one hundred and fifty feet in height, is quite

1 i

l!h|l

'" i

i -' ' 1

'>nw>n<u> «u,M-.'i

S70

ILLUSTltATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

liollow within, liaving no division of any kind, and lessening by dcgi'ocs to
the suniniit; and from its small cupola the portrait of the "protecting
Mother" looks down as if from heaven. This church is placed as it were
upon the neck of another, from the sides of which a number of chapels pro-
ceed — Palm-Sunday chapel, the chapel of the Three Patriarchs, of Alex-
ander Svirskoi, and others. Service is performed in these on one day in
the year only. Tiio greater part is so filled up witli sacred utensils and
objects of adoration, that there is hardly any room left for the pious who
come to pray. Some of the chapels have a kind of cupola like a turban,
as if they were so many Turks' heads from which Ivan had scooped the
Mohammedan brains and suj)pUed their place with Christian furniture !
Souie of the stones of the cupolas are cut on the sides, others not ; some
are three-sided, some four-sided ; some are ribbed, or fluted ; some of the
flutes are perpendicular, and some wind in fpiral lines round the cupola.
To render the kaleidoscope appearance yei laoro perfect, every rib and
every side is painted of a diflerent color. Tliosc neither cut in the sides
nor ribbed are scaled with little smooth, glazed, and painted bricks; and,
when these scales arc closely examined, they even are seen to diff"er from
one another ; some are oval, others cut like leavos. The greater part of
the cupola-crowned towers have a round body, but not all ; there are six-
sided and eight-sided towers.

From remote times wax-taper sellers have established themselves be-
tween the entrances, and there they display their gilded and many-colored
waro.^. From one corner the upper churches are gained by a broad, cov-
ered flight of stops, which is beset day and night by hungry beggars who
look to l)e fed by the devout. Tliese steps lead to a gallery or landing-
place which branches off right and left to a labyrinth of passages leading
to the separate doors of the temple on the roof, so narrow and winding
that it costs many a painful effort to work one's way through. In some
parts they are convenient enough, and even expand into spacious terraces.
Where they lead outward they arc of course covered, and their roofs are
Bupj)orted by pillars of diflerent forms and sizes. Whole flocks of half-
wild pigeons, that Ituild their nests here, are constantly flying in and out.
Imagine, then, all these points and pinnacles surmounted by crescents, and
by very profusely-carved crosses, fancifully wreathed with gilded chains;
imagine, further, with how many various patterns of arabesques every wall
and pass^age is painted ; how from painted flower-pots gigantic thistles,
flowers, and shrubs, spring forth — vary into vine-wreaths — wind and
twist further till they end in -imple lines and knots ; imagine the now
Bomewhat-faded colors — red, blue, green, gold, and silver — all fresh and
gaudy — and the reader may in some degree coinpr-hend how these build-
ings must have delighted the eye of the barbarous Ivan !

The chapel of the " Iberian Mother of God" (called in Russian the Iver-
tkcya Boshia Mater} stands at the foot of the hill by which the Krasnot
Ploschad is reached, and close to the " Sunday Gate " ( Voskresserukaia

MOSCOW — CHAPEl. OP THE IBEBIAN MOTHER OP OOD.

871

C3 bc-
)lorcc\
cov-
who
iidinji-
uling
luling
some
races.
)fs are
half-
d out.
ts, and
liains ;
y wall
\istles,
d and
c now
ish and
buUd-

hc Iver-
vrasnot
enskaia

Vorota), tho moHt frcqucntQd entrance to Moscow. Tlic Red place ia hero
entered by a double archway in the barrier-wall of tho old Tartar division
of the city; and between the two gateways, in a space about twenty feet
wide, is the oratory in question. Georgia gave birth to the miraculouB
picture of tho llicriaii Mother ; thence it passed to a monastery on Mount
Athos, in Macedonia; and sotuc centuries after, her reputation for miracu-
lous powers spread to Russia, when the czar Alcxis-Michaclovich, who
nourished in IGoO, " invited her to Mo.scow, and tixed her abode at tho
Voskresscusk gate." Tlic figure of the saint, resplendent with gold and
precious stones, is placed in a kind of sanctuary, at one end of the chapel.

Striking as the devotion of tlie Russian appears to lie !i* St. Petersburg
and elsewhere, it is not for a moment to be compared with what one wit-
nesses daily in Moscow, not only in the churches, but also before the shrines
and chapels in the streets ; and no Russian leaves or arrives at Moscow,
on or from a jonruey, witliout iuvokiug the Iberian Mother's blessing.
Pasi wlien he pleases, the traveller will remark that this chapel is besot
by worshippers : the first step is always fully occupied, while others, una-
ble to reach that more favorite spot, kneel on various parts of tho pave-
ment; and a greater degree of earnestness will be observed in tho devo-
tions of those who pray here than in any other church of Moscow.

The door.s of the chapel stand open tiie whole day, and all are admitted
who are in sorrow, and hea' • luden ; and this includes here, as everywhere
else, a considerable number, an<I the multitudes that stream in testify tho
power which this picture exercises over their minds. None ever pass, how-
ever pressing their business, without bowing and crossing themselves ; the
greater part enter, kneel devoutly down before the picture of " the Mother,"
and pray with fervent sighs. Here come the peasants early in the morn-
ing, before going to nuirket, who lay aside their burdens, pray a while,
and then go their way ; hither comes the merchant on the eve of a new
Bpcculation, to ask the assistance of " the Mother ;" hither come the healthy
and tlie sick, the wealthy, and those who would become so ; the arriving
and tlie departing traveller, the fortuimte and the unfortunate, the noble
and the beggar — all pray, tluvnk, supplicate, sigh, laud, and pour out
their hearts. Fashiomible ladies leave their splendid equipages and gal-
lant attendants, and prostrate themselves in the dust with the beggars.
On a b.olyday two or three hundred passing pilgrims may be seen kneeling
before " the Iberian Mother." Since the time of Alexis, the czars have
never failed to visit it frequently ; the emperor Nicholas never neglected
it when he came to Moscow, and it is said also that ho more than once in
the middle of the night wakened the- monks, in order that he might perform
his devotions.

Tlie picture is also, >f desired, carried to the houses of sicTc persons ;
and a carriage with four horses is kept constantly ready, in which it is
transported with pomp to the bed of the dying. The visit costs five roi*
bles, and a present is usually made to the monks.

i^sm

■***

872

ILLUSTRATKD nKSrUIPTfOV Ol' aUSSIA.

The clnirchcsof Moscow, as wc liavo nlroady stntod, nrc almost connt
loss. Scarcely a street cup m travel i^ed witliout a cluster of j^recii or red
donic^ and minarets iiieetiiiu ; ho traveller's eye. Tlic convents nnd mon-
asteries arc also numerous, and situated, some in the Interior tu<] iddfst
parts of the city, others in the meadows and jjardens of the siil-urbs, their
walls einl)raein<i; so nuuiy ehnrehes, Iniiidinjis, gardens, and fndds, and
crowned with such numerous towers, that each loolvs like a little town.

Those monasteries most deservin); mention arc the Donskoi ( deditiated
to the Cossacks of the Don), situi'led near the southern l)arrier, surroundc^d
with ancient walls, painted in l)r( ad streaks of white and red, surniount<'d
by battlements like tiiose of the krendin, and eontaininj:: within its enclo-
sure six churches and chapels, several courts, a plantation of l)irch-wo()d,
and dwellings for the nrchimntuhate and monks; tlie Sioioriovs/ivi, at tlie
southeast corner of the city-wall, near where the Moskva quits it, and with
more of the appearance of a fortress than a monastery, its lofty Imttle-
mented walls l»eing actually momited with a few small i ieees of ordname,
and the Drritr/ici convent, at the southwest corner, with walls, flanked by
si.xteen tow(M-s ; a number of churches, one of them containing ihi; toml)3
of several czarinas and princesses; and a ihiirehyard, i)eaulifully laid out
with shrubs and tlowers, and containing a great nunilicr of line monuments.
Close to this convent is the i)r/'»7t7u'/-y>(>/<', or Maidens' Field, where the
emperors, on their coronation, entertain their subjects. The emperor Nich-
olas here, on that 0'H:a-i;o!i, dined lifly thousand j)ersons I

Among educatioiui c;;t blishments, tin- only one deserving of j)articular
notice is tie univ. isity. .vhose jurisdiction is not coidined to th'j city or
government of Mosc .w, but extends over the governments of Tver, Yaro-
slav, Kostroma, Vladinnr, Riazan, Tambov, Orel, Toula, Kalouga, and
Smolensk. It was established by the empress Elizabeth, in 17")5; it
consists of four faculties, and is attended by al)ont nine hundred students.
Its scientific collections are poor, compared with the I)est of those in the
west of Europe, but it is tolerably rich in anatomical preparations. In
connection with it is a gymnasium, a library of fifty thousand volumes, aa
observatory, botanical garden, tte.

Among benevolent establishments u j the Alexander hospital and St.
Catherine's hospital, both situated near the northern barrier of the city,
and another hospital of St. Catherine, near the northeastern corner; two
military hospitals in the eastern, a widow's hospital in the western, and
St. Paul's hospital and the Galitzin hospital in the southern .sections of the
city. Another, the foundling-hosjntal, situated on the northern bank of
the Moskva, a little to the east of the Kitai Gorod, has acquired more
celebrity than all the rest ; but whether it is entitled to be ranked among
benevolent establishments is questionable, as all children, up to a certain
age, are received on presentation, and no questions asked. The number
actually in the house, or supported in some way or other by the institution,
is upward of twenty-five thousand !

ot
rui
is
for

MOSCOW — PUBLIC nUTLDINOa — COMMEnCE — niSTORY.

378

MoHcow possossoM two tlicutrcs — one, whore the porformaiiccs arc ia
French; and Uio uthur, or Alexander Iheaiic, where they are in Russian.
Amonj>; the olher liiiildinfi;H or places wortliy of notice arc the great riding-
Hci\ool, hiiualcd to tiie west of liio lirendin, and suppo.scd to be the largest
building in the world unsupported by pillar or prop of any kind ; the |)rin-
cipal bazar, or f^usliiiui dvor, in the Kitai Gorod, a colossal building of
tli:ee stories, where wholesale nierelnints, to the number of more than a
tliou.sand, carry on their trade ; the Itiiidi, an open space in the same
vicinity, occupied by narrow streets of shd^''^ ; the barracks, along the east-
ern side of the iinicr boulevard; and *'■ '"e-courso, a large oval space,
elongated north and south, and alnv Mio southern barrier. The

number of open anil planted spaces u city is very great. Sev-

eral of these, ineludiug the boulevard.-

already mentioned ; and

wo may now add the [uincess CaVitzin'B gardens, stretching along the right
bank of the Moskva, and beautifully laid out, but now partly occupied by
the empress's villa; and Mie Spiirrow hills to the southwest.

Alaiiufactures of various kinds are carried on to a great extent within
the eity ; but they bear only a small proportion to those which arc carried
on, on its account, in the surrounding towns and villages. The principal
estaiilishments are for tcxiile fabrics, chiefly woollen, cotton, and silk, in
all of which much steam-power and the most inipiuved nmchinery are em-
ployed ; the other principal articles are hats, hardware, leather, ehemical
products, beer, and brandy.

From its central position, Moscow is the great entrepot for the internal
commerce of the empire. (Jreat facilities for this commerce are given by
water-conununication, which extends, on one siiie, u) the Baltic ; on an-
other. t<j the Caspian ; and, on a third, to tho HUick sea; and also by the
railway to St. Petersburg. In winter, tlie trallie over the snow in sledges
is enormous : as many as three thousand six hundred, loaded with goods
for Tedis alone, have been known l(. leave tlie city in a single year.

Moscow, for adniinistrativ e purposes, is divided into twenty -one districts ;
and is under the inunediate charge of a general and military governor. It
is the seat of important civil and criminal courts, and of various superin-
tending boards of police, manufactures, trade, &c. ; and has several liter-
ary, scientific, and other societies ; among which, one of the most prominent
is the Bible Society, established in 1813.

The foundation of Moscow dates from the year 1147. Its nucleus was
the kremlin, which, at first, was nearly surrounded by a palisade, and
formed an important military station. For a long time it continued to be
a dependency on the principality of Vladimir; and, in 1238, when tho
cruel Tartar c.iieftain Batou Khan, a follower of the great Zinghis, devas-
tated Russia, it was both sacked and burnt. In 1293 it was again sacked,
and tho inhabitants were dragged away into slavery, by Khan Nagai, an-
other Tartar invader. It afterward became a prey to intestine dissen-
sions — several princes disputing tho possession of it; but at last, Dmitri,

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ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

snrnamed Donskoi, became BoIe master, and died in 1389, after having
done more for its prosperity than any one into whose hands it had previ-
ously fallen. From this time it became the capital of Muscovy, and con-
tinued to advance in prosperity, though not without repeated interruptions
by fire, pestilence, famine, and war. In 1686, the town was nearly con-
sumed by fire, and two thousand of the inhabitants perished in the flames ;
and in 1571, the Tartars fired the suburbs, and, a furious wind driving the
flames into the city, a considerable portion of it was reduced to ashes, and
not less than a hundred thousand persons are said to have perished in the
flames or by the less lingering death of the sword. In 1611, a great por-
tion of the city was again destroyed by fire, when the Poles had taken
possession of it, under the pretence of defending the inhabitants from the
adherents of Andrew Nagui, a pretender to the crown. And, lastly, in
1812, the emperor Alexander, unable successfully to oppose the triumphal
advance of Napoleon's grand army, and rightly foreseeing that if tlie latter
should winter in Moscow, the ensuing year would see him at St. Peters-
burg, resolved to sacrifice the ancient, holy, and beautiful city, and thus
insure the destruction of the modern Caesar and his invincible legions. It
was a dreadful alternative ; but in the stern and barbarous governor of
Moscow, Count Rostopchin, the emperor found a ready and willing instru-
ment to execute the terrible mandate. The city was the idol of every
Russian's heart, her shrines were to him the holiest in the empire — hol-
lowed by seven centuries of historical associations, it was abandoned to
destruction by the bigoted and fanatical populace, who had been taught
by their rulers and priests to believe that " Napoleon wished to drive the
Russians from the face of the earth !" Accordingly, having cleared out
the inhabitants before the entrance of the French, as soon as the latter
were established within its walls the governor commanded the city-prisons
to be thrown open and their miscreant inmates to fire the devoted town in
all directions. The French made every endeavor to extinguish the flames,
but in vain. Nearly four thousand houses built of stone, and s6ven thou-
sand five hundred of wood, were destroyed in this conflagi'ation.

Although, since the foundation of St. Petersburg, Moscow has ceased to
be the capital of the Russian empire, it is still, from the salubrity of its
olimate and its central position, a desirable place of residence. As such,
it is the favorite resort of many of the nobles, who pass the winter in the
greatest splendor, not l)eing overshadowed, as at St. Petersburg, by the
superior display of the court. Its present population is probably about
three hundred and sixty thousand.

iT. PETEhSBHRO' — ITS 8!TB.

876

CHAPTER XIII.

ST. PETERSBURG.

3uch,
tho
the

ibout

Inundation or St. PlTinsnVKa in 1834.

[E eito of the modern capital ol" the Rus-
sian empire is one of the most singular
that has ever been voluntarily selected for
the foundation of a great metropolis ; and
yet, owing mainly to the genius and per-
severance which have been displayed in
overcoming natural disadvantages, St. Petersburg has, within a compara-
tlvelj short period, acquired a magnitude and splendor which justly entitle
it to rank among the first of European cities.

The Neva, on approaching the termination of its course, turns first north
and then west. After proceeding a short distance in tho latter direction,
it divides into three main branches ; the first of which, under the name of
tho Great Ncvka, proceeds northward ; tho next, or central branch, flows
wcat-northwest, under the name of the LiMlo Nova; and the third, forming
properly a continuation of the main stream, and tlierefore called the Great

lif;J

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876

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Neva, flows southwest, and encloses a largo tract or peninsula surrounded
l)y water on three sides, and contiguous to the mainland only on the south.
Tiie branches form a number of islands, the two largest of wl)ich, separated
from the peninsula by the main stream and Great Ncvka, are the Aptekar-
skoi or Apothecaries' island on the north, and the Vasiliestrov or Basilius
island on the west. In the northwest, subordinate arms of the river form
a number of smaller islands, of which tlio more important are the Petrof-
skoi, Krestofskoi, Kammenoi, and Elaghinskoi. These islands, particu-
.larly the two largest, a small portion of the right bank, and the whole of
the peninsula on the left bank (forming a series of flats which, taken as a
whole, liave nearly an oval shape, and are so low as to be constantly ex
posed to inundation), constitute the site of St. Petersburg.

The Neva, though a broad, lively, and pellucid stream, is generally shal
low ; and at its mouth is encumbered by a bar with not more than nino
feet water, so that the large vessels which are built at the city docks can
only be transported as hulls, to be fitted out at the great naval station of
Kronstodt, about sixteen miles below. Tiiough an attack of the city bj
sea may be all but impossible, the approach by land presents no obstruc-
tion to an invading force, except a deep ditch or canal, stretching across
the southern part of the peninsula, and a citadel, situated on a low island,
so near the centre of ti.e city, that its guns, so far from defending, could
not be used without demolishing it.

The larger and finer part of St, Petersburg being built on the peninsula,
takes the name of the Bolshaia Storona^ or Great side ; all the rest to the
north, on the islands and right bank, is designated the Petersburg side.
The communication between the former and the latter is maintained only
by one cast-iron and three boat bridges, but the deficiency is supplied b"
numerous ferry-boats of uncouth shape and fantastic coloring, which .
constantly plying to and fro.

llic iron bridge was built as late as 1860, and is a beautiful cmbelli^li-
ment to the city. It being the first permanent structure ever thrown across
the Neva, deserves more than a passing mention. The builhng of it was
an engineering work of great difficulty ; the unstable nature of the mud-
bed of the river having thitherto been an insurmountable obstacle to the
very necessary formation of a permanent communication between these two
portions of the city. This was, however, effected by driving piles into the
river-bed, and filling up the intei'stices with stones. Thus a solid founda-
tion was obtained to support the weight of the granite piers, and to resist
t'.ie pressure of the vast and rapid volume of water which, by the contrac-
ti .11 of Iho river, has here a depth of thirty feet. The entire length of the
bridge is about eleven hundred feet, the centre arch being one hundred and
fifty-six feet span. Tlie arches at one extremity rest on a massive pier
constructed at one hundred feet from the northern shore, with which it is
connected by two bridges moving on pivots, to allow the craft to pass up
and down the river.

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ST. PETERSBURG — THE IRON BRIDGE — GENERAL ASPECT.

879

IT, FETXBSBUBOB

XnUAMUn

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L Admiralty.

t. ImiH'i'iul or Winter P«Iiic«.

3. Equeilrinii Stntun of Vetet

OreMt

1 Cliurrli of 8t laHnc.

5. TllllrillH I'llIlK'R.

6. CatbtHlriil t'liurch of KBznn.

the

7. PHlnre of the Gmnd-Doke Mi-

eliwl.
C Kx>-biinf;><.
9. Cnthrriiiliof Pnlnce.

10. Moiiiiittcry nf dt. AlexHnder Ner-
•Itni.

11. Sniulnoi Monnitcry.

13. AIex«ndrov>lioi Plufz Pnraa

13. l'reobriij«ii»lti)i Pliitz PaiRd.

14. 8cmrnov«l<oi I'liitz Pnrad.

15. I-nmilort' I'Intz Piirnd.

16. Winter Provifi.n Mi.rkpt.

a. New Cnstiron Hrldge, with gn»
ite pillars, hcruss tlic Neva.

The bridge was completed on the 21st of November, and was opened by
the emperor in person, after the priests had performed the ceremony of
consecration, ttc. In the accompanying view the artist lias shown the
bridge during the act of consecration. With the broad and lofty buildings
on the quay, it forms a very eflcctive ctntp tTasil. It is remarkable that
this day was the twenty-fifth anniversary of the accession of Nicholas to the
throne — a day considered fatal to Russian monarchs — and yet his confi-
dence was so great, tliat lie ventured without an escort, and attended only
by his stafl', who were almost immodiate^.y separated from him by the
tbron^r ; not a soldier was to be seen in the neighborhood.

The boat-bridges, previously mentioned, consist merely of boarded car-
riage-ways resting on pontoons, and are so constructed that they may be
easily taken to pieces and quickly be put together again, which is neces-
sary to bo done every season, to protect them from destruction when the
Nova is filled with ice.

Owing to the lowness of the site of St. Petersburg, though the loftier
pinnacles and domes arc soon at a considerable distance, the city, whether
approached by land or water, can not be said to become distinctly visible
before it is actually entered, and hence the general impression produced is
greatly hciglitcncd by a feeling of surprise. The stranger suddenly finds
himself between noble granite quays, bordered by edifices of almost unri-
valled splendor, or in spacious streets of apparently interminable length,
rtraight as an arrow, unbroken by the slightest unevenness, and lined with
lofty buildings of uniform structure, often lavishly adorned, and, in color
at least, resembling marble. It is true that the impression is somewhat

330

ILLUSTRATED DFSCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

weakened by a narrower inspection, the greater part of tlio houses proving
to be only of wood or brick, ganushcd with plaster.

As it is impossible to obtain a complete view of the city from without,
recourse i.^ often had to the numerous towers, on which watchmen stand
sentinel day and night, to give the alarm of fire ; but by far the best sta-
tion is the tower of the Admikaity, ccntrically situated on the northwestern
part of the peninsula anu the left bank of the Great Neva, and provided
with galleries, from which all parts of the city may be seen in succession
to the greatest advantage. Looking southward over the peninsula from
this commanding position, three canals — the nearest called the Aloika,
next the Catharina, and last the Fontanka — may be traced, stretching
circuitously from east to west, and dividing the whole space into three
quarters, called respectively the first, sr:-^Md, and third Admiralty sections.

Radiating immediately from the
tower, intersecting these canals,
and spanning them by beautiful
granite l)ridges, are tiic tlirco
principal streets — the Nevs/coi
Pruspikl, or Nova Perspective,
on tlic right ; the Gorokhovaia
Oii/itza, or J'ease street, in the
centre ; and the Vosnosenskoi
Prosnekt, or Resurre(!tion Per-
spective, on the right. The cyo
wanders along these splendid
streets from end to end without
obstruction. They are all of
great length, width, and beau-
ty ; but the finest every way,
and the greatest thoroughfare
of the city, is the Nevskqi Pros-
pekl, which is two miles long,
and one hundred and fifty feet
in width, and has a double car-
riage-way, with footpaths paved with granite, or avenues shaded with linio-
trees. Beyond the Fontanka canal, both on the south and east, and bound*
ed in the former direction by the city fosse, and on the latter by the main
stream of the Neva, is a large space, almost entirely covered with build«
ings, and forming, in addition to the three Admiralty sections already
mentioned, the Narva, Karetznoi, Kojestvenskoi, and Foundry quarters.
Considerably to the east, on the right bank of the river, may bo seen tho
large villages of Groat and Little Okhta.

Turning now to the opposite side of tho town and looking north, the
busy scene presented by the river immediately below first attracts the eye,
which then wanders along the splendid quay which lines the south side of

Nbviboi Pkospbkt, St. PBTit*savBO.

ST. PETEnSBUlta — P0Uin)AT10N.

881

the Vasiliestrov, and is bordered by a succcsBlon of noble edifices. Tlio
buildinps of this island are chiefly confined to its southern and eastern jmr-
tions ; the western and northwestern, forming the far larger portion of the
whole, is covered with trees or is under ciirdcn-cultivation. On the north-
east the most conspicuous object is the citadel, situated chiefly on the small
island of Petersburg, but also possessing an extensive outwork on the island
of Aptekarskoijfrom which it is only separated l)y a narrow channel. On
the north of this outwork another quarter of the city commences, and takes
the name of the Petersburg quarter. It is much less compactly built than
the Admiralty sections, the buildings gradually becoming more isolated,
and giving place to extensive parks and gardens. The same remark is still
more apj)licable to the islands of the northwest, which arc chiefly occupied
by places of amusement, public gardens, villas, and country-seats. On the
northeast, beyond tlio Ncvka, and on the right bank of the river, is tho
Viborg quarter, which has already acquired considerable extent, and ia
rapidly advancing in importance.

A century and a half ago, the locality of St. Petersburg was inhabited
only l)y a few scattered Finnish fishermen. But commanding the entrance
to Lake Ladoga, it was, a military position of some importance, and tho
Swedes Imd long maintained there a fortress, tho possession of whicli had
been unavailingly contested by the Russians, up to 1703, when Peter the
Great made himself master of it. lie determined to found upon this deso-
late spot the future capital of his vast empire ; and at once commenced the
task, without waiting for peace to confirm tho possession of the site. He
assembled a vast numl)er of tlie peasantry from every quarter of his empire,
and pushed forward tho work with the energy of on iron will armed with
absolute power. Tlie surrounding country, ravaged by long years of war,
could furnish no supplies for those enormous masses, and tho convoys
which bro\ight them across Lake Ladoga wero frequently detained Vv con-
trary winds. Ill fed and worse lodged, laboring in the cold and wet, r. al-
titudes yielded to tho hardships ; and the foundations of the new metropolis
were laid at the cost of a hundred thousand lives, sacrificed in less than
six months !

With Peter, to will was to perform : he willed that a capital city should
bo built and inhabited, and built and inhabited it was. In April, 1714, a
ukase was issued, directing that all buildings should be erected in a par-
ticular manner ; another, three months later, ordered a large number of
nobles and merchants to erect dwellings in the new city. In a few months
more another ukase prohibited the erection of any stone mansion in any
other portion of the empire, while the enterprise of the capital was in prog-
ress ; and, that the lack of building-materials should be no obstacle, every
vessel, whether large or small, and every peasant's car, which came to the
city, was ordered to bring a certain specified number of building-stones.
The work undertaken with such rigid determination, and carried on with
such remorseless vigor by Peter, was continued in tho same unflinchint^

:i:!

882

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Bpuit by his successors; and the result was the present St. Potorsbuig,
ill its aspect inoro imposing tlian that of any otiicr city on the globo, but
bearing in its bosom tlic elements of its own destruction, the moment it is
freed from tlio control of the iron will which created and now maintains
it — a fitting type and representative of the Russian empire.

The whole enterprise of founding and maintaining St. Petersburg was
and is a struggle against nature. The soil is a marsh, so deep and spongy,
that a solid foundation, in many places, is obtained only by a subterra-
nean scail'olding of piles. Were it not for these, the city would sink into
the marsh, like a stage-ghost through the trnp-door ! Every building of
any magnitude rests on piles ; the granite quays which line the Neva rest
on piles. The very foot-pavements can not be laid upon the ground, but
must be supported by piles. The remark was made by an English resident
of St. retorsl)urg (hat larger sums had been expended under ground than
above. A groat commercial city is maintained, the harbor of which is as
inaccessible to ships, for si.x months in the year, as the centre of the desert
of Sahara! In the neighboring country no part produces anything for
human sustenance save the Neva, which furnishes ice and fish. The sever-
ity of the climate is most destructive to the erections of human hands ; and
St. Petersburg, notwithstanding its gay summer appearance, when it emerges
from the winter frosts, resembles a superannuated belle at the close of the
fashionable season ; and can only be put in proper visiting order by the
assiduous services of hosts of painters and plasterers. Leave the capital
for a half-century to the unrepaired ravages of its wintry climate, and it
would need a Layard to unearth its monuments. -

But sure as are the wasting inroads of time and the climate, St. Peters-
burg is in daily peril of an overthrow whose accomplishment would require
but a few hours. The gulf of Finland forms a vast tunnel pointing east-
ward, at the extremity of which stands the city. No portion of the city
is fifteen feet above the ordinary level of the water. A strong westerly
wind, blowing directly into tlie mouth of the tunnel, piles the water up sc
as to lay the lower part of the city under water. Water is as much dreaded
here, and as many precautions arc taken against it, as in the case of fire
in other cities. In other cities, alarm-signals announce a conflagration ;
here, they give notice of an inundation. The firing of an alarm-gun from
the Admiralty, at intervals of an hour, denotes th; t the lower extremes of
the islands are under water, when flags arc hung out from the steeples to
give warning of danger. When the water reaches the streets, alarm-guns
are fired every quarter of an hour. As the water rises, the alarms grow
more and more frequent, until minute-guns summon boats to the assistance
of the drowning population.

So much for the lower jaw of the monster that lies in wait for the Rus-
sian capital ; now for the upper : Lake Ladoga, which discharges its wa-
ters through the Neva, is frozen over to an enormous thickness during the
long winter. The rapid northern spring raises its waters and loosens the

ST. PETERSBURG — GREAT INUNDATION OF 1824.

888

ico simultanoonsly. When the waters of the gulf are at tlicir usual level,
the accumulated ico and water find an easy outlet down the broad and
rapid Neva. But lot a strong west wind heap up tho waters of the gulf
just as the breaking up of Lake Ladoga takes place, and the waters from
above and from below would suffice to inundate the whole city, while all
its palaces, monuments, and temples, would bo crushed between the masses
of ice, like "Captain Ahab's" boat in tho ivory jaws of "Moby Dick."
Nothing is more probal)lo than such a coincidence. It often blows from
the west for days together in the spring ; and it is almost a matter of cer-
tainty thnt tne ico will break up between the middle and the end of April.
Let but a westerly storm arise on the fatal day of that brief fortnight, and
farewell to tho "City of tho Czars!" Any steamer that bridges the At-
lantic may be freighted with the tidings that St. Petersburg has sunk
deeper than plummet can sound in the Finnish marshes from which it has
so magically risen !

It is said tlint Peter the Great was warned of the danger to bo oppre-
hcnded from tiie rising of the Neva, but that ho would nevertheless persist
in his enterprise. Tlie following incident is related on this suVvject. He
had already laid a part of the foundation of his new city in the marshes of
Ingrin, when ho accidentally perceived a tree marked around the trunk.
He approached a Fiiniish peasant, and asked him what that mark was in-
tended to indicate. " It is the height to which the inundation rose in tho
year 1680," said the man, with naive simplicity. " You lie !" cried tho
czar in wratli, " what you have uttered is impossible !" and with his own
hand he cut down the warning tree.

But, alas I neither tlie wrath nor the incredulity of the monarch c]iangcd
the habits of the waters. During tlie life of Peter, the river seemed, in-
ieed, to respect his new creation ; but scarcely was the founder of St.
"Petersburg laid in the tomb, when the inundations succeeded one another
quickly. There were terrific ones in 1728, 1729, 1735, 1740, 1742, and
above all in 1777, a few days before tho birth of Alexander. In the last
instance, the waters of the Neva rose ten feet higher than their ordinary
level.*

A catastrophe of tho same kind, but still more fearful, was to close the
life of that sovereign. On the 17th of November, 1824, a wind blowing
from the west and southwest with extreme violence, heaped the waters of
the gulf up into the narrow funnel of the Neva, and poured them, slowly at
first, along the streets. As night began to close in, the waters continued
to rise higher and higher — came streaming through the streets — lifted all
the carts and equipages from tho ground — rushed in mighty cataracts
through the windows and into the cellars, and rose in huge columns from
the common sewers. On Vasiliefskoi island and on the St. Petersburg

* One of ihn unhappy victimi of tliii frightful disnitpr wns the pHnccis TBrakanofT, daughter of
the empreft Elicabcth and of tho count Aloxi* Ragoumofr*ki, who had been for ten years confined
in the fortrect, after having been seduced from Rume by Alexis OrlofT.

884

n-LUSTnATET) DERCRIPTTON OP HUSSIA.

side the suffcrinp was greatest, partieulnrly on tho latter iislnud, whore
ninny of the poor wore hxlgtul in tcncinonts of no very solid coiiHtniction.
Some of tlic woodon lioiist«s woro lifted from the frronnd, and continued to
float about, vith all th*>ir inluiliitnnt.s in them, witliout goiii}^ to piecen.
Eqnipiiges were ninuuhniod in tho streets, and the horses, unable to diMon-
gngc themselvoa from their harness, were miserably drowned, while their
masters had sought safety in some more elevated spot. Tin; trees in the
public squares were as crowded with men as they had ever before been
with sparrows. Still the water itept rising, and toward evening had at-
tained such a height, that it was feared tlio storm woidd tear the men-of-
war from their moorings, and drive them in among tlu; houses. Tlie ca-
lamity was the more destructive, as it had come so noiselessly upon tho
city, tluit none had imagined tlie danger so great as it really was. Tho
emperor speedily gathered a few resolute men around him, sent some of
them with assistance in all directions, and with otliers got into a bark, vis-
ited the spots where the snfTeriiig was most appalling, and did not hesitate
to expose his life to a thousand dangers, in order to rescue all whont ho
could reach, and to whom he co\dd alTurd aid. The worst efleets of tho
inundation were those that were operated unseen. Many houses fell in
only on the following day, when the river had already returned into its
accustomed bed ; but from those that remained standing, it was long before
the damp could be ex|)elled. Sickness became general, and deadly epi-
demics continued to rage in some quarters for many weeks afterward.

The night was terrilde. The waters had continued to rise until the
evening, and should they continue to do so, there seemed to 1)0 no chance
of eseajie during the piichy darkness that might be looked for. Thousands .
of fiimilies, the members of which were separated, spent tho night in tor-
turing anxiety.

Even the most serious things have often a ludicrous side on which they
may be viewed, and, along with the gloomy recollections of that calamitoua
day, a variety of amusing anecdotes have also been preserved. A gardener
had been busy clipping some trees, and had not noticed the rising of the
.ftitcr till it was too late for him to attempt to seek refuge anywhere but
on the roof of an adjoining garden-pavilion, where he was soon joined by
such a host of rats and mice, that he became apprehensive of l)cing de-
voured by them. Fortunately, however, a dog and a cat st)ught refuge in
the same place. With these he immediately entered into an offensive and
defensive alliance, and the three confederates were able to make good
their position during the night.

A merchant was looking out of his window on tho second floor, when
there came float; ig by a fragment of a bridge, with three human bcinga
clinging to it. TVey stretched out their hands to him for help. lie threw
out a rope, and, with the assistance of his servant, succeeded in rescuing
all throe from their perilous position. The first whom they landed was a
poor Jew, who trembled like an aspen-trce ; tho second was a boarded bo-

OT. PCTEIISBURO — CLIMATE.

885

Hover in tho ortliodox Ruaso-Grcck church ; the third wixs a barcheaJed
Mohammedan Tartar ; and the rescuer himsolf a |)rotc8tant, who supplied
his drenched and motley guests with dry clothing and a Si;j;per.

Many helievo that, wluit with merchandise spoiled, houses destroyed,
furniture injured, daningo to the pavement, &c., tliis inundation cost the
city more than a hundred millions of roubles, and that directly and indi-
rectly several thousands of the inhabitants lost their lives ^n the occnnion.
In every street the highest point attained by the water is marked by a lino
on the sides of tiie houses, ^lay the house-painters never ogain bo cm-
ployed in so melancholy an office ! Kvery inch that they might have had
to place their marks higher, would have cojit the city several millions in
addition, and would have plunged at least a hundred moro families into
mourning.

The climate of St. Petersburg oscillates continually between two ex-
tremes. In summer the heat often rises to one lunidred degrees of Fahren-
heit,* and in winter the cold as often falls to forty degrees below zero.
This gives to the temperature a range of one hundred and forty de-
grees of Fahrenheit, which probably exceeds that of any other city in
Europe. It is not merely in the course of the year, however, but in the
course of the same twenty-four hours, tliat the temperature is liable to
great variations. In summer, after a hot, sultry morning, a rough wind
will set in toward evening, and drive the thermometer down thirty degrees
immediately. In winter, also, there is often a difference of thirty or forty
degrees between the temperature of the morning and that of the niglit.
The winter is considered to begin in October, and end in May ; and in tiio
beginning of October every man puts on his furs, which are calculated for
the severest weather that can come, and these furs are not laid aside again
until the winter is legitimately and confessedly at an end. The stoves,
meanwhile, are always kept heated in winter, that the house may never
cool. Inconsiderate foreigners attempt sometimes to follow the caprices
of the climate, and often pay for their termerity with illness and death.

When the mercury is at its lowest j)oint, faces arc not to be seen in the
streets, for every man has drawn his furs over his head, and leaves but
little of his countenance uncovered. Every one is uneasy about his noso
and his ears ; and as the freezing of these desirable appendages to the hu-
man face divine is not preceded by any uncomfortable sensation to warn
the sufferer of his danger, he has enough to think of if he wish to keep his
extremities in order. " Father, father, thy nose ! " one man will cry to
another as he passes him, or will even stop and apply a handful of snow
to the stranger's face, and endeavor, by briskly rubbing the nasal promi-
nence, to restore the suspended circulation. These are salutations to which

• ThriHighoiif tlic prcient work, F»hrenhcit'» thpimomctor must nlwayt bo unfirrstnod to bo the
•tiinibinl by which the tpinpemtiim is mpntured. Eiich degree of Riautniir (zero or being at
the iVocziii); point) i« i>4'|iiivQlent to two and a quarter degree* of Fahrenheit, and each degree of
Cantigrnde equnl to one and four fiaht of Fahrenheit.

iiS

111

iili

.'fi

it':'
"a'

886

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

people are accustomed, and as no man becomes aware of the fact when hia
own nose has assumed the dangerous chalky hue, custom prescribes among
all who venture into the streets a kind of mutual observance of each oth-
er's noses — a custom by which many thousands of these valued organs arc
yearly rescued from tlie clutches of the Russian Boreas.

In this temperature, ladies venture abroad only in close vehicles, of
which every aperture is closed by slips of fur. There are families who at
this season will spend weeks without once tasting a mouthful of fresh air,
and, at last, when the cold has reached its extreme point, none are to be
seen in the streets but the poorest classes, unless it be foreigners, people
in business, or officers. As to these last, the parades and mountings of
guard are never interrupted by any degree of cold ; and while the frost is
hard enough to cripple a stag, generals and colonels of the guard may bo
seen in their glittering uniforms moving as nimbly and unconcernedly about
the windy Admiralty square as though they were promenading a ballroom.
Not a particle of cloak must be seen about them ; not a whisper of com-
plaint must be heard. The emperor's presence forbids both, for he exposes
himself unhesitatingly to wind, snow, hail, and rain, and expects from his
ofiSccrs the same disregard of the inclemencies of the season.

Thp Russian stove is built in a partition-wall, of either brick or stone,
and therefore heats two rooms. These stoves are frequently faced with
the glazed Dutch tile, wiiich increases their power as to heat, as well as
improves their appearance. On one side there is an iron door, inside
which is placed a large quantity of split wood ; and after this has been
thoroughly burnt through, the man, whose business it is to look after all the
stoves in the liouse, rakes the ashes well over to ascertain that every par-
ticle of wood is literally calcined, and then shuts the yushka, a plate of iron
which closes the chimney, and thereby prevents the heat of tlie embers from
escaping : thus tlic mass of brickwork is kept hot for many hours. The
utmost care is required to ascertain with accuracy that not the smallest
piece of wood is left burning when the yushka is put on ; for, should that
be the case, a poisonous gas is emitted by the wood, and fatal consequences
may ensue to those who are exposed to its influence. It is by no means
an uncommon circumstance to hear of people being suffocated by the fumes
of their stoves.

The temperature maintained by these stoves over the whole of a Russian
house is remarkably constant and even — so much so, that, in spite of the
great external cold, there is a perpetual summer in-doors. No additional
blankets are necessary, and no shivering and shaking is to be dreaded on
turning out in the morning. Almost the only wood used in St. Petersburg
as fuel is that of the birch-tree. It is the cheapest to be had in the neigh-
borhood, and its embers are more lasting than those of the pine or fir.

The double windows, which arc universal at this season in the houses of
the rich, and common in those of the poor also, contribute in a great de-
gree to keep them warm. Early in th? autumn every crock and cranny is

ST. PETERSBURG — WINTER — THE NEVA.

887

closed with either putty or paper, save and except a single pane in each
room, constructed so as to open like a door ; tliis is called a forteshka.
The interstice between the inner and outer windows is covered to the
depth of a few inches with sand or salt, to imbibe the moisture. The salt
is piled up in a variety of fanciful forms, and the sand is usually formed
into a kind of garden decorated witli artificial flowers. These bloom and
blossom through the winter in their glassy cases, and as in these arrange-
ments every family displays its own little fancies and designs, it furnishes
amusement, to tliose who are not above being amused by trifles, to walk
the streets on a fine winter-morning, and admire the infinite variety of
decorations presented by the double windows.

Quite as much care is expended upon the doors as upon the windows.
It is a common thing to pass, not merely two, but three doors, before you
enter the warmed passage of a house ; and this is the case, not only in pri-
vate houses, but also in public buildings, such as theatres, churches, &c.

In the imperial palaces there are English grates, but these would bo
poor substitutes indeed for the pectch (stove) in such a climate ; fitill they
are very agreeable accessories to comfort. In the large riding-schools and
public buildings the stoves arc of gigantic proportions, and highly orna*
mentcd with trophies and warlike decorations. The heat emitted by these
peetches is tremendous, and the sudden change from the intense frost with-
out to the close atmosphere of a room thus incessantly heated, and never
ventilated for months, must bo enough to try the hardiest frame. In the
cottages the whole family sleep on or round the stove in their clothes, and
without any bedding ; this is also the case with the servants in some gen-
tlemen's iiouses.

The poor suffer far less from cold in St. Petersburg than in cities under
a milder heaven. In different parts of the town there are largo rooms,
which are constantly kept warm, and to which every one has at all times
free access. In front of the theatres, large fires are kept burning for the
benefit of coachmen and servants ; but the furs and warm apparel in which
even beggars are sure to be clad, and the air-and-water-tight construction
of their houses, are the chief security of all classes against the severity of
their climate. As soon as the thermometer falls some fifteen or twenty
degrees below zero, the sentinels all receive fur cloaks, in which they look
grotesque enough, when marching up and down in front of the palaces.
With all these precautions, however, the intense cold that sometimes pre
vails for weeks together converts many a specimen of living humanity into
a senseless statue of ice. This is owing more to the manners of the peo-
ple than to the want of suitable protection ; to drunkenness and idleness
among the poor ; and to inconsiderateness among the rich.

The northern winter imprisons the lovely nymph of the Neva in icy
bands for five months in the year. It is seldom till after the beginning of
April that the water acquires sufficient warmth to burst her prison. The
moment is always anxiously expected, and no sooner have the dirty masaea

S88

.ILLUSTRATED DE8CBIPTICN 0? BUSSIA.

,." ■ ■ .■ '.* :',-}

Th« NtTA >w WiNTm.

of ice advanced sufilciontl" to display as much of l!)o bright mirror of the
river as may suffice to boar a boat from one sido to the other, than the
glad tidings are announced to tiio inlial>itiinls liy the artillery of the for-
tress. At that moment, be it day or night, the commandant of the fortress,
arrayed in all tlie insignia of his rank, and accompanied by the officers of
his suite, embarks in a'> elegant gondola, and repairs to the cmperor'a
palace which lies immediately opposite. He fdls a large crystal goblet
with the water of the Neva, and presents it to the emperor as the first and
most precious tribute of returning spring. He informs his master that the
force of winter has been broken, that the waters are free again, that an
active navigation may now r.gain be looked for, and points to his own gon-
dola, as the first swan that has swum on the river that year. Ho then
presents the goblet to the emperor, who drinks it off to the health of the
dear citizens of his capital. There is not probably on the face of the globe
another glass of water that brings a better price, for it is customary for
the emperor to fill the goldct with ducats before he returns it to the com-
mandant. Such, at least, was the custom ; but the goblet was found to
have a sad tendency to enlarge its dimensions, so that the emperor began
to perceive that he had e.ery year a larger dose of water to drink, and a
greater number of ducats to pay for it. At last he thought it high time to
compromise matters with his commandant, who now receives on each occa-
sion a fixed sum of two hundred ducats. Even this, it must be admitted,
is a truly imperial fee for a draught of water, but the compromise is said
to have effectually arrested the alarming growth of the goblet!

It is generally between the 6th and the 14th of April (old style), or
between the 18th and the 26th, according to the calendar in use in this
country, that the Neva throws off her icy covering. The 6th is the most
general day. It is usually about the middle of November, and more fre*
quently or. tbe 20 th (2d of December new style) than on any other day .

guai

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the

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the

won

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liis

mov

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that

ST. PETERSBURO — OUT-DOOB LIFE.

889

that tlie ice is brought to a ad-still. The departure of the ice, on the
breaking up of the river ic ie spring, always forms an exciting spectacle,
and crowds are sure to be attracted to the qaays by the first gun fired from
the citadel. The golden gondola of the commandant is not long alone in
its glory, for hundreds of boats are quickly in motion, to re-establish tlue
communication between the different quarters of tlic city.

All the other harbors of the Baltic are usually free from iqe before that
of St. Petersburg ; and a number of vessels are almost always awaiting, in
the sound, the news that the navigation of the Russian capital has been
resumed. The first spring ship that arrives in the Neva is the occasion of
great rejoicing, and seldom fails to bring its cargo to an excellent market.
It is mostly laden with oranges, millinery, and such articles of taste and
vanity as are likely to be most attractive to tlie frivolous and wealthy, who
seldom fail to reward the first comer by purchasing his wares at enormous
prices. The first sliip is soon followed by multitudes, and the most active
life succeeds to a stillness like that of death.

A stranger accustomed to the crowds and bustle of London, Paris, or
New York, is struck on his arrival at St. Petersburg by the emptiness of
the strccLs. lie finds vast open spaces in which at times he beholds noth-
ing but a solitary drosky, that wends its way along like a boat drifting on
the open sea. lie sees spacious streets bordered by rows of mute palaces
with only heio and there a human figure hovering about, like a lurking
freebooter an>on«i, a waste of rocks. The vastness of the plan on which the
city has been laid out shows that its founders speculated on a distant fu-
ture. Rapidly as the population has been increasing, it is still insufficient
to fill the (ranie allotted to it, or to give to the streets that life and move-
ment which we look for in the capital of a great empire. On the occasion,
indeed, of great public festivals and rejoicings, and at all times in the
Nevskoi Prospekt and aliout the Admiralty, the movement is very consid-
erable, but this only tends to leave the throng and bustle of the other
quarters of the town far below the average.

The population of 8t. Potergburg is the most varied and motley that
mind can imagine. To begin with the military. We have the Caucasian
guards, the Tartar guards, the Finland guards, besides a fourth and fifth
division of the guards for the various tribes of Cossacks. Of these nations
the (lite are thus always retained as hostages in the cai)ital, and their sev-
eral uniforms are alone sufficient to pi'csent an ever-changing picture to
the eye of an observer. Here may be seen a Cossack trotting over one of
the Ptatz Parads with his lance in rest, as though in his imagination ho
wore pursuing a flying enemy. Farther on, perchance a Circassian cava-
lier, in his shirt-of-mail, and harnessed from head to foot, is going through
his warlike exercises. The moslem from the Taurus may be seen gravely
moving through the throng ; while the well-drilled Russian soldiers defile
in long columns through the streets. Of all the endless variety of uniforms
that belong to the great Russian army, a few Bpccimens are always to be

'sa^^

390

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

aeon in the capital. There are guards, and hussars, and cuirassiers, and
grenadiers, and pioneers, and engineers ; liorsc-artillcry and foot-artillerj ;
to say nothing of dragoons, lancers, and those military plebeians the troops
of the lino. All these, in their various uniforms, marching to parade, re-
turning to their barracks, mounting guard, and passing through the otiior
multifarious duties of a garrison-life, are in themselves enough to give life
and diversity to the streets.

If, then, we turn to the more pacific part of the population, devoted to
the less brilliant but certainly not less useful pursuit of commerce, we find
every nation of Europe, and almost every nation of Asia, represented in
the streets of St. Petersburg. Spaniards and Italians, English and French,
Greeks and Scandinavians, may be seen mingling together ; nor will the
silken garments of the Persian and the Bokharian be wanting to the pic-
ture, nor the dangling tail of the Chinese, nor the pearly teeth of the
Arabian.

Tlie infima plebs bears an outside as motley as the more aristocratic por-
tion of the community. The Gorman bauer (peasant) may be seen loun-
ging among the noisy, bearded Russians ; the slim Polo elbows the diminu-
tive' Finlander ; and Esthonians, Lettes, and Jews, are running up against
each other, while the mussulman studiously avoids all contact with the
Jew. Yankee sailors and dwarfish Kamtschatdales, Caucasians, Moors,
and Mongolians — all sects, races, and colors, contribute to make up the
populace of the Russian capital.

Nowhere does the street life of St. Petersburg display itself to better
effect than in the Nevskoi Prospekt. This magnificent street intersects all
the rings of the city — the suburbs of the poor, the showy regions of com-
merce, and the sumptuous quarters of the aristocracy. A walk along the
whole length of this street is one perhaps as interesting as any that can
be made in St. Petersburg. Starting from the extreme end, where a mon-
astery and a cemetery remind you of death and solitude, you first arrive at
little low, wooden houses, which lead you to a cattle-market, whore around
the spirit-shops may be seen swarms of noisy, singing Russian peasants,
presenting a picture not unlike what may daily be seen in the villages of
the interior. A little farther on, the houses improve in appearance : some
are even of stone, and boast of an additional floor ; the houses of public
entertainment are of a better description, and shops and warehouses are
seen similar to those of the small provincial towns. Next follow some
markets and magazines for the sale of invalided furniture and superannu-
ated apparel, which, having spent their youth in the service of the central
quartei's, are consigned in old ago to the mercy of the suburbs. The
houses, in the old Russian fashion, are painted yellow and red, and every
man you meet displays a beard of venerable length, and a yet longer caftan
(jacket or roundabout). A little farther on, and you see a few ivoshtshikit
(drosky-drivers) who have strayed by chance so far from their more
central haunts ; a shaven chin and a swallow-tailed coat may be seen at in

ST. PETERSBUBO — nIiVSKOI PBOSPEKT.

801

tervals, and hero and there a house assumes something like an air of state-
liness and splendor. On arriving at i*. bend in the street, the huge gilt
spire of the Admiralty is descried at u distance, floating apparently over
the intervening mist. You cross a bridge, and begin to feel that you are
in a mighty city. The mansions rise to three and four stories in height,
the inscriptions on the houses become larger and more numerous, carriages-
and-four become more frequent, and every now and then the wavijig plume
of a staff-oflScer dashes by. At length you arrive at the Fontanka canal,
cross the Anitshkof bridge, and enter the aristocratic quarter of the capi-
tal. From this bridge to the Admiralty is what may be called the fash-
ionable part of the Prospekt ; and as you advance, the bustle and the throng
become greater and greater. There are carriages-and-four at every step ;
generals and princes elbowing through the crowd ; sumptuous shops, impe-
rial palaces, and cathedrals and churches of all the various religions and
sects of St. Petersburg.

The scene in this portion of the street, at about mid-day, may challenge
comparison with any street in the world, and the splendor of the spectacle
is enhanced by the magnificence of the decorations. This part of the thor-
oughfare, though about a mile in length, does not contain more than fifty
houses, each of which, it may easily be inferred, must be of colossal mag-
nitude. Most of these buildings arc the property of the several churches
that border the street — the Dutch, the catholic, the Armenian, and others
— that received from Peter the Great large grants of land, of little value
probably when first bestowed, but from which, as they are now in the heart
of the city, splendid revenues are derived.

The street from the Anitshkof bridge to the Admiralty is the favorite
promenade with the beau monde of St. Petersburg. The buildings are
magnificent, the equipages roll noiselessly over the wooden pavement of
the centre, and tlie troUoirs (foot-pavements) on each side are broad and
commodious. The northern, being the sunny, is the favorite side of the
Street for the promenaders, and on that side accordingly are the most mag-
nificent shops. Tlic peo})le are civil, and quarrels and disputes are seldom
heard. The Slavonian is by nature ductile and tractable ; and the lower
classes, from their childhood, are taught to behave respectfully toward
their more fortunate fellow-men.

The garrison of St. Petersburg seldom amounts to less than sixty thou-
sand men, and constitutes, therefore, about one eighth of the entire popu-
lation. Neither officer nor private must ever appear in public otherwise
than in full uniform, and this may suffice to give some idea of the prepon-
derance of the military over the civil costumes seen in the streets. The
wild Circassian, with his silver harness and his coat-of-mail, gayly con-
verses and jests with the more polished Russian officer, while their several
kinsmen are busily engaged in cutting each other's throats in the Caucasus.
Even in the streets of St. Petersburg, however, it is more safe to avoid
collision with these fierce and chivalric mountaineers, who are sudden in

392

ILLUSTRATED DESeRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

quarrel, quick to avenge insult, wear sharp daggers, and always carry
loaded firearms about their persons.

It would not bo saying too much to affirm that half the inhabitants of
St. Petersburg are clad in a uniform of one sort or another ; for, in addi-
tion to the sixty thousand soldiers, there are civil uniforms for the public
officers of every grade — for the police, for the professore of the university,
and not only for the teachers, but liltcwise for the pupils, of the public
schools. Nor must the private uniforms be forgotten that are worn by the
numerous servants of the noble and wealthy families. Still there remain
enough of plain coats to keep up the respectability of the fraternity. The
whole body of merchants, the English factory, the German barons from tho
Baltic provinces, Russian princes and landowners from tho interior, for-
eigners, private teachers, and many others, arc well pleased to be exempt
from tiio constraint of buttoits and epaulettes. Indeed, so much that is
really respectable walks about in simple black and blue, that a plain coat
is felt by many to bo ratiicr a desirable distinction, although the wearer is
obliged on all public occasions to yield tlio pas to tho ma\iy-colored coats
of the civil and military employes.

Tiie seasons and the variations of tho weather bring about many and
often very sudden changes in tlie street-population of St. Petersburg, where
the temperature is always cai)riciou3 and unstable. In winter, every one is
cased in furs; in summer, liglit robes of gauze and silk are seen Muttering
in the breeze. In 'ttie morning the costumes are perlmps all light and
airy, and in the evening of the same day none will ventui*c to stir abroad
otherwise than in cloaks and mantles. Titc sun shines, and swarms of
dandies and petites maitresses come fluttering through the fashionable thor-
oughfares : it rains, and the strcctd are abandoned to the undisputed posi-
session of the ^' black people." One day all snow and sledges, the next
all mud and clattering wheels. , ,. ,

Nor is it merely the change of weather that alters the physiognomy of
the streets. The various sects that make up the population of tho town
give often a peculiar character to the day. On Friday, the holyday of the
raoslems, the turbaned Turk, the black-bearded Persian, and the Tartar,
with his shorn head, take tlieir leisure in tho streets. On Saturday, the
black-silk caftans of the Jews come abroad in great numbers ; and on tho
Sunday, the Christians of all denominations come forth to their pious exer-
cises or their various diversions. Tho different sects of tho Christians,
again, tend to vary the scene. To-day the Lutherans celebrate their yearly
day of penance, and German burghers, with their wives and children, and
with their neat, black, gilt-edged hymn-books under their arms, sally forth
on their pilgrimage to the church ; to-morrow the catholics are summoned
to some feast or other of tho immaculate Virgin, and Poles and Lithua-
nians, Frenchmen, and Austrians, hurry to their stately temples. The next
day arc heard the thousand bells of the Greek kobkolniks, and tho wives
and daughters of the Russian merchants come humming and fluttering about

ST. PBTBRSBUOO — STREET POPULATION.

893

the streets in their gaudy plumages of green, blue, yellow, and red. But
the great days are the public holydays, " the emperor's days," as they are
called, when all the modes and fashions current, from Paris to Pekin, are
certain to be paraded to the public gaze-
It has often been remarked that there are few cities where one sees so
many handsome men as in St. Petersburg. This is partly owing to the
prevalence of uniforms, wliich certainly set off tlie person to advantage,
partly also to the fact that all the handsomest men in the provinces are
constantly in demand as recruits for the various regiments of the guards.
Something must also be attributed to tlie constant efforts of the Russians
to give themselves the most agreeable forins. In no other town are there
60 few cripples and deformed people ; and this is not owing merely to their
being less tolerated here than elsewhere, but also, it is said, to the fact
that the Slavonian race is less apt than any other to produce deformed
cliildren. On the other hand, at every ste}) you meet men whose exterior
you can not but admire, and a moment's reflection must fill you with regret
that there should be so few fair eyes to contemplate so many handsome
specimens of manhood. St. Petersburg is unfortunately a city of men, the
male sex being in a majority of at least a liundrcd thousand, and the women
by no means equally distinguished for their cliarms. The climate seems
to be unfavorable to the development of female beauty ; tlic tender plants
quiciily fade in so rude an atmosphere, and as they are few in numbers,
they arc all the more in demand for the ballroom and the soiree, and the
more quickly used up by the friction of dissipation. "Whether this be the
cause, or whether the Russian women are naturally less handsome, com-
paratively, than the men, certain it is that a fresh, handsome-looking girl
is but rarely to bo seen at St. Petersburg. The German ladies from the
Ikltic provinces form the exception ; and it is from Finland, Livonia,
Esthonia, and Courland, that the gay circles of the capital receive their
chief supply of beauty. To this it may be owing that the Russians have
so high an opinion of German beauty that they rarely withhold from a
Nyemka (German woman) the epithet of krassivaya, or beautiful. The
ladies of St. Petersburg, though in such great demand on account of their
scarcity, are liable, from the same cause, to many inconveniences. For
instance, it is impossible for them to walk in the streets, even in broad
daylight, without a male escort.

The best hour for walking on the Prospekt is fronk twelve till two, when
the ladies go shopping, and the men go to look at the fair purchasers.
Toward two or three o'clock, the purchases have been made, the parade is
over, the merchants are leaving the exchange, the world of promenaders
wend their way to the English quay, and the real promenade for the day
begins, the imperial family usually mingling with the rest of the loungers.
This magnificent quay, constructed, like all the quays of St. Petersburg,
of huge blocks of granite, runs along the Neva from the New to the Old
Admiralty, and was built during tlio I'cign of the empress Catherine II.

: ,

kii' i

894

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

who caused the canals and rivers of her capital, to the length of not lesR
than twenty-four miles, to be enclosed in granite. Aa in all water-construe
tions, the colossal part of the work is not that which meets the eye. The
mighty scaflblding, on which tlic quay rests, stands deeply imbedded in
the marshy soil below. Handsome steps, every licre and there, load down
to the river ; and for carriages largo, broad descents have been constructed,
and these in winter are usually decorated with all sorts of fanciful columns
and otlicr ornaments, cut out of the ice. The houses along the English
quay are deservedly called palaces. They were originally, for the most
part, built by Englishmen, but are now, nearly all of them, the property
of wealthy Russians.

On the English quay may be seen daily the elite of the Russian empire
wearing away the granite with their princely feet. The carriages usually
stop al the New Admiralty, where their noble owners descend, and honor
the quay by walking up and down it some two or three times. There are
no shops ; and as the English quay is not a convenient thoroughfare, tho
promenadors are seldom disturbed by the presence of any chance passen-
gers. The emperor and the imperial family are a centre to tlio groups
that come to salute them and to be saluted by them. This forms a kind
of connection for the promenaders, and gives a oneness to tho assembled
company. The emperor walks up and down upon an api)arent footing of
equality with his subjects around him ; though these, in point of fact, stand
about in the same relation to him that a child's doll docs to tho colossus
of Rhodes. The Englishman buttons up his hatred of despotism in his
great-coat, and scarcely condescends to touch his hat when he meets tho
"giant of the North ;" while to the Russian by his side, a submissive de-
meanor has by habit become a positive source of enjoyment, till he feels a
real affection for those to whom the law gives the right of ordering him
about ! The master of some vast estate, in the Ural mountains or on tho
arid steppes, where thousands of souls must labor away for his exclusive
profit, walks along the quay with as little pretension as the poor shopman,
who can scarcely be said to have a property in his own soul, embodied as
it is in the gay garments which he has such evident delight in displaying
to an admiring world. ^ /, f ^^'i <■ ?' .;w^ ■;

The Russian of tho lower orders is anything but an inviting personage,
at first sight. The name by which they have been designated, in their own
language, time out of mind, describes them precisely. It is tschornoi narod,
" the dirty people," or, as we might more freely render it, " tho great un-
washed." An individual of this class is called a mujik, which is also a
general name for peasant or serf. Ho is usually of middle stature, with
small, light eyes, level cheeks, and flat nose, of which the tip is turned up
so arf to display tho somewhat-expanded nostril. His pride and glory is
his beard, which he wears as long and shaggy as nature will allow. The
back of the head is shaved closely ; and, as he wears nothing about his
neck, his head stands distinctly away from his body. His ideal of the

ST. PETERSBURG — THE MUJIK — DRUNKENNESS.

395

boauty of tlio human head, as seen ft-oni behind, seems to be to make it
roaoiiible, as nearly as may bo, a turnip. He is always noisy, and never
clean ; and when wrapped in hia shoc|)8kin mantle, or caftan of blue cloth
reaching to his knees, might easily enough bo taken for a bandit. As he
seldom thinks of changing his inner garments more than once a week, and
as his outer raiment lasts half his lifetime, and is never laid aside during
the night, and never washed, he constantly affords evidence of his presence
anything but ■agreeable to the organs of smell. But a closer acquaintance
will bring to light many traits of character which belie his rude exterior,
and will show him to bp at bottom a good-natured, merry, friendly fellow.
His most striking characteristic is pliability and dexteniy. If he does not
possess the power of originating, ho has u wonderful faculty of copying
the ideas of others, and of yielding himself up to carry out the conceptions
of any one who wishes to use him for the accomplishment of his ends.
There is an old German myth which says that the Teutonic race was
framed, in tiic depths of time, out of the hard, unyielding granite. The
original material of the Russian race must have been India rubber, so
easily are they compressed into any form, and so readily do they resume
their own when the pressure is removed. The raw, untrained mvjik is
drafted into the army, and in a few weeks attains a precision of movement
more like an automaton than a human being. Ho becomes a trader, and
the Jews themselves can not match him in cunning and artifice.

The mvjilc is a thoroughly good-tempered fellow. Address hira kindly,
and his face unbends at once, and you will find that he takes a sincere
delight in doing you a kindness. In no capital of Europe are the tempta-
tions to crimes against the person so numerous as in St. Petersburg, with
its broad, lonely streets, unlightcd at night, and scantily patrolled ; but in
no capital arc such crimes of so rare occurrence.

But the nuijik has two faults : he is a thorough rogue, and a great
drunkard ! Ho will cheat and guzzle from sheer love for the practices ;
and without the least apparent feeling that there is anything out of the
way in so doing. But iu his cups he is the same good-natured fellow.
The Irishman, or Scotchman, when drunk, is quarrelsome and pugnacious;
the German or the Englishman, stupid and brutal ; the Spaniard or the
Italian, revengeful and treacherous. The first stages of drunkenness in the
mvjik are manifested by loquacity. The drunker he is, the more gay and
genial does he grow ; till at last ho is ready to throw himself upon the
neck of his worst enemy, and exchange embraces with him. When the
last stage has been reached, and he starts for humo, he does not reel, but
marches straight on, till some accidental obstruction trips hira up into the
mire, where ho lies unnoticed and unmolested till a policeman takes charge
of him. This misadventure is turned to public advantage, for by an old
custom every person, male or female, of what grade soever, taken up drunk
in the street by the police, is obliged the next day to sweep the streets for
a certain number of hours. In early morning rambles through the city,

896

ILLUSlllATEO DGBCRIl'TION OF RUtWIA.

PCKIIHMKNT ro* UlUKKBNNMt — BurBBrlNO THB BTaZBTS.

t'l.c t:i,vcilcr ma/ vcy frequently encounter a woful group, thuc improvinj^
the ways of olhcrs, in punishment for having taken too little heed of
their owt.

Jcrrmann thus speaks of a party of females he saw atoning, broom in
hand, for their improper nocturnal rambles : " Startling contrasts abound
in St. Petersburg. One morning, before four o'clock, I was driving to tho
Neva batiis, when t-uddcnly, to my astonished eyes, tho strangest scene
presented itself. I beheld before me an al-fresco ball. A number of
elegantly-attired ladies — some with handsome shawls, and featliers in
their hats — were performing the strangest sort of dance, which they ac-
companied with a sort of bowing motion, incessantly repeated. I could
recognise no French or German dance in their singular evolutions. Could
it be some Russian national dance, thought I. What kind of dance could
it be that was thus danced in broad daylight on tho public highway, and
without male dancers ? A few men were certainly there, bat^ moroly oe

BT. PETEnSBUnO — NATIONAL TRAITS.

897

200

of
in
ac-
uld
uld
uld
xnd

lool{cra-on. I toiicncd tlio arm of my ivoshlshik, called liis attention to
the trroiip, and made an interrogative gesture. Tlie explanation ho gave
mo was tloulttlcsfl very lucid and circumfltantial, and would have l)ccn
liiglily satinfaotory, bad it only been intelligible to nio. Unable to under-
Htiind a word be said, I ordercil bini, by the vigorous articulation of * Pa-
chol," to drive up to the strange ball before the weary dancers could seek
repose upon tlio stones at the street-corners. Drawing nearer and nearer,
I yet heard no sound of music. At last we reached tho Anitshkof palace,
and found ourselves close to tho scene of this untimely activity. A repul-
sive and horrible sight mot my eyes. A number of young women, appa-
rently still fresh and blooming, with ruddy checks — but whether of artifi-
cial or natural colors their incessant, monotonous bowing movement pre-
vented my distinguishing — elegantly dressed in silks, jewels, and feathers,
wore sweeping tho NevsKoi Prospekt under tho superintendence of police-
men. Some of them appeared overwhelmed with shame; others stared at
me, at tho ivoshlshik and horse, with perfect indifference, and seemed
rejoiced at our passage, which suspended for a moment their painfid and
disgraceful occupation. They were a dctachmcntof nocturnal wanderers,
who, when returning too tardily to their homes from pursuing their
wretcliod calling, had fallen into tlie hands of the patrol, had passed tho
remainder of the night in tho watch-hotise, and were now atoning, broom
in hand, their untimely rambles. I hurried off to the bath, glad to escape
from this degrading and deplorable spectacle."

Drunkenness and night-walking, however (wc may add, en passant'), arc
not tho only misdemoiinors thus punished, nor do the lower classes alono
expiate their offences by "doing the state somo service" in wielding tho
broom in the streets of Russian cities. Oliphant Instances the governor
of Scvastapol, whose peculations in the way of bribes and other perquisites
were brought to light by a sudden visit of the emperor. No dilatory trial
procrastinated the day of his condemnation. The emperor had scarcely
terminated his Hying visit, and tho smoke of the steamer by which he re-
turned to Odessa still hung upon the horizon, when the general command-
ing became tho convict sweeping. In a significant white costume, he waa
prominently displayed with the rest of the gang upon the streets he had a
fortnight before rolled proudly through, with all the pomp and circura-
Btancc befitting his high station !

In vim) Veritas may perhaps be true of the juice of tho grape ; but it is
not so of the bad brandy which is the favorite drink of the mvjik. IIo is
never too drunk to be a rogue, but yet you do not look upon his I'oguery
as you do upon that of any other people. He never professes to be honest,
and does not see any reason why he should be so. He seems so utterly
unconscious of anything reprehensible in roguery, that you unconsciously
give him the benefit of his ignorance. If he victimizes you, you look upon
him as upon a clever professor of legerdemain, who has cheated you in
spite of your senses ; but you hardly hold him morally responsible. Upon

808

ILLD8TRAT6D DESCRIPTION OF RUHBIA.

tho wliolo, though you can not respect the mufik, you can hardly avoid
having a sort of liking for him.

Notwithstanding tho general charactcrintic of laxity of principle, in-
stances are l>y no means wanting of the most scrupulouH and oven roman-
tic fidelity on tho part of tho Russians of tho lower orders. It -vould bo
an interesting subject of investigation how far this patent trait of national
character is to be attributed to inherent constitutional defects in tho race,
and how far to tho state of serfdom in which they have existed from gen-
eration to generation ; but the investigation does not fall within tho scope
of this volume.

Our friends in the greasy sheepskins or woollen caftans have strong re-
ligions tendencies, though they may smack n little too much of those of tho
light-fingered Smyrniote who was detected purchasing candles to light
before his patron-saint, with the first-fruits of tho purse of which ho had
not ten minutes before relieved a gentleman's pocket ! In all places where
men congregate there are pictures of saints before which the mitjik crosses
himself on every occasion. In an inn or restaurant each visiter turns to
the picture and crosses himself before he sits down to eat. If a mvjik
enters your room, he crosses himself before saluting you. Every church
is saluted with a sign of the cross. At frequent intervals in tho streets
little shrines are found, l)eforc M'hich everybody stops and makes tho sacred
sign, with bared head. The merchant in tho gostinni dvor or bazar, every
now and then walks up to his bof^ or saint, and with a devout inclination
proys for success in trade.

Nbtiroi P.vMrBKT, St. PBraMiuM.-fSeoond View.)

■'. r

iii'i' •,.,;;■ ■.■^ Uw '.if

• I '-

BT. PETEnaDUBO — THE WINTER PALACE.

SD9

CHAPTER XIV.

BT. I'ETERHnUHO — IMPERIAL PALACES, ETC.

"Tk "j i.o '-v; olty can boast that it is so entirely composed of pu.acei
l\ und col"ssul public edifices as St. Petersburg. In some uf tbcso
M .eral thousand persons reside — six thousand, for instance, aro
said to n haltit the Winter polnce during the emperor's residence in tho
capital ; nnd tlio traveller, when ho looks on this gigantic pile of buil'l\ng,
will in>\ fail to remenibor that it once fell a prey to the ravages of fir •, at
least tlio interior of it, and in a few hours the greedy flames destn. 'd
much of tlioHC treasures and works of art which had, with extraordinary
zeal, been eoUoeted during tho prosperous reigns and magnificent courts
of Klizabeth and Catherine II., and the less gorgeous but more clegni t
ones of Alexander and Nicholas.

Kohl, s|)eaking of the imujcnso extent of this palace previous to its de-
struction on the 2(Hh of December, 1887, remarks that " tho suites of
apartments were perfect labyrinths, and that even the chief of the imperial
houscliold. will) had filled that post for twelve years, was not perfectly
acquainted with all the nooks and corners of it. As in the forests of the
great landholders many colonies are settled of which tho owner takes no
notice, so there nestled many a one in this palace not included among tho
regtdar inhabitants. For example, the watchmen on the roof, placed there
for din"erent purposes — among others to keep the water in the tanks from
freezing during the winter, by casting in red-hot balls — bnilt themselves
huts between the chimneys, took their wives and children there, and even
kept poidtry and goats, who fed on the grass of the roof! It is said that
it hut onie cows were introduced, but this abuse had been corrected
lieforo the palaco was l)urnt."

Tho conflagration of the Winter palace originated in some defect in the
flues by which it was heated ; and, though tho crown-jewels and much val-
uable property were saved from the flames, still the destruction of property
must have been immense, spread as it was over a surface of such enormous
extent : the principal rooms* alone, nearly one hundred in number, occupied
on tho first floor an area of four hundred thousand square feet.

After the destruction < f the palace, it is said that Count Barincky offered
the emperor a million roubles toward tho erection of the new edifice ; a
small tradesman fifteen hundred ; and two days subsequent to the calamity,

400

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

a mail with a long beard, and dressed in the cqflnn of a common mvjih
met the emperor in liis drosky, and hiid at his feet bank-notes to the value
of twenty-five tlionsand ronbles. It is scarcely necessary to add that the
em])eror did not accept tiicsc generous offers of assistance.

Tlie inundations of tlie Neva, and the destruction by fire of the Winter
palace, arc two ))r(>niiiient o])ochs in the liistory of the city : and, as on
every <iroat, cnu'iuvncy, tiie late emperor, at this last calamity, failed not
to exhibit qualities wiiich made him eminently admired and respected by
his subjects. The heroic devotion and disregard of danger exhil)ited by
the firo! "}n and mitjifts are sjtokeu of in glowing terms by thos(? who wit-
nessed the devastation of that fatal night, and it was with very great dilTi-
culty that many of them could lie prevented from recklessly endangering
theii' lives. Sonic, indeed. M'cre lest; o.n bnrning which, the emperor
ordered that the j)Coplc should i)c prevented from entering the burning
])ilc ; and he is reported to have said, " Let it burn away, let it all go, but
let not a life be endangered in attempts to save comparatively worthless
property." Many of those who were in the building would not, however,
leave ; and, as a last resource, it is said ti-.at Nicholas ordered some offi-
cers to go and smash the large mirrors with hammers, in order to prevent
the soldiers and people from making any further attempts to save them.
Another anecdote was current at the time, that the emperor, observing the
danger attending the efforts of one party who were endeavoring to save
one of these mirrors, and that it was impossible to attract their attention
in the confusion which reigned, threw his opera-glass at it, when the men
seeing it broken, but not knowing whence the blow came, immediately
desisted, and were thereby saved. The gilt cross on the cupola of the
private cliapel resisted the fury of the devouring element, and, glowing
with increased brilliancy in the light of the furnace around it, was watched
by many an anxious eye in the crowd of believers beneath, who ascribed
its preservation to miraculous intervention. This idea i)roved a powerful
engine in the hands of the architect ; for, under the conviction that a bles-
sing rested on the palace, the workmen toiled with double as.siduity at its
reconstruction.

In one point of view this destructive fire has proved an advantage, for
the custom of consigning to solitude those suites of rooms occupied by a
deceased sovereign had here dosed so many of the finest apartments, that
in a few more generations the reigning monarch would have been fairly
turned out by the ghosts of his predecessors! In two years from the de-
struction of this palace it rose again imder the skilful hands of the archi-
tect Kleinmichael, and the united industry of several thousand workmen, to
its former magnificence, and is now, perhaps, (ho most splendid and largest
royal edifice in the world. Tliis imperial edifice is indeed commanding —
presenting, as it does, a front toward the Neva of more than seven hundred
feoi; it also covers a very large space of ground, being nearly a tiiird
larger than the palace of the Austrian emperor at Vienna, and almost

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ST. PETERSBURG — THE WINTER PALACE.

403

.•,i

twice as large as that of Naples ; its form is nearly a complete square, tho
angles of which answer to the four cardinal points of the compass. Its,
long facades are highly imposing, and form a grand continuation to those
of the Admiralty beyond it.

In visiting the Winter palace, accompanied by one of the imperial ser-;
vants in livery, strangers have the opportunity of wandering through suites
of splendid apartments, galleries, and halls, filled with marbles, malachites,
precious stones, vases, and pictures ; among them many portraits of the
great generals and mighty men of Russia and other countries. Also one
of Potcnikin : he is represented as of colossal height and fine countenance,
and as remarkable for the development of limb and muscle as for the soft
expression of his blue eyes ; in fact, to judge by this portrait, one would
say that he was made to command an army of Cossacks, and trouble a
woman's heart. Here also are several fine Murillos, and the " Adoration
of the Sheplierds," by Berg-hem, one of the finest works of that master.

The empress's drawing-room is a perfect jewel of taste ; and the chapel,
St. George's hall (a parallelogram of one hundred and forty feet by sixty),
and numbers of gilded chambers, one more gorgeous than another, form an
almost wearying succession of magnificence. The hall of St. George is the
apartment on the splendor of which tho Russians most pride themselves.
It is here that tho emperor gives audience in solemn state to foreign em-
bassadors. Near it is the gallery of the generals, containing portraits of
all the distinguislied officers who served under the Russian colors during
the war of the French invasion and tho subsequent hostilities, till Napor
Icon's final overthrow. The most striking' picture is a full-length of the
emperor Alexander on horseback, of gigantic dimensions, and said to be
the best likeness of him now in existence. At the entrance to this long
gallery stand two sentinels of the Russian guard, still and motionless,
looking as if they also were creations of art ; and at each end are suspend-
ed French eagles, the names of the principal battles that occurred in the
war being written in large gold characters on the walls. Many of these
pictures must be copies, as the soldiers they represent found a warrior's
death on the field of honor long before this collection was begun.

Beyond this gallery is the field-marshals' saloon. Hero tlic portraits do
not exceed eight or ten in number, for that rank is as rarely bestowed in
Russia as it is in England. The duke of Wellington is among the disiin-
guisljcd few ; and the symbol which accompanies tho full-length portrait
of the hero of a hundred fights is that of imperishable strength, tho Brit-
ish oak.

Beyond this is the Sa//e Blanche, the most magnificent apartment in
this most magnificent of palaces, and so called from its decorations being
all in pure white, relieved only with gilding. The dimensions are nearly
the same as those of the hall of the generals. Here the court fetes are
held, which are reputed to form the most brilliant pageant of in-door
palace-life to be found in Christendom.

404

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

The diamond-room, containing the crowns and jewels of tho imperial
family, deserves notice. Diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, are ranged
round tho room in small cases of such dazzling beauty, that it is almost
bewildering to look at them. The crown of the emperor is adorned with
a chaplet of oak-leaves made of diamonds of an extraordinary size ; and
the imperial sceptre contains one with a single exception the largest in
the world, being the celebrated stone purchased by Catherine II. from a
Greek slave, for four hundred and fifty thousand roubles and a largo pcn-
aion for life. Bruloff 's picture of the " Raising of the Serpent in tiio Wil
dcrness" is to be seen here. It has great merit and some defects ; tl>o
figures are for tho most part portraits of Israelites wlio inhabit tlie Ghetto
at Rome, and the result therefore is really a Hebrew crowd. There is
also, if not recently removed, tho Aimous Chinese cabinet of Catherine,
and a small room to which Peter the Great used to retire from the turmoil
of public affairs.

Tliere was, in the last century, a palace called the Summer palace, on
the Fontanka canal, but this was pulled down by tlie emperor Paul ; tho
name therefore is now without meaning, for the castle built to replace tlio
former was designated as the Michuilof Samokj or castle. There is a
telegraph in the Winter palace, close to the emperor's private apartments,
by means of which he can transmit his own orders to Kronstadt, Peter-
hoff, &c.

Adjoining the Winter palace is the He rmitaffe, which it is a well-known
fact that tho great Catherine built as Frederick the Great did liis Sans-
Souci at Potsdam, and the Roman emperor Numa his Grotto of Iberia.
But the Hermitage is no cloistered solitude — no rocky grotto hidden amid
the ^ 'ers of tho Neva's murmuring sources — but a magnificent palace,
seconu only to that we have just described ; while within it is loaded \\ith
precious objects of art and vcrth. The empress built this temi)le in order
that she miglit retire to it in her leisure moments, there to enjoy the con-
versation of the Frcucli philosophers and men of learning ; and here, after
the duties of tho sovereign had been tnin.<actod in the Winter palace, slie
was wont to pass the evening, surrounded by all that could gratify tho eye
or the senses : musicians displayed their talents, arlieits tiieir works, scien-
tific men their speculations, and political men their opinions ; for, ir. ac-
cordance with the ukase suspended in all the aj»artments, perfect freedom
and equality reigned ; and the pictures which wo see elsewhere only ns
allegorical representations of art-and-scicncc-loving princes, wore here ev-
ery day realized. On the roof was a garden with flowcr,«, shrul)s, and
trees, heated in winter by subterranean stoves, and illuminated in suninior
by variegated lamps, under tho prismatic colors of which the brilliant as-
semblage wandered.

The Hermitage is connected with the WintM* palace liy several covered
galleries, and forms a sort of continuation of that vast building. Thg
principal facade faces the Neva. It has but littlo claim to architectural

ST. PETERSBURG — THE HERMITAGE.

405

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ocauty, and may be divided into three part?, each of which was the work
of a different arcliitect. The first part, which is united to the Winter pal-
ace, and somewhat resembles it in style, was built by Laraotte, in 1705.
The second part, which extends to the small canal connecting the Moika
with the Neva, was the work of the architect Velten, in 1775. The theatre
forms the third part, and is joined to the rest of the building by a bridge
and covered gallery. It Avas built by Guarenghi, and is perhaps the finest
part of the Hermitage. The apartments of the entire palace are mostly
decorated with costly ornaments in malachite, marble, or jasper, the mate-
rials of which have been found and worked in Siberia. A thorough in-
spection of the works of art here contained would require several days.

In 1804, the Hermitage was finally completed under the emperor Alex-
ander. Catherine not only built, or rather caused to be built, this luxuri-
ous retreat, but furnished those who were admitted to her intimacy with
the opportunity of becoming acquainted with thoae admirable masterpieces
of art which had graced the walls of many of the royal palaces of Europe,
and thus laid the foundation of that gallery of paintings which is now with-
out a rival in northern Europe.

In one of the rooms of the Hermitage is contained a most interesting
collection of antiquities from the Crimea. It is wonderful that such costly
relics (for most of them are of gold) should have been preserved for so
many centuries. From ancient times the countless graves of the Greeks
of Taurus and the Chersonesus (Crimea) have been objects of zealous re-
search : the Huns, the Tartars, and the Cossacks, plundered them in turns,
and melted down the treasures found therein ; and whatever the watchful-
ness of the Russian government could rescue from the unhistorical mer-
chants and robbers lias been deposited in the Hermitage. Tiic greater
part of these rare specimens of Greek art were found in some oi the vari-
ous tumuli that cover the plain in the neighborhood of Kertsch (the ancient
Panlicapttum), and a few came from Olbia, a Greek colony planted in the
Chersonesus by the Athenians. The choicest objects are the laurel-wreaths,
of the purest gold, which adorned the victor's brow. Many of these are
quite perfect, not a twig or leaf being deficient. A gold mask and shield
are also very curious ; indeed, the gold ornaments are most beautifully ex
ccuted, and may defy the Rundels and Bridges of our own days. Pictures
as good as some of those in the Hermitage may perhaps be seen in other
capitals, but a collection of antiquities similar to these will rarely, if ever,
bo met with elstwhere.

In the centre room of the first long suite of apartments facing the river,
is a full-length painting of Catherine I., surrounded by the mai'ble busts of
various Russian statesmen : this is considered the best likeness of Cathe-
rine, as it is said to be the most flattering ; the features are fine, and the
expression of the countenance is mild and pleasing. In another porti'ait
of that empress in the long corridor, which is expressly devoted to por-
traits of deceased members of the imperial family (and to views of promi-

1 1)

i I

406

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

iicnt streets and buildings in the city as tlioy appeared about seventy years
ago), she is represented on horseback astride, and in man's attire.

The Hermitage also contains the Russian library, consisting of ten thou-
sand volumes in the Russian language, and founded by Catherine II. for
the instruction and amusement of the numerous attendants who were at-
taclied to her luxurious court, and whose time would liavc hung heavily
on their hands without some such resource. In the liln-ary arc likewise
the collections of Diderot, A''oltaire, the marquis de Cialliani, Nicohii Zim-
merman the i)hilosopher, Biiscliing,8tcherl)atoff,<tc. ; in all a hundred and
twenty thousand volumes. The donations of Voltaire contain numerous
annotations in his own hand, and there arc several unpul)lished manuscripts
of the French philosopher, as well as a great number of liis thumb-stains
and " dogs' ears."

It may be mentioned that, in addition to the paintings, drawings, and
engravings, there are two rooms filled ivith a most extraordinary collection
of Jewels, cameos, intaglios, medals, snufT-boxes, Hids, ivory carvings, and
articles of every kind of vertu ; jewels, arms, and ornaments of the ancient
czars, ormolu knick-knacks and valuable bizarreries of all sorts. Most of
the snuff-boxes are jewelled, and very costly : one presented by the Turk-
ish sultan to his "fond ally," displays a miniature of Mahmoud in his Eu-
ropean costume, most lieautifully painted on ivory. The entire surface is
covered with large diamonds of the first water, and within the outer row
in each corner is a still larger brilliant, dazzling to look upon. In one
room is a superb vase of Siberian jasper of a lilac color, five feet in height,
of exquisite form ond polisli. In another arc two magnificent candelabra,
said to be valued at fifty thousand dollars ; two golden tripods, seven feet
high, supporting tlie golden salvers on which salt and bread wen) presented
to the emperor Alexander on liis triumphal return from Paris in 1814, as
emblems of Wisdom and Plenty ; besides these tripods there arc two gold
salvers presented to the emi)eror Nicholas at his coronation by the nol)ility
and merchants of St. Petersburg ; a large musical and magical secretary,
which opens spontaneously in a hundred directions at the sound of music,
purchased by Alexander for four thousand dollars ; also a clock called the
Horloge du Paon, enclosed in a glass case ten feet high : the form of the
clock is the trunk of a tree, the branches and leaves of which are gold ;
on the top sits a peacock, and when the chimes begin, it expands its bril-
liant tail, while an owl rolls its eyes with its own peculiar stare, and, in-
stead of a bell striking the hour, a golden cock flaps his wings and crows I
In fact, these treasures seem to realize in all its truth the p.overbial ex-
pression of '■'■Vembarras de richesses ;''' and the eye, wearied and satiated
with them, reposes witli no small satisfaction and interest on the simple
and unostentatious dressing-case of the emperor Alexander : this is ex-
tremely compact and plain, and, judging by so trifling a circumstance,
marks the soldier and the sensible man.

We have but touched ou some of the treasures of this palace ; but enough

gold
Ability
jtary,
kiusic,
la tlu>
)!■ the
|<roW ;
biil-
[d, ill-
rows I
111 ex-
Itiatcii
limplo
lis ex-
Itance,

lougb

ST. PETERSBURG — THE MARBLE AND TAURIDA PALACES.

407

has been said to show that a hermit might boldly renounce the rest of the
world if allowed to make his cell hero, where half nature and half mankind
are olTcrcd to hi? contemplation on canvass, in color, in marble, glass, and
ivory, painted, chiselled, stamped, woven, and printed.

The picture-galleries of the Hermitage are on the first floor, the largo
windows of which command a beautiful view of the river. In tlie court is
a garden raised to the level of these rooms, wliicli, with its flowering shrubs
and evergreens, has a curious effect ; for, from one window the Neva is
seen flowing at a depth of about thirty feet below, while on the other side
flowers are blooming, and a fountain playing, on a level with the spectator.

The barracks of the Preobrajonsky regiment of guards are attached to
the Hermitage. This regiment is always on duty at the palace, and those
among the officers who are lovers of the fine arts must feel great pleasure
in being able so frequently to promenade these splendid rooms, surrounded
by some of th.e best pictures in the world. It is, however, stated that the
gallery at the Hermitage is, marvellous to relate, little visited by the higher
classes in St. Petersburg.

A theatre is attached to this palace, but not of very large dimensions.
Performances sometimes take place, but there can be but little room for
phow or stage effect. The members of the court sit on chairs, in the pit,
as there are no boxes or divisions. There is nothing particularly striking
in the decorations.

Tiie Hermitage joins the Winter palace on the east. Then follows the
Imperial theatre, some other palaces, the property of private j)crsoiKS, and,
last of all, the ^rarl)le palace. This was erected by Catherine II. as a resi-
dence for Prince Gregory Orlofl", one of her fivvorites, who died before its
completion ; and its long fayade, stretching by the river-side, denote? tuat
it must have been at one time a handsome pile of building. It ought more
properly to liave been called the Granite palace, for much more granite
and iron have been employed upon it than marble. The extraordinary
massive walls arc built of blocks of granite ; the supports of the roof arc
iron beams ; tlie roof itself sheet-copjier ; the window-frames gilded copper.
This palace was inhabited by the late fraiid-duke Constantino, and has
since been sumptuously furnished and decorated for the residence of the
present grand-duke of the same name.

Tlie Taurida palace, a long, low building, with a badly-paved court in
front and two j)rojecting wings, is situated on the banks of the Neva, about
a mile to the eastward of the Marble palace. It was named the Taurida
in compliment to Potcmkin, the conqueror of the klian of tlie Crimea, and
presented by Catherine II. to that nobleman, and, oddly enough, was sub-
sequently purchased from him. In the favorite's pride of power, and when
his inordinate love of show and ostentation animated and adorned its noble
apartments, this palace may have realized the expectations raised by its
name : it now looks forlorn, and a picture of deserted magnificence. The
exterior, can never have been beautiful, and the interior has been robbed

! ^

: r>

ill

If:

I I

408

ILLUSTRATED DEPCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

of the best part of its contents to assist in adorning other roynl residences
On entering tlic building the stranger finds himself in a lofty circular hall
filled with statues, many of them of average merit. Beyond is a ballroom
of extraordinary dimensions, being three hundred and twenty feet long by
seventy feet wide, which, opening on one side to the entrance-hall, and on
the other to an extensive conservatory, from which it is separated only by
a row of lofty marble columns, runs the whole length of the palace. Tho
columns arc encircled by rows of lights coiling round them like serpents,
while tlircc enormous chandeliers, each composed of two or tliree largo
rings, fitted with liglits rising one above the other, are suspended from tho
ceiling. Tho very shrubs and pillars in the conservatory are transformed
in like manner, and made to bear their share in the vast illumination, An
idea of the imnionse proportions of this ballroom may be formed from the
fact that tu'etiti/ thousand wax-lifj^hls are necessary to light it up com-
i^letoly ; and that the colossal group of the Laocoon, at one end, can bo
plainly seen from the other only by means of a telescope ! A profusion
of statues, many of tlicm well executed, are arranged round this vast apart-
ment, and a copy of the Venus de Medici and an hermaphrodite arc worthy
of mention.

In the summer, the orange-trees, of which there arc great numbers, arc
removed from tho conservatory into the palace-gardens. Hero Potemkin
gave magnificent fites to his imperial mistress ; and all that was bright,
beautiful, and gay, thronged the mazy walks of the oranp^ry in the long
winter nights, turning their dullness into the wild revelry of a southern
carnival. It must have been like magic to have passed from the frozen
and snow-covered eartli without to this magiiificcnt ballroom, illuminated
with its thousands of lights, and filled with perfumes that carried the im-
agination to regions where an icicle was never seen, and the nortlicrn blast
never felt. At these festivals the musicians were suspended in the chan-
deliers. Tlic last grand festival given in this palace was on tho occasion
of the marriage of the grand-duke Michael, when the present decorations
were made. The nuirble is all false, the silver is plated copper, many of
the pillars and statues are of brick and j)laster, and tho pictures of equivo-
cal originality ; the looking-glasses, though ten feet wide and lofty in pro-
portion, are so badly made, that on examination the surface is found to bo
all in waves and full of bubbles, and it is evident they belong to a very
early period of the St. Petersburg manufactory.

The Taurida, now a kind of Hampton court, and inhabited by a few su-
perannuated ladies of the hatit-ton, is sometimes used as a place of recep-
tion for the emperor's guests. Here once resided Louisa, the beautiful but
unfortunate queen of Prussia, after the conquest of that country by Napo-
leon in 180G ; it was also tenanted by tlic Persian prince Chozro Mirza,
during his embassy, when he came to deprecate the wrath of tho mighty
czar; and lastly, in 1830, by Oscar, crown prince (now king) of Sweden.
The emperor Paul turned the entire palace into a barrack for his guards,

ST. PETERSBUna — ETAT MAJOR — ALEXANDER COLUMN.

4on

very

iapo-
klirza,
lighty
fedon.
^ards,

but his son and successor Alexander restored it to^ts original purpose of
a royal residence. It is still tliickly garrisoned with imperial footm*.
and kept in pretty good ordor ; but it nevcrtlielcss, from the absence of
furniture, looks, as before remarked, deserted and melancholy. The gar-
dens are acccssil)lc to the public ; they are tastefully laid out, and, consid-
ering their vicinity to so large a city, their extent is immense. A table-
cover, on wliich arc some drops of wax which fell from the candles of
Alexander, who frequently inhabited some apartments here, and some
crayon drawings by his admirable consort Elizabeth, and other objects of
the same kind, have a certain degree of interest.

The IL'itel de VEtat Major, or head department of the army, immedi-
ately fronting the Winter palace, is likewise one of the many striking piles
of buildings in the " City of Palaces," and remarkable for its vast extent
and singular architectural ornament of a chariot of Victory, drawn by
eight horses, which are rearing and plunging in all directions to the no
small discomfort of the plumed and mailed lady who drives the team.
From the arch over which the group is placed one of the most pleasing
views of the Winter palace and likewise of the adjacent buildings may be
obtained.

In the open space between the Etat Major and the Winter palace stands
the greatest monolith of modern times, the column erected to the memory
of the late emperor Alexander — a single shaft of red granite, which, ex-
clusive of pedestal and capital, is upward of eighty feet in height. This
beautiful monument is tlie work of Monsieur Montferrand, the arcliitect of
the churcli of St. Isaac, and was erected under his superintendence. The
shaft originally measured one hundred and two feet, but it was subsequently
uhortencd to its present dimensions from a fear that its diameter was in-
sufficient ft)r so great a length. The base and pedestal is also composed
of one enormous block of the same red granite, of the height of about
twenty-five feet, and nearly the same length and breadth ; the capital meas-
ures sixteen feet, the statue of the angel on the summit fourteen feet, and
the cross seven feet — in all about a hundred and fifty feet.*

As the whole of St. Petersburg is built on a morass, it was thought ne-
cessary to drive no less than six successive rows of piles, in order to sus-
tain so immense a weight as this standing upon so confined a base ; the
sliaft of the column alone is computed as weighing nearly four hundred
tons, and the massive pedestal must materially increase the tremendous
pressure. The statue was raised in its rough state, and polished after it
was firmly fixed on its present elevation. On the pedestal is the following
short and well-chosen inscription: "To Alexander the First. — Grateful
Russia." The eye rests with pleasure on this polished monument ; and ia

■ • It is iaid that Lnuis Philippe, in the days of his greatest power ond prosperity, npplied to the
cmporor Nicholas fur a similar column out of his Finland quarries. The emperor begged to be
excused. " Ho would not," ho said, " Knd him a imalier one ; a similar one ho could not; and a
greater one was r.ot to bo obtained." i •. ' •'■«.-

410

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

auy otlier city its enormous size would make a greater impression. In St.
Petersburg, liowcvor, where llio eye expands with the vast surrounding
spaces, it is scon under a smaller angle of vision. The place on which it'
stands is so vast in its dimensions, the houses around arc so high and mas-
sive, that even this giant requires its whole hundred and fifty feet not to
disappear. But when the stranger is close to it and becomes aware of its
circnmferonce, while its head seems to reach the heavens, the impression
is strong and overpowering.

Already, however, it is said that nn abominable worm is gnawing at this
beautiful monolith, and it has likewise received a very sad and ofTensivo
rent from above toward the middle. It may be that the stone wa.s at first
badly chosen, or that the cold of St. Petersburg will not tolerate such
monuments of human art. There are those among the inhabitants who
think it a patriotic duty to deny the existence of the 7ent, which has been
artfully fiHed with a cement of granite fragments. But in the sunshine,
when the polish of the rent shows difTerently from that of the stone — oi
in the winter, when the hoar frost forms in icicles on the cold stone, but
not on the warmer cement — the marring lino h but too apparent.

The idea of this column is, like everything eUc in Russia, religio-politi-
cal. It was erected, as before remarked, in honor of ihe emperor Alexan
der, and is meant to eternalize with his memory that of the reconfirmation
of the political constitution and of the security of religion. The mass of
the Russian people have been taught to believe that the invasion of Napo-
leon was not only an attack on the state, but also as one on their frith —
(falsely taught, since Napoleon made war on the religious faith of iw peo-
ple or nation). Hence the erection of the angel with the cross on the
summit. This column, whose capital and ornaments on the pedestal were
formed from Turkish cannon, throws into one category all the enemies of
Russia, the Turks, the French, &c., and is the scaling, ratification, and
immortalization of all the modern victories of the Russian eagle.

The MichailofT" palace, or rather castle, stands on the site of the old
Summer jialaco on the Fontanka canal, which was pidled down by the em-
peror Paul, who built this of granite in its stead, and fortified it as a place
of defence; and, according to Russian custom, which dedicates to protect-
ing saints and angels not churches only, but fortresses, castles, and oth(>r
buildings, it was dedicated to the archangel Michael. The castle has a
more gloomy exterior than the other palaces of St. Petersburg, and is of an
extraordinary style of architecture. It is in the form of a square, whose
four facades all differ in style one from the other. The ditches, which
originally surrounded it, are now partly filled up and laid out in gardens,
but the principal entrance is still over some drawbridges. In the square
before the chief gate stands a monument, insignificant enough as a work
of art, which Paul erected to Peter the Great, with the inscription "/Vo-
dijdu Pravmik" (the Grandson to tlie Grandfather). Over the principal
door, whicli is overloaded with architectural ornaments, is inscribed in

iVC

old

CIU-

|)lace
:l-
klvr
as a
^f ail
Jliose
Ihich
lens,
luarc
irork
ror
^ipal
in

ST. PCTKW^ni'Ilf! — THE 01,1) MICIIAILOFF PALACE.

41f

v:i)l(toii lottci'H a |)UflK>A^r tVom tho Riblo iii tlio old Slnvuiiiun lunguago
" Oil tliy liourto will tho bloMsiug of tho Lord rest for cvcnnoro."

TluH pnlaco wus built with extraordiimry rapidity. Fivo tlioiisund mon
wore employed on it daily till linislicd ; and, tho more (piickly to dry tho
walls, largo iron platos woro niado hot and fastened to tlieni for a time:
the result was, that soi n after tho emperor's death it was al)andoncd as
quite uninhaltitablo ! 'I'lic cost of building it is said to have boon eighteen
millions of roubles: had suflicient time been taken, it would not havo
amounted to .six millions.

Tho halls and apartments t)f the castle are largo nnd niunorous. Tho
rooni in which tho emperor I'aul was strangled is Healed and walled up.
The Russians generally do this with the room in which their parents dio.
They have a certain dread of it, and never enter it willingly. The empe-
ror Alexander never entered one of them. Nicludas, however, who feared
neither the cholera in Moscow, nor revolt in St. Petersburg, nor tho dagger
in Warsaw, but showed a bold coinitenancc on all occasions, viewed these
rooms several times. The apartment in which his father was murdered is
casdy rccognisal)le from without by tho darkened and dusty windows on
tho second story. Tho apartments of the beautiful Lapuchin are directly
under, on the first lloor, and are now inhabited by tho keeper of tho castlo.
The stairs which led down from them are broken away.

During the reign of Alexander the castlo fell so much into decay, that
when Nicholas caused it to be restored it is said to havo cost sixty thou-
sand rouldes merely to remove tho dirt and rubbish. The painted ceilings
have considerable interest. In one is represented tho revival of tho order
of Malta, and Uuthenia, a beautiful virgin, with the features of Paul, seated
on a mountain. Near her rests the mighty eagle. Fame, flying from tlio
Bouth in terror, announces the injustice done her in the Mediterranean,
and entreats *' tho mighty eagle" to shelter her under his wing. In the
distance is seen the island threatened by tho waves and the hostile fleets.
In another hall all the gods of Greece are assembled, whose various physi-
ognomies are those of persons of the imperial court ! The architect, whoso
purso profited con'-iderably by tho building of tho castle, appears among
them as a flying Mercury. When Paul, who was a ready punster, and who
knew very well that all tho money lie paid was not changed into stone and
wood, caused tho difl'erent faces to bo pointed out to him, ho recognised
the features of the Mercury directly, and said, laughing, to his courtiers,
'M/d .' voila Varchitecte, qui vole^

The old Michailofl' palace is now tho abode of tho school of engineers.
One hundred and fifty young persons hero receive their mathematical and
physical education. Its gardens aro filled with blooming young cadets,
who play and exercise there ; and tho former audience and banqueting
rooms aro partly used as school, examination, sleeping, and eating rooms,
and partly to hold collections of various objects of a very attractive kind,
of tho highest interest iu engineering and fortification. It is >vonderful to

414

ILLUSTRATRD nnsrHIPTlON- OK RUSSIA.

contcm|)liitc tlio progress which the Russians have already made in this
branch of military science.

Russia, with reference to its military fortifications, is divided into ten
circles. To the objects which relate to the fortification of each circle,
a separate hall is devoted. In large presses, in the halls, arc kept all the
plans, general and special, of already-existing or projected fortresses.
Each fortress has its own press for the matrrh'l, in which are specimens
of the bricks, kinds of eartli,aiid the diflerent rocks which lie in the neigh-
borhood, and of whieli the fortresses are, or are to be, constructed. Lastly,
on large stands in the middle of the halls, are to bo seen all tlic fortified
places in Russia, modelled in clay and wood, and with such exactness, that
not the sliglitest elevation or sinking of the ground — not a tree or a house
is forgotten. In this manner are presented, among others, tho most stri-
king pictures of Kiev, Revel, and Riga. It is worthy of remark tliat among
them is a complete representation of all the castles of the Dardanelles, witli
their bastions and towers, and the most minute details of all tlie little
creeks of this important strait and the neigliboring heiglits and rocks.
By means of these models, the whole of plan of attack on the Dardanelles
could be directed from St. Petersburg. The mingling of the castles of tho
Dardanelles with those already garrisoned by Russian troops indicates that
Russ'a covets them, and brings to mind Alexander's saying, that thoso
straits, with Constantinople, formed " the key to his house."

In one of the rooms is an extraordinary number of ukases and military
ordinances, having reference to the erection of defences. They arc signed,
and many of them corrected, by the diflerent emperors and empresses with
their own hands. Catherine II., in particular, has made many corrections
with a red-lead pencil ; and Nicholas always made with his own hand his
amendments, alterations, annotations, and additions to his laws, decrees,
and sentences. Here may be seen a hundred repetitions of those three
important words, ^^ Buit po semu'^ (Be it so), which arc annexed to every
ukase.

Catherine's handwriting is bad, but the signature is never hurried ;
on the contrary, she seems to have taken trouble in painting every one of
the Russian letters. All the long letters have a little flourish under them,
which are made with a trembling hand ; some are quite awry, nor are all
the letters in a lino ; they are not joined, but nearly every one stands alono,
and tolerably perpendicular, without How or rounding : it is like the hand-
writing of an old man. Even the individual letter will sometimes be formed
of unconnected strokes. The whole is plain, and without any ornamental
additions. After her na'.e " Ekatcrina" stands always a large dot, as if
she would say, " And therewith pwictum basta.^'

The emperor Alexander wrote a fine hand. His name begins with a
large, elegant A ; the other letters, though narrow, are not very plain till
tho conclusion — the r is very plainly written and well formed. Under the
name is a very long, complicated flourish, which looks confused at first,

ied ;
le of
icin,
call
ono,
land-
med
ental
as if

itii a
n till
sr the
first,

it:-

iti

tol

ja\|

del

CO J

haJ

whl

Th[

lad

insi

(hi

preJ

aro[

}

ST. PETERSBUBG — THE NEW MICHAJLOPP PALACE.

417

but the thread is easils' found, as it is always very regularly formed, and
in the same figure.

Nicholas wrote decidedly the best hand of all the Russian emperors ; it
is calligraphically irreproachable, regular, intelligible, and flowing. The
emperor began with an arching stroke of the pen, under which his name
"iVTfo/at" stands as under a roof. The last stroke of the final i slopes
under in a slender arch once or twice, is then carried upward to join the
first line, and ends over the name in a thick, bold stroke made M-ith a firm
hand and with the whole breadth of tlie pen. The name is thus prettily
enclosed in a frame.

The Anitshkof (or Annitchkqf) palace, which stands on the Great Pros-
pekt, in the neighborliood of the Fontanka canal, and cToses the brilliant
ranges of palaces in that street, is not unfrcquently inhabited by tlie empe-
ror. According to Kohl, it was originally built by the empress Elizabeth,
and bestowed on Count Rasoumofi'ski ; then twice purchased by Catherine
II., and twice presented to Prince Potemkin. Another writer b-^lieves this
palace to have been built by a merciiant of the name it bears, and sold by
him to one of the czars. It is now the favorite residence of the imperial
family, and handsomely built, but has no particular historical interest.
Here also the emperor Nicholas held the greater number of his councils,
received embassadors, &c. Hence the cabinet of St. Peter.sburg may be
called the cabinet of Anitshkof, as that of London is called the cabinet of
St. James's, Ac.

There can be no doubt that the new MichailofT palace, the late residence
.of the uncle of the present emperor, is the most elegant building in St. Pe-
tersburg. It was built in 1820, by an Italian architect named Rossi. The
interior is also decidedly the handsomest and most tasteful in decoration
and furniture of all the royal residences. Its position, too, is higlily stri-
king — quite as much so as that of the Winter palace. Open on all sides,
it expands its wings and courtyards in a most graceful manner ; not a
tower, house, or any other building, being near to disturb its outline.

Behind the palace lies the "Little Summer G -rden," as it is called,
whose lofty trees and groups of foliage form a pleasing contrast with its
elegant architectural proportions. Before the chief front is a spacious
lawn, scattered over with graceful flowers and shrubs. An iron grille, the
design of which is a model of good taste, divides the inner from the outer
court ; and the outbuildings, offices, and courts between them, arc in such
harmony with each other and the main buildings, that it is evident the
whole was one design, and that nothing has been the result of after- thought.
The stables and riding-scliool are particularly worthy of attention, and the
latter is deserving of especial mention. In this school fifty young men are
instructed in riding and in all arts that have reference to the manege ; for
this ol)ject, and for t\\Q fetes in the riding-house, at which the court is often
present, a number of the finest horses are kept, and both men and horses
ore 80 well cared for, that it is said to be a pleasure to walk through the

418

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

\ ■".:

range of elegant dormitories, sitting, school, and saddle rooms. All these
apartments have double folding-doors in the centre, which stand open tho
whole day. A long carpet is laid along all the floors down to the stable,
and the inspector can overlook everything at a glance, and see what Iho
young cadets arc doing in their apartment. Kolil alludes particularly to
the ventilation, and remarks that " it is wonderful how pure tho air is
kept ; it is as if the stud were perfumed with eau de Cologne as well as
the cadets." Their course of preparation extends over six years, and ten
leave every year and join the army as riding-masters. Quadrilles and
tournaments are sometimes ])erformed by these youths and their horses in
the presence of the court. These jousts sofnetimes take place in the even-
ing, when the ridhig-school is splendidly illuminated and decorated for tiie
occasion ; among other wonders exhibited at these fvtcs are six looking-
glasses, so large that in them the youthful cavaliers can view themselves
from head to foot.

We must not leave entirely unnoticed a palace which 3tands on the south
side of the ."^ummcr garden, and is known by the name of the Red palace
— a name for which it is indebted to one of the many strange whims of
tlie emperor Paul. At a court-ball, a lady made her appearance in red
gloves, which so enchanted Paul, that the next day he proclaimed red his
favorite color, and ordered that tho j)alace should forthwith receive that
showy tint. In the same i)alace, his monogram, " P. I.," is so constantly
repeated on every side ani in every corner, that an Englishman, who un-
dertook (he thankless task of counting them, got as far as eight thousand,
and then, through weariness, left off without having nearly completed his
undertaking. Paul had many such crotchets. So fond was he of tho
gaudy and the motley, that one of his ukases was to the cflect that, on one
and the same day, all the gates, bridges, palaces, guardhouses, <tc., in the
whole vast empire, should be painted i!i variegated colors — a piece of
childish fol'.y, the results of which were, in time, of course, obliterated.

The Imperial lil)rary, one of the most extensive in Europe, is near the
Kazan church, and occupies a large l)uilding, which, with the Anitshkof
palace, the Alexander theatre, and that part of the Nei'skoi Prospekl facing
it, forms one of the iinest squares in St. Petersburg. This library is open
daily for reading, and on every Tuesday for public insfiection. It contains
four hundred thousand volumes, and about fifteen thousand manuscripts,
viz., seven thousand two hundred Latin, two thousand two hundred French,
two thousand Slavon!^., twelve hundred Polish, nineteen hundred German,
(fee. The greater rt of this valuable collection formed a portion of tho
spoils of Poland. The count Stanislaus Zjluski, bishop of Krakow, found-
ed a splendid library, which was further increased liy his descendants;
and Andrew Zaluski, bishop of Kiev, bequeathed it to his country. In tho
middle of the eighteenth century it was transferred to Warsaw, and is said
then to have contained three hundred thousand volumes. When Suwarrow
conquered Poland, Catherine II. directed the library to be traneferred to

"iwmwft^^'**"^**'**'*'^ '

. .**.- *.»J*i0».rJin«*-'***-''''

oT. PETERSBURG — LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS.

410

St. Petersburg. It was furtlicr increased, in 1833, by that of the prince
Czartorisky, taken in the Polish campaign, and by a furtlicr importation
from Poland of o liundrcd and fifty thousand volumes.

The valualtle books and manuscripts of Peter Dombrowski, purchased
during the early troubles of the French Revolution, were afterward added
to this vast collccticm. The manuscripts chiefly relate to the history of
Prance, and form on invaluable series. They consist of letters from vari-
ous kings of France and their emlnissadors at foreign courts, reports, secret
state documents, and correspondence of different European sovereigns.
These interesting papers were dragged from llie archives of Paris by an
infuriated populace, and sold to tlie first bidder. Dombrowski purchased
them; and thus some of the most valuable of the state papers of France
adorn the library of St. Petersburg. In this collection there is a highly-
illuminated missal Avhich belonged to Mary queen of Scots while living at
the French court, containing several poetical fragments ; also several let-
ters addressed to the king of France during her imprisonment by Queen
Elizabeth in Fotheringay castle.

