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-//^J.

INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS;

OR,

EVIDENCE THAT HWUI SHIn

AND

A PARTY OF BUDDHIST MONKS FROM AFGHANISTAN
IN THE FIFTH CENTURY, A. D.

ED\yARD P. VINING.

" If Buddhist priests were really the first men who, within the scodc of
later be proved. Nothing can escape history that belongs to it."-LELAND.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, 8, AJ)D 6 BOND 8TUEET.
1885.

B.I if

68414

N I }j r

^.P

CoPTBiuirr, 1885,
Bt EDWARD P. VININO.

HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT,

AS A TOKEN OF APPBBCIATION

THE CONSCIENTIOUS LABOUR BESTOWED UPON niS

" NATIVE BACE8 OP THE PACIFIC STATES "

AND THE OTHER VOLUMES OF niS

HISTORIES OF THE PACIFIC STATES OF NORTH AMERICA,

THIS WORK IS

RESPECTFULLT DEDICATED.

PREFACE.

That there are many who could have done mueli better
than myself the work which I have undertaken to do, I am
well aware ; but, as those who are more competent liuv^e failed
to give to th'^ Chinese records of a distanl, eastern land that
careful study which thoy seem to me to demand, I have
thought it best to publish the results of my own examination
of the subject.

It does not appear unjust to former writers upon the sub-
ject to call attention to the fact that, with the noteworthy ex-
ception of Mr. Leland, they have paid but little attention to
the history or characteristics of the country lying in the direc-
tion and at the distance from China indicated by the Chinese
as the location of the lands to which they gave the names of
" Fu-sang " and the " Country of Women " ; and yet a care-
ful examination of the descriptions of this region of the world
given by other authorities, and their comparison with the de-
tails of the Chinese account, and with the minutiae of Asiatic
civilization, are almost the only means by which the truth or
falsity of the Chinese records can be established. The com-
parisons of this nature, made from such data as I have been
able tc obtain, reveal so many peculiar coincidences and remove
so many difficulties over which earlier investigators have stum-
bled, that the hypothesis that thfi Chinese account was derived
from a traveler who had visited Mexico is rendered almost
infinitely mors probable than any other conjecture that can
be entertained upon the subject. It is true that some objec-
tions etill remain, but the few statements that it seems difficult

PREFACE.

to explain are far outweighed by tlio evidence presented by
the numerous details of tlie account which are proved to bo
true. The explanations suggested as to some doubtful points
might seem mere plausible if they were confined to that eluci-
dation of the difficulty which, upon the whole, appears to bo
its most probable solution. I have preferred, however, to
note all possible explanations that have suggested themselves
to me, believing that in some cases the truth which further
investigation will reveal may possibly lie in some interpre-
tation which now seems improbable.

Errors will undoubtedly be found in this work, but I have
hoped to excite sufficient interest in the question under ex-
amination to induce more competent scholars to bring the
truth to light regarding those points as to which 1 have
failed. I am confident, however, that, after the elimination of
all errors, it will bo found that the great mass of evidence that
is presented that America was discovered in the fifth century
of the Christian era remains practically untouched ; and that
as a whole the work will be much easier to ignore than to
answer by those who may differ from its conclusions.

All attempts to establish a truth which has not been gener-
ally received are met by the difficulty that it is almost impos-
sible to interest in the subject those who have formerly paid
no attention to it, and that those who have studied it are
strongly tempted by a natural regard for their own self-com-
placency to deny that there is anything more in the subject
than they have been able to perceive for themselves. I, there-
fore, can not hope that my views will immediately meet with
general acceptance; but that their truth will ultimately be
recognized, I can not doubt.

Some quotations have been made at second-hand, and from
authorities which I would not have given if I had had easy
access to a better library than my own ; and some books which
I desired to consult I have not been able to obtain. Due al-
lowance should be made for these facts.

It is proper that I should express my thanks for the kind
responses which I have received to my applications for assist-
ance and information from many to whom I was unknown,

PREFACE.

tii

scnted by
vcd to bo
iul po»»^8
that eluci-
cars to bo
[)wever, to
tbemselvcB
ieb further
10 interpre-

, but I bavo

n under cx-

to bring the

hich i bavo

jUmination of

evidence that

. fifth century

lied; and that

crnore than to

iions.

ot been gener-
almost impos-
f ormcrly paid
Btndied it are
own self-cora-
lin the subject
jlves. I,there-
iteiy meet with
ultimately be

[hand, and from
had had easy
-ne books which

[btain. I>«eal-

^ks for the kind

ations for assist-

-v^aa unknown,

and wlio may have believed my convictions upon the subject
under investigation to be but poorly founded.

Among those to whom I am indebted may be named Mr.
II. II. Bancroft and his assistants, Messrs. Henry L. Oak, John
II. Gihnour, and John Donovan. Mr. Addison Van Name,
Librarian of Yale College, Mr. George 13ullen, Keeper of the
Printed Books of the British Museum, and Mr. I. A. Leonard,
of the Astor Lil)rary, have assisted me to obtain information
from a few works not found in my own library. Mr. Kwong
Ki Chiu, formerly Secretary of the Chinese Board of Educa-
tion, Mr. Saum Song Bo, a graduate of the Chicago University,
and Mr. John E. Vrooman, Translator of Chinese at tho
United States Custom-IIouso of San Francisco, have explained
doubtful passages in the Chinese text to me. They should
not be held responsible, however, for any errors that may bo
thought to exist in my translation. Mr. Charles G. Leland,
M. tho Marquis d'i: ervey do Saint-Denys, and the late Pro-
fessor S. Wells Williams gave me permission to quote from
their works.

Professors Spencer F. Baird, Asa Gray, AVilliam II. Brew-
er, O. C. Marsh, and Edward D. Cope, the Rev. Joseph Ed-
kins, the Right Rev. Channing M. Williams, Dr. Felix L.
Oswald, Dr. D. G. Brinton, Messi's. Edward L. Morse and J.
II. Trumbull, the late W. R. Morley, Chief Engineer of the
Sonora Railroad, Mr. W. H. Pratt, Secretary of the Daven-
port Academy of Natural Sciences, Mr. A. Knoflach, formerly
of San Francisco, Mr. AV. W. Rhodes, formerly of the city of
Mexico, and Messrs. Maisonneuve et Cie., of Paris, have all
rendered me kind assistance, as have also the lions. Lucius II.
Footc, Minister to Corea, Percival Lowell, Secretary of tho
Corean Embassy, David H. Strother, Consul-Gcneral at the
city of Mexico, Joseph D. Iloff, Consul at Coatzacoalcos, and
John A. Sutter, Jr., Consul at Acapulco.

To all, my thanks are due.

Edward P. Vimno.

Cbicaqo, III., U. S. A., March 3, 1885.

ILLUSTRATIOIITS.

no.

Map. Route followed hy Uwoi Shan

1. An Lmaoe or Duddiia .

2. Uas-rklibit found at Palenqui

3. ScuLPTunE FROM Imla.nd or Cyprus

4. Sculpture found at Uxual
6. Ornament adotr a Door at Ooosinoo

6. Aureola adout Head of Idol

7. Altar found at Palenque .

8. Seated Fiqurk found at Uxmal .
0. Figure of Duddra at Ellora

10. Two Plants described as "TnEEd"

11. A Century-plant in Blossom

12. The T'uno-treb and the Wild Mulderrt .

13. Bamooo-sprouts

14. Punishment or a Criminal by the Aztecs .

15. Mount Iztaccihuatl, or "the White Woman"

10. An Aztec Mirror

17. An Im.vgb found in Campeachy .
IS. Sculptured Tablet at Falenqub

19. Another Representation of Tablet at Palesque

20. Beau-relief in Stucco at Palenque .

21. Detail of Facade of a Building at Uxmal

22. A Mexican Image, said to represent Quetzalcoatl

23. The Temple of Boro-Budor in Java .

24. The " Palace," or Temple, at Palenque

25. The Elephant's-head IIead-dri:ss .

26. Drawing of an Elephant's Head

27. Elephant-pipe found in a Field

28. Elephant-pipe found in a Mound

29. The "Elephant-mound" of Wisconsin .

30. Bitara GAna, or Ganksa

31. An Aztec God, said to be Teoyaomiqui

PAOI

Frontispiece
. 128
. 128
. 129
. 129
. 130
. 132
. 1S3
. 134
. 135
. 383
. 385
. 387
. 389
. 465
. 607
. 623
. 671
. 691
. 692
. 593
. 694
. 695
. 603
. 603
. C07
. 608
. 609
. 609
. 611
. 612
. 613

coxte:n^ts.

CUAPTEll I.

iNTnonrcTORY ........

Tlie birth of HiitlillKi — His titles — U\n ihiuncfor — Ilin rcli;;iouH iHlicf — Ilia
univci'siil charity — Ills life us a iiei'mit — Thi! discovory wliicli he iiiiaR-
iiK'd that lio iiuil niadu — Dcsiiv tliat all Hhoultl siiarc its beiiefit.t — Hid
coinniaiul to I'vaiigulizc the uorlti — The coiiipiiimcc of his dlM'iiik's —
The dispersion from India — Countries visited — Tmees of the reli;;ioii in
Kiiropo — Also thn»i;^hout Asia — Ami in Alaska — The wanileiiiigs of
Buddhist priests — Few records preserved — Ease of journey from Asia
to America — The (Julf-Streum of the Tacitic — Shipw recks on the Kurilo
and Aleutian Islands — lleeords of journeys of Ihiddhist priests — Their
reliuhilify and value — A Chinese record of a visit to an Eastern country
— Iicasons for ereditinj; the account — Object of this work — Previous dis-

-The discovery made by do

PAOB

seur de Hon
d'llervoy do
Wells Williams.

iclcs by MM. Perez, \ ivieii de >aint-Martin, d Lichthal, liras-
l•bour^', (lodion, .Tones, Urown, Simson, IJrctschneider, Aduin,
! Saiut-Denys, Lobacheid, Channlng M. Williams, and S.

CHAPTER II.

De GnoN'Es's Discovert ......

Chinese voynpos — Knowledf?c of forciirn lands — Work of Li-yon, a Chincso
historian — The cotmtry of Fu-sang — The length of the // — Wen-shin —
Its identification with Jesso — Ta-han — Its idontification with Kamtchatka
— The route to Ta-han by land — The country of the Ko-li-han — The She-
goei — The Yu-che — Description of Kamtchatka — The land of Licu-kuei
— The description of Fu-sang — No other knowledge of the country — The
Pacific coast of North America — A Japanese map — The Kingdom of
Women — Its description — Shipwreck of a Chinese vessel — American
traditions — Civilization of American tribes on the Pacific coast — The
Mexicans — Horses — Cattle — The fu-sang tree — Mexican writing — Man-
ner in which America was peopled — Similarity of customs in Asia and
America — Resemblances in the people — Charlevoix's storj' — Natives
floated upon cakes of ice — The kingdom of Chang-jin — Voyages of
other nations — The Arabs — Exploration of the Atlantic — The Canaries
— Story of their king — The Cape Verd Islands — Conclusion.
B

CONTEXTS.

CUAPTER III.

Klaphoth's Dissent

FAOB

31)

Titlco' (le Guignes's article incorrect — Translation of the nccotintof Fusniiff
— Vines and horses not found in Aniericii — Route to Japan — Lengtl\ of
tlie // — Identification of \Ven-«hiii witii Jesse — Ta-han idcntitied with
Taraikai or Saglialien — The route to Ta-han by land— Tiic Shij-ii'd —
J.'uu-kud — Fn-naiiff south of T<i-/tan instead of east — Fu-suutf an ancient
name of Jajmn — Analysis of name " Fu-sang " — The paper mulberry —
Metals — 'I'he introduction of Uuddliism — Fantastic tales.

UUAPTER IV.

Dk Paravey's Sltpokt

America visited by Scandina-iaus— American tribes emigrants from Asia —
Ancient Chinese maps — Researches antedating those of Klaproth — Let-
ter of P5re Gaubil — T<i-han — Licu-hud — Identification of these with
Kamtchatka — Size of Fu-san<j — Views of M. Duraont d'Urville — Length
of the li — America lies at the distance and in the direction indicated —
The Meropide of Elien — 'I'le Hyperborean;* — The monuments of Guate-
mala and Yucatan — The Shau-h(d-king — Identification of the fu-suiig
tree with the mctl or maguey— The Japanese Encyclopicdia says Japan
is not thtsantj — The banana or pisang tree may have been the tree called
fii-saiif/ — Grapes in America — Jlilk in America — The bisons of America
— Llamas — Horses — Wooden cabins — The ten-year cycle — The titles of
the king and nobles — The worship of images — Resemblance of pyramids
of Ameri( to those of the Buddhists — An image of IJuddhii— The
spread of ihe Buddhist religion — History of the Chichimecas — Resem-
blance of Japanese to Mexicans — Analogies of Asiatic and American
civilizotions pointed out by Humboldt — Credit due dc Guignes — Appen-
dix — JAi 7Va».^'«'.9 account — Tin fu-mnf/ said to be the prickly poppy
of Mexico — Laws punishing a criminal's family have existed in China —
Chinese cycle of sixty years existed in India — Cattle harnessed to carts
— The grapes of Fusang wild, not cultivated — Another Chinese custom
in Fii-aaiifi — The route to 7'a-finn — The route to Japan very indirect —
Priests called lanms both in Mexico and Tartary.

CHAPTER V.

De Paravey's New Proofs ......

De Paravey's researches preceded those of Neumann and d'Eichthal — Con-
nection between tlie Malay and American languages — Fusamj located near
San Francisco — Chinese picture of a native of Fu-saiiff — Spotted deer —
Cattle-horns in Mexico — Horses — Nations of Northern Asia — Appendix
A — Buddhist monuments in America — A figure of Buddha in Yucatan —
The worship of Siva — The explorations of Dupaix — Foot-print in the
rocks — The cause of eclipses — Pyrauiids — Appendix B — A Buddhist
sanctuary near the C.ilorado River — The name Quatu-zaca — The Mexi-
cans emigrants from the north — Appendix C — An engraving of a native
of Fu-saiiff — The natives of Oregon — The deer of America — Connection
of American and Asiatic tribes — Pearl-fishing — The cochineal insect and
the nopal — The people of Coph5nc — American place-names which ap-
pear to contain the name Sakya.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Vr.

PAOB

ingth of
fd with
hii-xi'ci —
1 ancient
Ibuiry —

03 Asia —
)th— Lct-
ese with
—Length
dicatod —
of Giiate-
e fusaiir/
lys Japan
ree called
f America
u titles of
pvraniida
Idliii-Tlic
i — Uessem-
American
I — Appen-
dy poppy
China—
t\ to carts
kc custom
Indirect —

lal — Con-

litcd near

Id deer —

^ipcndix

ucatan —

It in the

linddhiat

lie Mcxi-

la nativo

Innection

l^eet and

fiich ap-

Nefmann's Monoqe ii

TAGS

The knowledge of fi oign nations possessed by the Cliinese — Their precepts
— The journey of Lao-tnc — i-Inibassies and spies — Knowledge derived
from foieign visitors — Ith preservation in Chinese records — The introduc-
tion of ISuddhism — Its conmiand to extend its doctrines to all nations —
Ciiinese system of ge(>graphy and cthnoh)gj — The unity of the Tartars
and Ked-skins — Amciican languages — The Tunguses, or Eastern barba-
rians — The /'(-/«, or Northern IJarbarians — The Aiuos, or .Tebis, and the
Negritos — The Wmshin, or Pictured-peoplc — Embassies between China
am' Japan — The Country of Dwarfs — The Chinese " liook of Mvyiintains
and Sens " — Information given by a Japanese emhassiidor — Knmtehatka,
the Tchuktchi, and the Aleuts — Lieu kuci — The Icng'h of the /(' — /,/(«-
kuci, a peninsula — The land of the Jc-Uluty — The natives of Kamtehat-
ka — Their dwellings— Their clothing — The dimi'te — The animals of the
country — The customs of the people — The country of the Wcn-xhiu identi-
fied with tlie Aleutian Islands — Ta-han, or Alaska — 'Ihe kingdom of Fu-
sang and its inhabitants — The Amazons — Fusancf identilied with tho
western portion of America called Mexico — The fu-mixj tree — Only one
voyage made — Chinese accounts of Fn-xaiir/ — The distance from Ta-han,
or Alaska indicates that F'u-sanef is Mexico— The oldest history of
America — l^uecessive tribes — The ruins of Witla and Palcnrpie — Some-
thing of earlier races to bo learned from the condition of the Aztecs —
Pyramidical monuments — If Ihuldhism existed in America, it was an im-
pure form — The myth of Iluitzilopochtli — The^M-.w»f/, the maguey, or
Agitvc Americana — Connection between, the Horaof America and that of
Asia — Metals and monej- — Laws and customs of the Aztecs — Domestic
animals — Horses — Oxen — Stag-horns — Chinese and Japanese in the
Hawaiian group and in Northwestern America — Shipwrecks upon the
American coast — The voyages of the Japanese.

CHAPTER Vn.

The Arocments of Mm. Pei:ez and Godijon . . . 10-4

Knowledge of America possessed by the Chinese— The Country of Women
— Other travelers relate incredible stories — Klaproth's argument — The
account contained in the Jajjancse Er<'yeloi)aHlia — Note denying that
Fusnug is Japan — Weakness of Klaproth's argument — Identity of names
of cities in Asia and Ameiica — American languages — Resemblance of
the Tartars to the Aborigines of America — Similitude of customs — A
Buddhist mission to America in the lifth century — The Chinese able to
measure distances, and possessed of the compass — The musk-oxen and
bisons of America — Horses — Names of European animals misapplied to
American animals — The "horse-deer" of America — Vinos — The dilli-
culty in identifying the fusang tree — Iron and copper in America and
Jajjan.

CHAPTER VIII.

D'Eichtiial's "STrDv"

119

The Buddhistic origin of American civilization — The geographical relations
between Northeastern Asia and Northwestern America — The memoirs of
de Guignos and Klaproth — If F'u-snug was in Japan, there is no rocui
for the "Country of Women" — The Japanese deny that Fu-snng was ir
their country — De Guignes's n.iip — The ease of a voyage from Asia to

Xll

CONTEXTS.

America — The warm current of the Pacific Ocean — The Aleutian Islands
— Voyages of the natives — The civilization of New Mexico— A white
population — Copheue — Huddliisin — How it is inoditied aiul propagated —
Its al)sorption of the doctrines of otlier religious — its (irosi'lytisni — Its
religious communities — The route from CopUene to Fu-sany — A IJud-
dhist sanctuary at Palcnciue — Description of Stephens — An inuige of
Buddha — The liou-headcd couch — Tlie winged glo!-e — The aureola about
the figure — Decadence in art — The altars upon which flowers and fruits
are offered — Keply to observations of M. Vivien dc Saint-Martin — The
two routes to 7'((-//i(«— Tiiat country located near the nioutli of the
Amoor Uivei- — Traces of liuddhism in that neighbourliood — Kase of
voyage to the Aleut iiin islands — Klaproth's theory untciiabh — No other
hypothesis remaining tliau that Fusaiii/ must be sought in Anierit ..

PAOI

CIIAPTEU IX.

Coincidences Xoteh by IIumhoi.dt, Lobscheid, and Pbescott

Extracts from the " Views of tlie Cordilleras " — Similarity of Asiatic and
American civilizations — The struggles of the Brahmans and Buddhists —
The divisions of the great cycles — The Mexicans designated the days of
their months by the names of the zodiacal si^^ns used in Eastern Asia —
Cipaetli and Capricornus — Table of resemble ices — The tiger and monkey
found only in southern countries — The Aztec migration from the north
— Resemblance between certain Slexiean and Tartarian words — The
cutting-stones of the Aztecs — The sign Oilin and the foot-prints of Vish-
nu — Etl'eets of a mixture of several nations — Changes resulting from
changed circumstances and lapse of time— Analogies in religious cus-
toms — Analogy in the fables regarding the destructions of the universe
— Lohscheid's reasons for thinking the American Indians to be one race
with the Japanese and Eastern Asiatics — Similarity of customs — Tiles
— Anchors — The route from Asia to America— Shipwrecks of fishing-
b jats — IIead-(lre«ses — Languages — Ileligion — Customs — Marriage sol-
enmized l)y tying the garments together — Extracts from Prescott's " His-
tory of the Con(|uest of Jlexico" — Analogies in traditions and religious
usiges — Disposal of the bodies of the dead — The analogies of science —
Tlie calendar — General conclusions.

142

CHAPTER X.

Shorter Essays

161

" Wlierc was Pu-sang? " — by th-t Rev. Nathan Brown, D. D. — Dilficulties at-
tending a decision — Horses — drapes — Reason for thinking Fii-saii() more
distant than Japan — Length of the // — Distances of the route — DiUicul-
ties attending Klaproth's theory — The military expeditions of the Japa-
nese — The introduction of the Buddhist religion — The Jlaiis — (jnat
ILin — Identificatioii of thc_/V-.svi«7 tree with the bread-fruit tree — Con-
clusion — Remarks of the Abbe Brasscur de Bourbourg — Tlw pajjcr and
books of the Mexicans and Central Americans — Civilization of New
Mexico — ('hinese boats — Animals — Mr. Leland's " Ftisang" — An earlier
article — Wlio dist?overeil America ? — J. Hanlay's essay — The /u-snuij tree
identified with the maguey — Metals — Resemblance in religion a:id cus-
toms — .\lso in features — Language — Civilization on Pacific coast — liCtter
of Mr. Til. Simson — The Mexican aloe — The fusang tree — Japan —
Letter of E. Bretschneider, M. D. — Accounts of Fu-mm/ by the Chinese
poets — "The Kingdom of Women" — Verdict of Fatlier Hyacinth — The
distance — Horses and deer — The fusaitg tree — The t'ung tree — The pa-

CONTENTS.

xiu

per nitilberry — Mctala — " Tlio Kiiifjiloin of Women " and Salt Lake City —
Fu-Havij not Japan — Ta-hwi in Siboria — Envoys from Fu-miiii — Coiitra-
dk'toi'V fiuifii'S — Mr. Lelanil's critieisiii — Letter of I'ere (iauhil — I'me-
liahility of Chinese texts — The peophn^' of .)ai)un — Chinese linowled^'cof
smi'ouniling countries — Remarks of lluiiil)oldt — Letter of the Kt. IJev.
Chaiining M. Williams — The Chinese "Classie of Mountains and Si as" —
Fabulous stories — Translation of extraets therefrom — Remarks of M.
Leon de Rosny — Passage from Asia to Ameriea — The distaneo — t'har-
aeter of the Esiiuimaux — An article from a newsjiaper of Rriti.-li Colum-
bia — Discovery of Chinese coins in the bank of a creek — Evidence that
they had been buried for a long time.

PAflC

CHAPTER XL

Remakici^ of Mm. Vivien de Saixt-Mahtin and Lttcien Adam . Is5

"An Old Story Set Afloat"— The route to fw-wn/;— Identity of the Ainos
with the Wcn-nhin — Ta-hmi near the mouths of theAmoor River — Route
of Buddhist missionaries to the Amoor — Civilization of Buddhist origin
— Pillars with Buddhist inscriptions — Necessity of accurate translation
— Twenty thousand li signify only a very great distance — The fu-Hnng
tree — Warlike habits — Lack of draught animals — Civilization of Mexico
— Difficulty of the voyage — Conclusion — Remarks of >L Adam — Chinese
acquainted with America — Ease of the journey — Travels of Buddhist
monks — Points characteristic of American civilization — Ten-year cycle —
TXw fu-sanii tree — The t'unr) tree — The hibiscus— The Dri/anda cordnta
— The maguey, or agave — Zoological objections — Punishments — Slave
children — Absurdities — Legend of (^uetzalcoatl — lie came from the P^ast
— The legend a myth — Colleges of priests — Practice of confession — The
alleged figure of Buddha — The elephant's head — Lack of tusks — America
for the Americans — Theory that Ilnml Shan repeated the stories of Chi-
uose sailors — Remarks of M. de Ilelhvald and Professor Joly.

CHAPTER XIL

D'IIervey's Notes

204

Bibliography — ^The name of the priest — Ihc c\\.y ol Kiurfclmc — Tahan —
Liru-htfi, a peninsula — Earlier knowledge of Fii-xaiiff — The construction
of the dwellings — The lack of aims and armour — The punishment of
criminals — The titles of the nobles — The title 7V/-/« found in Corea — Tiie
colours of the king's garments — The cycle of ten years — I'eruvian his-
tory — The long cattli -horns — The food prepared from milk — The red
pears — (jrajies — The worship of images of spirits of the dead — Its ex-
istence in China — Cophtne — The "Kingdom of Women" — The legumes
used as food — W'cii-sfiin — The iiunishment of criminals — The name 7'«-
finii — The country identified with Kamfchatka — Two countries of that
name — One lying north of China, and one lying east — Unwarlike nature
of the people.

CHAPTER XIIL

D'IIervey's Appendix

. 217

Difference between Hod SM)i\'i story and other Chinese accounts — An
earlier knowledge of Fusroif/ — The poem named the Li-xao — The Shan-
hai-khui — The account of 7o>ui-/(n)i/-iio — The immense size of the coun-
try — The burning of books in China — The origin of the Chinese — The
writer Kuan-hxei — The arrival of lloci Shin in 499 — The civil war then

XIV

CONTENTS.

rnglng — The delay in obtaining an imperial audience — The " Ilistory of
the Four Lords of the Liang Dynasty" — An envoy from Fusauy — The
presents oH'ered by him — Yellow silk — A semi-transparent mirror — This
envoy was Jloci Shin — The stories told by Vu-kie — The silk found upon
the fu-rnvr/ tree — The palace of the king — The Kingdom of AVumeu —
Serpent-husbands— The Smoking Mountain — The Black Valley — The ani-
mals of the cuuntry — The amusement of the courtiers — The poem long-
kiiig-fu — The route to Fusaiig — Fu-sang east of Japan — Lieu-kuci —
The direction of the route.

FAOE

CILVPTEIl XIV.

Professou Williams's Argument

. 230

" Notices of Fu-sang and other Countries lying East of China " — The ori-
gin of American tribes — The work of IL II. Hancroft- Mr. Leland's book
— Ma Twan-lin — His "Antiquarian Researches" — Ilwui-shin's story —
Cophfene — No later accounts of Fii-sang — The titles of the nobility — The
ten-year cycle — Red pears — The fusang tree — No mention of pulque —
Brocade — Fables — Account of the Shih Chuu Ki — The article of the
Marquis d'llervey de Saint-Denys — Criticisms thereon — I'liug-lai — The
distance of .lapan and Fu-sang — The name Fu-sang sometimes applied
to Japan — Mention of the fu-sang tree in a Chinese geography — Expedi-
tions sent to search for Fu-sang — Comparison with Swift's " Voyage to
Laputa" — The Kingdom of Woimn — Mention by Maundevilo and Marco
Polo of a land of Amazons — The country of Win Slitln — Tattooing— Its
existence among the I^squimaux — Quicksilver
— Lieu-kuci and the Lewcliew Islands.

Two kingdoms of Ta Ilan

CHAPTER XV.

Additional Information. — Nature of the Ciiinese Lanouaoe . 249

Fu-sang wood — Xif-i/ao-Him-li — The Warm Spring Valley — The S/iin f
King — The kingdom Hiho-kouc — The astronomer Hi-ho — The story of
a (yorean — An island of women — /"ung-lai — An expedition to exjjlore
it — The colonization of Japan — Lang Yuen — The Kmtn-lun Mountains
— A statue of a native of Fu-sang — A poem to his memory — The tree of
stone — Varying translations — The peculiarities of the Chinese language
— The brevity and conciseness of the written language — Its lack of
clearness — The meaning of groups of characters, or compounds — Proper
names — No punctuation — Ditliculty of translating correctly — Preparation
of M. Julien — Illustrations of mistakes.

CHAPTER XVI.

TnE Description of Fu-sano.

. 260

The Chinese authorities — Variations in the texts — The Chinese text — A
literal translation — Parallel translations of eight authors — The date of
Hwui Shan's arrival in China — The location of Fu-sang — The fu-sang
trees — The derivation of the name of the country — The leaves of the
fu-sang tree — Its first sprouts — Red pears — Thread and cloth — Dwell-
ings — Literary characters — Paper — Lack of arms — The two places of
confinement — The difference between them — The pardon of criminals —
Marriages of the prisoners — Slave-children — The punishment of a crimi-
nal of high rank — The great assembly — Suffocatiim in ashes — Punish-
ment of his family — Titles of the king and nobles — Musicians — The
king's garments — The changing of their colour — A ten-year cycle — Long

CONTENTS.

History of
iau(/ — The
•ror— This
:)und upon
\Vomeu —
— Tlie ani-
IL'lll 'Jhuff-
deu-ktiii —

PAOB

cattle-horna — Tlicir great size — ITorsi'.c;irt>i, cattle-carts, and dccr-carts —
Domesticated deer — Koumiss — Tlie red pears jjieserved tliiouf^hout tlie
year — To-i*'u-t'aoos — Tiie laclc of iron — Abundance of copper — Gold
and silver not valued — Barter in their markets — Courtship — Tlic e;ibiu
of the suitor — The sweeping and watering of the path — The ceremonies
of marria.^c — Mourning customs — The worship of images of the dead
— Tlie succession to the throne — A visit from a party of JJuddhist mis-
sionaries — Their labours and success.

. 230

—The ori-
and's book
I's story —
)ility— The
f pulcpie —
ide of the
(.V-^(j— The
lies applied
y — Expedi-
' Voyage to
and Marco
tooing — Its
i of Ta II an

Ol'AGE

[he Slihi I
le story of
to explore
Mountains
'he tree of
language
8 lack of
8 — Proper
jreparatiou

249

2G0

text— A
lie date of
le fu-sang
Ves of the
|i_Dwell-
Iplaces of
liniinals —
If a crimi-

-Punish-
lans — The
lie — Long

CHAPTER XVII.
The Kixr.DOM of Womex, the Land of "Masked Bodie.s," and

TlIE GkEAT IIaN CoiNTRY ..... 301

The accounts of all these countries derived from the same source — The
Chinese text — Tlie location of the Kingdom of Wcmicn — Its inhabitants
— Their lonft locks — Their migrations — liirtli of their young — Nursing
the young — The age at which they walk — Their timidity — Their devotion
to their mates — The salt-plant — Its peculiarities — A shipwreck — The
women — A tribe whose language could not be understood — Men with
puppies' heads — Their food, clothing, and dwellings — The land of
"Marked Bodies" — Ita location — Tattooing with three lines — The char-
acter of the people — Lack of fortifications — The king's residence —
Water-silver — No money used — The Country of Great llan — Its location
— Lack of weapons — Its people.

CHAPTER XVIIL

The Lenotii of the Li. — The name " Gkeat IIan " . . 328

The direction from Japan in which Fu-sang laj' — Variations in standards
of measure — The Cliinese li about one third of a mile in length — The
greater length of the Japanese li — Possibility of still another standard
in Corea — Communication between Corea and Japan and between Corea
and China — Chinese knowledge of the route to .lapan derived from
Corean sources — Fu-sang farther from "Great Han" than Japan is —
Distances stated with at least approximate accuracy — The country of
"Marked Bodies" identified as the Aleutian Islands — Allowances for
changes and misunderstandings — Cwsar's account of the inhabitants of
Britain — Maundevile's repetition of the storj* — "Great Ilan" identified
r.s Alaska — Land found in the regions indicated by Ilwui Shiiu — Jlean-
ing of the ciiaractcr "Ilan" — Nature of the Chinese characters — The
manner in which they are compounded of two parts — Some characters
in which the meaning is affected by that of both parts — Application of
the character "Han" to a swirling stream and to the Milky Way —
Hence its possible meaning of "dashing water" — Moaning of the i.imo
" Alaska " — The breakers of the Aleutian Islands — The population — A
philological myth — The hyiiothescs upon one of which Ilwui Shan's
story must be explained— The explanation should be consistent.

CHAPTER XIX.

The Ci'STOMs of the Land of "Maijked Bodies,'' and of Great

IIan . . . . . . . .343

Necessity of examining the account in detail — The resemblance of the peo-
ple of the two countries — Their customs — Their languages — The marks
upon their bodies — Tattooing with tliree lines — Existence of the custom

XVI

CONTENTS.

in Amorica — The marks a si{^ of the position of thrir bearer — The
merry nature of the people — Their feasts and dances — Their hospi.'iilitv
— HospitaUty of the American Indians — Tlie Irotiuois — Thu Esmiiii.aux
— Tlie Aleutians — Absence of fortifications — The chiefs — Tlie decora-
tion of their dwcllinfca — The Ifaidah Indians — Other Indian tribes tw.m
Bvh\A\ Columbia to Alaska — Esipiiuiaux fondness for ornamentation —
Ditches — The dwellings of the people — Water-silver — Proof that ice is
meant — Quicksilver — Xo country ever had ditches tilled i^ith quicksilver
— The traHic by means of precious gems — Xo money used — Vi'lue of
amber — The peaceful nature of the people — The punishment of ciitne —
Summary of facts mentioned by Ilwui Shan — Application of the doctrino
of chances — The two countries bearing the name of Great Uan.

PAGE

CHArTER XX.
The Counthy ltino in the Region indicated by IIwui SiiXn . 360

The direction from China, Japan, and Great Ilan in which Fu-sang lay —
The trend of the American Pacitic coast — The distortion of the com-
mon maps — Mexico lies in the region indicated — The nations inhabiting
Jlexico in the fifth century — Their language — Traces of their beliefs and
customs existing one thousand years later — Aztec traditions — The Tol-
tecs — Tlieir character — Their civilization — The time of their dispersion
— Their language — The Pacific coast — The evidence of place-nameb — The
Aztec language — Limits of the Mexican empire — The name of the coun-
try — The city of Tenochtitlan — The application of the name "Mexico"
— First applied to the country — Early ma])S — Late application of the
name to the city — Pronunciation of the word — Similar names throughout
the country — Meaning of the syllable "co" — Varying explanatiims —
Real meaning of the term — " The i'lace of the Century-plant'" — Meaning
of the syllabic " mk " — Meaning of .he syllable " xi " — Its meaning in
other compounds — Other abbreviations — Appropriateness of the designa-
tion — The god Mexitli — Proof that he was the god of the century-plant
— Reason that the Spaniards were misled as to the meaning of " Mexico."

CHAPTER XXI.

The FtT-SANQ Tree and the Red Peaks .... 882

Conncclion between the name of the country and that of the " tree " — Ap-
plicati(m to smaller plants of the Chinese character translated "tree" —
Ai/plication of the term "tree" to the century-plant — Descrijition of the
moil, maguey, agave, nloe, or century-plant — the leaves of the fu-sang —
Disiigreement of different texts — The t'ung tree — Evidence oi i.orruption
in the text — Conjecture as to original reading — Similarity of tho young
sprouts to those of the bamboo — Their edibility — Thread and oioth from
the fiber of the plant — The finer fabric made from it — Variation in the
texts — j!anufaeture of paper — The red pear — The prickl3--pear — Resem-
blance of the century-plant to the cacti — Preserves made from the prickly-
pears — Confusion in the Mexican language between milk and the sap of
the century-plant — The Chinese " lo," or koumiss — The liquor made
from the sap of the century-plant — Its resemblance to komniss — Indians
never use milk — Confusion in other Indian languages between sap and
milk — Meaning of the name fu-sang — Variations in the characters with
which it is written — The spontaneous reproduction of the century-plant
— The decomposition of the character " sang " — The tree of the large
wine-jar — The tree having a great cloud of blossoms — Blooming but
once in a thourand years — Tlio Chinese name of the prickly-jiear —
Eitel's definition of the terra " fu-sang " — Professor Gray's statement.

CONTENTS.

xvii

rAOG

r— The
pi.'iility
iiin.aux
decora-
e>< f roni
tition —
it iff is
L'ksilver
I'luo of
L'l'ifiie —
Joctriu-j

Xm . 360

ig Jay-
he com-
habiting
jefs and
The Tol-
ispcr.-^ion
les— The
he coun-
Mcxieo"
n of the
roiighout
iiitions —
Meaning
|anins in

designa-
[n'y-piant

ilexico."

CIIAPTRR XXir.

The Lanofaoe of Fu-sano

PAOR

4U3

882

"— Ap-
Itree"—
\i of the
sang —
|riiption
young
Ih from
in the
iRosnm-
prickly-
1 pap of
made
Indians
top and
l-s with
|,--])lant
lar^e

kg ^^^
|icar —

[!nt.

Peculiarities of the Chinese lanjjuairo — Dilllculty of indicatinj: pronunciation
of foreiirn words — Examples — I'hanfjc in sound of Chinese ehiuucters —
The pisang or banana tree — Names of countries terminated with kwoh
— The character sascj — The character kl' — The most distant countries
at the four points of the compass distinguished by names l)efriimin<»
with Ff — Mexican dialects — Fi:-sano-kwoii and Me-shico — The title of
the king— Montezuma's title — Title of the noblemen of the first rank —
The Mexican Tecuhtli, or Teule — The Petty Ti'i-i,r — The Xaii-to-siia, or
Tlato([ue — The title lower than that of Tecuhtli — Its meaning — Tran-
scription of foreign words by characters indicating both the meaning
and the sound — To-r'u-TA'ocs, or tomatoes — The grape-vine — The tree of
stone — A Mexican pun — Danger of being misled by accidental or fancied
resemblance.

CHAPTER XXIII.
The Peouliahities of the Country ..... 418

The construction of the dwellings — Adobe walls — The " Oasns Grandes " —
Houses of planks — Lack of armour — Absence of fortifications — Literary
characters — The pomp which surrounded the Aztec monarch — Musical
instruments — The evanescence of Slontezuma's pomp — Hulers accom-
panied by musical instruments — Tangaxoan — The king of Guatemala —
The king of Quich6 — Homage to the Spaniards and to tlie Spanish jiricsts
— The long cattle-horns — The Chinese measure called a iiru — Animals
of the New World erroneously designated by the names of those of tiio
Old World — IJisons — Their range — An extinct species — Its gigantic
horns — The horns of the Rocky Mountain sheep — Use of horns by the
Indians — Herds of tame deer — The lack of iron — The use of cojjper —
Gold and silver not valued — Their markets — IJartcr — Customs attending
courtship — Sprinkling and sweening the ground as an act of homage —
Tne customs of the Apaches — The fastened horse — The Coco-Maricopas
— Serenades — Huts built in front of those of the parents — The length
of the "year " — The punishment of criminals of high rank — The sweat-
house, or cstufa — Indian councils — Severe punishment of men of distinc-
tion — Custom in Darien — Punishment witnessed by Cortez — Smothering
in ashes.

CHAPTER XXIV.

The Narrator of the Story ..... 439

The condition of China at the time — The reign of a Rudilhist emperor —
The bhifi'shus, or mendicant priests — Their duties — Rules for their con-
duct — The name Hwui ShSn — Frequency with which the name Ilwui
occurs — Meaning of the characters — The nationality of Ilwui ShSn —
Coph6ne — Struggle between Brahmanism and Buddhism — The route
from India to China — The command that at least three should go to-
gether when traveling — Persecution in China in the year 458 — The
journey to America by water — Ease of tlio trip — Probability that Hwui
Shiln was but slightly acquainted with the Chinese language — Yu Kie'a
criticism of Hwui Shin's statements — Catises of errors — Use of the term
" water silver " — Accounts given by first explorers seldom free from
error — Absurdities narrated by other Chinese travelers — Pliny — Hero-
dotus — Marco Polo — Maundevile — Ca?sar — The unicorn — Elks without
joints in their legs — The Icelandic account of Yinland — DilHculties in

XVlll

CONTENTS.

the account — TheUnipeds — The Zono broihera — Ipnornnce .
Ill tb'j iiftoentl" century — Marvelous tales of early explorers-
to be madt — llwui Shiin entitled to equal charity.

f pcotrraphy
-Allowaucea

PAOI

CIIAPTEU XXV.
The Introductiox of Asiatic Civilization .... 456

The former ignorance of the people — The introduction of Buddhism — The
changes of a thousand years — The two places of conHneincut — Meaniitf
of the character fah — Two species of pri'^ons — One for '.nose sentencel
io death — The other for minor crimi .. —The Mexican Hades — The
future abode of the Aztec hero — The sojourn but temporary — The dark
and dismal ''Place of the Dead," in the north — Confinement here eternal
— The slave children — Trci.tment of illegitimate children and jf orphans
— Age at which children wer- taken to tlie temple — Hoys at sev .'n years
of age — Girls at eight — Chinese custom of railing children a year older
than they would be considered by us — The punishment of the family of a
criminal — Mourning customs — Fasts — Funeruls — Images of the deceased
— Reverence of these images and offerings to them — The custom in
China — The absence of mourning-garments — The king not fully crowned
until some time after his accession to ilic throne.

CHAPTER XXVI.

The In'troductiox of Asiatic CiviLizATioy, — (Concluded.) . 470

The colour of the king's garments — Colours in Asia — Green and blue con-
founded — The dyes used by the Mexicans — Changes of the king's gar-
ments — Dresses of different colours for different occasions — Various
species of mantles worn — Changes because of superstitious ideas — Length
of the " year " — Divisions of the day — The marriage ceremonier — Chineso
customs — Mexican customs attributed to Quetzr.lcoatl — Mexican weddings
— The horse-carts, cattle-caits, and deer-carts — Oilficulties of this passage
— Explanations suggested — The introduction of the horse into America —
Extinct specios of horses in America — Indian traditions — Name may
have been applied to some other animal— Mirage — The Buddhist descrip-
tion of the " three carts " or " three vihicles."

CHAPTER XXVIi

The Countuy of Womex an"d its IxnAHiTAyvs . . . 487

Stories of Amazons — Account of Ptolemy — Inat of Maundevilc — Marco
Polo — The Arabs — The Chinese—Similar stories in America — Exjjlana-
tions of those accounts — " Cihuatlan," the Place of Women — The account
given by ('ortoz — \uno de Guzman — The expedition to Cihuatlan — The
monkeys of Southern Mexico — Their resemblance to human beings —
Stories of pygmies — Classical tales — Pliny's account — That of Maunde-
vilc — The worship of Hanuman in India — Chinese stories — The Wrang-
ling People — The Eloquent Nation — The Long--"med People — "Chu-ju,"
or the Land of Pygmies — Pygmies in America — Mexican monkeys — Their
long locks, queues, or tails — Their migration — Their bickering or chatter-
ing — Their rutting-scason— The period of gestation — The beginning of
the year in China, Tartary, and Mexico — The absence of breasts — Nurs-
ing children over the shoulder — Young monkeys carried on their mothers'
backs — Long hair at the back of the head — A different translation sug-
gested — Ago at which they can walk — That at which they become fully
grown — Tlieir timidity — Their devotion to their mates.

CONTENTS.

ziz

;raphy

caucus

PAOI

. 456

1— The

onnii'if
itenccil
s— The
le dark
oternul
irplmns
n years
ir older
idy of a
eeeased
jtom in
jrowned

470

)lue con-

ig'3 gar-

•Various

-Length

Chinese

cddinfTS

passage

erica —

e may

descrip-

. 487

-Marco
|xplana-
icconnt
a— The
Bings—
launde-
kVranjr-
|hu-iu,"
-Their
Ihatter-
ling of
J-Nurs-
lothcra'
\n sug-
le fully

CHAPTER XX VIII.

TvE CouxTRY OF "NVoMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. — {Concluded.)

The habit of standing erect — The colonr of the inhabitants — Albinos —
Aztlan, "the White Land" — Tiic nioinUain hlnccihuatt, or "tlie White
Woman" — The J:!(auhi/utl, or "salt-phmt" — The salt of the Mexicans
and Chinese — Kefereiices of SaliaL;uii to the htnuhijatl — An erroneous
identification — References to it by Hernandez — The salt-weed — The sage-
h'-iish — The characteristic vegetation of Mexico — Food of tiie monkeys^
Cattle and game fattened upon the white sage — Its value in Asia — Tiio
Mexican rainy season — The preceding month of "hard times" — UilKcidty
of (il)taining food at this season — Animals coming to lowlands in the
spring tn feed upon the early vegetation — A sweet variety of sage —
The use f an herb to sweeten meat — Chinese description of monkeys —
An A/tec pun — Shipwreck of a Chinese fishing-boat — Corean tishing-
boats — Japanese vessels wrecked on the American coast — Tiie land
readied thought to be that mentioned by Ilwui Shiin — The women of
the country — The language that could not be understood — Heads like
those of pui)])ies — The Cynocepliali — Their voices — Harking Indians —
Their food — Their clothing — Their dwellings — The doorways.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Yu Kie's Statements reqahdinq Fu-sano . . ,

The envoy from the kingdom of Fu-sang — The commission of Yu Kie —
Hwui Shfin the envoy mentioned — Yu Kie's story — The presents given
to the emperor — Tiie custom of offering tribute — The yellow silk — The
term applied to vegetable fibers — Sisal hemp — Its strength — r.obability
that the agave fiber would be brought home by a traveler — The semi-
transparent mirror — Mexican obsidian mirrors — Nature of obsidian —
The " Palace of the Sun " — The Chinese zodiac — Their horary cycle —
Concave and convex mirrors— Obsidian mirrors peculiar to Mexico — Tiic
silk taken from the agave — Lack of cocoons — The seeds of the ccnturj--
plant carried to Coren — The use of agave leaves as fuel — T!ie a-hes
used for obtaining lye — The agave fiber steeped in an alkaline solution —
The feast of Huitzilopochtli — Intercourse between Corca and China — The
Corean records — Possibility that further information may be found in
them — The palace of the king — The glitter of obsidian in the morning
light — The Country of Women again — Serpent husbands — The expedi-
tion of Nuilo de Guzman — The Smoking Mountain — Yolcinoes — Hairy
worms — The "nopal de la ticrra"— The fire-troos — The fire-rats — The
Black Valley — The Snowy Range — Huitzilopochtli — The intoxicating liq-
uor — The "Sea of Varnish "--Pctiuieum — Mineral springs — Hot springs
■ Tile exteat of the land — Animals — Winged men — liirds that bear hu-
man beings.

PAni
503

519

CHAPTER XXX.

Mexican Traditions

536

Mexican hicroglyp' Ics — The tradition regarding Wixipecocha — His arrival
— Hia appearance — His conduct — His teachings — Persecution — His de-
parture — Survival of the doctrines he taught — The "^Viyatao" — Another
version of the tradition — The written account preserved by the Mijcs —
The " Taysacaa " — Identity of the term Wixipecocha with the name and
title " Hwui Shin, bhikshu " — The Mexican language — Huazontlan —
Quftzalcoatl — His history not a myth — The epoch at which he lived —
Uis arrival — His garments — His attendants — Their knowledEce of arts —

CONTKNTS.

Anoihcrnccount — Cll^^tom8 introdiicpd — Uolif^iimx pcnanoos — The fouiulu-
tidii iif iiKiiiiiHtiTics aii'l nuniu'rii'C — Huliof that lit- was u liudilliist piii'st
— UniliiimniHiii mid liuddliisin — Tlie worship of Sivii — The rtdi;!i)ii of
Ni'|i;il — Thi' j.'<)ddt'ss Kali — Tlic woiHliip nf Mictlaiuiliiiutl — Qiictzaiioatl'i)
liorioi' of liioixlHJiod — Till' nrt^^ lie taught — Tlio culoinlar — Mis proiiiiHe
to ntiirii — Hid vow to ' .10 iiitOAioutinK I'M"""' — "'^ toiiiplutioii and
fall — III!) sorrow — ,/ "f l'i'< naino — Its triu' iiiciiiiiiij; not "tliu

I'iiiiiicd .Sor|)ont," ... ,iie lifvorcd Visitor" — Ti-nn apjilii'd to the
prifsfs of Nt'[)al — The Mcxitan " Ciliuaroatl "' — Tlie arrival of Quetzal
catl from the cant — I'oH.-iihlc i-xplnnatioii!* — The crossr;* o» his manilo
— Kx|ilaiiation of ocrurreiict' of crosses in Yuentan — Intercourse with
the West Indian IsltiiidM — The cod llurakun — Oracles and pro|)ho(ipH—
Veneration of the cross in ancient times — Its occurrence in India and
K;.'ypt — Its use in Asia as 11 symbol of [icacc — The patchwork cloaks of
the Hudiihist priests — Huddlia'8 commHiids — The mark of a foot-print
in '.he rocks — Occurrence of such foot-i)riuts iu America and Asia—
Veueration shown thcin.

PAl}B

CHAPTER xxxr.

VARiora Amkuic.vx TiiAniTioxs. — Buddhism .... 656

White and hi'.'irded men woarinc; lonji robes — The <rrcnt numbers of coun-
tries in which such traditions exist — Non-intercourse between them —
Traditions of Yiuatan — Zumna and Cukulcan — Tlie introduction of the
alphabet — Attendants — The name Cukulcan — The three brotlicrs of
Cliicheii It/a — The buildings erected — The teaching's of Cukulcan — Ilia
departure — 'l"he survival of his doctrines — Votan — His lonfr-robed attend-
ants — Kesemblaiice of name "Votan "to Asiatic perversions of "(Jau-
taiiia" — The tiim of these visits — The "kafims" of Yucatan — South
American traditions — The Muyscas — Their civilization — The arrival of a
white straiij^cr — His names — The arts he tauf;ht — His doctrines — The
veneration of the people for him — Resemblance of his names to Muddliist
titles — A J'dcfivhih) — The ('jvisukas — The Chinese Jfn S/iaiiij — Tradition
of the (Juaranis — Tamoi, Tamu, Tume, or Zunie — His teachinfrs — The
impress of his foot-prints — The tradition in Panifruay — His promise to
return — Adventure of the fathers de Montoya and de Mendoza — The
Brazilian tradition — The ^vcat road — Foot-prints — Another tradition^
The story in Chili — Tonapa in Peru — His appearance — His mildness —
His teaehiii;;s — His dcparttire — Viracoeha — The pyramids of Peru — Con,
or Contice — The Uuddhist decalo;;ue — Avoidance of women — Huddhist
practices — The dress of the priests — Hats not worn by the Indiana —
Resemblance of teachincrs of the American ciilture-herois to those of the
Roman Catholics — Rcsemblnnees between Huddhism and Roman Catholi-
cism — Their monasteries — Their doctrines — The costume of the Grand
Lama — Heliof in an early mixture of Christianity and Buddhism — A Cen-
tral American imacfe — the calendar — The arts practiced by Buddhist
priests — The art of casting metals — Sculptured vases.

CHAPTER XXXII.

Religious Customs and Beliefs ..... 574

The incongruity of the religious system of the Aztecs — The Toltccs — Con-
tentions between '"val sects — Monasteries — The " Tlamacazqui " — The
herb-eaters — Their asceticism — The monastery and nunnery attached to
the chief temple of the city of Mexico — The duties of the devotees — The
clothing — The discipline — The differences in rank — Other ascetics — Pro-
bation of candidates — Vows not for life — Married priests — The monas-

CONTENTS.

XXI

tcry of tho Totonaca« — Tho pnntifT of Mixtccn— Tlie title "Tuysncaa" —
AurUuIur coiifcKsioii — Tlic ]in»clii'o of lu'iirinn n ciiliilmftli — Tlii' ilri'ss of
tho piitMts — Coniincnoe — I'lavcrrt — Kiisliii);— Tlie oaiiy ili.-cipli'M of SAkva
Muni — Tlio Hiulilhist nioniistcrii'^ — ('iimliilatiH for tlif prif:<tli()0(l — Kdii-
cation of I'liildiTu — Food mid ilotliiii,' — IVimiuvs — Niiniurics — l-ife of
tilt' iiiiiiiitOM — l'mii:*lmii'iit of iiu-oiitiiifiur — Tiini' for iiiciils — Clotliiiin •>'
Idols — Ahsent'O of vital points of Cliristinn doctrine — .Miirriiifio of the
pricnts — Vi'Hi'tnviiinisiii — Fuilnr*' of the Hiiddhisis to strictly comply with
tho tenets of tlioir rcli;.'iou — Tho cutiiiR of flesh — A curious nmuualy in
IJudilhii's toachiiif»s — Kelii^ious terms — Tlie niiuio SAkyii— Its ocourreiico
in Mexico — Otosis — (Jiiutama — (iimteiuala — liuauhtenui-t/.iu — Tlama and
lama— Teotl and DiJva — Kefututiim of a nejjativc arf,'ument — Ucli;,'iou9
teiiots — The road to the abode of tho dead — The divisittiis of the ahodo
of the dead — Transmigration — Yearly feast for the souls of tin; dead —
The tablet at l*alenipie — The lionlieuded couch— Seatoil figures— An
ima^o of Quotzalcoall — Tiio atory of Cuumxtli — rrcservation of bid
blonde hair.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

PAOI

Tub Pyhamids, Idols, and Akts ok Mexico.

.507

Tem|iles huilt upon truncated pyramids — Mounda autedatiuR A/tee occupa-
tion — Speculations as to tlie date of tht-ir erection — The IMace of the
House of Flowers — The monuments of San Juan Teotiliuacaii — Their size
— Their construction — Mexican "teocallis" — Their proportions — Ue-
semblancea to the pyramids of India — Pyramids found wherever llud-
dhisin i»revails — The tumulus or tope — Its occurrence at Nineveh, in
China, and Ceylon — Resemblances noticed by several authors — The tem-
ple of Horo-Hudor in Java — Tho palace at I'alentiue — Dome-shaped
edifices — The dome at Chichen — Tlie construction of the pyramids — The
layer of stone or brick — The layer of plaster — The false arch — Uecora-
tivo paintings — Tho priests the artists — The ornament upon the breast —
The name Ohaacmol — Cornices — Friezes — Jiepresentation of curved
swords — An elephant's head as a head-dress — Other ornaments in shape
of an elephant's trunk — The elephant the syml of JJuddha — The taiur
— Remains of tho ele[)hant or mastodon in Aincri. v — Their possible con-
temporaneity with man — Pipes carved in the shajio of elephants — Tlieii*
discovery — An inscribed tablet — The elephant-mound of Wisconsin — A
Chippewa tradition — Gandsa — Teoyaomiqui — Their resemblanee — Tho
conception of Iluitzilopoelitli — The story of Cuaxolotl — Tezcatlipoca —
Tho mirror held by him — Similar idols in Asia — The imprint of the hand
— The cataclysms by which the human race has boon destroyed — The
cardinal points — Their connection with certain colours — The temples of
Thibet — The palace of Quotzalcoatl — A small f,'rcen stone buried with
the dead — Sweeping tho path before the numarch — The use of garments
and dishes but once — The breech-cloth — Quilted armour — Suspension-
bridges — Rooks — Mari'i'ge ceremonies and customs — Tying the gar-
ments together — Postpoi oment of the consummation of marriage — Po-
lygamy — (Jhildren carrici . on the hip — Children's toys — The enkes used
as food — A gamc> — Practices of many Asiatic countries — Milk not used
— Authors led to believe in a connection between Asiatic and Mi'xican
civilization — Differences between the Mexicans and other American tribes
— Erroneous criticism.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

The IIisTORY of Japax

023

Records reaching back nominally to 6fi0 n. c. — Gaps in the historv — Great
age of sovereigns — A giant — Absence of exact dates — The introduction

XX u

CONTEXTS.

of wriflnfr — Maniifnctiiro of paper — Clilncso rooordii of ctnhftnnlon — Men-
tioii of It Jiiiiitncsc Hovvri>i);ii mIiumo naiiiu dofx not a|ipt'iir in tlif .lapa*
ni'Hi' unniilH — Ti«ni*Iiiti(in of oxfriutM from tlu' Jiipnncno history — IntiT.
coiirnc witli Coica ami China — KinhasHiox — Wars — Introdiu'lion of lUuU
(IhisMi — Tillis of tioliility — ( 'op|>c'r, Hilvrr, and (/old — lat«'ri'our:<i' of Conii
with tiapan ami Cliina — Tlu> i'liini'Ko ai'count of Japan — Tiic routo from
Cliina to .Japan — The distanco — Cattle and lior.-e« not raised — Tattooing
— Clofiiinp — Cities — I'olypiiuy — Laws — Hnrial of tlie dead — Tlie "Clil-
shiiai " — An envoy — A later endiassy — A .lapanesi* prineess — The kin^-
doni of Kiu-nn ; tliat of Chujn — Tlie Kastern Fish-lVople — A (.'hineno
fxpeiiition to seek lor l"nnfC-lai — Tan-eiien — Uoiiteto Japan — The divis-
ions of Japan — Titles of the ollieers — Knd)assieH — Tattooin>5 — Abscneo
of writing — Monrninc-^arineiits — Ituddiiisni — Houte to Japan — Dl-^eovery
of Rold, silver, iron ore, and copper — The Country of Women — Utasona
why Fii-saiij; can not have l)oen sitiuiled in Japan — Consideration of
other tlieories — Proof that Hwni Shiln had visited some nnknown land —
Had the Chinese any earlier knowledge of America y — The Sbuii Ilai King.

rAou

CIIAPTKIl XXXr.
The Chinese "Classic of Mocxtaixs and Seas"

.043

Prefaee — Siii-ciif Mountain — The Mountain of Crccpinf* Plants — Aspen
Mountain — Hairy binis — The Korei^^n Ilanj;o — Kan lish— Ki-mao, Kao-
Biii, Lofty, Woif, Lone, Hald, and liatuboo Mountains — K'l .so-SANd,
Ts'ao-ciii, Yiii-kao, and Hean Mountains — An excessively high peak —
Ti-Kf, Kan(1, Li-k'i — Ki-snK, Creen Jude-stono, Wei-siii, Ki-uno,
Fi-Li, and Yis Mountains — Siii-iif, K'l, (.'in-KEr, Middle Fi', Ik-siiE,
Manu-tsz', K'l riiiNO, Mki-yi", andWi-KAO Mountains — The Fi -tree (or
Fi-SANo) — North II Ao, Mao, Eastern Siii, Nt'-ciiiso, K'in, Tsz'-tlno,
Ykn, and T'ai Mountains— The Ciia Hill— The Great Men's Country-
Si!' -I's body — The t'ountry of Kefined (ientlcmen — llrNo-niNa — the
Vaucy of the Manifcf^tationof the Dawn — The CJreen Hills Country — Tho
join-ncy of Sm -hai — The Blaek-Teeth ('otmtry — The Warm Springs Ra-
vine — Fr-SAN« — The Place where the Ten Suns bathe — An account of
(he Ten Suns — Yi-siii's concubine — The IJlaek-Ilip Country — The Hairy
People's Coimt")" — A boat upon the sea-shore — Tlie Distiea^ed People's
Country — K'ki-wano — A great valley — Shao-hao — Pi-mi-ti Mill — Place
where tho Sun and Moon riso-^Tlie Great Men's Country — (iiants and
dwarfs — The (ireat People's Market — The Little People — Ki>K.ii Mount-
ain — The Country of Plants — Iloii-iiij Mountain — The Mountain of tho
Eastern Pass— the Mountoin of the Uright Star— The White People's
Country — The Green Hills Country — The Nation of Courteous Vassals —
The Black-Teeth Country — Summer Lsland— .The Kai-yI; Country— (^ii'eh-
TAN and the Place of the Rising of tlie Sim — YtJ-Kwon — Quaking Mount-
ain— The Black-Hip Country— The Needy Tribe— King Hai— Ni'-niEU—
YEii-YAO-Kit'N-ri Mountain — The Fi-tree — Warm Springs Valley — ■
I-T'iE\-sr-MA.N Mountain — The Yino Dragon — The Mountain of the
Flowing Waves.

CHAPTER XXXVL

Comments upon the " Classic of Mountains and Seas " . . CG9

The oldest geography of tho world — Article by M. Bazin, Sr. — Its divis-
ions — Groups of mountnins — Taoists of the fourth century — The spirits
governing the earth — Extravagancies of the work — First mention of tho
book — The Familiar Discourses of Confucius — Thought to be apocryphal
or corrupted — Tseu-hia — Ssc-ma-ts'icn — Sse-ma-ching — Chao-shi — -

CONTENTS.

XMll

WanR-clion!?— Tho-hb^— Tilt' " Hook <.f Wntt'n* "— ('lllln^'•llc>n— ronxiiUr.
otioii of till' wfcti'm niul ^oiitlicrn kin;;il(inis — Siiniiiiuricrt of tlio (;co>,'rn-
phy of Tu-yii — liO-pi — Kiii-i'liinj» ><lii— Chcii-piing — T!<ii-t!«(-yii — Tlio Kii-
oflopinliii of Tii-ycii — (^lIu•lll.si(m of M. Kuziii — Tin- iiiipi'iiiil luinlnny
(if ilif lliiti III) — Till' SImii iliii Kint; rciul iii* it rotiiiini'i' or pnHtiinc —
rartk'uliirlv hy yoiiii).' im-ii — OpinioiH of coiiiimiiliitors — NutoH — (iapM
or iiMiisitionx — Tlio " Itaiiilioo Itodk*" — L«'n;5tli of tlic work — No trnnsln.
tioii luivtofiiro iimtli- — M. Huniouf'.'* iiiliutioti to truiisliito it— ('liiiii(;o
of opinion unioii}; !<)'lioliirM us to iti< vnliio — Mcmstfrrt nicnlioncil liy otiuT
wiitiTi* — Tiicitii;' — Mtii olollu'il ill dkiiis — A rivir witii ii;;iit iiKHitlis —
Tli«> c'oinpa!*.'* — The T'ii-n Wii : l.tml of tin- Wiitir — Scaln, r-tM lions, ami
ft'a-oltcis — The IslaiulH of tin' Kiowiii^ Stifaiii — ("iittU •fi>li — liinis uiili
hairy li'^?!" — .S'rpcnts aa i>ar-orniinicnt.'< — The Slum Mai Kinp u conipiia-
tioii of a niinilHTof liiHtiiict accounts — Ilcplons incntioiu'il twice nr more
— Description of Japan — The genii wiio once ruloil the enrlh — 'I'he slate
of civili/ation — Timers and bcarrt — A poismous insect — The Ravine of
tlie Manifestation of the Dawn — The Hairy Tcopic — I'u-saiif; and t\w
lllack Teefli Country— Tiio Malay custom of hlackeninj; tlie teeth— The
l*hili|ipiiio or Luzon Islands — The banana or plantain (jiiminij) — The

" tOU hUIld."

PAOR

CIIArTEU XXXVII.

REC.»riTrLATION.

fl«4

Summary of reasons for thinking that IIwul Shiln visited Mexico — The com-
mand Of Uuddlm — Tlie ease of the journey — The " silk " and mirror
brought back by liim — The belief of liis contcmiiorarics — Fu-sang must
have been in Jiqian or America, and was not in Japan — llwui Siiiln'rt
story paralleled with accounts of the countries by other authors — The
Country of Marked llodies — (irt'at Han — Fu-sang — The Country of Wom-
en — Summary of facts mentioned by llwui Shiln — The transparent
mirror could not hav " been obtained elsewhere than in Mexico — Tlie
Mexican tradition of llwui Shin's visit — Coincidences between Asiatic
and American civilizations — ryramids — Architecture — Aits — Heligioiis
structures — Religious customs and beliefs — Idols — Marriogc ceiemnnies
— Dress — Food — Rooks — (lamos — Tlie working of metids — Suspension-
bridges — The calendar — Civilized nations of America all upon the I'acilie
coast — Allowances to be made — Errors of first explorers — llwui Sliiln
not a ('hinaman — Errors of manuscripts — Changes in language — Changes
in customs — Our imperfect knowledge of Mexican civilization — The ar-
gument stronger than its weakest parts — Conclusion.

APPENDIX.
List of Authorities and Refkkkxceb

'11

INDEX .

. 741

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY,

111

%\\

The birth of Buddha — His titles — His character — His religious belief — His uni-
versal charity — His life as a hermit — The discovery which he imagined that
he had made — Desire that all should share its benefits — His command to
evangelize the world — The compliance of his disciples — The dispersion from
India — Countries visited — Traces of the religion in Europe — Also throughout
Asia — And in Alaska — The wanderings of Buddhist priests — Few records
preserved — Ease of journey from Asia to America — The Gulf-Stream of the
Pacific — Shipwrecks on the Kurilc and Aleutian Islands — Records of jour-
neys of Buddhist priests— Their reliability and value — A Chinese record o*" a
visit to an Eastern country — Reasons for crediting the account — Object of this
work — Previous discussions of the subject — Plan of this work — The discov-
ery made by do Guignes — Humboldt's views — Klaproth's dissent — The Chev-
alier de Paravey's essays — Neumann's monograph — Leland's translation and
comments — Articles by MM. Perez, Vivien de Saint-Martin, d'Eichthal, Bras-
seur de Bourbourg, Godron, Jones, Brown, Simson, Bretschneider, Adam,
d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, Lobscheid, Channing M. Williams, and S. Wells
Williams.

Some centuries before the Christian era, in the little vil-
lage'*^"* of Kapilavastu,"^ capital of a small kingdom of the
same name,'^' in the northern part of India,'**^ Suddhodana,""
its king, or rajah, was gladdened by the birth of a son. This
event probably'"^ occurred in the fifth century b. c.,""' but some
authorities fix the date in the sixth"*' or seventh"*'*'' century,*"'*
while others place it even as early as 1027 n. c, ; "*' and in the
present state of science it seems impo^^sible to determine the
date with accuracy.'"'

The child was named Siddharta, but he is more frequently

* For this and all other references, see the Appendix.

AN INGLOKIOUS COLUMBUS.

mentioned in history either under his family name of Gautama,
or under the appellation of Buddha, " the Enlightened " ; or,
from the fact that he was of the race called Sakya, he is re-
ferred to as Sakya-muni, "the hermit of the Sakyas."

This prince, although handsome, strong, and heroic — sur-
rounded by pleasures and tempted by the most brilliant worldly
prospects"" — took little part in the sports of his mates, and
used frequently to retire by himself into solitude, where he
seemed lost in meditation. ''°° Educated in the belief that death
was immediately followed by a new birth, and that all living
creatures were chained to a never-ending senes of transmigra-
tions, he, as he grew in age, Avas more and more oppressed by
the conviction that all is vanity, and that a man hath no profit
of all his labour which he taketh under the sun. Possessed of
wealth and power, and lacking no earthly good, but saddened
by the knowledge that age must follow youth, and that death
would soon put an end to all his possessions ; and believing that
he must then commence a new life which death would again
end, and that so for all eternity he must struggle on, being able
to retain for but a moment all that seemed good to his eyes, and
then being compelled to abandon it — the prospect thus stretch-
ing out before him so appalled him that he finally determined to
devote his life to the endeavour to find some escape from this
eternal series of deaths.

It was not for himself alone that he desired to find this relief,
but for his dearly loved wife and infant child as well ; and, fur-
thermore, his heart was filled with an anxious yearning to be the
saviour of mankind, no matter what the cost to himself might be.

Born at a time when tyranny and the oppression of the law
of castes had become as intolerable in the civil world of India as
the dogma of eternal metempsychoses had become in its relig-
ion ; '*■• when woman was looked upon, as she still is in Oriental
countries, as but the plaything of the stronger sex ; when
throughout the world the citizens of each petty nation consid-
ered all other tribes as barbarians or wild beasts — he, being the
first of the human race "^' to rise above the accidents of fate,
looked upon all mankind as his brothers and sisters, and would
fain save them all from the woe of the innumerable deaths that
awaited them. High and low, bond and free, rich and poor,
male and female, old and young, countrymen and foreigners,

INTRODUCTORY.

for all he felt the same tender pity, and no living creature was
so mean as to be beneath his all-embracing love and sympathy.

Filled with this anxious devotion, he stole softly away from
his home by night, and adopted the life of a Brahmanical her-
mit. For years he tortured himself, often fasting until life was
almost extinct ; striving, vainly, but with an inextinguishable
desire, to find the path which led away from eternal misery.
Finally, light, as he believed, dawned upon him. Misery Avas
merely the result of unsatisfied desire. If all desire could be
extinguished, unhappiness would perish with it.

By sitting in a state of inward contemplation, it was possible
to arrive at a condition of mind when, for a time, all surrounding
objects would fade away and be forgotten. In this state of
ecstasy, neither hunger nor cold nor any bodily want could be
the source of discomfort, for the mind would be so fixed upon
its meditation that it would not know that these existed. Be-
yond this state, however, another condition could be reached, in
which, after attaining to a forgetfulness of everything but self-
existence, the abstraction would become so great that even the
consciousness of self-existence would be lost. From this state of
entire unconsciousness, a state neither of existence nor of non-
existence, there would be no awakening forever. The dreary
round of transmigrations would be forever over with ; the
dreamless sleep would never end.

It was only after continual striving through myriads of ex-
istences that this end could be reached, but he who set out upon
the path to Nirvana would never turn back ; and ultimately the
extinction of consciousness, which was held to be the supreme
good, would be attained.

There was only one thing of such importance that even the
state of quiescence and meditation, which was the foretaste of
the final beatitude, could be abandoned for it, and that was the
desire to preach the glad tidings to others, that they too might
set out upon the happy path. The love of one's neighbours Wi s
recognized as the most sacred law, and it was to be only by th d
exercise of this virtue that it should be possible to reach the
rank of the perfect Buddha.'*" As he himself had come for self-
sacrifice, and only by surrendering himself had learned how the
world might be saved, so all who desired to follow him must
tread in these footprints. Charity and love must extinguish all

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

' \

* " Never will I seek or
never enter final peace

egotism in the heart, and so fill the possessor with a spirit of
devotion that he would surrender himself uttei-ly, and forget
everything personal, his own existence even, in order to save
others.'*""

In the Chinese liturgy there is recorded a vow of the Bod-
hisattva Kwan Yin — the Great Compassionate Heart, or Mercy —
which is characteristic of this religion
receive private, individual salvation
alone, but forever and everywhere will I live and strive for the
universal redemption of every creature throughout all worlds.
Until all are delivered, never will I leave the Avorld of sin, sor-
row, and struggle, but will remain where I am." '*"

Buddha declared that the good news was for all the world ;
and bis disciples were commanded to hasten to preach it to every
creature. " Let us part with each other," the legend reports him
as saying, " and proceed in various and opjiosite directions. Go
ye now and preach the most excellent law, expounding every
point thereof, and unfolding it Avith care. Explain the begin-
ning and middle and end of the law to all men icithoiit excep-
//on.""" "Since the doctrine which I proclaim is altogether
pure, it makes no distinction between high and low, rich and
poor. Like water it is, Avhich washes and purifies all alike.
It is like the sky, for it has room for all ; men, women, bojs,
girls, rich and i^oor."'^'"

This command was faithfully obeyed by his disciples. Max
MUller states "**" that at a very early period a proselytizing
spirit awoke among the disciples of the Indian reformer — an ele-
ment entirely new in the history of ancient religions. No Jew,
no Greek, no Roman, no Brahman, ever thought of converting
people to his own national form of worship. Religion was
looked upon as private or national property. It was to be
guarded against strangers. Hei*e lay the secret of Buddha's
success. He addressed himself to castes and outcasts. He
promised salvation to all ; and he commanded his disciples to
preach his doctrine in all places and to all men. A sense of
duty, extending from the narrow limits of the house, the vil-
lage, and the country, to the widest circle of mankind, a feel-
ing of sympathy and brotherhood toward all men — the idea,
in fact, of humanity — were first pronounced by Buddha. In the

* Sec Cell's " Catena," pp. 4C5, 406, and 409.

INTRODUCTOKY.

third Buddhist council, the acts of Avhich have been preserved
to us in the " Mahavanso," we hear of missionaries being seut to
the chief countries beyond India.

Some centuries after the days of Buddha, upon tho death of
Asoka, a powerful king of India, who had been an ardent devo-
tee of the Buddhist faith, his immense empire was dismem-
bered,"'' and, profiting by this opi^ortunity, the Brahmans raised
their heads, stirred up the smouldering hatred in the hearts of
the castes that were formerly privileged, and by such aid recon-
quered the land which they had lost, and commenced a war of
bloody persecution against Buddhism, which resulted in the
complete expulsion of that sect from Central India. Ceylon,
Burmah, Siam, and Gamboge gave them asylum. Some of the
proscribed sect went even to the distant islands and founded a
church in Java, which, judging from the ruins that still remain,
must at one time hove flourished. Others went to the north,
were arrested by the deserts of Persia, and, after halting in
Xcpal, crossed the mountains, and carried their religion and
their arts into China, whence they soon passed into Japan and
Thibet.

This religion was introduced into China about a. d. GG,""
and reached Corea in the year 372."'* There is no part of
Northern Asia to which it did not make its way. There is
reason to believe that its missionai'ies penetrated into Europe.
Mr. Leland mentions a Buddhistic image"" discovered in an
excavation in London, at a depth of fifteen feet, nine feet of
which consisted of loose soil or debris of a recent character, but
the remaining six feet were hard, solid earth, of a character
which indicated a probability that the image might have been
left a thousand years or more ago where it was found. Profes-
sor Holmboe has written a work'"' in which strong grounds are
adduced for believing that Buddhist devotees reached Norway,
or at least that part of Europe which was then occupied by the
ancestors' of the Norwegians of to-day. Professor Max Miiller "^'
refers to the existence of Buddhism in Russia and Sweden, as
well as in Siberia, and throughout the north of Asia, and says
that a ti'ace of the influence of Buddhism among the Kudic
races, the Finns, Lapps, etc., is found in the name of their
priests and sorcerers, the Shamans — " Shaman " being supposed
to be a corruption of /iSraraa^ja, the name of Buddha, and of

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Buddhist priests in generaL The suppression of the ** r " is
probably owing to the influence of the Pali, which shows a great
delicacy,"" or, if the term is preferred, an extreme povert} , in
the combinations of two or more consonants, and which always
drops the letter " r " when it follows an initial consonant of a
Sanskrit word.*" Thus, for instance,"" the Sanskrit words
"prakrama" and "pratikrama" became in Pali "pakkam.i," and
" padkkama."

It is a singular fact that this word " Shaman," applied to a
priest or magician, is found, not only throughout nearly every
part of Asia, but that it passed over into America so long ago
as to become so thoroughly incorporated into the Yakut lan-
guage of Alaska, that it and its derivatives were thought by Dall
to have belonged originally to that language,"" and he claims
that those authors who have thought it to be an (East) Indian
word are mistaken. The religious ideas of some of the tribes of
Alaska strongly point to an earlier knowledge of some more or
less impure form of Asiatic Buddhism, and thus indicate that
the word was really borrowed from the disciples of that faith,
and is not a mere case of accidental resemblance in sound and
meaning. Pinart *^' says that the belief in metempsychosis is
generally spread abroad among the Koloches ; they believe that
the individual never really dies, and that apparent death is but
a momentary dissolution, the man being reborn in another form:
sometimes in the body of a human being, and sometimes in that
of certain animals, such as the bear, the otter, or the wolf ; of
certain birds, such as the crow or the goshawk ; and of certain
marine animals, but principally the cachalot. Veniaminoff, in
his great work, commits an error in saying that the Koloches do
not believe in any other form of metempsychosis than a change
into the body of another human being. This purely human
metempsychosis is not exclusive, although it predominates.

Pinart also states that **^' the primitive religion of the Ka-
niagmioutes and the western Esquimaux in general appears to
present an order of ideas much superior to those of the Koloches,
or other American tribes. This religion, if the conjecture may be
permitted, is the remains of a religious system now lost, but in-
dicating a very elevated order of ideas. . . . They divided the
heaven into five regions, superposed one upon another. . . . We
find in these different heavens, as we rise from one to another,

INTRODUCTORY.

successive transformations and purifications. Each individual,
if he lives an honourable life and conforms to their religious ideas,
can rise to the highest of these heavens by means of these dif-
ferent transformations. Every individual, in their belief, dies
and returns to life five times, and it is only after having died
for the fifth time that he quits the earth forever and passes into
another existence.

It can not be denied that these dogmas are strikingly analo-
gous to those of the Buddhist faith, and, when added to other
reasons for believing that this religion may have been preached
in Alaska, the existence of these religious ideas, and of the Bud-
dhist designation for a priest, furnishes reasonable grounds for
at least entertaining the question whether there was not some
early communication of the Buddhists of Asia with America.

Even at the present day, the Buddhist priests, or lamas, of
Centra^ Asia, are divided into three classes, comprising not
Qjjly.8093 ^]jg religious, who devote themselves to study and ab-
straction, and become teachers and eventually saints, and the
domestic, who live in families or attach themselves to tribes
and localities, but also the itinerant, who are ilways moving
from convent to convent, and traveling for travel's sake, often
without aim, not knowing at all where they are going. Prin-
sep says that there is no country that some of these have not
visited, and that when they have a religious or partisan feeling
they must be the best spies in the world.

Hue also speaks '"* of those lamas who live neither in lama-
series nor at home with their families, but spend their time
vagabondizing about like birds of passage, traveling all over
their own and the adjacent countries, and subsisting upon the
rude hospitality which, in lamasery and in tent, they are sure
to receive, throughout their wandering way. They take their
way, no matter whither, by this patli or that, east or west,
north or south, as their fancy or a smoother turf suggests, and
lounge tranquilly on, sure at least, if no other shelter presents
itself by-and-by, of the shelter of the cover, as they express it,
of that great tent, the world ; and sure, moreover, having no
destination before them, never to lose their way.

The wandering lamas visit all the countries readily accessi-
ble to them — China, Mantchooria, the Khalkhas, the various
kingdoms of Southern Mongolia, the Ourianghai, the Koukou-

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

noor, the northern and soutborn slopes of the Celestial Mount-
ains, Thibet, India, and sometimes even Turkestan. There is
no stream which they have not crossed, no mountains they have
not climbed.

It should be remembered that tbo journeys of these wander-
ing priests have been going on for more than two thousand
years, and that, so far as known, no records of them have been
preserved, except those which have been kept in China, and
which will be mentioned a little farther on. Hence it is impos-
sible to define the limits which they may have reached ; but, if
it is shewn that the journey to America, from some of the regions
(such as that at the mouth of the Amoor River), which it is well
known that they did reach, is neither longer nor more difficult
than many of the journeys that they undertook, this fact will
give reasonable ground for the conjecture that they may, in
some one or more instances, have even extended their wanderings
as far as to the American Continent.

Mr. Leland, in his book, entitled " Fusang," "'* embodies
a long letter from Colonel Barclay Kennon, formerly of the
United States North Pacific Surveying Expedition, in which the
ease of the voyage from Northern Asia to Northern America is
fully described. It is hardly necessary to quote additional au-
thorities, for the fact mentioned by INIr. P.ancroft,'*" that on the
shore of Behring's Strait the natives have constant commercial
intercourse with Asia, crossing easily in their boats ; but the
facts mentioned by Captain Cochrane,'"** that two natives of a
nation on the American Continent, called the Kargaules, were
present at a fair held at Nishney Kolymsk, a town situated in
Asia, on an island in the Kolyma, River, and that large armies
of mice"*" occasionally migrate from Asia to America, or in
the other direction, make it evident that there is no great diffi-
culty in the passage.

Lewis II. Morgan calls attention to the fact that '"' the Ja-
panese Islands sustain a peculiar physical relation to the north-
west coast of the United States. A chain of small islands —
the Kuril ian — breaks the distance which separates Japan from
the peninsula of Kamtchatka ; and thence the Aleutian chain
of islands stretches across to the peninsula of Alaska upon
the American Continent, forming the boundary between the
North Pacific and Behring's Sea. These islands, the peaks of a

INTRODUCTORY.

tlal Mount-
1. There is
is tboy have

CSC wandcr-
'^o thousand
1 have been

China, and

it is irapos-
led ; but, if

the regions
ch it is well
lore difficult
Ilia fact will
ley may, in

wanderings

"* embodies

lerly of the

in which the

I America is

ditional au-

that on the

commercial

8 ; but the

atives of a

aules, were

situated in

irge armies
jrica, or in
Igreat diffi-

,'*»'the Ja-
Ithe north-
islands —
[apan from
tian chain
iska upon
twoen the
)eaks of a

submarine mountain-chain, are thickly .studded togetluT witliin
a continuous belt, and are in Hubstantial communication with
each other, from the extreme point of Alaska to the Island of
Kyska, by means of the ordinary native boat in use among the
Aleutian islanders. From the latter to Attou Island the greatest
distance from island to island is less than one hundred miles,
lietween Attou Island and the coast of Kamtchatka there are
but two islands. Copper and Behring's, between which and
Attou the greatest distance occurs, a distance of about two hun-
dred miles ; while from Behring's Island to the mainland of Asia
it is less than one hundred miles. These geographical features
alone would seem to render possible a migration in the primitive
and fishermen ages from one continent to the other. But, su-
peradded to these, is the great thermal ocean-current, analogous
to the Atlantic Gulf-Stream, which, commencing in the ecpiato-
rial regions near the Asiatic Continent, flows northward along
the Japan and Kurilian Islands, and then, bearing eastward, di-
vides itself into two streams. One of these, following the main
direction of the Asiatic coast, passes through the Straits of
Behring and enters the Arctic Ocean ; while the other, and the
principal current, flowing eastward, and skirting the southern
shores of the Aleutian Islands, reaches the northwest coast of
America, whence it flows southward along the shores of Oregon
and California, where it finally disappears. This current, or
thermal river in the midst of the ocean, would constantly tend,
by the mere accidents of the sea, to throw Asiatics from Japan
and Kamtchatka upon the Aleutian Islands, from which their
gradual progress eastward to America would become assured.
It is common at the present time to find trunks of camphor-wood
trees, from the coasts of China and Japan, upon the shores of the
Island of Unalaska, one of the easternmost of the Aleutian
chain, carried thither by this ocean current. It also explains
the agency by which a disabled Japanese junk with its crew was
borne directly to the shores of California but a few years since.
Another remarkable effect produced by this warm ocean-current
is the temperate climate which it bestows upon this chain of
islands and upon the northwest coast of America. These con-
siderations assure us of a second possible route of communica-
tion, besides the Straits of Behring, between the Asiatic and
American continents.

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMIJUS.

Tho " Ilistoire dc Karatchatka " "^ mentions a report that a
Japanese vessel was wrecked upon Kituy, one of the Kurile
Islands ; and M. Pinart '"'* states that a number of Japanese
junks, borne by the currents, and probably by the great Ja-
panese current, the Kuro-siico, or " Black Stream," have been
shipwrecked upon the Aleutian Islands — one such case having
occurred in 1871 : thus showing that if a boat were merely
allowed to drift with the current along the eastern shore of
Asia, it would pass by the way of the Kurile and Aleutian Isl-
ands, and, if not stopped by these, would soon drift to the
Ameri(\an coast.

It has already been mentioned that records have been pre-
served in China of a number of journeys made by the devo-
tees of the Buddhist religion. The "Encyclopaedia Britanni-
ca " "" gives the following list of clerical travelers, the accounts
of which are now known to us, and adds : " The importance of
these writings, as throwing light on the geography and history
of India and adjoining countries, during a very dark period, is
great."

Shi Tao-''an (died a. d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the
" western lands " (an expression applying often to India), which
is supposed to be lost.

Fa Ilian traveled to India in 399, and returned by sea in 414.

ITicai Seng and Sung Yun, monks, traveled to India to col-
lect books and relics, 518-521.

Hicen Tsang left China for India in 629, and returned in 645.

To which should be added :

" The Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious Travelers," compiled
and published under imperial authority, 730 ; and

" The Itinerary of Khi Nie," who traveled (964-976) at the
head of a large body of monks to collect books, etc. Neither of
the last two has been translated.

The Rev. Mr. Edkins '"' says that both Fa Ilian and Hwen
Tsang will be admitted by every candid reader to deserve the
reputation for patience in observation, perseverance in travel,
and earnestness in religious faith, which they have gained by
the journals and translations they left behind them.

It should not be forgotten that these men were influenced by
the same motives which actuate our Christian missionaries of
recent times. They went, seeking not for glory or riches for

INTRODUCTORY.

Tied in 645.

themselves, but either to preach their faith, in accordance with
Huddha's command, in countries in which it was not known, or
to meet their brethren in foreign lands, or that they themselves
might obtain more complete information as to the details of the
teachings of their master than they could find in their own
country. Hence it may fairly bo claimed that the accounts of
these men, who braved all dangers from a devotion to their re-
ligious duty, are entitled to far more than the ordinary degree
of credit, and that their statements should be very carefully
weighed before we undertake to reject them or to brand their
authors as romancers. We can well afford the same degree of
charity toward them that was shown by Sir John Maundevile '*'*
in darker days than our own :

"And alle be it that theyse folk ban not the Articles of oure
Fythe, as wee ban, natheles for hire godc Feythe naturelle, and
for hire gode cntent, I trowe fuUe, that God lovethe hem, and
that God take hire Servyso to gree, right as he did of Job, that
was a Paynem, and held him for his trewe Servaunt. And there-
fore alle be it that there ben many dy verse Lawes in the World, yit
I trowe, that God lovethe alweys hem that loven him, and serven
him mekely in trouthe ; and namely, hem that dispysen the veyn
Glorie of this World ; as this folk don, and as Job did also :
And therfore seye I of this folk, that ben so trewe and so feythe-
fulle, that God lovethe hem."

With this prelude, as to the motives which have led the fol-
lowers of Buddha to undertake numerous, difficult, and hazardous
journeys to coimtries previously unknown, and as to the degree
of credence to which their accounts are, as a rule, entitled, we
come to the object of this book.

There is, among the records of China, an account of a Bud-
dhist priest, who, in the year 499 a. d., reached China, and stated
that he had returned from a trip to a country lying an immense
distance east. In the case of the other travelers to whom we
have referred, the accounts which we possess of their journeys
were either written by themselves or their followers ; but, in the
case of ITwui ShS.n, the interest excited in his story was so great
that the imperial historiographer, whose duty it was to record
the principal events of the time"" (each dynasty having its
official chronicle concerning the physical and political features
of China and the neighbouring countries'^), entered upon bis

A\ IN'(;M)HI01:S columbus.

ofllelal rocordH a digest of the information ol)tain('<l from thin
travt'lor as to the country which he had visited. It ih this ofll-
cial rceord, or ratlier a eopy of it, contained in the Avritings of
Ma Twan-lin, one of the most ceh-brated r.chohirs that the Chi-
nese Empire ever kneu', which is diHcussed in this work.

It is certainly no more than reasonable to start Avith the ])re-
gnmption that the account may be true, and that the story shouKl
not bo rejected as false because of any sliglit difHculties, which
further investigation miglit remove.

All the reasons which lead us to accept the accounts of other
Buddhist missionaries apply with equal force to this record, and
wo have, in addition, the fact that Ilwui Sh&n succeeded in
convincing the Chinese Kmperor, and the scholars by whom lie
was surrounded, of the truth of his tale, and that he also ob-
tained the belief of the people of China and of all Eastern Asia
so tliorougldy that even now, after the lapse of some fourteen
centuries, there is scarcely a man in China, Japan, or Corea, who
does not have at least some slight knowledge of the account of
the marvelous land of Fusang that was visited by him. The
fact that ho obtained such universal credence is certainly one of
some weight. An impostor would not be likely to be so suc-
cessful. Among those Avhom Ilwui Shiin convin<^cd were many
careful scholars and bright, intelligent men, who knew well how
to weigh and sift evidence, and who would have found the flaw
in his story if one had existed.

It is the object of this book to show that the land visited by
Ilwui Shiin was Mexico, and that his account, in nearly all its
details, as to the route, the direction, the distance, the plants of
the country, the people, their manners, customs, etc., is true of
Mexico, and of no other country in the world ; such a multitude
of singular facts being named, that it is inconceivable that such
a story could have been told in any other v. ay than as the result
of an actual visit to that country. It is true that there are a few
difficulties to be surmounted ; but the author believes that he has
succeeded in removing a number upon which some of his prede-
cessors have stumbled, and that the few that remain can not
outweigh the immense volume of evidence that is presented as
to the general truth of the account.

After giving translations of all that is known to have been
written in French or German upon the subject, and also includ-

INTKOnrCTORY.

u'«l from thiH
It iri tliis offi-
le writings of
tluit the Chi-
work.

with tho pro-
(! story Hhoulil
cultios, wliich

:iunts of otluT
is record, nnd

Hiicoeoded in
H by whom ho
it he also ob-

Eastorn Asia
ome fourteen
or Corea, who
he acpount of
by liim. Tho
rtainly one of
to be f«o suc-
',d were many

lew well how

und the flaw

id visited by

learly all ita

he plants of

is true of

a multitude

lie that such

18 the result

tre are a few

that he has

If his prede-

lin can not

Ircsented as

have been
llso includ-

ing a full statomeiit of substantially all that has been written
about it in English (with the exoeption of Mr. I.elaud's book —
which the reader is recommended to obtain, if he has failecl so
far to do so, and if he finds the subject at all interesting), the
original Chinese account will be given, with copies of the several
translations that have heretofore been made, and with a new
translation by the present author. Each Htatcinent made by
Ilwui Shan will then be carefully <'xamiiied in connection witli
the histories of Mexico, to see whether the statement was or was
not true of that country prior to the time of its conquest by tho
Spaniards.

After a full discussion of his account, the histories of ]\[cxico
and other parts of America will bo examined to determine, if
possible, whether any traditions as to his visit, or any results of
his teachings, still lingered in the country at the time when the
Spaniards, more than a thousand years later, entered it, and
whether any such coincidences were found in tho civilization of
these two regions of the world, in their customs, religious be-
liefs, arts, architecture, etc., as to lead to a reasonable ])resump-
tion that they may have had an early connection with each
other. As it has been claimed that the country visited by Ilwui
Shan may have been located in some part of Japan, its history
M'ill also be reviewed for the same purpose. The book will con-
eludo with a consideration of the question as to whether tho
Chinese had any earlier knowledge of America, or any further
iniormation regarding it than that which was given them by
Ilwui Shan.

Tho first detailed information which was given to European
scholars, as to the existence of this account among the Chinese
records, was afforded them in an article published by M. do
Guignes, in tho " Literary Memoirs extracted from the Registers
of the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres," Vol.
XXVIII, published in Paris in 1701, and entitled " Investigation
of tho Navigations of the Chinese to the Coast of America, and
as to Some Tribes situated at the Eastern Extremity of Asia"; ""
a translation of which article is given in the following chapter.

It would appear, however, that de Guignes must have given
some earlier account of his discovery of this relation, among the
Chinese books which he had read in preparing for his great
work upon the " General History of the Huns, the Turks, the

I '■.

t !::

'1 ■

!' \'

f 1^:

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Mongolians, and other Western Tartars," as (unless there is an
error in the date) we find a letter written by the P6rc Gaubil '*"'
to M. do risle, dated at Pekin, August 28, 1752, in which he
mentions M. de Guignes's discovery of this account, but states
his disbelief of the reliability of the Chinese works from which
his translations were made. An extract from this letter is given
in Chapter X.

Philippe Buache,"" in a work entitled " Considerations G6o-
graphiques et Physiques sur les Nouvelles Descouvertes au Nord
de la Grande Mer," published at Paris in 1753, in which he cor-
rectly advanced the opinion of the existenco of the Strait of
Anian (since called Behring's Strait), evidently borrowed from
de Guignes, when he stated that in the year 458 a colony of Chi-
nese was established on the coast of California, in a region called
Fusang, which he placed at about 55° north latitude. Her-
vas,'"^ in commenting upon this statement, says that this colony
has not been found, and that it is certain Uiat none of the lan-
guages Avhich are spoken along that coast, between the forty-
ninth and sixty-fourth degrees (a number of the words of which
are to be found in the account of Cook's third voyage), have
any close connection with the Chinese language.

Alexander von Humboldt, in his "Views of the Cordille-
ras," '"*""'" mentions a number of surprising coincidences be-
tween the Asiatic and Mexican civilizations, of such a nature
and of such importance as to lead him to the conclusion that
there must have been an early communication between these
two regions of the world ; but he makes no reference in this
work to the history brought to light by de Guignes ; and in his
"Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain" he says""
that, according to the learncsd researches of Father Gaubil, it ap-
pears doubtful whether the Chinese ever visited the western
coast of America at the time stated by de Guignes.

No further attention seems to have been paid to the subject
until the year 1831, when M. J. Klaproth published, ir Vol.
LI of the "New Aimals of Voyages," an article entitled "Re-
searches regarding the Country of Fusang, mentioned in Chi-
nese Books, and erroneously supposed to be a Part of Amer-
ica,""" in which he took the ground that the country mentioned
in the Chinese account was probably located in some part of
Japan. A translation of this article is given in Chapter III.

INTRODUCTORY.

3 there is an
5rcGaubiP«»
in which he
it, but states
s from which
etter is given

Orations G6o-
srtes au Nord
svhich he cor-
the Strait of
rrowed from
olony of Chi-
region called
titude. Her-
it this colony
B of the lan-
sn the forty -
)rds of which
foyage), have

the Cordille-
cidences be-
lch a nature
elusion that
tween these
ence in this
; and in his
he says""
aubil, it ap-
|the western

the subject

3d, ir Vol.

kitled «Re-

led in Chi-

|t of Araer-

mentioned

Ime part; of

Iter III.

For some reason, which it seems difficult to explain, Klap-
roth's assertions and assumptions (for of argument there is but
little, and that is partly based upon mistaken premises) seem to
have been generally accepted as a settlement of the question.

