CoIOHial CI)urrl) M^tovit^*
DIOCESE OF MACKENZIE RIVER.
BY RIGHT REVEREND
WILLIAM CARPENTER BOMPAS, D.D.
BISHOr OF THE DIOCESE.
WITH MAP.
PUBLISHED UNUEK THE DIRECTION OF THE TRACT COMMITTEE.
LONDON :
SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, CHARING CROSS, W.C. ;
43, Qt'EEN VICTORIA STREET K.C. ;
BRIGHTON: 135, North Streht.
New York : E. & J. B. YOUNG & CO.
1SS8.
^(.(. \ {^^^^oy
*' ^RTHERf* AFFAIRS
PHONAL RE-UUR';-
^AR 13 195.
"Morlhem Affairs Library
CONTENTS.
CHAl'TER
I. EARLY EXPLORERS
PAGE
I
n.
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION
15
in.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS .
• 27
IV.
INHABITANTS
39
V.
LANGUAGES
51
VL
FAUNA AND FLORA ....
• 59
VII.
ARCTIC LIFE
. 69
VIII.
METEOROLOGY
• 79
IX.
DRESS AND HABITS ....
. 90
X.
RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS*.
. 100
■•1
DIOCESE OF MACKENZIE RIVER.
CHAPTER I.
EARLY EXPLORERS.
The ecclesiastical history of this diocese is but a
short one It may be allowed, then, to preface it
with some account of the progress of discovery in
this region, previously to the commencement of
missionary enterprise.
The explorers in the region now comprised in the
diocese of Mackenzie River have been many and
distinguished, so that even their names form a goodly
list. The following may be referred to : — Mr. Samuel
Hearne (17 71), Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1789),
Sir John Franklin (1820), and a second voyage in
1826, Admiral Sir (Icorge Back and Mr. King in
1833, Messrs. Dease and Simpson (1837 to 1839),
Captain l.efroy (1844), Commander Pullen (1849),
Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae (1848), and
others.
The narratives of these voyages may be very
shortly reviewed.
Mr. Samuel Hearne, of the Hudson's Bay
Company's service, starting from Hudson's Bay,
B
2 MACKENZIE RIVER.
travelled with Chipewyan Indians westward overland
as far as the Great Slave Lake, and thence northward
to Coppermine River, which he struck within about
fifty miles of its mouth. He then returned by a
similar route.
The most unpleasant part of Mr. Hearne's story
is that the party of Indians with whom he travelled^
entirely without his sanction, made an unprovoked
attack on a number of Esquimaux encamped on the
Coppermine River, and, in the night, barbarously
massacred the whole body of men, women, and
children, and spoiled their tents. The site of the
massacre became known afterwards as the Bloody
Falls.
It is remarkable that there is a bird in those parts
which the Indians there call the alarm bird, or bird
of warning, a sort of owl, which hovers over the
heads of strangers, and precedes them in the direc-
tion they go. If these birds see other moving
objects tliey flit alternately from one party to the
other with screaming noise, so that the Indians place
great confidence in the alarm bird, to apprise them
of the approach of strangers, or to conduct them to
herds of deer or musk oxen.
Mr. Hearne remarks that all the time the Indians
lay in ambush, preparatory to the above-mentioned
horrid massacre, a large flock of these birds were
continually flying about and hovering alternately
over the Indian and the Esquimaux tents, making a
noise sufticient to wake any man out of the soundest
sleep. The Esquimaux, unhappily, have a great
EARLY EXPLORERS. 3
objection to be disturbed from sleep, and will not be
awakened — an obstinacy which seems to have cost
that band their lives.
In comparing the character of the country and its
inhabitants loo years ago, as detailed by earlier
travellers, with the present time, the following
reniarks occur. P^irst, there appears a great dimi-
nution during the past century, in the number of
native inhabitants, and still more in the number of
wild animals. The decay of the human race here
has been much owing to the ravages of small-pox,
which is described as having formerly cut off nine-
tenths of the inhabitants, having been communicated
from the more southern Indians, shortly after the
date of the earliest explorations. The diminution of
the animals may be attributed in great part to their
wasteful and excessive destruction after the intro-
duction of firearms among the Indians.
The cruelty and vice of the earlier natives, as
disclosed by Mr. Hearne, who resided among them,
are quite enough to have called for a visitation of
heaven for their chastisement ; and it is pleasant
to witness a considerable improvement in the Indian
character in later days, especially in regard to the
moderating of their habits of cruelty and violence
to one another.
The accounts of the domestic habits and customs
of the Indians a century since are still a good deal
applicable at the present time, though some of
their superstitions fall into disuse as they mingle
with Europeans. Their implements and utensils
B 2
4 MACKENZIE RIVER.
remain much the same, except so far as stone axes
and knives, and kettles of roots and dishes of board
have since been replaced by metal purchased from
European traders.
The narrative of Mr. Hearne is very detailed and
graphic, and is only far too true to be agreeable in
regard to his description of the native character. No
greater contrast could be imagined than between
such a history and modern works of fiction about
Indian life. The utter absence of all knowledge of, or
obedience to, any one of the ten commandments, or
rather the glory found in the habitual and delighted
breach of every one of them, especially those of the
second table, is the melancholy characteristic of the
book. The abandonment of the aged, sick, and help-
less ones to death ; unrestrained plunder and liber-
tinism ; wife murder, polygamy, war, and massacre ;
kidnapping, and worse crimes, — such things form the
staple of the description of the natives in Mr.
Hearne's book.
In the year 1789 the great Mackenzie River was
descended by Sir Alexander Mackenzie. It is hard
to overpraise the intrepid courage, cool prudence,
nnd inquiring intelligence of that noble traveller.
To that time the large country to the north-west of
Great Slave Lake had been wholly unexplored.
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, leaving Athabasca Lake in
June 1789, by canoe, descended the Slave and
Mackenzie Rivers till he met the tidal waters of
the Arctic Sea. Thence he returned safely to Atha-
basca by the same route, before winter of that year.
EARLY EXPLORERS. 5
He may be said to have discovered far more than he
saw, for he ascertained, by careful examination of
Indians met along the Mackenzie, the existence and
course of the Youcon River, more accurately than that
river was laid down in the maps fifty years afterwards.
For he stated his conviction that the Youcon River
debouched in Norton Sound, while there are maps
of far later date, and still existing, which place that
river as flilh'ng into the Arctic Sea, confounding it with
the Colville.
Sir Alexander Mackenzie took the greatest pains
to conciliate all Indians whom he met, by presents
and promises of peaceful trade, and he energetically
restrained all attempts at murder or rapine made by
the Indians who accompanied him. He did not
meet with Esquimaux, and it is little wonder that
these and the Mackenzie River Indians were shy of
him, as it was then customary for the Athabasca
Indians to make annual war expeditions down the
Mackenzie for purposes of plunder, massacre, and
rapine, as well as for kidnapping of women and slaves.
As the dependence of the expedition for provisions
was chiefly on their guns and fishing-nets, and on the
Indian hunters who accompanied them, considerable
delay was occasioned, their success was j)recarious,
and often endangered by scarcity. Under the care
of a gracious Providence all returned safely, without
casualty or mishap. A foundation was thus laid for
the peaceable prosecution of the fur trade in these
regions, which has since been carried on successfully
for a century.
6 MACKENZIE RIVER.
As in the case of Mr. Hearne's narrative, so that
of Sir A. Mackenzie leads to the observation how
much both men and animals have since diminished
in that region. Moreover it was then a country of
war, and has since been one of peace. For this
result the policy and success of the Hudson's Bay
Company deserve much credit, and make it worth
while to consider how far the pursuit of useful trade
should be credited as a handmaid to the gospel in
spreading the peace of Christ's kingdom.
The next expedition was conducted in 1820 by
Mr. afterwards Sir John Franklin, accompanied by
Messrs. Back, Hood, and Dr., afterwards Sir John
Richardson.
The expedititon proceeded first from York Factory
to Athabasca and Cireat Slave Lake. The winter
of 1820 was spent at Fort Enter])rise, situate at
the head of Yellowknife River, which falls into a
bay at the north-western side of Great Slave Lake.
Thence the following spring tlie exj)edition pro-
ceeded first over land and then by boat to the moutli
of the Coppermine River. But even to weather the
first winter was a matter of much difficulty, as it was
a time of famine among the Indians, many of whom
were starving at no great distance from the wintering
place of the expedition.
It was thought needful that the expedition to
the Arctic Sea coast should consist of not less
than twenty persons, for fear of a collision witli
the Escjuimaux, of whose treachery many warnings
were received. From the first the men of the cxpc-
EARLY EXPLORERS. 7
dition were overloaded with heavy packs, including
instruments for surveying, and tents, Sec, besides
provisions.
The descent of the Coppermine River was not
managed without much peril and delay, it being
full of falls and rapids. The sea being reached,
the course was continued along shore to the east-
ward, but not without much impedimer;t from ice.
A civiHsed Esquimaux from Hudson's Bay accom-
panied the expedition as interpreter, who succeeded
in having communication with a small party of the
coast Esquimaux. He assured these of the peace-
able intentions of the voyaging party. The natives
could not, however, be ]jersuaded to approach the
Europeans. The expedition having reached as far to
the eastward as Bathurst Inlet, were warned l)y the
lateness of the season and the exhaustion of their
provisions to return.
After returning westward as far as Arctic Sound
the sea travelling was abandoned, and an effort made
to cross the country in a direct line to Fort Enter-
prise, to winter there again. This, however, proved
one of the most woeful journeys ever undertaken
by men. Provisions failed ; and the men, hungry
and frost-bitten, fainted under their loads. At last
the pnrty was divided. Dr. Richardson and those
with him subsisted for about six weeks on the lichen
growing on the rocks, known as " tripe des roches,"
together with a drink known as swami)-tea, made
from a country herb.
At last treachery and murder assailed the band.
S MACKENZIE RIVER.
A treacherous Iroquois Indian shot one of the
officers, Lieutenant Hood, to satisfy on his flesh the
cravings of hunger ; and after threatening the other
officers, he was himself ohot by them for self-
protection. A diminished party at length reached
Fort Enterprise only to find the post deserted and
without provisions. The waste heaps were searched
for rotting bones and skins thrown off the spring
before, and at their extremity the survivors were
rescued when too weak to rise by the arrival of
friendly Indians with provisions. Dr. Rae also
afterwards soon joined the party, and their sufferings
were ended.
In 1826 Sir John Franklin again descended the
Mackenzie River in boats, and explored the sea-
coast to the westward as far as about half-wav to
Point Barrow, whence returning, he mounted the
Mackenzie again, and wintered at Great Bear Lake.
The following summer he reached England from
thence by way of Canada.
In 1833 an expedition was undertaken under the
command of Captain Back, accompanied by Mr.
King as naturalist, to descend Great Fish River
(afterwards called also Back River) to the Arctic
coast with the view of offering succour to Sir John
Ross, then engaged in Arctic survey. Captain Back's
expedition was, however, pursued by intelligence
of the safe return of Sir John Ross, .so that his
voyage was confined afterwards to geographical
interest.
Proceeding by way of Montreal and Canada, and
EARLY EXPLORERS. 9
tiience to J.akes Superior and Winnipeg by the
north-west canoe route, Captain Back pursued the
usual course taken by the traders and Arctic
voyagers as far as Great Slave Lake, and wintered at
Fort Reliance, situate on a bay at the north-eastern
extremity of that lake.
This winter was marked by great suffering and
famine among the Indians, many of whom perished
of want; and it is a remarkable circumstance that
the earlier narratives of travels in this northern land
tell of much more serious and constant starvation
among the Indians formerly tlian now, even though
the wild animals have in later days grievously
diminished. The fact may be explained by the
diminishing numbers of the natives, and by the
survivors being supplied with ammunition and fire-
arms, as well as with twine for fishing nets, by the
European traders.
After the necessary boats had been built, the
expedition descended in these the Great Fish River
in the summer of 1834. 'I'hc river was found
impeded by rapids, but the coast was reached without
misliap. The ice along shore, however, seemed to
preclude the successful exploration of the coast, and
the further prosecution of the voyage was abandoned
from that point, the exi)edition jiarty returning by the
way they came.
In 1837 Messrs. Dease and Simi)son again de-
scended the Mackenzie, and explored the Arctic
coast to the westward of that river much further
than Sir John Franklin had previously reached.
10 MACKENZIE RIVER.
Messrs. Dease and Simpson proceeded overland
from Manitoba to Athabasca in winter, and thence
descended by boat with several canoes to the
Mackenzie, and thence by a like route with that of
Sir A. Mackenzie to the Arctic Sea. Turning
westward, the expedition soon reached along the
coast as far as Return Reef, the extremity of Sir
John Franklin's voyage in 1826. Proceedmg for-
ward thence with caution and despatch, the boat
reached the neighbourhood of Point Barrow, en-
•countering several parties of Esquimaux, whom they
tried to conciliate with presents; but they were
exposed to some danger from the treachery of these
natives. No great discoveries were made along the
coast, which proved shallow, much indented, and
somewhat ice-hampered.
From Point Barrow the expedition returned to
the mouth of the Mackenzie River, which they
mounted as far as Bear River, and proceeded thence
to Great Bear Lake, which they crossed. They
reached their wintering ground at Fort Confidence,
in the north-east extremity of Great Bear Lake, on
September 25, 1837, after being reinforced by the
arrival of a boat with winter supplies from the south.
The ensuing winter at Fort Confidence seems to
have been passed by them pleasantly and without
scarcity of i)rovisions, either for the expedition party
or the neighbouring Indians. In June, 1838,
Messrs. Dease and Simpson crossed overland t<»
the Coppermine River, and thence descended to
the Arctic Sea. I'hcy hauled the boat overland
EARLY EXPLORERS. II
from Dease River, which falls into Great Bear Lake,
to the Coppermine, over a portage of six miles.
Descending the Coppermine with the spring freshet,
the expedition had some peril in passing the tur-
bulent rapids. At the mouth of the river some
delay was caused by ice ; but when this cleared
off, the exploration of the coast to the eastward
was proceeded with. Though Esquimaux were seen
they proved shy of approach ; but the boats made
good their course along the coast a good deal
further than Sir John Franklin had previously at-
tained. The return was made from W. long. io6°,
opposite the south coast of Victoria land.
The return voyage to the former winter quarters
iit Fort Confidence was effected without mishap
by September 14, 1838, and another year's supply
of provisions was there received from Mackenzie
River. The following winter saw considerable
distress among the neighbouring Indians, who were
relieved as far as means admitted by the party at
Fort Confidence.
Next year (1839) another summer excursion was
made along the Arctic coast to the eastward, in
the same direction as before ; and, the season being
more favourable, a point much further to the east-
ward was reached. In fact, the point abutting on
<jreat Fish River, which had been visited by Messrs.
33ack and King in 1834, was touched. Some
Esquimaux were interviewed, but no great infor-
mation obtained from them. From the mouth
of (Ireat Fish River, south of Boothia Felix, this
12 MACKENZIE RIVER.
enterprising party of explorers turned once more
westward. Favr ^ed by fine weather and a
late fall, they again reached the Coppermine,
and, ascending it, regained Fort Confidence.
Passing this establishment and re-crossing Great
Bear Lake, the tcpedition was enabled to gain
Fort Simpson in time to winter there.
Mr. Simpson, however, leaving Fort Simpson in
December, 1839, journeyed in winter on snow-shoes
to Manitoba, a distance of 1,800 miles. Manitoba
he reached in February, and proceeded thence towards
Canada in hopes of organising another Arctic ex-
pedition, which was indeed sanctioned by the
Hudson's Bay Company. Mr. Simpson met his
death on the road to St. Paul's, Minnesota, ap-
parently through some treachery of his native com-
panions : but the mystery attending this has never
been cleared up. Any further prosecution of Arctic
research was, consequently, for the time abandoned.
The last Government exploring expedition con-
ducted in this direction was the Arctic Overland
Search Expedition for Si" John Franklin, under
the charge of Sir John Richardson, in 1848. Sir
John descended the Mackenzie River and ex-
plored the Arctic coast, thence to the eastward
toward the Coppermine River, wintering at Fort Con-
fidence. He penned and published, in 1852, a very
interesting narrative of his voyage, with a full list of
the flora of the country; but the work is now, un-
fortunately, out of print, as well as the narratives
of previous expeditions. So great has been the
EARLY EXPLORERS. 1 3
perseverance and endeavour shown in the various
Arctic expeditions that it seems a pity their records
should perish. Copies of the printed volumes nar-
rating them may probably be found preserved at
the Hudson's Bay House, London.