A volume of manuscript letters from English sovereigns is exceedingly
interesting. The library and manuscripts of Count Schutelen have lately
been added ; and the numerous acquisitions of manuscripts during the wars
with Turkey, Circassia, and Persia, have contributed to form one of the
finest collections in the world. Tiie printed volumes are catalogued in
manuscript, according to language, names of authors, and matter; and
there is also now a catalogue of the manuscripts.

The collection of oriental nuvnuscripts is most extensive. Several ex-
tracts from the Kornn, in the Cufic cliaracter, are said to have belonged to
Fatima, the favorite daughter of Mohammed. Two presses in the manu-
script-room are filled with the spoils of the last war with Persia ; and a
collection of nuxnuscripts, of extraordinary l)eauty, presented to the empe-
ror Nicholas by the shall of Persia, in 1829, is also to be seen. It would
be impossible to enumerate even tlie most remarkable objects of this vast
collection of works from every nation of Asia.

The only other libraries entitled to particular notice are those of the
Academy of Sciences, containing one hundred thousand volumes ; of the
Hermitage, before alluded to, with a hundred and twenty thousand vol-
umes, of which ten thousand are in the Russian language ; and of the Al-
exander Nevskoi monastery, which, though very limited in extent (having
only ten thousand volumes), has collections of manuscripts of very great
rarity and value.

The principal museums are those of the Academy of Sciences, occupying
a large jtortion of the magnificent buildings of that celebrated body, on tlie
Vasiliestrov, on the banks of the Great Neva, opposite to the Admiralty,
and including an Asiatic museum, rich in all kinds of curiosities relating
to the East ; an Egyptian museum, with a few fine specimens of papyrus,
but not otherwise interesting ; an ethnographic museum, enriched by the

420

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

collections of various Russian travellers and navigators, and s, general col
lection of coins and medals, in wliich the Russian series is very valuable
and complete ; a good mineralogical, and a remarkably fine botanical col-
lection ; a museum of natural history, containing an admirable collection
of birds, exquisitely stuffed and well arranged ; and, among the larger
fossil animals, of which Sil)eria furnishes numerous specimens, a mammoth
(perfect, with the exception of one of the hind ftot), sixteen feet long, ex-
clusive of the tusks, and at least two feet higher than the elephant. This
huge inhabitant of our "earth in its vigorous prime'' was found in 1803,
by Mr. Adams, on tlie banks of tlie Lena, in latitude seventy degrees north.
It fell from a mass of ice, in which it must have been encased for ages, and
so fresh was the flesh of the animal, tliat the wolves and bears were actu-
ally found eating the carcass ! How it was preserved during the years that
have elapsed since such stupendous beings as the mammoth and mastodon
walked the earth with their brethren, is a question which gives rise to much
speculation. It must l)e impossible to contemplate the gigantic structure
of the skeleton without being struck villi the wonderful power such a co-
lossal brute must have possessed. How the earth must have shaken be-
neath his ponderous and unwieldy gambols, wlien " he moved his tail like
a ceda , and drank up a river and hasted not !" The skin of this antedi-
luvian monster was covered with black bristles, thicker tlian horse-hair,
from twelve to sixteen inches long, and with wool of a reddish-brown color.
About tliirty pounds' weight of this fur was gathered from the wet sand-
bank on which it was found. From the position of the tui*ks, which extend
laterally like two scytlies in tlie same horizontal plane, it would appear that
the mammoth, in defending itself, moved the head from side to side, whereas
the elephant, in striking, tosses the head upward. In this collection aro
also large quantities of bones of several extinct species of elephant, ono of
which (^named by Fischer Elephas paninis^ seems to have surpassed tho
mammoth in size as much as the latter exceeded the Asiatic elephant ! In
addition to these, there are a great many skulls of the larger kind of ante-
diluvian rhinoceros (^Rhinoceros teichorhinus), which far exceed in size
any of the living African species.

The Academy of Fine Arts, also situated in the Vasilicstrov, on the banks
of the Great Neva, has a portion of its magnificent apartments occupied as
a picture-gallery, but is better known as an artistical school. The other
more important collections are the Romanoff museum, containing a large
collection of minerals, models, and antiquities ; and the museum attached
to the mining-school, containiug a large collection of fossil conchology,
models of mines, mining instn'.ments, &c., and distinguished by its miner-
alogical treasures, unequalled in Russia, and thouglit not to uo surpassed
anywhere. But the most curious part of this valuable repository is under-
ground, being a model of a mine in Siberia, exhibiting to " the life" tho
various practical operations of mining in that country. Furnished with
lighted tapers, but no miner's dress, the visiter is led by the guides through

••(

, „.iu^-».«--'^'

ST. PETERSBURG — EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.

421

'r.\

aro

of
tho

,nte-
size

ink a
d as
(thcr
argo
cbcd

liner-
isscd
'der-
the
vrith
tough

winding passages cut into tho bowels of the earth, the sides of which rep-
resent, by the aggregation of real specimens, tho various stratifications,
with all the different ores and minerals ard different species of earth, as
ihey are found in the natural state : tho coal formation, veins of copper,
and in one place of gold, being particular'y well represented, forming an
admirable practical school for the study of geology, though under a chilli-
ness of atmosphere which would be likely ''•cry soon to put an end to stud-
ies of all kinds.

At the head of the educational institutions is the university, only founded
in 1819, but provided with fifty-eigltt professors, and attended by about
five hundred students. The Chirurgical Medical Academy, founded by
Peter the Great, receives about five hundred pupils, and enjoys a high
reputation. Military education, in all its branches, regarded as one of tho
first interests of the state, forms a conspicuous feature in the academical
system of Russia, and is provided for liberally in numerous institutions.
The mining-school, whose admirable mineralogical collections have already
been referred to, is one of the most remarkable establishments of the capi-
tal ; it occupies a grand and imposing structure, so situated as to form a
very conspicuous oltjcct from the sea. It maintains above three hundred
pupils, wlio, after remaining eight years, and receiving a very liberal edu-
cation, are sent to superintend the government mines in the Ural mount-
ains (an Important brancli, particularly of late years, of the Russian rev-
enue), or placed in the mint.

The Academy of Fine Arts lias a fa^'ade, fronting the Neva, four hundred
feet Ijng and seventy feet high, adoru-^d with columns and pilasters, and
surmounted by a ceiitral cupola, on which is placed a colossal figure of
Minerva. This academy, as already mentioned, is partly appropriated as
a picture-gallery, but aiso occuj.ied as a school of art, in which three hun-
dred pupils are maintained and educated. In addition to these, it furnishes
residences to the professors, academicians, and other artists ; so that the
whole number of persons accommodated under its roof is estimated at not
less than a thousand.

The other principal schools are, the Technological institute, in which
upward of two hundred pupils, sons of respectable tradesmen, receive a
general education, and special instruction in the various mechanical arts,
cotton-spinning, weaving, carpentry, &c. ; the Central Pedagogical insti-
tute, or normal school ; four gymnasia ; the Female institute of Smolnoi,
where five hundred young ladies are carefully and gratuitously educated ;
the Ecclesiastical academy ; the principal protestant, the agricultural, com-
mercial, veterinary, and various other schools.

With regard to public societies, the only one which can be said to have
acquired a European reputation is the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
which has long been distinguished for the valuable papers published in its
" Transactions." Most of them, however, are not the production of native
talent, but of such celebrated foreigners as the government has had the

422

ILLUSTRATED DESCIIIPTION OF RUSSIA.

wisdom to attract by the in)crality of its patronage. Numcroufl other sooi
eties of repute exit<t, under the names of Runsian imperial, medical, phar
inaccutical, mineralogical, economical, agricultural, educational, military,
philanthropical, and artistical.

The government-lniildings of St. Petersliurg, which may be properly
mentioned in this connection, are in harmon)' With the immense empire to
which they belong, and are generally characterized by their colossal pro
portions. The Admiralty, to which, as furnishing the best station for ob
taining a full view of the city, reference luis already been made, is an im-
mense brick l»uilding, situated on the north side of the square of the samo
name, and surmoinited by a sliMider tower with a gilt cupola. Tlie main
part of the buildir)g, from the centre of which the tower rises, lies parallel
to the river with its north side, but has its princi|)al fayado on the south,
facing the square. The length of this farado is nearly half a mile; and
at right angles to it are two sides, stretching from its extremities north
toward the river ; the cast side fronting the Winter palace, and the west
the Isaac square and senate-house, and each six hundred and fifty feet
in length.

■'•:-' ^.

br Isaac Sqi'AnE, St. r«T««»iir»*

In the above cngrav.ng of the square of St. Isa.ic, the Bcnatc-houso
is seen on the ritrht and the church of St. Isaac appears in the distance on
the left. Between them may be seen the colossal eciuestrian statue of Pe-
ter the (rreat, reduced, however, by the remote distance to diminutive
propv;rtion8. A nearer view of tliis statue accompanies the sketch of it
a few pages farther on.

A large portion of the Admiralty is occupied as school-rooms for naval

»!■. PKTKRSIJURO — THE EXCHAXOE AND CITADEL.

•123

cadets. Iinnicdiatoly bolow it, on the nortli, liiiinj? tlio Rnssinii quny, are
the extensive dockyaidH : and in tiie imnicdiafe vicinity are a niiinher of
iin|t()rtaiit imlilic buildings; among otliers, tliat of tlie Holy Synod, where
all the higher concerns of the church arc regulated ; the Hnh-I tie VEtat
Major, noticed a few pages hack ; . I the war-ofiicc, consiiicuous by its
profusion of gigantic cdlunnis.

).hOU90

nco on
of Pc-
inutivo
U of U

naval

Tub UomsK, oi Exchakoc, St. Pktkiisdi'hu.

On tlic opposite side of the Great Neva stands the exchange ; and west
from it, fronting the liittle Neva, the customhouse — both large and impo-
sing structures. Immediately adjoining arc two high and slender towers,
adorned like tho Colitmiue liostrulic of ancient Rome, from which the ap-
proach of shipping nniy bo obseived. These columns arc hollow, and on
their summits, which are reached by a flight of iron steps, are gigantic
vases that are lillcd with combustibles on all occasions of public illumina-
tion. Tho erection of the whole, including the quays, occupied nearly
twelve years, from 1804 to 181(J. The great hall of tho exchange, which
is of colossal proportions, is li;v!ited from above. At either end on both
sides are spaces in the form of arcades : in one of the first stands an altar,
with lamps constantly burning, for the benefit of the pious Russian mer-
chants, who always bow to the altar, and sometimes even prostrate them-
selves, on their entrance, to implore the favor of all the saints to their
un-!ertakings.

The citadel, with its bastions and bristling embrasures, mounted with
one hundred cannon, and defended by a garrison of three thousand men,
forms a very cons|)icuoU8 object. Besides the church of St. Peter and St.
Paul (which will be noticed in the next chapter), it contains within its
6uviosurc the mint ; and in its vicinity presents an object of great intci'est

k%'M

424

ILLUSTRATKD DESCUIPTION OF RCSSIA.

ii'. the wooden cottajjo of IVtiM* tl)C Great, consisting of tlirco small apaiii
rnents, ono of tlicin liis chnpol, niid containing, among other relics of that
oxtraordinury man, the little boat which ho conHtnictcd, and which niny
be considered as tlie germ of the powerful navy which he afterward formed.

Among tlu) other govorument-edilicos, the arsenals and ranges of bar-
lacks are particularly deserving of notice. The old arsenal, an enormous
building, was erected by Count OrlolT at his own cost, and presented to
the empress Catherine II. The new «ine was built by the emperor Alex-
ander, in a very magnificent style. Hoth are tilled with glittering weap-
ons, trophies, old military engines, and antitpiities of importance in Russian
history. Aniong tlio trophies, there stands in one of the halls in the new
arsenal a large Russian eagle, whoso neck, body, and legs, arc composed
of gun-IIints ; the pinions of swords ; every feather on the breast and belly
is a dagger ; every tail-feather a yatof^han ; the eyes, the muzzles of two
black j)istols ; the gullet, the bore of a cannon : a terrible " Noli me tan-
g-ere,'" a proper symbol of the Russian state, which has soared to its pres-
ent height on the ])inions of swords and bayonets. In another hall is a
statue of Catherine in white marble, throned in a royal chair, and sur-
rounded by all the emblems of imperial power. Her horse, a white ono
stuffed, stands near. The saddle is not a lady's side-saddle, but au ordi-
nary man's saddle. Her passion for appearing on horseback, in male cos-
tume, has been before alluded to. The statue was erected by Orlofl' (one of
her chief favorites) during her lifetime, and presented with the building.

Some of the historical souvenirs and antiquities are highly interesting:
for example, the standards oi' the Strelitz guard, huge things made of pieces
of silk sewed together, and adorned with many highly original pictures
characteristic of that fanaliciil Russian praetorian band, who may justly \hs
called the Janizaries of Christianity. Near the Hags lie a numbvr uf the
accoutrements of the ytrelitzes,and the images of their patron-saints: each
saint has its own little case, of which a whole row, fastened to straps, were
worn on 'he breast, in a fasiiion similar to that of the Circassians. Soino
Russian cannon of the period arc also placed here ; they are very largo,
cast in iron, and ornamented with silver and gold.

To every emperor and empress since Peter the Great a separate apart-
ment is devoted, containing the costume, weapons, and utensils, belonging
to them, with the instruments of war in use at that time, uniforms, &c.
The uniforms of distinguished generals, with all their orders, crosses, and
ribands, are here deposited in glass ca.scs ; many thousand ells of histori-
cally-interesting ribands figure among them. "With the help of this cabinet
a very good history of the Russian army might bo composed.

Ever since Peter the Great, the Russian emperors have voluntarily sul>-
jectcd themselves to their own laws p d ordinances, and thereby given
their eul»jects a great example. The pike which Peter carried as a volun-
teer in his own army, the uniforms he wore as sergeant, captain, and colo-
nel, the leathern shirt he wore as a carpenter, all of which are preserved

ST. P:;TEIt~iIUJR(i — THE ARSKNAL8.

4Se»

)art-

&c.

and
[tori-
pinci

sub-
tiven
jlun-
[solo-
Irved

in the arsenal, constantly warn liis successors to follow his example. In
Peter's apartment there is still kept the cabriolet lie made use of to meas-
ure the roads ; the iulier of revolutions made by the wheels is shown hy
the machinery contained in the bo.\ beiiind. On the lid of this bo.x is a
curious old picture, representinfi; Peter's method of travelling. It is a
portrait of the cabriolet itself, drawn by one horse, and driven by Peter
JJehind him are newly-built houses, and gardens laid out ; before him a for-
est and a wilderness, to the annihilation of which he is boldly i)roceeding:
behind him the heavens are serene, before him the clouds are lieapcd up
like rocks. As this picture was probably designed by Poter himself, it
shows what he thought of himself.

In remarkable contrast with the little modest cabriolet of the road ma-
king and measuring emperor is the great triumplial ear, with its Ihigs and
kettle-drums, which Peier II. drove before the band of his guard, at the
time when the ladies wore hoo|)-petticoats and the gentlemen long periwigs.
Paul's rocking-horse; the Ilolsiein cuirassiers of Peter HI., who were so
great a cause of vexation to the native Russians ; Senka Rasin's state-chair
of ebony, garnished with rude pistols instead of lace ; the uniform of Gen-
eral Miloradovitch, in which the hole nuide by tiie bullet tlnit j)ierced his
heart in the revolt of the 14th of Deceml)er, 1825, is yet to be seen — all
furnish entployment for the imagination of the historian.

In this collec*ion the accoutrements of neighboring states have not bccu
neglected ; even Jiio equipments of the Jajianese and Chinese may here bo
studied. The cui. -asses and coats-of-mail of the Japanese guards are made
of tortoise-sliell, which cover the whole body, and are j)Ut together in small
scales : the face is concealed in a black mask representing an open-mouthed
dragon ! The Chinese soldier is clothed from head to foot in thickly-wad-
ded cotton : if he can not move about much in battle, he must be, at all
events, in some measure protected against arrows and cudgels. Grimacing
masks arc also in use among them. The timid have everywhere a great
wish to infuse into others, by means of disguises, that terror which they
can not inspire by their own courage. The Chinese weapons appear to
have the same aim : among them is a halberd, of which the edge of the axe
is nearly six feet long — an instrument of murder which would require a
free space of ten feet in diameter for every soldier to wield properly. It
seems destined for the destruction of giants, but a Roman soldier with his
short sword would have been quite safe from them.

Countless as are the uniforms here collected, there is scarcely one to
which the Russians have not been opposed, the Japanese not excepted —
and scarcely one from which they have not wrested some trophy of victoiy.
Those in the arsenals of St. Petersburg consist of splendid silver shields
of Turkish leaders ; Polish, Prussian, French, and Persian flags ; and at
least a thousand ells of silk in Turkish standards, besides a largo heap of
crescents taken from the mosques. A cannon-foundry is annexed to the
new arsenal, where a powerful steam-engine is at work.

426

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTlON OF IIUSSIA.

In the Mcstorn corner of tlio Admiralty square, and near the iron bridjifo,
is loi'nted the well-known oolossal equestrian wtatiio of I'eter tlic (Jreat,
mentioned a few pajjcs back. Tlie Hultjoet is admiraltly treated, and tlio
idea of representing the emperor riding np a roek, on both sides of which
and in front steep precipices threaten deslrnetion, is as poetical a tlionght
as ever scniptor entertained. It is said that Falconet, the Freneli artist
who executed tliis great work, wos aided in his inspirations by a Uiissian
officer, the lioldest horseman of his time, who daily rode np to the edge of
a high artificial mound the wildest Araiiian of ('onnt ()rh»fl''s stud, where
he suddenly halted him with his fore legs pawing the air over the abyss
below. The head was modelled by Mario Callot.* The emperor's face id
turned toward the Neva, his hand outstretched as if ho would grasp land
and water. This attitude was ludd and to the purpose; it is therefore
incoiiccivaltle why the artist did not rest contented with it, instead of
adding to the idea of power and possession which his attitude gave, the
sulidiiiiig a serpent which the czar fmds on the rock, and which is trodden
under his horse's foot : the charm of a great work of art is sinned against
by tliis destruction of unify of acti(»n and idea. The spring of the horse,
the carriage of the rider, and his well-eho.sen Russian costume, are, how-
ever, admirable. The air-I)orn position of the whole statue rendered it
nceessai-y that unusual procautioiis should l>o taken to preserve the centre
of gravity : the thickness of the bronze in front is therefore very trifling,
but l)ehind it increases to several inches, and ten thousand pounds' weight
of iron were cast in the hind quarters and tail of the horse — a tolerable
aplomb.^

* "A viiuiip Frc'iMliwoniiin, Mti(l<'mi)i«i'llc Ciillot, u icliitivo of Falroiipt tim uriilptnr, iliiro hii
colcbnitcil, wtx» iilsii III! iirti!<t, unci ivHi<icil Cur kiiiiio tiiiii> in 8|, i'l'lrrnlxhf;. Tlin cziir miw •iirni* nf
)ipi' stHtiii'lIcK, anil ilii'ir fxpi'i-8»iim of ciiniliini-il iinwir nnil ):i'iillrnriii nindi- to sliiiui; an iinpicii.
biun (III liini, tliat lie |iiiiil ii viait, in sliiit inrnpiii/o, lit the hiiIhI'* iiluJid, Tliciit li« niadr ii('(|iiuiiit>
OQce with Miiili'inoiHrlli! Ciillnt, nnd win rnplivated liy lior clininii. Tli(> reinurl<Hlil«> IcndtTiii'^a
(if ht'i' Muliii'c dt'cply iinpi'i'Mrd hi* ituimy nnd pamiiiiiatu iiiiil ; the dt-pth of h(>r niinil hiiriiiiinizi'd

with liis ; a Imiid nf dymjialliy .'piH-dily fiicircli-d tlirni During the iniial iirdciit |H'riiid nl tlicir

romanlii' love, I'rtci' gal to liir for hia luiHt. The wuinun'A tcndrr aflVrtinn ooiiiliinod wiili ili« aii.
iiit's iiiHpiruliiiii to pnuluru tlie mutt prift-i-t lnut tliu world rvn saw uf our of iu f^icatrit nini,
WhnI liui lii'conin of that liust iionp know ; but fuel it in that, when CathpriiiK II. rnncaMVod llm idi-ii
of llio grand ripnnliian Blatue I have dogrritiod, and urnt to I'uit* for Fali'oni'l to kxitiiIo it, tlial
aculptor iii'iili* liin itliidifg for tin* liiMid uftcr tlin muiiti-rji>iiMM> of hin relative, Miiile iioiaelle Ciillnt,
who at that lime wag doiilitlegii dead. Coiilomporu:ie«, at \it\H, who were ni'i|iiaiiil('d with both
wnrkg of art, deelaied the heail of the gtatiie to lie um unmigtnk^-eilile copy of liitit iiiiniilnlilo hunt,
whogG unpamlli'led lirnuly was wonderfully wi'll reprtnluced iu FalciHiet'g t-oloiwai work. Truly,
nothing was wanting tu the ni'-mury of the northern giant, but that love ihould traiigniit liig portrait
to piitt.'rily ! Rug^ian uuthura repreaent tlir liaiton of the young pxar uiid the French Judy us one
thnt exeicistwl nuicli influenrc on tlie fate of the country." — Jkrumann.

I The Rev. Mr. Choulot, who taw this statue when at ^^t. I'eteriliurg ia 18.'i3, snys : " I thought
with pride on our own MilU, who has succeeded so nohly in his equegtrian statue of Jai-kson, which
is self-poised." The Hculptur here riferred to is Chirk Mill*, a native of New York, who degigiied
and executed un equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and in which the liorso beaiing liig hero
appears gnicefully lunincing, and is poised upon hia hind legg, without the slightest visible extrane-
ous support. In this statue the artist has boldly and surceggfully relied on the truth of well-known
mechnnicuj principles, which assured him ihut by resoning to them he might entirely digpense with
«vcr}thiiig likely to interfete with the dabbing «Tect of his work. The whole it cast tirom bratl

IV llf
ipH'K-

iiiiiiil-
iiirta
iiiiizi'il
llicir
an-
nii'ii.
iili'U
I, tliiit
Cnllol,
Itotli
bliKt,
Truly,
oiti'iiit

UH Olio

llllll^lll
, wliicli

ill lii-rci
xtruiip-
■kiiown
lo with
1 brats

:; :

AQUXSTKIAN 8TATVX OF PETIS THE GBXAT, ADMIBALTT 8QVA&E, 8T. FBTEB8BUB0.

ST. PETERSBURG — PUBLIC MONUMENTS.

429

The huge block of granite which forms the pedestal, and weighs fifteen
hundred tons, was brought from Lacta, a Finnish village four miles from
St. Petersburg, and may have been torn by the deluge from the Swedish
mountains. It was originally forty-five feet long, thirty feet high, and
twenty-five feet in width ; but the chisel was set to work, and, in cutting it,
the mass broke in two pieces. These were subsequently patched togetlier,
and it now looks as unnatural as the imitative rocks seen on the stage.
Some work may have been necessary to obtain a footing for the horse and
give an inclination to the stone. This, however, must have been done
without due precaution, for one third was taken away. It is now only
fourteen feet high, twenty feet broad, and thirty-five feet long; the statue
is eleven feet in height, and the horse seventeen. On the two long sides
are chiselled the following inscriptions in Russian and Latin: — ^^Fetrou
PervomoH, Ekaterina Vtoraia.^^ — ^'' Petro Primo, Catherina Secutida. —

MDCCLXXXII."

A laughable circumstance connected with this statue recently occurred
nt St. Petersburg. Some American sailors, who had been making rather
100 free with " the jolly god," sallied forth on a frolicksome cruise ; and
one of them, not having the fear of the police before his eyes, climbed over
the wire palisade surrounding the statue, and, clambering up the rock,
seated himself, en croupe, behind the czar! He was specdly dismounted.,
and after a night's confinement was brought before the divisional ofiicer of
police, when the case was summarily disposed of, and so heavy a fine
inflicted that the offender naturally remonstrated. " No, no," replied the
officer, " we can make no abatement : if you will ride with great people,
you must pay great people's prices I"

The monument to Suwarrow, Russia's most distinguished general, is on
the Champ de Mars, opposite the Troitszka bridge — a most appropriate
situation ; but the work itself is generally regarded by critics as unworthy
of the great marshal whose deeds it is intended to commemorate. It is a
bronze statue, on foot, in Roman costume, wielding a sword in the right
hand, and holding a shield in the left, in defence, over the crowns of the
pope, Naples, and Sardinia, which lie at his feet. This refers especially
to the campaign of Italy, in 1799.

Nearly equidistant from the Academy of Arts and the Corps of Cadets
is a monument to Field-Marshal Romanzoff, erected to his memory for his
services against the Turks, in the wars ending with the conquest of the

cannnn taken by General Jnckson from his country's enemies, and donnted hy Conpross to tho
" Monument Society" for the purpose. It is rust in ten pieces — the horse being in four iind the
hero in six pieces — which nio so riveted nnd rolled tojjether as to present to tlie closest scrutiny
the nppenrimce of being cnst entiivly in mass. The weiglit of the work is nearly fifteen tons; and
from tlio top of the pedestnl to the highest point of the figure thu height is about fourteen feet,
while the height of the pedestnl above tlie surrounding ground is about sixteen feet. This statue
has been severely and wi- think, all things considered, unjustly criticisi^d,ns n work of art. It occu*
pies the centre of a highly-embellished public square, opposite the presidential mansion at the city
of Washington.

430

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Crimea. The inscription on it is " Romantzowa Pobccdam^^ (To the Vic-
tories of Romanzoff).

This monument is composed of half a dozen different-colored stones, and
is ornamented with patches of metal besides. The obelisk itself is of black
granite. It stands in a socket of red marble, whose base is of another
color, in addition to which there are several sti-ata of white marble ; and
the whole bears on its extreme point a golden ball, with an eagle hovering
over it. In vain we ask what harmonj the artist could find in all these
various colors and materials. Fortunately, this artistical abortion will not
last long. There are already several rents and splits in it, and so many
pieces broken from all the corners, that it looks as if it had stood for cen-
turies. It will soon sink under its own weight. The Egyptian sphinxes,
which lie not far from this monument, before the Academy of Arts, seem
to look deridingly on the unimposing obelisk. In defiance of the thousand
years of warlike tumult — in defiance of the countless burning suns, of the
endless series of days and nights that have passed over their heads — they
look as youthful as if newly born ; their skin as smooth and polished aa
when they came from the chisel.

OmcB, Horn. DBS MUiLK'PotTSt, Br. PsmiivM.

HT. FFibHSBUBQ — THE KAZAN CATHEDRAL

CHAPTER XV.

6T. PETERSBURG — CHURCHES AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

ST. PETERSBURG, as previously remarked, is a crcatiou of modern
days ; and therefore, compared with Moscow, has neither so many
nor such remarkable cliurches as the old capital, tliough some arc
built in a plt^asing style of architecture. The modern Russian church is a
mixtiue of the Grecian, Byzantine, and Tartar; the Byzantine, which was
brought from Constantinople with Christianity, being the most prominent.
Tiie plan of the building is a Greek cross, with four equal arms ; in the
midst, a large dome, painted green or blue ; at the four ends, four narrow-
poiiitod r "Via, their summits surmounted by four crosses; in front, a
grand cm adorned witii many columns, and three side-entrances with-

out coluii ("lie diflerence between the Greek and the Latin cross with

aisles is ovident. Such is the exterior form of the greater jmrtion of the
Russian rharclies, including the thirty of St. Petersburg, constituting less
than a tenth of tlie number dispersed through "Moscow the Holy." Tho
interiors of th<>se in the new capital are lighter, brighter, and more simple ;
in the old, (hirker, more overloaded with ornament, more varied in color,
and grotesque.

The Metropolitan church of St. Petersburg, dedicated to "our Lady of
Kazan," stands conspicuously on the right of the Ncvskoi Prospekt, about
half a mibi from the Admiralty square, and retired from the street. A
semicircular colonnade of Corinthian pillars, the two extremities of which
project almost to the front of the houses, forms a screen to the cathedral
itself, and the dome rises immediately behind the centre of the colonnade,
where the oliief entrance is situated. In any other place tl\e elVect of this
semicircular line of columns would be imposing; but here, where every-
thing around is on so vast a scale, it looks the very reverse : the columns
arc not so high as the adjoining houses, and even the dome is deficient in
elevation. The'Russians wish to unite in their capital all that is grand or
beautiful in tho whole civilized world, and this is intended for a copy of
St. Peter's at Rome ; but the puny eftbrt is almost comic in its contrast to
the mighty work of Buonarotti : the colonnade of pillars, which in Rome
seemed necessary and suitable to circumstances, is nere a superfluous and
incomprehensible appendage. As an exception to the ride, one transept
in the Kazan cathedral is shorter than the others — not, however, as some

432

ILLUSTRATED DLi^CRIPTION OP RDS8J1.

have alleged, from the peculiar form of tho Greek crosiJ. but simply from
the want of space on tho canal side to continue th>i building.

Tlie eastern arm of the cross in all Greek churches is looked upon as
the *' holy of holies," and is shut off from the rest of the edifice by a screen
called the ih-onostas. Tliis is set apart for the priests. Laymen may
enter, but no women ; not oven the empress cnn go into that mysJerious
enclosure. Here stands a ' "one called the prestol, a kind of altar, be-
neath a sumptuous canopy, requcntly adorned with precious stones. Tho
throne stands on a carpet, which roaches under the closed doors of tlm
screen ; and this, on solemn occasions, is spre.id out to a low square plat-
form, erected immediately beneath the central dome: on this holy carpet
no footstep, save that of the priest, dare press. Behind and in front of
the screen the ceremonies and service are performed. The formalities aro
great : robes of costly materials arc frequently clianged ; the genuflections
arc numerous and very low ; incense is much used ; there is no organ or
othei' instrumental music, but the chanting is peculiar and striking. Ser-
mons, so much thought o*" in other countries, form but a small portion of
the Russian church service : a short discourse, a few times in the year, is
the only homily which a Greek priest delivers to his flock. At tho Impe-
rial chapel, the Nevskoi monastery, and the Donskoi and Seminov at Mos-
cow, the singing is very fine. The bass voices are superb, and a kind of
chant, which they keep up in unison, while the priest is offioiating, is not
easily to be compared with any other church music. It has somewhat the
effect of as many douldc basses all executing tho same short arpcg-<rio pas-
sages, and repeating it without any variation in the chord, time, or tone;
when frc(piently heard, it is therefore tedious.

One of the most impressive ))ortions of the service is toward the close.
The doors of the ikonosfas are then shut, the chanting ceases, the incense-
bearers witlid'-aw, and every one seems' b'eatliless with attention. At
lengtli the l.ddii.j'-doors in llie centre are reopei'cd and thrown back, and
the prii'st. carrying on his head an enormous volume, which ho steadies
with both hands, comes forward and commences a long recitation ; during
this every one bends low in an humble attitude of adoration. Tiic largo
volume contains tlie gospels ; the prayer is for the emperor. "The sensa-
tion on this occasion," ol)serves a recent traveller, " more than equals that
usually seen in Roman catholic churches at the elevation of the Host.
With this prei'iige for their sovereign, what might not the Russians do if
circumstances should engage them in a national cause?" Indeed, the
spirit of religious z^al rthich animates them is signally manifested in the
struggle of !«;").'» ai:ainst tiic Turks and their powerful allies.

In Roman catiiolic countries the church-goers are almost exclusively
women ; and in France, southern Germany, and parts of Italy, a man in
the prime of life is rarely seen within the walls of a church, except as a
mere spectator. In Russia it is otherwise ; and the (>atward forms of the
G'cek church seem to have taken as firm and enduring a hold of the men

.Jamm^

iively
an in
t as a
)f the
men

n U!

ii 'iH

11 U

;ni

ST. PETEIISBURO — THE KAZAN CATHF.DUAL.

43r)

as of the women, all classes alike participatinjr in this stronj? fooling of
external devotion. Tlie first proceeding of a Russian on entering a clinrch
is to ])nrchasc a wax-candle, a plentiful supply of which is usually kept
near the door, and the sale of which must constitute a very lucrative traffic.
IJearing tliis in one hand, he slowly approaches the shrine of Iho Virgin,
before which a silver lamp burns day and night ; at a considerable distance
from it he sinks on one knee, bowing his head to the pavement, and cros-
sing his breast repeatedly with the thumb and two forefingers of his right
hand. Having at length reached tin shrine itself, he lights his votive
candle at the holy bunp, sots it np in one of the various liolos in a largo
silver plate ])rovided for the purpose, and, falling low on his bended knees,
kisses the pavement before the altar. Ilis prayers arc few and short, and
he retires slowly with his face to the altar, kneeling and crossing himself
at intervals.

The Russians have so closely adopted the practice of burning tapors,
tliat there is no interment, no baptism, no betrothing, in short, no ' icred
ceremony, witliout torch, lamp, or taper, to be tiiought of: fire is fv)r them
the pledge of the iiresencc of tlie Holy J^pirit; and hence illuminations
j)lay the most important part in the ceremonies of the Greek ciiurcli. Al-
thongli the Greek faith does not permit introduction of images into

iheir churches, its votaries are scarcely satisfied with mere pictures: they
are frequcMtly ornamented with nmterials of dress and jewelry, and, ac-
cf)r(lingly, the face of the Virgin is tlic only i)art of the painting exposed
to view, while tlie dress is covered with plates of silver or gold, and the
head is almost universally adorned with a crown of jewels. The jjicturea
are, geiioially speaking, more heads of saints, very indificrently executed.
Many of tiie jewels, however, are of great size and beauty. One of the
diamonds in tlie Virgin's crown of "our Lady of Kazan" is considered
second only to the famous diamond of the emperor; the water is question-
able, but it is a very large stone.

In tlie place before the cathedral of Kazan are two well-executed statues
— one of Kutuzofl', prince of Smolensko, the other of IJarclay do Tolly —
two generals who distinguished themselves in the campaign of Moscow.
Tiio grand entrance-door in the centre beneath the peristyle is of bronze,
divided into ton compartments, each containing a subject in bas-relief (rom
the Old Testament ; the intermediate spaces are ornamented with figures
of saints in high relief, and heads in circular frames. The workmanship
is, however, inferior.

The interior is little suited to the wants of divine service as performed
in Russia ; and the altar is awkwardly placed at the side instead of oppo-
site the chief entrance. In the niches along the sides of the church are
colossal statues of the grand-duke Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky. St.
John and St. Andrew. The general effect within is dark and confincu,
and travellers have expressed a regret that the fifty-six monoliths, the
mighty giants which support the little roof, are not employed in a work

486

ILLUSTRATED DF..SCUIPTION OF RUSSIA.

more wortliy of llicm. Apart from these architectural discords, tlic cliurch
is not wautinj; in interest. First of all, the cyo is attracted by the silver
of the I'A'onosfds (tlie pictorial wall of the sanctuary). The balustrades,
doors, and doorways of the i/x'oiiosfnses, are generally of wood, carved and
pilded, but in tiiis cliurcli all its lioains and posts arc of massive silver!
The pilhus >A' the bjilustradc round the holy j)laoe, tiie posts of the thrco
doors, tlie arches twenty feet in heij;lit above the altar, and the frames of
the i)ietnres, are also of fine silver. Tlie silver l)eanjs are all hij;hly j)ol-
ished, and reflect witii dazzlinjr brilliancy the lijiht of the thousand tajvers
that bnru before them. Many hundred wei<«ht of silver must have been
melted down to furnish the materials. The ('ossaeks, laden with no incon-
sideral.de booty from the eampai^nis of 1S13 and IH14 — i)lundered alilco
from friends and foes in (lonnany and France — made an oflering of this
mass of silver to tlic '' Holy Mother of Kazan," for tlie object to wliich it
is now appropriated. Platofl", the Cossack hetman, luvvinj; also .secured
some itooty in the retreat of the French from Moscow, sent it to the mctro-
pnfiffin, directinj? that it should be made into statues of tlie four evanirel-
ists, and adorn the church of the " Mother of f!od of Kazan." The ()os-
sacks seem to have a peculiar veneration for this Madonna, who is half
their countrywoman, for Vassili-lvanovich brou<;ht her from Kazan to
Moscow, whence Peter the Oreat transported her to St. Petcrsbnrg. Her
picture, set with pearls and precious stones, hangs in this church. It was
before this picture that Kutuzofl' jirayed before he advanced to meet the
French in 1!S12, for which reason she is considered to be closely connected
with that canipniirn. Here, also, is the monument of that disiingiiished
man. Daiiutli'ss amid a despairing nation, he nolily sustained the courage
of the nionaich and the drooping valor of the Russian troops: but for liiin
the sanguinary battle of the Moskva might never have been fought, and
Napoleon would have marched without a blow to Moscow, and perhaps to
St. Petersburg.

The coup irwily on entering this hou.'.e of jirayer, is rather that of an
arsenal than of a church, and this nmy be said of many other chiirtdies in
this capital, for they are more or less adorned with military trophies taken
from various nations of Europe and Asia. H(M-e are to be seen the ciinison
flags of the Peisians, which may be easily distinguished by a silver hand,
as large ..s life, fastened to the end ; also many Turkish standanls, sur-
mounted by the crescent — large, nnsoiled pieces of cloth, for the most
part red, and so !iew and spotless, that they might be sold again to the
merchant by llie ell, and giving the impression tliat they were surrendered
without any very great struggle. Not so the French colors, which hang
near th..ii, a'ld which offer a strong contrast: they arc rent in jiieces, and
to several of the seventeen eagles only a single fragment is attached ; these,
with their ex landed wings, which had soared in triumph over nearly the
whole of co'itiiieiital Euro|)0, look .strange enough in the place they now
roost ill. Among these tattered banners is ono of white silk, on which tho

8T. PETERSnURO — THE ISAAC CHURCH.

laiig
and
lesc,

tho
now

Iho

wohIh ^^ Garde Nationale tie Paris'^ arc visible. Ilcro, too, may be .seen
tlio long streamers of tiie wild tribes of the Caucasus, and tlie silver eagles
of Poland ; and, lastly, the marshal's baton of Davoust (duke of Ancrstad:
and prince of Eckmiihl), the "Hamburg Robespierre," whose atrocities
will be remembered as long as a stone of that city exists under its present
name. Tliis trophy, which is kept in a glass case, was taken in the disas-
trous retreat of 1812 ; it is said to have been lost in the wild confusion that
evcM-ywhere prevailed, and was afterward picked uj) by some straggling
Cossack. Keys of many (Jerman, Frencli, and Xethorlund towns, before
whose gates a Russian trumpet has blown in triumph, also grace tlie |)illar8
of this cathedral ; among them are tliose of llanil)urg, Loipsic, Dresden,
Rheims, Breda, and Utrecht — in all twenty-eight i)air. To a jirotestant,
these tropliies, and tlie tawdry paintings, gilding, and jewelry, completely
destroy all ideas of a devotional ciiaracler. As tlie meml)ers of tlie Greek
religion pray standing, th(5 interior of their churciios is always devoid of
pew, beucli, or cliair ; luit there is in every churcli a jilaco set apart for Iho
emperor to stand in, which is raised above tlie lloor, and usually covered
with a canopy, or small dome. An exception is, we believe, made in favor
of the empress dowager, on account of ill health.

The Isaac church can not fail to excite the admiration of those who ai>
predate grand proportions, a simple l)ut lofty style of architecture, and
iiolde porticoes. The situation also is highly suitable, for it stands in ono
of the largest open squares in the capital, surrounded liy its finest build-
ings and monuments, and furnishes some idea of what Russian quarries,
Russian mines and workmen, and a French architect, ^lonsieur Montfer-
rand, can produce. Nothing can exceed the 3iin|»!icity of the model: no
ornament meets the eye ; the architect has left all to the impression to bo
produced by its stujiendous proportions. The original design of the <.athc-
dral at Cologne is said to be on a much smaller scale ; the transept alone
is a building of great magnitude.

On the spot Mliere the Isaac church stands, the Russians have been at
work upon a pliui' of worship for the last century. Tlie original ono was
constructed of wood, but this was subsequently destroyed, and the great
CLtlierine comnienced another, which she intended to face with marble,
and which, like many other of her undertakings, was never finished. Tho
emperor I'aul continued the building, but in brick. This half-and-half
edifice vanished, however, in its turn; and under Nicholas the present
magnificent structure has been erected — such a one as will scarcely find
so splendid a successor. To make a firm foundation, a whole forest of
piles was sunk in the swampy soil, at a cost of a mill"- •.! of dollars! Tho
present Ituilding is, as usual, in the form of a Greek cross, of four equal
sides, and each of the four grand entrances is a|)proached from tho level
of tlu! place by three broad flights of steps, each whole flight being com-
posed of one entire j)iecc of granite, formed out of masses of rock brought
from Finland. These steps lead from the four sides of tho building to tho

438

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIOK OF RUSSIA.

fcur chief entrances, cnclj of wliieli has a suporb peristyle. The pillars of
Ihoso jjeiistyk's arc sixty feet high, and have a diameter of seven foot, all
magnificent round and highly-polished granite monoliths, from Finland,
buried for centuries in its swauips, till brought to light by the triumphant
power of Uussia. They are crowned with Corinthian capitals of bronze,
and support the enormous beam of a frieze formed of six fire-polished
blocks. Over the poristylc-t, and at twice th.-ir hciglit, rises the chic^f
and central cupola, liigher than it is wide, in the Ilyzantine proportion. It
is supported also by thirty pilhus of smoothly-polished granite, which, al-
though gigantic in tliemselves, look small compared to those below. The
cupola is covered with copper, overlaid with gold, and glitters like the
sun over a mountain. From its centre rises a small, elegant rotunda, a
miniature repetition of the whole, looking like a chapel on the mountain-
top. Tlie whole edifice is surrounded l»y the crowning and far-seen golden
cross. Four smaller cujiolas, reseml»liiig the greater in every jiarticular,
stand around, like children round a mother, and coiuplcto thu harmony
visible in every i)art.

Tlio walls of the church arc covered with marble, and no doubt this ca-
thedral is the most remarkable one in St. IVterslmrg, and will supersede
the Kazan "church of the Virgin" for great stale festivals. The embel-
lisliments of the fa(;ade and windows have been intrusted to various artists.
The grou|i of liguros on the pediment of (.no of the former was designed
by a Frenclimaii, named Lc Maire : the subject is the Aiigel at the Tomb,
with the Magdalen and other female figures on the one side, and the terri-
fied soldior> in every attitude of consternation on the other; tliesc figures
arc eight feet in height, and bronze gilt. The great dome is of iron, and,
as well as tlie whole of the l)ronze-work, was manufactured at the cele-
brated foundry of Mr. Haird, of St. Petersburg. The interior of tho
church is far from being finished ; but if tho present design is carried out,
it will be a mass of precious metals and stones. Tho nialachitu columns
for the ikonostast, or screen, are fifty feet in height, and exceed anything
that has yet l)een done in that beautiful fabric.

The prestol for the inmost shrine is a small circular temple, the dome
supported by eight Corinthian i)illars of malachite, about eight feet high,
with gilt i)ases and capitals. Tlio exterior of the dome is covered with a
profusion of gilding on a ground of malachite, and the interior is of lapis-
lazuli. Tlic floor is of polished marbles of various colors, which have been
found in tho Russian dominions, and the whole is raised on steps of pol-
ished porphyry. There is, perhaps, too much gilding about this very beau-
tiful work, but this is in accordance \\\\.\\ its position in a Greek church.
It was presented to the emperor by Prince Demidoff, who procured tho
malachite from his mines in Silieria, and sent ilr to Italy to bo worked ; its
value is said to bo as much as a million of roubles.

From the rotunda over the great dome there is a fine view of the capital
when the day is bright and clear, which is generally the case in the "ummer.

RT. PKTERSBUlia — CHURCH OP RT. PRTKH AND RT. PAUL.

441

Tlio cyo tlicti wanders uiiol)atnictcd over tlio wliolo extent of the imperial
city. The liroiul Neva spreads its " breast of waters" in the warm 8un-
eliinc for iniiny n mile, hemmed in at first l>etween those massive quays of
granite which have not their ccpiul in Kurope, and reflecting on its calm
surfucc storehouse and palace ; but l)cyond, no lonjier subject to man't
control, its wide stream (>xpaiiding forth, flows beneath the wooded shores
of IV'ti'rhoff and Oraniciiliaum, wliero the wearied eye can follow its course
no longer.

Next to the churches Just described, that of St. Peter nnd St. Paul, sit-
uated in the fortress, is the most interesting. It was built by an Italian
ureliiteet, luider Peter the (Jreat, and stands nearly in the middle of thi
city, op|»osite the AVinter palace. Its pointed, slender tower, exactly ro-
scmbling that of the Admiralty, rises like a mast three hundred and forty
feet in height. For the last hundred and fifty feet \hc 8{)ire is so small
anil thin, that it must bo ("limlied like a pine-tree. This spire, though pro[>-
erly represented us fading away almost to a point in the sky, is in reality
terminated by a globe of consideraltle dimensions, or which aa angel
stands, supporting a large cross. Tiie following incident connected witl'
this spire, as related by Leiteh Ritchie, places in a cons|ticuous point of v!o\'
that spirit of absurd daring which is one of tlie peculiarities of the Rust.;au
character: —

" The angel which surmounts the spire, less respected by 'ho .''cather
than perhaps his holy character deserved, foil into disrepair; and some
suspicions were entertained that he designed revisiting, uuiuvoked, the sur-
face of the earth. Th(! aflair caused some uneasiness, and the go^'crnmcnt
at length becaio seriously porpl(!Xe<l. To raise a scaflblding to such a
height would have cost nuire money thati all the angels out of leaven were
worth ; and, meditating fruitlessly on these circumstances, without being
able to resolve how to act, a eonsideralde time was suffered to elapse.

"Aujong the crowd of gazers bolow, who daily turned their eyes and
their thoughts toward the angel, was a vwjik called Telouciikinc. This
man was a roofer (»f houses (a slater, us he would be called in a country
where slates are used), and liis speculations by c ;.,; les assumed a more
practical character than tlio idle wonders and coiijt; lures of the rest of the
crowd. The spire was entirely covered with sheets of gilded copper, and
presented a surface to the eye as smooth as if it had been one mass of bur-
nished gold. But Teloiichkine knew that it was not one mass of anything ;
that the sheets of copper were not even unirormly closed upon each other ;
and, above all, that there were large nails used to fasten them, which pro-
jected from the sides of the spire.

*' Having meditated upon these circumstances till his mind was made up,
the mujik went to the government, and offered to repair the angel, without
scaffolding, and without assistance, on condition of being reasonably paid
for the time expended in the labor. The offer was accepted ; for it was
made iu Russia, and by a Russian.

I' 3

442

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

" On the day fixed for the adventure, Tiolouchkinc, provided witli noth
ing more than a coil of cords, ascended the spire in tlie interior to the last

window. Here ho looked down at
the conconrso of people below, and
up at the ylittoring " needle," as it is
called, tni)erin}i; far away above his
head. But liis heart did not fail him,
and, sto|)pin<^ gravely out u|)on the
ledge of tlie window, he set about his
task.

" He cut a jiortion of the cord in
the form of two long stirrups, with a
loop at each end. Tlie upper loops
he fastened ujjon two of the project-
ing nails above liis head, and jHaccd
his feet in the others. Then, digging
the fuigors of one hand into the inter-
stices of the sheets of copper, he raised
up one of his stirrups with the other
liaud, so as to make it catch a nail
liighor up. The same operation he
j)orformed on behalf of the other log,
and so on alternately. And thus ho
climbed, nail by nail, step l)y step,
stirrup by stirrup, till his starling-
post M"as undistingdishable from tho
golden surface, and the sj)ire had
dwindled, and dwindled, and dwin-
dled in his embrace, until ho could
clasp it all round.
" So far, so well. But he Imd nov/
reached tlic ball — a globe of between nine and ten feet in circumference.
The angel, the object of his visit, was above this ball, and even concealed
from his view by its smootli, round, and glittering expanse. Only fancy
the wretch at that moment, turning up his grave eyes, and graver beard,
to an obstacle that seemed to defy the daring and ingenuity of man !

" But Telouchkine was not dismayed. He was prej)ared for the diffi-
culty ; and the means by which he essayed to surmount it exhibited tho
same prodigious simi)licity as the rest of the feat.

" Suspending himself in his slirruj)s, ho girded the needle with a cord,
the ends of which he fastened round his waist ; and so supported, he leaned
gradually back till the soles of his feet were j)Iantcd against the spiro. In
this position he threw, by a strong eflbrt, a coil of cord over the ball ; and
so coolly and accurately was the aim taken, that at the first trial it fell in
the required direction, and he saw the cud hang down on the opposite side.

Sn^s or St. Pctkii and St. r*i'L.

ST. PETEIlSnURO — CHUnCH OP ST. PETEU AND ST. PAUL.

443

*' To draw Iiiiiisclf up into his original position ; to fasten the cord firmly
round tlic globe ; and with the assistance of this auxiliary to climb to the
summit — were now an easy part of his tasii : and, in a few minutes more,
Tclouchivine stood by the side of tlie angel, and listened to tlic shout that
burst lilve sudden tliunder from the concourse below, yet came to his oar
only like a faint and hollow murmur!

'• The cord, whicli he had now an o}»portunity of fastening properly, ena-
bled him to descend with comparative facility ; and the next diiy he car-
ried up wltli him a ladder of rojjcs, by means of which he found it easy to
efl'ect tlie necessary repairs."

In tlio vaults of this church repose the remains of Peter the Great and
all his imjierial successors. Tlie preceding sovereigns of Russia Averc
buriotl in the Arkhaii<i-elskoi Snbor ii. Moscow. Whoever has seen tho
monuments of the I'olisii kings at Krakow, or those of the English and
French kings, and tlie Italian princes, will wonder at the simidicity and
absence of ornament in this last rcsting-jdace of the Russian emperors, par-
ticularly when he recollects the splendors of the Winter palace. The sim-
ple Collins are placed in the vaults, and over them in the church is nothing
further in tho shape of a monument than a stone cofiin-shaped sarcophagus
covered with a red pall. On the pall the name of the deceased emperor
or emperor's son is embroidered in golden letters, as "His Imperial Maj-
esty the Emperor Peter the First;" '' His Impeilal Highness the Graud-
Duke Constantine," &q. On some there is nothing but the initial letters,
and here and there some unimportant trophy. On the sarcophagus of tho
grand-duke Constantine lie the keys of some Polish fortresses. Peter III.,
to whose remains his wife Catherine II. refused interment in this place of
sepulture, rests there now. Paul placed both Catherine and his father
there. A hundred cannon, impregnable bastions, and a garrison of three
thousand men, defend the place, which can be desecrated by hostile hands
only when all St. Petersburg lies in ruins. The Russian princes are tho
only ones in Europe, so far as wo know, who arc buried within the walls
of a fortress.

The youthful daughter of the late emperor Nicholas, whoso fatal illness
aliortened his visit to England in 1844, was the last of the imperial family
sleeping here, down to tho period of the sndden decease of her father,
whoso mortal remains are now also deposited here. " Her coffin," says a
lute traveller, " was covered with fresh and fragrant llowers, tokens of
alTcction from many who knew and loved her, and numbers daily visit tho
last resting-place of her whose '.nirly death was so severe a blow to her
family. .... To that gloomy church, unseen and unknown, many a fair
daughter of the Russian noble often comes to pour forth her supjdications
for tho repose of the dead and the safety of the living, and to strew roses
ou tho tomb of one who, young and gay as themselves, died when most
happy and when most beloved."

Tho whole aspect of this church is dingy and wretched ; and tho vast

444

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

quantity of torn and tattered banners, and keys of fortresses, Ining up in
every part of it, give one the idea of being in some old-fasliioncd gallery
of an arsenal. Many of the flags can not be looked upon without interest.
Hero arc tiic Swedish flags taken at Poltava — the selfsame banners which
Charles XII. fondly hoped to plant on the battlements of the krenilin at
Moscow ; the Prussian eagles, too, wrested from the veterans of the great
Frederick ; the horsetails of countless pashas, and their batons of office,
curiously inlaid, and in shape very much resembling a small-headed ham-
mer, with a long and tapering handle; seven French eagles; and, above
all, the keys of Paris and many other cities and fortresses of " La belle
France.'''' A Turkish flag hangs here, on the tarnished silk of which is
the impress of a bloody hand distinctly stamped, telling more forcibly than
words of the death-struggle that accompanied the capture of this trophy,
in defence of which life was thought well sacrificed. It is now consigned
to dust and neglect, save wlien the chance visit of some curious stranger
unfurls once again that wide-swelling fold, around whicli the storm of bn;ttlo
once raged fast and furious. There are some very large jewels in the dia-
dem of the Virgin in this diurcli, but tiiey are of an inferior quality, or havo
been iujperfectly polished, as tliey arc dim and rayless.

Among the sacred vessels here deposited arc shown some turned in wood
and ivory, tlie work of Peter the Great ; and attention is generally drawu
to one cross in purticidar, the centre of which is ornamented with a circu-
lar slide of ivory, on which the crucifixion with the mourning wonien below
arc carved in bus-rclicf. A multitude of rays issue from the slide as from
a sun ; every ray is turned in ebony, in the ornamenting of which with
all manner of carving an enormous degree of labor nnist have been ex-
pended.

The cottage of Peter tlie Great, on the same island, though at some dis-
tance from the citadel, has been alluded to in the previous chapter. Of
the three apartments into which it is divided, the inner one was his bed-
room ; the adjoining one his chapel, where the picturoa that ho worshipped
are still preserved ; and that to the right his receiving-room. The empe-
ror Alexander covered the whole cottage in with an outer casing. It was
hero that the city was first commenced ; and the wooden church, at the
foot of the Troitsky bridge, is the fddest in St. Petersburg.

Among tlie Russo-Greek churches, ^lat of the Smolnoi convent is distin-
guished for the taste of its decorations, and may servo as a specimen of the
modern Russian style of church-architecture. It is more spacious thaa
Russian cliurches are in general, and its five cupolas are placed in harmo-
nious relation with one anotlier. They arc painted deep blue, sprinkled
with golden stars. A higii, magnificent, beautii'ully-dcsigncd iron grating
— whose rails, or rather pillars, arc wound with wreaths of vine-loaves and
flowc'.s, in iron-work — surrounds the courtyards of the convent ; ond above
it wave the elegant birch and lime trees.

Seated on a gentle elevation, on a corner of land, round which the Neva

OSB

ST. PETERSBURG — SMOLNOI AND NEVSKOI CONVENTS.

445

bends to the west, this cloister, with its mys*:erious reserve, and the alluring
colors with which it is clothed, resembles a magic palace of the " Aral)io,n
Nights." From the eastern suburb of St. Petersburg, and Resurrection
street, which is a mile and a half long, and leads directly to it, the clois-
ter is seen far and near ; and, from all quarters of the empire, the ortho-
dox believers bow and cross themselves at the sight of its cupolas. This
building is dedicated to the education and instruction of young girls of
noble and citizen birth, of whom not less than five hundred are brought up
at the cost of the government, and throe hundred at their own.

The church of the cloister, which is open to the public as a ])lace of
worship, has something extremely pleasing in its style of decoration : only
two colors are to be seen — that of the gold framework of the ornamented
objects, and of the white imitative marble, highly polished, and covering
all the walls, pillars, and arches. Several galleries, which are ilhiniinatcd
on liigh festival-days, run like garlands round the interior of the dome.
Not less than four-and-twenty stoves of gigantic dimensions arc scattered
about the church, which they keep at tlie tenij)erature of the study, and
greet all that enter with true Christian warmth. These stoves are built
like little chapels, so that at first tliey are taken for church-ornaments.
The Russians love pomp and splendor in their churches. In tliis one, the
balustrades surrounding the ikonostas are of the finest glass, and the doors
arc formed of golden columns twined and interlaced with vino-loaves and
cars of grain ii. carved and gilded wood. The jticturos of tliis i/ionostas
are all new, painted by the pupils of the St. Petersl)urg Academy. The
faces of the apostles and saints, of the Madonna and of the Rodoomer, in
the old .Russian pictures, have all tlie well-known Byzantine or Indian
physiognomy — small, long-cut eyes, dark completion, excessively tliin
cheeks, a small moutli, thin lijis, slender ringlets, and a scanty beard ; the
nose uncommonly sharp and jwinted, quite vanishing at tlie root between
the eyes, and tlie head very round. In the new pictures of tlie Russian
school, they have co|)ied the national physiognomy as seen in the Russian
merchants — full, red cheeks, a long board, light and abundant hair, large
blue eyes, and a blunted nose ! It is wonderful that the Russian clergy
have permitted this deviation from the old models; the new ones, however,
are held in very little respect by the i)eoplo, who reverence only the old,
dusty, and dusky saints, and are as little inclined to accept faces tlioy can
understand as to hear divine service in a language they can comprehend -
for the old Slavonian dialect, which continues to be used, is unintelligible
to them. The empress Maria, thfr foundress and benefactress of the con-
vent, has a simple monument in the church, which is dedicated in her honor
to St. Mary.

There are only two convents in St. Petersburg: this of Smoliioi — one
only in name, for the empress Catherine's twenty nuns have long since
been dispossessed by the eight hundred young ladies — and that of Alex-
ander Nevskoi, for monks. The latter is one of the most celebrated in

446

ILLUSTRATED DRSCRTPTTON OP RUfWIA.

Russia — a farm* and inferior in rank only to the *' Lavra of the Trinity"
in INfoscow, and to the " Lavra of the Cave" in Kiev. It is the scat of tho
■mcfropo/ilaii of St. Petorsliurjr, and stands at the extreme end of tlio Ncv-
s/coi Prospc/ct, where it occupies a hirgc space, enclosing: within its walls
churches, towers, gardens, and monks' cells. Peter the Great founded it
in honor of the canonized grand-duke Alexander, who, in a great battle
here, defeated the Swedes and the knights of the military orders, and whoso
remains were brought hither in a silver cofiin. Peter's successors increased
the ])ossessions and buildings, and Gather" lo iJ. built its cathedral, one of
die handsomest churches in St. Pctcrsbur ^ J?'or the interior decoration,
marble was brought from Italy, precious stones from Siberia, and pearls
.roin ^ersia. It is further adorned with some good copies after Guido
Reni and Perugino.

On two great pillars opposite the altar arc two excellent portraits —
Peter tlic Great and Catherine II., — larger than life. These two, as
"Founder" and "Finisher," arc everywhere united in St. Petersburg.
In a side-chapel stands tiie monument of Alexander Ncvsky. It is of mas-
sive silver, and contains not less than five thousand pounds of pure metal;
it is a silver mountain liftcen feet high, on which stands a silver catafalco^
and silver angels, as large as a man, with trumpets, and silver flowers,
and a cpiantity of bas-rdicf in silver, representing the battle of tho Neva.
Tile keys of Adrianople arc suspended to the tomb of St. Alexander; they
are strikingly small, not much larger than the keys of a money-box, which,
in fact, Adrianople has in many respects been to Russia.

Tlie Xevsky cloister has profited yet more by the presents sent from
Perscpolis to the northern Petropolis, when the Russian embassador Gri-
boyedofT was murdered in Teiieran, than by the Byzantine tribute. Tho
Persian gifts consisted of a long train of rar. animals, Persian web', gold-
stufls, and pearls. They reached St. Petcrsl)ui;>- in the winter. The pearls,
and gold-stud's, and rich shawls, were carried i \ great silver and gold
dishes by magiiificently-drcssed Persians. The F'^'sian piince Khosreff
Mirza drove in an imperial state-equipage with six horses ; the elephants,
bearing on their liacks towers filled with Indian warriors, had leathern boots
to protect them from the cold, and the cages of the tigers and lions were
provided with double skins of the nortiiern polar bears. It was like a pro-
cession ill the Arabian Nights. The elei)liants, however, soon died from
the severity of the climate.

Among the inditidual souvenirs is an episcopal staff turned by Peter tho
Great, and presented by him to the first St. Petersl)urg metropolitan, and
another of aml)er, from Catherine II. The lil)rary of al)out ten thousand
volumes, independently of a number of very valuable manuscripts, concern-
ing which many books have been written, contains many rare specimens of
the antiquities of Russia.

* The liolipst convonH in llie empire, the •cuts of ihe moU-opolilons, are called lavra*: the other
ronvenii arc urily monattirt.

^g|>

># -isWUfl* Al»A*.»*OUWW»''**'*^*'

KT. rETEKSBUUG — THE PUEODKASHENSKY CUUnCH.

447

KoNAvii*? Of St. SiiRcics, Environs or St. rcTKiistiUKa.

The monastery of St. Scrguis (or ScrsricfF), a view of Avliicli Is given
above, is situated on the route f;oni St. PeterHburg to Petorliofl'. This
n.oua.stery is tlie most noted )>'ace of pilgrimage in the environs of the cajii-
tal. It lias fou: chui'ches.a mansion for invalids, endowed by liio Zouboflf
family, and a, cemetery, which couUiins the tombs of several eminent
ccdesiastics and martyrs in Russian history.

The Preobrashensky church belongs to one of tlie oldest rcgimoiits of
guards, founded Ity Peter the Great, the "tenth legion" of the Russian
Caesars. This church (the Spass-Preobraslicns/coi-Sub(yr') is one of the
most considerable of the city, and, more than any other, adorned both
without and within with trojihics from conquered nations. Tlie railing
that surrounds the churchyard is formed of Turkish and French cannon.
Every three of those three hundred cannon, one large and two smaller,
mounted on a granite pedestal, with their mouths pointed downward, form
a column. Around the cannon, chains of different thickness, gracefully
twined, are hung like garlands between the columns ; on the summit of
each is enthroned a Russian double eagle of iron, Avith expanded wings.
Within, the church is adorned with flags and halberds. The pillars look
like palm-trees, of svhich every leaf is a lanco ! Here also travellers are
ehown a production of Russian inventive talent, the work of a common
peasant. It is a largo, splendid piece of clockwork, made by him \;\ his

-JIB

ILLUSTUAli EKSCRIP'riON OK RUSSIA.

native village, bought for twenty thousand rrublcs by his lord, and pro
scntcU to tlic church. The woiks arc said to l>o so good as to have stood
in no need of repair during the eight or ten years the clock has been in
the cliurch.

Trinity church is also a moder.i erection, liU" the Sniolnoi convent, and
very similar to it. The exterior oflbrs an exiiiMplc of the fantastic manner
in wliich the Russians often decorate their churches. Under the cornice
of the dark-blue, star-bcs)iangcd cupo' •, an niabcsquc of vine-lcavi-s and
llowcTs runs all round. The garlands are held up by an;.rels, and lii-twcen
every pair of them a crown of thorns is introduced as a c( 'tre. iJo? for
this martyr-token of Christianity, it would seem the gay tvniple of souio
Grecian god.

One half, and t-crtainly the more important half, of the chnrohcr-' of St.
retersl)urg, arc t!;o < rections of the present century. The Nit i!!;i c'uiri'!i,
the church of the iu.uirrcetion. and sunio others of the time of Calheiino
II., aro not Avortiiy of nienti*!;' in an architoctura! ))oint of view, in ilio
church of the Re.-iirrectioii aro conic very .singwhir oilerings to the saints;
among others a patchwork (]uilt, juobaMy ih-' 'jliVring of some devout bf^;;-
gar, and containing the best of !i. i : ig-^. U was made out of a vast num-
ber of pieces great an<1 siuidl, wcoli.n, lim .1, and silk, worked with gold
t^ircad, perhaps taken iVoiu tli'> cast-off epaulettes of some officer of tin*
guards, and in the middle a golden cross was sewed on.

Ih tlie Nicolai cluiirh, which \> built in two stories, one for divine ser-
vice daring winter, untl the other in summer, the four small cupolas are
tenantc ,' iiy a ntnnl)er of pigeons, who niake their nests there, and arc fed
by the atUJidants with the lice wliich the pious place there lor the dead.

Among th" ehurclies of other confessions than the Greek, that l)uilt i)y
the emperor 1 .id, mIicu ho assumed the protectorate of the Maltese order,
is at least interesting. It is quite in the style of the old churches of the
knights of .St. John, and still contains the chair on which the emperor sat
as grand-master of the order.

Tlic larg.^st Roman catholic church is on the Nvvskoi ProspektfOpynmUi
the Kazan cnthcdral. The priests are Germans, and the service half Ger-
man, half Latin. It is attended by the Poles and Lithuanians, to whom
the chanting, by the congregation, of the " immaculate Virgin," " the Queen
of Ileaven," " the Tower of God," " the Fortress of Zion," &c., in itself
sufficiently unintelligilde, must be necessarily still more so hero. Tlio
Russians rarely attend the Roman catholic service ; if they go to any for-
eign church, it is generally to tiie protestant. The catholics, Greeks, and
Armenians (the latter of whom have also a very pretty church on the Nev-
skui Prospekt) hold to the doctrine of the Trinity ; but tho Dutch, it would
appear, to a Duality — for on their church stands tho singular inscription,
*'^ Deo et salvatori sacrum." This church, with its very rich dotation,
dates from Peter the Great, when the Dutch wcro tho most considci'able
merchants, and were endowed by tho liberal czar with so much land within

ST. PETERSBUBG — HOSPITALS.

449

the city, tliut many a Dutch cathedral may envy the church o.*" this little
northern colony.

The largest civil hospital in St. Petersburg is that of Oboukoff, situated
on the FontairKa canal, and near the Semenovskoi parade-ground. AH
persons are received here. Those who are able contribute a small monthly
sum toward its support. Twelve medical men are attached to this liospi-
tal. An iron plate, witli the name of the patient, the nature of the disease,
the time of entering, and tlie course of treatment, is affixed above each
bed. The bedsteads are of iron, and the linen remarkably clean. There
is a school, belonging to this hospital, where youths are educated for hos-
pital-attendants. They are taugiit to read and write, instructed in Latin,
and in a smattering of medicine and anatomy, and at a certain age distrib-
uted among the various hospitals of the city as subordinate officers.

The military hospital contains about two thousand patients. Tlie City
hosjjital and the Imperial hospital, for sick poor, are both on a largo scale.
There is also an institution for deaf and dumb persons, a blind-asylum, &c.

The richest and most considerable of the public institutions of St. Pe-
tersburg is, however, the foundling-hospital. Well endowed from its very
first estaltlishment, it owes its colossal wealth to the bounty and particular
care of the late empress Maria. Among other favors accorded to the hos-
pital, she gave it the monopoly of i)laying-cards. The duty on these is
very high, amounting to fifty silver copecks (about forty cents) a pack.
In all the other countries of Europe put together there is pr()bal)ly not so
great a consumption of cards as in Russia. Not only the long winter even-
ings — that is to say, the long evenings of nine months out of the twelve —
and tiio Russians' innate love for })lay, make the sale of cards something
almost incrodilile, but luxury and waste further stimulate the demand. In
the higl'cr circles, a pack of cards serves but for one game of ombre, whist,
&c. ; and even in the better sort of clul)S, new cards are taken after every
third game! It gives but a faint idea of the luxury prevailing in Russia,
although tliis is but a pale shadow of that which formerly reigned.*

The enormous capital belonging to the St. Petersburg foundling-hospital
affords it abundant means to maintain itself on a level in every respect with

* "A fi'W ycinit ngo llie cl'iirniing rmintO!>8 Wiironzow Dnsilikuw giive a griiiul JiU in llio old
Frt'iirh iilylo. Fur lliat rvciiiii;; tin- wlitilt- Ijdii.ic iiiiil its iipiiurtriinMi'rs wcro tniimrninifd, by tlio
miigic of licr cninmiiiiil, into n iiiniiiinn of the tiiiio of Loiiin XIV. Ciiiriiliii'i>, stiiircnsi's, nnjodnii,
liuudoirff, nil wore tlin rliiii'iictcr of tliiit pcriiiil ; walls iiiiil ci>iliiig8, flours unci windows, tlii> fiirni-
ttire, till- •iM'vi(!('ii, I'ViMi tlu< livnivg of tlie liiced footiiien, witli llieir long, powdi'ivd pt'inUcs — nil
wua i'oL-o<'ci. Tlie entcitiiinnient lusted four lioiiis, rust niaiiy Immlrcil tliotisiind roul)les, niid enily
tho next moniitig everything wiis dentroyed iind torn down, in order to restore the hoiiise 119 i|iiickly
us ponsil'le to its fornter oondition. — The houses of nil persons <if quiility lire annuully thoroushly
neW'fiirnished, thnt they miiy nut he a single season hehind the iiitest I'niis fiichiuns; and yet wliiit
is nil this, rotnpnred to the nuiil prodigality of uii earlier period f rrevionsly to the aceessiun uf
Aiexaiwler, n hi^K-hurn Russian woidil have thuught it a profanation of hospitality to use the game
■erviee for two feasts. The guests gone, the servants took everytliing that had been used at the
repast — bottles, glasses, eovers, plates, eandlesticks, linen — tho whole furniture n{ the table, in
shoit — and tusseil it ull out upon tlie heads of tho rejoieing mob assembled iii) the street below!
What wuuhl now be deemed madness, was then good taste.'' — Jeruma.nn.

4.10

ILLUSTUATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

(1k^ first itliilaiitliroj)ic inHtitiitions in the world. The institution is under
ilic ininiodiatj protection of tlie cniprcss dowager, who frequently visits it,
often in eonijiany with her danjjhter the duchess of Leuchtenburg, watches
over all its arrangements with true womanly care, and strengthens and
improves it l»y her powerful patronage. The orphan who enters this chari-
table house ia cared for, not only in its tender infancy, but for its wholo
life. Unseeing and unseen, the woman on duty in the interior of the cham-
ber receives the little helpless being whom the world and its own puronta
aliandon. At the ring of the door-l)ell, sho turns the exterior \'.j.U of tho
cofl'er inward, her car scarcely catching the last munnured blessing wi«h
wliich nmny a heart-broken mother commits to tho care of ri'.rangere that
whicii slie holds dearest in the world.

As soon as received, the infant undergoes a medical examination ; and
an exact record is made of every mark and sign upon its body and linen —
of everything, in short, which came with it. Then it is washed, dressed
in new clothes, a number is allotted to it, and it is given over to one of
the nurses who arc always there in readiness. On bright spring mornings,
long lines of well-closed carriages may be seen driving slowly through the
streets, conveying the nurses and their innocent charges into the country.
There tin children remain for some years, under tho care and superinten-
dence of |»liysicians and officers of the institution, who regularly and strictly
inspect the foster-mothers.

The first years of infancy happily passed, the children arc brought back
to the foundling-hospital, and tiieir education begins. The nature of this
education depends entirely on the capacity and inclinations they betray.
This establishment sends fortli stout blacksmiths and ploughmen, just as it
has also produced distinguished officers, sculptors, and musicians. Cooks
from the fouiulling-hospital are much sought after; governesses that have
been educated there are preferred to all others.

When the lad has comjdeted his education in the house which received
him as a liclpless infant, the choice of a calling is allowed him — more or
less limited, of course, by the degree of ability and the conduct he has
manifested. He may devote himself to science or art, to the military or
uaval j)rufession, to some trade or handicraft — jus^ as he pleases ; and the
expense of his education, previously borne by the hospital, thenceforward
falls upon the government. To requite this, he is bound to (i vote his ac-
quirements to the service of the state for a certain time. Tins, however,
is not a very hard condition, since it ultimately leads to that which so
many tliousands sigh after for years in vain, namely, an a])pointment as
Boon as he is quite fit for one.

Formerly these foundlings could at any time be claimed by their parents ;
but lately a ukase has put many difficulties in the way of such claims, if it
has not, indeed, totally disavowed them. This decree was rendered neces-
sary by the great abuses that arose from the facilities afforded to hearties?
and unscrupulous parents of getting rid of the caro of their offspring's

ST. PETERSBURG — THE FOUNDLINOHOSPITAL.

451

cluldhood without urgent necessity. In tliis manner, children born in wed-
lock were often temporarily committed to the care of the state, and taken
back when their age and education rendered them profltable, instead of
burdensome, to their families.

The foundling-hospital (^Vospilatelnoi Dom), like all the public institu-
tions of the capital, has the air of a palace rather than a building intended
for charitable purposes. It occupies with its courts, gardens, and depen-
dencies, a space of twenty-eight acres, is el' ,• to the Fontanka canal, and
therefore in the best part of the town. Tlio main building is composed of
what were fornierly the palaces of Prince Bol)riu8ky and Count Rasoumoif-
ski, Avhieh were jmrchased for the institution ; but a number of additional
buildings have since then been erected, and the whole may now be said to
form a little district of its own. This hospital is of more recent origin
than that of Moscow, of which it was only a dependent branch when insti-
tuted l)y Catherine II. in 1770, but it now eclipses tlie parent institution.
In 1700 it contained only three hundred children ; but since the commence-
ment of the present century, the number has increased with astonishing
rajndity, aniounting in all to about thirty thousand, and those annually
admitted comprise eight or nine tliousand.

An institution like this is calculated to excite reflections in the mind of
an American as to its expediency. If it is to be viewed in the light of a
charity, it is a charity upon a very questionable principle.

Saluok, Uotkl DBS Malle-Pustbs, tjT. I'nTkitsavaa,

4r)2

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTIOX OF nUSSIA.

CHAPTER XVI.

MARKETS, ETC., OF 8T. PRTEUSBOnO.

THE Russians linvc a vory convenient eustoni for persons w!io nrc dcH-
rous of making piirclinses — tliat of olTerini( for sale within the sanio
building almost evcrytliing that is likely to ho l)oiight. This plan in,
on the other hand, vory disagroeal)lo to th«)sc who have nothing to hny ;
for the bearded worthy who stands at every door of the Cii>stin<d Drnr is
hy no moans content with verl>iilly inviting the stranger to walk in, hut
Poizes liiin l>y tho arm or ooat-tnils without ceremony, and, unless Ik; innkc's
some show of resistance, the chances are that he will ho transferred, w)/t'«i(
fo,V«.<f, to tho darkness visible of the merchant's <lirty storehouse.

There is, in most Hussian cities of importance, and generally in a cen-
tral ])ositioii, a (rostiniii Dror, or l>iizar, where all the more important
articles of connnerce are collected for sale. It is generally a large l»uild-
ing, consisting of a ground-floor and an upper floor. Tli(> upper floor is
commonly reserved for whoh'Siilo dealings ; the ground-lloor consists of a
multilmle of booths or shops in wliicli the various »K>seriptions of merchan-
dise are sold by retail. The dwellings of tho merchants are away from
these markets ; and, when the businos.«<-hours arc at an end, each trades-
man locks up his own stall, and tho wlude building is committed for tho
night to the guardianship of tho watchmen and their dogs.

The (loslimd Dror of St. IVlersl)urg is a cidossal building, one side
being in the Nvi'skoi Prosprkt , mn\ another in the liohhnia S.snttova n, ov
Great flarden street, through which, and some of tho adjoining streets,
extend from it a numlter of shops and booths, giving to tliat ]»art of the
town, throughout the year, the api)eaiiincc of a perjietual lair. The better
description of Russian goods are always found in the Gostiiini Dror;
those of an inferior kind in the adjoining markets, the Aprn.rin Rinnk and
the Ts/iiikin Dro/-, which lie a little farther on in the Bohhom Ssnftovaia.
Following the last-named street, which is bord red throughout its whole
length l)y shojis and booths, the stranger will arrive at an open place, the
Sennnia P/osrhad, or hay-market, which may be considered tho principal
provision-market of St. Petersburg.

All the lanes and alleys that intersect the Gostindi Dvor ar thronged
throughout the day by a stream of sledges and droskies, in which the cooks,
the stewards, and other servants of the great houses, como to make their

1 . .

ST. I'KTKUSUUriO— 'HE UOSTINOI DVOR.

453

TlIK QolTINOI DVOS, AT ftf. Pbtkbsicm, ooiino Eaitsb.

daily purchaser. In a city contaiiiiii;; half a million of inliabitant)^, thoro
must at all times lie a groat and urgLMit dtMiiaml for an Immense variety of
artieles; Imt there are many reasons why this should l»e more the case in
St. IV'tersliurg than in any otlier capital. In the first place, there is no
other Kurupcan capital when? the inhaliitants are content to make use of
goods of sucli inferior quality, or wliere, conseiiuently, tliey have such fre-
quent occasion to Imy now articles, or to have the old ones repaired. Then
there i.s no other capital where the people arc so capricious and so fond of
change. The wcallliy Russians are lirre one day, and gone the ne.xt ; now
travelling for tiu; henelit of tlieir iiealili, now repairing to the country to
re-estaljlish their fniances I»y a temporary retirement, and then reapjiearing
on the hanks of the Neva, to put their hundreds of tliousand-j into circula-
tion. Tiiis constant fluctuation leads daily to the dissohitie.'! 'ud to the
tormation of a number of estalilisliments, and makes it iiccossvv that there
should he at all times a greater stock of everything reciuiiiio i'or the outfit
of a family than would he rcijuired in u town of equal extent, but whoso
population is more settled.

A Ilu.s.sian seldom buys anything till just when ho wants to use it, and,
as he can not then wait, he must have it ready to his hand. Boots, sad-
dlery, wearing-apparel, confectionary, and other articles, which in other
countries are generally ordered beforehand from a tradesman, are here
bought ready for immediate use. Each article has its separate row of
shops, and the muUitudo of these shops is almost inuumer

If tlio throng of buyers is calculated to amuse a

able,
anger, ho will be

454

ILLUSTHATED DKSCRII'TION OF niTSSIA.

likely to fiiul still moro diversion, as ho lounges along tlio conidorn, in
observing the chumctcriHtic niannorH of the dealers. Those Costinni-Dvor
Jnerehants are almost invariulily flaxen-haired, lirown-bearded, shrewd fel-
lows, in blue caftans^ and Idiie-eloth caj»H, the eoslunie uniformly worn by
mcrehants throughout Rusi'ia. They are constantly extolling their wares
ill the most exaggerated terms to tliose who are pat^jning by. Cap in hand,
they arc always ready to open their doors to every paHser-l>y, and are in-
cessant in the exercise of their eloquence, whatever may be the rank, sta-
tion, or age, of those they address. They will not hesitate to offer a bear-
akin mantle to a little fellow scarcely strong enough to carry it, reconunend
their coarsely-fashioned boots to a j»assing dandy, invite an old man to
purchase a child's toy, or solicit a young girl to carr\ away a sword or a
fowling-pieco. Where the merchant does not act as his own crier, hi>
usually has somebody to oHiciate in his place, and it may easily be imagined
what life and animation these constant cries and solicitations give to tho
market. Preachers and actors have generally a tone peeidiar to their sev-
eral classes ; and even so has the Gostiniji-Dror merchant, whose voieo
may l>e known afar off, but who immediately alters that tone when a fish
shows a disposition to fasten on the bait, for then commences a more seri-
ous discussion of the merits and quality of his merchaiidisc.

No liglit or lire is allowed in the building, unless it be the saerod lamps
that are kept burning before the j)ictures of the saints, and which are sup-
posed to be too holy to occasion any danger. The merchants are, in con-
sequence, often exposed to intense cold, but this they endure with adinira-
bUv fortitude and cheerfulness. Over their caftans, it is true, they jiut on
a close fur-coat of white wolf-skin, a piece of apparel worn by every Gos-
tituii-Door merchant, of the same cut and material.

Even without including the peasants who offer provisions for sale, thoro
are probably not much less than ten thousand merchants and dealers of
dilTerent degrees assembled in the Gostiiioi Dvor of St. Petersburg and
its dependent buildings. Of these peojile, few have their household eslal>-
lishments in the vicinity of the market, yet all have the wants of hunger to
satisfy in the course of the day, and it may therefore readily be conceived
that a host of small traders have attached themselves to tho ostaldishment
for the mere convenience of the merchants. Among the streets and lanes
of the bazar there arc constantly circulating retailers of tea, with their
large, steaming iowoi'ars;* quass-sellers, together with dealers in bread,
sausages, cheese, &c. ; and all these people receive constant encourage-
ment from the hungry mercliants. Careworn looks are as little seen in
this market as grumbling tones are heard ; for a Russian seldom gives

• Tim $omotar, u view of wliicli i« jjiv.'ii on tlio uppositi- png<>, ilriivca it« nnmo from two Rus-
sian w<>rJ», »igni(yiiig "boil itai'if." It '\i n liirgi- bniss or loppcr urn, in the miildlo of wliich ia n
cylinder rmitaining ii qimntity of live rhnrcoiil. Tlio toj) liki> a fiinnol, and opon. Tlii« is tlie
place for tlie teiipot, tlie fire at tlio liottom keeping ilin len io« and boiling the wnter nt lli« inme
time. A tlico of lemun i* used us a subktituto fui i Ik; and Olipkaiit remarks tliut he ihuuglit it
a very agreeable addition.

" %

ST. PETEllSnURO — THR APRAXIX niNOK.

455

SoMOVAIt.

house-room to caro or inoliuiclioly, nml yot more rnn-ly gives uttorniico to
a complaint. \or, indeed, lins lie occa.sioii ; for, in this rising country,
" Sfttiui lio^uV^ ((lod lit! flumUcd I) l»e the merclnm-
di.^o ever so liiid, trade goes on nevertheless. In otiicr
countries, a nierehant relies upon tin; goodness of his
merchandise for custom ; the Uiissian speculator be-
lieves that, the worse his wares, the sooner will liia
customers want to renew tlieir stuck.

The Apntxin Rinuk and Tshitkin Drnr, two nmr-
keta before referred to, occupy a piece of gntund about
fd'leen hundred feet Hijuarc — containing, therefore, a
surface of rather more than two millions of sijuare
feet. The whole i.i .so closely Citvered with stalls and
booths, that nothing but narrow lanes are left between ;
and supposing each booth, including the portion of lane
in front of it, to occupy five hundred sipiare feet, which is certainly making
a very liberal allowance, it W(juld follow that there must be within the two
bazars nearly five thousand booths, tents, and stalls. Thest> forn\ a city
of themselves. The tops of the booths fn (piently jiroject and meet those
that are opposite to them, nmking the little lanes between as dark as the
alleys of the Jews' (piarters in some of the old (lorman ttiwns, or like tho
streets of nniny an oiiental city at the present day. Thrtnigh narrow gotes
the traveller will pass from the busy Garden street into this market-place,
where a well-dressed human being will be looked for in vain — where all
are " black people," bearded, and furred, and thoroughly »ui-Kuro|ieau.

With the exception of furs, many of which are of excellent (pudity, there
are in the (iostinoi Dror, properly so called, but the iron and wax .shops
where the articles are thoroughly Russian. Most of the merchandise con-
sists of bad imitations of foreign falirics. As the goods, so the customers.
Both are Europeanized, for there is little in the Frenchified soiihrrttcs, tho
lackeys in livery, the employis in uniform, and the foreign teachers, to rc-
•mind one of Russian nationality : but a little farther on, when you enter
tho gates of the Apntxin Rinuk and the Tshukin Drur, you come to a
market where sellers, buyers, and wares, are all etiually and entirely Rus-
sian ; and here, in the very centre of the palaces and plate-glass of St.
Petersburg, in this capital of princes and magnates, there is to be seen a
motley, dirty populace, precisely similar to what may be supposed to have
thronged the fairs at Novgorod in the middle ages, or may still be seen iu
tho bazars of any of the provincial towns of Russia.

Here, also, in the true Russian spirit, like has paired with like. In one
corner, for instance, all the dealers iu sacred images have congregated.
The Russians, who believe themselves abandoned by God and all good
angels as soon as they are without his visible and tangible presence — or,
rather, who think every place the devil's own ground until the priest has
driveu him out of it, aud who therefore decorate their bodies, their rooms,

456

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

tlieir doors, nnd tlioir gates, as well as their cliiirchcs, witli sacred images
— require, of course, a very large and constant supply of tlioso articles, of
wliicli, in fact, the consumption is enormous. Tlie little brass crosses, and
the Virgins, the St. Johns, the St. Georges, and other amulets, may bo
seen piled up in boxes like ginger-cakes at a fair. On the walls of tho
booths are hung up jiicturos of all sorts and sizes, radiant with mock gold
and silver. Some are only a few inches in length and breadth. Of these
a nobleman's footman will buy a few score at a time, as necessary to tlie
fitting up of a new house ; for in every room a few of these holy little arti-
cles 'must i»e nailed u[) against the wall. For village-churches^ for j)rivato
chaj)els, and for devout merdiants of tlie old faith, there are [tictures of
several ells square, before Avhich a whole household may prostrate them-
selves at their case. Some arc neatly set in mahogany frames of njodern
fashion : others are still adorned in tlie good old style, with pillars, doors,
and temples, of silver wire : son)e are new, and from the pencils of tho
students of the newly-eslabli.>;hed St. Petersliurg Aciulemy of Arts, Imt the
greater part are old, and present figures often nearly obliterated l>y tho
dust and smoke of centuries. To these it is (particularly when they cau
be warranted to have once adorned tho wall of a church) that the lower
orders in Russia attach the greatest value, just as tho Oerman peasant
j»rcfers an old, dirty, well-thumbed hymn-book, to one just fresh from tho
binder's.

In another part of the market will be found a whole q.inrter of fruit-
shops, in which an incredible quantity of dried fruit is ofVered for sale.
Each of these shops is as oddly decorated as its fellows. In the centre,
on an elevated pedestal, there staads generally a rich l)attery of Itottle.s
nnd boxes of conserves, mostly manufactured at Kiev. Uoiuid the walls,
in small boxes, tho currants, raisins, almonds, figs, and oranges, ure ar-
ranged, while huge sacks and chests of ])rune8, nuts, and junipcM-lterries,
retire more ni(»destly into corners; and large tuns full of ^'■/mAv/, a small
red beriy of which the Kussians are passionately fond, stand sentinels at
the door. These are mostly sold in winter, when they are generally frozen
to the consistency of Hint-stones, and are measured out with wooden .sho\ els
to amateurs. Inside and outside, these shops are decorated with largo
festoons of mushrooms, at all times a favorite dish with the common people
in Russia. It is surprising that no good artist should ever have chosen
one of these picturesque Russian fruit-shops for the subject of his pencil.
Such a l)ooth, with its bearded dealers and its no less bearded customers,
would make an admiralile tableau de ^enre.

A Utile farther, and the stranger will come to whole rows of shops full
of pretty bridal o iiaments ; gay metal wedding-crowns, such as it is cus-
tomary during tin; ceremony to place upon the liea<ls of bride and bride-
groom ; and artificial wreaths and flowers, of a very neat fabric — and all
ut very reasonable prices. A whole garland of roses, for instan«e, taste-
fully interwoven with silver wire, may be had for fifteen or twenty cents;

«.«*MU«a<a.-.<«««i«K*>^'*''

ST. PETEa<5i;.ureG — the apraxix rixok.

457

ti-o,

tlt'8
\\U,

ar-
i(>f,
liUl
s ut
)7.en
o\el3
argo
ojtlo
lioscn
ncil.
ners,

full
cus-
•ri de-
ll all
asto-

a bride can hero be handsomely decorated from head to foot for one or
two dollars ; and, as among the hiniiblcr classes of St. Potershnr^ some
thirty weddings are daily solemnized, witlioiit speaking of other festive
celoltrations, it may be imagined what i)iles of ornaments of varions kinds
are constantly kept on hand to supply the wants of brides and bridemaids,
birthday-guests, and the like.

Whole groups of shops arc fdled with perfumes, incense, and various
articles for fumigation ; others with honey from Kazan and Toula, neatly
laid out in wooden vessels — some as clean as tlie milk-pans in the caves
of Homer's Cyclops, wliile others, of a less attractive look, remind one
rather of Lindturg cheese in an advanced stage of decay. Here also mo,y
l)e seen the beer and cake and tea stalls, at which the peasants never fad
to expend a portion of their gains.

Cakb and Tka Stall.

The pastry-cooks have likewise their quarter in this market, where they
vend tlie oily lish piroi^tis, of which the Ivarded Russians are so passion-
ately fond. Here little benches are ranged around the table on which are
placed the dainty delicacies, covered witli oilv pieces of canvass (for the
piroga, to be properly enjoyed, must be eaten warm). A largo pot of

' \ '

458

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

prccn oil on a salt-stand of no ordinary size are the indispensable qecom-
paniinonts to tlic feast. Pass one of these shops, and tlirow an accidental
glance at his wares, and the merchant will be sure to anticipate your de-
sires: quickly he will plmifre his templing cake into the oil-pot, scatter a
pinch of salt upon the dripping mass, and present it to you with the air of
a prince I The shoopskinnod, bearded Muscovite will rarely 1)0 able to re-
sist tlic temptation : he will scat himself on one of tlit; bonclies, and one
rich, savory piw^n after the other will wend its way down his throat, till
his loiiii' and wcll-aiiointod ])eard becomes as bright and glossy as a piece
of higlily-polisliod Iiorsoliair ! Some travdhM's may turn with disgust from
the picture here ])resented to thorn : but otliers will be too miicli amused
by the wit and pofitcsse of the oil-lickers to expend much indignation on
the venders of these pirnsr-ns. Even tlie coarsest and dirtiest article of
merchandise will lie })roseiited with a courtly and insinuating demeanor by
these rough-looking, bearded fellows ; even a greasy pirog-a, dripj)ing with
green oil, will bo aceouipauioil l)y a neatly-turned couipliment or a lively
jest, and the few copecks paid for it are sure to be received with exprea-
eions of the warmest thankfulnoss.

Almost every article may, however. I)e described as cheap and shaltby ;
and yet what vistas of still worse and worse wares unfold themselves as
the traveller wanders on to the outskirts of the market, where disitanded
apparel and invalided furniture are exposed tor sale ! Things nmy bo seen
there of which it is difiicult to imagine that they can still retain a money
value — such as rags, liits of riliand, fragments of paj)er, and broken glass ;
clothes that the poorest iros/its/iik has dismissed from his service, and pet-
ticoats that the humblest housemaid has thought herself bound to lay aside.
Yet all these things, and others, which a Cioslimi-Dvor merchant would
scarcely use excej)t to warm his stove, are not arranged witiiout some show
of taste ami elegance, nor are they ofii red without a multitude of civil
speeches and lofty j)ariegyr!cs to the barefooted beggar, to the gipsy and
the Jewess, who timidly hover around the poverty-stricken repositories,
and cast many a longing glance at the various things with which they
might cover their nakedness or decorate their huts, but the isossession of
which they are unable to purchase with the copper coin within their grasp.
The cruml>s swept from the tables of the rich are here gathered together ;
and fliough the joint stock of many of these shops bo not worth the silver
rouble staked at a card-table in the saloon of a noble, yet e.ich article has
its estimated value, below which it will not be j)arted with — no, not for
one quarter of a copeck !

Ibit perhaps the most interesting of this world of markets is that of tho
Ts/mkin Duor, where the various species of tho feathercl tril>o are sold.
Here may Ite seen two rows of booths full of pigeons, fowls, geese, ducks,
swans, larks, buKinches, siskins, and hiuidreds of other singing-birds, form-
ing the mo.«t picturesque and variegated menagerie that can be imagined.
Each booth is of wood, and open in the front, so that the whole of its toa-

., H^-r^i**«fcii-w-i^--« v

ST. PETEnSBUnO — THE TSHUKIN DVOR.

469

tents iii;iy lio soon at onco by the passino' stranger, wlio is saluted with such
a c )iii'iii of cackling, crowing, chattering, cooing, ])i|)ing, and warbling,
as would sulTice to Au-nish the requisite supply of idyllic melodies for a
hundred villages. Between the opposite booths are usually bridges, from
which tlie pictures of saints arc susi)ended, for tlie edification of the devout.
On tliese bridges, and on the roofs of the booths, whole swarms of pigeons
are constantly fluttering about, the peaceful Russian being a great lover of
this gentle bird. Each swarm knows its own roof, and the birds allow
themselves to be caught without much dilTiculty, when a bargain is to be
conoluded. The pigeon is never eaten l)y a Russian, who would hold it a
sin to harm an animal in whoso form the Holy Ghost is said to liavc mani-
fested itself. Pigeons are l)onght, therefore, only as i)ets, to be fed and
sch(joled l)y their masters. Tlio manner in which a Ru.ssian merchant
directs the flight of his docile scholars is curious. With a little flag fiist-
ened to a long staff he conveys his signals to them — makes them at his
will rise liighcr in the air, fly to the right or left, or drop to the ground as
if struck by a l)ulK't from a rifle !

The i)Oor little singing-birds (the larks, niglitingales, linnets, bulfmches,
«fec.) must be of a hardier race than in more southern lands ; for, in spite
of tlie bitter frost, they cliirrup away merrily, and salute with their songs
every .straggling ray of sunshine that finds its way into their gloomy abodes.
Tlic little creatures receive during the whole long winter not one drop of
water, for it would be useless to ofler them what a moment afterward would
be converted into a petiifiod mass. Their little troughs are accordingly
filled only with snow, which they must liquefy in their own beaks when
tJiey wi.s]i to assuage tlieir thirst.

Moscow is famed for its cocks, and here the Moscow cock may be seen
prou:'ty stalking about, in cages and out of thou. The best jdgeons are
said to come from Novgorod, and Finland furni.iies tlio chief supply of
8inging-l»irds. Geese are brought even finm the confines of Cliina, to be
Sold as rarities in tlie Tshukin l>vor, after a journey of more than four
tl. usaiul miles. Gray squirrels may be peon rolling about in their cages
liiio incarnate quicksilver; while rabl)its and Guinea-pigs without number
gamliol their time away in their little wooden hutches.

Within the booth, a living centre of all tliis living merchandi>e, behold
the nierchaiit. cljsely ensconced in his wolfskin, and ready to dispose of
his little feathered serfs at any acceptable price. At the back of the
booth, be sure there hangs a saintly picture of some sort, its little lamp
shedding a cheerful light, to guard the featherc ' tribe against the evil
influence of intruding demons I Uut there are evil spirits that the good
saint v^an not banish. Man i.> there, to hold in chains or to sentence to
death, according as it may suit his calculations of profit, or the caprices
of his palaie. On shelves around are ranged the tro{'hies of his murder-
ous tribe r and the northe'ii swans, the hoathcoeks (^reptthiki), and the
Buow-white partridges (^kuf(ijnUki)y'di'O piled up under the very cages from

Mm ;

' mm

(V /-J.

(V f'» «■■

,^/"..: !>■

...y

400

ILLUSTRATED r)R«;CRTmON OF RUaSIA.

which tlic captive larks warblo their liquid notes. It is astoni.xhinn; what
a quantity of those liiids are yearly consumed at the luxurious tal.les of
St. Petersburji'. In winter the cold lieeps the meat fresh, and at the same
time facilitates its convoyiince to nuuket. Tiie partridges come mostly
from Saratov, tlie swans fiom Finland ; Livonia and Ksthonia must siipjily
heathcocks and grouse, anil the wide steppes must furnish tlie Itnstards
which Ihitter over their endless plains, where the Cossack hu.its lliem on
horseback, and kills them witli his foi'miilabh* whip. All tlies,' Itirds, as
soon as the life-lilood lias liown, are converted into stone by the frost, and,
pocked up ii> iiuge chests, are sent for sale to the capital.

Whole sledge-loads of snow-white hares lind tiieir way to the market.
Tiie littli> i»' inials are usually frozen in a running positi')n, willi ihi'ir cars
l)ointed, and tneir legs stretihed out before and l)eliind, and, wlien placed
on the groiiii ', look, at tlie first glance, as if they were in tlie act of esca-
|)iiig from i!i< Iwaiter. JJcar's flesh also is offered for sale in tiiis market,
and here ;u I there a frozen reindeer may lie seen lying in tiic snow liy the
side of a lionlh. its hairy snout stretch<>d forth u|)on the ground, its knees
doubled up under its body, and its antlers rising majestically info the air.
It looks as if, on our approacliing it, it would ■spring up, and dash away
once more in search of its native forests. Tlie miglity elk, likewise, is no
lare gU'.'si mi tiiis market, wliere it patiently presents its antlers as a perch
for the pig(,'ons tliat are fluttering about, iinti! little liy little, the axe and
the saw have left no fiaguKiit of the stat''ly animal, but every part of it
has goiio its way into the kitchens of the wealthy.

Similar markets for Ijirds and game will be found in almost every large
Russian city. Indeed, the lialiits and fasliions of tlie Russian markets are
completely national. Tliosc of Moscow vary Init little from tlmse of To-
bolsk ; and Irkoutsk, Odessa, and Archangel, have showu tliemselves
equally servile in their imitation of the metropolitan l)azars.

IJeyond the Apraxin Riiiok is the Srn/iata J^/uscha//, or hay-marJcet ;
and here, agi-':, the manners of tiie lower oid<'rs may Ix^ conveiiie(,fl/
studied. Tlie open space is frcfjufntly so crowded with them, tliat ilm
police novo some trouble to keep a jxdssage clear in the centre for tite
equipages which are constantly coming and g<>wi<?. On one side <>f tti>*
passage stand tliC sellers of hay. wood, and, in spring, of plaiits and shru*/j?.
On the other side are the j>oa!^ants with tlieir stores <./ meat, fish, butter^
and vegetables. Between these two rows are the sledges and eqHipi.gea
wlione owucra come to muke their dii'4y purchases, and depart laden w'm^
herl'S and vegetaliles, the bleeding necks (A the poultry (/fUm pres<>iitittK a
singular contra.-t to the sj)lendid carriage-- fiv>m whose wiiid</ws they af«
listlessly dungliig.

The sledge/, after bringing the various coi«u(!o«i}tie8 to «>arket, serv*
Iheif owners as stalls »«(! comiters. The matting titrowu aside allows the
poultry and meat to be strranged in a pictun-sque manner to caicli the eye
of the passing stranger. The geese are cut up. and iIk; heads, necks, legs,

•»*"•*"<!•!

ST. PRTEUSnURG — THE SHNXAIA PLORCFIAD.

401

and cairnsso.s), sold scpiiralcl.vjiy tlie dozen or tlio lialf-dozon, strung ready
for !«a1o upon little cord^'. IIo whoso finances will not allow liini to tliink
of Inxuriafing on tlic I)reast of a goose, may bay liinisolf a little rosary of
frozen heads, while one still pooler ninst content himself with a necklaco
or a (V'w dozen of welthed feet, to lioil down into a i^Mnday soup for hi?
little ones.

The most singular spectacle is famished hy the frozen oxen, calves, and
goats, which stand ahout in ghastly rows, and look like bleeding S])eetre3
conje to haunt the cainivorous tyrants whose ajvpeHtes have condemned
tl'» poor victims to a premature death. The jietrified masses can be cut
up oidy w ;h hatcliets and saws. Sucking pigs arc a favorite delicacy with
the Hussians. Hundreds of the little creatures, in their frozen condition,
mav be ■^een ranged about the sledges, wit'' Mieir tall, motionless mothers
by LJie side of them.

FnoiRN-pBornioN Maskct, St. Pbtkiiiibuiio.

The anatomical dissections of a Russian butcher arc extremely simple.
Bones and meat having l)een all rendered equally hard by the frost, it
would be ditlicult to attenipt to separate the several joints. Tiie animala
are, accordiugly, suwu up into a number of slices of an inch or two ill

462

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

thickness, and in the course of (his operation a quantity of animal sawdust
is scattered on the snow, whence it is eagerly gathered up by jjoor chil-
dren, of whom great numbers haunt tlie marlcet. Fish, which is oflcrcd
for sale in the same hard condition, is cut up in a similar way. The little,
diminutive snitki are brought to market in sacks, and rattle like so many
hazel-nuts when thrown into the scale. The pike, the salmon, and the
sturgeon, so pliant and supple when alive, are now as hard as though they
had been cut out of marble, and so Ihey must be kept, for a sudden thaw
would spoil them, and, to guard against this, they arc constantly encased
in ice or snow. Sometimes the whole mass freezes together, and tlio
hatcliet must then be liberally applied before the piscatory petrifuctiona
can be liberated from their icy incrustations.

So long as the frost keeps all liquid matter in captivity, and so long as
the snow, . iii^iantiy renewed, throws a charital)lc covering over all tho
hidden sins of tiie place, so long thi} phscftad looks clean enough ; hnl this
very gno\. .dnl frost i»rej)are for the coming spring a spectach^ which no
one \\ish;a to look upon who would keep his appetite in due order for tho
sunif • 'I^• banquets of St. Petersburg. Every kind of iilth and garbage
accf I. ,ates during the winter; and when at last the melting influence uf
spiing di>->. s the charm, the quantities of sheep's eyes, fish-tails, cralv
shells, go.ti's hairs, fragments of meat, pools of blood, not to speak of hay,
dung, and other matters, are perfectly frightful.

The Zinnaia Phschad, near the winter-provision market, about a quar-
ter of a mile from the NcvskoL Prospckt, is worthy of mention. Here tho
living cattle arc disposed of ; also sledges and country-wagons. Thousands
of specimens of the Russian tciegu may liere be examined at leisure.

St. Petersburg and its neighborhood contain some splendid industrial
establishments, particularly of the description which produces tho nioro
rare and costly articles required by that .-lass to whom lu.\uries are indis-
peusalde. Among these may be enumerated that of the Gol»clin tapestry,
tlie porcelain glass, the playing-card, and one for cutting and polishing
precious stones ; also the cotton-factory at Alexandrosky, the ])aper-manu-
factory, and the cannon-foundries. All these arc cither tho property of
foreigners or of tho crown, or are under the manrgcment of foreigners,
and serve as models to the whole entire. They are r«.ddily shown to
strangers. It is characteristic of" Russia that it had i ivcrsitics before
schools, and tapestry-manufactories before it had learned to spin cotton.
The Spalernoi manufactory is the oldest in St. Petersburg, as the academy
built by Peter tho Great is tho oldest school. In that czar's reign, tho
workmen in the ta])estry-maiiufactory were, one and all, French and Ital-
ians ; now they are, with the exception of tho director, a designer, all
Russians: the establishment is recruited from the great foundling-hospital.
Ordinary carpets are made here for sale, but the real Gobelin tapestry is
destined for the court alone. The numerous palaces, and the expensive

■ k

RT, PETEKSBURO — MANUFACTORIES.

468

^^1-

manner in •\vliicli tlioy arc ftjrnishcd, create a constant dcniand for these
productions, which are also frequently required as presents to Asiatic and
European potentates. The little boys, vho come here as apprentices, first
Avork at leaves and flowersat one color ; then they advance to the shaded
and varied leaves with several colors ; then to stars, arabesques, &c. The
drawings arc placed directly behind perpendicular threads, and, while the
outline of the picture is traced with a black coal, it is transferred to the
thread, and the limits to the different tints arc marked out. Every three
or four weeks papers arc fastened over the web, and, as it is finished, this
is rolled up, so that it may not be injured during the tedious process of
manufacture. Not only silk, l)ut flax and wool are employed in this work :
the brightness of the silk, the neutral effects of the (lax, and the force of
the wool, each render their several services. This woven painting, if not
so enduring, is much richer than mosaic, which it more nearly resembles
than it does anything else. The gobelin-tapestry manufactory of St. Pe-
tersburg is perhaps one of the largest existing establishments of this branch
of industry in Europe.

Tlic porcelain-manufactory, at which the fine vases presented by the em-
peror to foreign {)rinces are made, is on the road to Alexandrosky. An
annual exliil)ition takes place here in the autumn, when many oltjects of
great value and beauty are exposed for sale. The plate-glass manufactory
is situated in the neighljorhood of the Alexander Nevskoi convent. The
wealthy retersl)urgiaiis carry the use of plate and looking glass to a high
pitch of luxury : tlioir windows are colossal ; in garden-pavilions a wliole
wall is soniclinies covered with looking-glass, and this is the case in pri-
vate houses, wh"rc it is used to supply the place of pictures, and present
at every turn tlie picture most admired of all — that of self. Some of these
mirrors are eight feet wide, fifteen feet long, and an inch and a half thick.
Articles of Icsj; value are also made at this n an u factory ; among them arc
curiou.<ly-cut glaj^< eggs, which are purchased as Easter presents, and nar-
g-Urs for Persia. As much as fifty tliousand roubles' worth is exported of
tliese annually, and, though so fragile, are transpcn-ted by land to that
country. A glass bed of great value, presented lu the emperor to the
sliali oi' Persia, an enormous mirror sent to the Turkish sultan, and the
glass railings of the Smolnoi eliurch, were made here. The glass-cutting
department is pcrhaj)S the largest in Europe, but travellers can not be rec-
onnnended to bring their ears within reach of the crushing, scratcliing, and
screeching, produced by the united industry of the three hundred workmen
employed here.

A characteristic anecdote of national intelligence is related in connec-
tion with this establislunent. The emperor wished to illumine the Alexan-
der column in grand style. The size of the round lamps was indicated,
and they were ordered at this manufactory, where tlie workmen exerted
themselves in vain, and almost blew the breath out of their bodies in the
endeavor to obtain the desired magnitude. But the commission must be

464

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

executed, that was self-evident; but liow? A great prcmltim was offered
to whoever should solve the proMcni. Again the human bellows toiled
and puffed, hut the ohject scorned unattainable. At last a long-hoarded
Russian stepped forward, anrl declared he could do it ; he had strong and
sound lunps, and would only rinse his mouth first with a little cold water,
to refresh them. Accordingly, ho applied his mouth to the j»ipc,and puffed
to such purpose, that the vitreous l)all swelled and swelled nearly to the
required size — up to it — l)oyond it! "Hold, hold!" cried the lookers-
on, "you are doing too much; and how did you do it at all?" — "The
matter is simple enough," replied the long-heard ; " but, first, where is my
premium?" And, when he had clutched tlie promised bounty, he ex-
plained. He had retained some of tlie water in Iiis inoutii, which liad
passed thence into the glowing ball, and, there becoming steam, had ren-
dered him this good service.

The imperial cotton-manufiictory, and that for playing-cards, at Alexan-
drosky. are not unworthy of notice. The latter is under tise direction of
Mr. Dolarue, said to be a relative of the partners of tlie London firm of
that name ; the cotton-manufactory and the iron-foundry at Copenha are
under the superintendence of another Englisliman, a General Wilson. The
articles manufactured liere are of various kinds : in one ilepartment cotton
is spun, in another slieets and table-linen are wove, and in a tliird arc
made all tlie jdaying-cards used in Russia, for the numufacturc of tlieso,
as before mentioned, is monopolized by the crown. About three thousand
operatives are employed here; of these, nearly one thousand are foundling
boys and ^irls, from twobc years of age and upward. At twenty-one the
men are alloweil (o mr^vry and quit the establishment, or remain as jkihI
workmen : the girls may do the same at eighteen. The children on tlieir
arrival receive, in addition to their food, clothing, and lodging, small
montldy wages, lialf of whicli is given to theia by way of pocket-money,
and the other half is place', at interest in a savings-bank, so that when
thev come of age or marrv tliov have a little fund of three or four hundred
roubles with which to begin the world.

" Immediately on our arrival at .Vlexandrosky," writes Mr. Venables,
" we were taken to see the foundlings at dinner, which, as it was Lent
(the only fast in the year which they are required to keep), consisted of
soiip-maifcre, fish, rye-bread, and quass — all served in jtewter. The day
was an ordinary working-day, and our arrival was j)crfectly unexpected ;
vi't nothing could exceed the neatrKsss and nerfect cleanliness of tliese
yoiing manufacturers, more e^p<'cially tl-e girls, whose hair in particular
excited our admiration, every head being arranged alike, atid witii a de-
pree of taste and neatness which many a lady might copy. Taps arc never
•worn by the lower classes in tliis country ; and certaiidy the well-brushed
hair, drawn smoothly over the forehead and fastened at the back by a high
comb, rendered the line of heads infiwitoly more agreeable to the eye, and
at least as cleaniy in apj)earance, as the row of mol>-cap3 which would

8T, PETERSnURG — MANUFACTORIES, ETC.

4G.!>

have been rnnged down the tabic had these Iicon Englisli charity-girls. A
wooden screen, about six feet high, ran down the middle of the hall, to
separate the two sexes." Dinner over, a bell is rung, when the whole
body, young men, boys, and girls, stand up and sing a hymn. The singing
in the Russian churclies is at all times imposing ; but to hear a hymn sung
to a Russian sacred melody by at least a thousand voices has in it some-
thing so irresistildy touching, that nothing remains for the stranger but to
yield to the impulse of feeling and join in this act of i)rai8e. At the con-
clusion of this hymn, the bell gives the signal of departure, and the two
ecxes move out of the hall at different ends in the most orderly manner.
Tliis, like other public establishments in Russia, is a perfect model of
cleanliness — a fact the more strilting, as the virtue is not geri'M-ally prac-
tised in private life, even among the upper classes. The niat;hinery is for
the most part under the direction of English workmen, about seventy of
whom were employed previous to the war of 1854, and divine service was
performed here every Sunday evening by the British chaplain.