This did not deter the Chevalier de Paravey, however, from
publishing'*"* two pamphlets,'"" one in 1844 and the other at a
somewhat later date, in which he argued that the country of
Fusang should be looked for in America, and not in Japan.
Translations A these pamphlets are given in Chapters IV and V.
D'! P.*iav^/ also published two other essays,***" in which he at-
tempted to prove that the natives of Bogota must have derived
from Asiatic sources such partial civilization as they possessed.**"'

The next to discuss the subject was Professor Karl Friedrich
Neumann, who published his views in the "Zeitschrift filr
Allgemeine Erdkunde," Vol. XVI of the new series,"*' under
the title of " Eastern Asia and Western America, according to
Chinese Authorities of the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Centuries."
Mr. Leland published a translation of this opuscule in his book,
entitled " Fusang," and a translation is also given in the present
volume, Chapter VI.

Since that time, articles upon the subject have followed each
other so thick and fast that it is difficult to give a complete list
of them.

In 1850 Mr. Leland "'*' published a resume of the arguments
upon this subject, in the New York " Knickerbocker Maga-
zine " ; and in 1862 this was republished, with additions, in the
New York " Continental Magazine." In 1875 Mr. Leland pub-
lished a much fuller work, entitled " Fusang, or the Discovery
of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests in the Fifth Century."
This treats the subject at much greater length than any other
work, and hence it is impossible for the present author to do
more than refer to it ; but it adduces much new and valuable
evidence as to the true location of Fusang, and well merits care-
ful perusal.

In 1862 M. Jose Perez ""* published a " Memoir upon the Re-
lations of the Americans in Former Times with the Nations of
Europe, Asia, and Africa," one section of which related to the
knowledge of America possessed by the Chinese.

In 1865 "" M. Gustave d'Eichthal published a " Study con-
cerning the Buddhistic Origin of American Civilization."

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

t \l

In the same year M. Vivien de Saint-Martin,"'* in a chapter
of his " Geographical Annual " for that year, entitled " An Old
Story Set Afloat," combated the idea that the Chinese had any
early knowledge of America.

In 1866 the Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg, in the work en-
titled "Ancient Monuments of Mexico,"'" argued against the
views of the author of the "Geographical Annual."

In 1868 Dr. A. Godron, President of the Academy of Sci-
ences at Nancy, published, in the " Annals of Voyages of Geog-
raphy, History, and Archaeology,""" an article entitled "A
Buddhist Mission to America in the Fifth Century of the Chris-
tian Era."

According to the " American Philological Magazine " for
August, 1869, the Rev. N". W. Jones published in his " Indian
Bulletin " an able argument to show that the Chinese Fusang
was America.

In the same number of the " American Philological Maga-
zine" there appeared an article*'" upon the subject, by the Rev.
Nathan Brown, under the heading, " Where was Fusang ? "

In May, 1869, a letter upon the subject from Mr. Theos.
Simson "'* was published in the " Notes and Queries for China
and Japan"; and in October, 1870, a letter by E. Bretschneider,
Esq., M. D.,"* was published in the " Chinese Recorder and Mis-
sionary Journal." Both of these letters were copied by Mr. Le-
land in his work. i

At the first session of the International Congress of Ameri-
canists, held at Nancy in 1875, M. Lucien Adam read an argu-
ment against the identification of Fusang with America.

These various articles, some of them more or less condensed,
are, with the exception of the argument by the Rev. N. W.
Jones (of which I have been unable to find a copy), given in
Chapters VII to XI of this work.

In 1876 M. the Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys published
a " Memoir regarding the Country known to the Ancient Chi-
nese by the Name of Fusang " ; '^" but as his views, and the
exceedingly valuable new material that he presents, are given
more fully in his notes to his translation of Ma Twan-lin's work,
entitled " Ethnography of Foreign Nations," and as, moreover,
much of the " Memoir" is quoted by Professor Williams in his
comments upon it, it has not seemed necessary to copy the " Me-

INTRODUCTORY.

' in a chapter
;led"An Old
inese had any

the work en-
i against the

idemy of Sci-

ages of Geog-

entitled "A

of the Chris-

agazine " for

his "Indian

inese Fusang

ogical Maga-
, by the Rev.
usang?"
n Mr. Theos.
ies for China
Jretschneider,
•der and Mis-
d by Mr. Le-

iss of Ameri-

;ad an argu-

;rica.

[s condensed,

,Rev. K W.

y), given in

moir" in this work. The substance of the notes upon the
" Ethnography " is, however, given in Cliapters XII and XIII.

Mr. Bancroft, in his "Native Races of the Pacific States,"*^
gives Klaproth's translation of the story of Fusang, and com-
ments briefly upon it.

Professor S. Wells Williams presented to the American Ori-
ental Society, on October 25, 1880, an article entitled "Notices
of Fusang and Other Countries lying East of China," in which
he urges some new grounds for adopting the conclusion of Klap-
roth that Fusang should be decided to have been located in
Japan. This article, slightly condensed, is copied in Chapter
XIV.

The last article on the subject is contained in the " Maga-
zine of American History," for April, 1883, in which there is
given a letter from the Rt. Rev. Channing M. Williams, refer-
ring to the accounts of Fusang contained in the SJian Hai King,
the Chinese classic of lands and seas. This will be found in
Chapter X ; and a translation of all that portion of the Shan
Hai King which relates to Eastern regions will be found in
Chapter XXXV.

An extract from the Introduction to the " Grammar of the
Chinese Language," by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, "" in which
many singular coincidences are mentioned between the civiliza-
tions of Mexico and China ; and some extracts from Mr. Pres-
cott's " History of the Conquest of Mexico," in which he ex-
presses his conviction of a connection between the civilizations
of the two countries, are also given (in Chapter IX), as having a
bearing upon the subject.

iiiii

m published

incient Chi-

Iws, and the

|s, are given

-lin's work,

^, moreover,

iams in his

(y the " Me-

II I

CHAPTER II.

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

Chinese voyages — Knowledge of foreign lands — Work of Li-yen, a Chinese histo-
rian— The country of Fu-sang — The length of the W— Wen-shin— Its identifi-
cation with Jesso — Ta-han— Its identification with Kamtchatka — The route to
Ta-han by land— The country of the Ko-li-han— The She-goei— The Yu-che—
Description of Kamtchatka — The land of Lieu-kuci — The description of Fu-
sang — No other knowledge of the country — The Pacific coast of North America

A Japanese map — The Kjngdom of Women — Its description — Shipwreck

of a Chinese vessel — American traditions — Civilization of American tribes
on the Pacific coast— The Mexicans— Hoises— Cattle— The fu-sang tree-
Mexican writing — Manner in which America was pcopkd — Similarity of cus-
toms in Asia and America — Resemblances in the people — Charlevoix's story
— Natives floated upon cakes of ice— The kingdom of Chang-jin — "Voyages of
other nations — The Arabs — Exploration of the Atlantic — The Canaries —
Story of their king — The Cape Verd Islands — Conclusion.

Investigation of the Navigations of the Chinese to the Coast of
America, and as to some Tribes situated at the Eastern Ex-
tremity of Asia — by M, de Guignes}

UlS

The Chinese have not always been confined within the bound-
aries which Nature appears to have established to the country
in which they dwell ; they have often crossed the deserts and
the mountains which shut them in on their northern side, and
sailed the Indian and Japanese seas which bound their kingdom on
the east and the south. The principal object of these voyages has
been, either commerce with foreign nations, or the intention to
extend the limits of their empire. In these voyages observations
have been made that are important, as well in regard to history
as to geography. Several of their generals have rectified the
maps of the countries which they reconnoitered, and their histo-
rians have reported some details as to routes, bearings, and dis-
tances, which can be made useful.

In the enumeration of all the different foreign nations that

ili";

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

Inations that

the Chinese have known, it appears that some of them must
have been situated easterly from Tartary and Japan, in a region
which was included within the limits of the American Continent.

A knowledge of this region of the world could have been
obtained only by means of a cruise that is very remarkable and
unusually daring for the Chinese — who have always been con-
sidered as but mediocre sailors, hardly capable of undertaking
long voyages, and whose vessels are constructed of so little
strength as to be poorly adapted to resisting the hardships of a
sail over a distance so great as that from China to Mexico.
These voyages have appeared to me to be so important, and to
have so intimate a relation with the history of the tribes of
America, as to induce me to devote myself to collecting and
placing in order all that could contribute to their elucidation.

I intend this memoir to establish the voyages of the Chi-
nese to Jesso, to Kamtchatka, and to that part of America which
is situated opposite the easternmost coast of Asia. I dare flatter
myself that these researches will be the more favourably received,
inasmuch as they are novel, and rest wholly upon authentic facts,
and not upon conjectures, such as those which we find in the
works of Grotius, Delaet, and other writers who have investi-
gated the origin of the American tribes. It is surprising to see
that Chinese vessels made the voyage to America many centuries
before Christopher Columbus — that is to say, more than twelve
hundred years ago. This date, anterior to the origin and the es-
tablishment of the Mexican Empire, leads us to inquire whence
these nations, and some other nations of America, received that
degree of civilization which distinguishes them from the barbar-
ous tribes of the continent.

Li-yen, a Chinese historian, who lived at the commencement
of the seventh century, speaks of a country called Ftc-sang, more
than forty thousand li distant from China, toward the east. He
says that, in order to reach it, one should set forth from the coast
of the province of Leao-tong, situated to the north of Pe-Mn,
and that, after having traveled twelve thousand li, one reaches
Japan ; that from that country, toward the north, after a voy-
age of seven thousand //, the country of Wen-shin is attained ;
that at a distance of five thousand li eastwardly from the last
the country of Ta-han is found, from which Fii-sang may be
reached, which is at a distance of twenty thousand li from Ta-

:if

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

.t '

han. Of all these countries we know no others than Lcao-tong^
a northerly province of China, the point of embarkation, and
Japan, which was the principal halting-place for the Chinese
vessels. The three other places at which they arrived in suc-
cession are Wen-ahin, Ta-han, and Fii-sang. I shall show that
the first must be understood as Jesso, and the second as Kam-
tchatka, and that the third must be a country situated near Cali-
fornia. But before examining this route particularly, I wish to
give an idea of the U which the Chinese geographers employed
as the standard for measuring the distance between these places.
It is very difficult to determine the true length of this measure.
To-day, two hundred and fifty li make a geographical degree,
which gives ten li to each French league of about three English
miles. But the length of the li, like that of the French league,
has varied under the different imperial dynasties and in the dif-
feren*^ provinces of the empire. Pere Gaubil, who has made able
researches concerning the astronomy of the Chinese, does not
dare to attempt to prove the true length of this measure. He
informs us th the majority of the scholars of the reign of the
Han dynasty jnaintained that a thousand li, measured from the
south to the north, gave a difference of an inch in the length of
the shadow of an eigl t-foot hand of a sun-dial, when measured
at noon. The scholars of later days have believed this deter-
mination to be wrong, because they have been guided in their
judgment by the measure of the li in use in the times in which
they lived. If we cast our eyes upon the li adopted by the
astronomers of the Liang dynasty, which flourished at the com-
mencement of the sixth century, we find a material difference,
since two hundred and fifty li, measured from the north to the
south, give a similar difference in the length of the shadow. In
order to judge of the distance of the countries by the statement
as to the number of li between them, it is therefore necessary to
know the length of the li at the time of the author. "We may
be assured that he has considered the length of this measure, and
has given the distances with precision. The difficulty in deter-
mining the length of the li may be avoided by considering the
report of the same author regarding two places that are well
known. The distance which is reported from the shore of Leao-
tong to the island of Tui-ma-tao is seven thousand li. In con-
formity with the length of the li established by this distance,

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

the twelve thousand li Irora Leao-tong to Japan terminate at
about the center of the island, near Meaco, which is the capital,
and which then bore the name of Shan-ching, or the City of the
Mountain. Wen-shin, which is found seven thousand li from
Japan toward the northeast, can not be anything else than
Jesso, situated to the northeast of Japan, and at which the seven
thousand ii terminate. A Chinese historian, who has given us a
very curious memoir* concerning Japan, has furnished us with
additional proofs. In speaking of the limits of this empire, he
says that to the northeast of the mountains which bound Japan
is placed the kingdom of the Mao-Jin, or of hairy men, and be-
yond them that of Woi-shin, or the country of painted bodies,
about seven thousand li from Japan. The first are the inhab-
itants of Matsumai; the latter are their neighbours on the north,
the people of Jesso, which, as a consequence, must be Wen-shin,
This country, according to the Chinese historian, was made
known about 510 or 520 a. d., its inhabitants ha,ving figures
similar to those of animals. They traced different lines upon
their faces, the form of which served to distinguish the chief
men of the nation from the common people. They exposed
their condemned criminals to wild beasts, and they deemed those
innocent from whom the animals took flight. Their towns or
villages were unwalled. The dwelling of the king was orna-
mented with precious things. They added, again, that a ditch
might be seen there which appeared to be filled with quicksilver,
and that this matter, esteemed in commerce, became liquid and
flowing when it had imbibed water from the rain. It was, for
the rest, a fei'tile country, where all that is necessary to sustain
life might be found in abundance.

This description agrees with what we read in the accounts of
those who have explored the island of Jesso. The Japanese, who
were formerly sent thei'e by an emperor of Japan, found hairy
men then >vho wore their beards in the manner of the Chinese,
but who were so rude and brutish that they would not receive any
instruction. When the Holbnderp discovered Jesso, in 1643, the
same barbarians were living there that had been described by the
Chinese and Japanese, and their country appeared to abound in
mines of silver. But that which agrees the most remarkably
with the account of the Chinese is, that the Hollanders found
there a mineral earth which glistened in the sun as if it consisted

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I ■li

If! '

of silver. This earth, mixed with a very friable sand, they found
where water had been placed. It is this which the Chinese had
taken for quicksilver. These proofs, and the situation of Wen-
shin, and its distance from Japan according to the Chinese
writers, do not permit us to doubt that it must be the island of
Jesso. At a distance of five thousand li from this country, toward
the east, the ancient Chinese navigators found Ta-han. They
declared that the inhabitants of this country had no military
weapons ; that their customs were essentially the same as those of
the people of Wen-sJiin, but that they had a different language.
At almost exactly the distance of five thousand li, indicated
by the Chinese, we find upon our maps the southern coast of an
island which Don Jean de Gama discovered when going from
Mexico to China. Because of the agreement as to distance, I at
first believed that this coast was that of Ta-han ; but the details
of the route which was taken to reach that country by land, a
route which can not be reconciled with the island of Gama, which
is said to be separated from Asia, has compelled me to seek else-
where for the true location of the country, and to place it in the
easternmost part of Asia. The statements of our navigators who
have sailed these seas have contributed not a little to confirm me
in this opinion. They have remarked that, in the route from
China to California, they usually took the wind carrying them
to the north of Japan and into the sea of Jesso, from which they
sailed to the east, but that at the Strait of Uries the current car-
ried them rapidly toward the north. Thus the Chinese, for the
purpose of keeping close to the coast, have entered into the Strait
of Uries, beyond which they have found a number of islands
which extend as far as the southernmost point of Kamtchatka,
where the five thousand li, the distance between Jesso and Ta-
han, also terminate ; that is to say, they have reached the port of
Avatcha, at which the Russians recently embarked, to attempt
the discovery of the western coast of America, and whence they
have taken the route of Captain Spanberg, who was commis-
sioned by the Russian empress, in 1739, to reconnoitre the coast
of Japan. But, in order to leave no doubt as to this point,
I believe that we should be able to show by the route indi-
cated by the Chinese author that Ta-han is more to the north
than the place discovered by Gama, and that it forms a part of
Siberia.

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

I shall not examine in full detail all the Tartarian trihes men-
tioned by the Chinese historian, but shall confine myself to
speaking only of those that are situated in the easternmost part
of Asia, and shall devote myself to relating the customs of the
inhabitants, so that they may be compared with those of the
nations whom I place in America, and that it may be conclu-
sively shown, by the differences which are found, that these last
can not be placed in Kamtchatka. Moreover, this circumstantial
account has seemed very interesting to me, because of the infor-
mation that it gives in regard to the condition of Eastern Siberia.

The Chinese travelers, who desired to reach the country of
Ta-han, set forth from a city situated to the north of the river
Hoang-ho toward the country of the Tartar Ortous. This city,
which the Ch' lese called Chung-aheu-kiang-cJiing, must be the
same as that which now bears the name of Plljotaihotun. The
great desert of Shamo was then passed, and Caracorum was
reached, which was the principal encampment of the Jloei-key
important Tartarian tribes, from which they came into the coun-
try of the Ko-U-han and of the Tu-po, situated to the south of
a large lake, upon the frozen surface of which the travelers were
obliged to cross. To the north of this lake, great mountains
were found, and a country where the sun, says one, is not above
the horizon longer than the length of time that it takes to cook a
breast of mutton. This is the singular expression of which the
Chinese author makes use to describe a country situated very
far to the north. The Tit-po, neighbours of the Ko-li-han, have
their dwelling-places upon the south of the same lake. These
people, who do not distinguish the different seasons of the year,
shut themselves up in cabins made of interlaced brush-wood,
where they live upon fish and birds and other animals which are
found in their country, and upon roots. They neglect to feed
herds, and do not apply themselves at all to the cultivation of the
earth. The richest among them clothe themselves in the skins
of sables and of reindeers, others being clad in birds'-feathers.
They attach their dead to the branches of trees. They thus leave
them to be devoured by wild beasts, or to fall from putrefaction,
which is a practice also found among the Tunguses who live in
the same country.

Another Chinese historian informs us as to where we may
look for the true abode of the ITo-U-han, which appears to us ta

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

|| I

' !

be the same as the country of the Kerkia or Kergia. lie men-
tions the rivers Obi and Angara under the names of 0-pu and
Gang-ko-la. Wo must conchido from this that the lake placed
to the north of the Ko-li-han is the famous Lake Baikal, which
those who come from Russia, or from Siberia, to China, are
obliged to cross upon the ice when they arrive there in winter.
The Chinese employed eight days in crossing it. Less time is
taken at present ; but it is still as dangerous as ever, because of
the force of the winds and the abundance of snow. It follows
from this account that the country of Ko-li-han is that of the
Kerkia, a warlike people, who lived among the mountains, and
who have been regarded as the ancestors of the Circassians, who,
among themselves, call themselves Kirkez, and who live to the
north of Georgia, where they have finally penetrated. The an-
cient country of the Kerkia is situated in the provinces which
we now call Selinginskoy and Irkutskoy, between the Obi and
the Selinga. This is what it was necessary to determine in
order to arrive at an exact knowledge of the route which led to
Ta-han. Upon leaving the country of the Ko-li-han, one comes
into that of the She-goei. These people are situated to the east
of Lake Baikal and of the country of the Kerkia, upon the north-
ern bank of the river Amoor. From the detailed description
which has been preserved for us by the Chinese historians, it
may be seen that these barbarians extended in the north of Siberia
along the Lena River up to the neighbourhood of the sixtieth
degree. This important tribe was divided into five principal
hordes, which appeared as so many different nations. The first,
called Nan She-goei, that is to say, Southern She-goei, were situ-
ated to the north of the Tartarian N-iu-che and Khi-tana^ in the
vicinity of the river Amoor, in a country marshy, cold, and ster-
ile, where no sheep were raised, and where but few horses were
found, but which produced swine and cattle in great numbers,
and even a greater number of wild beasts, from which the in-
habitants protected themselves with difliculty. The barbarians
were clothed in hog-skins, and at the summer solstice they re-
tired into the midst of the mountains. They had wagons cov-
ered with felt, such as are used by the Turks, which were drawn
by cattle. They built their cabins of wood, with some reeds.
Their writing was by means of small pieces of wood, and the
manner in which they disposed them expressed their different

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

ideas. IIo who wislied to marry, commenced by carrying
away the destined bride by force, and afterward sent a present
of cattle or liorscs to her parents. After the death of her hus-
band, the laws of the country compelled the woman to pass the
remainder of her life in widowhood, and the family continued
the mourning for three years, as is the custom among the Chi-
nese. The corpses of the dead were placed upon j)ile8 of wood
and abandoned. The other branches of the same nation con-
sisted of the She-god of the north (which were called Po She-
goei) and the Great She-goei. They were clothed in fish-skins,
and had no other industry than fishing and hunting sables, and
during the winters they retired into caverns. At the north of
the last there lived another nation, whoso excursions carried
them to the Arctic Ocean.

This is the account given by the Chinese historians of the
ancient inhabitants of the north of Asia, across whose country
those who wished to go to Ta-han were obliged to pass. In fact,
after having left the country of the She-goei and traveling east-
ward for five days, the Yu-che are found, a people who derive
their origin from the She-goei ; from there, after ten days' jour-
ney toward the north, the country of Ta-han is reached, which
is the terminus of the route which I have undertaken to exam-
ine. Ta-han may be reached by sea also, as I have shown above,
and by setting sail from Jesso ; from which we must necessarily
conclude that the country of the Yu-che, which makes part of
Siberia, is situated toward the river Ouda, which discharges
itself into the Sea of ITamtchatka, and that Ta-han, placed to the
north of the Ytt-che, is the easternmost part of Siberia, and not
the island of Gama, which is entirely detached from the conti-
nent, and is situated more to the south and nearer to Jesso.

This part of Siberia, called Kamtchatka, is the region which
the Japanese call Okii-Jesso, or Upper Jesso. They place it upon
their maps to the north of Jesso, and represent it as being twice
as large as China, and extending much farther to the east than
the eastern shore of Japan. This is the country which the Chi-
nese have named Ta-han, which may signify " as large as China,"
a name which corresponds with the extent of the country and
to the idea which the Japanese have given us of it. But, ac-
cording to the more detailed accounts given by the Russians,
the country is a tongue of land which extends from north to

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ill

Houth, from the Capo of Suotoi-noHH as far as to the north of
.IcHso, with whicli Hcvcral writtTH have confoiindtMl it. It is a
part of Siberia which in neparatod from the rest by a gulf of llio
Eastern Sea, which runs from the south to the north. Toward
the northern extremity it is inhabited by very savage tribes.
Those who live in the southern part are more civilized, and have
much in common with the Japanese, which lias occasioned tho
belief that thoy were originally colonists from that country. It
is probable that their commerce with the Chinese and Japanese,
who traded upon their coasts, has contributed to render them
more friendly and affable than those of the north, to whom these
two civilized nations penetrated but very rarely.

Tho southern part of Kamtchatka, or 7\i-hati, lias also been
known to the Chinese by the name of Licn-kuei. Formerly, tho
Tartars who lived in tho neighbourhood of tho river Amoor
reached tho country after five days' navigation toward the north.
The Chinese historian reports that this country is surrounded
by the sea upon three sides, that tho people dwell along the
coast and in the neighbouring islands, and that they have their
dwellings in deep caverns and woody thickets. They make a
species of cloth from dog-hair. The skins of swino and reindeer
servo for their clothing during the winter, and fish-skins during
the summer. The weather of the country is cold, because of
the fogs and snows which they have in abundance. Tho rivers
are frozen over, and several lakes are found, supplying fish, which
the people salt in order to preserve them. They have no knowl-
edge of the division of the seasons. They love to dance, and
wear their mourning-garments for three years. They have large
bows, and arrows pointed with bone or stone. In the year 640
A. D. the king of this country sent his sons to China.

These long details have been necessary to arrive at an exact
understanding of the situation of tho country of Fu-sang, which
is the utmost limit of the navigations of the Chinese. The fol-
lowing is the description of it which their historians have pre-
served for us. It was given by a priest who went to China in
the year 499 a. d., in the reign of the TsH dynasty :

" The Kingdom of Fu-sang is situated twenty thousand li to
the east of the country of Ta-han. It is also east of China. It
produces a great number of a species of tree called fu-sang, from
which has come the name borne by the country. The leaves of

DE OUIQNES'S DISCOVERY.

the /U'3ftnf/ arc Himilnr to those of the tree wliich the Chinese eall
t^tmf/. Wlieii they first appear, they resemhlc the Hhoots of the
reeds called bamboos, ami tlie jjeoplu of tlie country eat tliem.
The fruit has the form of a pear, and inclines toward red in
colour ; from its bark they make cloth and other stuffs, with
>vhieh the people clothe tliemselves, and the boards which arc
made from it are employed in the construction of their houses.
No walled cities are found there. The people have a sj)eciis of
writing, and they h)VO peace. Two prisons, one placed in the
south and the other in the north, are designed to confine their
criminals, with this difference, that the most guilty are placed in
the northern prison, and are afterward transferred into that of
the south if they obtain their pardon ; otherwise they arc con-
demned to remain all their lives in the first. They are per-
mitted to marry, but their children are made slaves. When
criminals are found occupying one of the principal ranks in the
nation, the other chiefs assemble around them ; they place them
in a ditch, and hold a great feast in their presence. They are
then judged. Those who have merited death are buried alive
in ashes, and their posterity is punished according to the mag-
nitude of the crime.

"The king bears the title of noble Y-chi ; the nobles of the
nation after him are the great and petty Tui-lu and the Na-
to-sha. The prince is preceded by drums and horns when ho
goes abroad. He changes the colour of his garments every year.
The cattle of the country bear a considerable weight upon their
horns. They are harnessed to wagons. Horses and deer arc
also employed for this purpose. The inhabitants feed hinds as
in China, and from them they obtain butter. A species of red
pear is found there, which is kept for a vear without spoiling ;
also the iris, and peaches, and copper in great abundance. They
have no iron, and gold and silver are not valued. He who
wishes to marry, builds a house or cabin near that of the maid
whom he desires to wed, and takes care to sprinkle a certain
quantity of water upon the ground every day during the year ;
he finally marries the maid, if she wishes and consents ; other-
wise be goes to seek his fortune elsewhere. The marriage cere-
monies, for the most part, are similar to those which are prac-
ticed in China. At the death of relatives, they fast a greater or
less number of days, according to the degree of relationship, and

lli

i' ■*'!!

'i. Ii

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

'^ I

during their prayers they expose the image of the deceased
person. They wear no mourning-garments, and the prince who
succeeds to his father takes no care regarding the government
for three years after his elevation. In former times the people
had no knowledge of the religion of Fo; but in the year 458 a. d.,
in the Sung dynasty, five priests of Samarcand went preaching
theii' doctrine in this country, and then the manners of the peo-
ple were changed "

The historian from whom Ma Tioan-Un has copied this rela-
tion adds that there was no knowledge of the country of Fu-
sang before the year 458 a. d., and, up to the present time, I
have not seen any other than these two writers who speak of it
with full details. Some writers of dictionaries, who have also
nr^de mention of it, content themselves by saying that it is situ-
a.'.'xl in the region where the sun rises.

This account informs us that Fu-sang is twenty thousand li
from Ta-han or Kamtchatka, a distance almost as great as that
from the shore of Leao-tong to Kamtchatka. So, in setting forth
from one of the ports of this last-named country, as that of
Avatcha, and sailing eastward for a distance of twenty thousand
li (which presents to us a great expanse of sea), the route termi-
nate? upon the westernmost coast of America, not far from the
?. wot Vvhere the Russians landed in 1741. In all this vast waste
oj waters ^' j do not find any land, not even an island, to which
tlie d^:tanee of twenty thousand li could be applied, and we can
not suppose that tie Chinese had followed the coast of Asia and
landed upoii its most easterly extremity, and there found the land
of Fu-sang. The excessive coldness of the weather which exists
in Kamtchatka and the neighbouring northern regions renders
them almost uninhabitable. The distance is far from suflicient,
and the unfortunate inhabitants appear to be given over to
barbarism, when their customs are compared with those of the
people of Fu-sang.

In vain we flatter ourselves that we know the western coast
of America perfectly ; we know nothing of the country situated
to the west and northwest of Canada. Our first geographers,
from conjectures, as to the foundation of which we are ignorant,
have prolonged the western shores of America so that they ap-
proach Asia, supposing that they are not separated, otherwise than
by a strait to which they have given the name of Anian. Fran-

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

9ois Gualle, who eadeavours to prove the existence of this strait,
calls our attention to the changing of the currents and the waves,
and to the whales and other Arctic fish that are found in the north-
ern part of the Pacific Ocean ; but, since the publication of M. de
I'Isle's map of this part of the globe, we have learned the results
of the explorations of the Russians, who, without giving us the
contour of the coasts of America with precision, have made
known to us, in general, that the coast of California trends toward
the west and approaches quite near to that of Asia, leaving noth-
ing between the two countries except a strait of small width, re-
establishing the shape of the American Continent as it was given
by the earliest geographers, apparently from a knowledge more
exact than we have thought, and which has been lost to us.

The Japanese, who have also cultivated the arts, and naviga-
tion in particular, appear not to have been ignorant of the situa-
tion of the countries which lie to the north of their empire.
Kaempfer claimed to have seen in Japan a map, made by the
peopl'e of that country, upon which they represented Kamtchatka,
which extends farther east than Japan. Upon the eastern shore,
opposite to America, there is a gulf of a square form, in the mid-
dle of which a small island is seen ; farther to the north a second
may be perceived, which appears to touch the two continents
with its two extremities. Upon a map which this celebrated
traveler brought to Europe, and which has passed into the collec-
tion of the late M. Hans Sloan, along the eastern coast of Kam-
chatka a strait is seen, and beyond it a large country which is
America. In the northern part of the strait is an island which
extends toward the two continents. M. Hans Sloan has wished
me to call attention to this curious map, and Mr. Birch, Secre-
tary of the Royal Society of London, has sent me an exact copy
of it.

This map agrees quite closely with our old maps of America,
and with the new discoveries of the Russians. No island is seen
where M. de I'Isle has placed the coast which the Russians have
discovered ; brit, in the neighbourhood of this strait, America ap-
pears to advance considerably, and to form a long tongue of land
which extends nearly to Asia. I am led to believe that this coast
must form part of the continent of America, from the fact that
M. de I'Isle states that a large number of the inhabitants came
to meet the Russians with boats similar to those of the Green-

"i '■

M: il

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

k ii

landers or Esquimaux, which indicates some relationship be-
tween the people, and at the same time a connection of this land
with America. In this case it is readily seen that the Chinese
could reach Fii-sang much more easily than would otherwise be
possible, for they could follow the coasts almost all the way.

I think that I have given sufficient proof that, at a distance of
twenty thousand li from Kamtchatka, there is found a land where
Fa-sang may be placed ; that this land is that o^' the continent
of America, from which it results that Fu-sang is f..„uated in this
continent. The Chinese historians speak also of a country a
thousand li farther east than Fu-sang. They call it the " King-
dom of Women." But their account is filled with fables, similar
to those which our first explorers have related concerning newly
discovered countries.

" The inhabitants of this kingdom are white. They have
hairy bodies, and long locks that fall down to the ground. At
the second or third month the women come to bathe in a river,
and they become pregnant. They bear their young at the sixth
or seventh month. Instead of breasts, they have white locks at
the back of the head, from which there issues a liquor that serves
to nourish their children. It is said that, one hundred days after
their birth, the children are able to run about, and appear fully
grown when three or four years of age. The women take flight
at sight of a stranger, and they are very respectful towai'd their
husbands. These people feed upon a plant which has the taste
and odor of salt, and which for this reason bears the name of the
' salt-plant.' The leaves are similar to those of the plant which
the Chinese call Sie-hao, which is a species of absinthe."

It is easy to perceive from this tale that, as is the custom in
several places in the Indies, the women of the country nursed
their children over their shoulders, and the fable reported above
must have originated from this practice.

We also find in the same authors that, in the year 507 a. d.,
in the reign of the Liang dynasty, a Chinese vessel, which was
sailing the ocean, was driven by a tempest to an unknown island.
The women resembled those of China, but the men had a figure
and a voice like those of dogs. These people fed upon small
beans, and had clothing made of a species of linen cloth, and the
walls of their houses were constructed of earth built up in a cir-
cular form. The Chinese could not understand their language.

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

There is room for the belief that the beans that are mentioned
are grains of maize ; and the Chevalier de Tonti, in his accounts
of Louisiana, reports that the Taen9a8, when speaking to their
king, have the custom of making a great howling, by means of
which they intend to show their respect and admiration for him.
A similar practice among the people of the last-mentioned island
may have led the Chinese to say that their voices resembled
those of dogs.*

We can not doubt at present that the Chinese had penetrated
very far into the ocean toward the south, sailing back and
forth across it, and that, in consequence, they had sufficient
boldness and experience in navigation to enable them to sail to
California direct. The examination of the route which they
took, and the distances which they have given, prove that they
went there in the year 458 a. d. In fact, we find some traces
of this commerce in our own accounts. George Home tells that,
at the west of the country of the Epiceriniens, neighbours of the
Hurons, there lived a people among whom there arrived foreign
merchants who had no beards and who were carried by large
vessels. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado states also that, at Qui-
vira, vessels were found of which the sterns were gilded ; and
Pierre Melendez, in Acostaf speaks of the wrecks of Chinese
vessels seen upon the coast. It is also an unquestionable fact
that foreign merchants clothed in silk formerly came among the
Catualcans. All these accounts, added to those which we have
adduced, become so many proofs that the Chinese traded at the
north of California, near the country of Quivira. We may also
notice, as a necessary consequence of such commerce, that, of all
the American tribes, the most civilized are situated near the
coast which faces China. In the region of New Mexico there
are found tribes that have houses of several stories, with hallri,
chambers, and bath-rooms. Thej'' are clothed in robes of cotton
and of skin ; but that which is most unusual among savages is, that
they have leather shoes and boots. Each village has its public
criers, who announce the orders of the king, and idols and tern-

■I

* The Chinese geographers have also made mention of an island, called Kia-i/,
which is situated to the oast of Japan. In the year 659 some of those islanders
came to China with the Japanese. The Japanese map, which has been sent to
me by M. Sloan, places the island of Kia-i/ to the east of Japan and of Jesse, iu
the midst of twelve other smaller islands.

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

■ i

r ti.

pies are seen everywhere. Baron dc la Hontan speaks also of
the Morambecs, who lived in walled cities situated near a great
salt lake, and made woolen cloth, copper hatchets, and various
other manufactures. Some writers have maintained that the
civilize! people situated to the north are the remnants of the
Mexicans who took flight at the time when Hernando Cortez
penetrated into Mexico, and who fled to the north and founded
several considerable kingdoms, among others that of Quivira.
Although this conjecture appears not to be devoid of some
foundation, we read, nevertheless, ir \costa, that the Mexicans
themselves, a long time before the Spanish invasion, came to
Mexico from the north, which leads me to believe that the Chi-
nese who landed in northern America had contributed to their
civilization. The foundation of the Mexican Empire does not
date back of the year 820 a. d., a time several c( ;turies later
than the navigations of the Chinese, of which the first occurred
in 458. The people who inhabited Mexico before 820, and who
bore the name of Chichimecas, were savages, who retired into
the mountains, whore they lived without laws, without religion,
and without a prince to govern them. About the year 820 the
N^ahuatalcas, a wise and civilized nation, came to Mexico, from
which they drove the inhabitants, and there founded the power-
ful empire which the Spaniards destroyed. The Nalmatalcas
did not bring from the north the custom of sacrificing human
victims. These barbarous sacrifices were not instituted until
after their arrival in Mexico, and upon the occasion of a circum-
stance which is related in full by Acosta.

Before terminating this essay, it is necessary to make somo
remarks regarding the description of the country of Fu-sang, and
to reply to some objections that may be raised, particularly as to
the occurrence of horses, which have not been found in any part
of America. The great advantages which are derived from the
possession of these animals would appear to be suflicient to in-
sure their pi.eservation. "VVe observe upon this subject that all
nations do not seem to have been equally persuaded of their use-
fulness. Tartary, which is filled with horses, is near to Siberia,
where, in several places, they have not been found at all, and
where the dog or the reindeer is used instead. Nevertheless,
horses could have been taken to these places — no difficulty, such,
as that of crossing the sea, preventing their transportation — and

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

these tribes have known of them among their neighbours without
having made use of them. Possibly the Chinese vessels formerly
carried a few of them to America, and some tribes then used
them. But it is well known to what a point the savages of Amer-
ica carried their cruelty toward conquered tribes. Their wars
caused frequent migrations and the complete annihilation of
several nations, and consequently the destruction of the usages
which these exterminated tribes may have received by means
of commerce. Finally, no one undertakes to guarantee all that
is contained in the relatic^n of Marco Polo, of Plan Carpin, and
of Rubruquis. These ancient travelers have sometimes wan-
dered from the truth ; and yet we can not, merely upon this ac-
count, sweepingly condemn all of their statements. The Chinese
traveler may have allowed himself to be deceived by something
that he saw, and may have applied the name of horses to certain
animals of the country of Quivira and of Cibola, which resembled
them in size, and which the Spaniards have called sheep, on ac-
count of the wool that they bear.* In the same way we have
given the names of European animals to several animals of
America, notwithstanding the fact that they are of a different
species. In regard to the cattle mentioned in the account : since
we have discovered the country of Quivira, Hudson's Bay, and
the Mississippi, a species of cattle has been found with large
horns, so that no difficulty remains regarding this point, and we
may conclude that the Chinese navigators landed to the north
of California, where they found these animals.

A more exact description of the tree called fu-sa7ig would
contribute toward enabling us to determine the region more
definitely. All that is said of it agrees rather with some tree of
America than with any that occurs in the frozen land of Kam-
tchatka; and the uses that are made of it, such as the manufact-
ure of the stuffs, the cloth, and the paper spoken of in the
account, appear to indicate a civilized people inhabiting a tem-
perate country, such as that in the neighbourhood of California,
rather than a country like Kamtchatka, the inhabitants of which
retire into caverns, and are clothed in skins, and are too barbar-
ous to make cloth or paper, or to have letters or true literary
characters for the expression of their ideas — a thing unknown

* "These animals," sp.ya Acosta, "are of as great use to the Indians as assea
ars among us, and are used to carry heavy burdens."

t i II

I h

AM INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

even to several nations in the southern part of Kamtchatka,
who, as we have previously observed, are, from their southerly
location, much nearer to China than Fu-sang can be supposed
to be, if we locate it in the northern part of Kamtchatka, or any-
where upon the northeastern coast of Asia ; in America, on the
contrary, and particularly among the Mexicans, there is found a
species of writing which consists not of alphabetical characters,
but hieroglyphic characters or representations of ideas, such as
the oldest characters of China were.

Be it as it may, it is not my design to produce a multitude
of conjectures as to the people of Fu-sang and as to the Ameri-
cans. I confine myself to that which appears to me to be sol-
idly confirmed. The Chinese penetrated to a country very far
from the shores of the Orient. I have examined the distances
stated by them, and the length of the standard of measure used
by them, and they have led me to the coast of California. I
have concluded from this that they have known America since
the year 458 a. d. In the countries near to the spot where they
landed were found the most civilized nations of America. I
have thought that they are indebted for their civilization to the
commerce which they have had with the Chinese.* This is all
that I proposed to establish in this essay.

It is now easy to perceive the manner in which America has
been peopled. There is much probability that several colonies
have passed to it from the north of Asia, in the place where the
two continents are the nearest together, and whei'e a great island
that extends from the east to the west, and which appears to
unite them, renders the passage still easier. They may have
reached it either by means of the ice, which in these seas some-
times lasts two or three years, as we have seen examples in our
own days, or by the help of the canoes in use among the Green-
landers and other northern barbarians living in the easternmost
part of Siberia.

A certain agreement in the manners and customs which are
found among the Tunguscs and the Samoyedes with thooe of the
tribes of Hudson's Bay, of Mississippi, and of Louisiana, adds a

* George Home, 1, iv, c. 13, goes further. He affirms that the Mexicans are
a colony of Chinese who came into America in 12*79 a. d. with their emperor
named Tipun, after the conquest of China by the MongoLii. But this statement
Is erroneous, since Ti-pun with his fleet was swallowed up by the waters.

DE GUIGNES'S DISCOVERY.

new force to these reflections. It is known that in general all
the nations of the same country are distinguished by peculiari-
ties of countenance, and by an exterior, that proclaims their com-
mon origin. Such are the Chinese, for example, who are easily
recognized among other nations. The nations of Europe have a
long and bushy beard, while that of the Chinese, the Tartars,
and the people of Siberia is but slight ; in which point they re-
semble the Americans, from which it might be inferred that
these last came from Tartary. In examining the animals, we are
compelled to make the same reflection. Several are foimd in
America which are not met with elsewhere, except in the north
of Asia — as the hairy cattle, and the reindeer, so common in
Siberia and in the northern part of America.

A number of additional facts can also be stated which con-
firm the ease of the passage. We extract them from Charlevoix,
who reports that P6re Grellon, after having laboured for some
time in the missions of New France, went from there to China,
and thence to Tartary, where he met a Huron woman whom
he had known in Canada. She had been captured in war, and
taken from one nation to another until she had reached Tartary.
Another Jesuit, upon returning from China, related also that a
Spanish woman from Florida, who met with the same misfortune,
after having passed through extremely cold regions was finally
met in Tartary.

ilowever remarkable these accounts may be, it is neverthe-
less not impossible to reconcile them with geography. The
women reached the shore of the sea that washes the western
coast of America, whence they first passed by canoes to the
island that is found in the strait, from which they landed upon
the continent of Asia, and finally, taking the route from Tc-han^
to which I have referred, they approached China.

There is room for the belief that this is one of the ways by
which America has been peopled ; but it is not at all likely
that it has been the only one on the side of the north. Some
among the writers who have investigated the origin of the
Americans have made some conjectures upon the subject which
seem not to be destitute of foundation. At the mouth of the
river Kolyma, in Siberia, is found a thickly peopled island, which
is often frequented by those who come to hunt for the fossil
ivory of the mammoth, which is more beautiful than that of the

ilii

:i M

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

^'i

elephant, and is used for making different objects. They arrive
there, with all their families, by crossing the ice, and it frequently
happens that, surprised by a thaw, they are carried away upon
large cakes of ice toward the opposite point of America, which
is not very far distant. That which seems to give more weight
to this conjecture is the fact that the Americans who inhabit this
country have the same physiognomy as the unfortunate island-
ers, who, from too great a desire for gain, expose themselves to
the danger of thus being transported to a strange country. It can
not be doubted that floating ice has sometimes carried men, and,
even more frequently, animals, to neighbouring countries. Great
cakes of ice, detached from more southerly lands, have been seen
to arrive upon the coast of Iceland, laden with wood and with
animals, of which the Icelanders take so great advantage that
they neglect the interior of the island, and remain more willingly
upon the coast, in order to be on hand to profit by them. It ia
in this manner that a number of ferocious animals have pene-
trated into regions where men would never wish to have brought
them.

I conclude, from all these observations, that a part of Amer-
ica has been peopled by the barbarians who inhabit the north of
Asia. Adding also that the commerce of the Chinese has not
only carried new inhabitants to them, but has also contributed
much to the civilization ot the American people, and to give
them a knowledge of the most useful arts. And if, upon the
evidence of the Japanese map, we place the kingdom of Ghanfj-
jin to the south of the Strait of Magellan, it is certain in that
case that the Chinese and the Coreans have known the southern
part of America ; that their navigators have frequented it ; and
that by this means they have civilized the Peruvians, among
whom certain arts flourished, and who felt themselves not to be
barbarians in anything.

Other nations, less civilized than the Chinese, have also had
means for reaching America no less easily at the south. Those
who have populated the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, the
Moluccas, and the Philippines, are connected with the inhab-
itants of India and of China ; they have been from island to
island in their canoes ; they have penetrated successively to New
Guinea, New Holland, and New Zea'.and, immense countries of
which we do not know the extent. In that way they have ap-

They arrive
I it frequently

kI away upon
fiierica, which

more weight
10 inhabit this

tunate island-

themselves to

untry. It can
ried men, and,

titries. Great

ave been seen

ood and with

Ivantage that
nore willingly
J them. It is

Is have pene-
have brought

art of Araer-

; the north of

linese has not

o contributed

and to give
1 if, upon the
m of Chang-
artain in that

-
i

the southern

nted it ; and

'i-
,»

'^ians, among
ves not to be

ave also had

uth. Those

Borneo, the

1 the inhab-

om island to

vely to New

countries of

ley have ap-

DE GUIGXES'S DISCOVERY.

proachcd the American Continent. Some of them may have
reached the islands which are found between the tenth and twen-
tieth degrees of south latitude — islands so near to each other
that they form, as it were, a chain, which they could have fol-
lowed. They have been peopled one after another, until those
most distant from their original starting-point, and the nearest to
America, have received their colonies.

Perhaps the same reasoning might bo applied to some parts
, of Europe. The British Islands, Norway, Iceland, and Green-
land may have been the places of passage of American colonies,
and, as these regions became more thickly peopled, some of the
inhabitants would go to seek new and more distant habitations.
But Avithout stopping here to make conjectures regarding the
navigation of the ancients, history furnishes us Avith a proof that
civilized nations have attempted to discover new lands to the
west of Europe, and to penetrate far into this vast sea. It is
true of the Arabs.

It is known that under the dynasty of the Ommiades these
tribes made the conquest of a part of Africa. Thence, under
the leadership of Tharic, they passed into Spain, which they re-
duced to a province of their empire ; but after the Ommiades
had been destroyed in Syria, a prince of that house escaped the
general massacre made by the Abbassides, and fled to Spain,
where he was proclaimed caliph, and founded a powerful mon-
archy, which was destroyed by other princes coming from Africa.
These possessed the greater part of Spain, until they were driven
out by the Christians. It was during the reign of the Arabs in
Spain that some of their sailors, setting sail from Lisbon, where
they then were masters, embarked upon the gloomy sea or "West-
ern Ocean, with the intention of penetrating as far as they could
toward the west, and of discovering the islands and lands which
existed there. But their enterprise did not meet with the suc-
cess with which they flattered themselves. After eleven days of
navigation before a favourable wind, they found a thick sea,
which exhaled a bad odor, where they met a number of rocks,
and where the darkness commenced to make itself perceived.
They were not so bold as to penetrate any farther. Making sail
then to the south, they, after twelve days of navigation, ex-
plored the Canaries, where they met a man who spoke Arabic.
They traveled about among the islands, and landed upon one,

!-|

f :

I ! I

'. ,■

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

1 '

\ I

!'i^

where they were stopped by the islanders. Questioned by the
king of the country as to the object of their voyage, they an-
SAvercd him that their design had been to penetrate to the end of
the world. The king informed them that hia father liad ordered
some of his subjects to make the same attempt, but that, after
having sailed the sea for a month without discovering anything,
they had returned to the Canaries. These strange voyages of
the Arabs, and particularly that of the inhabitants of the Cana-
ries, cause us to su ct that others of the islanders, equally
bold and more fortunate, may have reached America ; since they
had the courage to abandon themselves, with their vessels, to the
mercy of this vast sea, although they had no knowledge of the
compass, and, as we regard them, were but little skilled in the
art of navigation.

Other Arabs, and the people of Senegal, knew also at the
same time of the Cape Verd Islands. We have not found in
any writer that the Arabs penetrated any farther. Nevertheless,
they approached at least this near to the lands of America, and,
if they were not bold enough to sail directly to it, some of those
who sailed the sea may have been carried by the tempests to the
islands of the Azores, which are in the same degree of latitude,
where pieces of wood and dead bodies from America are often
found. It is this which gave birth to the belief of Christopher
Columbus that there must be, and were, lands near the Azores.

After this recital, we see that even the most barbarous people
have had sufficient skill in the art of navigation to reach very
distant islands, and, as a necessary consequence, to go even as far
as to America ; but it is not my intention to exhaust the subject.
We shall not be able to succeed in doing that until after we have
obtained an exact knowledge of all the globe, and have discov-
ered all the southern lands. I must stop with having collected
the facts which are scattered in the Chinese geographies con-
cerning the voyages of the Chinese in the South Sea and to
America, and with having made, in consequence, some reflections
concerning the passage of colonies to America.

CHAPTER III.

KLAPROTU'S DISSENT.

Title of do Guignes's article incorrect — Translation of the account of FiMang —
Vinea and horses not found in America — Route to Japan — Length of the li

Identification of Weti^hin with Jesao— 7a-Aaw identified with Taraikai or

Saghalicn— The route to Ta-han by land— The Shy-wei—IAeu-kuei—Fxi^ang
south of Ta-han instead of cast— /'w-artn^ an ancient name of Japan — Analy-
sis of name " Fu-sang "—The paper mulberry — Metals— The introduction of
Buddhism— Fantastic tales.

Researched rejanUng the Country of Fust .g^ mentioned in
Chinese Books, and erroneously supposed to he a Part of
America. — By J. Klaproth.

IIMT

The celebrated do Guignes, having found in Chinese books
a description of a country situated a great distance to the east
of China, and thinking it probable that this country, called Fu-
sang, must be a part of America, set forth this opinion in an
essay read before the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres,
entitled " Investigation of the Navigations of the Chinese to the
Coast of America, and as to some Tribes situated at the Eastern
Extremity of Asia."

It should be first observed that this title is incorrect. Noth-
ing is said in the Chinese original, which de Guignes had before
his eyes, concerning any voyage undertaken by the Chinese to
Fu-sang, but, as is shown farther on, it is simply a question of a
description of this country, given by a priest who was a native
of it, and who had come to China. This notice is found in that
part of the Great Annals of China * entitled Nan-szii, or " His-

* These are the Nan-eulszu, or the " Twenty-two Historians," of which the
works form a collection of more than six hundred Cliinese volumes, and which
should not be confounded with the annals entitled T'ung-hian-kang-mu, which
are known in Europe by the meager extracts which P^re Mailla has given in
twelve volumes, in 4°.

i|i1

Ij '

(

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

tory of the South." After tho clestruction of the dynasty of
7shi, in ■i)iO A. I)., China was overwlielnuMl with troubles, which
resulted in the establishment of two empires, one in the northern
provinees, the other in those of the south. The last was euccea-
sively governed, from 420 to 589 a. n., by tho four dynasties of
Siaif/, Tft'iy Liang, and VIC in. The history of the t\\;o empires
was written by Ll-yan'Chcn, who lived about the commencement
of the seventh century. This is what he says about l'\i-»cm>j :

** In the first of the years yuug-ifmat, of the reign of Fe-ti^ of
the dynasty of Ts'i, a shamitn (or liuddhist priest), called Jloei
*S7<fy*, arrived from tho country of Ih-aang at King • clieit.*
Ho related what follows : Fu-sang is twenty thousand li to the
east of the country of Ta-han, and equally to the east of China.
In this country there grow many trees called yM-sa>iy,t of which
the leaves resemble those of the t'ung {^Bignonia tomentosa),
and the first shoots those of tho bamboo. The people of the
country eat them. Tho fruit is red and of the shape of a pear.
The bark of this tree is prepared in the same way as that of
hemp, and cloth and clothing are made of it. Flowered stuflPs
are also manufactured from it. "Wooden planks are used for tho
construction of their houses, for in this country there are no
cities and no walled habitations. The inhabitants have a species
of writing, and make paper from the bark of the fu-sang. They
have no weapons or armies, and do not make war. According
to the laws of the kingdom, there are a southern prison and a
northern prison. Those who have committed crimes that are
not very serious are sent to the southern prison, but great crimi-
nals are shut up in the northern one. Those who may receive
pardon arc sent to the first ; those, on tho contrary, to whom
it can not be accorded are confined in the northern prison.J
The men and tho women who are shut up in the latter are per-
mitted to marry each other. The male children, born from
these unions, are sold as slaves at the ago of eight years ; the

* King-chm is a city of the first order, situated upon the left side of the
great Kiang, in the present province of Hu-pe.

f Fu^ang in Chinese, or, according to tlic Japanese pronunciation, Fouts^Sk,
is the shrub which we call " Hibiscus rosa Chincnsis."

X De Guignos has very badly translated this passage, as follows : " The most
guilty are placed in the northern prison and afterward transferred into that of
the south if they obtain their pardon ; otherwise they are condemned to remain
all their lives in the first."

KLAPUOTirS DISSENT.

; side of the

)n, Fouls-*dk,

girla at the apo of nine years. The criminals wlio are confined
thoro never come forth alive. When a man of high rank com-
mits a crime, the people assemble in great numherH. They sit
down face to f.ice with the criminal, who is placed in a ditch,
and regale themselves with a banquet, and take leave of him as
of a dying man.* Then he is surrounded by ashes. For an
offense of little gravity the criminal alone is punished, but for a
great crime, the culprit, his sons, and grandsons are punished ;
finally, for the greatest offenses his descendants to the seventh
generation are included in the punishment, riie name of the
king of the country is Y-k'i (or Yit-k'i).\ The nobles of the
first class are called 2\ii-lu ; those of the second, little Tui-lu ;
and those of the third, Na-tu-8ha. When the king goes forth,
he is accompanied by drums and horns. lie changes the color
of his garments at different epochs. In the years of the cycle
kia and y J they are blue ; in the years ping and ting^ red ; in
the years ou and ki, yellow ; in the years keng and sin, white ;
finally, in those which have the characters jin and kuei, they
are black.

" The cattle have long horns, upon which burdens are loaded
which weigh as much, sometimes, as twenty ho (of one hundred
and twenty Chinese pounds). In this country they make use of
carts harnessed to cattle, horses, and deer. They rear deer there
as they raise cattle in China, and make cheese from the milk of
the females. Il A species of red pear is found there, which id
preserved throughout the year. There are also many vines. ^

* Do Guignca translates the last words by " He is then judged."
f De Guignes has wrongly read " Y-chi"

X The years 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, and 51 of the cycle of sixty years bear the char-
acter kia ; the years 2, 12, 22, 32, 42, and 62 have the character y.

Ping, 3, 13, 23, 33, 43, and 63; ting, 4, 14, 24, 34, 44, and 64.

Ou, 6, 16, 25, 36, 46, and 65 ; ki, 6, 16, 26, 36, 40, and 66.

Kcvg, 1, 17, 27, 37, 47, and 67 ; sin, 8, 18, 28, 38, 48, and 68.

Jin, 9, 19, 29, 39, 49, and 69; kuci, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, and 60.

\ De Guignes translates : " The inhabitants feed hinds, as in China, and from
them they obtain butter."

* In the original, To-p'iWao, De Guignes, having decomposed the word
p'u-t'ao, translates: "A great number of iris-plants and peaches are found
there." Nevertheless, the word p'u alone never means the iris ; it is the name
of rushes and other species of marshy reeds which are used for making mats.
T'ao is, in fact, the name of the peach, but the compound word p'u-t'ao, in
Chinese, signifies the vine. At present, it is written with other characters — i. e.,

I I

AN IXGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

fill! I

i|li

Iron is lacking, but copper is found. Gold and silver are not
esteemed. Commerce is free, and they do not haggle at all.

" Their practices regarding marriage are as follows : He who
desires to wed a girl establishes his cabin before her door ; he
spi'inkles and sweeps the earth every morning and every night.
When he has practiced this formality for a year, if the luaid
will not give her consent, he desists ; but, if she is pleased
with him, he marries her. The ceremonies of marriage are
nearly the same as in China. At the death of father or
mother they fast seven days. At that of a grandfather or
grandmother they refrain from eating for five days ; and only
for three days at the death of brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts,
and other relatives. The images of spirits are placed upon a
species of pedestal, and prayers are addressed to them morning
and evening.*

" The king does not occupy himself with the affairs of gov-
ernment during the three years which follow his accession to
the throne.

" Formerly the religion ot Buddha did not exist in this coun-
try, but in the fourth of the years ta-niing, of the reign of
Jliao-wu-tl, of the dynasty of Sung (458 a. d.), five pi-k'ieu,
or priests, of the country of Ki-pin (Coph6ne), came to Fu-sang,
and there spread abroad the law of Buddha. They carried with
them their books and sacred images and the ritual, and estab-
lished monastic customs,! and so changed the manners of the
inhabitants."

^ ^' ^"^ t^^ vHf ^^ ^'^'^ ancient orthography of the times of Han^ which pre-
vailed until the tenth century of our era.

The vine is not a native of China, its seeds having been imported by the cele-
brated General Chang K'ian, sent into the western country in the year 126 b. c.
He traveled through the Afghanistan of our days, and the northwestern part of
India, and returned to China after thirteen years' absence. The term p'u-t'ao is
not native to China, any more than the object which it designates. It is probably
the imperfect transcription of the Greek pSrpvs. The Japanese pronounce it
hou-iU. They usually give to the vine the name of ycfn-kadzoura, composed of
ychi, a sea craw-fish, and of kadzoura, a general name of climbing plants which
attach themselves to neighbouring trees.

* De Guignc? translates : " During their prayers they expose the image of the de-
funct pcrtion." The text speaks of shin, or genii, and not of the spirits of the dead.

f In the original, ^ [fj, cA'M-Aia — that is to say, "to leave one's house or
family," or " to embrace a monastic life." Do Guignea has not translated this paaa-
age, with the exception of the beginning.

KLAPROTirS DISSENT.

The circumstance that vines and horses are found in the
country of Fu-sang is sufficient to prove that it could not be
any part of America, these two objects having been brought to
the continent by the Spaniards, after the discovery of Chris-
topher Cohirabus in 1492. But other reasons, drawn from the
Chinese books, explicitly oppose the supposition that Fu-sawj
should be identified with any part of the New World. We
have seen, from the account of the priest Iloei Shin, that Fc-
sang was twenty thousand K to the east of Ta-han. De Guignes
has erroneously taken this last country for Kamtchatka. He
bases this hypothesis upon another passage of the Kan-szii, in
which the author says that, in order to go to Ta-Jian, the traveler
sets out from the western shore of Corea,* coasts along this
peninsula, and, after having gone twelve thousand U, arrives
at Japan ; that from there, after a route of seven thousand U
toward the north, he comes to the country of Wen-shin, and that,
five thousand li from the last, toward the east, the country of
Ta-han is found, from which Im-sang is distant twenty thou-
sand li.

In olden times the Chinese vessels which sailed to Japan
crossed the Strait of Corea, passed before the isles of Tsu-sinia
(in Chinese, Tui-ma-tad), and landed in some port of the north-
ern coast of the great island of Niphon. We must, therefore,
conclude that the distance mentioned in the route much exceeds
the reality. It should also be remembered that the ancient Chi-
nese did not have any means of determining the length of their
journeys at sea. Even if we admit the maritime li of the fifth
century to have measured four hundred to the degree, the dis-
tance of twelve thousand li of coasting between the mouth of
the la-t'iiny-kiang, in 38° 45' N. latitude, upon the western
coast of Corea, and the middle of the coast of Niphon, upon

* De Guignes translates the passage : " Sets out from the shore of the province
of Lcao-tong, situated to the north of Pc/cin.''^ But, in the first place, this prov-
ince is not to the north, but to the northeast of Pcldn. Next, the Chinese text
says that they set forth from the district of Lo-lang, which is situated not in
Leao-tunff, but in Corea, and of which the capital is the present city of P'hiff-
jang (in d'Auville's map, Fing-yang), situated upon the northern bank of the
Ta-t'mig-ldang, or F'ais/iue, a river of the province of P'ing-ngan, which, in
great part, in the time of the dynasty of Han, formed the district of Lo-hvvj.
P'ing-;/a)ig waa the residence of K'i-tsn, the first Chinese prince who was estab-
lished in Corea, about the year 1122 before our era.

Il^l^f^

ii:.

! I

i:,;f ■!

t i «

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the Japanese Sea, is, nevertheless, more than twice too great ;
the distance between the two points, in coasting, is not more
than fifty-six hundred U, of four hundred to the degree. It,
therefore, results that the li of the Chinese route ir ^asure about
eight hundred and fifty to the degree.

The same account estimates the distance between the Ja-
panese port and the country of Wen-shin as seven thousand li,
or a little more than eight degrees of latitude. This distance
conducts us, however, by following the contour of the coast of
the Japanese Sea, exactly to the northern part of Niphon and to
the southern point of the island of Jesso. The country of Wen-
shin, oy "Tattooed People," is, in fact, found there; for the
Ainos, who then occupied both the northern part of Japan and
the island of Jesso, have even to this day the custom of painting
the face and the body with different figures.

The distance from the country of Wen-shin to that of Ta-han
is, according to our account, five thousand li, or about six de-
grees of latitude. This brings us exactly to the southern point
of the island of Taraikai, erroneously called Saghalien upon our
maps. The identity of this island with Ta-han is confirmed by
another account, which describes the route from the northern
part of China to the last named country.

In the times of the j^'ang dynasty the Chinese had estab-
lished three fortified cities to the north of the northernmost
curve described by the Iloang-ho, which surrounded upon three
sides the present country of the Ordos, called for this reason
Ho-t'ao, or " Enveloped by the River." One of these cities, sit-
uated between the two others, bore the name of Chung-sheu-
kiang-ch'ing, or "the Central City, which Protects the Sub-
missive People." It does not now exist, but its site, which can
be determined with precision, was in the country now occupied
by the Mongol tribe of Orat, upon the northern bank of the
Iloang-ho. To go by land to the country of Ta-han, the trav-
eler set forth from this city, and traversed the desert of Gobi,
or Shamo, and arrived at the principal encampment of the lloei-
hhe, situated upon the left bank of the Orkhou, not far from its
sources, and the same place where the Mongolians afterward
constructed their first capital, Caracorum. From there he
reached the country of the Ivo-li-han and of the Tu-p'o, sit-
uated to the south of a great lake, upon the ice of which he

KLAPROTH'S DISSENT.

must cross in winter. We know from other indications that the
lake is that of Baikal. To the north of this lake, say the Chi-
nese relations, high mountains are found, and a country where,
says one, the sun is not above the horizon longer than during
the little time that it takes to cook a breast of mutton. The
Ta-po, neighbours of the Jto-li-han, inhabit the country to the
south of the lake. Another historian informs us what is the
true abode of the Ko-li-han, and we know that this country is
the same as the ancient country of Kirkis, or Kerghiz, situated
between the 0-2m (the Obi) and the Ang-Jco-la (the Angara).
Upon leaving the country of the Ko-li-han, and traveling to the
east, we enter into that of the Shy-ioei.

The SJiy-wei include a great number of tribes that do not
appear to belong to the same nation, for the Chinese accounts
mention several who speak a different language from that which
the others use. Nevertheless, the greater part of the Shy-wei
are of the same origin as the Khi-tan and speak their idiom,
which is identical with that of the Mo-ho ; the latter are, to all
appe'vrances, the Mongols. The others belong to the Tunguse
race. The most southerly Shy-wei live in the vicinity of the
river Nou, an affluent upon the right of the upper Amoor. After
having left the country of the Shy-wei, who live to the east of
the Ko-li-han and of Lake Baikal, and marching for fifteen days
to the east, we find the Shy-wei called ^ ^B, Ju-che, who
are probably the same people that other Chinese authors call
lit ^D> J^-che — ^that is to say, the DJourdJe, ancestors of the
present Mantchoos. From there we advance for ten days
toward the north, and enjter into Ta-han, surrounded by the sea
upon three sides.

This country, called also Lieu-kuei, therefore can not be
other than the island of Taraikai, as we have already ascertained
by following the route by sea laid down by Li-yan-sheu. De
Guignes has wished to consider Kamtchatka as Ta-han ; but it is
impossible to reach Kamtchatka from the eastern b.^-nk of Lake
Baikal within thirty days, this time being barely sufficient to go
across a country where there are no roads, from the eastern point
of Lake Baikal, by way of the country of the INIantchoos and
along the Amoor, to the great island of Taraikai, situated before
the mouth of that river.

The identity of Ta-han and the island of Taraikai, once

ii, .

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

demonstrated, prevents all further search for the country of Fa-
sung in America. We have seen that the navigators, who went
from the eastern coast of Corea to Ta-han^ traveled at first
twelve thousand, then seven thousand, and again five thousand
li, or in all twenty-four thousand li (or, according to our calcula-
tion, twenty-nine and a half degrees of latitude), in order to reach
that country. Fu-sang was twenty thousand U (or twenty-three
and a half degrees) to the east of Ta-han or Taraikai, and so
nearer by four thousand II than the latter country was to the
eastern coast of Corea. If we adopt th" letter of the relation,
and seek iov Fu-sang to the east of Ta-han, we fall into the great
ocean, for the opposite coast of America in the same latitude is
not less than four times as distant.

We must therr^n-e reject the entire tale as to Fu-sang as
fabulous, or else fina a means of reconciling it with the truth.
This may be found by supposing the indication of the direction
as toward the east to be incorrect. Now, the route by sea which
conducts us to Taraikai indicates this as being the constant di-
rection ; whereas the traveler at first goes to the south to double
Corea, then, upon entering the Japanese Sea, he directs his course
to the northeast, and finally changes this course for one more
northerly, in order to follow the channel of Tartary to a point
south of Taraikai. "NVe may therefore presume that one seta sail
from that country, and that at first one goes directly east, in order
to pass the Strait of Perouse, by skirting the northern coast of Jes-
80, but that, upon arriving at the eastern point of this islaad, the
course turns to the south and leads us to the southeastern part
of Japan, which was the country called Fu-sang. In fact, one of
the ancient names of this empire is Fi-sa?ig (Hibiscus rosa Ci i-
ne)i6cs), and the Japanese books scy that it was applied to their
country because of its beauty.

If we analyze the two syllables which compose the word "fu-
sang," v\^e find that the first, ^,f'i, signifies *- to help, to be use-
ful," and that the second, |^, sang, designates the mulberry. The
word therefore signifies, the useful mulberry. This circumstance
leads me to think that there is some mistake in the Chinese ac-
count preserved in the Nan-szu, and that it confounds the hibis-
cus, or the " Rose of China," with the paper-mulberry {3forus
papyrifera^., for the description of the tree in question applies
rather to this last than to the hibiscus ; in fact, the bark of the

KLAPROTirS DISSENT.

itry of Fa-
, who went
led at first
e thousand
)ur calcula-
ler to reach
renty-three
cai, and so
vas to the
je relation,

the great
latitude is

Fu-sang as
the truth,
e direction
sea which
Dnstant di-
i to double

1 his course
one more

;o a point
le seta sail
t, in order
ast of Jes-
islaad, the
item part
Lct, one of
rosa CI i-
\ to their

rord '* f u-
o be use-
rry. The
urastance
linese ac-
he hibis-
{3forus
\ applies
k of the

paper-mulberry furnishes to the Japanese all the productions
which the Chinese account attributes to the true fu-sang. Tho
bark is employed to make paper, stuffs, clothing, cordage, wicks,
and several other useful things.

Among the other productions of Fii-sang, as we have already
remarked, the vine and the horse did not exist in America before
the arrival of the Europeans, but they are found in Japan. The
copper of this country is celebrated as an important article of
export. Iron is, even now, rare in Japan, and consequently more
valued than copper. According to mythological traditions, horses
and cattle were produced from the eyes of the spirit OuJce-motsi-
no-kami, and the other domestic animals issued from his mouth.
As to the vine, it appears bat that is older in Japan than in
China, where it was not introduced until the second century be-
fore our era ; for, according to the Japanese traditions, grapes
were produced from a tress of black hair thrown down by Iza-
naki-no-mikote, the last of the seven celestial spirits that reigned
in the country.

The single difficulty which remains is that which concerns
the introduction of Buddhism. According to the Japanese
annals, this religion was not diflFused throughout the empire until
552, the date that it was carried from Fiak-sai, or Fe-tsi, a
kingdom situated in Corea, to tiiC court of the Dairi. Never-
theless, as this belief had been introduced in 372 into the king-
dom of Kao-li, or Ko-rai, and in 384 into Fiak-sai, and the Japan-
ese had had intercourse with the two countries for a long time,
it is not at all improbable that Buddhism had found disciples in
Japan before the way into the palace of the Dairi was opened to it.

Finally, I will call attention to the fact that the country of
Fi-sang has furnished the Chinese poets with innumerable op-
portunities for giving fantastic descriptions of its marvels. The
authors of the Shan Jlai King * and the Li-sao,\ as well as
Hwai-nan-tz, J Li T'ai-pi, \\ and other writers of the same kind,

* Tlic Shan Hai King, the Chinese " Classic of Lands and Seas," is described
in chapter xxxvi of this work.

f Tlic Li-sao is a celebrated poem written by Kin Yuen in the third ceu'nry n. c.

\ Himl-nan-tz is one of ten eminent writers of antiquity, who are assf ciatcd
together under the designation of the " Ten Philosophers." lie was the grandson
of Kau-ti, of the Han dynasty, b. c. 189. lie wrote upon the origin of things.

I TA T'ai-pi is one of the most popular of the Chinese poets. He lived during
the reign of the l"ang dynasty.

hi?!'!'!

' ■!

• !,'

I 'f

i I

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

have used them freely. According to them, the sun rises in the
valley of Yang-Jcuy and maked his toilet at Fu-sang, where there
are mulberries several thousand fathoms high ; the people cat the
fruit, which gives to their bodies the colour of gold, and endows
them with the power to fly in the air. In an equally fabulous
notice of Fu-sang, which dates from the time of the Liang dy-
nasty, there is a statement that the silk-worms of the country
are six feet long and seven inches in breadth ; they are of the
colour of gold, and lay eggs of the size of swallows' eggs. I spare
the reader the rest of these fables.

i ,f

ses in the
lere there
le eat the
d endows
fabulous
[liang dy-
e country
re of the
. I spare

CHAPTER IV

DE PARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

America visited by Scandinavians— American tribes emigrants from Asia — An-
cient cninese maps — Researches antedating those of Elaproth — Letter of
Pfere Gaubil — Ta-han — Licu-kuei — Identification of these with Eamtchat-
ka— Size of i^w^awi;— Views of M. Dumont d'Urville— Length of the li —
America lies at the distance and in the direction indicated — The Meropide
of Elien — The Hyperboreans — The monuments of Guatemala and Yucatan —
The Shan-hai-king — Identification of the fusanff tree with the mctl or ma-
guey — The Japanese Encyclopaedia says Japan is not Fu-aang — The banana or
pisang tree may have been the tree called fusang — Grapes in America —
Milk in America — The bisons of America — Llamas — Horses — Wooden cabins
— The ten-year cycle — The titles of the king and nobles — ^The worship of
images — Resemblance of pyramids of America to those of the Buddhists —
An image of Buddha— The spread of the Buddhist religion — History of the
Chichimecas — Resemblance of Japanese to Mexicans — Analogies of Asiatic
and American civilizations pointed out by Humboldt — Credit due de Guigncs
— Appendix — Afa Twan-lMa account — The fusang said to be the prickly
poppy of Mexico— Laws punishing a criminal's family have existed in China —
Chinese cycle of sixty years existed in India — Cattle harnessed to carts — The
grapes of Fusang wild, not cultivated — Another Chinese custom in Fiisang
— The route to Ta-han — ^The route to Japan very indirect — Priests called
lamas both in Mexico and Tartary.

America under the JVhme of the Country of Fusang — by

M. de Paravey.'^'^^^

The scholars of Iceland and Denmark have shown that the
Scandinavians, long before Columbus, visited the northeastern
portion of America, and there found wild vines and grapes ;
and that they even penetrated to the south as far as to what is
now known as Brazil. Before these modern researches, the il-
lustrious Buffon, in his " Discours sur les Vari6t6s de PEspfece
Humaine," took the ground, as M. de Humboldt has also recent-
ly done, that the tribes of Northwestern America, and even of

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Mexico, bad come from Tartary and Central Asia ; and, relying
upon the new discoveries of the Russians, he traced the route
followed by the Asiatics, holding that they reached the north-
western portion of California by way of Kamtchatka and the
chain of the Aleutian Islands. Upon his side, M. de Guignes,
examining the books of China, and by them throwing a light
upon the origin of all European nations, found among them a
very remarkable memoir regarding the country of Fu-sang, or the
country of tho Extreme East. He availed himself of the light
thrown by the Russians and the latest geographers upon the
e.vUvMt: rortheastern countries of Asia, and, in his scholarly
wor^. he !n.>ved, as far as it was then possible to do so, that the
country of IC. -ng, known in the year 458 a. d., rich in gold,
silver, and copper, but destitute of iron, could be nothing else
than America.

All the maps, rough and purposely altered as to the size of
foreign countries, that we have been able to find in the books or
collections relating to China, and anterior in date to the exact
maps of the Celestial Empire, which were finally made by the
aid of the corrections of the missionaries at Pekin, show, in fact,
to the east and northeast of China, beyond Japan, marked under
one of its names, Ji 0,pen 7{C ("Origin of the Sun"), a con-
fused mass of countries, delineated as small islands, undoubtedly
because they were reached by sea ; and among these countries,
of ichich the size is purposely reduced, is marked the cele-
brated country of Fu-sang, a country of which many fables
have been related in China, but which, in the account translated
by M. de Guignes, is presented in a light so entirely natural that
it can not be considered otherwise than as one of the countries of
America, even if it is not, as we think possible, intended for the
entire Continent of America.

We had not known of the old Chinese maps, drawn up so as
to present Europe and all of Asia, outside of China, as very small
countries, until our visit to Oxford in 1830. We then copied
them at the Bodleian Library, and our scholarly friend. Sir
George Stanton, afterward gave us one of these imperfect maps.
Upon returning to London, we there sought and found the
Chinese text of the account translated by M. de Guignes ; for
the works in which it is found are monopolized at Paris by cer-
tain students of Chinese. We copied this text, and showed it to

DE PARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

Mr. Iluttman, then secretary of the English Asiatic Society. He
recognized in it, as we did, a dcr »Tiption of America, or of one
of its parts, and, in the surprise w. ich he felt, he communicated,
probably, with M. Klaproth regarding our researches, for we were
at London again when this Prussian scholar published, in the
" Nouvelles Annales des Voyages," in the year 1831, a pretended
refutation of the memoir of M. de Guignes, a refutation which
he addressed to us, together with a letter of equal length, which
we may some day publish. Neither this letter nor this printed
article changed our convictions as to the justice of the views
of the learned M. de Guignes, We declared them to M. Klap-
roth, and, as he himself undoubtedly felt the feebleness of the
arguments by which he had endeavoured to pr e that this ac-
count of Fa-sang should be understood to rci :r Japan, he
afterward, on this account, as we suppose, w' hing- lO convert
M. von Humboldt to his false ideas, caused the insertion, in
Vol. X of the " Nouveau Journal Asiatique de Paris," of the
letters of the late P6re Gaubil, in which this learned mis-
sionary, without disputing this story, discu; s the ideas of M.
de Guignes, and, not knowing anything then of the maps of
which we have spoken, appears to be unwilling to admit that
America, under the name of Fic-sang, or under any other name,
had been really known to the Buddhists or shamans of High
Asia since the ye,\r 458 a. d.

Since that time, however, we have endeavoured to prove, by
an exact calculation of the distance in li, given in this account,
translated from the Great Annals of China, regarding the country
of Fit-sang^ and by discussing the route traveled to reach it, that
this country, even following the views of M. Klaproth and of
Father Gaubil, concerning the Chinese names given to the coun-
try so distant from Kamtchatka, could not be found elsewhere
than in America.

According to the shaman or Buddhist monk who made Fu-
sang known to the Chinese in the year 499 of our era, this coun-
try was at the same time to the east of China, and equally to the
east of a semi-civilized land known in the Chinese books by
the name of the country of Ta ^, Han ^, or of the " Great
Hans," a name applied first to the Chinese dynasty of the Hans,
founded in 206 b. c, after that of the Tsin.

But, according to the Chinese accounts regarding this coun-

! '.I

'.m

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

try of Ta-han — which couU be reached either by sea, by setting
out from Japan and sailing to the northeast, or by land, by set-
ting forth from the sharp bend toward the north which is made
by the great river Iloang-ho, into the country of the Mongols,
and passing to the south of Lake Baikal, and then, going the
same distance to the northeast — this country, very distant from
China, could not be any other than Kamtchatka, also called the
country of Zieii-kuci, or "Place of Exile" (lieu, ^) "of the
Vicious " {htei, %), in other Chinese geographies.

Father Gaubil, in these same letters, published by M. Klap-
roth, admits this to bo the country of Licu-ktiei, for it is said
that the fact that this country is surrounded by the sea upon
three sides, as Kamtchatka is, and the distance at which it is
placed in the geography of the Tang dynasty, also published by
this learned missionary, both agree in confining the land of
Lieu-kuei to this extreme point of northeastern Asia. It
should also be noticed that M. Klaproth himself, in the memoir
which we refute, when discussing the position of the country of
Ta-hauj declares that this land has also been called the country
of Lieu-kuei; and since, according to Father Gaubil, this
place is Kamtchatka, the country of Ta-han must answer to the
southern portion of Kamtchatka, and not to the great island of
Saghalien or Taraikai, which is found at the east of Tartary,
opposite the mouth of the Yellow River, the island in which M.
Klaproth attempts to place it in his " Researches regarding Fit-
sangy

It is, also, in Kamtchatka that the celebrated M. de Guignes
places the country of Ta-han, which the Chinese books, such as
the Pian-y-tien, the great " Geography of Foreign Nations," a
valuable work, of which a copy is possessed by the Royal Li-
brary at Paris, represent as inhabited by barbarous men of great
stature, and with hair very long and in wild disorder.

And when the shaman Iloei Shin, coming from the country
of Fii-sang to China, and landing at King-cheu, in the prov-
ince of Ilu-pe, upon the left bank of the great river Jviang,
said that ^^Fu-sang is at the same time to the east of China and
to the east of the country of Ta-han^'' or of Kamtchatka, it is evi-
dent that he indicated a very great extension of this country of
Fu-sang, from north to south ; since Kamtchatka, even in its
most southerly part, is very distant to the northeast from China,

if 1 %

DE PARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

even from its northern boundary, and still farther from the river
Kiartfj; he speaks, therefore, not of an island; not even of one
as largo as .Japan; but of a continent of great extent, such as
North America.

So, when we had communicated the memoir of M. dc Guignes,
and its pretended refutation by M. Klaproth, to the celebrated
navigator 31. Duraont d'Urville, whose unfortunate loss science
still deplores, this scholar, who, before his last voyage, had, in
accordance with our advice, commenced the study of the geo-
graphical books preserved in China, could not restrain a smile of
pity upon seeing that M. Klaproth had, by main strength, at-
tempted to change this vast continent into a simple province of
Japan, a country which he himself points out under its true
name, in another passage of the Great Annals cited by M. do
Guignes, and where the route is described leading by sea from
Corea to the country of Tn-han. In order to reach that region,
the route touches the country of Wo, or of Japan, which was
already well known to the Chinese in all its parts. The route,
continuing toward the north, touches at the country of Wen-sJiin
(the island of Saghalien) ; then turning to the east, Ta-han or
Kamtchatka is reached, otherwise called Lieu-kiiei. It is evi-
dent that no other land than North America, cast of Asia, is suf-
ficiently large to be at the same time to the east of Central China
and of Kamtchatka : this was not plainly said by M. de Guignes,
but he evidently perceived it, and the distance also at which
Fit-sang is placed from the country of Ta-han or Kamtchatka,
in the account of the shaman, completes the demonstration.

In fact, he stated this distance of Fic-sang easterly from Ta-
han at twenty thousand li, and, as the length of the li has fre-
quently been changed in China, M. Klaproth tries, by supposing
the length to be very small, to make this distance reach only as
far as Japan ! But, as the direction toward the east still incom-
modes him and causes him to fall into the ocean, because of the
admission which he makes that Ta-han must be the island of
Saghalien, he without further ceremony changes this direction
and turns it around toward the south ; and in this way, by add-
ing one false supposition to another, he arrives at the conclusion
that the southeastern part of Japan is this country of Fu-sang;
again assuming that this country had been but recently discov-
ered by the Chinese.

AN INGLORIOUS C0LUMUU8.

1 1 f ^

But Father Gaubil, upon whom ho othorwiHe relies, could un-
(Icceivo him and set him right as to the real length of the //. In
his "Ilistoire do la Dynastie de,s Tang," a dynuHty that reigned
shortly after the epoch when the accounts of Ta-han and of J^\t-
Bang were inserted in the Great AnnalH, he said that "lifteen
thousand U are reckoned as the distance between IVrsia and the
city of Hy-ngan-fUf^ then the capital of China (see " Memoires
concernant les Chinois," V^ol. XV, ]). -laO). l^ersia is designated
in these books as the kingdom o\ J*o-s8c, and its capital was
formerly near l*assa-gardo and JShiraz o^ Perscpolis.

Now, toward the northeast, the geographies of the Tan(/ dy-
nasty reckon fifteen thousand li also as \he distance from iS(/-
nffun-fic to the country of Lieu-kiiei (ib., Vol. XV, p. 453) —
which, according to M. Klaproth, is the same as the country of
Ta-han — a country surrounded by the sea upon three sides, and
which Father Gaubil asserts, as we have said, to be Kamtchatka.

If, therefore, wo set a pair of compasses upon a terrestrial
globe, placing the points upon Sij-ngan-fu, then the capital of
China, and Shiraz or Persepolis, the capital of Posse (or Persia),
and then, keeping one point upon the first-named city, swing the
other around to the northeast, it will be found to reach to the
southern part of the land of Kamtchatka, thus proving the accu-
racy of the stated distances.

The length of the li during this epoch is therefore fixed ;
hence, one third of the above-named distance represents five
thousand li, and, adding this to the length of the fifteen thousand
li above described, the distance of twenty thousand /<', which the
account of the shaman affirms as extending toward the east from
the country of Ta-han to that of Fu-sang, from which he had
come, can be reckoned with great accuracy.

If, then, with the compasses we lay out upon the globe this
distance of twenty thousand li, setting one point upon the south-
ern end of Kamtchatka (which answers to the country of Lieu-
kuei or of Ta-han), and swinging the other point toward the
east, we should, if Fu-sang is America, reach at least the western
coast of this new continent, a coast which, although long known
to the Asiatics, has, by a sort of fatality, been the last to be ex-
plored by Europeans. Now, in fact, this is just where the point
of the compasses will reach, and this confirms both the conject-
ures of Buffon and the assertions made by M. de Guignes, based

DE PAIIAVEY'S SUPPORT.

upon the very incorrect maps wliich were all that coulJ then bo
ubtainc'd ; for the arm of tlio oonipasHeH thus reaches to a point
north of the mouth uf the Columbia Kivcr, not far from Califor-
nia.*

This scholar could not tlien arrive at the same precision that
is possible for us, since, we repeat, the exact outlines of the
northwest coast of America near the Aleutian Islands, and even
those of the country of Karatchatka, had not, in his days, been
fully established ; but his merit was on that account even tho
greater, in being the first to recognize the true value of the /* at
that epoch, and to find, in the geographies of China, which h.ad
been so rarely consulted by European scholars, countries so un-
known to us as Kamtchatka, and the vast American Continent;
known from ancient times by tho wandering tribes of Central
Asia, but which have only recently been made known to us, by
the admirable and persevering efforts of an illustrious genius.

IJy the aid of the same books preserved in China, and which,
unfortunately for Europeans, have not been translated, although
Avc have possessed them for more than a century, we can show
that tho Meropide of Elien is North America ; for the invasion
of the country of the Hyperboreans, of which this author speaks,
can not have taken place elsewhere than from North America
into Kamtchatka, and extending as far as to the banks of tho
great Amoor River, a region in which, according to tho old
Chinese books, there lived a multitude of tribes of which the
names arc scarcely known in Europe to this day, although very
curious and all significant.

From tho most ancient times, having undoubtedly received
colonies from Greece and Syria, these happy Hyperboreans sent
to the temple of Apollo at Delos sheaves of the grain which
they harvested.

Herodotus and Pausanias name to us the nations which passed
those offerings from hand to hand to Greece, and when to what
we have said are added the accounts of the same nations which
are given in the Chinese books, we can not avoid the conviction
that t:io true land of tho Hyperboreans — that is to say, of the
tribes of the northeast — can not be situated elsewhere than
upon tho Amoor River, and in the neighbourhood of Corea,

* In his later essay M. de Paravey corrects this statement, and names San
Francisco as the point that is reached.— E. P. V.

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS,

countries having an alphabet, and very anciently civilized or
colonized.

Through the Hyperboreans, in connection with the ferocious
tribes of North America, tribes which Elien described under the
name of Md-xi-fiog, or "Warriors," the Greeks of ancient times,
who had carried the culture of the cereals to the banks of the
Amoor, therefore obtained some knowledge concerning Mi-san(/y
or the Eastern World, that va^u continent which, explored from
the western side by the Phoenicians of Egypt, and afterward by
the Carthagenians, received the name of Atlanlis.

The flowery imagination of the Asiatics embroidered with
fables these accounts of a world so distant, and which could only
be reached by incurring very great dangers ; but the curious
monuments of Palcnque in Guatemala, and those not less impor-
tant which M. de Waldeck sketched in Yucatan, demonstrate
positively the ancient relations between Central Asia, India, and
Europe, and America, or Merojnde, the true land of J^u-sang.

The Shan-hai-hmg, an old mythological geography of Chi-
na, the Li-sao, and other Chinese books, relate fables also regard-
ing the valley of Tcmg-hu, or of the Hot Springs, from which
the sun appears to issue ; it rises then in the country of Fu-sang,
where the mulberries grow to a prodigious height. It is said
that the people of Fu-sang eat the fruit of these mulberries in
order to become immortal, that they can fly in the air, and that
the silk-worms of these trees, enormous also, inclose themselves
in cocoons of monstrous size.

All these fables are founded upon the name sang^ ^, of the
mulberry, which enters into '^ Fi-sang,^'' the Chinese name of
America ; and this can be explained from an examination of the
Mythriac monuments, sculptures of Eastern Asia, in which there
may always be observed upon the right the sun rising behind a
tree such as the mulberry. This is nothing else, in fact, than the
representation of the hieroglyphic character preserved in China
to express the Fast, a character which is pronounced tong, ^\
and which is formed by drawing the symbol of the sun, ji, be-
hind that of a tree, pfc, '»o / the sun in rising showing its disk, in
fact, behind the trees.

Tacitus, in his " Germanicus," relates fables, also, in regard to
the country where the sun sets, in explaining the sparkling
when its fires penetrate the ocean ; but his admirable work has

DE PARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

been none the less constantly read and consulted since bis time,
and these marvelous tales have not caused the denial of the
existence of the region of which be speaks.

But the account of the shaman Iloei Shin regarding j'w^-srf 71^7
offers none of these fables ; and, if it places a tree of this name
in America, it describes it as a plant having red fruit in the
form of a pear, a shrub, of Avhich the young shoots arc eaten ;
and of which the bark is i:)repared like that of hemp, of which
cloth, clothing, and even paper are made : for the inhabitants
of this country had a method of writing, says this account, and,
in fact, books and a species of writing are found in America, in
Mexico, and elsewhere.

In the Chinese botanical books the name of fu-sa»f/, which
may be translated as "the serviceable, useful mulberry ^^ (these
adjectives conveying the meaning of "/w "), is given now to the
Jcetime, or hibiscus rosa sinensis, a plant brought from Persia to
China, as we learn from Father Cabot, and which hcts been
(/rafted upon the mulberry.

But M. Klaproth, by some mistake, has been led to see in
this plant the paper-mulberry, of which, in fact, cloth and cloth-
ing are also made ; while others find in it the 7netl or maguey of
IMexico, but badly described ; for this plant also gives cloth and
paper, it furnishes a sort of wine and food, and is pre-eminently
useful.

In truth, this name Fii-sany expresses only the name of the
Extreme East, for in the ancient hieroglyphic geography the Cen-
tral Kingdom is called, as it now is in China, Chong-hoa, or
"the Central Flower," and the four cardinal countries have the
name of the Ssefu, or " the Four Auxiliary Countries," composed
of the four principal petals of the nelumbo, the mystic flower,
the flower of the middle, the sacred lotus, type of ancient Fgypt
and of the earth, par excellence.

India offers this geographical symbol to us again, and the
ancient Chinese maps call the countries of the north, Eu-yu /
those of the south, Eu-nan / those of the west, Eu-lin (that is to
say, the Ta-tsin, the Roman Empire) ; and, finally, those of the
east, Eu-sany. Now, to the east of China there is no other ex-
tensive land than America ; and, if Japan has ever been also
given this name of Eu-sang, it is because it is to the east of
China ; but the Japanese Encyclopa'dia, which should have been

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

consultocl by M. Klai)roth, who attempted to support his opinion
by this name erroneously applied to this country, says that it is
not the true country of lAc-scuig.

The banana, the j^i-sanff tree of the Malays, may also be
one of the trees called fu-saru/, for these trees, as well as the
flowers of the nelumbo, or rose-lotus of Egypt, where the young
Ilorus is seen to spring — that is to say, where the sun is born,
are types of the East. All this, we repeat, is merely a natural
series of symbols employed in the ancient and hieroglyphic
geography, which is too little studied.

The account translated by M. de Guignes also places many
]ni-U(0, or grapes, in the country of Ini-sang. M. de Guignes
translated tlie two characters se])arately, understanding ^j?< to
mean the iris, and tao the peach. ]M. Klaproth has properly
rectified this, but with singular thoughtlessness he forgets that
the forests of North America abound in several species of
wild vines, and that the Scandinavians placed the country of
Yin-hind (the Land of Vines) in the northeastern part of the
continent. He therefore denies the existence of the vine in
America, and, relying especially upon this passage, he concludes
that I'hsanf/ must be Japan, where the vine, as he says, had
existed for a long time, although in China it had not been intro-
duced from Western Asia until the year 12G before our era. It
can therefore be seen how feeble his attempted refutation of M.
de Guignes is, even when the last is mistaken ; and his memoir,
as a whole, offers no more forcible arguments.

When the shaman said that iron was lacking in Fu-satig, hut
that copper was found, and that gold and silver were not valued
(because of their abundance, no doubt), he repeats what Plato
said of Atlantis, and what has been reiterated in all accounts
regarding America ; a celebrated river of the northern part of
tl)is continent bears the name of the Coppermine River, and
co])i)er is also very abundant in Peru.

It is also stated that the iidiabitants of Fii-sanr/ raised herds of
deer and innde cheese from the milk of the Jiinds; and in the Chi-
nese and Japanese Encyclopscdias, as also in the Pian-y-tien,
when the figure of an inhabitant of T'Wfzy/// is given, he is drawn,
in fact, as engaged in milking a hind having small round spots,
and in the two Encyclopedias this is ^^iven as forming the char-
acteristic peculiarity of this country of f^'u-sanff. Philostratus, in

DE TARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

memoir.

f f

his " Life of Apollonius," mentioned tribes in India who raised
Iiinds for their milk, and the thing is not so common as to fail
to be remarked, but herds of hinds have also been found in
America in our days ; for Valmont do Bomare, in the article
entitled " Deer," says : " The Americans have herds of deer
and of hinds running in the woods throughout the day and at
night re-entering their stables. Several tribes of America have
no other milk," he adds, " than that obtained from their hinds,
and of which they also make cheese."

It appears, therefore, that he translates by these words what
IToei Shin said in 499 a. d. concerning the nations of l\i-sang ;
and in calling attention to the fact that this usage formerly ex-
isted in India, it was not without design, for the same shaman
affirms that the religion of Buddha (an Indian religion) had been
carried to the country of Fu-sang, in the year 458 of our era, by
five monks of Ky-piuy or of Coph^ne, an Indian country. He
says that the tribes, from that time converted by them, had nei-
ther military weapons nor troops, and, like the Argippcans (of
whom Herodotus speaks), that they did not make war ; he adds,
finally, that they had a species of writing and worshiped images
— that is to say, that they were true Buddhists.

That which is said regarding the cattle with long horns that
carried heavy burdens upon their heads, and of carts to which
horses, cattle, and deer were harnessed, offers, as it appears, the
only difficulty ; but the bisons with manes and Avith enormous
heads, found in North America, may have been the cause of this
erroneous statement, and, but for the evasion of the description,
the Chinese name 3Ta, which is applied to horses, asses, and
camels, and which forms the radical of useful animals of this
nature, might be given, even although it were wrongfully, .">
the llamas and alpacas already domesticated perhaps in South
America, which also wat included in Fu-sang.

It may be possible, moreover, that horses had been introduced
before this epoch into Northwestern America, which is hardly
known even in our days, and where tribes are mentioned which
use them ; and where teams of reindeers, like those of Kam-
tchatka, may also be seen. It is true that it has been supposed
that these horses are descended from those brought to Mexico
by the Spaniards ; but this has not been proved : and even if we
suppose them to be of European origin, an epidemic or a de-

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

^t^uctive war may, since the fifth century, hr^ve destroyed the
domesticated horses brought to Fu-sang by the Tartars and the
Buddhists of Asia.

The peoj^Ie of Fu-sang had no other habitations than villages
of ■wooden cabins, such as have been found near the Colu:nbia
lliver, to the northwest of California ; and, to obtain a wife,
the young men of the country were obliged to serve thoir be-
trothed for an entire year. Now (in the "Collection Oi The-
venot"), this is precisely what Palafox says of the American
Indians, Avhose manners he describes ; and this custom also ex-
ists in the extreme northeastern countries of Asia, countries
from which America may be reached, as we have said.

Other details of their customs seem to be borrowed from the
Chinese civilization, especially the cycle of ten years, or perhaps
even of sixty years — as M. de Humboldt has in fact described
among the Muyscas of the plateau of Bogota, in South America,
the usage of the cycle of sixty years and of institutions analogous
to those of the Buddhism of Japan. The cycle of Fu-nang, be?'*-
ing the names of the ten Chinese luois, served to murk the suc-
cessive colours of the king's garments, colours which were changed
every two years, just as is prescribed for the Ensperor of China
by the chapter yue-Ung of the Lil-Jci, or "Sacred Book of Rites."

But the so-called Chinese cycles, which gave ♦^heir alphiibets
to the most ancient nations of Syria, Pha?nicla, and India, as well
as to those of Greece, as we have elsewhere shown (see our " Es-
say upon the Common and Hieroglyphic Origin of the Figures
and of the Letters," Paris^ ' siu, and the article, entitled "Japan-
ese Origin of the Muysci- ' in the " Annales de Philosophie
Chretienne," Vol. X, page 8, where the figures of the cycles may
be found), may liave been canned to Fu-sang quite as well from
Central Asia, or from India, as from China, as they were never
unknown to the Buddhists or shamans.