It may be added that in another overland journey
to explore the western shores of Boothia Felix in
1 849, Dr. Rae obtained from the neighbouring Esqui-
maux information of the loss of Franklin's crew.
In 1849 Commander PuUen, exploring the Arctic
coast from the westward by way of Behring's F traits,
left his ship at Point Barrow% and proceeded in
boats to the mouth of Mackenzie River, which he
mounted as far as Fort Simpson, where he wintered.
His boats' crews were wintered in part at Great
Bear Lake, and in part at Great Slave Lake, and
all returned to England the next season by way of
Canada.
In the spring of 1844 Captain Lefroy was occu-
pied, under Government auspices, in conducting
magnetic observations at Fort Simpson.
The exploration of the country to the west of the
Rocky Mountains, included within the limits of the
Mackenzie River Diocese, has been conducted by
officers of the Hudson's Bay Comi)any in the course
of their trading operations, especially by ISIr. Camp-
boll, formerly in charge of Fort Selkirk, on the Upper
Youcon. Mr. John McDougall has l^een lately en-
gaged in such an exploring trip in tliat country in
the interest of the fur trade.
The islands of the Arctic Ocean are not con-
14 MACKENZIE RIVER.
sidered to form part of the Mackenzie River Diocese.
No reference is therefore here made to the various
Arctic and Polar voyages by sea, which have mapped
out the Archipelago fringing the northern shores of
the American continent. It may be mentioned,
however, that the sea along the coast to the east
and west of the Mackenzie was explored by Com-
mander McClure in H.M.S. Investigator in 1850.
The above inadequate sketch of the contents of
above a dozen printed volumes of large size, besides
unpublished narratives, may suffice to show how
much there is that has been known, and might yet
be told, about a region that is generally considered
untraversed and without a history.
Captain Dawson, of the Royal Artillery, passed
the winter of 1882 at Fort Rae, Great Slave Lake, in
charge of a branch of the Circumpolar Expedi-
tion, under Government auspices, for purposes of
magnetic observation. It is said that the winter
temperature registered at Fort Rae was, with one
exception, the lowest recorded at any of the Circum-
l)olar stations.
MACKENZIE RIVER.
CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION.
The Diocese of Mackenzie River is considered to
extend from loo^ to 141® W. longitude, and from 60°
to 70*^ N. latitude. It contains therefore about 800,00a
square miles.
It is bounded on the North by the Arctic Ocean ;
on the East by the District of Keewatin and Diocese
of Moosonee ; on the South by the District of Atha-
basca and the Province of British Columbia, or
ecclesiastically by the Diocese of Athabasca and
New Caledonia ; and on the West by the United
States Territory of Alaska, which has not yet been
formed into a diocese.
The great Mackenzie River, which forms the chief
feature of this diocese, is the longest in the British
dominions, being, from its source to its mouth, up-
wards of 3,000 miles long. It bears the name of
Mackenzie River only after passing through Great
Slave Lake, whence its course to the sea is about
1,200 miles. It averages about a mile in breadth,
with a swift current running about three to four
miles an hour. From about 150 miles above Great
Slave Lake to the sea there is no great obstruction
to the navigation, the few rapids being inconsiderable.
In the upper part of its stream it is called by the
l6 MACKENZIE RIVER.
names of the Athabasca and Slave River, but the
former of these is wholly, and the latter partly, out-
side the limits of Mackenzie River Diocese.
The banks of the Mackenzie River are mostly high
and clothed with pines. The shores are stony,
except in reaches where soil is being cut from muddy
banks by the encroaching water. Islands occur at
intervals in the course of the stream. The chief
features of interest along the river occur where the
mountains or jutting crags border the channel.
There are first the Nahany mountains (about lat.
63''), to avoid which the river takes a sudden bend
to the north. Next is noticed the bold precipice
known as the Hill by the river-side, a sheer cliff
which drops into the water on the right bank of the
stream. About 150 miles below this is Bear Rock, an
imposing headland immediately below Fort Norman.
In the same vicinity are seen constant natural fires
burning on the river banks, and fed by underground
coal or mineral pitch. These have been on fire for
at least a century, in fact, ever since the discovery of
the river.
These fires were fully described by Sir John
Richardson, who considered that extensive coal-beds
lay there.
The matter will, doubtless, be further investigated
by the Canadian Government Surveyors, shortly ex.
pected in Mackenzie River.
Such fires are not infrequent in other parts of the
country, especially in Upper Peace River, on a stream
called from them Smoky River.
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 1 7
Petroleum or rock oil springs are also found on
Great Slave Lake and Athabasca River, but will not
pay for working, so far from civilisation.
Just above the Arctic Circle, in lat. 67° 30^, the
Mackenzie River narrows into a gorge or canon,
between high perpendicular cliffs, known as the
Ramparts. These cliffs are fantastically scarped
bv nature into a semblance of towers and turrets,
and present a pleasing aspect. The gorge is
about ten miles long, and seems to form a
stupendous portal into the Arctic world. Imme-
diately beyond these cliffs is situate Fort Good
Hope. Below this point the river sometimes expands
into the appearance of a lake, and at other times
narrows, when hemmed in by rocks, till the single
stream reaches Point Separation, about lat. 68^.
From thence the river divides into numerous
channels, which widely expand as they approach the
sea, till at the coast the delta of the river measures
probably about fifty miles across.
The only usual residentii in the Mackenzie River
Diocese, besides the native Indians and Esquimaux
and the missionaries, are the officers and employes of the
Hudson's Bay Company, who are engaged in the fur
trade. For the purposes of this commercial under-
taking twelve trading posts in the diocese are occu-
pied which are mostly called Forts, though of late
years entirely destitute of defences. These trading
]iosts consist each of about half a dozen log build-
ings, used as residences for the clerk in charge and
employes^ and for fur store and trading shop. The
c
1 8 MACKENZIE RIVER.
posts arc situate from loo to 300 miles apart, and are
mostly along the courses of the rivers and lakes.
About 100 families of Indians, more or less, trade at
each post. These live in their leather lodges or tents,
and hunt the surrounding country for provisions and
furs, with which they trade at the post nearest to them
about twice in the year. They generally, in visiting
the post, remain only a couple of nights, except in the
spring time, when they often bring their families and
tents, and remain encamped in the neighbourhood of
the post for some weeks.
In early days of the trade, when spirits were dealt
out to the Indians, these visits were scenes of riot
and debauchery ; but for many years the trade in
intoxicating liquors has been abandoned, and the
Indians are now free from all turbulence in their visits
to the trading establishments.
The situation of the trading posts is as follows : —
On Great Slave Lake are two forts named Rae and
Resolution, placed on the north and south sides of
the lake respectively. On the Mackenzie River are
five posts. Fort Providence is about thirty miles from
■Great Slave Lake, adjoining which post are the head-
quarters of the French Roman Catholic Mission.
Fort Simpson, situate about 150 miles further down
the river, combines the head-quarters of the fur trade,
and of the Church of England Missions. Fort
Wrigley is about too miles further north, and about
200 miles beyond this is Fort Norman, in the neigh-
bourhood of Great Bear Lake. Beyond this again
is the most northern trading post on the Mackenzie
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 1 9
River, namely, Fort Good Hope, situate almost pre-
cisely at the Arctic Circle.
Three trading posts have their position within the
Arctic Circle, namely, one on Peel River for trading
with Loucheux Indians and Esquimaux ; one, named
I.a Pierre's House, on Rat River ; and the Rampart
House on Porcupine River. The remaining trading
posts are two lying towards the south of the diocese,
and situate on the Liard River. These arc named
Forts Liard and Nelson.
In attempting a succinct view of the natural
features of the diocese at large, it may be stated
generally that its northern border, consisting of the
country within about loo miles of the Arctic coast,
is known as the "Barren Lands," from its being
quite denuded of trees by the blasts of the frozen
ocean. To the south of this belt the whole country
is generally clothed with pines, except so far as it is
intersected by lakes and small marshes. The lakes
are of every dimension, and so numerous that in
scanning the country from a height you will some-
times deem the surface to be more water than land.
The soil among the i)ine-trees is generally covered
with a yellowish moss, which forms the natural food
of the reindeer, and a more succulent moss generally
occupies the marshes, though these and the small
lakes are often fringed with grass, which, near the
trading posts, is mown for the cattle.
— The lakes are mostly well stocked with fish, and
the woods are traversed by the migratory reindeer,
and are the abode of moose deer and red deer. The
20 MACKENZIE RIVER.
mountains are the homes of rock goats and a few
wild sheep. The mossy dells and open spaces are
sprinkled in the autumn season with small wild
berries of various kinds, and in spring ard autumn
the jiassing flocks of wild ducks, geese, swans, and
cranes form the attraction of the sportsman.
The chief and almost the sole occupation of the
native Indians is hunting or fishing, and of the white
residents voyaging and trading. The rivers and lakes
form the chief highways through the country, for
except in winter witli sledges the woods are hardly
passable. „
The most attractive geographical feature in the
diocese is the waterfall in Hay River, which stream
runs into (ireat Slave Lake on its southern side. The
falls are situate about loo miles from the mouth of
the river, and are very imposing and picturesfjue. The
principal or unbroken fall may be about 300 feet
high and 300 yards wide. An amber tinge in the
water, owing to the hay swamps in which the river
rises, gives to the waterfall the ai)pearance of auburn
tresses. There is a second broken fall of about 100
feet two miles further down the river. But few
Europeans have visited this cascade, which has
received the name of the Alexandra Falls. If better
known it would probably be noted as one of the
beauties of the Continent. 'I'he cascade is entirely
closed by ice in winter. The river is first frozen
above and below the falls, and the water and
spray falling on the ice below, raises at last a per-
pendicular sheet or column of ice, whicli, mounting
<;eographical description. iii
higher and higher, at last completely encloses the cas-
cade as in a drapery and unites with the ice above.
The northern part of Great Slave Lake is studded
with a thousand rocky islets, forming a picturesque
and attractive scene. The dark pines cling to the
rocks, and are reflected in the pellucid lake.
On the banks of the Liard River the pine forests
are diversified with poplar, as is the case also to the
west of the Rocky Mountains, even as far north as
the Arctic Circle, for a degree of latitude westward
seems to moderate the severity of the climate almost
as much as a degree southward. The banks of the
Upper Voucon are flowery in the springtime, and
the face of nature there seems to wear a softer
aspect than on the east of the great mountain range.
Regarding the mineral productions of the country,
a large quantity of native iron ore is exposed on the
Upper Voucon, and gold has also been lately found
on that river. Coal exists on the Mackenzie near
lort Norman, and sulphur is found abundantly on
one part of the south coast of (Ireat Slave Lake.
.Salt is plentiful on the Slave River, and also on the
Mackenzie. Coal oil exists in Creat Slave Lake,
and alum is found on the Voucon. Other minerals
may await further research. •
The Rocky Mountains run through the diocese
quite up to the Arctic coast ; but they are of no
great elevation, nor does the snow remain on them
all summer, even within the Arctic Circle. The
constant rays of the unsetting sun in the Arctic
regions seem to have more i)Ower in melting ice and
22 MACKENZIE RIVER.
snow than even a tropical sun that is absent for
twelve hours out of the twenty-four. So benign are
the compensating arrangements of a watchful Pro-
vidence. It has, indeed, been said, by those who
have experienced both, that the heat of the Arctic
summer sun is more scorching than that of the
tropics. A coast mountain range borders the Arctic
Sea to the westward of the ^Mackenzie River as far
as Point Barrow. This may, perhaps, be considered
as a continuation of the Rockies.
" The Arctic coast has a bleak and weird aspect, as
might be expected. The first sensation of walking on
the smooth ice off the shore of the frozen ocean is
something akin to a feeling of having caught a lion
asleep. The Mackenzie River brings down a large
([uantity of drift wood, and the coast traveller is
dependent on this for making his camp fire. A&
soon as the traveller leaves the coast he is almost
helpless in respect to kindling a fire till he reaches
the pine-clad country. A clump of green willows in
some sheltered dell, or a few stunted pines along the
banks of a river, are his only hope.
Arctic travelling in the mountains is at times
severe. Not that the cold is more severe at a higher
elevation, for the contrary is the case ; but because
the blinding snow-storm urged by the icy blast
freezes the voyager's face and seals up his eyes by
congealing their exuding moisture. He is thankful
if some jutting crag or steej) gully affording a morsel
of fuel offers him a temporary refuge from the
raging tempest.
GEOCRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 23
The breaking up of the winter ice of the Mac-
kenzie River in springtime is often an imposing
spectacle. The river freezes in winter to a depth of
six or eight feet of ice. It thaws first to the south-
ward, and the rush of the spring freshet breaks up
tlie ice of the northern part of the river while this is
yet in a solid state. Should the ice become blocked
in its drifting, the current of the swollen river may
be banked back till the water is raised from 50 to
100 feet, and floods the banks. Large masses of
ice may then be carried far into the woods, the banks
may be much scarpfid and denuded, and quantities
of trees torn down by the force of the ice-bearing
current. Piles of ice fifty feet high often remain
for weeks along the shore after the river is open,
and islands and headlands are sometimes overswept
and bared by the frozen torrent.
In the autumn the river begins to drift with ice
about October 20, and continues drifting for a month
before it sets fast. It continues frozen from the
end of November to the middle of May, or nearly
six months. By the end of May the river is clear of
ice unless in the separated channels near the sea,
where it may continue clogged with drift-ice till
the middle of June.
The Esquimaux of the coast when travelling up
the river in the springtime take both their sleds and
tlieir skin boats along with them. When they find
open water they place the sleds in the boats, and
when blocked by ice they place the boats on the
sleds, and thus proceed by either mode of transit.
24 MACKENZIE RIVER.
One noticeable feature of the country is the burnt
wood. From various causes fires are apt to run
through the forests in the drought of summer, and
these reduce the pine-trees to bare and blackened
poles. In a few years after such a fire an under-
growth springs up, and soon young saplings begin to
replace the timber trees that have been destroyed.
The charred poles, however, of the consumed forest
remain standing for many years. Such a burning of
the forests will often change the course of the mi-
gratory reindeer, and perhaps leave a country hungry
that has been rich in provisions. The spectacle of a
blazing forest when one pine-tree after another flares
up in sparkling splendour, is a sight of slartling
masfnificence.
The annual supplies of European trading goods
carried into Mackenzie River every summer from
outside, consist of about sixty to eighty tons of mis-
cellaneous articles, princijjally ammunition, tobacco,
clothing, flour, tea, groceries, and utensils. This has
to be divided among all the inhabitants, and forms
their only dependence, beyond the produce of tlic
country, which is almost confined to meat, fish, and
leather, besides the exported furs.
The only returns made in the way of export for the
incoming supplies are the furs, which are sent out
each summer to the weight of about fifteen tons.
The value of these is, of course, calculated to exceed
that of the goods imported, or there would be no
.success in the commercial venture. A small steamer
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 2$
having been placed on the Mackenzie River for the
first time in 1886, it is likely that the imports of
flour and other conveniences may somewhat increase.
Should the gold mines prove lucrative that are being
opened on the western borders of the diocese it is
likely that communication may be increased with the
Pacific coast.
At present the route to Mackenzie River is by
railway from the eastern coast of the Continent,
through Canada or the United States to Manitoba,
and thence by Canadian Pacific Railway to Calgary,
near the Rocky Mountains. From that point the
journey is continued by mail-cart, or wagon, across
the prairies in a northerly direction to Edmonton, on
the north branch of the Sascachewan River, about
six days' travel, and thence further north, about
100 miles, to Athabasca landing, the head of the
navigation on the Athabasca River. From this point
the voyage is resumed by boat through a river
not without difficulty of navigation, owing to its
turbulent rapids. A steamer is met lower down the
Athabasca River, at its junction with the Clear Water
River, from whence the navigation is less impeded.
The Athabasca steamer connects at l*'ort Smith on
Slave River with another steamer bound for the
Mackenzie.
There is thus now steam travelling from ICngland to
Mackenzie River, with only one interval of about 600
miles, or rather more than a fortnight's travel, which
is bridged by wagon and boat. Starting from ICngland
26 MACKENZIE RIVER.
on I St June, about three months' travel, including
stoppages, ought to land the traveller in Mackenzie
River.
This break in the steam communication is likely
to be ere long much reduced in length, by a branch
railroad to Edmonton, and a steamboat from Atha-
basca landin.Gj.
MACKENZIE RIVER. 2/
CHAPTER III.
^ CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS.
Church of England Missions were begun in the
country now forming the Diocese of Mackenzie
River, in 1858. Archdeacon Hunter was the first
Church of England Missionary who reached Mac-
kenzie River, but on a visit, spending only one winter
there. He visited Forts Liard and Good Hope, and
baptised several resident whites and Indians. He
made arrangements also for the permanent occupa-
tion of the country in the Missionary interest.
In the following year Mr., afterwards Archdeacon,
Kirkby, arrived in Mackenzie River, where he
laboured zealously for ten years. He printed several
l)rimers in the Indian language, erected a handsome
church and substantial Mission house at Fort Simpson,
and collected a congregation there of whites and
Indians, to whom he faithfully ministered. He was
unremitting in his attention to the spiritual needs of
the employes of the Fur Company. Every summer and
often in winter he voyaged to the other trading posts
in the district, and, from his genial disposition, he
gained everywhere a welcome. He made two trips
across the Rocky Mountains to the extreme north-
western limit of the district at Fort Voucon, and he
found there even more success among the Indians-
2 8 MACKENZIE RIVER.
than on the Mackenzie. Though each of his visits to
Fort Youcon lasted only about a fortnight, yet these
sufficed to induce the Indian tribes there thoroughly
to abandon their heathenism, and joyfully to accept
instruction in the Gospel.
In 1862 the Rev. Robert, afterwards Archdeacon,
Mac Donald; was sent to the assistance of the Rev.
William Kirkby. He proceeded at once to the
Youcon, to take charge of the promising Mission
work there, and, under his auspices, the converts
multiplied and the Mission sphere widened. The
Yen. Dr. ^^lacDonald remained an active and as-
siduous worker for ten years, and he then took a
furlough in England, after which he returned to his
labours. By his exertions the entire Testament and
Prayer Book, with Psalms and numerous Hymns
have been translated and printed in the Tukudh
tongue, as also a primer in the language of the tribes
on the Lower Youcon River.
Except the Testament printed by the Bible Society,
these works have been almost wholly ])rinted and
brought out at the pains and expense of the venerable
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
In 1865 information had reached England, which
happily proved groundless, that the Rev. R. I^Iac-
I^onald had fallen into a decline, and was obliged to
leave his work, and that Romish priests were In
readiness to succeed to it. Upon this intelligence,
the Rev. W. C. Bonipas was despatched as his
intended successor. Mr. Bompas left England July
I, 1865, and reached Fort Simpson in Mackenzie
CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS. 29.
Kiver on Christmas morning of the same year. He
there found the news of the Rev. R. Mac Donald's
retirement to have been premature, and consequently
took u]3 work in Athabasca District and on Peace
River for a time, after first visiting and spending one
winter on Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes.
On the departure of the Rev. W. W. Kirkby from
the district in 1868, Mr. Bompas returned to Mack-
enzie River, and visited Fort Youcon, spending one
winter at Peel River, and paying a visit for six weeks
in spring to the Esquimaux at the mouth of the
Mackenzie. ;
Other Missionaries have more recently sustained
tlic work in the same field. The Rev. W. I). Reeve,
afterwards Archdeacon Reeve, succeeded to the
cliarge of the Mission at Fort Simpson after Mr.
Kirkby's departure. The Rev. W. D. Reeve laboured
there for ten years, and then after taking furlougli in
l^ngland, removed to Athabasca.
The Rev. W. D. Reeve was succeeded at Fort
Simpson by the Rev. W. Spendlove, and at the same
time the Rev. V. C. Sim proceeded to assist in the
important and interesting work on the Youcon.
The latter Missionary, after three years of devoted
and self-denying labour, succumbed to the severity
of the climate and his exertions, as well as scarcity
of supplies, and died at his post in 1884.
The Revs. Messrs. Garton, Wallis, Ellington, and
D. N. Kirkby (the last a son of Archdeacon Kirkby),
have been the latest recruits in this pioneer Mission-
ary army, . ; . 1
30 MACKENZIE RIVER.
It may be worth while to notice shortly in detail
the several Mission stations. Those among the Tenni
tribes, or Mackenzie River Indians, are first; Fort
Simpson, the earliest station and head-quarters of
the Mission. This place being the depot for the
trade of the country, forms also the point of distribu-
tion of Mission supplies. It is a post that has been
much contested with the Protestants by the Romish
priests, and the result is, as in other such cases, that
the Indians have some of them become only too
indifferent to either religion. We can, however, wait
confidently for the season of the truth's triumph.
The station that was next established is that at
Fort Norman, in the neighbourhood of Great Bear
Lake. At this station is a small church and
Mission house, and the Indians are regular in their
attendance at divine service, and interested in
the instruction given them. Another station exists
between Forts Simpson and Norman at Fort Wrigley,
where also the Indians have received a good deal of
instruction, though no Missionary has yet been per
manently fixed there, but the post has been visited
from the neighbouring stations.
Of these a great part of the expense has been
generously provided by the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. '
A Mission House has, however, been lately
erected, and a Native Catechist is now in charge
there.
On Great Slave Lake are two Mission stations,
namely, at Forts Rae and Resolution, which are
CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS. 3I
worked together. The Indians are more numerous
at Fort Rae than at other posts, and are of a simple-
minded character.
Another Mission has been entered upon on the
Liard River, but has not yet been long occupied.
In the Tukudh country the chief station is situate
on Peel River, where both Indians and Esquimaux
are instructed. The other stations of the Tukudh
Missions are on the west side of the Rocky Mount-
ains, one at La Pierre's house on Rat River, and the
other at Rampart House on Porcupine River. The
Indian converts at all the stations are zealous and
affectionate. Churches are erected, though not
yet wholly completed, at Peel River and Rampart
House. •■'-^-•'
Further work is also commencing in connexion
with these Missions on the Upper Youcon River.
The whole of the Missions of the diocese have
been hitherto supported from the funds of the Church
Missionary Society, with some liberal assistance for
Church building and other objects from the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and a small
but increasing contribution from the Canadian
Church.
The contributions of the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge towards Church Building in
the diocese have already amounted to ;:^i,ooo,
besides numerous grants of Sen'ice books and other
Bibles, Prayer-books, Hymn-books, School-books,
and Lending Libraries.
~ The same Society has also kindly offered liberal
32 MACKENZIE RIVER.
grants for the expense of training Native Catechists
in the Missions.
The ecclesiastical development has been as follows :
— The first diocese established in 1849 ^o the west
of Canada, namely, the original diocese of Rupert's
Land, comprised the i)rovinces of Manitoba and
British Columbia, and the territories of Keewatin
and the North-west. This original diocese was first
reduced by the separation of the diocese of British
Columbia (since subdivided), and the remainder was
in 1S74 divided into four, of which the most westerly,
called Athabasca, comprised the districts of Peace
River, Athabasca, and Mackenzie River. In 1884 the
districts of Peace River and Athabasca were again
separated to form exclusively the diocese of Athabasca,
while the extreme North-west was assigned as the
diocese of Mackenzie River. For its extent of territory
this diocese would again bear subdivision, but the
smallness of the population may forbid this.
The Tukudh Missions, however, which are distant
about 1. 000 miles from those on the Mackenzie
River, are formed into a separate archdeaconry
under tlie name of the archdeaconry of the V'oucon.
A cojistitution has been framed for the diocese,
and (|uadrennial synods have been held. Repre-
sentatives of the diocese are appointed to attend the
meetings of the Provincial Synod of Rupert's Land.
It need hardly be said that the Mission work in so
remote and isolated a field is often discouraging,
and needs mucli faith and perseverance, and the
exercise of self-denial. The climate is severe, the
CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS. 33
provisions scarce, and supplies uncertain. A calm
trust in Providence, however, with a cheerful and
prayerful temper, are weapons of defence for every
time of need ; and Africa with its fatal malaria, or
India with its enervating heat, form much worse
homes than the North with its healthful and bracing
frost, which with due caution will be found to
invigorate and even exhilarate both mind and body.
The natives are quiet and submissive, the residents
friendly, and the work less overwhelming than that in
more populous lands, so that leisure may be found in
the long winters for reading and study.
A history of this diocese to the present time
gives but small help to conjecture its course in the
future. The country has been hitherto cut off from
the civilised world; but now that steam has reached
it a connexion may be said to be already esta-
blished. When once brought into union with the
progress of the age, and the bonds of religion are
the strongest link, there is no reason why life in
Mackenzie River should be so far behind that of other
countries. A (Government mail is another link of
connexion that is much needed, and it is hoped that
this may be supplied.
In the Mission work it need hardly be said that
much still remains to be done. The first necessity
is the founding of a diocesan school, for any educa-
tional system in the diocese is still in the future.
The Missionaries themselves have hitherto held
Sunday and day-school at their several stations,
and this often to the embarrassing of more strictly
D
34 MACKENZIE RIVER.
evangelising work. Of late there has been no
schoolmaster in the diocese beside the Missionaries.
And yet education is here the main hope of Mis-
sionary success, for the minds of the natives need
to be trained and enlarged by education to appre-
ciate better the spiritual truths of the Gospel.
' In connexion with the diocesan school it appears
very desirable to set on foot an industrial farm for
the purpose of encouraging the Indians to agri-
cultural pursuits by setting an example of it, and
training some of the youths to this work. It seems
very desirable that in such a wild Indian country
as this, Christianity should not be presented to
the natives in separation from some of the blessings
which it usually brings in its train, in regard to
a more civilised and comfortable and less precarious
earthly existence. In . lanitoba he Missionary
success realised appears greatly owing to the efforts
made to encourage the Indians to settle and farm,
at the same time that they have been indoctrinated
with the truths of the Gosi)el.
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in speaking of the
total failure of the Missions that were undertaken
in the country between Canada and Manitoba one
hundred years since (but these were Romish Mis-
sions), uses the following remarkable expressions : —
" The cause of this failure must be attributed
to a want of due consideration in the mode em-
ployed by the ^lissionarics to propagate the religion
of which they were the zealous ministers. They
habituated themselves to the savage life and natu-
CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS.
ralised themselves to the savage manners, and by
thus becoming dependent, as it were, on the natives,
they acquired their contempt rather than their
veneration. If they had been as well acquainted
wi;h human nature as they were with the articles of
their faith, they would have known that the un-
cultivated mind of an Indian must be disposed by
much preparatory method and instruction to receive
the revealed truths of Christianity, to act under its
sanctions, and be impelled to good by the hope of its
reward, or turned from evil by the fear of its punish-
ment. They should have begun their work by
teaching some of those useful arts which are the
inlets of knowledge, and lead the mind by degrees to
objects of higher contemplation. Agriculture, so
formed to fix and combine society, and so pre-
paratory to objects of superior consideration, should
have been the first thing introduced among a savage
people.
" It attaches the wandering tribe to that spot
where it adds so much to their comfort, while it
gives them a sense of property and of lasting pos-
session, instead of the uncertain hopes of the chase
and the fugitive produce of uncultivated wilds.
Such were the means by which the forests oi
Paraguay were converted into a scene of abundant
civilisation, and its savage inhabitants introduced
to all the advantages of civilised life."
Additional churches and school buildings are, of
course, needed to consolidate the Mission work,
and for the erection of these a Mission carpenter
D 2
36 MACKENZIE RIVER.
needs to be brought to the diocese, for it is nearly
impossible to obtain labour on the spot.
A good supply of Bibles, Prayer-books and Hymn-
books for sale or gift is needed in the diocese, and
easy reading-books for loan at the various Mission
stations for those acquainted with English. The
S.P.CK. has helped in all these things, and is ready
to help again. For the Indians, twine and soap are
most serviceable gifts : the twine for fishing nets, and
the soap for that cleanliness which is intimately
connected with health.
The Liard River and the Upper Youcon P.iver,
the two most southerly parts of the diocese, and the
best in soil and climate, seem the points that call
most for fresh extension and exertion in the Mission
cause.
The following tabular statement may be subjoined
of the present Missionary arrangements of the
diocese, and the Mission agents that have been
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MACKENZIE RIVER. 39
CHAPTER IV.
INHABITANTS.
The natives of the diocese of Mackenzie River are
of three races : the Tenni, Tukudh, and Esquimaux
races. The Tenni tribes inhabit the larger part of
the diocese, the other races being confined to the
north and west.
In other parts of the world it has generally been
observed that the inhabitants of the sea coast or
mountainous regions are more lively and intelligent
than such as dwell in a flat or inland country. This
region forms no exception to the rule, for the Tenni
tribes appear much more demure and stolid than the
Esquimaux, who live on the Arctic sea coast, or the
Tukudh race, whose home is chiefly among the
Rocky Mountains and adjoining ranges.
The Tenni tribes are of a sallow complexion, in
this as in features more resembling the Mongolian
type than the Red Indians of the south.
The Tukudh tribes have a national tradition of
having reached their present country by crossing an
icy strait of the sea, which was probably Behring's
Strait ; and the Tenni tribes must have a similar
origin, for their language, though nearly as difi'erent
from the Tukudh as French from English, yet has
sufficient resemblance to betray a common stock.
40 MACKENZIE RIVER.
The Tenni tribes are rather coarse featured, with
thick lips and prominent cheek bones. They are at
present inoffensive and submissive in temper, though
a century since, before the introduction of European
trade, the tribes waged a predatory war on one
another, and among the distant bands on the Rocky
Mountains this is hardly yet extinct.
The occupation of all the natives of the diocese is
wholly confined to the chase or fishery. The Tenni
tribes pursue for their sustenance the moose deer,
reindeer, bear, and beaver, and for their skins the
fox, wolf, marten, wolverine, and other small animals.
The hunting is now carried on chiefly with firearms,
the bows and arrows being mostly left to the boys ;
but snares and traps are used for all the above
animals, at times, and for killing the wolves and foxes
poison is occasonally employed.
The Tenni tribes live in conical tents or lodges,
with a frame of poles and covered with dressed deer
or moose skin. In spring they make canoes of birch
bark for water travel and chase. In the fall of the
year they make birch-wood snow shoes for winter
voyaging. Their tents are floored with a litter of pine
branches, and warmed with a pine-log fire in the
centre. Their dress is of moose or deer-skin,
trimmed more or less with beads or dyed porcupine
quills, except so far as they may be able to purchase
clothing of European manufacture.
It is foreign to the Indian nature to remain long
in one place. They mostly shift their camps every
few weeks or oftener. If deer or moose have been
INHABITANTS. 4I
killed, it is more convenient to remove their camp ta
the place where the animal fell, than to haul the meal
through the woods to a distance. • •
Many of the Indians have erected wooden log-houses,
after the fashion of the whites, which they are quite
competent to do, but they seldom inhabit these long.
Their fondness for roving, or an increasing scarcity of
wild animals round their fixed abode, soon drives
them again to their tent. Moreover, if a death
occurs in their house, the Indians have a supersti-
tious dread of remaining there, and these Indians
are not careful enough in their domestic habits to
keep their houses cleanly, so that it is hardly con-
sistent with health and comfort for them to continue
long in one place.
Though vegetable crops might be grown in the
southern part of the diocese, the Indians have not
yet found patience and perseverance enough to con-
tinue to cultivate these. When wild animals are
scarce, the Indians are generally driven to stay with
their nets at the fish lakes, where they make, perhaps,
a scanty living. The easiest time for them is when
the rabbits are plentiful, for these are easily snared ;
but the rabbits, like most of the small animals of the
north, have periodical times of increase and decrease
in number, having their maximum about once in
every eight years, and between these periods dwindhng
to a very few.
The Tenni tribes are not quick at learning when
adults, but if children are taken from the tents and
placed at school along with the children of Euro-
42 MACKENZIE RIVER^
peans, the Indian children may keep pace with the
others in their learning or even outstrip them. They
are also docile and easily managed.
The whole of the Tenni race seem to be of a sickly
habit, and rather dwindling in numbers. They do
not seem to be much addicted to ardent spirits, nor
are these now supplied to them ; but they have an
inveterate propensity to gamble. Though almost
wholly free from crimes of violence, and not much
inclined to thieve, yet heathen habits of impurity
chng, alas, still too closely to them, and they exhibit
the usual Indian deficiency in a want of stability and
firmness of character. This Indian race seems to
have been free from idolatry before the arrival of
Europeans among them, and they had some know-
ledge of a good and evil Spirit, and of rewards and
punishments after death.
The different Tenni tribes inhabiting the country
speak different dialects, and bear different names,
such as the Chipewyans, Yellow Knives, Dog Ribs, Big
River Indians, Slave Indians, Nahany or Mountain
Indians, &:c.