On the road to Peterhoff is the imperial paper-manufactory, and under
the same roof is an cstal>lishnient for cutting and polishing stones. In no
court in ti»e world are such quantities of jewels employed as in the Rus-
sian. The emperor and empress never travel without taking with them a
large jewel-casket, in order that they may leave behind theni some mark
of their favor. The most peculiar and beautiful objects to be seen hero
are the large malaciiite vases, tl .naterial of which is brought from Sibe-
ria. Some of these are valued at a hundred thousand roubles, and formed
one of the chief attractions at the London exhibition in 1851.

Some of the private manufactories of St. Petersburg are likewise on an
imperial scale. Among them are the foundries and refinery of Mr. Baird,
and the cotton-spinning establishment of Baron Stiglitz.

The principal manufactures of the Russian capital, in addition to thoso
already mentioned, are woollen, silk, and linen tissues ; carriages, leather,
and articles in leather ; mathematical and musical instruments ; wax and
sail-clotli, cordage, soap, tobacco, cabinet-work, jewelry, watches, and va-
rious articles in gold, silver, mi.xed metals, and bronze. Ship-building,
also, is carried on to a great extent, for the navy, in the public dockyards ;
and for commercial purposes at several private yards. The shallowness
of the river, and the bar at its mouth, not admitting the passage of vessels
which draw more than nine feet water, might seem at first sight to oppose
an insurmountable obstacle to the building of ships-of-the-line ; b»jt the ad-
vantages of being able to carry on the more important parts of naval archi-
tecture within tlie capital, under the immediate eye of the government, are
so great, that large sacrifices are made for the purpose, and the hulls when
finished are floated down by means of camels and other ingenious and labo-
rious contrivances, and the other equipments transmitted by lighters to
Kronstadt, where the ships are finally fitted out for sea.

•tec

ILLUSTRATF.D DrsClUrTTON OP nUSSU.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE OARDEXS AXD VILLAS OP ST. PETEUSnURO.

PKTER 'J HE (JREAT, Avlioso immc is associated with every twit? and
luaiii'li of Russian pulilio or social lite, did wliat no rult-r over did
lu'lore — Iio Imilt his capital on hostiUi ground. Often, while the
building of the city was going on, he had to exchange the chisel and nuillet
for the sword, and ilrive hack the ciieiny from the very gates of his infant
capital. On one of these suburban liattle-lields, ho erected, in the year
1711, without the city and close to the sea, the castle and garden of Cathc-
rincnholV, as a memorial of a victory ol»tained over the .Swedes. At lirst
it was only the summer residence of his consort Catherine, and of tho
grand-din'hesses Anne and Elizabeth. Tlieir wooden palace stands yet,
a vii'w of which is given on the oj)posite page, but the gardens arc greatly
extended, and arc full of bowling-greens and restaurants. For a long time
these and the "Summer gft.'dou" were the o?dy pleasure-resorts of the
kind for ihe cid'ens; au*.! sf'Il, prol)ably from haliit, these gardens aro
visited on the (iist oi M.ty. (in that day all .^^t. Petersliurg is in motion:
the poor on foot, the yoiing exquisites on horseback, the ladies in their
carriages — all (!ock to Catliorinenhofl", to hail the coming of the line sea-
son, even though it be held expedient, as it generally is, to go well wrapprd
up in bearskins. Here may be seen half the magnilicoes of the empire
moving slowly past in their carriages-and-four ; the senators, the star-cov-
ered generals, the reverend bishops and metropolitans, the bearded mer-
chants, and the "foreign guests" — a sp(.'ctacle of which, often as it is
repeated, a St. Petersbnrger is never weary. The carriages nujve after a
certain prescribed plan the whole day long, rkc horses in a mill. It is no
less singular than true, that all the gay world throughout Russia aro mo-
ving about their many thousand towns, at the same pace, on the same day.
The emperor, whose presence crowns the festival, is generally on horse-
back, with the princes and a l)rilliant >-tafr. II is arrival is looked for a3
if he were the representative of the sj)ring ; and when he has passed by,
the throng drop off one after the other, and go home again, as if the sun
himself had disappeared.

The far-famed Summer garden of St. Peteisburg is situated on the Neva,
close to the Troitzka bridge, and bounds the eastern end of the Champ de
Mars. It is half a mile in length and a fourth in breadth, and is the oldest

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ST. rKTiatSUUlKi — THIC SUMMKIt (lAUIiKN'.

4C(

r.>L.\rK ciK ('ATlirBINKNHOFr, St. PRTEBKBl'lir..

Ill tilt' city. It coiitiiiii? a nmiilior of fiiio did trors, and is tlioroforo of
iiicali'iiliililc Viiliic ill the ('('iitrr of the .><toiiy masse- of the (.'apital. Tlio
^i'oiiikIs iuv laid out in a miiiiltcr of lon^ avemios. iniersporscd witli llowor-
IkhIs, si>iii('\vliat ill tlio aiicitMit slyUi of ;j.iirdoniiiir, with an nlmndaiioo of
niarlile statues of '' Spriiijis" and " SiMiimers,"' "Floras" and •■Fauns,"
and oilier diviiiiti(,'S lielonuiiiir to tlio same ro/cr/V. On tlu^ iioi'llieni side
is tlio eelehratod iron railing' wlocli it is said an Kiiiilisliinan onee travelled
all tlie way from Tiondon to sec and make a sketeli of, anil then returned,
satislii'd with his journey, not (l»'iniiiii«>- to cast an eye on any of the other
marvels of the northern I'ify I 'I'his railiii<i\ which is aliont sixteen feet in
height, is j>ra!id and massive; it extends nearly a quarter of a mile, and
the gilded spikes give it a very elegant ell'ect.

The garden is attended to as earefully almost as those of Czar.sko Selo,
where a polieeman is said to run after every leaf that falls, that it may
instantly he remjvcd out of sight! In autumn all the statues are cased in
wooden boxes, to protect them against the rain and snow of winter, and
all the tender trees and shrulis are at the same time packed up in straw
and matting, in which they remain till the return of spring, when statues,
trees, and men, lay their winter garments aside neaily at one and the same
time. The gra.s-!-plot.s are regularly watered in summer, and the path.s are

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468

ILLUSTRATED DESCMPTION OP HUSSIA.

carefully cleaned and trimmed. And the garden gratefully repays tho
pains expended on it, for throughout the fine season it forms a delightful
retreat; and its turf and its trees in spring are green and smiling, before
any of the other gardens have been able to divest themselves of the chill-
hardened grain into which their features have been stiffened during a six-
months' winter.

In one corner of the Summer garden stands the palace in which dwelt
Peter the Great. It is a little, low, white house, with a few tasteless bas-
reliefs, painted yellow. On the roof, between the chimneys, St. George,
mounted on a tin horse, is in the act of piercing the dragon. In the inte-
rior, a few articles of furniture, formerly used by Peter, are still preserved.
The house seems to have grown ashamed of its littleness, for it hides itself
completely among the tall linden-trees of the garden, as though fearful of
intruding into the company of the stately palaces that have grown up
around. How different it must have looked when it was yet sole lord of
the wilderness — when it stood alone amid a mob of fishermen's huts !

This garden is the great lounge of the population of St. Petersburg ; it
is the afternoon resort of crowds of the most charming children, who repair
thither, escorted by their mothers and nurses, to people the solitary walks,
and make the shrubberies resound with their innocent mirth. Fifteen or
sixteen years later, these children reappear upon tlie same scene, but this
time with less artless intentions, and to play a more perilous game. On

On Whit-Monday, in former times, a strange spectacle was to bo seen
here, for on that day the celebrated festival of the wife-market took place.
Here, according to the ancient custom, the sons and daughters of tho
tradesmen assembled in all their finery, to pick and choose a j)artncr for
life, or, at any rate, to lay tho foundation of a future marriage ; and though
this class still muster in great force on Whit-Monday, this practice is not
carried out as it used to be. Then, the girls on this momentous occasion
were dressed froni head to foot in all their best apparel, and decorated
with every ornament they could borrow from their family. It is even said
that " a Russian mamma once contrived to make a necklace of six dozen
gilt teaspoons for her daughter, a girdle of an equal number of tablespoons,
and then fastened a couple of punch-ladles behind, in the form of across —
Greek, of course."

The islands of tho Neva have been before alluded to. There are in all
more than forty of them, great and small, some of which, although all bo-
long to the precincts of the city, are still completely deserted, inundated
by the sea and the Neva, and visited only by seals, or by wolves who come
over the ice during the winter, or by fishermen in a less incL mcnt season
of tho year. Many of these swampy and birch-covered islets — such, for
instance, as tho Volny and Truktanoff islands — are scarcely known to
many of the inhabitants of St. Petersburg ; and it is a remarkable proof
of the wildness and uncultivated region which surrounds the capital, at
east on one side, that a man may, if he feel so disposed, kill either a bear

RT. PETERSBURG — THE ISLANDS OF THE NEVA.

469

i-.

Nunai WITH Children, in tub Summeb Gabdkn, St. Pbtersburo.

or a wolf between breakfast and dinner. In very severe winters, hungry
wolves iiavc not only approached the suburbs in search of food, but even
the imperial palace ! Kohl tells us of a lady who scared one of these ani-
mals away with her parasol ; and of another who, being surprised by a
bear wiiilc reading in her villa in the environs of St. Petersburg, repulsed
his advances by throwing her book, a novel of George Sand's, at his head.
Five, however, of the islands of the delta, though originally yielding
nothing but shrubs and a few old oaks, birches, and firs, were invaded by
the gardener toward the close of the last century, and are now laid out in
the most tasteful manner. Imperial palaces arose, too, under the creative
hand of Catherine II., who made grants of laud, and even whole islands,
to her favorites, that they might build and lay out villas and houses there ;
hence, perhaps, the name datscha (gift) for villa, with which the Kain-
menoi, or Stone island, is nearly covered. These buildings are in every
variety of style, Gothic, Chinese, &c., and specimens are to be found of all
ages and nations in gardening and villa-building ; but, though costly and
luxurious, they are destitute of the comfort of an English or American
country-house. One charm, however, they have, and for this they are in-
debted, singular enough, to the severity of the climate : the hothouses are
as numerous as the villas, and in the warm weather the balconies, doe^o,

; is

470

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

and windows of the datsches are adonicd with multitudes of exotic plants.
These villas are gouorally inhabited by the wealthier classes. Tiiere is,
too, on this island a summer theatre, in which Fieneh plays arc performed;
an imperial villa, and the ]ios()ital for the disabled.

Tiie lUitsches of the nul>ility are all of wood, the cm|)eror'8 alone being
of stone, and tortured into every incongruous form that bad taste can de-
vise ; the whole touched up and jticked out with painted cornices and pilas-
ters, in red and yellow ochre, and, once done, left to the mercy of the
seasons. Eacl> has just enough ground around to give the idea of an Eng-
lish tea-garden, witli every appurtenance of painted wooden arch, temple,
and seat, to confirm it.

In this neighborhood is also a Russian village, wooden cottages with
deep roofs, and galleries running roinid like the Swiss, ornamented with
most delicately-carved wood. Of course, here is also jdenty of red, blue,
and yellow, for it woidd seem that without these primary colors nothing
can l)e done. The love of red, especially, is so inherent a taste in Russia,
tliat "red" and " boautil'ul" are, in a popular sense, expressed by the
same word. But this is evidently the show-village of the capital, and
almost entirely let to families for the sunnner.

Joined to tlie Kammcnoi, on the west, by a bridge, is another garden-
island, called the Yelu^inskoi, or Yelagin island, after the name of a fam-
ily who once possessed it. It is now exclusively occupied by the imperial
chateau and gardens. The court frequently reside hero in the spring, the
most brilliant season for the islands, but there is no amusement for tho
public beyond that of stndling almut on foot and lionizin}^ the emperor's
datscha. This has the ajipearance of an English or American country-
residence, with the gravel-walks and flower-bt>'i^ in admirable order. Tho
rooms are l)y no means large, but yet very . irranged for living in qui-
etly and coujfortably. Tiie emperor's own ^^^/...iment is a perfect "snug-
gery" in its way. Tiiis island is said to be a favorite resort of the empress.
The view from the chateau is deliglitfnl : first tho gardens of the villa,
then the broad sheet of the Ne\!i with its verdant banks, and, lastly, the
lofty spires of the capital are seen rising in the distance. A promenade,
similar to that at Catherinenhoff, takes place later in the year on the Yela-
gin island, at which the imperial family are present. This fete is more
attractive, for the weather is more settled, and the scenery is much finer.

To the south of the islands of Yelagin and Kammenoi is tho Krestovski/^
or Cross island, which lies before the courtly Yelagin and Kammenoi Os-
troflF, toward the sea, and is larger than tho two former put together. Nu-
merous avenues have been opened through the thick, primeval birch and
pine wood of this island, at»d afford agreeable views of tho gulf of Finland.
This island is ))eculiarly the resort of tlie lower classes ot St. Petersburg :
hither (lock the mvjik and the kvpez in gay gondolas, to enjoy in tho woods
their national amusements of swings and Russian mountains ; and here on
holydays smokes on the grass under every pine-group the favoi'itc somovaTf

ST. PETERSBUnO — THE ISLANDS OF THE NEVA.

473.

Noble's Villa on the Island of Kammenoi.

rouiul wliicli may be seen eucainped a party of long-beards, gossiping, sing-
ing, and clamoring.

Tlio German part of the population have appropriated to themselves an-
other island, that of Pefrofskni. The arrangements are on a smaller scale,
and here only are to be found milk and cake gardens, coffeehouses and
taverns. It must not be understood, however, that there is anything ex-
clusive, for dalschas, chatcaus, and Russians, mingle here as elsewhere.

Tlie fil'th garden-island is that of the Aptekarskoi, or Apothecaries' island,
and here is the botanical garden, one of the most interesting sights of the
capital. This is open to the puljlic on Sundays and holydays. The sci-
ence of hothouse gardening is here brought to the utmost perfection, and
one of the finest assortments of tropical plants in existence has been col-
lected amid the snows of the north. The establishment is under the direc-
tion of a Scotch gardener, who has been eminently successful in propaga-
ting and preserving the most delicate plants. The collection of orchi-
daceous plants is one of the l)est in Europe, and agents are employed in
many different parts of the world in sending home plants worthy of these
immense conservatories.

K'thl states how the islands should bo visited. "Call," ho observes,
" upon a friend, if you have one in any of these elegant swamp-villas, and
enjoy the tea or evening collation upon his luxurious divans. Tiien, tow-
ard sunset, have a gondola, manned by half-a-dozen sturdy fellows, and
row down the arm of the Neva to tlie gulf of Finland. Watch there the
jrlol>o of the northern-summer sun sink into the lap of Thetis, and hurry

nd row round some of the islands.

through

lagic July nigh

472

ILLUSTRATED DESCUIPTION OP RUSSIA.

i &

taking a wide sweep, for tijcrc is plenty of room here on tlw water also,
punching and driving your gondoliers, meanwliile, to make thcin go the
faster. Listen then from tito water to the sounds from the thick forest,
gaze on the ligljts from the fishing-villages, the late illumination of the
hrilliant datschas, and hearken to the nightly doings on the islands, where
all is as loud by niglit as it was by day ; and, at last, return home like a
night-wandering ghost, when, toward one o'clock, the cold dew announces
the return of the sun."

The gardens in Count StrogonofT's domain, where there is a fine park,
are open to the public. Here is to be seen an antique sarcophagus and
marble, vidgarly called the tomb of Homer, which was brought from the
island of los, in the Grecian archipelago, at the end of the last century.
It is ornamented with bas-reliefs representing scenes in the life of Achilles.
There is a little book written thereon, by Heyne, the celebrated archaeolo-
gist and professor at Gottingen, which has been reproduced by M. Murall.
These gardens, and those of Count Nesselrode, the chancellor of the em-
pire, are open to the public daily.

The villages of St. Petersburg, often spoken of by travellers, are the
Great and Little Oklita, the Great and Little Derevnia, and the Tshomaya
Retska. The houses in these villages are constructed of logs of fir-trees
strongly put togctiier ; and are planted like soldiers, in one long, straight
line. From the houses, hardly one of which possesses a tree, long cabbage
and cucumber plantations stretch into the country on the land-side, while
the road on the banks of the river is filled on holydays wilh carriage?
driving up and down as they do in the avenues of the " Garden-islands."
Tliose persons whose revenues are too moderate for a Gothic or a Chinese
datschn, engage a summer residence in some of these cheap houses, and
enjoy there as much happiness as a somovar, a pack of cards, and a dusty,
galloping drive, can aflbrd them. A moving crowd is, however, always
an animated sight, and in tiie private gardens at Okhta a German band
plays. The gardens at Sergola are also open to the public.

The Czarsko Selo, a royal residence, and favorite resort of the imperial
family, is distant about fifteen miles from St. Petersburg. The road to it
was made by the empress Catherine IL, at a cost of a million of roubles.
Soon after passing the Moscow barrier, two huge figures of bulls are seen
in front of a building on the right of the road. This is the great cattle-
market ; and farther on is a triumphal arch, similar to that erected at the
Riga gate. There is nothing to attract attention on this road, or anything
to indicate timt the traveller is in the vicinity of a large capital, unless it
be the imperial milestones, which are of colossal dimensions; the main and
two side roads are, it is true, of great width, but the open, uncultivated
plain on either hand is swampy and flat. The road for the first five miles
to Czarsko Selo is that to Moscow, and at tins point the former turns oflF
to the right. Near here is the I'oyal chateau of Tchesme, built by the em-
press Catherine to commemorate the victory obtained by Orloff over the

ST. PETERSBURG — PALACE OF CZARSKO SELO.

478

Turks on the coast of Anatolia. TIio tdifico is in the form of a Turkish
pavilion, with a central rotunda containing the full-length portraits of sov-
ereigns contemporary with Catiierino. Since her death, this palace lias
been deserted. In 1825, Alexander and his consort passed it on their
way to the south of Russia ; and, about eight months after, their mortal
remains found shelter in it for a night on their way to the imperial sepul-
chre. There is no other object of interest on this road.

Wo have descrii)ed the carriage-road ; but the best and most rapid mode
of proceeding to Czarcko is by the railroad, the first laid down in Russia,
and whicii is more particularly noticed in another chapter. At the stations,
droskiesjor, in winter, sledges, are in readiness to carry the passengers on.
For upward of a mile, before reaching Czarsko, the road is bounded on
cither side by a village which seems intenninal)lo — one long, monotonous
row of wooden huts, with nothing to enliven tlicm but a few boarded vivjiks
and ugly women. At the entrance to the grounds of the i)alace are two
snmll towers carved with Egyptian figures and hieroglyphics, «tc. ; a bar-
rier is here thrown across the road, at wliich a guard is stationed : the
entrance, when completed, will be covered with iron bas-reliefs from Egyp-
tian scenes, taken from the classical work of Denon on that country.

Opposite the gate called the Caprice is a cluster of white houses, in two
rows of different sizes, diminishing as they recede from tlie road, and con-
verging at the farthest extremity — altogether a bizarre arrangement, and
showing the magnificence of Russian gallantry. The empress Catherine
II., at the theatre one night, happened to express her pleasure on seeing
the perspective view of a small town ; and the next time she visited Czar-
sko Selo slie saw the scene realized in a town erected by Count Orloff, at
an immense expense, l)efore the gate of the palace!

The fayade of the palace is twelve hui»dred feet feet in length. Origi-
nally every statue, pedestal, and capital of the numerous columns, the
vases, carvings, and other ornaments in front, were covered witli gold-leaf,
and the gold used for that purpose amounted to more than a nullion of
ducats. In a few years the gilding wore off, and the contractors engaged
in repairing it offered tlio empress nearly half a million of silver roubles
for the fragments of gold-leaf; but Catherine refused, saying, "/e ne suis
pas dans Vusa^e dc vcndre mes vieiUes hardes"

The only gilding which now remains is on the dome and cupolas of the
church, which are, as usual in Russia, surmounted by the cross and cres-
cent. Tiie front of the palace, toward the gardens, is tawdry, and glaring
in green, white, and yellow, which at first sight appear to have been
smeared on the walls in large patches and stripes, and have a most un-
pleasant effect. The first portion of the building generally shown is tho
chapel, a spacious room, fitted up entirely with dark-colored wood, most
lavishly gilded, even the ceiling being one bright sheet of gold. On the
walls are some curious old paintings, particularly one of a man with a solid
wooden beam projecting from his eye, nearly as largo and quite as long as

!r i

474

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

his whole body ; while the mote in his ncijyhhor's eye is certainly most
visible, as it is half as hij^ as his hcail ! A key of the city of Adrianoplo
haiijrs beside the altar ; but there is no other cniblcnj of war's havoc and
dostruction witliin this temple of the Most High. The imperial family
have <i kind of gallery in the clmpel, communicating with tlieir various
'ipartinents in tlie palace, and sitnatcd immediately behind the screen or
ikonnsfdsf.

The palace of Czarsko was, at the emperor Alexander's death, aban-
doned by the imperial liiniily, and is therefore bare of fnrnitinf, tlioiigh
the walls and Ihtors arc decorated with exceeding richness. Tin,' former
are eitiicr .simple white and gold, or hinig with rich silks ; the latter pur-
quitted in the most graccfnl designs and tender colors, and still as fresh
as wlien lirst laid down. One very elegant room is tliat called the
Lapis-titzufi, in which strips of this stone are inlaid in the walls, and the
fio(»r of tliis apartment is of cl>ony inlaid with large flowers of motlier-of-
)»earl, forming one of llie most splemlid contrasts possilde. The room
i(self is not very large, but tlie eflect is beautiful. Catherine II. has been
frequently accused of vandalism in having tlie pictures in this room cut so
as to fit the walls. A late traveller, however, after examining them most
narrowly, declares tiiat this sin can not l)e laid at her d'>«^r. " The wall,"
he observes, " is certainly covered with [lictures without frames, forming
a complete lining, and a most comical group they make — Tcniers' Itoors,
with a beautiful Canaletti of tlie royal Polish Zamck, most lovingly fast-
ened together, i)ut their fair proportions have not l)een curtailed. Hero
is also a celebrated statue of the Savi(>r by Danneker."

But the wonder of tills palace is the famous amber-room, the walls of
which arc literally panelled with this material in various architectural de-
signs ; the arms of Frederick the (Jreat,i»y whom the aml)er was presented
to Catherine II., Iieing moulded in ditlerent compartments with the iin|)e-
rial cii)her, the Russian E. for Ekaterina. Accustomed to see only small
pieces of this beautiful sui)stance, one can hardly believe that the large,
rough fragments projecting from the walls are really amlxsr. These aro
colored a pale yellow, and in several places groups of figures are formed
with fragments of this precious substance ingeniously put together, while
the frames arc composed of larger portions. The cftect [>rodncod by this
species of decoration is, however, too fade and waxy to bo pleasing.

The bedchaml>er of Catherine is adorned with walls of |)<)rcelain and
pillars of purple glass, and tho bedclothes aro those under which she slept
the last time she was at the palace. In the banqucting-room tho entire
walls to the height of about nine feet arc covered with gold, which is also
laid on most lavishly on tho ceilings in almost all the state-apartments.
The Chinese room is remarkable for the taste with which everything is ar-
ranged after the fantastic manner which is supposed to be that of tho celes-
tial empire. Two grand ballrooms are also conspicuous, tho upper end of
each being occupied by a collection of the most splendid China vases placed

8T. PETEUSBUnO — PALACE OP CZARSKO SELO.

476

IMFBBIAI. PikUkCI OF CXABSKO SELO.

on circular tiers up to the ceiling, and marked with the imperial E. Tin
whole palace, in fact, breathes of recollections of the great Catherine ; and
here arc to be seen private rooms with a door communicating witii the
adjoining apartments, and the gentle descent leading into the garden by
which she was wheeled up and down when infirmity had deprived her of
the nso of her liml)s.

'' Hut the sentiment of the edifice," observes a recent traveller, "dwelt
in the simple rooms of the Emperor Al* : '!der,whom all remember with
affection, and spouk of with melancholy enthusiasm. His apartments
have been kept exactly as lie left them when he departed for Taganrog.
His writing-cabinet — a small, light room, with scagHola walls — seemed
as if the imperial inmate had just turned his back. There was his writing-
table in confusion, his well-blotted case, the pens black with ink. Through
this was his 8imj)le bedroom, where in an alco\''e, on a slight cami)-bedstead
with linen coverlet, lay the tine j)erson and troubled heart of poor Alcxair
der ! On one side was the small table with the little green-morocco look-
ing-glass, his simple English shaving-apparatus, his brushes, combs, and a
pocket-handkerchief marked ' Z. 23.' On a chair lay a worn military sur
tout, beneath were his manly boots. There was something very painful in
these relics. If preserved by fraternal affection, it seems strange that the
same feeling shoidd not shield them from strangers' eyes and touch.

" The palace of the emperor Nicholas, originally built, upon the marriago
of hor grarsdaon Alexander, by the empress Catherine H., excited very

1. 1

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476

ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTION OF RU88IA.

different feelings. It was shnpler in decoration than many a noble's at
St. Petersburg, clean as |)0SHil»le,and liglit with the rays of the bright win-
ter's sun. Tiie only obji'cts on the plain walls of the great drawing-room
were a small print of Admiral Sir Kdward Codrington, and tlio busts of
the seven imperial ciiildrcn in infantine beauty. Tlie emperor's own room,
in point of heavy writing-tables and bureaux, was that of a man of business,
but his military tastes peeped through all. Around on the walls were
arranged gloss cases c«)ntaining models of the difl'erent cavalry regiujents,
executed, nmn and horse, willi the greatest l)eauty, 'and right,' as a mili-
tary attendant assured us, ' to a button ;' and this, it seems, is the one thing
needful. Paintings of military manoeuvres and stiff squares of soldiers
were also dispersed through his apartments.

" Leaving this, we proceeded to the arsenal, a recent red-brick erection
in English Gothic, in the form of many an old English gatehouse, and a
picturesque olyect in the most picturesque part of these noble gardens.
Here a few weather-beaten veterans reside, who, jiceping at our |)arty
through the latticed windows, opened the arched doors ; and, once within,
to an antiqimrian eye, all was enchantment. For several successions tho
Russian sovereigns have amassed a coUectitm of armor and curious antique
instruments. These have been increased in the reign of his present majesty,
who erected this building purposely for their reception, and intrusted their
clussiKcation and arrangement to an Englisliman : and tridy that gentleman
has done credit to the known antiquarian tastes of his own land."

It would be impossible to enumerate the objects here preserved, consist-
ing chiefly of ancient armor, weapons, and accoutrements, of every descrip-
tion, for man and horse, from every warlike nation, both Christian and
idolater. Figures in armor guard the entrance and lead tho eye alojig tho
winding staircase, whence you enter a lofty, circular, vaulted hall, with
oak flooring, and walls hung round with carbines, lances, &c., in fanciful
devices, and where, placed on high pedestals in a circle round the room,
are eight equestrian figures in full accoutrements and as largo as life, like
those of the English kings in the Tower of London. Between these you
pass on to various little alcoves or oratories with groined ceiling and
stained window, whose light falls on tiie gorgeously-wrought silver cross
or precious missal of somr early pope, or on tlio diamoud-and-pearl-wovea
trappings of present Turkish luxury ; or on the hunting-horn, with ivory
handle of exquisitely-carved figures, of some doughty German markgraf
of the olden time, or on the jousting-instrumcnts aud other playthings of
the amazons of Catherine II. 's court. v

In a glass case in the arsenal are preserved the small silver drum and
trumpet giAon by Catherine to the emperor Paul in his childhood ; and
beside them is tho autograph letter of Bessi^res to Marshal Davoust, as
governor of Moscow in 1812, ordering him to evacuate tho city.

In a recess arc placed two sets of horse-trappings presented by tho sul-
tan to the emperor — the first on concluding the peace of Adrianople, when

ST. PETERSBURO — THE ARSENAL AT CZAR8K0 BELO.

477

the "ycUow-liaircd Oinonrs" passed victoriously tlio mountain-barrier of
the Halkaii, and wcro well iiigli at tlio gates of his capital. This saddle
is siipeil), witli its trappings of purple velvet studded with diamonds, and
its stiniipH of gold ; but the otiior makes its glories dim tlie instant one
beholds them together. This was given when the Porte sued as a suppli-
ant to Russia for an auxiliary force to defend a tottering throne against a
rel)eHiouH vassal (Mehcmet Ali, viceroy of Egypt), after the fatal field of
Konieh had witnessed the overthrow of the only army the sultan possessed.
The diamonds on the pistol-holsters of this saddle are of unusual size, and
their Itrightiiess jjcrfoctly dazzling, while every part of the saddle and
bridle is actually covered with brilliants. Several swords, studded with
dianu)nds, are also preserved here — for the most part presents from vari-
ous sovereigns to the emperor Nicholas.

But this pleasant arsenal, the only memento pertaining to this capital of
modern objects and ephemeral fashions which recalls the past, would re-
quire a volume to itself, and oflcrs inexlmustildo interest to the artist in
mind, and a very treasury of i)catitiful subjects to the artist in profession
By command of the emperor Nicholas, a most careful and elaborate delin
cation of its contents, by the best artists of the day, and under the direc-
tion of M. A^'elton of St. Petersburg, is going forward, to appear in num-
bers, of which at present only a few have been completed. These are the
most exquisite specimens of drawing and emblazonry, and offer an interest
second only t<» that of the arsenal ; l)ut the price is high, being five hundred
roubles a number !

The grounds around the palace of Czarsko Selo arc liglitecn miles in
eircumfereuce, and contain jdcnty of larch, oak, and elm, wliich flourish
well. The gardens are said to be the most carefully kept in the world,
the trees and flowers l»eing watched and inspected with the most anxioua
minuteness. An old invalid soldier commands his five or six hundred men
as gardeners and overseers. As before remarked, after every falling leaf
ruflu a veteran to pick it up ; and after a violent north wind they have
enough to do, as may be well imagined. Every tiny leaf that falls in pond
or canal is errefully fished out ; they dust, and trim, and polish the trees
and paths in the gardens, as they do the looking-glasses and furniture of
the saloons ; every stone that is kicked aside is laid straight again, and
every blade of grass kept in a proper position. An inquiry Avas once insti-
tuted here about a broken flower, and carried on with as much solemnity
as if it had been a capital offence. All the gardeners were called together,
the inspector held the flower in his hand, and every possible question was
put, as to whoso division, and out of what bed, the flower might have been
taken ; whether plucked by a child, or broken by a dog : and this investi-
gation proceeded with the most profound seriousness, and the closest con-
templation of the corpus delicti — threats were lavished, rewards for the
discovery of the offender were promised, &c. ; but with what success, never
transpired. The cost of all this polishing and furbishing alone is above

478

iLLUsTnATKD nr^sruimoK of ritssia.

a liiindiod (Iionsnnd ronhlos yearly, but then the sncriflcc keepH the gardcnr
in the onhn- (»r a l)alln)oin.

The odd enprici'H exhiliitcd in the dooonition of the m'oiindH arc really
oxfraonliimry, and so nmncM'ou.H. that it would l»o dillicidt to dcscriltc
them all. In one corner in the tower of Prince (now emperor) Alfxander,
nn ornate structure in several stories, where the young prince resided
with his tut<)r: in another are tlie lialiy-hoiises of the y 'unjr jiraiHl-duch-
esses, where (hey earrieil on a niiniie iiimtt^v. In I'ntnt oi Ciiinese (owi'r
is a liiuli pt»le, ri^>red like the nuist of a I'ligiite, where the youii^; grnnd-
duke ('onstanline (now iiohlin^ a lii^h niiik in \.\w navy) formerly prac-
tised hi8 " hand over hand" upon. On one of llic ponda '\« a fleet of pigmy
'cssels, intended to umnse the yonlhful ndniinil in his professional studieH.

In adilition to nil these sliange olijects lire ii theatre, a Chinese \illiige,

]>ii(ch and Swiss eowliouse, a Turkish AvVmA*, a siunnier-house in the form
of an lonie colonnade supp(trling an aerial ganlen, plantiul with (lowers,
a Gothic Iniilding called the Admiralty, a niarlde jiridge with Corinthian
etdnmns of polished nnul'le ; also rostral pillai's and lironze statues whii'h
('ittluM'ine 11. erected to her faviM'ites — anionir these is a column to OiloflT.
There are likewise some coinnu'morative nn)nnments raised l>y Alexander
to his ''companions in arms,*' intermingled with fields of roses, hermitagcB,
nrtilicial ruins, Uoman tomlis, grottoes, and waterfalls.

Since tlu' death of Alexander, the palace has been untenanted except by
servants. The imperial family, when they come here, inhabit a largo
luiilding in llie park. liike abnost all other royal ixiildings in Russia,
Czarsko owes its origin to I'eter tlie (Jreat. He erected the first honao
here, and planted, to his eternal praise, the avennes of plane-trees with his
own haml ; init it was the empress Kli/.alteth who Imilt the castle, which
was further embellished by Catherine II., and after the great lire it wap
restored liy Alexander.

The two imperial residences of I'aidofsky and CJatchina, the favorite
abode of (he late cmpress-uiother. Imt now seldom, if ever, visited Ity any
mendier of the imperial family, are situated beyond Czarsko ("'elo ; the one
at the distance of about eight, the other al»out twenty-five miles. The
irnrdens of I'aulofsky are less nmgnilicent but more attractive than those of
Czarsko Selo. According to Swinin. the walks in these gardens amount
to more than one hundred miles in length ; and there is so nuudi variety
in the disposition of them, and in the shrubs and grouping of the trees,
that Russian literature mny boast of several books written on this subject
alone ! Paulofsky nmy also be reached by the railway. There are many
villas there, and a band i)lays in the gardens during the summer months.
These gardens, and the palace, are the property of the grand-duke Michael.

The road to Czarsko Selo excepted, the coast-road to PeterhofT is es-
teemed the most lively and best inhabited of any in the environs of the
capital ; the road, too, is broad, finely paved, with excellent bridges and
handsome granite milestones. It is a proof, however, of the general mo-

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iiT. pETRnsmTnn — hthklw and peteiiiiofp.

47V

notony of UiinMian rondxido Hccnory, tlint the vcrstHtonos nro nlinost, tlio
only, ut aiiy,riitt! tlio iiioMt ntrikiii^ ItiiidiniukH, iiiul in t\m hciisu iu'u ronlly
Miry iiMcriil. For instaiico, ii St. I'ftci.Hlimyiaii, wi.Mliiiifj; lo ex|iliiiii to u
friend wlicn; liis villii is silinitc'd, will fay, " Wo nrn iivinj; tliis year on
till* IVtorliofT road, at tins fcvt-ntli vorst ;" or, "Tlio Orlofl' ilafsr/id Htaiids
at tho olcvonth v('r«t" — " Wo will tako our dinnor at tlio tniklir's {rrntim-
rnffiir) at tlie fonrlocntli vorst" — an if tlioso niilontonoM wt'io |»yniinids.
IJiit HO it if — tlicrt' arc iicillicr vallcy-t, Itrooks, nor finiliii^ villajics. ^rnarl»!d
oaks or ^iant elms, ulierelty to distiiigiiisli iilaees, and iieoplc ean find
tlioir way only liy cfnisideriiifr tlio position of tlic milestonos.

Pcterliofl" is ilistaiit from St. IVlershnri; aliont ei^rlitecn miles ; tlio road
to it is liy tlio Hijra nato, pussinj^ under tlio trinniplial arch eieeled l»y tho
inlialiitants to etdeltrato the return of the Russian army from Paris in 1814.
This striictnro is cnnihrons in the oxtromc, covered with sheets of copper,
Hiipportiii^r a Inazen triumphal car drawn hy six horses alnvast, in which
is a fijriire of Victory. Shortly aftt-r passiiij^ tho \Ufxn jrnto, on tho rijrht is
seen the old palace of ('atherineiihotV, already nientionod as tho rendezvous
of tho Itiissians on May-day. Tho castlo is now deserted as an imperial
residoneo, aiul is fast siiikinjr into tho Imsom of tho ninrnss on which it
was hiiilt ; its decay was greatly accelerate<l hy tho inundation of the Nova
in 18i*4. Heyond this is the Annenliofl" lunatic-asylum, founded hy tho
empress Anne, whose naiiio it Iteais, which was removed liero from its
original situation within tho city in order that tho patients should have an
additional clianco of regaining their reason in the calmer situation and
fresh air of tho open country.

As far as Strolna the traveller follows tho groat western road that leads
to (icrniany, which hero liranches oil' to tho south, while the road to Petor-
hoft' continues its course along tho southern bank of the Neva. This alone
of all the approaches to tho capital is lined with the villas and country-
Boats of liiissian nohlos and merchants, many of which are alike conspicu-
ous for their splendor and elegance, hut seem nlniost without exception to
1)0 much Itetter adapted for the warm and genial climate of some land of
the sun than the stern, iiihospitaltlo shore of a sea which is frozen nearly
half tlu! year. At the distance of four or five miles from St. I'otershurg
tho lino (d" houses on the right hand ceases, anil the wide expanse of tho
Neva spreads before the windows and terraces of the houses which border
the road on the left hand.

The palace of Strolna is a pretty Gothic building, situated on a com-
manding position, immediately overhanging the Neva ; but its interior is
plain, and, with tho exception of the ballroom, by no means splendidly fur-
nished. Since tho death of tho grand-duke Constantino, this, like most of
tho other imperial residences near the Russian capital, has been untenanted.
Hence to Peterhoff, a distance of about six miles, the road winds along the
shore of the Neva, still presenting a succession of villas and pavilions, with
gardens and Dutch cottages in every variety of shape.

i-,i

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480

ILLUaiRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Ml
■ 1i

Nothing can be finer than tlie actual situation of the palace at Peterhoff.
Built on the verge of a steep declivity, its windows command the whole
extent of the Neva, from Kronstadt to St. Petersburg, with the green
islands of the majestic river, and the shore of Finland beyond. But of
late years it seems to have found but little favor in the eyes of the impe-
rial family ; and, thoug\ both garden and palaces are still kept in the
strictest order, they are seldom visited by them except on the occasion of
the annual fetes. The gardens are not so extensive as those at Czarsko
Selo; but their situation is far more beautiful, and their arrangement more
tasteful. The water-works are considered but little inferior to those at
Versailles. That called the Samson, in front of tlie palace, is a niagniH-
cent jet d^eau, eighty feet high, and from it to the sea, a distance of five
hundred yards, runs a canal, wherein are many smaller fountains. On
each side of tl>e fountain of Samson (so called from a colossal bronze figure
tearing open the jaws of a lion whence rushes the water) arc other jets
(Veau which throw water vertically and horizontally ; these basins arc at
the foot of tlie elevation on which the palace stands. In the centre is a
broad flight 'of steps leading to the castle, and on each side a continuous
range of marble slabs to the top of tiio hill over which the water pours
down, the slabs being placed higli and far apart, so as to allow lamps to
be arranged behind the water. This is done at the Peterhoflf /c/m referred
to above.

These i-enowncd fites take place on the first of July (old style, which
still prevails in Russia), when amends are made to this charming summer
abode for the neglect to which it is doomed during the rest of the year.
On that day (July 13 of our style), the people of St. Petersburg throng in
vast and motley multitudes to the famous Peterhofi" festival. It is difficult
to give an idea of tlie immense concourse that flows thither. From the
earliest hour of the morning, the Neva is covered with steamboats, skifis,
and gondolas, and the roads with vehicles of every kind, full of eager holy-
day-makcrs, fearless of the dust so long as they i-each the scene of enjoy-
ment. There the accommodations prepared for them can not possibly
suffice. Enormous tents are pitched, to afford rest and refreshment to the
weary wayfarers ; but so extraordinary is the throng, that it is scarcely
possible to keep a place even if obtained : or else the heat drives one from
under cover, to mingle and bo carried along with the dense stream that
fills every avenue. Hurrying from room to room, and from one garden
into another, the morning passes away, and at noon the empress appears
on the balcony of the palace, and a military parade ensues. After the
troops have defiled before her, the orderlies of the various corps march by,
among which the Circassians are remarkable for their personal appearance,
costume, and skill in military exercises.

After tiio parade, which has been preceded by divine service, a court
drawing-room is usually held ; then comes a drive through the park, and

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ST. PETERSBUnO — FESTIVAL AT PETERHOPP.

488

♦' dinner, succeeded, toward eight in the evening, by a ball in the pal-
; .. To this ball, every one, without exception, i8 welcome. The country-
people, in their ordinary garb, mingle with the wearers of elegant dresses
and brilliant uniforms ; a mixture which, however, in no way diminishes
the universal enjoyment. Suddenly the musicians strike up ; through the
folding-doors, thrown wide open, twc chamberlains enter, and courteously
entreat the assemblage to make room for their majesties, who are near at
hand. Every one draws back, as much as the throng and pressure permit,
and the Polonaise is danced, with the emperor at its head, through all the
extensive suite of apartments. The entrance of the imperial couple is the
moment chosen by the artist to illustrate the fete, as seen in the foregoing
engraving. The stately form of the emperor, with the empress on his
right, will be readily recognised in the picture. All present have an op-
portunity of seeing their sovereigns, and all greet them joyfully as they
pass, until the royal dancers, retracing their steps, conclude the dance in
the same hall wherein they commenced it.

At a signal from the empress, the whole of the va^ garden is now sud-
denly illuminated. This takes place as by enchantment. With lightning
speed the countless flames ascend from the lowest branches to the very
topmost sprigs of the trees. In less than a quarter of an hour, park and
garden appear in a blaze. The waters of the fountains plash and ripple
over stops which seem to burn. Lamps, ingeniously sheltered from extinc-
tion, gleam through the falling water, whose every drop glitters, diamond-
like, with all the tints of the prism. Eye can not behold a more striking
and beautiful scene. The finest sight of all is the " Golden Staircase,"
already described, next to the "Samson" — fountains with which, in the
opinion of some, even the Cfrandes Eaux at Versailles can scarcely be
compared. And now imagine the monster illumination, reflected on all
bides in the colossal cascades and water-works, and in the adjacent arm of
the sea ; imagine the melodious murmur of music issuing from the palace,
and mingled with the whizzing of rockets, with the booming of cannon from
the vessels at Kronstadt, and with the joyous songs of countless groups,
who, having selected spots for their bivouac^ lie around the fires in various
and picturesque attire. AH these things combine to render this one of the
most beautiful festivals that can be imagined. ,

At ten o'clock the ball ends ; after which the court usually take a little
drive on a sort of long droskios (jaunting-cars). On their return in-doors,
the lights in the palace are suddenly extinguished. Gradually the walks
are deserted by tlie promenaders, who establish themselves for the night
under tents or beneath wagons, or round great watchfires — departing with
the first dawn, by land and by water, to their respective homes. Thus
ends the great holyday at Peterhoff, unquestionably one of the grandest
and most agreeable of popular festivals.

The emperor Nicholas, when at Peterhoff, did not occupy the imperial
palace, but a wooden pavilion, in which he resided when grand-duke.

484

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

The suite of apartments in which the emperor Alexander lived when last
at Peterlioff have never since been inhabited ; and everything remains as
he left it. .: r i .

The principal attraction at Pctcrhoff is the old castle built by Peter the
Great ; and, although every emperor and empress has made alterations and
additions, the character of the whole is the same as that of all the palaces
built by that czar; even the yellow color, which was its original hue, is
always renewed, and like them its arcliitecture is very insignificant in
character, and deserves as little to be mentioned with Versailles or the
other French chateaux, which may have served as models, as the Kazan
church deserves to be compared with St. Peter's at Rome. The interior
presents in many instances the same curious mixture of simplicity and taw-
drinessas the old Michailoff palace and theTaurida in St. Petersburg, which
have been described at length in a previous chapter.

Here, however, are to be seen some beautiful tapestries, countless arti-
cles of bijouterie, tazzas of porcelain, malachite, and marble, and a number
of pictures chiefly reyresenting the naval victories of Orlofi" and other Rus-
sian commanders of Cutlierine II. In the castle is also one higlily-inter-
esting apartment, containing a collection of three hundred and sixty-eight
female portraits executed by a certain Count Rotali for that empress during
a Journey which he made through the different governments of the empire.
'*Thcy are all beautiful young girls, whom tlie count lias painted in pictu-
resque attitudes, and in their national costume, the inventive genius of the
artist giving a different position and expression to every face. One pretty
girl is knitting diligently, another embroidering ; one peeps archly from
behind a curtain, anotlier gazes cxpectingly from a window ; another leans
over a chair, as if listening to her lover ; a sixth, reclining on cushions,
seems lost in thougiit. One slumbers so softly and so sweetly, that a man
must be a Laplander in apathy not to wish for a kiss ; this stands before
a glass, comliing her beautiful hair; that has buried herself up to the ears
in fur, leaving visible only a pair of tender, rosy lips, and soft blue eyes
gleaming from under the wild bear's skin."

There are also some excellent portraits of old people — two in particu-
lar — an old man with a staff, and an old woman by the fire. This collec-
tion is unique in its kind, and would be invaluable for a ])hysiognomist, if
he could be certain that these portraits were as exact and faithful as they
are pleasing and tasteful. But this must be considered doubtful, for they
all bear, undeniably, rather the stamp of the French school than of tho
Russian, Tartar, Finnish, or any other nationality, ^yithin the Muscovite
empire. It is also accounted a suspicious circumstance that the portraits
Were painted by a gentleman for a lady ; and probably behind every grace- .
ful attitude some flattering homage to the empress lies concealed.

The other apartments do not contain anything very remarkable. In
one are the little table and benches with which the emperors Alexanaor
and Nicholas played as children ; in another, some carving and turner's

ST. PKTEKSBUBO — M0NPLAI8IR, AT PETEBHOFP.

485

work of Peter the Qreat. In one room are shown the blots of ink, made
by this emperor ov tliat, while engaged in his boyish studies ; and in an-
other is seen on the ceiling an extraordinary picture, representing a whole
corps of angels playing from notes ! every one with his music lying on a
cloud by way of desk ! — while a fifth room contains all the gods of Greece,
also reclining on clouds. ,, . >■ ', ■ , >

Descending from the palace to the seashore, the garden is laid out in
terraces, and adorned with fountains and waterfalls. The basins, the Nep-
tunes, storks, swans, and nymphs, the tritons, dolphins, painted rocks, and
grottoes, are copied from the engravings in Hushfield's " Art of Garden-
ing." These are commonplace enough : not so the oaks and lime-trees,
planted by Peter himself, which one can not pass without notice. The
smaller buildings of "Marly" and " Monplaisir," which lie under these
trees as wings to the larger edifice, remind the spectator, as the small
house in the Summer garden has done, of the modest domestic arrange-
ments of the carpenter of Sardaam, Holland — the great reformer of east-
ern Europe.

It was from these humble retreats that Peter the Great loved to contem-
plate his growing power over the Swedes on the Baltic. In Monplaisir, a low,
Dutch-built summer-house, the empress Elizabeth used to amuse her royal
leisure by cooking her own dinner. In tliis lowly abode the great Peter
breathed liis last, and his bed is still preserved untouched since liis death,
and now fast crumbling to decay. The last act of his life, the attempt to
succor a stranded vessel, was well worthy to close the busy career of such
a being as Peter. A view of this favorite residence of the great monarch
is given on the following page. The Rev. John 0. Choules, in his visit
to the Baltic in 1853, thus speaks of it: —

" Our first sight was the residence of Peter the Great ; it is not far re-
moved from the old palace. It is beautifully surrounded by trees, and the
house is quite small, and not very unlike a Dutcii farmhouse. Its interior
is quite like some old houses that I remember on the Hudson river. In
this snuggery Peter died. We saw the bed on which he breathed liis last ;
the bedclothes are all preserved as when he occupied the chamber. On
the pillow arc his caps and nightcluthcs, and his robe-de-chambre lying on
the coverlet of the bed. Nothing can be more simple than all the furni-
ture. Tiie rooms are small, and you can fancy that the old people who
live in the cottage have just stepped out. In the room adjoining the small
chamber are his slippers, boots, and sedan-chair, and other articles of per-
sonal dress. In a small corner-cupboard is his cam{>-equipage, as plain aa
tin, iron, and brass can be. The walls of the kitchen are covered with
blue Dutch tiles. Nothing indicates that royalty ever resided here, but
some good Flemish pictures and a few elegant Japanese cabinets and beau-
tiful stands. His escritoire remains as he last used it. A long, narrow
saloon, which is really a covered gallery, has many portraits ; and here
the emperor used to walk and receive his visiters. The dining-room was

!:|

(■III

r. "
I-

u. . i

4it6

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

HoNPLAini, AT PiTaanorr,

a small apartment, with a circular oak tabic, and the panels of fine Japan
ese work ; the lower wainscoting of old black oak. Ffom a noble terrace,
paved witii marl)le, Peter could gnzc upon his infant navy, lying oflF at
Kronstadt. The rocks of the seashore come quite up to the balustrades
of the terrace, and greatly add to the scenery."

The " Hermitage" at Peterhoff is chiefly remarkable for the contrivance
by which the dishes and plates descend from the table through grooves cut
in the door, and are replaced by others without any servant being seen.

Tiie famous "Cottage" of Catherine II. is, without, all plain, even to
poverty ; within, all glorious and radiant with gold, and mirrors reflecting
each ol)ject, giving the tiny dwelling an appearance of size and magnifi-
cence quite astonishing. The present empress has a small palace in the
park of Peterhoff, called Sniamniski/. There is likewise a low, thatched
building, called the " Straw palace." In a piece of water in the gardens
are a great many tamo carp, which, says an English traveller, " are regu-
larly fed, and come to the visiters as readily as the swans in James's park,
London, or a parish-clerk for his Christmas-box."

A few miles hence is the country-seat of Ropscha, at which Peter III,
met his death by assassination. Beyond Peterhoff, in a situation, if possi-
ble, more beautiful and commanding, stands Oranienbaum, now the prop-
erty of the grand-duke Michael. It was originally bestowed upon Prince
Menchikoff by Peter the Great, but reverted to the crown, on the disgrace
and banishment of that proud courtier.

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT.

487

:<:% 7

' .(

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT.

IHE emperor of Russia assumes the title of
samoderjetz, or autocrat, and all power
centres in and emanates from him. The
act of election of 1618, which conferred
the crown on the house of Romanoff,
recognises the absolute power of the
sovereign. His will is unlimited, and
his authority uncontrolled, except in
the respect he may voluntarily yield
to established customs, to tlie privi-
leges of certain classes, and to the
prejudices of the people. A rever-
tnce for the emperor, amounting almost to idolatrous
•worship, is instilled into the Russians from their ear-
liest childhood. Next to the name of God, the name
of the emperor always occurs in the religious vocabu-
lary of the people, in whose eyes the two names are
next thing to synonymous. In every individual reign,
however, the personal character of tlie sovereign must, in a great measure,
determine that of the administration. Hence, under such a monarch as
Paul I., the most extravagant decrees, the dictates of a mind bordering on
insanity, had all the force of law, and exposed every subject, who ventured
to disregard them, to tlic ))enaltie3 of rebellion ; while, on the contrary,
under tlic late Alexander, the whole administration assumed almost a con-
stitutional form, and the emperor himself publicly disclaimed despotism,
by declaring that he was bound to rule according to law, and that, in tho
even*; of liis issuing any decree not in accordance with it, the senate was
entitled to remonstrate. •—.-,.'.

To Peter the Great is due the credit of the formation of the government ;
though, subsequently to him, some changes and modifications iiave been
introduced. Previously to the time of the reforms of Peter, the govern-
mental machinery was not so complicated. In introducing the changes,
Peter, in some instances, maintained, however, the old institutions, giving
them a new (mostly Germanic) name The emperor is the central point

488

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

of administration : everything einanntcs from him in the first instance, and
everything? is referred to him in the last, and his decisions aro law.

The public business is trnnsnotcd under the emperor by different boards,
councils, or colleges, which have each separate but sometimes not easily-
distinguished functions. The principal body is the imperial council, for
the most part presided over by the emperor in person, or a delegate of his
sole appointment. It has no limit as to its numbers, but is divided into
four departments — legislative, military, civil and ecclesiastical, and finan-
cial. All matters coming under deliberation are decided by a majority of
votes, either by the departments separately, or by the whole acting as ono
body. To each department a secretary of state is attached. The impe-
rial council was e8tal)lished on its present footing in 1810, and was proba-
bly modelled by Alexander after that of Napoleon.

The body next in importance to the council is the Semite, which is also
presided over by the emperor in person. It is the supreme judicial tribu-
nal, and issues decrees which have the force of low, unless the emperor
interpose to prevent their execution. It is divided into eight departments,
each of which is an appeal-court of last resort for certain provinces and
governments. Tiie decision of each department must be 8U|)portcd by a
majority of two thirds of the members present; and, when this majority
can not bo obtained, a general meeting of all the departments is called to
decide. The procedure is not public, and the whole pleadings are in wri-
ting, each case being decided on a statement drawn up by the secretary,
and certified by tho party as correct. In a few cases, however, parties
dissatisfied with its decisions may petition the emperor. The sonatora are
mostly persons of high rank, or who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of emi-
nence presides over each department, who represents the emperor, and
without whose signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenum,
or general meeting of the sections, the minister of justice takes the choir,
as higli procurator for his majesty. Besides its superintendence over the
court of law, the senate examines into the state of the public revenue and
expenditure, and has power to inquire into public abuses, to appoint to a
great variety of offices, and to make remonstrances to the emperor. Monthly
reports of its proceedings are publislied in the gazette.

The third college consists of the holy synod, composed of the principal
dignitaries of the church, and to it is committed the superintendence of the
religious affairs of the empire.

The fourth college consists of the committee of ministers, of whom ther»j
are eleven, viz., the ministers of the imperial household, of war, finance,
justice, interior, public instruction, imperial domains, postoffice, roads an:!
public buildings, and the vice-chancellor and comptroller-general. The
ministers frequently have colleagues, who supply their place when they ar^;
cither sick or absent. They communicate directly with the emperor, or mt\
his chancellerie particuliere, in whose hands a)! the executive authority It
centred.

THE niPERIAL GOVERNMENT — TIIK JUDICIARy.

48d

The local udiniiiistratlon diflFors in different provinces ; the imperial gov-
ernment having always allowed conquered or annexed coirtitries to pro-
servo their own laws and institutions, except in so far as they were hofKie
to the general constitution of the empire. Finland, for example, I, as a
special form of government; and the provinces wrested from Sweden hy
Peter the Great, together with Courland, and those formerly belonging to
Poland, have peculiar institutions and privileges, which, however, havo
latterly been miich modified. But, despite these exceptions, the form of
the provincial government is, notwitlistanding, sufficiently uniform.

The empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties, gov-
ernments, and districts. There are also, as already stated, extensive ter-
ritories, which, from the thinness of their population, or otherwige, are not
organized into regular governments, that are called obfasts, or provinces.
The viceroys, or general-governors, are the representatives of the emperor;
and, as such, command the forces, and have the supreme control and direc
tion of all affairs, whether civil or military. All the functionaries withiu
their jurisdiction are suborditiate to, and make their reports to them.
They sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts, <&c. A civil gov-
ernor, representing the general-governor, assisted by a council or regency,
to which all measures must be submitted, is established in each government
or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the governor is provision-
ally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor with respect to the matter be
ascertained. A vice-governor is np|iointed to fill the place of the civil gov-
ernor when the latter is absent or ill. There arc also, in every govern-
ment, a council of finance under the presidency of the vice-governor, who
manage the crown estates, and superintend the collection of the revenue ;
a college of general provision, which has the direction and inspection of
all charitable foundations, prisons, workhouses, schools for the instruction
of the poor, &c. ; and a college of medicine, which attends to all matters
connected with the public health, appoints district physicians, inspects
pharmacopeias, &c. The districts have each their local functionaries.
The towns have a municipal body, elected once everj' three years by the
different classes into which the population is divided ; and each town has,
also, according to its importance, a commandant or bailiff, appointed by
the crown, who has charge of the police, of the public buildings and maga-
zines, and who executes sentences, pursues criminals, &c.

The Russian judicial system is complicated, and not easily understood,
except by natives. There are civil and criminal courts in every circle ;
and a supreme court of justice, divided into civil and criminal sections, is
established in every government. Cases decided in the inferior courts may
be appealed to it. Its sentence is final in all criminal cases, and in all
civil matters relating to sums under five hundred roubles. Those involving
proparty to a greater amount may be carried before the senate.

It is a curious fact that, notwithstanding the despotical nature of the
govcrnmjut, all the provincial tribunals consist partly of elective function-

fc i

K V

490

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

aries. Thus, the superior court for a circle consists of a judjro and secre-
tary, and of two aascHsors chosen annually by the nol)le8, and two by the
pnisants; and tho superior court of justice for u government, which is
divided into a civil and criminal chamber, consists of a president, secretary,
and four assessors for each chamber, two of the assessors being chosen by
the nobility, and two by tho burghers. It is, in fact, a principle in Russia
that a portion of tlie judges in every court should belong to tho same class
ad the party whoso interests are under discussion, and be elected for that
purpose by his compeers. In the case of the nobles and burghers, this
is a most valuable privilege ; but in the case of tho peasantry, who stand
most in need of protection, this jirivilcge is quite illusory — their serfdom
and ignorance making them utterly incapable of profiting by it.

Previously to the reign of the empress Catherine II., the judges, particu-
larly in the inferior courts, were wretchedly paid. That princess increased
their salaries ; but tliey arc still far too low. And seeing that tho judges
are rcmovcable at pleasure, and owe their situation to favor rather than to
nurit, we need not wonder that tho greatest abuses continue to exist in
the administration of justice. Tho proceedings are dilatory in the extreme.
The prohibition against taking fees from suitors is. rarely complied with;
and in most tribunals it is aflirmcd that, if justice can not bo altogether
defeated, it may at least be indefinitely postponed, by dint of money.

These abuses have, however, been in part, at least, obviated by the pub-
lication, l)etwccn 182G and 1883, by tho legislative commission, of an ex-
tensive di<j:est (^Swod ZaJeonow, " Body of Law") of all tho laws then in
force relative to tho rights of citizens and tho administration of public
justice. This publication has greatly simplified the law ; and it is of vast
importance from its being, as it were, a charter of rights which may be
appealed to on all future occasions, and which it will bo very difficult for
any succeeding sovereign to abridge. But it would, notwithstanding, be
idle to expect any very material improvement in tho ordinary administra-
tion of justice, until the judges be better trained, selected, and paid ; and
till the influence of pul>lic opinion, and of a comparatively free press, nei-
ther of which has at present any existence in Russia, be brought to bear
on the administration of justice, and of public affairs generally. The lat-
ter, in fact, is the only security against abuse on which any reliance can
safely bo placed. Wherever judges are exempted from the control of
pu1)lic opinion, and the animadversion of the press, they are most com-
moidy the obsequious instruments of government, and seldom scruple to
commit injustice when they believe it will be acceptable to their superiors.

The system of police in Russia is efficient, and yet in many respects
comparatively worthless from tho lack of honesty in its members. They
arc quick in discovering thefts, in ferreting out the offenders, and prompt
in the application of punishment ; but so great is their faculty of retention,
that a person who has been robbed never considers his chance of rocovor-
ing his property so small as when the police have detected the thief ! From

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — THE POLICE.

491

the thief's hands lie deems it possible he may get back his own, but from
the clutches of the authorities — never. So strong and universal is this
feeling, that robberies would seldom be reported, did not the laws, in the
interest of public security, render such report compulsory. Many instances
nre given by travellers in illustration of this feature in the operation of the
Russian police system, one or two of which we will narrate : —

A Courland nobleman, Mr. Von H , lost some silver spoons, knives

ond forks, stolen out of his plate-ehest. Some weeks afterward one of his
servants came rejoicing to him : he had found the stolen goods ; they were

openly exposed for sale in n silversmith's 8ho|>-window. Mr. H went

to the window, recognised his property, took a police-officer with him, and
made the silversmith show them the plate. His arms and initials were
upon it ; the dealer admitted he had bought it of a stranger, and oflered to

restore it to its rightful owner. Mr. H would have taken away his

property, but the lieutenant of police forbade that, drew up a formal state-
ment of the affair, and requested Mr. IT , as a proof that the plate was

his, to send to the police some other article out of tlic chest to wliicli ho

affirmed it to belong. Mr. 11 sent the whole case, with its contents,

to tlie policc-burcan. He never saw either of them again !

Mr. Von H mentioned tlie circumstance to a physician, a friend of

his, whom he thought very mucli to aHtoni(<h. Astoni.shed ho certainly was
— not, however, at the rascality of the police, but at the simplicity of Mr.

H , who ought to have known them fur too well to have trusted them

with his plate-chest.

The St. Petersburg thieves are exceedingly skilful and daring. The
doctor, above referred to, also had his talc to tell. He wanted a coach-
man ; one applied for the place just as his drosky happened to be at the
door, and, by the doctor's desire, he drove up and down the street, to give
a specimen of his skill, which was satisfactory. The doctor called to him
to come up stairs, and sat down to dinner. The man did not appear:
inquiry was made ; he had driven away the horse and carriage, and was
nowhere to be found. The doctor made his report to the police, as in duty
bound, but at the same time made a formal declaration that he renounced
al! claim to the stolen property, and declined taking it back again. The
precaution was most judicious. He could not do without a vehicle, so
bought another the same day ; and when the police, six weeks afterward,
brought him back horse and drosky, they were in so wretched a state, and
the charges so enormouR, that he was heartily glad to have it in his power
to decline receiving his property, or paying the costs.

The l)oldne88 of the St. Petersburg thieves is at least as striking as the
rascality of those employed to detect them. Kakuschkin, a former chief
of police, was not very popular in the Russian capital ; but by the thieves
ho was especially detested, for his severity almost equalled their audacity.
So there was a double temptation to despoil him — the gain to the spoilers,
aud the vexation of the spoiled. He possessed, among other things, a

•1

'■ I:

402

ILLUSTRATED DiSCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

magnificent porphyry vase, wliich stood upon a no loss costly pctlcitnl.
How the thiovea managod to steal the vase i^ ntill a riddle; but stolen it
was. Fur six months the police hunted after it : not n trace hut was fol-
lowed up and explored ; not a thieves' hiding-place but was examined ; b>it
all was in vain. At last hope was abandoned, and the authoriti s rthi." )d
their vigilance. One day, however, a policeman went to KuKUHchkir.'b
wife, and took her tiio joyful intelligence that the thief was discovered,
the vase already at the police-office, and that her husl)and had sent liim
for the pedestal, in order to identify tlio stolen object. Madame Kukusch-
kin was overjoyed : und wiien her husband came home to dinner, she ran
to meet him, in high glee. ♦' Well," she cried, " and the vase ?" — " What
vuse?" — "The stolen vase, which has been found: the vase whoso pedes-
tal you sent for ?" — " Whose pedestal I sent for ! Whom did 1 send Y" —
" A policeman." — " Say, rattier, a policeman^ uniform. I sent no poli(r«v
man, nor have I heard aught of the vase, or of its pedestal."

The following instance of tho dexterity of a St. Peterslmrg piclcpoi kot
is related by Kolil : "The French endmsssador was one day vnunting ilio
dexterity of the Parisian thieves to one of tlie grand-dukos, and related
many anecdotes of their address. The grand-duke was of opinion that tho
St. Petersburg thieves wore quite their equals ; and offered to lay a woger
that, if tho embassador would dine with him the next day, ho would ciuMe
his excellency's watch, signet-ring, or any other articles of his dress which
he tliought most secure, to be stolen from him before the dessert wa.-* over.
The embassador accepted the vager, and tho grand-duke sent immediately
to the chief of the police, <]'' uing him to send the adroitest thief he might
happen to have in custody at Hie time. The man was dressed in livery,
instructed what to do, and promised a pardon if ho accomplished his task
well. Tlie embassador had named his watch as tho particular object of
attention, both for himself and the thief; and when he had got the watch,
the supposed servant was to give the grand-duke a sign.

" The dinner )>egan : the preliminary whet, the soups and the ro/t, came
and disappeared in tiieir turns ; tito red, white, Greek, Spanish, and French
wines, sparkled successively in the glasses of tlie guests. Tho embassador
kept close guard on his watch, and the grand-duko, observing his earnest
anxiety, smiled with good-humored archness. Th<: p>-oto^ded lackey was
busily assisting in the removal of the dishes, tVo dinr -v v-as near' 'iv,
and the prince awaited with impatience the • ;' .^d . ignal. Suddenly
his countenance brightened : he turned to the embassador, who was in deep
V onversation with his neighbor, and asked him what was the hour. His
v'xcelhncy triumpliantly put his hand to his pocket — he had had it on his
va "'i a few moments before — and to the amusement of all, but particu-
Ivly 'if 'j 7 gran'' Juke, drew out a very neatly-cut turnip! A general
magh followed. The embassador, somewhat embarrassed, would take a
pinch cf snuff, and felt in all his pockets for his gold snuff-box — it was
^one ! The laughter became louder : the embassador in his embarrassmebt

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNUEMT — PUNIHHMENTH.

and VQxation U.nl recourse to liis soal-riti^, to turn it as ho wor ncoi
— it was gone! in short, lio i'uuud that lio had liecn ruguhiily ph
of every thi 11 jj( hut what hii'l '"•^^u lusttMicd on liiin by tho tiiiior md tho
shoemaker — of rm^, wutch, nnuitf-lHtx, hundk(fri:hicf, toothpiuic, omA gloves.
The adroit mjruo was hi- ,^ht Insforo him, and commaiidtni by the grand
duke to give hmk (lie stolen propi'ify ; when, tu the great i!m»i>ri8o of the
prince, tiio pickpocket took out tivo waUh'JH, and prese 'ted one <<> the
embassador, and tlio other to iiiH inipciiiil liighnoss ; (wo rings*, one for the
embassador, and tho otiior for the grwnd-duke : two wuifl'-boxcH, &a. In
nHtonisliment, his highness now felt in iti^ pockets us tho embassador had
done, and found that he too had i)eon strippov. of his moveables a
like nuinner. The grand-duke solemnly ussukhI the embassador tlwu lo
had been quite unconscious of tho theft, and wits disposed at tii» to b«
angry with tho too-dexterous artist. However, upon second thouylits, the
fellow, who had enabled him to win his wager t^o triumphantly, v dis-
missed with a present, and a warning to employ his talents in fiu iic to
more useful purposes."

Property generally, however, thi-oughout the ••mpire-is as well protected
fts it is in any other country. The houses beiii commonly built of wood,
fires in great towns are often very destructive, nnd Oie most cfTectual pre-
cautions. are taken to prevent their occurrence. Ml strangers arriving in
Russia must produce their passports at the polii ■-office, and notify their
arrival in tho public papers. The officers of polici are empowered to dis-
charge various functions besides those which come more peculiarly within
their province, such as tho decision of differences Itctwoen masters and
servants, &c.

Capital punishments are rare in Russia, high-treason iieing the only crime
visited with death. In its place are tho rod and the i- >iout. Sentences to
punishment by the former often condemn to such a vu-it number of blows,
that the hide of an elephant could scarcely withstand them : human nature
must sink and exf)ire under them. What man can endure four thousand
blows of a stick ? They would inevitably kill him. whii h is no part of the
condemnation ; and, as a proof that this is not de.-iired, tho sentenco con-
cludes by ordaining that, after tho criminal has receiveu his punishment,
he shall bo sent for life to Siberia.

The officer in command of the troops ordered for tho execution of the
sentoncc is responsible for its being literally and completely carried out.
This responsibility he lays, in his turn, ujwn tho shoulders of the regimental
surgeon. The delinquent — civilian or soldier, it matters not which —
marches down the fatal street of men, with a soldier in front and in rear,
whos««» levelled bayonets prevent his hanging back or unduly hurrying on.
Upon his loft walks tho surgeon, holding tho unhappy wretch's hand in his,
and anxiously watching the state of tho pulse. When its diminished boat
gives token of danger, the putiishment, on a signal from tho medical man,
is immediately susftendod, the exhausted sufferer is placed on a cart, and

JFr^.h,

494

ILLUSTBATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

taken to the hospital. The horrible but yet humaner practice of the An <-
trians — to inflict the entire number of blows prescribed by the sentence,
even though the latter portion of them full upon a corpse — is in Russia
strictly prohibited. The patient is taken care of in the hospital until re-
covery, and then again beaten. If this process bo often repeated, he usu-
ally dies in consequence of his wounds ; but in that case, "justice" has not
actually killed him ! Should he ultimately recover, he is sent to Siberia.
It seems incredible, but is nevertheless true, that many criminals have thus
taken, by instalments, four or five thousand blows, and lived to drag out
many years of melancholy existence in Siberian deserts.

The .'second and still severer punishment is that of the knout ; but before
this punishment can be inflicted, it must be proved that such a crime has
been committed as would entail, in every civilized country, the penalty of
deatli. For the knout is the substitute for capital punishment. It can
not be inflicted without the emj)eror'3 own signature. As for the rest,
thougli the sentence proceeds from the judge, its effect depends entirely
upon the executioner who wields the knout.

The criminal, surrounded by a guard of Cossacks, is conducted, half
naked, to the place chosen for this kind of execution ; all that he has on is
simply a pair of linen drawers round his extremities ; his hands are bound
togetlier by cords, with the palms laid flat against one another. He is
stretched prostrate upon his belly, on a frame inclined diagonally, and at
the extremities of wliich are fixed iron rings ; his hands are fastened to
one end of the frame, and his feet to the otlier ; he is then extended in
such a manner that he can not make a single movement.

At a distance of five-and-twenty paces stands another man : it is the
public executioner. IJe is dressed in black-velvet trousers, stufled into
his boots, and a colored cotton shirt, buttoning at the side. His sleeves
are tucked up, so that notliing may thwart or embarrass him in his move-
ments. With both hands he grasps the instrument of punishment — the
terrible knout ! This knout consists of a thong of thick leather, cut in a
triangular form, from four to five yards long, and an inch wide, tapering
off at one end, and broad at the other : the small end is fastened to a little
wooden handle, about two feet long.

The signal is given : no one ever takes the trouble to road the sentence.
The executioner advances a few steps, with his body bent, holding the
knout in both hands, while the long thong drags along the ground between
his legs. On coming to about three or four paces from ti»e prisoner, ho
raises, by a vigorous movement, the knout toward the top of his head, and
then instantly diaws it down toward his knees. The thong flies wliistling
through the air, and, descending on the body of the victim, twines round
it like a hoop of iron. In spite of his state of tension, the poor wretch
bounds as if he were submitted to the powerful shock of galvanism. The
executioner retraces his steps, and repeats the same operation as many
times as there arc blows to be inflicted. When the thong envelops the

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — THE KNOUT.

49i>

tcnce,
Russia
it'll ro- •
10 usu-
lias not
jiberia.
vo thus
rag out

t before
iiue 'las
naUy of
It can
the rest,
cntivcly

!tcd, half
has on is
ivc bound
V. lie is
ly, aiul at
istenetl to
tended iu

it is the
tuffed into

is sleeves

his move-
neiit — the

r, cut in a
c, tapering
1 to a little

sentence,
lolding the
nd between
oner, he
Is head, and
j9 whistling
fines round
Ipoor wretch
linism. The
ion as many
Uvelops the

body with its edges, the flesh and muscles are literally cut into stripes as
if with a razor; but when it falls flat, then the bones crack : the flesh, in
that case, is not cut, but crushed and ground, and the blood spurts out in
all directions! Tlic suflbrer becomes green and blue, like a body in a
Kate of decomposition.

PvNnmRMT or tim Knovt.

T.io knout is fatal, if the judgment of the emperor, or the executioner,
wills it ♦.o be so. Docs the latter mean to l)e humane to his victim ? — he
kills him with tlie first lash ; for so great is the instrument's weight, that
it enables liim to lu-euk tlie spine at a single blow ! This is not, however,
usually done, and the unfortunate culprit receives the whole number pro-

496

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

scribed, which rarely exceeds half a dozen. Here no surgeon attends, as
on occasions of running the gauntlet, to regulate the punishment. If tho
criminal dies under the knout, no one is answerable — the motive for such
exemption from responsibility doubtless being that the \cvy first bloio mav
i>e fatal. If he survives, he is sent to the hospital, and, when cured, to
►Siberia, wliere he disappears for ever in the bowels of tho earth.

When a Russian subject is condemned to Siberia, his beard is shaved
off, and his hair is cut short in the shape of a brush, like that of the sol-
diers, and quite close behind. He is dressed in a pair of linen trousers, a
great-coo.t of very coarse cloth, a round cap, and enormous leather boots.
In company with other exiles, he is then despatched, under an escort, to
his destination beyond the Urals. Before starting, the convicts arc in-
spected by a surgeon, aiid those who are unable to walk arc placed in car-
riages ; of the others, every two men carry a chain of about five pounds'
weiglit, attached to the leg. They walk but fifteen miles a day ; but they
have to pursue their journey in all weathers, no matter how inclement, or
how intense tho cold may be. While en route, they generally expcricnco
much kindness from the Russian peasantry, who send them presents of
their best food at every resting-place; and in large towns the excess of
such coiitril)ution3 over wliat they consume is so great, that it is sold to
buy them additional clothing. Wives are allowed, or rather cx|)cctcd,
to accompany tlieir husbands ; but where any decline going, the nnirriage
is dissolved — a consequence, no doubt, calling for serious deliberation.
Leitcli Ritchie, wlio witnessed the departure from Moscow of a party of
exili's destined for Siberia, describes the scene as follows: —

" The departure of the exiles for Siberia is a scene which should not bo
missed by the traveller: but, in order to let him enjoy it at his ease, ono
tiling is necessary to be understood. Tiie mere fact of transportation is
not looked upon as a severe punishment ; for the great body of tho crimi-
nals consists of persons wlio have been accustomed all their lives to a com-
pulsory servitude as severe as that which awaits them beyond tho Ural
mountains. Condemnation to tlie mines in Siberia is what they dread —
and with great justice; for this is a substitution for capital punishment,
and answers the same purpose, only extending tho time occupied by the
act of dying from a few minutes to a few years.

" In a temporary depot, erected on the summit of the Sparrow hills, 1
found tho destined wretches about to commence their march. A long chain
secured both legs at the ankles, and, to prevent.it from incommoding them
in walking, was fastened to their belt, or sash. . A great many were Jews,
most of them mi/jiks ; and all, with the exception of one man, were free
from those physiognomical murks of atrocity wiiich are commonly supposed
to distinguish the guilty. Some carts were near, filled with their wives
and children, and son»o of their male relations stood beside them unman-
acled, who had likewise petitioned to be permitted to share their oxilo.
In the middle stood a man who had a good deal of tho air of an English

5na IMFSRiAL GOVERNIIENT — SIBERiAKI EXILES.

407

E.Yit,«i ON THBu Wat to Sibibu.

il-al

difisenting clergyman ; but the shape of his clothes and hat, and the large
Imckles in iiis nhocs, seemed to belong to the fashion of an earlier day.
His appearance inspired me witli instinctive respect, and his face seemed
jibsolutely to beam with tiie purest and noblest philanthropy. Ho was
occupied in distributing moral and religious books to such of the prisoners
as could read, and in hearing patiently, and often redressing instantly,
their complaints. The exiles, on their part, seemed to look upon him as a
friend — a father ; but their aflection was njingled with the deepest respect.
Many prostrated themselves at his feet, as before a holy image, and touched
the ground witii their forehead. On taking leave, he embraced and kissed
them all, one by one ; and the rattle of their chains, as they began the

march, was mingled with sobs and blessings Dr. Haas, for this was

the philanthropist's name, was in a kind of official situation, acting as the
eecretary of a charital)le body ; and he passed his life among the sick and
the captives, in the double capacity of physician to the soul and body."

The journey lasts seven months. In the Asiatic portion of it, the com-
fort of the exiles is far less cared for ; while, wearied out with their pro-
tracted ti'avel, their powers of endurance arc proportionately lessened, and
there is often great mortality : between 18"23 and 1832 it amounted to
about one fifth, and the average number of exiles was ten thousand a year.

\ ii

i)^

408

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Oil their arrival, the worst subjects are sent to the mines ; and, in former
times, they hardly ever again saw daylight, but by the regulations of tho
emperor Nicholas they are not kept underground more than eight hours a
ihiy, and on Sunday all Ijave undisturbed freedom. Others of this class
ore confined to northeastern Siberia, the climate of which is especially
sovcre. Those of a less heinouo stamp are employed on public works for
some time, and then aUewed to become culonisls. The least serious ofl'end-
ei's arc at once settled as colonists in southern Siberia, and thenceforth
may be considered as quite free, except that they can not quit their loca-
tion. In such a soil and climate, it is asserted by Haxthauscn that, with
industry, they may within two or three years find themselves established
in good iiuuscs of their own, amid fields supplying every want of a i-ising
fiimily. It is also affirmed that the young people reared in these abodes
turn out, on the whole, of most respectable character, and are associated
with accordingly on tho kindest ternjs by neighbors of other classes —
especially by the peasants of native Siberian race, who, by-the-way, are all
entirely free, and many of them very rich.

As above remarked, with tho exception of what tho nature of their
crimes may impose, no restraint is laid upon their freedom, or precautions
taken to prevent their leaving. They possess no passports, and it is ex-
tremely difficult to travel twelve hours anywhere in the Russian dominions
wi'thout them. But in spite of the lack of the necessary papers, many
cxik'S, after a longer or shorter stay in Siberia, manage to slip away to
more congenial climes.

Tlie whole number of exiles in Siberia amount to about one liundred
tliousaiid, of whom about one fourth are females ; most of the latter are,
however, as already shown, voluntary exiles, who have accompanied their
husbands or otlier near relatives thither.

Tlie military power of the Russian empire rests on an organized army
and navy.* The first regularly-organized corps of infantry in tho Russian
service was the Strelitzes, who seem to have had their origin about the
middle of tlie sixteenth century ; and continued, till their suppression by
Peter the Great, to constitute the principal strength of the army. They
enjoyed various privileges ; were always abort the person of the emperor;
and by their licentiousness and insubordination, as well as bravery, bore
a close resemblance to the preetorian bands of ancient Rome, and the Jani-
zaries of the Ottoman Porte. The abolition of this formidable corps, and
the reconstruction of the army on a plan similar to that followed in th<)
more civilized countries of Europe, was undoubtedly one of the greatest

* For nmny intLTviting details in this skctrh of the militnry arm of Rnssia credit is dne io
Count A. l)e GiirowiJki, a sonrco to which this volume U also indebted for facts which have en-
riched one or two other cliaptcrs. He jrives tho most intcllifjible, and, after a close comparison
witii otlicrx, we iirc satisfied, the most reliable account, of this branch of the Russian service.
This sketch, it is also proper to add, has reference to tho condition of tho Russian army just pre-
rions to the commencement of the late war, a period the more tuitabie for taking c view of it. u
it was then in its highest state of efficiency.

THE IMPERIAL GOVEBNMEKT — THE ABMT.

499

services rendered by Peter the Great. At his death, in 1725, the regular
ariny amounted to about one hundred and ten thousand, exclusive of the
imperial guard ; and the success which attended his prolonged contest with
the Swedes showed that this army became in time a match for the best
troops that could then be opposed to it.

Under Catherine II., the army was greatly augmented and improved.
This able and ambitious princess increased the pay of the troops and offi-
cers, and gave them a new, more commodious, and elegant uniform, than
that formerly in use. She formed the Cossacks into a light cavalry, which,
after being successfully opposed to the Spahis of the Turks, has since dis-
tinguished itself in the great contests of more recent times. During the
latter part of the reign of Catherine, the regular army amounted to about
two hundred and fifty thousand men ; and little was wanting to place it
on a level with that of the surrounding powers, save the better organiza-
tion of the commissariat department, and the choice of better-educated and
more skilful native officers.

It is, however, to Alexander and Nicholas that the Russian army is in-
debted for the more efficient organization, discipline, and power, by which it
is now distinguished. The momentous struggles in which the former was
engaged called forth all the military resources of the empire ; many abuses
were rectified, and improvements introduced ; and the armies of Alexander
were at length enabled to contend successfully with those of the greatest
captain of the age. Under the emperor Nicholas, the discipline and or-
ganization of the army have been still further improved ; and it is, at pres-
ent, in a comparatively high state of efficiency.

The Russian army was newly organized, by an imperial ukase of the 9th
of August, 1835, Down to that period, two large armie? were maintained ;
but those were then consolidated, and the staff of one of them reduced.
The army is now divided into corps, divisions, brigades, regiments, battal-
ions, and companies ; the cavalry into squadrons, &c. A corps on full
active footing is composed of three divisions of infantry and one of cavalry,
with sometimes a division of reserve ; the artillery of a corps consists of
from one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifteen guns. A division
is composed of two brigades, and a brigade of two regiments. A regiment
in full oug-ht to have four battalions, a battalion four companies, and a com-
pany should have between one hundred and seventy and two hundred men.
All these numbers are seldom complete, except in the imperial guard and
a few of the other corps.

According to the official reports for 1852, the armed force was in the
following state : The corps of imperial guards, commanded by the grand-
duke (now the emperor, Alexander II.), is established in St. Petersburg,
and for a. distance of one hundred miles around that city. It consists of
three divisions of infantry and one of reserve, of four divisions of cavalry,
a large force of artillery, with from one hundred and twenty to one hun-
dred and forty cannon, and a special body of field-engineers, sappers, and

I-

bOO

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

a pontoon corps. Next comes the corps of the grenadiers. Its headquar-
ters are in the ancient city of Novgorod. Its regiments are established
principally in the military colonics. This corps has three divisions in full
of infantry, and one of cavalry ; the park of artillery amounts to between
one hundred and fifteen and one hundred and twenty pieces.

After these two separate corps come what is called tlie active army. It
is composed of six corps (or nearly twenty divisions) of infantry, six divis-
ions of regular cavalry, with an irregular one of Cossacks, &c., adjoined
in time of war, and at least seven hundred pieces of artillery. This army
was before the war, commanded by Prince ruskiewitch, the governor-
general of Poland, and commander-in-chief of the Russian forces employed
in Asia in 1828-'9. Its headquarters are at Warsaw. It faces the west-
ern frontier of Europe exclusively. It is quartered from the Baltic, through
Lithuania and Poland, to the Danube, the Black sea, and the frontiers of
the military cavalry colonies in southern Russia. A sci)arate corps occu-
pies the city of Moscow and several surrounding governments.

The army of the Caucasus is composed of four divisions of infantry,
one of regular cavalry, numerous irregular Cossacks of various denomina-
tions, and a body of mussulmans and militia (chiefly Circassians and Tar-
tars) from among the natives. A large proportion of the regular troops
forming this corps are said to be Poles, the policy of the government l)cing
to withdraw them from their own country. A division of infantry occupies
Finland, and another is scattered through Siberia. This active army is
backed by a reserve, composed of twenty-five brigades of infantry and two
hundred and seventy squadrons of cavalry.

The military colonies for the infantry are formed principally in the gov-
ernment of Novgorod, and jjartly in those of Pskov and Vitcpsk. They
are divided into twenty-four brigades. The colonies for cavalry are in
southern Russia, in the governments of Poltava, Ekatherinoslav, Kherson,
in the Ukraine, &c. Tiiey amount to seventy-five squadrons. To these
are to bo added the sappers and artillery reserve, with fifty-four parks of
heavy calibre destined for the siege of fortresses, the military engineers,
and military workmen, with a numerous train.

Finally, there is the guard of the interior, formed of armed veterans,
quartered in all the districts of Russia, and performing in the cities and
boroughs the internal service. It amounts to fifty battalions, which, how-
ever, are not full. In addition, there is a corps of gendarmes, containing
eight brigades, horse and foot, and spread over the whole empire. It is
commanded by Count Orloff, whose iunction answers to that of chief of the
secret police. The g-endarmes fulfil the duties of the police of the army
during war, and of a political police through the country at all times. The
officers of this corps form in all circles and districts the knots of that vast
net of espionage extended over Russia and the entire European continent,
as well as throughout a great portion of Asia. Tboy are in clo^o connec-
tion with all the agents of tlie secret police.

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — THE ARMY.

60i

The irregular cavalry consists principally of Cossacks. There are sev-
eral denominations of them (as we have already mentioned, in the chapter
on " Southern Russia"), derived mainly from the regions or the banks of
the rivers along which they are settled. Their general and commander,
or grand lietman, was Alexander, the late grand-duke, but now wearing the
imperial crown, but each tribe may liave its own principal and subordinate
chiefs. They are divided as follows: 1. The Cossacks of the Don or
Tanais, who are the most numerous. 2. Those on the shores of the Black
sea, called Tuchernomortsy. 3. Those of the line of the Caucasus, mainly
on the banks of the Kouban. 4. Tliose of the government of Astrakhan.
5. Those of the government of Orenburg and the neighboring districts,
commonly called tlic Cossacks of the Volga. 6. Those of the river Ural
(ancient Jdick). 7. Those of Siberia. 8. The Mesteheracks, who are a
mixed race of Tartars. 9. The Cossacks of the sea of Azov. 10. Those
of the Danube.

The Cossacks muster in all seven hundred and sixty-five squadrons, each
containing a few more than one hundred men, of whicli more than a third
can be concentrated. In time of war they are supported by detachments
of Bashkirs, Calmucks, Buriats and Tungusi from Siberia, mussulmans
from the Trans-Caucasian provinces, Lcsghians, &c. These Asiatic irregu-
lars, as previously shown, form generally a kind of military posts or chain
uniting the advancing army with the mother-country. Such was the case,
for example, in 1813-'14, when they were extended from Siberia across
the whole of Europe !

We may thus sum up the whole bulk of the armed land-forces of the
empire as consisting of seventeen corps, with four thousand nine hundred
companies of infiintry, fourteen hundred n-.d sixty-nine squadrons of cav-
alry, and three liundrcd and thirty batteries of heavy or light artillery —
which, if full, would form an aggregate of over a million of men. More
than a third of this number, however, must be deducted as not capable of
being moved toward the extreme frontiers of the empire, as well as for
incomplete numbers in the various battalions, companies, and squadrons.
The remaindc" makes up the Russian warAirii.g army, which can be moved
and directed by the order of a single man according to his sovereign will
and jdeasure. But natural impossibilities oppose and impede the concen-
tration in one spot, and even in one region, of such enormous masses of
men and animals. In the struggle with Napoleon, Alexander was unable
to oppose more than two hundred thousand troops, and a still less number
for the invasion of France in 1814 ; while in the Turkish war of 1828-'30
the Russian forces amounted to but one hundred and sixty thousand ; but
such numbers were required to fortify the principal points on the line of
passage, that only twenty-one thousand were spared to cross the Balkan,
and of these but fifteen thousand actually reached Adrianople. In the late
struggle, however, the imperial troops operating on the entire southern
frontier greatly exceed any previous numbers.

.002

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

H^^J

Rioui.A> Tmodps or nvmiA.

Some idea of tlio appearance of the finest regiments of (ho t-o^^iilai ttoops

niiiy b*^ drawn fvcn tlio accompanying engraving, in wliich figure 1 ropro-

scntH a grenadier of the impe-
rial guard ; 2, a clmssenr of tlio
guard ; 3, ^ fifer of tlic guanl ;
4, a grenadier of the liorse-
guard ; 5, a cuirasjiier ; and 0,
t hussar. In the more select
regiments, the men and horse.*
are classified in the most minute
manner as to rescmhlancc. In
one cavalry rogimoiit the horses
are all l)lack, in another they
are all bay, A-c. The men are
arranged according to the color
of their hair or heard, or of
tlieir eyes, and also the general
shape of their features : so that
in one regiment all have aqui-
line nosoH, and lilack eyes and
beards ; and in another all have
pug-noses, blue eyes, and red

oeards — which latter class, by-the-way, descril)es the physiognomy and

complexion of tlio genuine Muscovite.

Tlie general appearance of the irregular troops of the empire is shown

in the accompanying gnxip, in

which figure 1 represents a ' ^ * • * *

Losghian from western Dag-

hestan ; 2, a Don Cossack ; 3,

a Circassian, in full dress;

4, a " Tartar-Cossack " of the

Crimea ; o, a Cossack of the

line of the Caucasus ; and G,

a Cossack of the I'ral. The

reader will bear in mind that

the Circassians emjdoyed in

the R'lssian service l)elong to

tlie subdued triljes at the foot

of the Caucasian mountains,

a large portion of tlie mount-
ain warriors being still hostile

to the imperial rule.
Tiic foregoing gives a general idea of the Russian armed force. " It is

undoubtedly strong for the defensive," says Count Gurowski, " but it is

utterly impossible to throw these masses on Europe. Without mentioning

lMKat7LAB TlOOPS OP ROSSIA.

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — THE ARMY.

503

the penury of tlio tretstiry — as on a war-footing tlio pay is nearly quad-
rupled — to gather them together at any poir*^ "vitliin the frontier, would
have the same eflcct as destruction by locusu .or many hundred miles.
The same result would take place if, in case of a war between Frnnco ar.d
Russia, the army of the czar should enter Germany, even as a friendly
country. All would bo destruction and desolation with friend as well ns
with foe. Tlie region thus traversed would be reminded,not of Napoleon,
but of the swarms of Attila — more disciplined, it is true, but, for the sake
of existence and self-preservation, obliged to destroy and swallow all the
resources within their reach. For such an impossil)le invasion of western
Europe, the Russian masses might be divided into two parts, one entering
Prussia and the other Austria. But such invnsions in the present state of
the world arc impossibilities. .Masses will be raised against masses, the
invaded country stripped in advance of all resources to nourish the enemy,
and, whatever may be the inborn gallantry of the Russian soldier — Napo-
leon himself admired it — no army in the world can be for ever invincible."

The drill of these forces is perhaps the best existing in Europe. But
possilily they are overdiilled. Those acquainted with the mysteries of the
military profession, afVirm that in tlie firing of the Russian infantry as well
as of the artillery, the principal ol>joct is a quick discharge — so quick,
that neither the soldiers-of-thc-line nor the artillerymen are able to take
good aim ; and thus, in a Imttle, out of the immense number of shots, com-
paratively few are destructive.

The army is formed Ity means of conscription, out of the taxed classes
of the poi)ulatioii, such as merchants, citizen-burghers, artisans, workmen,
free-peasants, and serfs — every individual belonging to them being liable
to compidsory service, ])rovided he be of the proper age and stature. The
levies arc ordinarily in the proportion of one or two to every five luindred
males; but during war the proportion is at least as two or throe to every
five hundred, and sometimes as much as four, and even five, to five hun-
dred. This last j)roportion, however, may be taken as the mnximiim levy,
and is rarely exceeded. The number of recruits to be furnished by the
empire in general, and by each district in particular, is nxed according to
the results of the preceding census. The nobles nominate sucli of their
serfs as they please to complete their quotas, the only conditions being tliat
they should have a good constitution, and 1)0 of the requisite size, and not
less than eighteen nor more than thirty-five years of age ; and, as i(U(>. ill-
disposed individuals are sure to. be nominated in preference for recruits,
those who arc averse to the service endeavor to distinguish themselves by
industry and good conduct.

The recruits are first sent to the recruiting-establishments, and thence
forwarded to the corps to which they are assigned. Nobles, magistrates,
clergymen, and students, are exempted from the service. Merchants and
traders enrolled in the diflcrcnt gtdhls arc also exempted. The levies
furnished by the Cossacks arc regulated by particular treaties ; and many

r<\\

504

ILLUSTRATKD DnsCIUI'TION OP nUSSlA.

Imlf-savngo tribes arc excused, partly on account of their diminntlvo size,
ond partly because of their great aversion to a military life. Generally,
it is found tliat u levy of two on every live hundred males produces a sup-
ply of about ninety or a hundred thousand men. Substitutes are allowed,
and may be ellected by mutual consent, provided the noble do not oppose
it. The period of service is twenty years in the imperial guard, and twenty-
two in the other corps. Every individual, with his family, if he have one,
Itccomcs free the moment he is enrolled in the army. In case of desertion,
he is again enslaved ; but desertion is exceedingly rare in Russia. Tho
iin|)erial guard is recruited from the grenadiers ; tho latter from the in-
fantry of the line and the light chaiseurs.

A connnoner can rise only to the grade of sergeant. A very extraordi-
nary distinction in time of war may push him over tho barrier, and make
him an olliccr, with a possibility of further preferment. In time of peace,
twelve years of service, copibined with some natural capacity, can raise
tlie son of a l)urgher to tho grade of an officer. The grades of lieutenants
and captains confer pcvsonal noltility, and with that of n.ujor it becomes
hereditary. From the nobility exclusively are derived tho body of officers
in the army, while tliis class alone have access to the civil service. Tho
choice Ijotween the two is frco for any nobleman, but the military service
has the precedency. A nobleman never Ijcgins his career as a common
soldier. Numerous and various military establishments for every kind of
military education, to which the nobles are .ilmost exclusively admitted,
prepare the youth from childhood practically as well as theoretically. Tho
cducaiion consists of all the sciences conne id with the military art, and
with its highest branches, including the French language, Russian litera-
ture, history, national and universal, geography, &c. A cadet, having
gone through all the classes, enters the army with tiio grade of second
lieutenant. Those who have been educated in civil establishments, gym-
nasia and universities, entering as volunteers, are admitted as ensigns and
cadets. Tliey wear tlie uniform of tlie common soldiers, but witli laco;
are exempted, as all noldes are, from corporeal punishment ; and, as soon
as they master the rudiments of the service, become' officers.

For the children of soldiers, and, above all, for tiieir orphans, establish-
ments are provided where they arc received from their earliest childhood,
and trained for the military service. There they arc taught to read and
write tlie vernacular language, with Russian history, the general outlines
of geography, and also arithmetic and drawing. Then they enter the ser-
vice for life, or nearly so. They are placed in the topographical and engi-
neer's corps, and at the tclegrapiiic stations, whicli, in Russia, are exclu-
sively for military use, and under the innnediutc direction of the emperor.

The Russian army is supported at very little expense in time of peace.
Exclusive of their pay, the higher class of officers receive considerable
allowances, as mess-money, &c. ; and they generally contrive to eke out
their emoluments in various indirect ways. The pay of the subalterns is

TIIK IMPERIAL OOVERNMENT THE ARMY

505

tlio most iiindoqmitc ; nnd it is lianlly possible for any oiu; to ^ as a

subaltern in tlio cavalry, especially in tlio cavalry of the inipirii auanl,
nnlcsM lie have private resonrces. Officers are allowed, acconliii ■ ■'. tlieir
rank, one or more servants (dnilsrhisk), maintained by fjoverntiKMi( 'tut
equipped at llie pxf»ense of their masters. They aro taken from among the
recruits, the least suitable for active service.

The pay of a common Russian soldier does not exceed five dollars a
year I — and various deductions are made oven from this miserable pit-
tance, lie receives a new uniform each year ; and is allowed, in addition,
three barrels of (lour, twenty-four pounds of salt, and a certain quantity of
rye, barley, or oatmeal. On fete-days the soldiers of the guard receive
a certain allowance of butchers' meat, but this is very rarely tasted by
their fellows of the line. At home, the soldier is paid in paper; l»ut when
ho crosses the frontier, he is paid in silver roubles: and as one of the latter
is equivalent to four of the former, hi& pay when abroad is, of course, aug-
mented in the same proportion. This may, perhaps, have been partly
intended as a stimulus to the soldier to undertake oflensivc operations;
but, besides having diis ofiect, it was absolutely necessary, to enable him
to sul>sist among foreigners without robbing. The cavalry-horses arc very
good ; and, fodder being very cheap, they are well kept.

Soldiers leaving the army on the expiration of their compulsory service,
ore entitled to a small pension; and those who have been maimed or
wounded are received and supported in some of the hospitals estal)lishcd
with tluit view in dilVorent |)arts of the country. Soldiers who continue in
the army after their term of compulsory service has exjdred, acquire sev-
eral iulvantages. Tliey receive, exclusive of the retiring ])ension to which
they are entitled, double pay ; and after five years voluntary service, they
are entitled to a retiring pension eipKil to tiiree times their original full pay.

Tlie inadecpiate pay of the ofliccrs and men is the grand evil in relation
to the Russian army. It compels all classes to resort to underhand meth-
ods of nuiking money; and hence the jol)bing and corru|ttion of the first,
and the thieving habits of the latter. Government is plundered in every
possilde way ; and while the army loses in strength and elliciency, it may
be (pu'stioned whether it would not be more advantageous, even in a pecu-
niary point of view, for government to increase the pay of tlic officers and
troops, so as to raise them above the necessity of indulging in practices
injurious to the service, of the existence of which it is well aware, but at
which, as matters now stand, it is obliged to wink.

Capital punishments are at all times rare in the Russian army, and are
never inliicted except during war. In time of peace, culprits are uniformly
condenmed to transportation to Siberia, and to forced labor in the mines.
Corporeal punishments may be ordered by the commanding officers of regi-
ments. Soldiers who continue in tho army after their full period of com-
pulsory service is expired, can not be corporeally punished except by tho
command of a council of war.

If!

.'V

■'i
ij

606

ILLUSTRATED DESPRIPTIOX OP RUSSIA.

Generally, the RiiSHinn Holdiora nro, in respect of bodily vijror, inferior
perlmps to those of Enfrlnnd. Tlioy have little eiithnsinsni ; ard, in respect
of activity and intellijrence, are very far Itelow those of Kiijfhmd, Franco,
and Prussia. On the other hand, however, thoy possess, in the greatest
perfection, the two first qualities of a soldier — the most unllinchinp eour-
npe, and the most implicit ol)edienco. Subjected from birth to a master
whose will is their law, tlie habit of prompt and implicit obedience l)ecomes,
as it were, a part of themselves. Rejjardless of dangers or difTicuUies,
they will attempt whatever they are ordered ; a' '' will aeconiplisli all that
tlie most undaunted resolution and perseverance can ell'ect. Tliey also
endure, without a murmur, the greatest hardships and privations, and sup-
port themselves in situations wliere others would starve.

The military colonies of Russia arc a sort of agricidtural soldiers estab-
lished Ity a ul<ase issued in 1818, n^j:reeably to tlic snirgestion of General
Count Aralvtchief, the favorite of the emperor Paul and tlie companion of
Alexander. Tlie ol)ject was to create a military force at the least possildo
expense, by cngraftiinr military service upon the labors of the ])easaiits,
modelled after the military ccdonies established by Austria between the
Austro-Slavic and Tiirko-Shivic frontiers. For this purpose, certain dis-
tricts belonging to the crown were selected in the environs of Lake llinen,
in the government of Novgorod, and in some of the southern governments,
the territory of which was distrii)nted among the peasantry, at the rate of
about firteen (irrialinps, or forty-live acres of arable land to each head of a
family, villages on an improved and uniform jdan being at the same time
erected for tlicir accommodation. The stock and implements necessary
for the cultivation of this land are furnished to the colonist by the crown,
and he is charged with its cultivation, with contributing to the common
magazine of tlie village, keeping up the roads, A'c. ; the surplus j)roduee,
after these outgoings and the jirovision for his family arc deducted, being
at his disposal. A soldier is assigned to each colonist, to be maintained
by the latter; but the soldier is, in return, obliged, when not abb(>nt or
engiiged in duty, to assist the colonist in the labors of his fariii. The colo-
nists, as w(dl as the soldiery, are deprived of their beards, and wear uni-
form, everything in the colony being subjected to military regulation.
There is no restraint on the marriage of the soldiers; and their male chil-
dren, and those of the colonists, are all bred up to be soldiers. The girls
are educated in separate schools ; and, though there be no regulation to
that elletit, are generally married to the young men belonging to the colo
nies. Exclusive of the principal soldiers already alluded to, there is in
every cottage a substitute or supplementary soldier, generally a son of the
colonist, who is bound to take the place of the prineiftal soldier in the
event of his death or sickness, so that the regiments distributed among the
colonics can never want their full complement of men.

The insurrection of 1831, among the colonists of Novgorod and Pskov,
together with the causes which led to it, is thus related by the count do

TIIK IMPERIAL OOVEnNMKIfr — THE NAVY.

507

Hnrowj<ki : "Tim niilitftiy svHtom was iiitrodiiood with an iron hand, and
an iaipliUMililu lij^idity altin to cruelty. Umnorciful corporoal iJimi.ilinicnt.i
were daily oi;tMirrencc!«. In tho villaj^os tliiis tranNlornuMi tho niilitary ofli-
cors forming tho stall' ridod most despotically. Kvcry sort of hvlmr, as
well as every niovoniont of the newly-enslaved people, was direi;tcd l>y an
order IVoni the n)ilitary commandant. Thus, an order issued from tho
heaihinarters of a district, would appoint for the whole colony — for exam-
ple, n day for plonp:hin^, another for sowing, another for harvest, and all
ajrriiMdtnral labor was similarly arranged. Tho whole rural population
was l)ouhd inider jiennlties to move on tho same day — nay, at the same
hour. A peasant coidd not go to nmrket nor sell an egg without a permis-
f,ion from the olTicers. At the same time, neither his wife nor his daughter
was safe from their lust. Assassination and punishments for it happened
very often, Iiut the systiMu took root. However, 'luring the Polish cam-
paign, in the spring of 18i51, when the colonies became liberated from the
pi'cssure of the greimdiers cpiartercd among them, a tcrrilde insurrection
broke out. The greater part of the ofiic(!rs were killed. In several cases
they were sunk in the earth to the waist, and then mowed with the scythe!
Despair and vengeance aninmted the wronged, the oppfes.yod. These co-
lonial and other insurrections give a foretaste of the character of a future
vengeful uprising of the Russian serfs and peasants.

" Finally, the rel»ellion was quenched in l)lood by Count Orloff, Numbers
were decimated on the spot, and hundreds of families transported to .Libe-
ria. Less cruel discipline, however, was thenceforth introduced, and it
would seem that tlie next generation had become accustomed to the heavy
yoke. Tilings now appear to go on there rather smoothly ; but the curse
of the peasants is poured out with every lireath. Tho tradition of better
linies of old, and of ancient lilterty, glimmers still at the domestic hearth.
The time will probaldy come, and is perhaps not far distant, when these
colonies, organized to shelter and enforce despotism, will become a deadly
weapon in the hand of the aveng<'r."

Previously to the war from wliicli Uii>j-ia has lint lately emerged, she had
a very considerable naval force, comprising aliout fifty ships-of-tlie-line,
twenty-liv(; frigates, ten steamships, and al)out six hundred smaller vessels
and gunlioats. This numlier, by the casualties of the war, has been very
materially reduced. For though the I5altic squadrons remained intact
within the strong defences of Kronstadt and Sweaborg, at Sevastapol, not
a vessel of the large licet stationed there now remains al)ove the waters
upon which it so recently rode in seeming security. Russia never has been,
however, nor is it, for several reasons, probable that she ever will bo, a
great naval power. While all her vessels are well manned, tho quality
of the men does not correspond with their numbers. Having only a very
slender commercial marine, she has no great number of sailors or of mas-
ters and mates. The latter are nearly all foreigners on the small number
of Russian commercial vessels, notwithstanding the existence of a law

* !

^<.

608

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

according to wliicli the master of a Russian vessel ought to bo a native
Russian. But this law is evaded, as there is no possibility whatever of
finding such men. The sailors for the navy are selected principally from
among the people living along the shores of the Baltic, the Euxine, and
the sea of Azov, and from among the boatmen on the Don and the Volga.
Greeks and Armenians may be found among the number. All tliese put
together do not furnish, however, a third part of the required number, and
the remainder of the crews is composed of men who, previous to enlisting,
had never been on water, except perhaps in a ferry-boat. A great many
Jewish conscripts are thus employed. The mass of the crews are in a
season transformed into sailors by mere drill and force of discipline. The
greater number can not even swim. Tiie vessels of the fleets in the Baltic
can scarcely be kept four montlis on the sea, nor could those in the Euxine
but four or six weeks longer. This is consequently the whole time which
can be devoted to practising naval exercises and manoeuvres. The remain-
der of the year, the crews are garrisoned in harbors, and trained in the
military land-exercise. Thus, the greater part of the crews arc not only
neither real nor skilful sailors or gunners, but form scarcely second-rate
infantry.

The officers are educated from childhood in special nautical establish-
ments, and most of them, at least theoretically, are as capal)le and as well
informed in all the specialities of the duty as those of any other service
whatever.

Russia is indebted for her naval power, as she is for her ascendency by
land, her civilization, and, indeed, everything else, to the creative genius
of Peter the Great. Previously to his accession, Russia had no seaport,
other than Archangel, and did not possess a single gunboat. As soon,
however, as Peter had acquired a A)oting on the Baltic, he set about crea-
ting a navy ; and, the better to qmilify himself for the task of its construc-
tion, he visited Holland, where he not only made himself acquainted with
the principles of naval architecture, but with the practical business of a
ship's carpenter, by working himself at this employment! The monarchs
since Peter, and especially Catherine II. and the emperor Nicholas, have
all exerted themselves to increase and improve the fleet; and it is now,
perhaps, in as high a state of efiiciency as it is likely to attain, under the
disadvantages of which we have already spoken.

The vessels, however, have little uniformity in their construction, some
being as heavy as old Dutch galliots, while others are modelled on Eng-
lish and American patterns. The material for the hulls, which is mostly
oak, is inferior ; not that there is a scarcity of ship-timber in Russia, but
that the navy-yards and arsenals arc under the same system of venality and
peculation which pervades all other branches of the administration. Thus
the vessels last only from ten to iiftcen 5'ear8. In geneial, the Russian
navy is to be regarded as a defensive wooden wall, which can never bo
transformed into a formidable weapon of offence against Europe, or be

THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — THE FINANCES.

50«

made to act single-lianded against any of the murithno powers, with the
exception of Sweden, Turkey, and the like smaller ones.

An old proverbial distril>ution of capacities res[)ecting the officers among
the various grades of the service in Russia, assigns " the dandy to the cav-
alry, tlio learned man to the artillery, the drunkard to the navy, and the
stupid to the infantry." So it was once, but so it is no longer, at least
with respect to the infantry and navy. The infantry-officers, though they
do not belong to the higher aristocratic class, arc for the greater part well
educated and tolerably well bred. The brother of the new emperor, the
grand-duke Constantino, is the grand-admiral and now the minister or sec-
retary of the navy. From childiiood he has been thoroughly educated for
this purpose. This has given a stimulus to the service. Educated and
well-bred youths, of higher family connections, enter it continually, and
thus its ancient disreputable character is almost wholly changed.

Owing to the low state of civilization in most parts of the Russian em-
pire, and the want of manufactures and large towns, the public revenue is
by no means so great as miglit be supposed from the vast extent of the
empire, and the magnitude of the population. In consequence, however,
of the cheapness of most of the necessary articles in Russia, and the small
rates of pay of the soldiers and other public functionaries, her limited rev-
enue goes a great way, and she is able to meet outgoings that elsewhere
could not be met with less tiian twice or three times the sum.

In the reign of Alexis-Michailovich, father of I oter the Great, the annual
revenue of tl»e government was but five millions of silver roubles, notwith-
standing which his court was one of the most magnificent in Europe. Ho
maintained a numerous army, and left, at his death, considerable sums of
money. At tlie close of the reign of Peter the Great, the revenues had
doubled, being over ten millions of roubles. The poll-tax ))roduced four
millions three hundred thousand roubles ; the customs, one million two
hundred tiiousand ; the tax on brandy, one million ; and the salt-tax, seven
hundred thousand. In 1770, under Catherine II., the revenue was over
one hundred millions, and at a later period of her reign it reached ono
hundred and seventy millions. In 1804, the revenue approached ono hun-
dred and nine millions. At ti»o present time it is not under five hundred
millions of roubles annually.

The most important article of the revenue is the farming out of the man-
ufacture of brandy, which produces ono hundred and thirty millions of
roul)les. The customs occupy tho next rank, and exceed one hundred
millions of roubles ; tho poll-tax is about eighty millions ; the obrak, or
land-tax, produces from thirty to forty millions ; the tax on guildsy or on
the capital of merchants, from twenty to twenty-five millions ; tho postoffico
about fifteen millions ; patents, three or four millions ; stamps, three or
four millions ; mines, twenty millions. To this must bo added tho appa-
nages, the reiits of tho farms, tho monopoly of tobacco, the duty on cards,
tho imposts on salt, and tho crown manufactories, making in tho aggregate

II V i|

i 'k

i ■it

I 91

610

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

the annual amount of five hundred millions of roubles previously men-
tioned.

The taxes, it will bo seen, are partly farmed, and partly collected by
government-officers. There is, as already stated, in every government, a
council charged with the administration of everything pertaining to the
finances.