We might also discuss the sound of the titles given to the
king and nobility of the country of Fu-sang ; but these discus-
sions Avorld carry us too far, and we will merely call attention
to the fact that the title of the king Avas /-/I'y, a sound which
seems connected with the name of the lUc-sos, the pastoral
kings of Egypt who came from Asia, and the last syllable with
Jiic, the name of the Gothic kings, who also came from the
north of Asia : and possibly also with that of Cacique, the title

i?4

•^

DE PARAVEY'S SUiTOKT.

tiovcd the
13 and the

an villages
ColuTubia
in a wife,
i tl.oir be-
ll o. The-
American
1 also ex-
countries

from the
•r perhaps
described
America,
inalogous
ing^ beo"-
c the suc-
J changed
of China
f Rites."
ilphiibets
I, as well
)ur " Es-
Flgures
' Japan -
losophie
Ics may-
ell from
c never

to the
discus-
tcntion
I which
'.astoral
lo with
Dm the
10 title

of the chiefs of the islands of Ameri<5a, and with that of the
Arikis, or kings of the islands of Oceanica.

We will therefore confine ourselves to discussing the conclu-
sion of this account of Fa-sang.

" Formerly," says Iloei Shin, " the religion of Buddha did
not exist in this country ; but in the So7ig dynasty (in 458 a. d.

a precise date here), five Pi-kieu, or priests of the country

of Ky-pin (a country in which Father Gaubil sees Samarcand,
and M. de Remusat sees the ancient Cophene, near India), came
to Fa-sang, carrying with them their books and sacred images,
and their ritual, and established monastic customs, and so
changed the manners of the inhabitants."

Accordingly, Hoei Shin, a shaman himself, who came to
China in 499, forty-eight years after this conversion of the peo-
ple of Fa-sang, declared that then the people of that country
worshiped the images of spirits at morning and night and did

not wage war.

It is said that proselytism is one of the duties of the Bud-
dhist priests and monks. It is therefore not surprising to see
them set forth from Cen1;ral Asia, and cross the seas and the
most dangerous countries, in order to convert the savage tribes
of Amei-ica, a country already well known to them and to the
Arabs and Persians of Samarcand.

This can no longer be considered doubtful, since M. de Wal-
deck has sketched an old temple or monastery of Yucatan, a
large square inclosure accompanied by pyramids analogous tv
those of the Buddhists of Pegu, Ava, Siam, and the Indian Ar-
chipelago, and which can be studied in all their details.

A multitude of niches, in which the figure of the celebrated
god Buddha sits with crossed-legs, exist in Java, all around the
ancient temple of Bora, Buddha ; and upon examination of the
temple of Yucatan, of which M. de Waldeck has published
beautiful drawings, we find there the same niches in which sits
the same god Buddha, and also find other figures of East Indian
origin, such as the frightful head of Siva, a flattened and de-
formed head which surmounts each of these niches.

We can not attirm, however, that these temples of Yucatan
were as old as the account of Fa-sang, as we have no description
of other buildings in this country than wooden cabins ; but, per-
secuted by the Brahmans of India, the Buddhi<ts may have been

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

compelled, at b< veral different times, to seek an asylum in I^-
smig, or Amcri a, and possibly even went to Bogota and as far
as to Peru, where the manners of the people have been found to
be so gentle and so analogous to those of the Buddhists.

In the same manner they civilized the wild tribes of the In-
dian Archipelago, and of the countries between India and China,
and built temples and pyramids such as those of which we find
the remains, as in Java, or those which are still standiijg and
venerated, as in Pegu and Siam.

China received the Buddhist religion soon after the com-
mencement of the Christian era, under Ming-ti, of the Han dy-
nasty ; Corea in the year 373 a. d. ; Fii-sang, as we have said,
in the year 458 ; and Japan, finally, not until 552, when the Japa-
nese received it from Corea and from the kingdom of Pc-tsi, a
land situated in the neighbourhood of the Amoor River and of
Corea, and an ancient center of civilization.

It is from Corea, say the Chinese books, that the country of
Ta-han can be reached, from which, sailing to the east, one ar-
rives at America — that is to say, at Fa-sanrj. On the voyage one
touches at Japan, and, without doubt, sails along its shores in
order to reach the island of Saghalien upon the north, from
which the route turns to the east toward Kamtchatka or

But in the curious " History of the Chichimecas," published
in the collection of M. Ternaux, Ixtlilxochitl, the author, a na-
tive American, says that the Toltecs came by sea from Japan
to America, landing upon thy no thwest coast, and in a country
having a red soil, such as that near the Gila River, where also
an ancient monument is mentioned, called the House of Motecu-
zuma.

Ho had seen in Mexico the Japanese sent to Rome by the
missionaries ; and in these modern Japanese he recognized the
fcaturv^^ and the costume of the Iv.itecs of whom he spoke;
now hf fixed their migration in the fifth century of our era.
He is thor'^fore found to be in perfect accord with the Chinese
accounts, concerning the different voyages to America ; for Ja-
pan, as we liave already said, is situated upon the route by sea
from Corea to the country of Ta-han, the southern part of
KamlJiatka, situated in a high latitude, and where, as it is said,
the prevailing winds are from the west and the northwest, so

DE PARAVEY'S SUPPORT.

that they would naturally carry a vessel toward Fu-sang, or
North America, a country situated to the east.

The Buddhistic monuments of Yucatan ; the history that
has been preserved of the migration of the Toltecs from Japan
to America ; the Chinese accounts of the country of Ta-han,
and of the vast countri/ of Fii-sang, which were given by the
Buddhists who left this count y of America, and arrived at
China by way of Japan : all are therefore in perfect accord.
This passage, by way of Japan, explains, moreover, how, as
we showed in 1835, in an article entitled "Dissertation sur les
Muyscas," inserted in the " Annales do Philosophie Chretienne,'*
cited above, and also published separately, at Paris, under the
title " Memoire sur i'Origine Japanoise des Pcuples du Plateau
de Bogota," the numerals and many words of the language of
the Muyscas, a tribe living upon the plains of Bogota, are found
also in the present language of the Japanese.

Just as the Scandinavians, at a much later date, descended
from the northeastern coast of the New "World, and from Vinland,
where they established a settlement, as far as to Brazil in South
America, where their monuments have been found, so, a thousand
years before the Spaniards, but landing upon the northwestern
coast, the Buddhists of India (then persecuted by the Brahmans),
the colonies of Japan and of the nations living upon the banks of
the Amoor (the ancient country of the Hyperboreans), may have
penetrated to Mexico, to Yucatan, to the country of Guatemala
and to Palenque, to the kingdom of Cundinaraarca, and finally
to the rich and civilized kingdom of Peru. The celebrated M.
von Humboldt has very well shown the connection of race, of
civilization, and of cycles, manners and usages, which unites the
tribes of these last countries to those of Tartary and of Asia ;
but, by following Father Gaubil (to whom America was but little
known) and M. Klaproth, in denying the identity of America
with Mi-sany, he deprived himself of the most p ■ verf ul argu-
ments in support of his views, and could not fix any precise date
for these migrations.

"We hope that, if he i*eads this short memoir, he will render
more justice to the truth of the discoveries of the celebrated M.
de Guignes, the profound sinologue from whose works M. Klap-
roth drew a great part of his learning, and which, upon that ac-
count, the latter should not so greatly traduce.

II /

1 1

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

We have wished, in tliis brief extract from our researches
regarding America, to render justice to this learned and mod-
est author of the " History of tlie Iluns." As he was, so are
we, oppressed by contemptible coteries ; but we hope that some
day more justice may be shown to the researches which have oc-
cupied our best years.

Chevalikb de Paravey.
Auffusf, IS 43.

Appendix

Okes M. Klaprotli's article as far as the end of the translation of the
Chinese account of Fu-aang ; and M. de Faracey adds the following
additional notes :

1. The celebrated Ma Ttran-lin, so esteemed by M. R6niU3at, has also
given this account (of Fu-sang) in his Wen-hien-tong-hao, with some
variations in the readings; and it is this which bas been translated by M.
do Gnignes. It is also repeated in the celebrated Chinese Encyclopajdia,
entitled Yuen-kien-tiii-han, in which we found it in London in 1830,
and in the Fian-y-tien, or " Geography of Foreign Nations " ; and copies
of all these highly esteemed works exist in Paris,

2. M. do Paravey, in regard to the characters ^ ^ (Fu-sang), has
observed that Father Gonfalvcs, in his highly esteemed Portuguese-
Chinese Dictionary, translated tho name Fu-sang by Fapula cornuda, the
nrg6mone, or prickly-poppy of Mexico. This learned missionary, there-
fore, considered it a plant or shrub of America; and this single definition
may be considered as proving ihat the country of Fu-sang corresponds to
some part of Mexico.

3. The laws of Fu-sang, which punish the children and descendants
of a great criminal, have existed in China from time immemorial, and also
in the countries of Asia which are tributary to China.

4. M. Klaproth recognizes the existence in Fu-aang of the Cliinese
cycle of sixty years ; but the researches of Father Souciet show that it
existed also in India, and, in the " Journal Asiatique," of Paris, M. do
Paravey has shown that it cionimenced in India and in China in precisely
the same year. Tho Buddh.sts of India, or of the northern part of Cen-
tral Asia, may therefore have carried it to the country of Fu-sang, in
America, and to Mexico.

5. In India, it is said, there are cattle which are harnessed to carts ; and
in Kamtchatka there are reindeer, a species of stag, which draw sledges.

6. In the text, M. Klaproth, in spite of all that ho says in his foot-

DE rARAVEY'S SUrPORT.

note, sliould, as \vc linvo stated in our memoir, translate tlio words pit-
tao (wliich ho writcH phou-thao) by "grape.H," and not by tlio word
'' vine.H," wliicb, among us, conveys the idea of culture. Tlio woods of
North America, in its northern and northwestern parts, abound in wild
grapes, as the shaman says; but cultivated vines were not found in Amer-
ica, and tiie text, in fact, does not say that they were.

v. Tlio custom which retjuired the king not to occupy himself with
state affairs during the first three years of his roign was also an ancient
custom in China and in Indo-Cliina.

8. In supjiort of his ideas, M. de Guignes has translated another pass-
age of the Xan-szu^ which gives the route by sea from Corca to the
country of Ta-luin. M. Klaproth also translates this passage, which gives
the distance from ring-yung, the ancient capital of Corea, to Japan as
12,000 li ; from that country to the land of the Wen-shin as 7,000 li ;
and from the last-named region to the country of Ta-han, 5,000 li.

In applying to this route by sea the sauie scale (as to the length of
the li) which is found from the stated distance between Persepolis and
Sy-ngan-fu^ M. de Paravey found in fact that the distance between the
mouths of the Amoor River, or the end of the island of yaghalien (which
was the country of Wen-sliin), and the southern part of Kamtchatka, or
the land of Ta-?ian, is by this route 5,000 li; and ho also found 7,000 li
to be the distance between Yedo, the capital of Japan, and the mouths of
the Amoor River.

The description of the route is therefore e.xact in these two parts; and
if it first states 12,000 li as the distance by sea between Japan and the
capital of Corea, situated upon its west coast (which is evidently too
great a distance), it is because the route to Japan first led to the Lieu-
hieu Islands, which are in fact situated 5,000 li from Japan and 7,000
from Corea: either this detour must be allowed, or else the length of the
li must be regarded as very small ; but Ta-han is none the less in Kam-
tchatka. And in all the hypotheses it is impossible that Japan, here de-
scribed by its own name, and a country perfectly well known, could have
contained Fu-sang., as M. Klaproth wishes to prove.

9. A single word, when it is well chosen, amounts sometimes to a
demonstration. In the Dictionary of the Language of Mexico, by the Pi^re
Molina, a dictionary of which a copy is preserved in the British Museum
at London, we have found that the word lama, or tlama, expresses the
title of the " medicine-men " among the ^Mexicans ; and no one is ignorant
that in Thibet and Tartary the lamas, or Buddhist priests, are at the
same time the physicians of these countries (so little known) through
which lay the route from India to Fu-sang.

CnEVALIER DE PaRAVET.
March 7, IS44.

■■

i
*

■

CHAPTER V.
DE pauavey's new PnOOFS.

Do Paravcy's researches preceded those of Neumann and d'Eichthal — Connection
between the Malay and American languages — Fu-iaii(t located near San Fran-
cisco — Chinese picture of a native of Fusang — Si)otted deer — Cattle-horns in
Mexico — Horses — Nations of Northern Asia — Appendix A — Buddhist monu-
ments in America — A figure of Huddha in Yucatan — The worship of Siva —
The explorations of Dupaix — Koot-priut in tlie rocks — The cause of eclipses
— Pyramids — Appendix \\ — A IJuddhist sanctuary near the Colorado River —
The name Quatu-zaca — The Mexicans emigrants from the north — Appendix
C — An engraving of a native of Fu-naiiff — The natives of Oregon — The deer
of America — Connection of American and Asiatic tribes — Pearl-fishing — The
cochineal insect and the nopal — The people of Coph6nc — American place-
names which appear to contain the name Sakya.

Neio Proofs that the Country of Fu-sanrf mentioned in the Chi-
nese Books is America.

To the Proprietor of the ''Annates de Philosophie Chretien7ie" :
Sir : Until we have in Franco a minister who realizes the
great importance of Persia, India, and China, and who will
properly organize that Asiatic Society of which I, with Messrs.
de Sacy and de Ch6zy, was among the founders ; until sufficient
funds are given to the society to secure for it a building of its own
and a librarian ; and until it is given as its president a man who,
like Lord Aukland, Director of the Asiatic Society of London,
is able by his wealth and influence to unite and utilize all the
educated Orientalists who now, divided among themselves, exist
in Paris and in France — I shall take pleasure in contributing to
your journal, because it is not submissive to any commission
or any coterie, as has been well shown during the seventeen
years of its existence, and as is shown, again, by its publication
of my various essays, very imperfect, as I well know, but which,
.as a whole, will some day form a mass of facts as novel as posi-

HE TARAVEY'S NEW PROOFS.

tivc. With your sound judgment you have appreciated tho
force of my " Description of the Origin of the Letters," of which
the " Journal Asiati(pie," of Paris, has never had a single word
to say, but which the celebrated Dr. Young approved and upon
which M. Princeps is engaged.

In 1844 you p\iblisiied my " Dissertation upon American
Fu-sang." You have also carefully criticised the articles re-
garding Jhe East which M. Mold has been giving for sorao
years paht in the " Journal Asiatique," and I thank you for
having called attention, in a note to the article of 1845, to
the fact that I had also discussed tho delicate and important
question regarding the location of tho celebrated country of
J'}i-sanf/. M. Walcknacr has told me that M. R6rau8at trans-
lated the Chinese texts regarding Fu-sanfj for him. T do not
know whether or not M. Walcknaei, that erudite geographer,
has expressed any opinion upon the subject ; neither do I know
what the learned Viscount of Santarem thinks about it : but that
which I do know, and which I ask you to publish, is that M.
Neumann, quoted by M. Mohl, did not publish his dissertation
at Munich in 184.'') until after having seen me at London in
1830-31, upon his return from China, and after having learned
from Mr, Iluttman, then Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Lon-
don, that I -was engaged upon an extensive work upon this
account of Fu-sang, of which I had found the Chinese text in
England, the copy at Paris being taken by M, Klaproth.

It is the same regarding M. d'Eichthal, quoted by M. Mohl.
At the Asiatic Society (September, 1840) and at the Geographi-
cal Society also, in the same year, M. d'Eichthal heard a note
which I read regarding this country, and saw the transcript
which I presented of the figures of Buddha and of Siva, first
recognized by me in the beautiful work of M. de Waldeck upon
the ruins of Uxmal in Yucatan. You yourself then saw the dif-
ferent drawings and designs, and M. Burnouf, Jr., recognized,
like rae and after me, the figures of Buddha and of Siva.

How could M. Mohl have been ignorant of these facts, so well
known at that time ? How could he have given M. d'Eichthal
the credit without mentioning me ? I do not know. Neither
could I have known of the memoir of M. d'Eichthal or the dis-
sertation of M. Neumann, which date only from 1845, while my
articles were published in your journal in 1843 and 1844, and I

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am the first to pray you, sir, to translate or criticise their argu-
ments ; for the subject is, as I repeat, very important.

Bernardin de Saint Pierre, in his *' Harmonies de la Nature,"
had already indicated the migrations toward the east of the
nations of India and of Oceanica, arriving thus at America to
the north of Peru ; and M. the Admiral de Rossel, the celebrated
navigator and courteous and loyal scholar, has mentioned the
Sandwich Islands as the ancient half-way port between India,
China, and America, a theory which is renewed in this day.

M. de Saint Pierre, in his " fitudes de la Nature " (Eleventh
Study, and Note 49, edition of 1836, first volume), has spoken also
of numerous points of connection found by a very old autlior
between the Malays and the Peruvians ; and my numerous ex-
tracts from the " Dictionary of the Quichua Language of Peru,"
a dictionary of which a copy is preserved in the Royal Library
at Paris, have confirmed these points of connection with the Ma-
lay spoken at Java. M. d'Eichthal has therefore entered upon a
good road ; but I have the priority, and M. de Avezac, to whom
I have often spoken of these matters, may have conversed with
him also and described to him my studies.

You speak here of my " Dissertation upon Fu-sang," which,
before it was printed, was the inciting cause of M. Klaproth's
article in 1831, as I have shown in my memoir. Permit me, sir,
to correct that dissertation by some new and very important
notes. I said that the ships of Kamtchatka, constructeri in that
place by the Buddhists, who came there from Cabul, carried
them to America near the mouth of the Columbia ; but I wrote
then far from my books and without a terrestrial t;lobe, and I
therefore examined the matter again in 1844, and found that I
had placed the po'rt of their arrival a little too far north.

The beautiful ^vork of M, Duflot de. Mofras upon Oregon
(Paris, 1844), a work which I have read and analyzed, conducts
me to the excellent port of San Francisco, to the south of the
Columbia River, as the point of arrival of the Indian Buddhists
of Cabul.

According to the scale of 15,000 //, reckoned by the Chinese
between Persia and the city of Sy-ngan-fu, and also reckoned
between this city and the southern point of Kamtchatka or of
Ta-han, the distance of 20,000 li between Kamtchatka and JF\c-
adng, measured upon a terrestrial globe, reaches precisely to this

DE PARAVEY'S NEW PROOFS.

point ; and M. de Mofras says that the northwestern winds which
prevail at San Francisco during a great part of the year would
bring one there easily from the northeastern coast of Asia.

There, ships enter without difficulty, While the bar at the
mouth of the Columbia is very difficult to cross, at least for
large vessels. Still, this natural entrance to the beautiful coun-
try of Oregon may also have been known of old.

In the figure of the half - clothed, half-civilized American
of Fu-sang, which is given in the '■'■ Pian-y-tien^^ and also in
the Chinese Encyclopaedia, this native is seen milking a young
hind with white spots, and her fawn is equally spotted. I
sought in vain for any account of this kind of spotted deer in
Ameiica, until, upon re-reading M. von Humboldt's works, I
noticed that the Cervus Mexicamts of Linnaeus is spotted like
our European roe-deer, and that the spots are particularly notice-
able while the animal is young. This species of deer is found in
America, and in Mexico in particular, in immense numbers, says
M. von Humboldt, as well as a large deer similar to ours, and
often entirely white ; a deer which is found in the Andes, where
it also runs in herds. These last, therefore, recall iLn white and
tame hinds which are milked by the Indians of the Himalaya,
as we are told by Philostratus in his "Life of Apollonius of
Tyane," for these people, being Buddhists, deprive themselves of
meat, and live upon fruits and dishes made from milk.

The account of Fu-sang speaks also of cattle with very long
horns, that are domesticated by the natives of that country.
Kow, M. von Humboldt says that the bisons of Canada are
often broken to the yoke and that they breed with our Euro-
pean cattle.

These bisons weigh as much as two thousand pounds or
more, but their horns are small ; whereas he says that cattle-
horns of a monstrous size have been found in ruined monuments
near Cuernavaca, in the southwestern part of Mexico. He refers
these horns to the musk-ox of the extreme north of America ;
but M. de Castelnau, in his courageous exploration near the
Amazon and in Paraguay, found cattle v/ith very long horns,
besides another species with small horns, which ran with them
in the same plains.

The account of Fk-sang is therefore confirmed upon this point ;
but there is certainly some error in the text when it is said that

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

upon these long horns the cattle carried a weight of twenty ho
(the Chinese *' Ao" being a weight of one hundred and twenty
pounds) — that is to say, a total weight of twenty-four hundred
pounds ! It should be said that they weighed, per head, at least
twenty-four hundred pounds, and not that this enormous burden
was placed upon their horns ; that would be impossible.

The horses mentioned in this account seem alone to have
been lacking in America ; but the Patagonians, ^^ue Tartars, are
always on horseback, and there is nothing to prove that they had
not pi'eserved among them some descendants of the horses which
the bonzes of India brought to Fu-sang, and which the boats of
Kamtchatka had perhaps taken from Tartary.

I will give you some day an article about the tribes of the
extreme north of Asia, having large boats and very short nights
during summer.

A hundred times wiser than M. Klaproth, M. de Guignes, Sr.,
in his memoir regarding Fu-sang, by a few words referred to
this nation with large boats, and of whom the name Kii-tu-moei
— that is to say, " Having the Nights very short in Summer " —
indicates the position to be near tlie Arctic cirole.

There is an account of this nation in the work of Ma Twan-
lin, entitled " Wen-hien-tong-Jcao,''^ and I have extracted what
he says upon the subject.

I have shown elsewhere that the passage from Europe to
America by the way of Northern Siberia must then have been
practicable, this sea being gradually filled up with the detritus
of great rivers which fall into it, and in this way it freezes more
and more each year, for it is known that deep seas do not freeze.
All these facts open new and important questions, and your use-
ful and weighty journal may well treat them.

Accept, etc.. Chevalier de Paravey.

Saint Germain, April 24, 1847.

'M'

DE PARAVEY'S NEW PROOFS.

Appendix A.

IN REGARD TO THE MEMOIR OF M. d'eICHTIIAL MEXTIONED BT M. MOnL.

Proof given in I84O of the Introduction of the Worship of Buddha into
America by Means of the East Indians of Cabul.

To the President of the Academy of Sciences :

Did certain bonzes of India, setting forth from Central Asia, in the
year 458 of our era, ?o to America by the way of Kamtchatka and tlie
northwestern part of the New World, in order to convert the nations that
lived there, and of which the existence has been known ever since ?

This is what is affirmed by the learned M. de Guignes. Sr., in the
"Memoires de I'Acad^mie des Inscriptions," where he has given a trans-
lation of the account of tlie voyage of these East Indian bonzes, taken
from the Groat Annals of China.

This has been since denied by M. Klaproth and M. von Humboldt, who
base their opinion upon some doubts expressed by the scliolarly Father
Gaubil, who had not suflSciently studied the question. I desire to state
my reasons for answering this question in the affirmative. I have no
doubt upon the subject, since discussing it with the learned Admiral M.
de Rossel, and exhaustively studying the memoir of M. de Guignes con-
cerning the navigations of the Chinese to the celebrated eastern land
which they called the country of Fu-sang, and wliich they placed some
two thousand leagues to the east of the shores of their empire and of
Tartary. But as neither my mere assertions nor those of others should
receive any more favourable consideration than has been given to the ex-
cellent work of M. de Guignes, Sr., and as the Academy of Sciences wishes
facts rather than words, I will call attention to the monuments of a portion
of Central Amerif a, hitherto almost unknown, at least in regard to its an-
tiquities; monuments to which I have already called the attention of the
Asiatic Society of Paris, of M. Burnouf, Jr., and of M. the Chevalier Jaubert,
and which they have igveed with me in recognizing as purely Buddhistic.

M. the Baron van der Cappelen, living near Utrecht, llolland, has
shown me large drawings of the temple of Boro-Boudor in Java, brought
from India by him. This ancient temple is circular, and is ornamented
with thousands of small, beauti 1 niches, in which the figure of the cele-
brated Indian god Buddha sits cross-legged, each niche being surmounted
by the monstrous and deformed head of Siva.

I could show the same idols in ancient Egypt, and at Axum, in Abys-
sinia ; but, in looking over the beautiful work of M. Waldeck, the skillful
artist and distinguished disciple of David, who was sent to Yucatan by the
generous and unfortunate Lord Kingsborough, I was surprised to see upon
the sketch of the southern facade of the vast square palace of the ruins of
Uxmal, near Merida, eight niches of the Indian Buddha, figured seated

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ns in Java, in the East Indies, and with the face decorated with coarse rays
surrounding it, and to see in addition a monstrous and flattened human
Iiead surmounting the square nicho and the cabin or house in which this
Indian Buddha is seated.

The resemblance of this Buddha of Yucatan with the fignro of the
Buddha of Java, published in " Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago" (vol. ii,
p. 200), ia such that M. Burnouf at first believed my sketches of the
ancient palace of Uxmal in Yucatan, sketches copied from Plato xvii of
M. Wuldeck's, to be of purely East Indian and Siamese origin, and not
American.

M. Burnouf knew that the worship of the monstrous Siva accompanied,
even in Siam and Nepal, the gentler worship of Buddha, and that their
images are often coupled, as in the temple of Boro-Boudor, in ancient
Java, in the Indian Archipelago, and as in particular Typhon and the
youiig Ilorus were coupled in ancient Egypt.

We find again, in the center of America, the same two figures, also
coupled, exactly copied, and, to the number of eight, ornamenting the
southern facade of an Oriental temple ; thus, as it seems to me, clearly
demonstrating the truth of the account of the voyage to Fu-sang, in
the year 458 a. d., translated from the Chinese by M. de Guignes, and
attributed to five Buddhists who set forth from Ky-pin or Cophene — that
is to say, from the country of Cabul in India.

In the "Annales de Philosophie Chr6tienne," vol. xii, p. 441, where an
analysis is given of the " Antiquit^s du Mexique," by Dupaix, the ex-
plorations are mentioned which he made at Zachilla, the capital of the
ancient kingdom of the Zapotecs, where ha found upon a rock the imprint
of a gigantic foot, an imprint in which M. de Paravey sees an imitation
of that which is worshiped upon Adam's Peak in Ceylon, and of which
the nations of Ava and P6gn, of the Buddhist religion, have alao similar
imitations; in addition. Colonel Dupaix also found in this place an idol,
seated, the hands crossed upon the breast, and which can be nothing else
than one of the figures of Sakya, or Buddlia.

There, according to the " Jonmey of the Shamans," since translated by
M. R^musat, was the country of Buddhism, and of the monstrous idola-
tries of India ; deplorable alterations from the pure worship founded in
Indo-Persia by Shem, in whom we see the celebrated Eeu-tsi of the Chi-
nese.

There we hear of the two imaginary planets Ragu and Cetu, the head
and tail of the dragon, the nodes of the moon, the cause of eclipses,
and the place of the conjunctions ; and these planets are draten at full
length upon the tceatern fapade of the palace of Uxmal in Yucatan, being
interlaced so as to form knots or nodes, and having feathers instead of
scales, thus showing that they are intended for aSrial beings. All this
points to an ancient hieroglyphic astronomy, in which the spirals of the

DE PARAVEY'S NEW PROOFS.

Bun, in its apparent course from one tropic to the otlior, are symbolized
by a dragon or a vast boa-constrictor, a tiling quite natural as an image.

So, in Chinese, or ancient Babylonian, an eclipse of the sun is written
by a picture of the tun eaten by a dragon, or serpent, and nn eclipse
of the moon by the figure of the moon eaten hy a dragon. In Chinese
ji g, ehi 1^, is an eclipse of the sun, ond yiie ^, chi fj^, an eclipse of
the moon; these phrases being used to convey the idea that the heavenly
bodies are swallowed little ty little— Chi, ^ ("Diet. Chin.," No. 9505),
the phonetic, means "to eat," and when this is united with the radi-
cal chong, ^, that of the serpent, the two together signify "to eat Uttlc
by little as the boas swallow their food." Notwithstanding the fact that
the art of calculating eclipses is known in China, the common people
believe only in making a noise to frighten this imagmary dragon, this
feathered or atrial boa.

To find the picture at full length of these Chinese and East Indian
superstitions, at Uxmal in Yucatan, end to see every evidence of a dupli-
cation in America of the Buddha of Jura — an island which also contains
at Suku a tcocalli, or ancient pyramidal temple, similar to that of Uxmal
in America, drawn by M. Waldeck (see his " Voyage au Yucatan ") — have
appeared to me to be important and decisive facts. I hope that they, when
brought to general notice by publication in the Society's Transactions, will
attract the attention of educated Americans, and show tliem that their
country and its ruins are worthy of more careful study than they have as
yet received, and that they will lead to other explorations than those liith-
erto made, which have been but little better than nothing.

To defend the learned author of the " History of the Huns," relying
here upon the wise geographer Buache, against the ill-founded objections
of M. Klaproth, has also appeared to me to be very important, and I do
not believe that any one can now deny the voyages of the Indo-Tartars
to America, and that nearly one thousand years before Columbus.

I could give further proofs of the connection of Uxmal, Palenque, and
Tulha with India, but fear to trespass too greatly upon your space.

Ohevalieb de Paravey.
Paris, July SO, ISIfi.

Appendix B

TO CUB LETTER TO THE ACADEMY.

Kexo Proofs of the Introduction of the Worsh ip of Buddha into America, or
into the Country of Fu-sang. Which was the First Country converted
to this Religion in the Xew World?

One of the countries of America which was first converted by the
shamans of Cabul, arriving from the southern point of Kamtchatka at

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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tlie excellent port of San Francisco, in California, to tlie north of Monte-
rey, must evidently have been the country upon the banka of the Colorado
River, a large river which flows through these some regions froai the
north to the south and falls into the northern end of the Gulf of California.
Now, in the useful translations of the Spanish authors made by M. Ter-
naux-(Jompans, we find that Castatteda placed near the Colorado River, in
a small island, a sanctuary of Lamaisra, or of Buddhism. He mentions a
divine personage living in a small house near a lake upon this island, and
called, as he says, " Quatu-zaca," who was reputed never to eat.

Maize, deer-skin mantles, and cloth made of feathers were offered to
him in great quantities ; and in the same place (which proves a coloniza-
tion) they also made many little bells of copper.

Even the name of this deified lama, or of this idol Quatu-zacn, contains
the Tii'*tar and East Indian name '' Xaca," written Shi-kia iu Chinese, and
" Sakya " in Sanscrit, the nan^e of the celebrated god Buddha ; a remark
which we are the first to make, and " Quatu " may indicate his origin as
of " Cathay." *

Castaneda adds that the nations of these countries were very peace-
able and gentle, never waged war, and (abstaining from flesh) lived solely
upon three or four kinds of very good fruits-
It is therefore impossible to fail to see here an nn'iient colony of Bud-
dhists, or of lamas, a colony which in turn pushed its branches into Mex-
ico, Yucatan, Bogota, and 3ven to Peru, a country of very civilized customs.
The Mexicans, frightfully cruel in their recent idolatries, are, as is
known, emigrants from Uie northeast of Asia and from the northwestern
part of America, but much more recent; and before their orrival in
these beautiful countries it is to be believed, as is stated in the account
of Fu-sang, that the gentle and fraternal religion of the Buddhists, the
remnants of the race of Shem, reigned there exclusively.

Even the title of the shamans, who came there in 458, is derived from
the Sanscrit "wamana," which signifies "peaceful," M. Pauthier tells us;
end this name is afterward found again in Mexico, where M, Ternaux-
Compans (Mexican Vocabulary, in his translation of the old Spanish authors)
gives Amanam as the name of the p-'ests and the diviners, a word which
evidently may at first have been pronounced Chamanani, Samanani,
Shamaneana. CnFTALiER de Pabavet.

Saint Germain, Apvil 26, 1847.

* The name " Cathav " was, however, U9C() ns a name of the Kingdom of
China,'"" OP of its northern portion, and not of ludia.'^o' — E. P. V.

DE PARAYEY'S NEW PROOFS.

Appendix C.

IN RKOABD TO THE FlOrRE OP A NATIVE OP FC-SANO FOCTND IN CHINESE
BOOKS, AND NOW PUBLISHED FOU THE FIRST TIME.

To what Country of America can the almost Kude Man^ which the Chi-
nese Books picture as an Inhabitant of Fu-sang, have helongedf

As may bo seen by t!ic engraving,* the Cliinese supposed that the men
who inhabited the countrv of Fu-sang were ahnost naked. Now, it r ay
be said that the inhabitants of North America are fully clothed. Thi.i is
true of the greater part of the country ; but in th 3 " Voyage to the Mouth
of the Columbia River " of Lewis «& Clark (page 302, and also page 507),
at latitude 46° 18' north, these explorers found the Chinook Indians, and
in a village upon the Isknd of Deer, they found women who, instead of
short petticoats, had a simple truss alout the loins, or a narrow skin cov-
ering this part of their bodiec.

Tliey say (page 2*^6) that the Indians living near the Columbia River,
owing to the mildness of the climate, always have the legs and feet bare,
even in winter; and never wear more than small robes, even in cold
weather ; or skin aprons and a kind of cloak upon the shoulders (page
310). The moccasins for the feet and legs are not used, except in Canada
and near Hudson's Bay, where the climate is much colder.

So the man of Fu-aang, shown as almost nude in the old drawing from
the Pian-y-tien and the Chinese Cyclopajdia, must have lived near the
Columbia River in the neighbourhood of California, a rich and beautiful
country of a very mild and temperate climate, the country of Oregon,
regarding which, Spain, England, and the United States are now dis-
puting.

In addition, if we open the " Exploration de TOregon et de la Cali-
fornia," published in iS44 by M. Duflot de Mofras (vol. ii, page 250), we
see, in fact, that these Indians therein described have only the loins or the
middle of the body covered ; and this exactly as in the plate of the na-
tive of Fu-sang, a plate reproduced since the year 499 of our era in all the
foreign geographies published in China and Japan.

Everything, therefore, ju . Jfies my conjectures. As to the spotted hind
and its fawn, we have cited M. von Humboldt in regard to the Cervus Mex-
icanus of L'nneeus. An'"' we point out, in this connection also, in order to
show that the natives know how to keep them in herds and tame them,
the " Voyage en Amerique " by M. de Chateaubriand (in 8vo, vol. i, page

* It has not been thought advi!>:;blc to give a copy of ihe engraving, to which
reference is made, as tucre is no reason for believing it to be anything more than
a sketch made from the fancy of the Chinese artist. — E. P. V.

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

130), wlioro ho speaks of tlio liindM of Canada, a charraing sort of hornless
roindoor, which they tamed there, ho telU us.

ClIEVALIEn DE PaHAVEY.

(Extract from No. 00 (June, 1847) of the " Annales do Thilosophio
Chr6tienne.")

BEFUTATIOX OF THE OPINION EXPRESSED BY M. JOMARD THAT THE NATIONS
OF AMERICA NEVER HAD ANY CONNECTION WITH THOSE OF ASIA.

(Extract from the number of May, iS^O, of the ^^Annalet de Philosophie

C'hretienne.^')

TnE essay opens with a statement of the importance of geogrophical
study, in assisting to open up commerce with foreign nations; disputes
the unchristian idea that the people of America can have been Autoch-
thones; gives a resume of former arguments regarding i^u-<an^; and adds
the following new matter :

In addition to the Phoenician and East Indian art of dyeing purple with
the mitrex, and the art of fishing for pearls, which is found near Panama,
in the countries of Guaxaca and of Chacahua in America, there also exists
another art, purely East Indian, which of itself demonstrates the arrival
of the Buddhists of Cabul in America, named by them the country of the
Extreme East — that is to say in Chinese, the country of Fu-tang. This art
is that of using the cochineal insect of the nopal i)lant, an art equally found
at Guaxaca, and which produces the wealth of this central country of
America.

In 1795, at Madras in Indio, Mjyor Anderson showed, in a special essay,
that the cochineal insect and the nopal plant upon which it lives are found
in India and toward the countries of Lahore and Cabul ; and he thought
that from these they must have been imported into America, into the
country of Honduras near Mexico ; but he does not show how.*

* The substance of the article that is referred to '^'^ is, that cochineal insects
were brought from Rio Janeiro to Calcutta, and that, when they reached the latter
place, the nopal plants upon which they lived were so nearly dead that none of
them could be revived. The insects were therefore tried upon all the varieties of
nopal that could be obtained, iucluding a variety from the Cape of Oood Hope, one
from Mauritius, and a number of others, but could not live upon any of them, with
the exception of a variety found growing in Bengal, which had a flower exactly
similar to that of the nopal upon which the insects grew in America, and which
seemed to be the same plant. Upon this the insects thrived.

W. Roxbargh says this variety " seems to be a native of Bengal ; at least it has
been long kno>'n."

James Ande.'son says " it is common over all the Camatic " ; and he again
E'pcaks of it as " common and indigenous," and also says " it is common as far

ff:

DE PaRAVEY'S new PROOFS.

Now, the ftcoount of Fu-mng attrilnitca precisely to these Eust Indians
of Ky-pin, or of Cubulistnn, the civilization of Aiiiciicft, which must have
preceded the ferocious ond sanguinary religion of the Tartars of Mexico.

These peaceful and Buddhistic Indians occupied theniselves with coin-
tnorco and useful arts. Having known in their own country how to
utilize the precious lac insect as well as that of the no]ial, and tinding tho
nopal ill Mexico, they must have also carried there tho insect which lives
upon it, or, if it existed there, they made use of it as a means of preparing
cochineal, an art that is purely East Indian and Asiatic.

Merely tho names of Guaxaca, Chacahua, Zachita, and Zacapn, found
in Honduras and Guatemala, demonstrate the presence of the.so Huddhists
in tlieso countries, since "Xaca" and "Sakyu," or " Wa'-Aw," ore tho
well-known Asiatic names of the celebrated divinity /i>, or the Indian
Buddha, a god represented as seated with crossed legs, the figure of which,
drawn at Uxmal in Yucatan without recognition, by M. de "Waldeck, the
artist sent by the late Lord Kicgsborough, baa been first brought into
notice by us.

The character »A/, ^, of the name "iS7/i-i-/rt," or "Sakya," signifies

•'to release, to dismiss, to pardon"; and ^ho character kia, jUlI, "to sit
with the legs crossed," exactly as tho figure found at Uxmal by M, Wal-
deck is seated. Ciievalibb dk Paravey.

north as Nopal, where they say an Insect lives on it with which they dye red."
There is no proof, however, that this was the cochineal insect.

Al this time different varieties of the cactus had been introduced from
America into almost all parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and had long been com-
mon in many districts. There is nothing to show that the nopal, then found in
Bengal, had not been introduced from America some time during the three centuries
elapsing between the discovery of America and the date referred to in the article.
And there ic one fact, which seems to render it almost certain that the plant had
been introduced from Mexico, and at a comparatively recent date, as it is stated
that " the Bengalese call their cactus ' necg-penny,' or ' nag-penny.' " It Is evident
that this is a corruption of the Mexican term " nopalli," or " nochpalli " ; and if the
plant had been introduced in Hwui ShSti'i time, thirteen centuries before, the name
would probably have changed more than this during that length of time. There
is really no reason to believe that the plant had been introduced into India before
the discovery of America by Columbus. By the end of tho eighteentli century the
prickly pear, or Indian fig, had become wild In India, just as it had in many other
countries where It is known that it was carried early In the sixteenth century.
It seems to have been widely distributed, not only for its fruit, but as a curiosity,
and as It throve well In nearly all tropical lands, it soon grew wild and spread it-
self over the country. — E. P. V.

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CHAPTER VI.

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rEUMANN's MOXOGHAPII.

Tlic knowledge of foreign nations posscsacd by the Chinese — Their precepts — The
journey of Lao-tse — Einbussies and spies — Knowledge derived from foreign
visitors — Its preservation in Chinese records — The introduction of lUuldhism
—Its command to extend its doctrines to all nations — Chinese system of ge-
ography ond ethnology — The unity of the Tartars and Kcd-skins — American
languages — The Tunguscs, or Eastern Rarbiirians — The Pe-ti, or Northern Bar-
barians — The Ainos, or Jebis, and the Negritos — The Wen-shin, or Pictured-
pcople — Embassies between China and Japan — The Country of Dwarfs — The
Chinese " Book of Mountains and Seas " — Information given by a Japanese
embassador — Kamtchatka, the Tchuktchi, and the Aleuts — Lieukuci — The
length of the It — Licu-kuei, a peninsula — The land of the Je-Uhay — The na-
tives of Kamtchatka — Their dwellings— Their clothing — The climate — The
animals of the country — The customs of the people — The country of the Wen-
shin identiGed with the Aleutian Islands — Ta-han, or Alaska — The kingdom
of Fusang and its inhabitants — The Amazons — Fu-sang identified with the
western portion of America called Mexico — The fu-sang tree — Only one voy-
age made — Chinese accounts of Fu-sang — The distance from Ta-han, or Alas-
ka, indicates that Fu-iang is Mexico^The oldest history of America — Suc-
cessive tribes — The ruins of Mitla and Fulcnque — Something of earlier races
to be learned from the condition of the Aztecs — Pyramidical monuments — If
Buddhism existed in America, it was an impure form — The myth of Huitzilo-
pochtli — The/M.«an(7, the maguey, or Agave AmetHcana — Connection between
the flora of America and that of Asia — Metals and money — Laws and customs
of the Aztecs — Domestic animals — Horses — Oxen — Stag-horns — Chinese and
Japanese in the Hawaiian group and in Noi'thwestern America — Shipwrecks
upon the American coast — The voyages of the Japanese.

Eastern Asia and Western America, according to Chinese Au-
thorities of the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Centuries — by Karl
D'iedrich Xeumann.^*^

1. The Knowledge of Foreign Nations possessed by
THE Chinese. — As, in the eyes of the Chinese, the " Middle
Kingdom " was the most cultured upon earth, its precepts re-

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NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

quirod that it flhould not only proHervc its customs and laws as
handed down from former generations, hut that it should extend
these customs and laws abroad beyond the liinitaof the country.
It was added that this extension of knowledge should not bo
brought about by the art of persuasion of any missionaries, or by
the compulsive force of armed troops. A true renovation could
only take place, as in the case of every other healthy organic
growth, when the pressure was from within outward ; when the
surrounding barbarians, irresistibly attracted by the virtue and
majesty of the Sons of Heaven, and ashamed of their barbarism,
should voluntarily obey the image of the Heavenly Father and
become men.

A people actuated hy such a spirit would undertake no voy-
ages of discovery, and would carry on no wars of conquest ; and
during the history of this Oriental land, covering a period of four
thousand years, no single prominent man is named who journeyed
into foreign lands in order to improve himself or others. The
journey of Lao-tse to the West, from which he neither returned
nor wished to return, appears to have been a myth, designed to
connect his teaching regarding the " Primitive and Infinite Wis-
dom " with the western " Mountain of the Gods " or with Bud-
dhism. The campaigns which were undertaken beyond the
limits which nature has set to the Chinese empire were merely
the result of eflForts at self-preservation. In Central as in East-
em Asia, in Thibet as on the Irawaddy, it is necessary to take
precautions against dangers and disasters which might ultimately
threaten the liberty of the nation. As is not infrequently the case,
in Europe as well as in Asia, it becomes necessary to send embas-
sies and spies into surrounding regions in order to obtain infor-
mation as to their situation and condition, as well as to the cir-
cumstances and intentions of the inhabitants, of a nature which
might prove of service in military expeditions and negotiations
with the enemies of the empire. Moreover, the glorious and for-
tunate " Middle Kingdom " allured not only barbarians eager for
spoils, but also merchants eager for gain, since several articles,
such as silk, tea, and genuine rhubarb, were found only here.
The Chinese government, like its people, has been controlled by
the precepts of its sages, and has at all times received strangers
humanely and courteously, as long at least as they yielded un-
conditional obedience, or otherwise showed submission and fear ;

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and, according to Oriental custom, their gifts were repaid by
othei's more valuable. All these discoveries, and all the informa-
tion obtained in their different peaceable or warlike methods,
whether i*elating to the neigbouring nations or to those dwelling
in the most distant parts ot the earth, were noted in the last divis-
ion of the Anrnal Registers of Chinese history, of which, from
our point of view, they constitute the most valuable portion.

The arrogance auiT vanity of the Chinese people were part-
ly eradicated, however, by means of the introduction of Bud-
dhism, and its gradual conquest of the countries of Eastern Asia.
He who believed in the divine mission of the Son of the King of
Kapilapura must recognize every human being as his equal and
brother ; yes, must strive — for the ancient religion of Buddha,
as in the case of many others of its dogmas and customs, agreed
with the more youthful religion of Christianity in this point also
— to extend the gospel of redemption to all nations upon the face
of the earth ; and, for this purpose, following the example of the
divine-manj must be ready to take upon himself all conceivable
sufferings and labours. We therefore find a number of Bud-
dhist monks and priests going forth from Central Asia and
China, from Japan and Corea. "^o known and unknown regions,,
either for the purpose of obtaining information as to their dis-
tant brothers in the faith or to preach the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity to unbelievers. The accounts of these missionaries'
travels, of which we possess several, viewed from a geographical
and ethnological standpoint, are among the most important and
instructive works of the entire body of Chinese literature. From
them is derived the greatest part of the information which we
shall give regarding Northeastern Asia and the countries of the
western coast of America; information which has descended from
centuries that until now have been concealed from view by dark-
est night.

2. Their System of Geography and Ethnology. — Arro-
gance and vanity are the basis whereupon the Chinese built
most of their peculiar system of geography and ethnology.
Around the "Central Flowei'," so they were taught by their
sages, dwelt rude, uncouth nations, which in reality were but
animals, although they had the form and figure of the human
race. Because of this assumed animal nature, the inhabitants
of the " Central Flower " gave them nicknames of all kinds :

" .aatB^r-jrnjj^JtiuTt^

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

doffS, swine, demons, and b?,rbarians, wero the distinguishing
names which they gave to foreigners dwelling in the four cardi-
nal directions ; to the east, west, no i, and south. The few
western investigatoi's and historians, who have thought it worth
the trouble to devote their attention to the fallow field of the
history of Eastern and Central Asia, have unquestionably fol-
lowed the ethnographical system resting upon these limited geo-
graphical elements. It therefore sometimes happens that races
are represented as belonging to the same family, which in fact
have no connection, and sometimes one and the same nation is
divided up among different families ; this occurring especially
amono- the numerous and widely extended family of the Tartars.
3. TiiK Unity of the Tartars and Red-skins. — The Tun-
guses and Mongolians and a great portion of the Turks origi-
nally formed (according to the important indications of their
bodily figure, as well as the elements of their languages) a single
family of nations, really connected with the Esquimaux (the
Skraelings or dwarfs of the Norsemen) as well as with the races
and tribes of the New World. This is the solid, irrefutable re-
sult of the latest researches in the fields of comparative anatomy
and physiology, as well as in those of comparative philology and
history. All researches point in the end to their unity. The Red-
skins have all the different peculiarities which can remind us of
their neighbours on the other side of Behring's Strait. They have
a four-cornered or round head, high cheek-bones, heavy jaws,
large four-cornered eye-sockets, and a low, retreating forehead.
The skulls of the oldest Peruvian graves show the same pecul-
iarities as the heads of the nomadic Indians of Oregon and
California ; £.nd Gallatin, in his researches in the field in which
he stands alone, has shown * that the American languages as a
whole have such a similarity that, however different their vo-
cabularies may be, they all point back to a common origin. All
researches regarding the manner in which America was peopled
lead to the same final conclusion. Since the earth has been in-
habited, these natives have dwelt in the neighbouring regions of
Asia and America. The rude masses have in the course of cen-
turies, by means of different processes of civilization, been sepa-
rated into different races and nations, each of a peculiar physi-
cal type — a consequence of the higher mental tendencies — and

* Baer, in the " Bcitr&ge zur Kcntnlss des RusaischcQ Reiclics," vol. i> p. 279.
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numerous languages have grown up; yet they still bear sufficient
tokens of their original unity, in their physical peculiarities, as
well aa in their languages, their customs, and their habits. This
unity is shown by their genealogy (the oldest historical system
of all nations which know only a single original ancestor), which
leads the Turks, Mongols, and Tunguses back to the same ori-
gin.* Among the Tartarian hordes we find a relationship simi-
lar to that which existed between the different German races.
The Ostrogoths and Visigoths, the Ostphalians and Westpha-
lians, the men of the north and men of the south, belonged in
their essential nature to one and the same Teutonic family, not-
withstanding the differences in their culture and their destiny.

4. The Tunguses, the Eastern Barbarians. — All the nu-
merous Tartaric tribes which wandered about, or dwelt north-
easterly from the Middle Kingdom, were called by the civilized
southern people Tong-hu, "Eastern Red-men, or Barl arians,"
from which term our word " Tunguse " has sprung, which has
since been applied to the people of a much smaller section of
country. Among the Tong-hu the Mongolians were prominent,
many centuries before Chinggis Chakan, distinguished by the
slightly different names of Wog or 3fog, and divided into seven
tribes, whose abodes stretched from the Corean Peninsula high
up into the North, across the Amoor River, and to the Eastern
Ocean — that is to say, to the Gulf of Anadir, or to Behring's
Strait. The nomadic races, called Pe-ti, or " Northern Barbari-
ans," dwelt more directly north ; and many tribes were sometimes
described as belonging to the Tunguses, and sometimes to the
Pe-ti. In one way and another the Chinese obtained an aston-
ishingly accurate knowledge of the northeastern coast of the
Asiatic Continent, which, as is shown by their observations in
astronomy and natural history, extended to the sixty-fifth degree
of latitude, and even to the Arctic Ocean. f Among other ac-
counts, they tell of a country, inhabited by a small tribe, called
Kolihariy or Chorhan, which during the latter half of the seventh
century sent several embassies to the court at Singan. This
country lay on the North Sea, far from the " Middle Kingdom,"

* The " Shajrat ul Atrak," or Genealogical Tree of the Turks and Tartars,
translated by Colonel Miles, London, 1838. Tung^ or Tungm, is here (p. 25) rep-
resented as a son of Thirk.

f Gaubil, "Observations Slathematiques," Paris, 1732, vol. ii, p. 110.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

and beyond, still farther north, and on the other side of this sea,
the days were sometimes so long and the nights so short that
the sun sank and rose again before a breast of mutton could be
roasted.* The Chinese were well acquainted with the customs
of these hordes, which completely resembled those of the present
Tchuktchi, the Koljushes, f and other families of Northeast-
ern Asia and Northwestern America. " These barbarians," they
say, " have neither oxen, sheep, nor other domestic animals ; but,
as some compensation for the lack of these animals, they make use
of deer, which are very numerous." The deer spoken of are un-
doubtedly reindeer, which have also been described by European
voyagers as resembling the common deer. J " Of agriculture these
petty tribes know nothing. They support themselves by hunt-
ing and fishing, and upon the root of a plant that is found there
in great abundance. Their dwellings are built of brush-wood
and pieces of larger wood, and their clothing is made of birds'-
feathers and the skins of wild animals. Their dead are laid in
coffins, which are hung on trees growing in the mountain ranges.
They know nothing of any division of the year into different
seasons." *

The Chinese were also as well acquainted with the tribes
which dwelt directly east as with these northern nations.

5. The Ainos, or Jebis, and the Negritos. — Even as early
as the reign of the Chexi dynasty, in the times of David and
Solomon, the limits of Chinese civilization reached to the Pacific
Ocean. The numerous neighbouring groups of islands were known
in the kingdom and visited for the purpose of trading. Their
inhabitants sent embassies to the court, which offered all kinds
of presents, that are described in full in the Shu-king, or Chinese
Book of Annals. Moreover, it often happened, and still happens,
that China sent forth a part of its overflowing or discontented
population to those islands which were either sparsely settled,

* " Ma Tioan-lhi," Book 348, p. 6.

f " Koljushi," or " Koljaki," is the name of the pegs which these barbarians
wear in their under lip, and from these they originally derived their name. The
Russians who govern this land afterward called them " Galochcs " (from that
word of the French language), the name being at first applied only in jest. In
the course of time, however, this word superseded the earlier name " Koljukes,"
so that they are now universally called " Kaloshes."

X Forster, " Schifffahrtcn im Norden," Frankfort, 1784, p. 838.

• " J/a Tivan-lin," Book 344, p. 18.

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

or,in some cases, entirely uninhabited, colonies having thus been
sent to Japan, to Lieu-kuei, and to Tai-wan or Formosa, of which
fact we possess explicit historical testimony. The family of the
Ainos, or Jebis, stretching from Japan to Kamtchatka, over the
Kurile and the Aleutian Islands and far away into the North,
where it meets the allied family of the Esquimaux, must have
appeared especially remarkable to these Chinese-Mongolian colo-
nists and traders (who themselves possessed but scanty beards)
on account of the strong growth of hair with which the bodies
of these Ainos were covered. On this account they were called
Mao-jin (or, according to the Japanese pronunciation of the
Chinese characters, Mo-ain), meaning " Hairy -people " ; or, from
the numerous sea-crabs which the ocean in these regions throws
up upon the beach,* Hia-i (or, according to the Japanese pro-
nunciation, Jesso) — that is to say, " Crab-barbarians." Moreover,
because the Ainos, like the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands,
and other barbarians, have the custom of tattooing themselves
with all kinds of figures, they were also called Wen-shin, or
" Pictured-people." In the course of time still other names were
applied to them ; but he who is governed by a knowledge of the
nature of these regions and their inhabitants, immediately recog-
nizes that the different descriptions and accounts all relate to the
same family of the Ainos. We are indebted to the repeated em-
bassies, which in earlier times went back and forth between China
and Japan, for a great part of the information contained in the
Annual Registers of the " Middle Kingdom " regarding the north-
easterly and southeasterly islands and tribes, and, although much
that is fabulous is undoubtedly contained in their accounts, still
even their most incredible tales may contain some element of
truth. So in the Chu-shu, or "Dwarfs," dwelling far distant
from Japan in a southerly direction, having black bodies, naked
and ugly, who murder and eat strangers, we immediately recog-
nize the inhabitants of New Guinea or Papua.f The Ainos are
first mentioned by the name of " the Hairy-people," in the Chi-
nese " Book of Mountains and Seas," a work dating from the
third or second century before our era, and richly adorned with
wonderful tales. It says that they live in the Eastern Sea, and

I* " Bcschreibung der Eurilischen und Alcutischen laseln " translated from the
Russian into Ger<nan, Ulm, 1792, p, 16.
t ♦' MaTwan-lin;' Book 327, p. 37.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

!IM

have hair growing over their entire body. * Several of these
people accompanied a Japanese embassy to the " Middle King-
dom " in the year 659 a. d. In the Annual Register of the Tang
dynasty they are called " Crab-barbarians," and the following
observation is added : " They had long beards and lived north-
easterly from Japan " ; they presented arrows, bows, and deer-
skins, as the chronicle states, as offerings to the throne.f

These were inhabitants of Jesso, which island had shortly be-
fore (in 658 A. D.) been conquered by the Japanese and made
tributary to them. The questions of the " Son of Heaven " of
the Tang dynasty and the answers of the Japanese embassador
are given as follows :

The Ruler of the Tang Dynasty. — Does the celestial auto-
crat enjoy continual peace ?

The Embassador. — Heaven and earth unite their gifts, and
constant peace results.

The Ruler of the Tang Dynasty. — Are the officers of the
kingdom well selected ?

The Embassador. — The grace of the Heavenly Ruler is be-
stowed upon them and they remain well.

The Rider of the Tang Dynasty. — Does internal peace pre-
vail?

The Embassador. — The government stands in accord with
heaven and earth — the people have no cause for complaint.

The Ruler of the Tang Dynasty. — Where does this land of
Jesso lie ?

The Embassador. — To the northeast.

The Rider of the Tang Dynasty. — How many kinds of " Crab-
barbarians " are there ?

The Embassador. — Three : the most distant we call Tsugaru
(after which the Strait of Sangar, between Japan and Jesso, is
named) ; the nearest Ara^ and the next Niki. The men here

* The Shan-hai-kinff, quoted in the " Hlstoire dca Trois Royaumes," translated
by TitsJngh, Paris, 1832, p. 213. Klaproth has, in accordance with his well-known
deceptive manner, attempted to pass off this translation as his own.

f Tangshic, or "Annual Register of the Tang Dynasty," Book 220, p. 98.
" Ma Twati-lin" Book 326, p. 23, where the account, as usual, is mutilated. Ti-
tsingh, " Annalcs dcs Empereurs du Japan," Paris, 1834, p. 52. There is an agree-
ment between the Chinese and Japanese Annual Registers upon this subject, that
is worthy of notice.

IN If!

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

with U8 belong to these last. They come annually with their
tribute to the court of our kingdom.

The Elder of the Tang Dynasty. — Does this land produce
grain ?

27*6 Embassador. — No ; the inhabitants live upon flesh.

The Jitder of the Tang Dynasty. — Have they houses ?

The Embassador. — No ; they dwell in the mountain ranges
among the trunks of trees.*

Since this time in the seventh ccniury, several military expe-
ditions have been undertaken agains': these neighbouring " North-
ern Barbarians," by the adjoining civilized kingdom, which have
generally resulted successfully. The inhabitants of Jesso, how-
ever, usually rose again after a short time, drove ihe Japanese
garrison out of the land, and surrendered themselves anew to
the wild freedom that was enjoyed by other members of the
same family upon the neighbouring islands. Even now, as we
learn from diflFerent sources, the Japanese rule over only a small
part of this island so rich in gold mines.

Jesso easily leads to an acquaintance with Kamtchatka, which
happened to be also fully described for us at s b*^ same time, as
is shown by the following account :

6. Kamtchatka, the Tciiuktciii, and the Aleuts. —
Ziieii-kuei, or Ling-goei^ as the Kamtchatdaies of the present
day still call their fellow-countrymen on the Penshinish Bay,f
is described in the Annual Registers of the "Middle King-
dom " as fifteen thousand Chinese miles distant from the capital ;
this standard of distance (the li^ or Chinese mile), according to
the renowned astronomer I-han, was, in the time of the T'ang

* Kippon-ki — that is to say, " The Annual Registers of Japan," from 661 b. c.
to 696 A. D., which were completed in the year '720. They embrace thirty volumes
in 8vo, The portion translated by Hoffman ia found in the 26th vol., p. 9, or
vol. viii, p. 130, of Siebold's "Japanese Archives."

f Steller, " Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka," Leipzig, 1V34, p. 3.
The words between quotation-marks are translated literally from the Annual
Registers of the Tang dynasty (Tanffshu, Book 220, p. 19). The remainder
is explanatory, and is mostly added from Steller. The Annual Registers of the
Tatiff dynasty have also been compared with the article of 3fa Twan-lm (Book 847,
p. 6), which indeed seems to have been borrowed from the Tangshu, but it
is arranged in better order, and also contains much original matter, on which
account I have used it as the basis of my work. The compiler of the Encyclopa;-
dia of Kang-hi (Yucn-kien-luihan) contented himself (Book 241, p. 19), as in
many other places, ffith transcribing from Ma Twan-lin.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPU.

dynasty, contained about 338 times in one of our geograpliical
degrees.

Now, Si-ngan, the Chinese capital during the reign of the
Tang dynasty, is in the district of Shan-si, 34° 15' 34' north
latitude and 106° 34' 0' east longitude from Paris.

Peter and Paul's Haven in Kamtchatka is situated in 53° 0'
59" north latitude and 153° 19' 56" east longitude from Paris.

The distance between these two points wonderfully confirms
the accounts of the Chinese Annual Registers, and leaves no
room for doubt as to the identity of Kamtchatka with Lieu-
kueif for we may well be satisfied when such rough estimates,
which may have been made by semi-barbarous sailors or by the
barbarous inhabitants, come, in so great a distance, within two
or three degrees of astronomical results.

*' This land lies in a northeasterly direction from the ' Black
River,' or the ' Black-dragon River ' (the Amoor) and the coun-
try of the Mo-ko, from which it is reached by a sailing-voyage of
fifteen days' duration, which is the time usually occupied by the
Mo-ko upon the voyage." As has already been indicated, these
Mo-ko are the Mongolians, who in former centuries, and even up
to the times of the Ihng dynasty, extended from Corea, on
the south, to the farther side of the Amoor River, on the
north ; the western boundary of the country which they inhab-
ited being unknown. In the east, as is expressly declared in our
authorities, they roamed as far as to the ocean — i. c., to the Paci-
fic Ocean — from the coast of which they could easily cross to the
islands of the Pacific and to the continent of America. That
this really happened, is indicated by the physical resemblance
between the inhabitants of the two countries and the relation-
ship between the Mongolian languages and the idioms of several
tribes of American Indians. The distance from Ochotsk to the
peninsula lying opposite is only about one hundred and fifty
German miles, and the natives of this region are in fact accus-
tomed to making this journey by water in from ten to fourteen
days.

" Lieu-kuei lies northerly from the Northern Sea, by which
it is surrounded upon three sides. On the north the penmsula is
bounded by the land of the Je-tshay, or Tchuktchi,* of which

* In the " Tangsi, u " there is a typographical error. Instead of Pc-hai, " the
North Sea,'' the name is given as Shao-hai, " the Little Sea." The proper read-

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the limits are not clearly dcfincil. From Karatchatka to Je-
tahay is a month's journey, and beyond it is an unknown land,
from which no embassy ever came to the * Middle Kingdom.'
Neither fortified places nor walled cities are found in this land ;
the people live Bcatt^.rc^l about upon the islands of the sea, and
upon the banks along the rivers and the sea, of which they salt
and preserve the fish."

Steller also assures us that the dwellings of the Ittllmen —
i. e., the natives of Karatchatka — are found along t' rivers, en
the inner sea, and at the mouths of small rivers, especially in
such of these places as are provided with trees and bushes. Fish
are found in incredible numbers, and salmon ire especially numer-
ous ; they are prepared in many ways, but chiefly by salcing,* so
as to serve for food both for man and beast throughout the lonj?
winters. The races living still farther north live also, almost
exclusively, upon fish, from which fact they have received the
name " Eskimantik," or '-Eskimo," that is to say, "Raw-fish
eaters."!

" Their dwellings consist of pits, which they dig quite deep
in the earth, and then wall up with thick, unhewn wooden
planks." These serve only as their winter residences, their sum-
mer residences being set upon posts, like our pigeon-houses.
The Italraen dig the earth out from three to five feet deep,
making an excavation in the shape of a long rectangular paral-
lelogram, and as large as may be required to accommodat j their
families. They throw the excavated earth all around the bor-
ders of the pit in a pile two feet broad. Then they prepare
willow stakes five or six feet long, and drive them i to the
ground close together along the wall of the pit, so that they
reach to the same height as the earthen wall. Between these
stakes and the earth they place dry straw, so that the earth may
not fall through and by immediate contact with the articles con-
tained in the dwelling cause them to become mouldy or rusty.

ing is found in the two Encyclopaedias already named. Jc-tshay-kuo, which here
means " the Land of the Je-tshay" is also named only in the two Encyclopaedias.
The arrogant Chinese love to write the names of foreign nations with characters
which are insulting and abusive in their meanings. The name Lieu-kud is there-
fore written with characters meaning " the Dysenteric Devils," and Je-ishay with
characters meaning " the Devil's Attendants."

♦Steller, pp. 169, 210, 211.

t Mithridates, iii, 3-425.

I-

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

In the middle of the pit they make the fire-place, between
four Hlcnder pilf^s, which ari> fastened above at one Hide of the
entrance, which is near t'ae fire-place, and serves also as a chim-
ney through which the smoke escapes. Opposite the fire-place
thty make a channel in the ground from eight feet to two fath-
oms long (the p '-e and length being dependent upon the size of
the dwelling), which extends outside of the house, which is
opened when a fire is kindled and closed when the fire is allowed
to go out. This air-opening is made in any side of the dwelling
without regard to the cardinal points, care being only taken that
it should always open toward t' 3 ri^cr near which the house is
placed. The wind can usually find free entrance, but, when
it comes in too strongly, they place a cover over the air- opening
as a protection against it. When it is desired to enter the dwell-
ing, it is necessary to go in through the opening in the roof,
which serves as a chimney, and descend a ladder or a tree-trunk,
in which notches in which to place the feet have been hewed.
Difficult as this is to a European, especially when a fire is burn-
ing and there seems danger of stifling from the smoke, it seems
a very easy matter to the Ittllmen. The little children usually
creep through the air-channel, which also serves as a cupboard
in which the cooking and table utensils are stored. Internally,
the dwelling is divided into squares by wooden beams, so that
each of tha inhabitants has his own particular sleeping-place
and private room.

" On account of the frequent fogs and heavy snows, the cli-
mate is very raw and cold. The people are all clothed in the
hides of the animals which they kill by hunting ; but they also
prepare a species of cloth, from dogs' hair and various kinds of
grasses, which is also used for clothing. In the winter the skins
of swine and reindeer are used as clothing, and in the summer
the skins of fishes. They have great numbers of dogs."

We now know that a remarkable difference is found in the
climate of different portions of Kamtchatka. Districts that lie
only a short distance from each other have very different weather
at the same season of the year. The southern portion of the
peninsula is, in general, tm account of the proximity of the sea,
very cloudy and damp, and is, for a great portion of the time,
subject to fearfully tempestuous winds. The farther we ascend
to the north, toward the Penshinish Bay, the gentler are the

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

winds in winter, an<l tho Hmallcr is tho amount of rain that falls
during tho summer. There is no part of the world, however,
in which rains ar« heavier or more frequent than in Kamtchatka,
and deeper snow is nowhere found thp.n occurs upon this penin-
sula between tho Slst and 54th d« i north latitude. On
this account tho inhabitants need tnuir warm clothing of seal-
skins and roindtjer hides. Tho skins of dogs, marmots, and
yables are also prepared for this use. Tho women split dry net-
tle-stalks and other grasses, and labouriously spin a yarn from
them, which is made up into a species of linen cloth, and like-
wise serves as tho material for diiferent articles of clothing.
Reindeer, black bear, wolves, foxes, and other wild quadrupeds
arc found in great numbers, and are caught in many ways, some
of them extremely ingenious, of which tho Chinese have also
hoard. Dogs are the only domestic animals, and these are upon
many accounts almost indispensable to tho people of Kamtchat-
ka ; they are harnessed to sledges, and so servo as substitutes
for our horses and asses : and the dogs of this land are so strong
that they endure more than our beasts of burden. Their skins
und hair are made up into clothin;;, so that they also supply the
place of sheep (of which none are found in this country), and of
their wool. The statement, that swine are found in Kamtchatka,
is an error of the Chinese writer ; * they would, indeed, prosper
here, but in Stcller's time none had been introduced into the
country. Up to the present day several of the Mantchoo tribes,
living farthest to the northeast, clothe themselves in fish-skins,
on which account the Chinese call them "Ju-pi^i (Fish-skins).
They, like the Chedshen, belong to the Aleutian family.

" The people have no regulations or laws, and know nothing
of officers or of superiors in rank. If there is a robber in the
land, the people are all called together in order to judge him.
Nothing is known of the division and the succession of the four
seasons of the year. Their bows are about four feet long, and
their arrows like those of the * Middle Kingdom.' From bones
and stones they make a species of musical instrument. They
love to sing and dance. They lay their dead in large tree-
trunks, ,",nd mourn for them for ♦hree years, but without wear-
ing any particular kind of mourning-garment. In the year 640,

* It is possible that this term is applied to some species of marine animal re-
aemblinff the seal. — E. P. V.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

during tlio time of tho roign of the Second Son of Ilo.ivcn of the
7\(it(f dynasty, the first and last tribute-bringing embassy came
from the land of Lieu-kuci to the * Middle Kingdom.'"

IJefore the conquest of the country by the Russians, the Kam-
tchatdales lived in a kind of community, as is the case among
all wild tribes, as, for instance, among the early (ronnan tribes.
Each revenged for himself the injuries that were done to him,
and availed himself for this purpose of his weapons, which con-
sisted of bows, arrows, and bono spears. In time of war they
chose a leader, whose authority ceased with the war. If any-
thing was stolen and the thief was not discovered, the elders
called the people together and then exhorted each one of them
to give up the criminal. If he was not detected in this way, then
the magic arts of their shamans, or priests, were brought into
requisition to conjure death and ruin down upon the head of the
villain. The Itiilmen divided the solar year into two parts, call-
ing one "summer" and the other "winter." The division into
days and weeks is quite unknown to the Kamtchatdales, and
most of them can not count beyond forty. They waste the
greater part of their time with music and dancing, and in tell-
ing merry stories. Their songs and melodies, of which Steller
gives us several, seem charming and agreeable.

If, says this distinguished man (sacrificed in Russia), whom I
usually follow in the account of the customs and usages o ^ho
Kamtchatdales, we compare the cantatos of the great Orlai do
di Lasso, with which he charmed the King of France after the
Parisian's Carnival of Blood, with those of the Itiilmen, the lat-
ter seem much the more agreeable of the two, many of these
arias being not merely one-part melodies, but being sung with an
alto also.

The Chinese account of the disposition of the corpses of the
dead, and of the three-years' mourning, is not well founded. At
least, at the time of the discovery of tl le country by the Rus-
sians, nothing similar was found to exijt. The sick, when they
seemed past recovery, were cast to the dogs while still living,
and any lamentation over the death of parents or other rela-
tions very seldom occurred. It is possible, however, even if im-
probable, that since the seventh century many a fchange and error
has been made in the Chinese records regarding this country.

The habitation of the Wen-shin^ or " Pictured-people," must

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMHUS.

hv looked for to the oftst of Kamtchatk:i, ftnd thoroforo In the
Aleutian iHlandrt, if wo accept the estimate in regard to their diH-
tanee from Japan.

"The land of the Wcn-nhin,^' it is Haid in the Annual Ilegis-
terH of the Southern Dynasties,* "is distant from Japan in a
northeasterly direction about seven thousand C'hinoHO miles," or
some twenty of our geographical degrees, a direction and dis-
tance placing us in the midst of the group of the Aleutian
Islands. It is impossible to conceive how de Guignes can have
sought for these " Picturcd-people " in Jesso, and imagined that
ho found them there.

" The bodies of those people exhibit all kinds of figures, such
as those of animals and the like. They have three lines upon
the forehead ; the largo and straight indicate the nobles, the
small and crooked the common people, of the nation."

It is well known that before their conversion to Christianity
the Aleuts not only tattooed different figures upon their bodies,
but they also bored through the cartilage of the nose and wore
a i)eg or pin stuck transversely through the opening, and upon
holida}8 hung glass beads upon this pin. The women in the
same way bored through the ear, all about the margin, and also
made incisions '" the l^wcr lip, in which they wore bone or stone
needles some two inches long.

7. Ta-hax, Alaska. — In the times of the Liang dynasty, in
the first half of the sixth century of our era, the Chinese heard of
a land which lay five thousand of their miles easterly from the
country of the " Picturcd-people " of the Aleutian Islands, and
named it " Tii-/ian" or "Great China." The direction and the
distance lead us to the great Prninsula of Alaska. The country
was apparently named " Great China " because some account of
the great continent which stretched out beyond the peninsula
had reached the " Middle Kingdom." So, for the same reasons,
according to the Sagas, the Irish who, \n earlier centuries, dis-
covered America long before the days of Columbus, named the
newly-discovered regions " Great Ireland." f

* Nanssc — i. c, " History of the Southern Dynasties," Book 79, p. 8. The
same article is also found in the Liang-xhu, or " The Annual Registers of the
Liang Dynasty," Book 64, p. 19, and in Ma Twati-Un's work. Book 327, p. 2.

f The Munich " Gel. Anzeiger," vol. viii, p. 636. This must have been the
country stretching from the two Carolinas to the southern point of Florida.

NEUMANN'S MONOOUAril.

Tho

)f the
2

n the

■\Vo arc informeil that tho jjooplc of Ta-han upon tho whole
resomblotl tho " Picturcd-pcoplo " in their cuHtoins and usagoB.
••The two nationn, however, upoko quite tlifferent hmguages.
The people of Ta-han carried no weapons and know nothing of
war and Htrife."

IJeyond Ta-han, the Cliinese learned, at tho close of the fifth
century of our era, of tho existence of a land which the elder
de (fuignes has already located in tho northwestern part of the
American Continent. Tho conjecture of this sagacious and schol-
arly man is in its main points well founded, but wo are now in
a position to clearly determine tho particular country of America
to which the Chinese account referred. The zealous investiga-
tions concerning the perished civilization of the New World, and
the traces of it which still exist, have led to results of which the
investigators of the eighteenth century could have had no knowl-
edge. We will now give, first, a complete and literal transla-
tion of the Chinese account regarding the distant eastern land,
and follow it with an explanation, as far as practicable, of its
various statements.

8-11. — The Kingdom of Fu-sano and its Iniiaditants. —
[Hero follows a translation of the Chinese account, which is
given in full elsewhere, and which it therefore will not be neces-
sary to quote here.]

12. The Amazons. — The same Buddhist priest to whom we
owe the account of the land of Mi-sanff tells also of a Kingdom
of Women. It lay about a thousand Chinese miles easterly from
JPii-sang, and was inhabited by white people with very hairy
bodies.* The whole account, however, contains so much that is
fabulous that it is not worth while to give it. It is none the
less remarkable, however, that, from the most ancient times, all
great civilized nations which have had written accounts that
have come down to us, speak of a kingdom of women which, the
farther that the northeastern portions of Asia became known
without finding any such kingdom, was always pushed back to a
greater distance, until finally these governing women were trans-
planted into America. It is hardly necessary to say that such a
kingdom of women never existed. It is quite possible that here

* The account is found in the Nan-ue, Book 79, p. 6 ; Lianff-»hu, Book 64,
p. 49, and copied from these, but with many corrections, in the Encyclopocdia of
Ma Twan-liriy Book 327, et teq.

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ATS INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

and there the women of many different races had separate dwell-
ing places, or perhaps lived apart upon an island, where they from
time to time received visits from the men. The Arabs likewise
tell of such an arrangement ; * but they placed their country of
women in quite another part of the world. The knowledge of
the Arabians and Persians of the northern and northeastern re-
gions of the earth extended only as far as Japan. East of Japan,
Abulfeda expressly declares, the earth was believed to be unin-
habited.

13. Fu-SANG, THE "VVestekn Portion of America, called
Mexico. — What all these distant lands were called by their na-
tive inhabitants we do not know, and, in fact, it is rarely that
the native names of foreign countries are known, even of those
which have been recently discovered. We only know that the
Chinese Buddhist missionaries gave to the country the name of
a tree which grew in great numbers both there and in Eastern
Asia,t or rather, perhaps, as seems probable, the new land was
covered with a plant similar to the Asiatic fii-sang, and to this
new plant the old name fu-sanf/ was given, and this designation
was then applied to the country also, for it is one of the in-
born dispositions of human nature to name a country after its
prominent productions which are rare elsewhere. So the Nor-
mans, who discovered the northern coast of America, about five
hundred years after the era of these Buddhist priests, named
the country "Vinland," because of the great abundance of
wild grape-vines growing there. On account of the great dis-
tance of Fn-sang, no more missionaries ever reached the country,
yet the Buddhists and the Chinese investigators interested in
antiquarian researches never allowed this land, which had been
once described with so many details, to be forgotten. Chinese
scholars have mentioned it frequently in their works, and have
even given it a place in their maps,J while the Buddhists, in
their uncritical, meditative way, never became weary of repeat-
ing the old tales. The myth-loving geographers and poets also
availed themselves of this knowledge at a later period, and spun
the tale out in many fanciful ways, as was done by those of the
West in regard to Prester John. These strange and charming

* Edrisi, ii, p. 433, ed. Jaubert.

f Loureiro, "Flora Cochin-Chinensis," Berolini, 1793, ii, 610.

\ Fakiai-ngan-li-tu, i. e., " Sure Tables of Religion," 1, 22.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

pictures of the imagination, regarding the tree and the land of
Fu-sang, will, in the eyes of the earnest investigator, cause no
more doubt of the truth of the historical portion of the accounts,
than the rich collections of popular stories regarding Alexander
the Great and Charlemagne cause regarding the historical works
of Arrian and Eginhard.

The distance of the land from Ta-Jian, or Alaska, which, ac-
cording to the estimate already given, amounts to fifty-seven or
fifty-eight degrees, brings us to the northwestern coast of Mex-
ico, or New Spain, in the region of San Bias or the neighbouring
districts. The other details of the Buddhist-Chinese account
also point to this region no less plainly, but before entering
upon an examination of the history of the Aztecs, it seems neces-
sary to explain a difficulty which might otherwise destroy this
whole attempt to furnish proof as to the true situation of the
country.

14. The Oldest History op America.. — The account of
this Buddhist, goes back to times far antedating all the tra-
ditions and historical records of the Aztecs, dubious as these
are, from the fact that they rest only upon the uncertain inter-
pretation of their hieroglyphic records. One fact, however, is
certain amidst these otherwise uncertain tales as to the early his-
tory of America. The barbarian races of conquerors that fol-
lowed one another in this region, always journeying from the
north to the south, murdered, drove away, and enslaved the ear-
lier inhabitants, and, in the course of time, formed new civil
and political institutions, modified by their own peculiarities,
but modeled upon those of the destroyed kingdom, and these, in
turn, were in the course of a few centuries again shattered by
other barbarians. These later bands of conquerors can no more
be considered as the first colonists in the New World than the
first colonists of Europe can be thought to be the tribes which
conquered the German and other races in the Old "World.

15. The Ruins of Mitla and Palenque. — The nameless
ruins which are designated by the names of the neighbouring
cities of Mitla and Palenque (the last-named city being situated
in the province of Tzendale, near the boundary-line between the
city of Ciudad Real and Yucatan) have been considered by en-
thusiastic investigators to date back to a period several thousand
years before the Christian era. Enthusiasts have found here not

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I fA

only the home of the most intellectual civilization of the New
World, but also the home of Buddhism.* The Toltecs — a name
that means "Architects" — appeared about the middle of the
seventh century. One of their literary productions, " The Divine
Book," had, according to an unconfirmed tradition, been pre-
served up to the times of the Spaniards.f The Aztecs, on the
contrary, first came to Anahuac, or '* the Land near the "Water,"
during the reign of the Emperor Frederick II.J The savage
conquerors, as was the case with all races at the time of the great
migrations of the nations of Europe, were at first hostile to both
the existing religion and the native civilization. In the end,
however, when the necessity of having the state properly con-
trolled was forced upon them, they could erect the new structure
only upon the existing ruins. This is as true in a figurative as
in a literal sense, and we can learn much of the condition of the
earlier races in this land by a consideration of the regulations,
customs, and usages of the Aztecs. The most learned historian
of New Spain, in harmony with the results of the most recent
researches, long ago recognized the original connection of the
numerous languages of Mexico, notwithstanding all their differ-
ences in single points.*

The pyraraidical, symbolical form of the wonderful monu-
ments of ancient Mexico appears in truth to have some external
points of resemblance with the religious structures erected by
the Buddhists, and the pyramids of the old inhabitants of this
land served, like those of the Egyptians and Buddhists, as places
of interment ; but neither their architecture nor their ornamenta-
tion, if we are to decide from the drawings of Mexican antiqui-
ties, exhibit any East Indian symbol, unless their eight rings or
stories are considered as such. It is stated in a Buddhist legend
that the remains of Sakya, after his cremation, were collected in
eight metallic vessels and as many sacred buildings were erected
over these. II But if Buddhism ever reigned over Central Ameri-

* " Antiquitda Mexicaincs," ii, p. 73 ; " Transactions of the American Anti-
quarian Society," ii; Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," Paris, 1844,
iii, p. 253. f Prescott, i, 67.

:|: The chronological estimates of the different historians do not agree with
one another. Those of the learned Clavigcro appear to be always the most reliable,
however. Prescott, i, 11.

* Clavigcro, "Storia Antica del Mcssico," i, 163.
I "Asiatic liesearches," xvi, 316.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

ca it surely can not have been the pure religion of Sakya, as it
is found to-day in Nepal, Thibet, and other countries of Asia,
but only a form of a religious belief founded upon the funda-
mental principles of this doctrine, and changed to adapt it to
the earlier belief of the people of the New World ; for the mis-
sionaries of Sakya might be called Jesuits, from the fact that
they, in order to obtain an easier entrance for their religion and
its dogmas, either built them up upon the previous customs and
usages of the country or cunningly mixed the two together.
The myth of the birth of the terrible Aztec god of war is per-
haps a faded remnant of the East Indian religion which may
once have bloomed here. Huitzilopochtli, like Sakya, was begot-
ten in a wonderful way : his mother saw a ball of glittering
feathers floating in the air, placed it in her bosom, became preg-
nant, and bore her terrible son, who, at the time of his birth, had
a spear in his right hand, a shield in his left, and a waving tuft
of green feathers upon his head.* Juan de Grijalva, the nephew
of Valasquez, was so astonished at the superior civilization of
the main continent as compared with the islands, and particu-
larly at the regularity of the buildings, that he, upon this
account, in 1518, gave to the Peninsula of Yucatan the name
of "New Spain," a name which soon obtained a much wider
extension.!

16. Fu-sANG, Maguey, Agave Americana. — It is known that
the flora of the northwestern regions of America is intimately
connected with that of China, Japan, and other lands in the east-
ernmost region of the Orient. On this account it may be believed
that the^w-sa^^' tree was also found in America in earlier times,
and that from bad management it has since become extinct. The
tobacco-plant a'»d Indian corn are in a similar way native both
to China and to the New World.J It appears much more prob-
able, however, that the traveler, as has not unfrequently occurred
in other similar cases, when he saw in Mexico a new plant for-
merly unknown to him, which was used there for many purposes
in a similar way to the uses made of the fic-sanff tree in Eastern
Asia, gave to it the name of the well-known Asiatic tree which
he thought to resemble it. The plant that I mean is the great

* Clavigero, ii, 19. f Prescott, i, 143.

X Professor Xcumanu seems to have made this statement oa iusufEcicat au-
thority.— E. P. V.
1

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Mexican Aloe, the Agave Atnericana, called " 3Iaguey " by the
natives, which, throwing up its pyramidical tuft of flowers
above the dark circle of its leaves, is found in such great abun-
dance upon the plains of New Spain. From its crushed leaves
a firm paper is prepared, even up to the present time, as at the
time when the Aztec kingdom flourished, and the few hiero-
glyphic manuscripts that have escaped the barbarity and fa-
naticism of the Spaniards consist of this paper ; and of such
manuscripts the Buddhist missionary speaks. The flowing sap
is brewed into an intoxicating drink, which is still liked by the
people of the country. Its large, stiff leaves serve as firm roofs
for their low huts, and from the fibers are made all kinds of
thread, cordage, and rough cloth. When cooked, the roots form
a savoury species of food ; and the thorns are used as needles and
pins. This wonderful plant, therefore, offers not only food and
drink, but clothing and writing-materials, and, in fact, so satis-
fies, to a certain degree, every want of the Mexicans, that many
who are acquainted with the land and its inhabitants are con-
vinced that the maguey must be rooted out before the sloth and
indolence of the people — evils which prevent them from reach-
ing a higher culture and civilization — can be checked.*

17. Metals and Money. — The use of iron, although it is
found so abundantly in New Spain, was, as our traveler has
justly observed, not known. Copper and bronze were then used
instead in this country, as they were formerly used in other
regions of the earth. According to the account of Antonio de
Herrera, two varieties of copper were prepared, one hard and
the other soft — of which the first was used for hatchets, cutting-
instruments, and agricultural implements, and the other for
kettles and all kinds of household utensils. The inhabitants
also understood how to work silver, tin, and lead mines ; but
neither the silver nor the gold, which was found upon the sur-
face of the earth or in the channels of the rivers, served as the
usual medium of exchange, and these metals were not especially
valued in the land. Pieces of tin, in the form of a hammer, and
packages of cacao containing a certain number of kernels, were
generally used as money. " Admirable money," exclaims Peter
Martyr, " which checks avarice ; since it can neither be long
kept nor safely buried." f

* Prcscott, i, 63, 87. f Prescott, i, 92.

'i If

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

18. Laws and Customs op the Aztecs. — The laws of the
Aztecs were very strict ; but in the few fragments of them which
are contained in the hieroglyphic pictures that we have, we
find no trace of the regulations described as existing in the
land of Fii-sang. An hereditary nobility stood, however, at the
side of Montezuma, divided into several different ranks, con-
cerning which the historians give contradictory accounts. Zu-
rita speaks of four ranks of chiefs, who paid no tribute and who
enjoyed other privileges. * The customs of courtship and mar-
riao-e resembled those which exist to-day in Kamtchatka. We
have no knowledge of the mourning ceremonies of the Aztecs,
except that their kings had particular palaces in which they
passed the time of mourning for their nearest relatives.f At the
festivities in honour of the gods, drums and trumpets were
sounded ; and this may also have been done by the attendants
of the king as to the representative of the divinity.J

The Aztecs reckoned time by a cycle of fifty-two years, and,
as is well known, knew very accurately the time of the revolu-
tion of the earth about the sun. The ten-year cycle mentioned
in the Chinese account may have been a subdivision of that of
fifty-two years, or else may have been used as an independent
method of reckoning time, as is the case with the ten-year cycle
of the Chinese, who call the signs of the different years " stems."
It is remarkable that the Mongolians and Mantchoos designate
these " stems " by words indicating different colours, which fact
may possibly have some connection with the change of colour in
the garments of the prince of Fii-sang in the different yeans of
the cycle. * Among the Tartarian tribes the first two years of
the ten are called green and greenish, the next two red and
reddish, the two following yellow and yellowish, the next two
white and whitish, and, finally, the last two black and blackish.
It appears impossible, however, to bring this cycle of the Aztecs
into any connection with those of the Asiatic tribes, who usually
reckon time by periods of sixty years.

19. Domestic Animals. — The Aztecs have no draught ani-
mals or beasts of burden, and it is well knoAvn that horses were
not found in any part of the New World, and the account of

* Prescott, i, 18. f Mithridates, iii, 3-33.

\ Bcrnal Diaz, " Hist, dc la Conquista," pp. 152, 153 ; Prescott, iii, 87, 97.
* Gaubil, " Observations Mathomatiques," Paris, 1732, ii, 136.

1' f f I

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100

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the Cbinese traveler certainly is not applicable to the later
^Mexican monarchies. Two species of oxen v/itli large horns
ranged in herds in the plains of the Rio del Norte before the
arrival of the Spaniards.* These may have been tamed by the
earlier inhabitants and used as domestic animals. Stags' horns
have also been found in the ruins of Mexican buildings, and
Montezuma showed the Spaniards enormous horns as curiosities.f
It is possible that in earlier times stags ranged farther south than
at present and that their range extended from Upper California
and other regions of North America, in which they are still
found in large herds, as far as to the regions of Central America.
An inhabitant of China would naturally think it very strange
to see butter made from the milk of the hinds, as milk is
rarely used in China even up to the present day. When the
inhabitants of Chu-san saw that the English sailors milked
goats, even grave, elderly men could not restrain their laughter
at the sight. Moreover, the Chinese traveler may have used the
character " ma " (or " horse ") to designate some animal resem-
bling a horse ; for changes of this kind frequently occur in simi-
lar accounts. In the same way the names of many animals of
the Old "World have been ajiplied to similar animals in the New
"World which belong to quite diflFerent species. The eastern
limits of the Asiatic Continent are also the limits of the native
country of the horse ; and it furthermore appears that this ani-
mal was first introduced into Japan from Corea in the third cen-
tury of our era, J But no matter from what source the error in
regard to American horses may have come, the unprejudiced
and circumspect inquirer will not be induced merely upon this
account to declare the whole story regarding Fusang-Mexico to
be an idle tale. It appears to me that this description of the
countries upon the western coast of America, in the Annual
Register of the Chinese Empire, is at least as credible as the
account contained in the Icelandic Sagas of the discovery of the
eastern shores of the New "World.

20. Chinese and Japanese in the Hawaiian Gkoup and in

* Iluraboldt, " Neu-Spanien," iii, 138.

+ Humboldt, " Neu-Spanion," ii, 243.

X Nippon-ki — i. c, " Annual Registers of the Kingdom of Japan." In the
entry for the year 284 it is said : " In this year horses were brought from Corea " j
but it is not especially stated that they were the first in Japan.

1 i \;

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

101

i'iilltl

NoRTinvESTERN Amer JA. — In support of the theory of an early
communication of China and Japan with the islands between
Asia and America and with the western coast of this division of
the earth, even though such communication may have been only
accidental, a number of facts of modern date may be adduced.
Even if the Chinese and the Japanese, who, by virtue of their
knowledge of the compass since the earliest date of their his-
tory, would find such a voyage not to be particularly difficult,
never intentionally undertook any voyages by sea to America,
yet it may have happened, as it still happens, that ships from
Eastern Asia, China, and Japan, as well as those of Russians
from Ochotsk and Kamtchatka,* were thrown upon the islands
and coast of the New World. The earliest Spanish travelers
and explorers heard of foreign merchants who had landed upon
the northwestern coast of America, and even claimed to have
seen fragments of a Chinese ship, f "We also know that the
crew of a Japanese junK accidentally discovered a great conti-
nent in the East, wintered there, and then safely returned home.
The Japanese stated that the land extended farther to the north-
west.J They may have passed the winter in the neighbourhood
of California, and have discovered the coast farther north, to-
gether with the Peninsula of Alaska.

A Japanese ship w^as wrecked, about the end of the year 1832,
upon Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands, of which the Hawaiian
" Spectator " contained the following detailed account : " This
Japanese ship had nine men on board, who were carrying iish
to Jeddo from one of the southerly islands of the * Eastern King-
dom.' A storm drove them into the open sea, where they drifted
about for ten or eleven months, until they finally (in December,
1832) landed in the port of Waiala, upon the island of Oahu.
The ship sank, but the men were saved and brought to Hono-
lulu, where they remained for eighteen months, and then, in
accordance with their own desires, sailed for Kamtchatka, hop-
ing to be able to slip quietly from this country into their native
land." For the terribly barbarous government of Japan, remem-

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* An account of a Russian ship which was driven upon the coast of California
in 1761 may be found in the "Travels of Several Missionaries of the Society of
Jesus in America," Nuremberg, 1785, p. 337.

f Torquemada, " Mon. Ind.," iii, 7 ; Acosta, " Hist. Nat. Amer.," iii, 12.

t Kacmpfer, " Geschichte von Japan," Lemgo, 1777, i, 82.

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102

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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bcring even to this day the evil artifices of the Portuguese Jesuits,
and fearing the secret plots of the neighbouring Russians, prohib-
ited even its own unfortunate shipwrecked subjects from re-
turning to their native land. " "When the people of Hawaii," so
continues the " Spectator," " saw these foreigners so closely re-
sembling them in external form and in many customs and
usages, they were much astonihed, and unanimously declared,
' There can be no farther room for doubt. We came from
Asia.' " *

Another instance of a Japanese ship in America and of the
former inconsiderate iron policy of the Japanese government is
as follows : During the winter of 1833-'34 a junk from Japan
suffered shipwreck upon the northwest coast of America in the
neighbourhood of Queen Charlotte's Island. The numerous
members of the crew, weakened by hunger, were, with the ex-
ception of two persons, murdered by the natives. The Hudson's
Bay Company took charge of these unfortunate beings, and in
1834 sent them to England, from which country they were sent
on to Macao. This was considered as a fortunate occurrence, as
it was hoped that the government at Jeddo would show some
gratitude for this humane treatment of its subjects, and possibly
give up its policy of prohibiting the entry of foreigners into the
kingdom. The ship which it was intended should restore these
subjects to the rulers of the "Eastern Kingdom," and at the
same time extend the doctrines of the Christian religion to Japan
(for Carl Guetzlaff was on board), was received with cannon-
balls, and compelled to leave the coast of the inh^^spitable land,
with its intended good work unperformed.

All these different facts sufficiently prove that a voyage to
America and the neighbouring islands, on the part of some of
the people who shared in the Chinese civilization, can not have
been a very infrequent occurrence. And, upon the other side,
the inhabitants of these islands may, in their frail canoes, have
accidentally or intentionally landed from time to time upon the
Asiatic Continent. " It is wonderful," says the Jesuit Hierony-
mus d'Angelis, who in 1G80 was the first European to visit

* " Hawaiian Spectator," i, 296, quoted in Belcher's " Voyage Round the
World," London, 1843, i, 304; Jarvis's "History of the Sandwich Islands," Lon-
don, 1843, 27. According to a tradition of the people of the islands, several such
ships had been wrecked upon Hawaii before the arrival of the whites.

NEUMANN'S MONOGRAPH.

103

Jesso,* " how bold these people are, and how expert in naviga-
tion. In their defective boats they undertake voyages occupy-
ing from two to three months, and, however many may perish
at sea, new adventurers are always found to undertake the same
bold risks."

Since the opening of Japan to other nations and its entrance
into the affairs of the world, the state of facts outlined above is
of course entirely changed. "Voyages from Eastern Asia to
Western America and back are now of common, almost of daily,
occurrence. The large Japanese Embassy, which came to Wash-
ington by the way of the Hawaiian Islands and California in
1860, is fully described in my " History of Eastern Asia," and
is still held in fresh remembrance, f

* p. Dan BartolH, " Dell' Historia della Compagnia di Giesu," Rome, 1640, t,
71. D'Angelis himself designed a mop of Jcsso.

f " Ost-Asiatische Gcscbichte, vom Ersten Chinesischcn Erieg bis zu den Yer-
triigen zu Peking" (1840-1860), von Karl Friedrich Neumann, Leipzig, 1861,
835 pp.

ISflfj

; iMu

CHAPTER VII.

1 i

." •

II
li

THK ARGUMENTS OF MM. PEREZ AXD GODRON.