The Yellow Knives are so called from their formerly
using knives and other tools or weapons made by
themselves of native copper found near Coppermine
River. The Chipewyan tribes extend in some of
their members from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific
coast, or the whole width of the continent of America.
The Dog Rib tribes live to the north of Great Slave
Lake, or between that and Great Bear Lake ; and the
Hare Indians to the north of Great Bear Lake.
INHABITANTS. 43
The Tukudh race are rather more sharp featured
and more lively and intelligent, as well as more
cordial and affectionate than the Tenni. Their eyes
are inclined to be small and pointed, rather as the
Chinese. From this circumstance, probably, they
obtained from the French the soubriquet of the
Loucheux or Squint-eyed, for they are not really
affected with squint.
The Tukudh make their tents in the shape of a
beehive, with bent poles for the frame, and the tent
covering is formed of deer- skins with the hair on
and turned inside, the skins being softened by scrap-
ing. Their camps become thus nearly as warm as a
log-house, and quite comfortable. Their dress in
winter consists also of deer-skins with the hair on,
and in cold weather the hair is turned inside. Their
country lies mostly north of the Arctic circle, but
these deer-skin dresses are almost impervious to
cold.
These Indians receive instruction with avidity,
whether in religion or other subjects ; and they have
taught one another to read the Gospels printed in
their own language, though the words are of for-
bidding length. They had some national dances
and songs of their own, and were fond of making
harangues at the feasts, which it was their custom to
make for one another. On such occasions a distri-
bution of property took place somewhat as is usual
with the tribes on the Pacific coast. Before Chris-
tianity was introduced among this tribe they were
much under the power of their medicine men or
44 MACKENZIE RIVER.
conjurors, who deceived them with their charms, and
sometimes even frightened them to death.
The food of the Tukudh Indians is almost exclu-
sively the reindeer, with salmon taken in the Youcon
river. The deer are mostly killed by being driven
into grounds or enclosures hedged with felled trees.
The salmon are taken in weirs or traps made with
willows in the bed of the river. The salmon are
dried in the sun or over the camp fire for winter
store. The flesh of the reindeer is also dried and
sometimes pounded for preservation. The reindeer
tongues are considered the most delicate part. In
summer time the reindeer migrate to the Arctic
coast to escape among the sea breezes of the barren
grounds from the flies and mosquitoes which torment
them at that season in the woods. In winter the
deer return to the more southern forests to avoid
the too-piercing cold and exposure of the extreme
north.
The Tukudh Indians do not make many canoes,
but travel on the rivers in summer mostly on rafts,
which they construct and manage with a good deal
of skill. Their snow-shoes are distinguished from
those of the Tenni tribe by being round instead of
pointed in front.
These Indians are kind to Europeans, whether
traders or missionaries, and they are hospitable to
visitors at their camps. The winter in their country
lasts eight months out of the twelve, and it may be
as well so, for it is much easier to traverse their
country walking on the level snow of winter than
INHABITANTS. 45
over the uneven swamps in summer. The surface of
the swampy ground is broken up by the rains into
high and slippery lumps locally called tetes des
fetnmes^ or women's heads, from the likeness of the
dependent tufts of grass to dishevelled hair. Cer-
tainly the wresting of the ancles in sliding among
these yielding knobs and their interstices suggests
the idea of walking on the heads of a crowd.
When the snows have fallen and snow-shoes are
donned there is no such impediment to smooth and
even travel, unless by an occasional trip of the snow-
shoes among the ground willows or bushes.
The Tukudh Indians are of various tribes, as the
River, Lake, Mountain, Valley Indians, &c., but their
dialects do not differ so much as among the Tenni.
On the Upper Youcon, however, the races inter-
mingle v/ith others speaking a different tongue, and
some appear more allied to the coast tribes to the
west. Since peace has been established among them
the Tukudh tribes often visit the Esquimaux of the
Arctic coast, chiefly for the purpose of trading furs
from them, and sometimes such visits are returned.
The Esquimaux observe and admire the change of
character wrought in the Indians by the introduction
of Christianity among them, because they are now
sometimes fed and saved when starving or distressed
by the very Indians who would formerly have only
sought to surprise and massacre them as their here-
ditary foes. _^^...^^.^^...^-..^^^-^-^^A-^^^^^-^^--.-
The Esquimaux differ much in appearance and
habits from the Indians. In complexion they are
46 MACKENZIE RIVER.
as fair and fresh-coloured as ourselves, and do not
differ much in feature from northern Europeans, but
their eyes are rather smaller, and their faces and
hands somewhat chubby. This seems caused by
nature having provided them with a layer of fat or
oil beneath the skin as a preservative from the cold.
If you shake hands with an Esquimaux in winter
you will find his skin in a glow at the lowest tem-
perature. Their animal heat is sustained in winter,
not by external fires, as with us, but by consuming
a sufficiency of fat and oil to support a process
of combustion within. For avoiding frost-bites
their fingers and noses seem naturally short and
dumpy.
In stature the Esquimaux of the mouth of the
]\Iackenzie are, many of them, large and tall and of
muscular frame ; but the women are mostly below
the average height of Europeans. The dress of men
and women is nearly alike, but the coats differently
shaped. The material is white deer-skin, tastefully
decorated with beads and trimmed with fur. The
men wear a circular tonsure on the head similar
to that of a Romish priest. They have also the
inconvenient custom of piercing each check with a
hole to admit of the insertion of a large '-ead, often
surrounded by a white disk or tablet of ivory nearly
two inches in diameter. This awkward ornament
somewhat interferes with the process of drinking and
eating, forming too many outlets to the orifice in-
tended for admission.
The Esquimaux-, both men and women, arc im-
INHABITANTS. 47
moderately fond of tobacco, which they smoke
differently from other people. The bowl of their
pipe is less than half the size of a thimble, and two
or three whiffs are all they use on each occasion.
This smoke, however, they swallow, which produces
a transient intoxication or even unconsciousness,
under the influence of which they occasionally fall
from their seat. When the process is gone through
in an unsteady canoe in the water it is not altogether
free from danger.
The Esquimaux wives have also an awkward habit
of weaving in a pile or parcel on the top of their
heads, by way of chignon, every particle of their own
hair which has become disconnected from their
youth up, so that the woman's age may be surmised
from the relative size of her top knot. The Esqui-
maux mothers seem fond of their children, but
seldom have more than one or two. If the number
exceeds this it seems to be thought a superfluity,
and they may probably sell or barter away the extra
ones.
The skill of the Esquimaux workmanship is con-
siderable, especially in carving needle-cases and
other small ornaments out of the ivory of the walrus
tusks. Their spears, bows and arrows, and other
implements are all neatly contrived. Tiicir canoes
are well framed and covered with sealskin. These
have no natural tendency to keep upright, but the
reverse ; yet the owner will ride them over the
ocean waves as on a prancing steed. When his
waterproof coat is secured over the mouth of the
48 MACKENZIE RIVER.
canoe he will turn a somersault, canoe and all, from
side to side in the water. They have a singular
way of throwing a spear from a hand-rest at the
musk-rat, so as not to overbalance the canoe, the
management of which probably resembles somewhat
that of a bicycle.
Their provision consists mostly of the flesh and oil
of whale, walrus, and seal. These they hunt, not in
their canoe, but embarked ten or a dozen together in
a larger boat covered with walrus hide. In their
common travels this large boat is managed by the
women, who convey the tents, bedding, and utensils
therein, while the men paddle about and hunt in
their light canoes. The Esquimaux wives thus
become superior oars women.
The dwellings of the Esquimaux vary at different
seasons of the year. In the fliU and early winter
they dwell in houses partly excavated and lined with
logs covered with poles, and over these with earth or
snow. They arc thus much warmer than they would
be (^uite above ground, and it is not their habit to
use fire in their dwellings. If fire is required for
cooking, they make one outside. If fuel is at hand
they prefer to cook their food ; but if fuel is wanting
or cooking inconvenient, they cat their meat or fish
raw without trouble. In fact, meat or fish frozen can
be eaten raw without so much distaste, the freezing
having an effect on the tissues somewhat similar to the
cooking. The taste of whale blubber is not unlike
raw bacon, and it cannot easily be cooked, as it
would licjucfy too soon. Seal oil is the favourite
. INHABITANTS. 49
luxury of the Esquimaux; and it is indeed sweet,
but somewhat mawkish and sickly.
When the winter is advanced, the Esquimaux
leave their excavated dwellings, and build houses
or even villages of frozen snow. These are con-
structed with such ease and speed that, as Milton's
imagined palace, they seem to rise like an exhalation
from the earth. The blocks of frozen snow are cut
out of the mass with large knives, and built into
solid masonry, which freezes together as the work
proceeds, without the aid of mortar. Being arched
over, a dome-shaped house is formed ; with a piece of
clear ice for a window, and a hole, through which
you creep on all fours, for a door or entrance. One
half of the interior is raised about two feet, and
strewn with deer-skins, as beds and sofas, in which
the long nights are passed in sleep, for which an
Esquimaux seems to have an insatiable capability
and relish.
In summer the Esquimaux camp in deer-skin
tents. They then visit the trading establishment
of the Hudson's Bay Company at Peel River, about
100 miles from the seacoast, and there they barter
their furs for tobacco, kettles, and axes. They do
not purchase European clothing. In the autumn
they often hunt for reindeer, or fish for herring,
which they store for winter use ; and they seem to
l)rcfer these when somewhat rotten.
The character of the Esquimaux is, unhapi)ily,
still rather treacherous and murderous. They are
great thieves, and soon angry. They are, however,
E
50 MACKENZIE RIVER.
capable of attachment and gratitude, and are some
of them quite free from ill-will. They are willing to
accept instruction in the Christian religion, though
they have not yet learned to obey its dictates.
Though in some respects disgusting in their domestic
habits, yet in their manners to a stranger they are
courteous and even ceremonious.
Before the introduction of iron among them the
Esquimaux tools and implements were, of course, of
stone or bone. They made fire by twisting through
means of a bow-string a piece of hard wood in a
hole made in a piece of soft friable wood, till the
friction produced smoke and flame. They also
picked up pieces of iron pyrites on the Arctic coast,
and struck fire with these and pieces of flint gathered
from a place called Flint Mountain.
MACKENZIE RIVER. \ 51
CHAPTER V.
LANGUAGES.
It will not be expected that a philological account
be here given of the languages spoken in the Diocese
of Mackenzie River, but some observations on them
may be permitted.
The first is the Tenni language, of which the dialects
are as numerous as the tribes of Indians composing
that widely-spread race. It appears to be the design
of Providence that a difference of speech should
operate to confine each nation or tribe to the
country or district allotted to it. This is specially
needful in the Indian country, where, from the
scarcity of provision, all would soon be starved if
the population were to accumulate in one spot. The
difference of dialects is so arranged that the speech
of each tribe is generally intelligible to their imme-
diate neighbours, but not to those more remote, as
the distinction of dialect increases with each remove.
The general characteristic of the Indian languages
is that they admit of great precision in the descrip-
tion of external objects and of ordinary occupations
or actions, but these tongues are greatly deficient, or
almost wanting, in abstract terms or the representa-
tion of mental ideas. The language then may be
said to be a reflection of the life of the speakers of it»
F. 2
52 MACKENZIE RIVER.
and unless speech and language are gifts of heaven,
it seems impossible to account for the regularity of
structure and beauty of arrangement of a language
spoken by people incapable perhaps of the mental
effort of counting from one to twenty.
That many of these languages had a common origin
seems betokened by the fact that some resemblances
of words may be noticed among them, and also
some analogies of structure. A distant affinity to
the Tenni tongue may be recognised even among the
languages spoken on the Pacific coast, and these
again may be probably traced to the languages of
Asia. The Tenni language was originally mono-
syllabic, but in some of its dialects it exhibits now.
very long words, arising by a process of agglutination.
The names, however, of elementary objects continue
mostly monosyllabic, as kon^ fire: /"//, water; tsnZj
firewood.
It might be thought difficult to convey religious
teaching, or to translate the Gospels, in a language
so destitute of abstract expressions ; but a careful
examination of the Gospels in Greek will show that
nearly every radical word is based upon some out-
ward act or object. It has thus been found not
impossible to render the Gospels and other instruc-
tions into the Tenni tongue, and the effort has been
a fresh proof of the universal adaptation of the
Gospel to the wants of every nation.
— Extracts from the Prayer-book, with Hymn-books
and Primers, have been with much liberality printed
in the Tenni language by the Society for Promoting
LANGUAGES. ^ 53
Christian Knowledge, and presented by them as a
free gift to the Mission.
The same Society has also printed a Primer in
Western Esquimaux, and still continues to offer
important aid to the Missions of a similar kind.
The Tukudh language, though having an affinity
to the Tenni, is much more full and complex. The
conjugation of the verbs is more elaborate than in
Greek, and the New Testament, Prayer-book, and
Psalms have been rendered into the language with-
out the vocabulary being found inadequate. The
Tukudh tongue, in its purest dialect, is probably
spoken by not more than 500 adults; yet its gram-
matical structure is complete, and its phraseology
flexible.
That the language is the invention or elaboration
of the people who speak it appears as incredible
as that the forests of their land are their handi-
work, and the only alternative seems to be that their
language is to each race the gift of their Creator.
The Esquimaux language appears to have no
affinity either to the Tenni or Tukudh, but in its
structure and in a few words seems to have a distant
resemblance to the Cree tongue. The Esquimaux
words are long, and the grammar complicated princi-
pally by the pronominal subject and object of the
verbs being denoted by inflexions, as in the Cree.
From the Esquimaux tongue one word has been
naturalised in English, namely, harpoon^ which is
Esquimaux for a fish spear; and igloo^ the Esquimaux
for a house, is not altogether unknown. i
5i MACKENZIE RIVER.
Some casual resemblances between words in these
languages and European expressions may be hap-
pened on, as Napoleon is Esquimaux for a sledge-
brace ; and in Tukudh sun means a star ; and in
Tenni, to-day is to-dzifie, the prefix being the same as
in English. In Esquimaux dark is tak, which is
sounded so much like the English word that it might
be mistaken for it. It does not appear that any
words have yet been incorporated into English from
the Tenni or Tukudh tongues.
The same language obtains among the Esquimaux
from Greenland to the Pacific Ocean, but the dialects
vary a good deal between the east and west. The
translations of Scripture made for the Greenland or
Labrador Esquimaux, or even for those in Hudson's
Bay, are quite unserviceable for the same race at the
mouth of the Mackenzie River. A native from one
part would, however, probably be able to make him-
self understood by the others in subjects of easy dis-
course. -- ■' — ■ • ■" - ■■ •■■- - ' '-^■--' '-'
The Esquimaux language is nearly confined to the
latitude north of the Arctic Circle. The Tukudh and
Tenni languages may be said, generally, to stretch
across the American continent to the south of the
Esquimaux tongue, down to about lat. 53^, south of
which the Cree language predominates. But this
does not apply to the country east of Hudson's Bay,
where the Esquimaux race extends further south, as
do also the cold and ice. i, ._ .
For a specimen of the languages, John iii. 16 is
subjoined in Tenni and Tukudh, and in Western
LANGUAGES. 55
Esquimaux as spoken at the mouth of the Mackenzie
River : —
Tenni.
Ekaonte Niotsi nun gonito, te Yazi thligi yi
koganiti, tene oyi yekeinithet, tsiedethet ka ile, ithlasi
kondih katheon oli.
TUKUDH.
Vittekwichanchyo kwikit nunhkug kettinizhun
ettevirzi ti Tinji kwunttlantshi chootyinte yikinjizhit
elyet rsyetet gititethii ko sheg kwundei tettiya.
Western Esquimaux.
Nonamik Chuneyouk mutomuni nonami kobiagiait
Notakak atoutsik mounga kontaga; keakia okperitpuni
tamaita igilaitait ami witawak pugnichi nakchoami.
It may be noticed that the word for world is similar
in the above three specimens — Tenni, min ; Tukudh,
7mnh ; Esquimaux, 7wo?ia. This may be a casual
resemblance as regards the Esquimaux.
In all these languages the system of counting is
founded on the principle of reckoning the fingers, and
the Esquimaux include the toes. Thus, in Tenni, five
is literally one hand, and a hundred is ten on
each finger. In Tukudh nine is literally "one
thumb held down," because this number is so repre-
sented in holding up the hands. In Esquimaux
twenty is one man's fingers and toes, forty, two men's
fingers and toes, &c.