Our information with respect to the expenditures of the Russian empire
is less accurate than that relating t") its income, most topics connected
therewith being involved in a mystery whicli it is not always possible to
penetrate. It is likewise evident, from the very nature of the government,
that the official reports, especially in time of war, are not to be relied upon
in the same degree as those emanating from the financial department of
our own country or that of England. In time of peace, however, tlie in-
come and expenditures of Russia are understood to be nearly equal ; but
during war, or on extraordinary occasions, involving an increase of expen-
diture, the ordinary revenue is quite insufficient to meet the outgoings, and
it is usual both to increase the rate of taxation and to resort to loans.
The expense of the army and navy (the latter being about one fifth or one
sixth part of the former) amounts to more than half the revenue. The
next great items are the interest and sinking-fund on account of the public
debt ; the civil list, internal administration, public works, &c. ; the diplo-
matic service, and various other items.

According to the report of the minister of finance, the public debt of
Russia amounted, in 1853, to upward of three hundred millions of dollars,
which tlie expenses of the recent war must greatly iucreaso.

Bcwttii 8ILVKB Rowaui.

THE PEOPLE — THE NOBILITY.

611

CHAPTER XIX.

THE PEOPLE.

POLITICALLY considered, tlie people of Russia are divided into four
general classes — the nobility, the clergy, the merchants and bur-
ghers, and the peasants and serfs. Previously to the reign of Peter
the Great, the Russian nobility consisted principally of the descendants of
the ancient petty princes of the country, or of lords possessed of vast es-
tates. They were in the exclusive possession of all situations of trust and
emolument, to which they succeeded according to their rank. Peter, who
early saw the disadvantage of this state of tilings, and the necessity of
undermining the inlluencc of the nobles, most of whom were violently op-
posed to his projects for the regeneration of the country, had recourse, in
furtherance of his plans, to the scheme of creating a new order of nobility.
With this view, he divided all the civil and military functionaries in the
service of the state into fourteen classes : enacting, at the same time, that
the six highest classes should confer on the individuals in them the distinc-
tion of hereditary nobility ; that some of the oilier classes should confer
the distinction of personal nobility, or of nobility for life ; and that those
enrolled in the others should be deemed gentlemen, or bicn lues. Some
modifications were made in this arrangement by the empress Catherine II.;
but it is still maintained nearly as it was contrived by Peter the Great.

The creation of a new nobility founded on merit, or on services rendered
to the state, was, no doul)t, a material improvement at the time. By illus-
trating many new famil'"s, it has served to lessen the inlluence of tlie old
nobility, and to lil)eralize the order, at the same time that it has opened a
prospect to all enterprising individuals of rising to the highest dignities.
Oil the whole, liowever, it would seem that tiie system, having served its
purpose, might now be advantageously abandoned.

In Russia, properly so called, the nobles are not numerous ; but they
abound in Potlolia, Volhynia, and other provinces acquired from Poland,
and especially in Poland itself, which has about three hundred thousand
nobles ! Few, however, of the latter possess estates, and many of them
are in a very destitute condition. lu the Polish provinces, and in Cour-
land, Livonia, and Esthonia, none but nobles can inherit landed property ;
but this is not the case in Russia proper, though, with the exception of the
crown-estates, they are, in fact, almost the sole proprietors.

512

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

The titles of prince, count, and baron, have superseded those formerly
in use. In the government of Toula, there are said to be mo)"e than ono
hundred families having the dignity of prince ! All the members of noble
families are noble, and have the same title as the head of the family. On
the death of a noble person, his estate is divided, according to a fixed
scale, among liis children of both sexes. Nobles are exempted from all
personal charges, and from the obligation to serve in the army, but they
are obliged to furnish recruits according to the number of tlieir vassals.
Nobles arc also exempted from corporeal punishment ; have leave to distil
all the spirits required for the consumption of their establishments ; may
engage in niaiiiifactures or trade ; have a right to all the minerals on their
estates, &c. Precedence is determined, in Russia, by military rank ; and
an ensign would take the pas of a nobleman not enrolled in the army, or
occupying some situation giving military rank.

The property of a noble wlio has been condemned is not confiscated by
the state, but goes to his family. The nobles likewise elect various local
magistrates, assessors, &c., and delii)emte at their meetings on different
matters connected with the local administration. There is also in every
government a committee of nobles to watch over tlie interests of the body,
and to take care of the establishments that l)elong to it; and every circle
has a eonnnittee of nobles who manage the estates and affairs of nobles
who are under age. These privileges, which are obviously of considcral)lo
importance, were embodied and set forth in a ukase by Catherine II., in
176^ ; and another ukase of tlie emperor Alexander prohibits all govern-
ment functionaries from interfering with the election of the assessors and
other functionaries cliosen by the nobles.

It is not easy to form a fair estimate of the character of the Russian
nobles. Generally speaking, their education is more superficial than solid ;
but many are, nevertheless highly accomplished. They are all well ac-
quainted with French, and numbers with the English and German Ian
guages ; those Mho have travelled being distinguislied by the superior
polish and elegance of their manners. Tiiey are universally hospitable ;
and most of them affect, and many relish, the society of literary men and
artists. Tliat they are more sensual, more given to ostentatious display,
and loss distinguished by a gentlemanly bearing toward their inferiors,
than the higher classes in England and France, is no doubt true. But it is
affirmed that the representations of Clarke, Lyall, and other travellers, of
their caste, are, notwithstanding, mere vulgcr caricatures, which, though
they may perhaps apply to a few individuals, are generally quite as wide
of the truth as M. Fillet's accounts of the women of England, or those of
Captain Basil Hall and Madame Trollope with respect to the American!;
Considering, indeed, that tho Russian nobility have no exciting political
occupation, that in most parts of the empire there is no middle class, and
that the occupiers of their estates are not freemen but serfs, tho wonder is,
not that their tastes and habits should bo in some respects barbarous, but

«.-»»,«..»"*»>•*•«•»»*■ ■

._BW«*W'«'-t- ;^i**-.*.^»*"

THE PEOPLE — THE NOBILITY.

515

that tlicy sliould have made so great an advance as they have done since
the reign of Peter the (jveat, and that they should be so intelligent and
reliiiod as they are found to be.

The Russian nobles, like those of England and other countries in feudal
times, are in the habit of keeping great numbers of va<sals in their houses
as sciviiuts. Tlic number of sucli retainers in some great families exceeds
all lieliof, amounting sometimes to above five hundred ! Tliey receive only
a trifling pittance as wages, but that is quite enough for their wants, as
they are fed and clothed by tlicir masters. Several Russian noblemen
have recently distinguished themselves by their attention to their estates,
and by the efforts tiiey have made to introduce the improved processes and
implements in use in more advanced countries. In some instances thc^
have brought land-stewards and laborers from Great Britain and Germany.
Latterly, also, many of the principal nobles have become extensive manu-
facturers, and some of the greatest manufacturing establishments in the
empire are at present in their hands. They are driven, in Aict, to adopt
tliis course by tiie circumstances under which they are placed All agri-
cultural and most out-of-door employments being suspended during winter,
the noblemen, who must provide for the subsistence of their serfs, whether
the latter bo employed or not, naturally endeavor to avail themselves of
their sltvIccs during the interruption of husbandry pursuits, by setting on
foot some species of manufacture. Tlie latter, indeed, is frequently car-
ried on only during winter, the peasants being employed in agriculture
during the rest of the year. Wlien, however, a nobleman establishes a
nnmufacture on a large scale, and keeps it constantly at work, the peas-
ants are usually put on the footing of hired laborers, and instead of getting
an allotment of land, are paid for their work, and lefi to supply themselves
with necessaries. Some manufactures conducted in this way have been
eminently successful : though it is hardly necessary to add that, if they
be of the higher class, or require any peculiar skill, economy, or attention,
they are not of a kind that can be successlully carried on by the agents of
noblemen ; and that the moment the protection afforded by oppressive cus-
tomhouse duties, under which they have grown up, is withdrawn, they will
at once fall to the ground.

Mr. Coxe and Dr. Pinkerton, who are regarded as among the best and
most trustworthy of the English travellers who have visited Russia, speak
very favorably of the Russian nobility. The former says that, although
they have adopted the delicacies of French cookery, they neither aftect to
despise their native dishes, nor squeamishly reject the solid joints which
characterize an English repast. The plainest as well as the choicest viands
are collected from the most distant quarters. At tlie tables of opulent
persons in St. Petersburg may be seen sterlet from the Volga, veal from
Archangel, mutton from Astrakhan, beef from the steppes, and pheasants
from Hungary and Bohemia. The common wines are claret. Burgundy,
and champagn^ ; and English beer and porter may be had in perfection

) ;

I' !>

616

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

and abundance. It is usual to take a " wlict" before dinner; but tlio sto-
ries engrafted on this practice, of tlie prevalence of inebriety among the
higher classes, are pronounced to be wholly without foundation. In this
respect their habits have undergone a total change since the days of Peter
the Great, and they are now reniarkal)lc for sobriety. The peasantry,
however, often indulge to excess in their jtotations.

Tiie lengthened stay of the Russian arniies in tlie western and more civ-
ilized European states, after tlie defeat of Napoleon's invasion, made a
large number of the nobles, and of the more intelligent classes (which in
Russia consist of the military ofticers), familiarly acquainted witii a inoro
advanced state of society, and a hotter form of civil polity, Tliis circum-
stance, also, gave an increased stimulus to the desire for travelling that
previously prevailed among the nobility, many of whom withdrew to Franco,
England, and Italy. It is not to be denied that the infiuenco of these con-
curring civciimstances has since, on various occasions, made itself sensibly
felt in Russia; and that the government has sometimes had reason to be-
lieve that a considerable portion of the nobility, and even some of the most
distinguished regiments of the army, would not be displeased to sec somo
limit set to tlie powers of the czar.

Next <o the nobility stand the clergy, which nnmi)er over three hundred
thousand, and, including their families, nearly a million. As they will bo
fully and more propeily described in the chapter appropriated to an ac-
count of th(! church, we will pass them by here without further notice.

The nierohants, burghers, <tc., comprise a class between the nobles and
the peasants, and is thus alluded to by the empress Catherine II., in her
instructions for a new code of laws: ''This class, composed of freemen,
belong neither to the class of noitles nor to that of peasants. All those
who, being neither gentlemen nor peasants, follow the arts arid sciences,
navigation, commerce, or exercise trades, are to be ranked in this class.
In it should be placed all those who, born of plebeian parents, shall havo
been brought up in schools or places of education, religious or otherwise,
founded by us or by our predecessors. Also the children of officers and
of the secretaries to the chancer/."

This body is aivided into various classifications, as follows: 1. Tho
class of the corporation legally called merchants ; all of them must be in-
scribed in one of the three guilds. 2. Respectable citizens. 3. Citizen-
burghers not inscribed in anv of the guilds ; and artisans and mechanics,
belonging to special handi raft corporations. 4. Freemen, such as dis-
charged soldiers, emancipated serfs, and all others of free condition not
belonging to any special corporation, but registered in the general one of
the city inlial)ited l)y them. 5. Workmen, and all other inhabitants own-
ing houses in cities, but not registered in the general or in any of the spe-
cial corporations, can, if they choose, be called citizen-burghers, without,
however, losing their privileges, if from the order of tho nobility, or ac-
quiring those of burghers, if still belonging to rural conimivios.

*«iW«.W!>»«-'»«*l»»*»«lW»*->»'

THE PEOPLE — MERCHANTS AND BUROHEUS.

51^

RvsKiAif Mghciunx

Tho three guilds into which the merchant class is divided arc formed
according to the amount of capital employed ar.d declared by those wishing
to got an inscription, on which
an interest about six per
cent, is to bo paid yearly into
the treasury. TIsc sum neces-
sary for an inscription into tho
lirst guild is about twenty thou-
sand dollars ; for tlie third, or
lowest, about six tliousand.

Aside from this order of
merchants, all other burghers
form a general body, whatever
their trade or occupations. A
corporation of liandicraftsmcn
is foi mod of masters, foreman,
and a[)prentices. The mem-
bers of sueli a corporation aro
cither for life, or temporaty.
To tlie iirst belong tiioso born
as citizen-lun-ghers; to the sec-
ond foreigii artisans, free peas-
ants, as well as serfs who have

learned tho special handicraft, or arc received among tho masters in the
corporation, being thus inscribed for a certain time, witliout, however, be-
longing to the general class of citizen-burghers. The body of workmen is
composed of all registered in tlie records of the town, and not belonging
to any of the above-mentioned clasfcs ; of men unfit for tho military ser-
vice, or those having furnished it; of foreign immigrants, artisans, or ai>
prentices ; but excluding those of bad cliaractcr, and all those expelled for
bad behavior, or fo"' tho non-payment of communal taxes, or the evading
to fulfil personal duties.

Any one enjoying the right to make a selection of a corporation, trade,
or occupation for life, can enter tho class of citizen-burghers, abandoning
thus his inferior position, and passing over to this superior one. For this
ho must be legally and officially accepted by the community which ho
wishos to join. Exceptions exist for some artisans where the legal assent
of tho conununity to the act of admission is" not necessary. Thus, for
example, cloth-weavers, dyers and dressers, and machinists, can join a
general city corporation or community, without obtaining the form, uiy of
its consent.

Free or crown peasants can join the corporation of burghers indi.idually
or with their families, and so can rural communes, if they are traders, me-
ohauics, artisans, or manufacturers, but not as agriculturists. Individu-
als passing thus from one stato to another, must obtain the assent of the

!-■

518

ILLUSTRATED nESCIlIPTION OP nUSSIA.

commune wliich tlicy abandon, as well as tlio acceptance of tliat wliicli thoy
enter. Wlicn this is to bo done by a whole rural community, tlie permis-
sion of the government is necessary. Widows and daughters of free peas-
ants can, under certain conditions, become incorporated among citizen-
burghers. Independent agriculturists (a'kind of free yeomen), as well as
emancipated serfs, cun join a city corporation with its assent.

Jews, ah well as secedcrs from the national or orthodox Greco-Russian
church, can only join corporations in Trans-Caucasian cities. Asiatic no-
mades, of all races and kinds, Kirghiz, «fec., can, at tlielr choice, enter any
city corporation whatever, and no objection can be raised to this by the
commune. The communUy of any city can erect a communal bank accord-
ing to the prescriptions of special laws. No citizen-burgher can be de-
prived of his standing or special privileges otherwise than by the verdict
of a criminal tribunal. In all civil as well as criminal matters, if both
the parties are of the same class, the case comes first before the board of
magistrates.

Merchants of the first guild, or their children, wlien the parents have
belonged for twenty-five years uninterruptedly to the guild, have the right
to enter the civil or military service under the same conditions as the chil-
dren of personal nobles. Merchants of the second guild, or tlicir children,
can not enter the civil service at all, and the military only as volunteers,
tlmt is, with the right to leave it again at any time. All other merchants,
citizen-burghers, or their children, arc not admitted into the civil service
0.1 any condition wlmtcver ; and when they enter tlic military, do not enjoy
any kind of privilege, but are treated like all the common recruits. A
citizcn-linrglier regi.^tercd in one of the three guilds is free from the gen-
eral recruiting to which all other burghers are subject. He also does not
pay the state the capitation-tax, called podiisc/inoe ("from the soul"), as
he already pays an interest on the capital for which he is inscribed in the
guild. All ()ther commercial taxes are paid by the burghers in common
with the rest of the iidmbitants. Any citizen-burgher can own houses or
other real estate situated in cities or villages, or lots of naked land — tiiat
is, land without serfs. Citizen-burghers not inscribed in any guild, but
owning houses in cities valued above five thousand dollars, arc ol)liged to
register their names at least in the third guild, and pay the interest on
their capital. Such houses can be owned by widows or unmarried daugh-
ters of the class of merchants, but on condition of registration in a tnild.
Merchants can belong to and be registered in rural communitie& according
to certain prescriptions of the law.

If a merchant, or in general any citizcn-bnrghcr, inherits any landed
estates with crfs on them, the serfs are to be sold immediately to the
crown-domains at the average price of from one hundred and fifty to two
hundred dollars for each individual — the right of owning serfs being
reserved exclusively to the nobility. The citizen-burghers can be deprived
of their property only by the judgment of a civil tribunal.

THE PEOPLE — "RESPECTABLE CITIZENS."

C19

The novaoKoiAiE — a Ri'ssian I'ic-nic*

No citizcn-lxirglicr registered in the general, or in any of the special
corponitioiis, can stop ont of it, and al)andon the city where he is incorpo-
rated, by settling in another, without the assent of the coniniunity or the
permission of the governnient. Any citizen-burgher can pass into the close
corporation of the merchants, on declaring the amount of capital required
to be inscribed in one of tiie three guilds, and paying into the treasury tho
interest thereon.

Each community can exclude any mcnil)er under criminal condemnation,
or of notoriously bad cliaracter. The city of Moscow has alone the privi-
lege of giving up such individuals to the government, either as recruits to
be recltoncd as furnished in any future levy, or for the colonization of
Siberia. Ciiildren of sucli convicts, above fourteen years of age, have the
option either to follow the father or to remain in tho community. Minors,
not having a mother, never follow the parent when sent to Liberia.

Above all the subdivisions of tho bourgeoisie, and thus above the close
corporation of tho merchants — even those of the first guild — rises tho
legal privilege of the respectable citizen (^postchotnoi g-razdanin). This
is a privilege either hereditary or enjoyed for life. Children of personal
nobles become hereditary respectable citizens.

* The scene illiiilrati-d liy this engrnving i:) itiridrntnlly mentioned nenr the close of pngp 470.
It leprosents n parly of liiirg'"''''i who, wilh tlifir fiimilics, nre enjoying a " Russian pie-nic," on •
holyduy, on one of the isliinils of tlio Novo. Tlie " fiivniile somovnr," it will be »et!n, characteh**
tically ocrupiei a prumiiiuiit place in this picture of Russian iociui festivity.

520

ILLUStRATFD DESCRTPTION OP RUSSIA

One who, in virtue of the social position of his fatlicr aa a merchant of
the fiift giiihl,or as a savant, a pliysician, itc, has acquired the riglit to
complete a course of studies in one of the iniivoisities of the empire, can
petition the government to lie included in the class of respcctalile citizens,
on producing testimonials of having fuiished the higher studies, and of
• good conduct during his stay at the iniiversity. The same is conceded to
artists when they produce testimonials from the mitional academies of art ;
to children of merchants of the first and second guilds, wlio have passed
witii special distinction through the stutlies of the universities, to pupils of
special commercial schools, to artists wlio are foreigners by birth, «fec.

At first sight it would seem laudable that laborious and well-accom-
plislu'd studies, as well as artistieal distinction, should oj)en the door to a
higher grade in tlie social scale. IJut, on more close consideration, this
ajiparent lilterality loses greatly in its cluvracter. It is deprived of the
lofty spirit (tf universality whicli alone nuikes such distinction praisewor-
thy ; it has the narrowness inherent in exceptions and su|)crpositi()ns ; it is
a privilege t<|^ic(Hle<l to one already privileged ; it excludes here, as it does
everywhere, tlio man of genius wiio ity accident is not born in a certain
privileged cradle ; it reduces t(» some few what ought to be accessilile to
all: it is tinis restricted, narrow, and exclusive. Vairdy is it represiMited
as l)eing a siiinulus to the ac(piisition of social distinction by intellectual
lal)or, liy mental accomplislnnents. It is so but partially, in a very lindted
way ; it possesses the odor of caste, instead of having the elevatcil charac-
ter of l)eiMg for the i)enefit of tlie whole j)eople ; it shuts out the poor, tho
unprotected Ity purse or patronage ; it is stale and musty in its nature,
rather than lu-ight and serene as ouglit to be a genuine incitement of true
civilization, securing well-deserved social superiority and consideration to
intellectual proficiency.

Jlembers of the mercliiiiit-class, on whom the government has conferred
the honorary title of commercial or manuliuturing councillors, if they have
never suflcred any criminal indictment, and never failed in business, can
tliemselves, as can their widows, rise into the class of hereditary respect-
able citizens. So can merchants, wh-o have belonged uninterruptedly for
ten years to the first, ami for twenty to the second guild. And any ono
who lias olitaiiicd the diploma of doctor or of master from any of the Rus-
sian universities, can petition the government to bo included in tho class
of hereditary respectable citizens. Artists and special pupils of the Acad-
emy of Art have also this right on presenting their diploma of membership.
Foreigners living in Russia, if they arc savans, artists, merchants, or own-
ers of extensive inanufacturing-establishments, if they become Russian sub-
jects, and have already belonged for ten years to the class of personal
respectable citizens, have the right to petition for admission into the he-
reditary class of the same title. The rights and privileges of respectable
citizens consist in liberating them from the podtischnoe, or capitation-tax ,
from the lecruitmeut ; from corporeal punishment, by cither civil or military

THE I'KOPLK — KIIEF2 PKASANT8.

521

j'.Kltriucnt ; nnd from having tlioir lifiuls sliavod (liiriiip arrest an<l ponding
triiU. All tlio rost of tlio honrgvuisie^ in criniinul us well n.s in police
affairn, iire snltji'i't to pcrHuniil |)unislini(;nt, intlictod liy rods {pat/ci), or the
*' ciit-o'-nint'-tiiilH" (/iletnin).

Ik'low IliL' bour^t'oisic — witli all llio abovc-cnmncratcd subdivisions and
various sjumial c(tr|(orations, from that of tho niorchants down to that of
the workmen — there exists a still inferior class, called that of tho subur-
ban inluibiftints, nut Hcparafcly iniiorporafed, hut atlministercd l)y tlio lioards
of mnnisl rates of tlie city to which they Itelonjr. It is c()m|»oscd principally
of ai';rit'ultnristH or day-laborers, who thus form tiie last liidt bctrtcen tho
bonriTfoisif and tho peasants. All other persons living in any city by
special permission, and devoted to trade, or artisans, arc called simply
inhaliilanfs or citizens {zi/Of, obi/iratcl, from bi/wat, " to frequent").

Tiie fourth and h»west class of the people of Russia, the peasants and
Bcrfs, are by far the nu)st numerous. This class forms, in about equal
nundiers, legally and socially, two great princif)al divisions — that of tho
siHcallcd free or crown peasants, and the serfs. The former are cut up
into .seveml sul)divisious, according to the rights by wiiich they IujKI prop-
erty or soil, and according to the kind and the nature of tho servitudes
which they have to iullil.

Th(,> code of laws { Sirod ZakonoJ/"} calls the peasnntry rural inhabit-
ants, and divides them as follows: 1. Those inhaliiting or settled on lands
beU)nging to the treasury, or knzna (a word of Tartar origin). 2. Tliose
on special erown-donniins. ;l. Those on lands fornung the personal prop-
erty of the emperor. 4. Those settled on lands belonging to tho imperial
habiiiitiitii- or palaces, (lirorfsoii'i/ic (from ilimrcts, a judace). o. Those
settled on private lands — that is, on lands Itelonging to the nobility — or
tho class of serfs. Finally, a small numl)er of freednien, or freeholders,
Ifcuving lands of their own.

With tiie cxeeptiiui of the serfs, all the others have certain special per-
sonal rights, as well a-i special (hitics or services to perform — owing dues,
n>ost of them; however, rather communal than personal. Among these
comnnnial services, the principal arc those pertaining to military colonies,
already spoken of in the chapter immediately preceding ; others, such as
are attached to tho inifierial i ' governmental studs ; others, to the mines
ol Sil)eria ; others, again, win keep posthorscs for public and governmental
use. Villages of the latter tenure are called iania, and tho peasants,
iamsc/itschik.* There are several others of a similar kind.

To the class of free peasants belong likewise foreign (mostly German)
agricultural coloiusts — a kind of yeomen called adnodioortsy, from nobles
having forfeited tlieir privilege — and free agriculturists, all of whom pos-
sess the soil as personal property.

• " Fi)ri>i{riipr»," aiiys Oiiiowgki, " imiy l)o struck nt thi' oft.'ii-iopontod occurrenco of so many
consonnnts, iis in the uoiii iamtchtichik ; liut in Ruktiati, the sound composed out of tehlteh ia
(;lven by a singio »ign, or letter."

Ih :

522

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

These last two, adnodwortsy and free agriculturists, live scattered in
single habitations and on farms ; all tlie other peasantry form rural com
munos, and enjoy tlie communal franchise. Thus the commune is the cra-
dle of the social organism. The basis of the commune is the land on
wliich the population is settled, and thus is incorporated with it. Every
peasant not a serf must belong to such a commune, whicli may be large or
small according to the quantity of land owned and the density of popula-
tion. There are communes amounting to nearly twenty thousand souls.
Such a commune is called icolost; it is composed of deretvnin, or liamlets,
and selo, or villages : just as an American township may einbracc several
villages. Several such communes form a rural district or canton. A vil-
lage generally counts between si.\ and eiglit hundred families.

The internal police, the correction of small oflcnces by short imprison-
ment, or by no more than fifteen blows ; tlic settling of contests among the
members ; the superintendence of a ])rimary school, whose maintenance is
ol)ligatory ; the administration of the recontly-foundcd communal rural
banks ; the equal distriljution of the military recruits from among families ;
in one word, everything concerning the internal administration and work-
ing of the commune, is done by the commune itself. The commune is
responsil)lo to the treasury for the rent levied from each family having a
separate communal household ; this rent, called obro/c, gcni-rally, tiiroiigh
the whole of Russia, even on the estates of serfs, amounts to ten roiil)les.
The commune also maintains the highways and roads on its own territory.

The crown or free peasants, whatever may be the nature of their tenure,
iiave no other special master than the sovereign or the government, and
never can have another. Once the czars granted to individuals vast ter-
ritories of lands, with crown peasants or serfs on them. This is the origin
of many great fortunes in Russia, consisting in large estates, and hundreds
of thousands of souls, as that of ScheremetelT, Naryschkin, the Orlofls, and
the Branickis, the last of which rose out of the ruins of ancient Poland.
Peter the Great rewarded real services, as in the case of SchereniclelV;
Catherine II. was very lavish to her favorites of every kind, and she thus
laid the foundations of numerous large fortunes still existing in Russia ;
and Paul was most indiscriminate in bestowing his favors.

For the glory of Alexander it must be recorded that in his youth, when
under tlie influence of a generous and humane inspiration, he published a
ukase by which it was hencefortii and for ever prohibited to any sovereign
to make donations of crown-peasants to any private individual whatever,
c to sell them, or render them liable to any statute for husbandry servi-
tude. The emperor Nicholas to his death religiously maintained this
ukase. Even in Poland, since the revolution of 1831, the emperor, in
dividing the numerous estates of the crown, called slarostwa, among tho
Russian generals and others of his servants, by a special clause in every
grant directed that tho statute labor existing until that time should ulti-
mately become extinguished, and tho peasant oa such lands bocomo the

„*». -iJt *->«=*■«'»»■■»'»•■

THE PEOPLE — FREE PEASANTS.

52;:

Rl'SaiAN I'EASANT AND Ilia Familt,

free and independent owner of a snitalile lionicstead. It must be men.
tioiied here that, in the actual kingdom of Poland, ^lavoiy was !ilv>li.«liod
by the late king of Prussia in the year 1800, when this part of Poland
formed one of the Prussian provinces. Tliis was confinuod by the code
of Napoleon, introduced after the treaty of Tilsit in 1807, and is sliP.
maintained. Hut neitlier of these governments secured for the peasantry
any homestead on crown or private lands.

The free peasantry in Russia enjoy some rights and privileges, render-
ing their position by far more supportalde than that of the private serfs.
It has been already .shown that a free peasant can freely engage in any
mercantile, manufacturing, mechanical, or other industrial pursuit, and
establish his domicil in any city of the empire, if he possesses a permission
of his commune, which permission can no wise be refused as long as 4ho
individual pays the obrok and the taxes in the commune to which he be-
longs, and fulfils through any hand all other communal duties. Provided
with such a permission or certificate, the movements and actions ot a peas-
ant arc perfectly free. lie can make |>roposals for all kinds of public jobs
contracted with, tlio government. In euch cases, other contractors arc

I \

■w

524

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

obliged to give securities ; but a crown-peasant presents only the authori-
zation of his commune. He can enter into the class of burghers by aban-
doning Ills commune with its consent, passing thus into what is considered
a higher social corporation.

The chains of serfdom do not hang on l;im ; but if he has no special mas-
ter, he, like the burgher, has still to deal with rapacious officials. What
is true of the one is still and even more largely to be applied to the other.
Entering the superior corporation, the peasant can meliorate his position ;
but this melioration is very limited. All openings for education are abso-
lutely shut before liim ; all that he can learn is to read and write wretch-
edly. If there are exceptions, they are very rare, and, so to speak, rather
the work of a miracle.

Free agriculturists (loolnye chlehopaschtsy) are principally manumitted
serfs, with soil or without ; and, in tliis last case, they can buy land from
anybody. The manumissions with soil must bo made by the owner during
his lifetime, and not by will. If they are numerous enough, they form
rural communes on the general principle ; if not, they are incorporated in
the existent ones. They can sell and buy lands, and divide them among
their children, but in lots not under sixteen acres. They can contract for
public jobs (^podriad^, enter guilds, erect manufactories, carry on trade,
and enjoy all the privileges of free peasantry. There are still some few
other kinds of privileged peasantry, but tlieir number is small and wholly
insignilicunt.

As previously remarked, about one half gf the Russian peasantry are
serfs or Itoiidsnien, attached to the soil (g-leb(c adscripti), rather than to
tlie person of the nobleman, and thus they are at least not chattels. The
power of the master is not wholly arbitrary and uidimited ; but the servi-
tude is reduced to a certain method, regulated as follows by the civil law :

By usage, the serfs are of two kinds — agriculturists and house-serfs —
but the lato docs not recognise these distinctions. A ukase, published by
Catherine II. in 1781, prohibited, for tlie future, the enslaving of the peas-
antry. The ownership of a serf or serfs is proved by the census. The
first census was made by Peter the Great in 1714 ; the next in 1744. In
the present century the census is made every ten years. In the government
of Bessarabia, neither Russian nor Moldavian nobility can own serfs from
among the Russian peasantry, and other races can not be enslaved. This
law was published to prevent the introduction of serfdom in a newly con-
quered and annexed territory. It is a kind of " Wilmot proviso." The
children of a male serf remain in the condition of the father, even if the
mother belongs to a l)etter ciass.

If any nobleman sends, for punishment, his serf to Siberia, and the serf
receives there lands from the crown as a colonist, his children, the males
under seven years of age and the girls under ten, follow tlio father to tho
now condition. Colonized exiles in Siberia form successively communitios
of free peasantry.

THE PEOPLE — THE

SERPg

525 !

A woman from

a free

class, marryinfj a

serf.

becomes free again

as a

widow ; a

woman

from

bondage, marrying

a free peasant.

becomes

like-

wise free.

When

the 1

iisband becomes free h^'

law, or ]jy

manumission,

or by contract, his wife shares his freedom ipso facto, hut not the children ;
they must be emancipated by a special act.

If a master demands from his serfs anything contrary to law, as revolt,
murder, or st(!aling, and tiicy accomplisli it, they are ])unished as his ac-
complices. The serfs pay tlio expenses of the administration in each dis-
trict. This is the only direct tax levied on the property of tlie nobility.
In criminal matters, the serfs are juclged by common criminal tribunals,
before whom they likewise can aitpear in the character of accusers and
witnesses. The law makes it obligatory on the serf to resist any attack
made on the jn'opcrty of the master, as well as upon the honor of his wife
and daughter. The owner can not force his serfs to marry against their
will, or point out whom they shall marry; this provision of the law is
very generally evaded. If a serf makes an unjust complaint against his
master, or if he dares to jjrescnt such a petition to the emperor, the peti-
tioner and the writer of the petition are both most severely p'l.ished.

In case of insubordination, disobedience to the master or i overseer,
the serfs are punished by a military commission, and pay th xpenses
thereof. All civil or police and military functionaries are pru >itcd to
receive any denunciation made by the serf against his master, with the
exception of a conspiracy against the person of the sovereign ; or when
the master tries to make a misstatement as to the census ; or when, if a
Roman catholic, he tries to convert his orthodox serfs.

A serf can not change his master, leave him, or enter any corporation.
For all these the consent of the owner is necessary. Without such a con-
sent, serfs can not be received as volunteers into the army. Runaway
serfs are returned to the owners at the cost of those who had kept or se-
creted them. After ten years, a master forfeits the right to claim a run-
away. Such claims, supported by proofs, must be nuido during the first
yeni after the escape, if the master is in Russia, and in the course of two
years if the master is abroad. If a servant is killed by accident, his owner
receives from the culprit the sum of three hundred and thirty dollars ; but
if it \» a murder, then the murderer suffers the same •■ • if the crime was
committed on any one else. In such a case, the owner of the murdered
man does not receive any compensation.

A serf, M'ho is not a house-servant, must work for his master three days
a week. He can not be forced to do any work on Sundays or any other
church and parish holydays, or on the day of the patron-saints of the reign-
ing sovereigns. The master can, at his pleasure, transform the house-serf
(jlworowoi) into a soil-tiller, and vice, versa. He can hire his serfs to
mechanics, manufacturers, and to any other labor whatever. He is the
supreme judge in all civil contests between his serfs. He can punish them
corporeally, but not cripple them, or put life in jeopardy. He can require

526

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

tl»e assistance of the government for the coercion of liis serfs. In case 0/
a criminal offence, the master must abstain from any punishment, but de-
liver the offender to the law. He can send serfs to Siberia or to any other
penitentiary establishment.

No serf can live in any city, or serve any person whatever, withont the
consent of the master, and the authorities are to sec tliat this provision be
n( '.ransgressed — and aro severely responsible. The master gives to the
stif a passport, and, furnished with this, he can inove freely in the whole
empire. The master has the po\» cr to transfer the serfa individually or
by whole communities from one village, district, or circle, irto another.
Any nobleman owning serfs of any kind must have for every one at least
tw'enty acres of land. Only a nobleman can receive n po./er of attorney
for tljc buying or seU'.ig of serfs. The master can not hire his serfs to
individuals whom the law prohibits to own serfs, nor let them learn any
profession anywhere else than from masters inscribed in a guild. Serfs,
either servants or agriculturisfs, held by those who li.tve no right to own
them, iMjcomc free ; that is, they become incorporated into the f"oe crown-
pcusantry, and the unlawful owners pay a fine into the treasury.

Families can not be separated by sale. The family consists of the pa-
rents and the unmarried children, even if of age. The children form a
family after tlie death of the parents. Serfs can not be brought to market,
but are to be sold only together wiih the estate. If sold separately, tho
crown takes them as its peasants, and the transgressors of the law are
lined. Serfs acquiring their liberty in such a way can make the choice of
a mode of life, and of a corporation into vhich they will become inscribed.

In ca«cs of scarcity or famine, the owner can not sen'.' away his serfs,
but is obliged to take care of them. Ho is likewise obliged to take care
of the aged and the invalids.

If tliere be any ubusie of power by the master, any cruelty or rape, the
law takes from the owner the administration of the estate, and puts it in
the hands of guardians, or of a board selected for this purpose in each dis-
trict from among the nobility. Such masters can not acquire new estates
by purchase, and in aggravated cases can be given up to the criminal
courts. For this the special decision of the sovereign is required. Like-
wise the owners can not live on tho estates whose administration is thus
taken out of their hands. The villages or estates are responsible for gov-
ernmental taxes. If a serf has a lawsuit, his master must prosecute it:
and the master is answerable for the results whenever tho serf has had his
permission to enter into a civil liability. In criminal matters concerning
a serf, tlie interference (f tho master is optional.

Serfs can not be sold separate from the soil, or at any public auction in
execution of the del>ts of the master. If one or more serfs sue, on legal
grounds, their master for emancipation, having been brought into serfdom
contrary to tlie provisions 01 the law — while tho legal proceedings are
pending, the master can not inflict on them any corporeal punishment under

.sl.*ltii«l«.*<«"^

'«».». .»/^,.««uurj»«!««l-«i^'-.'

THE PEOPLE — THE SERFS.

627

the penalty of a criminal prosecution ; nor can he mortgage or let them
out by lease ; and if the first court docide in their favor, and the affair
goes to the court of appeal, the master can not give them to the military
service pending the final decision.

Serfs carrying on a legal trade, with the consent of the master, can not
be given ur by him as recruits, or for the colonization of Siberia. Serfs
can not own immoveable property ; all houses and lands possessed by them
are the property of the master. Should a serf inherit such property, it
mu^t bo sold, and the money handed over to him. Serfs erectino: f^/hons
and manufactories, must have a special permission of the master. Hkuvase
for entering the guild of artisans, and for selling the produce of ineir in-
dustry in cities and markets. For taking public jobs (^podriad), or keeping
post-liorses on public roads, they must have the consent and the guaranty
of the master.

The serf can lend out money on legal terms, but not take mortgages on
land in villages or estates. Only witli the consent of the master can they
buy on credit goods for traffic — otherwise they can not be prosecuted, and
any bargain or stipulation is void by itself.

The master has the right to manumit his serfs individually, or by whole
hamlets and villages, with or without giving them lands. A permission
given by tiic master to his serf to marry a girl who is a pupil and educated
in a public establishment for. the children of burghers, is equivalent to
manumission. A manumitted serf can not be broug.,„ again into serfdom.
A serf can obtain his liberty by a legal juridical decision : 1. If he proves
an antecedent right to liberty. 2. If his master does not belong to aiiy
Christian confession. 3. If the master has made a forcible attack on the
virtue of his wife or daughter, or committed any other impropriety. 4. If
the serf was made a prisoner by the enemy and carried beyond the fron-
tiers of the empire — on returning, he does not return into serfdom. 5. If
by t!ie master he is given up to tiie disposition of the government. The
serf obtains his liberty if he proves against his master the crime of treason,
or a conspiracy against the life of the sovereign. A serf condemned legally
to exile to Siberia . ases to be owned by the ma«»ter ; his wife, following
him into exile, becomes free. A serf also becomes free if sold without
lands, or if the buyer does not possess the quantity of land required by
law, or if his family is separated from him by sale.

These are the principal features of the legal organization of serfdom.
As before remarked, part of the serfs are agriculturists, called pachatndia
duscha; the others house-serfs, or divorotvaia. The agricultural serfs are
settled in hamlets and villages, till their own soil and that of the manor-
farm, fullilling there all the labors of husbandry. In more populous vil-
lages, and above all in large estates, they are organized in communts on
nearly tl»e same principles as are the free peasants. But such an organi-
Zbtion depends absolutely upon the will of the owner. It is mostly the
oase, where the arable laud is not extensive enough, or for some other

528

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

reason is wholly abandoned to the peasants, and they pay for its use to the
landlord a redevance or obrok, and in such case they are called obrotschnye
duschy (renting souls) ; or the master receives from his farm-lands a cer-
tain quantity of the produce of the soil : but all such arrangements depend
absolutely upon the master.

The house-serfs live on the manor and its immediate dependencies : they
arc ^<'»en very numerous, and thus a heavy burden to the owner, sometinioa
e>o s ruin. They generally refuse to be settled as agriculturists, look-
ing ,jor. it as altogether below their condition. They constitute the male
and female servants of the household, stewards, private overseers, house-
hold artisans, mechanics, and workmen — sometimes even personal attor-
neys when by choice or whim the master has given to such one a suitable
education. Generally the master takes care to make the males learn some
handicraft; and when they are able to earn their living, ho gives them a
permission or passport, and tiicy go over the country in search of suitable
employment. They, as well as all other serfs who are furnished with such
a passp. t, can be called home by the master at any time. These \. ander-
ing serfs are obliged to report to him their whereabouts ; and they jiay
him a rent proportioned to their earnings, or the cost of their education.
Otliers establish themselves as tradesmen, <fec. The serfs compose, to a
great extent, the floating ])0])ulation of cities. In the largest of them, as
St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nijnei-Novgorod^ <tc., serfs can be found who are
wealthy tradesmen. Tl»e obrok paid by them to their owner is generally
the customary one, and fit a rate not at all proportioned to tlieir fortune.
But they are completely deptMidont on the will of the master, who can
recall and transplant them to any of his villages and hamlo's. Tliere are
cases where masters are comparatively, nay, oven positively poorer tlian
their serfs, and still refuse to sell them their liberty, oven for a lai-ge sum.
Such a refusal is generally the result of an inveterate pride, and of a repul-
sive feeling concerning emancipation.

To a certain degree, the law watches, in a more or less tutelary manner,
over the fate of the serfs. Its provisions have been enumerated. But
abuse, or evasion of the law, can not be prevented. Its handling, its exe-
cution, as well as the framing of public opinion, is in the hands of the
nobility. Only very tyrannical abuses of power come to dayliglit. They
are corrected either by the law, or by the interfei'cnce of the sovereign, or,
in the last and supreme appeal, by the sufferers themsc^es. The owners
of large estates do not live on them, and sometimes do, not visit many of
them at all. The task of ruling the serfs is given up totally to overseers,
who are generally severe enough, whatever may bu their nationality, Gor-
man or native. The small nobility commonly want more than their fortune
yields, and, to get it, squeeze as much as possible the laboring serf; and,
without being inhuman, tliey will not sacrifice their own well-being to that
of the peasantry.

In large estates — the prescriptions of the law to the contrary notwith-

THE PEOPLE — THE PEASANTRY.

529

Standing — the marriages of the serfs arc always inatlc witli the iiitorforcnco
of the master or the overseer, but on such estates the choice of tlie serf is
generally regarded. As the wife follows the husband, a maiden is seldom
taken from a neighboring estate, except where the bridc<!;room is rich
enough to buy his bride. In smaller estates, where the choice is Uiorc lim-
ited, generally after the field-labors are over, in the fall season, tlie master
calls the families together and inquires about their mutual inclinations,
pays attention to them, and endeavors to arrange things by mutual agree-
ment ; but when all is of no avail, then he decides arl»itrarily — points out
the pairs, and then the ceremony is fidlilled by the parisli-priest.

Previously to the reign of Peter tlie CJreat, it was customary for the
Russians, of all ra.iks, to marry their children very early, even before the
age of pul)erty. Though restrained by Peter and Catlierinc II., this cus-
tom of garly marriage still prevails, and is sai'! to be fraught with many
pernicious consequences. A ukase, issued in 1801, prohil)its [triests from
solemnizing marriages unless the man be eigntcen and the woman sixteen
years old.

Tlie Russian peasants generally are of a sound constitution, stout and
firmly built, and i -^stly of a middle stature. They live in cottages, formed
of logs piled upon oh other, and built singly or togetlier in villages, the

RUMIAN PlAtANTf DUtLBtNO A COTTAOI

530

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP nUSSIA.

gables to the road. Sometimes they consist of two stories, but more fre-
quently only of one. Tliey are heated with stoves, and, though dirty, aro
not uncomfortable nor ill suited to the climate. Their furniture consists
generally of wooden articles, and a pan or two. Beds are little used, tho
family generally sleeping on the ground, on benches, or on the stove.

The dress of the peasant consists of a long, coarse drugget coat, fastened
by a belt round the waist, but in winter they wear a sheepskin with tho
woolly side inward. Their trousers aro of coarse linen ; instead of stock-
ings (when not barefoot), woollen cloth is wrapped round the legs, and shoos
of matted linden-bark are frequently substituted for those of leather. Tho
neck, even in winter, is bare (a fact which, according to a French travel-
ler, is a decisive criterion by which to distinguish tho genuine Russian),
and the head is covered by a peaked round hat or rap.

The Russian peasant crMisiders himself well fed if ho ha^'o rye-bread,
which is the staple article of food throughout tho empire, and sour-cabbago
soup, with a lump of fat, or hog's lard, boiled in it, by way of relish, llo
uses butchers' meat on holydays, and at other times eggs, salt fish, bacon,
laid, and mushrooms, which, at the proper season, are extremely al)undant,
onions, Ac. Ilis favorite disii is a hodge-podge of salt or fresh meat,
groats, and lye-flour, highly seasoned with onions and garlic. Salted
cucumbers are a constant disli at the peasant's table all the year round.
These and salted cabl)ages form an important article of national commerce.
Tlicy aro brougiit in large vats from the southern provinces, where tho
climate favors their production, to Moscow, St. Petersburg, and other
large towns, and here they are constantly on sale in the public nmrkets ;
the preparation, in autumn, of a sufficient supply of these pickled vegeta-
bles forming, in every family, an important part of domestic economy.
This dependence of the Russian peasant on vegetal)le diet is, no doubt, a
consequence of the extraordinary number of fasts and fast-days, of wiiich
he is a ciireful oljserver, and which are multiplied to such an al»surd ex-
treme, that it is said there are only from sixty to seventy days in the year
on wiiich it is permitted to use butchers' meat! Qwa«, a fermented liquor,
made by pouring boiling water on rye or barley meal, is the common bev-
erage of the peasant. But he is also very fond of mead, and still more so
of brandy distilled from grain, and other spirituous liquors. Tiie consump
tion of the latter is immense, amounting to about one hundred millions of
gallons a year, and furnishing annually, as Ijiefore remarked, a large reve-
nue to the government. Tho use of tea, however, is becoming more and
more extended. A substitute for it, called izbitzen, consisting of herbs,
honey, «tc., boiled together, is also extensively used by tho peasantry.

The peasants are exceedingly superstitious. A vessel of " holy water"
hangs from the ceiling of every room, and a lanip lighted on particular
occasions. Every house is provided with a sacred corner, supplied with
one or more pictures of their tutelary saints, coarsely daubed on wood.,
frequently resembling rather a Calmuck idol than a human head ; but some

..„., .Mts.-KMM M 'l U - ^ M mi tiimiWX'''

THE PEOPLE — THE PEASANTRY — BATHS.

531

times tlioy are of a better quality, and neatly framed. To these they pay
the highest marks of veneration. All the members of the family, the mo-
ment they rise in the morning, and before they retire to sleep in the even-
ing, never omit their adoration to the saints : they cross themselves during
several minutes, upon the sides and forehead, bow very low, and sometimes
even prostrate tliemselvcs on the ground. Every person, also, on entering
the room, pays his obeisance to these objects before addressing the family.

The Russiiin peasantry have tlie vices incident to their situation. With
a groat capacity of endurance, and the most extraordinary talent for in-
struction, they have but little active vigor or steadiness of purpose. In
accosting a person of consequence, or from whom they expect any favor or
advantage, tiiey prostrate themselves, touch the ground with tlieir hnnds,
and kiss tlie fringe of iiis garments! Their insecure position makes them
anxious to enjoy the present moment ; and their masters being obliged to
provide for tlieir support when they arc old and infirm, they have little
motive to providence or forethought. When they accumulate money, they
most frequently bury it in the ground — a practice common to all countries
where property is compiiratively insecure.

The use of the vapor-bath is universal in Russia, not being reckoned a
luxury but a necessary ; and public baths are met with in all parts of the
country. They are resorted to by the jieasantry, at least, once u week.
In St. Petersburg, the baths for the lower orders, which are in the suburbs,
are very numerous, and the happiest account of them is that given by Kohl,
the most accurate and the best descriptive writer upon Russian life. lie
thus remarks : " On Saturday evening an unusual movement may be seen
among the lower classes in the capital. Companies of poor soldiers who
have got a temporary furlough, troops of mechanics and laborers, whole
families of men, women, and children, u.') seen eagerly traversing the
streets, with towels under their arms, and uirch-twigs in their hands. . . .
They are going to the public baths, to forget, in the enjoyment of its
vapors, tiie suflerings of ti»e past week ; to make supple the limbs stifl'ened
with past toil, and invigorate them for that which is to come. Before the
door, the words 'Entrance to the baths,' in large letters, attract the eye,
and invite the body to enter. Within the doorway, so narrow that only
one at a time can work liis way in, sits the money-taker, who exchanges
the ticket for the bath for a few copecks, and has generally a whole sack-
fid of large copper coins by his side. Near him are a couple of women,
selling *■ sell naps and kalalshif while the people are thronging in and out
as at a theatre. W^c first enter an open space, in which a number of men
are sitting in a state of r"'Uty on benches, all dripping with water and
perspiration, and as red as lobsters, breathing deep, sighing, puffing, and
gossiping, and busily employed in drying and dressing themselves. These
have already bathed, and now, in a glow of pleasurable excitement, are
puffing and blowing like tritons in the sea. Even in the winter I have
seen these people drying and dressing in the open air, or, at most, in a

•!.<

i'-i

P 1

I, y '.

582

ILLDSTRATKD DESCniTTIOX OP UUasiA.

sort of booth forming an outhouse to the baths. Round it aro the doors
leading to tho batliing-rooins, largo wooden apartments, in which a heat
of forty to fifty degrees of Reaumur [one hundred and twenty-two to ouo
one hundred and forty-fivo of Fahrenheit] is maintained. A thick cloud
of vapor conceals it first what is going on within ; for nothing is at first
visible but tho feeble glimmer of tho lamps brealtiiig through a thick atmo-
Bphero, and the flame of tho heated ovens. To remain here clothed is evi-
dently impossible ; neither would it be advisable for a wcll-drcssod person
to risk an appearance here as a mere spectator. I entered, therefore, in
a state of nature, in which we arc as much alike as one egg is like another.
Ih any other costume the naked peoj>le would infallibly have ejected mo
speedily. Under this disguise I pursued my observations unmolested, tho
bath being by no means my object."

Tliero are three platforms, one above another, in these baths, and in tho
form of an amphitheatre, similar to those in tho concamerata siulatio of tho
Roman baths, as shown in the paintings found in the baths of Titus. Thcso
steps are of diflerent degrees of heat, and on them the bathers lie gener-
ally on their backs or stomachs, wliilo the attendants aro employed in
scourging tliem witli birchen rods steeped in cold water; and here and
there may be seen a papa holding his little l)oy between his knees, dili-
gently occupied in improving the circulation of his rear ; others stand near
the glowing stoves, as if to increase the perspiration, which already runs
at every pore ; and others, again, descending from the upper platforms,
have iced water poured over tliom by pailfnls.

In the provinces, tlie baths are very indiflcrently, not to say badly con-
ducted : there is no hot linen, and the temperature of them is very irregu-
larly kept up by throwing cold water on largo stones heated in an oven.
At St. Petersburg they make use of cannon-sliot. Excessive use of tho
bath injures the complexions of the Russian women ; and it is said some
ladies become so habituated to tho leafy branches of the birch, that, by
way of exciting a skin thickened by years of flagellation, they make their
attendants flog them with bunches of nettles !

BELIGION — TUE GREEK CHURCH.

68t

CHAPTER XX.

RELIGION — THE GREEK CHURCH.

^DST religions to bo found in the ancient
continent liavo their adherents in
Russia. A considerable portion of
the less civilized tribes continue,
more or less, addicted to their hea-
then superstitions ; the Jews in all
parts of the country, except the
centre, from which they are spe-
cially excluded, have their syna-
gogues, and freely perforin their
religious rites ; Luthcranism is pro-
fessed by the great body of Ger-
mans and Swedes ; and the Roman
catholics form a large majority of
the people of Poland. These, how-
ever, are only important deductions
to be made from the almost univer-
sal ascendency of the Byzantine or
Greek Chukch, which possesses
numerous important privileges as
the religion of the state, and is
strong in tlie afTcctions of the great l)ody of the people, who give a very
imjilicit if not enlightened assent to all its dogmas, and not only willingly
perform, but appear to take wonderful delight in performing, its various
minute and too often superstitious and even ridiculous ceremonies. In its
general toleration of all other sects, it contrasts favorably with the western
or Roman catholic church ; though it lays itself open to the charge of in-
tolerance toward its own members, by refusing to allow them, under any
circumstances, to quit its communion: and when a marriage takes place
between one of its members and a person belonging to another church, tlie
children must all be educated according to the tenets of the established
or national faith.

The Greek church strongly resembles the Roman or Western catholic
church in doctrine, but difl'crs essentially from it in government and disci-

' /Kiaei'rtsc
Monk ok the nvKKK Chubcii.

1' A

534

ILLUSTUATED DESCIUPTION OK RCriaiA.

plino. In tlio early a^cs of Christianity tlicy formed but a single cliiiroh ,
but a scluHm arose between tlie ptitriareh of Constiiiitino|ilo anil the i)i^hop
or pope of Rome, a Hehi.sm whieli had its ostensible origin in a few words'
ditfcrence of creed ; l>nt it really arose from nothing but the ambition for
Buprcmaey of tlie two eatholic prelates. The Roman bishop wished to
keep the clergy unmarried, and j)roclaimcd, in his confession of faith, the
credo that the Son proceeds from the Father, and the Holy S|»irit from
the Father and the Son, and is equal with them. The Oreelvs of tlx; Fast
maintained, on tlie contrary, that tlie Holy Scriptures do not forI)id priests
to marry ; that eomn)union sliould be in two kinds, and tliut the Holy
Ghost does not proceed from the Son, but the Father only, and is ctpial to
them. This was the comnioncement of the religio\is (juarrel which l)r()iight
about tlie separation and division of the Christian church. It was the
policy of tiie monarchs to l)ring about a reconciliation, if |)n\cticablo, and
councils were called in which the rival pretensions of the two bisiiops were
warndy and earnestly debated ; the diflercnce, instead of being healed, be-
came envenomed, and the church was separaled into two denominations,
the Kastern or Greek, and the Wc-^tern or Latin church, each claiming to
be the orthodox and catholic (rhurch.

The Slavons embraced the Cliristian religion of the Greek rite, and tho
bishoj)S of Constantinople accorded them permission to say ni;iss in tho
Slavonic language; but the Roman bishops interfered, and, by tho ascen-
dency of tlie Henedictines, imposed the Latin rite and coiiiniunion.

Angry dissensions and bloody persecutions arose from these events ; but
we will pass them over, and turn to the annals of the centuries imnitjdiatcly
following. The pope of Rome, seeing several Slavic trilics thus with-
drawing themselves from under his authority — among them the Armenians
and others — tempered and modiiicd his anathemas, and allowed the (ireeks
of Poland to make the double communion. Moreover, ho dropped tho
catholic forntula of the credo, permitted them to say mass in their native
tongue, and finally conceded to all their prii^sts, excepting the bishops, tho
right of getting married. The Armenians likewise obtained these advan-
tages ; and the concessions thus granted form another and striking instance
of a schism approved of, or at least countenanced, by the ])ope.

The church of Constantinople laid the foundations of the Russian church,
principally by the action of the Ryzantino emperors and their daughters,
who, by marrying the savage Ros (as the Russians were called by the
Byzantine historians), tried to soften their dangerous neighbors. Gene-
rally, it was through the women that Christianity Avas introduced, and
spread among the northern races. Being a daughter of Byzantium, tho
Russian church very naturally held under tho patriarch of Constantinople,
and was at that early period wholly independent of any action or inter-
ference of the civil power of Russia or of the power of the Grand Dukes.
After the fall of Constantinople into Turkish hands, one of tlie patriarchs
fled to Moscow, in tho sixteenth century, and thus a patriarchate was

— -. J

1ELI0I0N — THE OREEK CHCIICH.

rj35

l>Htt*ll«TIt, METlOroLITAN or St r«T«»SBl)«01l.

c.tn..lishcd there. From U.i.s epoch, the Russian cl.urehsncUeroa by the

national indepc.ulcncc, has looked on herself as hein,^ at the ho d ot the

a torn reli.ious fan.ily. The patriarchs of Moscow ^ong con Unued to

preserve the independence of the church from the oncronclunent^ of he

cviT power, not, however, without serious collisions w.th son.e of the

dais, and especially with Ivan the Terrible (Grocm), -ho even im-

t)ri80i\ed and nearly put to death a patriarch. , ,• u j ,i,„

l^rthc death o a patriarch, Peter the Great entirely abolished the

.btlo Lstitutu, allowing no new election to bo made ; and thus assumed

i'i?l

I
I'

j»>

l;l

■ ;

V>1'

536

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

a part of tlie power for himself and liis successors. He instituted a board,
under the name of the sacred or holy synod, formed of metropolitans, arch-
bishops, bisliops, and some lower members of the hierarchy, and appointed
this synod to attend to ecclesiastical affairs of every kind. The decisions
of this body, in spiritual matters, are understood to be wholly independent
of the influence of the emperor. As to the admini.stration, the power of
tlie sovereign is supreme. In the synod, it is represented by the procurer,
or imperial attorney, directing the deliberations and the administrative
labors of the synod. The emperor nominates the hicrarcl)y, and the synod
)X,'wGS them consecration. Peter the Great, and fnially Catherine II., took
away from the clergy and the monasteries all their properly, which was
very large. Tlie whole hierarchy is now supported by the government.

The religious spirit of the Greek, church is perliaps more formal and less
devout than tliat of sincere and believing Romanism or protestantism, and
that philanthropic piety which is illustrated by the Sisters of Charity, for
example, has no counterpart among the Oriental cathulicj". On the other
hand, as during the primitive ages, the chureii developed itself princi|)ally
tiirough the Greek mind, and on the I)a.sis of the Greek philosophy there
prevails in it a tendency to subtile speculation and investigation. In the
bosom of Greek Catholicism the so-culled heresies of early times, such as
Pelagianism and Ariani.^m, had their origin. The sect of Iconoclasts
existed in Constantinople until the fall of the By/anlinian empire, and still
has followers in Greece and Russia. Under the Turkish dominion tho
spirit of sectarian disunion has been checked in the Kast. In Ru.ssiu vari-
ous sects have sprung up, mainly since the fourteenth century. As tho
free reading of the Bil)le l)y the laity forms one of the fundun)ental usages
of the Ea;<tLMii churcli, dissensions have naturally taken place. Tlius origi-
nated the denomination of Roskolniks, who admit no higher rank in the
clergy than thai of parish priest; the Duchobortsy, who do not believe in
tlie trinity, and reject l»aj)tism ; others, again, who do not recognise any
clergy at all, and have no churches ; and others who emasculate them-
selves after the birth of the first or second child. The most numeroua
sect is that of the Starowicrtsy, who do not admit the slightest change in
the external forms of worship, in the ornaments of tho churches, in tho
manner of sounding the church bells, and in other particulars equally
minute.

It can not be said, however, that skepticism iu any decided form has yet
penetrated into the Eastern church. Nor has this church ever sought to
encroach on the civil power, or to step out of its proper sphere in tho
decision of social or political questions. Religiously, its creed is not
exclusive ; it holds thai whoever is bajdized in the name of Christ will bo
saved. Justice requires us to add that statimiary and lifeless as tho East-
ern church may be called, it has never in all its history used its power and
thrown its inlluence against civilization and its discoveries. Tho Greek
church may safely boast that it would never have excommunicated Gal-

iMiiMiMl

RELIGION — THE GREEK CHURCH.

587

ilco, nor protested against the tlicory of Copernicus, nor condcnnied vac-
cination, or the culture of tlic potato. If much may be said against it in a
religious point of view, it is only proper to adduce hero what is so decidedly
to its credit.

The external manifestations of the whole Eastern church can be summed
up in two principal characteristics : an unbounded suspicion and even ha-
tred of all tliat is Roman or Latin, and an indestructible feeling of nation-
ality. When Pius IX. became pope, he issued an encyclical letter appeal-
ing to the Eastern Christians to unite with Ronie. Tiiis ofler raised tho
wrath of the Greeks and Slavons, and tlie patriarchs of Constantinople,
Antioch, and Jerusalem, violently responded. In the numerous Slavic
family tiiis jcMlousy of Romanism extends toward the Poles, the Tschcclis,
and tile Illyrians, all of whom are looked on with mistrust, as l)oing of tlie
Westorn chui'ch. Latinism is considered l)y t'le great mass of tlie Slavons
as a growth strange to the domestic soil and of mischievous and pestilen-
tial iiidiience. This national feeling in tlie Greek church has for centuries
induenced the Greeks, and the Slavons south of tlie Daiuilte, under tho
Turkisii doiiiinion ; for centuries it has preserved the iiulepundenco of
Russia, and contriliiited to raise her to her present state.

The Eastern churcli diflers from the Roman in making tlie Holy Spirit
proceed IVoin the Father alone, and in denying purgatory, for which it does
not find a satisfactory authority in the bii)le. It admits tlie same number
of saciainents as do the Roman, but holds that baptism should l)e performed
by immersing the whole body three times in water. Conlirniation is ad-
ministered after the ceremony of baptism by any priest, and not, as with
tlie Romans, exclusively by the bishops. Transubstantiation is recognised
in the administration of the communion as well as in the sacrifice of tho
mass, without, however, making the host an object of S[)ecial worship. The
communion consists in partaking of both bread and wine, the tiist leavened,
the second nvxed with water Confession is obligatory; but it may bo
gener:'.!, or special, or auricular, as the penitent chooses. Extreme unc-
tion is bestowed not only on the dying, but when desired, on persons who
are ill to any extent. Predestination is not admitted, nor the transfer of
superabundant merits from one sinner to another, nor special indulgences
for the dead or living. Though this church raises the Virgin above angels,
seraphim, and cherubim, it does not accord to her the same prominent
inliueiice in heaven as do the Romans; though, in common with them, it
recognises the worship of saints, relics, and holy places. It abounds ia
holy da\s, and observes and prescribes more fasts than the Roman church.

The liturgy and ceremonies claim to be strictly conformed to those used
in the earliest times of Christianity. The mass consists in the ofl'ering or
sacrifice, the reading of tho gospel, the epistles, the recital of the Lord's
prayer, the Nicene creed, and other prayers aloud with the congregation,
as was practised by Chrysostom and other primitive fathers. Preaching ia
considered as a secondary matter. No instrumental music whatever, but

'if

iffi

G38

ILLUSTBATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Uisiiop

. r.'llSTrMKS iir TIIK'liUKKK (.'lIUHl H I'llllST.

only clioral singinj^, is u.soil in tlio (;liiii-clio.s, and no stools, chairs, or
benches, are allowed. Paintings are admitted, luit no seulptni-es of stone,
mcto.l, or wood. The professed aim is to adiiere exclusively to the author
ity of the gospels, and to t'le traditions transmitted l)y the apostles to their
successors. Tlius tiie authority of the fathers of the church is recognised
eo far as it is confirmed by tlie (Ecumenic councils.

The Russian clergy are divided into two classes, the "white" or secular
clergy, and the " black" or cloistered clergy. The appellations are derived
from I .eir respective dresses, the one being clothed from head to foot in
black, the other performing divine service in white robes adorned with
gold.* Of the cloistered clergy, or monks, the Eastern church has only
one order, instituted by St. Basil, one of tlie primitive fathers of the tEcu-

* Allliiiiif!li llin iiiimi! (if lliK wliiiK rli'i'f^y is, iia in I'liiinrkol in tlip text, clciivcd irom t)i<! rolor
of liicir (>ni<'iiil iiilii'D, tliut of llie ullici- rluis i» tiilii-n IVnni tlicii- niuiiuitii; in- ur<iiiiuiy riistiiiiii-,
'Vjiili- (iflic'ialiiig na iiiiriiatcrii of irli);ii>ii, llii'ir vi'stmciiU, in Imtli fiiiiii iiiiil ciilur, iiro i'c{l;iiIciIc<I Uy
till' (hiimi'trr iil'llic «i>rvirp in wlii)!li tlioy nrt> fiigii^oil. Tlie niatiimci of nt'venii til' tint (lif^iiitiiiics
of the CJrci-k rlinirli (including tliiit of a Itiiliiip, win) miiat l>i> one of tlir nioiiiutic urdrr) in tlicir
ofKciul rlmi'iirtoi niiiy be tpfn in tlio pngriiviiigi |;ivi>n iiliuvc, and wliicli, wo niny a* well My
h«r<', en pamaut, uiu tVoni dcaigiiii tiikcn tViirn lifo by I'uul Duriind, Mnd i)iii« tliiif toiv bu rrlicd on
U correct That u( the niutiujiulitan uf 8t. IV-tcrsburg, on |)iigo 5.35, vvuc iiNu drawn frum lifn,

-•"' ' -' • •

uaeatniidk^aafctf la: 1 j> <'

KELKilON — THE GREEK CHURCH.

539

Deacon Costi'mes ov the Gbeek Chuhch Sub-Dkacon.

mcnic churcli. From among the white clergy, who mui-t bo married, the
curates are taken, as are the other ranks of the hierarchy below the rank
of bishop. All bishops must be unmarried, and monks. The members of
the white clergy must l»e nmrried,or at least engaged, ijcfore receiving the
final consecration ; but they can not marry twice, and on becoming widow-
ers they generally enter a monastery. Tims a priest takes most devoted
care of his wife to the utmost of his means and power. It is therefore pro-
verbial ann)ng the people, to be as happy as a po/nulia, or the wife of a
pope, which is the title of a |)riost, end is derived from the word papa.

The white or married clergy form, in reality, a distinct caste ; the male
children following, generally, the condition of the fatlier. This is, ho"iV
ever, the result of usage rather than of law. Nay, they even intermarry

by fiiiiniil. Tlic wliile rlrrpy, nlio, tlii)u<;h offirintinj; in wliilo, gonpi-nlly wriii' brown or somo darker
coliir 118 their iiriliiiiiry biibit. Kiibl iviniiikg timt muiiy n* lire the rimilzi (wurdrohcg) of tlie Rut>
■inn cbiMi'lirs ibat biivo bron st-rn by triivt'llcrs, to wboni, inoirovor, tbo pojica bnvo often been
gnodnntinril fiiruigh lo «prvi' n* rbitbrt-horsos, it woiibl yrt bo difficnit by iiiiy cxponditiirc of worJi
to givi? «'vcn a fcpbU- pirtiiiv of ii pricat in |)niitificalib,g. Siii-li ibiii^s must be \ei\ to the puinler.
It it rnougli to tny tbiit ibo i-normoui niiiis of gold ai.il gilk atnff!t of vitrious kiridf which the Ru»>
•ian clerfiy, like the ciitliulic, biive, in the course of ceiiturioa, hiid their hunda un, it tuch, that the
teilot of the vaint-it worldling it moderute and r.odest in cumpuiiaon.

If,

5^0

ILLUSTRATED DESCUIPTION OP IIUSSIA.

among tliemaclvca. Tlius the clergy form a class somewlicro between tl>o
nobility, the bourgeoisie, and the people — less than the first, and superior
to the two others. As a class, the clergy can not enter the .lobility on an
equal footing ; and that very few marriages between them take place is,
perhaps, principally on account of the poverty of the priests. For the
children of the clergy to enter the body and share the occupations of the
burghers woiP 1 be looked on as a loss of caste. Few, tuerelbre, of this
class enter the public service, civil or milita'-y ; ani on the other liand, no
nobleman ever tikes "orders," with exception f now and then an old
military vetfran retiring to monastic life.

The code of law, the Su'od Zakonoff, gives the following definitions of
the position of the clergy : The nio-asterics and convents are divided into
three classes, and the dignity and precedency of their respective abb is
and abbesses accords with this arrangement. The higher clerical hierar-
chy, formed from the monks, consists of the metropolitan, the archbishop,
the bishop, the igunien or abbe, etc. The titles of the white hierarchy are :
protopresbyter, superdeans, deans, pro.><byters, protodeacons, deacons, sub-
deacons, and common priest.

Any one wlio takes monastic orders must receive the permission of the
^ynod. The men must be thirty years of age — womc", forty. If the can-
didates belong to the ta.\ed class — tiiat is, if tluy are burghers, peasants,
or serfs — they must produce a permi!«sion from their special superior.
Married persons, or those not divorced, can not take orders unless both
parties do it, and when there are no children under age. One can leave
the order by permission of tl'.e superiors, and return to the social class to
which he belonged before. For seven years, iiowever, he can not live in
the country where he was a mpnk, nor in either of the two capitals. Monks
are exempted li mi military service, fro.n the capitation tax, and from cor-
poreal punishmenl Tiiey can not own villages of serfs, or carry on trade.

Tiie order of tiie white clergy can bo entered by any one, with the ex-
ception of serfs. The wives and children of the clergy enjoy the privileges
of this class, though they may personally belong to a lower order. Thus
the children of priests, with few exceptions, are not obliged to look for
another social position. They are exe>apt from military service.

A priest can aljandon his vocation and return to worldly life by tiie per-
mission of the synod. (A Roman catholic priest never can.) Such a one
returns to the social class to whicli he previously belonged, but ho can not
enter the j)ublic service until ten years after his renunciation.

In all religious and disciplinary affairs the clergy a'-o subject to and
judged by tiieir own hierarciiy. In civil matters the case comes before the
civil court, assisted by a deputy clergyman. Deacons and commo. priests
are not liable to corporeal punishment. Clergymen can not own estates
or serfs except when they are born nobles, or are decorated with a distinc-
tion bestowing nobility. They can own houses in cities, and farms in
villages, but they can not carry on trade. If the children of clergymen

*7-;

RELIGION — PROTESTANT CHURCHES.

641

enter the military or civil service, they enjoy the privileges conferred on
the children of personal nobles.

Tlie Roman catholic and the Greco-Armenian clergy enjoy the same
legal privileges as the orthodox. Each possesses its own special hierar-
chy, wiiose decisions must be confirmed t)y the sovereign. Tlie protestant
clergy, which consists, principally, of Lutherans and Calvinists, have a
hierarcliy according to their own special organization. Those wishing to
bo ordained are obliged to go through a whole course of protestan> theo-
logical studies, in one of the Russian universities, and then to pass an
examination before their own superiors. No one can be a preacher under
twenty-five years of age. Exceptions are allowed by the special permis-
sion of the minister of the interior. It is under the control of this admin-
istrative department that all the denominations, not orthodox or Greco-
Russian, are placed. Individuals subject to the ctpitati'" tax must be
furnished with an exemption from it before their ordinaMon. Foreigners
must have the permission of the ministry to preach, or to be settled over
parishes.

The affairs of the Lutheran church are administered by consistories, all
of whose members take the oath of fidelity to the sovereign. Tliough a
protestant clergyman be not noble born, yet, as long as he remains in this
vocation, he enjoys the rights of personal nobility, and thus is exempted
from the capitation tax. Ho\ises in cities, owned and inhabited by them,
are free from military quartering and from taxes. The protestant clergy
have tiie right to organize a fund for .' '.'ir widows and orphans, with the
permission of the respective consistorios and of the minister. They can
not carry on trade, or be artisans or mechanics. They can not be attor-
neys in lawsuits not their own, or those of their wives or children ; neither
ran they be guardians of orphans witliout a spcciol permission of the con-
sistory. In nmtters concerning their clerical condition, they are subject to
the discipline of the hierarchy ; in all others they are imdcr the action of
the general laws. When, in a criminal aflair, an arrest of a clergyman is
to be made, tlie consistory is to Ijc instantly made acquainted with it.
They can not be subjected to corporeal punishment. Tlie widows and
children of the protestant clergy enjoy all the privileges of j)ersonal nobles,
with the exception of those born after the father has renounced the order.
Widows and diildren enjoy for one year the income of the departed clergy-
man. One abandoning the order, and not being either a hereditary or
personal noble, is obliged to select a new mode of life, and become in
Bcribed in a corporation according tf> his choice. A clergyman can bo
dismissed and degraded by a criminal verdict, as well as for the transgres-
sion of his duties, by the judgment of his special hierarchy. A clergyman,
condemned to death, or to an infamous punishment — as for example to the
p/etnia (a kind of whip which now generally replaces the knout), or to the
mines, or to be branded — even if afterward ho should be pardoned, can
not recover his clerical standing, or the privileges connected with it.

M^ t^-m^Mii

542

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Tlic clorfry of tho Greek or Russian church are educated in ecclesiasti-
cal schools, k"pt by monks, and in monasteries, to which schools children
of all other classes have likewise access. The regular theological instruc-
tion is f;ivcn there in separate classes. Diil^lrcn of priests can frequent
other public schools — the pymnasia and ni.ivcrsilles, asid generally, next
to the clast' of the nobles, they have thi^ easi itt acco'^s to Uio means of
instruction and education. The number oi' dio« ■jl'OS of the ovili liiox church
amouMs to nearly seventy, f.nd tl .it is aU a))onf. \'\e r' nibiu- vi archbish-
op?, bisliops, jtnd suffra^'aus,

The income^ of the Russian clerfr; are ex." cdingly small ; the convents,
with few exceptions, are y\yy poor ^i.;co Peter and Catherine II. de-
prived them (if ihcir land.s uiid their serfs, and reduced all monks and
nuns to small pensions of the statf. A metropolitan receives, a;, such, four
thousand paper roaWies (al)out oipUt Iiundrc'l dollars); an archbishop has
throe thousand, and a bisiiop soiii'Hhi i^r iess. In i/i proportion the in-
comes decrease, till in the lowest ranks, their iM;'omes often do not exceed
the wages of a maidservant with us. Tiic poor nuns, when they oflcr their
little M'tu'ks lu tiavcllers, often complaiii of their poverty with melancholy
fa ^;i ; tiny receive only twenty-five roubles yearly (about five dollars),
tshci what iisore they want they must work for or beg.

It is not to be supposed that cither vjxn or metropolitan could exist on
6uch incomes as these. All must, therc.orc, be in the receipt of some extra
revenue. The three metropolitans have each one of the greater lavraa, or
monasteries of the first rank. These cuitvents serve them as residences,
and the incomes annexed in lieu of benefices. When the metropolitans
officiate at funerals, baiitisms, &c., among the nobility, very considerablo
presents arc made thenj, amounting often to five hundred or a thousand
roubles. Taken at the utmost, however, (he income of a metropolitan
never can amount to more than thirty or thirty-five thousand roubles a
year.

The bishops, all additional sources of revenue included, have seldom
more than twelve thousand roubles a year. Each bishop has a monastir
(convent of the second class), wiiose income belongs to him, and it must
also be observed tliat all the superior clergy have residences found them,
in their convents or within the city, and are maintained and furnished with
everything necessary, from servants and horses, down to dogs, cats, spoons,
and plates, at the cost of the crown. The greater number are also provided
with a country residence, with arable land, domestic animals, and furniture.

The lower classes of priests have, it is true, none of these things ; but
neither do they starve. Every Russian, even the most miserly, seems to
take a pleasure in filling them with good things. Kohl mentions a very
rich, but very avaricious nobleman, who begrudged himself everything, but
who, when a priest came to dine with him, produced all his best wines ;
a pope rarely came quite sober out of his house, and the holy man's car-
riago would be packed with all sorts of dainties in addition.

RELIGION — THE CLERGY.

548

RvaaiAK Nin».

The poor nuns seem to be in the
worst condition, because they come
80 little in contact with the world,
which might else bestow somewhat
more on them. Tiicy must literally
live by the labor of their hands ; they
may sometimes even be seen sowing
and difr<>;iMg in the few poor fields
which a convent here and there pos-
S'-'sscs, They sometimes repair their
own walls, aud ilierc is a church in
Nijnei-Novgorod, said to have been
built by the hands of nuns, probably
under the direction of an architect,
from the ground to the summit of tiic
tower. They usually i<nit and weave
stockings, silk and woollen girdles,
l)urses, and other nrticlos of clothing.
and cml)roidor )»riostly robes and
draperies for wealth ier churches and
convents.

Poor as the Russian clergy appear to be with respect to revenue (some
Englisli bishops having, j)erhaps, alone, as much as half the dukhovenstvo
or hierarchy (»f Russia), they are rich enough in titles, which are sometimes
a yard or two long. If a person enter the apartmeiit of a metropolitan,
and address him, the title runs thus: '■^Vuissokopn'osswasht.shennai.shi
V/adiko,'" or if he write to him: '■'Yeivo Vuissokopreosstocshtshenslvo
3Itlostit'ins/tu Gossialariu i Arrhipastiiiru." The principal word may bo
translated: "His most high iioliness." The whole address is something
like: " Ilis most high holiness the most dear and gracious lord, the lord
arch-pastor."

All these titles arc most rigidly observed in addressing a letter ; in
addressing them personally, a little less strictness is permitted. Yet these
very persons, who so load them with verbal honor, are not thereby deterred
from sometimes laying aside all respect for the most high holinesses in a
very uncerenjonious manner. So long as he is engaged in the performanco
of his functions the priest is treated with extreme reverence. Not only
the laity kiss the hand of the chief priests after the service, but the inferior
priests do the same when they receive the chalice, bible, or anything else
from them ; and without the church, when the priests make state visits, the
ladies kiss the hand of the meanest of them, on which account many care-
fully cherish a pretty hand, and decorate and perfume it when they pay
these visits. These two occasions excepted, the priests enjoy no great
personal influence or consideration. A priest's advice is seldom asked in
family matters ; even the domestic chaplains in great houses arc there to

'ilH

) i;

044

ILLUSTUATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

perform divine service only, and never penetrnte into the interior of fam-
ilies, as the Romisli clergy do. The Russian peasant, in cases of dillicnlty,
rather turns to his saints' pictures, and invokes the sacrament rather than
the priest who comes with it. It is remarkable, also, how little the people
in the streets or houses of public entertainment seem held in check by the
presence of a priest. Rarely is one seen appeasing a dispute, or exerting
any moral authority to restore order; he |)asses on like any other iiidifl'er-
ent person. Moral influence, indeed, they have little or none; only with
the saints in their hands arc they feared or respected — oidy as directors
of religious ceremonies — not as interpreters of the living word of Ood.

How much more the Rusfnun people are devoted to their j)icturcs than
their priests was i)rovcd in the most striking manner in the reign of Cathe-
rine by an occurrence in Moscow. During the prevalence of an epidemic
sickness, the government had caused a picture of the " Varvarian Mother
of God," one of the most revered in the city, to be removed and put aside
in a church, to withdraw it from the frantic kisses of tlic people, who in
thus supplicating for help only spread disease further, The afiair caused
a riot. Tiie people broke into the church, and compelled the priests to
restore the picture to its place. The government thereujion apj)lied to the
metropolitan, who took it on himself again to remove the Varvarian Mother;
which so irritated tlie pe(tjtle tliat they fell upon the metropolitan in the
jmblic streets, killed, and tore him in pieces. The priests naturally reap
as they have .'*own. As they preach no lessons of reason or morality, they
have no moral lever to put in motion ; and as they only inspire reverence
in their magiiiriciMit pontilicalil»us, little or none l»y their example and per-
sonal qualities, the hem of their gold-embroidered yepitrahhi/s aio con
stantly kissed, while their brown, every-day tunics, wo are assured, often
meet with hard knocks. The government uses them no bettor. The tem-
poral power sometimes makes consideralde inroads on tlie spiritual without
calling the jwiesis to counsel ; and priests, liKi other public ollicers, are
liable to hard reprimands and severe punishments. They may lie sent to
Siberia, or degraded to serve as common soMiers. 'J'lie milder piniish-
ments are suspension fr )m the exercise of their office, and degiadalion to
the lowest offices in the church, or to the condition of ordinary monks. It
is a well-known fact, that those who, on leaving seminaries, diiectly take
orders as secular priests, though th. y obtain livings more quickly, never
rise to the higher dignities of bishop or archbishop. They serve either ns
deacon and sul)-deacon ; or if, after leaving the seminary, they enter son»o
other spiritual academy, they may become popes immediately. They have
a right to marry like other men, but as they may only marry once, after
the death of his wife a priest usually retires to a convent.

Those only who sulanit to the severities of a conveutual life, and, re-
nouncing the happiness of marriage altogether, live oidy as half jnen, are
esteemed worthy of the hig'-.^'^t spiritual dignities. They reach them by
the several steps of novice, monarh (monk>. hieromonach Cchief monk^.

REUOION — THE CLERGY.

545

archimandrite (abbot), and so on. A ntm is callcMl mnnnkliinn, an abbesa
t^j/wcna, denominations all taken from tlic fJroek. The liiglicr clorgy also
take masters' and doctors' degrees at the academies.

Tlio ninks of tlie clergy arc recruited partly from tliemaclves, partly
from ,tlie lower classes of the people. The nuinl)er of pupils ol)taincd in
tlieir own families is not iiieonsiderable, for in Russia, also, the marriages
of priests arc usually very fruitful. The journal of the ministry for the
interior gives on !>' average live children for every priest's marriage ; this
is for St. I'ctersliurg. In tlio interior of the cm])iro the average may be
higher. The sons of priests generally follow the |)rofession of their father ;
they are called popuvic/ii. 'i'he extra demand is supplied i)y the free
peasants and the l)urgliers. Tlie children of the nobles seldom or never
enter the church as in catholic countries. " During an abode of several
years in Russia," says Kohl, " 1 lieard of but one cmplof/k who entered a
convent in corisciiuencc of ilomostic 'nisfortime ; and of two officers who
took the same step, froui what motives I know not. 1 once found a Ger-
nmn protestant in a Russian convent, whose talents and education had at
his outset in life promised him a very advantageous career."

So njuch for the outward condition and position of the Russian clergy.
For the inward it must be owned, wlien we consider the whole system and
its fruits during the course of centuries, and when we compare their deeds
with those of the priesthood in other countries, they are a very insignificant
body. They have done nothing super-excellent for the arts or for science,
nor produced men ulio in any respect have done humanity great service.
They lived, eat, drank, married, christened, buried, absolved, and died;
and on the whole tiiey have not done much else. There are, it is true,
notabilities among the Russian clergy, but they are such oidy in Russia.

Some things, however, are to be said in praise of the Russian priesthood.
They are not less than other Russians distinguished for their toleration
in matters of religion. It is true the nuitter does not lie very near their
hearts ; becaAise tiiey have few thoughts or ideas connected with it, which
have become firm vonvictious, and are maintained as such ; they are, there-
fore, peaceful, not so much out of dislike to quarrelling as from a want of
zeal and energy. It is a merit in them, nevertheless. Nowhere does this
tolerant spirit appear in a more favorable light than on the frontiers of
the Russian and Polish provinces. Here there are in many places only
rjieek and Roman catholic priests, and no protestant pastor. Should it
ha|)pen that a foreign protestant is in want of spiritual assistance in sick-
ness, or should the body of a protestant require burial, it is almost inva-
riably the catholic who, in an inhunmn and unchristian manner, refuses his
spiritual aid, while the Russian gives his without hesitation. In such cases
foreigners always apply to the Russian rather than to the catholic priests.
Seldom is an unkind word heard from Russian priests when speaking of a
j)erson of a different faith ; and those who understand German, will oven
go frequently to the Lutheran churches to hear the preachers. In the

^Ail:

646

ILLUHTBATKD DKSCBriTlON OF KUSSU.

J'altic provinces, wlicn the niililary, who Impiicn to l)o Htalioncd there, havo
iKt Hiis.siiiii chinvh within hmcIi, tlie RnHHitin priests mner hesitate to per-
forni divine service in a protestnnt church, ami in the interior it hits ha|>-
peiied that tiiey have lent their own cliiirciies to protoHtants. In Austria,
protcstant cinurhes arc only caUed prayer-lionses. In Russia the |>riesta
treat them as on nn e(]ual Tooting with Iheir own. Neiilier «h> they hesi-
tate to lairy tlieir dead in the same ehureliyards with the protestants,
'I'he eidtivated part of tlie prieslhooti are much more intdined to the prot-
cstant than to tiie eath(dic party; more to rationalism .than mysticism.
Tiieir liliraries prove it. Nienieyor's works, his bihie, the Sftinden der
Aitditilit, Sehleieiinacher's writiii):s, and Nennder's Church History, are
l're(iu(>iitly met witii. The works of the other party are, on the contrary,
very rare. When some recent occurrences in the IJaltic provinces and in
i'oh\nd are called to mind, it may Ih> ihoii^hi that the Russian priesthood
nre somewhat less tolerant now than I'ormerly ; and, in fact, it is only
natural that, with tht! proud exaltation of |iolitical pow(>r, the ch\irch
should also l)e<j;in to lift up her head. As llie i;overnmeMt seeks to advance
the p(ditical creed, the church may endeavor hy more urfient zeul and
jfreater enerjiy tt) spread " the one and only true faith ;" Wat if the church
does take lu.-r share in the contpiests, and appears to pro«j;ress in those
provinces, it does so certainly far less from its own impulse tliuu in coiiiM*-
pieuuc uf uonunuads emunuling frouk a higher quarter

KOHUHS AT PKAfUk

BSBH

rEBTIVAUS AND FASTS— BUTTER- WEEK.

647

CHAPTER XXI,

FESTIVALS AND FA8T8.

THE foHtival iiarticularly distiiif^iiished in tlio Russian Greek church —
so much HO, uuUmhI, Itoth iu roferciico to ti\e time jt lasts, and the pomp
of its ccloltralioii, that all other holydays t:iuk to notliiiif? before it —
is that of Easl(!r. As spring' commonly st-nds many fine dnys as forerunners
to annoinice its approach, so tlui Easter festival — " the festival," as the
Russians term it — is preceded by a whole series of smaller O'stivitics, and
succeeded npiin l>y a kind of epiloj;ue ; and these holydays, taken all to-
getlier, strelt'li over no inconsiderable portion of the year — -over two
months. If we reflect that a Russian spends a sixth part of his life in
keeping Master, and (liat ail tlie joys, sorrows, privations, business, work,
and pliiy,of the whole Russian people, durinj; so considerable a portion of
time, are deternnned by the festive occasion, i( nnist be worthwhile to take
a iieartir view of a festival of so important a character, and so wide an
inlliience ; and in doing so the range of our lorgnette will be confined
mostly to St. IVtersburg.

The Easter festival itself begins in the middle of the night of tl»e Satur-
day in I'assioii-week, and its joys are loud and incessant tlirough the eight
following days. This centre of festivity is preceded by a seven weeks' fast
as a preparation for (he feast, and bijfore the seven weeks' fast comes an
eight days" feast as a preparation for the fast. All these spring merry-
makings may be thus divided into three consecutive celebrations.

Firstly, eight days drinking and carousing, called by tlie Russians itfnss-
luuHza (l)utter-week). Secondiv, seven weeks' fast, called, to distinguish
it from the other fasts, Vtlikoi y,vW (',')o great fast). And, thirdly, Easter
itself, and its attendant train.

In tiie great world of St. IVuuHburg, the approach of the great fast is
announced l»y the balls and other carnival revels coming fast and furious,
even as early as the beginning of February. For the mass of the people,
the sports and pastimes with which they take leave of roast meat and other
pleasures are all pressed into one week — the " butter-week," as it is called
— which falls generally in the middle, or toward the end of February.

The butter-week contains the quintessence of all Russian festivity, and,
except the Easter-week, there is no week in the whole year which oflFers
to a St. Petcrsburger such an abundance of earthly enjoyments as this.

■4

Iff

ILLUSTRATED DKSCniPTION OP T'^WA.

Firstly, as Us namo implies, tlio week is ono of luittor ; butter is oixton
instead of oil, which must he Hiibstitiiteil diiiii)^ the faslduv.s. The Mass-
Uinitza may bo litornlly Haid to bo redolent of butter. The favorite dish
of this season is con)|)OHed of blinni — a kind of pancake baked in butter —
served up with a sauce of melted butt(!r, and eaten with caviare. Tho
blinni belong |)cculiarly to tho butter-we»>k, and arc baked at no «)ther
time of tho year ; but at this season they are served up punctually at every
breakfast.

After a l>utler-week breakfast of hfinni, nothing is more ngreeablo than
a walk to the ^^ kals/nH" or swings, the usual anui.iement enjoyed between
breakfast and dinner liiiriir' the buttcM'-week. It is the only ono in which
all classes of society partake in common, from the head of all, the enthroned
Bummit of their Babylonian tower, duwn to the lowest and dirtiest of its
base.

The Russians delight as much in all motion where the limbs are at rest,
and tho body ehanges |)laee by means of a nmchine, as they eschew all
corporeal exercise, which keeps the muscles in play. Hence their ))leasuro
in the Russian mountains, as they are called ; in swings, sledge-driving,
sec-sawing on elastic planks, whirling through tho air on roundalmuts, Ac.
Those are amusements in which a Russian's delight is part of his very
nature, and they are enjoyed alike by prince and peasant. The fil)res of
the muscular .system of the Russian are sluggish and unelastic ; gymnastic
exercises aro nowhere moro neglected. Their blood is voluptuous, their
nervous system excitable ; hence this swinging and gliding, this flying
and floating without any eflbrt on their own part, is peculiarly to their
tustc.

Their inventions of this kind are innumerable; but the chief and crown
of all Russian jdeasures for tho people is that expressed by tho favorite
word katsheli (swing), which includes all similar pastimes.

For tho erection of the katsheli of the butter-we(;k they choose a largo
and particularly long piece of ground, which is never wanting in the ex-
tensive Russian towns. In St. Petersburg, tho icy floor of the Neva was
formerly in use ; but since the accident of some years ago, when tho ice
gave way under tho pressure and swallowed up a multitude of the swing-
ers, tho Admiral ty-sqimro has been the chosen spot.

Long trains of sledges, laden with beams and planks, aro scon moving
for days before in that direction, and soon, under the strokes of tho ready
Russian hatchet, theatres and other wooden buildings, which recall tho
palaces of St. Petersburg a hundred and forty years ago, are reared amid
the splendid edifices of the Admiralty, the war-office, the senate and synod
houses, &c. These booths are erected in long rows : among them aro
theatres capable of holding some thousands ; and these ephemeral build-
ings, aping the i ignificence of stone buildings, are decorated with galle-
ries, pillars balconies, &c. At these theatres may be seen hundreds busily
at work, and swarming like so many ants, with their hammers, saws, and

FESTIVALS AND FASTS — ICE-MOUNTAINS.

649

hatchets — afTitrdiiiK no iiiiliitcrostiiig spectacle in tlicmsclvcs, oven l)oforo
the stage has been prcpiirecl for the show.

The most striking of these preparations are tlio ice-mountains, wliich
form the suhjcct of the frontispiece to tiiis volume, and the method of
their construction. A narrow scaffold is raised to the heiglit of tliirty or
more feet, on the top of wliicii is a gallery, ascended on one side by wooden
steps ; on the other is the great descent, very steep at first, and gradually
declining till it becomes level with the ground. It is formed of hngo
scpmre blocks of ice laid upon planks. Under a few strokes of the hatchet
the boautifid crystal masses assume a regular form, and over the whole
water is thrown, from time to time, wliich cements, or rather ices the
blocks together. Where it is level with the ground, dams of snow are
formt-'d on eitlier side, and the gulley between fdled wifli water, wliich,
freezing smooth as glass, lengthens the slide. Two such ice-mountains
stand always opposite one another, so that their paths, only separated by
the snow-dams, run parallel to each other.

The invention of these ice-mountains has boon credited to the Kiiglish.
They may have improved the mechanical part, but tlte amusement itself is
an ancient and a national one, and is practised all over Russia. In the
courtyards of most of the great houses in St. Tetersburg there are such
ice-mountains erected for the amusement of the children ; and even in the
halls of some of the weallliier Russians, elegant " nifscfibrrf^s'' are to be
found, witii this diflerence, that the slide is made, not of ic«, but of polished
mahogany, or of some other smooth wood, down which the little sledges
glide with great rapidity. These are peculiarly adapted to summer use
when ice-iiills can not be formed. There is a mahogany rutschberfi; even iu
the imperial palace. In every town and village these slipjiery declivities
arc crowded with youths and maidens rushing down with the swiftness of
arrows. Tlie sledges are sometimes made of ice, shaped into ships. In
the hollow they lay straw to sit upon, and in front a hole is bored for a
rope. In the climate of Russia these sledges arc lasting enough. Kohl
remarks : " 1 saw one morning, in St. Petersburg, a striking instance of
how much these ice-mountains form a national amusement. I was by
chance very early in a distant quarter of the city, and observed, mounted
on the roof of a snmll building, a number of people, servants, women, and
children, whose slippers and iloating hair betrayed that they had not long
left their beds. They seemed busy about something, and I concluded there
must be a chinniey on fire, or something of that kind. No such thing ;
they had formed a snow-mountain from the roof to the ground, and in a
few minutes down went the whole company, shouting for joy, on a straw
mat, which did duty pro tempore for a sledge."

When all the booths, mountains, and swings, in the Admiralty-square
are firmly fixed (that is, for the temperature of St. Petersburg, the greater
part of the pillars having no other foundation than a hole in the earth filled
with snow and water, which holds them as firm as a rock, unless the St.

550

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RCaSIA.

'1!

Petersburg February belies its nature), the fun begins on the first Sunday
of the butter-week, and then the gliding and sliding, swinging and singing,
whirling and twirling, tea-drinking and nut-cracking, tliat make up the
Massldnitza go merrily on for the eight stated days. In a few days the
snowy floor of the Admiralty-square is regularly paved witli nut-shells, and
looks as if a whole army of nut-crackers had encamped there. Nut'^,
sweetmeats, and honey-cakes, are the only eatables to bo had. Eating-
houses, wine and brandy-shops, are not allowed on the elegant square of
tlio AdmLvalty, as they might give rise to indecorous scenes. V honey
cake may be eaten with grace, and so may a bonbon presented by a lover
to his mistress: even a nut may be tolerated if nibbled at squirrel-fasliion,
and not demolislied by an uncivil crash and a grnnaoe. Cakes and tea
may be nipped and sipped in public, but hunger and thirst let every animal
satisfy in his own lair.

The Russian street-mercl.ants offer everything to everybody. Either
rery elegant pebple must buy very inelegant wares, or tlie sellers must be
BO persuaded of their excellence, or so bewitched by the vision of a few
possililo copecks, tliat they do not ])erceive how little chance they have of
finding customers in sucli a cla;<s.

In the front of the bootlis and theatres, swarming with the tea-drinking,
nut-cracking pedestrians, there is always a broad space reserved for the
equipages of tiie grandees, who make their ai)pearance about noon, to see
the fair. A universal driving in carriages takes jdace regularly in the
butter-week at the kats/ir/i, flic Easter-weck, and on the first of May,
throughout Russia. On tlieir estates, the weallliy Rus;ians and their
guests enjoy these i^nlanies in tlie evening; everytliing that can l)e called
horse or vehicle is put in requisition ; droskies, kaleshes. chaises, landaus,
hunting and provision-carts, are mounted by the whole domestic population,
and away they go coacliing it tiirough the country. The enornjous number
of equipages in a Russian city, where, from a tailor of any eminence up-
ward, everybody keeps one, renders these ^tilanirs very amusing. The
lu.^ury in this respect is greater, in fact, in some ])rovincial cities than in
the two capitals ; as in the former there is no proJiibition of four or six
horses for certain ranks, and every one is at liberty to make his team as
long as he likes, or as he can.

. The merchants are known by their brightly-furbished kaleshes, drawn
by two Idack horses, with their manes plaited into a multitude of little
tails. Tiie foreign aml)assador3 generally adopt the Russian style in the
number and caparison of their horses. The carriages go so slowly that
their contents may be contemplated at leisure ; fair young maidens, with
their pretty French governesses ; countesses and princesses, enveloped in
their sables and silver fox-furs, reclining at their ease, and surveying the
crowd through their eye-glasses ; boys in the national costume, with their
tutors; hero a corpulent merchant with his long beard, and his equally
jolly spouse ; there a bishop or metropolitan, meditating on the vanities

■.j*,».,.,ti« ,,ta«ti.'j-Bi'».-''P'"'

PESTIVAU3 AND FASTS — THE nUHXIXfi TIIKATUR.

551

of tlic world ; thou a foreign cmbassndor ; tlion a nuncio from the pope,
reflecting on the increasing power of the nortliorn heresy. Further on,
twenty court-kaleshes, each with six horses, and filled witli young girls —
these arc the danisels from tlic Sinolnoi convent. English merchants,
German artists, French doctors, Swedish professors, Turks, Persians, Tar-
tars, even Cliinese, and last of all an emperor and his whole court.

We must do the St. Petershurg police the justice to say that the streets
are rarely disturl)ed l»y any scenes of hrutal intemperance. Tiio very quiet
nature of Russia intoxication may perhaps partly account for tliis. A Ru.s-
sian coachman is often as fidl as a l)oUle in a l)in, and yet shows no signs
of any deficiency, till he fairly tunildes ofi' liis l)ox.

Amusing as it is said to he to occupy a convenient ]»lace at this spectacle
of the katshcli — where the Admiralty-S(]\iare is the stage, buildings like
the winter-palace, the senate-house, and the war-oflice, serve as side-scenes,
and where tiie whole population of St. Petershiirg appear as actors — still
it is dilficult to forget tiiat the fe.Uive scene has witnessed two most tragi-
cal occurrences ; tlie one was the giving way of tlie ice on llie Neva, wlien
so many found a watery grave in tlie midst of their thouglitlcss merriment ;
the otlier, and more recent, was the burning of the wooden theatre. Few
narratives excite more horror than those connected with tlie fire just allu-
ded to. Thousands may die battling for freedom ; we honor them, but
Iheir death fills u.« not with dread ; they win a glorious name, and die with
honor. Thousands meet their end upon the sick-bed ; we weep for them,
but it is the course of nature that they r-hould die. l>ut that thousands,
by mere accident, in the midst of sports, in the most thoughtless reveliy,
shoidd bid adieu to this fair world, to all their ))lans an<l Iioih's, stilled in
a miserable wooden booth like so many rats and mice — this is fearfid, and
reminds us too awfully of the feeble tenure l)y which we hold existence.

The wooden theatres at the li-iitshfli aie some of them very large. t)ne
in particular genei'ally sui'jiasses all the otliers in this respect, and is
cajiablc of holding five thousand persons. In this it was that the fire took
place, when the scene was to represent some firework or illuinimition. At
first those behind the scenes, hoping to extinguish tlie fiames. snid nothing
about it; as they iucreasetl, the audience applauded loudly, supposing it
to be the pnnnised spectacle. Suddenly the Ixxjnzzo rushed forward, with
a look of Inu-ror, shouting aloud, '• We are on lire! — save yourselves, you
who can !" The audience answered by loud laughter, at the admiralily-
feigned fear, as they supposed it to bo. Thereupon, as it was impossible
for him to nn\ke himself Iniard, tin; director ordered the curtain to be rsiised,
and a nuiss of fianu' and smoke became visible. Screams of horror burst
from the thousands of throats whence loutl laughter had issued just before.
Each grasped convulsively those dearest to them, and rushed to the doors.
These were but few, the size of the place considered, and a fearful length
of time elapse<l before the foremost gave way to those behind. The flames
ill the meantime gained rapidly upon the pine planks around them, leap-

:I4

4 ll

1!;' ;

J/1 :;

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* '!

!. tl

': !!

552

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION C»P RUSSIA.

iiig from slip to slip, and already showing their fiery tongues among tlio
dense mass of spectators. Most unfortunately it happened that one of the
large folding-doors opened inward. By the pressure of tlie tlirong it was
flung to, and could not be moved one way or the other. On the outside,
the attempts to rescue tlie poor victims were at first feeble, for who in the
midst of gayety dreams of such a fearful chastisement? Those within, in
the meantime, compressed the anguish of years into a few minutes as they
stood breast to breast .shrieking in vain their frantic " Forward !" to those
in advance. The wiiolc mass were stilling, the flames leaping threaten-
ingly over their heads ; yet tliey were only separated by a few thin boards
from the free bright air, and in a few minutes more they might have rent
asunder their fragile tomb with their hands and teeth. Fancy sickens at
the contemplation of the suffering of those, minutes; only one risen froui
the ashes could truly paint occurrences that rent asunder the chords of life
when suddenly awakened from the slumber of thoughtless enjoyment to the
wildest pitch of terror and despair.

The police would not at first allow of any individual effort for the rescue
of the sufferers ; a merchant who had seized a spade succeeded, however,
in defiance of tliem, in dashing tluough a plank, and bringing nearly si.xty
half-suflbcated creatures from this harlequin's hell. The worthy man was
afterward rewarded for hi^ act of courage and huuianity by an order, and,
as he was poor, by a pension of two thousand roubles.

The terrible news soon spread through the town that Lepmann's theatre
was on fire, and thousands struggling with the p ost horrible of deaths.
The anguish became universal. The consternation of the city, the scenes
of agony and transport tliat followed, must have l)een seen to I e understood.
The emperor, who had left the winter-palace ojiposite at the first news of
the fire, was met by shrieking and despairing women calling on him to save
their husl)aiids, sons, and brothers ; he could only answer, " My children,
I will save all I can."

Wiien the fire was got under, and life and flamo within were extin-
guished togetlicr, the dreadful task began of digging out the bodies. The
sight was beyond all conception terril>le when the fallen beams were re-
moved, disclosing the heaps of charred and stifled bodies, which were
dragged out with hooks, like loaves out of an oven. Some were burnt to
a cinder, others only roasted ; of many the hair of their heads was only
singed, while on others it was burnt off"; their eyes were destroyed, their
faces black and calcined, yet some still were decked with the gayly-cidored
handkerchiefs and holyday-dothes, which the thickness of the pressure had
saved from injury! These were far more terril)le to look on than those
entirely l)urnt. In one part of the building that remained standing, a
crowd of dead wore discovered in an erect posture, like an army of shad-
ows from the lower world. One woman was found with her head leaning
over the front of the gallery, her face hidden in Ikm- handkerchief.

The uutubcr of those who perished was oflTicially announced ut three

_«..i»i»i.»- ■<« .»»r«.»«««aito -< -'

FESTIVALS AND PASTS — BALLS AND FETES.

553

hundred, but that is probably far below the mark. " I was told by one
person," says Kohl, " that he liimsclf had counted fifty wapjons, each laden
with ten or fifteen corpses ; and others, who had every means of obtaining
correct information, made an ej<timate, whose amount I am unwilling to
repeat here, lest it should be tlu)nght improbable." Some were brought
to life again ; many died afterward in the hospitals from the injuries ro
ceivcd. One little boy was found sitting, quite unhurt, under a l)cnch,
wliere lie had crept wlion the fulling fragments began to sliuwer down firo
and llame upon the lieads of the doomed multitude. The !)eams and dead
bodies had so faUeii over him as to form a protecting roof against the
flame and smoke, and there the child remained till he was dvaj -cd ^ut.
On the following thiy public prayers were oftered up for t'lc sr ' ^ of the
sufl'ercrs, on tlu; place that had witnessed the scene of their li . i"'

Tiie upper classes take part, as we have seen, in the ccu. .un amuse-
ments of the katslu'li. l)ut it is only for a few hours at noon ; they rc:-*ort
then to other diversions, and revel after their own fashion. To speak first
of the theatres. Many as there are in 6t. Petersburg, they are all in full
play during the Itutter-week ; while it lasts tliere is no rest for the poor
actors. Toward the close of the week they play twice a day, morning and
evening, French, German, Russian, and Italian. In the great theatre (the
IJolslioi tlieatrc, a view of which is given on page .579) the great niar;ked
bidl takes pl;'.(;e in the l»utter-week, and this nuiy also be reckoned among
tlie popular diversions, since every well-dressed person is at lii)crty to go,
Wiiatever be his rank, the emperor himself holding it his duty to ap|)car
theie.

When a Russian noble wishes to give idut to his fete, his first step is
to secure the presence of the emperor and cmpross as his guests. Every
iioblo is at liberty to invite Mi? emperor, who makes much less difficulty of
visiting his subject" than x. .dd be exacted liy the etiquette of most other
courts. Till' lite-givcr put-: uw his dress of ceremony and drives to court,
where he signifies to the grand-master of the ceremonies that he wishes to
give a ball, if it In; tlie pleasure of the emperor and empress to honor it by
their presence; anu at the same time presents the list of the company in-
vited, which is generally returned naaltered. Now and then a name is
struck (ait, or the de;-iie nitiniated tliat wn toreigne.s bo present, the empe-
ror desiring for that night to be alone with his suiijects.

A chief article of luxury on such an occasion is the display of a numerous

retinue. At one given by Count IJ , a hundred servants in livery were

stationed on the stairs alon . The servants of the house of course arc not
enough, and ten roubles an evening are paid on such occasions for a good-
looking figure for the part. The liveries, of course, nnist be all new for
the occasioii ; and at the count's fete fifty wore violet-colored velvet trim-
med with silver, and fifty purple velvet with gold, the colors of the lord
and lady of the house. On every stair stood alternately an orange or
l<5tnoii-troc, and a volvct-clud domestic, from the house-door to that of tlie

•tli

,;^. i

J 1

'1 !!

i! 'I

^ \

I '1

654

ILLUSTRATED DKSCniPTTON OP UU?«IA.

saloon. Tlio empress dowager is a crroat lovor of (lowers, consequently
every I)all in St. Petersburg presents a profusion of them. One room is
generally arranged as a winter-garden, and rosc-buslics and arbors of roses
of every slinde form inviting nooks for rcfresliment.

Abundant as flic diversions are during llie T?ussian carnival, tliey doulilo
and triple during tlie last d( vs of tlie Imttcr-week. Fast and furious
waxes tlic revelry during tlie three or four days iiroeeoiiig the great fast
The schools break up, the public offices are closed, the great theatr(?s give
representations morning and evening, and the twelve bojnzzos on the kat-
s/ic/i auiiouiiee some novelty every live minutes; the rich </\\c d jfi'iriers
(fansnnts, which last till five or si.x in the evening, take a few hours' rest,
and then make a new and brilliant toilette for a second Imll at nigltt.

A tIt'SSIAN Cakoubal »C*lNO Eajteb.

Amoivjr tlie common people, in th^ iH<>antime, tlie diunkenness of the
evening c(/f»<;lud<:s the into.xieation (A tUe worning; the public, wherever it
if to 1k« seen, seems in the l)ost possible unm^tr. .»nd aj.plauds everything and
everybody. 'I'lie t!m|><-ior and all liis crx'rt finvc alioiit in their brilliant
i'A\\i'\yH'^o.» ; down rush the shidg^v from tlw; ic«?-i»*ount»ris till the ice glows
again j *ke swings are at fidl Wight ; tin' ij*')!*" t/f tlve wooden hous-s in the
roundal)outs tingle without ceasing : fV; h<ij»t%of ann«»iHii;e it'Aw lious to
hour how long tlie Ma.ss/unifzo has P) hirft: niwbjy rails hix les n oil" tlio
tongue of iiini who sliow/ iIh; lions and tl>' IxA-CMisf^pet'/K. rhr.l he may
despatch one set wf custonj<;rs to got as many m*>rp. an pr>j««ibk. All tho
pulses of life l»eat jyrestissimo ; all seem aaf^r Vt drain the lant drop in tho
cup of joy, until the hour of midnight strike- and proclaims the beginning
of the Just. Every diuiciiig coujde is \)\im^\* ti- a siidoen halt, aiid every

FESTIVALS ANr» FASTS — THE GREAT FAST.

555

o^'. departs homeward to SAvectcn tlic tcdioiisiit'ss of Uie fast with the
I'f^mcinbrancc of the enchanting joys of tlic last days of the carnival.

iMie biitter-wcck, as before remarked, is fuUowed l)y tlie great fast, tl'O
severity of whicli banishes not only llesh and fowl, but milk, c<rgs, l)utter,
and even sugar, on account of the sniall mixture of animal substance used
ill the refining. Soups made of kivas and mushrooms, fish, and calces
flavored with oil, tea and coffee with almond-milk, mushrooms again, with
cncuinl)ers in vinegar — those are the dainties that succeed the fat blinnis,
rich pasties, cakes, and rutis of the butter-week. Neither is wine or any
spirituous liquors permitted, whereby a cook might give some spirit to his
mushroomed, fishy, oily, fasting-sauces, or the tea-drinker to his watery
beverage. Tlie people of the lower classes exclude even fish in the first
and lust weeks of th'^ f'.st, as tiiey do on the Wednesdays and Fridays in
tlie remaining five. These two days, which must always take precedence
of the others, are distinguished in the last week by total al)stinencc. The
very stricily ])ious extend this additional severity of observance to the
whole seven weeks, with a three days' total abstinence in the week l)eforc-
Easter. Kven tlie upper classes observe the fasts much more strictly than
they do in catholic countries. Tlie first and last weeks, with the Wednes-
days and Fridays of the remainder, arc generally religiously onserved.
The greatest numl)er of infractions of the fast l)ear reference to tlie l)randy-
bottle, tiie very point in which al)stinence would be most lienelicial; some
maintain that the Russians drink .is much of it during the fasts as at any
other time. Jt is not, however, called liraiidy, but it is enjoyed under the
disguise of all maninr of eupliemisms.

It is remarkable enough how carefully a Russian watches tliat nothing
of an animal substance pass his lips when he has really made up his mind
to last in earnest. A young girl will throw away a whole cup of tea
directly, if she smell that her French governess has put cream into it iii-
rtt(!ad of almond-milk. Occasionally ni(»lhers lake it on themselves to give
their little ones a dispensation on the ground of indisposition.

After a fast-day breakfast, a walk on tho .Vdmiralty-iilace, to which peo-
ple instinctively resort, is a most dismal affair. It is all scattered over
with ruins of temporary hou.ses and liooths, the ground j)aved with nut-
shells and orange-peel. The wooden horses of the roundabout stand idle,
the gi'yly-decorated ships and swings lie shattered and heaped together
like wood for burning, the smooth mirrors of the ice-mountains are broken
up with iron bars ; and the poor merry-andrew, the hajnzzo, what has
become of him? — he that, for days together, seemed inexhaustible in fun
and jest? It is melancholy to see how rational lie looks as he j)aiits and
perspires under the burden of planks, the sad remains of his Ibol's-palace.
The thousand voices that stunned us but the day before are silent, or only
employed in reckoning thMr gains or settling with their merchants. All
are stretching, yawning, and shuddering at the joylessness of the long
seven weeks before thcin.