Knowledge of America possessed by the Chinese — The Country of Women — Other
travelers relate incredible stories — Klaproth's argument — The account con-
tained In the Japanese Encyclopocdia — Note denying that I'\i-aang is Japan —
Weakness of Klaproth's argument — Identity of names of cities in Asia and
America — American languages — Resemblance of the Tartars to the Abo-
rigines of America — Similitude of customs — A Buddhist mission to America
in the fifth century — The Chinese able to measure distances, and possessed of
the compass — The musk-oxen and bisons of America — Horses — Names of
European animals misapplied to American animals — The "horse-deer" of
America — Vines — The difficulty in identifying the fusang tree — Iron and
copper in America and Japan,

Memoir upon the Relations of the Americans in Former Times
loith the Nations of Europe^ Asia, and Africa — Section en-
titled, "ICnotoledffe possessed by the Chinese in the Fourth
Centv / of our Era''— by M. Jose Perez, D. il/!"'"

The question as to whether or not the people of Eastern
Asia, at the time above named, had any communication with the
natives of any part of America, appears to be worthy of the
careful investigation of scholars. An unexpected discovery has
thrown light upon this subject ; and, following the authority of
some writers and the criticisms of others, it appears evident that
the New World was known in former times to the Chinese and
Japanese. Before engaging in a discussion regarding the authors
who have thought that the country of Fii-sang should be iden-
tified with America, it is indispensable to place the steps of the
process by which their conclusion was reached under the eyes
of the reader, without taking part in the perversion of facts for
the benefit of any theory whatever, as has unfortunately been
done to the injury of the solution of the problem which now
occupies us.

ii: fli J

THE ARGUMENT OF M. PEREZ.

105

It was in 1701 that dc Guignea published liis justly cele-
brated memoir, in which, after identifying several nations of the
extreme East, mentioned by the Chinese accounts, ami particu-
larly that of Ta-han, which he placed, with reason, in the most
eastern part of Siberia, this learned Sinologue made known to
the astonished scientific world the Chinese descriptions of the
famous country of Fu-sang, in which he recognized a part of
North America. This continent, say the writers of the Celestial
Empire, is situated twenty thousand II to the east of the country
of Ta-han. The king bears the title of Y-chi, and the chiefs of
the nation beneath him are the great and petty 2'ui-lu and the
Ka-to-sha. "The historian from whom Ma Tican-lln copies
this account," says de Guigncs, "adds that the Chinese had no
knowledge of the country of Fu-sang before the year 458, und
to the present time I have seen no other than these two writers
who give any extended account of it. Some authors of diction-
aries who mention it, merely say that it is situated in the region
where the sun rises." The situation of Ih-sang, clearly described
in the accounts, and the great distance which separates it from
China, to the east of which country it lies — a distance stated in
precise terms by the Chinese geographers — appear to positively
prove that this country can not be contained in Asia, even within
its utmost bounds. Moreover, the Chinese historians, as de
Guignes has remarked, also speak of another country a thousand
li farther east than Fi-sang, a country called " the Kingdom of
Women." The account which is given of it is, it is true, full of
fables ; but that merely proves that this last country marked one
of the extreme limits of their geographical knowledge, and that
it was a land of which they had but very imperfect accounts,
analogous to those which the travelers of the Middle Ages gave
regarding the eastern countries which they reached. Does not
even Marco Polo himself, whose intellectual superiority and the
value of whose geographical statements it is now the fashion to
exaggerate beyond all reason, relate to us the most incredible
stories regarding countries in which he lived ? . . .

The Chinese account of " the Kingdom of Women" is written
with no less intelligence and sincerity than the European works
of the Middle Ages of which we have spoken, and that which
appears to us to be fabulous might well seem true if it were better
explained. It is evident that the author did not intend to say

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Ill

III

100

AN INGLOUIOUS COLUMBUS.

that it was the river of this country which caiiscJ the women's
l»n'<;nancy, but morely that tlio baths talcen in its waters were
favourable to them when in that ecmilition, which is moreover
l)rove(l by the followinj^ phrase, where it is said that tliey ^'avo
birth to their young four months after having taken these baths ;
and as for the white locks which they had at the back of the
liead, by which they nursed their children, the account is ex-
j)Iained very easily by a custom, common in India and elsewhere,
by which the women nurso their children over their shoulders.
I'inally, do (Uiignes mentions, as an additional proof in support
of his theory, the shipwreck in 507 a. d. of a Chinese vessel
upon tlie shores of an unknown island situated at a great dis-
tance in the Pacific Ocean. The women of this country resem-
bled those of China, and the men made themselves understood
by barking, undoubtedly like the noise made by the Ttenyas
in Louisiana in the presence of their king, in order to do Lim
honour.

From all these facts it appeared indisputable to the learned
Sinologue that the Chinese had penetrated very far into the Pa-
cific Ocean, if they had not traveled over it, and that they bad
sufficient boldness to go to California in the year 458 a. d. . . .

Klaproth, the famous Orientalist, having much learning, but
even more envy, did not wish that any one should have greater
credit than himself for Chinese scholarship, and thought it pos-
sible to plunge de Guignes's celebrated discovery into forget-
fulness by stufting it into a mattress of paradoxes quite filled
with wonderful statements. ... As to the great distanc ; which
exists, according to the shaman's account, between this unknown
country and China, Klaproth takes a lesson from the trick of
decipherers who fail either to understand an entire inscription or
some of its words : he finds errors in the original document.

" The distances named in the accounts," says he, " much ex-
ceed the truth " (that is to say, the hypothesis of the Prussian
Sinologue), "and the Chinese bad no means of determining the
length of their cruises at sea." Finally, to make it impossible
to identify Fu-sang with any part of America, Klaproth con-
ceives the ruse of finding a place upon the map for the country
of Wen-shin. After having consigned these unfortunate '* Tat-
tooed Men " to the island of Jesso, he writes, quite satisfied with
himself: "The identity of Ta-han and the island of Tarakai,

TUE AUOUMENT OF M. PEREZ.

107

onco ilomonstriitod, provonts uU furllu'i- search for the country
of Fii-H'int/ in America." Then, viewinj^ his fanciful argument
more and more complacently, he adds : " We must, therefore,
reject tlio entire tale as to J'\t-ii<in</ as fabulous, or elso find a
means of reconcUhnj it with the truth. This may be found by
supposing the indication of the direction as toward the east to
be incorrect. Wo may, therefore, presume that one goes directly
east in order to pass the Strait of Perouse in skirting the north-
ern coast of Jcsso, but that upon arriving at the eastern point of
this island the course turns to the south and leads us to the
southeastern part of Japan, which was the country called Fu-
sniuj. It was, in fact, one of the ancient names of this empire."
We will soon consider the attention that should be given to all
this arguing, but will now return to the original source from
which proceeds all the information given to us regarding the
country in which we are interested. Several accounts of lu-
satig are in existence, but they are evidently derived one from
another, and all have a common origin. Our limits do not per-
mit us to reproduce those which have been successively trans-
lated by do Guignes and Klaproth, but we will give here the
account of this country which is contained in the large and cele-
brated Japanese Encyclopajdia, entitled Wa-kan-san-aai-dzoic-i/e
(vol. xiv), which M. do Rosny has kindly translated from the
original expressly for our work. This notice is merely an abridg-
ment of the accounts formerly mentioned, but it possesses the
inestimable advantage over the latter, of making known to us
the clearly expressed opinion of the Japanese editor upon this
question. As it is with Japan that Klaproth identifies the coun-
try of Fii-aanff, this opinion can not fail to be of great weight in
the balance. The following is the translation of this notice :

Fou-86 (in Chinese, Fa-sang). — The Eucyclopcedia, entitled
San-sai-dzou-ye, says :

" The country of Fou-so is situated at the east of the coun-
try of Tai-kan. According to the authority of the work en-
titled Foung-tien, Fou-ad is distant from the country of Tai-kan
in an easterly direction about 20,000 //. It is placed to the east
of the * Middle Kingdom ' (China). Many trees, called foic-ad-
mok {IfibiacHS rosa Sinensis), are found there.* Their leaves

* In Japanese, " Sono4sott(s{-ni fouso-mok ohosV " la banc terram f(ms&
(sic vocitatsc) arbores multoe sunt."

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108

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

are similar to those of the td-trce ; when they are young they
are like bamboo-sprouts, and the natives eat them. Their fruits
are like pears, and are of a red colour. The fiber of the bark is
drawn out to make cloth from which clothing is made. Planks
made from the tree are employed to build their houses.

"In this country there are no cities. The natives have a
method of wi'iting, and they make clothing (sic) from the bark
of the fou-86 tree. They have no offensive weapons or defen-
sive armour, and do not wage wars.

" They give to their king the name of Kiki-zin, that is to
say, 'the most honourable man.' When the latter walks abroad
he is accompanied with drums and trumpets. At different peri-
ods of the year he changes the colour of his garments. In the
cyclic years kia and i they are blue ; in the years />^Vt^ and ting
they are red, etc.

"The natives raise deer, as cattle are raised, and prepare
creamy dishes from the milk of the animals.

" In this country there is no iron, but there is copper. Gold
and silver are not valued. In the markets no duties are levied.
The rules for the observance of the marriage-ceremony are in
general the same as those of the 'Middle Kingdom' (China). In
the second year of the period, called ta-ming (or ' great light '),
the year 458 of our era, under the reign of the emperor Hiao
Wu-ti,* of the Sung dynasty, five hhikshus (mendicant priests) of
the country of Ki-pin, in their travels reached Fou-s6, and com-
menced to propagate Buddhism there." The editor of the Wa-
ka)i-san-sai-chou-ye adds the following comment :

" Note. — It is not now certainly known what to think re-
garding the country of Fou-so, which is said to be to the east of
China and also to the east of the country of Tai-kan. It is
therefore uncertain whether the country to which the bonzes of
the country of IiTi-pin went, carrying the doctrine of Buddha,
is situated to the north or to the east of Japan. In any case,
it is wrong to think that the account refers to Japan, and the
statement that Foxi-sd may be another name of Japan is incor-
rect." The Japanese author adds in a note : " Ki-pin is one
of the western countries [Si-yu). It is San-tna-oell-hcm^' (Sa-
marcand).

* This princo of the Pch Sunf/, or Northern Sunff dynasty, reigned from 454 to
466 A. D. The period ta-ming is comprised between the years 457 and 4G4,

if'

THE ARGUMENT OF M. PEREZ.

109

To this account, and as before to serve as the foundation
of our argument, we will add the translation which M. de
Rosny has also kindly made for us of the notices of the great
Japanese EncyclopaBdia of the countries of Boun-zin and Tai-

han.

BouN-zix (in Chinese, Wen-shhi). — The Encyclopaedia, en-
titled San-sai-dzou-ye, says : "The productions of the country of
Boun-zin (Men with Tattooed Bodies) are of very little value.
In the inns no food is found. The dwelling of the king is orna-
mented with gold and gems. In the markets, traffic is carried
on by means of precious objects."

Tai-kax (in Chinese, Ta-han). — The Encyclopaedia, entitled
San-sai-dzou-ye, says : " In the country of Tai-kan there are
no armies, and war is not waged. The people are similar to
those of Boun-zin (the Men with Tattooed Bodies), but their
language is different.

" Some people say that the country of Tai-kan is situated to
the east of the country of Boun-zin, at a distance of about five
thousand ^i."

Having laid these documents before our readers, we will now
attempt to discuss the arguments that have been urged against
the identification of the country of Fu-sang, or Fou-so, with
America. First of all, we find, in the account translated by M.
de Rosny, a passage which completely annihilates the hypothesis,
otherwise so gratuitous as we see, of the Prussian scholar, ac-
cording to which Fi-sang was one of the names of Japan. " In
any case," says the Japanese author of the great Encyclopaj-
dia, " it is wrong to think that the account refers to Japan, and
the statement that Fou-sd (or Fu-sang) may be another name of
Jaj.m is incorrect." I will add that, after the statement of such
an authority, it hardly seems necessary to further refute the im-
aginary system invented by Klaproth to compensate for the pov-
erty of his cause, since M. de Rosny has been unable to find in
any of the Japanese-Chinese dictionaries of his excellent col-
lection anything which can justify the statement made by the
German scholar, that Fc-sang is another name for Japan. Then,
if we admit that Fu-sang is the same as Japan, it is necessary to
find between this last country and China another country, Ta-
han, inhabited by savages with tattooed bodies and so slightly
advanced in knowledge as not to have arms of any nature —

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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which is expressly contradicted by our historical and geographi-
cal knowledge.

It is also necessary to find to the east of Japan, and not
in America, another country, Niu-jin-kwoh, which one of the
most famous Chinese works, the Peu-tsao-kang-mouh, places to
the east of the country of Fu-sang, which is again impossible.
Then it is necessary to admit, as Klaproth wishes, that the author
of the description of Fu-sang must have been deceived as to the
distance of twenty thousand It which separated this remote coun-
try from the lands known at this time ; as also that he must have
been mistaken when he said that Buddhism had been introduced
there in the year 458 a. d., since it did not reach Japan until a
century later ; he must also have been mistaken in his mention
of the tree which gave its name to Fu-sang, for, according to
Klaproth, "there is some error in the Chinese account, which
confounds the hibiscus (or the rose of China) with the paper-
mulberry, or 3Iorus papyrifera," etc., etc.

Once admitting that in the place of the hypothesis, at least very
probable at first sight, so skillfully presented by M. de Guignes,
another hypothesis absolutely inadmissible is proposed to us, let
us consider the weight that should be given the objections of
Klaproth against the identification of Fu-sang with America.

We have seen that Klaproth thought that he had found a
serious objection in the grapes which the Chinese voyagers
found in Ft-sang ; but this objection can not now be admitted.
By a singular oversight he forgets that the forests of North
America abound in wild vines of several species, and that the
Scandinavians had placed Vin-land, or the " Land of Wine," in
its northeastern part ; he thinks that Fu-sang may have been
Japan, where, he says, the vine has existed from times imme-
morial, although the Chinese did not introduce it from Western
Asia until the year 126 before our era.

In addition to all that precedes, a multitude of petty particu-
lars are also presented, which, by their significant number, suflice
to convince the most unwilling that America must have receiv-ed
colonies from Asia. We will mention only a few of these par-
ticulars, reserving the others to communicate hereafter to those
who are not persuaded that to discuss the matter further is but
to labour at demolishing open gates. We not only find in Amer-
ica the grand distinctive traits of the nations of the extreme

THE ARGUMENT OF M. PEREZ.

Ill

Orient, but we see that at some remote epoch the Asiatics had
given to the cities of the New World the same names as the
cities of their mother country, as the Europeans did when they
gave to the western cities of the New World the names of New
York, New Orleans, New Brunswick {sic), etc. So the name
of the famous Japanese city of Ohosaka, to the west of the Pa-
cific, has become Oaxaca, in Mexico, upon its eastern side. For-
merly there were the same names of nations or of tribes, which
we find with the most striking resemblance upon the two sides
of the Pacific, as, for example, the Chan, a tribe living in the
neighbourhood of Palenque, of which the name signifies " Ser-
pent." * The identical name being found again in Indo-China,f
in the country of the Nagas, " Serpents." Nachan, " the City of
the Serpents," in America, corresponds with the Cambodian
Nakhorchan **the City of Serpents." It is sufiicient to add that,
in glancing over an old map of Mexico, the geographical names
of several different provinces are found, and among them names
which betray a Chinese origin at first sight, such as Mi-choa-kan,
Ko-li-man, Te-koua-na-pan, etc. The name which the Otomis
give to their language, " Hiang-hioung," is not less convincing,
and it is known that these Indians are included among the oldest
populations of Central America. Grammatical affinities, not less
remarkable, arc ostablished between different idioms of the Old
and the New World. In several languages, both of Greenland
and of Brazil, a special form of negative conjugation is found ;
and in the Moska and the Arawack the negation is interposed
between the root of the verb and its terminations, as is the case
in the Turkish and the other Tartarian dialects. In Guarani, in
Chiquito, and in Quichua, as in Tagala and Mantchoo, there
exists a pronoun of the first person plural, excluding those who
are addressed, and another which includes these last. The con-
jugation of the languages of the plateau of Anahuac recalls in
most of its details the conjugations of the Basque and the Hun-
garian verbs.

The type of the different Indian nations is astonishingly
similar to the Mongolian type. M. Ledyard, who has had the
advantage of studying the American race in the countries in

* Sec the Abb6 Brasscur dc Bourbourg's " Popol Vuh," p. civ.
f See the notice of these nations given by Yule, " Narrative of the Mission
sent to the Court of Ava in 1855."

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112

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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which its members live, and who has also undertaken ethno-
graphic researches in Siberia, was so much struck with this truth
that he wrote to Jeflferson : " I shall never be able to inform you
how closely the Tartars resemble the aborigines of America, both
in a general way and circumstantially." * At the south the
Chiriquanos, a Peruvian tribe, present analogies not less strik-
ing. *' If I should see these Indians in Europe," said M. Temple,
in speaking of them, " with their coppery tint approaching sal-
lowness, with their long hair brilliantly black, and with their
lack of beard, I should assuredly take them for Chinese, such is
the close resemblance between these nations in their traits." \
Another traveler, John Bell, said there were no other tribes in
the world which had so striking a resemblance to one another as
th£;t of the natives of Canada to the Tunguses.J Alex, von Hum-
boldt goes much further. He mentions a monument discovered
in Canada, nine hundred leagues from Montreal, upon which was
found an inscription in Tartarian characters.*

Similitude of customs, which may be supposed the result of
chance, but which may rather be the effect of another cause, are
not less striking. The form of the teo-calU, " the house of the
divinity," among the Mexicans, singularly resembles that of the
pagodas with steeples, of Barmany and of Siam ; and the relig-
ious ceremonies which were practiced there are not less analogous
to the Brahraanic ceremonies than the figure of the 3Iexican god,
Quetzalcoatl, is to that of the Indian Buddha. In closing this part
of my memoir, I shall be contented to remind my readers of
the fact that numerous scholars have called attention to resem-
blances between America and Asia, in the customs and institu-
tions of the nations )f the two continents, which an intelligent
critic can not mistake for those which are merely the effect of
chance.

Those who are interested in these questions may consult with
profit the writings of Garcia, Hugo, Grotius, Fischer, Acosta,
Brerewood, and Pennant, as well as many other erudite works bet-
ter known, which it is therefore less necessary to mention here.

* Sparks's " Life of Ledyard," p. 66.

f Temple, "Travels in Peru," vol. ii, p. 184.

X "Travels to Various Parts of Asia," IVSS, vol. i, p. 280. See also the
" Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i, 1846, p. 175.

* " Tableaux dc la Nature," vol. i.

TOE ARGUMENT OF M. GODRON.

113

[ f

bo the

Buddhist Mission to America in the Fifth Century of the
Christian Era — by Dr. A. Godron, President of the Acad-
emy of Sciences of Nancy.

1411

The Europeans were certainly not the first navigators who
landed upon the American Continent after the commencement
of the Christian era. Before the voyage of Columbus to the
New World, before the visits of the Basques to Newfoundland,
even before the times, between the ninth and fourteenth centu-
ries, when the Norwegians undertook their bold excursions to
America and established settlements there, the Asiatics certainly
had knowledge of this immense continent.

It is not my intention to discuss in this article all the proofs
which might be presented in support of this statement — to these
I will return hereafter ; but for the present I propose to examine
only the account of a visit of Buddhist missionaries to America,
which was made in the fifth century of the Christian era.

[Plere follows a rksume of the statements and arguments of
previous writers upon the subject. M. Godron continues :]

As to the point raised by M. Klaproth, that the Chinese did
rot possess means of measuring the distances of their journeys
accurately and of determining their direction, it may be ob-
served that we possess a document which disproves this asser-
tion, and which is the more curious from the fact that it came
from Klaproth himself. It proves that the Chinese, even in the
times of remote antiquity, were no novices in the art of measur-
ing distances and fixing their direction. Reference is made to
a letter upon the invention of the compass, which he addressed
to von Humboldt, and of which this celebrated traveler pub-
lished extracts.*

Speaking of the voyages from China to India by the way of
the Bolor, which he had been discussing, Klaproth states that
the accounts of these journeys are worthy of the more confidence
from the fact that the compass had long been employed by the
Chinese. lie adds that Sse-ma-tscian, a Chinese historian who
lived at the time of the destruction of the Bactrian Empire
by Mithradates, gives the following account : " The Emperor
Tz^-ing-icang, 1,110 years before the Christian era, gave a pres-

* Alex, von Humboldt, " Asie Centrale." Paris, 1843, in 8vo ; vol. i, Intro-
duction, p. 40.
8

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114

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

cnt to the embassadors of Tcng-kinf/ and Cocbin-China. Tbey
feared that they would not be able to retrace the way back
to their country, and the emperor therefore gave them five
magnetic chariots which pointed to the south by means of the
movable arm of a small figure covered with a feather-robe."
Adding to these chariots an odometer, that is to say, a mechan-
ism by which another small figure strikes a blow upon a drum
or bell each time that the chariot has passed over the distance of
a Chinese Uy we then have an indication of the direction of the
road, and a means of measuring the distance passed over. " In
the third century of our era," adds Klaproth, "the Chinese ships
were steered upon the Indian Ocean according to the indications
of a magnetic needle. In order to avoid friction, and to give a
freer movement to the needle, it has been supposed that they al-
lowed it to float upon water. This was the aquatic compass of
the Chinese and the magnetic fish of the ancient I idian pilots."

We, therefore, see that Klaproth was perfectly well informed
upon the subject, and may well feel surprised at his remarks in
regard to the voyages to Fu-sm If the scientific honesty of
a scholar of his rank were not sheltered from all criticism, it
might readily be believed that he was forced to mislead the
Chinese navigators in order to prevero their arrival in America,
and to compel them to land in Japan.

But this consideration did not limit the criticisms v/hich the
scholarly Prussian Orientalist made regarding the theories of de
Guignes. He picks to pieces the description which the Bud-
dhist mon\ Hoei Shin gives of the country of Fu-sang. He finds
a new source of objection in the nomenclature of the animals
and vegetation described as existing in this country. Accord-
ing to him, cattle and horses did not exist in America until they
were imported by the Spaniards. The vine and wheat were un-
known before the conquest. He, therefore, arrives at the con-
clusion that the description of Fu-sang is not applicable to
America. These new diflUcnlties are not more serious than those
which have preceded.

No zoologist denies that two species of cattle were found
native in North America. One of these is the musk-ox {Bos
moschatos\ which goes in small herds of twenty to thirty in-
dividuals in the frigid regions which border upon the Arctic
oircle, between the 60th and 73d degrees of north latitude,

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THE ARGUMENT OF M. GODRON.

115

and which can not be referred to here. Tue other is the bison
(Bos Amerlcanus), which goes in herds that are often ex-
tremely numerous, which are found in the temperate regions
of North America, and which in winter migrate farther south.
These cattle were certainly found in the region which the Chi-
nese of the fifth century knew by the name of Fii-sang, and
which must correspond to New California. They also existed
in abundance in the sixteenth century in the kingdom of Cibola
and the country of Quivera. The first Spanish conquerors who
penetrated into this country called them vaccas, and these ani-
mals were a precious and abundant resource for them.

One of these " conquistadores,'" P. de CastaSeda de Nogera, de-
scribed them in a manner which it is impossible to misunderstand.*

According to Gomara, there existed at the same time, in the
northwestern part of Mexico, a population whose principal wealth
consisted in domestic bisons.f

It is perfectly true that horses were imported into America
from Europe. If the Buddhist monks stated that they were
found in Fu-sang, it must have been because of the natural tend-
ency of a man who arrives in a new country to assimilate the
animals which he finds there to those which he has seen in his
native land, and many examples of this tendency might easily be
cited. To confine ourselves to America, it is known that the in-
vaders of the New World applied the names of European animals
to the animals found in America, being guided by the general
resemblance, which was often very remote, in the selection of
the particular name. Thus, they called the llamas " big sheep,"
because they were covered with wool ; the peccaries they called
" hogs," remarking, it is true, that they were smaller than our
hogs. Turkeys were in their eyes " hens," which were larger
than those of Spain. The Buddhist missionaries might have
even found sheep in the country of Fu-sang, if they had pene-
trated farther into the moui ains.

P. de CastaSeda de Nogera saw animals near Chichilticale,
to which ho applied this name. J He referred to f species of

* P. dc Castuneda de Nogora, " Relation du Voyage de Cibola entrcprea en
1540," in the collection of Teranux-Compans. Paris, in 8vo ; vol. ix (1838),
p. 237.

f Gomara, " Ilistoria General de las Indlas." Medina, 1558, in 8vo, chap, ccxiv.

\ See his work cited above, p. 54.

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116

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

mountain-goat, the Muaimon montanua, which is found in these
regions up to the present day.

But what zoological type existed upon the western coast of
North America to which the Buddhist missionaries gave the
name of the horse ? Was it not the same species of which the
Spaniards, during their expeditions into the same country, saw
such numerous individuals, which they called horse-deer ; animals
remarkable for their great height, and bearing large and branch-
ing antlers ? * This appears extremely probable. These Spanish
adventurers were no more naturalists than the Buddhist monks
of whom we have spoken. The name was undoubtedly applied
to the elk, because it stands as high as a horse, and the female
is without horns. Even the males shed their horns every year,
and, when without these ornaments, they may easily have been
mistaken at a distance for horses. Moreover, the Spaniards
made a broad distinction between these " horse-deer " and the
common deer which they shot in the same part of America.

Several species of vines are indigenous to North America,
and they grow in a wild state. The Norwegians, in the year
1000, when exploring the eastern coast of the continent near the
forty-first degree, north latitude, gave the name of Vinland to
the country for this reason, f But this does not suffice to prove
that this plant existed also upon the western coast fifty-two de-
grees of longitude farther west.

But the Spaniards observed vines in IS-^.G in the country of
Cibola and Quivera, notably among the Teyas and the Querechos.
They found the grapes of an agreeable flavor, and ate both them
and red plums. J

It is therefore no occasion for astonishment to learn that the
Buddhist missionaries saw vines in the country of Fu-sang.

The Spanish conquerors also found a cereal abundantly culti-
vated by the natives in the same part of North America, and ii;
several of their accounts they give it the name of " wheat "

* L. Cabiera de Cordove, " Histoirc de Phillippe II, Roi d'Espagnc," in the col-
lection of Ternaux-Compnns, vol. x, p. 444.

f C. Cln-ist. Rafn, " Memoire sur la Decouverte de l'Am6rique au x* SiScle."
Copenhagea, 1845, in 4to, p. 13.

X P. do Castaneda de Nogera, in the work cited, vol. is, pp. 125 and 278.
Juan Jarancllo, " Relation du Voyage fait d la Nouvelle Torre par Vasquez de
Coronado," in the collection of Ternaux-Compans, vol. ix, p. 378.

Iff

saw

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culti-
id ii;
leat "

278.
iiez de

THE ARGUMENT OF M. GODRON.

117

(triffo), and in otliers it is dosignated by the name of maize,
which has been preserved for it. Need we wonder that the Bud-
dhist monks should have availed themselves of the name appli-
cable to wheat to designate this precious cereal ? Do not the
French peasants even now call it Turkish wheat, or Roman
wheat?*

But what is that tree which is covered with red, pear-shaped
fruit, and which furnishes the natives with the raw material from
which their cloth is made ? Some authors have thought this to be
the Hibiscus rosa Sinensis ; others, the Broussonetia pa2yyrifera.
We can not admit either of these views to be correct. The Hi-
biscm rosa Sinensis is, as its name indicates, a native of China.
The Broussonetia grows in China and Japan and in the islands
of Polynesia, but not in Americ

"VVe do not know to what botanical species the tree men-
tioned by the Chinese historian should be referred ; but the
failure to decide this question does not furnish the least ob-
jection in regard to the geographical position of the country of
Fu-sang.

Iron was unknown in this last country, and in fact the natives
of North America were ignorant of the existence of this valuable
metal. It was certainly used in Japan before the fifth century ;
and this fact alone is sufficient to show that the country of
I\c-sang can not, as Klaproth wishes, be identified with the
great island of Japan. The Americans, on the contrary, were ac-
quainted with the use of copper, and made tools from it before
the arrival of the Europeans. Native copper exists in several
countries of the New World, and it is found in great abundance
near Lake Superior, where it is still mined. Along the southern
shore of this lake, Mr. Knapp, Superintendent of the Minnesota
Mining Company, discovered in 1840 a great number of galleries
often from seven to nine meters in depth, and of an extent equal
to about the same number of kilometers. These excavations
were the work of the early indigenes, the proof of this assertion
having been found by clearing out the trenches. Very many
stone mallets and hammers were found, and also wooden shov-
els and a great quantity of pottery made without the aid of

* The account of Fu-sang says nothing about wheat. It seems probable that
Dr. Godron had in mind the wheat mentioned by the Northmen as found in Vin-
land, and that, writing from memory, he confused the two accounts. — E. P. V.

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the potter's wheel.* It may also be added that many very old
pines have grown upon the rubbish thrown out of these ancient
excavations. Mr. Foster counted three hundred and ninety-five
concentric rings upon the trunk of one of them which was cut
down. Moreover, the pines now living are surrounded by de-
cayed trunks, the debris of preceding generations.!

We therefore see that all the difficulties raised by Klaproth
fall one after the other, and leave the views of the scholarly
French Sinologue, de Guignes, without serious objection. The
country which the Chinese of the fifth century designated by
the name of Mi-sanr/ can therefore have been nothing else than
the American Continent, thus discovered by the Asiatics ten
centuries before Christopher Columbus.

* Lubbock, " North American Archaeology," French translation given in the
Revue Archt'ologique of 1806, p. 182.

f Lubbock, "Prehistoric Man," French translation. Paris, 1867, 8vo, p. 206.

■;

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1.4

CHAPTER VIII.

D'eICIITIIAL's " STUDY."

iilfi!

The Buddhistic origin of American civilization — Tlie Rcographical rclationB between
Northeastern Asia and Northwestern America — The memoirs of do Guignea
and Klaproth — If Fu-mng was in Japan, there is no room for the " Coun-
try of Women " — The Japanese denj that Fu-mng was in their country —
Do Guigncs'H map'^The ease of a voj'age from Asia to America — The warm
current of the Pacific Ocean — The Aleutian Islands — Voyages of the natives
— The civilization of New Mexico— A white population — Cophiine — Bud-
dhism — How it is modified and propagated — Its absorption of the doctrines of
other religions — Its proselytism — Its religious communities — The route from
CophiSne to Fusang — A Buddhist sanctuary at Palenque — Description of
Stephens — An Imago of Buddha — The lion-headed couch — The winged globe
— The aureola about the figure — Decadence in art — The altars upon which,
flowers and fruits are oflfered — Reply to observations of M. Vivien de Saint
Martin — The two routes to Tb-Aan— That country located near the mouth
of the Amoor River — Traces of Buddhism in that neighbourhood — Ease of
voyage to the Aleutian islands — Klaproth's theory untenable — No other hy-
pothesis remaining than that Fiisanff must be sought in America.

Study concerning the JBuddhistic Origin of American Civili-
zation — by M. Gicstave (V EichthaV*^''

CONDENSED TRANSLATION.

Article I. — The Geographical Relations between Northeast-
ern Asia and Northwestern America. (From the " Revue Arch6-
ologique," of September 1, 1864.)

The memoir of de Guignes, " Upon the Voyages of the Chi-
nese to the Coast of America and as tc some Tribes situated
at the Eastern Extremity of Asia," does not in its title fully ex-
press the thought which he entertained. The true problem
which he intended to examine was that of the existence of a
connection between the civilization of America and that of East-
em Asia ; and some, at least, of the most important elements for
its solution were in his hands. Upon the one side, the discover-

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120

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMIJUS.

ios of Bt'hrinpf in 175iH and 1741 had conlirnu'il tlie old Japanese
docunicnts, and made known, at least in a j^eiier^l manner, the
geographical relations between the norther. i portions of Asia and
America ; upon the other side, the Htudiea of de Guignes for hiu
history of the Mongols had made him accjuainted with the an-
cient Chinese histories, and in one of them he found the accoun*
upon which all his work is based.

Klaproth, in an equally celebrated memoir, has, as is well
known, sought to overthrow do Guignes's conclusion, and has
endeavoured to substitute another hypothesis. The publication
of this last memoir has had a deplorable result. By the weight
attached to his name the author has shaken, in the minds of
others, the solution indicated by de Guignes, and has turned them
aside from the truth; yet, nevertheless, viewed as an attempted
refutation, Klaproth's memoir may be said to bo a valueless
work, and we shall presently show the incredible weakness of
the arguments which he opposes to those of his predecessor.
He produces no new documents, and does no more than to re-
peat those already quoted by de Guignes, and in fact the only
merit that can be recognized in his work is that he often trans-
lates them more accurately, and with the superiority given him
by the general progress in his times in the science of geography
and in acquaintance with the Chinese.

Klaproth, in the most arbitrary manner, places himself in op-
position to the letter of his text by assuming that the statement
that Fu-sang is situated to the east of la-han is erroneous, and
placing it to the south instead ; but this is not the only objec-
tion to his argument, for no one in Japan has ever been heard
to speak of it as Fa-sang; the details which are given by the
Chinese narrator regarding this country do not agree with Japan
in any respect, and among other circumstances there is one that is
mentioned which is quite decisive. The narrator not only places
Fu-sang twenty thousand li to the east of Ta-han, but he speaks
of a country, " the Kingdom of Women," which is found one
thousand li to the east of Fi-sang. Now, one thousand li to the
east of Japan there is nothing but the sea.

It should also be remembered that the Chinese, living so near
to Japan, and having communications with that country from
the most ancient times, have never dreamed of placing the coun-
try of Fu-sang there. To them Fi-sang has become merely a

D'EICIITIIAL'rt •' STUDY."

121

llaces

3ak3

one

the

lear
rom
l)un-

ly a

legendary country, of which fahU>s arc told that would never bo
believed as to a neit^hbouriiig land, for the j)restijifo of distance
and of novel circumstances is necessary to give rise to tales of
sucli a nature.

History is no more favourable than fable to Klaproth's opin-
ion, for, as he himself admits, Huddhism was introduced into the
country of Fu-mug in the year 4.18 a. d., and was not introduced
into Japan, officially at least, until S.'ii, about a century later.
How, then, can it bo admitted that Fu-aang can be Japan, or
oven any part of Japan ? . . .

With a species of divinatory instinct, or rather with extreme
good sense, do Guignes traced upon the map drawn by him the
probable route to America followed by those whom he calls
Cliinese navigators ; the details are undoubtedly very imperfect ;
only one of the Aleutian Islands, the first Hehring's Island, is
shown, and upon the other hand the peninsula of Alaska is im-
moderately extended both in length and breadth ; there is also a
complete absence of exact determination of latitudes and longi-
tudes ; nevertheless, the general iitline of the coasts of Asia and
America is perfectly correct. ^Vll the discoveries and observa-
tions since made have only served to confirm it.

We have three very important documents before us, i. e. :
" Statistischo und ethnographische Nachrichten (Iber die Russi-
schen Besitzungon an dcr Nordwest-Kiiste von America," by
Rear-Admiral von Wrangell, St. Petersburg, 1839 ; an analysis
by F. Loewe, of the work of P6ro Wenjarainow, upon *' The
(Aleutian) Islands of the District of Unalaska," extracted from
the eighth number for 1842 of the periodical, entitled " Archiv
fUr die wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland"; and, finally, the
analysis in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," for April 1, 1858, of
the memoir of Maury regarding the case of the passage between
the northeastern shores of Asia and the northwestern coast of
America. All these documents agree in demonstrating the ease
of this communication, and of establishing a settlement upon the
northwestern coast of America. The climate of all this region,
even in the highest latitudes, and up to the sixtieth degree, is
relatively very mild. The chain composed of the Aleutian
Islands and the peninsula of Alaska forms, as it were, a barrier
to arrest the polar influences. Moreover, the great warm current
of the Pacific Ocean, observed by modern navigators, raises the

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

temperature there very notably. From observations carefully
collected, it has been proved that the mean temperature of Sitka
is about 45° Fahrenheit, with, it is true, but very slight differ-
ence between the summer and the winter ; even in winter the
sea is never solidly frozen, and, in a word, according to the
unanimous testimony of navigators, there is no other place in the
world where so great a; 1 sudden a change of climate is found
as is met in passing from Behring's Sea to the Pacific Ocean.

The Aleutian Islands, before their conquest by the Russians
(1760-1790), were inhabited by a numerous and prosperous pop-
ulation. Amphibious and fur-bearing animals existed there in
immense numbers. The inhabitants had a tradition that they
were of Asiatic origin, and they transported themselves easily
from one island to another in their leather canoes, or baidares.

" The farther one |\oes north," says Maury, " the easier the
passage becomes, and the greater attraction the natives seem to
find in it. A po^o serves them as a rudder ; a branch of a tree
provided with i^'i limbs and f(>liage is set up in the air to serve
as a sail. The crew, which is usually composed of a man with
his wife and children, take the opportunity when the wind blows
gently toward the point which they wish to reach, and they may
be seen feai'lessly sailing before the wind in the open sea at a
speed of four or fivt miles r^n hour." Langsdorff, in his " Voy-
age arotmd the World i«. the Yei,rs 1803-1807," speaks of canoes
made by the natives, vhich would hold as many as a dozen per-
sons, and mentions the fact that the; sailed in them from the
Island of Kodiak to Sitka.

All this, it is true, is proof only of navigation by the indi-
genes either between Asia and America, or from one point to
another of the northwestern coast of America. We see nothing
of any question of navigation in these regions by the Chinese,
or even of a direct navigation by the Japanese between the two
Continents ; and although there are numerous instances, some of
them quite recent, in which Japanese junks have been driven by
tempests, or the ocean ciirrents, upon the American coast, the
return is much more difiicult, and there does not exist any trace
of a regular navigation between China or Japan and America in
ancient times. In this respect the title given by de Guignes to
his memoir, " Upon the Voyages of the Chinese to the Coast of
America," shows that the author wished to give a prudent vague-

D'EICHTHAL'S » STUDY."

123

ness to the title, but said perhaps too much. All the facts go to
show that the relations with America, of which de Guignes caught
a glimpse, can and must have existed ; but in the present state of
our knowledge * we must hold that they took place by means of
more modest navigators, who still had sufficient skill for so easy
a passage. . . .

The brief and judicious observations made by de Guignes,
regarding the s^ate of civilization attained by the natives of the
region now known as New Mexico, have been fully confirmed
by the more perfect knowledge derived from old and new docu-
ments regarding the region, and we now have imquestionable
proof of its high state of civilization, and, in some respects, of
its connection with the Chinese civilization before the conquest.
All historical documents, moreover, authorize us to place in this
country the point at which originated the civilization of the
American tribes found farther south. . . .

What is said regarding the existence of a white population
is confirmed by the observations of modern exi)lorers,f and
finally what is said regarding the existence of two prisons in
the country may find its explanation in the belief as to future
punishments held by some Indian tribes, especially by the Man-
dans. J . . .

When de Guignes translated from the Chinese records the
statement that the religion of JFh was formerly unknown in the
land of Fii-sangy but that under the Simg dynasty five bonzes
from Samarcand carried their doctrine into this country and
changed the manners of the inhabitants, neither he nor any man
of that day suspected, either that the religion of Fo was any-
thing more than the national religion of China, or that it was
identical with Buddhism, and the question does not seem to have
occurred to de Guignes as to how these so-called Chinese priests
can have come from Samarcand.

The country of Ki-pin, the ancient Cophftne, corresponded
very closely Avith the country now called Bokhara, the land of
Samarcand. Samarcand, in fact, at the time spoken of, was one

* The species of suzerainty exercised by China over Kamtcliatka Is the only
proof given by de Guignes of tlic action of Cliina in its neiglibourliood.

t " Report on the Indian Tribes," by Lieutenant Whipple, p. 31 ; Catlin,
"Letters and Notes," etc., vol. i, p. 93.

X Catlin, "Letters and Notes," etc., vol. i, p. 157.

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of the great foci of Buddhism. Moreover, it is in the center of
Asia, in contact with Persia upon one side and Turkestan upon
the other, at the outlet of all the routes which lead from this
central region to the northern frontier of China, and to all the
northwestern part of Asia as far as to the coast of the Pacific
Ocean. . . .

At the time of Klaproth, the history of Buddhism, although
something was known of it, was far from complete. The great
works of Hodgson, of Tumour, and of Burnouf had not then
appeared. That of which de Guignes could not even have
thought, and which Klaproth himself could have accomplished
but very imperfectly, it is now possible to attempt with a hope
of success. By recapitulating all that we know now regard-
ing the internal development and the distant propagation of
Buddhism, it will be easy to understand what may have been
the results of its propagatioa in America, and from this point of
view to judge the institutions and the monuments of American
civilization.

Article II. — Buddhism : How it is Modified and Propagated.
(November 1, 1864.)

This article shows that the spirit of good-will and charity
which animated the doctrines of the Buddhist religion dis-
posed it to conciliation toward the foreign religions that sur-
rounded it, when carried from India, the land of its birth, into
other countries, even when these other religions had but slight
affinity with it.

It never placed itself in open hostility to the world by which
it was surrounded, and in India respected the pantheon of the
gods that were worshiped there. Hostile as the spirit which
dictated the distinction of castes in India is to the ardent charity
which animated Buddhism, it accepted the distinction of castes
as an accomplished fact.

The fusion of Buddhism with the national religion, even with
that of the sects of India the most opposed to its nature, is a fact
established by the most authentic documents and by unquestion-
able proofs. In principles, nothing can be more opposite to
Buddhism than the worship of Siva ; yet, notwithstanding this,
at the end of a few centuries we see an intimate union estab-
lished between the two religions.

In Java, Buddhism is found mixed with Brahmanism, or with

D'EICHTHAL'S "STUDY."

125

the worship of Siva, and the union of Buddhism with Brahman-
iam is also found in Ceylon ; and the Buddhistic religion of Ja-
pan shows a large mixture of other elements.

This series of facts shows what transformations Buddhism
underwent, even in very early times, by contact Avith the other
religions which it encountered. It also shows us the expansive
force by which it was animated, and which served to transport
it to a great distance from the place at which it originated.
Proselytism is an essential feature of Buddhism ; it is the con-
sequence of the sentiments of good-will and universal charity
which it professed, and at the same time of the profound faith
which the word of the master inspired in his disciples. " If the
great saint Buddha formerly descended upon the earth," says
Jliuen-tsang, " it was that he might himself spread abroad the
blessed influences of his law — Buddha established his doctrine in
order that it might be spread abroad into all places. "What man
is there who would wish to be the only one to drink of it ? I
can not forget the words of the sacred book, * Whosoever has
hidden the law from men f hall be struck with blindness in all
his transmigrations.' "

" The man who believes in the mission of Sakya-muni," says
M. Neumann, " is obliged to consider every man as an equal and
a brother, and must even strive to have the blessed news of re-
demption carried to all the nations of the earth, and for this
purpose he should, following the example of the divine-man,
submit himself to all trials and all sufl'erings. This is why we
see a multitude of Buddhist monks and missionaries going from
Central Asia, China, Japan, and Corea, and traveling into all
parts of the world, known and unknown. It is to preach to un-
believers the doctrine of the three jewels (i. e., Buddha, the Law,
and the Assembly), or to gather news of their co-religionists."

Buddhism rejected the mystery in which Brahmanism was en-
veloped, and, proclaiming the superiority of moral works above
mere ritualistic practices,* its preachings opened its doctrines to
the acceptance of all mankind. Its disciples, both men and
women, after having in the earliest days shared a nomadic life,
were united in religious communities and convents, which were
governed by the eldest or the most honoured. f It recommended

* Burnouf s " Introduction (1 1'lliatoirc du Buddhisme," pp. 335 and 337.
f Buraouf, p. 211.

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penance as the means of progressive improvement ; it instituted
the confession ; * it prohibited bloody sacrifices. f

We can now understand both the truth and importance of
the statements made in the Chinese account : that five monks
went to Fu-sang, and there spread abroad the law of Buddha ;
that they carried with them their books, their saci'cd images, and
their ritual, and instituted monastic customs, and so changed the
manners of the inhabitants. A Buddhist mission could not be
better characterized. It should be remembered, however, that
the books and images carried by these missionaries of t ^ fifth
century would undoubtedly contain quite as strong an iniusion
of the elements of Brahmanism (and of the worship of Siva in
particular) as of the elements of Buddhism properly so called.
China and Japan seem also to have furnished their contingent,
and we in fact know that if this doctrine was first established in
Fu-sang by monks from Samarcand, the account which has been
transmitted to us is the work of a Chinese monk who had so-
journed there himself. As to the indication of Samarcand, as the
country from which ihe mission departed, there is nothing that
should not seem to us to be perfectly authentic. Since the pub-
lication of the journey of Iliuen-tsang, we know that the Buddh-
ist propagandist, setting forth from the north of India, passed
Samarcand in order to reach, by way of Turkestan and the des-
ert of Gobi, the northern frontiers of China.

Starting from this point, the Buddhist missionaries would
have nothing further to do than to turn toward the north, in
order to follow the route indicated by de Guignes, which, by
way of the Lake of Baikal and the Amoor River, would lead
them to the country of Ta-lian. The remarkable Buddhist
monuments recently discovered near the mouth of the Amoor
River, although their date can not be precisely determined,
prove in any case that at a very ancient epoch this country was
frequented by the Buddhists.J

From Ta-han, as stated in the Chinese account, these mis-
sionaries reached Fii-sang.

Article III, — Consideration of the Observations of Hum-
boldt upon the Relations between the Civilization of Asia and
America (January 1, 18G5), and

* Burnouf, p. 300. f Burnouf, p. 339.

X Sec C. dc Sabin, " Le Fleuve Amolir," Paris, 1861.

D'EIOniHAL'S *' STUDY."

127

Article IV. — Upon the Presence of Buddhism among the
Red-skins (April 1, 1865), it seems unnecessary to translate ; as
Humboldt's arguments ara fully given elsewhere, and as Article
IV relates mostly to the religious belief and practices of the
Mandan Indians.

Article V. — A Buddhist Sanctuary at Palenque (June 1,
1865).

John Stephens, in his book, entitled "Incidents of Travel in
Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan," new edition, London,
1844, vol. ii, p. 318, makes the following statement :

" Within the walls of the palace of Pr^^-nque, at the east of
the interior tower, is another building with two corridors, one
richly decorated with pictures in stucco, and having in the center
an elliptical tablet. It is four feet long and three wide, of hard
stone, set in the wall. Around it are the remains of a rich stucco
border. The principal figure sits cross-legged on a couch orna-
mented with two leopards' heads ; the attitude is easy, the
physiognomy the same as that of the other personages, and the
expression calm and benevolent. The figure wears around its
neck a necklace of pearls, to which is suspended a small medal-
lion containing a face ; perhaps intended as an image of the sun.
Like every other subject of sculpture we had seen in the coun-
try, the personage has ear-rings, bracelets on the wrists, and a
girdle round the loins. The Lead-aress differs from most of the
others at Palenque in that it wants the plume of feathers."

Stephens abstains from noting any analogy between thi(5
image and any other known type ; but M. Lenoir, who, in his
"Parallel of the Ancient Mexican Monuments with those of the
Old World," referred to this figure, made the remark that its
graceful attitude is analogous with the pose which the East
Indians give to their god Buddha.* We shall be bolder than
M. Lenoir, and where he only suspected an analogy we shall not
fear to recognize a true identity.

In fact, the scene which we find under our eyes is frequently
found in the monuments of Buddhist worship. It may be ob-
served, for instance, three times repeated, in the bas-reliefs of
the temple of Boro-Boudor in Java, which Crawf urd lias inserted
in his woi'k upon the Indian Archipelago. Tliese picture one or
more worship "s presenting to Buddha, in accordance with the
* "Antiquit^s Mexicainjs," vol. ii, p, Y7.

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precepts of his religion, oflferings of flowers and of fruits. One

of these images in par-
ticular, that repro-
duced in Crawfurd's
plate xxii,* and copied
in the accompanying
cut. Fig. 1, offers a
striking resemblance
to our image of Pa-
lenque, which is copied
in Fig. 2. In each
we see a worshiper
offering to the divin-
ity, before whom he
is kneeling, a flower,
which, in the case of
the Buddhist, is in-
contestably a lotus-
flower, and, in the case
of the American wor-
shiper, either the same
flower or some other
of similar appearance
— possibly, as has been
suggested by M. the
Abb6 Brasseur de
Bourbourg, a cacao-
tree flower. Here,
however, the flower is
not found, as in the
bas - relief of Boro-
Boudor, in the hand
of the worshiper, but
it rests iipon a sort of
support which the

* Crawfurd's " History of
the Indian Archipelago," 8
vols, in 12mo. Edinburgh,
1820; vol. ii, plates xix,
xxii, and xxiii.

Fio. 1.

-Worshiper offorinir n flower to the imago
of Buddha.

Fio. 2.— Bas-relief found at Palenquo.

WIf f :

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D'EIOniHAL'S " STUDY."

129

worshiper presents to the divinity ; but this same disposition, or
one that is analogous, may be seen in Crawfurd'a plate xix.
Moreover, this same flower is twice found upon the head of our
divinity, and is also frequently found associated with the figures
of the gods of Palenque. (See, among the rest, Stephens's " Cen-
tral America," vol. ii, p. 31G, plate No. 2.) The two lions, or
leopards, facing in opposite directions, upon which our divinity
is seated, recall the lions which, in the paintings of India, some-
times support the seat of Buddha (and even sometimes of other
divinities), and of which an example is given in the image of
Buddha reproduced in Fig. 1.

But they also recall the figures of animals in pairs, facing in
opposite directions, which are found so often in the sculptures
and paintings of Asia. Such are notably the celebrated capi-
tals of the columns of Persepolis, and of the temple of D61os,
formed of two horses ; and the group of the lion and the bull
placed back to back, attributed to Ardahnari; finally, they
agree in every particular with the group of two crouching lions
— which, although brought from the island of Cyprus, are of
Assyrian type — which may be seen in the Museum of Napoleon
III, and of which an engraving is here given (Fig. 3).

Nevertheless, the resemblance of this last group with that
which serves as a seat for our Buddha is much less than that
which it presents to two other groups of lions or leopards, placed
back to back, one found at the base of a niche of the edifice
called the " House of the Nuns," at Uxraa- j* the other discovered,
or more properly disinterred, by Stephens in the same city. A

Fio. 3.— Sculpture from the island of
Cyprus.

Fio. 4.— Sculpture found at Uxmal, Yu-
catan.

* Cathcrwood, " Views of Ancient Monuments of Central America, Chiapas,
and Yucatan," plate iv.
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picture of the latter is given in the "Incidents of Travel in
Yucatan," vol. i, p. 183, and we reproduce it in Fig. 4, p. 129,
in order that the reader may be able to appreciate its resemblance
to the Cyprian group.

Upon the plinth of the Cyprian group there is seen the image
of the winged glohe^ so frequently represented upon the pedi-
ments and friezes of the temples of Egypt, Assyria, and Persia.
This emblem does not occur in the last-mentioned American
group, but an ornament, either identical or at least very similar,
may be seen above a door opening into the interior of a sanct-
uary at Ocosingo, a city not very far distant from Palenque.

• " In the back wall of the central chamber of this temple,"
says Stephens,* " was a doorway of the same size with that in

front, which led to an
apartment without any
partitions, but in the
center was an oblong in-
closure, eighteen feet by
eleven, which was mani-
festly intended as the
most important part of
the edifice. The door
was choked up with ruins to within a few feet of the top, but
over it, and extending along the whole front of the structure,
was a large stucco ornament, which at first impressed us most
forcibly by its striking resemblance to the winged globe over
the doors of Egyptian temples. Part of this ornament had
fallen down, and, striking the heap of rubbish underneath,
had rolled beyond the door of entrance. We endeavoured
to roll it back and restore it to its place, but it proved too heavy
for the strength of four men and a boy. The part which
remains is represented in the engraving, and differs in details
from the winged globe. The wings are reversed ; there is a
fragment of a circular ornament, which may have been intended
for a globe, but there are no remains of serpents entwining it."

Even at Palenque, above the door and upon the frieze of the
sanctuary of the edifice described by Stephens under the name
of " Casa No. 3," we see the two extremities of a similar orna-
ment, the central part having been destroyed. Stephens has re-

* Stephens's " Central America," vol. ii, p. 259.

Fio. 5. — Oranmcnt above a door of a ruin at
Ocosingo.

D'EIOIITHAL'S " STUDY."

131

produced this ornament, or at least the two extremities which
still remain of it, without making it the object of any observa-
tion in his text.*

At our first step into the study of the antiquities of Central
America, we, therefore, find again the same singularity which
struck us in the traditions relative to the Deluge. We see our-
selves carried in one direction to Western Asia and the banks of
the Mediterranean, and in the other to India and Eastern Asia.
Between the two lies the land of Chaldea, and it is from this
intermediate point that traditions and rites, as well as civiliza-
tion, have radiated.

" It is in Chaldea," says M. Alfred Maury,f " that civilization
arose for the first time upon our globe, or at least this country
was one of the first centers from which it was spread abroad into
neighbouring lands. It is therefore easy to conceive that a legend
existing in Chaldea may have been carried among the nations
who from all quarters resorted to this country."

Bearing in mind, again, that we have every reason to believe
Samarcand to have been the point of departure of the Buddhism
propagated in America, this circumstance makes it more easy to
conceive of the presence in the New Woi*ld of Asiatic elements
borrowed even by Western Asia.

But the course of our work has brought us again into the
presence of very serious and diflScult questions. We shall there-
fore content ourselves with the presentation of the facts which
we have given, and conclude this article with a return to the
examination of the figure of Buddha at Palenque.

The oval in which the figure is inscribed, although it is true
it is a little larger, recalls that which envelopes the bust of
our Boro-Boudor (see Fig. 1, upon page 128), an oval which
in itself is nothing more than the aureola which at first sur-
rounded only the head of Buddha, but which was gradually
enlarged.

But there is another point of resemblance which, although it
relates to a simple detail only, is still more striking and decisive.
Stephens relates, as we have remarked, that the oval was origi-
nally surrounded by a border in stucco, of which he saw only
the remains, and which he did not indicate in his design ; but

* Stephens's " Central America," vol. ii, p. 354.
f " Encyclopedic Moderne," t. xii, p. 11.

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in the dosign of Castafioda * this border is clearly shown, although
even then very dilapidated. It is after this model that, in our
copy of the design of Stephens, we have attempted to restore the
border in question, in part at least, and at the same time we
have restored a series of small ornaments, also given by Cas-
tafieda, of which the form is somewhat crescent-shaped. These
ornaments have given rise to the most singular interpretations ;
but tlie same ornaments, similarly disposed, are found about the
aureola of the figure of an East Indi divinity which Raffles
has given in his "History of Java" (vol. ii), and which is re-
produced below.

Moreover, if the origin and signification of this ornament is
Bought, it will be found, from a study of the other figures given

by Raffles, that it grew from successive
transformations of the flames originally
drawn about the aureola of the divinities,
and of which an example is found in our
figure itself.

Such analogies as these, we believe,
can not be the effect of chance.

In order to explain them, it must bo
admitted that the Buddhist artists who
came to America brought with them the
same collection of plans and designs, the
same albums, if I may use the word, which
were found in the hands of the Buddhist
missionaries in the south of India and in t\ e Indian Archipelago.
It is a supposition which is confirmed by all the analogies that
we know to exist between American and Asiatic art, and more-
over it is a very natural supposition, fully justified by the his-
tory of Buddhist propagandism, and without which the existence
of so marked a connection between American and Asiatic art
appears an insoluble problem.

It should, however, be borne in mind that, between the primi-
tive types imported by the Buddhists and the different monuments
which we are examining, we should expect to find all the differences
produced by an inevitable decadence in art, as well as by the influ-
ence of local causes and the aspect of novel natural surroundings.

* " AntiquitSs Mexicaincs," vol. ii, plate xxvi ; and Kingsborough's "Antiqui«
ties of llexico," vol. iv, part third, plate xx.

Fio. 6. — Aureola about the
head of an East Indian
idol.

D'EICIlTnAL'5 "STUDY."

133

Below and in front of our bas-relief there was also found a
species of table, or bracket-shelf, which Castaueda gives in his
design, but of which Stephens saw no more than the mark upon
the wall of the place where it had stood, which he reproduces
with dotted lines " after the model of similar tables existing in
other places." *

" Del Rio," says Mr. Squier, in his " Researches regarding
the Serpent Symbol in America," " describes this table as a large
flag-stone, six feet in length,f three feet four inches wide, and
seven inches thick, placed upon four legs like a table. These
legs were ornamented by figures in bas-relief. Along the tab-
let against the wall there reached a sort of border similarly
sculptured.

Now, this is precisely the character of the Balwig-ko of the
Hindoos, or the Then-halang of the Siamese — stones or altars of

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Buddha, upon which fruits and flowers were offered instead of
bloody sacrifices. These are found in the Siamese and Japanese
temples, as well as in all Buddhist temples generally. J

* "Central America," vol. ii, p. 318. " Antiquitda Moxicaines," vol. ii, plate
xxvi, Fig. 33.

t This length is in fact that which is indicated in the report of Del Rio (see
''Memoires de la Societ6 G6ographique de Paris," vol. ii, p. 170) and in the Ger.
man translation given by Minutoli, " Beschreibung einer alten Stadt," etc., Berlin,
1832. Nevertheless, this measure does not agree with that given by Stephens, and
bv Del Rio himself, in the place cited for the length of the bas-relief — a measure
which, according to the engraving, should be equal to that of the tablet.

X Squier, " The Serpent Symbol and the Worship of the Reciprocal Principles
of Nature in America," New York, 1851, p. 89. Squier himself refers to an arti-
cle by Captain James Low, "On Buddha and the Phrabat — Explanation of the

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134

AN INCiLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Quito ropontly ftti Euijlish jotirnal, tlio ** London Til iistrato*!
News" (February l^ifi, 1805, p. UK'l), has given, with an image of
Hudilha, a specimen of a Buddhist altar, perfectly conformable
to the Mexican altar, of which an illustration is given in Fig. 7.
The presence of this altar, added to all the resemblances of detail
which we have pointed out in the bas-relief, seems to us to clear-
ly prove the JJuddhistic character of the Sanctuary of I'alenque.
The figure which we have described is, to our knowledge, the
only one of the kind which exists at Palenfjue. Outside of this
city, and in all the other ruins of Central America, wo do not
know of any other figure at all similar, unless it is a figure
which INI. Waldeck has given in his " Voyage to Yucatan," and
which he says he saw repeated four times in that number of
niches of the southern fajjado of the " House of the Nuns " at
Uxmal.

It is noticeable that this artist, who thought that ho found
the imprint of Buddhism at Uxmal in a
number of details, perhaps indifferent,
seems not to have remarked tho resem-
blance of this figure drawn by him to tho
reformer of India. He contents himself
with the statement that " upon the sill of
the niche which surmounts each door
there is placed a small seated ^fif/ure."
On this occasion at least M. Waldeck
can not therefore bo accused of taking
sides. Moreover, the southern fajade of
the " Hou ^e of the Nuns," of which he speaks, has been drawn
again by Stephens in a general view of the site, and has since
been drawn by Catherwood.* The niches indicated above each

Symbols on a Prapatha or Impression of the Divine Foot," in the " Transac-
tions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland," vol. iii, p. 77.
I have verified tho citation, and it is entirely correct. I fear, however, that there
may have been an error in the transcription of the Indian name given as Balang-
ko or Then-halang. The word is unknown to all the Indian scholars whom I have
been able to consult. May there not have been a confusion with the stone Bin-
tang of the worshipers of Siva ? (Sec Coleman's " Mythology of the Hindus,"' p.
176.) I have not succeeded, however, in discovering the true name of these
altars. The authors who describe them merely mention them without stating the
name by which they arc called.

* Stephens, " Yucatan," vol. i, p. 306. Catherwood, " Views of Ancient Monu.

Fio. 8.— Seated figure
found in niches of
a buildin[r nt Uxmal.

D'EICIITIIAL'S "STUDY."

186

tlio

door arc perfectly tlistinguiahable, altliougli, by reason of tho
distance from which the view is supposed to bo taken, it is im-
possible to distinguish whether any object is or is not contained
in them.*

Admitting as authentic, therefore, the image given by M.
Waldeck (and there is every reason for so doing), it is impossible
to fail to bo struck by tho analogy which it presents with the
representations of Buddha in general, but particularly with the
figure of Buddha sitting cross-legged, which is found placed and
repeated in an entirely similar manner in tho four hundred niches
of tho temple of Boro-Boudor at Java.f Tho characteristic posi-
tion of tho right arm is tho same in both cases. The head-dress
is different, but wo find an almost exactly similar head-dress
upon other figures of Buddha, or
upon the heads of other divinities.
It is a sort of fan which adorns
tho head of the divine person-
age, and which is formed by a ser-
pent with several heads. J It is an
ordinary attribute of Vishnu.^ It
is also found upon the head of
Ilanouman, || upon that of Gane-
sa, ^ of Vira-Badhra, ^ etc., and
finally upon that of Buddha him-
self. J A Buddha with this head-
dress somewhat modified is sculpt-
ured upon tho wall of the temple of Indra-Saba at EUora ; it has

Fio. 9.— Fi(?uro of Buddha— from
a tcmplo at KUora.

■ •■■1

1 1 i .

Moau-

ments in Central America," plate viil. It is true that there are not merely four
of these niches visible upon tho southern fa9ade, as stated in the account, but
eight. At the same time, however, it is also true that the fa9adc is divided into
two compartments, each containing four niches, and this fact may possibly explain
Waldcck's error.

* The part of this fa9ade photographed by M. de Chamcy contains only two
of the eight niches, and, even with the magnifying-glass, it is impossible to distin-
guish any appearance of a statue in either of them. But the form of the niche
is exactly as given by Waldeck, and it is possible that the statues have been de-
stroyed since the visit of that traveler.

t Crawfurd's " History of the Indian Archipelago," vol. ii, plate xxix.
X Moor's " Hindu Pantheon," plate xxiv.

• Ibid., plate viii. J Ibid., plate xcii.
^ Ibid., Frontispiece. ^^'^^-t plate xxvi. J Ibid., plate Ixxv.

:;■•!

f . ^11

ill

136

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

been reproduced by Daniel,* and we give it in our Fig. 9 (page
135), that it may be compared with the figure at Uxmal.f

The existence of these niches, with their uniform statues,
often found in /ery great numbers in the walls of the terraces
which support the temples, is one of the common traits of the
religious architecture of the Indian Archipelago and of Central
America. "We content ourselves here with merely pointing out
this analogy. "We shall return to the subject again when, after
our review of American history, we return to the examination
of the antiquities of Palenque.J

GUSTAVE d'EiCHTHAL.

Supplement to the First Article. Reply to some Observations of
M. Vivien de Saint-Martin upon cle Guigneis Memoir.

The first question which presents itself to us, in connection
with this work, is that of the geographical connections and the
ancient communications between Asia and America, which could
have permi; tf'd the passage of Buddhist missionaries to the New
World. We .^ave said that it seems to us to be possible to reduce
this questicii to the analysis ond development of de Guignes's
memoir upon the subject. In our first article we therefore took
up the examination of this memoir, and concluded by adopting

* " Oriental Scenery." Description of Ellora.

f Even the modification which is presented by the head-dress of the Ptatue
at Uxmal seems to be an indication of its authenticity.

\ Before terminating this article, we think it necessary to rgain call the atten-
tion of our readers to another bas-relief which decorates the house designated by
Stephens as Caxa No. ^. It is an unknown divinity, but one which has complete-
ly the appearance and attitude of an East Indian divinity. M. Lenoir, in his
" Parallel of the Ancient Mexican Monuments with those of the Old World," was
the first to make the remark. " This bas-relief," says he, " represents a divinity
who offers, especially in his attitude, a great resemblance to the divinities of
India or Japan" ("Antiquitcs Mexicaines," vol. ii, p. YS); the figure itself is
found In the same volume, plate xxxiii, and also in the " Antiquities of Mexico "
of Lord Kingsborough, vol. iv, third part ; ali=o in the " Mcmoircs de la Socidtd
do Geographic," vol. ii, plate xvi. Unfortunately this bas-relief was, by 1840,
almost destroyed. Stephens saw only a fragment (" Central America," vol. ii, p.
355). Compare this bas-relief wiia the figure of Parvati, given by Moor, "Hindu
Pantheon," plate v, figure B ; and with a statuette of Lakchmr which is to be seen
in the Imperial Library. A bas-relief discovered by Stephens at Chichen-Itza, in
Yucatan, is the only one among the American figures with which we are acquainted
that shows a similar attitude. (" Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," vol. ii, p. 292.)

east.

ndu
con
in
ntcd
192.)

D'EICHTHAL'S " STUDY."

137

the opinion expressed by de Guignes, that tlie Fti-sang of the
Chinese tradition can be nothing else than a portion of America.

An eminent geographer, M. Vivien de Saint-Martin, has com-
bated this conclusion in a chapter of his " Annee Geographiqiie "
(1865), entitled " Une Vieille Ilistoire remise h Flot " (i. e., An
Old Story Set Afloat).

There is always profit to be found in a work emanating from
M. Vivien de Saint-Martin, and we ourselves have found it in
this article ; but we persist none the less in the opinion which
wc have expressed : we even think that the observations of M.
Vivien de Saint-Martin have only added a new force to our con-
viction. The memoir of de Guignes is composed of two quite
distinct parts : one is the account of the country of Fu-sanr/,
written in the fifth century of our era by a Buddhist missionary
named Iloei Shin, which de Guignes extracted from the history
of Li-yan-cheu ; the other part is a commentary intended to
determine the geographical position of the country of Fu-sang.
In the first part, de Guignes is merely a translator ; in the sec-
ond, he appears as a critic, and a critic of the first order.

His merit, as we formerly remarked (and upon this point
M. Vivien is in accord with us), is that, enabled by his vast
knowledge of Chinese literature, he discovered two itinerai'ies —
one maritime, the other terrestrial ; both of which terminate at
the country of Ta-han, the point of Asia which, according to the
account, is nearest to the country of Fu-sang.

The meeting of the two routes at their northern extremity
proves that the country of Ta-han is necessarily situated at some
point upon the northeastern coast of Asia. De Guignes thinks
that this point is in Kamtchatka. M. Vivien de Saint-Martin
tliinks that it should be sought upon the river Amoor, near the
point at which it empties into the Sea of Ochotsk, in the region
iu which, as we have already said, Buddhist monuments in a
state of excellent preservation have been recently discovered.
We were instantly strack by the same thought as M. Vivien de
Saint-Martin, and, after a new examination of the question, we
declare that wo are convinced of the correctness of this view.

In fact, even according to the description of the route trans-
lated by de Guignes, we see that by traveling Jive dags to the
east, in the direction of the Amoor Hiver, the Shg-wei Ju-che
are reached ; from there, after traveling Jive dags to the north,

i'li

138

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

iljfi

ffiffi

the country of Ta-han is reached, surrounded on three sides
by the sea. Now, below its junction with the Soungari-Oula,
and especially below its junction with the Oussori, the Amoor
turns directly to the north, and the country of Ta-han may
probably be located near its mouth. The circumstance that it
is surrounded on three sides by the sea, may be accounted for
by sujiposing that it is situated in some bend described by the
river. But de Guignes, who was but imperfectly acquainted
with the course of the Amoor and with the geography of this
region, has thought it necessary to go as far north as Kam-
tchatka to find a locality which corresponds with the descrip-
tion of his itinerary.

We, therefore, very willingly make this concession to M.
Vivien de Saint-Martin, or, rather, we thank him for the recti-
fication which he has led us to adopt. But this fact does not
prove that de Guignes's memoir should be considered any the
less worthy of interest, or that the solution of the question
which he proposes is any the less probable. But let M. Vivien
speak for himself :

" The few germs of rudimentary civilization, of which the
trace is found among the tribes of the Amoor, are of Buddhist
origin : they undoubtedly appertain to several different epochs,
but the oldest are connected with the mif dons of the sixth cent-
ury and the three following centuries, which are mentioned in the
texts which de Guignes was the first to describe. This is a real
service, among many others, which the scholarly author of the
* History of the Huns ' has rendered to science, and of which
his error as to the location of Ta-han does not at all diminish
the merit." *

After calling attention to the Buddhist monuments discov-
ered some ten years ago upon the lower bank of the Amoor
River, near the village designated as " Ghiliak of the Tower,"
M. Vivien continues thus :

" We, therefore, now have positive proof that the mission-
aries of the religion of Buddha, or of Fo, as it is called by the
Chinese, not only carried shamanism into all of Central Asia,
but pressed to the east and descended the valley of the Amoor
River as far as to the shores of the Eastern Sea, at the same time
that other propagators of this pre-eminently proselyting religion

* " L'Ann4e Gdographiquc," Paris, 1865, p. 268.

D'EIOHTHAL'S " STUDY."

139

spread themselves by the maritime route into all the islands
contained within the boundaries of the sea inclosed between the
Japanese Archipelago and the coast of Mantchooria, designated
upon our maps as the Sea of Japan."*

Having traveled this distance, would the Buddhist mission-
aries arrest their voyage here, or would they not rather, profiting
by the ease with which the chain of the Aleutian Islands would
enable them to pass from one continent to the other, press on
until they had penetrated to America ? A tradition, mentioned
by de Guignes, states that at an early epoch " the Tartars who
lived in the neighbourhood of the Amoor River were accustomed
from this point to reach the southern portion of Kamtchatka,
after five days' navigation toward the north."

This is the most direct route to reach the Aleutian Islands.
They could also reach them almost equally well by turning the
point of the island of Saghalien, or Taraikai, upon the south, and
coasting along the chain of the Kurile Islands. It is true that
we have no historical proof of navigation across what may be
called the Aleutian Sea, either by the Tartars or by the Bud-
dhist missionaries. But the ease of this navigation is an incon-
testable fact, and here, moreover, the tradition of Fu-sang is
found.

This tradition is not founded merely upon the unsustained
statement of an obscure missionary ; it is attested by a multi-
tude of legendary beliefs, of which Klaproth himself has made
known to us the principal monuments. From that time the
question has been, " Where is this land of Fu-sang situated ? "
De Guignes founded his answer to this question upon the dis-
tance of twenty thousand li, at which distance to the east from
Ta-hauy Hoei Shin stated that this country was situated, and
thus arrived at the conclusion that Fu-sang must be found at
some point upon the American coast, probably in California.
As for us, we believe (and M. Vivien is of the same opinion)
that the round distance of twenty thousand li is purely emphatic,
and merely indicates that the distance is very great. But even
this interpretation does not at all weaken de Guignes's conclu-
sion : " The Chinese," says this illustrious scholar, " have pene-
trated into countries very distant toward the east. I have ex-
amined their measures, and they have conducted me to the coast

* '• L'Ann6c G6ographique," p. 259.

li!

1:^

U. '

villi

■lii

i'if' s

140

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

of California. I have concluded from this that they have known
America since the year 458 a. t>. In the countries near to those
where they landed we find the most civilized nations of America.
I have thought that they were indebted for their civilization to
the commerce which they have had with the Chinese. This is all
that I have sought to establish in this memoir." If, at the epoch
when de Guignes lived, this conclusion offered itself to him as
a probable hypothesis, how much stronger would he have con-
sidered the proof if he had known, as we now know, both the
character of Buddhism, and its diffusion in the countries along
the coast of the Sea of Japan and near the mouth of the Araoor
River, and, in addition, the proofs, which we dare call incontest-
able, of its presence in America.

It is, nevertheless, against this fortunate divination of an
illustrious scholar that M. Vivien d-^ '^aint-Martin now protests.
Undoubtedly he has shown that in the account of the shaman
Iloei Shin several particulars do not agree with America. We
may, therefore, conclude that Iloei Shin, not having any one
to check his account, and perhaps never having been himself in
Fu-sang (for the text is mute, or at least doubtful, as to this
point), may have, as to some points, consulted his imagination
rather than his recollection ; but making all concessions on
this account, there remain two important points in his story as
to which no doubt can be raised : the essentially Buddhistic
character of the customs of Fu-sang, and its situation at a
great distance to the east of the Kingdom of Ta-han and the
" Middle Kingdom." Now, from these two characters, Fic-sang
can not be located elsewhere than in America. M. Vivien de
Saint-Martin is not of this opinion. It is true that he does not
offer any conclusion that is well-founded ; he merely thinks that
the " supposition of lilaproth (who sees in Fu-sang a portion of
Japan) is, as has been said of it, the most probable." But the
supposition of Klaproth, as we have repeated time after time,
and as, moreover, M. Vivien himself acknowledges, has insur-
mountable objections opposed to it : it places to the south of
Ta-han that which, according to the account, should be found at
the east, and it supposes the existence of a Buddhist kingdom in
Japan at an epoch when Buddhism was not known there. It
remains, therefore, to return to de Guigncd's hypothesis, which,
moreover, is now a hundred times more probable than it seemed

D'EICIITHAL'S » STUDY."

141

at the epoch when it was first produced by its ilhistrious author.
♦' Old stories," in spite of the displeasure of M. Vivien de Saint-
Martin, are good to revive when they are tnie old stories.

To the documents which we named in our second article, as
showing the association which has existed between Buddhism
and the Brahmanic religions, particularly the worship of Siva,
there should be added those given by Kc^ppen, in his history of
Buddhism in Thibet, " Die Lamaische Hierarchic und Kirche,"
vol. i, page 296 and following.

^^^^W

^!'

' !!

'^¥M

1580

ft J

1583

I ^

CHAPTER IX.

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT, LOBSCHEID, AND PBESCOTT.

Extracts from the " Views of the Cordilleras " — Similarity of Asiatic and Ameri-
can civilizations — The struggles of the Brahmans and Buddhists — The divis-
ions of the great cycles — The Mexicans designated the days of their months
by the names of the zodiacal signs used in Eastern Asia — Cipactli and
Capricornus — Table of resemblances — The tiger and monkey found only
in southern countries — The Aztec migration from the north — Resemblance
between certain Mexican and Tartarian words — The cutting-stones of the
Aztecs— The sign ollin and the foot-prints of Vishnu — Effects of a mixture of
several nations — Changes resulting from changed circumstances and lapse of
time —Analogies in religious customs — Analogy in the fables regarding the
destructions of the universe — Lobschcid's reasons for thinking the American
Indians to be one race with the Japanese and Eastern Asiatics — Similarity
of customs — Tiles — Anchors — The route from Asia to America — Shipwrecks
of fishing-boats — Head-dresses — Languages — Religion — Customs — Marriage
solemnized by tying the garments together — Extracts from Prescott's " History
of the Conquest of Mexico " — Analogies in traditions and religious usages —
Disposal of the bodies of the dead — The analogies of science — The calendar —
General conclusions.

Extracts from the " Vieioa of the Cordilleras and Monuments of
the Indigenous Nations of America^'' — by Alexander von
Humboldt.

'"' It is a surprise to find, toward the end of the fifteenth
century, in a world that we call " new," the ancient institutions,
the religious ideas, the forms of edifices which, in Asia, appear
to belong to tiie first dawn of civilization. It is true of the
characteristic traits of the nations, as of the interior structure of
the vegetation scattered upon the surface of the globe, that
everywhere they exhibit the imprint of a primitive type, in spite
of the differences which are produced by the nature of the cli-
mates and of the soil, and by the combined influences of various
accidental causes. ...

)iS8

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT.

143

'"" If the languages offer but feeble proof of ancient commu-
nication between the two worlds, this communication is indispu-
tably shown in the cosmogonies, the monuments, the hieroglyphics,
and the institutions of the nations of America and Asia. . . .

i58« jf y^Q reflect ever so little upon the epoch of the earliest
Toltec migrations, upon the monastic institutions, the symbols of
worship, the calendar, and the form of the monuments of Cholula,
Sogamozo, and Cuzco, we perceive that Quetzalcoatl, Bochica, and
Manco-Capac did not draw their code of laws from the north of
Europe. Everything appears to carry us to Eastern Asi^, to the
nations that have been in contact with the Thibetans, the sha-
manistic Tartars, and the bearded Ainos of the islands of Jesse
and Saghalien. . . .

I5S8 ^ prolonged struggle between two religious sects, the
Brahmans and the Buddhists, ended by the emigration of the
shamans of Thibet into Mongolia, China, and Japan. If any
of the tribes of the Tartarian race passed by the way of the
northwestern coast of America, and from there southerly and
easterly to the banks of the Gila and those of the Missouri, as the
etymological researches of "Vater in his work upon the peopling
of Araeric? appear to indicate, it would be less surprising to find,
among the semi-barbarous tribes of the new continent, idols and
architectural monuments, a hieroglyphic writing, an exact knowl-
edge of the duration of the year and traditions concerning the
first condition of the world, which all recall the knowledge, the
arts, and the religious opinions of the Asiatic nations. . . .

i»M y^Q have seen that the Mexicans, the Japanese, the Thibe-
tans, and several other nations of Central Asia, have followed
the same system in the division of the great cycles and in the
names of the years that compose them. It remains for us to
examine a fact which more directly concerns the history of the
migrations of the nations, and which appears to have hitherto
escaped the attention of scholars. I expect to be able to prove
that a great part of the names by which the Mexicans designated
the twenty days of their months are those of the signs of a
zodiac used, from the most remote antiquity, by the nations of
Eastern Asia. To make it evident that this assertion is less
hazardous than it appears at first sight, I will give in a single
table — first, the names of the Mexican hieroglyphs as they have
beea transmitted to us by all the authors of the sixteenth cent-

!i|j

I '\<:.

i I

i ■'■ ' '

m '

144

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ury ; second, the names of the twelve signs of the zodiac among
the Tartars, Thibetans, and Japanese ; third, the names of the
nakchatras, or lunar houses of the calendar of the Hindoos. I
dare flatter myself that those of my readers who will examine
this comparative table attentively will be interested in the dis-
cussion into which we must enter regarding the first divisions of
the zodiac.

BIOMB OF TnS ZODIAC.

Hlndoof,

Gretki, ind

EuUrn Nttioni.

Aqu.irlus.

Caprlcornus.

Sagittarius.

Scorpio.

Libra.

Virgo.

Leo.

Cancer.

Gt^minl,

Taurus.

Aries.

Pisces.

Mmitchoo-

Tartari.

Singucri.

Ne.

Oulier.

Ous.

Pars.

Torra,

Taoulal.

Ov.

Lon.

Tats.

Mo$!ai.

Mi.

Morin.

Ouma.

Koin.

Tsitsouso.

I'etchl.

Sar.

Tukio.

Torrl.

Nokai.

In.

Gacai.

Thnwlani.

Tchi^- I. ■ water.
Lany, . .
Tah, tiger.
/£>, hare.
Sron, drafron.
Proul, serpent.
Tha, horse.
Lon, goat.
J'rehou. monkey,
TWia. bird.
Kij, dog.
Pah, hog.

Hluoglypbt of th« Days

of th«

M»ican CaliniUr,

AH, water. [uter.

Cipactli, marine mon-
Ocelotl, tiger.
TochtU, hare.
Cohxiatl, serpent.
Acutl, reed.
Tecpatl, flint (knifel.
OUln, path of the sun.
Otomatli, monke/.
QuauMli, bird.
Ittcuintli, dog.
Calli, house.

Nakchatnii, or

Lunar Houiat of

tb* Iliudoot.

(The tnahnra

is a marin*

monster.)

Serpent.

Kecd.

Kazor. [Vishnu

Foot-tracks of

Monkey.

A dog's tail.
House.

From the most ancient times, the people of Asia have known
two systems of dividing the ecliptic : one into twenty-seven or
twenty-eight houses, or lunar mansions, the other into twelve
parts. The opinion which has been advanced, that this last
method of division existed only among the Egyptians, is erro-
neous. The oldest monuments of Indian literature, the works of
Kalidasa, and of Amarsinh, mention both the twelve signs of
the zodiac, and the twenty-seven " Companions of the Moon."
From our knowledge concerning the communications which oc-
curred several thousand years before our era, between the nations
of Ethiopia, of Upper Egypt, and of Hindostan, we are justified
in dismissing the supposition that all that the Egyptians trans-
mitted to the Grecian tribes appertained exclusively to them.

The division of the ecliptic into twenty-seven or twenty-eight
lunar houses, is probably more ancient than the division into
twelve parts, connected with the annual movement of the sun.
The phenomena which are repeated in the same order with every
revolution of the moon, attract the attention of mankind more
readily than changes of position, of which the cycle is com-
pleted only in the space of a year. ...

1193

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COINCIDENCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT.

145

"" Examining first the analogy which the names of the
Mexican days offer to the signs of the Thibetan, Chinese, Tar-
tarian, and Mongolian zodiac, the analogy is foo ? i to be very
striking in the eight hieroglyphs called atl, cii<actli, ocelotl,
tochtliy cohuatl, quauhtli, ozotnatli, and itzcuintli. Atl, water, is
often indicated by a hieroglyph, of which the parallel lines and
undulations recall the sign Avhich we employ to designate
Aquarius. The first tse, or catasterism, of the Chinese zodiac,
the rat («/m), is also frequently found represented by the figure
of water. At the time of the reign of the emperor Chuen-hiu,
there was a great deluge ; and the celestial sign hiuen-hiao,
which corresponds in position with our Aquarius, is the symbol
of his reign. So P6re Souciet observes, in his " Researches upon
the Cycles and the Zodiacs," that China and Europe agree in
representing, under different names, the sign which we call
Amphora, or Aquarius. Among the western people the wat'
which falls from the vase of the water-bearer forms another con-
stellation {Ilydor), to which the beautiful stars Fomahand and
Deneh Jcaitoa belong, as is proved by several passages from
Aratus, Geminus, and Scholiaste de Germanicus.

Cipactli is a marine animal. This hieroglyph presents a strik-
ing analogy with Capricornus, which the Hindoos and other
people of Asia call a marine monster. The Mexican sign indi-
cates a fabulous animal, a cetacean armed with a horn. Gomara
and Torquemada call it espadarte, a name by which the Spaniards
designate the narwhal, of which the great tooth is known by the
name of the unicorn's horn. Boturini has mistaken this horn
for a harpoon, and erroneously translates cipactli by " serpent
armed with harpoons." As this sign does not represent a real
animal, it is very natural that its form should vary more than
those of the other signs. ^Sometimes the horn appears to be a
prolongation of the muzzle, as in the famous fish oxynnqiie, rep-
resented in the place of the southern fish beneath Capricornus
in some Indian planispheres ; in other cases the horn is lacking
entirely. Casting the eyes upon figures copied from very an-
cient designs and reliefs, it is seen that Valad6s, Boturini, and
Clavigero have all erroneously represented the first hieroglyph
of the Mexican days as a shark, or a lizard. In the manuscript
of the Borgian Museum, the head of the cijyactli resembles that
of a crocodile ; and this same name of crocodile is given, by Son-
10

;

i> i ■

i I

I i

fi!

f ;

146

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

nerat, to the tenth sign of the Indian zoiliac, which is our Capri-
cornus.

In addition, the idea of the marine animal cipactll is found
united in the Mexican mythology with the history of a man, who,
at the time of the destruction of the fourth sun, after having
floated upon the water for a long time, was saved, alone, by
attaining the top of the mountain of Colhuacan. We have else-
where observed that the Noah of the Aztecs, who was usually
called " Coxcox," bore also the name of *' Teo-cipactli," in which
the word ^^god,^ or " divine," is added to that of the sign cipactli.
In casting the eyes upon the zodiac of the Asiatic tribes, we find
that the Capricornus of the Hindoos is the fabulous fish mahara,
or souro, celebrated for its exploits, and represented from the
most remote antiquity as a marine monster with the head of a
gazelle.

Aa the people of India, as well as the Mexicans, often indi-
cate the nakchatras (lunar houses) and the laquenons (the
twelve signs of the zodiac) merely by the heads of the animals
which compose the lunar and solar zodiacs, it is not at all sur-
prising that the western nations have transformed the mahara
into Capricornus (a/yoKepwf), and that Aratus, Ptolemy, and the
Persian Kazwini have not given it even a fish's tail. An ani-
mal which, after having lived in the watei for a long time, takes
the form of a gazelle, and climbs the mountains, reminds the
people, of whom the restless imagination seizes upon the most
distant affinities, of the ancient traditions of IMenu, of Noah, and
of the Deucalions celebrated among the Scythians and the Thes-
salians. It is true that, according to Germanicus, Deucalion,
who may be considered to resemble Coxcox, or Teo-cipactli of
the Mexican mythology, should be placed, not in the sign Capri-
cornus, but in Aquarius, the sign which immediately follows it.
This circumstance, however, is not surprising, as it merely con-
firms the ingenious view of M. Bailly regarding the ancient con-
nection of the three signs, Pisces, Aquarius, and Capricornus or
the fish-gazelle.

Ocelotl, tiger, the jaguar {felis onca) of the warm regions of
Mexico ; tochtli, hare ; ozomatli, she-monkey ; itzcuintli, dog ;
cohuatl, serpent ; quauhtli, bird, are the catasterisms which are
found under the same name in the Tartarian and Thibetan
zodiac. In Chinese astronomy the hare is not only the fourth

™

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT.

147

tse, or Bign of the zodiac, but the moon, since the remote epoch of
the reign of Yao, has been figured as a disk, in which a hare, sit-
ting upon its hind feet, turns a stick in a vessel, as if making but-
ter ; a puerile fancy which may have had its origin in the plains
of Tartary, where hares abound, and which are inhabited by pas-
toral tribes. The Mexican monkey, ozomatli, corresponds to the
hen of the Chinese, the petchi of the Mantchoos, and the prchou
of the Thibetans, three names which designate the same animal.
Procyon appears to be the monkey Ilanuan, so known in the
Hindoo mythology, and the position of this star, placed upon the
same line with Gemini and the pole of the ecliptic, corresponds
very well with the place which the monkey occupies in the Tar-
tar zodiac, between Cancer and Taurus. Monkeys are also found
in the heaven of the Arabs. They are the stars of the constella-
tion Canis Major, called £Jl-kuri1d in the catalogue of Kazwini.
I enter into these details concerning the sign ozomatli because it
is a very important point, not only in the history of astronomy,
but also in that of the migrations of the tribes, to find an animal
of the torrid zone placed among the constellations of the Mon-
golian, Mantchoo, Aztec, and Toltec tribes.

The sign itzcuintlif dog, corresponds with the last sign but one
of the Tartarian zodiac, the ky of the Thibetans, the noTcai of
the Mantchoos, and the in of the Japanese. Pore Gaubil informs
us that the dog of the Tartarian zodiac is our sign Aries ; and it
is very remarkable that, according to le Gentil, although the
Hindoos were not acquainted with the series of signs which com-
mences with the rat, Aries is sometimes replaced by a wild dog.
In the same way, among the Mexicans itzcxiintli designates the
wild dog, for they call their domestic dog techichi. Mexico
formerly abounded with carnivorous quadrupeds which united
the qualities of the dog and the wolf, and which Hernandez
has described to us but imperfectly. The race of these animals,
known by the names of xoloitzcuintli, itzcuintepotzotli, and tepeitz-
cuintli, is probably not entirely extinct, but they have more likely
retired into the wildest and most remote forests ; for in the part
of the country which I have passed through I have never heard
a wild dog mentioned.

Le Gentil and Bailly have been misled in the opinion which
they have advanced that the word m^cha, which designates our
a wild dog. This Sanskrit word is the common

ill

!!li:

■ I'

■ i

.1 !

ram, signifies

li!

lift

iiili

I ^

148

AN INGLORIOUS COLDMBUS.

name of the ram, and it lias been employed very poetically by an
Indian author who, describing the combat of two warriors, says
that " by their heads they were two rnk'/uia (rams), by their
arms two elephants, by their feet two noble coursers."

The following table shows at one view the signs of the Tar-
tarian zodiac and the names of the days of the Mexican calendar,
which arc alike :

Zodiac of the Tartar -Muiitrhooa.
I'ars, tiger.
'Jaoulai, haro.
Moffai, serpent.
I'cfchi, monkey.
Aokai, dog.
Tukia, bird, fowl.

Zodiac of tho Mexirana.

Oceloll, tiger.
7hchtli, hare, .•'bbit.
Cohuatl, serpent.
Oxomatli, monkcj.
JtzcuintU, dog.
Qi'auhtUy bird, eagle.

Without connecting tho hieroglyphs water (atl) and the
marine monster {cipactli), which offer a striking analogy with the
zodiacal signs of Aquarius and Capricornus, tho six signs of the
Tartarian zodiac which are also found in tho Mexican calendar
are sufficient to make it extremely probable that tho nations of
the two continents have drawn their astronomical ideas from a
common source, and it is worthy of notice that the points of
resemblance upon which we insist are not derived from rude
pictures or allegories, susceptible of being interpreted in ac-
cordance with any hypothesis that it is desired to sustain. If
we consult the works composed at the time of the conquest, by
Spanish authors, or by American Indians who were ignorant of
the existence of a Tartarian zodiac, it will bo seen that in Mex-
ico, from the seventh century until our era, the days have been
called " tiger," " dog," " monkey," " hare " or " rabbit," as,
throughout Eastern Asia, the years bear the same names among
the Thibetans, the Tartar-31antchoos, the Mongols, the Calmucks,
the Chinese, the Japanese, tho Coreans, and among the nations
of Tonquin and Cochin-China.

It is conceivable that nations which never had any connection
may have similarly divided the ecliptic into twenty-seven or
twenty-eight parts, and given to each lunar day the name of the
stars near which the moon is found to bo placed in its progress-
ive movement from west to east. It also appears very natural
that pastoral and hunting nations should designate the constel-
lations and the lunar days by the names of the animals which

COINCIDENCES NOTED DY nrMROLDT.

149

arc the constant objects of their affections or tlicir fears. The
heaven of the nomad tribes may bo found to be peopled with
dogs, deer, bulls, and wolves, without furnishini; suftleient ground
for the conclusion that the tribes have ever formerly made parts
of the same nation. Traits of resemblance which are purely acci-
dental, or which arise from a similarity of circumstances or lo-
cation, should not be confounded with those which are the results
of a common origin or of ancient communication.

But the Tartarian and Mexican zodiacs are not confined ex-
clusively to animals found in the regions inhabited by these
nations now ; in both, the tiger and the monkey are also found.
The two animals are unknown upon the plateau of Eastern and
Central Asia, to which the great elevation gives a colder temper-
ature than that which is found in the same latitude farther east.
The Thibetans, the Mongolians, the Mantchoos, and the Cal-
mucks have therefore received from a more southerly country the
zodiac which has, too exclusively, been called the Tartarian cycle.
The Toltecs, the Aztecs, the Tlascaltccs migrated from the north
toward the south ; we know of Aztec monuments as far north as
the banks of the Gila, between 33° and 34"" liorth latitude, and
history informs us that the Toltecs came formerly from regions
still farther north. The colonists coming from Aztlan did not
arrive as barbarian tribes ; everything announces the remains of
an ancient civilization as existing among them.

The names given to the cities which they constructed were
the names of the places which their ancestors had inhabited ;
their laws, their annals, their chronology, the order of their sacri-
fices, were modeled upon the knowledge which they had acquired
in their father-land. Now, the monkeys and the tigers, which
figure among the hieroglyphs of the days, and in the Mexican
traditions of the four ages, or destructions of the sun, do not live
in the northern part of New Spain, or on the northwestern coast
of America. As a consequence, the signs ozomatli and ocelotl ren-
der it extremely ^ 'obable that the zodiacs of the Toltecs, the
Aztecs, the Mongol, ans, the Thibetans, and many other nations,
which are now separated by a vast extent of country, originated
at the same point in the Old World.

The lunar houses of the Hindoos, in which we find also a
monkey, a serpent, a dog's tail, and the head of a gazelle, or of
a marine monster, offer still other signs, of which the names ra-

il',

:!M' I M

\\\\

150

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

call those of calli, acatl, tecpatl, and ollln of the Mexican calen-
dar.

Indian Nakchatras. Mexican Signs.

Magha, house. Calli, house.

Venu, cane (reed). Acatl, cane (reed).

Crilica, razor. Tecpatl, flint, stone knife.

iSravana, three foot-prints. Ollin, movement of the sun,

figured by three foot-prints.

We can not help noticing that, the Aztec word calli has the
same signification as kiuda or kolla, among the Wogouls, who
live upon the banks of the Kama and the Irtish, as atl, the
Aztec word for water, and itels (river) recall the words atel,
atelch, etel or idel (river) in the languages of the Mongolian Tar-
tars, the Tchereraissians, and the Tchuwassians. The denomina-
tion of calli, house, also designates very well a lunar station or
inn {niendzil el kamar, in Arabian), a place of repose. So, also,
among the Indian nakchatras, in addition to the houses {magha
and punarvasu), we also find a bedstead and a couch.

The Mexican sign acatl, cane, is generally drawn as two reeds
tied together ; but the stone found in Mexico in 1790, and which
offers the hieroglyphs of the days, represents the sign acatl in a
very different manner. We recognize there a bundle of rushes,
or a sh 'af of maize, contained in a vase. We recall, in this con-
nection, the fact that, in the first period of thirteen days of the
year tochtU, the sign acatl is constantly accompanied by Cinteotl,
who is the goddess of maize, the Ceres of the Mexicans, the di-
vinity who presides over agriculture. Among the western peo-
ple, Ceres is placed in the fifth of the twelve signs. We also
find very ancient zodiacs in which a bundle of ears of grain fills
all the place which should be occupied by Ceres, Isis, Astree, or
Erigone, in the sign of the harvests and vintages. Thus we
find that, from a high antiquity, the same ideas, the same sym-
bols, the same tendency to think physical phenomena dependent
upon the mysterious influence of the stars, existed among nations
the most widely separated from one another.