The name adopted for God in the Tenni and
56 MACKENZIE RIVER.
Esquimaux languages has been chiefly the Creator
or Maker of the world. Occasionally the expression
" Our Father in Heaven " is also used. In the
Tukudh language a native word is used (or God
that had been already applied by themselves to
the Good Spirit. The expressions implies "The
Propitious One."
The name given to the English by the Tenni and
Tukudh Indians is " the dwellers in stone houses."
The origin of the name consists in the fact that the
Chipewyans of Athabasca first found the English at
the Stone Fort erected by them at the mouth of
English River, Hudson's Bay.
There are some characteristics which the Tenni and
Tukudh languages present in common with most or all
of the Indian tongues of North America, even though
these betray no affinity in their words. Such are the
following pecu'iarities : — Parts of the body cannot be
spoken of apart from some individual, expressed or
implied, to which they belong. An Indian will say
his or her, or its head, or a man's or a deer's head,
but not a head or the head simply; and the same with
the other members. Again, a different word is used
for an elder brother or sister and a younger one, for an
imcle on the father's side and on the mother's, and a
father and mother will use respectively different words
to express their son or daughter. The word " to give,"
receives various terminations according to the size,
shape, and quality of the article given, and whether
one or more, and the same with the word " to throw,"
and many others. . *
LANGUAGES. 57
In the Tiikudh tongue the verbs have a negative
form, which is often so very like the affirmative expres-
sion, as to create much difficulty for one unpractised
in the tongue. Even in English, the words literate
and illiterate have been confounded by the un-
learned. Adjectives and adverbs are mostly con-
jugated as verbs. The verb " to take," in the Tukudh
tongue will have different forms, according as it means
to take a person, or thing, one or many, for oneself,
or for another, and with the foot, hand, mouth, word,
or mind ; and all these in the singular, dual, or plural
number, and past, present, or future time, and each
of these forms in various combinations together, till
the ultimate number of variations is almost illimitable.
The Lord's Prayer may be added as a further
specimen of the languages for those interested in such
study.
Tenni.
Nakhe Tah yake, Nizi Edarie tsenidhun ka. Nine
ko tsun Kaodhet neli ka. Ayi ninedhun kezi agote
tidi ninike yake ente. Mego sheiti enete tidi dzine
ke nakhegadindi. Nakhe othlini nakhega naonili
tene ga kothlini nakhetsun ageti koga naoniyi kezi.
Nakhetsunea kotsun ninakhonili ile. Ojidi cha nak-
hinchu. Tta nine kotsun Kaodhet neli, nanetset chu
Edarie chu ithlasi. Amen.
Tukudh.
Nyiwho Ttyi zyeh zit nyikwilnjik Nyoohrzi rsin joo
chootinyoo. Ni koo ke kwadhut nichoozhit. Ni
58 MACKENZIE RIVER.
yinji zyehzit kwikit nunh kug akontekonji. Chih
ttrinzit nyiwhon enyantsit ttrin ndo thlekwitunazya
nyiwhoh ssih. Nyiwho trigwandyoth nyiwhet ooun-
kwichili nittso einut trigwandyoth nyiwhet tungittiyin,
ko tsut oounkwichitili Kookukwutundai kwutsut
nyiwho tunoe rsho. Ko trigwandyoth kwutsut nyiwhoh
yunnounji. Kwnggutyoo nitsun nili kookekwadhut
ttei ako ekwandit sheg ako sheg kenjit. Amen.
Western Esquimaux.
Angotwot kalangmioyouk, Inuit atkan ikchiouk
chinaglo. Kalangmin Kadetsi ikpukkaitpun. Chuna
ichoomugibichion inuit taimuna iliokoyait muni
nonami kailakton ililogo. Oblomi nukiikparaini
nukiptignik.
Chuinukpot iktiga, inuit chuinuk itkutputigot
ikchiniakutka taimuna.
Kachagiaini ililugo. Chuinagmin totkokligot.
Kisiani Kadetsi igiogni niaktotin. Ilwi choo-
kungaiotin. Ilwi kisiani koumayooktotin, kungiak-
totin, taimonga. Amen.
MACKENZIE RIVER. 59
CHAPTER VI.
FAUNA AND FLORA.
The animals are the most numerous denizens, and
form a main interest of the sub- Arctic clime, in which
is included the diocese of Mackenzie River. The
first to be mentioned are the bears, from which the
Arctic world derives its name.
The common black and brown bears are not
dangerous, but timid. They flee at the approach of
man, and will not even fight to defend their cubs.
The grisly bear is fiercer, and dangerous when
wounded. It is much stronger than the common
bear, but is chiefiy confined to the Rocky Mountains
or their neighbourhood.
The polar bear inhabits the ice of the Arctic sea,.
and lives on fish. It will attack a man if hungry,.
and is dangerous when provoked. The hair of this
bear, which lives among snow, has such a natural
quality of keeping unencumbered by the fallen snow,
that it is used as a snow-whisk by the Esquimaux to
clear of snow the deer-skins or other furs to which
the snow more readily adheres. Such a polar bear-
skin snow-whisk, which is usually made in the form
of a mitten, is called by them, through a curious
coincidence, "poalerin." "Poals" is a polar bear-
skin. "~~ T\^~~^^r"- • «
^)0 MACKENZIE RIVER.
The common bear is greedily fond of berries, and
fattens in the fall when they are ripe. Afterwards it
betakes itself to its hole for hybernation. The bear's
hole is either some natural cavity found on a bank or
hollow, or else is scraped out by itself Here the
bear lives without food or motion, or other sign of
life but breath, throughout the winter, and in spring
it is still fat. This foodless life seems almost
miraculous till we consider that food is to supply
waste of structure, and in perfect inaction there is no
wasting. Is this revival, after a death-like hybernation,
no aid to faith in the possibility of a resurrection ?
The predatory animal next in size to the bear, and
to which it bears some resemblance, is the wolverine
or glutton. Many are the tales told of its rapacity
and cunning. It is an enemy to the hunter from its
habit of robbing his traps of their baits, or even of
the animals caught in them. From its wary shrewd-
ness it is not itself easily trapped.
Wolves are common, and are seen both black and
white, both singly and in bands, but not in large
packs ; and as they do not attack man unless mad,
they are not feared. They are great enemies to the
moose and reindeer, and to nearly every other
animal. Fastening on its haunches they will drag down
a large moose. They will then mostly leave the animal
to freeze to death before returning to feast on the
carcase.
The large animals hunted for food are chiefly the
moose and reindeer. The former of these is a
solitary animal, the latter gregarious. The moose
FAUNA AND FLORA. ^l-
being highly nervous and of keen scent, needs to be
approached by the hunter with great caution. It is
mostly hunted in windy weather, when the crackling
of boughs by the breeze drowns the sound of the
hunter's cautious tread. Otherwise his footfall, how-
ever soft, would alarm his prey too soon. The
moose is sometimes hunted with dogs, by which
it is baited or badgered as a bull by bull-dogs,
till the hunter approaches. If the moose is chased
to any distance by running, before its death, the meat
becomes frothy and unpalatable.
The reindeer is hunted by running, not so much
after it, as parallel to it, for this deer will seldom flee
at once from the hunter, but rather circles round him
or returns to and fro in front of him. When on
their annual migrations, the deer take a straight
course in large bands, and are not easily turned aside
from the route they have chosen. They are then
easily shot by the hunters in passing. At times
both moose and reindeer are taken by being
strangled nith snares or slip-nooses of twisted
sinew placed in their expected track, and firmly fixed
to some wood.
The deer are also driven into pounds con-
structed of felled timber, and to which the deer
are guided by rows of pine branches or upturned
turfs placed over the snow and radiating in expand-
ing lines from the pound. These, like scarecrows,
though placed twenty feet apart, are viewed by the
timid deer as a fence, which he is indisposed to cross,
and he is thus led to his destruction. The flesh
62 MACKENZIE RIVER.
of both moose and reindeer is pleasant and very
easily digested, more so than the meat of domestic
animals. The moose meat bears somewhat such
relation to the deer's meat as beef to mutton, being
of coarser texture and less tender.
The smaller animals, hunted for the value of
their fur, are numerous. Such as foxes, marten,
beaver, lynx, otter, minx, and muskrat. The foxes are
of various colours, chiefly white or blue toward the
sea coast, and red or black inland. They are mostly
taken in steel traps.
The most valued fur is that of the black fox which
is worth about ^,^15 in the country, and more in
England after it has been dressed.
The marten are similar to the Russian sable.
They are taken in wooden traps, with a trip stick and
fish bait. The lynx and beaver are good eating, as
well as valued for their fur. The beaver are taken
either by breaking open their houses in winter, after
stopping their means of egress, or else by the gun in
spring. The industry of the beaver is proverbial Mul-
titudes of small trees are felled by their teeth for the
purpose of either stemming back the current to
produce still water for their convenience, or else in
building their lodges. The young poplars are also
felled by them for a supply of food, as they nibble
the bark.
To fell a tree the beaver sits up on its hind
legs and tail, and, placing its fore paws against the
tree, it nibbles all round the trunk, working down-
wards with its teeth as with a foot adze. The animal is
FAUNA AND FLORA. 6$
careful to gnaw the wood most deeply on the side the
tree is intended to fall, and it seldom fails in bringing
the tree down in the intended direction, though with
even a human workman the contrary event not un-
frequently happens. It has been doubted whether
the beaver uses its tail in building. That it carries
mud on its tail is fabulous. For such purpose its fore-
paws only are used, but that it may smooth the mud
with its tail is generally considered fact.
The beaver's lodge consists of a heterogeneous pile
of tree stems and branches, with mud chambers
arranged among them, on the edge of the stream.
As a dead beaver soon sinks, much smartness is
needful to secure the prey if shot in the water. The
beaver tail, being wholly composed of fat, is one of
the luxuries of the north. Indeed, the meat of the
beaver generally, is often as much fat as lean.
Another small animal of which the flesh is very
good is the porcupine, which tastes something like
sucking pig. The porcupine of the north is much
smaller than that of southern countries. The quills
are only about three inches long, and supple. When
dyed, they are much used in ornamental leather work
by the Indian women.
Rabbits are numerous and very wholesome. As
these do not burrow, they are called Arctic hares by
the naturalist. But as their not burrowing is probably
a provision of Providence, to suit the fact of the
ground bci»g mostly frozen, it seems a pity that this
animal shoutcl thereby lose the name of a rabbit,
wliich it certainly resembles. The rabbit skins arc of no
Ml
(
1 *^
64 MACKENZIE RIVER.
value for trade, from the hair being loose, but they are
much used by the Indians in the woods for their
own clothing, being the warmest of all coverings.
The rabbit skins are cut in strips and twisted, and
are then laced into coats or other garments. Robes
for bed coverings are mostly made of the dressed
skins of the reindeer or mountain goat, or of the
siffleux or marmot. The wild goats inhabit the
rocks of the mountains, where they are hunted with
the gun by the Mountain Indians. Their flesh
is good for food. The wild sheep of the mountains
are less numerous.
There is a wood deer or stag, of a size half way
between the reindeer and the moose. This animal
keeps to the woods, and is not numerous.
The musk-rat is numerous in the streams, and is
eaten by the Indians, though rather strong-tasted.
Squirrels and field mice are plentiful. Otters are
found, though not plentifully, in the lakes, and fishers
on the land.
Confined to the barren grounds towards the Arctic
sea coasts, are the musk oxen. These are smaller
than the buffalo or domestic cattle, but are fierce and
dangerous when wounded. Their hides make good
rugs. Their flesh is rather strong-tasted, with a
musky flavour. The whale, walrus, and seal are the
larger animals of the Arctic seas in these quarters.
The walrus tusks are good ivory, and are valuable in
trade. The walrus skins cover the boats of the
Esquimaux, for these have no boat-building timber,
but split ihc frames of their boats and canoes out of
FAUNA AND FLORA. 65
drift wood. The walrus skins are never cut by the
ice, a quality essential to an animal living amongst it.
The walrus flesh is but coarse food. The seal-skins
are used by the Esquimaux to cover their canoes, and
for waterproof boots and shoes, and for various other
purposes. The flesh and fat of the seal are much
esteemed as delicacies by the Esquimaux.
The fish of the Mackenzie River and of the ad-
joining lakes are chiefly the white-fish, blue-fish,
jack-fish, perch, loach, and one commonly called the
inconnu, or unknown fish, but which seems to be
known to naturalists as only a different species of
corigenus from the white-fish, which is designated
Corigenns albiis. Trout of a large size are taken
in Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, weighing
commonly about 30 lb., and sometimes as high as
50 lb to 60 lb. The white-fish are numerous in the
lakes, about 50,000 being netted every autumn at one
fishery in Great Slave Lake, and weighing 2 lb. to 3 lb.
each. This fish, for week^, or even months, often
forms the sole food of the employes at the Hudson's
Bay Company's trading posts, and it is a sort of pro-
vision that as an exclusive diet it seems less wearisome
than meat.
The birds of Mackenzie River are numerous,
especially the migratory class. Those which pass in
large flocks in spring and fall are the geese, swans, and
cranes. These proceed to the Arctic coasts for the
breeding season in summer, and return south to pass
the winter somewhere in the LTnited States. Many
other kinds of birds arrive in spring and leave in fall,
V
66 MACKENZIE RIVER.
as the eagles, ducks, grouse, and robins. Owls, hawks,
crows, gulls, and some others continue more or less
all the year. The cinereous crow, or whisky jack, is
a saucy bird that frequents the camps of voyagers to
eat their scraps, and in this wild country it appears
the only thing that is tame by nature.
The grouse are of various kinds. Many sorts, like
the rabbits, change their colour from brown to white
on the approach of winter. This is an arrangement
of a benign Providence to defend them from their
depredators, such as hawks, owls, lynx, marten,
minx, &:c. ; for on the white snow a moving brown
speck is very conspicuous, and white almost unseen.
White is also the warmest coloured dress for winter
Avear.
Kingfishers, woodpeckers, redbreasted thrushes,
plovers, snipes, sandpipers, martins, and other small
birds, are noticed in summer; and large flocks of
snow buntings skim the ground in spring and fall,
in going and returning between the north and south.
Gulls are numerous on the rivers and lakes, where
they breed on rocky islands ; and pelicans frequent
the broken waters of rapids and cascades, where they
fish in the shallows.
The different kinds of geese, waveys and ducks,
teal, tern, loons, and other waterfowl, need not be
<letailed here, but they are numerous, and afford food
iind amusement to the sportsman in summer, and
especially in spring and fiill.
Before dismissing the animal kingdom, the insects
should be noticed, for Mackenzie River is a land of
FAUNA AND FLORA. ^
flies. The common house-flies are not specially
numerous, but the large horse-flies are very tenacious
and tormenting in early summer, both to men and
cattle, and they soon spoil any uncovered food.
The mosquitoes for the three months, June, July, and
August, are a wearisome discomfort, especially in the
evenings and at night, unless kept off by a curtain.
Relief from them is obtained otherwise only in the
smoke of a wood fire, except that they are dispersed
by strong wind, and somewhat allayed by a scorching
sun-heat. On a soft delicate skin their sting is pro-
ductive of a burning inflammation, amounting almost
to a fever, but to smear the skin with oil or grease is
a temporary preservative. About the middle of
summer large dragon-flies appear in numbers. They
are known as mosquito hawks, and are welcome
visitors, for they thin the mosquitoes to a wonderful
extent. Spiders, wasps, ants, and butterflies are
common, but not more numerous than in Europe.
To turn to the vegetable kingdom, the forest trees
of the Mackenzie River are chiefly the pine and
birch, the latter only sprinkled here and there among
the pines. Each of these trees is of essential use
to the inhabitants. The former builds the houses
and boats, and provides the fuel. The harder wood
of the latter tree forms the sledges, snow shoes, axe
handles, and other implements. The red pine, or
tamarack, is also found, but not often of large size.
In the southern district, on the Liard River and the
Upper Youcon, poplar mingles with the i)ines. Of
bushes or undergrowth there is little beside willow,
V 2
68 MACKENZIE RIVER.
red and grey, and alder, and juniper, and wild roses,
besides various berry trees.
The wild berries of the country are numerous,
though small. Those on bushes are the high buoh cran-
berry or mooseberry, the bearberry, raspberry, goose-
berry, black and red currant, and another locally known
as the poire, which, when dried in the sun, forms a
passable substitute for dried currants. All these are
edible, but without the sweetness or flavour of the
cultivated fruit, except the raspberry, which is not
much different from that of the gardens. On the
\^ ground are cranberries, eyeberries, dewberries, part-
ridge berries, crowberries, blue berries, yellow berries,
and small strawberries. These are all more or less
acceptable to palates not too fastidious. The incon-
venience of gathering them in summer is chiefly from
the swarms of mosquitoes. The cranberries and crow-
berries remain on the ground under the snow all
winter, and may still be picked in spring, when the
snows melt off.