's\

III

1 ■ »

.:i:i]i:

-i Ui

556

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The greater part of the public amusements, especially balls and plays,
are strictly proliibited. Assemblies and soirees, without dancing or mask-
. ing, take the place of the tumultuous ball ; and as cow's-milk is changed
into almond-milk, butter into oil, and flesh into fish, so plays become pub-
lic declamations and improvisations, o[)cras cliange into concerts ; and the
theatre, which must not act plays, is open for tableaux vivants. The
seven fasting weeks to the gay world are one long night, in which only the
modest ^tars and moon faintly gleam, till all at once, like Apollo with hie
steeds of light, the bright sun of Easter breaks forth in full splendor. In
the butter-week the dresses of the belles at a St. Petersburg party are
glittering witii a profusion of jewels. For tltc fasts, the brilliant diamond
is too glaring; the single row of pearls in the hair, here and there the
modest tunjuoise peeping forth like a violet or forget-me-not, and coral
ornaments lor the arms and throat, air alone seen at the reunions, where
conversation and song have displaced the waltz an<l polonaise.*

The fasting-weeks are the golden harvests of the musical artists ; every
evening some new singer or violinist is anuouhe'ed, with recommendations
from Vienna or Paris ; and sometimes one will undertake alone to amuse
the St. Petersburg j)ul)lie, which \vould before have tasked the art of a
hundred high priests of Thalia. The best of tiie fast-time amu.sements are
the tableaux vieanls, which are given witii great taste and magnificence.

The monotony of the fasts is now and then broken by the feast of some
saint, wiiicli may fall in this time. Happy tlie saint tluis celebrated ; ho
may reckon u))on numerous adorers; and happy the child whose birthday
occurs at tliis time. He nniy be sure it will be kept till his cightietl» year
with great joy and festivity ; first l»y his parents, then by his brothers and
sisters, by blood and inarriage, and afterward by his children and grand-
children. Family festivals are deemed innocent things, quite suitable to
the serious. less of a fast, and therefore people try to make them as splendid
as possible.

Palm Sunday is anotlic very agreeable interruption of the great fast.
Tiie children's festival is celebrated on Palm Sunday. T!;o scene of this
pretty fair is under the arcades <f the great Gostinnoi Dvor, and in the
adjoining streets. Hug':' bundles of twigs are l»rought into the city by the
peasants, some very sinal' ."hile others are great brandies, almost as big
as young trees, to suit the various amounts of jiiety ; for while the severe
orthodox father buys a whole tree, which he gets blessed in the church,
and afterward suspends under the pictures of his saiuts, his elegant son
contents himself with a delicate little twig, which ho cracks like any

• In no country uic no rniiny (liiimotKln nnd otiipr [nccimis stones displiiyod rs in Rnssin. Not
only pvery RimBi«n Isdy of lunk tiii'! lur jrwi-l-ciiskct, in uliirli, bpsidc tlioin rrnily Bi't, ehi- lm> a
qtiiintity of loosii diiunond« nnd peiiild, to bo anuiigiMl nrroiding to fiinry at diH'crcnt times nnd
plncpn, l)ut rvon tlie little gi.la linvc tln^ir cnskcts, contninirig dozpns of rings, rnr-riiigs, bruct>)ft4,
&c., with wliirli tlicv arc consliintly di-comti'd. How nccesaiiry tlioy csterni tdem miiy L>p IcnrncJ
from thi" fact lliat ii nt'wiy-marrifd co'iple, whoso wliolo rnpital was »ix thousand roubles, expended
clircc tliousunil for jowels and ornnmonts, and the other three for beds, tables, and other furniture

lEBZEaiSSSSUrBBi

FESTIVAL!? AND PASTS — PALM SATURDAY.

657

'(liiiiiry wliip. To those natural foundations nro appended tlio palms
wliicli tut lias constructed to aid tlie poverty of a nortlicrn April. The
bare twijj: is furnished willi an al)undancu of loaves and llowci's, some copied
from niitiire, and some the production of a lively fancy. Some are made
like the lu-aiiches of fruit-trees, and lunifj with all the fruits of the cast
imitated in wax, with waxen birds and waxen angels fastened to the boughs
with sky-blue ribands. A great number of natural flowers arc also brought
from tlic numerous hot-houses of St. Petersburg : ccntifolia, moss-roses,
violets, hyacinths, and orange-flowers, for the elder sisters, who are not
content to leave the fair with none but artificial flowers. As flowers alone
would not be accoptai)le to children, sweetmeats and playthings are also
to be iiad in abundance. Tlic Russians have a peculiar talent for making
figures and toys out of tiie most worthless materials in the world ; straw,
shavings, ice, dongh, they turn all to account.

The stalls for tlio sale, or ratlier the exchange, of saints' pictures, im-
ages, etc. (for the Russian must not sell the picture of a saint, though ho
may exchange it, which he does sometimes for money), are also provided
with a nudtitudc of amulets, crosses, &c., of all possible sizes, forms, and
materials ; and if a person is not inclined to load himself with a heavier
cross, lie at least takes one of gingerbread, which he has the advantage of
being able to cat when he is tired of carrying it. The dealers in i)laster-
of-Puris figures throng here in greater numbers thau in their Italian father-
land.

As this is a regular naiionul festival, the emperor holds it his duty to
honor it with his j)resence, and brings all his sons and daughters with him.
Ou a brigiit dear c'.ay, such as even a St. Petersburg April sometimes
aflbrds. Kohl remarks that a walk here among all these significant and
insignificant people affords one of the most amusing spectacles of the
season ; it is, as it were, the morn of the night of the great fast.

On Verhnoi Siibbola (I'alm J^aturday) a great proc(!ssion takes place, in
imitation of Clirist's entry into .Jerusalem, and all stream into the churches,
carrying lu'anches, and singing. The priests sprinkle branch and branch-
bearers with holy water, and uild a blessing into the bargain ; the greater
number then carry away their palms. Whole groups are to bo met with
carrying them about till late in the evening — father, mother, and children,
with the Borvants walking behind them ; even the infant in the nurse's
arms has a j)alm-twig, sprinkled and blessed, thrust into its tiny fist. As
for the l)oys, the best use they can make of their twigs is to flog each other
with them, which they do hantisomely. Some of the more pious leave their
branches till Sunday in the church, and many suspiMid them over their beds,
ascribing all sorts of healing influences to the leafless twigs. The children
also cherish theirs carefully, but for another purpose. It is the custom
throughout Russia to ptmish those who sleep too late on Palm Sunday to
attend early maj»«, by flogging them with the palm-branchos. Girls and
boys are oil so eager to administer this discipline, that they lie awake

Jiliiiri

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558

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

li' ;i

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half the iii^lit thinking of it ; and as soon as the day breaks, they arc run-
ning about ill liaiids in scarcli of and punishinj; tlic sleepers. This custom
prevails tiirouphout Russia, and tlic imperial children exercise the privilege
ns eagerly as tliose of lower rank.

The Easter-eggs {day a very important part at this time of the year.
St. I\'tci>burg, lying in a plain little peopled either by man or barn-door
fowLs, must procure iier eggs from a great distance. Moscow in particular
supplies large quantities. On a very moderate calculation, there can not
be less than ten millions used at Easter in tliis capital ; for, as it is always
ciistoiiiary at Easter, on greeting aa acquaintance, to i)res3 an egg into his
hand, many an individual may consume his hundreds.

Notliing is said to be more amusing than to visit the markets and stalls
where tlie painted eggs are sold. Some are painted in a variety of pat-
terns ; some have verses i.isc.ibed on them ; but the more usual inscri[>tioii
is tiie general Easter-greeting, '■'■ Chrisfohs vosskress^^ (Christ is risen), or
" Eat and tliink of me," ttc. The wealthier do not, of course, content
theiiiselves with veritalile eggs, dyed with lirazil-wood, but profit by the
custom, to show their taste and gallantry. Scarcely any material ia to be
named tliat is not made into Kaster-eggs. " At the imperial glass-cutting
manufactory," says Koiil, " we saw two halls filled witii workmen employed
on nothing else but in cutting flowers and figures on eggs of crystal. Part
of them were for the emperor and empress to give away as presents to the
courtiers." As the latter receive many of these things, they, of course,
give them away auuiu to their friends and favorites, who, tlie next Easter,
bestow them lii their turn elsewhere ; so that these eggs often travel to
amazing distances. It is said that one, which cuiiie from the imperial pal-
ace, passed through numberless hands of high and low, till its last posses-
sor, having let it fall on a stone, pitched the fragments into the Black sea.

The wax-fruit makers and confectioners produce some pretty pieces of
workmanship, in elegant boxes filled with eggs of all sizes in regular order,
from the mighty ostrich-egg down to the nightingale's, and all in wax and
sugar. Some are bonbunniires, and very costly presents are also oflcred
ill egg-shells ; sniuo are transparent, and in jdace of the yolk, contain little
faiiy bouquets, and some have a magnityiiig-glass neatly fitted in, and dis
play houses and trees fbrni'd in wax, pictures of saints, and tiny angels
couched on roses. A considerable trade is carried on in such commodities
at Easter from St. Petersburg, which returns in imitative sugar the raw
produce of the hen- uuse received from the provinces.

On Holy Thursday the occurrences of the day are read out of the four
Evangelists after mass. The prie.»t stands in the middle of the church at a
desk, on which burn three candle- The churches are in general thronged,
and as every member of the congregation holds a taper in the hand, they
make an uncommonly cheerful appearance. The poor take a pride in hav-
ing these tapers as thick as they can get them, and may often be seen with
bf^autifully-gilded tapers which have cost them a couple of roubles each.

.«v,.««^»i**»'*«»'" -''■'

FESTIVALS AND FARTS — KASTKR-EVE.

•''0

They aro burnt lliroiigliout tlio Tlmrsday evening, CAtingnisIiecl on (lood
Friday, and kindled again at midnight on Easter-eve. Tlie streets of tlie
towns and villages that are in general unlighted, are then gay with wan-
dering illuminations as the taper-bearers go from one church to another;

In?ibio> at .. R-issiiL^ Chuich— Thk Assumption at Moscow.

and that the tapers may not be extinj^uished, which is looked upon as an
ill omen, they are carried in paper lanterns.

On Good Friday there is no further ceremonial than the erection of a
kind of tabernacle in the churches* iii general, a mere box laid upon tres-

( - '\

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• i 1

6G0

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUaSIA.

sols nnd covered with a cloth ; on tho uppor side of the cloth, the body of
the P "deenicr is represented in painting, emhroidory, oi mlf-iolicf. Thin
taberiiiu'lc stands there till Easter-evo, V'tii only so many li^^hts as are
necessary to show tho oltjects. Tiie dooM < ; I'lo churches stand constantly
open, and the people >;o in nnd ont to ki^s the simulated wounds.

In the last days of tho fast expectation is strained to the highest pitch.
On the Saturday before Eastor-(hvy tlie thermometer of religious inspiration
falls below zero. Tho lights, llie singing, the bells, all tho pomp t)f divine
service is consigned to repose. Tlic dtn-out are thoroughly exhausted will'
abundant kneeling and listening to the long readings. Many have had
nothing whatever to eat for the last three days, nnd are really hull-starved.
The churches arc as dark as the grave; no priest shows himself on tho
Saturday evening till midnight. It is customary for one of tho congrega-
tion to take on himself the office of reading from tho gospel. A desk, on
which lies an open bible, is placed in tho middle of the church ; one of tho
lower classes, who can just spell out Slavonian, will advance, light his
taper, and read till some one else advances to release him. Except tho
beautiful church-singing, no custom of the Russian church seems so really
touching and edifying as this public reading.

Toward midnight tho tlirong increases. In St. Peters!)urg tho court
appears in the imperial chapel in fidl dress; and in the provinces the gcv-
ernor, with all his adjutants and officers in their splendid uniforms, attend
the r-athedral. The priests begin a mass, which is but languidly performed
<:v ]■ ^tened to, till all at once, at the hour of midnight, the whole scene
':li!i ,ges. The golden door of the " lA'wwjs/r/.v/ " flies open, and the song
bursts forth, ^'■Christohs vo.sshress ! C/iristo/is vosskress ihs mortvui!"
{_'■ Christ is risen, Christ is risen from 4hc dead !") At tho same moment
the illumination of the church is completed, not only tho lamps and grcot
chandelier, but tho countless tapers in the hands of tho congregation, which
have been held hitherto unlighted. While the chief body of the priests,
still singing "C/im7<;//.t voss/cress,''' remove tho pall with tho corse, two
others, in their richest dress, pass through tho church willi censers in their
hands, repeating the joyful words, and stopping before the shrine of every
saint to swing the -jcnser and make thoir genuflections, and before every
group of devotees to bestow their blessing. The congregation shako hands,
and kiss all with whom they have tho most di.^tant acquaintance. The
singing of tho priests meanwhile continues. They also ombraco each
other; the bishop, metropolitan, or whatever priest of the highest rank
may be present, now places himself before the ikanostast, and bestows on
every nion)l)er of the congregation who approaches him his blessing and a
kiss, with the words " Christohs vosskressV The churches are illuminated
without us well as within, and all tho bells in tho city ring out at once.
In St. Petersburg, many of the streets and public buildings are illuminated ;
rocket after rocket rushes along the sky, and tho cannon boom at intervals,
amid all the countless bells and voices echoing each other from all sidoa.

FESTIVALS AND PASTS — EaSTER.

EaSTKR-KI89RII.

Amid all this tumult, a prn<>cssion, headed hy tlio priests, all bearing
(apers iiiid torciicj*, passes i mud the church; aud tlien the last ceremony,
tho blossiiifi; of the food, takes place about three o'clock in the morning.
The ricii, who have the means of consecratiou at iiaud, do not iind it neces-
sary to carry I'leir food to church, and moreover, they are sometimes (piito
content with tli species of consecration a fj,(iod cook bestows; but tho
poor can not enjoy their Easter-breakfast till it has been blessed by tho
priest; — pi-ihaps they have a foreboding how ill it is likely to sit upon
the stomacii weakened by long fasting.

The spectacle in tho churcii is most extraordinary. They range all tho
dishes iu long rows through the whole church, leaving space enough be-
tween the rows for the priests to pass, till tho increasing numbers compel
them to form (ho lines without the church, and even a good way round.
The huge, oddly-shaped loaves, called kulilshe, the towers of white cheese,
into which colored leaves of spico arc interwoven — the former decorated
with (lowers, the latter bearing a burning wax-taper on its summit — tho
heaps of red-colored eggs, lumps of sugar, pots of honey, plates of ])ro
served fruit — all these painted, illuminated, many-colored, strange-looking
eatables, and collected in such quantities, must have a very singtdar etlect.

Aa tho priest advances, sprinkling to the right and left, and pronounuim:

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ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

tlio blessing, while iiis attendant keeps up a constant chant, the pcoptu
press closci- and closer, crossing themselves, and keeping a sharp watch
tl»at their flowers and Ibod get their due share of the purifying waters.

The Russian Easter banquets must certainly bo the most peculiar things
of the kind that can bo seen, both from the time at which they arc taken
(the sun often rising on the dessert), and from the appearance and demeanor
of the guests. Whole colleges and corporations come in gala-dresses to
pay their court, Tlius the professors of a university pay their respects to
tho curator, the judges, secretaries, and other officers of the law-courts,
to their president, <tc. All is bowing, congratulating, and kissing. Tho
cooks and confectioners give themselves a world of trouble ta prejjaro their
dishes with some reference to the time. Lambs jnado of butter are often
paraded in the middle of tiie table, the fleece admirably imitated in tho
butter also ; lambs of sugar, decorated with flags, crosses, «&c. Many
dishes appear in the foruj of an egg, which seems to be held almost as
saci'cd. Homo years ago, a court-lady gave an Easter-breakfast to tho
imperial family, at which every dish at table was served up in eggs. Tho
soups sent uj) their savory steam from gigantic ostrich-eggs, furnished, as
well as the other eggs for holding hot food, by the porcelain manufnctory.
Here eggs produced chickens full grown and ready roasted, and there a
monstrous birth developed a sucking-pig; wliile pasties, puddings, creams,
game, fruit, and jellies, blushed through egg-shells of fine glass. Lastly,
by way of dessert, eggs of g(jld paper were ofl'ered, containing almonds,
raisins, and sweetmeats of all sorts.

To be thoroughly natiouiil, two dishes arc indispensable at an Eastor-
breakfast — paskha aud Iculitsh. Pask/ia is niado of curds beaten hard,
and served in a pyramidal form ; tlic kulUsh is a thick, round, cylindrically-
shaped white loaf, sometimes made with a mtdlitude of little kulUshi
sticking upon it, like young oysters on the back of an old one, with plums,
cousecrated })alm-twigs, &c., which latter always project a little from the
crust. Both must be decorated with flowers and wax-lights.

One of the most interesting features of the Easter festivities is tho
Easter-kiss, already incidentally alluded to, and amusingly illustrated by
the engraving on tho preceding page. We will endeavor to give some
idea of tlio extent of this singular custom. In the first place, all members
of a family, without exception, kiss each other : if the family consist only
of ten individuals, there are at once ninety kisses. Then all acquaintance
meeting for the first time at Easter, and even where tho acquaintance is
but slight, would think it a breach of politeness not to kiss and embrace
each other with tho greatest cordiality. If we suppose now that every
person in St. Petersburg has, upon a very moderate average, a hundred
acquaintances more or less intimate, that calculation will givo for St.
Petersburg alone, with its half-million iidiabitants, a sum total of fifty mil-
lion Easter embraces. Let us consider only on how large a scale many
iudividuals must carry on the business In the army every general of a

FF5TTVALS AND FASTS — KASTEII-KIRSE9.

568

Cfirps (if sixty llioiisancl men must cmbnico all tlic officer?, every colonel,
llioso of liis regiment, nnd a select nunil)er of soldiers into tlio bargain.
The captain salutes all the soltiicrs of his company, who arc mustered for

TtM EfiruM oiTiNa mi Cabxi* tub fiMSiKt-Kiu.

iho purpose. Tho same in tao civil department ; the chief embraces all
his si.bordinatos, who wait on him in their gala-dresses. Considering how
numerous are tho divisions and subdivisions in a Russian bureau, the chief
must have no little occasion for lip-salvo on tho following daj ; for these

):,

564

ILLUSTRATRD DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

official caresses arc by no means mere matters of pretence, as they are
bomctiincs on the stage, but real downright smacks, such as might be ex-
clmngcd by lovers. A subordinate officer has enough to do, wlio has often
a dozen grades above him; but as to the poor dignitaries, tlioy must be
fairly out of breath. Herein, of course, as in all other cases, the largest
share of business falls to the emperor's lot. Let us consider his numerous
family, bis enormous retinue, the countless numbers who come to salute
him on Easter morning, those of the nobles whom ho is more intimate with,
and may meet by accident; and oven then he has not done. On parade
the whole body of officers, the cadets, and some of the privates picked out
for the occasion, arc honored with an imperial embrace, which is not
refused even to the meanest sentinel of his palace as ho passes him on
Easter Sunday.

As all these caresses are given and received with the greatest cheerful-
ness, and amid smiles and handshakings, as if they saw each otlicr for the
first time after a long separation, or after some heavy and long-endured
misfortune, it may be easily imagined how many gay and amusing scenes
are passing in the streets and houses. " Christohs vosskress, Yefitn Ste-
phanovick" ("Ciirist is risen, Euphem Stephen's son"), bawls one beai'ded
fellow to another. '■'•Voyst venno vosskress?" ("Is he really risen ?")
Then they seize each otiicr's hands, embrace heartily, and finish with
" Padi/t'jm v'kabak brat" (" Let us go to tlic public-house, brother") ; and
to the public-house they go, where the brandy runs as freely as clear water
in Mahomet's paradise. It is an exaggeration, however, to assert, as some
travellers have done, that, under the shield of '■'Christohs vosskress," any
stranger is at liberty to salute any unknown fair one. It is true that even
in the higher circles some elderly gentlemen will take advantage of tho
Bcason, and give occasion for some badinage among the youn^ ladies,
though it is never amiss. The coachman ard other male-servants

kiss the children of r masters without ceremony, but only tho hands of
the grown-up daughters ; the domestics on these occasions fill their pockets
with painted eggs, one of which is presented to every one they salute, or
from who 1 a trifling douceur may be expected in return.

During the whole of tho Eastcr-weck the churches stand constantly open,
and even the golden doors of the sanctuary, which remain closed through-
out the year, excepting at certain moments during divine service, now
admit the gaze of all. The more pious, generally, hear a long mass every
rcorning before they hasten to their amusements. The holydays are closed
by a *' final mass," at the end of which " tho division of broad" takes place.
Large loaves are baked, tho outer crust of which is colored red, and
stamped with tho words *' Christohs vosskress ihs mortvui" in gold letters
These loaves are cut into small pieces ; the priests fill some baskets with .
them, carry them to the railing round tho altar, and throw down tho bits
of bread among tho people, who stretch out their hands with eagerness.
The pieces oi'e anxiously examined to see who has got the letters. Those

FESTIVALS AND PASTS — RECOLLECTION MONDAY.

666

who obtain tbe characters forming tlie first word of the inscription liold it
for a particular i>ieco of good-fortune ; but the lioldcrs of the hist Avord,
^^mortvui" (death), on the other liand, arc much grieved, and esteem it a
very bad omen. With this ceremony, as before said, the Easter-liolydaya,
properly speaking, end. Everything, however, has a conclusion, tlien an
ord, and then a real and complete ccrfsation. So there comes hailing be-
hind the Russian Easter yet another holyday, which may be said finally to
close the doors of these festivals. It is the Monday after Easter, called
by the Russians '•^ Pominatelnui ponyede.lnik" ("Recollection jMonday").
This Monday is, no doubt, brought in connection with Easter, partly be-
cause it follows so immediately, and partly because the resurrection of
Ciirist has a natural connection with the hoped-for resurrection of thoso
dear to us. To say the truth, Recollection Monday is a kind of monster
of a holyday, for in the manner of its celebration religious gravity is so
much revolted, and yet the feeling and fancy flattered by so much that is
kindly, that wo know not well whether wo should condemn it for its inde-
corum, or cherish it for its child-like simplicity. In the morning the
people flock to tho cemeteries, and after attending service in the chapels
belonging to them, in memory of and honor to their dei)arted friends, take
a meal over their graves !

At a very early hour the never-wearied holyday-folks may be seen setting
forth, with bag and baggage, on foot and in vehicles. The food is carried
in the first place into the chapels, and laid upon the table in the middle.
There is generally a largo round loaf in the midst of a dish ; and round
about it the red-painted Easter-eggs, salt, gingerbread, oranges, and lemons.
In tho midst of the loaf a lighted taper is always stuck, without which a
Russian, no more than a Gheber, can observe a religious solemnity, tho
clear flickering flame being to him always a symbol of the spiritual. Every
one has his loaf of a diflbrcnt form from the rest; one has added a dish of
rice and plums, anotlier a pot of honey, and a third some other dish, ac-
cording to his means. On every loaf a little book is laid, called " books
of remembrance," in which the names of the departed are usually inscribed.

After the usual mass, the priests approach the strangely-loaded tables
and sing prayers for the dead, swinging the censers all the while. They
turn over tho leaves of the before-mentioned books, and introduce tho
names there found in tho prayer. When this general prayer and conse-
cration is over, tho people disperse about the churchyard ; each party seek
tho graves of their friends, pai ticularly of those lately lost, and weep over
them. The greater number mourn in silence ; but some, whose sorrow is
yet now, cast themselves in despair upon the earth, and give it vent aloud.

" On one occasion," says Kohl, " I noticed particularly one old woman,
whose voice of lamentation resounded over the whole burying-ground. I
went up to her and asked for whom she mourned. She raised herself and
answered for a yopng married daughter. Then she threw herself down
again with her face to tho grass, and cried into the grave as if her child

500

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

could hear : * All, my dearest daughter, why hast thou forsaken mo ? Ah,
thou loveliest ! thou young one ! why hast thou left thy old mother with
her seventy years? Couldst thou not wait till she had gone before theo?
Ah, my daughter, is it not against nature that the child should leave her
mother un'tended ? And thy little son, thy Fedor, he too is left. Alas!
alas ! my daughter, son and mother are left alone !' Thus she mourned till
the priests came to her grave. I can not express how deeply tlie lamen-
tation of this poor old woman affected me, as she chanted her sorrow in a
kind of church-melody; now and then ceasing entirely, and burying her
gray careworn head in the grass."

The priests in tlie meantime parade tlie churchyard with burning tapers
and crucifi.\cs, and perform u sjiecial service over every grave where it is
desired, the "books of remembrance" being handed to them for the pur-
pose. The priests are generally followed by troops of unfortunate persons,
cripples and beggars, wIjo expect to receive part of the food in alms.
Some of the mourners give the whole of what they bring, and make thus
a worthy offering, ^o the departed. Tlic majority, however, spread their
napkins over the graves, arrange their food upon them, not forgetting the
wine and brandy-bottles, and set to work with as good an appetite as if
the day had been preceded by seven years' of Egyptian famine instead of
a Russian Easter. The priests, of course, come in for a share, and taste
something at every grave. Koiil remarks that he approached one com-
pany, consisting of some official persons, among whom there was one dec-
orated with a couple of orders. These people liad covered a lotig grave
with a large tablecloth, and had loaded it abundantly from a store in their
carriage, which was drawn up close by, and out of which they were con-
tinually fetching fresli supplies ! Two priests were among the revellers in
this group, and were challenged more frequently than any others of the
party. Not before night are the dead left in peace in their last resting-
place, and many, unfortunately very many, leave in a condition which may
be said to have turned the day of remembrance into one of complete for-
getfulness.

The great excesses committed at this season are particularly misplaced,
when the digestive system has been so much lowered in tone, and cause
much sickness among the lower class of Russians ; so that, for many, their
holydays are attended by very evil consequences. The hospitals are never
so ftdl as after Easter; and, according to the statement recently made to
a traveller by a Russian physician, statistical writers, in giving the bills of
mortality for the several months, might safely quote the Easter holydays
a.s in some measure accounting for the great number of deaths in the month
of April.

LITERATOBE AND EDUCATION.

CHAPTER XXII.

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.

'ITII tlic exception of tlio
writings of the monks,
we liavo no trace of LiT-
ERATURK of any kind du-
ring tiie darker period of
Russian liistory. Nestor, Ba-
sil, and Sylvester — all priests
— wrote the annals of their
times ; Kyril, too, and many
other holy men excelled in
theological disquisitions, some
of wiiich are still extant; but
almost every record of that
early period was destroyed
by the Mongol-Tartars of the
Middle-Horde, who, for up-
ward of two hundred years,
kept the Muscovite princes in
a state of subjection. It was
not till the middle of the fifteenth century that Russia was once more free ;
out her people had been too long restrained from any attempt at enlight-
enment, by their savage oppressors, to be able to compete with tlioir more
western rivals in the race for improvement: those fatal years IuhI given
them too long a start, and the Muscovites abandoned the idea of emulating
tliis onward progress in despair. It was not until the accession of Peter
the Great to the throne tliat any positive ciiangc took jilace ; and during
this period the more educated Russians were influenced by the Polish and
(JerMian literature and languages, which may be accounted for by the fact,
that Ivan the Terrible, when engaged in the siege of Kazan against the
Tartars, obtained the assistance of certain military engineers from Ger-
many, and who in many instances remained in the Muscovite service. The
influence wiiich those foreigners exercised was soon after visible through-
out all grades of Russian society ; and from that time the moral action of
the example of western Europe upon the vast territories of the czars has
been over increasing and progressive.

Htacintu BrrciiocBiN, Omiktal Linguist,

5G8

ILLUSTOATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

It was in the reign of Ivan, too, tliat tlio first prlntinjr-onico was estab-
lished at Moscow ; and in 15G5 lie founded a school of theolojry. The
Machiavclllc czar, Uoris OodunofT, though his reign was short, also inter-
ested himsolf in the education of the youug Muscovite nobility of liis time.
Tlie czar Micliacl, the first of the present house of Romanoff, and Alexis
and Feodor III., the father and brother of Peter the Great, prepared the
way ably for the rapid and gigantic strides of that niaster-miud among
reformers.

Peter the Great was essentially practical and a utilitarian. To teach
his people tlie habit of looking for information into books, he caused a
number of the best works to bo at onco translated into Russ, from the dif-
ferent languages of Europe. He was vigorously assisted in liis laudable
endeavors by Tlieophan Prokovitch, the Archiepiscon (archbislio|)) of Nov-
gorod, who from his virtues and talents was called the Muscovite Chrysos-
tom, and who alone wrote no loss than sixty works.

In 1724 Peter founded the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg. His
views were furthered by many gifted and excellent men ; and last, but not
least, by Gluck, the Livonian clergyman, who had been made a prisoner
during the war of Peter witli Cln\rlos XII. of Sweden, and who had brought
up that interesting and humble girl in his modest household, who was
afterward destined to beconyj tiie empress Catherine I. of all the Russias.

During this period of Russian history and the reign of Peter I., from
1682-1725, Prince Kantomir was perhaps the most brilliant literary light
that Russia possessed : he was a great classic and linguist ; he wrote upon
very many subjects, and his satires arc still greatly admired ; he died in
1745. As lyric poets, two Cossacks particularly distinguished themselves,
Kirscha Daniloff and Klcmovki : the national songs of the former writer,
about tlie licroic Vladimir and his gallant Boyards, arc still admired and
prized in Russia.

About 1724, a Russian and a poet turned his attention to the nature of
his native language, and its adaptability for poetry, and he strenuously
suggested the adoi)tion of classical metre, founded upon measure and
quantity ; but his efforts and almost his works were soon lost sight of, not-
withstanding the warm co-operation of the empress Catherine, who even
went so far as to impose as a punishment for any little fault of etiquette
among her courtiers, that they should learn by heart a certain number of
the verses of her protege — their quantity, of course, being commensurato
with the little offence committed.

The empress Catherine I., Anna, and Elizabeth, were certainly munifi-
cent patronesses of the belles lettres. It was in the year 1756, and during
the reign of Elizabeth, that the university of Moscow was founded, among
many other educational institutions, subject, of course, to a governmental
censorship. The free erection of printing-presses all over the country was
granted by a ukase in the year 1783, during the reign of Catherine II.
Tlic bulk of the people, had, of course, liut little improved by these efforts

LlTEnATUBE AND EDUCATION.

569

tt mental progress ; and yet it was in the fiimily of a luimblo fishorman iu
the north of the cn»j)irc, from tlic ncigliborliood of Arclmnp;cl, that Michael
Lonionosoft' was born, about the year 1711 or 1712. Notwithstanding
every diHicnlty, lie made himself a linguist, a scientific authority, and a
pliilosopl'.er ; ho for some time pursued his learned labors and researches
at Freiburg, in Germany. Beside being the author of the Russian Cram-
mar, he was the first to draw a distinct line of demarcation between tho
ancient Slavonic and the modern Russ — at least, as spolten in his day.
Ho wrote a history of his country, and a long and sustained national epic
poem, entitled the "Petroidc," which, as may be conceived, was a lofty
panegyric upon tho talents and virtues of his imperial master. lie wrote
principally upon mineralogy and chemistry ; he was also tlie author of sev-
eral respectable tragedies, and of many miscellaneous works. Lomonosoff,
perhaps, can not so much bo designated a great and original genius, as a
man of tlie most enlightened capacity, and energetic talent. lie is, how-
over, undoubtedly the father of Russian Letters — and was the first " litte-
rateur*' of European celebrity tliat tho country liad produced. After
having been emploj'cd l)y the government with distinction for the greater
portion of his life, he died in 17G5, universally regretted throughout the
empire.

The reign of Catherine II., from 17G2-179G, is one of the most brilliant
epochs of Russian history ; and tho period between tho deatli of Lomono-
soff and the close of the century in which he lived, was particularly marked
by the ninnber of gifted and eminent men, whose unceasing energies tended
to strengtlien and nourisli the tottering childhood of Muscovite literature
as it tlien stood. The "Iliad" and "uEneid" were ably translated by
Kostroff and Petroff; an excellent version of Popo and Locke was pre-
sented to liis countrymen by Popovski ; and Ariosto and some portions of
the " Inferno" of Dante were submitted to tho empress by BulgakoiT.

A contempon. :y with Lomonosoff ^.as Clieraskoff, who has been called
the Russian Iloniti Sumarokoff for a considerable time was Iiis rival in
public opinion. Both these poets were remarkable for their extreme fer-
tility ; and the number of tragedies, comedies, poems, and odes, wliicli they
produced so rapidly was the theme of never-ending astonishment and spec-
ulation. But Gabriel Derjalivin, who was born about the year 1743, was
incontcstably the greatest Russian poet of tlie period. His ode to God
has not only been translated into most European languages, but even into
the Japanese, according to the Russian traveller Golownin, who saw it
hanging in a place of honor in the temple of Jeddo ; and it is a known fact
that it is versified in the language of the Celestial Empire, wliere it is hung
up in the palace of tlic emperor, printed on white satin and in letters of
gold. Hippolyt Bogdanovich, a charming writer upon light and general
subjects, and Chemnitzer, the fabulist, also flourished at this period. At
the same era several eminent Russians occupied themselves with the for-
mation of the national theatre, fol* which it was discovered that the Mus-

670

ILLUSTRATED DESCIirPTIOX OP RUSSIA.

covito gonius possessed a strong nnd decided natural aptitude. KniuNlinin,
Ma.koft', Nil<oleflf, Klushin, and Daniel von Wisiii — tlio iH'otige of princo
PotcMikin — were the authors of several chefs d'cevvres of dranmtio com
position wliicli have descended to our own day, and which aflurd as much
pleasure even now to tiic Russian who witnesses them as U|>on tho first
occasion of their representation. Tho first Russian theatre was opened in
Yaroshiv in 174G, and tho nucleus of a national stage was founded at Mos«
tow in 17o9 ; and in St. Petersburg tho arlistes wore permitted to estab-
lish themselves by letters patent as early as 1754.

It will be observed that from tlio very earliest period tho Russians havo
)ver sought to annalizo their national history with an undoviating devotion ;
and this can only be attributed to the feeling of patriotism that is, and has
aver been, so widely diflfuscd throughout tho empire. Hence, from tho
most remote times, wlien the little learning that had found its dul>ious way
lo the hyperborean wilds of Russia was celled and isolated in tho cunvcnts
of tho ])riesthood, as early even as the beginning of tho twelfth century,
the work had begun with tho local histories of Nestor, which were con-
tinned after his death by tho priests : even during those fearful two cen-
turies and a half when the Russians were writhing under the horrors of
Tartar dominion.

Unhappily these relics of the past arc but of slight value out of Russia,
and of little interest even to a Russian, as they treat only of the difl'crent
phases of violence and anarchy, caused by tho continual wars peculiar to
all pcofile in those dark times, and to the international feuds of tho turbu-
lent and powerful Boyards, which so particularly convulsed Russia, till tho
advent of the terrible Ivan Vassiliovich to tho throne of tho czars.

But tho period of which wo are writing — the close of the foregoing
century — was rich, too, in the appearance of historians of diflerent do
scriptions. Among tho ranks of her men of letters, Golikoif, Rietchkoff,
and Jemin, gave to tho world several volumes, the contents of which wcro
dedicated to particular portions and phases of the history of tho country.
Tcshulkoff wrote upon tho rise and progress of commerce in his native
land ; while Boltin, himself an historian of considerable merit, had tho
honor of reviewing the fifteen volumes of Russian histoi'y written by tho
accomplished Prince Tchetcherbatoff. Nor must MuUer be forgotten :
though his name be German, he himself was a Russian, and the whole of his
existence had been dedicated to the furtherance and development of that
Russian literature, of which ho had himself, as it were witnessed tho very
birth. Ho published the first Russian periodical in 1755, the columns of
which were principally occupied by historical subjects of interest to the
Russias.

The year 1724 witnessed the foundation of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences ; and in 1783 that of the Imperial Russian Academy ; and in less
than five years afterward, the last-named institution published tho first
(true) standard grammar of the language, together with un etymological

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.

dictionary of congidci-ahlo pretension, and upon on arrangement of a novel
nature. These iniportnnt Htcps in pliilulogical advancement were particu
larly induced by the munificent patronage and general encouragement
afforded them by the empress Catherine II. There was also a host of bibli-
cal ond theological writers at the close of the last century; and it wero
noedlesH to name thcui all, except to state that Konnisk, an archiepiscon
of Western Rus.'^ia, and Plnton Lcov8hin,the metropolitan of Moscow, were
the most eminent of all these aiilliors in dogmatic and speculative religion.
Of the latter distinguished theologian, it may be as well to mention, that
one of his most important works, entitled " Tlie Summary of Christian
Divinity," lias been translated by Doctor Tiakerton, in his "Present State
of the Greek Cliurch in Russia."

From tlio connncncemcnt of tlic present century, and during the reign
of tlie emperors Alexander and Nicliolas I. — from 1801 to tlie present
moment — the progress of Russian letters Ims been accelerated with a
ra|)idity and success that are really marvellous. In the year 1820 alone,
nearly three tiiousand live liundrcd works were produced, about a thousand
of wliich had lioen translated from tlie French, English, and German
tongues. Tills fecundity in literary productions may, in a great measure,
bo attributed to the liberal encouragement of the emperors, and the
thorough reformation which they had set on foot in all the scientific insti-
tutions of the country. The various existing academies were reorganized
and extended, while four new universities were added to the empire. In
1823, a college was founded in the new capital, for the study and culture
of the oriental languages ; and a few years later Odessa boasted of a simi-
lar school. The most marked success has attended them all, which was,
no doubt, the result of the interest which the government experienced in
the object sought to be attained — not the least salient proof of which was
the exjiress clause in the treaty of peace, which was entered into during
the reign of Alexander, with Persia, in 1813, at Gulistan, wherein he stip-
ulated expressly for the delivery to the Russian plenipotentiaries of five
hundred of the most valuable manuscripts, the names of which had been
drawn up by those distinguished authorities on Orientalism, Senkovski and
his colleagues, and which were known to bo in the possession of the Per-
sians. They wero afterward dejiosited in the Imperial library at St.
Petersburg, for the use of the students of the oriental schools, which were
no doubt originally founded for the training of diplomatic agents among
those people, but which have, nevertheless, been of the greatest utility to
the study of the philology of the East, not only for the Russians themselves,
but for all Europe. Among these invaluable relics of past ages, are the
Geograi)hy of Ptolemy, and some translations in the Arabic of several im-
portant Greek and Latin works, of which the originals are no longer extant.

Nicholas Karamzin is, however, the next literary luminary of whom wo
have to treat. He died in 1826. His principal work is his " Istoria Ros-
siskago Gosudarstva," or " History of the Russian Empire," but which

672

ILLUSTnATKI) DFSCniPTION OF HUSSIA.

only extends to tlio nccoa?ion of the present dynasty — the illnstrioiis Itonso
of Miulmol IlonianofT, in tlio year 1018. It conniHts of ulovcn volumes.
And this most im|)oi'tnnt production Ims l)con tt-nnslatod into tlio inoi'O
prominent Innj^imgos of Europe. Its second edition was ))nlili.sliod in 181 H.
Ifis other volnminons labors have been collected nnd condensed into nine
largo volumes, which wc ogain given to the public in 1820, in the form
of a third edition. His cu lCt of literary distinction wns commenced by a
periodical work which ho pnblished niidor the title of the " Moscow Jonr-
nal." The second periodical which he owned nnd edited was the " Euro-
pean Messenger."

Kornmzin is essentially a Russian writer, ond no Muscovite over under-
stood the jdiancies and delicacies of his longiiogo so well ; but tlio charm
of his writings is so purely one of idiom, so entirely national, that it is next
to impossible for a foreigner to appreciate him according to his merits.
In his lyrical poems, and indeed throughout his entire works, there exist
a warm i>atriotism, a national vrrve, a grace ond nn indescribable tender-
ness, that must always endear them to his conntrymon ; while the learning
and indofutigablo research displayed in his superb " History of the Russian
Empire" will ever constitute it the standard work upon this subject in the
repertory of Slavonic literature: and it is, perhaps, from the period of his
indnenco that the rene>\'ed energy to bo remarked in literary tasto in Rus-
sia may bo deduced.

Ivan Deinitriev, it is considered, cxeiriscd as much influence upon Rus-
sian poesy as Karainzin had efl'ectiMl upon the prose of his language. Ho
was as remarkable for the correctness of his stylo as for tho richness and
versatility of his imagination.

Prince Viazcinski, Rilejofl" (who was executed for his share in tho un-
happy conspiracy of 1825). Vostokoff, tho Slavonic ])hilologist, KhvostofT
Batjushkoff, Glinka, and Raroii Delwig, whoso works were reviewed in tho
French and English periodicals, arc all esteemed as lyrical poets of nioro
or less importance. Baron Rosen was also a very successful translator of
Lord Byron, whose works were enthusiastically admired and imitated by
Kosloff, who, notwithstanding blindness, lameness, ond continued ill-health,
dedicated his life to the literature of his country, in which ho was emi-
nently successful. Nareshnoi must not bo forgotten in this rapid synopsis
of tho literati who distinguished themselves at that particular period. Ho
is tho author of " Bursack," a Malo-Russian talo. This work is a kind of
Russian " Gil Bias." -

Tho first expedition of the Russians round tho world was undertaken in
tho year 1803 ; and tho travels of Admirals Krusenstern, Wrangel, Laza-
reff, and Captain Golownin, say much for tho enterprise and honor of Rus-
sia and her sons. Tho voyages into China of Tiraovsky are already knowa
and valued out of Russia, by means of translations. Bronovski and Muro-
vicff fully explored tho Caucasus and Taurida — the result of which i?
several volumes, replete with the most valuable information ; while Bit*

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.

678

olioiirin Ims given ono of tlio best uccuuiits cxtiuit of Tliibct and the conntrj
of Iho Mongols unU Turtui-s. Murtinufl' cxcelloci in IiIh tranHlution of tlie
cla88ic«<; and tliC* Jorusulcm" ot'Tusso, tlio "yEnoid,"and "Iliad" wcro
BucccsBively and HUcccsHfully rondurod into Russian l»y Vojckofl", Giicditch,
and Mcrtzjukoff. It was tlion, too, tluit Ivan KrilotV became so deservedly
pojiidai' as a fabulist. Tlicru is an air of nature, a sweetness about his
workn, tluit is not often found clHowiiero. lie was also acknowledged to
have been llic best speaker of his time of the Russian language, and has
even been styled the Russian " La Fontaine." lie has also been translated
into (lernuin, French, and Italian.

We now come to tlie time when Alexander Pushkin, the brightest genius
of Russian poetical literature, had arrived at the zenilli of his reputation,
and stood, as he has since done, unrivalled and alone. He was Ijorn in
1709, and he died violently in tlie (lower of his days, at the early ago of
thirty-seven, the vielini of domestic unhappiness and of a terrible duel.
Pushkin uccpiired his education at one of the imperial institutes. At tho
very outset of liia career, a proiluction which he thought proper to bring
before the public, and wl.ioli was conceived with too nnich latitude of sen-
timent, procured his removal from St. Petersburg. lie was, however,
employed by the government oflicially, in the southern provinces of tho
empire, to which he was banished ; and there can be no doubt that hia
genius became tinctured, and probably more developed, by the wild scenery
und poetical iniluencc of the semi-civilized region in ^vhicll he sojourned.
In tho meanwliilo the succeeding emperor of the liussias had placed the
diodom of tho czars upon his brow, and tho imprudent poet was recalled.
|5ut liie advent of the emperor to the throne had taken place amid an
ttrnuHl insurrection, and his nn\jesty felt that to bulwark the Russias from
foreign revolutionary example, the most legitimate and politic steps would
be to bring her biiek to the full appreciation of her own old Muscovite
nationality. The elevated and the educated classes who had so long been
accustomed to look to France, England, and Germany, for their senti-
ments, opinions, manners, and even for their language, had almost forgotten
that they were Russians, in Russia. Between those higher phases of society
and the masses an impassable gulf then existed : a more insurmountable
oufi, indeed, than ever had been before or since, for its peculiarly antago-
nistic form was the utter absence of the remotest sympathy between tho
classes : the higher ones appearing, in fact, as if they were mere " sojourn-
ers in the land" of the Muscovite " people."

Pushkin had ever been remarkable for the nationality of his cflFusiona,
though he had also evinced in them a spirit of restlessness, and a yearn-
ing after a vague independence, which seems to have even actuated him
personally in the earlier and more stormy period of his brilliant career.
The literary efforts born of this influence possessed a double character, for
they were at tho same time national and individual, and reflected tho ten-
dencies of Russian genius, and the individuality of Pushkin, and tiio poets

' «

674

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIPTION OP nUSSIA.

who followed so enthusiastically in his steps ; the effervescence of wild and
uncontrolled passion, the pursuit of an impossible ideal, the worship of an
indefinite and unknown liberalism, by turns opposed or gained the ascend-
ency over the calm, measured, and hitherto acknowledged tone of Russian
literary feeling. Tiie fiery genius of Lermontoff was the first that identi-
fied in his own writings this dangerous tendency of the school of Pushkin,
which found its last rcproscntativo in the literary efforts of a young con-
temporary poet, Maikoff. Toward the latter end of his life, and even at
the period of his reappearance in the literary circles of the metropolis,
Pushkin, whoso taste had been refined by study and experience, would fain
have led back the national taste lie had misled, to the more sober and
classic path from which he had originally lured it with the perilous glitter
of his own surpassing talent; but it was too late: the fascination of his
style had taken too deep a root in the hearts of the young writers of tho
day, who would soon have transformed wliat had been the sell-possessed
and sober Russian muse into a wild and licentious Baceliante. Tho em-
peror, fearful of her doing herself and others, perlmps, an injury, confined
her as closely to her home as was possiltlo — the Russian heart — lier proper
dwelling-place, to tlio revival of tlie old Russian nationality. The most
rigorous measures were adopted, oven to the restriction of tlie absence of
the wanderer from liis Russian fatherland, to five years at the furthest, tho
institution of a severe censorship, and tho interruption of tho study of
philosophy throughout the empire ; thougli when safe iVom foreign j)ropa-
gandism, and within the cordon sanilaire of tlie protected interior, the
grand work of general national progress contl'iued with unabated vigor.
Of the exalted opinions of tlicse enthusiasts the only one tolerated by tho
government was the idea of Panslavism — that is, tho incorporation into
one vast whole of all the races of Slavonic origin.

Alexander Pushkin was by this time highly j)atronized by his imperial
Majesty, Nicholas I., and had been promoted to tlie hoiioral)le position of
imperial historiographer for his laudable endeavors to repress the evil he had
BO powerfully, and perhaps unwittingly, induced ; for his devotion to tlio
cause of nationality, at that time so particularly encouraged by the govern-
ment; and for his unequalled genius. But tho chastened style of Pushkin
wanted in power and originality what it gained in purity and legitimacy.
Ho had harnessed his Pegasus to the car of expediency, and it had lost tho
use of its wings, if not the freedom of its action. It will only be necessary
here to say that some of his works exist in manuscript, and are, for polit-
ical reasons, preserved in the imperial cabinet. Tho last work of Alex-
ander Pushkin was tho " Istoria Bunta," or the history of tho " Insurrection
of Pougatcheff." The death of Pushkin was caused by a duel at St. Petoru-
burg, soon after his marriage, in 1835, when he fell a victim to jealousy
and the machinations of others.

Nicholas Gogol now appeared in the literary firmament, with tho power
and the intention to direct tho genius of his country toward tho new goal

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.

675

— nationality — and to this end lio strove to awalccn afresh the interest
tlmt tlic Russians liad been taught to feci in their own character as a peo-
ple. Gogol made it his study to examine and analyze Russian life in all
its phases; and it was not long ere, by his instrumentality, a succession
of romances and comedies, based upon the actual state of society, took
precedence of the many works that would have perpetuated tlic fieiy and
dangerous inspirations of Piisldtin, and of his school. Tliis influence waa
80 powerful, and its cfl'ects so successful, tliat when the revolution took
place in 1848, there was but one tendency throughout the entire field of
Muscovite literature — namely, nationality.

Nieliolas Gogol is distinguislicd from the other authors of his nation by
a faculty of analysis and a creative power, rarely found united in the samo
individual. Uo is equally at iiome when i)ainting outward and visible
objects, with a graphic verve and sliarpncss of outline that is positively
lifelike and startling; or when he a|iplios liis extraordinary talent to the
innermost and secret plienomona of tlie human heart. His style is origi-
nal and delightful ; his passages of the most biting satire are followed by
sudden bursts of tenderness, with an impulsiveness and nature altogether
peculiar to tlie Slavonic genius. lie died in 1852.

The melancholy fate of Alexander Bestushev should at least entitle him
to a notice in this list of distinguished men of letters. He was a subaltern
ofiicer in the guard, and, like his friend and fellow-poet Rileycz, was fatally
committed in the conspiracy of 1825. He was tried, found guilty, and
sent to Siberia, having, of course, been previously deprived of liis nobility.
Afterward, however, and througli the interest of the Miloradovich family,
his sentence was commuted to service as a connnon soldier, in that jmrtion
of tlio Russian army then actively employed in the Caucasus. In this dis-
advantageous position, by dint of slieer merit and gallantry, he again won
his epaulets, and soon after died bravely by tlie bullets of the Caucasian
mountaineers. He was the author of a liighly-talented synopsis of Russian
literature, and the editor of a very popular periodical, " Severnaja Swesda,"
the " Polar Star." He afterward wrote under the name of Marlinski ; and
his Cossack tales, and sketches of Siberia and the Caucasus, as well as his
novels, are written with a freshness and spirit lliat arc charuiing. His
style has been likened to that of Spindler, the German novelist, and his
contemporary.

Historical romance is a very favorite study among the Russian literati.
Among the workers in this field of Russian literature may be mentioned
Galitsch, Laschetnikoft', Skobelev, DegourofI', Prince Odojevski Veltman,
Dahl, who gives his works to the public under the pseudonym of Cossack
Lugunski ; Grebcnka, celebrated for his humorous sketches of Malo-Rus-
8ia ; GantcharoiT, formidable for the keenness of his satire ; Grigorovich,
tlio novelist of the fields and the peasantry ; and Boutkoff, the lifelike de-
lineator of the social slate and habits of the lower classes of his country-
uien. By the Ibrce of talent and perseverance, Boulkofi^ raised himself

676

ILLUSTRATED DPSCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

from Uic very class wliicli lio paints so ably, and to tbc amcliorntir.- ■!(!
udvaiiccmciit of whose moral position, to his lienor be it said, ho iin; -di-
catcd his genius. Tourgcnieff also should be mentioned, as having stepped
down from the elegiac mood to go with the current of the common ten-
dency in frtvor of romance literature. The scenes of his crcations aro
almost all laid in the country and the provinces ; and his best work in that
i^enre, "The Recollections of a Sportsman," will be found in every Russian
library.

In 1841 the Count Sololioupe entered the arena of letters; but the
greater part of the historietlcs wiittcn by him, and published under tho
name of "Xason Griadutchi" ("The Narcotic" — or, more literally, "To
Cause Sleep") had already been enthusiastically received in private; and
they were equally aj)plaudcd, when given to the world, by the public al
large. Ills next important works are the " Turantasse," " Ytchera i Seg-
donia," or, "Yesterday and To-day," and tho "Sotrudniki" ("Confede-
rates"), which we believe to be tho latest of his works, ])ublishcd as late
as 1861. We can not here enter into a review of the works of this author,
but we will merely add, that alike in the "Tarantassc," which is full of
deep and niaidy thought u})on the mighty resouro and destinies of his
country, and in the "Narcotic," which is the liglitesi of his productions —
indeed throughout everything he has written — there is a viehiH^e of keen
observation, solid depth, and serious patriotism, of aristocratic Jinessey
humor, irony, and acute sensibility.

Tlie ladies, on the otVor hund, have shown by their efforts their willing-
ness and power to fur licr the cause of Russian bellvs-leUirs. The names
of Me.sdames Paulofl', Pauaiefl", Teplef, Buuin, the Princess Yolhonski, and
Heleiie ilahn, who has been compared, and not without reason, to Mudamo
Dudevant (George Sand), are all celebrated ; nor must the Countess Ros-
topchiu be forgotten, who has at once cultivated the bright tields of poetry
and romance. The works of this lady are distinguished by tho elevation
of sentiment that |)ervades theni, by the easy and artistic stylo with which
they arc sustained throughout, and by tho lino and delicate womanly feel-
ing that gives them their principal charm. Tho eminent success of this
gifted lady is clearly accounted for, however, when wo recollect that she
is the autiioress of a most elegant little poem, tho subject of which is
" How a Woman should Write."

If we turn to the consideration of historical science in Russia, wo find
that the archaeological commission was opened in 1834, and tho libraries
of France, England, Gernmny, Sweden, Denmark, and other countries,
were visited at the imperial expense, and ransacked for data and informa-
tion ; and tlie lirst live volumes of Russian annals passed through tho press
in 1844. This institution, in conjimction with tiie liistorical and geograph-
ical societies of Moscow and St. Petersburg, met witli such success in these
researches, as threw considerable light upon many portions of Russian his-
iory, and added a fresh impetus to tho pons of the scientific and imaginu-

LITERATURE A^l) EDUCATIO!?.

Bit

•di-

tivo writers of the day. Professor Ustraloff published m 1839 liis" His-
tory of Russia," in which the theory of Panshivisin was developed in a
novel and masterly manner. Its leading ol)ject is to represent tlic Russian
empire as the natural and central head of all the races of Slavonic origin.
This is a work of considerable importance, and was translated into German
in 1840, one year only after its publication.

Nadeshkin, too, wrote a book of decided interest to the Russian public,
entitled, " Treatise on the Geograpliy of the Old Russian World," in which
it was sought to trace the seats of the ancient Slavonic nations, and with
very much the same tendency as tlie work of Ustraloff.

Professor Kupffer, of the Imperial xVcademy of Sciences, made a voyage
through the Ural, and jml)lished the results of his observations in 1833.
SchurovHky visited the same regions, and wrote an historical and statisti-
cal work in the year 1840. Hyacinth Bitchourin, the priest, whose por-
trait is given at tiie head of this chapter, and others, still continue their
useful researches among the wild Mongols and Tiiibetians. The govern-
ment has lately caused to be written, the " History of the Commerce with
Persia and Turkey," by tiic councillor-of-state, Von Hagemeister, the same
who paid a scientific visit to the great London exhibition of 1851. And
Chaudoir, encouraged by tlio same patronage, wrote his celebrated " Nu-
misnmtics of China, Corea, and Japan." Both these works are published
at the same time in the Rustiian and French languages.

In statistics, Constantino Arsenieff stands pre-eminent; his last work
was publislied in 1848. But the works of Pallas, printed as early as 1771,
of Krasheninnikoff, Lepechin, Richk^ff, Tihihatcheff, and others, are still
considered the standard autlioritics.

Among the most approved historical novelists may be mentioned Bul-
garin, Puschkareff, Swinin, Massolski, Zagoskin, and many more. It need
hanlly lie oltserved that the history of their own country was the never-
failing source from which lliey drew their inspiration and their subjects.
Jcvjeni Grebcnka, and Kvitka, have written humo'-ous romances in the
Malo-Russian dialect, with a view to its cultivation ; and the intention is
most praiseworthy, if only for the wealth of Slavonic popular poetry, which
is scattered over the Ukraine and Malo-Russia in general ; indeed, wher-
ever the Ruthenian tribes have wandered for a time, or settled definitely.
Tiic Russian drama has made rapid progress since the beginning of this
century. The works of Shakspere and Schiller have of course served as
models, and their masterpieces have long since been successfully translated
and peri'ormed in Russian. The stage also now begins to assume a more
decided and national character, and of late years many pieces and operas,
of which the subject and music are essentially Russian, have been brought
out. In comedy, Russia is very fertile ; and atnong the latest productions
ore several which depict Russian society to the life. But it must be ad-
mitted that the empire has not yet produced a great tragic author ; and
though her store of theatrical compositions is very ample, yet it is not so

578

ILLUSTItATKD DKSCniPTION Or RUSSIA.

select as those slic possesses in history, poetry, and romance. The greats
est possible facilities, however, have ever been and are still aflforded to the
development of drnnmtic talent in every form. During the reign of his
iate majesty, Alexander, and also since under Nicholas I., the theatres and
the artistes of St. Petersburg and Moscow have been encouraged by the
immediate imperial patronage, and lil)orally salaried from the privy purse.
All dramatic artists who leave Russia after a stay of ten years, have a
pension of four hundred dollars each, also out of the emperor's privy purse.

From the enjoyment wliich the Russians of all classes take in every
species of scenic diversion, the theatre is particularly a popular annisemcnt.
During the season at St. Petersburg, which continues (save in Lent) all win-
ter, residents may choose between the Italian, German, and Russian operas,
the Russian and Frencli plays, or the ballet, for there are always three or
four foreign dranmtic corps in that city at this time, and the performances
take place every evening at each of the impei'ial theatres in rotation.
There are, independent of the one near the Hermitage, three large theatres
in the imperial capital: the Rolslioi, or (jireat Theatre (a view of which is
given on the opposite page), on the square of that name between the Moika
and Catiierina canals ; the Alexander Theatre, in the Nevskoi Prospekt ;
and the Frencii, in the square near the palace of the grand-dnkc Michael.
Tlie performances at the two former are devoted to Russian and Germai:
plays, and operas, the latter to French and German dramas. The houses
are spacious, very nearly semicircular in sliape, and handsomely decorated;
and a magnilicent box for the imperial family occupies the centre of the
first two tiers. .Tlie arrangements for the accommodation of the public is
exceedingly good, every seat being numbered in such a manner as entirely
to prevent confusion. The state box, however, is seldom u.sed, the impe-
I'ial family generally occupying one next to the stage, contiguous to that
of the grand-duke Micimel ; opposite is one similarly decorated for the
ministre de la cour. The entire pit is fitted with arm-chairs {kraslyd)^
numbered on the back, the numbers commencing from the orchestra ; and
on ol)taining a ticket at the hassa, on which the number of the seat is like-
wise specified, an usher in the imperial livery at once conducts the visiter
to his appointed place, and, in case it is already occupied, ejects the intru-
der in the most summary manner. The ordinary price for these seats is
one silver rouble, but in the two rows nearest to the stage they are two
silver roubles. On extraordinary occasions, however, the public are put
under extra contribution ; and sometimes prices have been raised _/?t'e/b/(/,
an armchair in the pit being six silver roubles, or somewhat more than four
dollars ; the other prices are raised in proportion, and even at these ex-
orbitant rates, every seat is engaged for five or six evenings in advance.

Excepting the Chinese, there is, perhaps, no language in the world
so fraught with difficulties as the Russian. In the first place, the alphabet
possesses nine more letters than the Roman or our own, and is made up
of Greek, Roman, and Slavonic characters. In 1699, the first Russian

'J I lri,.,i i|!';li , ' '■

ir '•< ■!'' '1^11 'I'll! Iili^'r ''■ »!ll«*™llll«llliilli

■ '

fii'l

LITEBATUnPi AND EDUCATION.

^81

:l-^r'i

book was printed at Amsterdam, and it was abont the 3'car 1704 or 1705
that Peter the Great himself made many alterations in the old Slavonic
letters, for the purpose of assimilating them more nearly to the Latin ones ;
and the first Russian journal was printed with this type at St. Petersburg
in 1705 — four years after the foundation of that city — from a font which
had been cast for him by artists brouglit from Holland. In the old Slavo-
nic alphabet there are forty-six letters ; but the modern Russian language
comprises only thirty-five. In all matters, however, of a theological na-
ture, the antique form is even now retained, and this constitutes the difler-
oncc between the ^^ Czerkovnoi" and '■'■ Grashdanskoi,'^ or the civil and
church alpliabet. This, in a great measure, must explain the diflacultiea
which a foreigner would have to contend with, in attempting to render
himself master of the Russian language ; but if it were possible for him to
do so perfectly, he would discover an extraordinary copiousness, a deli-
cacy, and beauty of expression, that would indeed surprise him. The
Russians, having been in the earlier and darker portions of tlieir national
history suiyected to Scandinavian, Mongolian, Tartar, and Polish influence,
have preserved many of the words and idioms of the several dialects.
Another remarkable feature in the Russian language is the extraordinary
facility of construction it admits of, and rarely with danger of becoming
obi?cure or unintelligible : in this it much resembles Greek and Latin ; but
its leading peculiarity, and perhaps defect, is a paucity of conjunctions.
And yet, on tiie othor hand, this may account for the Russian language
being so singularly coMprehensive and distinct, since it can merely allow
of coniparaiively short sentences; notwithstanding which, its adaptability
for tlie purjioses of pootry are incontestable ; but whether it is really capa-
ble of entirely following and imitating the classic metres, is still a vexata
quecstio among Slavonic philologists.

In common with all dialects of Slavonic origin, the Russian is also re-
markable for its euphony and versatility ; and it also embraces not only
the sounds of every known language, but every guttural lisp and slur of
which the human voice is capable.

The language is also divided into three leading dialects. The first is
the " Russian proper," or the language spoken in the two capitals, Moscow
and St. Petersburg, and throughout the northern and central portions of
the empire; it is the literary language of all the Russias. Secondly, in
the southern and southeastern provinces the ilJa/o-Russian is spoken —
which dialect is supposed to approach nearer to the "old Slavonic" than
any of the others : the idiom of Red Russia, in the northern and eastern
districts of Hungary, and to the eastward of Galicia, inhabited by the
Russniacks, is almost identical with the Malo-Russian. Thirdly, in Li-
thuania and Volhynia, and other portions of Western Russia, the people
Bpeak the White-Russian dialect. The geographical position of those
districts should fully account for the Polish words and idioms which are
here to be found. This, the youngest of the Russian dialects — although

\\\

>'.

682

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIPTION OP RUSSIA.

the first translation of the Holy Scriptures wns made in it — ia also the
furthest removed of the tlircc from the old Slavonic.

Tlic pursuit of literature, in Russia, as a profession, and as the solo
object of life, is considered as something utterly inadmissible. All men,
whether belonging to the fourteen classes of nobility or not, must follow a
profession, or devote their time to the service of the emi)ire, by attaching
themselves to the army, the diplomatists, or tlio governmental offices. No
amount of personal wealth or talent can absolve the individual from this
moral duty to society and to the state. Pcier the Great, indeed, enacted
a most positive law to that efffct, and thouirh the edict may have fallen by
the lapse of time into disuetude in its iudicial capacity, its spirit still exists
in full force. The "rfo/ce far nientc''^ existence of utter idleness and ca-
price, peculiar to the wealthy and the ^^ men of pleasure'''' of Western
Europe, is utterly unknown in Russia ; and the man who, in full possession
of his health, strength, and faculties, would attempt to brave public opinion
on this point, would soon find himself treated by society, in return, with
the slightest possible consideration ; and it is only during tlic hours snatched
from the study or practice of a profession that the pen, in a literary sense,
can be employed.

Notwithstanding, however, the disadvantages under which literature in
Russia labors, it is acquiring an importance which nothing now, it is be-
lieved, can repress. Tills may bo believed when it is stated that from
1833 to 1843 (a period of nearly ten years), according to the official re-
turns of the minister of '•'■ Narodnago Prosvestchenija" (public instruction),
no less than seven millions of volumes of Russian books were printed, and
nearly five millions of foreign works were imported. In one ])articular
year of that period, in 1839, eight hundred and eighty different works
were printed and pnblislied within the Russian dominions ; and an average
of only seventy of this nuniljcr were translated from foreign languages.

Though Russia still ranks among the more imperfectly educated coun-
tries of Europe, the government has long taken a lead in the cause of
popular education, and promulgated a complete national system, which,
though not yet carried into full effect, has made, and continues to make,
effectual progress. The basis of this system was laid by Peter the Great,
and promoted by Catherine II., but is indebted for its fuller developments
to Alexander and Nicholas. It divides the whole country into university
districts, in each of which a university fully equipped either has been, or
is intended to be erected. Each district extends over several governments,
all the public schools in which, consisting of a regular gradation of gym-
nasia, district and parish schools, are under the superintendence of the
university. Other important schools, not subject to the same superintend-
once, are classed under the heads of military, ecclesiastical, and special.
To give unity and vigor to the whole system, a special ministry of public
instruction (incidentally alluded to above) is appointed, which forms one
of the great departments of the state.

LTTKnATUBE AND EDUCATION.

Tlioro ai'o now (to briefly sum up tlio results of tliia national system)
upward of two hundred and fifty tliousand young persons in Russia receiv-
ing instruction of some kind from fifteen tl-oiisand teaclicrs, an avcrngc of
one teacher to about seventeen ])upils, a very favorable ])roj)ortion to the
students. Taking the entire population of Russia at sixty-five millions,
one individual in two hundred and sixty receives the benefits of instruction.
This is a small proportion compared with the United States, where, accord-
ing to tlic last census report, four millions of youth, at the rate of one in
every five free persons, arc receiving instruction from one hundred and
fifteen thousand teachers, in nearly one hundred thousand schools and col-
leges. Nevertheless, two hundred and fifty thousand well-educated young
persons, dispersed each year in the dificrcnt quarters of that huge empire,
can not fail to leave their mark upon the national character.

Wc know more about the quantity than the quality of these schools, as
Russian publicists have seldom anything to say on the subject ; but it is
generally admitted that the military institutions are of the highest order.
The agricultural school of the imperial domain is said to be admirably
managed, and is under the immediate supervision of Alexander. Two hun-
dred and fifty peasants arc thoroughly instructed in theoretical and prac-
tical cultivation, and are then sent to model-farms in various parts of the
country, to set a reforming example to the neighborhood. The tuition
lasts four years, arid is divided into three periods. In the first year, the
boys are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and surveying. In the sec-
ond, grannnar, mathenmtics, and the elements of agriculture ; and during
the third and fourth, agriculture, practically as well as theoretically, and
mechanics. Beside these branches, they are instructed in trades which
may be useful to the farmer, such as tailoring, shoemaking, cabinet-making,
cooperage, blacksmith's and carpenter's work, and in the construction of
agricultural machines. A foundry, a brickyard, a pottery, a tanyard, a
candlc-and-soap factory, and a windmill, are attached to the school. It is
not required that each ? tudent shall pursue all these branches. The teach-
ers are to judge of the aptitude of each pupil, and to direct him accord-
ingly ; but every one, upon leaving the establishment, is expected to
possess a thorough acquaintance with the general principles and practice
,of agriculture, and a competent knowledge of the collateral branches.
\ At the last exposition of the agricultural products of Russia, at St.
Petersburg, the various objects sent in by this school excited great atten-
don. The leathers, in particular, were of so fine a quality tliat they were
telected for exhibition in the World's Fair of London, in 1851.

! ]

ij;.. K

584

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF BU88IA,

CHAPTER XXIII.

MEANS OF TRAVEL.

THE roaila of Russia, witli the exception of a few principal lines, are
universally represented by travellers as being the most execrable in
Europe. Tlic inconvenifiicc and evils resulting from this fact, how-
ever, arc much lessened during a portion of the year, by the frost render-
ing the worat roads fit for sledge-travelling, and during the warm season
by the number of navigable i-ivers, and the extension that has been efl'ected
by the construction of numerous canals, giving a continuous inivigation
from the Arctic ocean to the Black sea, and from the Baltic to the Caspian,
with an intersection of branch caiuils, by which all the great towns of the
interior have ready access to their outports and to each other. The valu-
able communications thus provided are about to receive a vast accession
from the railway system, for which the configuration of thf country affords
unwonted facilities. The period is probalily not far distant when the Rus-
sian territory will be traversed with a network of iron, conne<'ting all its
important points both in the interior and on the seaboard, aflbrding facili-
ties, at all seasons, for the prompt transport of goods and merchandise,
and to the man of business or the tourist an agreeable and rapid transit
across the length and breadth of this mammoth empire.

Tlie first railway that was constructed in Russia was that leading from
St. Petersbui'g to Czarsko 8elo, a distance of seventeen miles. This road
was opened in 1837. At the beginning, it was rather regarded with preju-
dice by the mass ; but as it was undertaken with the consent and counte-
nance of the emperor, no one dared to raise objection. By the time it
went into active operation, and the imperial family had passed and repassed
several times in safety, it began to be looked upon with more favor, and it
became quite fashionable to ride down to Czarsko Selo or to Paulofsky,
the Vauxhall of Russia. Maxwell relates the following characteristic in
cident, connected with the early travel on this road : —

" On one occasion, the confidence of the Russian public was interrupted
by a serious accident. The cars took fire, and several people who coull
not or would not break open the doors of the carriage in which they wert
riding, were burned to death. There is nothing that so shocks a Russiai
community as accidents attended with loss of life. When Carter the lion«
tamer went to St. Petersburg, he was permitted to exhibit his animals, but

MRANS OF TIIAVEL — RAILWAYS.

686

WiNTU TCAVKLLINO — SLBIMIBS.

not to enter the cages, lest he wouUl be devoured in the presence of the
people. In consequence of this accident upon tlio railroad, no one would
run tlie risk of travelling l»y steam to Czarslto ; and tlic emperor, in a
paroxysm of rage, ordered tlie president of the com|»any to appear before
iiim. This happened to l>e no loss a person tluui a descendant of the great
Catherine, a left-handed cousin of liis niajosty, and by universal report one
of ids most intelligent and faitlifid subjects. He was fortunately absent ou
a visit to his estates, in the sontli of Russia. Couriers were instantly de-
fipatchcd, with orders to the count to repair immediately to St. Petersburg,
and report himself to his liege lord and master. He rode night and day,
and reached the city in the eveiung. Tlie autocrat was at the theatre.
Thither went the coinit, and in the lobl»y adjoining the imperial i)ox he
received the indignant rel)uke of his angry sovereign. Fortunately ihe
tempest was |tartially allayed l)efore his arrival ; the count, moreovei, was
a favorite, and well knew the man he had to deal with. He received the
imperial threats with due subnussion, and was dismissed with orders to be
at the railway station at an early hour the next morinng. He was there
at the appointed time, ana so was Nicholas. An engine was ordered to
* fire up,' a car was attached thereto, and away went the master and the
subject for Czarsko Selo. No accident occurred. His majesty was gra-
cious, the count was most agreeable. They returned in safety ; and when
they left the car, the emperor embraced the noble president of the railroad
company avec effusion de. crvvr. Public confidence was restored, stock
went up, and travel was immediately renewed."

' This road was followed by the great enterprise undertaken by the empe-
ror, in which he took a deep interest, of a first-class railway from St. Pe-
tersburg to Moscow, four hundred miles in length. In the prosecution of
this work, the late Major Whistler, who was one of the efficient engineers
of the western railroad in Massachusetts, was invited thither through the

r^'4

686

ILLUSTHATnU DKMCIUPTION OP RUSSIA. ■

agency of Mr. nodlsco, tin; Russian mini.Htor, nnd wns omployod in a very
rtv>*|)onHibh' Hituiition in tlio coniliict of tlio work, ill liis fleiitli, wliich took
place a short time boforo it was finished. Under the njrcncy of Major
Wiiistlor, a lariic number of \morican niedianics were invited to Russia,
and en»|)loyed in the const: ction of locomotives and macliinery. This
work was constructed under the directi«)n of the minister of puidic works,
Count Klein-Michel, aided by Major Wliistler, and was opened on the 1st
of Novenil>er, ISol. It is found to l>o of immense benefit to the ooininerco
of the country, and the business upon it is daily increasinp. The jtassatcc
is nuKle from one capital to the other in twenty-tw<> hom-s, which previously
occupied four days, in diligent travelling day t • a;) '

Oliphant, who passed over this road in 1^.')8, iliuii j: nphically describes
the journey, and also alludes to some of the anncivancaa incident to travel-
ling in Ru.Si:iia even l»y railway : —

"We proceeded, bag antl buggi. c. (^ the station of the Moscow rail-
way. Only one train starts d;iily ; ami the hour at which this most import-
ant event takes jdace is, or ought to be. eleven, A, M. Truvollers aro
connnanded by the goven iiiont lo bo at the station at ten precisely; and
even then they are lial»le to i)e t(dd that the train is full — a'^ it is quite an
unheard-of thing to put on an extra carriage for any number of passengers.
Having arrived, therefore, at ten minutes before ten, to be quite sure of
being in time, our luggage was seized by a soldier, polieenum, or railway
porter (for they all wear somewhat the same uniform), and carried in one
direction, while we rushed in another to show our passport for Moscow, to
procure which wo had Iteen to thrive difl'erent ofliees the day before. Hero
the descriptions of our persons and our reasons for travelling, which it
contained, being copied at full length, we were hurried to another counter,
where wo got it stamped ; whence, catching sight of our baggage en pas-
sant, we sped on to the ticket-oflice, and then, returning to our portmau-
tcauXjWC went through a few formalities, which ended in receiving a ticket
to add to the numl)cr of those with wliich our pockets were now pretty well
filled. The arxiety of mind whieli such a variety of documents causes ia
not to be wondered at, when the consequences which the loss of any of
thcra would entail aro considered. Ladies in Russia do not think of try-
ing to carry theii ticki^ts in their gloves. Wo uuw betook ourselves to tho
waiting-room, wl-ifh .v> . ''. ' Id have liiought handsome had wo not boon
detained in it so ' ' ig that we got tired of admiring it. For an hour did
tho destined occupants of tho train sit patiently on tho benches, every man
with head uncovered ; for even a skull cap is an abomiimtion to a Russian
under a roof. Every man in military garb seemed to have the ejU>'f to
tho platform, while the doora were rigorously shut against us unhappy
civilians. At a quarter before eleven, however, they aro opi ned, a general
rush follows, and we are hurried through a barrier, the doors of which close
behind us. Soon the whole barrier becomes thronged with people waving
their adieus as ardently as if wo were booked for Australia. A bell, a

MKANS OP TRAVKl, — R.VTI.WaYS.

o87

whistlo, mid n sort of dull iitt<>in|>t nt » hcih'siiii, nro, ns in ir.oro civili/cd
parts of tlio world, the Hijriials lor atai'ti»*m ; wo leavo tlio wct'pinj^ cyos niid
WtmJMjjf pockot-liaiidkorcliicrs liidiind m*. uid, in tht* course of ti'u iniiiutcs,
find, to om* flatistiiction, Hiat \vm Haw incroasod our speed to liftfcii miles
an JKHir. Vta lm\i< liardly (li>Me ■<>o cro we nrrivo nt a station. Kveryhody
rushes cHit a»d lights a cigu'vtte. Wo aro to stop here ton niiuuten, ami
tho people duriiii! Ilidt time ualk np and down tin; fdiitform, and smoke,
then we huddle into our old plaees, and lla^ * iii(> to look altout ns. Tlio
Cftrria^es ar-' larj^e. NiflMwiy seoms (o irn in rirst-elass. A seeond-class
ciirriajro aceominijdjt es alioiit fifty pen<f>le. 1 'lev are Huilt u> in Austria
and America, wifli a passaj^o in the contro, poraftitnilnted \yy a man in uni-
form, who oo('a>, >iial!y asks people for fh.ir tick s. ||.; sccins to mako
intpiiry tho first tinie to satisfy himself thai v-m u we got one, and after-
ward mortdy as an uniuscment, wliicli he ap rcntl* '•njoys the moro if ho
fancies yon are Roing to sleep. The < > n are -ardeo and dirty, and rolato
Btories in a loud tone of voic»% for tli' lienefit 4 eh* 'lole company, most
of whom have exidenllv never been in a i.iijwair I 'foi

" At every stai >n tlu! same scene ensiu's. ' nioked ends of tho

last station's cigars having lieeii carefully preser -*1, are lighted afresh, and
vehemently sint»kf 1 on the platform durirsu: live ten n inntes, as tho caso
maybe. The stai >iis are all very spacious, at* 'uiirMrndy constructed,
with an immense d. lued building for engines atr
there is only one passongor-train daily, there are t '
well loaded with iidind produce, tallow, fur, tea.
St. Pcterslnirg to the interior. I shoi Id hardly
sibly pay; but as it i^ a government loncern no
ascertaining this fact. Whether it pays or not, t
Russia soon discovers liat the requirements of trade-
by goverlnnent as his own personal convenience; for
of the empire must e\ r lUMitralize, in a great me;

d to each. Though

goods-trains, always

with cotton from

i. the line could pos-

V has any liieans of

railway traveller in

(* as little regarded

' ' restrictive policy

I , the be!icfic!al

effects of rapid interim i communication, while the ditliculties which have
always been placed in tlo way of free mercantile intercourse exist in full
force, though tho physied obstacles by which it has hitherto been encom-
passed arc ovorcoiiii?, li. fact, though the public can not but be benefited
by the formation of railniids through a country, it is hardly for the public
benefit that railroads are constrnctod hero. Ruf^sian railroads seem to bo
meant for Russian soldiers ; and it is the facility thus atVordcd of moving
large bodies of men, that invests this mode of (Mnnmnnication in Russia
with an importance whivh does not attach to it in (treat I?ritain,or perhaps
any other country in Europe, to an equal extent. When St. Petersburg,
Moscow, Odessa, and Warsaw, become connected, Russia assumes an en-
tirely new position with regard to the rest of Kurope. A few days, instead
of nmny months, will then suffice to concentrate the armies of the north
and south upon tho Austrian or Prussian frontiers. Through this same
quarter of the world, many hundred years ago, poured those barbaric

i • I

688

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

hordes which overran civilized Europe ; it would, indeed, be a singular
testimony to the spirit of the age, if the next invaders made their descent
by means of railroads."

The road from St. Petersburg to Moscow was hardly finished when the
emperor ordered tlio construction of another gigantic road, between St.
Petersburg and Warsaw. This road will be six hundred and seventy
miles long. It will pass by the cities of Louga, Pskov, Dunaburg, Wilna,
Orodno, Viloka, Viala, Nicmen, and Narev. A company has also been
Ibrmed at Riga for iHiilding a branch to this road, which is to unite that
seaport with the city of Duuaburg, and thus connect Riga with the two
capitals of Russia and Poland. This branch, the track of which was laid
out by the engineer Gouzeul)ack, will be one hundred and forty miles in
length. It will keep along the right bank of the Duna, and will jiass near
the cities of Jacobstadt and Frcidrichstadt. Tiic capital is fixed at nine
millions roul)lcs. Another line is projected to unite Dunaburg, by Smo-
lensk, with Moscow, and estal)lish a direct communication between this
ancient Russian capital and Warsaw by the route which was pursued by
the advance and retreat of the French army in 1812. In the south of the
empire, a company is about to undertake the construction of a railroad
between Kharkov and Odessa. This road will cross the Dnieper, at
Krementchoug, above the rapids which obstruct the navigation of the
river. This road will benefit the commerce in grain in the same manner
as tlie line from Dunaburg to Riga is destined to help forward that of linen
and timber. Finally, in the kingdom of Poland, wlicrc for some years the
line from Warsaw to Myslovitz (in Prussian Silesia) has i»oen in full ac-
tivity, two other lines arc thought of: one from Warsaw to Bromberg, the
other from the same capital to Posen ; but the arrangements necessary to
be made with the Prussian government for this purpose have not reached
a satisfactory conclusion. Tiie line from Warsaw to Myslovitz, a little
more than two hundred miles in length, puts tlie capital of Poland in com-
munication by railway witii Vienna and Berlin, and consequently with Paris.
When the line which is to join Warsaw to St. Petersburg, is completed and
opened for travel, the immense distance which separates France and Rus-
sia may be trav(^lled over in four or five days. These lines were all pro-
jected before the late war, during which they were generally suspended
Since its termination, in pursuance of Alexander's design of promoting the
prosperity of Russia by the development of her internal resources, a sys-
tem of railways, connecting the remote extremities of the empire, has been
submitted to him, which will probably modify to some extent these lines.

Until superseded, however, by a general railway system, its wretched
roads, a few details of which will presently bo given, must be a serious
drawback to locomotion upon Russian territory. The entire distance from
Odessa to Moscow is a mere track, marked by verst-posts, about ten feet
high, and by them the traveller is guided across the open steppe ; but those
posts do not determine the width of the track ; each carriage picks its own

a singular
their descent

SfEANS OP TRAVEL — ROADS.

689

way, citlier a hundred yards or half a mile to the right or left, as th o horses
or driver may think fit. This track can not be called a road, ii' the same
sense that it would be in this country ; it is merely traced over the natural
soil, and there is not a shovelful of material laid down, nor is there any
fencing or draining. In the winter, the verst-posts are the compass of the
steppe, and without them it would be impossible to travel after heavy falls
of snow ; late in the season the track is so uneven that persons arc often
thrown witli violence oiit of tlieir sledges.* In wet weather it is almost
impassable, and, after the thaw has set in, quite so, for a few weeks.
Traffic is then almost suspended, and the transport of the mails becomes at
this period a service of some danger, as tlie wooden bridges wliich have
been taken up during the winter are not replaced till the weather is settled,
and the Yoi^rrs are sonietimes oltliged to pass tiie rivers on rafts. In the
latter part of tlie spring the ground is su<blonly hardened in all its inequal-
ities of ruts, holes, and hillocks, Ity the slight frosts which follow the thaw,
and in the summer retains much of the incijuality it then assumed, particu-
larly through forests, where the track is narrow, and consequently more cut
up. In the continuous heat of summer, which withers all the grass on the
steppe, some inches deep of the surface is beaten into dust, and in windy
weather a veil over the face is almost indispensal)le. In some districts,
trees are planted by the side of the track, but they are not much more pic-
turesque, and cei'tainly in this season not more verdant, than the verst-posts.

The road to Archangel is, in numy parts, boarded with planks, laid flat
across it ; when <|uite new it is well enough, but wood, as a material for
road-making, is not exactly suitable ; there are still some corduroy roads
in the environs of St. Petersburg. These roads are constructed of small
trees and logs laid transversely, and bad as they are they have their value,
for without them it would be impossible to get across some parts of the
country.

There is not, on the public roads, any fixed time or place for the travel-
ler to take his meals, and no specified hour for arriving at or quitting any
particular town. 8ome travellers, and we may add most Russians and all
sensible persons, take care to order what is either ready or quickly pro-
cured, and seldom keep the courier waiting ; others, not sufficiently versed
in the t'Mi.sme,order dinners of so many dishes, and the consequence almost
invariably is that the stranger subjects himself to imposition by naming
some dish not mentioned in the carte. In addition to this, the chances are
that the horses are put to about the time the eatables make their appear-
an(!e ; the courier inserts his swarthy visage at the door, and after saying
"6'»/«i'o" (ready), vanishes, only to reappear again with his watch in his
hand, rejwating the magic word gotovo; a glass of wine, or something
stronger, oflered to the conductor, may have its eflcct, and if, as these men
generally are, he is a good-natured fellow, the hungry traveller will be
allowed to finish his dinner.

• Tlii* lonn uf accident is ajuly illustrated by tlio engruviiig on page 212.

k . '

; -v

;'^

,»•!>'

690

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The poslhouses in most parts of the empire arc mere huts, commonly
constructed of mud or pine logs ; in the latter case they swarm witli cock-
roaclies ; there is no accommodation beyond a table, cluvirs, and a rough
cane-bottomed or wooden sofa, and the traveller has no riglit to expect
more than vo walk into the room next to that in which the padaroshnai
are entered, throw himself upon it in his cloak, and there take 1ms rest,
"■ if rest it be which thus convulses slumber," for uj)on it he is not likely to
sleep alone. The fair pilgrim on the shores of the Baltic describes these
post-stations on the Riga road as " line buildings outwardly, but otherwise
whitened sepulchres." This charge will not hold good against those in the
steppe, for there is no whitewash, and, therefore, no deception ; thoy arc
wliat thoy appear to be, mud or wooden structures of the humblest kind.
The following extract from the same autlior gives one a vciy cheerless idea
of what may be expected even on tlie more freiiueuted and macadamized
road to the above-mentioned city: "At about three o'clock I alighted at
a statiou-liousc of no very promising exterior. Anton (the servant) peeped
into a room on tlie riglit and shook his liead, into one on the left a»id re-
j)eated the gesture ; each was Idled with smoke from a party of noisy ca~
rousers. The host coming forward, I asked (for here German was a pass-
port) for an ' ordcntlkhvs zinituer,^ a decent room, in which 1 could dine.
Wlien looking round at his lilthy floors, rickety chairs and smoking guests,
he answered, with a shrug, ' Was /idnitcu sie mchr vcrlttng-enr (' What cau
you wish for more ?') i very nearly laughed in his face." On tl»e cross-
roads, and in the steppe, eggs and milk are generally to be obtained, but
no butter, nor anything else l)ut tlie black rye-bread ; the latter very good
fare for a Russian or a i^jjartan, but if the traveller is neither the one nor
the other, he fmds his gastronomic tastes severely tried. Russian families
almost invarial)ly sleep in tlieir travelling-carriages, which arc very pon-
derous and roomy vehicles. Those who can afl'ord it are accomi)aHied by
a kibilka, or tr/cf^a, in which is placed their Ixxlding and other comforts.

Posting is deemed at jjresent the preferable mode of travelling in Rus-
sia, it being the most rapid, independent, and, all things considered, the
most economical. To travel post, it is necessary to 1)0 provided with a
padaroshna, or order iV)r horses, in which is inserted the name of tlio place
which is the destined termination of the journey, tlie distance in versts, and
the number of horses wanted. This is required to be shown at each post-
station, as an authority to the postmasters to furnish fresh horses, and if
mislaid or lost the unfortunate owner will be obliged to continue his jour-
ney with peasant's horses, sulijeet to all his caprices as to charge, hour of
starting, and di.xtance of each day's journey.

The horses tiuee, and sometimes four in number, are always driven
abreast. Tha i/ainslchUt' or postboy, instead of riding, drives from the box
or tlio foot-l)o:ird ; his beard and liabiliments are not the most cleanly, and
his love for vodka and gossip is intense. lie knows only two paces, .i
walk and a gallop, and his course across the steppe is sti'aight over every

MEANS OF TRAVEL — POSTING.

591

huts, commonly
arm witli cock-
is, and u rough
riglit to expect
ic padaroshnas
c take liis rest,
is not likely to
(lescril/os these
, but otherwise
ust those ill the
)tio» ; thoy arc
hunible!*t kind.
i clicerless idea
lI macadamized
;k I alighted at
lervaut) peeped
the lel't and re-
ty of uoi-sy ca-
YM\ wa» a |)as8-
» 1 could dine,
naokiiig guests,
i/' ('Whatcau
On ti»e crofis-
>c obtained, but
atter very good
her tlie one nor
tusi^ian IVimilics
1 are very pon-
iccompanied by
thor comforts,
ivelling in Ru9-
con side red, tho
)rovided with a
mc of the place
in vcrsts, and
n at each post-
horsos, and if
Uinue his jour-
ihargo, hour of

always driven

s from tl»o box
•st cleanly, and
y two paces, a
ght over every

hillock, and into every hole that lies in hia way ; the whip, a short but
heavy punishcr, and an inexhaustible supply of oaths, are not unfrequcntly
in request. The more humane have recoui'sc to kind words, and address
their horses in endearing terms, which are sometimes given in rhyme. A
mare the boy calls " siidaruiua,^' or good woman ; a tired horse he ad-
dresses as " starite" or old fellow. Collectively, they are called '■'■ ^olub-
ki" or little doves. In the winter, a bell is attached to the pole of the
carriage, to give notice of its approach, for the sledge glides noiselessly
over the snow. A table showing the distance from one post-station to
another, is hung up in every [)ost-house, also the charge for each horse is
stated ; a book is also kept in wluch travellers may enter their complaints ;
should any difficulties arise, a request to see this book may have some ef-
fect upon the dilatory and extortiouate postmaster. The official is bound
to furnish at least the number of horses ordered in the padarosh'na ; but he
may oblige the traveller to take more if the roads require it, and this he
docs sometimes to the extent of making him journey with six, and in very
bad roads, nine liorses ; he may also, and often does, on the cross-roads,
tell you there are no horses left l)ut those which he is bound to keep for
tlic mail or a court-courier ; a douceur, however, properly administered to
him or the yamslchik^ will have a wonderful effect in producing the requi-
site number of qiuulrupeds: the latter is occasionally the proprietor of the
horses he drives. Tiiese bearded Jehus generally receive from thirty-five
to fifty copper kopeks for the stage, according to its length. This varies
greatly, viz., from twelve to twenty-eight versts. Russians gi/e less, and
when tnivelliiig ou the public service seldom give tniything. Many of the
postmasters in the soutli of Russia are Polish Jews, and, though not more
rapacious (lian tlieir Ciiristian brethren of the same trade, are quite as bad.
In addition to these worthies, there is at each posthouse a government
officer, called an ispravnik, who is supposed to be a check on the post-
nuvster ; he is, however, generally his bosom-friend, but the palm of his
hand is seldom shut.

Souietiines the traveller by post cliances to meet with a cabinet-courier,
or with an officer travelling on service, to whose horses some accident has
happened, and who forthwith, and without the slightest ceremony, stops
the luckless stranger, takes the horses from his carriage, harnesses them
U) his own, and gaUoped oil', perfectly indifl'erent as to the fate of the man
wlioni lie thus leaves houseless and hel|tless upon the emperor's highway.

The cabinet-couriers incidentally mentioned above are worthy of a pas-
sing notice. They are coiilideiitial persons, two or more of whom are con-
Btantly in attendance in a chamber of the imperial palace, to be despatched
as occasion may require. They have their orders direct from the emperor,
and at any hour of day or night, they are ready to receive instructions for
departure, or for delivery of their despatches. The Russian couriers are
perhaps the most enduring and hardworking class of men to be found in
Kuropc. IScated on a board covered with a thick leathern cushion, in a

-\ '

if I-;'

592

ILLUSTEAlLi) DESCRIPTION OP UUSSlA.

■ i

licrABTl'IlB oy TIIK MaLLB-PuST (OA MaU. DiLlaKNCE) raoK sir rETKRSBUR'<.

Avooden vehicle, without spriiifrs or back to loan against, and on a level
with the traces, the courier travels at full gallop over the most wretched
roads, without rest or repose, to Odessa, to Chiva, or even to Port St.
Peter and St. Paul, twelve thousand eight hundred vcrsts from St. Peters-
burg. Add to this, tliat the courier, so long as he is on Russian ground,
is forl)idden, under pain of dismissal, to close an eye in sleep. On such
tremendous journeys as the last referred to, nature becomes at last too
powerful for du'y to resist her call, and the harassed courier allows him-
self brief repose. But it has often occurred that when the despatches
reached their place of destination, that the bearer was unable to deliver
them, he lying a corpse in the carriage.

Another popular mode of travelling on the i)rincipal I'outos in Russia is
by diligences. Of these there are several kinds : Tlie government or
malle-poste, the public diligence, and the private or family di*igcnce. The
malle-poste, which accommodates four inside and three outside passengers,
is the fastest and most comfortable. It is very capacious, and in winter
warmly fitted up with a huge wolfskin wrapper for the feet and legs. The
public diligences are slower, and carry passengers at a less rate of faro.
The family-diligence is fitted up to accommodate parties of from eight to

deliver

HEAXS OP TRAVEL — VEHICLES.

bd;\

twelve inside passengers. For family parties this mode of travelling has
its advantages, and is a more independent mode of journeying than by the
private diligence. Some of the Russian diligences are equal in style and
comfort to any other European public highway conveyance. The conduc-
tor's scat is in front ; he is screened by a hood and apron from the pelting
storm, and beside him, totally unprotected except by his sheepskin schooba,
sits the yamstchik, ^vith his low-crowned hat and broad band adorned with
many buckles, and his thick yellow hair, cut, like that of all the lower or-
ders, in a line from ear to car. The number of horses is generally four,
harnessed abreast ; but to these two leaders are frequently added, and on
the off leader is perched an urchin, the very facsimile in miniature of the
bearded driver, who sits with imperturbable gravity on the box. The ac-
couat given of the diligences of the " second Otablissement," by a traveller
who recently visited Russia, is not so encouraging. He describes the vehicle
as having imaginary springs, stony cushions, green baize lining, and inhab-
ited by a thriving colony of bugs, and himself as having arrived at Novgorod
with his teeth loose, and his limbs half dislocated. Some diligences are
conducted by private proprietors, totally unconnected with the government.

Another commodious and comfortable country travelling-carriage, much
used iu the interior of Russia, is the tarantasse, an engraving of which,
crossing the steppes, is given on page 215. Tlie name of this carriage is
used as the title of a work from the pen of Count Solohoupe, alluded to in
the chapter on literature and education.

Another form of Rus-
sian travelling-carriage is

the post-leleg'a, whicli is a ^

small open wagon witliout _^^:
springs, but strongly con-
structed, so as to with-
stand the roads and no
roads of the country. To " -
Journey in this vehicle,
one must be a native, for
the jolting is auniiiilating,

and to prove what the concussions must be, the Russit^.n officers put straw
at the bottom of it, and not unfrcqucntly a bod upon that ; in tlic^o ma-
chines they get over thp ground at an amazing puce. Gathering up liif!
six or ciglit reins, for there are two to cacli horse, and grcsping iiis slioit
severe whip, the yamslvhik leaves the posthouse at a furious gnllop, and
keeping the liorses at this pace nearly the whole stage, not uiifrequcntly
returns to his station with one less than he set out with. When the empe-
ror's carriage breaks down, which is not an unusual occurrence in his rapid
journeys, ho is sometimes obliged to proceed in one of these rude convey-
ances. TIjc kibitka is an improvement on the tele'^-a, having a hood and
apron, so that there is more protection from the weather.

The Post-Teleoa.

■,

■■m

694

ILLUSTRATED DESCKIPTION OF RU&SIA.

The Dborkt.

Tho back-carriage or cab of St. Petersburg, and other large cities in
Russia, is tho drosky: but it is a most comfortless conveyance, consisting
merely of a bench upon four wheels, on which the fare sits astride, as on a

velocipede, and immediately be-
hind the driver, who is not an
agreeable person to be in very
close contact with ; at any rate,
to those who arc not fond of the
odors of garlic, their favorite
seasoning. Moreover, tho wood-
en pavement is at the best indif-
ferent, and when out of repair,
which is frequently the case,
most abominable, and even worse
than the stone pavement.

Droskies for hire stand in tho
most principal streets. There
is no fixed price whatever, as to distance or time ; a most extraordinary
thing in a country where tho police schmu to busy themselves about every-
thing. To do the iooshlshiks or drivers justice, they do not impose very
exorbitantly, seldom asking more than twice as much as they will willingly
take if a bargain is made before starting; and never attempting to demand
more wlieii tho ride is fmislicd than they liave previously agreed for. Tho
usual fare in St. Petersburg from one quarter to anotlier is aljout twenty
cents. As the distances are groat, the most inveterate pedestrian will soon
find these heardod Jehus, tho ivoshtshiks, his best friends, and lie will sel-
dom have occasion to sing out '■'■ davaV ("here") a second time ; indeed,
he need scarcely look at them ; and if he only pause for a moment, seeming
to muse upon the expediency of hiring one, half a dozen will instantly dart
to the spot where iie stands and offer their services.

In Southern Russia tlie droski/ lias a l)ack and the driver sits on a seat
in front, at a more agreeable distance from his fare. On a good road,
and with three horses attached to it, which arc always placed abreast, the
pace is grand and the motion very easy; the wheels are small, and the
body, which is hung on C-springs, is very low. This vehicle is driven with
one, two, or three horses ; in either case one is in the shafts, to which a
light piece of wood is attached, ibrming an arch over his head ; the traces
draw from the nave of the wheel ; the bridle and other parts of the harness
ure ornamented with small ))its of brass or silver. If two horses are driven,
the second is always placed on tiie :iear side, his head drawn a little down
ar.-' outward l)y a rein attached to it for tlie purpose ; he is trained to
canter and show himself off, while the otlier does nearly all the work at a
rapid trot. When there arc three horses, the one on the off-side is also
harnessed with his head downward, and capers in the same way. A droski/
?rell turned out in this manner, is by far the prettiest equipage of tho three,

will instantly dan

MEANS OF TUAVEL — IV0SHTSHIK8.

[iOo

and when going at speed, which is the usual pace, the horses have the effect
of those in an ancient car. Droskies ply in all the large towns.

In winter the ivos/itshik uses the favorite national vehicle of a sledge,
with which he continues to grind the pavement as long as the least trace
of snow is to be felt under the spring mud. A covered carriage he never
uses. The cloaks and furs of his passengers must do the service that the
roof of the coach does with us ; and when well wrapped up in a scries of
protecting folds, the warm nucleus of life that occupies the centre, patiently
suffers the pelting of snow, rain, and mud, till the end of his journey, where
the dirty rind is peeled off, and the said kernel steps forth clean and un-
spotted from his muddy covering.

Tlio irosldshiks of St. Petersburg appear to be a race of Hamaxobites
(dwellers in wagons), leading a sort of nomadic life among the palaces of
the caj)ital. They encamp by day in the streets, and so do many of them
during the night, their sledge serving them at once as house and bed.
Like the Bedouin Arabs, thoy carry the oat-bag constantly with them, and
fasten it, during their interval of leisure, to the noses of their steeds. In
many streets arrangements have been made for tiie convenience of the
ivus/dshiks. Every here and there mangers are erected for their use; to
water their horses, there are in all i)arts of the town convenient descents
to the canals or to tlie river ; and hay is sold at a number of shops in small
bundles, just sufficient for one or two horses. To still the thirst and hun-
ger of the charioteers themselves, there are peripatetic dealers in quass,
tea, and bread, who arc constantly wandering about the streets for the
charitable purpose of feeding the Imngry. The animals are as hardy as
their inastei's. Neither care for cold or rain ; both eat as opportunity
serves, and arc content to take their sleep when it comes. Yet they are
always cliei^rful, the horses ever ready to start off at a smart trot, the dri-
vers at all times disposed for a song, a joke, or a gossip. When they are
neither eating, nor engaged in any other serious occupation, they lounge
about tiieir sledges, singing some simple melody that they have probably
brought with tlumi from their native forests. When several of tliem hap-
pen to be together at the corner of a street, they are sure to be engaged in
some game or other, pelting with snowballs, wrestling, or bantering each
other, till the ^'•Davai ivoshtshik I'' of some chance passenger makes them
all grasp their whips in a moment, and converts them into eager competi-
tors for the expected gain.

These men are, for the most part, Russians from all the different govern-
ments of the empire ; but among them there are also Finlanders, Esthoni-
ans, Lcttcs, Poles, and Germans. They arrive at St. Petersburg generally
as little boys of ten or twelve years old, hire themselves as drivers to some
owner of hackney-carriages, whom they continue to serve till they have
saved enough to buy a horse and vehicle, when they set up in business on
their own account. Their trade, as are all trades in Rus;=ia, is uncontrolled
by corporation laws ; and should fodder grow dear, or business slack, the

V 1 1

m,'

•■■

Vv.

596

ILLUSTIIATED DESCniPTION OP nUSSIA.

ivoshtshik packs up the fcwM'orldly poods lie possesses, drives awnyto tho
south, and reappears in tho streets of Novgorod or Moscow ; tluis, in \)\\r-
suit of fortune, they emerge now in one town and now in anotlier, till
enabled somewhere to form a profitable and permanent establishment.

The constant jjlaguc of the ivoshtshik is tho pedestrian, who in Russia
is invested with immense privileges. In other countries a man thinks him-
self bound to take care that he is not run over : but in Russia, he mIio
walks afoot trouldes himself but little al)out tho matter, and thinks the
coachman alone is bound to be careful. ]f the horse or carriage merely
touch a foot-passenger, without even tlirowing him down, tho driver is
liable to be Hogged and fined ; should the pedestrian l)c tlirown down, a
flogging, Siberia, and the confiscation of the whole equipage, are tho nrld
penalties imposed l>y tho law. " Have a care," cries the ivoshtshik.
" Have a care thyself, and remember Sil»eria," is tho prol)ably reply of tho
leisurely wayfarer. The moment the cry is raised that a man has been run
over, a brace of bvtshniks rush out from their watchboxes, and the carriage,
whoever it may belong to, is carried away as a police j)rize. The poor
coachman is immediately bound, and the llattering prospect of an emigra-
tion to Siberia is immediately hold forth to him, whether tho accident havo
arisen from his own fault or not. Cases of great severity sometimes oc-
cur : but it is dinicult to point out any other way of checking tho wild way
of driving in which the nobles frcqrcntly indulge.

' Ivusumnn,

UISTORIC 8UUHABY — THE SLAVONIANS.

697

CHAPTER XXIV.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — EARLY ANNALS.

THE earliest annals of Russia only furnish occasional glimpses of nu-
inei'ous barbarous hordes roaming over its surface. These nomadic
tribes, classed under the common appellation of Sarmatians and
Scythians, at a very early j)criod began to menace the Roman frontiers,
and even before tlie time of Cyrus the Great of Persia liad invaded what
was then called the civilized world, particularly southern Asia. They
inhabited tlie countries described by Herodotus between the Don and the
Dnieper; and Strabo and Tacitus mention the Roxolani, afterward called
Ros, as highly distinguished among the Sarmatian tribes dwelling in that
district. The Greeks early established colonics here; and in the second
century the Goths came from the IJaltie, and, locating in the neighborhood
of tlie Don, extended tlicmselvcs to the Danube.

In the (iflli century, the country in the neighborhood of these rivers was
overrun by numerous migratory hordes of Alans, Huns, Avarians, and Bui- .
garians, who were followed by the Slavi, or Slavonians, a Sarmatian peo-
[tlc, who took a more northerly direction tlian their predecessors had done.
In the next century, tlie Khozari, pressed upon by the Avarians, entered
the country between the Volga and the Don, conquered the Crimea, and
thus placed themselves in connection with the Byzantine emiiire. These
and numerous other tribes directed the course of their migrations toward
the west, fttrced the Huns into Pannonia, and occupied the country be-
tween the Don and the Alaiita ; while the Tehoudes, or Ishudi, a tribe of
tlie Finnic race, inhabited the northern parts of Russia. All these tribes
maintained themselves by pasture and the chase, and exhibited the usual
barbarism of wandering nomades.

The Slavonians, coming from the northern Danube, and spreading them-
selves along the Dnieper, in the fifth and sixth centuries, early acquired,
from a commerce with tiieir southern neighbors, habits of civilized life, and
embraced the Christian religion. They founded in the country afterward
called Russia the two cities of Novgorod and Kiev, which early attained
a commercial importance. Their wealth, however, soon excited the avid-
ity of the Khozari, with whom they were compelled to maintain a perpetual
struggle. But Novgorod found another and more formidable enemy in the
Varagians, a race of bold pirates who infested the coasts of the Baltic,

hxM

( it\

ili

,l'i*l

JnH

Mil

508

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTION OP RU38TA.

and who had previously subdued the Conrlanders. Livonians, and Estlio-
nians. It is not improbable that these Varaginiis formed a part of those
Scandiivaviau nations, who, under the name of Danes and Saxons, succes-
sively made tliomsolvcs masters of England. To these bold invaders tho
name of Russi, Riisses, or Rvssians, is tliought by the most eminent authors
to owe its origin. I3e that, however, as it may, it appears certain that in
those dark ages the country was divided among a great number of petty
princes, who made war upon each other with groat ferocity and cruelty, so
that the pcoj)lo were reduced to tho utmost misery ; and the Slavonians,
seeing that the warlike rovers threatened their rising state with devasta-
tion, were prompted by the necessity of self-preservation to ofl'cr the gov-
ernment of their country to them. In consequence of this, a celebrated
Varagian chief, named Rurik, arrived, in 8G2, with a body of his country-
men, in the neighborhood of tho lake Ladoga, and laid the foundation of
the present empire of Rusi>;,, by uniting his people with those who already
occupied the soil.

Rurik has tho credit of being zealous for the strict administration of
justice, and enforcing its exercise on all the boyars or nobles who pos-
sessed territories under him. He died in 879, leaving an only son, Igor,
who, being a minor, Oleg, a kinsman of the deceased monarch, took on
himself the administration of aflairs. Tho new monarch appears very
early to have projected the extension of his territories, by annexing to
them the set'l'^ment which the Slavi had formed about Kiev, against which
he soon undertook a formidable expedition. Ho collected a numerous
army, and, taking with him the young prince Igor, opened tlio campaign
with the capture of Lubitch, and of Smolensk, the capital of the Krivit-
sches. Having reduced several other towns, he advanced toward the rival
city of Kiev, the possession of which formed the chief object of his ambi-
tion. As he did not think it advisable to hazard an open attack, he had
recourse to artifice ; and, leaving behind him the greater part of his troops,
ho concealed the remainder in the barks that had brought them down tho
Dnieper from Smolensk. Olcg himself, disguising his name and quality,
passed for a merchant sent by the regent and his ward Igor on busi;>es3
of importance to Constantinople ; and he despatched officers to Oskhold
and Dir, the two chieftains of the Kievians, requesting permission to pass
through their territory into Greece, and inviting them to visit him as
friends and fellow-citizens, pretending that indisposition prevented him
from paying his respects to them in person. Tho princes, relying on these
appearances of friendship, accepted Oleg's invitation ; but when they ar-
rived at tho regent's encampment, they were surrounded by tho Varagian
soldiers, who sprang from their place of concealment. Oleg, taking Igor
in his arms, and casting on the sovereigns of Kiev a fierce and threatening
look, exclaimed : " You are neither princes, nor of tho raco of princes ;
behold tho son of Rurik !" These words, which formed the signal that
had been agreed on between Oleg and his soldiers, were no sooner uttered.

ns, and Estlio-

V part of thoso

MlXOnS, 8U0CC8-

d invaduis tlio
mincnt uuthora
certain timt in
mbcr of petty
mid cruelty, so
ic Slavonians,
with dovasta-
ofl'cr tlic pov-
a, a celebrated
}f Iiis country-
foundation of

who already

ninistration of
)l)les who po3-
>nly son, Igor,
larch, took on
appears very

Y annexing to
, against which
d a numerous

1 the campaign
of the Krivit-
ward the rival
3t of his ambi-
attack, ho had
t of his troops,
hem down tho
B and quality,
»r on busiiicss
rs to Oskhold
iiission to pass
' visit him as
)revented him
lying on these
when they ar-

tho Varagian
f, taking Igor
id threatening
!0 of princes ;
)c signal that
oonor uttered.

FISTOKIC SUMMA1Y-

-^— HI

690

VjkBAOtANa. — CuSTVMES or Till! TlMi: or RVBIK.

tliitn the latter rushed on tho two princes, and laid them prostrate at tho
feet of their master. Tlie inhabitants of Kiev, tiirown into consternation
by tliis bold and treaclioruus act, made no resistance, but opened tliO gates
of their city to tho invader. By this means, the two Slavonian states were
united uiider one head.

Having ihus made himself master of the key to the eastern empire, Oleg
prepared to carry into cIToct his ambitions designs against Constantinople.
Leaving Igo'* at Kiev, he embarked on the Dnieper with ciglity thousand
warriprs, in two thousand vessels. The inhabitants of the imperial city
had drawn a massy chain across the harbor, hoping to prevent their land
ing. But the invaders drew ashore their barks, fitted wheels to their flat
bottoms, and converted tliem into carriages, which, by the help of sails,
they forced along tho roads that led to the city, and thus arrived under
the walls of Constantinople. The emperor Leo, instead of making a manly
resistance, is said to have attempted carrying off his enemies by poison ;
but, this liot succeeding, ho was obliged to purchase from the conqueror

;

(is

' 1'.

■;Mi).

11:

noo

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

nil ifrnomiiiioiis poaco. OIoji^ v.Mniiicd tlio completion of his wishes, l>y itw
rich booty wlii(!li lio carried oft"; mid hia people, (hizzled wilh iiirt brilliuiit
HUCCCSN, tliotijrilt liiin endowed witli siipernatiiml powers.

Olofj maintained tlic sovereign power for tliirty-lliree years; nor does it
appear lliat Ijror had any share in the government till llio doatli of his
gimrdiaii hsft him in full possession of the throne, A. I). Slli, at whu;h tinio
ho had reached his fortieth year. He soon (liscoV(M-ed marks of the same
warlike spirit w' ' ;h had actuated his predecessor. Anumg the nations
that had been snojugatod by Oleg, several, on the accession of a new sov-
ereign, attempted to regain their independence; bnl they were i]uelle<i,
and pnnislied by the imposition of a tribule. Igor, however, soon had to
contend with more formidable enemies. The relclienegans, a nation hith-
erto unknown, ipiitted tlieir settlements on the Yadi and the Volga, and
made incursions into the Kus^iian territory ; and Igor, fniding hiuK-iulf un-
altle to cope with them in arms, concluded a treaty of alliance.