The Mexican hieroglyph tecpatl indicates a cutting-stone of
an oval form, elongated toward the two extremities, similar to
those which are used as knives, or which are attached to the
end of a pike. This sign recalls tlie critica, or cutting-knife,
of the lunar zodiac of the Hindoos, Upon the lu.ge stone (rep-

COINCIDEXCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT.

151

resented in a plate given in the original French edition), the
hieroglyph tecpatl is figured in a different manner from the form
ordinarily given to it. The stone is pierced in the center, and
the opening appears to he intended to receive the hand of the
warrior who uses this two-pointed weapon. It is known that
the Americans had a peculiar method of piercing the hardest
stones and of working them into shape by friction. I brought
from Soutli America, and deposited in the Berlin Museum, an
obsidian ring, which had served for a young girl's bracelet, and
which formed a hollow cylinder of almost seven centimetres in-
ternal diameter, and four centimetres height, and of which the
thickness is not more than thi*ee millimetres. It is difficult to
conceive how a vitreous and fragile mass can have been reduced
to so thin a band. Tecpatl, however, differed in other respects
from obsidian, a substance which the Mexicans called iztH. Un-
der the name tecpatl, jade, hornblende, and flint were con-
founded.

The sign ollin, or ollin tonatiuh, presided, in the beginning of
the cycle of fifty-two years, over the seventeenth day of the
first month. The explanation of this sign greatly embarrassed
the Spanish monks, who, destitute of the most elementary prin-
ciples of astronomy, attempted to describe the Mexican calen-
dar. The Indian authors translated o^^m by movements of the
sun. When they found the number nahui (four) added, they
rendered nahui ollin by the words " the sun {tonatluh) in its
four movements." The sign ollin is made in three ways : some-
times like two interlaced ribbons, or rather like two parts of
the curved lines, which intersect and have three distinct folds
upon their summits ; sometimes, like the solar disk, inclosed by
four squares, which contained the hieroglyphs of the numbers one
(ce) and four {nahui) ; sometimes like three foot-prints. The
four squares, as we shall hereafter show, alluded to the famous
tradition of the four ages, or four destructions of the world,
which occurred upon the days /b?<r tiger [nahui occlotl),four
toind {nahtii ehecatl), four r 'in {nahui quiahtdtl), and four
water {7iahui atl), in the years ofie reed {ce acatl), one flint {ce
tecpatl), and ce calli, one house. The solstices, the equinoxes,
and the passages of the sun past the zenith of the city of
Tenochtitlan, correspond very nearly to these days. The repre-
sentation of the sign ollin by three xorpalli, or foot-prints, such as

152

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

are often found in the manuscripts preserved in the Vatican and
in the Codex Horgianus, folio 47, n. 210, is remarkable from the
analogy which it offers in appearance with sravatia, or "the
Three Foot-prints of Vishnu," one of the mansions of the lunar
zodiac of the Hindoos. In the Mexican calendar the three foot-
prints indicate either the course of the sun in its passage to the
equator, and in its movement toward the two tropics, or the
three positions of the sun, in the zenith, upon the equator, and at
one of the solstices. It may be possible that the lunar zodiac
of the Hindoos contains some sign which, like that of Libra, re-
lates to the course of the sun. We have seen that the zodiac of
twenty-eight signs may have been transformed, little by little,
into a zodiac of twelve mansions of the full moon, and that some
na/cchatras may have changed their name since the zodiac of
the full moon has, from a knowledge of the annual movement
of the sun, become a true solar zodiac. Krishna, the Apollo of
the Hindoos, is in fact nothing but Vishnu under the form of the
sun, who is adored more particularly under the name of the god
Sfirya. In spite of this analogy of ideas and of signs, we think
that the three foot-prints which indicate sravana, the twenty-
third of the nciTcchatras, have only an accidental resemblance
with the three foot-tracks which represent the sign ollin. M. de
Chezy, who unites a profound knowledge of the Persian to that
of the Sanskrit, observes that the sravana of the Indian zodiac
alludes to a legend which is very celebrated among the Hindoos,
and which is recorded in most of their sacred books, particularly
in the Bhdgavat Pdrdnd. Vishnu, wishing to punish the pride
of a giant, who thought himself as powerful as the gods, present-
ed himself before him in the form of a dwarf, and begged him to
give him in his vast empire the space which he could inclose by
three of his paces. The giant smilingly granted his request ; but
immediately the dwarf grew so prodigiously that with two paces
he measured the distance between the heavens and the earth.
As he demanded a place to set his foot for the third pace, the
giant recognized the god Vishnu, and prostrated himself before
him. This fact explains so well the figure of the nakchatra named
sravana, that it seems difficult to admit that the sign can be
connected with that of olUn, as cipactli and the Mexican Noah,
Teo-cipactli, are connected with the constellation Capricornus
and with Deucalion, placed formerly in Aquarius.

!by

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY HUMBOLDT.

153

lUS

jedthe connection which exists between

the signs composing the differentzo^mcsTJf^india, of Thibet, and
of Tartary and the hieroglyphs of the days and the years of the
Mexican calendar. We have found that among the proofs of
such connection the most striking and the most numerous are
those which are presented by the cycle of twelve animals, which
we have designated by the name of the Tartarian and Thibetan
zodiac. In terminating a discussion of which the results are so
important in regard to the history of the ancient communication
of the nations, it remains for us to examine the last zodiac more
closely, and to prove that in the system of Asiatic astronomy,
with which the Mexican astronomy appears to have had a com-
mon origin, the twelve signs of the zodiac presided not only over
the months, but also over the years, the days, the hours, and even
the smallest divisions of the hours. . . .

1594 \yherever we observe at the same time several divisions
of the ecliptic which differ, not in the number of the signs, but
in their general names, as the tse, the tchi, and the celestial ani-
mals of the Chinese, the Thibetans, and the Tartars, this multi-
plicity of signs is probably due to a mixture of seve-al nations,
which have been subjugated one by another. The effects of this
mixture, particularly of the influence exercised by the conquerors
upon the conquered, are especially manifest in the northeastern
part of Asia, in which the languages, in spite of the great num-
ber of Mongolian and Tartarian roots which they contain, differ
so essentially among themselves, that they seem to be incapable
of any methodical clas'ufication. The greater the distance from
Thibet and Hindostan, the greater the difference in the type of
the civil irstitutionsj in knowledge, and in culture. Now, if the
tribes of Eastern Siberia, among whom the dogmas of Buddhism
have evidently penetrated, show but feebly their connection
with the civilized nations of Eastern Asia, we need not be sur-
prised that in the New Continent we find only a few points of
analogy in the traditions, in the chronology, and in the style of
the ancient monuments, while in other respects we discern a
great number of striking differences. "When nations of Tartarian
or Mongolian origin, transplanted to foreign shores, mixed with
the hordes indigenous to America, and traced out painfully a
path toward civilization, their languages, their mythology, their
divisions of time, all took a character of individuality which

I fc

II I 1 M

15i

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

♦•ff^oed, so to o^y, the primitive type of their national physiog-
\ion»y. . . .

"" Thibet and Mexico present very remarkable traits of
connection in their ecclesiastical hierarchy, in the number of
their religious fraternities, in the extreme austerity of their pen-
ances, and in the order of the processions. It is impossible to
fail to be struck with these resemblances, when reading with
attention the account which Cortez gave to the Emperor Charles
the Fifth of liis solemn entry into Cbolula, which he called the
holy city of the Mexicans. . . .

1598 Of all the traits of analogy which have been observed
in the monuments, in the manners, and in the traditions of the
nations of Asia and America, the most striking is that which the
Mexican mythology presents in its fable regarding the system of
the universe, of its periodic destructions and regenerations.
This fable, which unites the idea of a renewal of matter sup-
posed to be indestructible with the completion of great cycles,
and which attributes to space that which appears to appertain
only to time, goes back to the greatest antiquity. The sacred
books of the Hindoos, especially the Hhdgavat JPilrdna, speak
of the four ages and of the pralayas, or cataclysms, which at
different epochs have caused the destruction of the human spe-
cies. A tradition oifive ages, analogous to that of the Mexicans,
is found upon the plateau of Thibet. It is true that this asti o-
logical fable, which has become the basis of a system of cos-
mogony, had its birth in Ilindostan ; it is probable, also, that
from there it passed to the western na+^ns by the way of Iran
and Chaldea. The resemblance between tiie Indian tradition of
the yugas and the halpas, the cycles of the ancient inhabitants
of ICtruria, and this series of exterminated generations, charac-
terized by Hesiod under the emblem of four metals, should not
be forgotten.

The nations of Culhua, or of Mexico, says Gomara, who
wrote in the middle of the sixteenth century, believed, according
to their hieroglyphica! paintings, that before the sun which nov;
shines upon them, tliere existed four others which were de-
stroyed one after another. The "five suns" are as many ages in
which our species has been annihilated by inundations, by earth-
quakes, by a universal conflagration, and by the effect of hurri-
canes. Alter the destruction of the fourth sun, the world was

plung
in the

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY LOBSCIIFID

155

plunged into darkness for 'lie space of twenty-five years. It was
in the middle of tliis profound night, ten years before the ap-
pearance of the fifth sun, that the human race was re-created. . . .

1599 ^g jt jiaay cause surprise to find five ages, or suns, among
the Mexican tribes, while the Hindoos and the Greeks admit
only four, it is worthy of notice that the ^Mexican cosmogony
is in accord with that of the Thibetans, who also regard the
present age as the fifth. If we examine with care the beautiful
fragment of an earlier tradition, preserved by Ilesiod, in which he
explains the Oriental system of the renewal of nature, it will be
seen that this author really counts five creatioiis in four ages.
He divides the period of bronze into two parts, which make up
the third and fourth creations ; and it is surprising that so clear
a passage has sometimes been misinterpreted.

We are ignorant as to the number of ages referred to in the
Sibylline books ; but we think that the analogies which we indi-
cate are not accidental, and that it is not without interest for the
philosophical history of man to see the same fables scattered
from Etruria to Thibet, and from there to the Cordilleras of
Mexico.

Extracts from the " Grammar of the Chinese Language'''' — hy
the Rev. W. Lobscheid.

'"■ American Indians ArPARENTLY One Race with the
Japanese and Eastern Asiatics. — ... In passing across the Isth-
mus of Panama, and in Mexico, I was struck with the similarity
of architecture between the Chinese and these people. Instead of
excavating mountains, instead of making expensive vaults, all the
principal edifices are erected on elevated ground. The tiles of the
roofs are concave and convex, just as we have them in China
the anchors of their boats are the same as we find them in Japan
and the north of China, i. e., with four hooks without a barb ;
and innum.erable other manners, customs, and peculiarities of
civilization agree exactly with those of Eastern Asia, as in no
other country of the world.

We now come to inquire as (o how these tribes could reach
America. During the summer months, when the sun did not set
for one whole month, the inhabitants of the extreme parts of
Northeastern Asia, either pressed by hostile tribes, or from an im-
pulse of adventure, must have crossed over to the American Conti-

i.':^

!■ !

i' f

156

AN INGLOlilOUS COLUMBUS.

IIMj

nent, where, cither by hunting or fishing, they could easily sup-
port themselves and provide 1 >r their wants during the coming
winter. Wave after wave of immigration is likely to have rolled
on ; and if only at long intervals a few returned to their native
place, that was sufficient to account for a knowledge of a large
Eastern Continent, floating among the Chinese, Japanese, and
other Asiatics.

The large fleets of fishing-boats about the coasts of Japan and
China are, we know, frequently overtaken by tremendous gales,
and either destroyed or carried eastward. We know of Japa-
nese junks having been picked up beyond the Sandwich Islands,
and close to the shore of America, after an absence of more than
nine month,?. But much more. Large fleets of war-junks, some-
times manned by as many as one hundred thousand men, have
left the coast of China and Japan, and have been scattered by the
northwest gales, and but few of these ever survived or returned.
It is not unlikely that these junks, being well provisioned,
have continued in their eastei'n course, until, within 28° north
latitude, they fell in with the trade-wind, which compelled them
to change their course, and carried them toward Mexico or Lower
California, w'lere they laid the foundation of that kind of civiliza-
tion which resembles so closely that of the Chinese and Japanese.
Look at tht Chinese dress five or six centuiies ago, and you have
the head-dress oi the Mexicans ; look at the monstrous uniforms
and coats-of-mail, and at the head-dress of the Japanese women,
and you will be struck with their similarity to the Mexicans. As
all the kings, chiefs, and priests — in one word, all the creators of
that peculiar civilizr.t5on — were destroyed oj *he Spaniards, we
need not wonder at the low ebb of education of the present race,
who are merely the children of peasants and the lower classes.
Were Chinese who speak the different dialects and well versed
in their own literature, and Japanese of education, well furnished
with ancient works, sent with scientific men to America, we
may rest :y';''"red, they would soon decipher the inscriptions now
fast going to ruin.

Summary of Si mii.artty of the American Indians with the
Japanese, Chinese, and Northern Asiatics. — I. Language.
Monosyllabic, as spoken by the Otomi and other tribes. Hiero-
glyphs, m ideographic characters, on the same principle as the

COINCIDENCES NOTED BY LOBSOHEID.

157

3ro-
the

Ciiinese ; absence of the R among the tribes where the ideo-
graphic characters are found ; prevalence of hissing sounds and
gutturals, and most words terminating in a vowel. 2. Poly-
syllabic language of a syllabic character, representing, not sound,
but syllables, as in Japan. Japanese words detected in the Indian
language ; Japanese form of the possessive case ; prevalence of
the R, and the termination of every word in a vowel except
the jV.

II. Religion. The most ancient religion ri the Indians, now
forming the wandering tribes, is the belief in one Great Spirit,
whom they worship, like the Japanese their Sin (spirit), without
image. In both places, long, honutcry addresses are delivered to
the audience, and both exhibit profound reverence of that spirit,
and deep religious feelings. The polytheistic form of worship, as
found in Mexico, etc., is, according to accepted history, the most
modern one, and was, if we believe Chinese legends, introduced by
Buddhists and shaman priests, about the beginning of the sixth
century of our era, which nearly coincides with the commence-
ment of the Toltecan history, which is put down at a. d. 596. The
dragon or serpent worship was very prevalent. That the Chi-
nese dragon is nothing but a serpent, can be proved from the fact
that at this moment serpents are kept in temples as representa-
tives of the ancient dragon. They resembled the Chinese and
(Buddhist) Japanese in their ideas of "the transmigration of the
soul ; in the monastic forms and discipline ; in their penances,
ablutions, alms-givings, and public festivals ; in the worship of
their household gods ; in the devotions of the priests to the study
of astrology and astronomy ; in the admission of virgin females
to the vows and rites of the cloister ; in the incense and chants
of their worship ; in their use of charms and amulets ; in some
of their forms of burning their dead, and the preservation of the
ashes in urns, and in the assumption of the right to educate the
youth." Among other superstitious notions is the one of a celes-
tial dragon endeavouring to devour the sun during its eclipse,
and their fondness for the drum, gong, and rattle.

III. Customs. The dragon-standard ; banner-lances, as we
find them in Chinese Buddhist temples ; ensigns and banners
stuck in a ferula, fixed at the back of a warrior. A kind of her-
aldry as we meet among the Japanese. Some of their nuptials
were symbolized by the ceremony of tying the garments of the

til

158

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

1 1

i !

in'

m-:

two contracting parties together. There was only one lawful
wife, though a plurality of concubines. I have already referred
to the similarity of dress, architecture, and anchors of ships.

Physiologically considered, there is not the slightest diflFerence
between these tribes and those of Japan and China, and the tribes
among themselves differ no more from oach other than the peo-
ple of Europe of one and the same stock.

Extracts from the " History of the Conquest of Mexico " — by

William IT. Frescott.

'^^ An obvioits analogy is found in cosmogonal traditions
and reliyious usayes. The reader has already been made ac-
quainted with the Aztec system of four great cycles, at the end of
each of which the world was destroyed, to be again regenerated.
The belief in these periodical convulsions of nature, through the
agency of some one or other of the elements, was familiar to
many countries in the Eastern Hemisphere ; and, though varying
in detail, the general resemblance of outline furnishes an argu-
ment in favour of a common origin. The fanciful division of
time into four or five cycles or ages was found among the Hin-
doos ("Asiatic Researches," vol. ii, mom. 7), the Thibetans
(Humboldt, " Vues des Cordilleres," p. 210), the Persians (Bailly,
" Traite de I'Astronomie," Paris, 1787, tome i, discours prelimi-
naire), the Greeks (Hcsiod, ""Epya /cat ^Hjuepat," v, 108 et seq.),
and other people, doubtless. . . .

"'" " I have purposely omitted noticing the resemblance of re-
ligious notions, for I do not see how it is possible to separate
from such views every influence of Christian ideas, if it be only
from an imperceptible confusion in the mind of the narrator."
(Quoted from Vater's " Mithridates," Berlin, 1812, Theil III,
Abtheil 3, p. 82, note.) . . .

J085 These coincidences must be allowed to furnish an arsru-
ment in favour of some primitive corimunication with that great
brotherhood of nations on the Old Continent among whom simi-
lar ideas have been so widely diffusec . The probability of such
a communication, especially with EasLorn Asia, is much strength-
ened by the resemblance of sacerdotal institutions, and of some
religious rites — as those of marriage and the burial of the dead ;
by the practice of human sacrifices, and even of cannibalism —
traces of which are discernible in the Mongol races ; and, lastly,

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COINCIDENCi-:S NOTED BY TRESCOTT.

159

by a conformity of social usages and manners so striking that
the description of Montezuma's court may well pass for that of
the Grand Khan's, as depicted by Maundevillo and Marco Polo.
It would occupy too much room to go into details in this mat-
ter, without which, however, the strength of the argument can
not be felt, nor fully established. It has been done by others ;
and an occasional coincidence has been adverted to in the preced-
ing chapters. . . .

*"" Tliere are certain arbitrary peculiarities, which, when
found in different nations, reasonably suggest the idea of some
previous communication between them. Who can doubt the
existence of an affinity, or at least intercourse, between tribes
who had the same strange habit of burying the dead in a sitting
posture, as was practiced to some extent by most, if not all, of
the aborigines, from Canada to Patagonia? The habit of burn-
ing the dead, familiar to both Mongols and Aztecs, is, in itself,
but slender proof of a common origin. The body must be dis-
posed of in some way ; and this, perhaps, is as natural as any
other. But, when to this is added the circumstance of collecting
the ashes in a vase, and depositing the single article of a precious
stone along with them, the coincidence is remarkable. Such
minute coincidences are not unfrequent ; while the accumulation
of those of a more general character, though individually of little
account, greatly strengthens the probability of a communication
with the East. . . .

'"*' A proof of a higher kind is found in the analogies of
science. We have seen the peculiar chronological system of the
Aztecs — their method of distributing the years into cycles, and
of reckoning by means of periodical series, instead of numbers.
A similar process was used by the various Asiatic nations of the
Mongol family, from India to Japan. . . .

'"*' It is scarcely possible to reconcile the knowledge of Oriental
science with the total ignorance of some of the most serviceable
and familiar arts, as the use of milk and iron, for example — arts
so simple, yet so important to domestic comfort, that, when once
acquired, they could hardly be lost. . . . Yet there have been
people considerably civilized, in Eastern Asia, who were almost
equally strangers to the use of milk. ... It is possible, more-
over, that the migration may have been previous to the time
when iron was used by the Asiatic nation in question. . . . Such

160

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

'I Hi

is the explanation, unsatisfactory indeed, but the best that sug-
gests itself, of this curious anomaly. . . .

^* The reader of the preceding pages may, perhaps, acquiesce
in the general conclusions — not startling by their novelty :

First, that the coincidences are sufficiently strong to authorize
a belief that the civilization of Anahuac was, in some degree, in-
fluenced by that of Eastern Asia ; and, secondly, that the discrep-
ancies are such as to carry back the communication to a very
remote period — so remote, that this foreign influence has been
too feeble to interfere materially with the growth of what may
be regarded, in its essential features, as a peculiar and indigenous
civilization.

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CHAPTER X.

^!'!Nf

SUOIITEU ESSAYS.

" Wlicro was Fu-snnp; ? " — by the Rev. N'uthan Brown, D. D. — DifTlciilties attending
a decision— Horses — Grapes — Reason fortliitiliing Fu-itang more distani tlian
Japan — Lengtli of tlie U — Distances of tlic route — Dilliciilticd attending
Kliiprotli's tlieory — Tlio military expeditions of tlie Japanese — The introduc-
tion of tlic Buddhist religion — The JIaiis — Grmt I/an — Identification of the
fu-saug tree with the bread-fruit tree — Conclusion — Remarks of the Abbo
Braaseur de Bourbourg — The paper and books of the Mexicans and Central
Americans — Civilization of New Mexico — Chinese boats — Animals — Mr. Lc-
land's " Fuaang " — An earlier article — Who discovered America ? — J. llanlay's
essay — The fu-sang tree identified with the maguey — Metals — RLsembiance
in religion and customs — Also in features — Language — Civilization on Pacific
coast — Letter of Mr, Th. Simson — The Mexican aloe — The fusnuy tree —
Japan — Letter of E. Bretsihneidor, M. D. — Accounts of Fu-sang by the
Chinese poets — " The Kingdom of Women " — Verdict of Father Hyacinth —
The distance — Horses and deer — The fu-sang tree — The t^utig tree — The paper-
mulberry — Metals — " The Kingdom of Women " and Salt Lake City — Fu-sang
not Japan — Ta-han in Siberia — Envoys from Fu-sang — Contradictory fancies
— Mr. Leland's criticism — Lcittcr of Pire Gaubil — Unreliability of Chinese
texts — The peopling of Japan — Chinese knowledge of surrounding countries —
Remarks of Humboldt — Letter of the Rt. Rev. Channing M. Williams — The
Chinese " Classic of Mountains and Seas " — Fabulous stories — Translation of
extracts therefrom — Remarks of M. L6on de Rosny — Passage from Asia to
America — The distance — Character of the Esquimaux — An article from a
newspaper of British Columbia — Discovery of Chinese coins in the bank of a
creek — Evidence that they had been buried for a long time.

•' Where was Fu-sang ? ''—hrj the Rev. Xathan Broirn, D. Z).""

It is not a little amusing to observe the regularity with M'hich
the discovery of an ancient connection between China and Mex-
ico annually goes the rounds of the newspapers.

The author of the discovery is generally stated to be Pro-
fessor Karl Neumann, who has lit upon some old Chinese record
containing it ; but no dates are given for verifying the fact, and
no translation of the documents upon which he relies.
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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

The following paragraph, from the first chapter of Riviere's
" Peruvian Antiquities," translated by Dr. Hawks, is somewhat
more definite. After speaking of various theories framed in ref-
erence to the colonization of America, he says :

" But the hypothesis which in importance surpasses all these
is that of de Guignes, who, relying upon the chronicles of
China, attributes Peruvian civilization to emigration proceeding
from the * Celestial Empire,' or the East Indies. Recent inves-
tigations would seem to confirm this opinion." . . .

Signor Riviero goes on to say there is " no doubt " that Que-
tzalcoatl, Bochica, Manco Capac, and other reformers of Central
America were Buddhist priests. Such random assertions are a
positive injury to archaeological science ; they destroy confidence,
not only in the author who makes them, but in antiquarian re-
searches generally. The connection of the Mexican mythology
with Buddhism is a thing to be proved, not assumed as a matter
beyond doubt. Buddhism is the most gentle and inoffensive of
all the heathen religions ; it is as unlike to the bloody religion
of the Aztecs as it is to the cruel rites of the Brahmanical wor-
shipers of Siva and Durga. If an idol is to be found in Yuca-
tan combining these two opposite forms of worship, it is a
phenomenon well worth the study of the learned. But, before
attempting a solution of the enigma, we want certain proof that
such a combination exists. . . .

The difiiculties presented ... are formidable, whether, with
Klaproth, we suppose that the Chinese account refers to Japan,
or with de Guignes, that it refers to America. The former
asserts that neither the vine nor horse? were known in America
till after the time of Columbus, and that this circumstance alone
disproves the theory of de Guignes. But such a summary dis-
posil cf the question can not be admitted. The fossil remains
of this continent have not been sufficiently examined to decide
that the bones of the horse are not among them. But were this
point settled, it would still be very supposable that some other
animal might be intended by the word translated " horses." In
regard to the grape, M. Klaproth is certainly mistaken. New
England, as early as the year 1000, was called by the Norwe-
gians Yinland, or " the Land of Vines," from the abundance of
grapes which they found there.

The narrative of Hoei Shin is classed by Klaproth with the-

SHORTER ESSAYS.

103

stories and exaggerations of the Chinese poets, who make lu-
sang their land of fables, a country lying in the remote East,
where the sun rises and makes his toilet. . . .

Other passages say that beyond the Southeastern Ocean, be-
tween the Kan-shuiy or " Sweet Rivers," lies the kingdom of
Ghi-ica-Jcof, where lived the virgin Ghi-ica, or Ili-ho, who mar-
ried the prince of Ghi-wa and gave birth to ten suns.

But these fables are rather against than in favour of M. Klap-
roth's theory ; for the poets would have been more likely to
select, as the scene of the marvelous, a remote and unknown
country rather than one so near as Japan. The life-like particu-
larity of IToei Shbi's account evidently raises it out of tlie region
of fable, and compels us to regard it as a matter-of-fact descrip-
tion of some existing country. But where is 7tif-/tan ? DeGuig-
nes says this country is Kamtchatka ; Klaproth says it is Taraikai,
or Saghalien. . . .

The distance from the mouth of the Hoang-ho to the coast of
North America, by a direct eastern course, would be from 6,500
to 7,000 miles ; corresponding very well to 20,000 Chinese Uy as at
present reckoned. But the question aris*.'; , whether Iloei Shin in-
tends to say that Fu-sang is equally distant from China and from
Ta-han, or whether he means that Fu-sang is at the same dis-
tance from Ta-han that Ta-han is from China. The latter sense
would require the translation to read : " Fu-sang is 20,000 U east of
the country of Ta-han, and it [meaning Ta-han] is equally distant
to the east of China." This would locate Ta-han on the road to
Fc-sang, instead of making Ta-han and China the basis of au
isosceles triangle, of which Fi-sang is the apex. It would render
the account more natural and consistent ; for if Ft-sang is in
an easterly direction from both the other countries, we must infer
that the three were nearly in a line.

If we adopt Li-yan-cheu^s statement of the route to Ta-han,
whether the latter be Saghalien or Kamtchatka, we must contract
our estimate of the li, and that will bring Fu-sang proportionately
nearer.

As navigation in those early times was generally along the
shore, with very little means of accurately measuring distances
by water, it will not perhaps be unreasonable to allow, on the
average, six nautical U to the mile, and then 20,000 H would
just bo sufficient to land us in Oregon or California. From the

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southern point of Karatcliatka to Alaska the distance is about
one thousand miles, and to Oregon as much farther ; so that of
the 20,000 li, or 3,300 miles, we would have a surplus of 1,300
miles to allow for the windings along the coast. The stages of
the voyage would then become : From Corea to the chief port in
Japan (making a very large allowance for winding course), 2,000
miles ; thence to Wen-ahin (either in Jesso or Saghalien), 1,100
miles ; thence to Kamtchatka, 800 miles ; thence to Fu-sang^ a
long stretch of 3,300 miles.

Thus we see there is no insuperable objection to the theory
of de Guignes. On the contrary, the supposition of Klaproth,
that Fu-saug was the southern part of Japan, involves us in inex-
tricable difficulties.

It makes Li-yan-cheit and Iloel Shin contradict each other :
one affirming that Japan is 12,000 li distant, the other that it is
20,000 ; one declaring that it is east of Ta-haa, the other that it is
directly south. Klaproth endeavours to show that i\xQfii-sang tree
is the mulberry, of which the Japanese make paper ; but it would
be very difficult to discover any resemblance between a mulberry-
plant and the shoot of a young bamboo. Nor would its fruit be
compared to a pear, which it does not at all resemble in form.
At tho period in question, the beginning of the sixth century,
Japan was governed by the tyrant Burets Teno, who, according
to the imperial annals, sent some thousands of soldiers to destroy
a rival. Of course, it could not be said of such a people that
" they had neither arms nor troops."

The northern and southern prisons, described by Hoei Shin,
lind no confirmation in the Japanese annals. There is no evi-
dence that th© Japanese reared stags instead of cattle ; they were
not without iron, nor did they esteem gold and silver of no ac-
count. Finally, as Klaproth himself acknowledges, the Buddhist
religion was not introduced into Japan till the year 532, when it
was brought in from Corea ; cono'^quently, the priest Hoei Shin
could not have spoken of it as the religion of the country in the
year 500.

But another supposition still remains. The Han were a peo-
ple, rather than a country : Ta-han, the Great Han. The Hans
were among the oldest of the Chinese races ; they occupied the
northern part of the empire, overspread Corea, and ultimately
became masters c : Japan. The Japanese historians trace back

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SHORTER ESSAYS.

166

their line of emperors to Ku-knng, king of Chon, whose great-
granilson, Wu-wanf/, became emperor of China, 1122 b. c. The
kings of Chott were of the Han race. Gutzlaff says " the state of
Hun [424 to 230 b. c] was ruled by a line of kings who traced
their descent from the founders of the C7iou dynasty." (** Chin,
llist.," p. 202.) Klaproth gives us the testimony of Chinese
writers that Wu T'ai-pe, elder son of Kn-kung, prince of Chou^
founded the kingdom of Wu, where his descendants reigned 659
years. Being conquered and driven out by the king of Yiie^
tlicy sailed for Japan, and became the founders of that empire :
" The children, the grandchildren, and the relatives of the last
king of Wily put to sea, and became the Wo or Japanese." In
the third century of our era, these Han rulers of Japan took
possession of Corea, which, after the fall of the Han dynasty in
China, appears to have become the general rendezvous of the
Han races. The country was known as that of the San-han, or
8an-kan, the "Three Hans,*'' namely, the Ma-han, composed of
fifty-four tribes, the Sliin-han, twelve tribes, and the Pian-han^
also twelve tribes. It is highly probable that Hoci Shin, in
speaking of the country of the Great Han, meant Japan, in dis-
tinction from Corea, the common residence of the three principal
Han families.

It would seem, from the descriptions by other writers, of coast-
M'ise and overland journeys to the Great Han, that this term was
also used for a more northerly region, either the northern part of
Japan (including Saghalien) or a portion of the continent. With
the^'e accounts the narrative of Hoei Shin has no necessary con-
nection. It is a strong argument in favour of a Sotithern Ta-han
as a point of departure for America, that it would make the
deviati m from an eastern course far less than by the northern
route.

We must wait for a more perfect knowledge of the former
flora and fauna of America before we can identify, with any cer-
tainty, the plants and animals mentioned by Hoei Shin. It has
been suggested that the maguey, or Mexican aloe, is ihc fu-sang j
but we think a more substantial tree is indicated. In many re-
spects the description would agree better with some tree of the
bread-fruit family, which includes the artocarpus, moras or mul-
berry, maclura, and fig. Of the bread-fruit no less than fifty
varieties are enumerated as indigenous to the South Sea Islands,

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

and tliere is no reason why they should not liave been abundant
in the tropical regions of the American coast.* Williams, in his
" Narrative of Missionary Enterprises," gives this description of
the most common variety :

"Among all the trees that adorn the islands of the Pacific,
the bread-fruit deserves the pre-eminence for its beauty and value.
It frequently grows fifty or sixty feet high, and has a trunk be-
tAveen two and three feet in diameter. The leaves are broad and
sinuated, something similar in form to those of the fig-tree.
They are frequently eighteen inches in length, and of a dark-
green colour, with a glossy surface resembling that of the richest
evergreens. The fruit is oval, about six inches in diameter, and
of a light pea-green." Ellis adds that " it subsequently changes
to brown, and when fully ripe assumes a rich yellow tinge."

Williams continues : " The value of this wonderful tree ex-
ceeds its beauty. It is everything to the natives — their house,
their food, their clothing. The trunk furnishes one of the best
kinds of timber they possess. It is the colour of mahoj^any, ex-
ceedingly durable, and is used by the natives in building their
canoes and houses, and in the manufacture of the few articles of
furniture they formerly possessed. From the bark of the
branches they fabricate their clothing ; and, when the tree is
punctured, there exudes from it a mucilaginous fluid, resembling
thick cream, which hardens by exposure to the sun, and, when
boiled, answers all the purposes of English pitch. The fruit is,
to the South Sea Islander, the staff of life. It bears two crops
every season. Besides this, there are several varieties which
ripen at diflferent periods, so that the natives have a supply
of this \ialatable and nutritious food during the greater part of
the year.**

Our conclusion is this : That the narrative of Iloei Shin is en-
titled to full credence ; that before the Anglo-Saxons invaded
England j before France became a nation ; a hundred years be-
fore the birth of Mohammed, and more than fourtcc.i hundred

* The bread-fruit tree, like its congener, the jack-tree of India, requires care
for its preservation, and its non-cultivation in a particular country at the present
time does not prove its non-existence a thousand years ago. Mr. Ellis (" Polynesian
Researches," chap, ii.) says the tree " is propagated by slips from the root " ; but
he expresses his fear that it will in a few years become scarce, as the indolent na-
tives " are generally adverse to the planting of bread-fruit trees."

ill.

SHORTER ESSAYS.

107

years before the daring Columbus ventured upon unknown waters
in search of a new world, the Orientals were passing and repassing
the broad Pacific, from China to the American coast, either by
the shore line, where the current would aid in carrying them
around and down the Mexican coast, or by a direct route over
calmer seas, passing the Sandwich Islands and falling into the
Mexican current a little north of Peru ; that, i>rcviou8 to the
year 500, there was an empire on this continent which must
liave rivaled China in civilization, laws, and good government ;
that its ruler was so powerful as to maintain \m authority with-
out the use of armies ; that the people had a written language ;
that they used, in their reckoning of time, the Chinese cycle of
sixty years ; that they had domestic animals, and used wheel
carriages ; that among the chief productions of the country was
a tree resembling or identical with the bread-fruit tree ; that the
Buddhist religion liud been recently introduced, but had not
exterminated the more ancient idolatry, which consisted in the
worship of images representing spirits. These general facts wo
consider established on as good authority as we could ask for —
that of a Buddhist priest, probably himself one of the mission-
aries to Avhom reference is made.

JRemarlcs of the Abbe Brasseur de Boitrbourg.''^^

Without undertaking to defend here the argument of M. de
Guignes regarding Fii-sangy recently revived by M. Gustavo
d'Eichthal by the article in which he ascribed the American
civilization to a Buddhist origin, an argument attacked by Klap-
roth and more lately by M. Vivien de Saint-Martin, we will,
since we are upon known ground, digress sufficiently to call at-
tention to some errors in the article of the latter in the " Ann^e
G^ographique." We shall not seek to prove that either t\\cfu-
sang tree or any very similar tree existed in America ; but it is
certain that most of the books of the natives that have been pre-
served to our times, without counting those of the collection of M.
Aubin, are made from the fibers of the bark of a tree from which
the Americans made a true paper. (See Gomara, " Conquista de
Mexico," t. i, p. 424 ; Landa, " Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan,"
p. 44 ; Humboldt, " Vues des Cordilldres," t. ii, pp. 269, 304.) Such
are, among others, the "Dresden Manuscript," the manuscript
of the Imperial Library, called " Mexican Manuscript, Ko. 2," the

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AN INGLORIOUS COLOIBUS.

"Codex Troauo," etc., which, it may be observed, in pasHJng, are
written in alphabetical characters. IVI. Vivien dc Saint-Martin
in his article says that writing, properly so called, or alphabetical
writing, does not exist in America ; nevertheless, it was well known
in 1865 that alphabetical writing really existed, and nothing more
is necessary to prove this than the work of Landa, which the
scholarly geographer cites, two pages farther on, which, if not
sufficient to satisfy him of its existence, should at least have de-
terred him from stating the contrary in a manner so absolute.

He adds that *' it has never been stated that the miserable
savages of the northwest coast hud a method of writing or made
paper." There may, however, have been other nations upon these
coasts at an earlier date who were in j- )ssession of these two arts ;
for it is known, says M. von Humboldt (" Vues des Cordillftres,"
t. ii, p. 96), that in the last century, " among the inhabitants of
Nutka, the Mexican month of twenty days was found in use,"
which conveys the idea of a state of civilization passably ad-
vanced. The remains of gigantic edifices have also been found
from time to time in tnese quarters, certainly the works of a
people more advanced in civiliz;ition than the miserable savages
in question.

In spite of Klaproth's skillful refutation of the hypothesis
of de Guignes, it has been reproduced several times, says Alex-
ander von Humboldt, by the pens of a number of estimable
scholars, who think that they have found in the Virdand of
Asiatic explorers more than one characteristic trait of America.

It is now unquestionably established, moreover, from the ac-
counts of the first Spanish explorers, which have been studied
upon the spot by the Americans of our days, that the countries
situated in the center of the American Continent, and upon its
western coasts, ^"om the banks of the Rio Gila to the copper
mines of Lake Superior, were formerly inhabited by tribes which
were scarcely inferior in civilization to those of Mexico proper.
They existed only in a state of decadence at the time of the
Spanish conquest, and the remains of this civilization are found
even now in the villages of houses of several stories in New
Mexico.

As to Chinese or Japanese voyages to the northwestern
coasts : from time to time their traces have been thought to be
found in the ports of California (Bradford, " American Antiq-

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SHORTER ESSAYS.

160

uities," p. 233) ; and Gomara states tliat, at the time of the expe-
ditions of Cortez and Alarcon in these rej^ions, " they heard of
boats which had pelicans of gold an-; silver at the i»row, which
were loaded with merchandise, and which they thought to come
from Cathay and China, because the sailors of these boats caused
it to be understood by signs that their voyage had taken thirty
days."

There also exists a well-known tradition, among the iMhabit-
ants of the Pacific coast of North America, that men of distant
nations came formerly from beyond the sea to ti \de at the prin-
cipal ports of the coast (Bustamante, " Supplemeuv to Book III of
the Work of Sahagun "). It is a^.so known ^hat the northern tribes
were much more peaceable than the Mexicans, and that in their
country there exist "plains covered with trees, among which
there are vines, mulberries, and rose-bushes." (See, in the collec-
tion of Teroaux-Ccinpans, Castaneda's ''Relation du Voyage
de Cibola en 1540," p. 126.)

They also possessed great numbers of dogs, which carried
their effects, and perhaps even the bison may have boen used
as a draught animal and beast of burden ; and it is certain, at
least, that the chiefs of the country had quite large herds of tauio
deer and domestic bisons (see letter written by the Adelantado
Soto, etc., in the " Collection of Narrations regarding Florida,"
edited by Ternaux-Compans, p. 47, and in the "Relation of
Biedma," p. 101) ; and, according to the accounts of various
authors, it is probable ♦hat they were used much us are our
domestic animals.

Gomara, in his "Hist. Gen. de las Indias," in several places
mentiotiv" the accounts of travelers of his days, and those of the
conquerors, who speak of numerous herds of domestic bisons ex-
isting among the northern tribes, and which furnished them with
clothing, food, and drink. Humboldt and Prescott remark that
the drink must have been their blood, for the natives of these
countries apjjear to have this, in common with those of China
and Cochin-China, that they make no use of milk (" Tableau de
la Nature," trad. Galuski, Paris, 1863, p. 213). It is known
that other Indians in the northern part of the United States,
and in Canada, usod certain large deers as draught animals for
their sledges, in the same way that, at the present day, elks are
used by the Indians of the country north of Canada.

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M. do Saint-Mftrtin says that, before the arrival of the Span-
iards, neither draught animals nor beasts of burden were known
in America. What can ho call tho vicunas and llamas of
Pciu, which are used as beasts of burden exactly as camels are
in Asia ? (See Cieya de Leon, " Cronica del Peru," cap. ex and cxi ;
and as for North America, consult Gomara, who was tho chap-
lain of Cortex.) "There are also great dogs, capable of fighting
with a bull, and which carry two arrobas weight (fifty pounds)
upon a sort of saddle when they go to the chase." (" Hist, do
his Indias," p. 289 ; see also Castofiada, " Relation de Cibola,"
p. 190.)

In any case, before pronouncing so positively as to what is
known or not known regarding tho Americans, it seems to us
to be prudent to wait ; for every day, it may be said, throws
some new light upon tho diverse ancient civilizations of tho
continent discovered by Columbus. The "Old Stories Set
Afloat " arc not always as improbable as may be thought, and
M. Gustavo d'Eichthal may bo right in his reply to tho scholarly
editor of the " Ann6e Geographique," that " old stories arc good
things to revive when they are true old stories." . . .

" The Abb6 de Bourbourg says, in his introduction to the
" Popol-Vuh " : " It has been known to scholars for nearly a cen-
tury that the Chinese were acquainted with tho American Con-
tinent in the fifth centuiy of our era. . . . Readers, who may
desire to make comparisons between tho Japanese description of
Fa-sang and some country in America, will find astonishing
analogies in tho countries described by Castaneda and Fra Mar-
cos de Niza in the province of Cibola." ... " Speaking of the
Mexican religion, he is constrained to say : " Asia appears to
have been the cradle of this religion, and of the social institu-
tions which it consecrated."

The hook, entitled " Fusang ; or, the Discoven/ of America
by Chlmse Buddhist Priests in the Fifth Century^'' by Charles
G. Leland {12mo, London, 1875).

This work opens with a memoir of Carl Friedrich Neumann.
This is followed by a translation of Professor Neumann's argu-
ment regarding Fu-sang, which is succeeded by a chapter of
comments and suggestions by Mr. Leland. Then follows a chap-
ter regarding the navigation of the North Pacific, and embody-

ii.

SHORTER ESSAYS.

171

ing a letter from Colonel Uarclay Kennon, sotting forth the
ease with which a voyage may bo made from Asia to America,
by way of the Aleutian iHlandH, oven in an open canoe, and
calling attention to the frequency with which this voyage is
made by the natives of those regions. Next come a chapter of
remarks upon Colonel Kennon's letter and a chapter detailing
the venturesome travels of other Buddhist priests. The affinities
of Asiatic and American languages arc next considered, the pos-
hiblc connection of the Mound-builders with the Mexicans is
tlii-n discussed, and attention is called to the wide distribution
of images of Buddha. The arguments of de Guignes, Klaproth,
and d'Eichthal are next reviewed. Then follow two letters from
Theos. Simson and E. Bretschneider respectively, with comments
by Mr. Leland. An appendix, describing the Ainos, and discus-
sing the resemblance between the American Indians and the
tribes of Northeastern Asia, closes the work.

It should be remarked that this book is an amplification of
an article written by Mr. ^^cland, which appeared in the " Gen-
tleman's Magazine" many years before, and Professor Williams
is, therefore, wrong in stating that Mr. Bancroft's digest of the
arguments upon the subject preceded Mr. Leland's argument.

As the article from which the following extracts are taken
was credited by the "Chinese Recorder" (from which it is here
copied) to the " Gentleman's Magazine," it is probably Mr. Le-
land's early argument.

Who (discovered America P Evidence that the Xexc World was
known to the Chinese fourteen hundred years ago. ""

. . . There are among the Chinese records, not merely vague
references to a country to the west of the Atlantic, but there is
also a circumstantial account of its discovery by the Chinese
long before Columbus was born.

A competent authority on such matters, J. ITanlay, the Chi-
nese interpreter at San Francisco, has lately written an essay on
this subject, from which we gather the following startling state-
ments, drawn from Chinese historians and geographers.

Fourteen hundred years ago, even, America had been discov-
ered by the Chinese, and described by them. They stated that
land to be about twenty thousand Chinese miles distant from
China. About five hundred years after the birth of Christ,

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A\ IN(!LORIOUS COLUMBCS.

IJiidilhist priests visltod tluTo, and brouglit hack tlio news that
they lia«l met with HiuMhiHt itlols and religiouo writings In the
country. Their deHcriptions, in many rc8|»octH, rcNcmhlo those
of the Spaniards a thousand years hiter. They called the coun-
try ** 7')(-aan{/,^* after a tree that grew there, whoso leaves re-
Bcmhlo those of the haniboo, of whoso bark the natives made
cloths and paper, and whoso fruit they ate. These particulars
correspond exactly and remarkably with those given by the
American historian, Prescott, about the maguey-tree in Mexico,
lie states that the Aztecs prepared a pulp for paper-making out
of the bark of this tree. Then, even its leaves were tjsed for
thatching ; its fibers for making ropes ; its roots yielded a
nourishing food ; and its sap, by means of fermentation, was
made Into an intoxicating drink. The accounts given by the
Chinese and Spaniards, although a thousand years apart, agree
in stating that the natives did not possess any iron, but only
copper ; that they made all their tools for working in stone and
metals out of a mixture of copper and tin ; and that they, in
comparison with the nations of Europe and Asia, thought but
little of the worth of silver and gold. The religious customs and
forms of worship presented the same characteristics to the Chi-
nese fourteen hundred years ago as to the Spaniards four hun-
dred years ago.

There is, moreover, a remarkable resemblance between the
religion of the Aztecs and the Buddhism of the Chinese, as well
as between the manners and customs of the Aztecs and those of
the people of China. There is also a great similarity between
the features of the Indian tribes of Middle and South America
and those of the Chinese, and, as Ilanlay, the Chinese interpreter
of whom we spoke above, states, between the accent and most of
the monosyllabic words of the Chinese and Indian languages.

The writer gives a list of words which point to a close
relationship, and infers therefrom that there must have been
emigration from China to the continent at a most early period,
as the official accounts of the Buddhist priests fourteen hundred
years ago notice these things as existing even at that time. Per-
haps now, old records may be recovered in China, which may
furnish full particulars of this question.

It is, at any rate, remarkable, and confirmative of the idea of
emigration from China to America at some remote period, that

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SIIOHTER ESSAYS.

173

at the time of tho «lis(ovi'ry of Anu'rifa l>y the Spanianls, the
lutlian triheH on the coaHt of the I'acitio, opponite to China, fi)r
the most part enjoyed a Htate of culture of ancient growth, while
tho inhabitants of the Atlantic shore were found by the Kuro-
])eanH in a state of original barbarism. . . .

Letter of Thco«. Slniflon/"''

*• ' Buddhist Priests in America.' Under this heading,"" a quer-
ist in the last number of * Notes and Queries ' submits to inquiry
a statement of Professor Carl Neumann, of Munich, respecting
tlio supposed entry of Buddhist jjricsts into the American Con-
tinent some tliirteon hundred years ago, and their passage into
the land of tho Aztecs, which they called Jui-sauf/y ' after tho
Chinese name of the American aloe.'

" Now, in the first place, this statement, if true, infcrentially
proves much more than it asserts ; the Mexican aloe is a native
of Mexico only, and it is manifest, therefore, that if these sup-
])Osed Chinese travelers named the country after the Chinese
name of tlic Mexican aloe, that i)lant must have been M'ell known
to them before the period of their visit to its native country ;
hence, we are carried further back, to a time when the Mexican
aloe must have been known in Cliina, and we must allow a con-
siderable period for it to have become so well known as to sug-
gest to the travelers a name for a newly discovered — or, as it
must needs have been in this view, a rediscovered — country. This
consideration takes us back into the question of the original
peopling of the American Continent, to the age of stone or
bronze, perhaps, which is beyond the intended scope of the
querist's quotation.

" At the period * when the land of Fii-sanf/ is first mentioned
by historians,' China, exclusive of the neighbouring 'barbarous
tribes,' over whom she held sway, was not so extensive as she is
at present, but comprised only what we now call tho Northern
and Central Provinces. Does the Mexican aloe grow in that
part of tho country at all ? I am inclined to think not, though
I can not speak positively upon the point. In Canton it is said
by the Chinese to have been introduced from the Philippine Isl-
ands, and is called Spanish (or Philippine) hemp, its fibers being
sometimes employed in the manufacture of mosquito-nets.

"But thQ fu-sang (or, more corveciXy , the fu-sang /ree), as

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

doscribcd in Cliinese botanical works, appears to bo a raalvaccous
plant ; at any rate, whatever it may be, it certainly is not the
Mexican aloe, or anything similar to it.

" The land of Busang is described by Chinese anthers as be-
ing in the Eastern Sea, in the j^lace where the sun rises. Consid-
ering the geographical limits of China at the time referred to
(some thirteen Imndred years ago), surely we need not look far-
ther thi.ii Japan for a very probable identification of the F\{-sa/></
country according with this description, which indeed appears to
be embodied in the more modern name Jih-pen-Jcicoh, ' Japan,'
which is translatable as the 'Country of the Rising Sun.' It is
a matter of fact, too, that Kuddhism M\as introduced into that
country some thirteen hund'-?d years ago ; and this by no means
extraordinary event is a vcrv much more probable version of

* * 1

the incident referred to than the marvelous story given by Pro-
fessor Neumann."

'' JFu-safig ; or, W/io Discovered Amcriat^' — f>!/ J^. I*rctsc/inei-

dcr, Jf. D. ■'*

" In the May number of the * Chinese Recorder ' there is an
article, reprodu <?d from the 'Gentleman's 3Iagazine,' in which
it is sought to be proved that the Chinese had discovered Ameri-
ca as early as 500 a, p. . . . I have not read the dissertations of
31. Paravey. . . . I am also equally unacquainted with the article
of Mr. Neumann ... I believe, Jiowever, that the Chinese no-
tices about ]'\-san<j are all derived from one and the same source,
and each and all rest upon the statements of a lying liuddhist
priest, Ifui-s/icn, who asserts that he was in .Fii-funit/. . . .

"In later times the Chinese poets, who seem to bo gifted
with a much livelier imafjination than some of our savants, have
develo;ied and richly embellished the reports with regard to the
land of Fx-san;/, and have made out of it a complete land of fa-
bles, where mulberry-trees grow to a height of several thousand
feet, and Avhere silk-worms arc found more than six feet in
length. The statements about Fu-sanfj given by IM. Leon do
Rosny, in bis ' Varietes Orientales,' from a Japanese Encyclo-
panlia, are jirobably borrowed from the Chinese. I have not,
however, read 31. Rosny's work. (Cf. 'Notes and Queries,' vol.
iv, p. 10.)

" In order to place the credibility of the Buddhist priest Ifui-

SHORTER ESSAYS.

175

sficn in the proper light, I will yet mention what he further re-
hitos of his journeys. Mo asserts, namely {foco citato), that there
is a kingdom, 1,000 W east of Fi(-sa>i;/,\n which there are no men,
but only women, whose b< os are completely covered with hair.
When they wish to become pregnant, they bathe themselves in
a certain river. The women have no mannna>, but tufts of hair
on the neck, by means of which they suckle their children.

"Upon these vague and incredible traditions of a Buddhist
monk, several European savants have based the hypothesis that
the Cl-'nesehad discovered America 1,^00 years ago. Nevertl',>
less, it appears to me that these Sinologues have not succeeded
in robbing Columbus of the honour of having discovered Amer-
ica. They might have spared themselves the writing of such
learned treatises on this subject. It appears to me that the ver-
dict passed upon the value of the information of the liuddhist
monk Jf((i-s/un by Father Hyacinth is the niost correct. This
well-known Sinologue adds the following words merely, after the
translation of the article ' J'''i(-sa»ff,'' out of the 'History of the
Southern Dynasties ' : • Ifui-s/u'n appears to have been a consum-
mate humbug.' (Cf. * The People of Central Asia,' by V. Hya-
cinth.)

*' I cannot, indeed, understand what ground wo have for be-
liovini? that I'^i-sann is America. We can not lav jrreat stress
ii]>on the asserted distance, for every one knows how liberal the
Chinese are with numbers. By tamed stags we can, at all events,
only understand reindeer. But these are found as freqiuMitly in
Asia as in America. 3Iention is also made of horses m Fii-sang.
This does not at all agree with America, for it is well known that
horses were first brought to America in the sixteenth century.
Neumann appears to base his hypothesis on the assumption that
tl>e tree fu-sang is synonymous M'ith the ^Fexican aloe, 3tr.
Sampson has already refuted this error. ('Notes and Queries,'
vol, \\\\ p. 78.)

"According to the descriptions and drawings of the tree,^»-
sa)r<j, given by the Chinese, there is no doubt that it is a malvacea.
Tn Pekin, the Hibiscus rosa Sinensis is designated by this name,
while IfibiscKS St/riaots is here called )m<-kin. Tiiese names seem
to hold good for the whole of China. The description which
is given in the Pun-tsao-kang-mu of both plants (xxxvi, pp. 04 and
05) admits of no doubt that by the \voo fu-satuj, chu-hin, chi-kin,

Its

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176

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Ji-l:i, is to be understood Hibiscus rosa Sinensis. It is also
mentioned that this tree has a likeness to the mu-kin {Hibiscus
Syriacus). Its leaves resemble the raulborry-tree. Very good
drawings of both kinds of hibiscus are found in the Chi-iou-niinf/-
shi-tu-k'ao (xxxv, pp. 58 and 34). The Buddhist priest Ilui-shCn
compares the tree fu-sang with the tree fting. Under this
name the Chinese denote different large-leaved trees. In the
Chi-icu-ming-shitu-lc'ao (xxx, p. 46), the tree <'wn</ is represented
with broadly ovate, cordate, entire, great leaves, and with great
ovoid, acuminate fruits. Hoffman and Schultes (' Noma Jndi-
g6nes des Plantes du Japon et de la Chine ') have set down the
tree Vung as Pauloionia imjyerialis. This agrees quite well with
the Chinese drawing.

" The tree Cung must not be confounded with the yu-fung
tree (synonyma, ying-tsU-fung, jen-t''ung\ front whose fruit is
furnished the well-known and very poisonous oil fung-yu, which
the Chinese employ in varnish and in paini iiig. It should be the
Dryanda cordata ; according to others, HHceococca verucosa, I
have not seen the tree, but it is known to occur very abundantly
in Central China, and especially on the Yang-tse-kiang. There
is a Chinese description in the Pun-fsao (xxxv, p. 2G), and a draw-
ing of it in the Chi-%cu-ming-shi-tu-k\io (xxxv, p. 26).

" There is also a tree which the Chinese call \cu-€ung (syn-
onyme, chen). This tree has already been mentioned by Du
Halde (' Description de I'Empire Chinois ') as a curiosity, in which
the seeds are found on the edges of the leaves. This phenomenon
is also described in the drawings of the Chi-iou-ming-shi'tu-k''ao
(xxxv, p. 56). Compare, further, the description in XhePun-fsao
(xxxv, p. 25). It is the Sterculia plantanifoUa, a beautiful tree
with large leaves, lobed so as to resemble a hand, which is culti-
vated in the Buddhist temples near Pekin. The Chinese are
quite right in what they relate about the seeds. The seed-folli-
cles burst, and acquire the form of coriaceous leaves, bearing
the seeds upon their margin.

" The leaves of all the trees just now mentioned allow them-
selves to be compared, as is done by the Chinese, with those of the
hibiscus, or other plants of the malvaceous family, but have not
the slightest resemblance with the Mexican aloe, or maguey-tree
{Agave Americana), which has massive, spiny-toothed, fleshy
leaves. Mr. Ilanlay (' Chinese Recorder,' vol. ii, p. 345), of San

Fran(
dhist

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SHORTER ESSA\6

177

Francisco, can not, therefore, succeed in proving that the Bud-
dhist priest Hui-ahen understood by fu-sang the Mexican aloe.

" Finally, I have to mention a tree which, as regards its ap-
pearance and usefulness, corresponds pretty much with the de-
scription given by Hui-shtn of the fu-sang tree. I am speaking
of the useful tree Broussonetia 'papyrifera, which grows wild
in the temperate parts of Asia,* especially in China, Japan, Corea,
Mantchooria, etc., and is, besides, found on the islands of the
Pacific ; while, as far as I know, it does not occur in America.
The leaves of this tree are remarkable for their varying very
much in shape. The same tree produces at once very large and
quite small leaves. They are sometimes entire, sometimes many-
lobed. The fruit is round, of a deep scarlet colour, and pulpy.
It is a well-known fact that, in the parts where the tree grows,
its bark is used for the making of paper and the manufacturing
of clothing material. From ancient times it has been known to
the Chinese under the name c/t'w (synonyma, Icou, kou-sang,
Tcou-shu : cf. Pun-fsao-hang-mn, xxxvi, p. 10). An excellent en-
graving of the tree is found in the Chi-wu-ming-shi-tu-Ji'ao
(xxxiii, p. 57). Ilui-slitn, in his botanical diagnosis, perhaps
7nade a mistake with regard to the fu-sang tree, and confounded
broussonetia with hibiscus.

" Just as little as the Mexican aloe, does the non-existence of
iron in the country Fu-sang prove that America is to be under-
stood, for there were many countries in ancient times which
possessed copper, but where the art of working iron was un-
known. The Chinese report also that the natives of the Loo-
choo Islands did not possess iron, but only copper.

"•'Mr. Hanlay (I. c.) appears to have received the discovery
of America by the Chinese with the greatest enthusiasm. Per-
haps I have furnished him, by means of the above notice about
* the Kingdom of Women,' which Hui-sMn visited, a new proof
f r his view of the case. Fki-sang lies, according to JIui-sMn,
diiCctly east from China, more than 20,000 li, thus about the
situation of San Francisco at the present day. The celebrated
Women's Kingdom lies 1,000 li farther toward the east, thus
about the country of Salt Lake City, where, at the present day,
the Mormons are, which, if not a women's country, is nevertheless

* Saghalien, where Mr. Bretsclmeider would put Fu-sang, can hardly be called
temperate. — Note by C. G. Lcland.
12

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

a country of many women, and where — to the disgrace of the
United States — prostitution is carried on under the mask of the
Christian religion.

"I do not agree with Mr. Sampson ('Notes and Queries,'
vol. iii, p. 79) in supposing that Fu-sang must be identified with
Japan — "j/^, Ji-peuy * the Land where the Sun rises '; for Japan
has been well knoxon to the Chinese since several centuries before
our era, under another name. I avail myself of this opportunity
to add a few words about the earliest accounts which the Chinese
have of Japan. This country was primitively known to them
under the name Wo, which occurs for the first time in chapter
cxv of the ' History of the Posterior Han,'' (a. d. 25-221). I
can not afford to give here a translation of the whole article, and
shall, therefore, only touch upon some of the most important
points. The kingdom Wo, it is said, is situated on a group of
islands in the Great Sea, southeast of Ilan (in the southwestern
part of Corea), and is composed of about a hundred principali-
ties. Since the conquest of Chao-sien (Corea) by the Emperor
Wu-ti, 108 B. c, about thirty of these principalities entered into
relations with China. The most powerful of the rulers has his
capital in Ye-ma-fai. It is mentioned that neither tigers and
leopards, nor oxen, horses, sheep, and magpies exist. As far as I
know, this last remark is not true at present, at least as far as
horses and oxen are concerned ; it is true, however, that sheep
can not thrive in Japan, and the attempts of the Europeans to
acclimatize them have been, until now, unsuccessful.

" In the reign of ICuang-xcii, a, d. 25-58, envoys came from
the Wo-nu with presents to the Chinese court. They stated that
their country was the southernmost of the kingdom. . . .

" A JVil-wan(/-kuo, a * Country of Women,' is spoken of in the
southern part of Japan. This statement is confirmed by the
Japanese annals. (Cf. Klaproth, *Annales des Empereurs du
Japon,' p. 13.) The Japanese call this country Atsowma.

"The land Ta-han must have been a province in Siberia.
Ffi-sang is said to lie to the east of Ta-han. Supposing, then,
that a country, Fu-sang, really existed, and was not an invention
of a Buddhist monk, it does not necessarily follow that it is to
be sought on the other side of the ocean. Let me here observe
that this monk mentions in no place in his account having passed
over a great sea. Klaproth, in assuming that Fu-sang is meant

SHORTER ESSAYS.

179

for the island of Saghalien, is, I believe, more near to the truth
than the other Sinologues.

"In 'Notes and Queries' (vol. iv, p. 19) there is a passage,
cited out of the * Liang-ssii-kung-ki,^ that the kingdom of 7* w-
sang had sent envoys to China. This would, of course, prove
t' at the so-called country of Fii-sang had political intercourse
with China; but it makes it more unlikely that America was here
meant. \V"e will, therefore, m the mean time, still consider Fh'
sang as a terra incognita nee non duhia, and bestow upon Mr.
Burlingame the double honour of having been the first American
embassador at the Chinese court, and the first Chinese embas-
sador in America.

" The contradictory fancies about China that originate in the
brains of European literati are truly astonishing. Some main-
tain that the Chinese discovered America 1,300 years ago ; while
a well-known Frenchman, Count Gobineau, some years ago as-
serted that the Chinese had immigrated from America. In his
' Essay upon the Inequality of Human Races,' vol. ii, p. 242,
Count Gobineau says : * Whence came the yellow nations ?
From the great Continent of America. This is the answer both
of physiology and philology.'

" All these unfounded hypotheses have much the same value
as the supposed discovery of America by the Chinese."

m,|

This letter, and that of Mr. Sirason, are copied, by permission,
from the work of Mr. Charles G. Leland, entitled, " Fusang ; or,
the Discovery of America." Mr. Leland's criticism is short, but
sharp :

nsi «jjj brief. Dr. Bretschneider asserts that there was no
Fii-mng — ^it being all the invention of a lying priest ; but that it
was in Siberia. There was never any such place ; but still Mr.
Simson is wrong in placing it in Japan, and Klaproth is right in
declaring it was at Saghalien. There was no fusang tree either ;
but the monk who saw it meant the kou-sang, describing more
accurately, however, a Mexican plant. Klaproth refuted de Guig-
nes, and exposed his errors by proving that Fii-sang was also i'
Japan ; only, in Dr. Bretschneider's opinion, it was elsewhere.
And it is certainly curious that the writers who utterly discredit
the very existence of Fusang, and all that is said of it, have each
a theory as to where it really was."

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180

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Extract from a letter written by Ptre Gmihil to M. de
risle,'*'^ dated Fekin, August 28th, 1752:

" The translation made by M. de Guignes from the Wen-hian-
thmg-k^ao concerning the nations Wen-shin, Ta-han, etc., situ-
ated a great distance to the northeast of Japan, may have led
you to believe that in the times of the Liang dynasty (or even
more than three hundred years earlier) the Chineae were ac-
quainted with America.

" All these texts prove nothing, however, when they are care-
fully examined, and corrected by the clearer writings of earlier
and more trustworthy authors.

" From similar vague accounts, and from the distances indi-
cated by several authors, it might be concluded that at the be-
ginning of the Christian era, or even earlier, the Chinese were
acquainted with Europe, as, for instance, Italy, France, etc.
Now, this is certainly not the case. All these texts should be
carefully examined ; and the thing is not at all difficult. Before
the days of M. de Guignes, a number of missionaries had sent
to Europe translations of texts similar to those of his ; but there
were numerous mistakes in the texts, and there was especially
shown in them a lack of critical judgment, which should have
been sufficient to prevent the occurrence of any misunderstand-
ing based upon them.

" I can not admit your idea that America, or at least North
America along the coast of California, may have been peopled by
the tribes of Northeastern Chinese Tartary.

" The ancient and modern Chinese authorities agree in the
following statements :

"First, that under the dynasty Cheu, before the Christian
era, .Japau was peopled by the Southern Chinese ; and,

" Second, that the last emperor of the Hia dynasty, after
having been dethroned by Ching-tang, his son, fled to Tartary
with a great rxumber of Chinese, and founded the different Tar-
tarian powers to the north and northeast of China.

" It is certain that at the time that the Russians concealed
their establishments in Kamtchatka, the court of Pekin had a
knowledge of that country; and it also seems certain that long
before the present dynasty the Chinese had known Jesso, and, in
general, the countries to the northeast, including Kamtchatka,
but not fully or in detail."

SHORTER ESSAYS.

181

Humboldt makes the following observation in regard to this
letter : '"^

" According to the learned researches of Father Gaubil (found
in an astronomical MS. of the Jesuits, preserved in the * Bureau
des Longitudes ' at Paris), it appears doubtful whether the Chi-
nese ever visited the western coast of America a thousand years
before that period (the eighteenth century), as was advanced by
M. de Guignes, the justly celebrated historian."

" Concerning Fii-aang ^^—from the " Magazine of American
History '' for April, 1888.^

The question, "Where was Fu-sangf^ has long excited
interest, and some have supposed that Fu-aang was the west-
ern coast of America, which had been discovered by the Japan-
ese. The literature of the subject is extensive, but unsatis-
factory in the extreme. An almost unknown book, or rather
essay, on Fu-aang was put out somewhat privately, a few years
ago, by the Rev. William Brown, D. D., who is now in Japan
translating the Bible into the Japanese tongue. One of the
later efforts in connection with the subject is Leland's "Fu-
sang ; or, the Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests
in the Fifth Century," London, Trttbner & Co., 1875. About
all that concerns the bibliography of Fu-aang may be traced
in this work. We have frequently been treated to pretended
extracts from the chronicles containing the voyage to **Fu-
aang" wherever it may have been ; but, having a desire to learn
the exact facts from a known American scholar, we addressed
a note to the Rt. Rev. Channing M. Williams, Bishop of Japan,
asking for information, who, in reply, kindly wrote as follows :

" It is only within a day or two that I have been able to
procure the information that you wish. The Shan Sai King
(* Mountain and Sea Classic ' — which the Japanese pronounce
San Gai JTio) is a very old Chinese work, many of the ac-
counts of which are entirely fabulous. It treats largely of drag-
ons and fanciful beings of all sorts — men with ten heads or
one eye, creatures with bodies of animals, birds, snakes, and in-
sects, and heads of men, etc.

" I have, however, gotten one of the best scholars I know to
exami. e the work ; and he has found three places in which refer-
ence is made to the fu-sang (Jap., fu-soo) tree. These I have

iljillll!

182

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ml III!

translated quite literally, and herewith inclose. The Japanese
think the reference is to iheir country, and one of the names
which have been given to it is Fu-soo-koku. There is a Japanese
work I have seen which speaks of the fu-soo (Chinese, /w-san/;)
tree in ;be inland of Ki-ahu, which was 9,700 feet in length, an(^
dark, petrified wood is said to be now dug up where the tree is
supposed to have stood.

" The subject has, I see by the Shanghai papers, beer, brought
before the North China branch of the Asiatic Socifty, and Di.
Macgowan promised to read a papei a. the autumn meeting
proving that the Chinese did not go to America.

" Youra, very truly,

" C. M. Williams.

"Vol.4. 'To the south the water goes 500 U (three Chinese

li make a mile), the flowing sand 300 li (when you) reach the

Wu-kc Mountain. To the south (you) see the Tit Sea. To the

east (you) seo they«-tree — sX^ofu-satig. No trees or grass (but)

great wind (on) this mountain.

"Vol. 9. * North of this* is Ileh Chi Kiooh (Black Teeth
Country). The people of Heh Chi ICiook are black, eat rice, use
snakes, colour of which is red. Below there is a hot-water valley.
Above the hot-water valley is the fii-sang (tree). The place
Avhere the ten suns bathe is to the north of the ILh Chi Kkcok.
(They) dwell in the water. Nine suns dwell in the lower
branches. One sun dwells ia the upper brauches.

" Vol. 14. ' Within the great uncultivat ed waste is a mount-
ain called iV7e Tao Kiun Li, On it is the fu-ivcc. Its height is
300 li. The leaves are like mustard. T^ere is a valley called
Warm Spring Valley. Above this hot-w. *er valley is the fu-
tree. Just as one sun reaches (or arvivei) another sun comes
forth. All bear (lit., cause to ride) a crov,.' "

"P. S. — Since writing the above, I Kavt looked at Klaproth's
introduction to ' Nipon o dai itsi ran,' and find that he has trixns-
lated a little freely one of the passages from the * Shan llai
King? The longer account of Fii-sang^ which he gives in a
note, is translated from another Chinese wo-k, called *iVan a!^?m'
(' Histoire du Midi ')•"

* A place which can not be identified.

!|MI*!

SnORTER ESSAYS.

188

Extract from the liemarhs of M.Leon do Rosny upon a Note of
M. Foiccaiix ^^ lleffarding the Eelationa which the Jiitddhista
oj Asiii and the Inhabitants of America may have had with
Each Other at the Commencement of our Era^^^^^
" It is true that the passage from Asia to America, by the way
of B-^hring's Straits, does not offer any difficulty ; that the fleets
of the Esquimaux resort annually from Kamtchatka to the coun-
try known until lecently as Russian America. But it should be
remarked that the tribes which go from the deserts of Asia to
the deserts of America belong to a race that is purely boreal,
which lives only in n certain circle, which neither in Asia nor in
America extends its excursions to the south Between China,
Jnpan, and civilized Asia, on the one side, and Kamtchatka, on
the other, there are immense distances to be passed. Great
distances also separate the peninsula of Alaska from the warm
regions in which were located the ancient civilized states of Cen-
tral America.

** How can we suppose that the Esquimaux, who always shun
precisely these warm regions, can have served as the medium of
connection between China and Mexico, Japan and Peru ? And
what kind of people are these Esquimaux ? The most miserable
of all races. Living in their inhospitable climate, in the lowest
stage of civilization, they are contented with the poorest shelter,
and with food that is gross and repugnant. Buried for whole
months under the snow, and having only the most elementary
rudiments of human culture, how can we suppose that these
guzzlers of the oil of cetaceans can have been the creators of
the high civilizations of Mexico, of Yucatan, and of Peru ;
the authors of the coloosal monuments of Uxmal or of Pa-
lenque ? " *

The accompanying newspaper article is given as having a
possible connection (although I can not say that I have much

* It is sufficient to say, in reply to M. de Rosny, that ho is combating a man
of straw. The theory is, not that the Esquimaux made the journey to Mexico,
but that the Buddhist priests went from Asia to Mexico via the home of the Es-
quimaux ; and that, as the most difficult part of the journey, the trip from Asia to
America, by way vf the Aleutian Islands, is not too difficult a voyage for the
Esquimaux, the difficulty of the route can not be fairly claimed to be so great as
to make the theory of such a voyage by the five Buddhist priests incredible or
improbable. — E. P. V.

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184

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

confidence in the truth of the story) with some visit in ancient
tiinfcti from Asia to America :

('• 'J'he WeeUi/ Colonitt," Victona, B. C, Wediuidai/, October 25th, ISSS.)
"TiiK Oldu8T Inii>'" s. — Wkkk tiiu CiiiNESK here 3,000

i EARS AGO ?

" Whjit if antiquarians are able to prove that the Chinese were
the earliest settlers of this continent ? That from the loins of the
childreti of the ' Flowery Kingdom ' are descended the native
tribes whom the white pioneers found possessing the land ? This
theory has been often advanced. A few weeks ago a party of
minors, who were running a drift in the bank on one of the
creeks in the mining district of Cassiar, made a remarkable find.
At a depth of several feet the shovel of one of the party raised
about thirty of the brass coins which have passed current in China
for many centuries. They were strung on what appeared to be
an iron wire. This wire went to dust a few minutes after being
exposed ; but the coins appeared as bright and new as when they
first left the Celestial mint. They have been brought to Vic-
toria, and submitted to the inspection of intelligent Chinamen,
who unite in pronouncing them to be upward of three thousand
years old. They bear a date about twelve hundred years ante-
rior to the birth of Christ. And now the question arises, how
the coins got to the place where they were found. The miners
say there was no evidence of the ground having been disturbed
by man before their picks and shovels penetrated it ; and the fact
that the coins are little worn goes to show that they were not
long in circulation before being hidden or lost at Cassiar.
Whether they were the property of Chinese mariners who were
Avrocked on the north coast, about three thousand years ago, and
remained to people the continent ; or whether the Chinese min-
ers who went to Cassijvr seven or eight years ago deposited the
collection where it was found, for the purpose of establishing
for their nation a prior claim to the land — may never be known.
But the native tribes of this coast resemble the Mongolian race
80 closely, th.at one would not be surprised at any time to hear
of the discovery of yet more startling evidences of the presence
of Chinese on this coast before the coming of the whites."

CHAPTER XI.

REMARKS OP MM. VIVIEN VK SAIXT-MAUTIX AND LUCIEN ADAM.

"An OKI Story Set Afloat" — The route to Fu-sanff—hlcntttj of the AInos with
the M'cn-thin — Ta-han near the mouths of the Ainoor River — Route of liuddh-
ist misflionarica to the Amoor — Civilization of Budilhint origin — Pillars with
DuddhlHt inscriptions — Necessity of accurate translation — Twenty thousand
li signify only a very great distance — The fu-Muff tree — Warlike habits —
Lack of draught animals — Civilization of Mexico — Difflcidty of the voyoge —
Conclusion — Remarks of M. Adam — Chinese acquainted with America — Ease
of the journey — Travels of Buddhist monks — Points characteristic of Ameri>
can civilization — Ten-year cycle — The fu-»ang tree — The Vung tree — The
hibiscus — The Dnjanda cordala — The maguey, or agave — Zoological objec-
tions — Punishments — Slave children —Absurdities — Legend of Quetzulcoatl
— lie came from the East — The legend a myth — Colleges of priests — Prac-
tice of confession — The alleged figure of Huddha — The elephant's head — Lack
of tusks — America for the Americans — Theory that ffwui Shitn repeated the
stories of Chinese sailors — Remarks of M. do Ilellwald and Professor Joly.

"An Old Story Set Afloat'''— by M. Vivien de L int-Martin."*'

i!P|i(l'il(i

CONDENSED TRANSLATION.

It was the scholarly and industrious do Guignes, the justly
renowned author of that monument of Oriental erudition enti-
tled " The History of the Huns," who was the first to make the
name of Fu-aang known in Europe. . . . An erroneous opinion
on thi . subject does not diminish the merit of his great works,
any more than it is affected by his other idea, equally strange,
of the Egyptian origin of the Chinese. . . .

As the route from Leaotong to Fii-sang passes by way of
Japan, Wen-shin, and Ta-han, the precise situation of the coun-
try of Ta-han becomes of interest in considering the true loca-
tion of Fu-aan^. This can not be determined with certainty
from the statements of the historian. The point in Japan which
is touched en route is not specified, the directions are but vaguely

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A\ IXGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I If,

noted, and, worso than all, tlio dlstanct's that are indicated can
not 1)0 rolled upon, for wo are not only ignorant as to the length
of the // (an extremely variable nu'a.siire) whloh in referred to in
the account, but it whould be remembered that the Chinese sail-
ors can have had but very imperfect means of measuring the
distances, and their figures can therefore be taken as nothing
more than rough approximations.

Hence, we can be guided only by the general indications.
Fortunately, there are several which prevent us from straying
far from the true course. The Hairy Men among the mountains
of Northern Japan, and the Wen-ahiUf or Painted (or Tattooed)
Men, are clearly the Ainos ; from which it follows that the coun-
try of the Wen-8hi7i must be looked for along the shores of the
Sea of Japan (lying between the Japanese Archipelago and the
coast of Tartary), either at the northern extremity of the great
island of Niphon, or in the island of Jesso (which is also called
Matsraai), or, finally, upon some point of the Asiatic Continent
(Mant(diooria) which borders the Japanese Sea on the west.

From the land of the Wen-ahm, a maritime route conducts
us to the country designated by the name of Ta-han. Neither
the distance (five thousand li) nor the direction (toward the
east) can be of much service to us in looking for this last point.
17ortui tely, there is another document, which furnishes ub with
indications so precise as to remove all doubts, which are not
scattered by the account of the Chinese coasting voyage. The
result, as will be seen, is to place Ta-han near the mouths of the
Amoor, perhaps in the great island of Saghalien (or Tarakai),
which lies opposite them, but more probably upon the Asiatic
Continent.

This document is a description of the journey, written by
Buddhist missionaries of the time of the T^ang dynasty (618 to
907 A. D.), who went to preach their doctrine among the barbar-
ous hordes and half-savage tribes of Central and Eastern Asia.
It is to this dissemination of the Buddhist religion, dating at least
as far back as the first half of the fifth century of our era, that
the shamanism of the nomadic tribes of Centi'al Asia is due.
The Buddhist missionaries of China, who undertook this voy-
age, set forth from the great bend which the Hoang-ho makes
west of Pekin, and crossed the desert of Gobi, thus gaining the
principal encampment of the Turkish Iloei-khe, from which they

ttlii

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I they

REMARKS OF M. VIVIEN DE SAINT-MARTIN. 187

afterward reached the celebrated I^fongnlian city of Caracorum,
of which the ruins may still be seen, not far from the sources of
the Orkhon, about one hundred and fifty leagues to the south of
Lake Haikal. From that point the route continued to this lake,
and, turning to the east, they, after having visited a number of
Turkish and Mongolian tribes of the Daourian region, and of
the high valleys of the Amoor, reached the country of the iV
vhc, a people whom the Mantchoos (who pronoimce their name
*'J)Jour(ye^*) regard as the parent tribe of their nation. This
country lies about half way down the Amoor Iliver.

Hero we are upon known ground. During the ten years that
the llussians have had possession of this vast basin of the
Amoor, it has been thoroughly explored, maps and descriptions
of the country have been published, and the land and its people
have become familiar to us. The indigenes are miserable tribes
of semi-savages, living by the chase and by fisheries. They be-
long to the nation of the Tunguses, which is a branch of the race
of the Mantchoos. There are some tribes, however (the Ghiliaks),
spread along the sea-shore, which belong to the insular race, and
differ but slightly from the Ainos, whose long beards, and the
singular development of whose hairy system, not less than their
pliysical appearance and the combination of their physiognomi-
cal traits, distinguish them broadly from the beardless Tartarian
races which arc confined to the continent.

The few germs of rudimentary civilization, of which the
trace is found among the tribes of the Amoor, are of Buddhist
origin ; they undoubtedly appertain to several different epochs ;
hut the oldest are connected with the missions of the sixth cent-
ury and the three following centuries, which are mentioned in
the texts which de Guigncs was the first to describe. This is a
real service, ciuiong many others, which the scholarly author of
the "History of the Huns" has rendered to science, and of which
his error as to the location of Ta-han does not at all diminish
the merit. A very curious discovery, made some ten years ago,
upon the banks of the lower portion of the Amoor River, by one
of the first Russian explorers, confirms the accuracy of the old
accounts collected by the Chinese historians. Near the Ghiliak
" Village of the Tower," the remains of pillars were found, hav-
ing Chinese and Mongolian inscriptions, containing Buddhist
formulas. The pillars are delineated, and the inscriptions copied,

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188

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

in the interesting volume published at Paris in 1861 by M. de
Sabin (from recent Russian material) under the title, "The Amoor
River; its History, Geography, and Ethnography." One of the
inscriptions, if the translation is exact, is of the time of the Yuan
(Mongolian) dynasty, which reigned in China from 1260 to 1338
A. D. ; but there were older establishments there, for the inscrip-
tion itself speaks of a re-establiahed convent.* We therefore
now have direct proof that the missionaries of the religion of
Buddha (or of Ih, as the Chinese write his name) not only intro-
duced shamanism throughout all Central Asia, but pushed to
the east and descended the valley of the Amoor to the shores of
the Eastern Sea ; while other propagators of this worship, so
distinguished for its proselyting spirit, overspread (by the mari-
time route) all the shores of that sea enclosed between the Japa-
nese Archipelago and Mantchooria, which our maps designate
by the name of the Sea of Japan. The country of Ta-han, at
which the two parties of missionaries arrived, one from the west
by land, and the other from the south by sea, and which was,
for both, the extreme limit of their journeys, can be found no-
where else than near the mouth of the Amoor. The maritime
voyage carries us in this direction, and the terrestrial route can
lead us nowhere else. It is, in fact, said of the Yu-cJie (the Tun-
guses of the valley of the Amoor, near the middle of its course)
that by a ten days' journey to the north the country of Ta-han
may be reached. . . .

Arrived at Ta-han, we are, as it were (in spite of the dis-
tance), upon the threshold of Mc-sanr/, the final point of our
search ; for the single Buddhist traveler, who made the name of
the mysterious country of l^-sanff known to the Chinese, set
forth from Ta-han, and no intermediate country is mentioned.

But, in this controverted question, it is a matter of the first
importance to have a translation free from suspicion. Although
we do not wish to cast any doubt upon the general accuracy of
de Guignes's translation, which has, in addition, been criticised
by Klaproth, nevertheless, in order to have all possible assur-
ance of freedom from error, we have had recourse to the inex-
haustible kindness of M. Stanislas Jnlien, and give the literal
version with which this scholar kindly favoured us. It may be
depended upon that he has given a scrupulously faithful tran-

* Sabin, p. 168.

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tran-

REMARKS OF M. VIVIEN DE SAINT-MARTIN.

189

script of the Chinese text. (This translation is given in Chapter
XVL)

A few short remarks will suffice to show that it is quite im-
possible that the country of Fu-sang could have been located in
America. To the reasons, sufficiently decisive, which were given
by Klaproth, it is now possible to add others more direct and
more convincing.

First, as to the distance. We have already seen how dan-
gerous it is to rely upon statements of this nature contained in
Chinese books, especially when they relate to great distances in
countries that are known but little or not at all ; and, when they
are given by men who are generally ignorant, they are without
any guarantee whatever of even approximate accuracy. As-
suredly this is the case as to the account which we are now con-
sidering. It is evident that, in the mouth of the Buddhist mis-
sionary to whom the Chinese are indebted for their only knowl-
edge of the country of Fu-sang, twenty thousand li signify
nothing more than a very great distance. Nevertheless, if we
adhere to the letter of his account and to the direction, " to the
east," where are we conducted ? Leaving the neighbourhood of
the lower Amoor, turning past the island of Saghalien, passing
by the way of the Kurile Islands and along the long chain of
the Aleutian Islands (i. e., following the line the most favour-
able to the American hypothesis), we scarcely reach beyond the
peninsula of Alaska, and are placed in the midst of a region
having a climate that is almost polar, and of which the miser-
able indigenous population does not correspond in any way with
the statements of the text.

For those who have thought that Fii-sang might be sought
for as far as Mexico, we would simply observe that the part of
the American coast to which the twenty thousand U conduct us
is distant more than fifty degrees, or at least twelve hundred
leagues, from the Mexican coast.*

This first argument would seem sufficient ; but other impossi-
bilities are revealed by merely reading the text.

The description of the fu-sang tree, and of its uses, is abso-
lutely foreign to America, either to Mexico, or to the northwest
coast. Klaproth very justly remarked that the description, by

* This argument falls to the ground, If Ta-han is located either In tlie Aluu-
tiaa Islands or in Alaska. — E. P. V.

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190

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

confusion, or from some other cause, appears to apply to the
Morns jmpyrifera, although the tree commonly known in China
by the name oifu-sang must be the Rose of China, the Hibiscus
rosa Chinensis.

It has never been said that the miserable savages of the
northwestern coast of America had a method of writing, or that
they made paper; and it could not be said of the more southerly
tribes, or of the nations of Mexico, whose whole life was always
a combat, "that they did not make war."

The cattle (if this terra is applied to the bisons) have never
been employed as draught animals by any of the indigenous
tribes of America. The aboriginal Americans have never had
carts drawn by horses, cattle, or deer, for two excellent reasons :
first, because the Americans, before the arrival of the Spaniards,
had no horses ; and, second, because they knew no more of draught
animals than of beasts of burden. The tribes of America had no
idea of raising animals for their milk ; they knew nothing either
of milk or of the articles m^de from it, and therefore made no
cheese.

It seems useless to insist further on these radical points of
difference between Fic-sang and America. Those who seek for
Fii-sang in Mexico should reflect that, at the time of the old
Toltec monarchy (according to the historic traditions, which are
our only guides), it then had, in its local civilization, religious
monuments, palaces, and numerous cities, of which it is surpris-
ing that the Buddhist account says not a word. So that, on one
side, no part of the story is applicable to any country or tribe
whatever of America, and, on the other side, the account says
not a single word of the only things which would most strike a
stranger coming into Western America in the times of the Tol-
tec monarchy.*

We have said nothing of the difficulties, or rather the mate-
rial impossibilities, of a navigation, going and returning, between
the Sea of Japan and America, at the time spoken of in the Bud-
dhist account ; as contradictions and radical impossibilities have
accumulated, it would appear too fastidious to insist upon fur-

* M. Vivien overlooks the fact that the Toltec civilization may have been
founded mainly upon the teachings of the Buddhist monks, and that, therefore,
the religious monuments, palaces, etc., may not have existed until after the date
of their arrival. — E. P. V.

ther c
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REMARKS OF M. VIVIEN DE SAINT-MARTIN.

191

ther details. It should be noted that reference is made, not to
an accidental voyage, but to a communication, regular, and, as
it seems, habitual.* That de Guignes may have believed in the
possibility of such a communication, in the state in which the
ideas of Europe then were in regard to the northwestern coast
of the American Continent above California, can be conceived.
In order to see how far the general notions prevailing a hundred
years ago were from the truth, it is only necessary to cast our
eyes upon the map made by Philippe Buache to accompany the
memoir of de Guignes. This map, it is true, would make d'An-
ville smile ; but Buache was not a d'Anville, and it is not neces-
sary to go back a hundred years to see how frequently it is the
case that men, otherwise sagacious, have but a vague idea of the
important part which the study of positive geography should
have in the solution of scientific questions.

It would remain to seek the true situation of Fii-sang, if this
question had the least importance ; but its sole interest lies in its
having been attached to the complicated question of the origin
of the Americans; which has given rise to as many vain hypothe-
ses as useless and false speculations. Like all problems in which
the effort is to penetrate the depths of the centuries in order to
find the half-obliterated traces of events anterior to history, this
question presents a powerful attraction ; but such researches have
their conditions and their limits, to which scarcely any attention
has been paid in the investigations regarding America. Fu-sang
has nothing to do with American questions. From that which
the Buddhist priest tells us, it is evident that he speaks of a
country in which there existed a certain degree of civilization
— which excludes all the savage countries of Asia to the north
of Ta-han (Eastern Siberia and Kamtchatka). It is therefore
necessary to look in some other direction. The disposition of
the insular countries of Eastern Asia leaves only one : that to the
southeast or the south. Klaproth thought that Fu-sang might
be a part of Niphon, the largest island of the archipelago ; and
this supposition is, as has been said, the most probable. It be-
comes a certainty, if, as Klaproth affirms, Fu-sang is in fact one
of the names which Japan has borne.

I will add only a word on the subject of the memoir of M.
Gustave d'Eichthal. The essay of this scholarly author is an at-

* I can find no autboiity for this statement. — E. P. V.

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192

AN IXGLOlilOUS COLUMBUS.

tempt to prove that the Mexican civilization not only comes
from Asia, but that it has a Buddhistic origin. It is for this rea-
son, evidently, that he has warmly taken in hand the defense of
the ideas of de Guignes, which, in fact, if they could be sus-
tained, would furnish a direct explanation of the analogies which,
as some believe, have been discovered between certain delinea-
tions figured upon the Aztec monuments and some of the monu-
ments of India.

Whether well founded or not, these analogies have no neces-
sary connection with the question of Fu-sany. This question is
entirely one of geography, and it is only from this stand-point
that I have regarded it. The other question has an archaeologi-
cal side, of which the examination should be conducted by those
more competent than myself.

Condensed Translatio7i of an Article read by M. Xucien
Adam before the International Congress of Americanists,
at Nancy, 1875."

It is not my intention to fully go over the discussion regard-
ing the Chinese account of the country of Fu-sang (dating from
the fifth century), which discussion has been going on from 1761
to the present time ; but it is plain that the advantage remains
with de Guignes, at least as far as regards the geographical de-
termination of the location of this country.

The elements of this first part of the problem are in substance
as follows :

Li-yen, a Chinese historian who lived during the first part
of the seventh century, speaks of a country called Fu-sang, dis-
tant more than twenty thousand li from China, toward the east.
He said that, in order to reach that country, it was necessary to
set forth from the coast of the province of Leao-tong, situated
to the north of Pe-hin; that, after traveling twelve thousand
li, Japan, properly so called — that is to say, Niphon — was reached;
that from there, after a voyage of seven thousand li to the
northeast, the country of the Wen-shin was reached; and that five
thousand li from this last-named country, toward the east, the
country of Ta-han was found, from which the country of Fu-
sang could be reached, which lay twenty thousand li farther
east. The total distance from Leao-tong to Fu-sang, touching

I
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REMARKS OF M. LUCIEN ADAM.

193

successively at Niphon, Wen-shin, and Ta-han, was therefore
forty-four thousand U.

Of these five terms two are known, Leao-tong and Niphon,
De Guignes and Klaproth agree in placing the third in the island
of Jesse. But while de Guignes identifies Ta-han with Kara-
tchatka and Fu-sang with California, Klaproth thinks that the
fourth country named must be the island of Krafto, and the
fifth the southeastern coast of Niphon.

I agree with Messrs. Neumann, de Paravey, Perez, d'Eich-
thal, Godron, and Leland, that upon these two points de Guignes
has the best of the argument as against Klaproth, and that in
fact the Chinese have known, at least from the sixth century,
of the existence of the New World; since discovered in the year
1000 by the Icelander Leif Erikson, in 1488 by Jean Cousin
of Dieppe, and in 1492 by Christopher Columbus.

I think it important to add the fact mentioned by Com-
mander Maury and Colonel Kennon,* an old officer of the United
States Navy, that it is possible to go from China to America by
way of the islands of Japan, the Kurile Islands, the coast of
Kamtchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaska, without ever los-
ing sight of land for more than a few hours, and that the dis-
covery of America would not present any very serious difficulty
to Chinese sailors.

After having established the fact of this discovery, by the
geographical article of the historian Li-yen, de Guignes pub-
lished a description of Fu-sang, borrowed by him from 3Ici
2\can-lin, which was published for the first time in a portion
of the " Great Annals of China," entitled Nan Szu.

The story of the Buddhist monk is rendered the more proba-
ble from the established fact that in the fifth century of the
Christian era numerous Buddhist monks, actuated entirely by
religious motives, accomplished voyages nearly as long as, and
certainly more dangerous than, that from Leao-tong to the coast
of California. Again, at the time when the predecessors of
Iloei Shin visited Fu-sang, Samarcand, situated almost in the
center of Asia, was incontestably one of the principal centers of
Buddhist propagandism.

* Mr. Leland has, in his book entitled " Fuaang," inserted a letter from Colo
nel Kennon, who, during the years 1833-'56, was connected with the expedition
sent out for the purpose of surveying the shores of Bchring's Strait.
18

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194

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

From this double point of view, it is far from being improba-
ble that, coming into the country lying in the neighbourhood of
the Araoor River, the monks of Samarcand should have heard a
country mentioned as lying far to the east, and that these apos-
tles should have sailed in the direction of the rising sun, coast-
ing along by the way of the islands which connect the Old
World with the New.

For the rest, it is necessary to determine whether tbv de-
scription of Fu-mng given by Hoei Shin is applicable to any
particular portion of the American Continent with a precision
such that we will be compelled to consider the Chinese monk as
an eye witness.

To this question I answer, without hesitation, that a very
small number of the details reported by Hoei Shin present a
character that is truly American ; that the remainder are purely
fanciful and absurd, and that the story as a whole can not be
considered as testimony worthy of credit.

The lack of iron, the paper made from bark, and the absence
of metallic money, are indeed points that are characteristic of
America ; but it should also be borne in mind that the same
facts were found in the history of several other countries situ-
ated to the east of China, notably in the Loo Choo Islands.

The cycle of ten years is used in Peru ; but Fu-sang can not
be placed in South America, and Mr. Leland, who does not wish
to lose the benefit of the decennial cycle, supposes that in the
fifth century Mexico may have been inhabited by the ancestors
of the present Peruvians I

Except these four statements — of which the first three are
not exclusively American, and the last is not applicable to the
civilization of North America — I can not see anything worthy of
credit in the account of Jloei Shin.

In the first place, the fii-sang tree described by this monk
can not be the maguey, or great American aloe. "I do not
know," said Dr. Godron, speaking in 1868, "to what botanical
species the tree mentioned by the Chinese narrator can be re-
ferred." The scholarly botanist has not changed his opinion,
and has kindly written me a note which settles the question
definitely :

" The Buddhist monk, Hoei Shin, describes, as existing in
the country of Fu-sang, a tree of which the fruit is red and pear-

REMARKS OF M. LUCIEN ADAM.

195

shaped, and which produces tliia fruit all the year round ; its
leaves being similar to those of the tree Vung, and its sprouts
to those of the bamboo. Some have believed that in this plant
they recognized the Jlibiscus rosa Sinensis or the Jlibiscus
S)/riaciis. The second is out of the question, since it is a native
of no other country than Syria. It is cultivated as an ornamental
tree in our gardens. The first grows spontaneously in China, as
well as in Cochin-China, according to Laureiro ; it is cultivated
in all the gardens of the two peninsulas of India, and may also
be seen in our orangeries. These two species of hibiscus do not
have red or pear-shaped fruit. Their fruit is surrounded by
large bracts, which env6lop it ; it is capsular, and opens at ma-
turity.

" It has also been said that the fu-sang tree is the Dryanda
conlata. This plant, of the family of the Euphorbiaces, is a
tree of little height, which grows wild in Japan. The fruit is a
globular and woody capsule of the size of a walnut with its husk ;
it contains several kernels, from which a very acrid poisonous oil
is extracted, which is much used as an oil for lamps, and which
in China bears the name of Mu-yeu, The leaves ai'e large,
and disposed in tufts at the ends of the branches ; th( have a
leaf-stalk, are heart-shaped, and do not in any way resemble
(any more than those of the Hibiscus rosa Sinensis and Sy-
riacits) the leaves of the bamboo, which are shaped like
those of the grasses. The bamboos appertain to an entirely
different grand division of the vegetable kingdom from the
Malvaces and the Euphorbiaces. But Iloei Shin was no bot-
anist.