The rapidity with which vegetation progresses, and
the berries mature, during the short summer is very
remarkable. Of the gtoiid-berries the buds and
blossoms are already opening when the snows^ m^lt^
off" them, and in a few weeks fresh berries are already
ripening before the old ones disappear. The chief
carpet of the North is the moss, both green and
white. This forms the reindeer's food. Even on the
rocks the lichen is edible, and forms the last resort
~ of the starved voyager. — ^
MACKENZIE RIVER. 69
CHAPTER VII.
ARCTIC LIFE.
I r may be desired to know of what sort is the Hfe of
an European resident in an Arctic or sub- Arctic clime,
and how great is the difference of habits caused by
the climate. In respect to dress, very little change
of clothing is needful from that usual in Europe. By
a benign arrangement of Providence, the sharp cold of
the North quickens the circulation, and exercise only
is needful for warmth. To admit of the walking being
unimpeded, wraps are as far as })ossible dispensed
with, and an overcoat is seldom worn. The hands,
feet, and ears, however, need much protection.
Under soft mooseskin shoes are generally worn two
thick socks of blanketing, and the leather mittens for
the hands are also lined with blanketing. A fur cap
is worn on the head, with covering for the ears.
One chief characteristic of Arctic life is the
precarious supply of provisions. To have no cer-
tainty whence next week's meals are to come, and
the knowledge that these could not be bought for
their weight in gold if absent or lacking, is a new
experience for one used to the neighbourhood of
butchers' and bakers' shops and the powerful aid of
present cash. Scarcity of food obliges to a trust in
Providence which is not disappointed. When one
70 MACKENZIE RIVER.
source of supply fails, another opens. If moose are
scarce, deer are plentiful. If meat fails, fish appears.
When fish are absent, rabbits swarm. When these
decline, birds arrive. Thus by a kind Heaven the
wants of all are met. The Indians are so confident
in fresh supplies that they finish their last mouthful
without anxiety, and seem to need no more store-
house or barn than the sparrows or ravens.
An Arctic life, except among the Esquimaux, makes
fire and fuel of next importance to food. The dead
pines are cut down with the woodmen's axes,
chopped into suitable lengths, and hauled on sledges
to the houses by oxen or dogs. The logs are again
cut and split into billets of about two feet long, and
an armful of these is placed upright in the open
chimney, unless there is a stove to contain them.
The sparks and burning splinters from these billets
often fly about the flooring, but do not ignite the
boards, and the snows on the roof prevent these
being set on fire by the sparks which issue from the
chimney above.
The construction of the houses is usually as
follows : — Four upright corner posts are mortised
above and below into rectangular frames of square
beams, and the side walls are then filled in with
pine logs with their pointed ends fixed in grooves
in the corner posts. The roof is formed of smaller
sticks laid from the eaves to a ridge pole in the
centre, and these are covered with layers of pine
bark. The walls of the house are then coated
inside and out with mud ; and, if possible, washed
ARCTIC LIFE. 71
over with white earth for the sake of appearance.
The chimney is built with stones and mud ; and
if there are no stones, then with mud over a frame of
wood. The better houses are ceiled inside with
boards. Where gkss is wanting, the windows are
filled with parchment.
As meat and fish and even milk will keep when
frozen all winter, there is no danger of provision
spoiling at that season ; but the frozen meat will
need to be cut up with the axe, unless previously
thawed. The inkstand may have to be taken to bed
to avoid freezing the ink, which pales it.
In winter walking, a white spot on the cheek or
nose is a sign that these are freezing. Such an
accident is thus visible to a companion, though the
patient may be unconscious of it from the loss of
sensation in the part affected. Warming the part
with the hand or rubbing with snow affords a cure.
The chief characteristics of an Arctic life, how-
ever, consist not so much in vv'hat is present, as
in features that are conspicuous by their absence.
No cities, towns, or villages, streets, roads, or lanes ;
no markets, farms, or bazaars ; no flocks or herds,
or carriages ; no money, whether coin or notes ; no
railways, mails, or telegraphs ; no Government, or
soldiers, or police ; no prisons or taxes ; no lawyers
or doctors. Newspapers three months old, and
letters three or four times a year. The absence
of all these sources of interest is apt to render the
mind vacant and listless, or to engender idle gossip
or thoughtless amusement.
72 MACKENZIE RIVER.
There is, however, time and opportunity in the
quiet Nort' 'or study and self-improvement if the
disposition c. id the books are not wanting. For,
after all, the best quality of this northern life is its
peaceful tranquillity. The country is quiet ; the
people are quiet; the occupations are quiet, and
there is little to disturb those who are fond of
their own society. The Indians, it is true, are
restless, and often repeating their visits to the
houses, but these can be excluded when necessar}-.
An outdoor life, however, to v.hich the bracing
climate invites, is apt to dissipate the mind from
study, and it is doubtful how far complete solitude
is advantageous for improvement of character.
In winter the days are very short. To take a
moderate case. If the sun rise at ten and set at two,
there is none too much time for reading by daylight,
and candles may be scarce for evening study. The
long summer days, when there is no night, n'^'^^t
be thought to make amends for this ; ba'i
summer's heat seems somev.hat to enervate
mind by a reaction from the bracing cold of winter
The outdoor occupations are hunting, shooting,
and sledge-driving. The winter travelling is not
disagreeable to a hardy pedestrian. The night
encampment is then made in the snow each evening
under the open sky. Pine branches are laid on the
ground when the snow is cleared off it, and with a
large pine - log fire, a good supper, and enough
blankets to wrap in, the traveller sleeps well enough.
The provisions taken for a winter trip are mostly
ARCTIC LIFE. 73
dried meat and tea for the travellers, and frozen fish
for the dogs, of which ^our haul the sled load ot
blankets and provisions each day, from 3 or 4 o'clock
in the morning till sunset, with an hour's rest for
dinner. Toward spring the glare of the sun on the
snow is very strong, and inflammation of the eyes,
ending in snow blindness, is often painful and dis-
tressing. When the voyage is finished, a drop of
laudanum in the eye will generally effect a cure.
Walking on snow-shoes in winter sometimes pro-
duces a sort of cramp in the muscles of the shin,
which is called snow-shoe sickness. This at times
causes the limbs to become so swollen and stiff that the
feet have to be lifted by a line attached to the front
of the snow shoe. If the end of the journey is yet 100
miles off, this is far from agreeable. In crossing the
large lakes in a blinding snowstorm sometimes the
right direction is lost, and the travellers have to sleep
without fire on the ice. There is, however, no danger
in this when caution is used. The voyagers may lie
down to sleep in a hollow scraped in the snow, with
their sled as a partial shelter from the wind, and they
will awake in the morningnone the worse.
There are few countries more safe for the traveller
than the Mackenzie region, and weapons of defence
are not required against man or animals. In winter
the bears are in their holes, and the wolves, though
they may follow up the sled track, yet will seldom
approach very close to the night encampment, being
deterred by the smell of the fire embers. Summer
travel has been in the past entirely by row-boat or
74 MACKENZIE RIVER.
canoe. Both summer and winter the average day's
journey is from twenty-five to thirty miles, unless in
descending the current. In mounting the stream, when
the river banks admit of it, the boats are hauled by
four men on the beach with a tow-line. For a canoe one
man will suffice to haul. A fair breeze will permit of
hoisting a sail, which in the case of a canoe usually
consists of a spread blanket. The sight of a moose
deer or beaver in the water is the signal for a chase.
In winter hundreds of miles may be traversed without
encountering a human being. In summer, once in
two or three days a few Indian tents may be found
on tlie river bank, and a few fish or a little meat may
be obtained from the natives in exchange for a little
tea or tobacco.
The boats in use on Mackenzie River are rowed
with eight or ten long and heavy oars, to which the
rowers rise from their seats at every stroke. They
hold six or seven tons of merchandise. About twelve
of such boats will bring in the entire annual outfit of
supplies for Mackenzie River. One boat-load will
be exclusively tobacco ; two more, ammunition ;
another, flour ; another, tea ; another, sugar and
other groceries ; the rest mostly clothing and iron
utensils and axes. It is surely by the j)rovision of a
benign Providence that in this way the needful wants
of each scattered band of wandering Indians through-
out the whole country are adetpiately supplied in
exchange for the one commodity wliicli the country
affords, the furs, which are coveted by Kuroi)can
traders. We arc told that extremes meet, and it
ARCTIC LIFE. 75
might be hard to find a better example of this proverb
than in the contrast between West-end fashion
dressed in extravagantly high-priced furs, and the
squalid and pitiful Indian who procures those furs in
his wanderings among the Arctic snows.
The Es(}uimaux houses, as is well known, arc
warmed, not with fires but with lamps. A stone tray
is provided, round which a circle of moss is arranged,
and over it a piece of whale fat is hung. Oil is put
in the tray, and the moss being ignited, gives both
light and heat. The oil is replenished from the
dripping fat above. The effect is not very dissimilar
to that of a gas-stove.
A chief contrast between civilised and Arctic life
consists in the slowness with which the affairs of life
appear to proceed in the North, comi)ared with the
railway speed and bustle with which everything is
transacted in Europe. There seems a contrast in
two opposite respects. In resi)ect to the events
crowded into it, a week of civiHsed life seems to
equal a year of Arctic experience. On the other
hand, a month of solitude may at times drag so
heavily as to equal a year of bustle and engagement.
One groat blessing of the Arctic climate is tlie
healthiness of it. Sickness is rare among the resident
Europeans. Lung diseases seem often cured among
them by the dry, bracing air of the North. Consump-
tion appears to be generated or fostered by damp and
impure air and confinement, and to be banished by
free exposure to a dry and bracing almosj)here. Let
the consumptive patients be despatched to Macken/ic
76 MACKENZIE RIVER.
River for recovery, rather than to ^Madeira to die.
It is singular, however, that this cHmate, healthful to
the resident Europeans, does not conduce to good
health among the native Indians. These are often con-
sumptive, a tendency which seems due to a scrofulous
constitution. Vicious and uncleanly habits, irregular
diet, alternate gluttony and starvation, exposure and
self-neglect, may also be among the causes of the
Indian sickliness. We find here a strange contrast
with the hot climates of Africa and India, which, while
healthful to the natives, are insalubrious to the
European. In the North, on the other hand, we
find an aboriginal population failing from disease, and
Euroi)eans thriving in health. There is little doubt
that in exchanging their original garments of furs for
the products of the European loom, these northern
Indians made for their own health a poor exchange.
The fur clothing was not only much the v^armest, but
the skins, in the absence of soap, were easily cleansed
by scraping or currying, while a woven garment,
especially if of cotton, both admits the cold and con-
tracts the dirt. The Indians have also become exposed
to some contagious diseases from the residence of
Europeans among them, and even the goods packed
in England for their use have at times brought the
seeds of fever along with them.
Regarding temperature, the thermometer in winter
in Mackenzie River fails frcfjuently as low as 50"
below zero, Fahrenheit. Occasionally it stands at
60° below zero, but chiefly within the .\rctic circle.
A range of 30° below zero is considered a moderate
ARCTIC LIFE. 77
cold for travelling or outdoor labour, and it is
amusing to hear the \s'eather complained of as too
hot for working or walking comfortably, if the
temperature stands above zero.
In summer, on the other hand, the heat is scorch-
ing, but only in the daytime, and at most for a few
weeks. Toward the end of winter it is not unusual
to see in a single day as great a range of temperature
as is found in the whole year in England. The
thermometer may stand at 30° below zero, or lower,
in the early morning, and in the afternoon at 40°
above it. The dry cold of the North is not so
penetrating as the damp chills of an English winter,
and a change of temperature is less immediately felt.
It is possible to emerge from a hot room with a tem-
perature of, say, 80°, and stand outside for a few
minutes in a cold 30° below zero before the person
feels chilled, and brisk exercise will sustain a glow.
In summer it is customary with the Indians and
Esquimaux, and partly with the white residents, to
sleep in the day and rise by night, if it can be called
night, when the sun does not set, but only approaches
the liorizon in the North at midnight. The Es(jui-
maux are compelled to this habit by wearing only
clothes of reindeer skin, which are very uncomfortable
in the heat of a summer's day. They sub.sist also on
the musk-rat, fish, ^c, which are best hunted in
the night-time. Similar motives obtain with the
Indians.
It is pleasant to be able to read throughout the
night in summer without being interrupted by dark-
78 MACKENZIE RIVER.
ness ; but the compensation for this comes in mid-
winter, when there may be only dayhght for two
hours at midday to take a book. After all, the
constant daylight of the Arctic summer becomes
wearisome, and repose is sounder and sweeter when
sheltered in the shadow of the dusk. Though the
winter is cold and bleak, dark and dreary, yet most
residents prefer this season to the short summer,
which is fatiguing with the heat, glare, and mos-
quitoes. A kind Creator adapts men's homes to
their tastes, and it would seem that few natives are
so home-sick when removed from their native land
as the Esquimaux.
MACKENZIE RIVER. f^
CHAPTER VIII.
METEOROLOGY.
One chief peculiarity of the Arctic regions lies in
the strange position and movements of the sun,
moon, and stars. About these some remarks may be
permitted. Regarding the sun, the place of its
rising and setting changes so quickly that every week
brings a noticeable difference. Instead of the sun
rising always in the east, it rises in the winter near the
south and in summer near the north, and the same
positions Avill be those of sun-setting. This makes
the length of the day vary with equal rapidity, so
that each week in the year the days are an hour
longer or shorter than the previous week.
These last statements apply, however, only to the
region strictly within the Arctic Circle. In latitude
Co° the sun will rise on the shortest day in the south-
east about nine o'clock and set in the south-west
about three.
Thus, in the Mackenzie River Diocese we have in
mid-winter at Fort Liard about six hours sunlight ; at
Tort Simpson about five hours ; at Fort Wrigley about
four hours ; at Fort Norman about three hours. At
('iof)d Hope there would i)robably benbout one hour's
sunlight on the shortest day but for the hills which
conceal the sun altogether. At Peel River, La Punas
8o INIACKENZIE RIVER.
House and Rampart House the sun in mid-winter
does not rise at all.
By the end of May, however, or in less than twenty-
four weeks after the days begin to lengthen at the
three last - named posts, the sun stays above the
horizon all the twenty-four hours. There is thus an
average gain of one hour in the length of the day
every week.
In winter the noonday sun appears, if at all, only
among the tree tops in the south, while in summer
the midnight sun will be seen among the tree-tops
in the north. The mid jay sun then shines as
high as the English noonday sun in April. In
the latitude of Peel River, the most northerly of
the Mission stations in Mackenzie Diocese, the
midsummer sun is continuously above the horizon
for six weeks. In winter, however, it is far from
being continuously below the horizon for the same
time. This difference is owing to the happy effect of
the atmospheric refraction, which makes the sun
when near the horizon in these latitudes appear
about 5° higher than its real position. In fact, at
the latitude we have named the sun is hardly out of
sight entirely for a single day. From the housetop a
small edge of the ui)per limb of the sun's disc will be
visible on the shortest day, which appears to be
December 22nd or 23rd in those regions. By the
ist of January about half the sun's disc is visible,
and in a few days more the whole of it (the astro-
nomical sunrise). When once the noonday sun
leaves the horizon it mounts very rapidly, and each
METEOROLOGY. - Si
day witnesses an observable increase of altitude.
By the end of April there is continuous daylight,
and by the end of May continuous sunlight.
In the short days of winter throughout the North
the twilight is very long, according to the benign
principle of compensation which obtains throughout
nature. The average winter twilight is about three
hours in the morning and the same in the evening,
counting as twilight the time from daybreak to sun-
rise ; and within the Arctic circle in mid-winter the
time is longer still. In the latitude of Peel River,
even on the shortest day, when the sun does not
rise at all, the first streak of dawn will still be visible
in the south-eastern horizon soon after 7 a.m. About
an hour later the day sky will have extended to mid-
heaven, but the ground will still be dark. In an-
other hour, or soon after nine, there will be light
enough to see the ground and bushes and track for
walking, but only in dim twilight. In another hour,
or about ten, it will be clear daylight outside, but
still dim in the house. About eleven it will be light
enough to see to read in the rooms.