The liussian monarcii was now far advanced in years; but the insatiaido
rapacity of his oflicers, ever craving fresh spoils from vantpii.^hed nation.s,
impelled him to turn his arms against the Drevlians, fur the purpose of
obtaining from them an increase of their yearly lril>ute. In this unjust
attack, he was at lirst successful, and returned loaded wilh the contribu-
tions wliicli he had levied from tiiat |»eople ; Imt having dismissed n great
part of his lr<H»j)S with the spoils of the vanquished, and marcliing with iho
remainder too far into the country, he fell into aii ambiLMcade, which iho
Drevlians, now grown desperate, had formed, on his approach, in tho
neighborhood of Korosten. The Russians were overpowered, and Igor,
being taken prisoner, was put to death. This occurred in i)4o.

Before the death of Oleg, Igor had married a princess of n bold and
daring sjiirit, niinuMJ Olga, liy whom he had one son, Sviatoslall ; but as
he was very young at the death of his father, the «ineen-mother Olga as-
sumed the reins of government. Her lirst care was to take signal ven-
geance on the Drevlians, who, satisfied with the death of their oppres.ior,
appeared desirous of renewing their amicable intercourse with the Rus-
sians. Olga, concealing her real designs under n specious veil of kind-
ness, appeared to listen to their overtures, and received the deputies of
Male, but immediately ordered them to bo jjrivately put to death. In tho
meantime, she invited a larger deputation from the Drcvlian chief, which
she treated in the same manner, taking caie that no tidings of cither mur-
der .should l»e carried to the Drevlians. She then set out, as if on an ami-
cable visit, to conclude the new alliance ; and having proclaimed a solemn
entertainment, to which she invited some hundreds of the principal iiihal>-
itants of tlie Drevlian towns, she caused them to l)c treacherously assassin-
ated. This was l)ut the first step to the dreadfid vengeance which she had.
resolved to inflict on this unhaj)py people. She laid waste the whole coun-
try, particularly near the town of Korosten, where Igor had lost his life
For a long time she could not master the place, as the inhabitants, dread-

HISTORIC KUMMAIIY — OLOA — SVIATOSLAFF.

001

lug tlio lioi'i'ililc fato tliiit uwiiUod tlicin from tlio rovciigcfiil P|»irit of Olga,
doluiiilod tliciiii'clvcs willi valor iukI t<ucucs8. At Icn^lli, l)(;iii^; iis.-juied of
cloiiioiicy. on coiitlitioii of HiMidiiig' to ()lj;iiiill tlu; pi^ooii.s of tliu town, tlioy
sidMiiittiHl ; but Olga, causing lij^litcd nnitches to lio fastened to llic tail»
of tlu) iiigoonf, sot them at liberty. Tlio birds (low to tlioir usiml places
of rortidencc in tlio town, which wero speedily in a euullagration. Tho
wi'ctchcd inhaliitunts, oudeuvoring to escape the llaniC8, fell into the hands
III' \\\,' |{iis>iaM foldiei's, pliintod round the tosvn for that piiiposc, by whom
tlicy wore put to the sword. Though not uncommon in the annals of a
barl):n'ous people, this transaction is suilicient to hand down the niimu of
Olga with detestation to posterity. This princess was, however, tho first
of the barbarians who professed to eml)rac() (Christianity. She failed in
persuading her sou to follow her example, but induced :■ ^'".w of her sub-
jects to do so.

It is probable that Olga retired from the admia ' ifairs soon

after her profession of Christianity ; for we find S\iai<.. i . ..i iull posses-
sion of the government in 1>.")7, long before his mother's death. This
piince has been considered one of the Russian heroes ; and if a thirst for
blood, a contempt of danger, and disregard of the luxuries and conveni-
ences of life, be admitted as the characteristics of a hero, he deserves the
appellation. lie took up his habitation in a camp, where his accommoda
tious were of the coarsest kind ; and when he had, by this mode of life,
iugraliated himseU' with his troops, he prepared to employ them in those
amliitioiis pri»jects which he luul long lieen forming.

llis lirst expedition was against the Khozari, a people already men-
tioned, from the sliores of the Caspian, and the Caucasian mountains, who
had established themselves along tho eastern shores of the JJlack sea.
These people had rendered tributary both the Kievians and tho Viatoches,
a Slavonian nation that dwelt on the i)ank.s of the Oka and tho Volga.
SviatoslalT, desirous of transferring to himself the tribute which the Kho-
zari derived I'roni the latter potiple, marched against them, and appears to
have succeeded in his design. He defeated them in a battle, and took
their capital city Sarkel, or Befi^orod. It is said by some historians that
ho annihilated the nation ; and it is certain that, from that time, no men-
tion is made of the Khozari.

Tho nuirtial fame of SviatoslalT had extended to Constantinople ; and
the emperor Nieephorns Pliocas, who was then harassed by tho llimga-
rians, assisted by his treacherous allies the Bulgarians, apidiod for succors
to the Russian chieftain. A subsidiary treaty was entered into bot\>een
them, and Sviatoslall" hastened with a numerous army to the assistance of
his new allies. He quickly made himself master of most of tho Bulgarian
towns along the Danube ; but, receiving intelligence that the Pctchcnegans
had assembled in great numbers, ravaged the Kievian territory, and laid
siege to the capital, within the walls of which were shut up his mother and
his sons, he liastcncd to the relief of his family.

' iM

-IF

•■•"I ■■■' ill" 1

602

ILLUSTHATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Having defeated tho besiegers, and obliged tliem to sue for peace, ho
resolved to establish himself on tiio banks of the Danube, and divided his
hereditary dominions among liis children. He gave Kiev to Yaropolk ;
the Drcvlian territory to Oleg; and on Vladimir, a natural son, he be-
stowed the government of Novgorod. On his return to Bulgaria, however,
he found that his affairs had assumed a very different aspect. The Bulga-
rians, taking advantage of his absence with his troops, had recovered most
of their towns, and seemed well |)repared to resist the encroachments of a
foreign i)ower. They fell on Sviatoslaff, as he approached tho walls of
Pcreiaslavat", and began tlio attack with so mucli fury, that at first tho
Russians were defeated with great slaughter. Tliey, however, soon ral-
lied, and, taking courage fiom despair, renewed the battle with so much
eagerness, that they in turn became masters of the field. Sviatoslaff took
possession of the town, and soon recovered all that he had lost.

During these transactions, the Greek emperor Nicephorns had been
assassinated, and John Zeniisccs, his murderer, had succeeded to the impe-
rial diadem. The new emiteror sent emliassadors to the Russian monarch,
requiring him to comply with the stipulations of his treaty with Niceplio-
rus, and evacuate Bulgaria, which he had agreed to oecui>y as an ally, but
not as a niastn'. Sviatoshiff refused to give up iiis newly-acquired posses-
sions, and prepared to decide tlie contest by force of arms. He did not
live to reach the capital ; for having, contrary to the advice of his most
experienced ollicers, attempted to return to Kiev up the dangerous navi-
gation of the Dnieper, he was intercepted by the I'etchenegans near tho
rocks tliat form the cataracts of that river. After remaining on tlic defen-
sive during the winter, exposed to all the horrors of famine and disease,
on the return of spring, in 972, attempted to force his way through tho
ranks of the enemy ; but his troops were defeated, and himself killed in
the l)attlc.

Yaropolk, the sovereign of Kiev, may bo considered as the successor of
his father on the Russian throne ; but his reign was short and turbulent.
A war broke out between him and his brotiier Oleg, in which the latter
was defeated and slain. Vladimir, the third brotiier, dreading the in-
creased power and ambitious disposition of Yaropolk, soon after almn-
doned his dominions, which were seized on by the Klevlan prince. Vladi-
mir had retired among the Varagians, from whom he soon procured such
succors as enabled him to make effectual head against the usurper. Ho
advanced toward Kiev before Yaropolk was prepared to oppose him. Tho
Klevlan prince had, indeed, been lulled into security by tiie treachcroua
reports of one of his voyvodes, who was in the interest of Vladimir, and
who found means to induce him to abandon his capital, on pretence that
the inhabitants were disaffected toward him. The Kievians, left without
a leader, opened their gates to Vladimir; and Yaropolk, still misled by
the treachery of his adviser, determined to throw himself on tho mercy of
bis brother ; but before he could effect this purpose, ho waa assassinated

niSTOUIC SUMMAllY — VLADTMIH THE CRKAT — YAROSLAV I.

603

peace, ho
lividcd liis
Yuropolk ;
ion, lie be-
I, liowevcr,
riic Biilga-
rorcd most
1)101) ts of a

walls of
it lii-st the
, soo)) ral-

1 8() l))Ucll

D.slafl' took

l)ad been
) the ni)pe-
1 DioDarch,
I Niccpho-
i» ally, but
I'od posses-
Ifo did Dot
f i)ia most
oi'oiis navi-
la noai' tho

the dofen-
))d disease,
i)'oii«^h tho
f killed in

jcccssor of
turbulent,
the latter
iii<^ the ia-
iil'ter aljan-
:e. Vladi-
cured such
ii'per. Ho
him. Tho
I'oaeherous
dimir, and
[itence that
eft without
misled by
mercy of
jsassinated

by soi))o of his Va)"agia)i foUowei-a. By this mu)'dcr, which had probably
bcei) plai)))od l>y Vladii))ir, the conquei-or, in 980, acquired the undivided
possession of all his father's territories.

The commencement of Vladimir's reign formed but a continuation of tho
enormities which had conducted hi)n to the throne. He began with remov-
ing lUude, tho treacherous voi/oode, by whom his brother had been be-
trayed into his power, and to whom he had promised the highest honors
and dignities. The Varagia)is, who had assisted in reinstating him on
the tl))'one of his ancestoi'S, requested permission to go and seek their for-
tune in Gi-eece. He gi'anted M)eir reqtiest, but privately advertised the
empoi'or of their approach, and caused them to be arrested and secured.

Vladii))ir engaged in numerous wars, and subjected scvei-al of the neigh-
bori)ig states to his doi))i)iion. He seized on i)art of the Polish territory ;
and co)))pelled the Bulgarians, who dwelt i)i that Avhich now forms tho
government of Kazan, to do l)i)n homage. He subdued the Petchcncgans
and Khazares, in the immediate neig!)borhood of the Kieviau state ; ho
reduced to his authority Halitsch (or Kalisch) and Vladimir, countries
which are now known as Galieia and Lul)0)niria; he conquci-ed Lithuania
as far as Meinel, and took possession of a gi'eat part of niodo-n Livonia.

This niona)'cl), having s(!ttlod the aflaii-s of his empii-e, demanded in mar-
riage the princess Aniir, .-^istor to the Greek emperor ]}asilius Porphyro-
genitiis. His suit was gi'ai)ted,on condition that he should cinl)racc Chris-
tianity. With this the Russian mo)iarcl) com|)lied ; a))d that vast onpiro
was thenceforward consido-ed as belonging to the patriai-chate of Constan-
J,inople. Vladi)nir leceived the name of Basilius on the day he was baj>-
tized ; and, according to the Russian annals, twenty thousand of his sub-
jects were baptized on the same day. The idols of paganism were now
thrown down, churches and monasteries were erected, towns built, and tho
arts began to flourish. The Slavonian letters were also at this period first
introduced into Russia ; a))d Vladimir sent missionaries to convert tho
Bulgarians, but without much success. We are told that Vladiuiir called
the arts fi-oin Greece, cultivated them in the peaceable periods of his reign,
and generously rewarded their professors. His )nerits, indeed, appear to
have been veiy considerable. Ho has been extolled by the monks as tho
wisest as well as tho most i-eligious of kings ; his zealous exertions in pi"o-
moting the profession of Cliristianity throughout his dominions acquired
for him the title of saint ; and succeeding historians, comparing the virtues
of his character with the age in which he lived, have united in conferring
upon hi)n tho appellation of '' Vladimir the Great."

His son Yai-oslav, who reigned thirty-five years, and died in 1054, at
the age of seventy-seven, was a prince of considerable attainments, and a
great pation of the arts. The church of St. Sophia, at Novgorod, was by
his order decorated with pictures and mosaics, portions of which are said
to remain to tho present time. His expedition against Constantino XL,
who then hold tho sccptro of tho eastern or Greek ompiro (though unsuc-

/'f^l

'^f

\ I

60-i

TI.I.tlSTnATKD DKSCniPTION OP HUSSIA.

Pi: i<

l!i

ccssfiil), as well as his acquirements, and tlic splendor in which ho lived,
made his name known and respected throughout Europe. Three of his
dau<>liters wore married to the kings of France, Norway, and Hungary;
and Ills oldest son, Vladimir, who died before him, had for wife a daughter
of the iMifortimate Harold, the last of the Saxou kings of England.

Yaroslav, at his death, divided his empire, as was usually the case,
among liis sons. Vladimir jMoiiomaehiis, his grandson, who died in the
early part of the next century, did the same ; and as the Russian monarehs
were blessed, generally speaking, with a numerous oflspring (the last-
mentioned sovereign had eight children), the country was continually a
prey to internal dissensions and strife: and these faniily feuds were not
settled until an a|)peal had been made to the sword, which, being conge
nial to the disposition of the people and the temper of the times, was fre-
quently prolonged for years. In the year preceding the dcatli of Monoma-
chiis, Kiev was nearly destroyed by (ire; and, from the great nnml)er of
churclic's and houses tliat fell a prey to the flames, that city must then have
been of great extent and opulence. Tiiis calamity was followed in the
gucceeding reign by a still greater one, when the sister-capital, Novgorod,
was desolated by a famine so awful, tliat the survivors were not sufliciently
numerous to bury llic dead, and the streets were blocked up by the putrid
corpses of the inliabitauts !

Tiie reigns which followed this period of Russian history arc distiu-
giiished by lidle else than continual wars with (lie Poles, Lithuanians,
Polovelzes, and Tehoudes, witli tliis exception, that the town of A'ladimir,
built by Yiny I., in lloT, became in lluit year the capital instead of Kiev.
But a more formidable enemy than the inhal)itants of the countries and
tribes already mentioned drew near the Muscovite territory, in the person
of Tuschki, the son of Zinghis Klian, who, emigrating with his Tartars
westward, led them, about the year 1223, from the shores of the sea of
Aral and the Caspian to those of the Dnieper. Tlio Circassians and Polo-
vctzes, having endeavored in vain to arrest the progress of the horde, were
at length constrained to apply to their hitherto inveterate foes for assist-
ance ; and, the cause being now equally dear to all parties, the Russians
made an intrepid stand on the banks of the Kalka. The impetuous attack,
however, of the invaders was not to be withstood, and, the j)rince of Kiev
treacherously abstaining from taking part in the battle, the Russians were
completely routed, and scarcely a tenth part of an army composed of one
hundred thousand men escaped. The enemy then pursued his way unmo-
lested to the capital, which he took, and put fifty thousand of thu inhabit-
ants of the principality of Kiev to the sword! The further progress of
the Tartars northward was marked by fire and sword ; but, having reached
Novgorod-Sevcrski, they faced about and retreated to the camp of Zinghis
Khan, who was at this time in Bokhara.

Thirteen years after, Ratou Khan, kinsman of Zinghis, desolated Rus-
sia afresh, comiuitting every species of cruelty, aud aggravated breaches

HISTOPIC SUMMARY — YAUOSLAV II. — ALKXANDEU I.

605

of faltli with tlic towns wlio submitted to Ills arms. In tliis manner, tlio
old provinces of Riazan, I'eriaslavl, Rostov, and several others, foil into
liis hands ; for, with incredible apathy, and contrary to their usually war-
like inclinations, the Russian princes neglected to raise any troops to dis-
pute their progress ; and Yury 11., i)rince of Vladimir, was at tliis critical
juncture occupied in celebrating the nuirriage of one of his boyars. At
length, suddenly roused to a sense of his desperate position, he jdaced
himself at the head of some troops hastily called together, and left his
family under the protection of one of his nobles, trusting that his capital
would be able to sustain a long siege. He was mistaken : the Tartars
soon made themselves masters of Vladimir, and the grand ])rincesses, as
well as other persons of distinction, were burnt alive in the church in
which they had taken shelter. On hearing of this tragical event, Yury
marched with his adherents to meet tlie foe. The contest was sanguinary
and short ; but, after performing prodigies of valor, the Russians wero
borne down by overpowering numbers, and their prince was left among
the slain. There was now nothing to dispute the march of the ruthless
Tartars, and they pushed forward to within sixty miles of Novgorod, when
they again turned round without any ostensible motive, and evacuated the
Russian territory.

The wretched condition into which the southern and central parts of
the empire were thrown by these invasions, aflbrded a most advantageous
opportunity for other enemies to attack it; and, accordingly, in 1242, and
during tlie reign of Yaroslav 11., tlie Swedes, Danes, and Livoiiians, sent
a numerous and well-disciplined army to demand tlie submission of Novgo-
rod. This Alexander, tiie son of the reigning sovereign, refused; and,
leaving his capital, he advanced, unaided by any allies, to mec' his oppo-
nents, and fought the celebrated battle of the Neva, which gained him tho
surname of Ncvski, and a place in tlie Russian calendar. The personal
courage of Alexander in this liattle was of the highest order, and mainly
contributed to secure tiie victory. His memory is still cherislied by the
Russians, and the order instituted in honor of him is much valued.

A cruel and constanllj-lluctimting war with the Tartar? — various incur-
sions by the Livonians, Lithuanians, Swedes, and Polos — and llic most
frightful civil discord among the several almost regal provinces of Russia
— consumed fourteen successive reigns, between Yury ll., who died in
1238, and Ivan I., who succeeded his father in the principality of Vladimir
in 1328.* At times, during this period, the Tartars, adding insriU to

• Tho rcifrn* iliiiinit llii.t pi-iinci wen- tlindc of Yiirnsliiv 11.. 12;)8-'I7 ; Svi;itiisl;itl' II., 12-l7-'48;
Mi.-lmi'l 11., 1248-'49; Andivw II., 12l!)-'r)2; Alrxuncln- I. (N.'vski), 12.')2-'(;3; Vinualiiv III.,
l2G3-'72; Viissili I., 1272-7(i ; Diniiii 1., 127fi-'!)|; Aiidrevv 111., li!)» ' 130-1 ; Michiirl 111.,
I304-'1D; Yniy III., 131!)-'22; Dmiiii II., 1322-'2.); Airxim.l.M- II., 132.-.-'28. Tlio lust liiilf
r.piitiii-y of tliirt «'iioi-li Kiininisiii ppciikd of lis llie iiicist (lisi\9lio\i» iirnnd ol' Riissiiin lii.<fi)ry. " Tlio
aKptM't nf Riisaiii wn.t llint ol'n pliMimy (■iicst iiilliiT lliim nn cnipiii'. Mif;lit tiiok llu- pliioi- of riglit,
and piiliigf, niillioriztMl liy impiinily, \vii« rxi-rciRi'd idiUo liy Riissinns mid Tiiiliii-s. Tlicro »:i8 no
•uffty for tiiivclli-rK cm tlic roiids, ur for fi-midcx "i tlioir liousos; oiul roblipry, liUe_ n contogiim.i
mutuily, iiifi'iti'ci nil iinipertii'g."

606

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

injury, arrogated to themselves the power of protectors of this or that inter-
est ; and, in the cnsc of Ivan I., Uzbek Khan secured to him the possession
of Novgorod, as well as of Vladimir and Moscow. Ivan's father had
greatly beautified and improved the latter town; and Ivan followed his
example, and made it his residence. Here also resided the metropolitan,
and it therefore rapidly advanced in importance. Ivan's reign of thirteen
years was remarkable as improving and j)caceful,and he exercised a sound
discretion by building a wall of wood round the city, which supported a
rampart of earth and stone. At the close of his life he took monastic
vows, and died in 1341. In the reign of Ivan II., second son of the pre-
vious nu)narcli of that nanie, Moscow established its pre-eminence as a
city, and became ihe capital of the empire.

Ivan II. dit'd in 13 ")8, and was succeeded by Dmitri III., who died in
13G3. The llirone was then occupied by Dmitri IV., under whom, toward
the close of this century, the Russians raised an army of four hundred thou-
sand men, and met tlie Tartars near the Don, who were defeated with great
loss. This tcrrii)le contest lasted three days, and was known in after-ages
as '"the IJattle of the Giants." The victors, however, suflered greatly;
and wiioii Dniilri reviewed his army after the battle, ho found it reduced
to forty thousand men ! This success obtained for him the surname of
Donskoi. Subsequently, however, to this victory, tlie Tartars again ad-
vanced ; and Dmitri, betrayed l»y his allies, the princes of the neighboring
states, deserted Moscow, which fell by ca|)itulation into the hands of the
ruthless invaders, who devastated it with fire and sword until it was ut-
terly destroyed, no building being permitted to remain except those which
happened to have been constructed of stone by the grand prince.

The character of Dmitri IV. is thus given by the metropolitan Cyprian:
♦' lie knew," says that eeclosiastic, " how to soften the kingly office by
coiideseension, he was impartial in the administration of justice, and dc-
liglited to promote the peace and happiness of his subjects; his learning
was small, liut the rectitude of his disposition and the kindness of his heart
sujtplied the defects of education, and entitle him to a distinguished place
among Russian sovereigns." It was this prince who caused the krcmlin
to be erected of stone, and closed by a wall flanked with towers, which
were defended by ditches surmounted with stone.

Vassili or Basil II., who succeeded his father Dmitri in 1380, was also
destined to see his country invaded by the Tartars under Tamerlane; but
they never reached the capital, for ho prepared to give them battle near
the river Oka, when they suddenly turned round and retired, as their conn
trymen had previously done on two other occasions. The Russians attrib-
uted this to a miracle performed by a picture of the Virgin Mary, said to
have been painted by St. Luke. The barbarian horde, however, joined by
the Lithuanians, afterward laid siege to Moscow, but were repulsed by the
inhabitants, the grand prince having retired with his family to Kostroma.
Exasperated ut this defeat, the Tartars in their retreat harassed the sur-

HISTORIC SUMMARY — VASSILI II. — IVAN III. THE ORKAT.

607

T that intcr-

roimdiiig country, and slauglitcrcd the defenceless peasantry. ^Moncy wag
first coined in Novgorod during this reign, its place having hitherto been
supplied with skins and pieces of leather : twenty skins of the n-.artin wore
considered as equivalent to agrivna, tlic value of whicli was a real pound
of gold or silver, of nine and a quarter ounces in Kiev and thirteen in
Novgorod.

During the reign of Vassili, Kazan was taken from the Tartars, and
Russia was thrice visited with the plague and famine, while tlie ancient
city of Novgorod was shaken by an earthquake after the greater part of
its buildings had been consumed by fire. Internal disscnsi(/ii3 broke out
on the death of Vassili, a dispute having arisen respecting tlie succession
to the tlirone between the son of that nionarcli and liis uncle George.
This was, by the consent of both parties, left to the decision of the khan
of Tartary, wlio determined in favor of the former. Nevertheless, a civil
war ensued, and George was for a short time in possession of tlie throne,
when, finding liimsclf abandoned by his party and his family, he restored
it to his nepliew, and returned to his principality of Ilalitscli.

Complicated wars, Russian and Tartar, now followed ; the principal
incident of wliich was that Ivan, the prince of jlojask, in the interest of
the traitor Clumiaka, induced Vassili to stop at tlic monastery of the
Troitzkoi, to return tlianks on his arrival from the Tartars, and, having
seized him there, he took liin. to Moscow and put out his eyes. But a
year after the prince of Mojask Iiad conunitted this savage act, A'assili
was restored to the tlirone, and died in 1402. The Tartars, under Makh-
met, again possessed themselves of Kazan in this reign.

Vassili III. was succeeded by Ivan III. T!io first exploit which the ne;v
monarch attempted was the reduction of the jjrovince of Kazan, in which
ho succeeded after two severe campaigns. The next was tlie subjection
of Novgorod, in whi \ ho also succeeded, incorporating that city and prov-
ince with his own dominions, and, liaving received the oaths of allegiance
of the inhabitants, ho carried off with him to Moscow their ceicbrated
town-clock, which he suspended in a tower before the krendin, to be used
only to call the people to their devotions.

Tlie next and most arduous undertaking was the destruction of the
"Golden Horde," under Achmet, which he cnbcted in revenge for the
insult offered him by that khan in demanding the homage which he had
received from his predecessors. Ivan spat on the edict and Achmct's
.seal, and put his embassadors to death, sparing one only to convey the
intelligence to his master, who prepared in the ibllowiiig year to take his
revenge ; but, awed by the preparations made to receive him on the banks
of the Oka, he retired for a timo, and subsequently took the more circuit-
ous route through Litluiania, from which country he expected support.
The Russians, however, met and defeated a part of his horde, and were
returning home, when the khan was met on a different route by the Nogai
TarUxr.", who routed his army and slew him in the battle. His ally, Casi-

\\m

608

ILLUSTRATKD DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

niir IV., also broiiglit himself mulcr Ivian's indignation, not only for tliia
war, but because he attempted to poison liim, and an incursion that ho
made into the territories of the Polish king was eminently successful.

This powerful and ani!)itious i)rinco also made treaties with and received
embassadors from the pope, tlie sultan, tlie Icings of Denmark and Poland,
and the republic of Venice, lie assumed the title of " Grand Prince of
Novgorod, Vladimir, Moscow, and all Russia," and changed the arms of
8t. George on horseback for tlic black eagle with two heads, after his mar-
riage witii Sopliia, a princess of the imperial blood of Constantinople. In
fact, Ivan III. mny be called the true founder of the modern Russian em-
pire. Karamsin, the historian, thus describes him: "Without being a
tyrant like his grandson, ho had received from nature a certain harshness
of character, wliich he knew how to moderate by the strength of his rea-
son. It is said, however, that a single glance of Ivan, when he was ex-
cited with anger, would make a timid woman swoon ; that petitioners
dreaded to approach his *hronc ; and that, even at his tal)lc, the boi/ars
Ills grandees, treml)led before him" — which portrait does not belie his
own declaration, when the same boijarx demanded tliat he should give the
crown to his grandson Ivan, whom he had dispossessed in favor of a son
by his second wife — "I will give to Russia whomsoever I phrase!" Ho
died, very inlirm, in loO.^, having reigned forty-three years.

Wars between the Russians, the Poles, the Tar:ars, and the Novgorod-
ians, again arose on the death of Ivan ; and it vas not till the death of
Vassili IV., his successor, and a mi

ily

ipsed

tlie reign of Ivan IV., that internal cal)als and intrigues were for a timu
pjircsscd. This monarch, the first to take the title of " Czar," * married

niliijiti'il Ihc nioro popnini' ')itln)pi;ii

•;ipliv llf tlli:4

^l■|)llltzl<•|■, liowi'Vrr. Ill his

Scrrct I listoiy ol

lint 1111(1 (iiivrnimcnt of Itiis-

llllllll^rli lisina ||||> f

ipiin r:itr in liin him 1>

I ins til liiiiU iijiiin t:i:r nr Isiir 113 the nmro pirvMlriit iind nirn'ct fcnin. Hi" iniiki's llii' t'nlliiwln^

o! siMviitiiiiis nil till' iiillio^iii])liy anil di'iivilniii o

(' tlic wnril:

Til:

icn- IM It iliRci'enci' nl iipniKiii w

lilb

.1 111 ihi' iiitlin^iiipliy nl'lliis word. Forinprly it wim iihvuyit wiillcn 'cznr,' lint Kiiicr llir

nii'iicrnn'ii

t of lliis iiiiliii-y till' nisliini iidoptcd liy Lo Cliic of wiilinp it ' Iziii' ni ' Uni ' li:i!< iiisnii-

cilily Ihtii csliilili.-ilicd. The liittrr foiiii i.-t ihi; only oniMvliirli cxiii'lly cniTcBpiind.s with tlir llii!>Kiiiii
proniiiii'iiilion. We liiivr boiiowi'd tin- fnim 'iziii' from llii" I'lilrn; tlir (iriiiinna iilmi liiivn lU"-
livi'd it fioni llii'iii, iilttiiiii{;li in tlicir liiii;;niign tlii> word bIioiiIiI In- wiittcn ' /.nr,' llicir ; Ining 11

Inirsl

' fi'.iii

1 iirlK'iihition

I'litnpniicd of (III! Iwu rongoiiiints I nnd $, But instrinl nf pi'iiiininii'ifi<; lliis word

till' Fri'iicli do, tin- I'oli'S siiid ' tcliiir.' Tliry now write ' ci

irnnnniM'i'

liUi' tlio I{nS'«i>iiis, for tlirir c ciirrcnpniiiU to ta, nnd is nrvor pninoiincrd lis k. It lin<i liccii mid
tlint ill till- form 'rziir' tlif rtuiiology of the wind iniiy Im pricfivrd int dnivrd liy nlilni-vinlioii

from

^HMiir, cmpi'ior.

To tlii

lis ('onii'clnri', liowrvor, llii'ie is a sntlicicnl olijcction, ininnly, llnil
in llic old Sliivonii! vcrginn of llic Nrw Trslitnicnt tlir name of Cn'Siir is nlwiiy* nivni inidcr tlin
form of fCi'ssiir or Kii'ar, nnd tliiit tlin tilln ' tsnr' is given in it Id kings mid not to cniprrois. ('/sy.ie

i-nl fnilli II dfrrci' from (,'n'9iir Aiieusliig.' — LiiUi-

pioi'ili'iiii' k Krrnr Avpoiisla' — 'Tin
' Vitzdnitilie ilio Kvrniif Kifinwi.' — ' Uciidfr llicri'forc unto Cii'siir tlit- lliingd wiiicli iiri' Cusiir'i,
— .Miilt. xxii. 21.) Ii is true tliiit the emprror of Consluiilinojile rccfivrs llif siinii' tillf of ' tgiir
from tlir RiiskIiiii nmiiiliuts, but tlio more uticieiit givo liini iil»u that of Kifiir. Among tlie Sliivn-
niiins lliiit nre not Russiiins tlie title of 'Isnr' is but little known. But, iben, v.lieiifo comes it t
Fiiini wlnit source liiive the Iliis>.iiin8 derived it? Tie following is wliiit Knriimsin, tlie most r«>
leinied of Kiissiuii liistoriniis, liiys on tliis subject : ' Tliis word is not nil ubbreviulion uf tlie L.itii
Cu'siir, us iiiiiny liuve eiToiieously supposed, but 1111 uncient term of the eastern iiingmiges Knovu

Illy for tliia
ion tlint ho
cssfiil.
ml received
iiul Poland,

I Prince of
-lie arms of
tor liis mni'-
inoplc. In
Inssian cni-
nt l)oing a

II liarslmcss

of his rea-

hc was cx-

l)ctitioncrs

the boi/nrs

)t helio his
lid give the
or of a son
}asc !" Ho

! Novgorod-
he doatli of
I elapsed m
fur a tiino
' * married

ciwi'Vrr, ni Ilia
ttr ill liH wiirli,

llii' riillowin^
t' ii|<liii(>ii wiib
• inn' till* cnin-
III ' liiiii inacii-
tli tlic ItiifiKiiin

;il»i> liiivc ilo-
tlirir c lirill^ u

ini; this niiiJ
imiimicr ' tsni",
I1114 liccii tnid
>y iililiii'Nintion
I, iiiiini'l)-, tlial
vi'ii ijiilir till)
•iiiis. ('Isyiie

— LiiUo ii. 1
I iii'f Cu'sai''*.

lillf nf 'l«HV

iiig til)' Sliivn-
IICI3 comos it t
I, tlin most r^
of llio L.iti.'i
ugl'l^ Know 11

HISTCaiC SUMMARY — IVAK IV. THE TERRIBLE.

009

Ivan IV. tub Teiridle.

Anastasiii, tho daughter of Roman Yuryvich, who in the early part of his
reign had the happiest ascendency over a character naturally violent and
cruel. Ivan was at this period aftablc and condescending, accessible to
both rich and poor, and his mental powers under her guidance were em-
ployed in advancing the interests and happiness of his subjects. Ivan soon
perceived that, to preserve his power, he must annihilate the Tartar do-
minion. To this he felt that his uniiistructed army was unequal : ho there-
fore established, in 154r>, the militia of the Sfrefitzes, and armed tliein
with muskets instead of bows, hitherto their arms, as their name imports,
from strefai, " an arrow." lie then laid siege to and cajitured Kazan,
taking the khan prisoner. lie likewise defeated Gustavus Vasa, king of
Sweden, in a pitched battle near Viborg ; ravaged Livonia, taking Dorpat,
Narva, and thirty fortified towns ; and made war on the king of Poland
because he had refused him his daughter in marriage. An unsuccessful
campaign against this potentate, attributed by the boijars to the unskilful
arrangements of the foreign generals, as well as the death of his wife Anas-
tasia, whoso controlling influence was no longer felt, led to the unlimited

umung us l>y iIip Slnvoiiic triinslalion iif tlic> Bil)lo, it liiis Iicrii riiiplnyrd to dosignatt' tlic I'rupprina
of Byr.unliutn, nnil moi-p rrreiitly lli<> Moiik") kliiiiis. In iln- I'cisinn Inngiingo it implies tin- iili'U
of B tlu'onc, or of the guprc-nii- power. It niiiy lie irrnpiiHi'il in the finni syllnblcs of ilip imnj'-i of
llie kings of Assyria nnti Biihyloii — I'liiiliis-snr, Niilmiiiis-sai-, &,('.' In n iiiilp tin- scrnpiiliiiis liisto-
riati ndils: 'In our priiili'd iriinsliition of tlio Holy Sc-iipnucs, \vi> nlwiiys finil it Kiss, Kcssiir, in
pliico of Ciesiir. "Tmir" is fjuite another woril.' An it it haliitniilly nseil with respei-t to tho
kings of Knziin, Astrnkimn, niid Sibcnn, and as Ivan IV. (V'nssilievieh) seem^ to Imvo mlopled it,
more pnrti'*._!drly after the co'iquest of these two iieighhoring kingdoms, Utippel lliiiiks that it
rumv thence, and that the Russian nutocratf<, after having gained this considerable cxtcniion tn
Uieir temtory, assumed the title of the vanquished sovereigns."

rili'

It ;

i;-'A ' •

rtto

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

liidiil<^oncc of liis naturally forocioiis disposition ; and tlio remaining acts
of his life gained for him, in the history of his country, the aurnamo of
" The Terrilde." Independently of the many and dreadful acts of barbar-
ity of which he was guilty, he killed his own son in a paroxysm of rage,
but died a prey to the grief and remorse which this fearful crime occa-
sioned him, after having endeavored to atono for it by giving largo sums
of money to different monasteries. He received the tonsure in his last
moments.

As a legislator, Ivan IV. was superior to his predecessors, having, with
the assistance of his nobles, com|>iled a code of laws called " Somlehnik.^^
In his reign an Knglish ship, commanded by Richard Chancellor, on a
voyage of discovery, before alluded to, in the Arctic sea, anchored in the
moutli of the Dwina ; and, when the information of this circumstance was
forwarded to Ivan, he invited Chancellor to Moscow, where, on his arrival,
he was received with mariced attention, and presented with a letter to carry
Itack to his sovereign, Queen Elizabeth, expressing a desire to enter into
commercial relations with England, and to have English artificers and
workmen sent to him. It is curious that even at this early period the fair
whicii he established at Narva was so glutted with English, Dutch, and
French goods, that some of them were sold for less than the prime cost in
their respective countries. Ivan controlled his religious prejudices, and
tolerated the Lutheran churches of the German merchants at Moscow ;
but he never shook hands with a foreign embassador without washing his
own immediately after his visiter had taken his leave ! With a ciiaracter
so strongly marked by cruelty, superstition, and caprice, it is remarkable
to find, not only that he was enterprising and intelligent, but that he should
ever have entertained the idea of placing the Scriptures in the hands of his
subjects in the mother-tongue : he did, however, order a translation to bo
made of the Acts and Epistles, and had it disseminated over his domin-
ions. " In the memory of the people," observes Karamsin, " the brilliant
renown of Ivan survived the recollection of his bad qualities. The groans
had ceased, the victims were reduced to dust ; new events caused ancient
traditions to be forgotten ; and the memory of this prince reminded people
only of the conquest of three Mongol kingdoms. The proofs of his atro-
cious actions were buried in the public archives ; while Kazan, Astrakhan,
and Siberia, remained in tlie eyes of the nation ns imperishable monuments
of his glory. The Russians, who saw in him the illustrious author of their
power and civilization, rejected or forgot the surname of tyrant given him
by his contemporaries. Under the inlluence of some confused recollections
of his cruelty, they still call him Ivan ' The Terrible,' without distinguish-
ing him from his grandfather Ivan III., to whom Russia had given the
same epithet rather in praise than in reproach. History does not pardon
wicked princes so easily as do people." Ivan IV. died in 1584, having
governed the Russian nation for a longer period than any other sovereign
nanaely, fifty-one years.

lining acts
urnamo of
of barbar-
n of rage,
rime occa-
largo suina
a his lapt

•ving, with
mdebnik.''^
cllor, on a
)re(l in tho
i<tanco was
lis arrival,
er to carry

enter into
ificers and
oil the fair
Dutch, and
inie cost in
idices, and
t Moscow ;
•'ashing his
, ciiuracter
cniarkablo

he should
ands of his
aiion to bo
his domin-
ie brilliant
rhc groans
cd ancient
ded people
)f his atro-
AuStraklmn,
monuments
lor of their

given him
icollectiona
listinguish-

giveu the
not pardon

84, having

sovereign

HISTORIC SUMMAUY — FKODOR I. — BORIS — VLADISLAUS.

611

Feodor I., who ascei.de 1 the throne after tlic dcatli of Ivan IV., and
was a feeble and vacillating prince, died in lo(>8. His successor was Bo-
ris Godunofl", tho brother of Anastasia, the czar Ivan's first wife, who, like
tho English Richard, compassed the death of his nephew Dmitri, Fcodor's
younger brother, during tliat czar's lifetime ; and therefore in Feodor ended
the dynasty of Rurik, which during eight centuries had wielded the Rus-
sian sceptre. Consequent upon this deed came all kindy of civil calami-
ties, and in 1004 there arvjse a pretender to the throne in the person of a
Russian monk. This man assumed the character of the murdered Dmitri,
and, having drawn to iiis standard the Poles and the Cossacks of the Don,
met IJoris in the field, remained master of it, and in the space of one year
seated himself on the tlirone.

Nor was tliis civil war the oidy calamity which bcfoU the Russians during
the reign of Doris. Moscow was, in 1600, decimated by the most appal-
ling famine that ever deva.«tatcd the eaj)ital of a country. It is related
that, driven by the pangs of hunger, instances occurred of mothers having
first slain and then eaten their own children ; and it io recorded tliat a
woman, in her extremity, seized with her teeth the flesh of iicr son whom
she carried in her arms. Others confessed that they had entrapped into
their divellings, and subsequently killed and eaten, three men successively.
One hundred and twenty-seven thousand corpses remained for some days
in the streets unburied, and were afterward interred in the fields, exclu-
sive of those which had been previously buried in the four hundred
churches of the city! An eye-witness relates that this awful visitation
carried off five hundred thousand persons from this densely-peopled capi-
tal, the population of which was, at the time, augmented by the inlliix of
strangers. During this dreadful calamity, Boris, with justifiable violence,
broke open the granaries which avarice had closed, and had the grain sold
at half its value.

Interminable and inexplicable troubles, a second false Dmitri, and other
impostors, led to the occupation of Moscow by the Poles in 1010, who
entered tho city with Vladislaus,8on of Sigismund, king of Poland, elected
to the throne by the bui/ars, on condition that ho should embrace the Greek
I'oligion. This gave great ofl'ence to the national feeling ; and Jlinim, a
citizen of Nijnei-Novgorod, called his countrymen to arms, and entreated
the general Pojarski to take the command. This lie did without reluc-
tance, and his army was quickly increased by tlie arrival of troojis and
money from various towns, and by tho Cossacks and Strelitzes who flocked
to hits banner. Thus reinforced, they marcl d to Yaroslav, and afterward
to Moscow, to which they laid siege, carr' ihc Kitai Gorod by assault,
and made u fearful slaughter of the Poles ; when the inhabitants, driven
to tho last extremity by fixminc, surrendered, and Yladislaus abandoned
the country. A fine monument, previously referred to, was erected in the
open space, under the kremlin-walls, in 1818, to the memory of Minim and
Pojarski. It represents tho high-spirited citizen of Xijnei calling on his

T A

i ' r

1 •
I ■

'::/V( \

.:..; Mill '■

G12

ILLUSTUATRD DKSCIMI'TION OP RUSSIA.

countrymen to rid Rus.sia of the foreign enemy, while Pojnr? listens
nttoutively to tlio stirriiijj; cxliortntion.

"With a vacant throne, and unonibarrasscd by republican fcclinps, the
boi/ars, after the fiij^ht of Vladislaus, proceeded to elect as their czar
Michael RomauolT, :uo son of the metropolitan of Rostof, who was, at the

time, only sixteen years of age ; and from him is descended the prcwent
inij)erial family. The usual routine of civil strife and foreign wars contin-
ued after the accession of RonianoiT ; and that in whicii the czar was in-
volved with Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was terminated, not much
to the advantage of Russia, through the mediation of England, France, and
Holland. A treaty was signed by the belligerent parties on the 26tli of
January, 1G16, which gave tc Sweden Ingria, Carelia, Livonia, and Es-
thonia, the Russians retaining Novgorod ; and these terms seem to have
been dictated by the czar's love of peace. The Poles were, at this time,
masters of Smolensk, and ravaged the country up to the walls of Moscow,
against which tliey made a night attack, but were repulsed ; they remained,
however, in possession of Smolensk, after sustaining a siege of two years.
Dragoons are mentioned, for the first time in this reign, as forming part
of a Russian army, and the czar was assisted in his wars by both German
and French troops : these regiments served him as models for the organi-
zation of the Russian army, which was further improved by the discipline
introduced by the foreign officers in Romanoff's pay.

listens

linj;s, the
heir czar
as, at tlio

c prcHCiit
irs contin-
ar was in-
not much
auoc, and
le 26tli of
and Es-
m to have
this time,
' Moscow,
remained,
,wo years,
ming part
h German
10 organi-
discipline

HISTORIC tiUMMARY — fiOMANOFP — ALEXIS — »^E0D0R III.

OLU

After a reign distinguished by an cnliplitened policy and virtuous habits,
the czar died in July, 104;"), at the age of only forty-nine years. His son
Alexis, who was a prince of a mild and Itenevolont disposition, succeeded
him. Tlio chief events of his reign were, the marauding expeditions of
tho Cossacks of the Don, led by Rizan ; a rebellion in the city of Astra-
khan ; and tho appearance of another false Dmitri, who was brought cap-
tive to Moscow, and put to a violent and cruel death. In this reign ship-
wrights came over from Holland and England, and a Dutchman named
Eutlcr built a vessel called tiic Eagle, at Didiloff, the first ship that tho
Russians had seen built on scientific principles.

Alexis died in 1076, and was succeeded by his son Foodor III., who
Jied young, in 1082. During tho short period allotted him for the exer-
cise of power, he evinced every disposition to carry out his fatlier's i)lan8.
lie directed his attention to tlie improvement of the laws, and rendered
justice accessible to all, and, in tho words of a Russian liistorian, "lived
tho joy and deligiit of his people, and died amid their sighs and tears.
On the day of his death, Moscow waS in the same distress that Rome was
on the deatli of Titus." Tlie sovereignty of the Cossacks was secured to
Russia in this reign. Feodor left no children, and was succeeded by his
half-brother Peter, whom, some accounts say, was named by him as hia
successor.

RuiDKNCS or Petib tub Qbkat m HOLUMB.

1 «!v

■ I. I*:*:

** i >

■, r i 'i '•-

i,|

t ':A

614

ILLUSTllATKH DKSCIMiniuN oi' UU>W1A.

CHAPTER XXV.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — PETER THE OREAT TO NICHOLAS.

THE ."iieccs><ioii of Pctor to tho tlirono of tlio empire was liy no nuMins
pleasing to tho mnjority of the Uiissiun nobh'M, uiul it wiu paiticu-
hirly opposed by Prince Giilitzin, tiie |)riiuo uuniHtcr ol' the lute eziir.
This iihle man had espoused tho interests of Sophia (the sister of Feodor
III. and Ivan, and half-sister of Peter), a young woman of eminent aliili-
ties and insinuating address. Sophin, upou the ]»reteneo of asserting tho
claims of her brother Ivan, who, though of a feeble constitution and weak
intellect, was considered as the lawful lieir to the crown, had really formed
a design of securing the succession to herself; and, with that view, had
not only insinuated herself into the confidence and good graces of (Jalitzin,
but had brought over to her interests the Strelitzes. These turl)ulent and
licentious soliliers assembled ostensibly for the purpose of placing on tho
throne Prince Ivan, whom they proclaimed czar by acclauuition. During
three days these Russian Janizaries roved al)out the city of Moscow, com-
mitting the greatest excesses, and putting to death several of the chii f
officers of state who were suspected of being hostile to the designs of So-
j)hia. Tiie princess did not, however, entirely gain her j)oint ; for. a* tiio
new czar entertained a sincere afl'ection for Peter (who, as already scon,
was only his half-l>rother), he insisted that this prince should jsharo with
him the imperial dignity. This was at length agreed to; and on the 0th
of May, ltJ82, Ivan and Peter were solemnly crowned joint-emperors of all
the Rus>ias, while tho princess Sophia was noniinated their copartner iu
the government.

From tho imbecility of Ivan, and tho youth of Peter (now only ton ycftjs
of age), tho whole power of the government in fact rested on Sophia and
her minister Galitzin, though until the year 1087 the names of Ivan and
Peter oidy were annexed to tho imperial decrees. Sophia had scarcely
established her authority, when she was threatened with deposition, from
an alarming insurrection of tho Strelitzes. This was excited by their com-
mander. Prince Kovanskol, who, demanding of Sophia that she would marry
one of her sisters to his son, met with a refusal. In consequence of this
insurrection, which threw the whole city of Moscow into terror and con-
sternation, Sophia and the two young czars took refuge in a monastery,
about twelve leagues from tho capital ; uud, before tho Strelitzes could

tCHOLAS.

H liy no moans
it was iiarticu-
1" (lio lute czar,
stor of Foodor
' ciiiiiKMit altili-
r assort iufi' tlio
itioii and woak
1 really forinocl
that viow, liad
CL's of (Jalit/iii,
J turbulent and

placing on tlic
ition. During

Moscow, COlll-
il of the cliii f

dcsij^ns of Sc-
at ; for. u^ tti(!
already seen,
uld shun' with
uid oil the *)th

ni|>erors of all

r coitartner iu

only ten years
on Sophia and
}S of Ivan and
, had scarcely
)osition, from
1 by thoir coni-
c would marry
:iuonco of this
jrror and con-
i a monastery,
trolitzes could

HISTOIIIC SUMMARY — IVAN V., PETEn I,, aND SOPHIA. 615

■ I. Till «>EAT.

follow ihem thither, u considerable l)ody of soldiers, principally foreigners,
was ass( inl)led in their defence. Kovanskoi was taken prisoner, and in-
stantly lulicaded ; and, tliouj^h his followers at tirst threatened dreadful
vou^'eancu on his executioners, they soon found themselves obliged to sub-
mit, when die most guilty among the ringleaders sufl'ered death.

The ((uolling of these disturbances gave opportunity to the friends of
Peter to puisuo the plans which they had formed for subverting the au-
tiiority of Soplda ; and their designs were favored by a rupture with Tur-
key. The Ottoman I'orte was now engaged with Poland and the German
empire, and botli the latter powers had solicited the assistance of Russia
against the common enemy. Sophia and her party were averse to the alli-
ance ; but as the secret friends of Peter had sulKcicnt intluence to persuade
the majority that a Turkish war would be of advantage to the state, they
oven prevailed on Galitzin to put himself at the head of the army, and thus
removed their principal opponent. Assembling an army of nearly three
hundred thousand men, he advanced to the confines of Turkey, and liere
consumed two campaigns in marches and countermarches, and lost nearly
forty thousand men, partly in unsuccessful skirmishes with the enemy, but
chielly from disease.

While Gulitzin was thus trilling away his time in the south, Peter, who

« ' >

tflG

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP BU8SL\.

n.'

already began to gire proofs of those great talents wliieli afterward ena-
bled liim to act so conspicuous a part in tijo theatre of the north, was
strcngtiiening his party among tlie Russian nobles. His ordinary resi-
dence was at a village not far from Moscow, and licrc he had assembli.'d
round him a consideral)lo number of young men of rank and influence,
whom he called his playmates. Under the appearance of a military game,
Peter was secretly establishing himself in tlie aflcctions of his young com-
panions ; and he contrived effectually to lull the suspicions of Sophia, till
it was too late for her to oppose his machinations.

In the year 1689, Peter, who had now attained his seventeenth year,
determined to make an effort to deprive Sophia of all share in the govern-
mei»t, and thus secure to himself the undivided sovereignty. An open ruj>-
ture soon took place, and Sophia, finding that she could not openly oppose
the party of the czar, attempted to procure his asii^assination ; but her de-
sign was discovered, and an accomn)odation was agreed to, on condition
that she would give up all claim to the regency and retire to a nunnery.
She was consequently incarcci-ated in a monastery for the rest of hev life.
This princess was, considering the times in which she lived, a woman of
extraordinary taste and literary acquirements. A tragedy, written by her
when she was involved in state intrigues, and apparently absorbed in politi-
cal turmoil, is still preserved. The commander of the Strelitzes, who was
to have Iteen i»er agent in the assassiuation of Peter, was beheaded, and
the minister Galitzin sent into banishuient to Archangel, Peter had now
obtained the wishcd-for possession of the imperial throne; for though Ivau
was still nominally czar, he had voluntarily resigned all participation in
the administration of afl'airs, and retired to a life of obscurity. He sur-
vived until 1606.

The ruling passion of Peter the Great was a desire to extend his empire
and consolidate his power ; and accordingly his first act was to make war
on the Turks, an underUikiug which was at the outset impi-udently con-
ducted, and consequently uusuccessful. He lost thirty thousand men bo-
fore Azov, and did not obtain permanent possession of the town until the
year 1G'JV>, and then by an f^rmistice. In the followin»jj year he was de-
feated in his intrenched camp at Narva, containing eighty thousand men,
by eight tliousand Swedes under Charles XII., then only a boy of seven-
teen ; and on many other occasions the Russians suffered severe checks
and reverses. But at length the indoujitablo i)erseverance of Peter pre-
vailed. In ITOo, ho carried Narva, the scene of his former defeat, by
assault ; and four years after, by the crowning victory of Poltava, where he
showed the qualities of an aide general, he sealed the fate of his gallant
and eccentric adversary and the nation over which he ruled.

In 1711, Peter once more took the field against the Turks; but his
troops were l)adly provisioned, and, having led them into a very disadvan-
tageous position, where they were surrounded by the grand vizier's army,
he was only enabled, by a present of his consort's jewels to the Turkish

HISTORIC SUMMARY — PETER THE GREAT.

617

coinmaudeij to negotiate a humiliating peace, one of the conditions of
which was thai the king of Sweden, then a fugitive in Turkey, should bo
permitted to return to liis own country.

From tliis i)eriod to 1718, Peter was constantly occupied in pursuing
with vigor the plans which he had originated for extending the frontiers
of his kingdom toward the west. In the latter year he drove the Swedes
out of Finland, made several descents upon the coast near Stockholm, de-
stroyed whole towns, oliligcd her navy to fly, and finally, in 1721, by the
peace of Nystadt, retained Estlionia, Livonia, Ingria, a |)art of Carelia and
Finland, as well as the islands of Dago, Moen, CEsel, «fcc.

Having now no enemy on the side of the Baltic, I'cter turned his arms
eastward, and took Derltond, on tiie Caspian, from the shah of Persia, in
1724 — an inglorious conquest, for only six thousand Persians were oj)-
posed to his veteran army of eleven thousand, besides Kalmucks and Cos-
sacks. This was his last military achievement, for lie died in 1725 (of a
cold contrncted in attcnipting to rescue some shipwieeked sailors near
Kronstadt), in the fifty-third year of his age. His latter years were
clouded l>y domestic infelicity : his second wife, Catherine, was more than
suspected of being unfaithful to him ; and his sou Alexis was disobedient.
Tlie former he spared ; tlie latter he brouglit to trial, and is l)elieved to
have put to death in prison — some accounts aflirm, with his own hand !

We have said that tlie czar's ruling passion was to extend his empire
and consolidate his power, but he likewise possessed in an eminent degree
the national characteristics — a persevo.ing mind and a resolute will, which
bid defiance to all dillicultii'S. By the assistance of his foreign officers,
lie succeeded in forming and bringing into a high state of discipline a large
army ; he found Russia without a iishing-smack, and bequeathed to her a
uavy to which that of Sweden, long established and highly efficient, low-
ered her flag; lie built St. Petersburg, wiiich maybe said to float upon the
waters of the Neva ; he caused canals and other jiublic works of utility to
be constructed in various parts of his empire ; endowed colleges and uni-
versities, and established commercial relations with Cliina and almost
every other nation on the gloiio. The czar likewise possessed the capability
of enduring privation and ixidily fatigue to an almost incredible extent,
and seemed to act upon the idea that, by his own personal exertions and
the versatility of his genius, he could accomplish for Russia (hat whicli it
hud taken centuries to eflect in other countries, and fancied that he could
infuse into her citizens an immediate appreciation of the mechanical and
polite arts, as well as a taste for those things which are seen only in an
advanced stage of civilization. Peter devoted his whole attention and
energies to this theory ; and, though ho could not compass impossibilities,
ho was enaliled, by the uncontrolled exercise of the imperial will and in-
exhaustible resources, to effect a most extraordinary and rapid change in
tli6 political and physical condition of his country.

His manual dexterity uiid mechanical knowledge were great. Against

618

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

V-U

the expressed wish of his hoyars and the clergy, who thought it an irreli-
gious act, he left Russia to make himself acquainted with the arts and
inventions of other European nations, and worked with an adze in the
principal dockyards of Holland ; he not only built, but sailed his own boat,
which, as remarked in a previous chapter, is still to be seen in St. Peters-
burg, as are specimens of his engraving, turning, and carpenter's work.
Ho rose at four o'clock in summer ; at six he was either in the senate or
the admiralty : and his subjects must have believed that he had tlie gift of
ubiquity, so many and so various were his occupations. He had also the
virtue of economy, a quality rarely seen in a sovereign. He even found
time to dabble in literature, and translated several works into Russian :
among these was the "Architecture" of Le Clcrc, and the "Art of Con-
structing Pams and Mills" by Sturm ; these manuscripts are preserved.

During the czar's visit to London, he was much gazed at by the popu-
lace, and on one occasion was upset by a porter who pushed against him
with Ills load ; when Lord Carmarthen, fearing there would be a pugilis-
tic encounter, turned angrily to the man, and said, "Don't you know that
this is the czar?" — " Czar I" replied the sturdy porter, with his tongue in
his check, "we are all czars here!" Sauntering one C. • ^vfo Westmin-
ster hall with the same nobleman, when it was, as usual - with wigs
and gowns, Peter asked who these people might be; an , ., .^^-n informed
that they were lawyers, nothing coidd exceed his astonishment. "Law-
yers !" ho said, " why I have but two in all my dominions, and I believe I
shall hang one of them the moment I get home !"

The vices of Peter were such as to have been expected in a man of his
violent temperament, des[)otic in a barbarous country, and who in early
life had been surrounded by flatterers and dissolute associates. But it
would be foreign to the purpose of this work to enter into a discussion of
this nature. The Russians date their civilization from his reign ; but a
slight glance at the history of some of the early czars will show that, in
many of tlie points on which the greatness of his reputation rests, he was
anticipated by his predecessors. Dark and savage as the early history of
the country is, an attempt at public education had been made, religious
toleration and an anxiety to promote commerce existed, and the institution
of a code of laws had already occuj)icd their attention. The untimely
deaths of some of these princes deprived Russia of monarchs far more be-
nevolent than Peter — men of finer and more generous minds, and, though
not so ambitious, quite as anxious for her welfare. Under their sway no
such rush at improvement would have been made ; no such influx of for-
eigners would have taken place ; but, if not so rapidly, at least as surely,
these sovereigns would have effected quite as much real good. Peter left
no code of laws established on the broad principles of justice ; lie travelled
in England and Holland, but thought only of their navies, and wholly over-
looked tlie great principles of their governments, by which ho might have
ameliorated the condition of his own. Trial by jury never appears to have

; an irreli-
I arts and
Izc in the
own boat,
3t. Peters-
er's work.
! senate or
the gift of
id also the
3ven found
) Russian :
,rt of Con-
cservcd.
r the i)opu-
igainst him
5 a pugilis-

kiiow that
s tongue in
i AVcstmin-

with wigs

■n informed

it. •' Law-

I believe I

man of his
ho in early
cs. But it
seussion of
Mgn ; but a
low that, in
!sta, ho was
I liiHtory of
e, religious
3 institution
10 untimely
ar more bo-
inil, though
)ir sway no
illux of for-
t as surely,
Peter left
JO travelled
ivholly over-
might have
3ars to have

HISTORIC SUMMARY — CATHERINE T.

(519

attracted his attention. The czar, it is true, reigned over a nation of
serfrf — so did Alfred the Great of England, and in the ninth instead of the
eighteenth century.

Peter was succeeded by his consort Catherine, in whose favor he had,
some years before his death, altered the order of succession. She was
the illegitimate daughter of a Livonian peasant. After some years spent
in the service of a clergyman, she married a Swedish dragoon, Avho shortly
afterward went on an expedition, and never returned. Siie then resided,
it is doubtful whether as servant or pa'-amour, with the Russian general
Bauer, when Prince Menchikoff became enamored of her charms, and made
her his mistress. Peter the Great now distinguished her by his notice,
and she became at first his aiieiress and afterward his empress.

Catherine i. conducted herself with great gentleness and prudence m
the administration of the government. She reduced the annual capitation
tax ; recalled the greater part of those whom Peter had exiled to Siberia ;
caused every gallows to bo taken down and all instruments of torture de-
stroyed ; paid the troops their arrears ; and restored to the Cossacks their
privileges and imnmnities of which they had been deprived during the late
reign. She concluded a treaty of alliance with the German emperor, by
whi",h it was stipulated that, in case of attack from an enemy, either party
should assist the other with a force of thirty thousand men, and should
oaoh guaranty tlio possessions of the other. In her brief reign the boundar

4 4 k-' ^* IM,

imm

■:..M ■*''

620

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

rics of the empire were extended in the Trans-Caucasus. Cathoriue also
founded the Academy of Sciences. Her indulgence in the use of intoxi-
cating liquors produced a disease of which she died on the 17th of May,
1727. at the ago of forty-one, liaving reigned only about two years.

Catherine settled the crown on Peter, the son of Alexis, and grandson
of Peter the Great, by his first wife*, Eudoxia, and who succeeded by the
title of Peter II. Tl'.is prince was only twelve years of age wlien he suc-
ceeded to the iniponal throne, and his reign was short and uninteresting.
He was influenced chiefly by Prince Menchikoff, 'vliose daughter Catherine
had decreed hitn to marry. This ambitious man, who, from a very mean
condition, had risen to the first offices of the state under Peter the Great,
and had, under Catherine, conducted the adminisi ration of the government,
was now, however, drawing toward the end of hi'i career. The number of
his enemies had greatly increased, and their machinations succeeded so
well, that Mcncliikofl" and his whole family were banished to Siberia.

The artful counsellors of the youi g monarch, instead of cultivating his
naturall} good abilities, encouraged him to waste his time and exhaust his
strength in hunting and other athletic exercises ; and it is supposed that
the debility consequent on such fatigue increased the danger of the sinall-
pox, with which he was attacked in January, 1730, and of which he died,
at the age of only fifteen years.

Notwithstanding the absolute power with which Peter the Great and
Catherine I. had settled by will the succession to the throne, the Russian
senate and nobility, upon the death of Peter II., ventured to set aside the
order of succession which those sovereigns had established. The male
issue of Petei was extinct ; and the duke ol Holstein (of Denmark), son
to Peter's eldest daughter, was, by the destination of the late empress,
entitled to tlie crown ; but the Russians, for political reasons, chose Anne,
duchess of Courland, second daughter to Ivan, Peter's half-brother ; thus
excluding her eldest sister, who was still living, because, as duchess of
Mecklenburg, she was allied to one of the royal houses of Germany.

In 1735, a rujjture took place between Russia and Turkey, occasioned
partly by the mutual jealousies that luid subsisted between those powers
ever since the treaty on the Pruth, and partly by the depredations of the
Tartars of the Crimea, then under the dominion of the Porte. A Russian
army entered the Crimea, ravaged part of the country, and killed a consid-
eraljle number of Tartars ; but having ventured too far, without a sufficient
supply of provisions, was obliged to retreat, after sustaining a loss of
nearly ten thousand men. This misfortune did not discourago the court
of St. Petersburg ; and, in the following year, another armament was sent
into the Ukraine, under the command of Marshal Munich, while a second
army, under Lascy, proceeded against Azov. Both these generals mot
with considerable success: the Tartars were defeated, -and the fortress of
Azov once more submitted to the Russian arms. A third campaign took
place in 1737, when tho Russians were assisted by a body of Austiian

HISTOllIO SUMMARY — ANNE — IVAN VI. — ELIZABETH.

621

Catlieriuo also
use of intoxi-
10 17tli of May,
vo years.
i, and grandson
ucceeded by the
ge when he suc-
d uninteresting,
ighter Catherine
om a very mean
Peter the Great,
the govcriuncnt,

The number of
us succeeded so

to Siberia,
if cultivating his

and exhaust his
is supposed that
Tcr of the sniall-
f which he died,

r the Great and
one, the Russian
to set aside tlio
lied. The male
Denmark), son
le late empress,
ons, chose Anne,
f-brother; thus
3, as duchess of
Germany,
■kev, occasioned
en those powers
)rcdations of tho
irte. A Russian
killed a consid-
thout a sufficient
aining a loss of
ourago the court
uament was sent
while a second
so generals met
d tho fortress of
d campaign took
)ody of Austrian

troops. Munich luid siege to Otchakov, which surrendered, Avhile Lascy
desolated the Crimea. No material advantages were, however, gained on
cither side, and disputes arose between the Austrian and Russian generals.
At length, in 1739, Marslial Munich, having crossed the Jioug at the head
of a considerable army, defeated the 'J'urks in a pitched buttle near Stav, t-
sham, made himself master of Jassy, the capital of Moldavia, and, before
the end of the campaign, reduced the whole of that province to subjection.
These successes of tho Russian arms induced .u t P^^rto to propose terms
of accommodation ; but when, in the latter ei.' jf 1739, a treaty was con-
cluded, Russia (probably through the influence of Austrian intrigue) again
relinquished Azov and Moldavia, and only gained permission to build a
fortress on the Don.

The empress An'>e rendered herself memorable by the decisive turn she
gave to the contests which arose in central Europe. She assisted the em-
peror Charles VI. of Germany ; frustrated the schemes of tliC French min-
istry for placing Stanislaus on the throne of Poland, and actually procured
the crown for his competitor Augustus, the elector of Saxony. Her chief
merit, however, was in advancing the commerce of the country, and estab-
lishing silk and woollen manufactures — her chief folly, the l)iiilding a
palace of ice, to which she scut a prince Galitzin, one of her buffoons, and
liis wife, to pass the night of tl 'r wedding-day; tho nuptial couch was
also constructed of this cold material, as well as all tho furniture, and four
cannons which fired several rounds !

Anne died in 1740, after a reign of ten years, and was succeeded by
her great-'.'cphew, Ivan VI., when only two years of ago. ITc was the
son of the princess Anne of Mecklenburg, the daughter of her eldest sister,
who had maivied Prince Anthony Ulrio of Brunswick-Boveren. The ad-
ministration of the princess Anne and her husband, in the name of their
son, tho infant czar, was upon many accounts unpopular, not only among
the Russians, but with other powers of Europe ; and, notwithstanding a
successful war which they carried on with the Swedes, the princess Eliza-
beih Petrowna, daughter to Peter the Great by tho empress Catherine,
and born in 1709, formed a respectable party in her favor, by whom she
was raised to the imperial dignity in December, 1741.

Tho princess of Mecklenl)urg, her husband, and son, were made prison-
ers, and the two former sent into banishment, to an island at the mouth of
the Dwina, in the White sea, where the princess Anno died in child-bed
in 1747. Ivan was for some time shut up in a monastery at Oranienburg;
and, on attempting to escape, he was removed to tlie castle of Schlussel-
burg, whore he was afterward cruelly put to deatl:

Tho war which had commenced between Russia and Sweden during tho
short regency of Anno of Mecklenburg, was now carried on with vigor and
success by Elizabeth. The Russian forces took possession of Abo, and
made themselves masters of the greater part of Finland. At length, 'n con-
sequence of the negotiations Ihat wore carrying on relative t.- the &ucces-

'M !l

^r'y;

622

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

Tm Empmss Elrabitr,

Bion of the Swedish crown, a peace was concluded between the two powers,
in 1743, on condition tliat Elizabctli should restore the conquered part of
Fvnknd, On the eastern frontier of the empire, however, the Russian
arms were less successful, several of tlie provinces wrested from Persia by
Peter the Great having been reconquered by Nadir Kouli Khan.

Soon after her accession, Elizabeth determined to nominate her succes-
sor to the imperial throne, and had fixed on Charles Peter Ulric, son of
llie duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by Anne, daugliter of Peter the Great. This
prince was accordingly invited into Russia, persuaded to become a mem-
ber of the Greek church, and proclaimed grand-duke of Russia, and heir
of tl>e empire.

EUizabetli now began to take an active part in tlio politics of Europe.
The death of Charles VI., emperor of Germany, had left his daughter
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, at the mercy of the enterprising king of
Prussia, Frederic II. (commonly called the Great, and sometimes errone-
ously styled Frederic III/) until a formidable confederation, more in fact
from a jealousy of that monarch's military fame, than from any special
regard for the interests of an injured princess, was formed in her behalf.
Tilt Prussian king, whose sarcastic wit spared no one, having satirized in
some verses Madame de Pompadour, the powerful and vindictive mistress
of Louis XV., the French monarch at once espoused the cause of Austria ;
and it is remarkable that, from a like trivial eauso, the Prussian monarch

» powers,

i part of

Russian

'ersia by

r succes-
c, son of
It. This
3 a mem-
and heir

■ Europe,
daughter
g king of
s errone-
in fact
Y special

r behalf,
tirized in

mistress

Austria ;

monarch

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ELIZABETH — PETER III.

623

brought upon liimself the vengeance of Elizabeth. Detesting Frederick for
some coarse but truthful remark levelled at her mother, sIk; made war on
Prussia, which was conducted with great ferocity. Such was the mutual
hatred excited by t^iis contest, tliat after a battle the wounded soldiers of
tlie two nations were seen tearing each other's flesh with tlieir liands and
teeth, even in the agonies of death. The Russian marshal declared, in trans-
mitting to tlie empress an account of a victory wliich he gained, but with
tlio loss of half his army — " If I gain another such victory, I shall be com-
pelled to go myself, on foot and alone, to St. Petersburg, to inform your
majesty of the result!" Elizabeth persisted, however, in prosecuting the
war ; and was on the point of crushing the Prussian monarch, and posses-
sing herself of his most valuable territories, when deatl Idenly closed
her career, on the 6th of January, 1762, at the age of hny-thrce, and in
tlie twenty-first year of her reign.

Tlie taste of this empress for architecture greatly contrbuted to cmlcl-
lisli St. Petersburg, and the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in that
capital was instituted by her. She was, however, a model of dissimulation
and hypocrisy ; and, wiiile from feelings of pretended humanity she abol-
ished capital punishments (making a vow at her accession that none should
*ake place during her reign), and deplored the miseries her troops suEFered
in the war with Prussia, she established a kind of star-chamber, in which
justice and mercy were unknown. That her humanity was equivocal, is
instanced in tl. j shocking punishment which she inflicted upon tlie countess
Bestuchcfl' and Lapookin, who were publicly knouted, and had their tongues
cut out, for betraying some secrets relating to the amours of tlic empress.

On the demise of Elizabeth, her nephew, the grand-duke Charles Peter
Ulric, ascended the throne, by the name of Peter III. This prince entered
on the government possessed of an entliusiastic admiration of tlie virtues
of the king of Prussia, with whom ho immediately made peace (thus saving
tiiat hero from his impending fame), and whose principles and i)ractico he
seems to have adopted as patterns for his imitation. Several wise decrees
vero passed by him: he suppressed the secret council ef>tablislicd for the
examination of political ofl'enders, softened the rigor of military discipline,
permitted his nobles to travel, lowered the duties in the Livonian ports,
reduced the price of salt, abated the pressure of usury l)y the estal)lishment
of a loan-bank, and instituted otiier salutary measures. He might have
surmounted the eflects even of those peculiarities which were unpopular in
Russia ; but it is said that he aimed at reformations in his dominions which
even Peter the Great durst not carry through — among which was his at-
tempt at cutting off the venerable beards of his clergy, and his abolition
of some established and favorite military fashions. He was, however, so
weak and vacillating in his disposition, that he had no opinions of his own,
Out childishly adopted the sentiments of any person who took the trouble
to teach him. His tastes were, moreover, entirely German, which amounted
to a crime in the eyes of the nobility. His chief amusement was buffoon

''.'.1

624

ILLUSTUATKD DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA .

li!!

ery ; and, ns lie Avns a coni|mrativc stranger to the conntry, its inhabitants,
and tlicir manners, lie is said to have suffered liiinself to be persuaded, by
those about him, that tlic Russians were fools and beasts, unworthy of his
attention, except to make tlicni, by means of the Prussian discipline, good
fighting-machines ! These sentiments regulated his whole conduct, and
prepared the way for the revolution which afterward dethroned him.

Peter was married, in 1745, to tho German princess Catherine, i)orn in
1729, and daughter to the prince of Anhalt-Zerl)st. In addition to hia
other great Avults, Peter was addicted to low society and to the most scan-
dalous excesses; and Catherine, oven in her youth, was by no means ro-
niarkaldo for chastity. With the inconsistency usually to be ol>served in
such cases, each i)arty reproached tho other: Catherine, stung by her hus-
band's brutality, l»ccamc still more openly indecorous in her conduct, and
Peicr indulged in low wassail to such an extent, that he must have been
deranged. Tiie empress, who was as talented as she was ambitious, took
every means in her power to secure the good will of her Russian subjects.
She engaged in her party many of tho principal families, and what Peter
lost in popularity was gained by tho emissaries of Catherine. While tho
latter, in spito of her intrigues, was thus high in tho public esteem and
affection, Peter became so infatuated by his disgust for Catherine and his
son, and his passion for one of his mistresses, the countess Woronzow, that
ho determined to divorce and imprison the former, and make the latter his
empress. Catherine saw her danger, and instantly formed her resolution,
foreseeing that she nuist either sul)mit to perpetual imprisonment, and j)er-
liaps a cruel and ignominious death, or contrive to hurl her husband from
the throne. The proper steps to carry out her design were immediately
taken ; folly and iml)ecillty fell before abilities and address ; and, in tlirec
days, the revolution was accomplished. Peter was seized and sent as a
prisoner to the small palace of Ropseha, about twenty miles from St. Pe-
tersburg ; but, as there were many who were diss.ttisfied with tlie new
order of things, it was soon found that there was little chance of tianqnil-
lity while he lived. His death was therefore determined on ; and, at tho
connivance if not at the positive command of the empress, the unlbrtunate
monarch was assassinated by the hand of her chief favorite, Count Alexis
Orloff, in the thirty-fourth year of his age, after having enjoyed the impe-
rial dignity only six months. This tragic event occurred in July, 17(12,
and in tiie next month the czarina was solemnly crowned empress of all tho
Russias, nnder the name of Catherine II.

The reign of this extraordinary woman is one of tho most remarkable in
Russian history. In the early part of it she interfered in the afl'airs of
Poland, which produced a civil war, and terminated c 'entually in the par-
tition and conquest of that unfortunate country. In 1769, the Turks de-
clared war against Russia, which was at first favorable to their arms ; but
they were afterward defeated with, great slaughter on tho Dniester, and
compelled to abandon Choczim. At this period was fought tho celebrated

SISrOBIC SUUUARY — CATilERiKE II.

626

Tm Ehpibsi Catiieeinc IL

action before Tclicsme, in which the Turkish fleet was completely destroyed
— an aciuevcment that was mainly owing to the gallant conduct of Admi-
rals Elphinstonc and Grcig, and Lieutenant Dugdale, Englishmen in the
Russian service.

In a succeeding campaign, the Russians carried the lines of Perecop,
in the Crimea, defended by nearly sixty thousand Turks and Tartars, and
thus wrested that important and fertile peninsula from the Porte, while
RomanzofT gained several victories in tlie Danubian provinces. These
conquests were, however, dearly purchased. The plague passed from the
Turkish into the Russian armies, and the frightful malady was carried by
the troops into the very heart of the country : eight hundred persons died
daily at Moscow, and the disease subsided only with the severit ' of the
ensuing winter.

It was at this period that the Calmuck Tartars (as alluded to in a pre-
vious chapter), who had been for upward of half a century se'tled near
the steppes f the Volga, north of Astrakhan, suddenly, and to tl e number
of half a million of soulrf, left the Russian territory for their old haunts on
the Chinese borders — an affront offered to them by the empress having
been said to be the cause of this extraordinary flight.

Every attempt at negotiation Im' *<ig failed, the contest with the Turks
was renewed in 1773 ; and, although the Russians again suffered severe
losses, Romanzoff brought the war to a successful termination. By the

1 i

ill %

■'■-.. n

'iV4 U

ILLUSTRATED PEHCRIPTION OP RUfif.IA.

troiily of peace coiicIikIoiI in the following year, Iiis country oUtaineil tho
free navigation of tlio Black sea, the c('si<ion of Kilburne and Kniknloh, .
togoilier with a tract between the Boug and tlio Dnieper, and also the town
of Taganrog on the sea of Azov. Russia restored her other conquests,
and the Turks paid into the Russian treasury four millions of roubles tow-
ard the cxpoiisos of the war ; they also acknowledged the independence of
the Crimea, which in tlie year 1784 fell altogether into tho hands of Russia,
as well as tho island of Taman, and part of tho Kouban in tho Caucasus.

Sliortly after this, Catherine and the northern courts, in conjunction with
France, jealous of the British maritime power, brought about a combina-
tion against Kngland, which was hastened by tho following singidar inci-
dent: Tho British minister, suspecting that this intrigue was going on,
desired I'ofonikin* to lay before tho empress a memorial that he had drawn
up, which tlie prince promised to do. Of this memorial tho French gov-
erness of his nieces contrived to possess herself, and, after allowing tho
French minister to make his notes in refutation of it in tho margin, re-
placed it in Potonikin's pocket, who, ignorant of tho circumstance, laid it
before Catherine ; wlien tho empress, conceiving the notes to have been
made by her favorite, formed a league with Sweden and Denmark, and
announced her intention of supporting it with her navy.

In 1787, Catherine made, in company with Potcnikin and an immenso
suite, her famous triumplial progress to the Crimea, and the following year
found hor once more at war with tho Turks. Soon after, fiustavus III. of
Sweden, seizing tliis favorable opportunity, invaded the Russian territo-
ries ; this contest, however, produced no decisive residts, and was settled
by a pacification in 1790. In the close of that year, Constantinople trem-
bled at tho forward movement of the Russians ; and the fall of Ismail under
Suwarrow,t after the ninth assault, closed tho war on tho 22d of December.

• GRKonnr PoTKMKiN, a piinoe iind fipld-mnratuil, the minicin of Ciitlienno IL, wnt Ixun in 1736,
in tlic iiiM|;lit>ui'hiio(l nf Smnlonak, of ii poor llioiigli luilili* fiimily, niiil wiia iMtPtidi-d for tlit- rliiiirli,
but (ilitiiiiipil a oonirtry in tho lioriip-jfimnls. Over llm I'mpn-ss, nflor llip driilh of lii-r )iu9l>iiiiil, lie
acquiri'il uii iinl>i>iin<l<>(l infliiciiirp, nnd iip rotnincil it till ncnr tlii> end of hi« lire. Hi< di.itiiifi^niRliiMl
himself ngninst tlie Turk«, piirtictilarly in tlie wiir of 1788, when lie rnmmnnded in cliiif. Ho died
in 1791.

t Piiiice Ar.KXANDKR SuWARHOW (or SuvAiiOFr), n relelinited RiiHiinn ficlcl-miii»liiil, wIiobo
portrait i» prciPiiled on ilie opposite pnge, win liorn in 1730, lit Simkoi, in the L'kriiine — ii» «iinie
accoiintK iiiy, of Poliuli pnrentiige — nnd •.viis ediiriiled nt tlie rndet-srliuol nf St. I'eiei»lpiirp. He
diiiliiiKiiished liim«elf ngiiiiiKt llie Pruosiana dining tlie Seven Yeiirs' Wiir, in wliicli lie iiiiniiied the
I'Miik of colonel ; in Pulnnd, in 1768, iigiiiiist tlio runfedeiiites ; in 1773, ngniimt tlie Tnik^i; nnd in
1780, ngninst the Nogoi Tiirtiir». For tlieiie servirea he wna rewiiidi-d with the niiik of geiieriil-iii.
chief, the govnnnient of the Ciimen, the portiiiii of the eTiipre»» set in diiiniomlt, nnd aevenil Rih-
aian orderit. In the wnr ngniiiat the Tiirka, from 1787 to I7flO, he g:iiiiod the hallle of Rymnik,
took Ismail hy storm (ii5 iilliided to nhove), pulling twenty thoiisiiml men to the sword, nnd gained
other inipinlant ndvii-itngea. In 17!)4, he defeated the Pole* who were atniggliiig for freedom,
rava;;cd the environa <if Wuraow with the fury of n aerond Attila, and enirled the anlmil) of Pnign
!>•« uaaault. For this anngniimry conqueat the empivaa created him fleld-marahiil. After the death
of Cntlierine, Suwnrrow fell into diagraee at eoiirt, for venturing to condemn the lovo of innovation
digpliiycd hy her aucccaaor; but at length tlie capricione Paul reinatatod him in lii.4 favor, and in
1799 the commund uf the Auatro-Ruasiun army wai confided to the hero of lamuil. While fighting

l)ti\iiit'd tlio
I Kiiikiiloli, .
^0 the town
• conquests,
oubles tow-
aciulcnco of
s of Russia,

Caucasus.
Miction with

a cotnl»int\-
ngular inci-
8 going on,
) liivd drawn
Froncli gov-
vllowiiig tho

margin, ro-
ance, laid it
) liavc been
jnniark, and

an iniincnso

llowiiig year

avus III. of

sian tcrr'kto-

was settled
inoplo trciM-

■iumil under
December.

Id horn in 1736,

lor tlif rliiiirli,

I' hiisl>iiii>1, lit<

illjitingninlicil

clii'f. Ho (lied

-minsli:'', wlioBo

riiiipi' — lis "oniB

'ctcidliiirp. He

111- nllninoH tlio

Tiiil<«; nnd in
ik of g('Mt'rnl-in»
ml iicvcnil RiiK-
nil' of Rymnilf,
oril, nnd giiinod
MR for freedom,
jiil)iiili of Pinpi
AftiT tlie dpcith
i-p i)f innovation
lis fnvor, and in

While fighting

HISTORIC SUMMABY — CATUERINE II.

627

Fixld-Maiiihal Suwaibow,

In this extremity, the western powers of Europe combined to save tho
Porto from destruction ; and in 1791. Russia was forced to relinquish all
the territory she ha<l accpiired, excepting that guarantied by tlie treaty of
1784. In tho various wars in which Ru.ssia had been engaged with tho

on the pliiipia of Ilnly, iinil opposed to inferior iiuinherc of iho Krciioh iindpr Joiihert, during the
•liience of Niipidoon in Ej;y|il, the in hievenienls of Sewiirrow Seemed to jnslify tlio parliiility ofhig
•uveri'ign, nnd the expeetiilion of the eneniteh of I'ninre; hill no sooim hnd ho oritereil upon thi"
moiintni'ioiis reRionii of S« iir.erhind, w ifh the \vi\ry Miia^enii for his opp iieiif, ihnii his huirels begnii
to witlier, nnd ut the lio.ti' of the ciiinpnign of 1799 tho snn of liifi militiiiy renown set, nevermore
toris'-. Moro limn nnei* fluring tliiH terrihio rt-tront, when hi8 nntive troops, dii«lioni'tened nt the
lukewnrmnedit of till" Aildtriniif', nnd heiinmlied vvitli the rohl, refused to proceed, tho old veternn
ciiused a deep trenrli to he dng in thi^ snow, nnd, hiving liiinself in it, riilied on liis soldiers to nd-
vmico over hi» liody ! Tlie iippoal wns eflfeetiml, and the nriiiy, redueed from fifty thoiis ind to lead
tlmn twenty ihousiinil men, resiinied its iiomewiiid iniireli. On Ids return to St. I'eteinlMirg in Jan«
unry, 1800, Siiwiirrow wan coldly roeeiveil by tho oniporor, nnd died on the 18tli of -Mny, in tho
•iinie yeiir, nt his estnto of PoleiidorlT, in Eathoniii, nt the ii^e of seventy-one. The emperor Alox-
uiii'er eroeted to him a stntiie, to which, on its iimn/rnriitinii, Siiwiirri.w's niirient eonipnnions-in-
nriii* puid the militiiiy honors tliiit ho would Imve received himself, mid tlie piimd-iiuke Constnnline
pronoiincod his eiilopinin. — Born with grent tnlonts and vivacity. Marshal Suwiutihv possogged
consideiahlu informntioii, and spoko aovoml Innguages with facility. He exhihited, in » superior
degree, holdnofs, activity, nnd the art of inllaming his troops, and altaching them to his destiny;
hut, as n general, he ha.i heen reproached with shallow comliinalions, mana'iivres more rapid than
wise, and with having useil victory to satiate revenge. It is ditlicult to mention this singular char-
acter without mixed emotions of ailmiratioii nnd horror; in the nppellatioiie of " Rymiiiiski" and
" Itnliski," we pay respect to the conqueror of the Turks and of Moreau ; hut it is impossihle to
coiitomplale the hero of Warsaw nnd Ismail without deeply deploring ihe sanguinary icenes which
were there enacted, and which will for ever remain to throw the dark shade of iahumanity over tlio
IBOft illuftrioui actions of the life of Siiwarrow.

t t fc'

IT I

!. ■■! ■

k' I

62»

ILLUSTaATFD nRSCRIPTION OF RUSSIA

Ottomnn ompiio down to tlio period hero treated of, it is eonipiitcd tlmt
there were destroyed one hundred and thirty thon.sand Auslrians, two hun-
dred thousand Russians-, and three hundred and aoventy thousand Turk;*,
in nil seven hundred thousand inon !

About this time the intrigues of Russia, Austria, nnd Prussia, for the
partition of Poland, con)inenccd, and, carried on for several years, were
brought to a conclusion by two sieges of Warsaw ; in the first, Kosciusko
was made prisoner; and in the second the Poles, unassisted Ity his genius,
gave way in tlu\t fearful assault which, on the 0th of Novenii)er, 17!M,
consuniinated the ruin of Poland as a nation. In ITOf), by tlie third par-
tition of tliat unliappy kingdom, Russia extended her power toward tlio
west as far ns the Vistula. Catherine's subsequent plans of aggrandize-
ment in Daghcstan and on the shores of the Caspian were cut short by lu^r
dcutli, on tho 9tli of Novcmlicr, 1790, in the sixty-eightli year of her age,
and tlie tliirty-fifih year of lier reign.

HI as her power was obtained, Catherine used it wisely and well. Tho
great talents for governing which slie possessed nro universally admitted ;
and, though her energies wore principally displayed in carrying out her
schemes of foreign conquest, she by no means neglected the interior econ-
on)y of her empire. Ilcr views on all subjects were far more enlarged
than those of her predecessors, and nearly soven thousand children were
educated at St. Petersburg at tho public expense. Cutlierine invited Pal-
las, Eiiler, and Gmelin, to survey her territories and describe their char-
acteristics ; and requested D'Aloml)ert to undertake the education of lier
grandson, the grand-duke Alexaiidcr, whicli, however, he declined. Tho
empress also confirmed tho abolition of the secret state inquisition, and, by
dividing tho college of the enq>iro into separate departments, facilitated
the despatch of business, and rendered the administration in each moro
efficient. She founded schools and towns, encouraged foreign artisans and
workmen of all kinds to settle in her dominions, and projected and com-
pleted public works of equal magnificence and utility. With a view to
check corruption, she raiscil the salaries of the government officers, abol-
ished many monopolies of tlie crown, and issued a ukase which prevented
any proprietor from sending his serfs to the mines, or to any distant part
of the empire, except for agricultural purposes. But her amours in tho
meantime injured her as a woman, and her tyrannous conduct toward
Poland is a foul blot upon her escutcheon as a sovereign. Amlntion, how-
over, and lack of female virtue, did not wholly degrade her, for, as already
shown, her internal policy was as much directed to tho useful as to tho
grand ; and, amid all the distraction of business and voluptuous dissipation,
she found time to encourage literature. Indeed, she was herself tho author
of instructions for a code of laws, which she translated into German ; and
she wrote several dramatic pieces, and some moral tales for the use of
children ! Possessed of great beauty in her youth, Catherine preserved
the traces of it to the end of her life. She purchased the praises of the

IIISTORIC 8UHHARY — PAUL I.

1329

Diiipiitcd timt
ai>H, two liiin-
iis!\iul Tiirk'^,

iissiii, for tho
I yours, wcro
!*t, KoscinsUo
ty his fiiMiiiis,
oinl)or, 17l>4,
llio third piir-
r toward tlio
f njr^niiidi/tv
t short l»y h(?r
\r of hor age,

id well. Tho
illy adinitt(Ml ;
rying out hor
interior ccon-
loro enlarged
children were
invited Pal-
bc their ehar-
icaiion of her
cliued. Tiio
itioM, and, by
ts, facilitated
in each more
arti.sans and
ted and com-
ith a view to
officers, abol-
ich prevented
y distant part
niours in tho
duct toward
mbitlon,how-
ur, as already
eful as to tho
IS dissipation,
df tho author
crman ; and
)r the uso of
no preserved
)raises of the

French [jhilosojjherH, corresponded with Voltuiro and D'Alcmbcrt, and
conipliniented CharloH James Fox, tho great English orator, by asking him
for his bust, which hIio placed between those of Deniosthenes and Cicero.
Homo letters written liy Frederick the Groat to Peter III., found after his
decease, which strongly roconiniended to liiiu a change of conduct, and
particularly pleaded in behalf of his repudiated consort, fi.\ed Catherine
ihrougiiout her reigu in tho friendship and policy of the I'russian monarch.
In matters of religion she was t"'erant from political motives, extravagant
in an extraordinary degree, anr ith a wonum's liberality, paid well those
who served her ; and, though there are many acts in her reign which can
not be defended, she did more for tho civilization of Russia than any of
her prodoccBors.

Paul L

Catherine II. was succeeded by her sou, the grand-duke Paul, by Peter
III , who ascended the throne under the title of Paul I. This prince had
aHained his forty-second year before tho death of his mother placed him
on the imperial throne. For uuiny years he had lived in a state of retire-
ment, and had apparently been considered by the empress as incapable of
taking any active part in the administration of affairs. It is well known
that Catherine never admitted him to any participation of power, and even
kept him in complete ignorance of the affairs of the empire. On the day
following the death of his mother, however, Paul made his public entry
into St. Petersburg, amid the acclamations of all ranks of the people.

At his coronation, Paul decreed a law of hereditary succession to the
crown in tho nmlo lino, and afterward in the female, instead of leaving it
to tho caprice of tho reigning sovereign. One of the first measures of the

» k

630

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

II',

new emperor was that of ordering tho remains of liia father, Peter III., to
be removed from the sepulchre in which they had been deposited in the
church of St. Alexander Ncvski ; which, after having laid in state for
three weeks, were interred in the sepulchre of Catherine II., in the cathe-
dral of St. Peter and St. Paul. He also, with strong marks of admiration
and friendship, liberated Kosciusko from the prison wherein he had lan-
guished in St. Petersburg since his defeat and capture in 1794.

Few political events of any importance marked tho reign of Paul previ-
ous to the year 1798, when, in consequence of a treaty between Russia and
the emperor of Germany, who were subsidized by England, an army of
about fifty thousand men, under Field-Marshal Suwarrow, joined the impe-
rialists in Austrian Italy, as already detailed. In 1799, the emperor Paul
entered into a treaty of oflensivo and defensive alliance with Great Britain.
This treaty was signed at St. Petersburg on the 22d of June ; in conse-
quence of wliich, a Russian fleet joined that of Britain in Yarmouth roads,
and took part in the unfortunate expedition to the coast of Holland under-
taken in the summer of that year.

Soon after tliis period the Russian emperor began to show marks of
mental derangement. His favors and liis displeasures were alternately
experienced by some of his mo«* distinguished courtiers and adlierents.
Stanislaus, tho deposed king of Poland, partook by turns of his beneficence
and his severity ; while to tlie memory of Suwarrow, who is said to have
fallen a broken-hearted victim to the detraction of his imperial master, ho
raised a colossal statue of bronze ; and on the days when he reviewed his
troops in the square v.here the statue had been erected, he used to com-
mand them to march by in open order, and face the statue.

The ill success of the Russian arms against the French, augmented by
the bad understanding which subsisted between his generals and those of
Austria, appeared also to have an extraordinary effect upon the mind of
Paul. Meanwhile, Napoleon had returned from Egyi)t, and was chosen
first consul of France. He immediately liberated ton tliousand Russian
prisoners-of-war, and, presenting them with now uniforms and everything
necessary for their long journey, despatched them to their own country,
together with a friendly epistle to their sovereign. Paul was not yet so
"insane" but that he could appreciate this truly magnanimous act as it
deserved ; and, from having been the uncompromising opponent of Napo-
leon, he now entered into amicable correspondence with him, and became
one of his most ardent admirers. He laid an embargo on all the English
vessels in his ports, and induced Sweden. Denmark, and Prussia, to join
him in the northern armed confederacy to resist the encroachments of the
British government. This gave great offence to tho mercantile classes,
who preferred the English to tho French alliance.

Tho growing eccentricities of Paul exhibited themselves in tho most fan-
tastic manner. Among his ukases was one against the use of shoestrings
and round hats ; and in the number of queer whims which infected his

HISTOniO SUMMARY — PAUL I. — ALEXANDER I.

681

iter III., to
sited in the
n state for
I the cathe-
ad miration
le had Ian-

Paul previ-
Russia and
n army of
i the iinpe-
peror Paul
)at Britain.
; in conse-
)uth roads,
and under-

T marks of
alternately
adherents,
bencficenco
did to have
master, ho
viewed his
ed to com-
mented by
id those of
le mind of
vas chosen
id Russian
everything
n country,
not yet so
IS act as it
t of Napo-
nd became
he English
iia, to join
9nts of the
lie classes,

3 most fan-
jhoestrings
ifected his

brain was a rage for painting with the most glaring colors the watch-boxes,
gates, and bridges, throughout the empire ! This continued course of folly
and caprice disgusted many of the nobles, who at length entered into a
confederacy to prevent the ruin of tlieir country, by removing the empe-
ror. For this purpose they employed Plato Zuboff, the last of Catherine's
favorites, who had been banished from the court in disgrace. In order to
avenge this affront, Zuboff formed the design of murdering the emperor.
He contrived, by his intrigues, to insinuate himself into the favor of Paul,
and associated with the noblemen, in order the more securely to effect his
purpose. Having taken their measures, the assassins proceeded to the
imperial palace on the evening of March 22, 1801. Tiie emperor, who
usually slept on a sofa, in an apartment next to that of the empress, con-
trary to his custom, kissed the members of his family very affectionately,
visited the sentinels at their jiosts. and then retired to rest. Tlie guard
being changed by officers who were in the conspiracy, the murderers pene-
trated with case to the door of the emperor's apartment, where a hussar,
whom it had been found impossible to remove, presented his musket.
Zuboff cut him down witli his sabre. Tiic murder of his faillifiil servant
roused the unfortunate monarch, who, springing from iiis sofa when the
conspirators entered tlie room, at first endeavored to sliclter himself behind
chairs and tables ; then, assuming an air of authority, commanded them to
surrender as his prisoners. As they fiercely advanced toward liim, he
implored them to spare his life, offering to accept of any terms which they
might propose. Finding supplication vain, he made a violent effort to
reach the window, in wiiich he cut his hand ; and, being drawn back, he
knocked down one of tlie assailants with a chair. The empress, awakened
by the noise and turmoil, would have called for assistance, if a voice had
not whispered to her to remain silent on pain of instant death. While the
emperor made a desperate resistance, one of the conspirators brought him
to the floor with a blow on the temples ; when, recovering a little, he again
supplicated for life. Another, taking off his sash, threw it twice round
the neck of the defenceless czar ; and one end being held by himself, while
the otlier was given to Zuboff, they strangled their sovereign. Having
accomplished the horrid deed, the assassins retired without molestation to
their respective homes.

Early the next morning the intelligence of the death of Paul (as having
been produced by apoplexy !), and the accession of tlie grand-duke Alex-
ander, were announced to the capital. The principal nobility and the
great officers of state being assembled, Alexander was solemnly proclaimed
emperor of all the Russias. As in the case of the murder of Peter III.,
none of the assassins of Paul were punished, but rewards were heaped
ipon them. How far his sons were cognizant of what was going on, it is
: impossible to tell ; but it was generally believed that they were in the
secret, and connived at it from a conviction that their father intended to
immure them in a fortress. It is also a

h: i

' i^

Ki| Ml

* ::':X'

significant fact that, on tlie night

1^/:1J

632

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

of file murder, the English fleet under NelHon was sailing into the Baltic
for the attack on Copenhagen.

The new emperor, on the day of his accession, presented himself at tho
parade on horseback, and was hailed by the troops witli loud and cordial
acclamations. In the following September his coronation at Moscow took
place amid great splendor. Alexander was in his twenty-fourth year
when he ascended the throne ; and, from his amiable disposition, had ac-
quired the love and respect of all his subjects. Tl)e first measure which
he adopted, his opening proclamation, and his earMcst imperial orders, all
tended to encourage and confirm the hopes with which the Russian pcoj)lo
belield him mount the throne of his forefathers. In the same year he re-
called the Siberian exiles, suppressed tl>e secret state inquisition which
had been re-established by Paul, and remodelled the senate. He likewise
founded (in 1804) the university of KharkofiF, and emancipated the Jews.

Alexander appeared desirous to cultivate tho friendship of the neiglibor-
ing states, and especially that of Great Britain. His Aithcr, among other
projects, had procured himself to be elected grand-master of the knights
of Malta, and had laid claim to the sovereignty of that island. This claim,
which had nearly produced a rupture between tho courts of London and
St. Petei'sburg, Alexander consented to abandon, though he expressed a
wish to bo elected grand-master of the order by the free suffrages of tho
kinghts of St. John.

la the inoantinic, a confederacy liad l)cen formed among the northern
powers of Europe, as before intimated, with a view to oppose the British
claim to the sovereignty of tl>e seas ; but by the wanton bombardment of
Copenhagen, and the spirited interference of the Britislj court, especially
with the cal)iiiet of St. Petersburg, the good understanding between Great
Britain and the noithern states was re-established, and the embargo which
had been laid on British vessels in the Russian ports was taken off. A
treaty of amity, connnerce, and navigation, between Russia and Sweden,
was also agreed upon, to continue for twelve years. The most remarkable
part of this treaty was the recognition by the court of St. Petersburg of
the northern confederacy, which the amicable adjustment with Britain ap-
peared to have done away.

On the 25th of ^arch, 1802, was signed at Amiens the definitive treaty
of peace between the belligerent powers of Europe, by one material article
of which the islands of Malta, Gozo, and Comino, in tho Mediterranean,
were to be restored to the knights of St. John of Jerusalenft, under the
joint protection and guaranty of France. Great Britain, Austria, Spain,
Russia, and Prussia. Some time after the conclusion of this treaty, dis-
putes arose among the contracting powers relative to the sovereignty of
Malta ; and the emperor of Russia (who now for the first time appeared
personally among the potentates of Europe, and in June had an interview
with the king of Prussia at Memel) insisted that it should bo yielded to
Naples, othei wise he would not undertake to guaranty the order of the

treaty
article
anean,
the
Spain,
y, dis-
nty of
)earcd
srview
lod to
)f the

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDKR I,

383

knights, and would separate from it the priories of Russia. The retention
of tiiis island by the British forces, in direet violation of the treaty above
referred to, was one of tiie cliief causes of the renewal of tlie bloody con-
test between England and her allies and Napoleon which so long desolated
the face of Europe.

Alexander watched with a jealous eye the violence exercised by France
among the German states, and the oncroaclunents which she appeared de-
sirous of making on tlie free navigation of the Baltic. He had, in 1803,
offered his mediation between Great Britain and France, but without etfect,
and both these parties strove to bring over the Russian emperor to their
alliance. The court of London finally prevailed ; and on the 11th of April,
1805, a treaty of concert was concluded between Great Britain and Rus-
sia, to which Austria also became a party, in which the three governments
agreed to adopt the most efficacious means for forming a general league
of the crowned heads of Europe to bo directed against the powers of the
French empire. The ostensible objects of this league were tlie evacua-
tion of the country of Hanover (then belonging to the crown of England)
and the north of Germany ; the independence of the republics of Holland
and Switzerland ; the re-establishment of the king of Sardinia in Piedmont
(who had first attacked France) ; the security of the kingdom of Naples :
and the complete evacuation of Italy, the island of Elba included, by the
French forces : but the principal motive, and underlying all others, was
the desire for overthrowing Napoleon, the elective emperor, and reinsta
ting the Bourbons, to rcigu by '< divine right," and thus presenting a solia

'I: f

111

m j;

684

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIPTION OP RUSSIA.

barrier ngaiost the future spread of free principles. For the prosecution
of the great objects of this treaty, it was proposed that an army of four
hundred tliousand men should bo levied. It was stipulated that these
troops should be provided by the powei\^ of ilie continent who should be-
come parties to the league, and tb'^t si bsidies should be granted by Great
Britain in the proportion of over six millions of dollars for every hundred
thousand men, bosid' i a c Misiderable additional sum for the necessary ex-
pense occasioned in brin{>.ng them into the field.

About this time, the occupation of Genoa by the French, in order to pre
servo it from an attack by the English fleet, was communicated to the dif
feront sovereigns of Europe, among whom it exeited tiie highest indigna
tiorj. The emperor Alexander, incensed at this new act of Napoleon,
immediately recalled liis envoy ; and this appeared to be the signal for
hostilities on the part of Russia and Austria against France. Napoleon,
.well knowing the Britisli government and aristocracy to be the main pro-
jectors of all tlie coalitions against him, had collected an immense arma-
ment at Boulogne for the invasion of England ; l)ut learning that Alexan-
der, at the licad of fifty thousand men, was rapidly marching to join the
Austrians under the empisror I rancis, for the purpose of secretly attacking
France, he resolved to meet them on their own ground. With surprising
celerity he traversed France and Germany, and, encountering the superior
forces of the allies on the plain of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, he utterly
overthrew them. In their retreat across a lake, a largo body of Russians
were drowned by the breaking of the ice from the artillery-shots of the
Frencli. The emperors Francis and Alexander, from an eminence, beheld
with anguish flie complete discomfiture of tlieir splendid army, and the
latter soon after returned to St. Petersl)urg. When the news of tins deci-
eive battle reached England, the prime-minister Pitt remarkeu, " We may
low close the map of Europe for years." His death, soon after, was hast-
ened by chagrin.

Tiie consequence of these disastrous events to the allies was, first, a ces-
sation of hostiHties, and finally a treaty of alliance between Russia and
France in 1806. Alexander, however, was determined to make one more
effort to gain better terms from Napoleon. The Russian envoy at Paris,
D'Oubril, had hastily concluded a preliminary treaty of peace between
Russia and France. The terms of this convention, when laid before the
privy council by Alexander, appeared so derogatory to the interests of
Russia, that the emperor refused tiiem his sanction ; but at the same time
signified liis willingness to renew the negotiations for peace on such terms
as were consistent with the dignity of his crown and the interests of his
empire. Tlie machinations of tiie British government, however, broke off
the negotiations, and both parties again prepared for war.

In tlie meantime, the king of Prussia, urged on by the English and Aus-
trian cabinets, prepared to oppose his efforts to the growing power of
France. He collected an army of two hundred thousand men near Woimar

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANPER T.

635

secution
of four
at these
lould be-
!y Great
hundred
isary cx-

r to pro
) the dif

iiidigna
lapolcon,
I i glial for
fapoleon,
uain pro-
ise arma-
t Alexan-
( join the
attacking
lurprising
5 supeiior
he utterly

Russians
ts of the
!e, beheld
and the

tins deci-
' We may

was hast*

rst, a ces-
issia and
one more
at Paris,
between
)eforo the
e rests of
ame time
jch terms
ts of his
bi'oke off

and AuB-
power of
Weimar

nnd Jt-na, while the French forces assembled in Franconia and on the
frunlicr.s of Saxony. Tlie same extraordinary sneccss, however, was still
to attend the arms of France. Tlie Prussians were totally defeated by
Napoleon at Jena ; and on tlic same day was fouglit the decisive battle of
Anerstadt, in which Marshal Davoust, with an irferior French force, com-
pletely routed the enemy, who, besides numerous infantry and artillery,
had forty tliousand splendid cavalry, commanded by the prince of Prussia.
In these two actions the loss of the Prussians amounted to about twenty
thousand in killed and wounded, and above thirty thousand prisoners.
The lines of fugitives, converging from the fields of Jena and Anerstadt,
fled tumultuously toward Berlin, which capital Napoleon entered on the
27th of October.

While the French were thus successful over the Prussians, the troops
of Alexander entered Prussian Poland, and General Benninpsen took up
his residence at Warsaw, whicli, however, he was soon compelled to evac-
uate by tiie French under Murat, who entered the city on the 28th of No-
vember. After several skirmislies, in which the Russians were defeated,
a dreadful engagement took place between them and the French at Ostra-
lonka, about sixty miles from Warsaw. The fighting continiicd for three
days, and the loss was immense on both sides, tliough the advantage ap-
pears to have been on the side of the French. On the 26th of Decern ^er
the latter were beatei> by the Russians at Pultusk, which terminated the
campaign of 1800.

On the .7th and 8th of February, 1807, the severely-contested battle of
Eylau was fouglit, in which Napoleon commanded in person at the head
of tiie imperial guards. Each side three times lost and won, the deciding
move being made liy Benningsen, who took Ko:iiiigsberg by assault. At
one time while Napoleon was reconnoitring the field of action from a
church, a detachment of Cossacks dashed up the streets of the town, and
would have captured him but for a timely charge of French dragoons.
On the night of tlie 8tli, Benningsen was reinforced by fifteen thousand
Prussians, who wished to renew the battle on the third day, but at a coun
cil of war the Russian commander deemed it prudent to retreat, though
greatly superior in force to the French.

Several actions succeeded, at Spanden, at Lamitten, at Guttodadt, and
at Heilsberg, in all of which the French had the advantage. On the 28th
of May, 1807, they took Dantzic ; and on the 14th of June the Russians
appeared in considerable force on the bridge of Friedland, whither the
French army under Napoleon was advancing. Here, notwithstanding the
utmost efforts of the Russians, they were totally defeated by the French,
who carried all before them. In consequence of this victory, the latter
became masters of all the country round Koningsberg, and Marshal Soult
entered that city m triumph. Thus concluded the campaign in Germany,
in which the Russians sustained a loss of at least thirty thousand of their
choicest troops.

■ i

' 'i,

r- *

ilil

636

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

The defeats which the allied armies had suffered in Prussia and Poland
rendered peace, on almost any tenure, a desirable object ; and Alexander
found himself constraimd to ine^t, at 'cast with the appearance of friend-
ship, the conqueror of Im fi\ ■oicis. l-ropo^itlons for an armistice had been
made by the Prussian giMiciul lo the grai. I-'.', ke of Berg near Tilsit ; and,
after tlie battle of FricUUiud, U.e H..:jsiaiv j .ince Labanoff had a confer-
ence, for t'lo samij purposi.-,witli the prince uC Neufchatcl, soon after which
an anuisliflo was uoncludv-J between the French and Russians. On the
25th of June, an amicable meeting took place between the emperors of
France and Russia, in a hanusome pavilion c cctcd on a raft for the occa-
sion, which was liioorcil in the middle oi the river Niemen. Tiie result of
tliis interview wns tlio faniun?! Lrc;!^y of TiL^it, concluded between the em-
peror of the Frcjich on the (*:io pa •',, and tiie emperor of Russia and the
king of Prussia on tlio other, on the 7th and 12tli of July, 1807.

Alexander, by this compact, became the ally of France, and acknowl-
edged the brotliers ol Napoleon as kings respectively of Naples, Holland,
and Westphalia; hi' formally recognised also tlie confederation of the
Rhine, and promised to acknowledge all the sovereigns who might hereaf-
ter become members of that confederation. He engaged tiiat hostilities,
on the part of Russia, should immediately cease with the Ottoman Porte.
He undertook also to mediate for a peace betweiMi England and France.
This medicAion was declined on tlic part of the Rritisli government, until
it should be made acquainted with the stipulations of the treaty of Tilsit,
and should find them not conflicting \\ith its own claims to the free navi-
gation of the Baltic and tiie introduction of British goods to the continent.
The grounds of this declination served as a reason for binding more closely
the alliance between Russia and France, by breaking off the connection
of the former with Great Britain. Accordingly, Lord Gower, who had
succeeded the marquis of Douglas as envoy, received a note from the Rus-
sian government, intimating that, as a British embassador, he could be no
longer received at the court of St. Petersburg, which he therefore soon
after quitted.

An embargo was now laid on all British vessels in the ports of Russia;
and it was peremptorily required by Napoleon and Alexander that Sweden
should abandon her alliance with Great Britain. An additional cause for
the Russian declaration of war against the latter power was furnislied by
the second bombardment of Copenhagen and the seizure of the Danish fleet
in the harbor by a British squadron ; and, although Lord Gower liad at-
tempted to justify these measures, on the plea of anticipating the French
in the same transaction, the emperor of Russia expressed in the warmest
terms his indignation at this unjust and outrageous attack on a neutral
power. A considerable Russian fleet joined the French, but the combined
squadrons were compelled to seek for shelter in the Tagus, where they
remained blocked up by a superior British armament ; and another Russo-
French fleet of fifteen sail-of-the-line that proceeded up the Mediterranean,

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER I.

637

Poland

xauder

fricud-

id been

b ; and,

confci'-

r which

On the

3ror3 of

lie occa-

esult of

the cni-

and the

icknowl-
[loUand,
1 of the
it hereaf-
astilities,

in Porte.
. France,
cnt, until
)f Tilsit,
roe n avi-
on tincnt.
•e closely
mnection
who had
the Rus-
ild bo no
'ore soon

Russia ;
, Sweden
Cause for
jished by
liish fleet
had at-
Fronch
I warmest
neutral
lombincd
lero they
\y Russo-
Irrancan,

nnd advanced as far as Trieste, met with a similar fate. In fact, liostill-
ties between Russia and England resulted chiefly in a cessation of trade.

Tlie demand of concnrrcncc in the views of France and Russia made on
Sweden, was formally repeated in a declaration of the emperor Alexander,
publislicd at St. Petersl»iirg- on the 10th of Fel)ruary, 1808. In this decla-
ration, his imperial majesty intimated to the king of Sweden that he was
making pre})arations to invade his territories ; but that he was ready to
change tiic measures he was about to take, to measures of precaution only,
if Sweden would, without delay, join Russia and Denmark in shutting the
Baltic against Great Britain until the conclusion of a maritime peace. He
professed tliat nothing could be more painful to him than to see a rupture
take place between Sweden and Russia ; but that his Swedisli majesty had
it still in his power to avoid this event, by resolving, witliout delay, to
adopt that course which could alone preserve strict union between the two
states. Tlie king of Sweden, however, determined to abide by the meas-
ures which he had for some time pursued, and to accede to tlie terms of
the convention which had just been concluded between him and the king
of Great Britain.

In consequence of this determination, a Russian army, under the com-
mand of General Buxhowden, entered Finland in the beginning of March,
1808, and advanced against Helsingfors, which was occupied by a single
battalion of a Swcdi»ii regiment. This small force retired into the fortress
of Sweaborg, where they maintained themselves with great bravery till tlio
17th of April, when tliey were obliged to capitulate. Tlie loss of this for-
tress, tliough inconsiderable in itself, so highly enraged the king of Swe-
den, that he dismissed the naval and military commanders wlio had been
concerned in the capitulation. On the 27th of April, a trifling advantage
was gained over the Russians near Rivolax, by the Swedisli army, under
General Count Klinspor ; but this was only a transient gleam of success.
The Russians soon overran nearly all Finland, took possession of Yasa,
old and new Carleby, and reduced under subjection the whole province of
which Vasa is the capital. The army of Klinspor, which originally con-
sisted of sixteen thousand regulars, besides boors, was, by the end of the
campaign, reduced to little more than nine thousand men. The king of
Sweden, however, continued to send reinforcements to his armies in Fin-
land ; but no advantages of any importance were obtained, and the Rus-
sions remained in possession of a great part of that province until it was
permanently ceded to Russia by the treaty of Fredericliausen in 1809.