"The maguey, or Agave Americana, answers still less to the
description of the Buddhist monk ; its fruit is neither red nor
pear-shaped, but is a hexagonal capsule, and its extremely large
loaves form a rosette about the roots.

"Of the plants to which that mentioned by the Buddhist
monk has been compared, none are American, with the exception
of the agave, and, moreover, it seems as impossible to reconcile
any plant of China or Japan with the description, as any plant
of the New World. The question seems to us, up to the pres-
ent time, to be insoluble."

I remark, upon the subject of the fu-sang tree, that Iloei Shin
does not mention the long thorns which characterize the maguey,

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190

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS,

and docs not say anything of the alcoholic liquor which is ex-
tracted in Mexico from the heart of the plant.

The zoology of the Buddhist monk is no more correct than
his botany, for horses were brought to America from Europe in
the sixteenth century ; and it is well known that at tlie time of
the conquest the inhabitants of the New World had neither
beasts of burden nor draught animals. The pretended herds of
deer of Fit-sany are evidently herds of reindeer ; and as to the
cattle, or bisons, they have been found domesticated, not upon
the coast of the Pacific, where we would naturally look for l'\-
sang, but rather in the ancient country of Cibola — that is to say,
in the region now known as New Mexico, where the houses are
constructed of unburned bricks, and where the Indians, called
Pueblo Indians, live in fortified towns, in order to defend them-
selves against the incursions of the red-skins.

Messrs. d'Eichthal and Leland have ingeniously sought to
explain this part of the account of Iloei Shin by substituting,
for horses, animals of a great height, and with branching horns,
which the Spaniards call '• horse-deer," and by transporting Fu-
sang into the interior of the continent, because of the bisons
found in Cibola. But the details given by the monk, relative to
the construction of the houses, to the cities, and to the military
weapons, absolutely exclude New Mexico, Arizona, and Califor-
nia itself.

M. d'Eichthal has endeavoured to explain the idle tale of the
two prisons, by the dogmas as to future punishment held by the
Mandans : the prison of the north being understood as hell, and
that of the south as paradise. ¥^hat, then, becomes of the mar-
riages contracted by the prisoners, and the children sold as
slaves, the boys at the age of eight years and the girls at that
of line ? Evidently Hoei Shin speaks of temporal punishment
and of prisons in the present life.

Of the ceremonies of marriage, the punishments inflicted
on criminals of the different classes of society, and of the coun-
try inhabited by white women, I can see nothing to say, except
that it is all imaginary, and stamped with the imprint of mani-
fest absurdity.

I now hasten to discuss the most important question raised
by the account. Is it certain, or even credible, that Iloei Shin
found Fu-sang- America converted to Buddhism, as he expressly

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REMARKS OF M. LUCIEN ADAM.

197

declared? If the apostles, who came from Samarcand, spread
abroad the worship of Buddha, and with it the sacred books and
holy images of that religion, we should expect to find some-
thing of all this in their traditionary history (since writing was
unknown), and in their monuments.

History, properly so called, is absolutely mute concerning any
religious revolution of the fifth century. It is true, however,
that this silence might be explained by claiming that the natives
formerly had books, which have been destroyed. Let us, there-
fore, examine their traditions, and see whether, as has been
thought by some, Quetzalcoatl, the god of the city of Cholula,
may not have been one of the five monks of Samarcand.

According to Motolinia, Quetzalcoatl was a white man, of
good height, having a large forehead, and great eyes ; his hair
was long and black ; he wore a large beard, trimmed to a round
shape. He was chaste and peaceable, and very moderate in all
things. So far was he from asking that the blood of men, or
oven of animals, should be shed in sacrifice, that he held no of-
ferings as agreeable except those of bread, flowers, or perfume ;
he prohibited all acts of violence, and detested war. Finally, he
lacerated his body with the thorns of the agave, and recom-
mended the practice of the most severe penances.

I admit that the resemblance is specious ; but if there is one
point upon which the legend is particularly plain, it is that Que-
tzalcoatl came from a country situated to the east of America,
and that, when he took leave of his disciples on the eastern
coast, he told them that white men, bearded like himself, would
come by sea from the east and subdue the entire country. It is
said that the cause of Montezuma's ruin was his blind faith in
this prophecy. To this first reason for doubting that Quetzal-
coatl can have been a Buddhist priest, there may be added a
second, which I think decisive. Quetzalcoatl, who, according to
the legend, came from Tula to Cholula — that is to say, from one
Toltec capital to another — appeared as the ideal representative of
the Toltec race ; but before he was invested with this marvelous
form, under which there was poorly concealed an energetic pro-
test of the vanquished nation against the belligerent disposition
and sanguinary tastes of the Aztecs, Quetzalcoatl had been a god
similar in appearance to all the rest. At Tula his visage was
hideous. At Cholula his body was that of a man, and his head

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198

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

that of a bird with a red beak. Finally, at a much older period,
Quctzalcoatl had been, in the north, purely and simply a bird,
representing the hieroglyphical sign of the air ; and, in the south,
sometimes an aerolite, and sometimes a serpent.

The Quctzalcoatl of the legend is, therefore, a personage not
less fabulous than the Saturn of the Latins, than Bochica, the
legendary white man of the Musca Indians, or Manco Capac, the
legislator of the Incas.*

In America, as in Europe, the golden age, or age of peace, has
been a popular fancy, and it may be affirmed that during the
fifth century the New World was the theatre of incessant wars,
which is, moreover, attested by the immense defensive works
discovered in the valleys of the Gila, the Colorado, the Ohio,
and the Mississippi. As to the colour of the personage in whom
the ideal of the golden age is incarnated, it should be remarked
that Quctzalcoatl has often been represented with a red visage,
and that among all nations, not belonging to the Caucasian race,
whiteness of the skin has been considered a sort of blessing, im-
plying a divine mission or a superior nature.

The existence in Mexico of religious orders or of colleges of
priests, of which the members took vows of asceticism, of poverty,
and of mortification of the body, does not necessarily imply the
preaching either of Buddhism or of Christianity, for America is
not the only country in which men who were not connected
with either of these two great religions have united themselves
to practice frightful austerities in common. As for the volun-
tary tortures esteemed as honourable by the Mandan Indians,
some of them bear a close resemblance to the tortures which the
fanatics of East India inflict upon themselves ; but, as has been
very judiciously remarked by M. Foucaux, these practices point
us to Brahmanism rather than to Buddhism. Finally, it is no-
torious that the races of the New World have, in their life as
hunters, and in their perpetual wars, acquired an incredible
power of supporting suffering stoically, and that most of them
systematically submit their young warriors to the most cruel
trials of their endurance.

The practice of auricular confession by the natives of Mexico

* The same course of reasoning in regard to the myths that in New Mexico
and Arizona have gathered about the name of Montezuma, would prove, quite aa
conclusively, that no such chieftain ever lived. — ^E. P. V,

REMARKS OF M. LUCIEN ADAM.

19a

would bo an .irgument more conclusive than the preceJing, if it
had not been superabundantly cHtablishcd that the avowal of
faults is a cuntom that is almost universal.

For the rest, the traditions and beliefs of the ancient races of
America constitute a field in which all investigators find almost
everything that they desire ; and I can oppose to the opinion of
M, d'Eichthal, where ho recognizes Buddhist influences, the opin-
ions of others who think that they see Christian influences — of
which the agents wore the apostles Saint Bartholomew and Saint
Thomas — or the colonists of Great Ireland or those of Jlvitra-
mannaland.

It remains, therefore, to verify the uncertain data of tradi-
tion by the examination of monuments and antiquities.

In the belief of M. G. d'Eichthal, the results of the Buddhist
preaching of the fifth century are visible upon the walls of the
Palace of Palenque, and the House of the Nuns at Uxmal.

It may bo objected to the view of d'Eichthal that the bas-
relief described by him is identical with others found in Bud-
dhist temples ; that, according to Dupaix, Lenoir, Catlin, de Wal-
deck, and M. VioUet-le-Duc, Palenque was built much later than
the fifth century of our era. But this is a question that is still
undecided, and I must recognize the fact that, in the opinion of
Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft, the date of the construction of Pa-
lenque can only be uncertainly fixed as some time between the
first and the eighth century of the Christian era.

It should be observed, moreover, that Stephens, who copied
the bas-relief, saw no trace of Buddhism in it. M. Lenoir has
confined himself to saying that there is an analogy between the
attitude of the principal figure and the usual pose of Buddha.
M. d'Eichthal, however, does not hesitate to raise a simple an-
alogy in the position into a complete identity, doing this with-
out paying any attention to the statements of Stephens : that
the character of the principal personage is the same as that of
personages represented elsewhere in the palace ; that the pre-
tended worshiper is sitting cross-legged, and not upon his
knees ; that the offering does not consist of a flower, either of
the lotus or of the cacao-tree, but of a bunch of plumes, an
ornament essentially American, which is lacking in the head-
dress of the principal personage ; that similar plumes are asso-
ciated with the figures of other divinities of Palenque ; and,

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200

AN INGLOUIOUrt COLUMBUS.

finally, tliat tho ruiiiH of this Htone-lmilt city aro Hituated in the
Atlantic Htate of Chiapas, an<l not in the kingdom of Cibola, or
npon the western coast. M. Lenoir, when he H|>oko of analoj^y,
had nothing else in mind than the pose of the principal per.
sonage, sitting with legs crossed. Now, there exists at Copan a
bas-relief in which four personages, ineontestably American, are
represented in this same attitude.

Of the figure seated in the niche of the wall of the House of
Monks at Uxmal, Mr, Hubert H. HaiuToft. assures us that it is
not certainly known whether this figure, which has now disap-
peared, was copied from nature or drawn from the more or less
uncertain descriptions of the Indians, In any case, it is true
that INI. de Waldeek, who was booking for Huddhist resem-
blances, did not himself recognize the figure as that of Buddha,
and this is a very important fact.

Mr. Leland does not share in what I may be permitted to call
the Buddhistic illusions of ^I. Gustave d'Eichthal. " Images re-
sembling the ordinary Buddha have been found," says ho, " in
Mexico and Central America, but they can not be proved to
be identical with it." This is the truth. The ancient monu-
ments of America sometimes present, in certain details, analo-
gies with the principle of Grecian art, Assyrian art, p]gyptian
art, and Hindoo art ; but these points of resemblance are purely
accidental, and are owing to the unity of the human mind, and,
from the mere fact that the conclusions drawn from them are
contradictory between themselves, it is evident that no impor-
tant historical point can be determined by their means.

Mr. Francis A. Allen, Avho also admits the authenticity of
the tale of Jloei Shin, believes that he has found upon the walls
of the temples of Central America an ornament that is very com-
mon in Buddhist countries. I mean the head and trunk of the
elephant, an animal unknown in the New "World since the last
glacial j)eriod. This time the argument apponrs to be without
reply. The following is a short extract on this subject, from
the recent work of Mr. Hubert II. Bancroft, on *' The Native
Races of the Pacific States " :

" At Uxmal, above one of the doors of the * House of the
Governor,' there is a sculptured decoration, the central portion
of which is a curved projection, supposed by more than one
traveler to be modeled after the trunk of an elephant. It pro-

RKMAUKS OF M. LCCIEN ADAM.

201

jot'ts nineteen inches from tho Hurfaco of the wall. Thin pro-
truding curve occurs more frequently on this and other buildings
at Uxmal than any other decoration, and usually with the same
or similar accompaniments which may be fancied to represent
the features of a monster of which this forms the nose. It oc-
curs especially on tho ornamented and rounded corners, being
sometimes reversed in its position. 'J'he same ornament is found
in the ruins of Zayi, at the angle of the fayatle of the Cusu
Grande, and at Labna at tho corner of a palace, where the sup-
posed trunk is superposed ui)on the mouth of an alligator inclos-
ing a human head. . . . Finally, the head-clress of one of the
]»ers(mages represented upon a bas-relief of tho Palace at Pa-
lonquo presents a somewhat striking resemblance to an elephant's
trunk."

The projection described by Mr. Bancroft reproduces, to a
certain extent, the curve of the trunk of the elephant ; but it
should be noted that tho tusks of the animal arc lacking. In
the absence of this characteristic part, it may be legitimately
supposed that, if the artist attempted to copy the nasal append-
age of any animal (which is not at all evident), his model may
have been the American tapir.*

That which I said above regarding the traditions of the an-
cient Americans is equally applicable to their monuments. Every
one interprets them in tho sense that serves his theories the best,
and I dare say that too often the archoeology of the New World
is studied to find an argument for the defense of preconceived
theorif>8, or to extend and systematize analogies that are entirely
accidental.

"While I lived in the United States, I often heard tho claim
that America was made for the Americans ; which I am far from
wishing to contradict. It is to be desired that this formula
should be introduced into the study of American antiquities, to
serve as a fundamental rule, and that, for the future, m'c should
not seek in America for India, Egypt, Assyria, or Greece, but
for America itself.

Returning to Fii-sang : I think that the Chinese had a
knowledge of America, at least in the seventh century, but I

* But the proboscis of the tapir is hardly noticeable, and it never takes the
curve characteristic of the elephant's trunk, shown in these Central American
decorations. — E. P V.

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202

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

reject absolutely the tale of JBbei Shift. I understand thereby
that this missionary had collected fables, mixed with a very
little truth, from the mouths of the Chinese sailors ; that he
played upon his compatriots by boasting that he had visited
this American Fu-sang; and that he was induced to tell this
falsehood by the pious desire to aggrandize the kingdom of
Buddha in their eyes.

M. Frederick de Hellwald said that the question of Fu-
safiff recurs periodically, and is obstinately reproduced from time
to time, just as certain journals occasionally repeat the differ-
ent tales regarding the apparition of the sea-serpent : and as it
is a fact that no one has been given an opportunity to study this
monstrous animal zoologically, just so no one has ever given
scientific proof of the discovery of America by the Chinese. In
1871 the "Athenseum," of London, related this account of the
discovery of America by the yellow men as a thing entirely new.
Dr. Bretschneider at that time amply refuted this fable ; but this
has not prevented an English book from taking the subject up
again recently. It is to be fi. -"id that the refutation of Messrs.
de Rosny and Lucien Adam will not prevent a re-appearance
of the monster. The Congress of Americanists will render a
true service to science by declaring that it holds Fu-sang as a
scientific sea-serpent, and by prohibiting it from infesting the
regions of American studies.

Professor Joly, of Toulouse, could understand this impatience
for a solution of the problem, but did not share in it. Before
rejecting the Asiatic hypothesis, should not the proofs bearing
upon the Lubject which can be furnished by the auxiliary sciences
be '^xhaup+c J ? Do we know enough of American archaeology,
zoology, anthropology, and craniology to be able to decide au-
thoritatively ? Is it too much to ask that the attempt to solve
the question be postponed, at least until a later sitting of the
Congress ?

Returning to the subject of the herds of tame cattle and of
deer, mentioned by Hoei Shin, M. Joly asked whether these so-
called cattle might not be understood to be the largest of the
domestic quadrupeds of Central America, the llama, which is
used as a pack animal and to draw loads of goods.

M. Lucien Adam observed that the llama inhabits only

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REMARKS OF PROFESSOR JOLY.

203

South America, particularly Peru. Fu-sanrf is at one time sup-
posed to be Mexico ; presently it is moved to Arizona, in order
to find the bison there ; and then to Russian America, in order to
find the reindeer : now we descend to Peru, in order that we
may find a suflicicntly imperfect representative of cattle in the
llamas of that country.

M. JoLY thought that paleontology might furnish a better
solution of the question of the communication between America
and Eastern Asia. Could not the representations of the elephant
upon the walls of Palenque be explained by a knowledge, on
the part of the natives, not of a contemporaneous elephant, but
of some one of the primitive elephants — the mammoth or the
mastodon ? Might not the Mexicans have discovered some
skulls of the Eleiihas primogennis yrhxch existed in America dur-
ing the glacial period? Might not the figure of this animal
have been preserved in some prehistoric design, as in France the
image of the reindeer or the cave-bear has been preserved graven
upon fragments of deer-horns? It is denied that Hoei Shin
could have found horses in America. Undoubtedly the horse
was imported by the conquering Spaniards ; but may not an in-
digenous equine race have existed in America ?

Have not beds of the bones of horses been found in the Bad
Lands ? Until the soil of America has been more thoroughly
examined, and more fully studied, so that it shall have deliv-
ered up its paleontological secrets, M. Joly asked that caution
should be exercised regarding this Asiatic hypothesis.

: :.i:

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CHAPTER XII.

d'hervey's notes.

Bibliography — The name of the prieat — The city of King-cheu — Ta-han — Lieu-
kuci, a peninsula — Earlier knowledge of Fusang — The construction of the
dwellings — The lack of arms and armour — The punishment of criminals — The
titles of tlie nobles — The title Tui-lu found in Corea — The colours of the king's
garments — The cycle of ten years — Peruvian history — The long cattle-horns —
The food prepared from milk — The red pears — Grapes — The worship of
images of spirits of the dead — Its existence in China — Coph^ne — The " King-
dom of Women " — The legumes used as food — Wen-shin — The punishment of
criminals — The name Ta-han — The country identified with Kamtchatka — Two
countries of that name — One lying north of China, and one lying cast — Un-
warlike nature of the people.

Notes of the Marquis d''Hervey de Saint-Denys on Ma Twan-
Ihi's Account of Mi-sang, Wen-shin, Ta-han, and the ^^ King-
dom of Wbmen.''^ '"'

Ma Twax-lin's account of Fu-sang is of exceptional inter-
est, for it has raised the important question as to whether the
Chinese knew of America, not only in the fifth century of our
era, as is indicated by the account of Jloei Shin, but back to
the most remote antiquity, as I propose to demonstrate a little
farther on. The Oriental scholar de Guignes was the first to
find in the M'orks of 3fa Twan-lin (which had never been inves-
tigated before by any European student) the mention of the
country of Fu-sang; which he recognized as belonging to
North America, and which he thought might be identified with
California ; being led to this conclusion by studying the route
followed by the Chinese vessels, which the currents had borne
to the shores of that country. He set forth this opinion in a
very justly celebrated memoir; the assertions contained in which
were opposed by a critic who was very much disposed to deny
everything that he had not discovered himself. But the feeble-

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D'lIERVEY'S NOTES.

205

ness of his refutation became a powerful argument in support
of the opinion advanced by de Guignes, for no one was better
able than Klaproth to expose errors of the kind which he ac-
cused de Guignes of having committed; and when the poverty of
his contradictory pleas is exposed, as well as the manifest inac-
curacy of the statements that he makes, the conclusion is natural
that the author of the " History of the Huns " has the best of
the argument. D'Eichthal, the Chevalier de Paravey, Professor
Neumann, and M. Perez have in turn defended de Guignes's
memoir with much force, by adding numerous new proofs in
support of those which had been given by that scholar. Finally,
in a volume full of facts, entitled " Fusang, or the Discovery of
America," an American author, Mr. Charles G. Leland, has very
recently devoted himself to the confirmation of the identification
of Fusang with California or Mexico, by means of more recent
documents borrowed from the latest researches concerning the
navigation of the Pacific and the ethnography of the American
tribes. Dr. Bretschneider alone declares his confidence in the
judgment of Klaproth ; undoubtedly from the robust faith with
which there is proof that he was inspired, since he very fairly
admits that he has read nothing that has been written in opposi-
tion to his views. Lack of space prevents any analysis of the
works which I have cited, and which it appears suflUcient to point
out to the reader. I shall take pains to call attention success-
ively to the passages of this notice which have been the subject
of controversy, and to several expressions which have been in-
terpreted in very different ways by de Guignes, Klaproth, Neu-
mann, and Bretschneider. I have endeavoured to make my ver-
sion as literal as possible, so that specialists who are not Sino-
logues may easily obtain an accurate idea of the original text.
The same desire to aid in clearing up the question as to Fii-sang
induces me to place in an appendix several documents from
Chinese sources which relate to it, and which I believe have
never before been published in any European language.

The name of the Buddhist priest, ^ ^, Neumann writes
IToei Shin, and Dr. Bretschneider, IIui-sMn. This appellation
signifies " very sagacious," or "very intelligent" (not *^ universal
compassion," as Neumann has translated it ; I can not imagine
why), and is a religious name, from which no indication can bo
drawn as to the true nationality of the bonze who bore it. Mr.

[■ :,

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ifllll

HWi'

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206

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Leland writes : " Klaproth says, ' a native of the country,' and by
'the country ' he means Fu-sang ; but in the German version of
the same passage, given by Neumann, * the [or this] country ' re-
fers to China." If Neumann, whose German version I have not
seen, otherwise than in the English translation which Mr. Leland
has made (adding that it has been revised by Neumann himself),
gives it to be clearly understood that Hoei JShi/i was a native of
China, he is surely in error. The characters of the Chinese text,
4^ Wi> " of that kingdom " (otherwise, " of this country "), relate
to Fu-sang, and not to China. It is true that there is nothing in
the Chinese text to indicate whether Jloci Shin had become a
bonze in Fa-sang, or whether he was a native of that country.
This question it is necessary to reserve, and my version is abso-
lutely literal.

To arrive at the city of King-cheu, which was situated in what
is now called Ilti-Jaiang, and upon the banks of the Yang-tse-
kiang, JToei Shin would be compelled to ascend the river, pass-
ing Kien-kang, or JVixn-king, which was the capital of the empire
of the Tsi dynasty.

De Guignes believed that he was able to identify the country
of 'ia-han with Kamtchatka, and also with the place of exile
called Liexi-kuei by the Chinese. Klaproth thinks that Ta-han,
which he also recognizes as the same country as Lieu-knei, must
be the island of Saghalien, otherwise called Tarakai, or Karafto.
He adopts this hypothesis arbitrarily, without making any allow-
ance for the fact that Ma Tican-lin says that Ta-han lies more
than 5,000 U to the east of Wen-shin, and this in turn more than
7,000 li northeasterly (not northerly) from Japan, and without
making any attempt to reconcile his opinion with that statement,
or AA ith the geographical treatise Long-wei-pi-shu, which says
that Lieii-kuei could be reached by land, and that the sea sur-
rounded this country on three sides only. (^'Zieu-kiiei is to
the north of the Northern Sea, and is surrounded by the sea on
three sides.") Dr. Eretschneider places the country of Ta-han
in Siberia, abandoning Klaproth's opinion on this point ; and
Professor Neumann, with whom Mr. Leland agrees, affirms that
he believes the American peninsula of Alaska to have been in-
tended by this designation. The kingdom of Ta-han is the ob-
ject of special mention, a little farther on, and I therefore defer,
for discussion in that connection, several documents which I

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D'DERVEY'S NOTES.

207

would be obliged to repeat if they were inserted here, merely
remarking for the present that Ma Twanlin, and other Chinese
writers, treat separately the countries described by them under
the name of Lieu-kuei and Ta-han, and class the first among the
regions of the north, and the second among the regions of the
east. In any case, whatever may be the exact and definite iden-
tification of Mi-sanff, it should not be overlooked that when the
bonze Jloei iShm, who arrived in the empire of the Tsi (the
dynasty then ruling a large portion of China) by way of the
Great Kiang, described Fu-sang as being at the same time to the
cast of Ta-han and of China, he should be understood as speak-
ing, not of a land of limited extent, but of a true continent.

I can not allow t}ie phrase of the account of Hoei Shin — read-
ing, " It [the country of Fu-sang\ contains many fu-sang trees,
and it is from this fact that its name is derived " — to pass, without
repeating an observation which I made some years ago (in the pref-
ace of my translation of the Li-sao), and without demonstrating
that if the bonze Hoei Shin is the first who made the manners of
the people of Fu-sang known to the Chinese, there was a knowl-
edge among the Chinese, centuries before him, of the existence
of such a country. Even during the life-time of Kiu-yiien, the
author of the poem entitled the Li-sao — that is to say, in the
third century before our era — the name of Ft-sang was em-
ployed by the poets to designate the countries to the extreme
east. Now, the fact that this denomination of Fu-sang was
not an imaginary one, but a name drawn from a peculiar product
of a particular country, necessarily implies a real knowledge,
previously acquired, of the existence of the country so designated.

The passage relating to the construction of their dwellings
Klaproth translates : " The planks of the wood [of the fu-sa7ig'\
are used in the construction of their houses " ; and Neumann, ac-
cording to Mr. Leland's English version, " The houses are built
of wooden beams." This last translation is the most exact, since
the Chinese text does not expressly indicate that the planks which
were used in the construction of the houses were made from the
wood of the fu-sang tree.

Klaproth has translated another passage : " They have neither
arms nor troops " ; Neumann, " The people have no weapons " ; and
Bretschneider, " Arms and war are unknown." No one of these
three versions is strictly exact ; for the expression " kia-ping " con-

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208

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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veys the idea of soldiers and their military armament, but with-
out excluding them from the bow and arrow for hunting (which
would be included in the collective term " anas ") and of which
it is not said that the inhabitants of Fu-sang were destitute.

The statement is made that, " when a crime is committed by
a person of elevated rank, tlie people of the kingdom assemble in
great numbers, place the criminal in an excavation, celebrate a
banquet in his presence, and take leave of him as of a dying man,
when he is surrounded with ashes." This is not clear, and leaves
much in doubt as to the exact punishment of the criminal, of
which this ceremony appears to be merely a preliminary, in-
tended to give it more solemnity. It has been supposed that he
was then sent to either the northern or the southern prison. Neu-
mann says, " He is covered v/ith ashes," which appears to sig-
nify that he was buried alive, as de Guignes also understood this
passage ; but the meaning of the character^ is *Ho surround,''^
and never " to cover."

The passage relating to the degrees of crime and their pun-
ishments, Mr. Leland translates, following Neumann : " If the
offender was onr ,i the lower class, he alone was punished ;
but, when of ran»., the degradation Avas extended to his chil-
dren and grandchildren. With those of the highest rank, it at-
tained to the seventh frencation." This interpretation is abso-
lutely inadmissible. The word of the Chinese text, Ji|, which
should be understood of the gravity, literally of the weight, of a
crime, can not be used in the sense of the rank, more or less ele-
vated, of the criminal. Klaproth did not commit this error.

In the following sentence in regard to the designations of the
king and the nobility, the title of the nobles of the first class is
given as ^^ J^, Tui-lu. In the great collection, entitled Kii-kin-
tu-shu-tsi-ching, the text of the " History of the Liang Dynasty,"
from which this account is borrowed, is reproduced, and this pas-
sage reads, ^ '^ ^, Ta Tui-lu (Great Tui-lu), in opposition to
>J> ^-i" it» ^^<^o Tui-lu (Petty Tui-lu, or Tui-lu of the Second Rank),
an honourary title, which ia mentioned immediately below. It is
therefore probable that the character, ^, ta, has been inadvertent-
ly suppressed in my editions of the Wen-hien-tong-hao ; and this
was the opinion of de Guignes, who translated this passage,
" Great and Petty Tui-luy This detail is of little importance, but
it is deserving of attention (inasmuch as the remark must be new,

1 1

D'DERVEY'S NOTES.

209

since the notice of Ma Tican-lin regarding Corca has not been
translated into any European la?^guage before) that the title
given to the highest dignitaries of Fu-uimj is precisely the same
as that borne by the first dignitaries of Kao-kin-U (Corea).'"*
"The mandarins of Kao-li are called -j^ f^ J^, Ta 2\n-lu.^^
Eleven other titles, by which lower ranks are called, are also
given. " The care of the naanagement of the internal and exter-
nal affairs of state is divided among these twelve ranks of func-
tionaries. The mandarins, called 2\i Tui-lu, are elected and de-
posed by the members of this rank, by their own authority,
without consultation either with the king or his ministers."

In regard to the colour of the king's garments, it should be
noted that the Chinese often confound blue and green. The
character ^, employed here, designates equally the azure of the
sky and the light green of plants commencing to sprout.

In this connection, reference is made to a cycle of ten years,
represented by the cyclic characters ^ kia, 2» 2/* P^ P^^^ffi ~X
ting, jrj^ oUy g, ki, ^ keng, ^ sin, ^ jin^ and ^ kouei, which
the Chinese use in the formation of their cycle of sixty years,
associating additional characters with them. Neumann, who
found a great affinity between the Mongolian Tartars and Mant-
choos and the Indians of North America, cites in this connec-
tion the remark of P5re Gaubil : " I do not know where the
Mantchoo Tartars learned to express the ten kan [or years of the
decennary cycle] by words which signify colours " ; and he gives
this curious information of his own ; " The two first years of the
decennary cycle are called by the Tartars green and greenish, the
two following years red and reddish, and the other years, in their
order successively, yellow and yellowish, xohite and ichitish, and
black and blackish.'''' Finally, Mr. Leland establishes a very close
analogy between the institutions of Peru at the time of the Span-
ish conquest and the picture of the manners of Fi'sang sketched
by Hoei Shin, and thinks that the same civilization formerly
reigned in the *wo Americas. He treats this subject with much
interest (pages 49-59), and makes the following observations re-
garding the passage to which this note refers :

" The change of the colour of the garments of the king, ac-
cording to the astronomical cycle, is, however, more thoroughly
in accordance with the spirit of the institutions of the Children
of the Sun than anything which we have met in the whole of

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this strange and obsolete record ; and it is indeed remarkable that
Professor Neumann, who had ah-eady indicated the southern
course of Aztec, or of Mexican, civilization, and who manifested,
as the reader may have observed, so much shrewdness in adducing
testimony for the old monk's narrative, did not search more
closely into Peruvian history for that confirmation which a slight
inquiry seems to indicate is by no means wanting in it. Thus,
with regard to the observations of the seasons, Prescott tells us
that the ' ritual of the Incas involved a routine of observances
as complex and elaborate as ever distinguished that of any na-
tion, whether pagan or Christian. Each month had its appro-
priate festival, or rather festivals. The four principal had refer-
ence to the sun, and commemorated the great periods of his
annual progress, the solstices, and equinoxes. Garments of a
peculiar wool, and feathers of a peculiar colour, were reserved to
the Inca.' I can not identify the blue, red, yellow, and black
(curiously reminding one of the alchemical elementary colours,
still preserved, by a strange feeling for antiquity, or custom, in
chemists' windows) ; but it is worthy of remark that the rainbow
was the Inca's special attribute or scutcheon, and that his whole
life was passed in accordance with the requisitions of astronomi-
cal festivals ; and the fact that different colours were reserved to
him, and identified with him, is very curious, and establishes a
strange analogy with the narrative of Hoei Shin."

The translation by Klaproth of the sentence, which he gives
as, " The cattle have long horns, upon which burdens are loaded
which weigh as much sometimes as twenty Ao," is absolutely in-
admissible. The reference is, not to cattle upon the heads of
which burdens are loaded, but to the hollow horns of the cattle,
which serve as receptacles. The Jio is a measure of capacity,
containing ten teu, or Chinese bushels, and the capacity of the
Chinese bushel has, it is said, varied from one litre thirty-five to
one litre fifty-four centilitres. We might be in doubt of the
existence of horns so extraordinary, but we read, in "L'Histoire
de la Conqu6te du Mexique par les Espagnols," that Montezuma
showed them, as a curiosity, cattle-horns of enormous dimen-
sions ; and, in his " Tableaux de la Nature," A. von Humboldt
says that, in making excavations in the southwestern part of
Mexico, ancient ruins were found, and cattle-horns were discov-
ered which were truly monstrous.

D'lIERVEY'S NOTES.

211

I have not translated literally the phrase which refcs to the
food which the people make from milk, owing to the difficulty
of determining the exact meaning of the character gg, lo, which
is used to designate the alimentary preparation of which the
hind's milk furnished the base. The true meaning of the charac-
ter is curdled milk, and also cream. It also indicates a sort of
liquor which the Tartars make from fermented mare's milk.
This last sense is adopted by Dr. Bretschneider ; de Guignes has
translated it butter, and Neumann has imitated him. Klaproth
thinks that cJieese should be understood ; and M. do Rosny, who
has translated from the Japanese an abridged reproduction of
this notice regarding Fu-sang, says that the inhabitants made
creamy dishes from the milk of their domesticated hinds. I
have preferred to leave the expression somewhat vague, since it
can not be determin d just what was meant by the character
used in the original.

The version of the Encyclopaedia, iLU-Jcin-tu-shu-tsi-ching,
cited above, offers the variation, " They have the pears of the
fu-sang tree," etc., instead of the reading in our text, " They
gather the red pears, which are preserved for an entire year."

In the sentence, reading, " They also have to pu-tao " (many
grapes), de Guignes translates the characters ^ J^l ¥^y to pu-tao,
" a great quantity of iris-plants and peaches," by giving their
isolated value to the characters pu and tao, and by giving to
the first {pu, reeds) a signification which is exceptional, to say
the least. lie could not have been ignorant that the v impound
pu-tao signified grapes / but he also knew that the word, in re-
cent times at least, demands a different orthography. Klaproth
has asserted that the two characters of the expression pu-tao,
employed by Ma Tioan-lin, following the " History of the Liang
Dynasty," are nothing but the old form of the orthography more
recently adopted. It has, moreover, been established that these
characters are merely used to render phonetically in Chinese a
word of foreign origin ; and this makes the ideography of their
composition of less importance than it would otherwise be. I
have felt myself compelled to adopt this view; but it is indeed
surprising to see Klaproth seek, in the existence of the vine in
Fu-sang, to find an argument for affirming that that country
could not be America ; as if the Scandinavians had not given to
just this land of North America, where they landed, a name

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

tilff

which was suggested by the abundance of wild vines which they
found. Neumann has preferred to follow the opinion of de Guig-
nes in regard to translating the characters jut-tao separately,
instead of as a compound. lie renders the phrase, " apples and
rushes /rowi lohich the inhahitanta make mata.''^ This last state-
ment is in all respects a more-than-free ti-anslation, since the
phrase in italics does not occur in the text, and the word tao
should not have the meaning of apple — the fruit of which the
Latin name is malum (persicum).

The version of Ku-kin-tu-shu-tsi-ching offers quite an impor-
tant variation in the phrase relating to the image that is set uj)
on the death of a member of the family. In place of ^ :f[^ ^iijl fgj,
" the image of a spirit is set iip" that version reads, '^M^
if^ i%j that is to say, " the image of the sjjirit which represents
the soul of the deceased is set up " or exposed. It is remarkable
that this custom has existed among the Chinese from a great
antiquity, as may be read in the chapter Ou-tse-chi-ko of the
Shu-king. Klaproth made the translation from the version of
Ma Twan-lin, and Neumann from that of the Ku-kin-tu-shu-
tsi-ching, which accounts for their difference in the rendering of
this passage. But neither of these two scholars appears to me to
have correctly expressed the letter and spirit of the Chinese text
in the interpretation of the complementary member of the
phrase, which immediately follows: ^ 5^ If- ^, literally, "Morn-
ing and nighty prostrations are made and oblations offered."
Klaproth says, " Prayers are addressed (to the images of the
spirits) morning and night " ; and Neumann, " They (the relatives
of the deceased) remain from morning to night absorbed in
prayer before the imago of the spirit of the dead." f^, pai [to
salute, to prostrate one's self), and H, tien {to offer oblations or
libations to spirits), are expressions which do not convey, other-
wise than indirectly, the idea of addressing prayers, and the
meaning of the author may be altered, in an account of this na-
ture, by modifying thus the expressions which he uses.

As to the country from which the Buddhist priests came, lu-
pin, j^j ^, Klaproth writes, in parenthesis, Cophene. The author
of the Japanese Encyclopaedia, San-sai-dzott-ye, from which M, de
Rosny extracted and translated an abridgment of Iloei Shift's
account, adds in a note, after the word Ki-pin, " Ki-pin is one
of the western countries {Si-yu) ; it is San-ma-oell-kan (Samar-

D'HERVEY'S NOTES.

213

cand)." Mr. Lcland says, "Tho land of Ki-pin^ the ancient
Kophen, ia now called 13okhara, the country of Saniarcand.
Samarcand, at the times of which we are speaking, was one of
the great strongholds of Buddhism."

The nature of the facts reported in regard to the " Kingdom
of Women " has seiTcd for an argument to impeach the veracity
of Hod Hhin ; but it is impossible to fail to distinguish between
the account of this bonze concerning Fic-smig, a country in which
he had resided, and his story about a Kingdom of Women, of
which he knew nothing himself but the marvelous talcs which he
had heard related. It may be remarked that all the ancient
nations have had some tradition of Amazons, or kingdoms of
women ; and M. d'Eichthal has made the curious fact known that
entire tribes of North America have borne the name of " women "
as a national name. It may also be noted that the Chinese au-
thors mention several kingdoms of women, entirely distinct from
each other, which fa(3t arose, without doubt, because the Chinese,
among whom the women lived retired in the inner apartments,
without playing any active part in public life, would naturally
give the appellation of Kingdom of Women to those countries of
which the manners contrasted with those of the *' Middle King-
dom " in this respect. Those which have been mentioned above
arc situated to the west of China. The Long-wei-pi-shu speaks
of as many as ten, and in the notice which we translate here the
Wen-hien-tong-kao mentions two which should not be confounded.
Finally, under the name of ;^ A ^> Niu-jin-koue, an insignifi-
cant variation, the Encyclopscdia San-tsai-tu-hoei, published in
the Ming dynasty, speaks also of an island in the South Sea
where the women showed themselves in force and made prison-
ers of almost all the sailors of a Chinese vessel which winds
and tempests had driven upon that distant shore.

The expression which I render, " These islanders fed upon
small legumes," is very difficult to translate by an exact equiva-
lent, for the botanical classifications of the Chinese are very dif-
ferent from ours. The Chinese give the name of ^, ten, to all
vegetables having distinct grains enveloped in a pod, shell, or
husk. De Guignes, while translating this phrase " little beans,"
thought it possible that maize might be meant.

The short notice which follows, regarding the country of
Wen-shin, or of " Tattooed Bodies," '"" does not vary, except by

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AN INGLORIOUS C0LUMHU8.

a few diffcront readings, from the account contained in the por-
tion of the Nan-Hse, or '* Annals of the South," inserted in my
article on Japan."" Ma I'wnn-lin has, however, suppreHwed here
the closing flcntonco concerning the i>uni8hraent of criminals,
and the trials to which they were subjected. Do Guignos and
Klaproth have thought that this country of Wcn-shiii might ho
the island of Jesso. Neumann, who places the kingdom of Ta-
han in the peninsula of Alaska, thinks that the Wen-shin inhab-
ited the Aleutian Islands. This last opinion appears very difli-
cult to reconcile with the account, that is given farther on, of the
abundance of provisions among the Wen-ahin^anH of the sumpt-
uous palace of their king. In the "Chinese Recorder" '" Dr.
Bretschneider wrote : " WSn-ahen, the country in which the peo-
ple tattoo themselves, lies 7,000 li northeast from Japan, 'i'lie
inhabitants make largo lines upon their bodies, and especially
upon their faces. By a stretch of the imagination we might
suppose North American Red Indians to be here meant. It is
known, however, that the Japanese have also the habit of tattoo-
ing themselves." Without daring to attempt to decide the ques-
tion of the identification of the country of Wen-shin, I will call
attention to the following paragraph regarding Ta-han, or rather
regarding the two different countries of that name. It will be
seen that the manners of the people of Ta-han of the East wore
similar to those of the inhabitants of Wen-shin, and that there
were also affinities between the people of this land and those of
Mi-sang, which therefore seem to show a relationship between
the three nations.

The name of the country of Ta-han is too extraordinary in
itself not to excite attention. Ta-han {^ ^) signifies literally
" Great Chinese " {han, Chinese, vir fortis), and Ta-han-hcoh,
" Kingdom of the Great Chinese," or " Great Chinese Kingdom,"
which do Guignes attempted to explain as follows : " That part
of Siberia called Kamtchatka is the region which the Japanese
call Oku-yeso, or * Upper Jesso.' They place it upon their maps
to the north of Jesso, and represent it as being twice as large as
China, and extending much farther to the oast than the eastern
shore of Japan. This is the country which the Chinese have
named Ta-han, which may signify * as large as China,' a name
which corresponds with the extent of the country, and to the
idea which the Japanese have given us of it." Neumann, on the

D'nEUVEY'S NOTES.

215

name
to the
on the

contrary, who locates Ta-hnn in tho poninHuIa of AlaHka, Hup-
posea that the ChiucHO have called thm country (rreat China, or
a great country coniparablo to China, becaUHo they had knowl-
edge of tho vast continent which cxiHts beyond it. These two
explanations arc ingenious, withojit doubt ; but we find another,
imich simpler, in tho Chinese Encydopindia Yion-kien-lui-hm),
regarding at least one of tho two countries called Tii-han of
which that work makes mention. Tho Ynen-kien-liii han de-
serves to bo carefully examined, since it may give proof of the
correctness of Dr. Neumann as to tho identification of tho coun-
try of Ta-han situated on tho route to Fii-aang, and at the
same time confirm the assertion of do Guignes as to the kingdom
of Ta-han situated in Kamtehatka or somewhere else in Eastern
Siberia, as MM. Perez and Brotschneider have thought. Neu-
mann has, in support of liis o})inion, tho express statement of
Li-yen and of Ma 7\oan-lin, that tho Ta-han at which vessels
touched on the way to Fu-aang was an Oriental country, situated
to tho east, and not to tho north, of Wen-shin. Do Guignes, on
his side, produces a very precise account of tho route which Chi-
nese travelers folio nod when they went by land to the country
of Ta-han, an itinerary which can not be disputed. ITcre is what
we read in tho Encyclopajdia Yuen-kien-lui-han — First : Kiuen
231, fol. 46 : " Taiian of the East. — This kingdom is to the east
of that of the Wenrshin more than 5,000 li. Its people have no
arras and do not wage war. Their manners are the same as
those of the Wen-shin, but their language is different " (exactly
the same notice as that which the Wen-hien-tong-Tcao gives us).
Second : Kiuen 241, fol. 10 : " Taiian of tiik Noutii. — We read
in the Sing-tang-shu (' Supplement to the History of the Tang Dy-
nasty ' — a work published in tho eleventh century of our era by
imperial order) : The Ta-han (of the north) live to the north of
the kingdom of Kio, or Kiai. They raise many sheep and horses.
The men of this kingdom are robust and of a great height, from
which fact tho name Ta-han (' Great Chinese,' or, in common
language, * Tall Fellows ') is derived. They are neighbours of
the Ke-kia-sse (natives who live upon tho shore of tho lake Pe-
hai, or Baikal). In former times they had no relations with the
empire (of China), but in the years ching-kuan and yong-hoci
(627-655) embassadors from their nation came once or twice
offering horses and martens' furs as tribute." The kingdom of

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Kio, or Kiai, is situated 500 li to the northeast of the territory
of the Pa-ye-ku, one of the most easterly tribes of the great
nation of the Iloei-he (Ouigours), which extends as far as the
country of the Shi-wet, or She-goei, occupying the northeast-
ern part of Siberia. These last natives of Ta-han (whom Ma
Tioan-lin calls Ta-mo, and whom he also classed among the
nations of the north) are those whom de Guignes thought to
be lo'' ted in Kamtchatka ; but the immediate consequence of
this verification is to make it impossible to find a place in
Asia for the " Ta-han of the East,'''' in which we are solely in-
terested. None of the scholars who have studied this ques-
tion have suspected the existence of two countries called Ta-
han ; and this fact has compelled them to make great efforts
to bring into agreement the accounts of the two routes to Ta-
han, one by land and the other by water, which led, in fact, to
two Lifferent countries. Neur-.ann, whose judgment seems the
least reliable, has therefore very probably been the most in-
spired. Although the notice of Tahan of the East is very short,
it contains the proof of a characteristic and very extraordinary
fact, of which the importance should not be overlooked. The
peojile of Ta-han, we are told, have no arms and know nothing
of war. This fact would be inexplicable regarding a tribe of
upper Asia, exposed to the attacks of the ferocious and belliger-
ent nations whomi they had upon their frontiers, and it reveals
a c'^il'eation analogous to that of the people of Fu-sang, to
whom the saii;e peculiarity is attributed.

aflii-i

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CHAPTER XIII.

d'iiervey's appendix.

Difference between Hoei SMn''s story and other Chinese accounts — An earlier
knowledge of Fusang — The poem named the Li-sao — The IShan-hai-king —
The account of Tongfangso — The immense size of the country — The burn-
ing of books in China — The origin of the Chinese — The writer Kuan-mei —
The arrival of Hod Shin in 499 — The civil war then raging — The delay in
obtaining an imperial audience — The " History of the Four Lords of the Liang
Dynasty " — ^An envoy from Fusang — The presents offered by him — Yellow silk
— A semi-transparent mirror — This envoy was Iloei Shin — The stories told
by Yu-kie — The silk found upon the fusang tree — The palace of the king —
The Kingdom of Women — Serpent-husbands — The Smoking Mountain — The
Black Valley — The animals of the country — The amusement of the courtiers
— The poem Tong-king-fu — The route to Fusang — Fusang east of Japan —
Zieu-kuci — The direction of the route.

Appendix to the Account regarding Fusang — hj the Marquis
d^Iferveg de Saint-Denys.'^

1543

The relation of the bonze Iloei Shin has, for more than a
century, served as the foundation for all that has been written
for the purpose of attempting to decide the question whether
Fusang was America or not. This account, so clear and pre-
cise, possessed, in the eyes of the Chinese, a character of authen-
ticity which distinguished it from quite a large number of other
documents relating to Fhisang, which were furnished by authors
with more or less inclination for the marvelous. Ma Twan-lin
contented himself, for this reason, with merely repeating it with-
out adding anything to it. Ma Twan-lin never undertook to
unite in his accounts all that the Chinese authors had related
regarding the sub'ect of his work, but confined himself to men-
tioning only what appeared to him to be the most worthy of
credit. The merit of his compilation, taken as a whole, results
mainly from this work of elimination, accomplished by judicious

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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criticism. But if it is attempted to clear up an obscure point by
means of the comparison of different accounts and by investiga-
tions of all kinds, the most fabulous stories, and little points, ap-
parently the most trivial, sometimes contain the clew to tlie
wished-for knowledge. Hence it appears that, in an effort to
decide as to the true location of Fu-sang, the contrary method
should be followed and no means of information should be neg-
lected. I have, therefore, grouped here all the documents which
I have been able to collect relating to this interesting question ;
some much anterior to Hoei Shin's account, and others forming,
to a certain extent, the corollary of the declarations of this
priest.

The first show that, if we admit it to be a fact that Buddhist
missionaries of the fifth century visited America, this is far from
proving that they were the first who discovered the country ;
the second permit us to detect the origin of the introduction of
supernaturid elements into the authentic account of the bonze
Hoei Shin, and justify Ma Twan-lin in adhering to the strict
letter of Hoei Shines account, and in declining to leave it for a
comparison of the different statements, by means of which the
true elements of these accounts might, some day, be separated
from the false.

It is proved that the idea of the existence of a great country,
covered with vast forests made up of a particular species of trees
called fu-sang trees, and situated beyond the eastern seas, was
an old tradition, even to the Chinese authors of the third century
before our era, this fact being attested by the Li-sao. Kiu-
yuen, the author of this celebrated poem, traveled in thought to
the four extremities of the universe. In the north he perceived
the land of long days and long nights ; in the south the bound-
less sea attracted his attention ; in the west he perceived the sun
descend and sink in a lake, which has been supposed to be Lake
Tingry, or the Caspian Sea ; and, finally, in the east — in spite of
the immensity of the Pacific Ocean, and, in spite of the thought,
which would naturally occur to him, that the sun also rose from
the midst of the waters — he caught a glimpse of distant shores
receiving the first gleams of the dawn. It is in a valley in a
land shaded by the fu-sang tree that he places the limits of the
extreme east. The Shan-hai-ling, a work of uncertain date, but
of incontestable antiquity, contains an analogous reference to

D'llERVEY'S APPENDIX.

219

this land. An author, almost contemporaneous with Kiu-yuen,
Tong-fang-so (whose text is supposed to have suffered some al-
terations, but at an epoch much anterior to that of Iloei Shin),
expresses himself thus : " At the east of the Eastern Sea, the
shores of the country of Fu-sang are found. If, after landing
upon these shores, the journey is continued by land toward the
east for a distance often thousand U, a sea of a blue colour {pi-
hai) is reached, vast, immense, and boundless. The country of
Fu-sang extends ten thousand li upon each of its sides. It con-
tains the palace of Tai-chin-tong-wangfu (the God who Presides
over the East). Great forests are found, filled with trees of
which the leaves are similar to those of the mulberry, while the
general appearance of the trees is similar to that of those which
are called chin (certain coniferous trees). They attain a height
of several times ten thousand cubits, and it takes two thousand
people to reach their arms around one of them These trees
grow two and two from common roots, and mutually sustain
each other ; hence their name oi fu-sang (sese sustinentes mori —
mulberry-trees which sustain each other). Although they grow
tall and straight, like the conifers, their leaves and their fruit
are similar to those of the mulberry of China. The fruit, of
exquisite flavour and of reddish colour, appears but very rarely,
the tree which produces it bearing it but once in nine thousand
years. The anchorites who eat the fruit become of the colour of
gold, and acquire the power of hovering in celestial space."

The exaggeration of the proportions of the fu-sang tree is
evidently nothing but hyperbole ; but it may be remarked that
this tree is described as resembling the mulberry or the tong tree
in its leaves, and the chin tree in its form ; this last being a spe-
cies of conifer of which the wood is used in the manufacture of
arrows. This description, although not having great botanical
precision, reminds one involuntarily of the gigantic Wellingtonia
of California, which may be the last remains of an immense
forest.*

* The Mexicans noticed a resemblance between the century-plant, or agave (the
plant which Hivui Sh&n called the fit-sang tree), and the conifers ; for they called
the fir-tree ''" "oya-metl," '"' a term meaning the false or counterfeit agave ; and,
in fact, the flowering-stalk of the century-plant — often forty feet in height and
eight inches in diameter at the base — with its numerous branches of flowers,
springing out, almost horizontally, from its upper half, is very similar in form
and general appearance to a fir or pine tree. — E. P. V.

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AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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The indication of a breadth of ten thousand It for the country
of Fu-sang shows that it was a true continent ; and, if we do
not believe that this curious account of another ocean, found to
the east, beyond the vast territory, should be applied to the At-
lantic, it still may be thought that America was better known to
the Chinese before the Christian era than it could be even from
the narration of Iloei tShin himself. In any case, the Buddhist
missionaries who again found the route to Fa-sang were certainly
guided in their voyage by the light of old traditions.

I ventured the following observations when publishing my
translation of the Li-aao, some years ag(

"The general burning of books, two hundred and thirteen
years before our era, was far from being as destructive as has
been imagined ; but still it caused a sensible diminution of the
sum of acquired knowledge. A great number of texts were
preserved in the memory of scholars or by the secretion c marai-
scripts, and were thus finally restored, but many others were lost
or' altered. Moreover, the Chinese people, at the same time that
thej' raised the great wall, isolated themselves in other ways, in
order to preserve their unity. No surjirise should therefore be
felt at finding that the Chinese in very ancient times were pos-
sessed of ideas more just and extensive, regarding a multitude
of subjects, than the Chinese of the following centuries; so that,
to reach reliable accounts, it is necessary to go back as far as
possible into that antiquity which, perhaps, there is good reason
for vaunting so highly.

" I have sometimes thought that a great mystery might be
concealed in the origin of the old Chinese with black hair, who
arrived from the north (it is not known from what country) at
the banks of the Yellow River — not as primitive men, but as the
representatives of a ripened civilization — who avoided any inter-
mixture with the native population, and who always turned
themselves toward their father-land to seek for light. If it
should be unquestionably proved that Fu-sang is indeed Ameri-
ca, and if the first ideas which the Chinese had of that region
should appear lost in the most remote antiquity, would not a
strange enigma be presented to us for solution ? "

Mr. Leland's book has shown me that the thought which dic-
tated these lines has also presented itself to several scholars
who have made a specialty of the study of subjects relating to

D'nERVEY'S APPENDIX.

221

America ; and the Long-wei-pi-shu cites an opinion of the Bud-
dhist writer Kuan-mei, which demonstrates to what great an-
tiquity some idea of the existence of Fu-sang went back among
the Chinese, if their statements on the subject are to be believed:
" It is in Fu-sang that Hwang -tV a astronomers resided (who were
charged with the observation of the rising sun)", says Kuan-mei.
" In the first year yong-yuen, of the 2'si dynasty, there was a
bonze named Jloei Shin, who arrived from that country, and
who made it known" (literally, by whose narration it commenced
to be known — k., I, fol. 10), an expression which should be un-
derstood here merely as referring to a knowledge renewed after
the lapse of centuries, JI>''^ng-ti is the first sovereign of the
times reputed historical, and the first cycle of the Chinese com-
menced in his reign, in the twenty-seventh century before our
era. We may assuredly entertain a doubt as to whether the
astronomers of this celebrated emperor, to whom the Chinese
attribute the invention of the astronomical globe and the insti-
tution of their cycle, established an observatory in Fu-sang.
Nevertheless, I believe the fact to be established that there was
some account oi Fu-sang current among the Chinese long before
the time of Iloei Shin, and this is what I first proposed to make
evident.

Let us now examine the circumstances under which Jloei
Shifi's report was made, and attempt to decide what connection
there was between tuis bonze and the five Buddhist priests who
went to Fu-sang in 458 ; winy IToei Shin ascended the Grand
Kiang to King-cheu, instead of stopping at Nan-king, then the
capital of the empire ; and, finally, consider what should be
thought of an embassy from Fu-sang, which, according to the
work entitled Liang-sse-hong-ki (*' Memoirs of the Four Lords
of the Liang Dynasty " ), came to visit the Chinese court in the
years tien-kien, which commenced in the year 502, that is to say,
at an epoch very near to that of the arrival of Hoei Shin — a co-
incidence which should not be overlooked. We will finally con-
sider the account of the route to Fu-sang as given by the histo-
rian Li-yen, and the light furnished in this respect by several
passages of Ma Twan-lin, hitherto inedited.

We read in the Ku-kin-tu-shu-tsi-cfiing : " In the time of
Tong-hoen-heu, the first year yong-yuen (499), the bonze of the
kingdom of Fu-sang, named Iloei Shin, came to Caina. Never-

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222

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

theless, the official annals of the Tsi dynasty make no mention of
him, and it is the books of the Liang dynasty which contain the
account of Iloei Shin regarding Fu-sang^ in a section devoted to
the eastern countries."

The year 499, designated as the date of the arrival of Hoei
Shin upon the banks of the Kiang, was a year of civil war, which
preceded the downfall of the Tsi dynasty, and during which that
shadow of an emperor, called Tong-hoen-heu (" Prince of the Dis-
orders of the East "), remained a prisoner in his palace, besieged
by his own brother. This brother was declared " Protector of the
Empire," and he resided at the same city of King-cheu, to which
we seo that Hoei Shin repaired. This brother soon mounted the
throne, and was almost immediately deposed by the founder of
the Liang dynasty, known by the name of Liang Wu-ti, in the
first month of the year 502. Now, if we suppose that JToei Shin
came from Fu-sang and intended to visit the emperor of
China — a favour which could never be obtained except after long
entreaties — these circumstances explain why it was that he was
compelled to remain at King-cheii, until the complete overthrow
of the Tsi dynasty, without being able to obtain an imperial
audience. The accession of lAang Wu-ti, a prince who was a
believer in the Buddhist religion, must, on the contrary, have
insured him a favourable reception by the new ruler of the empire.

I now come to the statements of the Liang-sse-hong-hi, and
am convinced that others, like myself, will be struck by the vivid
light which they throw upon the story. The four princes, or
feudal lords, of whom the book contains the memoirs, were
named Ho-tchin,*" Yu-hie, Sho-tuan, and Chang-ki. Nothing is
said as to how they were connected with one another ; but their
memoirs tell us that in the years tien-kien, that is to say, in the
first years of the reign of Liang Wii-ti, an envoy from the
kingdom of Fu-sang presented himself, and, having offered to
the emperor divers objects of his country, the emperor charged
Yu-kie to interrogate him regarding the customs and the produc-
tions of Fi-sang, the history of the kingdom, its cities, its riv-
ers, its mountains, etc., as was the custom in similar cases when-
ever a foreign embassador visited the court.

* In the " Ethnography," edited by the Marquis d'Hcrvey de Saint-Denys, this
name is written Hoei-tchin ; while in the same author's " Memoir " it is given as
Ho-tchin, The Marquis d'Uervey states that this last form is correct. — E. P. V.

id I

D'HERVEY'S APPENDIX.

223

" The envoy from Fu-sang wept, and responded with respect-
ful ardour," says the text — a singular phrase, which appears to
give the idea of an old man affected at finding himself again in
bis native land after long years of absence. " The offering
which he presented consisted principally of three hundred pounds
of yellow silk, spun by the silk- worm of ihQ fu-sang tree, and of
an extraordinary strength. The emperor had an incense-burner
of massive gold, of a weight of fifty Mn. [The Mn weighs a
little more than 600 grammes.] This could be lifted and held
suspended by six of these threads without breaking them. There
was also among the presents offered to the emperor a sort of
serai-transparent precious stone, cut in the form of a mirror, and
of the circumference of more than a foot. In observing the sun
by reflection by means of this stone, the palace which the sun
contains appeared very distinctly." (Mention of these mirrors
has been made in the " Notes and Queries," and Mr. Leland pre-
sents some very remarkable observations upon this subject.
"Discovery of America," p. 184.)

There is but little probability that Hoei Shin was a native of
Fic-sang, although all the texts agree in calling him " a bonze of
that country." It may be suspected that he had left China,
when very young, in company with the five priests of Ki-pin.
This can not be considered as anything more than a conjecture ;
but that which appears to me to be beyond doubt is, that Hoei
Shin and the envoy from Fu-sang, the bearer of the presents
oifered to the emperor Wu-ti, were one and the same person.
To the presumption which is raised by the agreement of the
dates, an" the circumstances, as mentioned above, should be
added the convincing fact that the prince Yu-kie, when speaking
at length of Fu-sang and other regions of the extreme east, as is
recorded in the Liang-sse-kong-hi, sometimes, as we shall see,
based his declarations upon the statements of the envoy whom
he had had the charge of interrogating, and sometimes upon the
relation given by Hoei Shin, without indicating that there was
any difference between the two sources of his information. It is
here, moreover, that we find the source of all the extravagancies
which have been mixed with Hoei Shift's narration, and which
have resulted in casting suspicion upon even his simplest state-
ments.

The account quoted by Ma Twan-lin was probably the ofllicial

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224

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

record of the statements made by Jloei Shin, in his quality of
envoy of the kingdom of I^u-sang, in answer to the questions of
Yu-kie, who was delegated for the purpose by the emperor.
The compilation of this account is similar to that of a great num-
ber of analogous documents contained in the notices of the Wen-
hien-tong-hao. !N othing is found which approaches the domain of
fable, any more than there is in the description of the presents
offered to the emperor, and the precision of the details gives to
the whole an appearance of truth which can not be mistaken ; but
the lord Yu-kie wished to amuse the court in regard to his con-
ferences with a person who had excited such general curiosity.

Let us return to the study of the Liang -ase-kong-ki. The
truth will thus be established.

" One day, when the attendants at court were amusing them-
selves with stories of foreign countries, the lord Y%i-kie took up
the subject, and spoke in the following terras : * At the extreme
east is Fu-sang. Silk-worms are found there which are seven
feet long and as much as seven inches in circumference. Their
colour is golden. It takes a year to raise them. On the eighth
day of the fifth month they spin yellow silk, which is extended
upon the branches of the fu-sang tree, for they make no cocoons.
This silk is naturally very weak ; but it is cooked in lye prepared
from the ashes of the wood of i\iQ fu-sang, and thus acquires such
strength that four threads twisted together are sufficient to raise
a weight of thirty Chinese pounds. The eggs of these silk-
worms are as large as swallow's eggs. Some were taken to Kao-
kiu-li (Corea) ; but the voyage injured them, so thac nothing
issued from them but silk-worms as small as those ol China.

"'The palace of the king is surrounded by walis of crystal,
which appear clearly before daylight ; but the walls become
quite invisible during an eclipse of the moon.'

" The lord Yu-kie said besides : * At the northwest, about ten
thousand li, there exists a Kingdom of Women, who take serpents
for husbands. Moreover, these reptiles are inoffensive. They
live in holes, while their wives or concubines live in houses
and palaces, and exercise all the cares of state. In this king-
dom there are no books, and they know nothing of the art
of writing. They believe firmly in the eflScacy of certain forms
of prayers or maledictions. The women who act uprightly pro-
long their lives, and those who swerve from the right are imme-

;t.

D'lIERVEY'S APPENDIX.

00 f;

(Jiatcly cut off. The worship of spirits imposes hiws that none
dare to violate. To the south of Jlo-c/ieu (the Island of Fire)
[probably ^, htco, "fire," and >}j\,cheu, " an island or district"],
situated to the south of this country, is the mountain Yen-kuen
(liurning Mountain) [probably 'J[g, t/en, " smoke," and ]^, /cicwi,
" a peak, a high mountain "], Ihe inhabitants of which eat locusts,
crabs, and hairy serpents, to preserve themselves from the heat.
In this land of Ilo-cheu, the ho-mu (trees of fire) [probably
)J^, /lU'o, " fire," and Tfc, niuh, " wood, a tree "] grow ; their bark
furnishes a solid tissue. Upon the summit of the mountain Yen-
]iue)i there live ^re rats {ho-shii) [probably ^, Aaco, "fire,"
and ^, shu, " a rat, mouse, weasel, squirrel, or similar animal "],
the hair of which serves also for the fabrication of an incombus-
tible stuff, which is cleansed by fire instead of by water. To the
north of this Kingdom of Women is the Black Valley [Ileko)
[probably Sf^, Ao/<, " black," and kuh, ^, " a ravine, gully, gorge,
canon "], and north of the Black Valley are mountains so high
that they reach to the heavens. Snow covers them all the year.
The sun does not show itself there at all. It is there, it is said,
that the dragon Cho-long (the Luminous Dragon) resides. [Prob-
ably j^, chuh, " an illumination, a torch, to illumine," and g|,
lung, " a dragon."] At the west is a fountain that inebriates,
and has the taste of wine. In these regions there is also found
a sea of varnish, of which the waves dye black the feathers and
furs that are dipped in them, and another sea of the colour of
milk. The territory surrounded by these natural marvels is of
great extent and extremely fertile. Dogs, ducks, and horses of
a great height live in it, and, finally, birds which produce human
beings. The males born of these birds do not live. The daugh-
ters only are raised with care by their fathers, who carry them
with their beaks or upon their wings. As soon as they commence
to walk, they become mistresses of themselves. They are all of
remarkable beauty and very hospitable, but they die before
reaching the age of thirty years.

"'The rabbits of this country are white and as large as
horses, their hair being a foot long. The sables are as large as
wolves. Their hair is black and of extraordinary thickness.'

" The attendants of the court were much amused at these
stories. They all laughed and clapped their hands, and said
that better stories had never been told.

1 1
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220

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

" A miniatcr of tlie emperor, named Wan(/-i/itn, interrupted
Yu-kie with this bantering objection : * If we believe the official
accounts which have been collected regarding the Kingdom of
Women, situated to the west of the country of 2aan-yai and to
the south of the Kingdom of Dogs (Jiat-hco/i), it is merely in-
habited by barbarians of the race of the Kiang-jong, who have
a woman as their sovereign ; but there has never been any ques-
tion of serpents filling the office of husbands. How do you ac-
count for that ?' Y v/e responded with pleasantry with a new
explosion of extravagu^.cics, in the midst of which there appeared
here and there a true idea, burlesqued for diversion."

This curious fragment shows that the Chinese of the sixth
century were not as credulous as might be believed ; that they
knew how to distinguish between the true and improbable, and
that the extravagancies of their story-tellers, at which they wore
the first to laugh, does not diminish the merit of the writers that
they respected.

The Ku-Jein-tu-sIm-tsi-ching is very explicit in this respect ;
citing several poets who in their works make allusions to Fu-
sang, it makes the following statement : " "We read in the poem
entitled Tong-king-fu, *I ascended to the source of day and thus
arrived at Fu-sang.^ Ilwai-nan-Ue has written, * The sun issues
from the valley Yang-Jco (the Luminous Valley) [probably ^,
yang, "the rising sun," and ^, kuh, "a ravine, valley, gully"],*
and rises in the midst of the fu-sang trees.' Yang-kiang says,
'Beyond the great sea is Fu-sang,^ and Zi-tai-pe writes, 'At the
extreme west is the Jo-m'' tree ; at the extreme east, the /"u-sang
tree.'" "From all this," continues the book from which we
cite, " it follows that Fu-sang lies to the east of China. Some
understand that the sun really comes out of this country, or that
Fu-sang is the sun itself ; but this is mere ignorance on their
part. When it is said tVat the sun comes forth from Fu-sang,
it simply means that the sun rises in the extreme east."

I will conclude with some remarks regarding the description
of the route from China to Fu-sang, given by the historian Li-
yen, who lived at the beginning of the seventh century of our
era, and regarding the conjectures to which this itinerary has

* Williams's "Chinese Dictionary," p. 1071, defines "Yang-kuh," "the valley
of sunrise in the extreme east, probably in Corea, where Yao worshiped the sun
at the vernal equinox."

(ji

D'lIEKVEY'S APPENDIX.

227

rriven rise. According to Li-yen, tlie route sets out from the
coast of Leao-tony, skirts along Japan, touches at the country of
the Wen-shin, and then reaches the kingdom of Ta-han, from
which the route to Fu-sang is quite direct, the distance being
ahnost equal to the entire distance already traveled. The total
length of the journey is about 44,000 //, and each of the interme-
diate distances is specified. The length of the li can not serve as
the basis for any certain calculation as to the exact distance, be-
cause of the variations which it has suffered. The inductive
labours of the scholars, who have attempted to determine the situ-
ation of Fu-aany from the statements of Li-yen, have heretofore
consisted in proceeding from the known to the unknown, by at-
tempting to determine the length of the li from its value in the
distance between Leao-tong and Japan, so as to obtain a propor-
tionate measure which would furnish the means for the identifi-
cation of the more distant regions designated by the names of
Wen-shin, Ta-han, and Fu-sang. This very reasonable method
meets two great difficulties in its practice — one resulting from
the fact that the particular point in Japan to which the measure
was taken is not clearly indicated ; and the other from the fact
that the estimate of distances by sea in a voyage of this kind can
only be approximate. Thus, de Guignes and Neumann, who
agree in placing the country of Wen-shin in Jesso, have differed
regarding the identification of Ta-han, which the first thinks to
be in Kamtchatka, and the second upon the peninsula of Alaska,
and this has resulted in their placing Ft-sang more or less to
the south. But neither of these two scholars, nor M. d'Eichthal,
the Chevalier de Paravey, M. Jos6 Perez, or Mr. Leland, has
hesitated to acknowledge that Fu-sang must be sought upon the
American Continent. I do not hesitate to declare that it seems
to me impossible to seek elsewhere for a region of a thousand
leagues in extent, situated beyond the great ocean, to the east of
Japan, and the new documents which I have been permitted to
collect attest this to be its true location.

The mention regarding the extent of Fu-sang is in the frag-
ment of the Shi-cheu-Jci, cited above ; that of the situation of
Fi-sang to the east of Japan is found in the preface of the
" Ethnography of the Eastern Nations," by Ma Twan-lin, where
it is distinctly said, "Japan is situated directly to the east of
China, and Fc-sang is situated directly to the east of Japan "

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228

AN INCJLOUIOUS COLUMBUS.

{Kiuen, ^24, fol. 1, line 0). Ma Twanlin addn that about thirty
thousand li Hcparate China from thiw country of the extretnc
east ; an assertion which does not in any way contradict the
estimate of forty thousand li made by Li-ycn, since the distance
here spoken of is that in a direct line, and not the distance by a
roJindabout route.

This positive statement of Ma Twan-lin's would bo sufficient
to destroy the singular hypothesis of Klaproth, who imagined
that the Chinese had confounded Japan with Fa-sang, if this
paradoxical theory did not crumble of itself at all points, as it is
easy to demonstrate that it does.

Klaproth does not dispute either the sincerity of the state-
ments of Ifoei IShin, or the veracity of the Chineses writers who
have spoken of Fii-sang, and confines himself to commenting
upon their statements from his point of view. The best way of
exposing his attempted refutation of do Guignes's memoir is to
show how he has proceeded in his interpretation of the Chinese
authors.

The Prussian scholar commences by admitting, with de
Guignes, that the country of Wen-shin must be Jesso, so that
he is obliged to accept as the length of the li, in the time of the
historian Li-yen, a measure proportionate to the number of li
which this writer concedes between Leao-tong and the island of
Jesso. Then, immediately, in order to bring the remainder of
the itinerary into accordance with his fancy, he supposes the li
to be less than half as long, and so small that it can not be ap-
plied to any of the measures of distance indicated by the Chinese
geographers of any epoch. M. d'Eichthal has described this
contradiction very clearly; but that which he has not said is, that,
in order to place Ta-han in the island of Karafto, or Tarakai,
the same land according to him as Lien-lcuei, Klaproth ignores
or pretends to be ignorant, on the one side, that the land of
Lieit-kuei is described by the Chinese books as a peninsula and
not as an island (" Long-wei-pi-shn,''^ Kiuen, 4, fol. T ; " Wen-
hien-tong-kao,^^ Kiuen, 347, fol. 4), and, on the other side, th.at
the countries of Lieu-kuei and Ta-han are described separately
in the two works above named, with the important distinction
that Lieu-Jcuei is described among the regions of the north, and
Ta-han among those of the east ; this last country being located
to the east of the Wen-shin, while Lieu-kuei is to their north.

Jililil

D'lIEUVEY'S APPENDIX.

229

The quoHtion of the orieiitution troubled the scholarly author
of the "Tableaux ile TAsie" very little, it is true ; and, uh the
direction toward the east, on leaving the island of Kanifto, or
Tarakai, inconunoded hinj, he, in order to arrive ut Iuh conclu-
^ion, changed this direction, ho precisely given by the ChineBe
texts, and, without ceremony, turned it arbitrarily toward the
south, in such manner was ho carried away by his imagination,
that he concluded by supposing that the Chinese navigators of
the seventh century thought that they were visiting I'h-satuj
when they landed upon the southeastern coast of Japan— that is
to say, in a country which had been known to them, and which
had had constant relations with China, for more than five cent-
uries. If such reasoning had been published by an Orientalist
of less reputation than Klaproth, it would be almost superfluous
to expose it.

Attention should be called, in conclusion, to the fact that
Klaproth is the only critic who has opposed the identification of
Fu-sang with America ; since no attention should be paid to the
unsupported opinion of those who with closed eyes declare that
they agree with him.

Such is the additional information drawn from the examina-
tion of a number of Chinese authors — information which I have
thought should be added to the notice of Ma Twan-lin. For a
statement of all that has been published hitherto in European
laiiguages on the question of Fu-sany, as also for the latest in-
formation concerning the ethnography of North America, and
the navigation of the Pacific, Mr. C. G. Leland's book may be
profitably consulted.

•■')

Ii f

CHAPTER XIV.

PROFESSOR Williams's argument.

" Notices of Fu-sang and other Countries lying East of China " — The origin of
American tribes — The work of H. II. Bancroft— Mr. Leland's boolt — Ma
Twan-lin — His " Antiquarian Researches " — Hwui-shin's story— Coplifene —
No later aecounta of Fu-sang — The titles of the nobility — The ten-year cycle
— Red pears — Tlie fu-sang tree — No montion of pulque — Brocade — Fables —
Account of the SJiih Chau Ki — The article of the Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-
Denys — Criticisms thereon — Fdng-lai — The distance of Japan and Fu-sang —
The name Fu-sang sometimes applied to Japan — Mention of the fu-sang tree
in a Chinese geography— Expeditions sent to search for Fu-sang — Corapari-
son with Swift's " Voyage to Laputa " — The Kingdom of Women — Mention
by Maundevile and Marco Polo of a land of Amazons — The country of Wan
ShSn — Tattooing — Its existence among the Esquimaux — Quicksilver — Two
kingdoms of Ta Han — Lieu-kuei and the Lewchew Islands.

Notices of Fu-sang and Other Countries lying East of China —
by Professor S. Wells Williams.''''

The origin of the various nations and tribes inhabiting the
American Continent is a question that has attracted the atten-
tion of antiquarians ever since the discovery of the continent
four centuries ago. The general designation of " Indians," given
by Columbus to the people whom he met, shows the notion then
entertained of their Asiatic origin, not less than his ignorance of
their true position. Since that time, numerous antiquarians
have given us their ideas and researches upon this obscure sub-
ject. Some have combined many scattered facts so as to uphold
their crude fancies ; while others have formed a theory, and
then hunted over the continent for facts to prove it. "When
their various works are brought together, comparison only shows
how little which can lead to a definite conclusion has yet been
really ascertained. The digest of the most careful of these trav-
elers, and the candid analysis of the works of antiquarians and

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

231

pbilologists, given by H. H. Bancroft in the fifth volume of his
laborious work on the " Native Races of the Pacific States " (pp.
1-130), fully upholds his concluding sentence as to the present
state of this question : " To all whose investigations are a search
for truth, darkness covers the origin of the American peoples and
their primitive history, save for a few centuries preceding the
conquest. The darkness is lighted up here and there by dim
rays of conjecture, which only become fixed lights of facts in
the eyes of antiquarians whose lively imaginations enable them
to see best in the dark, and whose researches are but a sifting
out of supports to a preconceived opinion."

Since the publication of this work, in 1875, attention has
been again directed to a hypothesis as to the origin of the na-
tive races — namely, that America was peopled from China — by
the issue of Mr. C. G. Leland's book, entitled " Fusang, or the
Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests in the Fifth
Century." ]Mr. Bancroft had already collected the leading data
upon this particular point (volume v, pp. 34-51), and Mr. Le-
laud adduces no new facts.* He brings together in a conven-
ient form what he has collected from de Guignes, Neumann, and
d'Eichthal in favor of his theory ; while he analyzes and criti-
cises the remarks of Klaproth, Sampson, and Bretschneider
against it.

I have thought that a translation of the sections describing
the lands lying to the east of China, found in the work of Ma
Twan-lin, would tend to place his notice of Fu-sang in its true
light, and help us to guess where that country should be looked
for. This distinguished Chinese author belonged to a literary
family, and spent his life in collecting and arranging the materials
for his great work, the Wdn Illcn Tung Kao, or "Antiquarian
Researches," which was published about the year 1321, by the
Mongol emperor Jin-tsung, a nephew of Kublai Khan. JMa
Twan-lin's life was passed amid the troublous times of the con-
quests of the Mongols, and his father held a high oflSce at the
court of the emperors of the Sung dynasty at Ilangchow. He
was busily engaged with these labors during the whole period of
the residence of Marco Polo in China (1275-1295), and their
deaths probably occurred about the year 1325.

* Attention has already been called to the fact that an earlier and shorter ar-
gument by Mr. Lcland preceded Mr. Bancroft's work by many years. — E. P. V.

Mlf*

232

AN INGLOKIOUS COLUMBUS.

The " Antiquarian Rescardics " now contains 348 chapters
(k'Uen), arranged, witliout any natural sequence, under twenty-five
different heads, as Chronology, Classics, Religion, Dynasties, etc.
The last title is called aSV I Kao, or " Researches into the Four
Frontiers." In it are gathered together, in twenty-fnir chapters,
all the information that the author could collect respecting for-
eign kingdoms and peoples. He himself seems never to have
traveled outside of his own land ; and during the ruthless wars
of the Mongols he was probably glad to escape all molestation
by staying quietly at his home at Po-yang, in Kiangsi province.
The eight volumes containing these notices of other countries
must consequently be regarded only as the carefully written
notes of a retired scholar, who was unable to test their value or
accuracy by any standard, either of his own personal observation,
or of the criticisms of those among his acquaintances who had
gone abroad. The energy and skill of the great Khan, so unlike
the effete and ignorant rule of the native monarchs it Ilang-
chow, must have developed much mental and physical vigor
among his subjects. An author like IVIa Twan-lin would there-
fore be stimulated to gather all the information he could, no
matter whence it came, to enrich his work. Ilis design was
more like that of Ilackluyt orPurchas than that of Rollin or La
Ilarpe ; and in carrying, it out he has done a good service for
the literature of his nuUve land.

In his survey of lands beyond the Middle Kingdom, he com-
mences on the east, and goes around to the south and west,
describing each country without much reference to those near it.
Having no data for ascertaining their distances, size, or relative
importance, he makes no distinction between islands, peninsulas,
and continents ; for all such things his coinitrymen are even
noAv just beginning to learn. . . .

[The first section of Ma Twan-lin's work, translated by
Professor Williams, is that relating to Ilia-i, the land of the
"Shrimp Barbarians." These are shown to be the Ainos, and
it does not seem necessary to copy the account here. Then
follows his translation of the account regarding Fu-sang, which
is given elsewhere ; upon which Professor Williams makes the
following observations :]

Ma Twan-lin makes no comment on this narrative, nor does
he tell us whence Ilwui-shin got it ; he did not feel obliged to

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

233

discuss its veracity, or explain its obscurities. The first iinpres-
siou made upon one who reads it, with the idea that Fusang lay
somewhere on the American Continent, is that it proves rather
too much, judging by what we yet know of the nations and
tribes who once dwelt there. I do not mean that the notices
it gives of the houses, unwalled cities, curious mode of judging
prisoners, and mourning customs, could not have ai)plied to the
natives of Mexico or Peru ; but ic has not the air of the narra-
tive of a man who had actually lived there. It is easy to reply
that all traces of the people mentioned have been lost, so that
our present ignorance of their early civilization proves nothing
either way. Still, this account reads more like the description
of a land having many things in common with countries well
known to the speaker and his hearers, but whose few peculiari-
ties were otherwise worth recording. The shaman Ilwui-shin
may have been one of the five priests who went to Fu-sang
from Ki-pin only forty years before his arrival at Kingchau, the
capital of the Tsi dynasty. Ki-pin is the Chinese name for
Cophene, a region mentioned by the Buddhist traveler Fa-hien
(chap, v) under that name, and by Strabo and Pliny as situated
between Ghazni and Candahar, along the western slopes of
the Suleiman Mountains, in the upper valleys of the Ilelmond
River. These priests had probably traveled far north of China
in their missionary tour, as described by de Gulgnes and
d'Eichthal, and lived in Fu-sang until it had become familiar to
them. I think that Ma Twan-lin inserts Hwui-shin's account
next to that of Ilia-i, from an idea that both kingdoms lay in
the same direction. lie seems to have found no accounts of a
later date, and the long interval of seven centuries had furnished
nothing worth recording about a land so insignificant as Fu-
sang. We can hardly imagine that such would have been the
case with a country to be reached by a long sea-voyage, one
where stupendous mountains, great rivers, well-built cities or
citadels, and people with black or dark-red complexions, would
each make a deep impression upon an Asiatic. It jp. just as
likely that junks drifted across the Pacific Ocean in the sixth
century as in the nineteenth ; but Hwui-shin is as silent respect-
ing the manner in which he returned from Fu-sang, as of the
way he reached it. If the five priests had traveled toward
Okotsk, and beyond the river Anadyr, till they reached Beh-

1, :

234

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ring's Straits, and then slowly found their way down to warmer
climes, this would naturally form part of the story. Silence on
all these points makes one hesitate in coming to the conclusion
that Fu-sang formed any part of America.

The internal evidences to be deduced from what is stated
are still more opposed to that conclusion. In our present state
of knowledge of the ancient American languages, so far as I can
learn, it would be a vain search to look for any words among
them suggesting the names of yueh-ki for king ; tui-lu for a
high noble ; siao tui-lu vox a secondary grandee ; and no-cha-
sha for those of the Iow3st rank. It is "ot possible at this date
to be quite sure what sounds were intended by the priest, or by
the historian, to be represented by the Chinese characters used
in transliterating the three foreign words ; but those here given
are the present ^ nds in the court dialect, and probably near
their originals.

But the next statement, respecting the changes required every
two years in the color of the king's dress, carries with it alto-
gether too much likeness to Chinese ritualism to be overlooked.
It needs a little explanation to be made clear. The sexagenary
cycle, used in Eastern Asia from remote times, is made by repeat-
ing ten stems six times in connection with twelve branches re-
peated five times ; the two characters united form the name of
a year. The ten years containing the ten stems begin with the
first year of the sixty. Consequently, the first and second years,
the eleventh and twelfth, the twenty-first and twenty-second,
and so on to the last decade, will contain the same two stems —
kiah yueh five times over ; in these two years the king's dress
must be tsing, or azure color. In the next two, the third and
fourth in each decade, the stems ping ting require it to be chih,
red or carnation. In the next t'vo the stems xcu ki require it to
be hxoang, yellow ; in the fourth binary combination, the stems
kdng nn require it to be peh^ white. Lastly, the two stems J«'n
kwei, denoting the ninth and tenth years of each decade, close
the series, and then his robes are to be AcA, black. These five
are the primitive colors of Chinese philosophy.

Nothing analogous to this custom has ever been recognized
among the Aztec, Peruvian, or Maya people. The ten stems
in these five couples indicate among the Chinese and Japanese
the operation of the five elements, wood, fire, earth, metal, water,

m\\

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

235

in their active and passive exhibitions ; each one destroys its
predecessor, and produces its successor, in a perpetual round of
evolutionary forces. The mention of such an observance in Fu-
sang seems to fix its location in Eastern Asia, where the sexa-
genary computation of time has long been known. It was a
curious usage, which would strike a priest familiar with the Chi-
nese ritual.

The same may be said of the worship of ancestral manes and
images, and of the three years' mourning by the new king. The
efforts to explain the big horns of the oxen, the red pears which
will keep a year, and the vehicles drawn by horses, have each
their difficulties if applied to anything yet known of the na-
tions of ancient America along the Pacific coast, but may be
applied to Northern Asia with -ome allowances. I think the red
pears may denote persimmons, which are dried for winter use,
and to this day form a common article for native ships' stores.

The identification of the -tree fu-sang, on which the notice
chiefly turns, is not yet complete. Klaproth refers it to the Hi-
biscus rosa sinensis; but I agree with Dr. Bretschneider in mak-
ing it to be the Uroussonetia papi/rifera, or paper-mulberry, a
common and useful tree in Northeastern Asia. The use asserted
to be made of the bark in manufacturing paper and dresses does
not apply to the Hibiscus nearly so well, though that plant also
produces some textile fibers, as doet; also another large tree not
yet entirely identified, belonging to the family Tiliacese or lin-
dens. The further statement, too, that its shoots are eatable
like those of the bamboo, is inapplicable to the agave of Mexico
as well as to the Hibiscus, the linden, or Broussonetia, none of
which are endogenous. It is one of the inaccuracies of the de-
scription, and can not be reconciled with either plant. The
maguey made from the agave is better fitted for threads and
cloths than for making paper. The fruit or berry of the Brous-
sonetia is reddish, indeed, but no one would liken it to a li or
pear. If the agave is intended, as Mr. Lelr.nd urges, it is very
probable that Hwui-shin would have said something about the
intoxicating drink called pulque, obtained from the leaves, rather
than have likened them to the tung, as he has done. This icst
tree is either the JEleococca or Pmolonia, both well known m
China and Japan ; so that an omission to speak of the pulque be-
comes rather an evidence against the agave being \\\q fu-sang tree.

I 1

23G

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

The remark about the libers being woven into broca-ie is also
true of the Broussonetia. A beautiful fabric is made in Japan
by weaving them with a woof of silk ; but nothing of this sort
could be made from the weak agave fibers. Moreover, the
Broussonetia has not been found in Mexico, although Neumann
thinks that it once existed there. . . . The word kin (|,^), ap-
plied to the curious paper-silk brocade manufactured from the
fu-sang bark, according to Ma Twan-lin's text, is also api^lied to
embroidery and parti-colored textures. It is not so much the
damask-like figure that is the essential point ; but among the
Chinese the kin always has a variety of colors. This seems to
have attracted the attention of Hwui-shin, and the remarkable
iridescence of some specimens of this Japanese mulberry silk still
excites admiration. Professor Neumann says that in the year-
books of Liang he found the reading to be mien (j^), " floss " ;
but the textual character kin has more authority in its favor, and
is found in the Yuen Kien Lui ITan. He translates the sentence:
" From the bark they prepare a sort of linen which they uso for
clothing, and a sort of ornamental stuff." The word pii, here
rendered linen, is now confined to cotton fabrics ; but the distinc-
tion aimed at in the two terms used seems to have been that of
a plain fabric and a brocaded one, like the Japanese nisiki.

It may be added, lastly, that many fables have gathered
around the tree and the country of Fu-sang, which increase the
difliculty of their identification. For instance, the Shih Chau
Ki, quoted in the native lexicon Pei-wCin Yin Mi, says : "The
fu-sang grows on a land in the Pih Ilai, or Azure Sea, where it
is abundant ; the leaves resemble the common mulberry {sang),
and it bears the same kind of berries {shin, j^ ; the trunk rises
several thousand rods {chang), and is more than two thousand
rods in girth. Two trunks grow from one root, and lean upon
each other as they rise ; whence it gets the name fu-sang, i. e.,
supporting mulberry."* The use of the technical word shin for
the fruit of the fu-sang is a very strong argument for its being
the Broussonetia, and shows that its aflinity to the silk mulberry
{3Iorus) had been noticed.

* This is evidently a philological myth ; as one of the meanings of the charac-
ter FU is " to prop up, support," '^'^ the name Fu-sang was supposed to mean
" the supporting mulberry," and the tale given above was probably invented to
account for it. It appears, however, that there is a species of double maguey, or

sang.
Kung
which
and the

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

237

Since the publication of Mr. Leland's book, tlie Marquis
d'Hervcy de Saint-Denys, who has succeeded Stanislas Julicn
in the Chinese Professorship at Paris, has contributed a paper
in the Transactions of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-
Letters for 187C, which contains some additional notices of Fu-
sang. Among these is an extract translated from the Lianrf /Sz*
Kung Ki, or " Memoirs of Four Lords of the Liang Dynasty,"
which throws some light on the times in which Ilwui-shin lived,
and the circumstances attending his arrival at King-chau. The
marquis shows that it was just at the overthrow of the Tsi
dynasty that the priest came as envoy from Fu-sang, and had to
wait three years before the Emperor Wu-ti, of the Liang dy-
nasty, could receive him. The section in Ma Twan-lin he justly
regards as a copy of the official report made to his superiors by
Yu Kieh, one of these four lords, obtained from Ilwui-shin, the
envoy. It is quite unlike the usage in such cases that nothing is
said in the official annals of the presents offered by him ; these,
if they had come from America, would have been different from
anything before seen, and therefore likely to be recorded. Such
a list, however, did not necessarily fall within Ma's purpose when
describing Fu-sang. The marquis notices some of the presents
offered, which are spoken of in the " Memoirs of the Four Lords,"
and also some popular notions of that day conceniing Fu-sang.
He identifies the envoy with the shaman Ilwui-shin, and con-
cludes, with reason, that he was one of the five priests who went
in the year 458 from Ki-pin. I have no copy of the Liang Sz*
Kung Ki, and therefore quote his translation :

" At the commencement of the year 502,* an envoy from the
kingdom of Fu-sang was introduced, and, having offered different
things from his country, the emperor ordered Yu Kieh to in-
terrogate him on the manners and productions of Fu-sang, the
history of the kingdom, its cities, rivers, mountains, etc., in

that the plant aometimca throws out two flowering-stalks instead of one ; as Saha-
gun refers to it in the following words : '"">'' " The god Xolotl took to flight and
hid himself in a field of maize, where he metamorphosed himself into a stalk of
that plant, having two lower portions with separate roots, which the labourers call
lolotl ; but having been discovered among the maize, he fled a second time and hid
himself among the magueys, where he changed himself into a double maguey, which
is called mcxolotl (from metl, maguey, and xolotl )." — E. P. V.

* This clause should read, "At the commencement of the years called iiai-l-icn"
i. e., about the year 502.— E. P. V.

i •

238

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

conformity to Ibo usage practiced at court whenever a foreign
envoy visited it. The envoy from Fu-sang wept, and replied
with a respectful animation, says the Chinese text, such as an
old man would exhibit when he found himself in his own country
after a long absence.* The presents which he offered consisted
especially of three hundred i)ounds of yellow silk, produced by
worms found on the fu-aany tree, and of extraordinary strength.
The censer of the emperor, made of solid gold, weighed fifty
catties (between fifty and sixty pounds), and three f threads of
this silk hrld i; up without breaking. Among the presents was
also a kind of t;emi-transparent stone, carved in the form of a
mivruV; in ■ hich, when the sun's image was examined, the palace
in tL 5un di .tinctly appeared. . . .

" One day, ^ iiilc he was entertaining the court about foreign
countries, the magnate Yu Kieh began to speak thus : ' In the
extreme east is Fu-sang. A kind of silk-worm is found there,
which is seven feet long and almost seven inches around. The
color is golden. It takes a year to raise them. Oa the eighth
day of the fifth moon the worms spin a yellow silk, which they
stretch across the branches of the fu-sang , for they wind no co-
coons. This native silk is very weak ; but, if it be boiled in the
lye made from the ashes of fu-sang wood, it will acquire such
strength that four strands well twisted together are able to hold
up thirty catties. The eggs of these silk-worms are as big as
SM-allows' eggs. Some of them were taken to Corea ; but the
voyage injured them, and when they hatched out they were or-
dinary silk-worms. The king's palace is surrounded with walls
of crystal. They begin to be clear before daylight, and become
all at once invisible when an eclipse of the moon occurs.'

" The magnate Yu Kieh proceeded to say : * About ten thou-
sand U northwest of this region there is a Kingdom of Women ;
they have serpents for husbands. The serpents are J venomous
and live in holes, while their spouses dwell in houses and pal-
aces. No books are seen in this kingdom, nor have the people

* The pamphlet, from vrhidi Professor Williams translated, might leave it to bo
inferred that the phrase, " such as an old man would exhibit when he found him-
self in his own country after a lonj^ absence," was contained in the Chinese text.
It is, however, merely a comment, made by M. d'llervey de Saint-Denys. — E. P. V.

+ The word "three" should be "six."— E. P. V.

\ This clause should read, " The serpents arc vot venomous." — E. P. V.

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

280

to be

liim-

tcxt.

P.V.

any writing. They firmly believe in the power of certain sor-
ceries. The worship of the gods imposes obligations wl'.ieh no
one dares to violate. In the middle * jf the kingdom is an island
of fire with a burning mountain, , hose inhabitants eat hairy
snakes to preserve themselves from the heat ; rats live on the
mountain, from whose fur an incombustible tissue is woven,
which is cleaned ])y putting it into the fire instead of washing it.
North of this Kingdom of Women there is a dark valley ; and
still farther ndrth are some mountains covered with snow whose
peaks reach to heaven. The sun never shines there, and the lu-
minous dragon dwells in this valley. West of it is an intoxi-
cating fountain whose waters have the taste of wine. In this
region is likewise found a sea of varnish whose waves dye plumes
and furs black ; and another sea having the color ** milk. The
land surrounded by these wonders is of great extei. , a. '. exceed-
ingly fertile. One sees there dogs and horses o^ great stature,
and even birds which produce human beings, liie males born
of them do not live ; the females are carefully roared by their
fathers, who carry them on their wings ; as soon as they begin
to walk they become mistresses of themsel s. They are re-
markably beautiful and very hospitable, but tiiey die before the
age of thirty. The hares of that land are as big as the horses
elsewhere, having fur a foot long. The sables are like wolves
for size, with black fur of extraordinary thickness.'

•' The courtiers were greatly amused with these recitals,
laughing and clapping their hands, while they assured the nar-
rator that they had never heard better stories. One minister in-
terrupted Yu Kieh by a bantering objection : * If one can put
any trust in the official reports collected in relation to this King-
dom of Women, it might be all simply inhabited by savages who
are governed \)y a woman ; there would then be no question re-
specting this matter of serpents acting rs husbands. How would
you then arrange this matter ? '

" Yu Kieh answered pleasantly, that he had nothing more to
say on that point ; and then he went on from one strange story
to another still more strange, in which one part truth was mixed
with nine parts invention."

The whole paper from which this extract is taken does credit
to its author's researches into this matter, however much we may

* For " In the middle " read "At the soutlu"-E. P. V.

240

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

>ifHi

(liflFer from his inferences. On a previous page he adduces fur-
ther proof from two early Chinese authors, who mention Fu-
sang. One of them is Kiuh Yuen, who flourished about n. c.
300, and wrote the poem Le Sao, or " Dissipation of Sorrows,"
which has since become a classic among his countrymen. In it,
the marquis says, ** he traveled in thought to the four quarters of
the universe. On the north he perceived the land of long days
and long nights ; on the south, the boundless ocean met his
view ; on the west, he saw the sun set in a lake, perhaps the
Tengiri-nor or the Caspian Sea ; on the east, in spite of the vast-
ness of the Pacific, and of the idea which would naturally pre-
sent itself to his mind as the sun rose from the abyss of waters,
he beheld the far-off shores receive the beams of Aurora, and in
a valley, on a land shaded hy the fu-aanff tree, he places the lim-
its of the extreme east."

lie also calls in another author to fortify the poet, namely,
Tung Fang-soh, whose work, the Shin-i King, or " Record of
Strange Wonders," was extant in the Han dynasty, but was af-
terward lost. That now bearing his name has been manipulated
by subsequent authors, and Mr. Wylie regards it as a production
of the fourth or fifth century, and " the marvelous occupies so
large a portion that it has never been received as true narrative."
But the marquis does iiOt so regard it : " The works of Tung
Fang-soh, which treat of regions most remote from China, have
undergone some slight alterations at the dictum of the Chinese
literati, who inform us that the alterations which they suspect
date back to the fourth century after Christ. Their criticism,
far from diminishing for us its authority, becomes, on the con-
trary, a valuable testimony of its authenticity at that date.
This it what it says : * East of the Eastern Ocean is the country
of Fu-sang. "When one lands on its shores, if ho continue to
travel on by land still further east ten thousand li, he will again
come to a blue sea, vast, immense, and boundless.' I think that
I hazard nothing in saying beforehand that it is impossible to
apply these indications of Tung Fang-soh to any other country
than America."