At the same time red clouds will appear toward
the south, holding out an expectation of approaching
sunrise. These will increase in brightness till at
noon they are gilded with the brilliancy that imme-
diately i)recedes the beaming forth of the orb of day,
and even the sunbeams will shoot up from the
horizon. All these lengthened preparations, however,
end at last only in disappointment, for the sun does
not really apjjear at all. The appearances of the
G
82 MACKENZIE RIVER.
morning are then repeated in a reverse order, and
with lingering decHne, until before 5 p.m. the last
streak of daylight in the south-west sinks into black
night.
But an Arctic night has many illuminations, and
this brings us to speak of the seeming irregularities
of the moon's progress. The place of the moon's
rising circles the horizon every month in a similar
way to that of the sun every twelvemonth. Every
moon in one part of its monthly course circles the
heavens without setting like the midsummer sun, and
at another of its phases it will appear only among the
tree-tops, or else not rise at all, like the sun in winter.
And here comes in a beneficent arrangement of
Providence. In mid-winter, in the sun's absence, it
is the full moon that never sets, but circles in un-
broken splendour throughout the twenty-four hours,
while the new moon does not rise at all. In summer
this is reversed, and the full moon hardly rises, while
the new moon never sets, but in the perpetual sun-
light of summer the moonlight would be wasted if
present, and is just as well dispensed with.
From the place of the moon's rising being so
rapidly changed, its hour of daily rising becomes
also more irregular in these northern climes. It rises
sometimes about the same hour for several succes-
sive nights, and at other times will rise two or three
hours later than the previous evening. This depends
upon the moon's position with regard to the celestial
equator, in other words, its declination.
_ Regarding the stars, it may be remarked as one
METEOROLOGY.
noticeable feature of the Arctic heavens, that the
pole-star is, in winter, nearly overhead, and round
this the northern constellations circle rather than rise
and set. The stars appear brilliant when the sky is
clear, and " Arcturus and Orion, and the Pleiades "
shine high in full splendour. The planets in the winter
nights appear near the horizon, and with their discs
much enlarged. They are in this position because
they travel nearly on the ecliptic, which is the sun's
path. In this way the bright evening or morning
stars of Christmas time often call to mind the star of
Bethlehem.
In Mackenzie River, from the difference of time,
the constellations appear in similar positions at four
o'clock in the morning to that seen in England at
eight in the evening ; so that the Arctic voyager
starting on his winters trip before the dawn, will
recognise the same stars that have attended his
evening walks in Europe. Shooting stars are not very
frequent in the far North, a fact which is easily
explicable, for these cosmical bodies are more readily
encountered further south, by our earth in her travels
through space.
The meteors like the sun's rays strike the atmo-
sphere more obliquely towards the poles, and so are
rarer or more dispersed in the far North.
The aurora is almost a nightly phenomenon in the
far North when the sky is clear. It seems to be apt
to follow the course of a moisture rising from any
lake or river, so that along the Mackenzie River the
aurora often appears as a continuous line of light,
G 2
84 MACKENZIE RIVER.
Stretching across the sky high overhead, but its Hnes
have a tendency to be at right angles to the magnetic
north. The coruscations of the aurora are often
brilliant, and of varied hues — blue, green, and lilac.
Its waving light has the appearance of the rustling of
silken banners, and its varying colours resemble the
flashes of shot silk. Its sound also, by those who
have heard it, is compared to the rustling of silk, and
the testimonies that it is audible are too general and
consistent to be disregarded. It is doubtful whether
the aurora can be displayed without some moisture to
which to affix itself, for often at morning's dawn a
slight cloud will be seen in the part of the sky from
which its brilliance seemed to emanate.
Within the Arctic circle the display of the aurora
will usually appear rather to the south than to the
north, in which direction the heavens are generally
dark. When the sky is cloudy the light of the
aurora, veiled by the clouds, often simulates the
dawn, and may betray an unwary traveller to rouse
himself hastily long before day.
The difference of longitude between England and
Mackenzie River gives about eight hours earlier time,
so that our friends in England are already up again
the next morning before we retire to rest the night
before, and Monday morning's bustle has begun in
Europe while Sabbath evening services are still held
in Mackenzie River. Respecting the seasons, both
countries being in the northern hemisphere, summer
and winter, of course, recur at the same time in
England and Mackenzie River ; but for all this the
METEOROLOGY. 85
seasons can hardly be called entirely contempo-
raneous. In the far North there is scant spring time.
Winter reigns till May, and summer begins in June; a
longer autumn, and the pleasantest season of the year
begins in August and lasts till October, when stern
winter resumes its sway.
Indeed, a foretaste or warning of frost and snow
generally begins at the end of September or
beginning of October, after which there is often
a return of fine warm weather for two or three
weeks, which are locally known as the Indian
summer. In winter the weather is not of continued
equal severity, but alternations of colder and milder
weather, enduring for a week or two, succeed each
other throuhgout the season. The severe weather is
accompanied by a clear sky, and the milder tem-
perature by cloud ; but whether the cloud is the cause
or effect of the warmth is not so plain. It appears
probable that a downward deflection of a warmer
equatorial current in the upper atmosphere may cause
the breaks in the cold, and that the moisture of that
warmer air is condensed in its descent in the form of
cloud. This hypothesis accords with the experience
that the mountain tops have a milder temperature
in Arctic latitudes in winter than the lower levels.
The readiest wav to thaw frozen fincrers in Arctic
latitudes is to plunge them into water, for though
the water may be full of ice it will not be below^ the
temperature of freezing-point, or 32*^ Fahrenheit,
though the temperature of the air may be 60'' to 70^
lower. The temperature of the Arctic ocean in
S6 MACKENZIE RIVER.
winter, even though frozen, seems to be somewhat
milder than that of the adjoining land. It has been
questioned whether or not the climate of "he Arctic
regions was ever a tropical one, or of a higher
temperature than at present. Evidence in the
affirmative has been said to lie in fossil leaves or
impressions of tropical flora and fauna found in
high latitudes.
In Mackenzie River it has been stated that fossil
impressions of large leaves were found in the exposed
coal-beds, but this does not seem to be substantiated.
The coal-beds adjoining the Mackenzie River have
been dn fire for a century past, and the subterranean
fires bake the river-side clay into a hardened brick or
biscuit. The recent impressions of autumn leaves
drifted down the river are imprinted on the clay and
then baked into simulated fossils. These loaves may
come from many hundreds of miles south, though not
from the tropics. The Es(]uimaux, however, at the
mouth of the Mackenzie appear acquainted with the
elephant, of which they state the remains to be
found in their country, and bones of mastoda have
been lound in the Youcon. The elephants, however,
found here and in Siberia may have been imbedded
in ice ever since the Deluge, or they may be of a
species adapted to an Arctic habitat.
'Ihe cperaiions of nature ap[)ear to have been less
subdued formerly than now, and it is possible that a
more violent tropical oceanic or a 'Sphcric current
in former ages may have moderated the riyjour of the
poles. At present the warm cqur ''■ a\ < urrent
METEOROLOGY. . ; |^
makes the Pacific coast of North America without a
winter at a latitude where at loo miles inland there
is six months snow, just as the Gulf Stream warms
northern Europe. In Mackenzie River a westerly
wind for two or three days, by bringing the warm
Pacific breezes across the Rocky Mountains, will
produce a thaw even in winter.
Astronomers state that any alteration in the
inclination of the earth's axis is but slight and
within fixed limits, so that if the Arctic climate was
ever tropical it would probably be owing to a change
in the position of the earth's poles, irresi)ective of its
inclination, similar to the change which is constantly
taking place in the magnetic pole. For such a
change it may be hard to find an astronomical test,
but it could hardly obtain unless the earth's crust
were less rigid than at present.
It is generally believed that even since the first
arrival of Europeans in Mackenzie River the winters
have become less severe, and there seems to be some
evidence that the extremes of heat and cold are less
at present throughout the earth's surface than in
ancient times, when vineyards are spoken of in
Northumberland and snow on Vesuvius.
Terrestrial magnetism and electricity have much
force in the far North, thougli thunder and lightning
are infrequent. Furs and woollen clothes often
si)arkle with electric light, and hair stands bristling.
This may tend to the healthfulness of the region.
Halos and ])arhelia, or mock suns, are common in
the North, and rainbows, solar and lunar, are seen.
88 MACKENZIE RIVER.
Full meteorological tables for Mackenzie River have
been published with Government authority by Capt.
Lefroy.
The winds of the North are various and irregular^
though northerly winds seem to prevail most in the
spring, and southerly in the fall of the year. The
coldest winds are easterly, and the warmest
westerly. No special equinoctial gales are noticed,
though March, as elsewhere, is a windy month.
Happily the severest cold is mostly in calm weather ;
for a gale at 50** below zero is nearly intolerable.
Even at zero a strong wind makes the temperature
appear 30*^ colder.
Regarding the rainfall or depth of snow, this,
also is irregular. Some summers are wet and some
dry ; some winters the snows are deep, and other
seasons the reverse. The average winter's depth of
snow may be about four feet, but more in the drifts.
When there is sufficient rain in the summer, good
crops may be expected, unless these are cut off by
too early frosts. At times by a sudden and severe
frost the potatoes, though ripened, may be frozen in
the ground before there is time to dig them up.
On the whole the Mackenzie River is a country of
sunshine, much more so than the English climate.
Both summer and winter a clear sky i)redominates.
This is a great contrast to the Pacific coast, not far
distant, where the dry days count hardly one in five.
In the Mackenzie River a whole month may elapse
without rain. The most snow generally falls in
November. In the neighbourhood of the mountains
METEOROLOGY. 89
there may be an occasional snowstorm in any month
in the year, but in summer this soon melts again.
On the level country ti>e snow generally disappears
by the end of April in the more southern parts, and
in the month of May in the extreme north. The
end of October, or the beginning of November,
mostly brings the fresh snowfall
90 MACKENZIE RIVER.
CHAPTER IX.
DRESS AND HABITS.
The Mackenzie River being supplied with domestic
requisites from England has not in this respect the
appearance of a foreign land. Not only the white
residents have their clothing and utensils from
Europe, but the Indians also purchase these articles
of English manufacture. Even when they make
clothes of their own native leather, they now affect
European shapes and costumes, and their ancient
national dress, ornaments, implements, and weapons
are falling into disuse. Still it may be worth while to
offer a few words on Indian drc^s and habits. The
Indian dress is naturally made of fur, deer-skin, or
dressed leather, and consists of coat, leggings, cap
and shoes, with a skin blanket by way of a cloak.
Marten or beaver skins formed at first rich coats for the
Indians, but these are now traded off for necessaries.
The cap is usually of fur in winter. The shoes are
always of soft dressed leather. The native Indian
coat in the North was formerly pointed both before
and behind. In fact, the name Chipewyan is a Cree
Indian term meaning the pointed coat, but this shape
has fallen into disuse.
The women's dress mostly consists of a long
leather coat trimmed with cloth or beads, and some-
DRESS AND HABITS. 9 1
times a cloth hood for the head. The women's faces
were till recently often slightly tattoed with dark lines
on the chin, formed by drawing a thread loaded with
gunpowder or colouring matter under the skin. The
men were formerly much addicted to painting their
faces with vermilior, but this has 'fallen into disuse
among the tribes in contact with Europeans. The
Esquimaux young men stripe their faces with ver-
milion as a distinguishing mark when they have killed
an enemy.
The Indians are fond of rings, earrings, bracelets,
and necklaces, and they formerly pierced the cartilage
of the nose for the insertion of a shell ornament.
Belts are tastefully manufactured by the Indian
women of porcupine quill work. This or bead work,
and the making of shoes, form their chief employ-
ment. The old women employ themselves in twisting
grass, roots, or sinew into twine for sewing, or fishing
nets. The men and boys are often busied in shaping
bows, arrows, snow-shoes, sledges, or other articles.
The Indians were formerly accustomed, instead of
burying their dead, to place them on high scaffolds
above ground, but this habit was probably owing to
the ground being for many months in the year frozen
too hard to dig it. The raising on scaifolds was also
a safer preservative than burying under ground from
the ravagcG of animals of prey. Since mingling
with the whiteii, however, the Indians conform to
European habits of burial. It was also formerly a
superstitious custom to place with the deceased his
bow, arrows, and other necessaries; and even in later
92 MACKENZIE RIVER.
times a gun, ammunition, tobacco, fire bag, and
other articles, have been buried in the grave of a
dead Indian. Such a superstition it is hard to eradi-
cate, and perhaps it needs some care not to quench
too roughly the idea of a life continued after death,
until the knowledge of a spiritual immortality and a
final resurrection can be instilled, to supplant the
instinctive notion of a continued mundane life.
The old stone axes, knives, and spear and arrow-
heads of the Indians have naturally now been ex-
changed for iron. Still however, a blunt stone axe
is used for grubbing up edible roots, and flint arrow-
heads are still occasionally used by the boys, and a
sharp flint is preferred for a bleeding lancet.
The view of these stone implements still existing
seems a warning to antiquarians not to dogmatise too
much as to the date of similar remains found as relics
of a past age ; and as to judging of such date by fine-
ness of workmanship, a guess may be quite illusory.
The good shape of the flint arrow-heads may de-
pend on the question whether they were made by
a man or boy, or the inferior skill may be a sign
of more degradation, and thus of a later period.
Stone knives are still used by Indian women in
currying skins. It has been already remarked that
copper was made use of for knives by the Indians
near the Coi)permine River before the arrival of
Europeans, and pieces of meteoric iron were used by
the Esquimaux for striking fire.
For cooking, the Indians were formerly accustomed
to weave baskets of roots closely enough to hold
DRESS AND HABITS. 93
water. This water was then heated for cooking pur-
poses, by immersing in it a succession of hot stones.
Meat was baked by being buried in the earth and a
fire made over it. At present the boihng is done in
iron or copper kettles, and the roasting on wooden
spits or skewers before the fire.
The Tukudh Indians had formerly regular tracks or
roads cut through the forests throughout their country
for communication between the different tribes. They
used sleds mounted on runners, as the Esquimaux do
now.
None of the Indians of Mackenzie River seem to
have been acquainted with the use of plants or herbs
for medicines. In their medicine making they used
only the charms of drumming and singing. The
Esquimaux, with the drumming and singing, com-
bine an address as to an invisible spirit supposed to
have power over the disease.
The women in the Indian lodges were formerly
obliged to eat after the men, but they are now
learning of the Europeans to mess in common.
Indians were formerly accustomed to have a private
cup of their own, and v/ould object to others, and
especially to a woman, drinking from it; but this
superstition is also dying out.
The Indians had formerly much superstitious dread
of using any clothing or other articles belonging to a
person deceased. In case of a death all the clothing
and effects of the departed were thrown away or
destroyed, and even the relatives would destroy their
tents, guns, and other property, either out of grief or
94 MACKENZIE RIVER.
from dread of using again anything that the deceased
had come in contact with. These inconvenient cus-
toms are being gradually relinquished. A hunter was
considered bound to eat the head of an animal killed
by him in order to secure further success in the chase.
Some Indians attribute to the chase of particular
animals, such as the w^olf, the effect of spoiling their
gun ; but it would be idle to enumerate further the
Indians' vain superstitions.
The Esquimaux are accustomed to angle with an
imitation fish carved in ivory having an iron hook
protruding from it, so that the one instrument forms
hook and bait together without more. Their fishing-
nets are often netted of split whalebone.
The use of an almost exclusively animal diet does
not appear productive of any ill effects among the
European residents, nor is it distasteful when it has
become habitual. In fact, the cold climate calls for
strong food, and fat or sweets as generators of heat
are adapted to the country. The sicknesses of the
Indians may, however, be partly attributable to their
free use of animal blood, in which disease may be
communicated, for skin diseases are common among
the wild animals as among the Indians. The health
of the Indians seems to have improved since they
have been more plentifully supplied with tea, the use
of which has moderated their indulgence in blood as
a beverage. Their neglect of the use of salt may also
be a means of their unhealthiness, and if they were
more plentifully supplied with this article, it might
tend to counteract their scrofulous habit.
DRESS AND HABITS. 95
The taste for tea and tobacco has, of course, been
acquired by the Indians only since the arrival of
European traders among them. It is doubtful whether
their large use of tobacco conduces to their welfare.
An idle Indian may be more inclined to allay the
pangs of hunger with his pipe than to brave the cold
of winter in hastening to the chase. Many of the
Indians complain of pains in the chest, which may
arise from their incautiously imbibing the caustic
ashes with which they often load their empty pipes
in lighting these at their fire embers.