A second meeting between the emperors of France and Russia took
place at Erfurth, in Saxony, on the 27th of September, 1808 ; Napoleon
being anxious to secure the friendship of Alexander previous to his medi-
tated subjugation of Spain. The English cabinet had now succeeded in
forming another coalition against France, hostilities being commenced by
her old ally, Austria, subsidized as usual by British gold, while Sir John
Moore was despatched with a strong force to Spain.

■• ii

638

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

As previously remarked, by the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander liecamc the
ally of France, and took part, as such, in the war now opened by Austria
(1809) ; but liis want of zeal in the cause was too evident to escape the
penetration of the French emperor, and a growing coldness between the
imperial allies began to appear, partly in consequence, it is said, of the
remonstrance of Napoleon against the annexation of Finland. Austria,
completely humbled by the defeat of Wagrara, was compelled to form an
alliance with Napoleon.

Great injury had, however, been done to Russian commerce, and heavy
complaints made by merchants, in consequence of their ports having been
shut against tiie English : they were therefore again opened to them, pro-
vided they hoisted American colors, while French goods were very strictly
prohibited. This induced Napoleon, in retaliation, to make himself mas-
ter of the principal northern ports of Germany, and to incorporate fho
possessions of the duke of Oldenburg, a near relation of Alexander, with
France. Against tiiis proceeding Russia made a very energetic protest;
and, in the year 1811, live divisions of the Russian army assumed a posi-
tion opposite Warsaw. On the other hand, Napoleon caused the fortresses
on the Vistula and Oder to be declared in a state of siege, sent iliither
large masses of troops, and occupied Swedish Pomerania, because Cliarles
XIII. of Sweden adhered to his alliance with England.

The contest in Spain, where Wellington was operating with a powerful
British auxiliary force, was at this time daily growing more obstinate, and
the large amount of men and money it consumed might well have appeared
to Napoleon a sufficient obstacle to a struggle with Russia ; but he calcu-
lated that his entire armies, amounting to nearly a million of effective men,
would be sufficient for the conflict in both quarters : and he also relied
upon a great mass of auxiliary forces, cliiolly promised by the confedera-
tion of the Rhine ; besides his alliance with Prussia and Austria, which
covered him on both flanks, and secured his retreat. He, however, made
peacoable offers, through the count de Narbonne, his embassador at St.
Petersburg : but the object of his mission being unattained, about half a
million of soldic'', consisting of French, Germans, Italians, Poles, Swiss,
Spaniards, and I'ortuguese, with more than twelve hundred cannon, were
put in motion, about the end of July, 1812, to attack the Russians on the
other side of the Niemen and the Vistula.

To meet this invasion, Alexander, having re-established his alliance with
Great Britain, made peace with the sidtan, and withdrew his troops from
the Turkish frontier. He also issued a ukase, on the 23d of March, order-
ing a levy of two men out of every five hundred throughout the empire.
The Russians, in three divisions, occupied a line including Kiev and Smo-
lensk to iviga. The first western army, of one hundred and twenty-seven
thousand men, in Lithuania and Courland, was commanded by Barclay de
Tolly, who had till then been minister of war. The other western army,
of forty-eight thousand men, was commanded by Prince Bagration. A

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER I.

639

tliir'l body of forces, led by General DoctorofF, served to keep up tlio com-
munication between the other two.

All the disposable property and records had long before been generally
conveyed into the interior. The first western Russian army in Poland was
stn'oned along the Niemen as far as Grodno, and conijinrtcd six corps of
iiUantry and two of cavalry. Tlie second western army was in tlie vicinity
of Honim, consisting of four battalions of infantry and one of cavalry.
The communication was kept up between them by the hetnu'in Platoff, with
ten thousand Cossacks, at Bialystok. The army of Volhyniii, under Tor-
niasofT, at Lutzk, was composed of two divisions of infantry and one of
cavalry, containing together about twenty thousand men ; and there were
additional cvM-ps stationed at other points on the western frontier, amount-
ing to about forty thousand men more.

The Russian plan of the campaign was, by retreating, to avoid a deci-
sive battle, until tlic enemy should bo remote from all his resources, and
weakened by marclies through a desolate region, and the Russian army
sliould bo so considerably strengthened by the accession of all the forces
that might be, meanwhile, raised, as to have a decided superiority. Na-
poleon's scheme, on the contrary, was, to use every effort to compel the
Russians to battle, to destroy them after the defeat, and, pressing forward
with haste to the capital, to proffer peace. But he not only entirely mis-
took the character of his enemy, but lie overlooked the important Avct that,
lliough the Russians might retreat, they would still be in possession of
their resources.

On tlie 6th of June, 1812, Napoleon crossed the Vistula, and on the 23d
the Niemen, and pushed on to Wilna, the Russians carefully retreating,
and leaving tlie French to pass that river on the 28th, and enter the town
unopposed. Hero the French emperor remained eighteen days, establish-
ing magazines of arms and provisions, and then, after considerable manoeu-
vring, marched on Vitepsk, where he hoped to bring the Russians, under
Rarcl!>7 do Tolly, to a general action. The Russian general, liowever,
declined, and retired to Smolensk. Fatigue, and want of all kinds, had
meanwhile operated so detrimentally on tlie French army, that it was
obliged to iialt for ten days, during whicli the two Russian armies finally
formed a junction under the walls of Smolensk. Napoleon, instead of fol-
lowing the advice of his marshals, and wintering on the Duna, crossed the
Dnieper and marclied in pursuit of the enemy. The Russians now began
to act on the offensive. With twelve thousand cavalry they attacked Gen-
eral Sebastiani, and drove him back with considerable loss. On the 17th
of August the main body put itself in motion to encounter the French army,
which had advanced, in order, if possible, to compel a general battle.
When Napoleon saw his attempts to surround the right wing of the Rus-
sians defeated, he ordered his own right wing, under Poniatowski, to hasten,
by way of Ortza, by rapid marches, to cut off the Russians from Moscow.
On the other hand, Bagration hastened to defend this road, and Barclay

i i

■ill

,v »

f->: fit' I

■III-:

Pi-g;

640

ItLUSTRATrn PESCRIPnON OP nussiA.

do Tolly sought to rotard tlio Frcncli as much as possible. Smolensk, an
old place, strongly fortified, and the wliolo position on the Dnieper, greatly
favored his plan ; and not till midnight of the 17th, after a loss of ninny
thousands, did the French succeed in taking this bulwark, reduced, for the
most part, to a ruin, its magazines Imving been removed or destroyed, and
the houses set on fire by the departing inliivbitants.

The Russian army retired in haste, laying waste the country, and burn-
ing all the towns tlirough which it passed, while Napoh'on followed, liia
troops sulTering more and more from want and the climate. Up to this
time, Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in-chief, had been able to
adhere to his plan of drawing the French into the country without risking
a general engagement until a favorable opportunity sliould oc:nr — tactics
which were not liked by his army; and Alexander, yielding to the clamor
of the nation, appointed KutusofT to the chief conmiand, wlio had reaped
new laurels in the Turkish war just ended.

Tlic battle of IJorodino, sometimes called that of Moscow, fought on the
borders of tiie government of that name, on the 1st of Scptonil)er, was the
result of tliis change of lenders. Reinforced l)y militia and reserves, Ku-
tusofT resolved to await the enemy at the point above mentioned (about
seventy miles from the city of Moscow), in a strongly-entrenched position.
The French came up, and a terrible battle ensued. Tiie combatants on
either side amounted to al)out one hundred and twenty thousand men, and
the killed and wounded in both to about eighty thousand, of whom the
Russians lost upward of fifty thousand. Tlic victory of the Frencii would
have been still more decisive, but for the refusal of Napoleon to allow the
imperial guard to engage in the battle. The Russians continued slowly
and sullenly to retreat toward Moscow, establishing their batteries wher-
ever they could make a stand, even for a few hours. They drove l)efore
thcin the wretclied serfs, blew up the bridges l)ehind them, burned the
towns as they passed along, and carried awny or destroyed all the provis-
ions and forage. For seven days, the Frencli, emaciate and desponding,
with tottering steps pursued their foes over the dreary jilains. Tiiey were
everywhere victorious, and yet they obtained no results from their victo-
ries. Count Rostopchin, the governor, was making eflcctual preparations
for the conflagration of the capital, and was urging, by every means in his
power, the evacuation of the city by the inhabitants.

About noon of the 14th of September, Napoleon, cautiously advancing
through a country of excessive monotony and gloom, from the summit of
the Sparrow hills descried in the distance the glittering domes and mina-
rets of Moscow. Ho reined in his horse, and exclaimed, " Behold ! yon-
der is the celebrated city of the czars !" After gazing upon it, tlirongh his
telescope, for a few moments in silence, he remarked, " It was full time !"
The soldiers, thinking that their suflFerings were now at an end, and antici-
pating good quarters and abundant supplies, gave way to transports of
exultation. Shouts of " Moscow ! Moscow !" spread from rank to rank,

lIISTOmr SUMMAflY — ALEXANDDK I.

♦jU

nu(l nil (luk'koiicd (licir ptico to pain n view of tlio ohjoot of llioir wi.slics.
Tlicy apiiroaohcd tlic city ; l)iit, to their nnmztimcnt, llicy iu(!t l»iit silonco
and solitude. Tlio astomidinjr iiitclli>rencc was broii^lit to Napoleon tlmt
tlie city was deserted. A lew of the niiscral>lo creatures, who had l>ccn ro-
cnsed from the pri-ions to lire the city ns soon as the Frentth slioidd liavo
taken possession, were found in the streets. They were generally into.xi-
cated, and presented a squalid and hideous spcetaclo. Napolo(»n wna
amazed at the entire abandonment of the city. Rumors of the intended
conflagration reached his ears. Such nn awful saeriliee he had not sM\y
{)OKed it possililo for any people to make. None but a semi-l)ari»arian na-
tion, under the inlluence of an utter despotistn, could Ite driven to such an
act. More than a hundred thousand of the wretched inhal)itants, paront.s
and children — driven by the Russian sobliery from the city — perished of
cold and starvation in the woods I Other comitlcss thousands, who had
attached themselves to the army of Kutusolf, priished from latii;ue and
o.\|)osure. Napoleon, as if to avoid the sijrht of the desolate streets, did
not at first enter Moscow. He stopped at a house in the sul)url)s, and
appointed Marshal Morfier jrovornor of the capital. " Permit," said ho,
** no pillage. Defiuid the place alike against friends and foes." The sol-
diers dispersed through the city in search of provisions and quarters.
Many of the inhabitai»ts had left in such haste, that the rich ornaments of
the ladies were found on their toilets, and the letters and gold of men of
business on their desks.

On the morning of the Ifjth, Napoleon removed his headquarters to the
krcmlin. lie immediately wrote to Alexander, proposing terms of peace,
adding, " Whatever may bo the vicissitudes of war, nothing can diminish
the esteem felt by me for my friend of Tilsit and Erfurth." The day was
passed in establishing tl\e army in their new quarters. Pome twenty tliou-
sand men and women of tlie lowest class, fierce and revolting in aspect,
gradually stole from their hiding-places and mingled with the French troops.
Ten thousand prisf ;.erp, whom Rostopchin had liberated, were stealthily
preparing to convert tU ■ magnificent metropolis into a vast "infernal ma-
chine" for the dc-tr'^'Jion of the French army. Immense magazines of
powder were place! beneath the kremlin ai\d other structures which would
be filled with soldiers ; shells and other destructive engines of war were
secreted, in vast quantities, in chambers and cellars ; the fountains had
also been destroyed, the water-pipes cut, and the fire-engines carried off.

About midnight of the IGth, the cry of " Fire !" was suddenly heard in
the streets. Far off in the east of the kremlin, immense volumes of smoke
and flame were rolling up into the stormy sky. Loud explosions of burst-
tug shells and upheaNing mines scattered death and dismay around. The
flames spread in all directions. Mines wore sprung, shells burst, cannons
discharged, wagons of powder and magazines blew up, and in a few hours
of indescribable confusion and terror, the whole vast city was wrai)ped in
an ocean of flame. The French soldiers shot the incendiaries, bayoneted

il;

fc;

w ■

M t

lit 11

'In'

ILLUSTIU ll;i> DKSCUII'TIOM OF RUSSIA.

' '"•'WWi

Napolkon at th* Kkkulin.

thcin, tossed tlioin into tlio fire ; but still, like demons, tlioy plied tlioir
work. Napoleon uwoke early in the inoi-ning, and, lookinfjj out upon the
(lames wliicli wore now sweopinji; through all parts of the city, cxcliiimed :
•' What a frijihtfi"! spectacle! such a number of palaces! — the people are
genuine .Scytliians." During the whole of the 17th and the ensuing night
the fire continued to rage, and at last reached tlio kreinlin, forcing Napo-
leon to retire to the castle of Petrowski, about three miles distant ; but the
flames abating on the 19th, ho returned and occupied that portion of the
kremlin which yet remained uninjui'ed.

" The churches," says Labaume, " though covered with iron and lead,
were destroyed, and with them those graceful steeples which we had seen
the night before res|)lendent in the setting sun. The hospitals, too, which
contained more than twenty thousand wounded, soon began to burn — a
harrowing and dreadful spectacle — and almost all these poor wretches
perished ! A few who still survived were seen crawling, half-burnt, among
the smoking ruins, while others were groaning under heaps of dead bodies,
endeavoring in vain to extricate themselves. The confusion and tumult
which ensued when the work of pillage commenced can not be conceived.
Soldiers, sutlers, galley-slaves, and prostitutes, were seen running through
the streets, penetrating into the deserted palaces, and carrying away every-
thing that could gratify their avarice. Some clothed themselves with rich
stuffs, silks, and costly furs ; others dressed themselves in women's pelisses ;

HISTURIC SUMMAIIY — ALEXANDER I.

043

and oven tlio galloy-fjlavcH concoalcd tlicir rags imdor the most splendid
court-drcHscfl : tliu rest crowded to tliu ccllurH, mid, fiU'ciiif? open tlio doors,
drank the wine nud carried off an imnicnHo Itooty. This horrible pillago
was not coiifmod to the dcHorted hounes alono, liiit extended to the few
which were iiihaWitcd, and soon the cagernesH and wantonncHs of the plun-
derers caused deva.stationH which almost equalled those occasioned hy tho
conllagration." — " I'aluces and teniples," writes* Karamzin, " monumenta
of art and miracles of Inxnry, the renuiins of past ages and those whicli had
been the creation of yesterday ; the tomlis of ancestors and tho nursery-
cradles (tf tli(! present generation, were indiscriminately destroyed : noth-
ing was left of Moscow save the remembramu; of its foruier grandeur." —
" Not even tho fictions of the burning of Troy," said Napoleon in after-
years, " though heighteiictl by all the powers of poetry, could have eciuallcd
the realitii's of tho destruction of Moscow. . . . Oh, it was the most grand,
the most sulilimo, the most terrilic sight the world ever beheld!"

At length, on tho morning of the ll'th of October, after a stay of thirty-
four days, Napoleon (piitted Moscow and retreated toward Kalonga. His
army num!)ered about a hundred thousand men, with five hundred and fifty
pieces of cannon, and som<! forty thousand sick, wounded, and stragglers.
To Marshal Mortier, with a i)aud of luit eight thousand men. was assigned
tho perilous task of renuiining behind to su|)erintend the evacuation of the
city. The Cossacks crowded upon him in vast numbers. For four days,
while tho enormous mass of men and carriages were retiring, he defended
himself within the massive walls of the krendin, keeping tho enemy at bay.
In tho vaults over which ho stood and fought ho placed one hundred and
oighty-threc thousand pounds of gunpowder. Barrels of powder were also
deposited in all tho halls and apartments. He was compelled to do this
even while tho flames of war were blazing fiercely around him. It might
be necessary at any hour to retire before the accumulating numbers, and
to apply the torch. A single spark from one of the enemy's guns would
have blown the heroic soldier and his whole division into tho air together!

Having successfully protected the march of the army from tho city, Mor-
tier placed, in connection with tho mines of powder, a lighted fuse, whose
slow combustion could be nicely calculated. With rapid step ho hurried
from the volcano, which was ripe for its eruption. Tho Cossacks, eager
for plunder, rushed within tho deserted walls. Suddenly tho majestic
fabric was raised into the air. The earth shook under tho foot of Mortier.
The explosion, in most aippalling thunder-peal, startled tho army in its
midnight bivouac. From" tho darkened and sulphurous skies there was
rained down upon the city a horrible shower of fragments of timber, rocks,
shattered weapons, heavy pieces of artillery, and mangled bodies ! Napo-
leon was thirty miles distant from Moscow. That terrific peal roused him
fi'om sleep, and told him that the kremlin had fallen, and that his rear-
guard had commenced its march. Mortier hastened his flight, and suo-
ceedcd in rejoining the army.

> {

911 >■''

!!il.

644

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RU&SIA.

And now the picture of the advance to Moscow was to be rcA'crscd.
Hordes of Cossacks hung upon the rear of the retreating army, cutting off
the stragglers, and committing every atrocity. Murat was defeated at
Malo-Yaroslavitz on the 24th of October, and an unsuccessful stand wa3
made at Viasma on the 3d of November. On tlic 6t!'., a winter peculiarly
early and severe, even for Russia, set in — the thermometer sank cighteon
degrees — the wind blew furiously over the desert country — and the sol-
diers, vainly struggling with the eddying sn w, which drove against them
with the violence of a whirlwind, could no longer distinguish the rocd,
and, falling into the ditches by the side, were quickly covered with the
wintry mantle, and there found a grave. Others Ciawlcd on, badly clothed,
with nothing to eat or drink, frost-bitten, and groaning with pain. What
scenes did not the retreat then present! — disci|)line was gone — \inder
such horrible sufferings even these tried and veteran soldiers could no
longer obey their officers. Tims disorganized, they spread thci /..-"ilves right
and left in search of food, and, as the horses fell, seized upoa their man-
gled carcasses, and devoured them raw like dogs! Many remained by the
dying embers of the bivouac-fire, and, as tl;ose expired, pn insensibility
crept over them which soon became tiie sleep of death — thus thousands
perished.

On the 9th of November, Napoleon reached Smolensk, and remained till
the 15th, collecting his scattered forces, now reduced to forty tliousand
effective men, when he set out for Krasnoi. Meantime, Kutusoff, with a
hundred thousand Russians, advanced by a parallel road, and stationed
himself across Napoleon's route; while the French rear-guard, under Ney,
exposed to constant and harassing attacks from Platoff's Cossacks, was
nearly destroyed. Tlie emperor, however, pressing forward, succeeded in
cutting his way through the dense masses cf the Russians though with the
loss of more than half his imperial and young guards, which had been con-
solidated. But from this time to the 2Gth and 27t!i, when the French
crossed the Beresina, all was utter apd hopeless confusion ; and in the
passage of that river, in the midst of a furious attack from the Russians,
one of the frail bridges broke beneath the weight of artillery, baggage, and
troops, with wliich it was burdened. A vast and frenzied crowd, strug-
gling at the heads of the bridges, trampled upon each other, while jannon-
balls ploughed tlirough the living, tortured mass. Multitudes were forced
into the stream, and with shrieks, whicli pierced through the thunders of
the battle, sank beneath tiie floating ice. The exact extent of the French
loss Avas never known ; but a Russian accoimt states that thirty-six thou-
sand bodies were found in the river alone, and burnt after the thaw ! The
genius of Napoleon was never more conspicuous than on this occasion. It
is the testimony alike of friend and foe that no other man could have ac-
complished what he did in the awful passage of the Beresina. On the
29th, the emperor resumed his march, and was met by a convoy of provis-
ions from Wilna.

to bo rcA'crscd.
rmy, cutting off
fas defeated at
ssfiil stand was
■inter pecnllaily
;i- sank eigliteeii
y — and tlic sol-
vo against them
gui.sli tlio vocd,
^vorcd with the
n, badly clothed,
th pain. "NVhat
LS gone — nnder
ddiers could no
thci -?'dves right
upon their man-
remained by the
an insensibility
-thus thousands

md remained till
) forty thousand
Kutusoft", with a
d, and stationed
uird, under Ney,
3 Cossacks, Avas
d, succeeded in
though with the
h had boon con-
rhcn the French
ion ; and in the
)m the Russians,
ry, bnggage,and
od crowd, sirug-
3r, while jannon-
iidfs were forced
the thunders of
nt of the French
t thirty-six thou-
tlic thaw ! The
lis occasion. It
11 could have ac-
iresina. On the
lonvoy of provis-

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER I.

645

The French were now upon the borders of Poland, and received sym-
pathy and aid from the people. Napoleon, having brought the remnant
of his army to this point, yielded to the advice of his counsellors, and on
the Stiiof December, in company with Caulaincourt and Loljau,and attend-
ed by a small Polish escort, he set out in a sledge for Paris, leaving Murat
to command in his stead. On the 10th he reached Warsaw, and, making
a short stay, proceeded to Dresden, where he arrived on the 14th, and had
an interview witii tlie king of Saxony. At midnight, on the 18th, he en-
tered his capital and the palace of the Tuilerics.

Tlie Russians, meauwliile, under Wittgenstein, pressed hard upon the
retreating French, until they reached the Nicmen, the ancient boundary
of the emi»ire. At Kowuo, Marshal Ney, with a handful of men, held the
enemy at liay for four days ; and seizing a musket, fought like a common
soldier, until tlie last man had retired across the bridge : then deliberately
walking backward, he fired the last bullet at the advancing Russians, and
threw his gun into the stream. lie was the last of the "Grand Army"
tliat k'ft tlic Russian territory.

The losses of NapokHui in tiiis terrible campaign amounted to about four
hundred and iil'ty thousand men, of whom one hundred and twenty-five
tliousaud were slain in fight ; one hundred and thirty-two thousand died
from fatigue, hunger, and the severity of the climate ; and one hundred
and ninety-three thousand wore made prisoners. Thus ended the greatest
military catastrophe that ever befell an army in eitiier ancient or modern
times, atid wliicii, though on a sumller scale, was realized to the Anglo-
Indian army, while retreating througii the gorges and ravines of tlie Khoord
Cabiil, in 1842. Enormous as was this loss, however, that of the Russians,
including women and children, is affirmed to have been far greater!

The emperor Alexander, who had hitherto only fought on the defensive,
now resolved in his turn to become the aggressor; and, joining his army
in Poland, published in February, 1813, the- celebrated manifesto which
served as a l)asis for the coalition of the other powers of Europe to destroy
Napoleon and overturn the French empire. T!ie king of Prussia at the
same time summoned all capal»le of bearing arms to battle for their coun-
try ; and, though he did not then designate his object, his people, who for
five years had been humbled and degraded, understood him, and, with un-
paralleled enthusiasm, thousands poured forth to their places of rendez-
vous from every section of the country. In vain had the French, with the
aid of their last reserves and of troops drawn together in haste, made
efforts to remain on the Pregel, on tho Vistula, and on the Oder. The
Russians advanced everywhere with superior numbers, and the French
were obliged to retire behind the Elbe. Prussia now declared war against
France, and concluded an alliance with Russia ; the confederation of the
Rhino was dissolved ; and, although Austria yet remained neutral, the in-
surrection was general in northern Germany. Meantime, however, much
time was lost in negotiations with the king of Saxony ; and Kutusoff died

646

ILLUSTnATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

i, 'u

of fever at Buntzlaw, upon which Alexander appointed Wittgenstein to
the cliief command. Tliese circumstances were promptly taken advantage
of by Napoleon ; but, tliough tliis prolonged the contest, it proved but of
little avail in the sequel. In August, the Austriaus joined the allies ; but
the latter were defeated by Napoleon at the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen,
and also on the 27th at Dresden (where, during a reconnaissance. General
Moreau, the French traitor, was mortally wounded by the side of Alexan-
der). On the 18th of October occurred the terrible battle of Leipsic, in
which the French were overwhelmed by greatly superior numbers. The
allies now rapidly advanced to the Rhine ; and though Napoleon, with the
broken fragments of his armies, continued the struggle through the winter,
and gained victory after victory, his adversaries gradually environed him
with half a million of men, and Alexander entered Paris on tlie 31st of
March. 1814. In the subsequent negotiations which took place rehitive to
the affairs of France, he exerted himself against the dethronement of Na-
poleon, for whom he still retained the warmest personal friendship ; this
failing, he advocated a regency in favor of the emperor's son, the young
king of Rome. But he was overborne by the English and Prussian com-
missioners ; and it was only by assuming the most energetic attitude, that
he succeeded in procuring the sovereignty of Elba for the fallen monarch.
During his stay in France he visited the ex-empress Josephine at Malmai-
son, toward whom he exhibited the tenderest regard and sympathy.

After the conclusion of peace, Alexander, in company with the king of
Prussia and Marshal Blucher, visited England, ^vhere he was received
with great distinction. It Avas on this occasion that B:ucher (whose claims
to civilization nay be inferred from his habitual brutality aiv' drunkenness,
and his wish to blow up the monument to Napoleon in the Place Yendome)
received the honorary degree of doctor of laws fi'om Oxford university!

The " Holy Alliance" at Vienna, in 181o, having settled the affairs of
Europe to their satisfaction, tlie emperor Alexander devoted himself to
the advancement of his own dominions. Tlie most o|)p(>site traits are found
combined in the character of this sovereign : he was at once seen encour-
aging bible-societios and the education of his people, yet interfering with
the spread of political knowhd/*' and of lil)erty in distant states. Jle was
at times firm even to stubbornnc/^x, at others vacillating: his character
baffles all who endeavor to describe him as he actually was. Ifis di.'<i»r>-
sition, however, was kind and generous, his manners mild and amial)le, and
his moderation generatiy prevented him from aliasing his iiidiujji<Ml power.
He maae many judicious alterations in the government ; • nd, under the
influence of his mother and the empress, the levity and cxtrava<janco of
the Russian court were materially repressed,

Alexander, attended to the last by his wife Elizabeth, cfied of orysipefas,
in a small and humble dwelling wiar Taganrog, ])('cem!)er J, 1825, when
on a tour of inspection through the southern provinces of l)is empire ; and
was succeeded b^ Nicholas I., on the 2dth of the same mo»*h.

ittgcnstcin to
;en advaiitago
proved but of
he allies ; but
and Bautzen,
ancc, General
do of Alexan-
of Leipsic, in
umbers. The
Icon, with tho
gh the winter,
LMivironod him
)n tho 31st of
ace relative to
lenient of Na-
iendship ; this
on, tho young
Prussian com-
; attitude, that
lUen monarch,
ine at Malniai-
nipathy.
th the king of
was received
(whose claims
^ drunkenness,
ace Vcndume)
1 university!
I the affairs of
led himself to
raits are found
e seen oncour-
iterfering with
ites. IIo was
his character
His di.-jK)-
il ainiai)le. an<l
injih'd power.
lid, under the
truvaganco of

>>i' erysipelas,
J , 1825, when
^ empire ; and
h.

HISTOHIC SUMMARY — NICHOL.VS I.

»:47

CHAPTER XXVT.

HISTOHIC SUMMARY — THE UEir^"

F NTCHOLAS I.

NICFIOLAH PAULOVICn, who succjo.ied Alexander, in wielding
the imperial sceptre of Russia, was horn at St. Pttcrshn^T on the 7th
of July (^.lunc 25, old style), 170G. He was the tlii ' son of the
emperor Paul I., and seemed to have no prospect of mounting the throne.
His education was conducted by his mother, Mary Feodorona, an intelli-
gent and devoted woiuiiii, who exerted a great influoiice on all the mem-
bers of the imperial family. General de Fiambsdorf, the ^'ountoss de Lieven,
the learned Adelinig, iind others, were charged with the education of the
young jtririce. They initiated him into the knowledge of modern litera-
ture, political economy, the military art, and es|)ecial!y thiit of fortifica-
tions. Nicholas (lid not hii-k a certain iiptitude for study. His masters,
however, conceived no very high idea of his capacity. He was taciturn,
melancholy, and occupied with trifles. His most decided taste was for
music: lit! even couipoffd some military airs which are not without merit.
At the tiMic of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, Nicholas was too young
to take ai jtive pait in that gi<>antic struggle. After the restoration of
peace, he visited the principal battle-fields where the Russians had figured,
and subsequently travelled in the various countries of Efope. In 1816,
he made iiis appciivance at the court of England, and received a very cor-
dii!i ■ clcome from the British aristocracy.

On his return to Russia, Nicliolas hastened to acquaint himself with the
condition of tho empire, visiting wiost of the provinces, and residing for a
considerable time in th.eir chief cities. On the 1st of July, 1817, he
esp iiised the princess ("Jliarlotte, eldest daughter of Freilerick William HI.
of Prussia: being therefore, the brother-in law of the present king of that
country, '"his lady (born July IS. 17*.t8) embraced at once the religion
of the Grci^ic church, a.id assumed the name of Alexandra Feodorona. Of
this marriage were born seven children, four sons and three daughters.
Tin' sons are — Alexander Cajsarovich (heir to the throne, and now wear-
ing tho imperial crown), who was born in 1818, and married in 1889 to
Maria Alexandrovna. princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, by whom lie hm sev-
eral children ; Conslantine, grand-admiral of the Russian navy, who was
born in 1827; Nicholas, born in 1831; and Michael, born in 1832. It
will be observed Uiat tho sons of Nicholas have received the same names

'tl

c>48

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

J '

W^/.

^^^mm^

NlCI!OLA9 I. •

' the sons of Paul, and in the same order. The eldest daughter of Nidi-
'ias is Marie Nicolaawiia, wlio was born in 1810, and married in 18B9 to
Maximilian Beauhariiois, duke de Lewtclitenhnrg, and grandson of the em-
press Jusepliinc of France. The emperor, it is said, designed for this
daughter a union wliieh he deemed more in consonance with her own emi-
nent position ; hut yielded liis own wishes to liers, when he discovered her
unalterab'i' attachment to young Beauharnois, who was at the time a colo-
nel in the Bavarian service. He died November 5, 1852. The second
daughter is Olga, wIk> was born in 1822, and was married in 1846 to
Cliarles, prince-royal (/f Wiirtemburg. Alexandra, the youngest daughter
in the imperial family, was born in 1825, was married in 1844, and died
in August of the siww; /far. It was her fatal illness which shortened the
emperor's visit to Efi/hi<)>> in that year, as mentioned in a previous chap-
ter. The chamber in (}y j/i.lace at Czarsko Solo in which she sank to rest
renvains precisely as it was a^ fijatlast .»<ad moment: no hand is suffered to
profane by its touch iwy oI)j<M;t l!'at l>«'longed to her. In a secluded por-
lion of the i>ark, the <-/ia<ii(if^, a Vi >w of whj<«^;h is presented on the oppo-
site page, hfi9 l)eon er«e|cd »f * ti-vbutt Ut her nneniory. In a niche stands
her statue in tnur\A*;. tlve size of life, bearinj; isi it* arms her infant, which
perislicd almost as HfK>n as ^y^tvn. The p''rf< .-;tal of the statue is covered
w»th appropriate passages of ''erii/twre. In a little summer-house near by
hangs a portrait of the lamcn't*';^! princess, and Ixjneath it is inscribed a
■ontence which was often uji>on her I'.ps: " I well know, dear father, that
you have no greater ploasur* thai, to rondar my mother happy."

atiffhtcr of Nicli-
rried in 1839 to
iuL><on of tl)e cm-
fsi^ncd for this
th her own eini-

discovered her
the time a colo-
Tho second
ried in 1846 to
ungesk daughter
1844, and died
1 shortened the
I previous chap-
she sank to rest
id is suffered to
a gecluded por-
ed on the oppo-
1 a niche stands
or infant, which
[itue is covered
r-honso near by

is inscribed a
oar father, that
)py."

HI8T0BIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

649

Cbnotapr ebbctbd to the Memort or tub GuAND-DurHEsa Alexandra, at Czabsko Selo.

Prince Nicholas did not at all think of the imperial crown until suddenly
called to take it, in 1825, under the following circumstances. Next to
Alexander, tiio grand-duke Ci)nstantine, then residing at Warsaw as vice-
roy of Poland, had right to the supreme command. But Constantine was
a strange, half-barbarous man. He was first married to a princess of the
house of Saxe-Coburg, and aunt to Prince Albert of England ; but such
was his bru'ality toward her, that she was separated from him. Finally,
he had conceived a passion for the daughter of a simple Polish gentleman,
and to obtain a divorce from his f'jrmer wife so as to enable him to form a
matrimonial union with tho latter ho had secretly signed a piper renouncing

G50

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

the throne of Russia. On the death of Alexander, Constantino, who had
received intelligence of the event several days before his brother, faithful
to his word, sent a number of letters to his family, in which he renewed
his renunciation of the sovereign dignity, and declared that ho acknowl-
edged only Nicholas as emperor of all the Russias. In a manifesto pub-
lished December 24, 1825, Nicijolas gave an autlientic relation of the cir-
cumstances whicli had called liim to the throne ; and the next day received
the oath of fidelity, and assumed the imperial sceptre as Nicholas I.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas was marliod by a terrible strug-
gle. A number of military officers belonging to the nobility, who had
passed some years in Germany and France, in the wars against Napoleon,
were dissatisfied with the despotic government established in their own
country. They iiad organized secret societies, similar to the Tugendhund
formed by the Germans, and sought the favorable moment to proclaim a
representative government. They spread in tlie army false rumors that
Nicholas was a usurper, that the grand-dulce Constantino claimed the
throne, and that he wat< marcliing with Polish l)attalions upon St, Peters-
burg ; and, by these misrepresentations, they induced the soMiers to revolt.

The situation was extremely critical. Several of the regiments cried,
*' Live Constantine I" They had massacred two generals, seriously in-
sulted tlic governor of the capital, and disdainfully repelled the Russian
archbisiiop who came to urge them to olicdience. Already they had ad-
vanced tnrbulently to the imperial palace, and the populace joined the
rebels, besides some men of the liberal professions who desired a change
in the form of the government. If Nicholas had lingered a few hours in
inaction, all would have been lost for him, and perhaps for Ids children.

It was then that he displayed rare coolness, energy, and intivpidity.
Accompanied by some hundreds of guards devoted to his cause, he mounted
his horse, went to the place of revolt in the great square of the Admiralty,
and, with a haughty bearing, called out to the rebels : " Return to your
rar.ks ! — obey ! — Down upon your knees !" Quailing before the imperial
orfier, and awod by the sacred character attril)uted in Rusi.i& to the empe-
roi'? oerson, most of the soldiers kneeled Ijcfore their sovereign, and, in
token oi' submission, grounded their arms. Those who persisted in resist-
ance were shot down by cannon. On the nigiit of the 25th of December,
1825, all was over: the crown was placed permanently upon Nicholas's
brow. The jtnnishments inflicted upon the conspirators were frightful.
Many of them underwent the peimlty of death. Others, to the number of
several hundreds, were exiled to the snows and mines of Siberia.

Soon after Alexaiider's death, a war with Persia broke out, in conse-
quence of disputes arising from the non-settlement of certain boundaries
between Russia and that power. Abbas Mirza, who had just tlien succeeded
to the throne of Persia, thinking the moment propitious for attacking Rus-
sia, at once marcljed over the frontier, and advanced as far as Elizabetpol,
in Georgia ; but the Persians were defeated, and driven back. War was

HTSTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

651

now immc liutely declared against them ; and General Paskiewitch, being
appointed coininander-iii-cliief by the emperor, passed the Araxes, took sev-
eral strong fortresses, entered ancient Media with no opposition, and forced
the shah to sue for peace, compelling him to give up an extensive territory
on the siouthwestern shore of the Caspian sea, with some provinces on the
Caucasus, besides making him pay the expenses of the war, and the losses
by the invasion.

The war with Persia was scarcely ended, when Russia engaged in an-
other — with Turkey. The Porte accused the Russians of having secretly
fomented the insurrection of Greece, of having openly attacked and de-
stroyed their ncct in the bay of Navarino,* with having violated the trea-
ties of Bucharest and Ackennan, and established connections with the
malcontents in every part of the empire. Tlie Russians replied by accu-
sing the Porte of having excited the monntaineers of the Caucasus to
revolt, and invited them to embrace Islamism ; with having violated or
delayed the execution of all the treaties in favor of its Christian subjects,
and arbitrarily closed the Bosphorus on various occasions, and thereby
deeply injured the southern provinces of the empire. A declaration of
war was issued by the emperor of Russia, and on the 7tli of May, 1828,
the Russian forces passed the Pruth to the number of one hundred thou-
sand, including persons of all distinctions attached to the camp. Count
Wittgenstein was commander-in-chief. The Turks were in no force to
resist such a crusade, and retired as the Russians advanced, leaving an
unobstructed passage to the invaders. In a short time the entire level
country was overrim ; Jassy and Bucharest occupied ; Galatz, with its
beautiful harbor, taken ; and, in brief, the entire left bank of the Danube
was (.ccupied by the Muscovite troops.

On the 8th of June, under the svipervision of the emperor in person, the
Russians crossed the Danul)o, and attacked and captured several fortres-
ses and fortified towns. Ibrail, or Brahilov, the most important and
strongest place on the lower Danube, situated near its left bank, and which
had been besieged by the Russian troops under the grand-duke Michael

* The liigUiry of the inHurrnction iiiu! ilorlnrnlion of independence of Greece is known. The
Greek iiisiiirertion fuileil in Wnlliichin, in MoUluviu, and in Mnoedoiiiii, fiom wiuit of cohcgiun ;
but in iinc'ii'iit Gieoce, where the inhubitnota were more homogeneous nnd nun^ numerous than the
inii«suh<innt, and, moreover, fiivored by their mountnins, it took u more obstinate nnd decisive char«
urler. Ypsilanti, Miivrocordnto, Bozzaiiit, Kanuris, and n hundred other Greeks, arqttired imper*
islinble ghny by their gnstuined devotion to tiie lilierly of n country of wliich nothing remained but
the nnnie. The iitniffgle hud lasted seven years. Frnnce, Enghind, nnd Russia, Oiime to an under-
gtanding that it wai lime to put un end to it, with all the more reason from its being highly injmi-
oui to the commerce of thiJ East generally, but especinlly to that of the Mediterranean. The trcoty
concluded l)y ihese tliree powers, on the 26th of July, 1827, prononnced nnd guurnntied the inde-
pendence of Greece, recognising her as n state, and circumscribing her within the somewhat naI^-
row limits she bears at the present day. The destruction of the Tiirko-Egyptian fleet by the com-
bined squadrons of England, France, nnd Russin, in the bay of Navnrino, October 27, 1827, was an
event resulting from this treaty. The fleet consisted of seventy-nine TuiBHsh and Egyptian vessel*,
which (with the exception of a few of the smaller craft, which were cast ashore) were totally
destroyed, with seven thousand of their crews.

n: ^

^li

Co2

ILLUSTUATKD DKSCUIPTION OF RUSSIA.

since May 11, capitulated Jimc 18. Tlio Hicgc aiul capture of tliis place
cost tlio RuyyiaiiH three tlioiisaiiil lives.

The Rucsiuu Itesieginj.': foroo, after tlic fall of Hrahilov, was divided into
several eoliiimis, and soon overran the whole level country between the
Danube and the sea. Several engageuienls took place during July and
August between tiie ()pp(»sing forces in the open lield, and, althoiigli the
(Utonian horse nuiin'.ained llieir superiority over the Muscovite, tiie inva-
ding army (being reinforced with sixty tliousand fresli troop.s) was too
strong iu infantry and artillery for their t»pponents, and the latter with-
drew into tlieir entrenched ciwnp aromid Scliuuda. The emperor at first
intended to hazard an attack upon this stronghold, tlie key to the; IJalkan ;
but the s'lrengtli of the position, and the experience he had had of the
tenaci!y v,ith wiiich the Turks always nuiintained their ground, induced
liim to change his determination. lie left a sutricient force to observe
Schunila, dirccttnl the remainder of the army against Varra, which was
invested by Itotii land and sea, and, alter a desperate resistance, taken on
the 10th of October.

After liic fall of Varna, the Russian generals were in hopes of being
able to take Silistria, which liad been lilockaded b}' a force of ten thou-
sand men ; but the approach o\' the autumnal storms, tlie scarcity of provis-
ions and forage, and tiie loss from the ravages of the plague and the usual
pestilential fevers of autunni — reducing, including those who had fallen in
battle, the eflective force of the army to nearly half its original number —
rendered it evident that the reduction of this place could not lu* undertaken
witli any prospect of success before the following spring. The blockade
therefore was raised, and orders given to retreat beyond the Danube.

Leaving suflicient forces to occupy and maintain the captured fortresses,
Wittgenstein connaenced his retreat with the remainder of his army on the
loth of October ; and it was conducted with so much secresy, that the
Turks for some days were not aware of what was going on, and he at lirst
sustained very little molestation. Hut this did not long continue. On the
19th, the rear-guard was attacked by eight thousand Turkish horse; and,
though they kejtt their ground till the third corps, which was deiiling, had
got thruugh, this was only done at a very heavy loss. After this, as the
weather every day became worse, the retrograde movement became emi-
nently disastrous. Eye-witnesses of both compared it to the retreat from
Moscow. The Turkish roads, liad at all times, had been rendered all but
impassable by the ceaseless passage of artillery and carriages over them
during the summer, and the heavy rains of autumn. Caissons and baggage
Were abandon- u at every step ; the stragglers nearly all fell into the ene-
my's hands, by whom they were instantly massacred ; and Wittgenstein
experienced, in his turn, the disasters which he had inflicted on Napoleon's
army during the retreat from Vitepsk to the Beresina in 1812. At length
the wearied columns reached the Danube, which they immediately crossed,
and spread themselves in winter quarters over Wallachia. Thus ended in

niSTOniC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

658

EiUTpo tho cnmpnijrn of 1828, in which tho Russian?, with tho exception
of the (H'lipiUioii of Wullacliiii and Moldavia (wliicli wore nhmidoned by
the TinkH without resistance), and tho reduction of JJraliilov and Varna,
had n»i(Jc no sonsildo proj^n-ess. Hoth jtartios, after it was over, found
themselves on the l)anl<s of tho Danui)e, nuitually cxln\usted hy the most
urgent eflorta.

The eampaipn in Asia during tho same year, though conducted on tho
part of the Russians with much smaller forces, was attended with much
more decisive results. Tiie force under Paskiewitch, who commanded tho
army in Asia, w is Init almut twenty thousand infantry and five thousand
cavalry, less than Im. ' of wliich was under the immediate direction of tho
commander-in-chief, and achieved all the successes of the campaign ; tho
remainder being destined to sulmrdinatc operations, intended chiolly to dis-
tract the attention of (he enemy from the main object of attack by the for-
mer. With this force Paskiewitcli pushed his way from Caucasus and
Ararat into Asiatic Turkey, and took by storm the strong fortress of Kars,
one of the most formidal>lc in Asia, and the central ])oint of Turkish Ar-
menia, with all its arms and ammunition, and seven thousand prisoners.
After this, several other fortresses fell into tlic hands of (ho Russians; so
that, besides obtaining possession of Mingrelia and Imeritia, the wliole
pdchalic of Bajazid, as far as tho l)anks of the Euphrates, was conquered.
Tho entire loss of tho Russians in this campaign, by disease as well as the
Bword, wa^ about three thousand.

The winter of 1828-'2i) was actively employed by b')th the Russians and
the Turks in preparing for the opening of the next campaign. We have
before remarked that the one hundred and sixty thousand Russians who
had crossed the Danube during the preceding campaign had melted away
before its close to half that numl)er by fatigue, sickness, and the sword.
These were reinforced by seventy thousand fresh troo])S, including twenty
thousand hardy Cossacks ; so that the Russians commenced the campaign
in Europe, in the beginning of 1820, with at least one hundred and fifty
thousand effective men, in Bulgaria and on the line of tho Danul)c.

Some minor operations were undertaken during the winter l)y tho Rus-
sian generals, to which they were tempted by tho growing superiority of
their forces. The Turkish entrenched posts at Kale and Turnoid, on tho
loft bank of tho Danube, were attacked and taken — the first on January
24, and the latter February 11. This success led to the capture of a flo-
tilla of thirty gun-boats on tho Danube, near Nicopolis, a few days after,
which gave them the entire command of that portion of the river. A still
more important acquisition was the castle of Sizepolis, a stronghold situ-
ated on a rock projecting into tho Black sea, a little to the south of the
bay of Bocergas, at the eastern end of the Balkan. It yielded in a few
hours to the cannonade of some Russian vessels-of-war, the garrison, con-
sisting of one thousand Albanians, having evacuated the place. Tho cap-
ture of this little Gibraltar secured to tho Russians a position on the sea-

■* .

« -1

lii: ^

664

ILLUSTUATED DnSGMPTt ;»l OF nUSSIA.

coast, within tlic lino of the Balkan, ..ncl a moans (if communication between
tlie invading army on ^itid and thuir Hoot on the Black sea.

The docided siipriir-'iy of tho RiiHsians at sea, in l)otli the Mediterra-
nean and the Kiixino, gave them a very great advantiij/e, whicli threatened
to starve Constantinople itself into an early Hubmission, and deprived tho
Turks of all possibility of transporting liieir troops or magazines by water.
Admiral (iroig, with nine suil-of-the-lino, five frigates, and twenty-eight
coivottes, carrying fifteen hinidred and fifty guns, liijckadcd the Bospho-
riis ; wliilo Aibniral Ilanudin (the present coninu\nder of the Frcncii divis-
ion of the allied licet in the Euxino, now acting (/^'•«('«a/ Russia), with eight
8ail-of-thc-line, seven frigates, and seventeen corvettes, shut in the Darda-
nelles. The Turks and Kgyptians, wiiosc marine had b( ii totally ruined
by the battle of Xavurino, Inid no force capable of meeting tiiesc lleets.
Thus the entire eonimund of tlie sea, with all its inestimable consequences,
fell to the Russians during tlie retnainder of the war.

Tho success of Wilfgenstein, in the preceding campaign against tho
Turks in Kuropo, had not been such as to justily his being retained in tho
command, and he was accordingly allowed to retire — a step deemed proper
also from his age and iiilirinities. He was succeeded by Count Diebiteh,
the chief of his staff, whose abilities and success in the succeeding cam-
paign fully justified the emperor's choice; f(n-, although tho Turkish army
was greatly reinforced, and under tho command of ofliccrs of higli renown
and unquestionalile bravery, both the Russian generals, Diebiteh and Pas-
kicwitch, proved too much for them.

Paskiewitch, who conducted the campaign in Asia, with a force which
never could muster twenty thousand eoinbatants in the field, achieved ox
traordinarj' successes. In the sjtacc of four months, from Juno to October,
to briefly sum them up, he marched two hundred and fifty miles through
hostile countries ; beat and dispersed three Turkish armies, each double tho
strength of his own ; carried by storm several entrenched camps and four
strong fortresses ; conquered Erzcroum, the capital of Asia Minor, and two
entire pachalics ; took two hundred and sixty pieces of cannon and sixty-
five standards, and made prisoners the Turkish general-in-chief and three
thousand soldiers. The sharpest contest of the Asiatic campaign was oc-
casioned by the pacha of Van's attempt to retake the fortress of Bajazid.
The attack was made with seven thousand infantry and five thousand cav-
alry, aided by the fire from a battery on a range of rocks, which swept tho
Russian troops on the flank and rear, and the fire of musketry from the
Tartar quarter of the place. After thirty-two hours of incessant fighting,
the Turks retreated. The brilliant successes of Paskiewitch were achieved
with tho loss of only four thousand men in killed, wounded, prisoners, and
by sickness — a number singularly small, when it is considered that, during
the whole course of tho campaign, the plague raged in several of the towns
wliich were taken.

The campaign in the European provinces was quite as successful to the

HISTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

6*)5

jcossful to the

RussiiiM arms. Tlio invading nniiy under Dioliitoli cros.-^od tlio Daimho
frori the Htli to tho lOtli of May, in two coUiinns, at lliichova and Kala-
vatsli, imniodiatcly below Silistria. The laltoi- pUicc was at once invested
l>y thirty-live thousand Russians, with ei<>hty-cight [)iocoH of cannon, while
a covering or reserve army, of upward of forty tliouhiand, was stationed
n liftle in advance toward Schnnda. Silistria has ae(inircd an a'^ditional
interest from tlie inelVectnal attempt of the Russiae • to capture it, at an
imnionse sacrifice of life, in IH'A. It is situated la iiie i'<>:ht hank of tho
fJ.. 'c, near the commencement of its delta, an ' .< !*^'2;' 'ontained thirty
' inlial>itants,six tliousand of whom wei aiu-in;/ ?■ e armed (h^fcncl-
.i lace. It was at that time imperfectly foriified ; and such had

ipinene.«s of tho Turlcs during tlic winter, that no attempts had
li ii iiiinie to injure or demolisli tho approaches made hy th(! Russians
during tlie campaign of tlie preceding year : so tliat, wlien they returned on
tliis occasion, tliey marched into tho old works and trcnclies, as if they
only had evacuated them tlie jjrcceding day ! The garrison, exclusive of
the armed inlmhitants, was nearly ten thousand, commanded l»y Achnict
Paclia, a man of determined resolution and tried al)i!ity.

Diel>iteli prosecuted tlie siege of this fortress witli the utmost vigor,
wliile •\ po\v»?rl"ul liotilla, issuing from tho upper part of the river, cut tho
liesiegi'd oil from all communication l»y water on the west. But tlie Turks
made a vigorous resistance, and recourse was of necessity had to the tedi-
ous processes of sap and mine.

During the progres,- of the investment of Pilistria, a battle was fought,
oa the llili tif June, at Kulewtscha, about midway l>etwcen .^ilistria and
Sehumla. ctween tho Russian reserve under Dieltitch (who had left tho
pioseeii;i(iii oi' the siege meanwhile to General Krasowsky) and forty thou-
sand Turks under Rescind Pacha, the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman
forces. Tills engagement continued for eight hours, and finally resulted
in the discomliture of the Turks, who retreated in Confusion, and by a cir-
cuitous route succeeded in re-entering Sehumla.

Tlie expedition, which resulted in this battle, retarded but did not sus-
pend the siego of Silistria. On the return of Diebitch, active operations
were resumed. The garrison, however, continued to hold out till the night
of the 30lli of June, when a great mine under the rampart having been
exploded, made a yawning breach in it, which, by the concentric fire of
the Russian artillery, was soon rendered practicable for storming. Seeing
further resistance hopeless, Aclimet Pacha, whose ammunition was now
almost expended, agreed to surrender. The troops, to the number of eight
thousand, laid down their arms, and were made prisoners-of-war. The
armed inhabitants were allowed to retire without their arms, but none of
them availed themselves of the permission.

General Diebitch now determined on tho daring step of passing the
Balkan, in preference to tho alternative of undertaking another siege to
secure more effectually his line of communication. His plan being formed

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656

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

accordingly, he invested Schumla witli ten tliousand men under Krasow-
sky. Rescind Paclia, the grand vizier, in expectation of an immediate as-
sault, recalled a portion of his troops from the moimtain-passes, to aid in
the defence of a position on whicli, in his opinion, everything depended.
The defenders of the Balitan being thus seriously diminished, the Russian
forces, to the nuinhcr of twenty-one thousand, were enabled to force their
passage across the mountains. The figurative comparison of the number
of Diebitch's army to the leaves of the forest, which liad been spread by
the reports of the Bnlgarians, acted like magic. Tlie Turkish army, twenty
thousand strong, deceived by these exaggerated accomits, retired to the
ridge of low hills, twenty-tivc miles in front of Constantinople, which had
so often in ancient times served as a barrier against the northern barba-
rians. Tiie Russian general, thus having an unobstructed route, resolved
on pushing on to Adrianople. Leaving a force at diflcrent points to se-
cure his line of communications, ho advanced by forced marches, and
encamped before that ancient city on the 19th of August. No preparations
for the defence of Adrianople had been made, and a hasty capitulation
enabled the Russians to enter the town on the following morning.

Tiie better to subsist, and also to augment the report of tlie magnitude
and invincibility of his forces, the Russian general, like Napoleon after the
battle of Jena, and with similar success, spread them out from the centre
at Adrianople, like a fan, in every direction. While the advanced guards
were pushed on the high-road to within eighty miles of Constantinople, the
left wing, under Rudiger, advanced and took Midiah, within sixty-five
miles of tlie Bosphorus, where it entered into communication with Admiral
Greig's squadron ; and the right, under General Sicorro, moved forward
by Trajanopolis on Enos, in the Mediterranean, and met the fleet of Admi-
ral Hoiden, which was at anchor, expecting tliem, in the bay. At the
same tinie, Krasowsky, l>y repeated attacks, so imposed upon the garrison
of Sehunda, that, so far frpin thinking of disquieting these movements, they
deemed themselves fortunate to be able to ])reserve their own redoubts!
Thus the Russian army extended from the ICuxine to the Mediterranean,
across the entire breadth of Turkey, a distance of one hundred and forty
miles, and was supported liy a powerful fleet at the extremity of either
flank ; while at the same time its reserve blockaded eighteen thousand men
in Schumla, and its advanced guard menaced Constantinople. But the
strength of their army was not equal to so great an expansion of its force,
and was in reality on the verge of a most terrible catastrophe. In the
middle of September, the force under Diebitch at Adrianople did not ex-
ceed fifteen Ihovsand men ! ,

An extraordinary impression was produced by these decisive events,
both at Constantinople and over Europe. The terror in the Turkish capi-
tal was extreme ; for the Christians apprehended an immediate massacre
from the infuriated mussulmans, and the latter were not leas apprehensive
of extermination from the avenging swords of the victorious Muscovites.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

657

events,
\»\\ capi-
]assacrc
[hensivo
Icovites.

Tho sultan (Mahmoud IV.) was besieged at one time by the violent Otto-
mans, urging tho arming of all the followers of " the prophet," and the most
severe measures against the Christians ; at another, with tlie most urgent
entreaties from the latter, supported by tho earnest representations of the
western embassadors, to yield to necessity, and avert the threatening dan-
gei-s by an immediate concession of the demands of Russia. Their efforts,
joined to the exaggerated reports of Dicbitch's force, wlio was repre-
sented as being it the gates of the capital at the head of sixty tliousand
men, at length overcame the firmness of the grand seignior, and, with tears
in his eyes, ho agreed to the treaty of Adrianoplo — one of tho most re-
nowned in the Russian, as it was one of the most disastrous in the Turk-
ish annals.

By this celebrated treaty the emperor of Russia restored to the Sublime
Porte the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, and all tlie con-
quered places in Bulgaria and Roumelia, with the exception of the islands
at tlie mouth of the Danube, which were reserved to Russia. All conquests
in Asia Minor were in like manner restored to Turkey, excepting the for-
tresses of ^napa, Poli, Akhalzikh, Abzkow, and Akhalkalaki, which, with
a considerable territory round them, were ceded to Russia, and, in a mili-
tary point of view, constituted most important acquisitions. All the privi-
leges and immunities secured by former treaties were ratified iu their fullest
extent by articles five and six. An entire and unqualified amnesty was
provided for all political offenders in every part of the Turkish dominions.
The passage of tlie Dardanelles was declared open to all Russian merchant-
vessels, as well as those of all nations at peace with the Sublime Porte,
with all guaranties requisite to secure to Russia the undisturbed navigation
of the Black sea.

The indemnity to be awarded to Russian subjects complaining of arbi-
trary acts of the Turkish government was one and a half millions of Dutch
ducats, or nearly four millions of dollars, payable in eighteen months ; and
that to the Russian government, for the ex[)enses of the war, was ten mil-
lions of ducats, or about twenty-five millions of dollars. The evacuation
of tho Turkish tcriitories was to take place progressively as the indemnity
was discharged, and not to be completed till it was entirely paid up.

Another convention, signed the same day, of still greater eventual im-
portance, determined the respective rights of the parties to Wallachia and
Moldavia. It provided that the hospodars of these provinces should be
elected for life, and not, as heretofore, for seven years ; that the pachas
and officers of the Porte in the adjoining provinces were not to be at lib-
erty to intermingle in any respect in their concerns ; that the middle of
the Danube was to bo the boundary between them to the junction of that
river with the Pruth ; and, " the lietter to secure the future inviolability
of Moldavia and Wallachia, the Sublime Porto eugaged no. , maintain
any foitified post or any raussulman establishment on the no:«i; of the
Oauubo : that the towns eituatcd on the left bank, including Giurgova,

Iv' I

658

ILLUSTRATED DESCHIPTION OF RUSSIA.

should be restored to Wallaclua, and their fortifications never repaired ;
and all inussulmans holding possessions on the loft bank were to be bound
to sell them to the natives in the space of eighteen months. The govern-
ment of the hospodars was to be entirely independent of Turkey ; and they
were to be liberated from the quota of provisions they had hitherto been
bound to furnish to Constantinople and the fortresses on the Danube. They
were to be occupied by the Russian troops till the indemnity was fully paid
up, for wliich ten years were allowed ; and to bo relieved of all tribute to
the Porte during their occupation, and for two years after it had ceased."

Though the campaigns of 1828-'29 terminated to the disadvantage of
Turkey, thoy are yet eminently calculated to modify the ideas generally
entertained as to the great power of Russia in aggressive warfare, as well
as to evince the means of defence, in a military point of view, which the
Ottoman dominions possess. Tlie Turks began the war under the greatest
possible disadvantages. Their land forces had been exhausted by seven
bloody campaigns with the Greeks ; their marine ruined in the battle of
Navarino ; their enemies had the command of the Euxino and the .^gean ;
the interior lines of communication in their empire were cut off; the Jani-
zaries, the military strength of the state, had been in part destroyed, in part
alienated ; and only twenty thousand of the regular troops, intended to
replace them, were as yet clustered round tlie standards of the prophet.
On the other hand, the Russians had been making their preparations for
six years ; they had enjoyed fourteen years of European peace ; and a hun-
dred and twenty thousand armed men awaited on the Pruth the signal to
march to Constantinople. Yet, w^ith all these disadvantages, the scales
hung all but even between t'^ contending parties. Varna was only taken
in the first campaign in co- ence of the Russians having the command
of the sea ; the Balkan pass^u in the second, from the grand vizier having
been out-generaled by the superior skill of Diebitch. Even as it was, it
was owing to treachery and disaffection that the daring march to Adrian-
ople did not terininate in a disaster second only to the Moscow retreat.

The Polish revolution is the next important event in the history of Rus-
sia. Although tlie immediate cause of this revolution was severe punish-
ment inflicted on pupils of the military academy at Warsaw, there is no
doubt that the Poles were encouraged to make the attempt by the success
that attended the Parisians in July, 1830, to secure to themselves a con-
stitutional government. Accordingly, on the 19th of November following,
the military cadets and students of Warsaw, joined by the Polish troops,
seized the arsenal, with forty thousand stand of arras, and the insurrection
became general. On the next morning, forty thousand troops and citizens
were in arms, and the Russians were expelled from the capital. January
24, 1831, the Polish diet, which had been opened on the 18th of December,
declared the absolute independence of Poland, and the termination of the
Russian dominion ; and, on the 25th, that the Polish throne was vacant.
The object of the l^olish revolutionists, however, was not to withdraw them-

HISTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

Ud9

paired ;
> bound
govern-
,nd they
to been
They
illy paid
•ibuto to
leased."
itago of
cnerally
, as well
hich the
greatest
by seven
battle of
^gean ;
the Jani-
i,in part
ended to
prophet,
itions for
id a hun-
signal to
je scales
y taken
oinmniid
r having
t was, it
Adrian-
treat.
jr of Rus-
punish-
jre is no
e success
es a con-
ollowing,
h troops,
urrcction
1 citizens
January
ecernber,
on of the
^ vacant,
aw them-

selves entirely from the authority of the Russian emperor, but only to main-
tain the privileges that were guarantied to them at the Congress of Vienna
in 1815, and ;o get rid of the tyrannous viceroyship of the grand-duke Con-
stantine.* Nevertheless, they had now drawn the sword ; and, although
two commissioners were sent to St. Petersburg, to endeavor to effect an
arrangement, the emperor refused to listen to them, and denounced the
revolted Poles as traitors to whom no lenity would be shown.

Marshal Diebitch, who had so successfully conducted the war with the
Turks, entered Poland at the head of a large army. He advanced as far
as Warsaw, and was victorious over tiie Poles near the walls of their capi-
tal, February 25, 1831 (the loss of the Poles is stated to have been five
thousand five hundred, and tliat of their enemies fuur thousand five hun-
dred) ; but when Prince Radzivil resigned the command on the 28th, and
Skrzynccki, then only a colonel, was appointed in his place, the Polish
cause gained strength. This brave officer, though finally unsuccessful, like
the heroic Kosciusko, proved that he deserved a better fate. On the 31st
of March he was victorious over the Russians in a night attack. He ad-
vanced cautiously, and, favored by the darkness of the night, reached their
cantonments without being perceived. The advanced guard of General
Geisniar, consisting of eight or ten thousand men, was first attacked, and
almost wiiolly destroyed : the Poles took four thousand prisoners and six-
teen pieces of cannon. Immediately afterward he attacked General Rosen,
who was posted with twenty thousand men at Dembe Wielski, and obliged
him to retreat, with the loss of two thousand prisoners and nine pieces
of cannon.

Another important victory was afterward gained near Zclechow, when
twelve thousand Russians were killed, wounded, or taken prisoners, with
twelve pieces of cannon. During this action, the Lithuanians and Volhyn-
ians, who served in the Russian army, turned tlicir arms against the Rus-
sians, and materially contributed to tlie success of the Poles.

The peasants in various quarters of Poland now took an active part in
the war, and hastened, with whatever weapons they could obtain, to the
army. Insurrections broke out in Lithuania, Volliynia, Kowno, Wilna,
in the Ukraine, and even in ancient Poland, as far as Smolensk. On the
other hand. General Dwcrnicki, who had been sent to make a demonstra-
tion in the rear of the Russians, and who had been victorious over thera,
was at last compelled to pass into the Austrian dominions, where he sur-
rendered to the authorities of that country, April 27, witli five thousand
Poles. The ardor of the people, however, still continued, and hopes were

• Thp folNiwing nnocdoto in well siiiteiJ to give nii Moa of tlio genllenett of Constiuujne'g chnrnc-
. ter. During a gniml review, In- wislicil to givo h foioigiipr of ilistiiiclion u romnrkiiblo proof of the
respncl in whirli iliscipline wos helil by tho solilirni. Willi this view, he npproached one of the
goneruli of the »ervicp, and, without a word of roprimand or iidvico, pierced his right foot with
his Dword. The unforiuniite ninn did not move: it wiis only wlirn tho grnnd-duke had withdrawn
hit weapon, the blood flowing uliunduntly, lliiit he ullowod hinisi-lf to full down! Facts of thit
kind, in a iiiflicieni number, amply attest tho ferocity of the viceroy of Poland.

1 1;;

i^:

■j-i

> n

i 11

'"'' ,|l

660

ILLUSTRATED DKSCBIPTION OF RUSSIA.

entertained in every country that the manly resistance of tlio Poles would
induce other governments to interfere ; but, unfortunately, Prussia and
Austria, being themselves in possession of a part of the spoils of Poland,
did all in their power to prevent interference, for fear of popular risings
in Posen and Galicia; while France was too timid and cautious under
Louis Philippe, and Great Britain was too much absorbed with domestic
politics and tiie spirit of trade, to render essential aid. The military oper-
ations on tlje part of the Russians were now prosecuted with new vigor ;
and the emperor, who, in a manifesto addressed to the Russians, had called
them the legitimate masters of the Polos, was ready to make every sacrifice
to regain the Polish throne.

The fate of the revolutionists was soon afterward decided. After two
days' lighting, Warsaw was taken by the Russians (September 7, 1831) :
the confiscation of their pro])erty and e.xile to Siberia followed as noted on
a previous page. Though many found an asylum in France, England, and
other countries, tliey were mostly in extreme poverty, and were dependent
on the benevolence of those who pitied their hard fate while they admired
their patriotism. An imperial ukase, issued March 17, 1832, abolished
the kingdom of Poland and its constitution, and incorporated it with Rus-
sia as a province. The university of Warsaw was also suppressed, as a
punishment for the part taken l>y the students in the insurrection.

When Poland had succumbed, another formidal)le adversary confronted
the Muscovite autocrat. Wo allude to the cholera, wliich made every-
where liorriljle ravages. At St. Petersburg, a belief prevailed anjong the
ignorant populace that the epiden)ic was generated by poison thrown into
the wells by Poles. The rumor attained wide credence, and the peasants,
to the number of some eighty thousand, rose, and, wild with rage, paraded
the streets, assassinating every foreigner they met. They assembled at
longth in the Place Siennaia, and, with frightful cries of fury and drunk-
enness, menaced the capital with rebellion. This was so much the more
to be dreaded, as at the moment there were no troops at hand. While the
riot was at its higliest pitch, aiul the excitement most dangerous, the em-
peror was seen approaching, accompanied by a single aide-de-camp, and
followed by hardly a hundred Cossacks. lie moved on slowly and steadily
through the incensed mob, to the very centre of the insurrection, and there
looking sieadfastly around, witli undaunted gaze, ho cried, in tones of
thunder : " Down upon your knees ! Upon your knees ask pardon from
your God — you must expect none from me I"

The immense prestige which surrounded Nicholas at that time, com-
bined with sucli an exhibition of daring and courage, together with the
effect of the herculean stature, the imposing mien, and the mighty and
sonorous voice, struck the insurgents with such awe, that* they with one
accord knelt down, and oflcred no resistance, while a few of the Cossacks
seized and bound many of their number. The rest dispersed in terror, and
the rebellion was quelled as if by enchantment.

and

HISTORIC 8UMMAUY — NICHOLAS I.

In 1833, tho sultan Malnnoud asked the as8i8tanco and protection of
Russia against the pacha of Egypt, Mcliemet Ali, who had I'isen in arms
against him, liad defeated the Tuikisli forces in several successive battlei",
had taken possession of Syria, and even threatened Constantinople. The
emperor Nicliolas readily responded to the call, and an army of five thou-
sand Russians encamped upon the Asiatic coast of the Bosphorus, wliile a
Russian fleet appeared upon its waters. As the price of the assistance
and protection thus rciidcred, and before the return of the Muscovite foi'ces
to their own country, Russia exacted from Turkey the offensive and defen-
sive alliance of Unkiar Skelessi, by which both powers were reciprocally
bound to furnish succor iu case either were attacked ; while, by a secret
article appended thereto, the Sublime Porte was bound to close tho Dar-
danelles against any power with whom Russia niiglit be at war.

One aim attributed to fhe Russian enipcror, in his connection with Otto-
man affairs, was, to produce a rupUirc between France and England. If
so, he was, in a measure, gratified in 1840 ; as the French government ad-
vanced claims in regard to Egypt wliich displeased the London cabinet.
Russia, Austria, Prussia, aiul Great Britain, were then allied together iu
favor of the sultan against the pacha Mehcmet Ali, aiid France found her-
self isolated. This was an anomalous and dangerous position. The sym-
pathies of England and France, their commercial relations, and their ad-
vanced civilization, required tlie union of the former with France rather
than with Russia. The conlition was broken in 1841, and a general treaty
of peace signed on the 13tli of July by all the leading European powers,
which re-established the inviolability of the Dardanelles, and thus abro-
gated the offensive features of the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi.

From tliat period till 1848, no important act marked the influence of
Russia in the world's affairs. At tlie news of the revolution at Paris, in
February of that year, the feelings of the emperor Nicholas were of a
mixed cliaracter. On tlie one hand, he rejoiced at Louis Philippe's fall,
for whom he always professed little esteem, and whose government had,
sympathized with the exiled Poles ; and, on the other, he feared the conta-
gio;: of revolutionary opinions introduced into Poland. His apprehensions
increased when he learned that Prussia and Austria shared in the vast
democratic movement — that Berlin had risen, and that the imperial family
with the obnoxious minister Metternich had been compelled to flee- from
Vienna. The Muscovite czar held himself in a waiting posture. He rec-
ognised the republican government established in France, and continued
to keep up friendly relations with the German powers ; but at the same
time he organized formidable armies on his southern and western frontiers,
prepared every means of attack, and stood ready, arms in hand, to enter
the field in support of the " divine right of kings," and against all revo-
lutionary movements.

An occasion soon presented itself in which he was called upon to employ
a portion of his troops in the cause of monarchy. On the appeal of the

ill

662

ILLUSTRATED DESCniPTION OP RUSSIA.

young emperor of Austria, Francis Joseph, for aid against the armies of
Kossuth, Nicholas sent his Cossacks into Hungary, under the command of
Field-Marshal Paskiewitch, who, with overwhelming numbers, fmally van-
quislied the valiant Magyars, because, like the Poles in 1831, the Hungo-
rians quarrelled among themselves in presence of the enemy, and of which
the Russian commanders were not slow to take advantage. The ukase in
which the czar ai^nounced that ho should intervene for tho assistance of
Austria in this contest, was dated April 2G, 1849. The chief reason given
for so doing was tho danger to which the Russian dominions must thcm-
Belves be exposed from tho triumph of the Magyars, witli the large number
of Polish refugees said to be engaged in their forces; another motive was,
however, also assigned, namely, the mission of Russia to restore religious
and political orthodoxy to the bewildered and disorganized nations of Eu-
rope. The Russian forces were put in motion simultaneously with this
ukase. In all, some two hundred thousand men were employed for tho
purpose. One corps of from forty to fifty thousand, under General Paniu-
tin, passed tiirough Moravia l>y the northern railway, and entered Hungary
northwest of Presburg ; two other corps of some twenty tiiousand nicn
each, under General Grabbe and Gencvo! Sass, entered the country through
the northwestern defiles of the Carpathians ; the main body, under Prince
Paskiewitch, a hundred thousand strong, came through the central pass of
the same range, and marched down on tho main road toward Pesth. Gen-
oral Liiders, again, invaded Transylvania on tiio southeast, at tho head of
twenty thousand men, accompanied by the rcnmants of the Austrian army
of Puchner, under Clam-Gallas, a new leader ; and at the same time, another
smaller Russian corps, under General Grotcnhelm, came into that province
on the northeast. The Austrian armies were also recruited, and again put
in motion — in the west under Marshal Haynau, a general whoso blood-
thirsty ferocity in Italy had already assured him an immortality of infamy ;
in the southwest under General Nugent ; and in the south under Jcllachich,
the notorious Ban of Croatia. The entire force thus marshalled against this
heroic nation scarcely fell short of three hundred thousand men ! Against
them was tho army of Gorgcy, in and about the fortress of Comorn, on tho
Danube, between Pesth and Presburg, in all reckoned at ninety thousand ;
that of Aulich, about Lake Balaton, twenty thousand ; that of Dembinski,
in tha north, forty thousand ; that of Yettcr, in tho central region on the
Danube, forty thousand ; the corps under Perczel, Kiss, and Guyon, in tho
south and southeast, forty thousand ; and that of Bern, in Transylvania,
forty thousand. These numbers are to be taken as merely approximative :
in the nature of tho case the Hungarian armies contained a largo proportion
of irregular volunteers, who camo and went according to circumstances.
With such means the nation awaited the decisive shock, appealing to God
and humanity to attest the justice of their cause. The popular enthusiasm
was roused to an extraordinary extent by the crisis ; Governor Kossuth and
his friends traversed every part of the country as apostles of the crusade

HISTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

668

nnco

for liberty, and tlio clcrpy of all denominations vied willi each otlicr in zeal
against the invaders. Tlio contest, however, was prolonged for some throe
months only after the entry of the Russians, and was virtually ended on
the IJUh of August, at Villagos, by tlic treacherous surrender of Gorgoy,
witli his entire army, to Puskiowitch. Tliis was followed by tlio surrender
of all the strongholds in the hands of the Hungarians. Kossuth, Guyon
(sincocommnndor-in-chief of the Turkish army in Asia), Bem, Dembinski,
Perczel, and other eminent officers, with some five thousand troops, found
an asylum in Turkey.

There can be but little doubt that the Russian emperor's gold played a
prominent part in the closing scenes of the ill-liited Hungarian revolution.
Nicholas, so far as is known, asked no compensation from the Austrian
emperor for this great service ; he seemed to have lent his soldiers and his
money with perfect disinterestedness. It was, however, a great stroke of
policy. Russia's |)rep(>nderiince over Germany was essentially promoted
by this intervention. It is also worthy of remark that, during the Hunga-
rian campaign, the officers and even the common soldiers of the Russian
army treated the Austrians as inferiors and menials, showing them far less
respect than they did tlie Magyars.

These events bring tlic history of Russia down to the period immcdiateljf
preceding the recently-terminated war with Turkey, France, and England.
The relations between Russia and the Ottoman Porto began to assume a
threatening aspect some time before the iinnl outbreak in 1853. The peo-
ple of the Danubian principalities were not free from the revolutionary
contagion of 1848, and a movement in that direction commenced in Mol-
davia, whence it extended to Wallachia. It was finally suppressed, and
an amnesty proclaimed l>y tlie youthful sultan, Abdul-Medjid. It furnished
a pretext, however, for tlie Russian emperor, in 1849, to send a division
of his army across the Prutli .nid occupy the principalities. He assumed
the right under a construction hf the treaty of Balta Liman, of April of
that year. This treaty, however, provided for joint occupation, expressly
stipulating that both powers should enter the principalities togetlier, and
this under peculiar circumstances, with an equal force. Russia, tlierofore,
had no right whatever to enter them alone. It was only after lengthened
negotiations with Great Britain, and the advance of a large Turkish force,
that the Russian troops were withdrawn in 1850.

Misunderstandings also arose between the two governments at the end
of the Hungarian war, in 1849, principally on account of certain Polos,
who, after having fought in the ranks of the Hungarians, were among those
that sought refuge in Turkey, and were protected by the sultan. His re-
fusal either to expel or deliver them up gave great offence to the czar, as
also to the emperor of Austria in the case of the Hungarian refugees.

Next came the question of the "holy places" in Jerusalem, where, by
the influenceof France, certain privileges had been granted by the Turkish
government to lloman catholics, at the cost, as the court of St. Petersburg

'■I

0U4

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

believed, of tlio eastern or the orthodox Greek cltiirch. llnis the northern
cabinet, which for years had been ncciiHtonicd to have its will obeyed at
CoiKstuntinoplc, saw twice in rapid succession another influence prevail
there. A conflict between the Montenegrins and the Turks, in the liegiti*
iiing of ISti'A, increased the difliuulty, as the hardy mountaineers of Mon-
tenegro had for some time enjoyed the s[>ecial protection of Russia ; and,
at liie instigation of the latter, Austria now interfered to prevent tiieir
complete chastisenjent at the hands of Onnir Pacha. .Several other events
of inferior importance thickened the cloud; and finally it was decided l>y
Nicholas to make an imposing detnonstration at Constantinople, without,
however — as it was announced ofBciully to other cabinets — any ulterior
idea of war or conquest.

In the first days of February, 1853, Prince Menchikoff, the cnijxjror'a
minister of marine — one of the most eminent men at the court and in tlio
councils of Russia, as well as a fervent follower of the Greek church and
an enemy of the niosleins — left St. Petersburg on a mission to Stamlxiul.
After having reviewed the Russian fleets ut .**evasta|K)l und Odessa, tlie
prince reached his destination on the 28th of February, and on the 2d of
March connnimicated to the Porte his credentials. The first act of diplo-
matic hostility liegan witli the refusal by the prince to call on Fund KfTcndi,
the Turkish minister of foreign afl'airs, and the most decided adversary of
Russia in the councils of the sultan. Tlic Porte, however, yielded this
point of eticjuctte, and the minister resigned liis office.

The other courts of Kurope, and especially France, became nncasy at
these Russian demonstrations, and a French fleet appeared at about the
end of the month in tlie waters of Greece. England showed herself Icsa
sensitive at this jwriod, and refused to move her naval forces in the Med-
iterranean, keeping tliem anchored at Malta.

Tlie fust point debated l»etWeen the Russian embassador and the Porto
was tliat of the hidy places in Palestine. After .some manoeuvring on the
part of the prince, who originally wished to discuss the matter exclusively
with tlie Porte, the FrencI) minister came in and shared in the dclibera-
tioi.s. The whole seemed to take a satisfactory turn. The Porte issued
a new finnan, conceding what MenchikofT desired, and putting Russia on
the same Pjoting as before the recent grant to Franco.

But Russia was not satisfied. After many circumlocutions, Prince Mcn-
chikofi', in a note sent to the divan on the 5th of May, laid down his ulti-
matum. Tiiis contained sundry claims never before preferred bj Russia,
as that tlie Porte should bind itself for the future never to lessen or en-
croach upon any immunities enjoyed ab anliquo by the Greek church in
Turkey, nor ever to allow any other Christian creed to predominate over
it. A convention to this efiect would have been un acknowledgment by
the Porte of a religious protectorate to be exercised by the czar over its
own subjects. Menchikofi' demanded an answer to these propositions in
' • 1 course of five days. The Porte, in a friendly but firm tone, refused to

HISTOniC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

Cu5

miiko such a troRty, as destroying tlio piiltairs rijilits of Povoroignty. To
tliis Mcncliikoff iiiado an answer, and thus nonotiatioiis liuciuno piotractod
tc tlio 14tli of May. In this crisis, Rescind l'ii(;lia,one of ilio most cnlijrlit-
enod statesmen of Turkey, was recalled to the divan. IJut this change did
not prove propitious to the interests of Russia ; and, on the 18th of May,
the Russian envoy broke off all further conununicalions with the Porte, and
retired to a steamer waiting for him in the harlior. Thenco he cxt-hangcd
several notes with Rescind Pacha, but, as they could not come to any un-
derstanding, Mcncliikoff left Constantinople on the lilst of M;iy.

Russia, at the same time that she sent her envoy, began to gather l)odic8
of tro<»p8 about Odessa and in Bessarabia. After the departure of Men-
chikoff from Constantinople, Turkey also liogan to arm. Count Xessel-
rode, the czar's minister of foreign affairs, sent a courier to Constantinople
with a letter to the grand vizier, announcing tliat the c/iir fully approved
the proceedings of his envoy; and that if the Porte sliould still refuse to
subscribe to the treaty he had proposed, Russian troops would receive or-
ders to enter the Turkish principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia — not
with the object of making war against the sidtan, but to olitaiu nuiterial
guaranties until moral ones should bo conceded to Russia liy the Porte.
To this the grand vizier answered with calmness and dignity, maintaining
the grounds of the first refusal.

The cabinets of Paris and London, seeing the gravity of the cose, de-
cided to send forward their fleets as a demonstration of their friendly feel-
ings toward Turkey ; and the united naval forces anchored, in the first part
of June, in Besika bay, at the entrance of the Dardanelles. On the lltli
of the same month, the cabinet of St. Petersburg published a circular ad-
dressed to its diplomatic agents abroad, explanatory of the views of Rus-
sia, and of the measures already taken to carry them out.

On the 25th of June, the emperor of Russia issued a manifesto to his
people, announcing his purpose to sustain the religious rights of the eastern
church, which he said were endangered in Turkey. The Russian troops,
accordingly, crossed the Pruth, and entered the Danubian principalities.
France and England seemed more united at this juncture, and a certain
irritation prevailed in the notes now exchanged between Paris and St. Pe-
tersburg. Austria and Prussia remained neutral, and the first offered her
friendly mediation. Conferences were opened at Constantinople and at
Vienna between the ministers of the four courts, and on' the 1st of August
a note was sent from Vienna to St. Petersburg and Constantinople offering
terms of pacification. The czar accepted them, but the sultan introduced
some changes and modifications, which were disapproved at St. Petersburg,
and destroyed the first conciliatory attentpts at diplomacy. New drafts,
notes, and suggestions, were exchanged, but all of them without result.
Russia having taken possession of Jassy and Bucharest, the capitals of the
principalities, Prince Gorchakoff, the Russian commander-in-chief, suspended
all legal relations between the two vassals of the Porte and their sovereign.

666

TLLUBTnATED DESCRIFTIOK OF BUBSIA.

Turk(!y, in tho meantime, concentrated lier army along the Danube ia
Kurupc, and on tho frontiers of Georgia in Asia. All cflbrts of diplomacy
proved unflucccssful ; and finally, in the beginning of October, tho Bultau
issued a declaration of war agoiuHt the autocrat. Oiner Pucha (a Croatian
by birth, ond a renegade from the Austrian service), the comnmndor-in-
chiof of the Turkisli forces in Europe, "-Idressed a letter to Prince Gorcho-
koflf, requiring him t«> ovticutite the priii i>(\litie8 within two weeks ; other-
M'iso ho would proceed to execute the orders of his sovereign, and attack
tho RuBsian army. Gorchukofl* replied that ho was under tho imperial
commands to maintain his position. Omcr kept his word. In the latter
part of October he crossed tlio Danube at several points. Tho Olt(mmns
seixed tho island of Kuluvatsh, expelling tho Russians from it, us well as tho
strong point of Oltenit/u on the left side of tho river, where they repulsed
with great loss several attacks of tlie enemy. At Guirgovo, o point on the
Danube between Kuluvatsh and Oltenitza, tho Turks wore less fortunate.
Rut not so in Asia, where tliey seized Nikolaicv and several other fortified
places ; and fou;:ht a luUtle nt Batrum, against Prince Barutinski, in which
both parlies claimed tlie victory.

On the water, the Ottoman cause suflered a great disaster. On the 80tb
of November, a Turkish lloet, consisting of seven frigates, three corvettes,
and two steomers, conveying warlike stores to tho Asiatic coast, entered
the harlH»r of Sinope, where they were attacked by a Russian squadron of
six line-of-battle-ships, two frigates, and four steam-frigates, under Admiral
Nuchimofl'. After a gallant contest of aliout three hours, the Turkish ves-
sels were destroyed, with the cxeeption of one, supposed to have escaped.
About three thousand of tho nuuines were killed, and an immense amount
of property was destroyed. One of the frigates, that of the commander,
Osnian Pacha, was captured l)y the Russians, but sank at sea as they were
towing her on the way to the harbor of Sevastapol. After tho destruction
of the Turkisli lleet, the guns of tho Russian squadron were turned upon
tho town of Sinope, tho principal portion of which they reduced to ashes.
The Turks in this unequal confiict fought with almost unheard-of bravery,
not a single vessel having struck its tlag during the whole engugenient.

The intelligence of this affair created great excitement, not only at Con-
stantinople, but in Paris and London. The allied fleets — consisting uf
fourteen English, twelve French, and five Turkish vessels-of-war — were
immediately ordered to enter tho Black sea, for tho purpose of aflbrding
protection to the Porto. The admirals were instructed to protect all Turk-
ish vessels of convoy, which were to keep along the Ottoman coast. The
British ficet in the Euxine is under the command of Admiral Dundos, and
the French under Admiral Hamelin.

Omcr Pacha continued to occupy Oltenitza, notwithstanding tho increased
Russian force in his front, until the continual rains so flooded tho country
as to oblige him to quit the low tract occupied by his troops. He there-
fore rocrossed the Danube, without any kind of molostation, leaving about

HISTORIC SUMMAHY — NICHOLAS I.

OCT

firtooii tlioiisiind men in tlio trle-de-pont of Knlavntxli, to which stronfi^ en«
trcnchniont.s lind l»eon rociMitly utidcd, ixrini'd with gmiH of heavy culibre,
for the more uiluctnal })iotoctioii of t\m |»a».sa^n into Lower Wallnuliia.

The four powcrn, Enjjlaiid, Kraiico, Austria, and Prussia, continued ac-
tively cnjriijjed in no}<;otiatin)i: for peace. A new di|)lonmtic note was agreed
upon and forwarded to Constantinoph), proposing that the Hultan should
Bend a plenipotentiary to some neutral point, to confer with a Russian em-
bassador — the integrity of the Ottoman empire to l)e guarantied, and other
points in dispute to bo adjusted, in conformity with previous arrangements.
Tlio Turkish divan, on the 18th of December, consented to open negotia-
tions, but reiterated its former declarations that the evacuation of the
principalities should bo a conditi(m precedent to any discussion of the
terms of peace. The sultan also claimed that, by the war, all proviously-
oxisting treaties had been abrogated. The emperor of Russia perempto-
rily rejected the note of the four powers. The Russian ministers left Paris
and London, and all negotiations wcro broken oil', without any hope of
roncwnl.

On the Danube, meantime, fresh engagements took place, which resulted
favorably for the Turks. On the Gth of January, 1854, they attacked the
advanced guard of the Russian army near Citato, and followed up the ad-
vantage there gained for three days in succcsf^ion, fmally routing their
adversaries entirely, and driving them back upon Krajova, with a loss of
jcveral thousand men. The Turks then retired to Kalavatsh. Several
severe skirmishes subsequently took place, in which the mussulmans wore
victorious.

On the 20th of January, the cmjwror of France addressed an autograph
letter to the czar, stating that the dilTerences l)etwecn Russia and Turkey
had reached such a point of gravity, that he thought it his duty to explain
the part France had taken on th.it question, and to suggest the course by
which ho thought the peace of Europe could still be preserved. It was
not, as he averred, the action of tlio inaritimo powers, but the occupation
of the principalities, which had taken the subject from the field of discus-
sion into that of fact. Still, even that event was not regarded as a cause
of war ; but a note was prepared by tho four jmwers, destined to give com-
mon satisfaction. That note was accepted by Russia, but commentaries
were immediately added which destroyed all its conciliatory effect, and
prevented its acceptance by tho Porto. The sultan, in turn, proposed modi-
fications, to which the four powers accodcd, but which the czar rejected.
Then the Porte Mounded in its dignity and threatened in its independence,
declared war, pk! claimed the support of her allies. The English and
French squadrons were ordered to tlio Bosphorus. not to make war, but to
protect Turkey. Efforts for peace wore still continued : other propositions
were submitted ; and Russia declared her intention to remain on tho defen-
sive. Up to that time, Franco and England had been merely spectators —
when the affair of Sinope occurred, and forced them to take a more defined

1 1

668

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

position. It was no longer their policy that was cheeked ; their military
honor was wounded. Hence the order was given to their squadrons to
enter the Black sea, and to prevent by force, if necessary, the recurrence
(if such an event. Arrived at this point, it was clear that there must be
either a definite understanding or a decided rupture. If the czar desired
a pacific solution, it was suggested that an armistice should be signed, that
diplomatic negotiations should be resumed, and that uU the belligerent
forces should retire from the places where the motives of war had called
them : tlic Russian troops would abandon the principalities, and the allied
squadron liie Black sea ; and the emperor of Russia would name a plenipo-
tentiary to negotiate a treaty with the sultan, to be submitted to the four
powers. If a plan should be adopted on which France and England should
agree, peace would be restored, and the world satisfied. If the czar should
refuse tliis proposition, t-liey must leave to the fate of arms and the hazards
of war tliat wiiich might be decided by reason and justice. — This letter wus
regarded ratlier as a manifest to the French nation than an aj)peal to the
czar. It was extensively placarded, and issued in immense numbers in
extra editions of the government journal, the Paris " Moniteur."

A reply to tliis autograph letter of Louis Napoleon was received, in the
latter part of March, from tlie emperor of Russia. lie reliearsed tiio
grounds of difference, clainung that his policy had been marked by the
utmost forbearance and the most snieere desire for ilie preservation of
peace. His occupation of the principalities, he says, was preceded and in
a great measure caused by the lioetile appearance of the combined fleets
in the neigliborhood of the Dardanelles: and the affair of Sinope was the
consequence of tlie impunity with which tlie Turks were allowed to convey
their troops, arms, and ammunition, to the Russian coast, for the prosecu-
tion of hostilities. He liad learned from the French emperor's letter, for
the first time, that the Russian fleet was to be no longer allowed in the
Black sea — that he was thus to be prevented from provisioning iiis own
coasts. After such an announcement, lie could not be expected to discuss
even for a moment the proposition of an armistice, of the evacuation of the
principalities, and of the opening of negotiations with the Porte. Threats
would not move him. His confidence was in God, and his right; and
Russia, he would guaranty, would show herself in 1854 what she was
in 1812.

An imperial manifesto was issued to the people of Russia, announcing
that France and Great Britain had sided with Turkey, and that tlio empe-
ror had in consequence broken off all intercourse with those powers. Thus,
it added, England and France have sided with the enemies of Christianity
against Russia combating for the orthodox faith.

On the receipt of this manifesto, M. Drouyn d'Lhuys, the French minis-
tor of foreign aflairs, issued a circular to the French diplomatic agents,
throwing the responsibility of results upon the Russian government, which
had closed the door to the last hope of peace, and rebuking the emperor's

HISTOmC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

669

attempt to enlist religious fanaticism on his belmlf. France and England,
he asserts, do not support Islamism against the orthodox Greek faith:
they go to protect tlic integrity of the Ottoman empire against the ambi-
tious covetousness of Russia.

The withdrawal of the Russian embassadors from London and Paris has
been already noted. That event was followed by a formal declaration of
war. On February 27, the earl of Clarendon despatched a messenger to
St. Petersburg with a letter declaring that, if the Russian government did
not immediately announce its intention of ordering its troops to recross the
Pruth, so that the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia should be com-
pletely evacuated by the 30th of April, her refusal or silence would be
considered equivalent to a declaration of war, and the Britisli government
would take its measures accordingly. The messenger was directed to wait
but six days for a reply. Tiie note was presented to Count Nossolrode on
the 17th of March ; and the answer returned was, that " ll<e emperor did
not think it becoming to make any rej)ly to it." The receipt of this re-
sponse led to the immediate issue, on the 28th of March, of the English
declaration of war.

This important document rehearsed rapidly the successive steps in tlio
progress of the difficulty, conceding at the outset tiiat the emperor of
Russia had some cause of complaint against the sultan with regard to the
"holy places" at Jerusalem, but declaring that those liad boon amicably
adjusted by the advice of the British minister ; and that' the Russian envoy,
Prince MenchikolT, was mcantiino urging still more important demands,
concerning the position of the Christian subjects of the sultan, which ho
carefully concealed from the British embassador. These demands wefc
rejected, and the emperor of Russia immediately sent large Imdios of troops
to the frontier, and took possession of tlic Danubian principalities, for the
purpose of enforcing comj)liance with tlicm. The object souglit by the
czar was virtual control over nine millions of tlie Christian sultjects of the
Bultan, which the Sublime Porte could not grant witliout yielding to Russia
the substantial sovereignty over its territories. It was therefore refused,
and the French and British governments liad felt called upon — by regard
for an ally, the integrity and independence of whose empire have been
recognised as essential to the peace of Europe ; by the sympathies of their
people with the right against wrong ; by a desire to avert from tlieir do-
minions the most injurious consequences, and to save Europe from tiio
preponderance of a power which had violated tiie faith of treaties and
defied the opinion of the civilized world — to take up arms I'or the defence
of the sultan. — The declaration of war was debated in i)arlianient at great
length on the 81st of March. In the house of lords, the earl of Clarendon,
minister of foroign affairs, contended that the object of the emperor of
Russia had been to obtain such an ascendency and right of interference in
Turkey as would have enabled him at any time to possess himself of Con-
stantinople, and that this design had been steadily pursued in the face of

670

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

the most distinct and solemn assurances to the British government that he
had no such purpose in view. If he had been allowed to carry this design
into execution, Lord Clarendon thought it would not be too much to say
that more than one western power would have been made to undergo the
fate of Poland. It was not to protect her trade, nor to defend her India
possessions, that Great Britain had resolved to go to war. For neither
of these objects would she make the sacrifices she was about to make ; but
it was to maintain her honor, and to sustain the cause of civilization against
barbarism. Russia had already reduced several of the German powers to
a state of virtual dependence upon her, and it became absolutely necessary
to place a check upon her future aggressions on the independence of Eu-
rope. Austria and Prussia had both resolved to maintain a position of
complete neutrality. Tiiis would be found, in the end, impossible ; but,
thus far, England had reason to bo perfectly satisfied with the course they
had adopted, although she received no guaranty as to their ultimate action.

In France, proceedings in regard to the formal declaration of war took
place, analogous in all respects to those of Great Britain. An imperial
message was read to the chambers on the 27th of March, announ iig that
the last resolution of the cabinet of St. Petersburg had placed Russia in a
state of war in respect to France — a war, it added, the responsibility of
whicli belonged wholly and entirely to the Russian government. The cham-
bers unanimously pledged the support of France to the coming contest.

Both the English and French go ornmcnts, in order to render the war
as little onerous as possible to the powers with whom they remained at
peace, issued a declaration, waiving the right of seizing an enemy's prop-
erty laden on board a neutral vessel, unless it be contraband of war ; nor
would they claim the confiscation of neutral property, not being contraband
of war, found on board an enemy's ships ; nor would they (for the present)
issue letters of marque, for the commission of privateers.

On the 10th of April, a convention was signed at London, by the repre-
sentatives of France and England, in which they agreed — 1. To do what
depends on them to bring about the re-establishment of peace between Rus-
sia and tlie Ottoman Porte on a solid and durable basis, and to guaranty
Europe against the return of those lamentable coniplications which have so
disturbed the general peace. 2. To receive into their alliance, for the sake
of co-operating in the proposed object, any of the other powers of Europe
who may wish to join it. 3. Not to accept, in any event, any overtures
for peace, nor to enter into any arrangement with Russia, without having
previously deliberated upon it in common. 4. They renounce in advance
any particular advantage to themselves from the events that may result.
6. They agree to supply, according to the necessities of the war, determined
by a common agreement, land and sea forces sufficient to meet them.

Lord Raglan (Henry Fitzroy Somerset, aide to Wellington at Waterloo)
was appointed commander-in-chief of the British land forces, and Marshal
St. Arnaud those of the French ; and the two governments took immediate

HISTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

671

lit that he
lis design
ich to say
dergo the
her India
)!• neither
nako ; but
on against
powers to
necessary
ice of Eu-
osition of
iblc ; but,
)ui'sc they
ite action,
war took
imperial
iig that
Uis<<ia in a
sibility of
rho cham-
;ontcst.
sr the war
inaiiicd at
[iiy's prop-
war ; nor
:ontraband
e present)

the rcpre-
'o do what
ween Rus-
j guaranty
ch have so
)r the sake
of Europe

overtures
}ut having
in advance
nay result.
Ictermined
hem.

Waterloo)
id Marshal
immediate

measures for despatching a hundred thousand troops to llio theatre of war
in the East, in the proportion of seventy thousand French to thirty tliou-
6and British. English and French fleets (the former under the command
of Admiral Sir Charles Napier and the latter under that of Admiral Du-
chesne), numberiiig about fifty vessels, and mounting twenty-two hundred
guns, were also despatched to operate in the Baltic ; to whicli was subse-
quently added a considerable land force composed of French troops alone.
On the 12th of April, the Russian government published its counter-
statement in reply to the English declaration of war. In the presence of
such declarations and demands as those made to him by Great Britain and
France, the emperor has only to accept the situation assigned to him, re-
serving to himself to employ all the means which Providence has put in
his hands, to defend witli energy and constancy the honor, the indepen-
dence, and the safety, of his empire. All tlie imputations which they have
made against Russia are declared to rest on no foundation wliatever. If
their honor has been [)laced in jeopardy, it has Ijcen by their own act; for,
from the beginning, they have adopted a system of intimidation, which
would naturally fail. They made it a point of honor that Russia should
bend to them ; and because she would not consent to her own humiliation,
tliey say they are hurt in their moral dignity. Tlie policy of aggrandize-
ment, wliich they attriliute to Russia, is refuted by all her acts since 1815.
None of her neighbors have had to complain of an attack. The desire of
possessing Constantinople has been too solemnly disavowed for any doubts
to l)e entcrtiiincd on that point which do not originruc in a distrust which
nothing can cure. Events will soon decide whether Russia or the western
powers have struck the most fatal blow at the independence of Turkey.
The sultan has already renounced, by treaty, the distinguished privilege
of every sovereign power, that of making peace or war at its own free will ;
and changes in the internal policy of Turkey have already been exacted far
greater and far more fatal to her independence than any Russia ever desired
to secure. It is for Europe, and not for the western powers alone, to de-
cide whether the general equilibrium is menaced by the supposed prepon-
derance of Russia ; and to consider which weighs heaviest on the freedom of
action of states — Russia left to herself, or a formidable alliance, the pressure
of whioli alarms every neutrality, and uses by turns caresses or threats to
compel them to follow in its wake. The true motive of the war has been
avowed by the British ministry to be the abatement of the influence of
Russia; and it is to defend that influence — not less necessary to the Rus-
sian nation than it is essential to the maintenance of the order and security
of the other states — that the emperor, obliged to embark in war in spite
of himself, is about to devote all the means of resistance which are fur-
nished by the devotion and patriotism of his people. He closes by denying
that the responsibility of the war rests upon him ; and invokes the aid of
God, who has so often protected Russia in the day of trial, to assist hira
oace more in this formidable struggle

,E* '

i'J'

672

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

While these events were occurring in the cabinet, in the field an active
warfare was kept up, but with comparatively unimportant results. In the
principalities the Russian forces continued to prosecute hostilities with
considerable vigor, but in the actions which took place, as has already been
intimated on a previous page, victory seemed most frequently to rest on the
banners of the Turks. Near the end of March, fifty thousand Russians,
under General Liiders and Prince GortchakoflF, crossed the Lower Danube,
overpowering the small forces of the sultan defending tho banks, and
entered the Turkish province of the Dobrudschka, the peninsular region
enclosed between the Danube, the Black sea, and Trajan's Wall. This
step was a most unfortunate one for the Russians ; for the avenues through
which they attempted to penetrate the country lying beyond Trajan's Wall,
were successfully defended by the Turks, and for several weeks the inva-
ders were locked up amid the marshes of the most unhealthy district in
the whole of European Turkey, and exposed to a malaria thence arising,
which proved more efiectual in thinning their ranks by disease and death,
than the most sanguinary battle in the open field. A passage from the
Dobrudschka, however, n^as at last efiected, and a communication opened
with the Russian forces investing Silistria ; but of that hereafter.

On the frontiers of Asia, in the Caucasus, the war was carried on with
energy, many bloody conflicts taking place, but here also without any deci-
sive results. The Russians were assailed in the north by the Caucasian
mountaineers, under the indefatigable and almost invincible Schamyl ; and
in the south by the Turks. With the latter the Russians were generally
successful, the Turkish forces having suffered several severe defeats. Tlie
great chieftain of the Caucasians, however, was more fortunate in his rapid
invasions of tho plains, and at one time Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, was
threatened with an attack by his mountain followers. But still no general
rising of the Caucasian tribes took place ; and those occupying the western
slope of tho mountains, toward the shores of tho Black sea, even declined
all intercourse with Shamyl, as well as with the Turks and tho agents of
the English. This so crippled the force and range of operations of the
far-famed Caucasian warrior that he retired into his inaccessible mountain
fastnesses. \

The position of Austria and Prussia in reference to tho war continued
to be a source of perplexity and anxiety to the allies. Austria, without
declaring positively for tlie one side or the other, began to cover with
troops her frontiers toward Turkey and Russia, and her language to tho
latter became more and more frigid and even hostile. The Austrian min-
ister declared his government to be moved principally by the fear tiiat the
crossing of the Danube by Russia would be followed by a general insur
rection of the Christian populations in Turkey, the consequences of which
would bo incalculable ; as the movement might extend to the Austrian
provinces inhabited by Slavonic races, kindred by origin as well as religion
to those of Turkey, most of them being believers in the Greek church.

id an active
Its. In the
tilities witii
lircady been
) rest on tlie
d Russians,
ver Danube,
banlcs, and
sular region
Wall. Tliis
ues through
ajan's Wall,
ks tlie inva-
ly district in
jncc arising,
3 and death,
50 from the
tion opened
ter.

ried on with

)ut any deci-

e Caucasian

hamyl ; and

•0 generally

feats. The

in his rapid

eorgia, was

|l no general

the western

^en declined

le agents of

Itions of the

lo mountain

continued
ria, without
I cover with
Imge to the
Bstrian min-
kav that the
Leral insur
Ijs of which
le Austrian
J aa religion
lek church.

mSTOniC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

673

Prussia, however, j)re.scrved llic appearance of a s-trict neutrality; and, it
may perhaps as well bo added liere, down to tho dcalh of Nicholas, to
wliom, it will be bonie in mind, the iiing of Prussia was related by mar-
riage, that government gave no indication of liostility toward Russia. Nor
did tlie loosening of that tie, by the event just alluded to, result in any
change in the position of Prussia. While the leaning of the Pri-ssian
chambers and people were evidently toward the side of the allies, tliat of
the court, inlluonced, unquestionably in a great measure, by the family tie
abovementioned, continued as clearly the other way.

The Greek insurrection, said to be fomented by Russian agents, is an
incident counected with the recent war which requires a passing notice.
Early in 1854, the Christian populations of Turkey, and especially the
Greeks of Epirus and Albania, being led to holiovc that the Eastern church
was menaced by the pending contest, elVected partial risings, tolerated and
in fact aided i)y men, money, and ammunition, from tiie Greek government.
This revolt l)egan successfully for the insurgents, and at one time tlircat-
encd to becomo quite extensive ; but the western powers menaced the king
of Greece with the loss of his throne, blockaded tlie shores of the Egcan
and the Adriatic, and French vessels linally entered the port of Pirajus,
occupied Athens, and compelled the Greek government to withhold all sui>
port from the insurgents, who, after a spirited struggle, finally succumbed
to the Turks, though outbreaks continued for a while to occur in some of
the provinces. The Turkish government declared that all Greek Chris-
tians should be banished from the country. The French mihister, Bara-
guay d'llilliers, demanded that an exception should be made in favor of
catholics, who, he alleged, were under the protection of the French gov-
ernment. The demand was resisted as unreasonable, and the diflerence
became so decided that General d'Hilliers was recalled, and another em-
bassador sent out by France in his stead.

On the Black sea, the first hostile movement of the allied fleets after the
declaration of war, was the bombardment of Odessa. On the 9th of April,
the English steamer Furious was sent to that port to bring away the Brit-
ish consul. Regardless of tli' (lag of truce, under which she approached,
she was lired upon from the shore. On the 17th, both fleets sailed for
Odessa, and denmnded explanations from the military governor. These
proving unsatisfactory, a bombardment was commenced, on the 2'2d, l»y
five English and three French steamers, and was continued -for several
hours, the fire being warndy returned by the Russiuii batteries. The Rus-
sian vessels in port were burnt or sunk, a land battery and the establish-
ment of the admiralty destroyed, and a [towder magazine blown up. This,
we should add, is the Anglo-French version of the afl"air. The Russians,
however, charged the allies with falseliood in their siatemcnt of the inci
dents which led to the attack, and, in their report, represented the result
«s substantially a Russian victory. The emperor issued a proclamation lo
this ellect at St. Petersburg, and conferred the order of St. Andrew upon

674

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

General Osten-Sacken, the commander of the Russian forces stationed at
Odessa, for his brilliant and successful defence of the city.

Siiortly after this affair at Odessa, the loss of the English frigato
Tiger occurred. While in chase of two small Russian vessels, near that
port, she ran aground, and in this defenceless condition, was captured by
the Russians, and her crew of two liundrcd men, taken as prisoners into
Odessa. A division of the allied fleets was ordered to the Caucasian coast,
wiiere they succeeded in driving the Muscovite forces from the only port
they had continued to occupy since the general abandonment some months
previous, while anotiior division was stationed to watch the harbor of Se-
vastopol. All the niout) s of the Danube were also strictly blockaded in
order to cut off supplies from the Russian forces in the Dobrudschka.
The fortilications erected by Nicholas, opposite the principal mouth of the
Danube, were also bombarded and taken by the allied steamers.

In April, Prince Paskiewitch assumed command of the Russian forces
on the Danube. At this time tiiey numbered nearly a hundred and eiglity
tliousand men. The wiiolo Turkish force amounted to about a hundred and
thirty thousand. Of the foreign troops, about tliirty-six tliousand were
stationed at Gallipoli, ton thousand Englisii troops were quartered at Scu-
tari, and largo forces were concentrating at Varna.

Tlio l)rave and successful defence of Silistria by the Turks, during a pro-
longed siege and a series of desperate assaults by the Russian fon.'os under
Paskiewitch, forms a most brilliant page in the history of hostilities on the
Danube. But before proceeding to the details of this the closing event of
the campaign on Turkish soil, wo will briefly turn to mention (for our
limits will admit us but to mention) some reverses which the Russians met
witli at other points on the Danube, while the siege of Silistria was j)ro-
gressing. On liie 28th of April, Sali Pacha had a battle with the Russians
at Nicopolis, in wiiich tlie latter were defeated and two thousand of their
number killed. Suleiman Boy also, on the same day, attacked the Rus-
sians with nearly as groat a slaughter at Radowan. In May, a division of
Onier Pacha's force met and severely defeated the Russians at Turna, at
Senuiitra, at Giurgevo, at Karakal, and at Slatina. The Russian losses in
these reverses amounted to many thousands, and in their dispiriting effect
undoubtedly contributed to the overwhelming defeat which the Muscovite
forces met with at Silistria, to a brief detail of which we will now return.

Silistria was rendered memorable in 182U, when it was fiimlly captured.
after a nine months' siege, by the Russians under Diebitch, as is detailed
on a previous page. At that period there was a height which commanded
the town, and which rendered its capture by the Russians less diflicult. The
Turks have since taken the precaution to protect this height by construct-
ing upon it strong fortifications. The ultimate fall of Silistria, however,
in its present investment, seemed to be assumed as a certain event, the only
questions being as to the time that must elapse and the sacrifice of lift)
that must ensue in its reduction.

HISTORIC SUMMAIIY — NICHOLAS I.

676

As early as the 14Xh of April, groat batteries had been erected by the
Russians on the north bank of the Danube, opposite Silistria, and tlio town
was thence bombarded from morning till night ; by means of some islands
which they held, they also succeeded in establishing a bridge across the
river, by which they were enabled to throw fifty-three thousand men on to
the south bank, and completely invest the town. The force which the gar-
rison mustered was but eight thousand men. The siege was directed by
Prince Paskiewitch in person. On the 28th of April, the Russians at-
tempted to capture the fortifications before mentioned as being erected on the
height commanding the town ; but they were repulsed with heavy losses.
On the 11th of May, an assault was made upon the immediate defences of
the town, when tlie assailants were beaten off with a loss of two thousand
men. On the 21st, another general assault was repelled witli great loss.
On the 20th, a furious attack was made by about thirty tliousand Russians.
After a sanguinary conflict, they were repulsed witli a loss of five thousand.

On the oth of June, the garrison was reinforced, a considerable liody of
Turks succeeding in breaking tlirough the Russian lines and entering the
fortress. On the 8th of June, a sortie was made by the beleaguered troops
with telling effect upon the liesiegers, another reinforcement at the same
time entering tiic garrison over a thousand Russian corpses. On the 13th,
a still more tremendous sortie was effected. Three Russian mines were
sprung during the conflict, wiiieh were more disastrous to the assailing for-
ces tiian the Turks, ft)r wiiile the walls of Silistria were comparatively un-
harmed, their own works were destroyed, and the carnage was enormous.

A final and most desperate assault was made on the 20th of June, when
a fearful slaughter took place ; and the Russians, beaten at all points, fled
across the Danube, followed by the Turks, who took possession of the
works from which Silistria had been bomlmrded. General SchiUlers and
Count Orloft', son of tiie adjutant-general of the emperor, were killed ; Gen-
eral Liiders had his jaw shot away ; and General Gortehakoff and Prince
Paskiewitch were severely wounded. The loss of the Russians, from first
to last, under or near the walls of Silistria, was about thirty thousand men.
Mussa Pacha, the gallant commander of the fortress, was unfortunately
killed by the fragment of a shell, almost the last fired against the town.

This disastrous result of their operations against Silistria, coupled with
the fact that the Austrians were mustering in large numbers along the
confines of Transylvania, threatening an immediate occupation of the prin-
cipalities, and thus cutting ofl" the army of the czar from its communications
with Russia, led to the complete evacuation of Turkish territory '.y the
Muscovite forces, who retired behind the Pruth, and the country forming
the bono of contention was immediately occupied by Austrian and Turkish
troops. And thus terminated active hostilities in tlie principalities of the
Danube. The theatre of war was thence transferred to Muscovite soil,
and Russia, instead of being the aggressor, was thereafter actively em-
ployed in defending her own territories.