Fu-sang and Pcing-lai are still used among the Chinese for
fairy land, and ai*e referred to by the common people very much
as the Garden of the Hesperides and Atlantis were among the
ancient Greeks. In Hankow, when a shopkeeper wishes to praise

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

S41

the quality of his goods, ho puts on his sign that they are from one
or other of these lands. The latter is perhaps the more eommon
of the two, for it has become associated with the conqueror
Tsin Ciii llwangti, who sent an expedition, about n. c. 220,
easterly to find it and two other islands, called iSan jSien Shan,
or Three Fairy Hills, where the genii live. Pung-lai is now the
name of a district in the province of Shantung (better known
from the prefectural city Tiingchau, west of Chef u), which com-
memorates this expedition after the fairies. Nothing was more
natural to people living along the Yellow River, in the days of
Kiuh Yuen and Tung Fang-soh, when Shantung was inhabited
by wild tribes, than to regard all that little known region in the
utmost east as the abode of whatever and whoever were wonder-
ful. To quote such legends as corroborative history or travel,
needs the support of some authentic statement to begin with ;
and Hwui-shin would be as likely to connect his account with
something his hearers would recognize as existing in that direc-
tion, as to make up a story. I do not infer that neither the Chi-
nese nor Japanese of the sixth century had any knowledge of
the American Continent from other sources, for it was as easy
then for vessels to drift across the Pacific as they still do ; but
they could not drift back again, and, when once landed anywhere
between Alaska and Acapulco, the sailors were not likely to try
a second voyage to reach their homes.

There is, furthermore, an unexplained point how the name of
the tree fu-sang came to be applied to the kingdom Fu-sang.
If the Broussonetia be the plant denoted, and everything con-
firms this deduction, one would have expected its identity or
likeness to the chu shu, its Chinese name, to have been men-
tioned. It is, however, quite as probable that the tree got its
name from the country, for the manufacture of paper from its
bark does not seem to have been known in the days of Kiuh
Yuen.

Yu Kieh's pleasant account of Fu-sang and its silk-worms
tends rather to show that in his day it was a region which every
one could people with what he chose. The use of silk among
the people on the Pacific coast was, according to H. H. Ban-
croft, mostly confined to the Mayas in Central America ; it was
by no means a common product, and mostly used in combination
with cotton. This reference by Yu Kieh, although so exagger-
16

242

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMIJUS.

atcd, tends to show that Fu-aang was rogarded as on tho western
side of tlto Pacific Ocean ; and I am inclined to place it in Sag-
halien Island.

Do (tuij^iies lays much stress on tho alleged distance of Fu-
sang from Ta-han, and ingeniously reduces tho 20,000 li, or 7,000
miles, to an actual estimate of tho road taken by Ilwui-shin (Le-
land, J). 1^8) to get there. In tho introduction to his accounts
of all these eastern countries, in chap. 324, Ma Twan-lin plact •
the Flowery Land in tho center of tho universe, and then adds :
'* East of China lies Wo-kwoh, a.'so called Japan ; east of Wo-
kwoh, farther on, lies Fu-sang, abcut 30,000 li from China."
These figures are much too hap-hazan' to depend on in settling
this point, and carry less weight than s ich internal evidence as
we can analyze. If compared with other distances applied to those
regions by this author, we soon find hoAV voluoless they all are.
No one in tho sixth century had any means of measuring long
distances, or taking tho bearings of places, so as to make even a
rough guess as to their relative positions, if ho had tried to make
a map. For an illustration of this remark, see Dr. Bretschnei-
der's article in " Transactions of North China Branch of tho Koyal
Asiatic Society," No. X, 1870, where ho gives an example of
Asiatic m.ap-makiiig in a. n. 1331, to show the divisions of the
Mongol Emi)irc. It looks like a checker-board.

The position of Fu-sang can not therefore be yet settled from
these notices ; but we may, as the Marquis d'llcrvey do Saiut-
Denys hopefully remarks, yet see tho day when the immense
riches hidden and almost lost in Chinese books will be brought
out, and something more definite on this head be discovered.

I have only two other quotations to add. One is the name
Ftishi-kohu, i. e., the kingdom of Fu-sang, an unusual designation,
known to the Japanese themselves, of their own country or a
part of it, and which would hardly have been applied to a land
on the other side of the Pacific Ocean. The other is the men-
tion found in the Ylng-hioan Chi JJoh, or " Geography of the
World," by Su Ki-yU, tho late governor of Fuhkien, who wrote it
in 1848. In speaking of the troubles in Corea caused by the
^Mongol invasion, and the ravages of the Japanese corsairs along
the Chinese coast during the Ming dynasty, he proceeds to say :
" But as the rising grandeur of our present Imperial house began
to diffuse itself afar, its quick intelligence perceived that it ought

Illihl

PROFESSOIl WILLIAMH'S ARfJUMEXT.

2i.')

name

lation,

or a

land

mcn-

f the

rote it

y the

along

say:
began
ought

first to RcatttT [as it wore] HlipH from i\\ofu-sntuj tree in tho Valley
of SunriHO ; and thereby those lands (('orea and Japan) were awed
into HiibmiHsion for many yearH, and our eastern frontier remained
(juiet and protected ; neither of theHo nations presumed to en-
croach on our posHCHsions." Tho Valley of Sunrise, used iu tho
Shu King, or *' Hook of Records," is regarded as a synonym of
('(»rea, and tho /u-sfin;/ tree is here connected with that land. A
few sentences on, (tovernor SQ quotes from another book, called
"Records of Ten Islands or Regions" : '* In the sea toward tho
northeastern shores lie Fu-sang, l*iing-kiu, and Ying-chau ; their
entire circuit is a thousand li." Ho then adds : " I think that the
story about these Three Fairy Hills arose from the exaggerated
descriptions of our own writers, who used them to deceive and
mislead men ; for really they were small islands, contiguous to
Japan and belonging to it. If their ships of that period went to
them out in tho ocean, why cotild not four people?) find them
if they had searched for them?" Ho then relates the quixotic
expedition sent by Tsin Chi Hwangti under Stl Fuh to find
them, Avith several thousand men and women, none of whom
ever returned. From this reference it may bo concluded that
Governor S(l regarded Fu-sang and tho other two to belong to
the Kurilc Islands near Yezo. Ho had access to many works
in his own literature, and took unwearied pains to get at tho
truth of what ho was writing about, by asking intelligent
foreigners who were able to tell him. Among these were Rev.
David Abcel (whose aid ho acknowledges), and M. C. Morrison,
a son of Rev. Dr. Morrison, tho missionary. His opinion de-
serves to he received as that of an intelligent scholar, though ho
knew nothing of the question started by do Guignes.

In reading the marquis's translation of Yu Kich's story, an
English scholar can hardly fail to compare it with the " Voyage
to Laputa " ; for that land was placed not far from Fu-sang by
its clever discoverer and historian. Dean Swift, like Yu Kieh,
drew on his imagination for his facts. The numerous references
in tlu. " Voyage " to the people of China, their institutions, pecul-
iarities, costumes, and manners, must have been derived or sug-
gested in him by the writings of Semedo, Martini, Mendez
Pinto, and other travelers in Asia before 1720, which were prob-
ably in Sir "William Temple's library. But one would almost as
soon think of quoting Swift's assertion in chapter iii of this " Voy-

!(!■

In '"

IJ!

244

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I (.

. i M

1 1 I

1*^

s ..

age " regarding " the two lesser stars or satellites which revolve
about Mars," as proof that Professor Asaph Hall's discovery of
187G had been already known in Queen Anne's reign, as to seri-
ously undertake from these Chinese authors to prove that thev
knew the American Continent by the name of Fu-sang.

[Then follows the translation of the account of the " King-
dom of Women," which is given in full in the seventeenth chap-
ter of this work. Professor Williams comments :]

From this account, follow 'ag tliat of Fu-sang, we might con-
clude that Ma Tvan-lin regarded Ilwui-shin alone as his author-
ity for both of them, as he is quoted at thp beginning of each
section. But the incident of a. r>. 508 may have been taken
from the " History of the Liang Dynasty. " The mention of Tsin-
ngan, however, as the residence of the shipwrecked man who
found the Nil Kwoh, shows how. little dependence can be placed
on the Buddhist priest's estimate of the distance or direction of
either Fu-sang or Nil Kwoh from China. The only seaport of
that day named Tsin-ngan was the present Pu-tien hien, identical
with the prefectural city of Iling-hwa, situated between Fuhchau
and TsUen-chau in the province of Fuhkien. This man was
probably a fisherman, bound for the Pescadore Islands, who was
driven off by a storm through the Bashee Straits into the Pacific
Ocean, among the islands east of the Philippines. I think the
priest is not responsible for the sailor's story, as it is omitted in
the Yuen Kien Lui Han, and only the first part given. Tlie
legend of the Nil Kwoh probably applies to two places. Sir
John Maundevile * places his Lond of Amazoyne beside the
Lond of Caldee where Abraham dwelt ; but his Yle of Nacume-
ra, where "alle the men and women of that Yle have Houndes
Hedes ; and thei ben clept Cynocephali," might be looked for
where the " History of the Liang Dynasty " puts them as well
as anywhere else.

In his " Book of Marco Polo " (ed. 1871, vol. ii, pp. 338-340),
Colonel Yule has brought together notices of the various legends
which have appeared from time to time in Eastern Asia of this
fabled land of females, to illustrate what the Venetian has reported
in chapter xxxi about the " Two Islands called Male and Female,"
In his other admirably edited work, "Cathay, and the AVay
Thither" (p. 324), he alludes to the report of Marignolli, about

* " Maundevilc's Yoyago," cd. 'v IlalHwcU, 18a9, pp. 154, 197.

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

245

A. D. 1330, of a kingdom in Sumatra ruled by women. The first
part of Ma's notice, which is certainly ascribed to the shaman,
leads one to look northeasterly toward the Kurile Islands for people
with so much hair ; and suggests a comparison with the inhab-
itants of Alaska called Kuchin Indians, described in Bancroft's
" Native Races " (vol. i, pp. 115, 147, sqq.). But it would not be
worth while to spend much time in looking for this fabled land,
had not the idea got abroad that its location would aid in identi-
fying Fu-sang with some part of America.

[Next comes Professor Williams's translation of the account
of the Wiin Shdn, or the land of " Marked Bodies," found in
the seventeenth chapter of this woi'k, as to which he says :]

It is not certain whether marking and painting the body, or
tattooing, is intended by this term icCm sJuhi ; but as the Chi-
nese have a technical term, Jcing, Ijf, used in this extract * to de-
note the process, it proves that tattooing must be here intended.
This practice is less common among the islanders in the North
Pacific than in the South, where a warmer climate enables them
to show off their pretty colors and figures. The courses and
distances from Japan here given would land us in Alaska ; but
no weight can be attached to them in this quotation from the
Liang records.

The distinction of rank, indicated by the different lines de-
scribed in this extract, is like that in force among the Eskimo
tribes near Icy Cape, as described by Armstrong : " At Point
Barrow the women have on the chin a vertical line about half
an inch broad in the center, extending from the lip, with a
parallel but narrower one on either side of it, a little apart.
Some had two vertical lines protruding from either angle of the
mouth, which is a mark of their high position in the tribe "
(Bancroft, vol. i, p. 48). The practice of tattooing has been
so common at various times among the Chinese, Japanese, and
other inhabitants of Eastern Asia, that nothing can be inferred
regarding the country here intended. The singular notice of
filling the moat with quicksilver may be paralleled by Sz'ma
Tsien's description of the wonderful subterranean tomb of the
great conqueror Tsin Chi Ilwangti (b. c. 270) in Shensi, wherein
he tells us that "rivers, lakes, and seas wet'c imitated by means

* I am unable to find this chamcter in Ma Twan-lin's Chinese account of the
country of " Marked Bodies."— E. P. V.

II!:

24G

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

; i

Ml'\

of quicksilver caused to flow in constant circulation by mecLan-
ism.

[After giving the translation of the account of the country
of Ta J/an, Professor Williams says :]

In chapter ccxxxi of the Y'uen Kien Lui Ilan, a valuable Cyclo-
paedia, compiled by orders of the Emperor Kanghi, and issued in
1710, this section is quoted verbatim from the N'an Shi of Li
Yen-shau, the same source from which Ma Twan-lin got it.
Though that history contains the records of the Liang dynasty
(a. d. 502-557), it was not written till about one century after-
ward, in the Tang dynasty ; and during that interval nothing
more seems to have been learned about the lands of Fu-sang, Ta
Ilan, or Nii Kwoh. Kor had Ma Twan-lin found anything in his
day, six centuries afterward, to add to what the shaman Ilwui-
shin reported ; while this Cycloprodia — the product of a com-
mission of learned men who ransacked the literature of China to
find whatever was valuable and insert it — contains just the same
story, hoary with the twelve hundred years' rtpose it had had in
the Nan Shi. To show the carelessness of these compilers in their
work, in chapter ccxli another kingdom is described under the
name of Ta Ilan, but not a word is added to indicate how two
kingdoms should have had the same name. This last is equally
vague with the first in respect to its identification, and reads as
follows :

*' The ' New Records of the Tang Dynasty ' say : * Ta Ilan
borders on the north of Kuh; it is rich in sheep and horses.
The men arc tall and large, and this has given the name Ta Ilan
(i. e., Great China) to their country. This kingdom and Kuh are
both conterminous with Kieh-kiah-sz' , and therefore they were
never seen as guests [in our court]. But during the reigns
Ching-kwan and Yung-hwui (a. d. G27 to 650) thoy presented
sable skins and horses, and were received. It may be that they
have come once since that time.' "

The compilers of the Cyclopaedia abridged this extract some-
what, for they do not refer to Lake Baikal, Avhere Ta Ilan joins
the countries of the Kieh-Jciah-sz' , and Kuh, and thus help to
identify it. The next section contains an extract of seven pages
from the " New Records of Tang " about the Kieh-kiah-sz' , or
Hakas, whom Klaproth regards as the ancestors of the Kirghis
now dwelling in Tomsk. If half of this account be true, the

i!|i|

PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S ARGUMENT.

247

Ilakas formed a powerful kingdom in the Tang dynasty, and
their neighbors Ta Ilan and Kuh are to be looked for on the
river Yenisoi, or more probably between the Angara and Vitim
rivers.

The effort of Professor Neumann to identify the first-named
Ta Ilan with Alaska, simply because he places Wun Shan
among the Aleutian Islands, and Ta Ilaa lies 5,000 U east of it,
is based alone on reported distances that are mere guesses. Mr.
Leland also refers to de Guignes's opinion that Ta Ilan meant
Kamtchatka, and that "Wan Shan was Yezo, and adds this com-
ment : " De Guigaes determined with great intelligence that
the country of the Wen-schin, 7,000 li northwest of Japan, must
be Jezo, from the exact agreement of the accounts given of that
country by Chinese historians of the early part of the sixth cent-
ury (Goei-chi and Vcn-hien-tum-hao, a. d. 510-.'515) with that
of Dutch navigators in 1643. Both describe the extraordinary
appearance of the natives, and speak of the abundance of a
peculiar mineral resembling quicksilver " (p. 129). ]\tr. Leland
has been misled, in regard to this agreement, by not knowing
that these supposed historians are only the names of two books,
viz., " Records of the Wei Dynasty " (a. d. 386 to 543), and
the same " Antiquarian Researches " from which I have trans-
lated these sections. He also assumes that Ilwui-shin and his
predecessors went by sea, adding that this was "no impossible
tiling at a time when in China both astronomy and navigation
were sciences in a high sense of the word."

[Then follow the accounts of the "Land of Pygmies," of
the " Kingdom of Giants," and of the " Islands of Lewchew,"
none of which have any direct bearing upon the account re-
garding Fu-sa)2ff, the " Women's Kingdom," or the countries
passed on the way thither. Professor Williams continues :]

In concluding these extracts from Ma Twan-lin's writings, I
need hardly draw attention to the vagueness which marks them,
when we look for any definite information. His long chapter
on Japan bears more marks of well-digested information than
any of those which are here given, and indicates constant inter-
course between it and China. Mr. Leland quotes from several
authors whatever will elucidate and uphold his theory respecting
Fu-sang, and deserves thanks for his research in this interesting
question. He has, however, been led astray by a similarity, or

^'1

248

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

an error in spelling, to confound Kamtchatkii yflih Lev\chew.*
. . . Mr. Lelanrl has a note in which he say^ : ' It (ie.j the t'^-
count of the kingdom of Lieu-kuei] is evidently Lorro ved fiom
the I'ancj-sckii, but is much better arranged, and contains some
original incidents, on which account I have freely availed my-
self of it." I have no means of verifying this statement, and
therefore am unable to say hoAv far Ma quoted from the " Iiistory
of the Tang," and also to explain whether Kamtchatka was ever
called Lieu-kuei, and what the Chinese characters for t'.is name
are, or w^hether Lieu-kuei is a misprint for Liu-kiu or Lew-
chew. The name of this insular kingdom has been written a
dozen ways by foreigners ; it is called Riu-kiu by the Japanese,
Doo-choo by the inhabitants, Low-kow by the Cantonese, and
Lewchew by the Ningpo people ; but. it could never have been
confounded with Kamtchatka by either of them.

* It appears that Professor Williams was led to confound Liu-kiu (3^ JEjf^
or Lewchew, with lAeu-kuci (^ ^ — characters transcribed in Professor Will-
iams's dictionary as Liu-kwei), a terra which seems, beyond tjucstion, to have
been applied to Kamtchatka. The fact that he did not leari.< the- characters for
the term Lieu-kuei is evidently the cause of his error: and in this case it was he,
and not Mr. Leland, who was led astray by the similarity in sound of the two
names, one of which was applied to the Lewchew Islands and the other to Kam-
tchatka.— E. P. V.

\\\m-'

CHAPTER XV.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIOX. — NATURE OP THE CHINESE LAN-
GUAGE.

Fu-sang wood — NiS-yao-liun-ti — The Warm Spring Valley — The Shin I King —
The kingdom Hiho-kouc — The astronomer Jli-ho — The story of a Corean —
An island of women — I"ung-lai — An expedition to explore it — The coloniza-
tion of Japan — Lang Yuen — The Kwun-lun Mountains — A statue of a native
of Fu-sang — A poem to his memory — The tree of stone — Varying translations
— The peculiarities of the Chinese language — The brevity and conciseness of
the written language — Its lack of clearness — The meaning of groups of char-
acters, or compounds — Proper names — No punctuation — Difficulty of trans,
lating correctly — Preparation of M. Julien — Illustrations of mistakes.

To the information regarding Fu-sang, which is contained in
tlie quotations given in the preceding chapters, a few additional
items may be added. Klaproth states'*** that some Japanese
writers report that a blackish, petrified wood is found in their
country, which is highly valued, and which is called fu-sang
wood, or wood of the country of Fu-sang : that this country is
Japan, which has received this name because of its beauty, in
which it resembles the shrub fu-sang, which is, as is well known,
the species of hibiscus which we designate by the name of rosa
Sinensis.

"" A passage of the Shan Ilai King, quoted by some Japan-
ese authors, reads as follows :

" In the vast space placed at the eastern extremity of the
world is the mountain J^ie-yao-kiun-ti. It is there that the tree
fu-sang grows. Its height is three hundred U. Its leaves re-
semble those of mustard. Near this, to the east, is the valley
Wtn-yuan-ku.''^ The Chinese words, " ^ie-gao-kiun-ti," are pro-
nounced by the Japanese ^' I-yo-hun-te,^'* and the Japanese author
adds that this is lyo, one of the four provinces of the island

I! t

nm^

250

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

of Si-l-olf. Tlie valley Wen-yuan-Jcit is also called T''ang-hu
or "Warm S' rings."

We read n another Chinese work, called Shin I Kin(/ : "In
the eastern part of the world there is a mulberry-tree eight hund-
red feet in height ; it covers a large space of ground, and its
leaves are ten feet long and six or seven broad. Upon this tree
there live silk-worms three feet in length, of which the cocoons
furnish a pound of silk. The fruit of this tree is three feet and
five inches long."

The following passage is found in another chapter of ;he
Shan Hal King : " Beyond the southeastern ocean, and between
the Kan-shui, or the " Pleasant Rivers," is the kingdom of ///-
ho-koue (or, according to the Japanese pronunciation of the char-
acters, Ghi-ica-koJcf). There lived the virgin Ill-ho (Ghi-wa),
who espoused 7\-tsiim, and gave birth to ten suns." The same
book also says that Ili-ho {Ghi-wa) is the name of a kingdom
among the countries of the east, which is also called "The
Place where the Sun Rises." . . .

A passage of the Shan Ilai King T^sang-chu, which is a com-
mentai-y upon the Shan Jlai King, says : "In the days of the
Emperor Ilwang-ti, Ili-ho ( Ghi-wa) was the astronomer charged
with the observations of the sun. This prince having given him
the country of Fu-sang, he embarked with his family, settled
there, and gave this country the name of Hi-ho-koue ( Ghi-wa
kokf), or the country of Hi-ho. He had ten children ; the boys
were named Yen (in Japanese, Fiko), or the male sun ; and the
girls Ki (in Japanese, Fime), or the female sun ; the sun being
considered as the source of all 'ecundity." " So,"add3 the Japan-
ese author, " a man, who in our days would be called Ko-sak,
would at that time have been called Ko-fiko ; and a woman
named Ouki-ne would then have been called Ouki-Jime. This
ccuntry," he continues, "was also called Wa-kokf" (in Chinese,
Jlo-koice). Wa {Ho), the second character of Ghi-ica, signifies
tmnquillity and peace ; kokfmcz.^^ kingdom. Wa (in Chinese,
Ho) :'8, even now, one of the names of Japan.

Ki.'iproth also reports an incident which indicates that Ilwui
Shun to\:\ in Corea, as well as in China, the story of his advent-
ures, and that some recollection of his narration was preserved
by the people, as the following story of a country inhabited
by women recalls Hwui Shan's account of the "Kingdom of

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIOX.

251

Women," as well as the Chinese account of the sailors who were
shipwrecked upon an island inhabited by women who resembled
those of China. The incident is ^s follows : '"'

The King Khl (of Wo-tsiu, one of the divisions of Corea)
sent emissaries to look for Koung, to capture him, so that he
might be punished. When they had reached the eastern coast of
the country, they asked an old man if there were any people beyond
the sea upon the east. He answered : " Some of the inhabitants
of this country once embarked to go a-fishing, when they were as-
sailed by a storm ; and, having been violently driven before the
wind for ten days, they reached an island inhabited by people
whose language thoy could not understand, and who had an
ancient custom of drowning a young virgin in the sea at the
seventh month." The same old man also stated that there was
another country in the midst of the sea, inhabited by women,
without any men. He said that, simply clothed in linen gar-
ments, they threw themselves into the sea, and passed it by swim-
ming. Their bodies resembled those of the Chinese women, and
their garments had sleeves three fathoms long. Their country
was in the midst of the sea of Wo-tsiu.

The expedition above referred to occurred during the reign
of the Wei dynasty, i. e., some time between 386 and 534 a. d.""

As a place called P'vng-lai is fi-equently mentioned in con-
nection with Fu-sang, the following statements regarding it may
be of intei'est :

In the year 219 b. c.,"" during'"' the epoch of the Japanese
Dairi Ko-rei-ten-o, who reigned from 290 to 210 b. c, the Em-
peror Shi-hwang, of the T'sin dynasty, reigned in China. He
sent the skillful physician Slu-fii to the island of P'ung-lai to
seek for the beverage of immortality. It is stated that, not hav-
ing succeeded in this commission, he arrived at Japan, and died
upon the mountain Fusi. The Chinese mythologists pretend
that in the Eastern Sea there are three mountains (or islands) of
the genii, called P'ung-laiy Fang-chang, and Ing-'-'',eii. They
are inaccessible. To the first is also given the name of P\ing-
tao, or the island of P'ung; it is said that they are covered
with tabernacles, and with halls of gold and silver, which are
used as the habitations of the genii.

It is to these three islands that Tsin Shi Hioang Tl (the
Emperor Shi Ilioang, of the Tsin dynasty) sent an expedition,

252

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

composed of some thousands of young people of both sexes, un-
der the guidance of one llio-szu, to seek there for the remedy
that confers immortality. The Chinese historians report that
the fleet which bore them was shipwrecked, and that a single
bark returned with the news of the disaster. It is seen that the
Japanese annalists report the contrary. /Sln-fu was, according
to their statement, one of the physicians of the emperor of
China ; he introduced into their country arts and sciences which
they had not before known, and the Japanese have therefore
accorded divine honours to him.

It appears that the Chinese tradition of the three fabulous
islands, situated in the Eastern Sea, had its origin in the vague
ideas which they then had of Japan, which is really composed of
three large islands, which could only bo reached with difliculty
by navigators as inexperienced as the Chinese must have been at
that time. Other Chinese authors state that the island, or the
mountain, of P'ling-lai is found near an island situated to the
east of Cliang-houe, a district of T'ai-cheuy of the province of
Che-Many.

Mr. Mayers adds "*' that it is conjectured that this legend has
some reference to attempts at colonizing the Japanese islands ;
and M. de Rosny "" states that this expedition is mentioned by
a number of Japanese historians.

Klaproth mentions the fact that '*^' the Japanese proverbially
apply the name P'ung-lai shan to all places where treasure is
kept.

In Professor "Williams's Dictionary, -'*' the term ^ ^, lang
YUEx, is defined "Fairy-land." The characters mean a vacant or
unoccupied pasture-field, or park ; and as it is a fact that there
is much confusion between the Chinese accounts of "Fairy-
land " and of Fu-sang, this may possibly be a reference to the
vast plains of America, which, some centuries ago, were almost
uninhabited.

Mr. Medhurst '*" states that f^ ^ (pronounced Fu-satxg in
the Mandarin dialeci , and Iloo-song in the Hok-keen dialect) is
a kind of supernatuial mulberry-tree, that grows on the east of
the Kicun-lun hill, toward the sunrising ; hence the common
expression that the sun rises at Fu-sang.

It is reported"" that the name lucun-lun is applied to a
range of mountains, rendered famous in Chinese history and

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION.

253

legend, separating Thibet from Chinese Turkestan and the Des-
ert of Gobi. It starts from the Pushtikur Knot, in latitude 30°,
N., and runs along easterly nearly i»arallel between that and the
u5th degree. At the 9'2(\ degree of longitude, E., in the middle
of its course, it divides into two ranges, one declining to the
southeast — the Bajinkara, or Snowy Mountains — and unites
with the Yung Ling, or Cloudy Mountains. The other branch
bends northerly, and, under the various names of Kilicn Shan,
In Shan, and Ala Shan, passes tlirough Kansuh and Shinsi to
join the Inner Iling-ngan range. The Kwim-lun range is the
Olympus of China, and the supposed source of tlie yung-shwin.

Professor Williams states that the term ICwim means "a
peak beyond comparison," and adds that the Jvirwi-lun range is,
like the Caucasus among the Arabs, the fairy-land of Chinese
writers, one of whom says its peaks arc so high that wlien sun-
light is on one side the moonlight is on the other."" The En-
cyclopjedia Britannica "'* says that the name is derived from
the Chinese geographers, and is probably a corruption of some
Turkish or Thibetan word ; it appears to be unknown locally.
The name having been adopted, chiefly on the initiative of Hum-
boldt, before any correct geographical knowledge had been ob-
tained of the region to which it was applied, it has been used
with inconvenient want of precision, and this has encouraged
erroneous conceptions. Little precise information is available on
the subject. It is worthy of notice that the name ICtcun-lun is
also applied to an island in the China Sea (Pulo Condor Island),
probably in imitation of the Anamitic name Conor, or Koh-
noong."^^

As the characters ^ ^, Kavun-luk, are composed of the
radical for mountains, ^J, combined with the phonetics B ^^
KwuN-Lux, which, taken by themselves, mean ^^'^ "the canopy of
the sky," it seems possible that the name originally meant
"mountains reaching to the sky," and that it may have been ap-
plied to more than one high range, somewhat as the general
term "Alps" is applied in English.

As in some cases Chinese characters terminating in nasals are
intended to transcribe foreign words in which no nasal is found —
as, for instance, Kiang-lang is written for the Sanskrit Kdla, and
Thoiing-loung-mo for the Sanskrit drouma '"' — it does not seem
impossible that, in case suflicient reason is found for believing

i !!

;^ :

254

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the country of F«i-sang to bo identical with INfcxico, the name
Jucim-lun, as applied to the mountain-range east of which Fu-
sang is situated, may be used as the Chinese transcription of the
Mexican word Quauhtla, meaning a mountain, or a range of
mountains.'"'*

As an illustration of the knowledge of the country of Fu-
sang still preserved among the people of China, the following
translation of an account given by JMr. Chung Nam Shan, of
San Francisco, in September, 1883, may be found of interest :

"Some fifty ?« east of Canton there is a temple named the
temple of Po-lo, outside of the door of which there stands a statue
of a man who came from the country of Fu-sang. Here lip
lived for some years, and here he finally died ; and after his death
he was deified and his statue placed at the door of the temple.
He is represented as standing looking earnestly toward the east,
with his right hand shading his eyes. At some later date a visitor
to the temple wrote this stanza about him :

' Wlioro the sun rises, in the land of Fu-sang, there is my liome;
Seeking glory and riclies, I came to tlio Kingdom of tlie Central Flower;
Everywhere the cocks crow and the dogs bark, the same in one place as

lu another,
Everywhere the almond -trees blossom the same.' "

The last two linos are intended to bo consolatory to a man
that is homesick ; the assurance being that one place is substan-
tially the same as another, and the conclusion being that it is
therefore foolish to grieve for any particular place.

The Chinese believe that in " Fairy-land " (between which
mythical land and the coimtry of Fu-sang there is, as has been
mentioned, more or less confusion in their traditions), or in the
Kicun-lun mountains,"" there is a tree of stone,""' called k'i-kan,
*' the agate gem " ; '"' piii-shu, *' the green-jade-stone tree," "" or
LANG-KAN-siiu,'™ " the coral-troe " ; which myth it will here-
after be shown may have originated from a pun, or accidental
resemblance between two words of the Mexican language.

Before entering upon the discussion of the account given by
Ilwui Shan, it seems ntoessary to give his Gcory in full, in the
original Chinese, as preserved for us by Ma Twan-lin, and place
opposite to it the different translations that have been made
by the Chinese scholars who have given the subject attention.

This CO

doring

portant

NATURE OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

255

or
licre-
ental

This course is necessary, as the (lisaj^reements as to tljo true ren-
dering of various phrawes and characters arc numerous and im-
portant ; and llwui Shan's report will often bo found to be
true if a certain readintf, for which there is good authority, is
adopted, while, if the versions of other translators are accepted,
no confirmation of the statement can be found.

It is evident that, in cases in which some live or six translat-
ors differ radically as to the meaning of a certain clause, all but
one arc ct.Ttainly mistaken as to its true meaning, and it may
even be the case that no one of the translators has correctly ren-
dered it. The present author, therefore, while admitting that he
has no other knowledge of Chinese than such as he has been able
to obtain from the study of a few Chinese-English dictionaries
and grammars, during the time that he has been interested in the
question as to the true location of the country of Fu-sang, will
venture to give his own translation oi the account, differing in
some points from the version given by any of the celebrated
scholars who have preceded him. In all cases, however, the
authorities will be quoted in full upon which he relies as justify-
ing the changes in the translation ; and it is believed that these
authorities will be found sufficiently plain and decided, as to the
points in question, to enable all to see the reasons for the render-
ing that is given. As, moreover, he has had the assistance of a
number of native Chinese scholars, as well as of others who
have made a study of the Chinese language, some one or more
of whom he has consulted as to each doubtful point, he believes
that his translation will be accepted as giving at least as accurate
a rendering of the true meaning of the original as is found in any
of the earlier versions.

The principle has been adopted that, in all cases in which the
Chinese text may be understood in two or more ways, one of
which is true while the others are not, llwui Shun is entitled to
that translation which brings his story into conformity with
the truth. AVhilc there is certainly great danger, in attempting
a translation from the Chinese under this principle, that the
translator may fail to give the true meaning of the original text,
it nevertheless seems plain that if the account be true, such a
course will best bring out its truth ; while, if it be false, no in-
genuity can twist it into a true description.

The possibility of interpreting a sentence in several different

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25G

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ways arises from the pecuiiarities of the Chinese language.
While it is feasible to so convey a thought in Chinese that there
can be no misconception as to the true meaning, or as to the re-
lations which the different words of the sentence bear to one
another, and while this is usually done in the colloquial idioms,
yet in the written language it is made an object to convey the
conception with the least possible number of words or characters,
and clearness is therefore frequently sacrificed in favour of brev-
ity.

"Before all things," says Martin,"" "a Chinese loves con-
ciseness. While we construct our sentences so as to guard
against the possibility of mistake, he is satisfied with giving the
reader a hint of his meaning. Our style is a ferry-boat, that
carries the reader over without danger or effort on his part ; his
is only a succession of stepping-stones, which test the agility of
the passenger in leaping from one to another. ... In return
for a few hints, the reader himself supplies all the links that are
necessary for the continuity of thought."

It is said of Confucius, for instance."** that he studies the
utmost brevity and terseness, and frequently the most profound
Chinese scholars, without the aid of commentaries, are unable to
comprehend the meaning of his sentences. Even at this day,
among the Chinese, a writer can scarcely lay claim to classical
taste unless he is able to couch his thoughts in language so
brief and obscure as to require the aid of a commentator to
make them intelligible to the commoii leader.

Dr. Bretschneidcr states "* that, in translating from the Chi-
nese, the principal question is the understanding of groups of
words in their connection, or phrases, not of single words ; for
very often the single characters in a phrase lose completely their
jrij.'jinal meaning. In the dictionaries, for example, you find fu,
to assist, and ma, horse. But/w ma is not an "assistant horse,"
but is used in Chinese historical writings always to designate the
son-in-law of the emperor. Chinese literature is very rich in such
combinations and phrases formed by two or more characters ;
and the original meaning of the characters, in most of the cases,
does not serve to explain the phrases. It is in vain, then, that
you look for them in the dictionaries ; the greater part, although
often unknown to our European Sinologues, have come down by
tradition to the Chinese of the present day, and they are so

ill

1 ' *

■

NATURE OF TUE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

257

familiarized with those terms that they consider it superfluous
to incorporate them in the dictionaries. A Chinese dictionary
in a European language, with a good collection of phrases, is
still a desideratum. At least all existing dictionaries are of no
value to the reader as regards the Chinese historical style, and,
if he consults only Morrison's or other dictionaries, he runs the
risk of committing the greatest mistakes.

In Chinese historical writings, or narratives of journeys, one
meets with a great many proper names. The Chinese, in render-
ing names of countries or men, are obliged to represent every
syllable of the name by a similar sounding hieroglyph (it is
known that all Chinese words are monosyllabic). As every
hieroglyph has a meaning, it is sometimes difficult for a Euro-
pean scholar, translating without a native teacher, to distinguish
whether the characters represent only sounds, or whether they
must be translated. European translators have often committed
errors of this kind.

Another difliculty, to the European reader of Chinese books,
arises from the complete ignorance of the Chinese of our system
of punctuation. They have some characlc'-s which denote the
end of a period, but they seldom make use of them ; and gen-
erally one finds no break in a whole chapter ; so that the reader
must decide for himself where a point is to be supplied. An
erroneous punctuation sometimes changes the sense of the whole
period, or even the whole article.

Dr. Bretschneider adds that'" every Sinologue knows how
apt the ambiguous Chinese style is to give rise to misunderstand-
ings, and that often the Chinese themselves are unable to solve
the difliculties ; and he states"^ that he is of opinion, and thinks
every conscientious Sinologue will agree with him, that it is im-
possible to make correct translations from Chinese in Europe,
without the assistance of a good native scholar, except, of course,
those Sinologues who have studied the language in China, and
who have studied it for a long time.

Professor Max Mttller says that,"*' while the mere transla-
tion of a Chinese work into French seems a very ordinary per-
formance, M. Stanislas Julien, who had long been acknowl-
edged as the first Chinese scholar in Europe, had to spend
twenty years of incessant labour in order to prepare himself for
the task of translating the " Travels of Iliouen-thsang."
17

Ml'-*;.

258

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

As an illustration of the danger of misunderstanding a Chi-
nese text, the following translation of a Chinese ode, by Pro-
fessor Neumann, is quoted from the " Chinese Repository

. '> . 6Ta

•' Cease fighting now for a while,
Let us call back the flowing waves.
"Who opposed the enemy in time ?
A single wife could ovorpowo" him ;

Strean)ing witii blood, she grasped the mad offspring of guilt;
She held fust the man, and threw him into tbe meandering stream.
The Spirit of the Water, wandering up and down on the waves,
Was astonished at the virtue of Ying.

My song is at an end.
Waves meet each other continually ;
I see the water green as mountain Pcih,
But the brilliant fire returns no more.
How long did wo mourn and cry I "

" I am compelled," says Professor Neumann, " to give a free
translation of this verse, and confess myself not quite certain of
the signification of the poetical figures used by our author."
We will subjoin a less free translation :

It'.i:

•' The spirit of war has now ceased and vanished away ;
Let us go back in thought, returning like the winding stream.
Who was there that could then resist the foe,
When but a single female was found to insult his power?
With her blood she spat on the guilty wretch.
Then, despising life, she sank in the curling waves.
Her pure ice-like spirit now wanders over the stream.
Her courageous soul with hesitancy lingers behind.

" My song ended, I still loitered on the spot, and, casting a
look on all around, I saw tbe hills retaining tneir blueness, and
tbe sea its azure hue ; but the beacon smoke and the shadowing
masts return no more. Long I stayed disburdening myself of
sighs."

An instance of a still more radical misunderstanding of the
meaning of a Chinese sentence is given '" in tbe " Chinese Re-
pository," vol. iii, p. 72.

The quotations given above sufficiently show tbe difficulty
sometimes experienced in comprehending the exact meaning of

NATURE OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

259

a Chinese author, and hence it should not be considered as any
reflection upon the scholarship and superior knowledge of the
eminent gentlemen who have given translations of the Chinese
account of Fu-sang, if the present author, relying partly upon
the dictionaries and grammars of the language, and partly upon
the views of native scholars, ventures in some cases to differ
from his predecessors.

Although knowing far less in regard to the Chinese language
than i»ny of the celebrated scholars who have discussed Ilwui
Shftn's story, it is possible that the greater length of time, and
the more patient and careful study, which he has devoted to this
particular account, may have counterbalanced this disadvantage,
and may have enabled him to discover the true meaning of cer-
tain phrases which have heretofore been misunderstood.

1! f

ifiiH

CHAPTER XVI.

THE DESCRIPTION OP FU-SANG.

The Chinese authorities — Variations in the texts — The Chinese text — A literal
translation -Parallel translations of eight authors — The date of Hwui Shilu's
arrival in Cliina— The location of Fu-sang— The fu-sang trees— The deriva-
tion of the name of the country — The leaves of the fu-sang tree — Its fii>t
sprouts — Red pears — Tiiread and cloth — Dwellings — Literary characters-
Paper — Lack of arms — The two places of confinement — The diflferonce be-
tween them — The pardon of criminals — Marriages of the prisoners — Slave-
children — The punishment of a criminal of high rank — The great assembly —
Suffocation in ashes — Punishment of his family — Titles of the king and
nobles — Musicians — The king's garments— The changing of their colour —
— A ten-year cycle — Long cattle-horns — Their great size — Horse-carts, cattle-
carts, and deer-carts — Domesticated deer — Koumiss — The red pears preserved
throughout th3 year — To-p'u-t'aocs — The lack of iron — Abundance of cop.
per — Gold and silver not valued — Barter in their markets — Courtship — Tl e
cabin of the suito:' — The sweeping and watering of the path — The ceremonies
of marriage — Mourning customs — The worship of images of the dead — The
succession to the throne — A visit from a party of Buddhist missionaries —
Their labours and success.

The substance of the following account is found in the
Z/iiYiff-shii"" or " Records of the Liang Dynasty," contained
in the Nan-s/n, or "History of the South," written by Li Yen-
shau,* who lived at the commencement of the seventh centurj'.
The Nan-shi forms a portion of the Great Annals of China,
the N'ien-rh-shi, or " Twenty-two Historians."

Ma Twan-lin copied the account in his " Aiitiquarian Re-
searches " ; but as Mr. Leland states "'* that he gives the report
*' much more correctly," it is evident that he made such changes
as he thought the truth to require. A number of points, as to
which the different accounts vary, are noted by some of the trans-

* See Klaproth's account, given in chapter iii, and that of Professor Williams,
in chapter xiv.

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SAXG.

261

lators, but it is not likely that attention has been called to all tlie
variations. As the present author has been unable to obtain a
copy of any other than Ma Twan-lin's account, that alone is
given ; but in a few important cases, in which Mr. Leland and
tlie Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys have pointed out the
difference between the text of Ma Twan-lin and that of the
L'tang-shuy the character found in the latter is given in a note
in the column headed " Definition." It would be interesting to
compare the different Chinese versions of Hwui Shan's story,
and such a comparison would undoubtedly do mucli to remove
(littieulties and assist in bringing the truth to light ; when it
would probably be found that most of Ma Twan-lin's " correc-
tions," like those of some of our modern Shakespearean com-
mentators, resulted only from a failure to understand the
original text, and that it is necessary to reject them, in order
to arrive at the true meaning of the author.

The left-hand pages that follow contain the characters of Ma
Twan-lin's text, with their sounds, and Professor Williams's defini-
tions of their meaning, with a column showing the page of his
dictionary upon which they are found. In the last column is
given that English word which comes the nearest to expressing
the meaning of the Chinese character; and, by reading these
words in their order down the column, a literal translation of
the story will be discovered, which will, in most places, be found
intelligible — such English words as are necessary to show the
connection with one another of the characters, and the ideas
which they express, having been inserted in small type.

Upon the opposite pages eight different translations will be
found, being those of de Guignes, Klaproth, Neumann, de Ros-
ny, Julien, d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, Williams, and the present
author ; these being given in the order above-named, and an
English version of the first six being presented instead of the
original French or German of their authors. In making these
translations it has been my intention to follow the forf?ign text as
closely and literally as is consistent M'ith intelligibility and with
justice to the translators. It will be seen that, in a number of
cases in which my version of the Chinese text differs from that
of the majority, I am nevertheless supported by some one or
more of the scholars who have previously studied the subject.

i-i

'■1

\ ■ ,

202

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

8
4

6
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
IC

18
19

20
21
22

23
24

tfe

r ?■««.

Houud.

144

724

SANG

144

724

SANG

491

KWOII

CUE

900

TS'I

1149

YUNG

1134

YUEN

1134

YU^N

634

NIEN

342

K'l

491

Kwon

1113

YIU

730

SUA

576

MAN

266

IIWUI

•736

snAN

498

LAI

CHI

403

XING

CtlEU

789

sn\voH

1142

\UN

DBriNCTION,

To assiBt, support.
The mulberry tree.

Tnn»IatloD.

Same as 1.
Same as 2.

A state, country, region.

This, that ; indicates the sub-
ject of the proposition.

The name of a dynasty.

Perpetual, eternal, final.

The first, the commencement.

Same as 9.

A } ear.

Ke, she, it, that, there.

Same as 6.

To have, to be, existence.

Sand, gravel. ( Transcription

•< of the San-

A gate, a door. ( skritSramana.

Intelligent, wise, mild.

Deep, profound, learned.

To come, to reach.

To arrive, to, at.

A thorny bush

An islet, a dis-
trict, a region.

' Name of a
Chinese
political
district.

To speak, narrate.

To speak, say, circulate.

FU-
SANG.

FU-

SAN(}

COUNTRY

REGARDING :

in tho

roign of the

TS'I

dynasty.

In thu yuan called

EVERLASTING

FOUNDATION,
to the
FIRST

YEAR,

THAT

COUNTRY

HAD

a SHA.

MAN

named
IIWUI

SlllN

who
CAME

KING-

CHEU

ond

TOLD
the following

STORY :

1',

u
y.

1-5

tri

l-H

riv

[£

?•

■'! i

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

203

The following it) the account which has been prcBcrved for us. It was
given by a priest who went to China in the year 4UD a. d. iu th»> reign of
the Tey dynasty.

■J

y,
y.

H
Q

V'.

In the first of the years young tjuan of the reign of Fe-ti, of the dynosty
of Thai, a Chamen (or Buddhist priest) •'"lied //oei chin, arrived from the
country of Fusanff at King-tchcou. He related what folUjws :

Du.ing the reign of the Tui dynasty, in the first year of the years bear-
ing the designation " Eternal Origin " (i. e., in the year 499 of our era),
there came a Buddhist priest from this kingdom, who was called by his
cloister-name of llocischin, i. e., "Universal Sympathy," to King-tncheu—
an old name for ihe present district of IIu-Kuang and several adjoining
districts — who said :

(Xot translated.)

The liingdom of Fu-sang (was made known to the Chinese) in the first
ui year of the period Yong-Youen of the dynasty of the Thsi (499). In this
^ kingdom there was a Cha-men, named Hoci-chin, who came into the dis-
^ trict of King-tcheou. lie related that which follows :

In regard to the kingdom of Fu-sang, the first year, gunff.yoven, of the
dynasty of Tn, there was a Cha-men, or Buddhist priest of this kingdom,
called Hoci-chin, who arrived at the city of King-tcheou, and who reported
thu* which follows :

In the first year of the reign Yung-yuen of the emperor Tung Ilw&n-
hau, of the Tsi dynasty (a. d. 499), a Shaman priest named Ilwui-shin ar-
rived at "ing-chau from the kingdom of Fusang. He related as follows :

In the first year of the reign of the Ts'i dynasty, known by the desig-
nation YrNO-YuEN, or "Everlasting Foundation" (i. e., in the year
499 A. D.), a Shpman, or Buddhist priest, named Hwni Shan, came to
KiNO-CHEC from that country, and rarruted the following account regard-
<ng the country of Fu-sanq (or F0-sano-kwoh).

\ '

Wllfiin

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Ko.

Cbmct'r

Pi««.

eoUIMl.

DiriNITIUN.

TniMlaUuo.

144

•Same OH 1 .

FU-

724

HANO

Same as 2.

SANG

27
28

941
839

TSAI
TA

To bo In or ot, to dwell.
Great, chief, prominent.

IS SITUATED

trinn tlio

(illKAT

2t)

104

IIA\

A Chinese, relating to China ;
name of a river ; the niill(y
way.

II AN

80
81

401

930

Kwon

TUXO

Same as 9.

The spring of the year, cost,
eastward.

COUXTRY

to thu

EAST

—

721

'iUI

Two ; the second ; to duplicate.

TWICE

1040

WAN

Ten thousand ; many ; an in-
definite number.

TENTIIOUSAXl

1121

The lest, the remnants, super-
abundiint.

MURE

518

A Chinese mile, which has
been of various lengths,
from 1,158 to 1,894 feet.

(Chinejio mitea).
That

879

The earth, a place, land.

PLACE

87
88

«
*

941

105

TSAI
CHUNG

Same as 27.

The middle, center.

IS SITUATED
at the

MIDDLE

lis

491

KWOU

Same as 5.

COUXTRY

Sign of the genitive case.

930

TUNG

Same as 31.

EAST.

342

Same as 1 2.

THAT

920

The earth, a r 3gion, place.

REGION

huB

909

Numerous, many, often.

MAXY

144

Same us 1.

FU-

724

SANG

Same as 2.

SANG

*07
434

MUII
KU

Wood, a tree.

The cause, because, for, for-
merly, old.

TREES,

and it Is

BECAUSE

J i.d

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

205

H
O
U

5/5

The kingilom of Fiuauif U Rltimtcd twenty thouftand /i to the ea!«t of
the c-ountry of 7'ahan. It U uIku cant of t'hiuu. It proUuces u grvut
number of trees called /i«a«y,

t\Mang U twenty tlinuHand // to the east of the country of Tuhnn, and
c(|ually to the euHt of China. In thU country there grow many trees
called fusang,

Fusang la about twenty thousand Chinese miles distant from Ta-han
in an easterly direction. The land lies easterly from the Middle King-
dom. Many fusang trees grow here,

The country of Fou>s& is situated at the cast of the country of Tai-kan.
According to the authority of the work entitled Toimg-tien, Fou-s6 is dis-
tant from the country of Tai-kan in an easterly direction about 20,OUO li.
It is placed to the cat) of the " Middle Kingdom " (China). Many treci),
called Fou-86-mok {Hibiscus rota sinensis), arc found there. (In Japanese,
"song TBoi'Tsi Ni t'ou-86-MOK oNosi," " In hanc tcrram rou-80 [sic vocati]
arborcs roulti sunt "),

This kingdom is situotcd about twenty thousand li to the cast of the
kingdom of Ta-han. This country is to the east of the Middle Kingdom.
It produces a great number of fusang trees,

Fusang is situated more than twenty thousand /( to the cast of the
kingdom of Ta-han, and is equally to the cast of China. It contains
many fu-sang trees,

Fusang lies east of the kingdom of Ta-han more than twenty thou-
sand li; it is also cast of the Middle Kingdom. It produces many fu-
sang trees,

Fl'-sako is situated twice ten thousand li (Chinese miles) or more to
the east of the Great Han country. That land is also situated at the east
of the Middle Kingdom (China). That region has many fc-sano trc . ,
and it is from

■ \

]\l

U«]tl

AN iN(;i,()Ui()rs loi.rMiuis.

No.

ClmriM'i'r

''nv-

Poiiiul.
I

ItiriNiTioN.

Tritimliitliin.

4»

a78

Hjr ii)i>nni« nf, ti»
iisf, iiKiii);, tiik-
in;;, lit Hcrvc

Ollt''MH(<lf Willi.

lli'cnilM* ; til

(IIIIMillor UK,

III rrgnrd,
to lie of the

OV TIIKSK

tri>l<M lllttt lllry

1047

Wfcl

To iltt, to iimki'.

o|iinion.

tilVK

tllii IIIH III rv 1(1

=«

«()()

MIN(]

A iiniiio, 11 titlo, fuinouii.

NAMK.

tfe

144

Sumo M I.

Tho VV-

fta

724

SANCl

41 II t>

ham;

lOHl

YKII

Tlic IfiivcM of plantH.

LKAVKS

837

8Z'

liikc, appearing, n'HiMiililing.

UKSKMItl.i:

tt.'U

TTNO

Tin* luinioof R tree. (Ah (IiIh
I'liaruotor ililTorri from t\w
one givoti in tilt* Liiini/ Shu,
till' true roailiii^t Im univrtaiii.)

ami lliii

*»

oirii

To bot^iii, thf flrst.

KIIIST

742

suAxo

To priMluoo, boar, prow, conip
forth.

sruoi'TH

•r»>

«P

2i»7

Ah, liko, to oqtial.

LIKK

813

SICX

The li'ntler sliootHof banilioo.

< nAMUDO

'( SHOOTS.

'I'lm

401

KWOII

Sanio an S.

COrNTHY

286

j\s

A luinian boiiig.

I'KOPLR

7«6

Slim

To oat or drink, take focMi.

EAT

Samo an 40. A pronoun in
the acousativo.

THEM

«n(l llio (or a)

700

sum

Fruit of plantH ; real, solid.

FIU'IT

which Id

21)7

(^aino afl S9.

1!!

S15

A poar.

PKAU,

719

'im

And, if, stilt, on tlio contrary.

«LT

ft'.»

3^^

cniii

A reddish carnation ; liglit-rcd
colour.

REDDISH.
Thpy

ifi

980

Tsm

To spin thread.

SPIN' THREAD
friiin

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEIR

679

Skin, leather, a surface, bark.

BARK,

»
<

C
w

THE DKHCIMI'TION OK FlI-SANCJ.

207

friiin wlilfli liiiH ooiiH" tin* imiiip lM»nn« l»y tlio ooiintry. Tlic InivoH of tin-
fiUDiii;/ nil- xillliliir to ihoHc of tlu" lice wlilt li the CIlilirHi- cull limif. Wlicii
(licy HrMl appear, tlicy rcNcmiilc tlic HJiiMttM of tlio icciU ciillc<| liiiiiiltoor*,

•ixl the I pli< of the country c«t them. The fruit liii-i the form of ii

pfur, ami iiiclinea tuwurd rud in colour; from Uh hark lliey iniikc cloili,

of which tlic IcavoH reni<iiihli' thoMo of tlic f/tnutiff (lli^'tunilii Toinenti.-ii),
uiui lliu lirMl HhiHitrt (iioHC of tliu Imiiihoo. Tlic people of the country cut
them. Tli« hark of tliin tree in prepared in tlio muiiic wiiy uh that of hen.p,

whoKO leuvcM rcHcnihle till Dn^iiuilra Confi/olia, \mt the Hproiils, on tlin
(Hinlrury, thoHC of the Imnihoo, und iIichc are ciiten liy the inhiililtiinl^ of the
land. The fruit in itH form rcHcinhlcH a pvur, hut in red. A »ipecicrt of
linen cloth in prepared from tlie hark,

Tlicir IcaveH art^ similar to tlioHC of the tA tree; when tliey are voiinK
tliey arc like Imnihoo fiproutH, and the nativcH eat tlieiii. Their fruits iiro
like pearH, and of a rod colour. The tihvrH of the bark urc drawn out

and It in from thiM fact that it derivcH itH name. In Uh IcnvcH, the fu-
f«an{^ tree roHcmhlcH th(> tlion^ tree (Puullowiiia impcriiilis). Wlicii they
commence to i;row they are like the (edible) MiootH of the hnniboo. The
inhahitantH cat them. The friiitH of this tree rcHenible pearH, but they
arc red. They Hpin (the fibcrH of) the bark,

ond it Ih from this fact that its name Ih derived. The leaveH of tlie fu-
Mng tree arc similar to those of the long tree (occordinp to Leiand, the
Dri/anda cordatn or Klaofo<ya v«ruro»(i). When the /u-mh*; commences
to prow, it resembles the young sprouts of the bamboo, and the inhabit-
ants of the country eat it. Its fruit has the form of a pear, and i.s of a
red colour. From its bark they moke a cloth,

from which it derives its name. The leaves of the fnsnng resemble those
of the Uing tree. It sprouts forth like the bamboo, and the people eat
the shoots. Its fruit resembles the pear, but is red ; the bark is sjiun

these trees that the country derives its name. The leaves of the fi'-sano

resemble ? and the first sprouts arc like those of the bamboo. The

people of the country cat them and the (or a) fruit, which is like a pear
(In form), but of a reddish colour. They spin thread from their bark,

I "iii

ii*^

208

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

'Cbaract'r

Page.

Sound.

Definition.

Translation.

1
1047

w6i

Same as 50.

from which they
MAKE

flj

713

Cotton, linen, or hempen
fabricd.

CLOTH,

278

Same as 49.

OF WHICH

they

MAKE

/IrJ

1047

w6i

" " 60.

gfe

270

Clothes, garments.

CLOTHING,

1093

Yin

And, also.

AND

278

Same as 49.

OF WHICH

they

1047

Wl^I

" " 60.

MAKE

399

KIN

A kind of thin brocade.

FINER MATERIAL.

Tlie Liangshu has here

tlie character MIEN, j^,
which signifies fine silic,

They

soft.

1005

TSOII

To act, to do, to make.

MAKE

wilh

651

PAN

A board, a plank for
building adobe walls.

PLANKS OF THE
KIND USED FOR
BUILDING ADOBE
WALLS, their

1004

WUII

A house, a cabin.

HOUSES.

1059

None, not, destitute of.

They are
DESTITUTE OF

OII'LVG

A citadel, a walled city.

CITADELS
and

115

492

Kwon

The second wall of a large
city.

WALLED CITIES.
They

1113

YIU

Same as 14.

HAVE

1041

WiN

Lines, marks, literature.

LITERARY

literary.

1032

TSZ'

A character in writing;
writing.

CHARACTERS.

They

\iX

278

Same as 49.

USE

the

FU-

144

(i U 1

724

SANG

" " 2

SANG

9-t

679

It l( f^o.

BARK

-A

1047

Wfil

" " 50.

MAKE

Paper, stationery, a docu-
ment.

PAPER.

ir' '

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

209

H
Q

U
H
O

Ph
<

H
O

xn
h9

I— I

and other stuffs with which the people clothe themselves, and the boartls
which are made from it • ■ employed in the construction of their houses.
No walled cities are foi: . there. The people have a species of writing,

and cloth anu clothing are made of it. Flowered stuffs are also manu-
factured from it. Wooden planks are used for the construction of their
houses, for in this country there are no cities, and no walled habitations.
The inhabitants have a species of writing, and make paper from the bark
of theytMa«^.

and is used for clothing, and a species of flowered tissue is also prepared
from it. The houses u'c made of wooden beams. Fortified places and
walled places are unknown. Written characters are used in this land,
and paper is made from the bark of the fusang.

to make cloth, from which clothing is made.

The planks of the tree are employed to build their houses. In this
country there are no cities. The natives have a method of writing, and
they make clothing {sic) from the bark of the fou-so tree.

and from them make cloth to make their garments.

They also make from them a species of brocade (sir). (The inhabitants)
construct houses of planks. They have no walled cities. They huve a
writing, and make paper from the (fibers of the) bark of the fu-sang.

suitable for making clothing, and also thinner fabrics, which have the
appearance of silk. The houses are constructed of planks. Neither for-
tified cities nor walled enclosures are found in Fusang ; but the people
have a method of writing, and make paper from the bark of the fu-san<j.

into cloth for dresses ; and woven into brocade. The houses are made of
planks. There are no walled cities with gates. The [people] use charac-
ters and writing, making paper from the bark of the fit-ganff.

from which they make cloth, of which they make clothing. They also
manufacture a finer fabric from it. In constructing their houses they use
planks, such as are generally used when building adobe walls. They have
no citadels or walled cities. They have literary characters, and make
paper from the bark of the fu-saso.

270

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No. ICharact'r Pago.

i ? '

99
00
01

113
04
05

09
10
II
12
13
14

15
16
17
IS
19
20

Bound.

1059
698

356
717
461

342
491
123

1113
614

709

1139
296

1113
128
407

1016

299

614

1139

1016

108

PING

KIAH

PUII

KUNG

CEEX

K'l

KWOH

FAII

YIU

NAN

POII

Yun

JOII
YIU
FAN
K'ING
TSUI

Cllfi
JUII
NAN
YUII
TSUI
CHUNG

DEnNITlOW.

Same fn 85.

A soldier, troops, a weapon,
military.

Armour, a soldier, military.

No, not.

To attack, to fight with, to
rouse.

To join battle, a battle, war,
military.

Same as 12.

" " 6.

A law, a rule, a religion.

Same as 14.

The south, to go south, sum-
mer.

The north, to separate, op-
pose.

A prison, a jail.

As, if, perhaps, like.

Same as 14.

To offend, violate ; a criminal.

Light, not heavy, slight.

Trespass, crime, sin; pun-
ishment.

Same as 6.

To enter, go into.

Same as 107.

" " 109.

" " 114.
Heavy, weighty, important.

Translation.

They
ARE DESTI-
TUTE OF
MILITARY
; WEAPONS
and

ARMOUR,
and tbey do

NOT
WACIE

WAR

TUAT

KINGDOM.

According to their

RULES

(of law or religion)
they

HAVE
a

SOUTHERN

and a

NORTHERN

( PLACE OF
\ CONFINE-
/ MENT.
IF

they

HAVE

CRIMINAL

w?io has

SLIGHTLY
SINNED,

ENTERS
the

SOUTHERN

PRISON,

but if his

CRIME
WEIGHS

n
I

52;

O
Q

<=)

\->

1-1

P»

TDE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

271

H
O

en
O

•—I

and they love peace. Two prisons, one placed in the south and the other
in the north, arc designed to confine their criminals, with this diti'erencc,
that the most guilty

They have no weapons or armies, and do not make war. According to
the laws of the kingdom, there are a southern prison and a northern
prison. Those who have committed crimes that are not very serious arc
sent to the southern prison, but great criminals

The people have no weapons, and carry on no wars. According to the
regulations of the kingdom, there exist, however, a southern and a north-
em prison. The petty transgressors are shut up in the southern, and the
greater

They have no offensive weapons or defensive armour, and do not wage wars
between themselves.

They have neither armour nor lances, and do not wage war. According to
the laws of the kingdom, there are two prisons, that of the south and that
of the north. Those who have committed a misdemeanour of small mag-
nitude are confined in the southern prison ; and those who have committed
a crime

They have no soldiers, and no thought of making war. According to the
laws of their kingdom, there exist a northern prison and a southern pris-
on. Those who have committed crimes of little gravity are sent to the
southern prison, while the great criminals

There are no mailed soldiers, for they do not carry on war. The law of
the land prescribes a southern and a northern prison. Criminals convicted
of light crimes are put into the former, and those guilty of grievous of-
fences

They have no military weapons or armour, and they do not wage war in
that kingdom.

According to their rules (of government or of religion) they have a
southern and a northern place of confinement. An oifendcr who has
transgressed but slightly enters the eouthem place of confinement, but
if he has sinned heavily

272

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character

Page.

Sound.

DEFINRiOM.

121

cut

Same as 6.

122

299

jun

" " 116.

123

709

POH

" " 108.

124

1139

Yun

" " 109.

125

1113

YIU

" " 14.

126

748

SHE

To remit punishment, par-
don, forgive.

127

956

TSEH

A rule, law, precept; be-
cause, then.

128

135

FANG

To lot go, liberate ; indulge ;
to send away.

129

1*1

614

NAN

Same as 107.

130

1139

YUH

" " 109.

131

717

PUH

" " 100.

132
133
134
133
136

748
38
956
135
709

SHE

CHE

TSEH

FANG

roH

" " 126.
" " 6.
" " 127.
" " 128.
" " 108.

The«e three
wordi are not
fo u n d in the
text of Ma
Twan-Un. They
nro inserted
hero on the
authority of Mr.
Kwong Ki Chiu.

137

1139

YUH

" " 109.

138

941

TSAI

" " 27.

139

709

POH

" " 108.

140

1139

YUH

" " 109.

•

141

cnifi

" " 6.

142

614

NAN

The male of the human spe-
cies, a man, a son.

143

641

Women, a lady, a wife,
young.

144

790

SIANG

Mutually, together, to assist,
to examine, look at.

TranslatloD.

ENTERS

the

NORTHERN

PRISON.

If he limy

HAVE
PARDON,

THEN

he Is

SENT AWAY

to
(or possibly from

the)
SOUTHERN

PRISON,

but if there is

PARDON

for

HIM,

THEN

he is

SENT AWAY
to the

NORTHERN

PRISON.

The

DWELLERS

in the
NORTHERN

PRISON,

THOSE

MEN

and

WOMEN,

when they (have)

TOGETHER

o
o

f^ C(

J w

y^ in

< th

g th

« fir

111

y, '"^

H sou

P noi
^ tw<

>*, are

> pri

» par

^ reh

'% int.

t-i

H P"

e the

O hin

r fin(

^ noi

cor

«li

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

273

>5
v.

CO
I— I

arc placed in the northern prison, and arc afterward transferred into that
of the south, if they obtain their pardon ; otherwise they are condenmed
to remain all their lives in the first.
They are permitted to

are shut up in the northern one. Those who may receive their pardon
arc sent to the first ; those, on the contrary, to whom it can not be ac-
corded, are confined in the northern prison. The men and the women
who arc shut up in the latter are permitted to

in the northern prison, so that those who may be pardoned arc placed in
the southern jail, while, upon the contrary, those as to whom this is not
the case are confined in the northern prison. The men and women con-
fined here for life are allowed to

(Not translated.)

in the northern prison. If the culprit obtains pardon, he is put in the
southern prison, and if he does not obtain pardon, he is put in the
northern prison. In the northern prison, which receives criminals of the
two sexes, if a man and woman

are confined in the northern prison, in such a manner that the southern
prison receives those who may obtain pardon, while those who can not be
pardoned are placed in the northern prison, from which they can never be
released. Among the prisoners of the two sexes of the northern prison

into the latter. Criminals, when pardoned, are let out of the southern
prison ; but those in the northern prison are not pardoned. Prisoners in
the latter

he enters the northern place of confinement. If there is pardon for
him, then he is sent away to (or, possibly, from) the southern place of con-
finement, but if he can not be pardoned, then he is sent away to the
northern one. Those men and women dwelling in the northern place of
confinement, when they
18

■ 1

' i 1

ttii

i ■ : l' .

■ii

t ! : ■■

274

AN INGLORIOCS COLUMBUS.

5 !■ ■■

No.

Character.

I'ago.

Sound.

145

672

P'EI

146

4=,

742

SIllNG

147

614

NAN

148

647

PAII

149

827

SUI

160

1047

Wfil

161

640

162

742

SHlNG

163

641

164

413

KIU

155

C27

SUI

166

/»!i

1047

Wfil

157

676

168

i\L

128

FAN

169

1016

TSUI

160

CHI

161

736

SillN

162

CHI

163

>!:

836

SZ'

164

717

PUH

165

ttl

CH'UH

166

484

KWfil

167

286

JlN

168

1113

YIU

DEnUITlON.

A mate, a companion, aa a
wife; to pair, to mate,
equal.

Same aa 68.

" " 142.

Eight.

A year of one's age, age,
years, yearly.

Same as 60.

MAKE
them

A slave.

SLAVES,
but If they

Same as 68.

BEAR

(or hove borne)

" " 143.

FEMALE

children, at

Nine, many, deep.

NINE

Same as 149.

YEARS

of ago they

" " 60.

MAKE

them

A maiil-acrvant ; an
:icd female slave.

unmar-

< FEMALE
\ SLAVES.

The

Same as 112. (To transgress,

)

\ to commit a

V GUILTY

" " 114. ( crime

; guilty.

one

" «' 40.

The trunk, the body.

BODY

Same as 20.

UNTIL

(or at)

Death, to die.

DEATH
does

Same as 100.

NOT

Tr<>n8latlon.

MAIK

(d)
and

BEAR

(or have borne)

MALE

children ; at

EIGHT

YEAR?
0* at;t> they

To go forth, to go out.
Honourable, noble, good.
Same .9 62.
" " 14.

GO FORTH.
When a
NOBLE

MAN

HAS

H
O

t— (

l-H

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

275

' Tn I If la I Y

ill

marry, but their children arc made slaves. When criuiinala arc found
occupying one of the principal ranks in the nation

marry each other. The male children bom from these unions arc sold as
slaves at the age of eight years ; the girl« at the age of nine years. The
criminals who are confined there never come forth alive.
When a man of high rank

marry. The boys born of these marriages become slaves when eight
years old, but the girls not until they have passed their ninth year.
When a man of high rank

(Not translated.)

have commerce with each other, and, if a boy is bom, he is enslaved at
the age of eight years ; if a girl is born, she is enslaved at the age of nine
years. The men who 'lavc committed a crime remain in prison until their
death. When a nobleman

marriages are permitted. The children which are bom of these unions
become slaves, the boys at the age of eight years, and the girls at the age
of nine years. When a person of elevated rank

marry. Their boys become bondmen when eight years old, and the girls
bondwomen when nine years old. Convicted criminals are not allowed to
leave their prison while alive. When a nobleman (or an official) has

mate (or have mated) and bear (or have borne) children ; the boys are
made slaves at the age of eight years, and the girls at the age of nine
years. The criminal (or the criminal's body) is not allowed to go out up
to (or at) \he time of bis death. When a nobleman has

•^l^p^;

■

'j ^ ;

, .■ i t -j 1 . .

i :,

IHBlfe

1 y

*^76

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

CbarMter.

Page.

Bound.

DcriNITION.

Translation.

:i69

1010

TSUI

Same aa 114.

TRANSGRESSED,
the

COUNTRY

IVO

491

KWOII

" " 5.

172

286
839

jAn

" " 62.

" " 28.

PEOPLE,

in a
GREAT

173

264

nwui

To collect, asaemble ; an as-
sembly, ni> ng.

'.SSEMBLY,

174

176

±
m

1002
1016

TSO
TSUI

To sit, 8(iuat, kneel ; to sit
in judgment on.

Seme as 114.

SIT

In judfrment
on the

TRAySGRESSING

176

286

jlN

" " 62.

MAN,

177
178

1118
323

YU
K'ANG

A preposition, id, at, on,
with, by, to b«3 in, to oc-
cupy a positijn.

A ditch, excavation, pit;
a tumulus.

j EXCAVATED
( TUMULUS.

179

924

TUI

To front, opposite, to re-
spond, a sign of the da-
tive.

IN FRONT OF

180
181

63
1090

YEN

Same as 40.

A feast, a banquet, merri-
ment.

niM

they

FEAST

and

182

«t

1102

YIN

To drink, to recei 'e, con-
cealed.

DRINK,

and

183

129

FlN

To separate, divide, share,
distribute.

SEPARATE

from him

184

447

KCEH

Parting or dying words, a
farewell, to ta' 3 leave

TAKING LEAVE
of him

186
186

296
836

JOH

SZ'

Same as 110.
" " 163.

AS
If tVom a
DYING

187

684

PIEH

To separate, divide, to
part, to leave, a parting,
moreover.

man
SEPARATING

188

1082

YEN

A final affirmative particle.

TRULY.

189

278

Same as 49.

WITH

190

260

HWUI

Ashes, embers, lime, dust.

ASHES
they

SURROUND

191

292

JAO

To wind around, to be en-
tangled in, to go about,
to environ.

192

CHI

Same aa 40.

HIM

I— I

p:;

I— I

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANQ.

277

tho othor chiefs assemble around them ; they place them in a ditch, and
hold a great feast in tlieir presence. They are then judged. Those who
have merited death arc buried alive in ashes,

commits a crime, the people assemble in great numbers. They sit down
face to face with the criminal, who is placed in k ditch, and regale them-
selves with a banquet, and take leave of him aii of a dying man. Then
he ia surrounded by ashes.

commits a crime, a great assembly of the people of the kingdom is called,
and a banquet is held in the presence of the criminal, which takes place
in an excavation. There they bestrew him with ashes, and take leave of
him as of a dying person.

(Not translated.)

commits a crime, the inhabitants gather together in a great asser bly.
The culprit is placed in a subterraneous place, and food and drink are
placed before him ; then they take leave of him as when one takes leave
of one that is dead. He is surrounded with ashes.

commits a crime, the people of the kingdom assemble in great numbers,
place the criminal in an excavation, celebrate a banquet in his presence,
and take leave of him as of a dying man. Then ho is surrounded with
ashes.

been convicted of crime, the great assembly of the nation meets and
places the criminal in a hollow (or pit) ; they set a feast, with wine, be-
fore him, and then take leave of him. If the sentence is a capital one,
at the time they separate they surround (the body) with ashes.

committeJ a crime, the people of the country hold a great assemblage and
sit in judgment on the culprit, in an excavated tumulus. They feast and
drink before him, and bid him farewell when parting from him, as if
takmg leave of a dying man. Then they surround him with ashes

' I

1 . i

7
1

■

( a

■'i

; jm

|W«S

fj,r-r-

y?8

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

■ 1

\i'.m

No.

Character.

193

IPl

1)5

100

107

~. *^

108

190

200

201

202

203

204

205

-R

206

207

208

— '

200

210

211
21?.
213

214

215

216

Piffe.

842

1096

108

066

1006

736

702

020

721
108
050
735
394

1030
829

723
108
38
956
394
987

763

600
491

Bound.

K'l
CHUNG

TSEII

Yin

siiAn

FIXG

TTI

'RII

CHUNG

TSEU

siiAn

KIH

TSZ'

SUN

SAN
CHUNG

ch6

TSEH
KIH
TS'in

SHI
MING

Kwon

DariNiTioN.

Same aa 12.

Jno, tho first, tho same.

Same as 120, To ropoat, to
add, a time, n^^uin, a ela-ssi-
fier of thickuens or layers.

Same as 127.

•' " 194.

" " 101.

To
keep
back.

A screen-wall, a de-
fence, to liide, to
oxpel, to reject ; to
spoil, as robbers.

To retreat, draw back,
abate, yield.

Same as 32.
" " 120.
" " 127.
" " 101.

To effect, to reach to, to im-
plicate, also, concerning.

A child, a son, a boy, an heir.

A grandson, a grandchild,
suckers.

Three, thrice, several.
Same as 120.

" " 6.

" " 127.

" " 205.
Seven.

An age, a generation ; the
world; times, seasons.

Same as 51.

" " 6.

Tranilution,

TIIEHE.

Ifof

0.\E
WEIGHT,

THEN
ONE

BODY

(or person ) was

HIDDEN

AWAY,
Ifof

DOUBLE

WEIGHT,

THEN

tho

BODIES

wore

IMPLICATED

of the

CHILDREN

and

GRANDCHIL.
DREN,

Ifof

TRIPLE

WEIGHT,

THOSE

THEN

were

IMPLICATED

SEVEN

GENERATIONS,

The

TITLE

of the

COUNTRY

>-■

nis

•-s

put

>h'

ish

reii

tho

1— t

his

■<

the

per

t-H

CI'll

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-8ANG.

279

u
w

(73

<)
I— I

1-4

and their posterity ifl punished according to tliu magnitude of the crime.

For on oflfcnso of iittic gravity, the criminal iilonc Is puniHiicd, but for
a groat crime, the cuiprit, hi.t sonx, and grandsons, are punixhi-d ; finally,
for tlic greatCHt ofTenscH, Ids dei^cendauts to the Bcvintli generation arc
included in the punishment.

If the tranngrcflsor is of low rank, ho alone is punished ; if of higher
rank, the punishment falls upon his cluldrcn and grandchildren also, and,
if of the highest rank, the punishment reaches to the seventh generation.

(Not translated.)

If a man has committed a grave crime, ho alone Is cut off from society.
If he has committed two grave crimes, the same punishment Is visited
also upon his children and his nephews ; if he has committed three, this
punishment is extended to the seventh generation.

If the crime is only one of the first degree, the crim lal alone is pun-
ished ; if the crime Is of the second degree, his children and grandchild-
ren are punished with him ; and, finally. If the crime Is of the third degree,
the descendants of the criminal to the seventh generation arc included in
his chastisement.

For crimes of the finit grade, the sentence involves only the person of
the culprit ; for the second. It reaches the children and grandchildren ;
while the third extends to th? seventh generation.

there. For a single crime (or a crime of the first magnitude), only one
person (the culprit) was hidden (or sent) away. For two crimes (or a
crime of the second magnitude), the children and grandchildren were
included in the punishment. For three crimes (or a crime of the third
magnitude), seven generations were included in the punishment.

ill

'li.i

! ! ; t

280

AN IN(JL()UIOL'S COLUMUUS.

No.

217

218
210

S20

221
222
223

224
22S
220
227
228

229
230
231
232
233

234
235
230
237

238
239
240

CbarooUir

S
n

A-

I'lff*.

Hound.

1043

WANG

1047

Wl5l

1096

YIII

84 S

K'l

484

KWftl

286

JAN

879

1095

YIII

Cllfi

1047

W^I

924

TUI

654

879

721

'RH

cut

1047

Wl5l

796

SIAO

924

TUI

654

879

723

SAN

cn^

1047

Vitl

611

NAH

DiriNiTiim.

A klti)^, a rulur, royal, tu bo
a king.

ijaniv a.i 6(),

One ; l)cnt ; often tmcd am a
|u-(!iintic I'onn of — YIII,
nifuning, one, tbo tirxt.

Full, sbiiiulant, very, largo,
nitnieruuH, itiuUltuUt'ti, a
crowd of people.

Same aa 100.

" " 62.

A Hcrie«, an order. Placed
before figiireH, it forms the
ordinal nuwbera.

Same as 194.

" " 6.

" " 60.

" " 179.

A vesHcI for containing rice,
a firo-pan, a grog-sliop,
black.

Same as 223.
" " 82.
" " 6.
" " 60.

Small, little, inferior.

Some as 179.

" " 228.

" " 223.

" " 208.

" " 6.

" " 60.

To enter, to receive, to insert,
within.

Truuilutlon.

KINO

MADK

thu

CHIEF
oftb*

MULTITUDES.

TiM

NODLE

MEN

of the

FIRST

rank,

THESE
ore

MADE

TUI-

LU;

of the

SECOND

rnnk,
THESE

ore
MADE

LITTLE

TUI-

LU;

of the

THIRD

rank,

THESE

oro
MADE

NAU-

hit

«;

ani

cia

thi

•

hoi

tho

<-»

ton

fn.

-t,

>-i

isc

N.4

►c

ruL

5«

O
BS

tit

o
u

-(J

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-HANG.

2S1

Tho kin); bean the titio of nolilo Ychi, tlio nublei of the natiun after
him arc tho grt-at tuil potty 'J'oui/-Ioh, oiid tlio

Tho name of tlic king of the country is Y-khi (or Yit-k/ii). Tlio niil)I('(«
of tlio flrHt eluMrt lire callud Toui'lou ; thoHo of the Hoi-ond, litlU Toui-Um ;
and thoHo uf the third

Tlio name of tho king i« prononncod "Irhi^^; tho nnhloo of tho first
cloHH are called "7ui7u"; the secuiid cluss, ^'Little Tnilu"; und those of
tho third class

They give to their king the name of Kiki-ziii, that is to sny, " tho most
honourable man,"

The king Is called I-ki. Tho nobles of the first class are tho Touilou ;
those of tho second class, the lillle ToiiUou ; those of the third class, tho

The king is called Y-ki. The nobility of the first class arc called toui-
lou ; those of the second class, little toui-lou ; and those of the third class

The king of this country is termed yueh-ki ; the highest rank of nobles
is called tui-lu ; the next, little tui-lu ; and the lowest.

The title of the king of the country is " The chief of the multitudes."
The noblemen of the first rank are called " Tni-Ui'''' ; those of the second
rank, " Little Tui-lu "; and those of the third rank.

il-

282

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character

Page.

Sound.

Definition.

Translation.

241

921

TUU

To speak to one another, to
talk.

TUII

212
243

730
491

SUA
KWOII

Same as 16.
" " 5.

SHA.

The

COUNTRY

244
245

246

1043

207

1113

WANG
IlING

YIU

" " 217.

To step, to go to walk, to act,
to do.

Same as 14.

KING,

when ho
WALKS

abroad,

HAS

247

434

A drum, to drum, to excite.

DRUMS

248

409

KIOII

A horn, a corner, to gore.

HORNS

249

867

TAG

To lead, to conduct.

LEADING

250

1024

TS'UNG

A clan, a family, posterity, to
follow, followers.

FOLLOWING.

261

342

K'l

Same as 12.

HIS

262

270

II II hn

CLOTHES

253

727

SEII

Air, manner, form, colour,
hue, complexion, mode,
sort, glory, beauty.

COLOUR,

254

826

SUI

To accord, to follow, to com-
ply with, according to.

ACCORDING TO

the

255

634

NIEN

Same as 11.

YEARS'

256

iSt

307

KAI

To change, to alter, to amend,
to correct.

CHANGES,

257

281

YIII

The mutations or alterations
in nature, as of the sun or
moon; to change.

IS CHANGED.
The

258

355

KIAH

Same as 99. The first year of
the cycle.

FIRST
and

259

1096

YIH

Same as 219. The second year
of the cycle.

SECOND

260
261

634
995

NIEN
TS'ING

Same as 11.

The green of plants or the
blue of the sky.

YEARS,

they are

BLUE

(or green) ;

the

262

699

PING

The third of the ten stems.

THIRD

and

FOURTH

263

903

TING

The fourth of the ten stems.

264

634

NIEN

Same as 11.

YEARS,

i/j

Na-

H-^

abr(

hon

the

•■J

tiny

"A'a

«.)

horr

two

Wh(

111
o

Ate

the 1

are

Na-t

horn

the

»->

1-5

year

na-h

trun

garn

calk

ping

1/5

no-c

drur

intl

NAH

cede

lit

H
C

y<
P

5?5

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

288

Na-to-cha. The prince is preceded by drums and horns when he goes
abroad. He changes the colour of his garments every year.

Na tucha. When the king goes forth, he is accompanied by drums and
horns. He changes the colour of his garments at different epochs. In
the years of the cycle kia and i, they are blue ; in the years pinff and
tinff,

"A^a-to-scha." When the prince goes out he is accompanied by drums and
horns. The colour of his clotlies is different in different years. In the
two first of the ten-year cycle they are blue ; in the next two,

When the latter walks abroad be is accompanied by drums and trumpets.
At different periods of the year he changes the colour of his garments. In
the cyclic years kia and i, they are blue ; in the years ping and ting, they
are

Na-to-cha. When the king goes forth, he is accompanied with drums and
horns. The colour of his garments is changed according to the years. In
the years marked with the cyclic signs Kia and I they are green ; in the
years marked with the cyclic signs Ping and Ting they are

na-to-cha. When the king goes abroad he is accompanied w ith drums and
trumpets, which precede and follow hiu. He changes the colour of his
garments according to the order of the years. In the years (of the cycle
called) kia and y his garments are of a blue or green colour. In the years
ping and ting they are ^f a

no-ehasha. When the king goes abroad he is preceded and followed by
drummers and trumpeters. The color of his robes varies with the years
m the cycle containing the ten stems. It is azure in the first two years ;
in the second two years it is

NAH-To-SHA. The king of the country, when he walks abroad, is pre-
ceded and followed witli drums and horns. The colour of his garments is
changed according to the mutations of the years. The first and second
years (of a ten-year cycle) they are blue (or green) ; the third and fourth
years they are

■

I '

ii :

284

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No, Character Page.

265
266
•267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274

275
276
277

278
279

280
281

282

283
284

283

286
287

288

72
1063
337
634
252
321
806
634
706
287
483
634
218
1113
638

409
27

278
409
941

1065

60
771

721

Sound.

cH'in
wu

NIEN

HWANG

kAng

SL\
NIEX
POH
JiN
KWEI
NIEN

noil

YIU

NIU

KIOII
CH'ANG

Kion

TSAI

wun

CHI
SUING

'RH

DEriNIT10»,

Same as 69.

The fifth of the ten stems.

The sixth of the ten stems.

Same as 11.

The colour of earth, yellow.

The seventh of the ten stems.

The eighth of the ten sterna.

Same as 11.

White, clear, bright, pure.

The ninth of the ten stems.

The last of the ten stems.

Same as 11.

Black, dark.

Same as 14.

An ox, a cow, a bul!, cattle,
some kinds of deer.

Same as 248.

Long, in time or distance,
constantly, direct, straight,
old, to grow, too heavy.

Same as 49.

" " 248.

A year, to contain, to fill in,
to bear.

A thing, matter, substance,
an article, goods.

Same as 20.

To bear, to sustain, to raise,
to conquer, to excel, supe-
rior, best, excellent, to add.

Same as 32.

Translation.

RED;

the

FIFTH

and

SIXTH
YEARS

YELLOW;

the

SEVENTH

and

EIGHTH
YEARS

WHITE ;

the

NINTH

and
TENTH

YEARS

BLACK.

They

HAVE
CATTLE-

HORNS ;

the

LONG

ones are

USED

of the

HORNS
TO CONTAIN

THINGS.

They

REACH

the

BEST

of them, to

TWICE

red ;

final

The

as m

red ;

oxen

the I

red, (

red;

in the

in th(

have

weigh

of a

white

jtn at

tr^

is son

XTl

Hi.

red ;

two y

things

red; i
white
which
best

ilii

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

285

y.
<
u

t<5

1-9

>^
(-(

y.
I— I

The cattle of the country bear a considerable weight upon their horns.

red ; in the years on and ki, yellow ; in the years Tcmg and s««, white ;
finally, in those which have the characters jin and kouei^ they are black.
The cattle have long horns, upon which burdens are loaded which weigh
as much sometimes as

red ; in the two following years, white ; and in the two last, black. The
oxen have such large boms that they contain as much as ten sheepskins ;
the people use them to keep all kinds of goods.

red, etc.

red ; in the years marked with the tigns Meou and Ssc, they are yellow ;
in the years marked with the cyclic signs Keng and Sin, they are white ;
in the years marked with the signs Jin and Kouei, they are black. They
have cattle whose horns are very long, and who bear upon their horns a
weight as great as

of a red colour ; they are of a yellow colour in the years on and ki; of a
white colour in the years kcng and dn; and of a black colour in the years
jin and koud. Ox-horns are found in Fusang so large that their capacity
is sometimes as great as two

red ; it is yellow in the third ; white in the fourth ; and black in the last
two years. There are oxen with long horns, so long that they will hold

things — the biggest as much as

red ; the fifth and sixth years, yellow ; the seventh and eighth years,
white ; and the ninth and tenth years, black. They have cattle-horns, of
which tlie long ones are used to contain (some of their) possessions, the
best of luem reaching (a capacity of) twice

iiit

286

No.

Character.

289

290

291

292

iiv

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

801

302

803

304

805

-tr.

306

807

308

309

810

811

812

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Page.

768

233

1113

671

89
633

39
562

89
491
286

1072

562
297
105
491

638
278
298

1047
663

1113

Bound.

sHin

UUH

YIU

(Same aa 14)

CH'E
NIU
CH'E
LUU

CH'E
KWOH

JAN
YANG

Lun

jOr

CHUNG

KWOH

CH'UH

NIU
I

Wlf.1
LOU

YIU

CH'in

t)KnjIITIO».

Ten.

(From n peck measure and a horn.)
The Cbini'Be bushel, holding ten
pecks, or a picul, accordio); to
some : but the conimoD table
makes It measure five pecks, or
half a picul. At Shan);hai the
huh for rice holds only '2'()0 pints,
and that for peas, 1-hO pint. The
Ituddhists use it for a lull picul
of liJ8^ lbs., 8V., but the Iliiulu
drona, which the huh represents,
weighs only T lbs. 11 oz., av.

A horse, warlike, quick as a
horse.

A wheeled carriage, a cart.

Same as 279.

" " 293,

A deer, especially the males ;
stags which have horns.

Same as 293.

" " 5.

" " 62.

To nourish, rear, bring up,
tame ; to raise, educate.

Same as 296.

" " 59.

" " 38.

" " 5.

To rear, to feed, to raise, to
domesticate.

Same as 279.

" " 49.

Milk, milky, the breasts, the
nipple ; to suck, to nurse.

Same as 60.

Cream, dried milk, racky [kou-
miss] from mare's milk.

Same as 14.
" " 69.

Translation.

TEN
times as much
as an ordinary
HORN-MEAS-
URE.

They

HAVE

HORSE-
CARTS,
CATTLE-
CARTS,

and
DEER-
CARTS,

The

COUNTRY

's
PEOPLE

RAISE

DEER

in the

MIDDLE

KINGDOM

thev

RAISE

CATTLE.
FROM

MILK

they
MAKE

KOUMISS.
They

HAVE

the
RED

!25

thi

th(

cai

rni

)-}

!zi

•<

hei

hin

•

if\

fro

tWf

!?;

»-H

rai

hui

als

inh

fiv(

thf

ter

'a^

cai

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

287

'IM

&
Q

They arc harnessed to wagons. Ilorscs and deer arc also employed for
this purpose. The inhabitants feed hinds, as in China, and from them
they obtain butter. A species of red

twenty ho (of 120 Chinese pounds). In this country they make use of
carts harnessed to cattle, horses, and deer. They rear deer there as they
raise cattle in China, and make cheese from the milk of the females.
A species of red

Horses, oxen, and deer are also harnessed to wagons. Deer are raised
here as cattle are in the " Middle Kingdom," and from the milk of the
hinds butter is made. The red

I— (

I— <

The natives raise deer, as cattle are raised, and make creamy dishes
from the milk of the animals.

twenty ho (the ho is a measure of ten bushels).

They have carts drawn by horses, cattle, and deer. The inhabitants
raise deer as cattle are raised in China. They make cheeses from milk.
There is a species of red

hundred bushels. They are used to contain all sorts of things. Carriages
also may be seen, to which horses, cattle, and deer arc harnessed. The
inhabitants raise deer as cattle are raised in China ; the milk of the hinds
makes part of their food. They gather the red

five pecks. Vehicles are drawn by oxen, horses, and deer ; for the people
of that land rear deer just as the Chinese rear cattle, and make cream of
their milk. They have red

ten times as much as the capacity of a common horn. They have horse-
carts, cattle-carts, and deer-carts. The people of the country raise deer
as cattle are raised in the Middle Kingdom (China). From milk they
make koumiss. They have the red

1 'i

'Mill

■ ■ ■

iitiij

J:|

288

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

CharactM.

Pago.

Sound.
LI

DEnNITION,

Translation.

313

616

Same as 67.

PEARS

314

404

KING

The warp ; to pass through ;
laws ; religious manuals.

THROUGII-

out the

316

=¥

634

NIEN

Same as 11.

YEAR

SIO

717

PUH

" " 100.

UN-

317

244

HWAI

Going or gone to ruin, to
spoil, to injure, to perish,
spoiled, useless.

SPOILED,
and

818

909

Same as 44. Many ; numer-

319

715

ous.

The cat-tail rush, the cala-
mus, or sweec-flag.

P'U-

820

870

T'AO

A peach, a nectarine, a flower-
bud.

T'AO-

ea.

821

342

Same as 12.

ITS

322

879

" " 36.

GROUND

823

1059

" " 85.

DESTITUTE OF

824
325

893
1113

T'lEH
YIU

Iron, made of iron, firm.
Same as 14.

IRON,
but It
HAS

826

327

934

T'UNG
PUH

Copper, brazen, coppery.
Same as 100.

COPPER.

They do

NOT

828

484

KWEI

" " 166.

VALUE

829

398

KIN

Gold, gilded, yellow, precious.

GOLD
or

330

1101

YIN

Silver, money, wealth.

SILVER.

Their

831

762

SHI

A market, crowded, vulgar,
to trade, salable.

MARKETS

are

332

1059

Same as 86.

DESTITUTE OF

333

ffl

1007

TSU

Rent or tax in kind from
fields ; rental ; income ;
taxes.

TAXES

and

834

433

To estimate, reckon, guess,
think, set a price on ; value,
worth, price.

FIXED PRICES.
When

836

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEY

836

2G8

HWUN

A bridegroom, a husband, to
marry a wife.

MARRY,

U'i

poo

1-^

iriH

ant

pea

tier

The

not

arc

pear

grap

>-9

habi

not

pear

RYE

grap

tain

'All

valu

fixec

pear

are (

not

fixec

c
y

THE DESCRirilON OF FU-SANG.

289

pear is found there, which is kept for a year without spoiling ; also the
iris, and peaches, and copper in great abundance. They have no iron,
and gold and silver are not valued. He who wishes to marry

pear Is found there which is preserved throughout the year. There are
also many vines. Iron is lacking, but copper is found. Gold and silver
are not esteemed. Commerce is free, and they do not haggle at all.
The practices regarding marriages are as follows :

pears of the fusang trees keep good throughout the whole year. In addi-
tion, there are many apples and reeds, mats being made from the last.
Tlierc is no iron in this country, but copper is found. Gold and silver are
not valued, and do not serve as the medium of exchange in the markets.
Marriages are concluded in the following manner :

c
«

In thii country theie is no iron, but there is copper,
arc not valued. In the markets no duties are levied.

Gold and silver

1-5

pear which can be preserved for a year without spoiling. Thi arc many
grapes. No mines of iron exist, but copper is very abundant. The in-
habitants do not esteem either gold or silver. The public markets arc
not subject to any duty. The laws relating to marriage are as follows .

> I

xsi

pears which arc preserved for an entire year, and they also have many
grapes. Their land docs not contain any iron, but they ha^e copper, ob-
tained from their mines. Gold and silver among them have but little
value. The markets arc free, and that which is sold does not have a
fixed price. In regard to marriage,

pears which will keep a year without spoiling ; water-rushes and peaches
arc common. Iron is not found in the ground, though copper is ; they do
not prize gold or silver, and trade is conducted without rent, duty, or
fixed prices.
In matters of marriage

pears kept unspoiled throughout the year, and they also have tomatoes.
The ground is destitute of iron, but they have copper. Gold and silver
are not valued. In their markets there are no taxes or fixed prices. When
they marry,

I. ;

290

AN INGLORIOCS COLUMBUS.

No.

337
838
839

840

841

842

843
844

845
846
847

848

849

850

851
852
853
854

Sj5
856

857

858

859
860

Character.

ill

Page.

123

966

790

1044

641
351

676
1037

Sound,

FAH

TSEII

SI
WANG

NO
KIA

MAX

WAX

1006

Tson

10C4

WUH

CK'AN

804

SIU

731

SUA

726

SAO

404

KING

638

NIEN

719

'RH

641

717

pun

1131

YUEH

9S4

Tsin

443

K'C

CHI

790

SIANG

Dkfi.nitiom.

Translation.

Same as 105. ) A rule, a pat-
> tern to go
" " 127. ) by.

A son-in-law.

It Is the
RULE

THEN
for the Intfiiillni;
SON-IN-LAW

To go, formerly, past, the fu-
ture.

TO GO

and the

Same aa 143.

WOMAN

A liousehold, a family, a
dwelling.

DWELLING

Same as 10.

DOOR

Outside, beyond, foreign, to
exclude.

OUTSIDE

Same as 82.

TO MAKE

" " 84.