The infant Indians are, as is well known, enveloped
in bags of moss, which, in this severe climate, are
admirable preservatives against cold and exposure.
In these bags the infant is tightly laced up, confining
the limbs and leaving only the head exposed. This
process of mummification does not seem to weaken
the hmbs, nor to give discomfort to the patient. The
swing is the usual accompaniment of the moss bag,
where the swaddled mfant is lulled to rest. Slung
over her shoulder, this moss bag is the constant
burden of the mother's travels.
When the Indians shift camp, which they often
do every week or two, the men-folk start first, un-
encumbered but with their guns, and after making
a track for ten or twelve miles, they mark out a spot
for the next encampment, and then proceed on the
chase till evening. The women with their families
and dog-sleds, loaded with tent, bedding, and
utensils, trudge slowly after, and on arriving at the
intended camp, after clearing the snow, they strew
•96 MACKENZIE RIVER.
the space with pine branches and erect the tent.
After arranging this by disburdening the sleds of
their loads, they proceed to collect fuel for firing,
and have all ready for a repast by evening, when
the husbands return, bearing the produce of their
hunt. If a large animal has been killed, the wives
walk to the spot the next day to carry home the
meat and hide. The men, however, now more than
formerly take a share in the camp duties.
In Indian marriages it seems to be a part of
the etiquette that the bride should show great
reluctance to be wedded, till she has at times to be
forcibly dragged from her camp. Her friends also
may exhibit great opposition to the intended match ;
and yet this may be, in fact, only a part of the
•ceremony. Among some Indians it is understood to
be absolutely forbidden to a mother-in-law to look
her son-in-law in the face, at least until the birth of
his first child. This does not seem to be enforced
nmong the more northern Indians, but a son-in-law
is looked upon as a sort of hunter for his wife's
parents. Their daughter does not leave her parents'
camp, and even after marriage appears to be more
under their control than that of her husband.
As soon as a child is born, its parents usually
drop their own name and assume that of the child ;
and this is continued a good deal, even in the case
of baptised Indians ; so that you may hear John's
father or Jane's mother so spoken of, in preference to
their own name. A wife, instead of speaking of
her husband, will prefer to speak of her boy's father.
DRESS AND HABITS. 97
Polygamy was practised among the non-Christian
Indians chiefly by the chiefs and leading men, and
in the excuse that more than one wife was required
by them, to dress their furs and skins, and ca.uy their
meat and effects, and do other camp duties.
In sickness the Indians are veiy pitiful. They
soon lose heart, and seem to die more from de-
spondency than disease. Their need is often not so
much medicine as good nourishment and nursing ;
but this is hard to obtain. Food is often scarce
even for those in health to seek it, and for a sick
Indian it may be hard to find a friend in need.
The constant removals are trying to the weak and
infirm, and in times of distress those who cannot
follow the band ar*^ left behind to perish. Indians
have been known to devour their own children in
cases of absolute starvation ; but such instances are
rare, and may, perhaps, be attributed to a temporary
mania. Those who are believed to have perpetrated
such an act are feared and shunned.
The dying are often hastily wrapped up and laid
aside, even before the last sigh has escaped, for there
is a reluctance to handle the dead. There is no fear
of the resuscitation of the corpse, which is, for the
most part, stiffly frozen as soon as removed from the
camp fire. Chocolate is a favourite beverage with
the sick where it can be obtained, and it is looked
upon as a medicine. The Indians universally give
it thii name of ox blood, because it was mistaken by
them for the blood of the musk ox when first they
saw it used by the whites. Rice, which is called
H
98 MACKENZIE RIVER.
white barley, is another luxury coveted by the sick.
Flour is known by the Tukudh Indians as " ashes
from the end of heaven." Tobacco is warmth or
comfort, and the pipe the comforting stone.
All articles in use by the whites are named by the
Indians without hesitation, according to their employ-
ment. A table is what you eat on ; a chair, what
you sit on ; a pen, what you write with. A watch
is called the sun's heart. A minister is with them,
the s])eaker, and a church the speaking-house-
So a lion is called the hairy beast, and the camel
the one with the big back. A bat is called the
leather wing, because such is its appearance. Thus^
an Indian is never at a loss for a name. A steam-
boat, before it was seen by the Indians, used to
l)e called the boat that flies by fire ; but since they
have seen it, the fire-boat seems to be name enough.
The Indians are quick at learning by the eye, but
slow if taught by the ear. Even in Christianity it is
])robable they would be better schooled by example
than by i)recept. In the Tukudh language there is a
different mode of expression used in speaking of the
works of God, from that api)lied to the works of mcn^
the former implying some sort of awe and reverence.
Before the advent of whites or Missionaries, the
Tukudh youth were advised by their elders to good
behaviour, and they were warned not to be deceived
by the garish pleasures of youth, but to remember
a hereafter.
The Esquimaux have a tradition that in the first
family in the world two brothers quarrelled, and the
DRESS AND HABITS. 99
one killed the other, and had afterwards to wander
from his home and was lost On the arrival of
Europeans among them, the Esquimaux thought these
might be descendants of the long-lost murderer. So
far as the white men have come among them armed
with the fatal fire-water, or other weapons of destruc-
tion, there may be only too much truth in this view,
l^uropeans, however, seem to liave leturned the
compliment by affiliating the Esquimaux upon ancient
cave - dwellers in France and Switzerland, an
hypothesis which appears nearly as arbitrary as the
former one. The Esquimaux have still a word for d
world above, and acknowledge that a system of
religion was known to their forefathers, but say they
have forgotten it. They seem to have some super-
stitious ideas connected with the sun.
-f
lOO MACKENZIE RIVER.
CHAPTER X.
RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS.
It has been already said that the sole present trade in
Mackenzie River is in furs. It may be asked what
other resources the country presents. The leather
ilerived from the dressed hides of the moose and
reindeer is of some value, but at present nearly the
whole of the leather obtained is used in the country
for shoes and clothing. The reindeer in the woods
and the fish in the lakes are somewhat abundant, but
no more are killed than are required for provisions
used in the country. Walrus tusks for ivory, and seal
skins, and oil of both whales and seals, may be traded
to a limited extent from the Esquimaux on the coast,
but not in large quantities. Vegetable crops might
be much increased in the countrj', but it is unlikely
that these would be exported. For resources to be
consumed in the country, agricultural ])roduce will
probably in the end prove the most reliable, notwith-
standing the severe climate. Animal provisions seem
always diminishing, and it is surprising what a vast
expenditure of animal life is required to sustain even
a very small population on meat only.
When a reindeer is killed, the meat of its r1bs fs
cut off and dried, and this is usually the only part of
the animal furnished to the trading establishments for
RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. 10 1
provision for the resident whites. These ribs form
just one day's provision for one man, so that in one
sense it may be said to require the life of a deer to
sustain each man for a da v. Then about 1,200 fish
are required to feed a train of dogs for the winter, and
the dogs are needed for hauling fresh meat, if not
fuel. Altogether, with the sparsest of populations,
there is an enormous expenditure of animal life every
year in Mackenzie River for provisions. When to
this is added the number of animals slaughtered for
their fur, the total is very great. It is a country of
death. It seems an instinct in an Indian to destroy
every living animal he sees.
Little pains have yet been bestowed on the
cultivation of the soil in Mackenzie River, but where
patience and perseverance have been used, the result
has been encouraging. The crops cannot be said
to be altogether certain, but are dependent on
the season. 13y working the soil regularly the frost
seems to leave it. A considerable amount of provi-
sions could no doubt be raised from the soil by real
efforts at farming. It has sometimes been suggested
that a penal settlement might be placed in Mackenzie
River similar to these in Siberia, but such a scheme
the scarcity of provisions forbids. The meat and
fish are insufficient to support any considerable
number in one place, and the crops could not be
trusted for the support of a convict establishment
with enforced labour, though hardy emigrants work-
ing with a will might force a livelihood.
The climate Is not one to invite immigration on any
102 MACKENZIE RIVER.
considerable scale, unless the half-breed or Indian
population of the Sascachewan plains or adjacent
country should retire to the north before the advance
of civilised Europeans. It might, Indeed, be more
hunfiane to the Indian population of the south to
banish them to the uncoi strained freedom of the
northern forests, where they might still pursue the
chase to which their instincts guide ihem, rather than
to confine them to reserves of limited area and to
farming pursuits, for which they are less fitted, and
which often prove distasteful.
In case any further expedition should be
organised with a view to reach the North Pole,
it has been suggested that the mouth of the
Mackenzie River would form a favourable basis of
operations.
After laying deposits of provisions along the route
in advance, sledge journeys on the ice might be
arranged from the Mackenzie River toward the
Pole, to be conducted not by English sailors but by
those more habituated to rapid snow-shoe travelling
and inured to Arctic cold.
The timber of Mackenzie River region is, doubtless,
valuable, but would not pay the cost of exportation.
When saw-mills are introduced, the lumber will be
more used for building in the neighbourhood.
Regarding the mineral resources of the district, it
has been already said that gold has been found in the
extreme west of it, on the Upper Youcon. This
discovery may attract more population in that
direction, and open a route from the Pacific coast,
RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. IO3
which is certainly much the shortest distance from
the ocean to the Mackenzie River country.
Formerly, trade was carried from jNIackenzie River
through the Rocky Mountains by the west branch of
the Liard River as far as Dease Lake, and access
from the west may hereafter be obtained to the
Mackenzie River by the same route. The river is,
however, difficult and dangerous for navigation, and
impeded by numerous rapids. The route from Dease
Lake to the western coast is also mountainous, and
traversed in parts by mule trains only, w'hich may
forbid any heavy traffic by that route. The new
route from the coast to the mines of the Upper
Youcon runs more to the north than the one last
mentioned. This road lies through the country
of the Chilcats^ a rather wild and murderous race of
Indians, but who will probably be taught good
manners by the miners, for whose i)rotection an
American gunboat has visited the coast. Other
mineral resources may possibly develop in the
country, but it is unlikely that any metal besides
gold would pay the cost of exportation.
Communication with the south will probably soon
be improved. The Inter-Oceanic Railway will pro-
bably extend branches northward suflicicr.tly far to
connect with the navigable rivers that run to the
Arctic Ocean, and on these rivers steamers are
already being placed.
- Government mail communication, and some system
of law and police, may be expected to extend, in the
future, even as far as Mackenzie River, for the tide
104 MACKENZIE RIVER.
of civilisation is ever flowing westward, and even a
framework of civil political government may be
added. The Mackenzie River Diocese alone is about
as large as the peninsula of Hindostan, and it seems
strange that so vast a region of British territory
should be ignored, so far as respects Government
supervision. A Government survey is already locating
the boundary-line between the American country of
Alaska and British territory ; and this may probably
be followed by some custom-house authority, to
regulate trade crossing the border.
Some Government aid towards education in the
Mackenzie River country may be expected, and
has, indeed, been promised, and toward the sup-
port of Missionary clergy some assistance may be
hoped for from the older provinces of Canada ; but
self-help must be the watchword, and an effort after
independence and self-support should be made by
all. To admit of any number of children being
gathered for schooling, it appears essential that a
Mission-farm should be set on foot to raise crops for
their support ; and at all the Missions it seems de-
sirable that an industrial lay agent should be asso-
ciated with the clerical staff, both for the support of
the Mission and to encourage the Indians to aim
after more settled habits, and to attempt the cultiva-
tion of the soil. Farming and education arc the
two levers to be used, in subservience to a preached
Gospel, for raising the Mackenzie River country to
civilisation and improvement.
Probably the most striking impression conveyed to
RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. I05
the mind by the appearance of this country is that
here we are brought into immediate view of stupen-
dous natural works of the great Creator unsullied by
hi man handiwork, undisguised by hu'^:ij.n artifice.
Magnificent lakes, rivers, mountains, meet the eye,
and these at one time buried under deep ice or
snow, and chained with the iron grasp of winter, and
at another time smiling in summer's glow and free-
dom, and flowing with melted streams. Few opera-
tions of the powers of nature are more forcible and
striking than the binding back of the swift current of
a mighty stream, in the severe frosts of early winter,
and the loosing of these icy fetters on the return of
spring. An equal contrast is seen in the congealing
of the tossing waves of a large inland lake or of the
Arctic Ocean. As the power of nature, so also the
care of Providence, is exhibited to perfection in the
far North, as shown by the safe protection and pro-
vision afforded to the wandering tribes, apparently
helpless amid Arctic frost and snow.
In the huge carcases of the whales, and other
marine monsters of the Arctic deep, and the swarming
land animals of the northern wastes, nature and
Providence seem to have been, in some respects,
more lavish and ])rodigal in care for the sparse inhabit-
ants of the far North than for the teeming pojmlations
of more favoured climates. Yet the provision is not in
excess of the need, and in that forbidding climate
both natives and FAiropcan residents maintain a
constant struggle to keep aloof the foe of famine, or
in familiar figure of speech, to " keep the wolf from
I06 MACKENZIE RIVER.
the door." A restful trust in heaven's bounty will,
however, lead to a cheerful Ljntent, even in the far
North, and the fact that in God's Word, and espe-
cially in the Book of Job and in the Psalms, the
regions of ice and snow are so vividly pourtrayed,
will induce an Arctic Christian to acknowledge, and
exult in the consciousness, that his God is still
present with him there.
The Mackenzie River may be regarded as the
Ultima Thule, and, in some respects, as the forlorn
hope of Missionar}' enterprise ; for no zeal can tame
the elements, or soften the rigour of an Arctic clime.
Still, however, the Gospel wins its triumphs amid
Arctic snows, and shows itself sufficient for the com-
fort of the wanderer in the frozen North.
Russian Missions from the East, in connexion
with the Greek Church, long since penetrated to the
neighbouring country of Alaska, so that in the borders
of Mackenzie River Diocese east and west may be said
to join. Alaska having now fallen under the domi-
nion of the United States, the work of its evangelisa-
tion is being taken up from thence, and the American
Episcopal Church, with Presbyterians, Methodists,
and Moravian brethren, are already occui)ying Mis-
sion fields in Alaska, to the immediate west of the
Diocese of Mackenzie River.
On the south border of the diocese, Mission work
is also being zealously carried on in the province of
British Columbia. The Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel have supported a Missionary at the
Cassiar Mines, near Dease Lake, and immediately
RESOURCES AND PROSrECTS. I07
adjoining Mackenzie River Diocese on the south-we«;t.
A little further south again are the Church Missionary-
Society's stations on the Naas River and at Metla-
katla.
In the adjoining diocese of Athabasca, Mission work
is also zealously carried on in connexion with the
same Church Missionary Society by the bishop and a
staff of Mission clergy, as is also the case immediately
to the eastward, on the shores of Hudson's Bay, in
the diocese of Moosonee.
The Missions in ^Mackenzie River are therefore
far from isolated when the continent of America s
viewed as a whole, for similar IMissionary efforts
surround it on all hands, unless only to the frozen
North. Yet within the diocese itself we speak of a
Missionary being isolated when his nearest colleague
may be 300 miles distant. Ten or a dozen Mission
agents are but a small band to cover a country as
large as Western Europe, for France, Germany, Italy,
Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland could probably
all be included in the space occupied by Mackenzie
River Diocese.
The Mackenzie River Diocese need no longer be
reckoned as a heathen country, for none of the
Indian tribes therein refuse or oppose the Gospel,
and they are all in the main under the instruction of
Church of England Missionaries or Romish Priests,
though they are by no means yet fully enlightened.
The Esquimaux, though not yet Christianised, may
be reckoned as also under instruction.
The staff of French Roman Catholic Missionaries,
Io8 MACKENZIE RIVER.
including bishop, priests, friars, and nuns, exceeds that
of the Church of England Mission. The numbers
under the instruction of each Church may not greatly
differ, but the adherents of the English Church
Mission are most numerous in connexion with the
Tukudh Missions. As the Missionaries in this
diocese may be considered in the vanguard of the
Christian Missionary army, their position is no dis-
honourable one, though their lot may be humble and
their victories unfamed.
The Church of England Missionaries are not sworn,
like those of Rome, to uphold the glories of Mary, or to
support the falsehood of her Immaculate Conception,
but they are engaged in the pioneer work of making
straight in the desert a highway for their God, and in
laying the foundation there of the spiritual and ever-
lasting kingdom of Christ our Lord, who has been
promised the utmost parts of the earth for His pos-
session, and Whom all the ends of the world shall
fear. : -
WYMAN ANU SON, I'KINTERS, 74-76, GREAT QUEliN STREET, W.C.
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