'•

676

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

Tlio sailing of tlio English and French fleets for the Baltic has been al-
luded to a few pages back. The French division under Admiral Duchesne
passed througli tlio cimnnel April 23d, to join tlic Englisli fleet under Sir
Charles Napier, which had sailed from Spitliead as early as the 11th uf
March. Ti»o navigation of the northern waters of tlio Baltic, however,
was not practicable till about the middle of May. And even then, when
no icy barrier limited tlio range and operations of the allied fleets, com-
paratively little could be oObcted, for the Russian ships-of-war, outnum-
bered by those of England and France, declining every ofl'cr of battle, re-
mained shut up behind tlie stone walls of tlie two principal military har-
bors of Russia in tlie Baltic, Kronstadt and iSweaborg. RoconnoissuTiccs,
made by Sir Charles Napier and tlie French commander, convinced them,
however their reports may have lallen short of satisfying their respective
governments, that these maritime strongholds were far too substantial to
admit of a successful assault from the seaward, oven with the powerful
fleets under their command. Consequently, deeming it utterly useless to
direct tiieir Are against those musses of granite, and willi the Russian vcs-
aels-of-war placed beyond reaeii of attack, the operations of the allied
fleets were generally limited to maintaining a blockade of the principal
harbors, attacking and destroying some fortified places along the Finnish
shore of the Bothnian gulf, and the capture of such Russian vessels as fell
within the range of tlieir cruisers. Sueli aciiievenients, however, were of
comparatively small account for so powerful an armament, and of still less
practical value. Indeed, so much liud been confldently expected from the
prompt and vigorous measures of Sir Charles Napier, when lie sailed for
the Baltic — a veteran, whose very name was looked upon as a prognostic
of victory — that iiis seeming inactivity, and especially iiis not making an
attempt to capture Kronstadt, notwithstanding his reasons for his pruden-
tial course, was tiie occasion of much popular dissatisfaction at home.

The assault on and capture of Bomarsund wilii the Aland islands, of which
it is the principal fortress, by tlie allied forces in the Baltic, and without
which their expedition would have been as barren of any brilliant as it
measurably was of any practical results, took place in the month of August,
and was tlie closing act of their operations in those waters during 18o4.
A large body of French troops, as was incidentally mentioned on a pre-
vious page, had been despatched in English vessels, under General Bara-
guay d'llilliers, for operations in the Baltic, where they arrived just in
time to assist in the reduction of Bomarsund. They were landed on the
island of Aland,* August 8, and operations were immediately commenced.
The assault was made by both land and sea, and vigorously prosecuted for
several days. The fortress was carried on the IGth, and the garrison of
two thousand men surrendered as prisoners-of-war. The land forces of the

* Alaiul, it miiBt be borne in iiiind, Ihoiigli the general name hj whioli these islands are
known, is alto tlio specific name uf liio principal one of the group, and that on which the for-
tifications of BuiuucsunJ Were erected.

HISTORIC 8UMMAUY — NICHOLAS I.

677

allies numbered cloven thousand men. Tlio loss of life on cither side was
comparatively small. Tiic fortifieatioiis were blown up, o;, the Ist of Sep-
tember, and the islands abandoned by the allies. Strong efforts had been
made by (he allied powers to induce Sweden to join tliciu, and to declare war
against Russia, in which case they would probably have retained possession
of these islands ; but their efforts in this direction proved unsuccessful.
Soon after the destruction of lioniarsund the Ealtic fleets were ordered
home by tlicir respective governments.

The non-success of the expedition of 1804 failed, however, to impress
the r^nglish and French governments with a l)clief in the impregnability of
Kronstadt and Sweuborg, and the English division of another powerful
feet sailed from Spithead, April 4, lfs,)0, under tlie command of lluar-
Admiral Richard Saunders Dundas, comprising filly .^hips of twenty-two
hundred guns, and which was subsciiuently joined by the French contingent
«)!' equal magnitude. Roth divisions carried witli them floating batteries,
iiioi tar-vessels, shell and powder nmgazines, and a full supply of gunboats.
No attempt, however, was made by tiiis (leet upon Kronstadt. As was the.
case the previous season, reconnoissanees nuido upon this fortress only
serv(Ml to convince the English and French connnanders that oven with all
tliL'ir additional facilities for boin'mrJuunt, any attempt upon it would
prove an utter failure. Sweuborg, however, was bombarded by the mortars
and gunboats of tlif nllied squadron for three days (from the 9th to the 11th
ol August). The dockyards and arsenal buildings were destroyed, but the
fortifications themselves were not seriously injured. This attack upon
Sweaborg, with the destruction of some small harbors and the capture of
su«;h Russian vessels as ventureil within their reach, constituted the sum-
total of the operations of the allied Raltic licet of IHo;").

An attack (resulting, however, in a failure) was made on the 1st of Sofh
tembcr, 1854, by the allied squadron in the ratiilic, comprising six vessels
and two huudiod guns, upon I'etropaul (fski (St. Peter and St. Paul), the
capital and principal port of Kamtsclia'ka. The port being an important
one, the emperor Nicholas, apprehending an assault from the Anglo-French
fleet in the Pacific, had, unknown to the latter, increased the forces in gai-
rison, and otherwise strengtheneil the fortitiealions of the place. The at-
tacking forces, therefore, instead of meeting, as they had expected, a place
with a weak garrison and poorly defended, found themselves before a for-
midable citadel, with several separate forts, bristling with over a hundred
and twenty cannon, a garrison of twelve hundred men, and two Russian
vcssels-of-war lying in the harbor.

The bombardment was first directed against the mostly advanced forts,
which guarded the narrow and dangerous inlet leading to the town. After
a lively and protracted cannonade, which was vigorously returned, the
three batteries were silenced ami apparently abandoned, and the allied
vessels advanced toward tlie town. Tlie next day, tlio attack was renewed
upon the fortifications more immediately defending the town, and also upon

1
t

1
(

{

■

678

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

iho two sliips-of-war in the liarbor. From both quarters, liowover, the hro
woa returned with tolling effect on the allies' veasela. Six hundred njen
were also debarked for the purpose of a land attack ; but they wero no
sooner upon shore, than a fire was connnenced upun them by the IluHsiana, .
who wero concealed in the brushwood, and kept up with such deadly oflect,
that the assailants wero compelled to retreat in great confusion to their
boats, with a loss of nearly one hundred. After four days' boml)ardmont,
the allies abandoned the attack, and left the Kamts^chntkan peninsula, with
iheir vessels materially damnged.nnd a serious list of killcil and wounded.

In the sjiriiijr of IH;';'), nnotlier and more powerfid fleet was despatched
to Pctropaulofski. to again nttem|)t its reduction. The Russians, however,
forewarned of its coming, this time did not defend the place, but, destroy-
ing the fortifications and burning the town, quietly withdrew, leaving noth-
ing but solitary ruins to greet the a|)proaehing assailants.

The campaign in the Crimea, whore, uptm a limited spnco of but a few
miles in extent, were so long concentrated all the feelings implicated
in the recent great struggle for sHpremacy of empire against empires, is
the next important movement which the course of our narrative calls upon
us to record. It has been heretofore stated that the allies were concentra-
ting largo bodies of troops at Varna and the neighboring cainp.s, prepara-
tory to a grand attack upon the Russians. On the evacuation of the Da-
Dubian principalities by the latter and the immediate reoccupation of them
by the army of Austria, the latter thus putting iLself between the allied
forces and the retreating enemy, it Ijccame necessary to select sonio other
quarter through which to strike an effectivo blow at their powerful antag-
onist. After several councils of war, the invasion of the Crimea, and, by
a comljiued assault on land and sea, the reduction of Sevastapol, the great
naval station of Russia on the Rlaek sea, was determined on.

Sevastaix)l, which has been already fully described in the earlier por-
tion of this volume, has been looked upon as one of the strongest maritime
positions in the world. Oliphant, however, as the reader will recollect, in
the quotation from his interesting work which wo have attached to that
description, whilo conceding its apparent impregnability to attack from
seaward, expresses the belief timt the place could easily be taken by an
adequate force on land. It was under a similar impression that arrange-
ments for the premeditated attack wero made. Siege trains wero ordered
from England and France, transports were prepared, and everything pro-
vided, that would help to insure success to the expedition. But imfortu-
nately the cholera attacked both the armies and the fleet. The disease
was especially fatal, and the losses in the French regiments wero fright-
fully severe. For several weeks tho expedition was retarded by the rava-
ges of this fearful scourge. Nicholas, meanwhile, forewarned of the
threatened attack, was preparing, by constructing itew det'ences, particu-
larly on tho land side, and repairing and strengthening those already ex-
isting, to bo ablo successfully to defend the town. The prolonged siego

IIISTOniC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

679

andbo.nbarJinjatsit sustained uncnpturcd, is an evidenco liow tlioroughly
his prcparatiuiis wcro inadu, and how much at fanlc were the impressions,
80 ^;onui-ully ciihii'taitiud, as to its vulneniltility to a htiid attack.

The ever-menioiuhle Crimean exj)editioM linally set sail from Varna on
the 4th of SejitiMnbcr. In numbers and extent prohahly no naval array
over before equalled it. In the bay of Baltjil^, where it first rendezvoused,
the sea, for eight miles, was literally covered witli shipping. On tlic 14th
and the three following days of Septeml)cr, nearly sixty tliousand men wcro
landed from this colossal fleet, witliout opposition, at a place called Staroo
or Old Fort, about thirty miles northwest of Sevastapol, and fifteen south-
cast of Koslow, or Kiipatoria, a town of abuut four thousand inhabitants,
with a small garrison, which liad surrendered to the allies on the 18th,
and was immediately occupied l)y Turkish troops. Marshal St. Arimud,
commander of the French forces, issued a general order, congratulating
his troops upon their arrival in the Crimea, and exhorted tliein to contend
with their English allies for superiority in eniciency and good conduct.
Lord Raglan, the English eommander-in-chief, in an order of the day, ex-
horted the troops under his command to protect the inliabitants of the
country in their persons and their property.

On the llUh of September, the allies broke up their oncamianeiit, and
conimeucod their march toward Sevastapul. Tiiat night they l)ivouacked
on the left bank of the liulgavac, a small stream not far from the Alma.
Next morning (the 20th) both armies moved toward the last-named river,*
where, strongly entrenched liehind its steep and rugged itaiiks, was a Rus-
sian army of thirty-Hvc thousand men under Prince Menchikofl", their front
extending over two miles, with their artillery planted upon the sharpest
heights, and the slopes of the hills covered with dense masses of infantry.
A trench had been dug between liic strongest point and the river, and every

* As tliifl pni'tiviiliir lociilily i» not iiotict'd in tlio skclcli of the Crimen to wliich n eliiipter is
Mpproiiriiitfil in lliu enrlicr pivrt oC tlii:* volnnio, tiie following e\|>lHiiiition niny bo ik-einoil neces-
•iiry to at'connt for tlie oinission. WIumi lliiit clm|)ter was pre|mreil, llie battle of llie Ainm Imd
not liceii fon);lit; nnd, ninid tlio ninny t'tiarniini; tipots for which this ronianlio peninsula litis n
worhl-wide oelvbrity, tlio pic'liiremjne bniikg of tlie AInin, nnd wen tlie river iti^elf, appear to
liave lieeii pasved over liy trnvellei-s ns well as geograpliers, as not of sufficient iniporlanee to cull
for any diKtiiictive iioliue in their letter-press descriptions, or for de8ii;nntioii upon iheir maps.
Ami liiit for the sanguinary conflict upon its l)aiikf>, the Alcnn niis^ht have remained "unknown
to fame" for nil time to come. Tlic notoriety which that bloody event Ims ijiven it is thus inci-
dentally but very pertinently spoken of by n late writer: "One striking way in which war oper-
ates Oh literature is, lliat it sends out the popular ihoiijjht in new and unexplored geo{;raphicnl
directions; consecrates names nnd spots never heard of before; nuikes new (ground rich with
preat actji nnd associations. A week or two ai;o, and there was ii stream in the Crimea flowing
on, night and day, quiet nnd niirennrdcd; nnd at one place, where n road crossed this stream,
liigh steeps rose nlMive it, over which day nnd night jiassed too, disturbing nothing save, may-
hap, n- loose stone, that would roll oown into the gulleys: nnd now that spot belongs to the
imagination of mankind for evermore, and n perpetual iilbision in literature will be minle to the
battle of the Alma. Does it not seem as if the place nnd name had been alike predestined f
Who would not wish to see n photograph of those Crimean steeps, that have wailed six thou-
•and years, und, at lust, are famous ("

G80

ILLUSTRATKD DRSCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

proparution mnJo for nil olvstinato Jofonco. Tho battle wns commcncod
uboiit Imlf-past twulvo o'clock, by tho Proiich, sovorul tluxisiuul.M whom,
iiiulei- OouDnil Bosquot, witli tlio Ttii'kitili bnttaliou.s, ci-o».sml tliu Aliim,
climbed till) liciglita, and, in the laoo of a hcnv Hro. ostublisliod thoinsolvos
on tlio left flunk of tlio RiissiauH.* Tlicy v -o followed liy tlio brigades
under Ooncral Canrobert and Prince Napoleon. Covered by tln'ir artillery,
wliieli had been brought to l)car, they rushed inipctuouHly forward, hood
driving the RusHian.s from their )M>sition on tho left, and then uontitiiied
their attack toward tho contro. Tho British divisions, nieantiino, wero
awaiting the inoinont for an elTectivo movement against the Tlnssini n-ht,
but rc|ilying with their artillery to the incoasant fire kept up 1 ' • 'at •»•.
Ijord Raglan at length gave tho signal to advance, and t'^: ligln-di.i. m)u
under Sir Cfoorgo Brown led tho way, immediately followed '-y fbioo other
divinioiis, across tho river, tho tro(>ps clinil>ing over tref^s which had beca
felled to t)p|>o3e tlieir progress, and siibjocteil to a wi ii • Dg fire from tho
Russians. Rusliing up the hill they were met i>y torn >|e volloys of grape,
canister, and musketry. At ono point, as tho shattered lines of tho Eng-
lish were temporarily drawn back to forn. anew, the Muscovite infantry,
mistaking the object of the movement, leajwd over tho bujustworks and
began to charge down hill. Tlie assailed at once tuniiul u|>on their ftx's,
and drove them up the ascent at the |K)int of the bayonet ; followed up tho
charge with a storm of bullets, and sent the Russians Hying over the hill
beyond. For five hours the contest was tlnis fiercely kept up, wlien tho
Russians, overpowered by the »u|>orior numbers of their assailants, finding;
their positioi; no longer tenable, abandoned their enti-enchments, and lied
in a .southi'.istern direction, leaving four thousand killed and wounded, and
seven huudred prisoners, l)ehind them. With tiicir cavalry to cover their
retreat., however, they succeeiled in carrying ofl" all but three of their
guns. The loss of tho allies was about three thousand four hundred,
killed, wounded, and missing. On the night after tho battle tho allied army
bivouacked on the heights, the French marshal pitching his tent on tho
very spot occupied by that of Prince McnchikoQ' the morning bcforo.

Marshal St. Ariiaud, whose health had been very feeble for several
weeks, kept his horse for twelve hours on tho day of battle, all the while
under the most acute pain, and ha: <iig a' l(>.;<i, to bo supported in Lis saddio
by two soUlieu . Two days after litouirv. > i*jring n. i intensely, he still
attended to his official duties; bi' ■<.< '110 20111,110 could hold out no longer,
and issuing a general order, announcing his serious illness, ho resigned his
command into the hands of General Canrobert. He embarked, on the 29th,
for France, l>nt expired at sea a few hours after leaving port. His rcmains
wc'c int<Mred with great military pomp at the Invalides in Paris.

Tlio allied armies lemaincd on the scene of tho battle, sacconng tlio

• Th • '' •lilirati'd Zouave*, wlio were incor|>ui'iitu() in (Jcn-Tal IJ.isqUerB l1ivi^io^, were nn im-
piirlnm it<:;l.iir« in lliig nioveincnt, nsluriisiiin;^ llif Kiiriinns by tli<> iiieoncuiTHbie fHcilitj with
wliivii liiiy made llieir wuy up heiglils which the lalttriiad deeiued impaHnUv even f«>r goahk

HISTORIC RUMMARY — NICHOLAS I.

Gbi

tii)diii)»
niui lied
ed, uiid
V tlit'ir
titoir
undi'od,
d army
on tho

ng the

wonfidod and burying t\w doad, till tlio 23d, \vln>ii '.licv iivr<' ngain in motion.
Oil the t^vciiiiitr "f the •J4tli, tlioy oncaiiipcd on the Ihaiiks of tho IJallicu
pIvui, wifliiu loiiv mill's uf ScvuMtapol. On tho Si>th, tho Kiigli.sli seized
and ()t'cu|ii' ) Baludava, whoso deep and laiul-lcxC'Vcd hurltor aflbrded a se-
cure Hhelter (or (lu'ir ship,-, while itn pr(/xiin,ity to Scvustapol, being but
eight mill's distant, and the I'wui to which i ^y ubo neciijed, rendered it a
ciMivenieiii landing-place for Iheii stoi'OH find gniiH, the vessels "u which thoy
were shipped being direett^d thitJKM-. This hiirbor, however, '>wng only of
snfticiiMit capacity to admit Mie Ibitish V(-,tsi'ls, the Froin-li scU> 'od as iHkhp
baso of operations the tiiieo d<!e|> ays lying between '"'ape (J mtmo^^csu*
ami tho roadstead of Sevastapol. i u r army taking up its pusition 'oxt t'l^?
Bca, and tho English divisions iuluiid. next tho Clieinuyu nr F?l«cf river,
which empties into the roadstead. Tho front of tlif lusiegi for^^ -= thu8
extended in a continuous line from the nn)iilh of the Cjiernii i to th. sea
at Strelitska bay (one of the tlin^e ;iliove referred i » as be. i 'f'< 'iod
by tho French), forming nearly i semieirclo around Seva.stapi»«, t a 'ins-
tance of aliout two miles from lli- Riissiian works.

On tho iJHth of September the il embarkation of th(> allies' siei
commenced. Hut so much lime w is cr-nsumed in landing and i>
their stores and guns that opportiujity was given to the Russian
still stronger tho defences of the ciry. Largo bands of men and >■-
men were kept at work, in relays, I tli night and day, in throwi:
vast exterior lino of oartiieu redoubt- and outrenclimen:.s, and in c
tho front of their stoneworks with car h.

At the commencement of tho siege Sovastapol contii nod a garr
thirty-four thousand men under the com land of General N'oeiiimoff, wU. do-
clared ho would defend the place to the ast nnm and the last bullet, i'ho
army under Menchikofl', of about thirty ; lousand men, was at Ijaktchiserai,
whore they retreated after tho battle of tlic Alnm, and where their numboi '
were rapidly increasing Ity reinforcomcni - from tho principalities and tho
interior. Tho force of tho allies, on sea md shore, was nearly a hundred
thousand, and their siege artillery ct nipri-d four hundred field and siego
guns, nearly a million of shot and shells, ami an immense quantity of gabinos,
fascines, and other materials for fortilicaiion. The Russians had eight
hundred guns in their dilVerent forts, and a lunnlrcd field-pieces with Meu-
chikoff'sarmy. Toefl'ectmdly shutout tho allied (loots from tho harbor, they
had sunk eight largo \essols at tho entrance of the roadstead, leaving open
a small j)assago, wide enough to admit but a single vessel, in immediate
proximity to tho guns of Fort Constantino.

By the ir)th of October, tho siego batteries of tho allies wore completed,
their trenches opened, and their guns and munitions in position. And on
the morning of the 17th, tho first bond)ardmont of Sevastopol commenced.
At a preconcerted signal the wh(do allied batteries simultaneously opened
their (iro; tho thunders of which were immediately echoed back iu au
equally deafening roar from the Russian lines. While tho cannonade thus

iltery

ill- ip

iiiako
1 wo-

up a

rii'- '

1 il

■l .

"'■ i

//^

682

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

warmly commenced, and which was kept up on both sides, with occasional
intermissions, till dark, was progressing, the allied fleets moved up and
commenced an attack upon the sea-batteries upon the nortli and south of
the entrance to tlie roadstead or outer harbor. Tlie fire from tlio vessels,
however, did comparatively little or no injury to those massive ibrtilications,
while the guns of the latter, cliarged with red-hot shot, rockets, shells, and
bar-shot, did such serious damage to them, cutting their masts, spars, and
rigging, to pieces, and setting several of them on fire, that after a short
contest tliey drew out to sea, amid tlio cliccrs and redoubled shots of tlie
Russians, nor did they again renew tlic attack. On land, however, the
bombardment was recommenced on tlie following day, and kept up, more
or loss constantly, from day to day, till the 5th of Novemlier, when, witli-
out having inllicted any pormaiieiit injury upon the Russian fortifications or
the city, it ceased altogetlior. Tlio damage sustained by the former during
the day would be repaired in the night; and the houses of Sevastapol,
being mostly constructed of solid IVocpitone, were not easily set on lire. A
hos{iital in the city, however, lilled with fiick and wounded, was accidentally
fired and destroyed. One Ru.-ssian and tliree Fieneh powder-magazines
were also struck by hot shot and blown up. Tlio allies' loss during the
bombardment was about twelve luindred ; that of the Russians, not known.

As only a jKUt of Sevastapol was invested, it being, from the nature of
its position, necessarily left open on the north, the Muscovite troops outside
of the forts were in constant coinmunicalioii with the town, and reinfoice-
ments and supplies were continually thrown in. Menchilvoff's army, also,
considerably increased in numbers, as bofore stated, l»y additions of fresh
troops, soon became able to take the oflensive against the besiegers. They
first attacked them in the Hank at Ralaclava, on the 2")tli of October, while
the bombardment of Seva.stapt)l was in progress. After six hours* lighting,
the Russians were repulsed, but with heavy losses on both sides. A thril-
ling incident of this battle was the fatal cavalry charge, in which, miscon-
struing an order from the coinmander-in-cliief, Lords Lucan and Cardigan
led tlie light-horse brigade, numbering six hundred of the flower of the
British army, over a plain a mile and a half in length, exposed the whole
distance to a cross-iiro of cannon and musketry, full at a Russian battery
of thirty guns. The attempt was madness and its inevitaltle result destruc-
tion. In fifteen minutes, the mangled remains of four hundred of their
number, with the carcasses of as many horses, strewed the j)lain. Lords
Lucan and Cardigan, iuiminently exposed as they were in leading the onset,
both escaped with slight wounds, though the latter was almost unhorsed
by a thirty-two pounder exploding within a foot of his charger.

The battle of Likerman, which forms one of the bloodiest pages of the
Crimean drama, occurred on the 5tli of November. About five o'clock in
tho morning of that day, in the midst of a dense fog, from twt;iity to
thirty thousand of the Muscovite forces under MenchikoiV made an attack
oa the right flank of tho English, which rested ou the valley of lukcrman,

jides, with occasional
fleets moved up and
e north and south of
firo from the vessels,
massive fortilications,
t, rockets, shells, and
leir masts, spars, and
ire, that after a short
edoubled shots of the
In land, however, the
,y, and kept up, more
oveml)er, when, with-
jssian fortifications or
1 by the former during
liouscs of Sevastapol,
easily set on fire. A
ided, was accidentally
ich powdcr-inajiazinos
allies' loss during the
Russians, not known,
ig, from the nature of
iscuvite troops outside
e town, and rcinforcc-
nchikotY's army, also,
by additions of fresh
the besiegers. They
)11j of October, while
Ler .«ix hours' lighting,
both sides. A thril-
ge, in which, miscon-
Lucan and Cardigan
of the flower of the
1, exi)oscd the whole
at a Russian battery
vital)le result dostrwc-
our hundred of their
od tlie plain. Lords
e in loading the onset,
was almost unhorsed
is charger.

loodiest pages of the
About five o'clock in
fog, from twenty to
likofY made an attack
e valley of Inkcrman,

HISTORIC SU-MMAUY — NICHOLAS I.

6S3

and which was entirely unprotected by entrenchments or fortifications of
any kind. The entire Biitisli force engaged was but iibout eight thousand,
the remainder of their available troops being in the trenches to defend
their batteries, which were threatened with an attack. For five hours they
fought desperately to maintain their position, being several times forced
back by the superior numbers of their assailants, when General Bosquet's
division of French infantry and Zouaves coining to tlieir support, the Rus-
sians were at length repul,<cd, and finally retired, leaving an immense num-
ber of their dead upon the iield. The loss of the allies in this engagement
was about four tliousand in killed and wounded ; that of the Russians,
is variously estimated from eight to fifteen tliousand.

" I was in every battle of the peninsula," says an English officer, who par-
ticipated in and was severely wounded in this battle — " I have seen horrors
enough for any one man's life, but never, never, did I witness anything
approaching to the carnnge, the fury, the fiendish deviltry of that drizzling
morning of the r)th. I saw whole ranks battle with their musket-stocks
as men who played at quarter-staff; I saw them hang on each other
like gnashing bull-dogs, and roll on the ground over and over again, stab-
bing, tearing, cutting, and mangling, like men who had lost every charac-
teristic of humanity, and acquired more than tiger ferocity."

From this period, active oj)erations in the Crimea wore in a great meas-
ure suspended, the l)attle of Inkornian being in fact the last important
event of the season. Tliough the allies, when not interrupted by bad
•weather, continued to prosecute their siege works, gradually bringing their
••"cnches nearer to tlie Russian lines, hostile action did not extend beyond
occasional but resultless sorties from the beleagured city, skirmislics be-
tween the besiegers and the Muscovite forces in their rear, and desultory
cannonading. 15ut the allies had soon to encounter another enemy, which
proved, at least to tlie IJritisli troops, quite as formidable as the legions of
the czar. Winter, with its icy breath, soon made its appearance in unusual
severity, and though the Freneh, from their superior system of ambulance
and their more thorougli training in the routine of life in camp, were bet-
ter prepared to endure its rigors, the English soldiers, still clad in their
summer habiliments, in tents ragged and dilapidated from exposure to a
Bulgarian sun, and, being short of provisions, inadequately fed, suffered
from conseciuent fatal diseases, which swept off scores of tliem daily. And
to render the case more deplorable, several British transj)orts, containing
large quantities of provisions, winter-clothing, and otlier necessaries for
the troops, were wrecked in a storm on the Black sea and everything on
board lost. And when further supplies did safely reach Balaclava, for
want of proper facilities, it was only by the utmost exertions that those tho
most absolutely essential could be conveyed to the camp before Sevastapol.*

♦Not only lind biul w»'i»ttii'r iiiiulo tlie rond from Biilnoliivii to Sevftstnpol iilmost iinpnssnble,
\n\i for wiiiit. of \w\»ks Boliliers linJ to lio tlie duly of lionsia of Ininien, in ilrngging supplii'S to
cani|>, A rniii-ond was afterward couBlrucled by the Brilisli governiueiit between those plaoca

1 )

IIM

084

ILLUSTUATED DESCRIPTION OP IIUSSIA.

But for the assistance they received from the French, the English army
at this time in the Crimea would have been utterly exterminated by the
accumulation of misfortunes to which they were subjected ; for the former,
througli their admirable management, before alluded to, not only kept them-
selves intact, but were enabled to furnish " aid and comfort" to their British
allies. Thoy provided them*vvith apparel, provisions, and mules ; and at
length, when their strength, in spite of every effort, had become so reduced
as to render it indispensable, thoy assumed the English positions, in addi-
tion to their own, along the right attack upon tlie beleaguered city. The
following data will furnish some idea of the heart-rending sufferings of the
British, and the Turkish forces also, at this time before Sevastapol. The
number of the British forces on landing in the Crimea amounted to twenty-
six thousand men. By the end of December tiiis number was reduced to
eight thousand, and a few weeks later to five thousand effective men, in
spite of tlie reinforcements arriving from time to time to fill up the wide
gaps made in their ranks, l)y want, disease, neglect, and war. Their loss
in horses amounted to al)out ninety-eight per cent. Of twelve thousand
Turks attached to the besieging forces, more than seven thousand were
swept away. Such were the harrowing tales which reached England
of tl»e sick and wounded perishing from want of j)roper care and necessary
comforts, that Floukn'CE Nkjhtingale,* one of tlie most devoted of her sex,
and the bravest and tcnderest of human souls, with a band of English sis-

* As pre-eminently tho heroine of the war, this udniiralilc woman deserve* more tlian a passinj;
noiiee. Still vounj.', very little more than thirty, her earlier years had hecn passed amid all tho
luxuries and relinements of opulence. Her family was wenllhy, and her paternal home was a
nohle mansion anion;; the hills of Derbyshire. As tlie youii^ Florence ga'w to womanhood, she
became dee|)ly impressed with the importance of the subject of hospital-management, and took
advantaj^e jf a continental tour to inspect and become familiarly acquainted with the principal
establishments for the care of the sick tiirougliout Kurope. On her return she projected an insti-
tution for the support of a^ed and intirin governesses, who could no longer, from failure of bodily
health or advance of years, maintain themselves. She succeeded in establishing the institution,
and entirely devoted herself to its management. Henceforward, her mission was decided ; ond,
renouncing all the attractions and personal advantages otVered by her social position, this elegant
and accomplished young woman devoted herself to the work of assuaging the misfortunes of her
less happy sisters. From this duty — always repugnant from its very nature, often unthankful —
«hc was only called by the still stronger claim of her perishing countrymen in the Fast. With
characteristic promptitude, she soon formed u body of nurses — some, like herself, ladies who
emulated her own example — some paid and practised hospital-attendants; but all of them pos-
sessing real knowledge of their duties, and of prove<l ability and ex|)erience. No nieir amateurs
who might mistake kindly feeling and zeul fur aptitude wei^' admitted, but only those to whom
suflering and death were fuiniliar objects, and who liad*given evidence of the possession of ner^'O
adequate to sujqiort the trying scenes they would encounter, and of unwearying patience and
kmdness to the sulferers.

On the 23d of October, Miss Nightingale, accompanied by thirty-eight nurses, left England
for Constantinople, j)roceeding overland for the sake of expedition. They were everywhere
received with the greatest respect. In France, they were enthusiastically welcomed as worthy
companions to tho devoted Sisters of Mercy, who had already departed on a similar errand to tho
French military hospitals. On the 2d of December, forty-seven more nurses followed thei" chief,
and thirty-four of these were of long experience in the Ix)iidon hospitals. On her arrival, Miss
Nightii'galc at oneo addressed herself earnestly to her task. In a few weeks, a laundry was
established ; and this great essential was accompanied by a kitchen, where the comforts so
nocessarj to the sick were skilfully and promptly prepared.

lA.

HISTORIC SUltfMARY — NICHOLAS I.

685

ich, the English army
' exterminated by the
3Cted ; ibr tlie former,
0, not only kept them-
nfort" to their British
s, and mules ; and at
ad become so reduced
lish positions, in addi-
jleagucred city. The
tiding suflcrings of the
fore Sevastapol. The
a amounted to twenty-
umber was reduced to
sand cflective men, in
lie to lill up the wide
and war. Their loss
Of twelve thousand
seven thousand were
lich reached England
jcr care and necessary
)st devoted of her sex,
a band of English sis-

lescrvcs more tlmn n passing

ad been passed iiniid all the

id her pHterniil home was a

leo grew to womanhood, she

)ital-mnno)iement, and took

piainted witii the priniipal

etiirn she projected an insti-

onjrcr, from failure of bodily

cstabti^hing; the institution,

niisBion was decided ; and,

sfKjiol position, this elegant

;;ing the misfortunes of her

nature, often unthankful —

trymcn in the East. With

nie, like herself, hulies who

idants ; but all of them pos-

rienec. No mere aniuteurs

ed, but only those to whom

e of the possession of nerve

jf unwearying patience and

r-eight nurses, left England
n. They were everywhere
itically welcomed as worthy
'd on a similar errand to the
nurses followed thei" chief,
itals. On her arrival, Miss
few weeks, a laundry was
en, where the comfort* so

ters, started immediately on a mission of mercy to alleviate the wants and
smooth the pillows of the sic': and dying, in the allied hospitals at Scutari.*

On the 2d of December, 1854, a treaty of oflcnsive and defensive alliance
was formed between Austria and the western powers, in which the former
agreed to defend the Danubian principalities against the Russians, and not
to interfere with the free action of the allies against the Muscovite frontier.
A treaty was also negotiated with Sardinia, in which that government
agreed to furnish the allies with an auxiliary force of fifteen thousand men,
to be under the command of a Sardinian general ; England and Fiance, in
return, agreeing to guaranty the integrity of the Sardinian states, and to
protect them against any attack as long as the present war lasted. The
Russian emperor, when apprised of the negotiation of this treaty, which was
signed at Turin, January 20, 1855, at once declared Avar against Sardinia.

The surrender of Eupatoria, and its occupation by Turkish forces, has
already been noted. Its position being of paramount importance to the
success of the allies in the Crimea, Onier Pacha had assumed command
there, and was increasing the defences of tl:e town, when the Tartar scouts
brought him word, on the IGth of February, that a large body of Russians
were approaching from Simplieropol. Eupatoria projects into the sea,
which overlays it, north and south, in two creeks. By Omer's request,
the allied ships stationed themselves in these creeks, so as to rake tlie plain
in front of the town, the artillery of which commanded it also. Beyond
this plain is a wooded prairie country, yielding but little water, and that
brackisli anct deleterious. Tiic Russian columns were sufl'ering already
from the effects of their march over such a region. Tli'cy nm.--tcred about
thirty-five thousand men in all, under the immediate orders of General
KhruletV, but directed by Prince Menschikoft' and Count Ostcn-Sacken, and
aided by a division of General Liprandi's. They brought scaling-ladders,
and advanced at daybreak of the ITtli, under cover of thirty large pieces
of artillery — their infantry being in their usual dense formations, and a
considerable cavalry force niana'uvring on the flanks to prevent any regu-
lar sortie. It was evidently, from llic etVects of the position itself, a liope-
less attempt ; which, however, they renewed some half-dozen times, 'i'ho
ships' guns on either lUink, and the town artillery in front, made haA-oc in
their columns. Still they pressed on until the Turks, who had reserved
their rifle-fire and musketry for a moment when tliey would prove most
decisive, poured them into nias?cs already shaken, when these were close
to the gabions and batteries, ond then, under cover of a powerful discharge
from all the batteries, sallied upon the assailants and broke them com-
pletely. The Turkish loss was about two hundred killed and wounded.
Among the slain was the commander of the J]gyptian auxiliaries, Suleiman
Pacha. The Russians, counting those who perished in their retreat over
the salt region, lost upward of one thousand men.

* Scutari is a suburb of (Constantinople, on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, where tlio
hospitals of the allies wen; located.

'11

hi:

686

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

At Sevastapol, as the besieging lines began to hem in the place inoro
and more closely, the Russians, rising in spirit with the pressure, dis-
played the energies of assailants and besiegers, encountering the gradually
tightening leaguer witli advanced works all around their previous forts,
fencing them in with earthworks, rifle-pits, and covered trenches — ap-
proaching so near to the besiegers' works, that, in some instances, miners
and counter-miners met underground, leading to subterranean encounters,
rivalling in horrors those which were enacting under the open sky above.
Among these exterior works of the Russians was an extensive but as yet
unfinished redoubt, afierwai'd known as the Mamelon, designed to protect
the Malakoff tower, a large circular fortification, built upon a most com-
manding position, between the inner harbor and the Careening bay ; so
situated, in brief, that its capture by the besieging forces would bring within
their range most of the neighboring fortifications of the Russians, and in
fact the town itself. The French determining, if possible, to destroy these
defences, on the night of the 28d of February, three thousand Zouaves and
marines, under General Monet, sallied forth to attack the unfinished re-
doubt. It had been arranged that the marines should act as a reserve, to
advance when the Zouaves should have obtained a footing within the work.
Evoryihing appeared propitious for the undertaking. Tlie stillness of death
reigned around ; not the smallest sound indicated that the Russians had
any knowledge of the movements of the attacking body. They had reached
within twenty yards of tlie parapet, when suddenly a loud word of com-
mand resounded through the trenches, and in a moment a fatal fire was
oi)ened upon the advancing Zouaves, and forty or fifty fell to rise no more.
The Russians had been well a\\are of the movements of the allies, and were
consequently prepared to give tliem a hot reception, permitting them to
approach within a distance which would nrake their fire upon their advan-
cing assailants the most deadly. Tiiough taken by surprise, the bravo
Zouaves soon recovered from their temj)orary panic, and with loud shouts
dashed forward, and forced their way into the work. A fierce opposition
awaited them ; and a desperate haii<l-to-hand conil)at ensued, resulting at
lengtli in the defeat of the Russians, and tlie jxissession of the left side of
the redoubt by the French. Aleanwhile the marines, confused by the dark-
ness of the night, and the sudden coml)at waging in their front, were uncer-
tain in their movements, and found themselves surrounded by about two
thousand of their enemy. For a few moments they made a stout resist-
ance ; but, ignorant of the nninl)ers to which they were opposed, and daunted
by the unexpected attack, they gave way, and retreated in great disorder
and with heavy loss. The Zouaves, thus left alone in the work, were
again attacked by a heavy force, and, notwithstanding a most determined
resistance, were compelled to yield ground, and fall back to their own
lines, their general, Monet, receiving a wound as he was animating his
men. Nothing daunted by their repulse, the Zouaves mustered again, and,
by a tremendous effort, dashed once more into the work, and again drove

A..

u in the place more
th the pressure, dis-
itcring the gradually
their previous forts,
vered trenches — ap-
)me instances, miners
;erranean encounters,
• the open sky above,
extensive but as yet
I, designed to protect
It upon a most cora-
3 Careening bay ; so
3s would bring within
the Russians, and in
iible, to destroy these
housand Zouaves and
jk the unfinished re-
[1 act as a reserve, to
ting witliin the work.
The stillness of death
hat the Russians had
They had reached

loud word of com-
uunit a fatal fire was

fell to rise no more.
f the allies, and were
, permitting them to
re upon tlieir advan-

surprise, the bravo
mul with loud shouts

A fierce opposition

ensued, resulting at
m of the left side of
on fused by the dark-
a'w front, were uncer-
unded by about two
made a stout resist-
jpposed, and daunted
cd in great disorder

in the work, were
g a most determined

back to their own
I was animating his
mustered again, and,
rk, and again drove

mSTORIC SUMMARY — NICHOLAS 1.

GK7

the Russians from the place. When the latter wore thus expelled a second
time from the redoubt, blue lights were flung up from the ramparts, to
enable the Muscovite gunners to take aim ; and, by this intermittent glare,
a storm of artillery was poured into tin; redoubt by all the forts around.
It literally rained fire upon the heroic Zouaves, who, sheltering themselves
as they best could, returned a smart rillc-fire against the embrasures.
Some few, animated by their success, even advanced to the Malakoff itself,
but they were soon driven back by overwhelming numbers. It was evident
to the French connnander that it would be impossible to hold the work,
enfiladed as they were by the Russian batteries, and the cai)tured redoubt
was conseciuently abandoned. As they withdrew from tlic entrenchment,
the Russians ceased firing from their batteries, and their columns advanced
and charged the retiring Zouaves at the point of the bayonet. The lattei
met the attack bravely, though the carnage was enormous. General Monet,
who, throughout, had set his men a noble example of courage, was again
wounded in the stomach. At length both parties, as if by mutual consent,
ceased the contest and drew ofl". The French loss was about four hundred.
A few days subsequent to this affair an event occurred the intelligence of
which thrilled throughout the civilized world, in its interest overshadowing
every other topic. The emperor Nicholas — that stern and arbitrary ruler,
who held in his iron hand the destinies, and wielded with consummate
ability the resources, of the most extensive empire in the world — who l)ade
defiance to united Europe — was dead! For four or five years his health
had lieen giving way under the excessive bodily as well as mental exertion
to which ids system had without relaxation been exposed, remloring his
pl\ysical frame not only more open to, but k'ss able to repel, the attacks
of disease. As early as February H, he was taken ill with inliuenza, but
continued to occupy himself as usual with the aflairs of state. The disease
grew worse, however ; and, on the 22d, it had become so severe, that his
physicians (Mandt and Carrell) endeavored to persuade him to keep his
room, assuring him that no physician in his army would allow a conunon
soldier in his condition to leave the hospital. Tlie emperor, however, dis-
regarded this advice, and attended a review, witliout even taking the j)re-
eaution to dress himself any warmer, though the mercury in tlie thermometer
stood at a point not higher than two degrees below zero of Fahrenheit.
This was his last appearance in pul)lic, though he transacted business for
several days longer. On the 2'M\, his ;ase assumed a more serious aspect,
and paralysis of the lungs was apprehended. On the 1st of March, it was
aummnced to him that his case was hopeless. He received the intelligence
with the utmost calmness, and, after partaking of the sacrament, had his
family called in, informed them with firmness of liis approaching decease,
and bade them all farewell. He expired a few minutes past noon on Fri-
day, March 2, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His successor, in the
person of his eldest son, was immediately proclaimed emperor under the
title of Alexander II.

CSS

ILLUSTRATED DGSCBIPTIOM OF BUS8U.

CHAPTER XXVII.

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER II.

THE present emperor and autocrat of Russia, Alexander IT., was born
on the 29th (N. S.) of April, 1818, his father, but twenty-two
years of age, at that time filling no prominent place in the empire.
The first seven years of the young prince's life were passed under the
tender care of his mother. It was during his eightli year that the death
of Alexander I. and the rcnunciatioji of the imperial crown by Constantino
unexpectedly raised Nicholas to the Russian throne, Alexander, his eldest
son, becoming, through the same event, hereditary grand duke. From this
period, the education of the crown-prince was intrusted to the care of
eminent civic and military instructors, in order to properly qualify hin» fur
the illustrious position to which he was now the presumptive heir. It is,
however, to foreign travel, it, Iho literature of the West, and to the society
of the accomplished German princesses who were from time to time mem-
bers of the imi)erial family, that he is largely indebted for his cultured
nund. Besides visiting the difierent portions of the empire, he spent con-
sideral)le time in Italy and was a frequent visiter at the numerous courts
of Germany. Tlie ^Marquis de Custine thus spoke of him at tlie age of
twenty: "His j)erson is tall, but a little too stout for so young a man.
His manner is agreeable, his gait noble, and without the stifl'ness of the

soldier He stands out among the younger men of his suite without

anything to stamp the distance observable l)et\vcen tliem, unless it be the
perfect grace of his whole person. The prince's expression is one of kind-
ness His air is modest, witliout timidity, which is a great point for

all about him. Such as he is the grand duke of Russia still seemed to mc

one of the finest models of a prince I had ever seen If he should

ever reign, he will make liimself obeyed, not by terror, but l)y tlie attrac
tion of his inherent grace ; unless the necessities tliat cling to a Russian
emperor's destiny yhould alter his character as well as his position."

The relations of Alexander and his brother Constantino were for years
of a very unsatisfactory character. Constantino disliked his brother's in-
clination for books and tlie society of men of culture, and proclaiuung,
both in season and out of season, that the emperor of Russia should be a
soldier, he cultivated his natural rudeness, and ostentatiously affected the
society of military men. Alexander regrottod the barbaric tendencies of

OTSTOniC SUMMARY — ALKXANDEU 11,

> i\

AlEXANDEB II.

his brother, and believing that something more than soldiers was neccssa'*y
to the state, appeared as often as otherwise out of uniform. The emperor
Nicholas was not tlie last to perceive the opposite directions to which tho
currents of thought and feeling of the crown-prince and the grand duke
Constantine tended. Foreseeing that this might produce, sooner or later,
intestine and fatal conflicts, he had, as early as 1843, on the l)irth of Alex-
ander's first child, required Constant ine to take an oath of fidelity to tho
heir of tlie throne. At the time of the emperor's fatal illness Alexander
was the only son present in St. Peterslmrgh, but the grand duke Constan-
tino was summoned by telegraph and by courier, and had the good fortrne
to arrive in time to see his father alive. In the presence of both, the em-
peror made over to his eldest son the imjjerial throne, and obtained from
both of them a solemn jn'omise to remain for ever closely united, in order
to save the country. The grand duke Constantino, upon that occasion,
religiously pledged himself to be the future emperor's first sul>ject.

In 1840, he having just completed his twenty-second year, Alexander
was sent by his father on a tour through Europe in search of a wife. He
visited several German courts, where the brilliancy of tlie ])rize exposed
him to all the seductions and temi)tations which usually assail a man who
is known to have come on such a mission. In vain was he introduced to
the princesses of the reigning houses. He jiassed from all unscathed till
he reached Ilesse-Darmstadt ; but there his late was sealed. In the young
and beautiful princess Maria — then about sixteen years of age* — the heir

• She WHS horn on the 8th of August, 1824, and was the daughter of Louis II., the latu ijrand
duke of UciiM

I f

I''

^90

lU.USTICATKD DICSCUIPTION OF RVOSJA,

Kiel'"''-
Maria Alexandkovna, ICMraKts of Ki<9"IA,

to tlic Russian tlirono saw the ideal of a wife, and ho became enamored
of licr ut once. "NVithiii a year (on the t4th of April, 1841) they wcro
married, fhc priueos cliaujiiiig her oriiriiial iiaiiir, MaxiuiiliiMuie Wilhchni-
na Augusta Sopliia ^luria into the Maria Alexandnn-na, by which she is
known to the I?us;,'ian peojile.

From her earliest years the yo!m<^ empr(^ss of "Russia has Ix-en noted for
hor extraordinary lM>auty, f(»r tlie frank simjdieity of her eharaeter, and
the ])leasure she ever tt)ok in cseapiii<r from tht; ('.('remonies of state and
court life.* She exercises no inconsiderable iiillu!?nco over the mind of
her impe.rial liusband, and as slic is an ardent advocate of peace, civili-
zatlon, and progress, it is not improb:il)le that hor pacific counsel had itvS
weigh.t in bringing him to give favoral)le ear to tiiose overtures for peace
which led to so happy a result. At tlie period of his accession to the
imperial rule, five children, three sons and two daughters, all living, had
blessed their union. Nicholas, the eldest and hereditary crown-prince,
was born on the S^ld of Septoml)er, 1843, being in his twelfth year when
his father ascended tlie Russian throne.

On entering upon the government of the empire, Alexander's first act
was to issue a manifesto to the nation, announcing his accession, and do-

* " Some twenty years affo the traveller in the moiintninous regions in the neiglihorliood of
Dnnnstailt ininht Imve cnroimtcred iiixl stopped involuntarily to ndiniro — perlmps on tlio way-
side, |)orliiips in some ])easant's ('otta<;e, p('rlui|)s ascoiidiiit; the mountain's side — one of the lovo-
liest of Ood's cn-atures. Tht; same traveller ini;,'lit also liavn encountered her in the streets of
Darmstadt, runninf; about that quiet little town, making her visits or her purehases, and attended
perhaps by only a waitinjr-niaid, like any other lady promom\der. The ludy was the prineess
Maria, the present empress of Russia, tlio whole of whose early life, and most of it Kinee her
marriage, has been spent in the Hessian dominions — from which she can only bo Buid to have
been nnally severed when called to the imperial throne." — Landon Newt,

HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALKXANDKR II.

691

daring, iu gcneml tonus, his intoiitioii to iiplioUl tlio glory of tlio eiupiro
as it had boon iiphcUl by I'utor, Catherine, Alexander I., and his hunonted
lather, lie at the same time siiinmoned the aide (ieneral Riidigcr (sineo
deeeased) Ironi Warsuw, and eonterred on him llic eonnnand of the im-
perial guard, till tiien held by iiimself. lie renewed tiie powers of tho
plenipotentiaries at Vitsnua, who had been conunissioned by his father as
the representatives of Russia in tiie peaee-eongress about to assemble there,
and through them announced his adherence t(j the declarations made by
I'rineo GorehalvolV on behalf of his late father.

The jx'ace-eongress above referred to, in which England, France, Tur-
key, Austria, and Russia, were represented, was formally opened at Vien-
na on tlie l.')th of Mareii. The following four points, whieli are the same
in sul)stanee as those of the " Vienna nt)te," mentioned on a previ(Mis
page, had been accepted as early as December, 18.')4, as the basis of their
negotiations: 1. The estaldisliment of a joint jtrotectorate of the live pow-
ers over the Danubian principalities. :i. The free navigation of the Dan-
ube. <). The limitation of the power t)f Russia in the Ulack sea. 4. Tho
guaranty of tiie privileges of Christians of all sects in Turkey by the livo
powers. The lirst and second points were readily acceded to. The third
point, however, was the rock on wiiicli the hopes of j)eace were foundered.
After communicating with his government. Prince (H)rchakotV, at tho
twelflli session, which was held on tlie ITtli of April, stated to the congress
liiat " Russia would not consent to have tho strength of her navy restricted
io any li.ved number, eitiier l>y treaty or any other means." Upon tins
dnnouncemenl the congress was dissolved, leaving appariMitly no pi'ospect
of a termination of the sanguinary contest save iu tlie ullinmte exliaustioa
of the belligerents upon one side or the other.

It has been stated on a previous pige that tho setting in of winter had
caused a partial cessation of aeti\i! iiDsliiities in tlio Crimea, the besiegers
acting merely upon the defensive against tlie sorties which were assiduously
kept up l»y the beleaguered forces. These sorties, wliicli were almost always
executed in the night-time, were often ri'peateil for lialf-aHlozen nights in
succession, in various and uncertain (piarters, on a scale sonu'tinies of in-
credilile magnitude, and with astonishing desperation. From the middle
to the end of March, tln!sc nocturnal sallies wen; nearly incessant. On
tho night of tho 2'2d of that mouth, lifteen thousand Russians sallied from
the Mamelon works and attacked, at dilVerent points, the Froneh and En-
glish with the bayonet; and such was the obstinate fury of the terrible
combat which followed that it contiiiiLHl unabated for twenty-four hours.
The Russians were linally driven back with a loss of twelve hundred men.
The loss of the allies was about nine hundred, including several distiu-
guislied officers. The next day an armistice, for the purpose of burying
the dead, was ronuested by the Russian commander. This was granted,
and for two hours, on the lJ4th, the guns ceased firing, and the officers and
men of the opposed*armios oujoyod a brief respite from their deadly coU'

002

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

test. Burial parties were formed, and the dead and wounded borne away
by their comrades. Jleanwhiio, the officers and privates cjf either ai-my
mingled freely, the former chatting and exchanging cigars, and tlie men
passing equivocal compliments — such as their very limited acipiaintanco
with '!ach other's language would permit. At length the armistice ex-
l)ired, the white flags disappeared from the paraj)et of the Mamehm, the
stragglers hastily ran to the protection of their works, and in an instant
the boom of hostile cannon again thumiered on the ear, and clouds of white
smoke obscured the scene of the brief truce.

lly the Iteginning of April, th(> besiegers' works were so far advanced,
that a second bombardment was resolved upon. It now wanted but a few
days of six menths since the previous bomlianbneiit, and the besiegers had
used the inte:val in the accimiMlation of lar;_'er means than before. They
had now more guns and of larger calilire, and a much greater amount of
nnnnuni'ion. Nor had the Russians !)een idle. They had also, as men-
tioned o'l a previous ]>age, availed thomsolvch of the interval to strengthen
and increa>c their fortifications and means oi deftMice,* and to add to the
number and efliciency of tlieir guns and munitions of war. Prince ^liehael
Gorchakofl" (l)rother to the Russian envoy at Vienna) had, in March, as-
sumed coinnuuid of the Muscovite forces in defence of Sevastapol.

Soon after daylireak, on the !<th of April, the second bombardment be-
gan along tlie whole Frencii aid English line, five hundred guns playing,
without intermission, upon the iortifications. At the close of the first day,
it became evident that tlie besiegers' weight of metal, superior as it was to
that employed in the October Itoinbardment, was yet inadequate to the task
of destroying the colossal works of tlie besieged. In vain the allied artil-
lery jiounded the earthworks and batteries. In vain showers of shell wero
jHUireil into the town. The Russian engineers were consummate masters
of their art, and every morning fresh guns poured forth a deadly reply from

* Xotliin^' can well cxccoil the in;;t'nuit_v of tlie Uti-^sinns in (Icfi'nri'. The fdllowintj incidents
will serve as illustrations of the unexpected resonrces of skill and foretlionjxht with which, during
the s«e}:e of Sevastapol, they were cvervwhere armed : In their uttonipts to shell the Manielon,
the l)esie;rers were surprised to notice how few of the fiilininntin;; projectiles which fell in that
rcdonht seemed to explode there. The reason was not discovered hy them till the snhseqiient
stormiTi;: of the place Ity the Zouaves, when it was ascertained that the uroniid was honoycond)cd
with perpendicular tunnels, pipin;:, tnim])et-like, at the orifice, and presentiiij; on every side a
capacious decline, to receive and eii(.'iilf the rolling; shell, which, rnshin}.' into it with n whirl and
a spin, hurst innocuous far hclow in the <'oinpressin;; emhrace of the solid earth.

The space l)etwcen the Russian rifle-pits and those of the allies, hnd in hrief all the spot.') which
the fonner did not intend to occupy in force, wen- sown with foot-mines, or /oiii)>issfS as they are
technii .illy termed. A nuantity of explosives were enclosed in a f:lol»c of tin, and this was
nttnchcd to a tin-tulio. Tiie (jlohc was hurled some feet helow the surface ; the tiihe was allowed
to cmerpo, hat so hent us to lie on the ^'round, concealeil from view. Inside the tnhe, near the top,
was a L'lass vial contninin}; an acid. The pressure of a man's foot would hreak the vial and dis-
en!.'a;:e the acid, which, rnnnintr down, would encounter a few drops of a chemieal, which it
would itrnite: the explosive materials would immediately blow into the air the earth around
them and whatever was above. The lo<ation of these artificial volcanoes would remain unknown
to the allied soldiers till unsuspectinirly trotl upon by them. To the Russian troops the fatal
spots were indicated by preconcerted marks.

HISTORIC SUMMAIIY — Al.K a \N

II.

the repaired embrasures. For nearly llm-o wci^ks *],]< \v< mmAuus liom
Itanliaoiit was kept, up, whoii — their aiuiimiiition heinj,' brought too h)\v to
risk what remained, ai I many of tlie guns also beinj; seriously damajied or
rendered entirely useless — on the '2xi\\ of April, it was fnially susp(Mid(.'d.
The niaj?nitude of this uupreeedeuted bomliardiin'iit may l»e eoneeived from
the laet that the bcsie>iin^ torees diseliar^<;d iibout six thousaixl tons of
shot, and l)urnt al)Out sixteen hundred tons of powder, durinj^ the nineteen
days it continiuHl. Neither were the Hussiaii fortilieations, as already
stated, materially damajred from this terrildc attMcIc — this /fit <rtvfvir, as
it was stronfjfly termed by CiorciiakotV in an ollicial despat(!h — nor the eonfi-
denee and spirits of llits l)osiejred in the least shaken or depressed, and solar
froui diseontinuin<r their sorties, they redoultled them. Nor did the allies,
notwithstanding; this s(^coud failure, entertain a d«Mii»t of ultimate sneeess.

On the t)th of May, (Jeneral ()anrol>ert, assi]U'nin<; his " sliatterecl health"
ns his reas(»n for the aet, resigned the Freiuli eonmiund in the Crimea, and
General I'elissier, who had ae(iuired a somewhat unenviable notoriety for
remorseless energy in the Algerinc eampaign, was appointed to tuke his
plaee. General Canrobert, a brave soldier in the Held, was besides, highly
crtieient as a seeond in command. Hut invested with the responsibility of
the supreme part, he was a.s .slow and scrupulous in givin<r instrnetitms,
as, in a suliordinate positi(»n, he would have been prompt, decided, and in-
tidligent, in execntinj; them.

At the period of (leneral Pelissier's assuming the Fremdi command, the
allied armies were in admirable condition. Abundantly provided with pro-
visions and clothing, the men were ii< excellent health and spirits, and the
calamities of the past winter were forgotten. Very considerable reinforce-
ments (including thi; Sardinian contingent) had arrived, increa'ring their
aggregate number to two hinidred and fifteen thousand men, comprising
one hundred and ten thousand French, sixty thousand Turks, thirty thou-
sand English, and fifteen thousand Sardinians. The Russian forces num-
bered about a hundred and thirty thousand. Telegrnphic communicaticai
had also at this time been established, bringing Sevastapol into instantane-
ous communication with all the allied and Russian capitals.

On the 4th of May, just previous to the resignation of General Can-
robert, an expedition sailed for the sea of Azov, with the design of cutting
oiV the supplies of the Russian army, which were mostly conveyed across
that sea. Through some misapprehension, however, of a telegraphic de-
spatch from the French emperor, the expedition was recalled ere it had
reached its destination. On the '22d of May, however, another expedition,
comprising fifteen thousand men, with five batteries of artillery, was
despatched on the same errand and proved more successful. On the 24th,
it forced the strait of Einkaleh. The garrisons of Enikaleh and Kertsch,
commanding the outlet of the sea of Azofl", were taken and occupied. Ar-
abat was reduced, Soujouk-Kaleh wa.s evacuated, and Genitchi, at the ex-
tremity of the Spit (so called) was bombarded. The whole of the Cim

094

iLLUsTn.vTKD nKsmirTtoN' f>p nt'ssiA.

niorinn Tlosplionis wns swcftf of all its nicicliiiiil-vrs-si'ls. nltoiit lliicc Imn-
<lnMl ll!lvill^• lii'c'ii (lostidycil by llic Mllicd llct't, 'riimiiiro^-. vlion' AlfXiiii-
(Icr I. Iiiul <li('(l, wiis I'iiiiiKiniuliMl ; iim(I fvcu tin- I'litriil k'ii was iinictiatcd
ami palrulltMl liy tin; lioats. In los iliiiii a wci-k riilions were dt'^lroycil,
t«utli('i(Mit (iia-linlin^ what the Kushiaiis thciiiKclvcs ooiniiiittcil to the fluincH
on their iftivat IVom tlio ooast ) to have led a hniKlrcd tliniisand iiicii luat*
months. The success of tliis exj lition was a most serious Idow to the
llussian cause. Tlionccloith the entire coast ol' tlie Crimea was at the
mercy of the allies; and the only road lor reinforcein<'nts and provisions
for the Muscovites army was liy the route through Perekop, ami over the
dreiii-y and liarren steppes, where ti'oops in tlieir ti'ansit lost nearly one
fourth of their nnnil>er fn-m lativ:ue, privation, and disease.

(hi the 'Jiid of May, a severe luittle was t'oiight Itelween the French and
Itussiaiis. The latter had formed lietween the central Itastion and the Kea,
u larjre ///r/rr JV/zv/zr, where they designed to a-senil)le larire liodics of
troo|)s for sorties upon the Krench trenches. Ahout nine o'clock in the
evening of that day. altout four thousantl French and Zouaves attacked the
works ('nelosini? and proteetinjf this area ; hut they met with a lud rece|)-
tion, for the works were defended hy nearly the entire jrurrison. The con-
test was a most saajruinary oni<, and lasted nearly all niirht, the Ficncli
heini; linally ohli^^ed to aliandon the attack, ami retire, hearinjr ofl' their
dead and wounded. The next nijiht, (Jeneral I'elissier himself directed a
renewed attack with nine thousand men. After a short hut fierce stnijrfilo
both of the sidewoi'ks were caiiied, and the assault was made upon the
centre ime. Here the contest was intensely tierce, the Russians ln)ldiiitT
their ^rouml with extraordinary tenacity. Mut they finally yielded to the
impetuous energy of the French — lieinjj: also exposed to a raking fire from
tlie sidmvoiks, now turiieil against them — ami tied h\ tin; utmost confu-
sion, their ahandttned woiks heing iimneiliately destroyed 'ty the captors.
The Russian loss in the two engagements was over three thousand, and
that of tlie French was about eighteen humlred.

June was marked hy several incidents deserving mention. Karly in the
month, the Russians evacuated Anapa, on the Ciicassian coast, which was
at once occmpied hy the allies, and in hrief destrov<'d all their forts on the
east(M'n shores of the IJIack sea, withdrawing their garrisons to reinforce the
C()r])s in campaign. On tlie Ttli, at Sevastapol. after twenty-four hours of
renewed homhardinent, a eoinliined assault was made hy tht> Knglish upon
tlie (piarries, and hy the French upon tin; Mamelon redouht. The former. a«
the name implies, W(;re pits from which stone had formcM-ly been excavated
for buildings in the town, and which were now occupied and fortified by
the Russians, to protect the Great Redan, itself a most formidable work of
Muscovite defence, in front (»f which they lay. After a desperate and
sanguinary contest, the assailants being two or three times repulsed, the
quarries and Mamelon were both taken, and a line of defences connected
with the latter, known as the White Works, leading to and protecting Ca«

msTtlRlC RCMMAUY— ALKX.VNDKll IT.

09.".

s. .'ilidiif tlii'cc Iiiin-

U^', \>lKTt' Alt'Xllll'

Kciv wiiH poiK'tnitod
lis W(MV (i»;slniyr(|,
littt'il ti) tlic thiiiK'H
tlioiihaini iiicn I'oiii'
•ii(»us Itlow l(» iho
■riiiit'ii Wiis lit tlio
its mill |)i'()vi>ii)ti>i
'!«»|), !)ii(l over ili(»
it lost lu'iirly niio

ISC.

•11 the FrciH'li and

istinii mill tln' sea,

Ic \i\vfi^\ liddics ot'

iiio o'clock in till!

saves attacked tlm

: with a Iwtt rccc|>-

airisoii. The coii-

liirht, the French

, lu'aiin^ ofl' llii'ir

liinself directed a

lilt tierce stni^'ljhj

is made upon the

Russians holding;

lly yielded to the

I rakiiijr Hie from

th(' utmost oonT'i-

'•y the captors.

CO thousand, and

)n. Karly in tho

coast, which was

their forts on tho

is to reinfoiTO tho

ity-f(»ur hours of

le English upon

The former, as

v lieen excavateil

and fortified by

iiii<lal)le work of

a desperate and

les repulsed, tho

fences connected

d protecting Ca-

rt^oninp l>ay, wore also captiin.'d. This important success was ncliieved at
a cost to lilt.' victiM's of tvvciity-live hiindnMl mcii and niiiiiy valiiiililo olli-
cors. The Uussiiui loss, however, was much greater. The allies were,
by tho possossioit of these outworks, l<rou<j:ht liico to face with tho actual
tlefenc(!s of Seviistapid, aud llicy |(»st no liuK! in Iryiiij; tlnjir ,stieiii<th.

Tho l^ilh (tf June (^liii! aiiiiivcrsaiy (»f the i>attlc (»f Waterloo) was tlio
day OH wiiich a j^raiid coial>iiied assault was made upon llicso stroiinliolds.
Tho French attacked the MalakoiV with twenty-live thousand men, in three
Columns ; and the Kii;:lish made an attack iiiion iIkj HcMlau, at nearly tho
same time, with a laiire force, also divided into (liree colimiiis. The Rus-
sians, however, well uwans of these intended attacks, wi.-re prepared for
them, and as tho attacking leritcs approached, a jiurfoct luirricai '" shut,
and shell poured forth from every cmlirasuie. The en'ect v . he

advancinn' columns were checked in their progress, and linall c

with dreadful slaujihlcr. One ccduiun of llie Kreiich, however, ciun^ licur
redeeming the fortunes of the day at the Malakoll". An ailvanced battal-
ion, following the ci"est (d' a ravine to the left, succeeded in entering this
grt^it loit. .^^calinu' lailders were iiiiiiiedialely pitiiited a)j-aiiist it, and tho
i-eiiiaiitiler of the division rushed forward to tlit-ir support, and for a brief
space tlie tri-0(dor waved aloft, eneouraginji' tlio repulsed troops of tho
otlu^r divisions to renewed exertions. iJut it was ini|iossil)le for a siiifrlo
division, exposed to an appalling think fire, and an immensely superior
force in front, to long sustain such an iiiuvpial C(tntest. They were obliged
to retreat, hiaving tin; .Mulakolf still in the hands of its successful defend-
ers. Tlnj loss of the allies in killed and wounded, in these attacks was
over five thousand ; that of the Russians aliout three thousand.

Lord Raglan, who hail been for some time sulVeriiig from disease, could
not surmouiil the moral elVect produced on his mind and spirits by tliis re-
pulse. From this period he sank fast, aud on tho ilSth of June, breathed
his last. Funeral honors were paid to his remains, which were placed on
board ship to be conveyed to Kngland. (uiiieral Simpson, an experienced
soldier, and a veteran of Waterloo, succeeded him in the chief command.

During tho months of July and August the allies were assiduously em-
ployed in preparing for another Ijombardment on a scale thitherto unjiara-
lelled in tht; annals of warfare. Mortars of an enormous size wore brought
up to the fnmt, and stores of ammunition i)repareil of the most colossal
character. Nor were tho Ivussians idle. A luidge of rafts was thrown
across the harbor near Fort Paul, to facilitate communication between tho
town and the forts on the north side, and immense convoys of provisions,
nvunitions, and men, were brought in. 'J'hcy also occupied tho Mackenzie
heights, beyond the Chernaya.and. the country toward Baiilar,in great force.

On the loth of August, tho Russians made a final attempt to break the
power which they felt was fast closing around their forts. To the number
of over fifty thousand men, with a hundred and sixty pieces of artillery,
and six thousand cavalry, they came down from the heights, led on by

! I,

r;i

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

GorcliiikolT in person, and attacked the French and Sardinians, numbering
about thirty thousand, posted on the Chornaya near Traktir bridge. The
battle wliich tbUowcd was a most sauj^uinary one, and lasted several hours,
the Russians lighting with desperation. They were finally rei)ulsed, how-
ever, anil retreated, leaving tliree thousand dead upon the field and five
thousand wounded. Tlie allies' loss was about two thousand.

After this battle at Traktir bridge, the besiegei"s' operations continued
"with increased diligence, and witiiout other interruption than an occasional
sortie by the Russians, till the oth of Sejjtember, when, all preliminary
arrangements being completed, the third boiubardment of Sevastapol com-
menced. The French had sap))ed up to the very foot of the Malakofl*,
so that the guards in their trenches could, without leaving them, |)laco
a hand upon the incline of the tremendous tower the strength of which
they were so soon once more to try. On the morning of the day just men-
tioned, the fire from their batteries was opened, the Russians, though taken
somewhat by sur[)rise, soon returning volley for volley in quick response.
With occasional intermissions tiie cannonading was kept up till the 8th, at
noon of which day a combined assault was made, l)y the English upon the
Great Redan, and by the French upon the MulakolV and the Little Redan
of Careening bay. The assaulting columns of the French, at the signal,
left the trenches, aiid j)roceeded against the MalakoiT with the greatest
impetuosity ; and in spite of a iunivy fire in front and a flanking lire from
the Little Redan, the ditch was passed, and after a sanguinary struggle of
aji hour, the Russians were driven out, and the French flag planted on the
tower. iJatteries.were immediately placed in position, which poured down
on the Russian fleet a perfect storm of shells, setting lire to and destroy-
ing several of the ships. The Little Redan was also taken and occupied
by the French, but they were driven (»ut by the severe fire to which they
were exposed. The English troojw also left the trenches at the preeon-
ccrted signal, to attack the Great Redan. They rushed over the open
intervening space under a murderous fire of shot and shell, a«d on reach-
ing the crest of the ditch, ladders wci-o placed, and the men immediately
stormed the parai)et of the Redan, and jxinetrated into the salient angle.
A most determined and bloody conibat was here maintained for nearly an
hour, and although the greatest bravery was displayed, they could not hold
tho position, and were forced to retire, the Russians charging them with
the bayonet, till tho ditch was filled with the bodies of English soldiers.

It was the intention of General Simpson to renew tho assault on tho
Great Redan the next morning. Rut during tho night Prince GorchakofT
exploded tho mines under most of tho fortifications remaining iu his hands
on tho south side of tho harbor, sot tho town on fire, and, covered by a con-
flagration which clTectually prevented pursuit, withdrew his whole army to
the north side, destroying tho bridge upon which they crossed. All tho
ships in the harbor shared a similar fate, having boon burnt, or were scut-
tled and sunk slowly below tho waters of this onco crowded inlet of tho sea

HISTORIC i?UMMARY— ALEXANDER II.

697

The loss of the allies in this final ussanlt was risinji; ten thoiisaiitl, throo
fourths of whieh was bonio by the Freneli ; tliat of the Kussiaiis was be-
tween eleven and twelve tliousand. An inmuMise (Hiantily of military
Btores, including cannon, balls, grapeshot, powder, and other munitions of
war, fell into the hands of the allies.

For sonic time after (lie reduction of Southern 8evastoi)ol the belligerent
armies disjdayed but little inclination to resume active hostilities. Clor-
chakoif was Itusy intrenching himself in the northern forts, and the allies
were occupied in clearing away the " blood-stained ruins,"* in order to open
an attack upon their enemy in his new position. A sullen fire was kept
up from the Nicholas and Quarantine forts, wliicli the Ru!i;siaus had left in-
tact in their retreat, but no great damage was done.

An increased activity, combined with the movements and counter-move-
ments of largo bodies of men, at length gave uiimistakeabl(< signs of a
renewal of hostilities. On the 2'.Uh of .September, a sjiirited cavalry
engagement oecurnnl at Kiiougill, fifteen miles northeast of Eupatoria,
between the Cossacks under (Jeneral KorlV and the French under fJeneral
d'Alloiiville, in which the Ibrmer were defeated with a hiss of lifty men.
The French had six killed and t>v(«iity-scven wounded. An allied expedi-
tion, comprising fifteen thousand French and four thousand IJritish troops,
set sail from Halaclava on the (ith of October, and after making a demon-
stration before Ode;<sa, etVected a descent on Kinburn, at the mouth of the
Dnieper, and successfully bonibariled that fortress. The garrison to the
number of fifteen hundred, on th(> ITtli, surrendered as jirisoners-of-war,
and the neighboring fortress of Otchakov point was destroyed by the Rus-
sians to prevent its sharing a similar fate. \iy their position at Kinburn,
the allies placed in close blockade the naval arsenal and port of Nikolaiev,
the towns of Kherson and HerisloiV, and in brief the whole region watered
by the Dnieper and the Hong.

On the loth of October, I'rincc CorchakolT — Alexander having left it
to his discretion to evacuate the Crimea or remain there as lie thought
most judicious — proclaimed in an order of the day his resolution to hold
his ground at all hazards through the winter. About the same time ho
was reinforced with twenty-two thousand sujierior troops, who reached him
by tho way of l*erekop, with conunissariat supplies for eight months.

In the early part of November, General Simpson was recalled, and Gen-
eral Codrington was appointed to su|)cr.sode him in tho British command.

While the events wiiid. have just been detailed were transpiring in tho
Crimea, others of perhaps etjual interest were occurring on tho frontiers
of Asia, in the Caucasus. Some four months previous to the date to which

* Tlic Russiiiti emperor, in an order of tho dny, on tlio o<'cnsion of the full of Sontlicm 8eva»>
tapol, rommendini^ in tlio wannest terms tlio eourii(;e nnd eon»tnn('y with which the defence Imd
been conduptcd, stnted thnt ttio eonnnander-iii ehief, after the allies hud ohtniiied possession of
the MuliikofT tower, desirous of sparing tho hlood of his troops, who, under tho eiroumstaneos
would only have shed it uselessly, decided U|K)n piusing over to tlH) nortlMirn forts, " Icuving out}
blood-stained ruina to the besieging oueiny."

B' I

698

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

our narrative is now brought, a Afuscovitc force of forty thousand, unclcf
MouravielV, had invaded Turlcish Armenia, and hxid siege to tlie city of
Kars, which was among the Russian conquests in the invasion of 1829,
The present siege was kept up uninterruptedly, till the 20th of Soptcnibor,
when !^[ouravielf determined to assault the citadel which protected the
town. At the iirst onset, so licrce and sudden was it, tlie Russians suc-
ceeded in capturing two batteries, but before they had time to turn round
the guns, tlio Turks cluirged them with such impetuosity that the batteries
were retaken. The Russians fell back in disorder, and the Turks, rushing
en masse from the fortress at the moment, turned thi; fortunes of the day
in tlioir favor. A most sanguinary struggle ensued, liowever, which lasted
several hours, tlie Turks lighting at great numerical odds. The Russians
linally retreated, leaving four thousand of their numbers dead under tho
Walls of Ivars. The Turkish loss was snndl. Tho Russian commander,
undismayed by this bloody repulse, re-established the siege, which was con-
tinued till the 28th of November, when General Williams, the commander
of the fortress, rode out with a Hag of truce, and told Prince Mouravieff
timt Kars would surrender if the honors of war were conceded to the gar-
rison. T'", Russian chief replied with visilde emotion, as he looked at tho
emaciated hero, that all was granted, and that he was proud to testify that
General Williams* and those under him had immortalized themselves.
The heroic garrison, had long been macerated i»y tho failure ol rations and
disease. Their nmmunition was expended, and they were completely past
the j)o\vcr of physical resistance as a body, being unable to wield their
weapons, and hardly able to stand eroct. They were a corps of spectres,
with scarcely the strength to speak. All anunid was death and despair,
when they finally yielded to necessity and surrendered.

At the date of tho ca[)itulation of Kars, Omer Pacha, with a Turkish
force of twenty thousand, was hastening to liis relief. On the (>th of No-
vember, he had ibrced the passage of the Ingour, in tho face of twelve
thousand Russians strongly entrtinched on the opposite bank and command-
ing the passage by l)attcries. Tlie engagement lasted live hours, when tho
Russians deserted their batteries and retreated upon Kutais, Omer Pacha
following ujion their track. Rut tiie season of floods had come; the Pha-
sis had assumed the dimensions of a torrent. He found the roads impas-
sable to artillery, and almost so to infantry. The whole country was
transforined into an alternation of morass and lagoon, and an ordinaiy

* Gt-ncnil Williuin I'Vnwick Williams was horn in Aiinapoli!*, Nova Scotia, in ISOO, and cn-
tt'i-fd till' loyal anilloiy in isa5. Situe 1840, he has hvm t'ni|iUnr(l in various (li|>l(>n\aiii' iliitics
in the Kast. In Aujriist, 18S4, lie was appointft! Ki);:ii>h Pomniissioncr with tho Turkish iirmy,
ond JR'ld coniinaiid of the frnrrison of Kars, durlii!! its iiivestinont l>v the Russians, as aliovc narra-
ted, Sinee his return to Kn;;hnid iu' has taken oeeasion to speak in tlio warniost terms of tho
kiudness and courtesy with wliicii lie and his fellow-dcfuiider.s of Kars were treated liy I'rinea
MouruvieH'and the IJussian army at and suhsequoiit to tho capitulation. As a reward for hi.s
heroic and determined defence of Kars, Queen Victoria conferred on him a barom^tcy, and tho
(i:ovomor8hip of Woolwich.

HISTORIC SUMJIAUY — ALEXAXDm IT.

G99

day's march was the work of a wcok. The troojis, broken uj) and ishiiided,
as it wore, into helploHs detachments, wore siilleriiiji' iueredilde liardshijw
and i)rivati(ms. While still ju'ei^siiig on, luidcir all these drawbaeks, the
HOWS rcaehcd him that Kars had surrendered, and he at once conimoneed a
retrograde movement. His troops retired munolestcd, and gradually
struggled back to Redoubt Kaleli, on the Abassiau coast, which he had
made the basis of his operations, and where he soon succeeded in restoring
their tone and refreshing their exhausted energies.

Hero nuiy be said to have ended this gigantic struggle; for these were
its closing incidents of active warfare. During the lull which winter now
imposed upon hostilities, Austria ascertained from the allies the lowest condi-
tions they would accept from Russia as the j)riee of peace. Austria sent
the propositions to rt. Petersburgh on the first .if the new-year, giving
Russia fouiteen days to accejjt or reject, but not to modii'y them. January
] *)th, Alexander telograpnod Prince (jorchakoff that they were accepted
without reserve. An armistice was piochumed till the 81st of March.
The congress, comprising the representatives of Russia, Franco, England,
•Sardinia, Turkey, and Ansti-ia, assembled at Paris, and held its first ses-
sion Fel)ruary 2.Jth. Prussia was afterward admitted by courtesy to ratify,
but not to deliberate on, the essential preliminaries. All the labors of the
congress were performed in less than a score of meetings ; and at two
o'clock, on the iJUth of March, 185G — the anniversary of the day on which
Paris capitulated to the allies in 1814, and just two years and two days
from the date of the declaration of war by the western powers — this great
settlement of Euro])o and Asia was proclaimed. The instrument which
liad ligured most lai-gely in the prosecution of hostilities was that Avhich
now heralded their terndnation. Almost simultaneously with the signing
of the treaty, in the principal capitals of Europe — -such are the spaee-and-
timo-aimihilating powers of the nuignetic telegrajih — salvos of artillery
announced the joyous tidings to the popular car.

The treaty contains thirty-four articles, of which the following is a sum-
mary, divested of the verbiage with which the document is oncuml)ered in
its oilicial form : 1. Perpetual friendship is restored between Great Rritain,
Sardinia, Turkey, France, and Russia. 2. All territories conquered o'- oc-
cupied during the war shall be reciprocally evacuated as soon as possible.
8. Russia restores to Turkey Kars and other parts of tlie Ottoman territory.
4. The allies restore to Russia SevastajK)!, Balaklava, Kamicsch, Eupatoria,
nud Kertseh. 5. Full and entire amnesty is granted lo all who nn y have
been compromised by favoring the cause of the enemy. G. Prisoncrs-ol-
war arc to be immediately given up. 7. Turkey is formally admitted to
participate in the advantages of the public law and system of Europe, and
the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottonmn empire are guar-
antied. 8. In case of misunderstanding between Turkey and any of the
contracting powers, the mediation of the other powers is to bo invited bo-
fore rosoiting to hostilities. 9. The Turkish emperor promises to establish

700

TLLUSTHATED DESCKIPTION OF nU3STA.

perfect equality between his Christian and IMohaniincdan subjects ; but the
otlior powers divest tlieiuselves of all right to interfere in the internal aflairs
of liis dominions, or in the relations between him and his subjects. 10. The
convention of July 1^5, 1841, closing the Dardanelles and Bosphorus is re-
nflirmed, with sonic slight modifications provided for in one of the annexed
Conventions. 11. The iJlack sea is neutralized. Open to the niercantilo
marine of all nations, its waters and ports are for ever forbidden to all
vSJiips-of-war of every power, with the exceptions specified in articles 14
and 19. 12. Trade sluiU bo free in the waters and ports of the Black sea,
su'ijoct only to rcj^nlations of health, customs, and police, Russia and Tur-
key adnutting consuls to all ])orts on its shores. 13. Russia and Turkey
eufrage neither to construct nor preserve any military-maritime arsenals on
the coasts of the Black sea. 14. The convention regulating the force of
ships for coast service in the Black sea, is concluded between Russia and
Turkey, but is appended to this treaty, and can not be annulled or modified
wit]u>ut general consent, lo. The act of the congress of Vienna relative
to river navigation is apj)lied to the Danube and its mouths, ami its fno-
dom becomes a part of the pid)lic law of Europe. 1(5. The contracting pow-
ers shall appoint each a delegate, to form a general commission, to put the
Danuljc from Isatcha dowu'vard, with its mouths, and the neighboring parts
of the sea, in a navigable state, a small duty to be levied on vessels, to
cover the expenses incurred in rendering and keeping the river navigable.
17. Austria, Bavaria, Turkey, and Wurtcmbnrg, sluill add each a delegate
to the commission of the |)rinci])alities, to form a i»erinanent commission to
keep the Danube navigable and superintend its police. 18. The general
cot'uuission slu^U be dissolved in two years and the j)erinanent conunission
take its place. li>. Each of the contracting powers may station two light
vessels at the mouths of the Danube. 20. The l)etter to assure the liberty
of the Danube, Russia consents to the rectification of her Bessaral)inn
frontier. The new froniier starts from the Black sea, one kilometre east of
Lake Bouna Sola, to the Akerman road, along which it extends to the val-
ley of Trajan, passing to the south of Belgrade, and rcascending the river
Yalpuck to Saratsika, and terminates at Katamori on the Pruth. Thenco
the old frontier remains unchanged.* 21. The ceded territory is annexed
to Moldavia. 22. Moldavia and Wallachia contimie under the sovereignty
of Turkey, with the guaranty of all the contracting powers that no power
shall claim the private right of interference. 23. The emperor of Turkey
guaranties to the said principalities the continuance of the freedom of reli-
gion and commerce. The contracting powers will appoint a commissi(m
to meet immediately at Bucharest to report on the present condition and
wants of the principalities, and to propose the bases of their future organi-
Eation. 24. The sultan will immediately convoke a divan in each princi-
pality to learn the wishes of the people as to their definite organization.
25. Ministers thereof shall bo sent to Paris, where the constitution shall bo
• The old and new frontier lines cau both bo seen by reftrence to the accompanying nrnp

jccts ; but the
internal afl'airs
!cts. 10. The
osplionis is rc-
)f the annexed
he nicrcantilo
bidden to all
in articles 14
the Black sea,
issia and Tur-
a and Turkey
ne arsenals on
i: the force of
n Russia and
id or modified
icnna relative
:, and its IVce-
itractinp pow-
on, to put the
hboring parts
on vessels, to
.•or navigalde.
eh a delegate
ximinission to

The general
it commission
ion two light
re the liberty
' Bessaral)ian
metre east of
ds to the vai-
ling the river
ith. Thence
py is annexed
c sovereignty
hat no power
or of Turkey
;edom of reli-
i commission
ondition and
uture organi-

cach princi-
organization.
ition shall bo

il^

panj'ing n^np

702

ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

framed, Avliicli the sultan shall proimilgate. 26. The principalitios shall
miiiiitain a militia, and may c(Histriu't works of dofenco api)r()Vt'd by the
sultan. 27. If t\w intornal tranquillity of the i)riiu!ipalities be disturbed,
the sultan must cons\dt tlie contractiu}; powers, and can not employ armed
intervontion without their consent. 28. Scrvia continues a dependency of
Turkey, iMuler the guaranty of the contractin<r jiowers, and retains its na-
tional administration and freedom of relioion and trade. 29. Theriirhtof
garrison in Servia is i-eserved to Turkey, but no armed intervention is jhm'-
mitted without the consent of the powers. 30. Russia and Turkey n^tain
their ])ossessions in Asia precisely as before the war, but their frontiers are
to be immediately marked out by survey, under Kussian, Turkish, English,
and French cunnnissioners. ?51. The evacuation of Turkey l)y the: allied
and Austrian forces shall tak(5 ))lace as soon as convenient. The time and
maimer of such evacuation shall be arranged by Turkey and the powers
Avhose tnjops occupy her territories. 32. Until new arrangements shall bo
made, trade and commerce! shall go on as before the war. 33. Tiie conven-
tion C()nclud(Hl Itc'tween France, England, and Russia, relative to the Aland
isbs shall be appended to this treaty, and have like force and value. 34. The
ratifuations of this treaty shall be exchanged at Paris within four weeks.'

The three conventions api)endetl to the treaty, and which are n.'fcrred in
it, jirovidc, first, that so long as Turkey is at peace, tin; Dardaui'llcs and
IJosphorus shall be closed to all foreign ships-of-war, excepting ?har light
vessels employed on diplonnitic service may be adiidtted by a special fir-
man, and also excepting tin; vessels which each of the contracting powers
is antliorized to station at the mouths of tin; I)anul)e ; se(;ond, that the na-
val force maintained by Russia and Turkey in tin; IJIack sea, shall bo lim-
ited to six steam-vessels of not more than eight hundred tons, and four
smaller vessels not exceeding two humlred tons ; and, third, that the Aland
isles shall not be fort i lied, nor any military or naval establishment main-
tained or created there.

The emperor Alexander, in a manifesto announcing the restoration of
j)eace, expressiid his satisfaction with the terms upon which it had In-en ob-
tained ; said that all the oltjects for which war had been waged by Russia
had been acquired by the treaty ; that tbe rights of the Cluistians of the
East were secured ; and by guarantying these Turkey had entered into the
concert of the European states ; and that to dispel any apprehensions from
the supposed aniiiitious designs of Russia, he had assented to the neutrali-
zation of the Rlack se", and to a rectiiication of the frontier of Ressara-
bia, concessions which he deemed of no weight compurod with the cost of
the war and the advantages of tranquillity.

The question, however, will arise in the reflectivo mind, whether the
coneessiuiis nuide, however humiliating they nniy seem to tlie one side, or
advantageous to the other — whether the points gained, in brief, by either
party — will vindicate the j)rice at which they were purchased — the sacri-

* Tlic cxehaiii^c of rutifiiutiuns touk place at ruris, on the 27tli of April, 185G.

HISTOUIC SUMMARY — ALKXA.NUKU II.

i03

fice cf blood and treasure through whieii lliey were obtained. Within the
brief period of two years tliat the war continued, more thiin iivo hinidred
thousaid men perislied, either in action, by disease, or from want, expo
sure, fatigue, and other causes incident to u life in camp. Ibit iliis eiior-
laous tacrilice of hunuiii life, tliough its most deploral)le result, stands not
alone in counting the cost of this sliort but gigantic struggle. More thiui
two thousiuid millions of dollars were expemled l)y Rut-sia and her allied
opponents in prosecuting this war to its termination. And even this
amount, immense as it is, covers the direct exjienditures oidy. It does not
include the value of towns and cities laid waste or bui'nt, vessels and entire
fleets even sunk or destroyed, bridges demolished, liarljors ruincil, and for-
lilications dismantled or Idowii up, which will reipure the exprndiliire of
untold millions to make good again. Nor does it take into the cstinuito
the detriment to trade and conunerce, resulting in the loss of many mil-
lions more, and involving thousands in ruin, nor the losses tc ijroduetive
industry, in the immense numbers drawn from their peaceful avocations at
the plough or in the workshop, to till up the coustantly-lhinning ranks of
the armies in the held. Not till all these items are taken into tlie account
will the fearful record of the results of this brief but sanguinary contest
be complete.

The coronation of Alexander II. and his imj)erial consort, Maria Al-
cxandrovna, tiR)k place at the church of the Assumption in Moscow,
on the 7th of September, ISot!. Some idea of the unexampled pomp
and magnilicence with wiiicli the ceremony was attended ma}' Ijc formed
from the fact that it involved an expenditure of over ten millions of dol-
lars. The young emperor signalized the occasion by granting an anmesty
to all implicated in the political disturbances of IH^o-'ol, exem])ting the
maritime provinces of the empire from conscription for four years, and
by granting various other concessions. He also took occasion to reallirm
his intention, for the future, to devote the great energies and power of his
dominions to the development of their internal resources — to tlin encour-
agement of the peaceful arts of agriculture, conunerce, and manufactures.
When the mild and paciiie disposition which forms so prominent a trait iu
his character is borne in mind — when it is remembered that the late war
did not originate with him, with the sacrifices he indubitably made to l)ring
it to a close — the sincerity of his peaceful purposes will not be questioned.

The wretched roads which everywhere prevail and which form so seiious
an impediment to travel iu Russia, have been described in a former chaj>
ter. Incidental allusion was also made in the same chapter to the system
of railways with which — as one of the means to the internal imi)rovement
of his empire — Alexander II. designs to connect the interior of Russia
with her remote extrenutios. When it is considered that the proportion of
the expenses of the lato war boiue by Russia alone is more than the cost
of building and equipping all the railroads in the United States, extending
over twenty-three thousand miles — a greater length, ia fact, than all the

fOA

ILLUSTRATED DE8CEIPTION OP BUSSIA.

In the early siiinmer of 1857, the young ompevor conchuled a treaty
of comnu'ivo with France, which was chiefly notahlo as evincing a dispo-
eition to heiil the wounds of war. In the autunni, the Emperor Napoleon
and Alexander II. had a ver\' friendly meeting at Stutgard; and soon
after the Russian C/.ar met the Emperor of Austria at Weimar. All this
looked fav()ral)le for a permanent peacre. The Czar, before the year had
run out, alxilished the svsteui of militarv colonization, which had here-
tofore been a marked custom of Russian policy.

There had been for years considerable mutual exasperation between
Russia and China on the subject of frontiers; and in May, 1858, a treaty
Wiis signed which appeared likely to sati^fy both nations. In the ensuing
June a treaty of connnerce was coiurluded between Russia and Rtlgium.
All this went to prove that the young monarch's intentions were eminently
peacef\d. AVhile Alexander was thus busy in forming alliances through-
out the M'orld, he was not unmindful of home matters, lie caused ar-
rangements to be made by which all peasants on the royal domains were
fully admitted to all the rights of freemen. As if to tighten the bonds
of friendship between his recent antagonist, Great Rritain, and his own
country, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded between the two
countries.

The various tribes of mountaineers usually classed as Circassians liavo
ever proved thorns in the side of the Muscovite monarchs, whose great
aim it has always been to attach them to the crown as feudatories or mil-
itary vassals, after the style of the Cossacks of the Don. But while there
are many points of sin)ilarity between them, there are also points of di-
vergence; and beatings and bribes appeared to be equally inefficacious
to win them over to the Russian side. Consequently, in a war with
Turkey, they were a cause of real weakness to the powerful but unwieldy
empire. Such bein^' the state of affairs it is reasonable to suppose that
Alexander II. would take advantage of the peace existing with the great
powers to put forth, if need be, the whole strength of the empire to con-
quer his turbident and fearless neighbors.

Accordingly, ftrong armies were sent into the Caucasian mountains,
and, after many very hard-fought engagements, the Circassians were
driven from one strong position to another, until, by the autumn of
1859, the Russian commander announced the submissson of all the tribes,
and the capture of the indomitable Schmayl, their great leader.

Tiie Russian Government, in the spring of 1800, flatly rejected the
doctrine of the sovrelgnty of the people, and indicated that all reforms
must flow as gifts from the Czar. In the summer of this year the Cir-
cassians were again in revolt, and fresh ai'mies had to be sent against
them. '

HISTORIC SUMMARY. — ALEXANDER U.

T05

At this time a commercial treaty was concluded with Austria. Some
dissutit;faction was felt at the way affairs were conducted at Turin, the
new capital of Iti»ly, and the ambassador was recalled. An interview
toolv place at Warsaw between the Czar, tlio Emperor of Au^'rla, and
the Prince Regent of Prussia. If the ol»jo<^t was to ameliorate I he con-
dition of the Poles, no practical result came of it, and Russia gained a?
foothold on the shore of the river Amur, by a now treaty with Cliina.

Tlie year 1861 will ever be marked by a white htono ,in the calendar of
the Muscovites, for it was in the March of this year that Alexander II.,
by an imperial proclamatio'i, antiounced tlio death of serfdom, and the
emancipation of men of every degree tln-oughout the vast empire. If
the result has not been all that phihmthropists desired and hoped for, it
has been in a great measin-e owing to the immense scale on which mil-
lions of men were suddenly enfranchised without any prior preparation
or education.
[ Prince Gortschakoff, a trusted officer of Nicliolas, died in 1801.' "'''^''

The Finns, 'vho compose the most active and intelligent portion of the
Russian people, were instructed to send commissioners to meet at Ilel-
singfors, in 18t)2. \', "":' i.^V''* '^ ^'*.»«i« .

Constantinople and St. Petersburg were put into telegraphic communi-
cation in 1862. In the following yeai* Prussia entered into a mutual
arrangement with Russia to aid in suppressing Polish insurrections.
Austria, France, and Great Britain, separately, but strongly, remonstrated
about the cruelties exercised against the Poles, in putting down the
insurrections. Mucih of the cruelty was ascribed to Constantino, the
eldest brother of Alexander II. ' 'J^^ • -^

General Ileyman defeated jdl the Circassians that had hitherto Vafflcd
the might of tlie empire, and in 1564: Circassi.i was absorbed. The
Circassians who could effect their escape passed into Turkey.

The Czarowitz Nicholas died at Nice, in 1865, and his funeral ob-
sequies were performed with great pomp at the Cathedral of St, Peters-
burg.

An unsuccessful attempt was made to assassinate Alexander II., by
one Kara Kasow, on the 16th of April, 1866. In August, the Circas-
sians were again in arms. Important railroads wer^ ni operation. The
Czarowitz was united to the Princess Dagraar of S len. All the Rus-
sian possessions in America wore sold to the United States. The Czar
visited Paris, and while there an unsuccessful attempt was made to assas-
sinate hira. 1868 saw the beginning of hostilities between Russia and
the Emir of Bokhara. On the 6th of June all political prisoners were
amnestied; the railroad between Moscow and Kursk was opened; the
treaty between Russia and the United States was ratified.

706

ILLnSTRATKD r)K8(TRIPTI()N OF E088IA.

'' Miiny ('f the stiulcnts broke out in nil insurrection at St. Petersburg.
It wns qut'Ucd with little bloodslied.

In June, 1870, the Czar Jiiul the King of Prussiiv met at Ems. What
political meaning it had was never known. On the IStli of ]Novenil)er
of this year, the Czar took the deeisive btep of declaring that he no lojiger
considered himself as hound hy tlie treaty of Paris, signed in Paris,
March 30, 185(!. This wiped out all that was effected hy the powers, at
Seliastopol. In 1872, a very grand eelel)ration made gorgeous the streets
of St. Petersl)urg, it being the 200th aimiversary t»f the birth of its
founder, Peter tin; (Jreat. In 1872, nnich alarm was felt in eonse(iuence
of the severe sickness of the Czarowitz. An expedition was fitted out,
which resulted in the right bank of the rivi'r Ainou Daria, in Khiva,
being annexed to Russia. The Shah of Persia made quitb n h)ng visit to
the Czar, which attracted considerable attention in Paris and London,
where the politicians attached some mysterious meaning to it,

A decree was issued in 1874, which rendeued the whole male popu-
lation liable to military service. The iirst general enrollment and calling
into service imder this law took place on the iirst of r)('cember. In May,
the Czar visited Germany and England. On his return it was ordered
that primary schools should be estal)lished in all parts of his realm.
This probaltly resulted from his observations in the two countries that
he had just visited.

liussia greatly extended her empire in the year 1873. A large island
was acquired from Japan by treaty; and after some severe lighting, aiul
suppressing many subsequent insurret'tions, the whole Khanate of Kho-
kand was incorporated in the empire. The separate geiu'ral government
of tiie Paltic, or marithne provinces, was ended by a decree in 187<).
General Skobeleff fought and defeated the Klmra-Kirghiz tril)es. In the
Bunuuer a large Russian tleet paid a friendly visit to the Mediterranean.

The Russian General Ignatieff returned as ambassador to Constan-
tinople, and advised the Turkish government j arrange its quarrel with
Servia. The Czar, in the course of a speech at Moscow, declared that
unless tlie Turks submitted to the terms proposed by the European
powers lie would declare war independent!}'. Soon after his uncle, the
'^-rand Duke Michael, took command of the Southern army.

In 1877, it became evident that a great war was approaching, as in
March large armies were formed and made ready for campaigning. The
( )ttoman government was again urged to improve the administration of
government in its provinces. In April Russia declared war against
Turkey, and immediately crossed the Pruth. Then ensued a number of
I tattles, in which the Russians were generally victorious. Every fight
was, however, stubbornly contested. At Plevna it was exceedingly

mSTORIO SUMMARY. — ALEXANDEU 11.

707

douUtfiil for some (hiys as to which sido would win; uUimjitfly the
Turkisli goiicnil wiis hadly wouiuU'd, mid his force cupituliitcd. Tiiey
lijul disphiyed j;;rc!it valor and rcsohition. Tlie I'alitans, afti'r fri<,ditful
losses, were fiuecossfuUy passed l>y the liussiaiis, Altli()iii,di tlie Russians
were the more numerous, and had heen reinforced hy the lionmanians,
it was often exceeilinj^ly doui>tful which country had fhe hest of the
ilii^htin^. The Turkisli <^enerals, as u i^cMieral thing, displayed unex-
pected skill: their courage was never doubted. ,

It is '.^uite possilile that, had not the governments of the other leading
powers of Eurojm hrought their united pressure to bear upon the Turk-
ish rulers, Constantinople \vt)ul(l have been taken by Russiii's victorioua
legions. As it was, a truce ensued, followed by a Conference at Berlin.
The result of this meeting inured more to the advantage of Austria than
to that of any of the nations who had interested themselves in the affair.
Russia gained some material advantages, mainly by crippling Turkish
power, and l>v rearing one or two kiiigiioms between her and the !Mussul-
mnus. But it is j)robable that the vast debt incurred, the enormous
waste and destruction of human life, agricultural products, and maiiu-
facturing estaldishments, at the very period in which nearly all the rest
of the world was advancing in peaceful i»rosperity, have not made her
seeming advantages real advantages. Trade, which might have been
enormously developed throughout the eollossal empire, would have en-
riched the iner(!enary, and given employment to the gifted and skillful,
— while even the nobles might have used their great wealth in erecting
manufnetories, improving roads, excavating canals, and constructing
railroads, bridges, and the many modern appliances called for by in-
tlustry and commerce. The result of the war was to heighten the arro-
gance of an already haughty aristocracy, to enridi an enomnous number
of fraudulent contractors, to put science, art, and literature in the back-
ground, and to lessen the business of legitimate industry and honest
traders. But be the causes what they may, certain it is that one of the
finest and broadest empires of the globe appears to the outside world to
be divided into conclaves of conspirators, plotting in secrecy, and trem-
bling cabals of royal and aristocratic families, certain of nothing but
uncertainty.

Such was the turbulent, chaotic state, in which Peace found the land of
Peter and Catherine. The time and attention that should be given by the
Emperor to the consideration of law, justice, and even mercy, has been
largely employed in trying to preserve his own life and that of his family
from the dynamite explosions of the new school of royal regulators. So
far, in results, the new school has been no improvement upon the old
one — of open revolts and daring revolutions.

708

ILLU8TKATKD DKStrilllTIO.V <»F UrSSIA..

Some Bli^clit !ulvtuit!ii?(f» liiive hocn {^iiiiicd over tho fiorco wild trn)Ofl
iiili.iltitiiig tho (M)iitiiu's of IVrsiii, Itiit liiinlly (Miuiif;li to repay tlic jjjrcat
outlay ill men mid money; particidurly m in every hattlo tho defeated
Beem to learn some of the tactics of the coti(|iicrorH.

In 1880 8o much dissatisfaction ]>revailed anionj; the rejinlar troops
tliat a rule was observed tliat no rcLriinent should he allowed to \w located
in tiie district from which it had heen reernited. Duririj,' this rtiutcr tho
C-^ariua remained at Cannes, France, on aeconnt of her failinij health.
Early in this year tho Court of St. Petershuri; was catechised hy l)oth
Austria and Germany, after its intermeddling^ in Servian matters. Satis-
factory explanations were j;;iven.

Toward the end of January, 18S0, the (V.arina — between whom and
the C/.ar a coldness had existed for some time — agreed, at the rccpiest
of their oldest son, to visit St. Petersburg, to bo present at the cele-
Itration of tho twenty-tifth anniversary of the Czar's accossion to tho im-
perial throne.

At the end of January, 1880, a great rol»bery was effected at Odessa.
1,500,000 roubles were stolen from the General Receiver's olfice. Tho
j)erpetrators were variously senteiKH'd to from three j'earsto life impriscm-
ment. Tho criminals were said to bo Mihilists; but no proof of the fact
was offered.

Kumors of a design to re-erect Poland aa a separate kingdom were
rife. Put unhappily they were but rumors.

TheEiiglih Blue Pook, for 1880, contained letters that appeared to
prove that the Uussians wero actively hitriguing in the affairs of Afghan-
i.itan.

The Tnreomans were liadly heaten by the Pussiana in tho early part
of February. Tlie Mus..()vite army sustained but slight loss, but inflicted
lua«-y loss upon their opponents.

The poliee regulations ])ecame Bo minute and vexations in St. Peters-
burg that much discontent was exhibited by the inhabitants.

The Russian Government asked the French Repul)lie that Ilartman,
the Nihilist, a(!cused of assassination, should bo given up to them. This
was refused, but Ilartman was ordered out of France.

In tho sj)ring of 1880, a powerfid Russian naval fleet appeared in
Chinese waters, with the intent, as was surmised, of influencing Chinese
j)ublic opinion. Twenty thousand exiles were sent to Siberia this spring.
For over one month the whole Province of ()ren]»urg had been block-
aded by a terrible snowstorm, which extended into adjacent districts.
Three students, ccmvicted of complicity in treasimablc practices, wero
pardoned. In April, poison wua discovered iu a dish at the Czar's table.

III8TOUIO BUMMAUY. — AI.KXAXDKU II.

709

iiildom were

n St, VvtVTA-

Soon nftor tho vrturn of tlio Emprt'fl«, sho UuhI of u disonso wliich hiul
loii;; prosfnitcd lu'i". She cxijircd siirroiiiwlcd l»y licr fimiily. Tlic fiiiicnd
of the Eiripn-ss wiis (•.cU'liratcd Ity all tho {^raiid imposing rites of tlio
(trcck Cliiircii, ^'uiiutous priiicoH from foreign nations, and different
purt* of tho cinpiro, wei-o pn-scnt, imd tho whole urniy was jjut in mourn-
inj? for h\\ niontlis. There hiid been ii reconciliation between tho Em-
press and the Lmix'ror, on hi-r deathbed.

An American Qnaker, a bunker, named Bunker, was engaged In organ-
izing H syndicate, for tho purpose of furnislang capital and organizing
Bomo great railroad projects.

Nihilism constantly made its presence felt by i,-sning newspapers, ox-
posing all the defects of the Russian system of government, and appeal-
ing to tho people to overthrow the ruling pcjwers.

In many parts of Russia tho Jews havo been persecuted with a fero-
ciousness recalling the dai'k days of the middle ages. The government
appears anxious to protect the Hebrews; but tho local authorities and tho
urmy give but a feeble assistance in preserving order.

Quito a formidable society was discovered and broken up at Kieff.
Its intent was tu overset the government. Some members were con-
demned to death, — some to long imprisonment. Alexander II., however,
greatly lightened tho sentences.

During August and Septend)er there wore many attempts to kill tho
Emperor, in difTercnt parts of the route tu Livadia. Dymunite, packed
in cases, was found near many of the railroad trucks. In October, 1880,
many of the persons accujsed of complicity in these plots, were put on
trial ; ono of them was a man who was said to havo given 170,000
roubles to assist tho cause of Nihilism.

In the latter part of December there was a students' riot in Moscow.
Tho riot was with much difficulty put down, and the prisoners were sent
to differ lit ])laccs nf detention.

The Nihili.-^t ^^.>r Ilussian Socialist Revolutionary Party, as they style
themselves) ha\ e very extensive ramifications throughout tho Muscovite
territory. A <'. vision occurred in their ranks. One portion decided to
persist in a moral, literary propaganda, of their advanced opinions of
liberty; tho other section deternuning to use terrorism — including
assassination — as the only method of warfare likely to prove effective.

Tho attack of Vera Sassulitch on tho Chief of Police of St. Peters-
burg, and tho assassination of several high officiiala of the crown, seemed
to meet with the approval of many people, and tho "fighting" section of
the Nihilists determined to adopt the sanguinary method of procedure.
An accredited exponent of the Nihilistic creed and manners of pro-

-'m

710

ILLUS1RATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA.

cednre, says the "real and most detestable foes of moderYi Russia are at
present neither the hourgcois, nor the nobles, nor the priests, none of
whom have any political power, bnt the government ; that no improve-
ment in public life is possible as k)ng as the bane of Czardom lies heavily
on the political, moral, and cconoiuical life of our people." Acting
strictly up to their avowed convictions, a most determined attempt was
made by Sophie Petrovsky, and some male companions, to blow up a
part of the Moscow railroad while the Czar, Alexander II., was passing
over it, on December first, 1879. The mine was duly exploded, and at
the same moment a deafening report was heard. A column of earth
rose over the bed of the jailroad, two cars were lifted into the air, and
thrown with terrible violence into the fields below. In a moment all
was confusion. People ran out of the liouses, shouts of terror, hysteric
sobbing of the women filled tlie streets, policemen were speeding from all
sides to the spot. The whole district seemed to be in a craze of friglit.

In the mean time Sophie Petrovsky and her accomplices crossed the
yard to its furthest end, passed through an opening in tlie railing, whicJi
had been prepared befcn-eliand, into tlic neighboring yard, then through
the doorway into a street situated on the side of the liouses opposite to
the railroad, and sanutert^ off quietly into the city, whero they entered
a safe phice of concealment.

While detailing some of the acts of tiie Kibilists, it is proper that the
following estiuuite of its constituents sliould likewise appear. Tliis is
furnished bv one of the loadei's, who lias access to the imiermost rulinir
circle. "Many of them are intelligent, well educated people, all former
pupils of some university or technical high school. Kone of thorn is
older than thirty nor younger than twenty-one. Among us there was
the daughter of a Minister of State and Senator, belonging to the Iul best
and most refiued circles of the St. Petersburg aristocracy, — this was
Mile. Petrovsky. There are sons of landed proprietors, of merchants,
distinguished chemists and electricians whose names have become cele-
brated hi science. There arc government employees, who, while osten-
sibly serving the Czar are secretly working at Ids destruction."

But there is a reverti© side^ every medal. In corftradiction to many
of the stories so freely circulated as to the barbarous mcthotls of the
Russian Government, it will be only fair to say that a well-informed
person, who is above any suspicion of complicity with tyranny in any
shape, says that he has recently vir^ited the great ])rison of St. Petersburg,
where persons accused of political crimes are incarcerated. He says:
"I deem it unnecessary to contradict all the ridiculous stories wliich

\ J

HISTORIC SUMMARY. — AT.BXANDER II.

• X

ussia are at
ts, none of
ID improve-
lies heavily
!." Acting
ittompt was

blow np a
vas passing
(led, and at
111 of earth
the air, and

moment all
ror, hysteric
ing from all
:e of fright.

crossed the
iiling, mIucJi
len through

opposite to
hey entered

per that the
ar. This is
■most ruling
.', all former

of them is
s there was

the hij.,hest
, — this was

merchants,
)ecome cele-
\\liile osten-

ion to many
hods of the
ell-informed
umy in any
Petersl)\n"g,
He says:
iories wluch

711

■l

have been published in sensational French and German papers with
regard to the discipline to which the prisoners are subjected. I did not
come across any chamber of torture. The only prisoners who were
doing anything hard in the way of work were thieves and murderers;
and there were working, on their own account, in the common workshop.
The political prisoners awaiting their trial were most of them lounging
on their beds reading and smoking. The only difference to be observed
on the political side is in the fact that the superintendents themselves are
watched and followed wherever they may go by a policeman ; and this
occurs every time they visit the prisoners or that they take the prisoners
before the magistrate, or answer the bell by which the offender can
summon his keeper. There is also a policeman in the woman's quarter.
He is the only man allowed in this last department, where all the super-
hitendents are females. As for the prisoners, with the exception of one
who looks about forty years of age, they are all young people. The
women are young, and, genei-ally speaking, very ugly. I did not see
more than one exception to this rule. Among the women there is one
poor ■wretch who has neither home nor friends; and who has been
allowed, on that account, to have her child by her side, — a fine-looking
little lad between five and six years of age. A special room has been
set apart for the mother and child ; and this unfortunate youngster has
notliing better to amuse himself witli than to climb up between the thick
bars behind which he is condenuied to live, through his mother's miscon-
duct. Tliis poor, crazy wretch, had foi'gotten she had a child when she
was plotting against the Czar.''

Having anticipated the regular course of time, to intcqiolate the
opinions of the Nihilists, we return to some of their deeds, A very
elaborate attempt had been made to destroy Alexander II. in his palace
at St. Petersburg. Had the explosion occurred at the moment designed,
not only the Emperor but many meml)ers of his family would have been
destroyed. As it turned out, although none of the Imperial family circle
were killed, several attendants and others were "sent to their last ac-
count," to expiate offenses of which they, at least, were innocent.

But the fatal 13th of March proved that death was only delayed — not
baffled — in the case of the Emperor of all the Russias. On that day,
while returning from a grand review of his troops, the carriage in which
he was riding was torn to pieces by the explosion of an infernal machine.
The Emperor, however, was uninjured. Almost before a l)reath could
be drawn a second bomb was dashed down beside him. He was fright-
fully mutilated, and expii-ed soon after, unable to utter any intelligible

712

ILmSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA.

words between the time of the explosion and the moment of his death.
No impoi'tant results followed. No attempt was made to revolutionize
the government. A feeling of horror appeared to pervade the earth.
There was not even a king the less; for immediately after the Czar's
death his son at once ascended the tlu'one of Peter the Great, and assumed
the title of Alexander III.

The new Emperor, although taking reasonable precautions against
threatened dangers, appears to be a man of nerve. He has put a stop to
a vast number of iinancial and other fraudulent practices, and has shown
an intention of calling together informally a council drawn from different
classes, from which the peasants are, very wisely, not excluded. This
council is to give the opinion of its members upon the nature of prevalent"
abuses and the kind of reforms likely to prove promotive of the general
welfare of the people.

liis death,
olutionize
he earth,
he Czar's
I assumed

s against
, a stop to
las shown
1 different
ed. This
prevalent"
le general