Morning, dawn.

Evening, dusk, the last day
of a month or year.

HOUSE
(or cabin).

MORNING
and

EVENING

To sprinkle, to scatter, deep
water.

SPRINKLES

and

To sweep, to brush, to clean
up, a broom.

SWEEPS
(the ground)

Same as 314.
" " 11.

THROUGII-

outa

YEAR,

" " 68.
" ' 143.

AND

if the

WOMAN

NOT

" " 100.

Contented, delightful, to
agree to, willing.

PLEASED

with him.

Eating, to go, now, soon, then,
forthwith.

THEN

she

To turn animals out of a field,
to drive on, to lash, to or-
dor people into their prop-
er places.

SENDS AWAY

Same as 40.
" " 144.

HIM ;
but if they are
MUTUALLY

ev(

COE

tlio

niK

I-!

not

the

one

the

Icav

Til

hous

the p

>-j

sends

the c
i«

ing f
woma
the ei
plea8(

It IS

doorc
ing ui
bids h

it is tl
side o:
marry
a year
him ai

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG

291

'A
O

til

O
y,

1-1

builds a house or cabin near that of the maid whom he desires to wed,
ond takes care to spriniile a certain quantity of water upon the ground
every day during the year ; he finally marries tlie maid, if she wishes and
consents ; otherwise, he goes to seek his fortune elsewhere.

He who desires to wed a girl, establishes his cabin before the door of
the latter ; he sprinkles and sweeps the earth every morning and every
night. When he has practiced this formality for a year, if the maid will
not give her consent, he desists ; but if she is

the nan builds himself a hut before the door of the house in which the
one lives whom he desires ; morning and evening he sprinkles and clears
the ground. When a year has passed, if the maiden docs not consent, he
leaves her ; but if she

(Not translated.)

The future son-in-law goes into the family of the girl and constructs a
house outside of her door; morning and night he waters and sweeps
the place. If, at the end of a year, the girl feels no love for him, she
sends him away ; but, if they are smitten with love for each other,

the customs of the country are as follows : the suitor constructs a dwell-
ing for himself before the door of the house in which dwells the young
woman whom he seeks. Morning and evening he sprinkles and sweeps
the earth in this place. At the end of a year, if the young woman is not
pleased, she sends him away ; and, in the contrary case,

it is the law that the (intending) son-in-law must erect a hut before the
door of the girl's house, and must sprinkle and sweep the place morn-
ing and evening for a whole year. If she then does not like him, she
bids him depart ; but if she is

it is the custom for the son-in-law to go and erect a house (or cabin) out-
side of the door of the dwelling of the young woman (whom he desires to
marry). Morning and evening he sprinkles and sweeps (the ground) for
a year, and, if the young woman is not pleased with him, she then sends
him away ; but if they arc mutually

1 1

. ! i

2'J2

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS,

No.

CbMTMter.

Paga.

Sound.

DcriMiTioN.

Tranilatloo.

361

Ift

1131

YUEII

Suinc ns 856.

PLKASEI),

862

612

NAI

But, it may ho, doubtless,

TIIK.V

jnoreover, if, tlion, there-

they

863

CH'INO

upon.
To Hnisii, to couiplcte, to ac-

COMPLETE

complish.

the

864

268

IIWUN

Same an 330.

MARKIAdK'.

Tlu-
MARRIAGE

860

208

IIWUiN

" " 336.

866

620

An act, particularly on act of

CEREMONIE.S

worship, ccroiuony, rites,

for tho

nmiinurs.

867

839

Same as 28.

In gen-

MOST

868

878

To oppose, to sus-
tain, to reach,
to obtain. J

eral, for
the most
part.

PART
are

869

1125

By, with, to, as, as if.

AS
In tho

870

ft»

105

CHUNG

Same as 33.

MIDDLE

371

491

KWOII

" " 6.

KIXGDUM

the

872

933

T'UNG

Topcther, all, identical, same,
the same as.

SAME.
For a

873

991

TS'IN

To love, to approach, near.

FATHER,

intimate, a relative, a wife,

MOTHER,

kindred. The six ts'in

WIFE, on

are parents, brothers, wife,

SON,

and sons.

they

874

725

SANG

To mourn, to lament for one's

MOURN

parents.

875

-t

987

Ts-m

Same as 213.

SEVEN

876

293

JEII

A day, the sun, daily.

DAYS,

877

717

PUH

Same as 100.

NOT

878

766

SHin

" " 63.

EATING.

For &

379

1007

TSU

A grandfather, an an- '

GRAND-

cestor, the first, the

origin, to begin.

- grand-

880

3<:

147

A rule, a father, an

father.

FATHER

ancestor, a senior,

paternal.

or grand-

881

605

A mother, a dam, the source
of.

MOTHER

they

382

725

SANG

Same as 374.

MOURN

883

1060

A perfect number, five, the
whole, all.

FIVE

884

293

JEH

Same as 376.

DAYS

a' 1

r* , arc

M ',

lesf

H l''"^'

K "*''

^ 81'Vi

hI , euti

Y' com

''' ; .

< wild

S ' •• ■

r It IS

f^ i on (

>-■

tho i

EX.

they

o
y,

THE DEscniniox ov fu-sang.

2l»3

Tlic iiittrriagc o«'r«.'iiionii'!», for tliL' most l>art, nrc Hiiiiilur to thost; whidi
arc jJiaitULMl in Cliinu. At the ikiitli of rclutivt.-, tliiy fii.-'t a griatcr or
IcsM numltcr of dayo, according to the digruo of rclatioiifhij).

plca-xed with him, he inurrius hor. The cercnionlcH of marriage arc
nearly the rfanio as in China. At the dcatli of faflier or mother, tliey fast
seven duy.-<. At tliat of a grandfather or grandiuotlier, they refrain from
eating for tivc dayi<,

1 1 , 1 ^^^B^l

j^' consents, the marriage is completed. The niarringc customs, on the
< whole, resemble those of the " Middle Kingdom." When the parents die,

it is the custom to fast for seven days ; on the death if a grandfather,
on either the father's or mother's side, five days ;

The rules for the observance of the marriage ceremony are in general
the same as tho.se of the Middle Kingdom (China).

X they arc married. The ceremonies of marriage are in general the same as
-; I those in China. If a father or mother dies, one fasts for seven days ; if
it is a grandfather or grandmother, for five days ;

the marriage is immediately celebrated with ceremonies which have much
resemblance to those of China. At the death of father or mother, it is
the custom to fast for seven days. The fast is for five days at the death
2 , of a grandfather or grandmother.

1-1

pleased with him, they are married. The bridal ceremonies are for the
most part like those of China. A fast of seven days is observed for par-
ents at their death ; five for grand-parents ;

pleased, then the marriage is completed, the marriage ceremonies being
for the most part like those of the " Middle Kingdom " (China).

For a father, mother, wife, or son, they mourn for seven days without
eating. For a grandfather or grandmother they mourn for five days

imw

294

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No, Cboraotar

S8S
886
887
888

880
890

891

893

894
895
806
897
893
899
400

401

402
403
404

403

406
407

408

Pift.

717
700
213

870

707
770

432
1031

680

723
293
717
706
750
1002
737

793

804
648

890

717
69

1017

Bound.

PUII

sum

IIIL'NG
TI

roil
snuii

KU
TSZ'

MEI

SAN
JEH
PUII

sum

SIIEII
TSO

shAn

SIAXG

CIIAO
SIH
PAX

TIEX

PUII
CHI

TS'UI

DKriNiTioN.

Trtnibtlon.

Suiiiu UM 100.
" " 03.
An filler brother, a Hciiior.
A yoHiigor brother, Junior,

COUHUl!).

A father's elder brother.
A fatlicr'.t younger brother.

A polite term for fomaloH.

An elder Hiuter, a school-mid-
treiiis.

A younger sister, a sister, n
girl.

Same as 208.

" " 376.

" " 100.

" " 63.

To institute, establish, Bct up.

Same as 174.

A god, a spirit, divine, super-
natural.

Like, a fipun^, imnge, like-
ncsH, a sti. uc, an idol, to
reaemble.

The dawn, morning, early.

Same as 348.

To honour, reverence, kneel
to, salute.

To enshrine as a god, to offer
libations.

Same as 100.

To regulate, a rule, practice,
mourning usages.

A strip of sackcloth ancient-
ly worn on the breast as a
badge of mourning.

NOT
EATINc; ;

f<ir nn

nUOTIIKR,
Y()IN(;kk
ItltOTllEU,

FATIIRIfS KLI).

Elt HKOTIIKU,

FATIIKICS

Y()r\(;KK

HKOTIIKM,

or his SISTKK,

or for iin

ELDKU

SISTKH

YOUNdRK

SISTEU,

THREE

DAYS,

NOT

KATIXO.

Thov

ESTAMLISII

nnil

SET IP

tho
SPIRIT

IMAGR,

anil

MORNING

anil
EVENING

thev

REVERENCE

it, and

OFFER LIBA-
TIONS
to It. They do
NOT,
In their
MOURNING
USA(}ES,
wear

MOURNING-
GARMENTS

III

y
w

y
u

h-I

iiie

nig

and

tive

spii

and

•<

and

sent

'f:

i-H

•-9

;5
y.

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANO.

295

and during their prayers they eipogo the image of the deceased perton.
They wear no mourning

and only for three days at the doatii of brothers, sinters, uncles, aunts,
and otiier relativt'H. Tlio images of npiiitis arc placed upon a Hjjeciea of
pedcHtal, and pruyerd are uddreHned tu thcni morning and evening.

for the death of nn elder or younger brother or slater, or an uncle or aunt,
throe days. They nit then, from luorninf; until evening, before the image
of the Hpirit, absorbed in prayer ; yet they have uo mourning

(Not translated.)

if it Is an uncle, or an aunt, or a sister, for three days. The image of
the decea.sed per!<on is placed upon a. pedestal. It is saluted morning and
night, and cifennga made to it. There is no law in regard tu mourning

and for three days at the death of brothers, sisters, uncles, and aunts,
ithout distinction between the elder and younger, or between the relo-
tivcs on the father's aide and those on the mother's side. The image of a
spirit is set up, before vshich prostrations are made morning and night,
and to which oblations arc made. Moreover, mourning

and three days for brothers, sisters, uncles, and aunts. Images to repre-
sent their spirits arc set up, before which they worship and pour out liba-
tions morning and evening ; but they wear no mourning or

without eating ; for an elder brother, younger brother, father's elder
brother, or father's younger brother, or for the corresponding female rela-
tives, or for an elder sister or younger sister, three days without eating.
They set up an image of the spirit (of the deceased person) and reverence
it, and offer libations to it morning and evening. lu their mourning
usages they do not wear mourning garments or

mil

296

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character.

Page.

409

890

410

833

411

1043

412

_IL

538

413

—

723

414

634

415

717

416

991

417

491

418

•

764

419

312

420

iS-

822

421

414

422

4i\\

1059

423

153

424

123

425

831

420

839

427

599

428

721

429

634

430

340

431

695

432

491

Sound.

TIEH
SZ'

WANG
LIII

SAX
NIEX
PUII
TS'IX
KWOH
SIII

K'l

sun

KIU

FUJI

FAII

SUNG

TA
MING

'RH

NIEN

KWOII

Defixition.

Uadges of coarse white hemp,
eii cloth woiu by niouruers
at funeral':.

To succeed to, lawfully; the
expectant lieir, cliildren,
heirs; to ei i])ioy ; here-
after ; the f( llowing.

Same as 217.

To stand erect, estaljlished, to
?('t up, to succeed to or seat
one's self on the throne.

Same as 208.
" " 11.
" " 100.
" " 373.

" " 5.

An affair, a matter, business,
duties.

Same as 12.

Inelegant, uneducated, com-
mon, vulgar.

Old, venerable, formerly, an-
ciently.

Same as 85.

Buddha.

Same as 105,

To dwell ; a feudal state ; the
Sung dynasty.

Same as 28.

Bright, clear, the dawn, splen-
dour.

Same as 32.

" " 11.

A coarse carpet or felt rug,
made of camel's hair.

A stranger, a visitor, to en-
tertain.

Same as 5,

Translation.

MOri^NINd-

BADGE.S.

INHERITING

KING

SEATED ON
THE THRONE

for

THREE

YEARS

WITHOUT

APPROACHING

tlio

COUNTRY
AFFAIRS.

THEY

were

IGNORANT

FORMERLY,
and

DESTITUTE

BUDDHA

RULES;

but in the

SUN(^

dynasty.

in tho period called

" GREAT

BRIGHTNESS,"

in tho

SECOND

YEAR,

KI-

COUNTRY

-«;

^•^

i->

i-s

gfi

fill

.<;

•

>■

I— I
u

t5
H
O
ci

5^.

1-1

1-5

«J

1-3

>'.

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

297

garments, and the prince who succeeds to his father takes no care regard-
ing the government for three years after his elevation. In former times
the people had no knowledge of the religion of /'o, but, in the year 458
A. D., in the Sum dynasty, from Samarcand

The king does not occupy himself with the affairs of government dur-
ing the three years which follow his accession to the throne. Formerly
the religion of Buddha did not exist in this country, but in the fourth of
the jears Ta-ming, of the reign of Hiao-wou-ti of the dynasty of Soung
(458 A. D.), from the country of Ki-pin (Cophene),

garments. The king who succeeds liis deceased father does not occupy
himself with the affairs of the kingdom for the next three years. Of old,
the method of living of these people was not according to the laws of
Buddha. It happened, however, that in the second year of the years
bearing the designation "Great Light," of the Song dynasty (458 a. d),
from the kingdom of Kipiu,

In the second year of the period called " ta-ming " (or great light), the
year 458 of our era, under the reign of the emperor JJiao Wu-ti of the
Sung dynasty, from the country of Ki-pin,

garments. The heir to the throne remains three years without occupying
himself with the affairs of the kingdom. Formerly they did not know
the doctrine of Buddha. In the second year of the period Ta-ming, of
the dynasty of the Song (458), from the kingdom of Ki-pin (i. e., Cophene,
now the country of Caboul),

garments are not worn. During the first three years of his accession, the
king does not occupy himself with affairs of state. Formerly the religion
of Fo was unknown in Fusang. It was only in the Song dynasty, in the
second of the years ta-ming (458), that from the kingdom of Ki-pin

fillets. The successor of the king does not attend personally to govern-
ment affairs fov the first three years. In olden times they knew nothing
of the Buddhist religion, but during the reign Taming, of the Emperor
Hiao Wu-ti of the Sung dynasty (a. d. 458), from Ki-pin

mourning-badges.

A king who inherit- the throne does not occupy him-

self with the affairs of the government for the first three years after his ac-
cession. Formerly they were ignorant, and knew nothing of the Buddhist
religion ; but during the reign of the Sung dynasty, in the second year of
the period called Ta-ming (or " Great Brightness," i. e., in the year 458
A. D.), from the country of Ki-riN (i. e., Cophene, now Cabul),

i.-!*

liil

'f.
11

298

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character.

Pago.

Sound.

Definiticn.

Translation.

had

433

CH'ANG

To taste, to try. to essay, to prove.
When preceding another verb,

FORMERLY

it denotes past time, uaualiy.

formeriy, ever.

434

1113

YIU

Same as 14.

HAD

435

674

To compare, to corro- "
gpoud, to equal, to bring
into haruiouy, to select,
each, every.

nien-

PI-

436

fl)

416

K'lU

A natural hilloclc, a high
place, a hill with a hol-
lowed or level top for

' dicant
priest.

K'lU,

(mendicant priests)

worshipers, a tumulus.

437

1060

Same as 383.

FIVE

438

2S6

JlN

" " 62.

MEX,

439

1112

YIU

To float, drift, swim, travel, rove
about, to tiilio pleasure in, satis-
fied, pleased.

who
VOYAGING

440

207

IIIXG

Same as 245.

WEXT

441

342

K'l

" " 12.

to
THAT

442

<91

KWOII

" " 6.

COUXTRY,
and

443

549

LIU

The flowing of water, to pass, to
circulate, to dilfu.se, to make
Ijnown, to shed, fluid, to select,
to beg, a class, roving, vagrant.

MADE
KXOWN

444

932

T'UNG

To permeate, go through, see

THROUGH

^•mL^

clearly, to bring about, to suc-

ceed, current, through, general.

»K

complete.

445

153

FUH

Same as 423.

BUDDHA

446

123

FA II

" " 105.

RULES,

and his

447

404

KIXG

" " 814.

RELIGIOUS

BOOKS, and

448

793

SIAXG

" " 401.

LMAGKS,

and
TAU(mT

449

372

KIAO

To instruct, to teach, command,

precept, doctrine, a religious

the

sect, a party, a class.

450

♦

546

LING

A law, a rule, an order, to

COMMAXD

command, an officer.

ffi

■ To become a priest.

451

ciruu

Same as 165.

(Hepburn, p. 424.)

FORSAKE

Forsaking home,

surname, and the

the

world to enter a

452

351

KIA

" " 845.

Buddhist monas-
l tery.

FAMILY,

nnd its

453

155

FUXG

The wind, a breeze, speech, man-

MANNERS'

ner, deportment, stylo, fashion.

reformation, instruction, temper.

454

822

sun

habit.
Same as 420,

RUDENESS

455

828

SUI

To accord with, then, thereon,

FINALLY

tinally.

was

456

307

KAI

Same as 25

REFORMED.

THE DESCRIPTION OF FU-SANG.

299

five priests went preaching their doctrine in this country, and then the
manners of the people were changed.

five pi-khieou, or priests, came to Fusang, and there spread abroad the
law of Buddha, They carried with them their books and sacred images,
and the ritual, and established monastic customs, and so changed the
manners of the inhabitants.

five begging monks came to this land, and there spread abroad the re-
ligion of Buddha, with his sacred writings and images. They instructed
the people regarding the rules of monastic life, and so changed the cus-
toms of the people.

1—1
1-3

O
y.

t-H

five Buddhist priests repaired by sea to this country. They there dis-
tributed the books of the law and the holy images ; they taught the pre-
cepts of monastic life, and changed the manners of the inhabitants.

five beggar priests went there. They traveled over the kingdom, every-
where making known the laws, canons, and images of that faith. Priests
of regular ordination were set apart among the natives, and the customs
of the country became reformed.

formerly, five men who were pi-k'iu (i. e., bhikshns, mendicant Bud-
dhist monks) went by a voyage to that country, and made Buddha's rules
and his religious books and images known among them, taught the com-
mand to forsake the family (for the purpose of entering a monastery), and
finally reformed the rudeness of its customs.

'ii

five bhikshu (mendicant priests) in their travels reached Fou-so, and com-
menced to propagate Buddhism there.

five bhikchous (religious mendicants) traveled into this country, and there
spread abroad the law, the books, and the images of Buddha. Their doc-
trine induced men to leave their families (in order to embrace a religious
life). The manners of the inhabitants were then changed (i. e., the peo-
ple immediately adopted the usages and the prineij)le8 of Buddhism).

'\'l

Mil!

300

AN IXGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Ilwui Shtin also gave a description of a country called " the
Kingdom of AYomen," situated about on;^ thousand li east of
Fu-sang. This story has always been rejected as a manifest
absurdity, and its presumed falsity has been one of the most
powerful arguments for casting discredit upon his whole account.
For this reason, those who have accepted his statements regard-
ing the country of Fu-sang have said as little as possible about
his tale in regard to " the Kingdom of Women," and have dis-
missed it with the statement that it was merely a description,
given by him from hearsay, of a country that he had not visited,
and tbat its absurdities should not be permitted to raise doubts
as to the truth of his report regarding the country of Fu-sang,
in which he had resided.

Ilis description, which Avill be found, when rightly translated
and understood, to be substantially true, and to furnish strong
proof of the reliability of his statements, will be given in the
following chapter ; and as the only clew to the location of Fu-
sang is that it lies easterly from both China and the Great Han
Country, and as all that is known as to the situation of this last-
na.ned country is that it lies northeasterly from Wen Shun, the
land of "Marked Bodies," the Chinese account of these two
countries will also be given.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEX, THE LAND OF " MARKED BODIES," AND
THE GREAT HAN COUNTRY.

The accounts of all these countries derived from the feame source — The Chinese
toxt — The location of the Kingdom of Women — T^ inhabitants — Their long
locks — Their migrations — Birth of their young — Nursing the young — The ago
at which they walk — Their timidity — Their devotion to their mates — The
salt-plant — Its peculiarities — A shipwreck — The women — A tribe whose lan-
guage could not be understood — Men with puppies' heads — Their food,
clothing, and dwellings — The land of " Marked Bodies " — Its location —
Tattooing with three lines — The character of the people — Lack of fortifi-
cations — The king's residence — Water-silver — No money used — The Country
of Great Han — Its location — Lack of weapons — Its people.

The following account of the Kingdom of Women is ex-
pressly stated to have been given by Hwui Shan ; but it does not
appear to have been noticed that the reports in regard to the
Great Han Country, and the land of "Marked Bodies," must
also, in all probability, have been derived from the same source.

These countries wei'e made known to the Chinese during the
reign of the Liang dynasty. Now, it is known that Hwui Shan
reached China just before the establishment of this dynasty, but
that his account was not given to the emperor, and did not
become generally known, until some time during its first years.
Hence there can have been no earlier report, regarding Great
Han, than that which he could have given ; and as in his account
of Fu-sang he refers to Great Han, and in the description of
this country the land of " Marked Bodies " is mentioned, it is
almost impossible that he should not have been questioned as to
these strange countries also. The accounts are short — such as
would be incidentally given in a single report, in which the main
interest centered upon another land ; and there is nothing to
show that the Chinese ever heard anything more about them.

Ljii

' ill

802

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

467
458

460
4G0
461
462

Character.

466
466
467
468

469
470
471
472

473

474
475

476

477

478

479
480

463 -^

464 :{£

A
#

Patfo.

641
491

641
491
205
736
1142
941
144
724
930
980

611

342

286

1146

682

936
75

727
738

377

706
735

Sound.

NO
KWOII

N0
KWOH
UWUI

suAx

YUN

TS^I

SANG

TUNG

TS'IEN

K'l

JlN

YUNG

MAO

TWAN
CniNG

SBII

snlN

EIEH
POH

shIn

DliFINITION.

Same as 143.
" " 6.

Same as 143.

" " 6.

" " 17.

" " 18.

" " 24.

" " 27.

" " 1.

" " 2.

((

31.

A thousand, many, an indefi-
nite number.

Same as 35.
" « 12
" " 62.

To receive, the oir, ]
manner, conduct, The aspect
the face, looks, or of one's nian-
attitudo. ner (Med-

Tho outward mien, ^ hurst, p.757).
gait, style, man- The appear-
ner, form, appear- ance, air, de-
ancc, the face, meanour.
like, similar to.

Sproutlnp, the head, '
the origin, straight,
direct, correct, up- Correct, In-
right, modest, togi-lty, up-
grave, decent. • right.elther

Correct, proper, physlcolly
straight, right, or morally,
erect, exact, really,
the Urst.

i (Modhnrst. 686.)
Same as 258. < The countenance,
( colour, beauty.

Social delights, very, extreme-

Clear, limpid, pure, neat,
tidy.

Same as 273.

" " 161.

Translation.

WOMAN
COUNTRY.

WOMAN

COUNTRY,

HWUI

SHAN

SAYS,

IS SITUATED
ttom
FU-

SANG

EAST

one

THOUSAND

ITS
PEOPLE

MANNER

APPEARANCE

STRAIGHT

ERECT.
Their

COLOUR

Is a
VERY

PURE

WHITE.

Their
BODIES

I— I

w
p

Pi
a

•<

(-1

is
pe
wh

1
cas
(or

PU!

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

303

C5
P

I— I
1-3

I— I

TIIE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.
The inhabitants of this kingdom are white,

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN

The bonze Hoei-chin has spoken in the following terms of a kingdom
of women situated a thousand li from Fusang toward the east. The
women of this kingdom have very regular features and very white faces ;
but

NO KWOH, OR KINGDOM OF WOMEN

Concerning the Kingdom of Women, the shaman Hwui-shin relates : It
is a thousand li to the east of Fu-sang. The bearing and manners of the
people are very sedate and formal ; their color is exceedingly clear and
white ; their bodies

i|:!'.;

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN.

Hwui ShSn says that the Country of Women is situated a thousand li
east of Fu-sang. Its people's manner of appearance is straight erect
(or, is very correct), and their colour is (or their countenances are) a very
pure white.

Their bodies

I I

■ '

I ,

'!=ii

301

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I' '

No.

Character

Poge.

Sound.

Definitiok.

Translation.

481

884

T'l

The body, the whole person, tlin
KuhHtaiio', u Holid, the esecntluls,

THE WHOLE
BODY

Induentlul, to ouiboUy.

482

1113

YIU

Same as 14.

HAS

48:J

680

MAO

The covering of animals or
birds, aa hair, fur, feathers,
or down.

HAIR.

Tho

484

121

FAII

The hair of the head, numer-
ous, grass, vegetation.

UAIIl OF THE
HEAD is

485

CH'ANG

Same as 281.

LONG,

48U

1051

WEI

To suntaln, bear, allege, send off,
confide to, a wrong, griuvaoco,
the end, the last, really.

the
END

reaching to tho

487

879

Same aa 86.

GROUND.

488

" " 20.

tho

489

721

'RII

<( II QO

SECOND

490

723

SAN

" " 208.

or
THIRD

491

1129

YUEII

The moon, a lunar month.

MONTH,

monthly.

492

407

KING

Orlplnolly formed of words obove a
man, repeated, to indicate the
bickering of the people ; ntrong,
violent, bickering, testy, to bo
quarrelsome, groat, abundant

BICKERING,

they

493

299

JUH

To enter, to go into, to pro-

ENTER

gress, according to, an en-

*Ua

trance.

the

494

781

snui

Water, a fluid, clear, a stream, a

WATER.

trip from one place to another.

an inundation, trivial, common.

They

gentle, low land, to wet, to Book.

495

956

TSEIl

Same aa 127.

THEN

496

287

JlN

Pregnant (used

BECOME

only of women).

Pregnant
with child

PREGNANT

497

736

shIn

Pregnant, quick
with child. J

" (Hepburn,
p. 811).

WITH YOUNG

498

662

LUH

Six.

SIX

499

-b

987

TS'IH

Same as 213.

SEVEN

600

1129

YUEH

" " 491.

MONTHS

thoy

BEAR

601

CH'AN

To produce, to breed, to bear.

a birth, the natives, an es-

their

tate, an occupation.

502

1030

TSZ'

Same as 206.

YOUNG.

The
FEMALE

503

641

" " 143. )

\- Females.

604

286

jAn

" " 62. )

PEOPLE

arf

-13

the

are

gro

»-i

dOT

fe5

l-H

gra

fro

the

pos

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

305

They Imve hairy bodies and long locka tliat fall down to the ground. At
the second or third month the women come to bathe in a river, and they
become pregnant. They bear their young at the sixth or seventh month.

have hairy bodies and long locks which fall down to the ground. At the
second or third i jnth they enter the water, and they then become preg-
nant. They bear their young at the sixth or seventh mouth.
These women

are hairy, and the hair of the head trails on the ground. In the spring
they emulously rush into the water and become pregnant ; the children
are born in the autumn. These female-men

are hairy, and they have long locks, the ends of which reach to the
ground.

At .the second or third month, bickering, they enter the water (come
down to the low lands or to the streams ? or, perhaps, " enter upon a mi-
gration," the character shui meaning not only " water," but also " a trip
from one place to another "). They then become pregnant. They bear
their young at the sixth or seventh month (probably of gestation ; but
possibly of the year). The female-people

rFpfp-

300

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Charoctor

Page.

Sound,

DKriNITIUN.

Tranalntlon.

600

214

IIIUNG

The thorax, the breast, the
bosom, tho fcoliiigH, the
heart, clamour.

CHESTS

600

981

TS'IEN

To advance, progress, in front
of, before, in advance, for-
merly, when, a ligiit ijlacli
colour.

IN FRONT

607
808
609

610

1059

298
191

176

IIIAO

UEU

Same as 85.

" " 308.

Tho nape, tho part which
rests on tho pillow; a
Hort or class, grunt,
ftinds.

Aftor, In timo ; too Into ;
behind, In plncu; tliun,
next un heir, to rciuuln,
the secoud.

young
man.

ARE DESTI-
TUTE OF

BRKASTS,

but tho
NAPE OF TOE

NKCK
(or back of tho head)

BEHIND

611

742

sniNG

Same as 68.

BEARS

612

580

MAO

" " 483.

HAIR-

613

317

kAn

Root, orlffln. bcglnnlnfr, a base ; a
classitlLT of thtnjfa lon(( and stiff,
and even of ropes ; an organ.

ROOTS;
and tho

614

706

pon

Same as 273.

WHITE

615

=§

580

MAO

" " 483.

HAIR

616

f¥

105

CHUNG

" " 38.

MIDST

617

1113

YIU

" " 14.

HAS

618
619

67
298

CIIIU

Juice, gravy, liquor,
pleasing to the taste

Same as 308. J

Milii,

JUICE

(or Is plenslne to the
taste). Thoy

NURSE

620

1030

TSZ'

" " 206.

their

YOUNG

for

621

707

POH

A hundred, many, all.

ONE HUxVDRED

622
623

293
616

JEH

nAng

Same as 376.

The moose; power, ability,
sltill, capable, sliillf ul, may,
can.

DAYS,

and they then

CAN

524
525

207
723

IIING

SAN

Same as 245.

" " 208.

WALK,

When
THREE

526

836

SZ'

Four, all, around, everywhere.

FOUR

527

634

NIEN

Same as 11.

YEARS

old
THEN

628

956

TSEII

" " 127.

D'HERYEY. DE GCIOXES.

8
11

h
b
b

h
n
h

«2

d
y,

a
tl
b
P

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

307

0!
'A

Instead of breasts thoy have white locks at the back of the licnd, from
which there issues a liquor that serves to nourish their children. It is
said that one hundred days after their birtli the children are able to run
about, and when three or four years of age appear

have no breasts upon their chests, but only hair of a white colour at tho
back of tho neck, which contains milk. One hundred days after their
birth the children commence to walk, and at the ago of three or four
years they have a'-tained

have no paps on their bosoms, but hair-roots grow on the back of their
necks ; a juice is found in the white ones. The children are suckled a
hundred days, when they can walk ; by the fourth year they are

are destitute of breasts in front of their chests, but behind, at the nape of
the neck (or back of the head), they have hair-roots (short hair, or a
bunch of hair, or a hairy organ), and in the midst of the white hair it is
pleasing to the taste (or there is juice). They nurse their young for
one hundred days, and they can then walk. When three or four years
old they become

■111'

'iisi

808

AN INGLORIOUS C0LUMHU3.

No. 'Chanotor. Page.

020
630

631
632

683

634

635
630

637

638
630

640
641

642

643
644
645

646

647
648

549
550
651

A
A

lii

*
*

rffj

77
286

270
385

280
403

676
680

1054

142

706
108

056

1081
837
796

170

719
848

188

1053

198

Hound.

DinwiTioN.

CII'INO

jAn

KIEN

JAN
KING

PI
FIEN

CHANG
FU

sniii

IlIEN
TS'AO

YEU
SZ'

SI^

IIAO

•RII
K'l

niANG

WEI
CHANG

Trutmlutlun.

Samo as C2.

8amuBH8(W. f Aflult (Mcdlnirst.
p. <10). 'I'u U^cutiiu
Ik limn.
" " O'i. I lllfplmrn, p. «4fl.)
A Krowii-up piT-
ion, fuU'Krown.

A flrml pnrtli'ln. dcnotlnK tliat tlin

Hl'llUC llllH hffll ftllly (•XpPCWH'tl,

or thttl tlio Intuntlou la vury
atniny.

To RPC. to know, to observe, nn
opinion, to ui>pcar. i

(lU'pl)Urn, p. 115.)]
A iiiun, u iiorKoli,
inuU) or U'liiiili',
ptoplo, mankind.

A shy horac, to terrify, afraid,
alarniud.

To tlco from, to PdMpo, ovoid, to

retire, to lildo awiiy.
At or by tlio slile, defleoted, exros-

»lvp,anl(le, partial. Before verba,

niuat, will.
To dread, vpnerftte, roupcpt. awo,

devotion for, dread, timidity.

A lino of ton fent. to j
meaguro, .-.n elder. f^

To help, oflslst, a bus- \ husband,
band, a man, a
Bchulor. J

Same as 63.

Saltish, preserved, salted,

bitter,
rianta with herbaceous stems,

herbs, vegetation, plants in

general.
Same as 54.

" " 65.

Deflected, inclined, depraved,
corrupting.

Tall herbs ; the Artemisia pe
diculaiis ; Vitcx, or Amar-
anthus; Tansy.

Same as 68.

Fume, vapour, steam, breath,
air, spirit, temper, to smell.

Fragrant, odoriferous, sweet.

Taste, flavour, smell, relish.

Same as 541.

FULLY
G1U)\VX,

TRULY.

SEEING

HUMAN I1EIN(},

thoy are

AFRAID,

and

FLEE

TO ONE SIDE.
Tboy

VENERATE

tholr

HUSBANDS

(or mates). Thoy

EAT
tbo
SALT-
PLANT;

Its
LEAVES

RESEMBLE

those of the
SIE-

HAO

(a gpcclea of ab-
Blnthe),

BUT

its
ODOUR

is more

FRAGRANT

and Its
TASTE

SALTISH.

I— I

ful

aft

►H

its

■ill

\^\\

♦

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

301)

'llllfll

C5
1-1

nppoar fully prown. The women tnko fliplit at nl^jlit of a stranpcr, nnd
tlicy lire very re.Hpectful toward their huahumis. Tliene people feed upon
a plant which haa the tUHtu and odour of Halt, and which for thiH reaxon
bears the name of the " nalt-plant." The leaven are Rimilar to thono of
the plant which the Chlaouo cull nid'-hao, which iri u Hpccieu uf abijinthu.

their full growth. The women take to flight rapidly at sight of a stranger.
They have much respect for their husbands. A fragrant herb, of which
the leaves resemble those of the plant aie-hao (a species of absinthe), and
of which the taste is saltish, ia eaten in this country.

fully grown. Whenever they sec a man, they flee and hide from him in
terror, for they arc afraid of having husbands. They eat pickled greens,
whose leaves arc like wild celery ; the odor is agreeable and the taste
saltish

fully grown. This la true ! When they see a human being, they are
afraid, and flee to one side. They venerate (or are devoted to) their hus-
bands (or mates).

They cat the " salt-plant." Its leaves resemble (those of the plant called
by the Chinese) the sie-hao (a species of absinthe or wormwood), but
its odour is more fragrant and its taste is saltish.

310

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

- '^i

No.

Character.

Pago.

Sound.

Definition.

Translation.

562

525

LIANG

A bridge, a beam, self-reli-

In the reign of the
LIANG

ant, the principal, the Li-

dynasty, under the

653

1061

ang dynasty.
Military, martial, warlike.

emperor
WU-

664

■^

880

To judge, a god, a sovereign.

Ileaveu, supreme.

In the years des-

ignated by the name

655

897

HEN

Ileaven, the sky, a day, sea-

TIEN

son, celestial, God.

656

387

KIEN

To examine carefully, an of-

KIEN

fice, to look down upon as

(Celestial Protec-

a god, to oversee.

tion), in the

557

I -

562

LUH

Same as 498.

Six-

658

634

NIEN

" " 11.

th
YEAR,

659

1113

yiu

" " 14.

THERE WERE

660

2^,

990

T.^IN

To increase, to grow, to at-

TSIN-

tach, to adopt.

561

620

NGAN

Peace, rest, tranquillity,

NGAN

peaceful, calm, quiet.

(the name of a place)

662

286

JlN

Same as 62.

MEN

663

917

To ford, to cross a stream or
sea, to go through, to pass,
a ferry-boat.

CROSSING

the

664

160

HAI

The sea, an arm of the ocean,

SEA.

• ♦

a large river, marine, vast,

great, oceanic.

00 >

1047

Wfil

Same as 50.

BECAUSE OF

the

WIND

566

,%i

155

FUNG

" " 453.

667

817

To fell timber, a place, if, as

CAUSING

to, who, what, a cause, a
final expletive.

them to bo

668

683

r'lAO

A whirlwind, swayed, whirled,
blown about or rocked by

BLOWN ABOUT,
they

the wind.

669

CHI

Same as 20.

REACHED

670

1095

YIII

" " 194.

A CERTAIN

671

866

TAO

An island out at sea ; a hill

(or the same)
ISLAND

on which birds can alight

(or possibly " sea-

in crossing seas.

coast"). They

672

862

TlNG

To ascend, to advance, to at-
tain, as soon as, specially,
at the time.

WENT

573

622

NGAN

A shore, bank, or beach ; the edffo

ASHORE

or bank of a stream, end of a

journey.

where there

674

1113

YIU

Same as 14.

WERE

575

286

jAn

" " 62.

PEOPLE

>— t

W
Q

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

311

In the year 507 a. d., in the reign of the Lcam djTiasty, a Chinese ves-
sel which was sailing the ocean was driven by a tempest to an unknown
island

During the reign of the emperor Ou-ii, of the Leang dynasty, in the
sixth of the years called ticn-kien (507), some Chinese sailors of Tsin-ngan
(now Fou-tcheou-fou [Fo-kien]), who were navigating the sea, were carried
far out of their course by furious winds. They landed upon an island

In the year a. d. 608, in the reign of Wu-ti, of the Liang dynasty, a
man from Tsin-ngan was crossing the sea, when he was caught in a storm
and driven to a certain island. On going ashore, he found it to be in-
habited.

In the reign of the Liano dynasty, under the enperor Wd-ti, in the
sixth year of the period designated by the name TiiN-rjiEN, or " Celestial
Protection " (i. e., in 507 a. d,), some men of Tsin-ngan, who were cross-
ing the sea, were driven by the winds to a certain island (or the same
sea-coast). They went ashore and found the inhabitants'

hi I

812

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No. Character. Pago.

576

677
578
679
580
681
682
683

684

686

686
687

688

689
690
691
692
693
694

695

696
697

698
599

tat

Pago.

Sound.

437

641

956

TSEU

297

105

CHUNG

491

KWOH

286

jlN

719

'RH

1083

YE\

Definition.

1126

717
425

193

614
956
286
736
719
829

876

342
771

297
452

PUH
K'O

IIIAO

NAN

TSEII

jAx

SHlN
'RII

KEU

T'EU

K'l
SniNCx

JO
K'CEN

To dwell, dwellings, residence,

the settled parts.
Same as 143.

" " 127.

" " 59.

" " 38.

" " 6.

" " 62.

" " 68.

A word, sentence, '
remark, speech,
talk, reports.

To talk with, to eon-
verse, to tell,
words, conversa-
tion, discourse,
language.

Same as 100.

Conver.
sation,
discus-
sion.

To be willing
to do, can,

to permit, able
may.

COULD

Light, clear, the dawn, intel-
ligent, easy to perceive, to
make to understand, to
comprehend.

Same as 142.

UNDERSTOOD

The

MALES

" " 127.
" " 62.

THEN

had
MEN

" " 161.

- BODIES

" " 68.

BUT

A dog, pettv.

contemptible

PUPPIES'

puppy, a brat.

The head, the front, the top,
the first, the beginning.

Same as 12.

THEIR

A sound, a voice or tone, a
note in music, a cry, a wail,
language.

VOICES

Same as 59.

A dog, especially a large
one.

RESEMBLED

those of
DOGS

Translation.

DWELLINGS.

The

WOMEN

THEN

RESEMBLED

the

MIDDLE

KINGDOM

PEOPLE,

BUT

their

LANGUAGE

WORDS

NOT

HEADS.

fe
H

I— t

I— (

l-H

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

313

u
"A

h- 1
Hi
Hi

I— <

The women resembled those of China, but the men had a figure and a
voice like those of dogs. The Chinese could not understand their lan-
guage.

of which the women resembled those of China, but of which the men had
dogs' heads, and barked like dogs. It was impossible \.o understand their
language.

The women were like those of China, but their speech was unintelligible.
The men had human bodies, but their heads were those of dogs, and their
voices resembled the barking of dogs.

dwellings. The women resembled those of the Middle Kingdom (China),
but the words of their language could not be understood. The males
had human bodies, but puppies' heads, and their voices resembled those
of dogs

'iliP

\ :l^

314

AN INGLORTOCS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character.

Page.

Sound.

Definition.

Translation.

600

140

FEU

The bark of a dog, to bark, to
yelp, to howl, as canine
animals do.

BARKING

(or howling).

&01

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEIR

602

766

sum

" " 63.

EATIXG

603

■ii;3

YIU

" " 14.

POSSESSED

604

795

SIAO

" " 233.

SIAO-

605

874

TEU

A wooden trencher, a dish,
pulse, legumes, to measure
out, a peck.

TEU

(little beans),

606

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEIR

607

270

" " 77.

CLOTHING

608

Ita

297

" " 59.

RESEMBLED

609
610

713
96

PU
CHUH

" " 74.

To beat down hard, as a
threshing-floor, to ram down
the earth, to make chunam
pavements or adobe walls.

CLOTH

(of linen or cotton).

BEATING
DOWN

611
612

920
1047

T'U

Same as 43.
" " 50.

EARTH

they

MADE

613

£69

TS'IANG

A wall, built of mud, stone,
or brick.

ADOBE WALLS.

614

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEIR

616

200

IIIXG

Form, figure, shape, contour,
the body, manner, style, to
appear.

SHAPE

was

616

Ib]|

245

HWAN

To revolve, to encircle, to en-
viron, to go around, a circle,
a ball, round.

ROUND,

and

617

342

K'l

Same as 12.

THEIR

618

225

An inner door, a door having
only one leaf, a hole, an
opening.

DOORS

619

297

Same as 59.

RESEMBLED

620

875

TEU

A hole, a burrow, a drain,
loss, waste, damage, to dig a
hole.

BURROWS.

m
u

o
u

w
li

b
k
w
li
w

-...;«

THE KINGDOM OF WOMEN.

315

' s

1-1

These people fed upon small bcana, and had clothing made of a species
of linen cloth ; and the walls of their houses were constructed of earth,
built up in a circular form.

These islanders fed upon small legumes, and had garments of a species
of cloth, and constructed houses of a round shape from beaten earth, with
a single opening as an entrance.

Their food was email pulse; their garments were like cotton. The
walls of their houses were of adobie, round in shape, and the entrance
like that to a den.

barking (or bowling). Among their food was siao-teu (" little beans " or
kernels— possibly an attempt to both transcribe and translate the Jlexican
word CEVTLi '8*8 or cintli,*"** meaning maize). Their clothing resembled
linen (or perhaps cotton) cloth. Beating down the earth, they made adobe
walls of a round shape, the doors of which resembled burrows.

SHI

310

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No. Character.

621
622

623
624

625

6i6

627

628
620
630

631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643

644

Page.

Sound.

1041
735

1041
735
525
769

1041

1082

941

1057

WAN

shAn

wAn

shAn

LIANG
SHI

AVAN

YEN
TSAI
WO

Dkfinition.

Tmnslatlon.

Same as 89.
" " 161.

:H:

491

KWOII

930

TUNG

709

POH

987

TS'IH

980

TS'IEN

1121

YCr

618

286

jAn

884

T'l

1113

YIU

1041

WAN

297

jCr

756

SHEU

342

K'l

Same as 89.

" " 161.

" " 552.

Time, a season, an hour, a
period, a Cliinese hour, a
quarter of a year, while.

To hear, to learn by report,
hearing, fame, news, to
state to, small, a noise.

Same as 188.

" " 27.

The Japanese, yielding, trim-
ming.

Same as 5.

" " 31.

" " 108.

" " 213.

" " 468.

" " 34.

" " 35.

62.

" " 481.

" " 14.

" " 89.

" " 59.

A wild animal, a beast, a
hairy brute, a gamekeeper,
brutal, violent.

Same as 12.

II 11

MARKED
BODIES.

Tho
MARKED

BODIES

country, In tho

LIANG

dynasty's

TIME,

WAS RE-
PORTED

TRULY

to be

SITUATED
from the

JAPANESE

COUNTRY
EAST-
NORTH

SEVEN

THOUSAND

and

LI.

Its

PEOPLE

WHOLE
BODIES
HAVE

MARKS

WILD BEASTS.

THEIR

0)1

i-c

—

t^<

■<
S

i'l

i-s

(c.

(72

iTt;

inl

tho

I til

. I

THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES.

317

I— I

p
a

m
S

I— I

Vcn-chin is found seven thousand li from Japan, toward the north-
cast.

This country was made known about 510 or 620 a. d., its inhabitants
having a figure similar to that of animals.

The land of the Wenschin is distant from Japan in a northeasterly
direction about seven thousand Chinese miles. The bodies of these people
exhibit all kinds of figures, such as those of animals and the like.

The kingdom of Ouen-chin was made known (to the Chinese) under the
dynasty of the Liang (502-587) ; it is situated seven thousand li to the
northeast of Japan. The men have lines (omch) upon the body {chin) like
(certain) animals.

During the Lcang dynasty, the following story was current regarding
Ouen-chin :

They live more than seven thousand li to the northeast of Japan. They
have their bodies tattooed, and marked like those of certain animals.

WAN SHAN, OR PICTURED BODIES.

During the Liang dynasty (a. d. 502-556), it was reported that about
seven thousand li to the northeast of Japan there was a country whose
inhabitants had marks on their bodies, such as are on animals.

MARKED BODIES.

During the reign of the Liang dynasty (502 to 556 a. d.), it was reported
that the country of " Marked Bodies " was situated seven thousand li and
more to the northeast of the country of Japan. Its people have marks
upon their bodies like (those upon?) wild beasts.

318

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No. Clmrnctur

645

646

647
648
649
660
661
662

663
664
666
666
657

668
659

660
661
662

663

664
665

666
667
668

Pngo.

i§-

iff)
SI

628

741

1113

723

1041

839

484

1041

795

468

38
979

920

822

244
554

1065
157

719

979
207

Sound.

NGOII

Sn.VNG

YIU

SAN

WlN

cniii
cut

KWlfil

wAn

SLVO
K'CH

CH]fi
TSIEX

T'U

sun

IIWAN

LOII

WUII
FUNG

'RH

TSIEN

nixG

Dekikitiom.

Trimslntion.

The forehead ; the front, or

FRONT

what is before ; a fixed or

regular number or quan-

tity ; what ought to be or

(or forehead)

is settled by law ; incessant.

To go up, to exalt, upward,

UPON

top, above, facing, high,

ancient, before, superior,

they

honourable.

Same as 14.

HAVE

" " 208.

THREE

" " 89.

MARKS.

If tho

" " 89.

MAKKS

are

" " 28.

LAKGE

and

To look ahead, straight, di-

STRAIGHT,

rect, true, exactly, a per-

pendicular stroke, to

straighten, to go direct.

Same as 6.

THERE

" " 166.

aro
NOHLE ;

but if tho

" " 89.

MARKS

aro

" " 233.

SMALL

and

Crooked, bent, a bend, false,

CROOKED,

tortuous.

Same as 6.

THESE

Light in estimation, mean,

nro
IGyoBLE.

low, ignoble, worthless, to

Tho

discstoem, to deprecate.

Same as 43.

LAND

" " 420.

COMMON

PEOPLE

Joy expressed l)y tho ]

niph-
ly de-
■ lipht-
cd,

are MERRY,

voice, jolly, merry, glad,
pleased, to rojoieo.

and

P ensure, quiet, to rejoice

REJOICE IN

in, to tnko delifflit in,

dissipation, music.

merry.

Same as 285.

ARTICLES'

A large goblet, full cum, abun-

ABUNDANCE

dant, plenteous, fer tile, pro-

lific, plenty, copious.

Same as 68.

ALTHOUGH

" " 659.

POOR IN

QUALITY.

" " 245.

TRAVELING

tai

cat

con

•-5

Th(

chc

the

mai

the

larf

peo

<-3

to c

seh

5?;

>-H

ROR

nat

tha

.,^.A....

THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES."

319

Tlioy traced different lines upon their faces, the form of which served
to distinguish the chief men of the nation from the common people.

It was, for the rest, a fertile country, where all that is neccstiary to sus-
tain life might be found in abundance.

'A
'A

They have three lines upon the forehead ; the large and straight indi-
cate the nobles, the small and crooked the common people of the nation.

'/-,
H

C5
'A

Those who have three straight lines upon the forehead arc esteemed (or
considered as noble). If the lines are small and crooked, they are scorned.
The inhabitants live joyously. The various products arc abundant and
cheap.

The travelers who go through this country

Upon the forehead they have three marks or lines. Those which have
the marks large and straight are chiefs ; those who have only small crooked
rrarks are of low condition. Their nature is merry. The productions of
their country are abundant and cheap. The traveler

They had three marks on their foreheads. Those whose marks were
large and straight belonged to the honorable class, while the lower sort of
people had small and crooked marks. It is a custom among this people
to collect a great variety of things of a very poor sort to amuse them-
selves. Those who travel

In front (or upon their foreheads) they have three marks. If the
marks are large and straight, they indicate that those who have them are
of the higher classes ; but if they are small and crooked, then their pos-
sessors are of the lower classes. The people of the land are of a merry
nature, and they rejoice when they have an abundance, even of articles
that arc of little value. Traveling

320

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character,

PO(fO.

Sound.

DeriMiTioN.

Translation.

669

429

K'OU

A guest, a visitor, an ac-
quaintance, a curitoincr, a
Htraiipcr, an alien, transi-
tory, foreign.

VISITORS
do

670

717

run

Same as loO.

NOT

671

964

T.SI

To take in both bands and

PREPARE FOR

offer to, to give, to send a

THEIR JULR.

present, to prepare things

NEY

for a journey, to supply.

672

524

LIANG

Rations, soldiers' pay, food.

FOOD,

provisions, taxes in kind.

and they

673

1113

YIU

Same as 14.

ILVVE

m — <

thflr

674

1001

WUII

" " 84.

DWELLING

675

f=.

112G

The part of the house covered
by the eaves, to cover, to
shelter, wide, vast, terri-

SHELTER.
Thoy arc

676

1059

tory.
Same as 86.

DESTITUTE OP

677

CiriNG

" " 86.

FORTIFICA-

TIONS

and

WALLED

678

492

KWOII

" " 87.

CITIES.

The

679

491

KWOII

" " 5.

COUNTRY

680

T-:

1043

WANG

" " 217.

KING

'»

681

817

" " 667.

RESIDENCE

682

437

" " 676

BUILDING

683

767

sum

To adorn, to paint, to orna-
ment, to gloss over, to pre-
tend, to excuse, a facing,
an ornament.

ADORNED

684

278

Same as 49.

BY MEANS OF

685

398

KIN

" « 829,

GOLD

686

1101

YIN

" " 330,

and
SILVER

687

CHlN

Whatever is noble, precious,
or beautiful, rare, excel-
lent, to prize.

and
PRECIOUS

and

688

524

Elegant, fair, beautiful, flow-
ery, bright, a pair, to de-
pend on, to tie, a beam, a
boat.

BEAUTIFUL

(objects)

689

292

JAO

Same as 191.

ABOUT

the

DWELLING.

690

1064

WUH

" " 84.

ta^

\r.

«!5

t-l

gol

., -

wit

, ,■ ( :

THE LAND OF ''MARKED BODIES. "

321

w
a

Their towns or villages were unwalled.
onianicated with precious tLiugs.

The dwelling of the king was

u
'A

(Not translated.)

have no need to furnish themselves with provisions. Thoy have houses.
The cities are not walled. The palace of the king is ornamented witli
gold and silver. The exterior is all covered (literally, "surrounded")
with precious substances of a great beauty. The inhabitants

IJilltt

Jccts)

easily finds food [M. d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, on page 60 of his " Eth-
nography," translates this passage : " The traveler has no need to carry
food with him — the country furnishing it to him in abundance "]. The
Ouen-chin have houses, but no walled cities. The habitation of their
king is ornamented with gold, silver, and jewels. Surrounding (this habi-
tation)

en
UK

>-9

or peddle do not carry any provision with them.

They have houses of various kinds, but no walled towns. The palace
of the king is adorned with gold, silver, and jewels in a sumptuous man-
ner. The buildings are surrounded

visitors do not prepare food for their journeys, and they have the shelter
of their (the inhabitants') dwellings. They have no fortifications or
walled cities. The residence of the king of the country is adorned with
gold and silver, and precious and beautiful objects about the dwelling.

jiihiliHi

322

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

...

Cbftr«etor.

P«ge.

Bound.

691

/s)

1047

Wfil

092

983

TS'IEN

603

478

KWANT,

694

1095

YIII

695

CHAXG

696

709

sum

697

278

698

781

snui

699

1101

YIN

700

1124

101

950

TSEII

649

IIIANG

703

1118

704

781

SIIUI

705

1101

YIN

706

CHI

707

741

SHANG

708

^^^

762

SIII

709

1149

YUNG

710

ciiAn

711

663

PAO

DinMiTioN.

h^ainc as SO.

The moot or fonic oround a
town, a ditch to liiid water
In, iriigiition, to dig out.

nroiid, cxti'ttHivo, wide, cpa-
ciouH, large, ample, utout,
to enlarge.

Same aa 194.

" " 638.

" " 05. Real, solid,
hard, full, comiiact, to till,
to cram.

Same as 49.

" " 494. )

V Quicksilver.
" " 330. )

Rain, a shower, to rain.

Same aa 127.

" " 443.

" " 177. As, to, to be-
come.

Same aa 494.
" " 330.

Quicksilver.

" " 40. " To pass from
one state to another."

Same aa 646.

" " 331.

To use, to employ, to cause,
useful, by, with, thereby.

Same as 687.

Precious, valuable,
a gem, a coin,
value, noble.

Jewels,
valu-
ables.

Tmoilatloo.

'I'llCV

maRi;

DITCH
of a

HRK.VDTU

ONE

Ron

(often ClilnoM
ft'cf), which |«

FILLKU

BY MEANS OF
WATER-
SILVER.
When It
RAINS,

THEN

tlii> rain
FLOWS

UPON
tho
WATER-
SILVER

SURFACE.

In their
MARKETS

(or bartering) they
USE

PRECIOUS
GEMS.

■J

'y,

th(
hit

wit

the

nea

y,
•-<

val

THE LAND OF "MAUKED HOUIES."

323

w
a

A ditch rniRlit be neon there which nppciircd to bo fiilod with quiclc-
nilvcr, nnd tills matter, esteemed in eoniinerce, became iicniid and Howinp
when it hud imbibed witter from the rain.

M. de (luigneH adds, from another source: "They expoocd their con-
deniiu'<l criminuJH to wild beast:), and they deemed thoxe innocent from
V 'iom the unimiiis toolc tiight."

(Xot translated.)

1-9

dlj; a ditch one chani; (ten ChineBe feet) long, and fill it with quicksilver.
When it rains, the water runa upon tlie (juicksilver. In the marketH (in
tlie place of money) they use the most esteemed fruits. [Norr. — M.
Julicn has evidently mistaken the character pao, " a gom " (see \o.
711), for the very similar character sum, "fruit" (sec No. 690), and
hence has erroneously tran.slatcd the last word " fruits " instead of

' gems."— E. r. v.]

there is a ditch of ten cubits width, which is filled with quicksilver.
When it rains, the water flows upon the quicksilver. The transactions
in their markets are made by means of precious objects.

M. d'Hervey de Paint-Dcnys adds, in his " Ethnogra[)hy," page 60, the
following, derived from the " nan-ssk," i. e. : He who has committed a
petty crime is scourged. He who is accused of a crime deserving death is
thrown to wild beasts to be devoured. If the accusation is calumnious,
the beasts keep at a distance from him, it is said (instead of devouring
him); then, after a night (of trial), he is set at liberty.

with a moat, over ten feet broad. When It Is filled with quicksilver, and
the rain is allowed to flow off from the quicksilver, the water is then re-
garded in the markets as a precious rarity.

They make a ditch of a breadth of one rod (of ten Chinese feet, or
nearly twelve English feet), which is filled with " water-silvcr " (i. e., ice).
When it rains, then the rain flows upon the surface of the water-silver.
In tlieir traffic they use precious gems (or valuables, as the standard of
value, instead of gold or silver).

324

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

No.

Character.

Page.

712

839

713

164

714

839

715

164

716

525

717

759

718

1041

719

1082

720

941

721

1041

722

735

723

491

724

930

725

¥.

1060

726

980

727

1121

728

618

729

1059

730

698

731

:fe

489

732

717

733

461

734

Sfe

735

155

Sound.

TA
IIAN

HAN

LLVNG

SHI

WAN

YEN

TSAI

WlN

SHlN

KWOH

TUNG

TS'IEN

YCr

PING

KWO

PUH

KUNG
CHEN
FUNG

Definition.

Translation.

Same as 28.

This character is composed of
" water" and " hardship." Tho
Mllljy Way. Tho large branch
of tho Yans-tNZ Kiver. A Chi-
nese; relatinff to China. The
Han dynasty, which was named
from the Duke of llan.

Same as 28.

" " 713.

" " 552.

" " 626.

" " 627.

" " 188.

" " 27

" " 89.

" " 161.

" " 5.

" " 31.

" " 383.

>' " 468.

" " 34.

" " 35.

" " 85.

" " 98.

A kind of lanco, a javelin, a
spear, weapons, war.

Same as 100.
" " 101.
" " 102.
" " 453.

GREAT
HAN.

GREAT

HAN.

during tho

LIANG

dynasty's

TIME,

was

REPORTED TO

TRULY

SITUATED

from

MARKED

BODIES'

KINGDOM

EAST

FIVE

THOUSAND

and

LI.

Its people arc

DESTITUTE OF
MILITARY

WEAPONS,

and do

NOT
WAGE

WAR.

Their

MANNERS'

^'r}

THE GREAT HAN COUNTRY.

325

At a distance of five thousand li from Ven-ckin, toward the east, 7a-
han was found. The inhabitants of this country had no military weapons ;
their customs

In the times of the Leung dynasty, in the first half of the sixth century
of our era, the Chinese heard of a land which lay five thousand of their
miles easterly from the country of the " Pictured People," and named it
" 7'a-/ja«," or " Great China." The people of Ta-han carried uo weapons,
and knew nothing of war and strife. In their customs and usages, the
people of Ta-han, on the whole,

The kingdom of Ta-han was made known (to the Chinese) under the
dynasty of the Leang (502-558) ; it is situated about five thousand li to
the east of the kingdom of Oueu-chin. The inhabitants have no arms,

and do not wage war.

Their manners and their

In the time of the Leang dynasty, it was said of the kingdom of Ta-
han : This kingdom is situated to the east of the country of the Ouen-chin
more than five thousand li. Its people have no arms, and do not wage
war. Their manners

TA HAX, OR GREAT CHINA.
It was reported, during the Liang dynasty, that this kingdom lay more
than five thousand li east of W&n Shan,
diers or weapons, and never carry on war.

The inhabitants have no sol-
Their manners and

AGE

1—4

GREAT UAN.

During the reign of the Liang dynasty, Great IIan wag reported to be
situated five thousand li or more to the east of the " Marked Bodies "
country. Its people have no military weapons, and do not wage war.

lit: I

1 I ■

)''

326

AN INGLORIOCS COLUMBUS.

No. 'Character.

736
737

738

n
m

739 i ^

740 I ;^

741
742
743
744
745
740

PORO.

Sound.

822

sun

700

PING

1125

1041

WA\

735

SiiAx

491

KWOII

933

TUNG

719

'Rll

1083

YEX

1126

281

Definition.

Same ns 420.

Two together, both, with, and,
even with, to coiupaio.

Same as 309,

" " 89,

" " 101,

" " 5.

" " 372.

" " 68.

" " 584.

" " 585.

To divide, different, foreign,
to oppose, a difference.

Translatiun.

RUDENESS

is
COMPARED

WITH
tbnt of tho
MARKED

BODIES

COUNTRY

tho

SAME,
BUT

their

LANGUAGE

WORDS

ore

DIFFERENT.

THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES.''

In all the forcgoir ^ translations the cliaracter sum (Xo. 006,
page 322) has been renlered "filled." Its fundamental meaning
seems to be " fruit," from which the secondary signification of
"solid, hard, compact, full, crammed," was derived. "When used
as a verb, it seems to me to mean " to solidify, to harden, to pack
together, to cram " ; and, while it is applicable to the process of
filling a confined space with solid substances or articles closely
packed together, I doubt whether it can be used with pro-
priety to express the filling of a receptacle with a liquid. It
therefore appears to me that the word, when used as a verb,
should be translated "to harden, to solidify, to make compact,"
rather than " to fill," and that the description of the country
should be read (punctuating after characters Nos. 089, 095, 099,
and 707):

" The residence of the king of the country is adorned with
gold and silver, and precious and beautiful objects about it.
The dwellings consist of excavations of a breadth of one rod.
These (dwellings) are made solid, hard, compact, or impervious

THE GREAT IIAN COUNTRY.

327

were essentially the same as those of the people of Vcn-chin, but they
had a different language.

resembled the "Pictured People." The two nations, however, spoke
quite different languages.

customs are the same as those of the kingdom of Ouen-chin, but the lan-
guage is different.

g I are the same as those of the Ouen-chin, but their language is different.

S i

customs arc the same as those of the 'NVtin bhiln, but their speech
differs.

The rudeness of their customs is the same as that of the people of the
country of " Marked Bodies," but the words of their language are dif-
ferent.

by the use of water-silver [i. e., ice]. "When it rains, then tlie
rain flows off from the surface of the water-silver."

I should understand that llwui Shan meant to say that the
walls and roof of the dwellings were made solid and impervious
to either air or water by means of ice. The houses of this re-
gion of the world are described by modern travelers as consist-
ing of an excavation, with low, earthen side-walls, and a roof of
earth thrown over beams and branches used for its support.

If, now, water was poured over these walls and the roof, it
would soon freeze, and render them compact and impervious to
rain, so that " when it rained, then the rain would flow off over
the surface of the ice."

This translation suggested itself to me at so late a date that
I have not had time to consult competent Chinese scholars as to
the possibility of so rendering the passage. I have, therefore,
followed former translators in the version which is discussed in
Chapter XIX. I believe, however, that the Chinese text is sus-
ceptible of the rendition given above, and that such a ver-
sion removes all difiiculties in the account, and brings Hwui
Shan's description into strict conformity with the truth.

mmi

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE LENGTH OF THE LI. — THE NAME "GREAT HAN."

The direction from Japan in which Fu-sang lay — Variations in standards of meas-
ure — The Chinese U about one third of a mile in length — The greater length
of the Japanese li — Possibility of still another standard in Corea — Communi-
cation between Corea and Japan and between Corea and China — Chinese knowl-
edge of the rout*. Japan derived from Corean sources — Fu-sang farther from
" Great Han " than Japan is — Distances stated with at least approximate accu-
racy — The country of " Marked Bodies " identified as the Aleutian Islands — Al-
lowances for changes and misunderstandings — Caesar's account of the inliabit-
ants of Britain — Maundevile's repetition of the story — " Great Han " identified
as Alaska — Land found in the regions indicated by Hwui Shin — Meaning
of the character " Han " — Nature of the Chinese characters — The manner in
which they are compounded of two parts — Some characters in which the
meuaing is affected by that of both parts — Application of the character " Han "
to a swirling stream and to the Milky Way — Hence its possible meaning of
" dashing water " — Meaning of the name " Alaska " — The breakers of the
Aleutian Islands — The population — A philological myth — The hypotliesos
upon one of which Hwui Shin's story must be explained — Tlic explanation
should be consistent.

Having thus given the Chinese accounts of the land of Fu-
sang, and of the countries found upon the route from China to
that region, together with the arguments of former writers as to
their location, let us now examine the question for ourselves.

Fortunately, there is no doubt as to the first of the countries
ihat is named as lying upon the route. Long before the days of
Hv ui Shan, the Chinese were acquainted with this kingdom of
Japan, and, when it was mentioned by him, there was no neces-
sity for describing its location.

At a distance of over seven thousand II to the northeast of
Japan, it was stated that the country of "Marked Bodies" was
to be found. More than five thousand H to the east of this the
land of "Great Han" was situated, and over twenty thousand

'i#jii

THE LENGTH OF THE LI.

320

li easterly from this last-named country lay the land of Fu-sang.
As it is expressly stated, however, that Fu-sang lay to the east of
China, and as the greater part of the route from Japan to Great
Ilan was in a northeasterly direction, it is evident that Fu-sang
must have lain farther south than Great Han, and that its true
hearing from this last country was southeasterly rather than
east.

With these explicit statements as to the direction of the
route, there would be no difficulty in laying it down upon a chart,
provided that we knew the exact length of the li.

It is the case, however, that nearly all standards of measure
were more or less indefinite when they were first established, and
that, even after having been fixed with some degree of precis-
ion, they have been subj^« \ to change in the course of cent-
uries. The chief difficulty is found in the earlier stages of civili-
zation, however. Crawfurd, for instance, in speaking of the
Javanese, says that,'"* in countries where there are no roads,
where the principal conveyance is by water, and where the paths
are circuitous and little frequented, it is not reasonable to sup-
pose that any determinate measure of considerable distances
should exist. Such contrivances, although familiar to Europeans,
are the result of much improvement and civilization. The In-
dian islanders, in traveling, speak of a day's journey, which, with
tolerable uniformity, may be reclvoned at twenty British miles.

In another place he states that,'"' from their very nature,
the measures of grain among the Javanese are indefinite, and
hardly insure greater accuracy than we imply ourselves when
we speak of sheaves of corn. In the same district they are tol-
erably regular in the quantity of grain and straw they contain ;
but such is the wide difference between the different districts or
provinces that the same nominal measure is often twice — nay,
three times — as large in one as in another.

This difficulty usually ceases to exist, however, by the time
that the state of civilization is reached which the Chinese had
attained in the fifth century. Long before that time their stand-
ards of measure had apparently become so well established that
they have remained to the present time, with but le,.' other
changes than those recently made by the Europeans.

Bretschneider "* says : " Having often had the opportunity of
comparing distances given by the Chinese with our measures, I

. !

330

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

came to the conclusion that we make no considerable er -or in tak-
ing three Chinese U of our days as equal to one English mile; and
it can be proved, from ancient itineraries of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, that the length of the Chinese li has not
changed since that time."

The " Chinese Repository " '""says that there is great difficulty
in estimating the Chinese li, or mile. It appears, by the " His-
tory of the Ming Dynasty," that the measures have varied
under the different dynasties. The Chinese have never been
able to measure distances by astronomical observations. It may
be doubted whether they have ever taken the trouble to measure
roads. On those which are prepared for the emperor, and at great
expense, the number of li is written up all along the road ; but it
is a fact that those li are not all of equal length. The traveler,
when inquiring the distance from one place to another, is told so
many li, and it is often added, " They are great or small." It is
admitted that in the north the /* are longer than in the south. It
would appear that popular tradition has determined their nu.iiber.
A geography, printed by order of government, states that from
Canton to Pekin the distance is 8,185 li. As the positions of Can-
ton and Pekin are known, it seems that they might serve to esti-
mate the Chinese li; but there is no doubt that the windings of
the road are included in those 8,185 li. Now, the routes in China,
both by land and water, wind without end ; so that there seems
no way of estimating the li with precision. However, it is
generally believed that there are two hundred li to a degree of
latitude.

In another place it states that '" the li, or mile, is an uncer-
tain measure. Its common measure is 316^ fathoms, or 1,897^
English feet, and it is the usual term in which length is estimat-
ed. The Chinese reckon 192| li for a degree of latitude and
longitude (for a degree of a great circle — say, 65 miles — this is
1,918 feet) ; but the Jesuits divided the degree into 250 li, each
li being 1,82G English feet, or the tenth part of a French league,
which is the established measure at present. A li, according to
this measurement, is a little more than one third of an English
mile.

A long article on the true length of this standard of meas-
ure '"'* is also given, in which the same general conclusion is

reached-

-that the li is about one third of an English mile.

THE LENGTH OF THE LI.

331

R^musat, in a note upon " The Pilgrimage of Fa Hian,'""'
makes the statement that the length of the shei(, or cubit, is
variously estimated : sometimes at two cJdh (O'GIO metres) ;
sometimes at one chih and two tsun (0'4575 metres). Four sheu
make one kxmg (bow), and three hundred kung make one li.
According to this calculation the li would be either 549 or 732
metres.

Prinsep says that'"" a li is not quite one third of a mile ; for
two hundred li equal a degree of latitude, or some sixty-nine
statute miles.

Professor Williams states that ""* a discrepancy exists regard-
ing its precise length, owing to the various measures of the
chih. It is usually reckoned at 1,825*55 feet, English, which
gives 289 li to an English mile. This is based on the esti-
mate of 200 li to a degree ; but there were only 180 li to a de-
gree before Europeans came, which increases its length to 2,028*38
feet, or 2*0 li to a mile, which is nearer the common estimate ;
and Summers '^"^ says that the li, or Chinese mile = Sl&J- fath-
oms = 1,897^ English feet: 192^ /» = 1 degree of latitude or
longitude, according to the Chinese ; but the Jesuits make 250
U = 1 degree, each li being = 1,826 feet, or ^ of a French league.

It will not be necessary to quote other authorities upon the
subject ; but, at the risk of being tedious, it seemed best to give
the foregoing, for the purpose of showing that, after all that has
been said as to the uncertainty as to the true length of the li,
there is really but little disagreement as to what that length
was before the coming of the Jesuits, and that if it be estimated
at one third of an English mile the result will be very close to
the truth.

The Chinese li is sometimes stated to be equal to three hun-
dred and sixty (double) paces, and a comparison of this number
with the one thousand (double) paces which was the original basis
for the length of our mile, gives substantially the same result.

Attention should be called, however, to the fact that, just as
there is a great difference between the lengths of the English
mile, the German mile, and the nautical or geographical mile, so
there is a great difference between the standards of distance
used in Japan and China, respectively, and there is some reason
for thinking that still another standard may have been used in
Corea.

332

AN INGLORIOrS COLUMHUS.

Tho Japanosc and Coroans, who tlo not use the letter ** /,'»
substitute " r " for it, and j)ronounee the word •' r/," instead of
"//." Tho same eharactcr is used by them when writing the
word, however, that is used by the Chinese for the " //."

Klaproth'*" says that the ri of Corea, which is the same as
that of the Mantchoos in China, contains only three and a half
Japanese vmtsis, and, as the Japanese ri contains thirty-six
vuUsin, ten Corean ri are hardly equal to one Japanese ri.

This last standard is equal to about three English miles ; and
if Kli'^)ic'h is correct in his statement that the Corean ri or li is
li«t» ■ an\o as the Chinese, its length is about one third of a mile.
V • nt, (. one place,'"* says, however, that thirty Corean !f equal
thrc Engl: '• niiles; and if his statement can be relied upon, this
reduces the C orean li to about one tenth of a mile.

About a century after the visit of Ilwui Shiln, Li Yen-shau,
who copied the official records of the story of the Buddhist priest,
also gave an account of the country of Japan, in which (or in
the copies which the Chinese now have) the distance from the
port of I,o-la)iffy in western Corea, to Japan, is stated to be
twelve thousand li. As the actual distance to the capital of
Japan is not more than fifteen hundred miles, it follows either
that there is a serious error in his account, or else that the // used
as a standard must be only about one tenth of a mile in length.
This statement of Li Yen-shau's has been the cause of nearly
all the misunderstanding as to the true position of the coun-
tries described by Ilwui ShSln. No other instJince seems to occur
in the Chinese records in which the length of the li varies mate-
rially from one third of a mile ; yet from this single instance, of
a standard apparently only one tenth of a mile in length, used
by a writer who lived long after the days of Ilwui Shtin, his
whole story has been discredited, and an effort has been made to
show that the distance which he described as twenty thousand li
was in reality only the trifling distance between the island of
Saghalien and Japan.

It will bo shown in one of the following chapters that the
chief early intercourse of the Japanese was with the people of
Corea. These in turn were frequently visited by the Chinese.
Klaproth'"' says that there was constant communication between
the two countries, and that Corea paid tribute to China through-
out the fifth and sixth centuries. Their histories also show that

THE LENGTH OF THE LI.

333

when the Chinese visited Japan it was by way of Coroa. It
is therefore evident that the Chinese relied upon the Coreans for
information as to the route to Ja\ <n, and for assistance in reach-
iiifjf that country, and nothing can be more probable than that
Li Ven-shau, when gathering information as to Japan, obtained
much of it, either directly or indirectly, from Corean sources.
Whether it is a fact that the Corean It is, or ever has been, only
one tenth of a mile in length, and that the Chinese borrowed the
description of the route given by the Coreans, without making the
correction for the difference in the length of tlie // used in the
two countries, or whether, as is indicated by a discovery of M. de
Rosny, mentioned in a note given in Chapter XXXIV, a seri-
ous error was made by the Chinese in copying from their early
records, by which they doubled the distance, nn v b'^ left to the
decision of competent scholars ; but that the true e> anation of
the great distance that is named will be foi. .'I euhcr in one
cause or the other, there seems little room to doubt.

Whatever the cause of the error in the d* cription of the
route to Japan may have been, Ilwui Shftn, •■hen describing the
length of his journey, to the representative J the Chinese em-
])eror, could not have meant by the word li anything else than
the distance then called a li by the Chinese — that is to say, about
one third of an English mile. He certainly can not be blamed
for his failure to foresee that a century after his death his story
Avould be confused with another account, in which there would
be either a serious error or else in which another standard of
distance Avould be used.

Those who have placed Fu-sang in Japan have either ignored
so many difficulties, or disposed of them so satisfactorily to them-
selves, that the trifling discrepancy that^ according to their views,
the distance from Japan to Great Han was twelve thousand li
(of a length never used elsewhere in Chinese accounts), while
the distance from Great Han to Japan (Fu-sang) was twenty
thousand li, seems unworthy of notice.

In addition to the difficulty which a number of former in-
vestigators have found in determining, approximately, the
length of the li, the second objection is raised that Ilwui
Shan, or the mythical Chinese voyagers who have been sup-
posed to have visited the country of Marked Bodies and Great
Ilan, could not have had any means of determining with accu-

I, i: '.

334

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

racy tho distances which they traveled or the direction of their
voyage.

Admitting that the distances and the direction may not bo
accurately given, it certainly does not follow that they arc not
a reasonable approximation to the truth. Surely there was no
greater difficulty in those days than there is now in making a
rough estimate, with reasonable accuracy, as to the distance
traveled and the general direction of the course. Of all tho
men who sail the seas, it is doubtful whether there is one who,
if he had pursued a southerly course of a thousand or twelve
hundred miles, could be so egregiously mistaken as to believo
that he had sailed seven thousand miles easterly ; and if it be as-
sumed that llwui ShUn attempted to describe his journey in
good faith, it certainly ought not to bo taken for granted that
he was liable to make so gross a blunder.

Klaproth says "" that the navigators who visit thie Japanese
Islands estimate even the distances which they have themselves
traveled only approximately. It is evident, however, that they
do estimate them approxitnatelt/, and would not be likely to bo
guilty of such stupidity as calling south, east, and thinking one
mile to be seven.

The "Chinese Repof-itory," '"" when referring to distances
reckoned in " days' journeys," says that " the day's journey is
usually considered one hundred li, a little more or less " ; and it
is not improbable that the Buddhist traveler, when journeying
along the shore or paddling from island to island, estimated each
day's journey as about this distance. However this may have
been, there can be no question that a man possessed of courage,
persistency, and hardihood sufficient to carry him through a
journey of forty-one years, in countries previously unknown,
can hardly have lacked the amount of knowledge necessary
to enable him to distinguish between east and south, or be-
tween one mile and half a dozen. "When he says that the
country of Marked Bodies lies twenty-three hundred miles
northeasterly from Japan, we may grant that this is a mere
estimate. Possibly the distance was only two thousand miles,
or it may have been twenty-five hundred ; the course, also, may
have varied a few degrees from northeast ; but if we are to as-
sume that he may have meant a country less than five hundred
miles from Japan, and lying directly north, we assume that he

TOE LENGTn OF THE LI.

335

was cither grossly ignorant or thoroughly dinlionest, and in either
case it would be useless to examine his story further.

Let us for the present, however, proceed upon the assump-
tion that he may have been honest and intelligent, as ho must
have been brave and resolute, and see whether his story is or is
not true.

If wo sail from Japan, in a northeasterly direction, for a
distance of some two thousand miles, where do wo find our-
selves ? Not in the island of Jeseo, but among the Aleutian
Islands, Do these islands or their people correspond with Ilwui
Shan's account ? If they do, we have a strong proof that his
story is true. If they do not, it is useless to look elsewhere for
the country described by him, and his story may be dismissed
as false.

Allowance must be made, however, for the changes that
bave taken place in the fourteen centuries that have elapsed
since the time of his travels. It could not be expected that all
the customs mentioned by him should have come down to the
present day, or that those which still exist should bo found
identical in all respects with the form which they had so long
ago. It is also to be presumed that those which have survived
will bo found, in many cases, scattered among tribes now living
at some distance from the region inhabited by their ancestors
fourteen hundred years ago.

Caesar's account of the people of Gaul and Britain antedates
by only some four centuries Hwni Shiin's story of the lands
visited by him ; but if we had no other means of proving that
Cajsar actually visited western Europe and England than a com-
parison of his account with existing customs, his credit would
suffer as has oxir Buddhist priest's.

"When speaking of the people of Britain, he says"* that they
do not consider it right to eat the hare, the domestic fowl, or the
goose, and adds that '" " most of the inhabitants of the interior
do not sow grain, but live upon milk and flesh, and clothe them-
selves in skins. All the men of this country dye themselves with
woad, w^hich gives them a bluish colour, and makes their appear-
ance in battle more terrible. Their hair is long, and all parts
of their body are shaved except the head and upper lip. Ten
or twelve have their wives in common, usually brothers with
their brothers, or parents with their children ; but the offspring

330

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

arc conHidcrcd tho children of him by whom tho maiden was
first eH|)()UHod."

It is a curious illustration of tho persistency with which hit).
torical talcs survive, and of the fact that even tho most incredible
are fre(iuently founded upon some warped or perverted truth
and hence are deserving of study in order that the truth which
they contain may bo separated from the error, that Sir Jolin
Maund( vile, returning to England some twelve centuries later,
with his mind tilled with marvels — not only those which he had
himself seen in tho Orient, but iilso all that ho had been able
to gather from others regarding the countries still farther cast
— should have brought back to IJritain the story which hud
started from it so long before. The t.\le had survived, but tho
location of tho land had been forgotten, and hence it was sup-
posed to be situated in tho distant East.

IMS t< Beyonde that Yle, is another Ylc, where is gret mul-
tytude of folk ; and thei wolo not for nothing eten Flescho of
Hares, ne of Ilennes, ne of Gees ; and yit thei bryngen forthe y
now, for to seen hem and to beholden hem only. But thei eten
Flesche of alio other Bestes, and drynken Mylk. In that Contre
thei taken hire Doughtres and hire Sustres to hero Wyfcs, and
hire other Kynneswomcn. And gif there ben 10 or 12 men or
mo dwcllyngo in an Hows, the Wif of everyche of hem schalle
ben comoun to hem alio, that duellen in that Hows."

Returning again to the account of the Buddhist traveler, it
will be seen that he says that, about sixteen hundred miles east
of the land of "Marked Bodies," there lay a country called
Great Hax. At about that distance east of the center of the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska is found ; and if his story is true, Great
Han was located in or near Alaska.

It should first be noticed that here are two instances in which
land exists in the Pacific Ocean, just where he says it is to
be found. A glance at a map will show how unlikely it is that
he would be right as to the existence of land in a certain direc-
tion, and at a certain distance, if his story were but a figment of
the imagination. "With all the islands in the Pacific Ocean to
choose from, those who attempt to locate Fu-sang elsewhere
than in America, can do so only by ignoring both the distance
and the direction. If any other li than tho true one is used,
and if the bearings mentioned by Hwui Shan are preserved, the

THE NAML: "CiUKAT MAN."

837

viul of the route will fall into the fatliomlt's.s (Upths of the Tu-
cifif.

Tlio name of the easternmost of the two countries Is given as
-J^, 'V\ ((freiit), ;9|, Han. The last eharactcr heiiij^ made up of
two parts, meaning respeetively "water" an<l "hardship."

Instead of being composed,""" as is frequently supposed, of a
vast number of arbitrary and eomplii-ated symbols, the charac-
ters of the Chinese language are compoiinded of very simple
elements, which carry along with them into their derivatives

something of their own meaning, while each generally preserves
its figure unchanged. These elementary characters supply the

Itiacc of an alphabet ; but it ia an alphabet of ideas, not of

sounds.

The earliest Chinese characters were evidently pictorial ; but
pictures could not be made whi«'h would clearly express all ideas.
Among the means resorted to, for obtaining characters to express
conceptions that could not be indicated by a simple sketch, was
that of combining two familiar pictures to give rise to a new
idea, sometimes of an abstraction, sometimes the name of a
real thing."'* For instance, a man with a l((r,^e eye represents
" seeing"; two men, "to follow"; three men, "many";'"*
ttro men on the ground, "sitting."

All other means failing, the present great mass of characters
was formed by a principle from which the class is called "pho-
netic"; because in the characters classed under it, while one
part (called the " radical ") preserves its meaning, the other part
(called the "phonetic" or "primitive") is used to give its own
sound to the whole figure. This part does sometimes, however,
*"" convey also its symbolic meaning as well as its sound.

As a specimen of the influence which the primitive frequently
exerts upon the meaning of the compound, the following is
given : "*"

J^, Ti, means low or mean ; when compounded with the radi-
cal " man," it means a low man, a base fellow, a vagabond ; when
Wi li " heart," it means a sordid mind, meanness ; when with
"hand," it means underhanded, crafty; when with a "tree,"
the roots ; when with a "stone," the foundation ; when with a
"horn," to put the horn down, to gore ; Avhen with an "eye," to
look down, humble, condescending ; when with a " boat," per-
haps the bottom of the boat or raider ; when witL " words,"
23

338

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

low words, vulgarisms, slander ; and when with " grain," ripe
ffrain that bonds down.

G. T. Lay, in an article in the " Chinese Repository," insists
upon the importance of recognizing the influence of the " pho-
ne*^ic" upon the meaning of the character, in the following
words : '«"

" The Chinese primitives or vocal portions may not be ex-
changed (for others of the «ame sound) without producing tlie
greatest change in the sense. Every student of a few montlis'
standing knows that you can not substitute one primitive for an-
other without producing a dijfferent sense ; with this fact before
him, will any man have the hardihood to tell me that the primi-
tive in composition serves only for the purposes of sound ? AVe
acknowledge that Chinese sometimes exchange these primitives
in their books, and more frequently in their petitions, letters, and
private documents, and thus occasion doubt and difticulties which
might have been avoided. The number of substitutions is al-
Avays in the direct ratio of the composer's ignorance of the Avritton
language. Many a time has the foreigner mortified the pride of
the native by showing him that he had written the wrong primi-
tive, and perhaps not less frequently has the native repaid the
little affront by pointing out a similar mistake which the foreign-
er had made. This is an every-day proof that the Chinese rec-
ognize the principle that the primitive has a meaning as well as
a sound."

There are at least five or six hundred common Chinese char-
acters in which it is universally admitted that the meaning of
the so called '* phonetic " is preserved in the compound char-
acter.

Let us see whether this character Has should not be in-
cluded in this class. Professor Williams defines the word as
follows : " The Milky Way ; the large branch of the Yang-tsz'
River ; a Chinese ; relating to China ; the Ilan dynasty, which
was named from the duke of ITan."

Its most common use at present is in the meaning " Chinese."
The " Land of Han " is China,'='^ and hence the terra " Great Ilan "
has boon considered to mean either " Great China," or a land
inhabited by " Great Chinese." It is evident, however, that
the term " Ilan " was first applied to the Chinese as subjects
of the Han dynasty,''*^ whica took its name from its founder,

THE NAME "GREAT IIAN."

339

the duke of Ilan. He in turn derived his title, like many
English noblemen, from the small district over which he first
ruled, and this district took its name from the river Ilan, upon
the bank of which it was situated.

If we now inquire how the character in question first came
to be applied to the river Ilan, and if we bear in mind that the
character is composed of two parts, meaning *' water" and " hard-
ship," it is readily seen that it may have been adopted as the
name of the river to express the idea that its leading character-
istic was that its "water" could be navigated only with "diffi-
culty," if at all. The Chinese " Historical Classic," the Siiu
Kixc, as translated by Mr. James Legge, mentions " the Han
with its eddying movements," '"* and Professor Williams refers
to '"'the swirling ivaters of the river Han, thus showing that
the two parts of the character correctly describe the stream.

The character Han also means the IMilky Way.'"* And hero
again the idea of foaming, dashing water is apparent ; the Milky
Way resembling a foaming stream among the stars.

When Hwui ShSn reached the Aleutian Islands, or Alaska,
what name did he find the country to bear ? what was the mean-
ing of the name, and how would he probably attempt to ti-an-
scribe it in Chinese characters ?

It is stated in the " Chinese Repository " that '""' the etymolo-
gies of the Chinese are sometimes deserving of notice as an index
of their habits of thought, and modes of combining relative
ideas in order to embody a new one ; and Professor Williams says
that ^"^ scholars are fastidious as to the introduction of merely
phonetic words into their compositions, and prefer to translate
everything that they can.

Hence, the probability is strong that Hwui Shan would at-
tempt both to translate the name, and to adopt a character which
would to some extent describe the country.

Dall gives the following statement as to the name applied by
the natives of the Aleutian Islands to the adjoining continent,
and as to its meaning : "^'

"Alaska. — This name, now applied to the whole of our new
territory, is a corruption, very far removed from the original
word. When the early Russian traders first reached Unalarhka,
they were told by the natives that to the eastward was £■ great
land or territory. This was called by the natives Al-ak-shak, or

■

in ^

340

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Al-ay-ek-sa. The island now known as Unalashka was callo(3
Na-gun-alayeksa, or the land near Alayeksa. From Alayoksa
the name became, by corruption, Alaksa, Alashka, Aliaska, aiij
finally Alaska. . . . We have then Alaska for the territory, Ali-
aska for the peninsula, and Unalashka for the island ; all derived
from the same root, meaning a great country or continent.'''

Pinart also states that among the Aleuts "'^" a tradition of the
people is mentioned, in which they say that, before coming t(;
their present home, they lived " in a great land, which was also
called Aliakhskha — that is to say, *a continent.'''"

Coxe also mentions the acquaintance of the Aleutian Island
era with the size of the adjoining continent, in the followiii'^
words : ""

" Glottof did not land till he reached the last and most oast-
ward of these islands, called by the inhabitants Kadiak ; from
which the natives said it was not far to the coast of a wide, ex-
tended, woody continent."

Hence, when Ilwui Sh3,n was in the Aleutian Islands, he, too,
probably heard of the " great land," " the continent," to the
east ; and this he indicated by the character ta, meaning " great."

That the character is used with this meaning, and not as a
mere phonetic, is quite conclusively proven by the fact that in
the twenty-eight cases in which it is used by Hiuen Ts'ang,'*" "n
the names of towns or districts of India, it is invariably a trans-
lation of the Sanskrit " Maha," having the same meaning, while
in the twenty cases in which the syllabic "ta" is transliterated,
some other character is always used.'*"

While it is possible that he may have meant "China" by the
character "Han," thus intending to call the continent "Great
China," and so indicate the fact that it was larger than China, it
seems more probable that he meant to go back to the original
meaning of the character, and thus indicate that it was a (jreat
country of dashing water, or a great country reached with diffi-
cidtg by water.

This would be very appropriate, as Langsdorff says that ""'
the current, or the influence of the ebb and flood tides, is very vio-
lent and irregular here between the numerous islands, and needs
to be carefully watched by every sailor. While the P^ncyclo-
paedia Britannica states that '^ the Aleutian Islands are bare and
mountainaus, and their coasts are rocky and surrounded by

THE NAME '-GREAT IIAN."

341

breakers, by which the approach is rendered exceedingly dan-

cjerous.

Although the population of the Aleutian Islands is now
very small, the islands were once thickly peopled. Langsdorff
says, for instance, that '™ about 1770 the population of Kadiak
and the neighbouring islands was estimated at fifty thousand
people.

One curious indication of the location of the country named
" Han " is found in the Chinese character jfj^, of which the Hok-
koon pronunciation is Ciiay. This is defined as'*" "driftwood
floating down a river, upon which they fable that genii ride in
order to float into the Milky Way, or Heavenly River, and thus get
among the stars." Here is evidently a myth founded upon the
character " Han," which was applied by Hwui Sh5,n to a country
far to the northeast, wjoo/i ichich driftwood floating in the Kuro-
siwo, or gulf-stream of the Pacific, icoidd ultimately he thrown.
After the existence of this country was partly forgotten, some
surviving statement, that the driftwood floated to " Ilan," was,
on account of the fact that one of the meanings of the character
is "the Milky Way," supposed to mean that the driftwood
floated to this Heavenly River.

Before taking up the account of the lands of "Marked
Bodies " and " Great Han," and examining them clause by clause
to see whether similar accounts are given by other travelers to
the same region, attention should be called to the fact that a
thorough examination of Hwui Shan's story should lead to some
one of the following conclusions :

First. — His story is entirely false ; nothing more than an
effort of the imagination of a " lying Buddhist priest."

Second. — He himself had not visited the countries which he
described, but he bad heard some account of them from oth • •«
who had visited them, and he attempted to repeat their stories.

TJiird. — He had ac- ually visited the countries described by
him, and he attempted to give a truthful account of his travels.

In deference to the views of those scholars who see in every
nursery tale and every history a myth of the rising sun, a fourth
theory might be added : that the story of Fu-sang is a " sun-
myth." This Procrustean theory is so all-embracing — applying
with equal force to " Sing a Song of Sixpence " and the Iliad ; to
the history of Jacob and the life of either of the Napoleons —

'■P

342

AN INGLORIOUS COIU'/BUi^J.

that the various arguments used to aJapt it tc> anv to le what-
ever might be applied (oven with special fore. , ay to nom* poiL'.r
to tl e history of Fu-sang, " the Land of the Rising Sun," A
sprinkling of Sanskrit, and a reference to the clouds surroundiiifr
the rising sun as " cows " or " herds," would make the argument
complete.

As it is reasonable to presume, however, that not more than
nine tenths of early history is a variation upon the sun-myth
theme, let us assume that the story of Fu-sang is aiuong the
few early tales that have some claim to other foundation.

In such case it is but reasonable to ask that the story as a
whole should lead to some one of the three conclusions bofoie
mentioned. A portion of the story should not be accounted fur
by one hypothesis, and another of its statements by a different
theory, wholly inconsistent with the first. It is not proper, for
instance, to arrive at the conclusion that there was no such land
as Fu-sang, and then in the next sentence attempt to prove lL„t
there was a land of Fu-sang, but that it was located in Japan.

The author will attempt to show that the thh*d theory is the
true one. It is not necessary to remove every cujection ; some
difficulties will unquestionably remain unsolved. But the true
point to be decided is as to which one of the possible theories
offers the fewest and least serious perplexities. If it be shown
that Ilwui Shan describes a particular region In America, with
its characteristic plants, and mentions peculiar customs or its
people, such as are not known to have ever existed elsewhere ;
if truth after truth is told, of a nature such as could never have
been imagined if Ariuuhia had not actually been visited — a
point will soon be re • Lv d when even explanations that would
otherwise seem improbable may be accepted in regard to some
few difficulties that present no other solution.

If it requires infinitely more explanation to account for Ilwui
Shan's story upon either the first or second theory than it does
upon the third, then the third may be considered as established
with reasonable certainty. In the following pages an effort will
be made to show that this is the case.

some

CHAPTER XIX.

THE CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OP "MARKED BODIES," AXD OP

GREAT HAX.

Nccassity of examining the account in detail — The resemblance of the people of the
two countries — Their customs — Their languages — The marks upon their bodies
— Tattooing with three lines — Existence of the custom in America — The marks
a sign of the position of their bearer — The merry nature of the people — Their
feasts and dances — Their hospitality — Hospitality of the American Indians —
Tlie Iroquois — The Esquimaux — The Aleutians — Absence of fortifications —
The chiefs — The decoration of their dwellings — The Ilaidah Indians — Other
Indian tribes from British Columbia to Alaska — Esquimaux fondness for
ornamentation — Ditches — The dwellings of the people — Water-silver — Proof
that ice is meant — Quicksilver — No country ever had ditches filled with
quicksilver — The traffic by means of precious gems — Xo money u;-ed — Value
of amber — The peaceful nature of the people — The punishment of crime —
Summary of facts mentioned by Ilwui ShSn — Application of the doctrine of
chances — The two countries bearing the name of Great Ilan.

Marsdex, in his edition of the " Travels of Marco Polo," *™
states that while much ingenuity has been shown, on the one
side, in pointing out what seem to be improbabilities, defects,
and inconsistencies in his work, and, on the other, in defend-
ing it upon general principles, little has hitherto been done, by
editors or commentators, toward an examination of the particu-
lar details, with the view of bringing them to the test of mod-
ern observation ; and yet it is upon the unexceptionable evi-
dence of their consistency with known facts, rather than the
strength of any argument, that the reader is expected to ground
bis confidence in the intentional veracity of the author.

This criticism seems equally true in regard to the Chinese
descriptions of eastern lands ; and this chapter will therefore be
devoted to an examination of "the particular details" of the
account of the Countries of Marked Bodies and Great Han, in
order to show " their consistency M'ith known facts."

344

AN INGLOKIOUS COLUMBUS.

I. — The kudexess op the customs (of the people of the
two coiintrii -) is the same, but their languages aue ini-.

FERENT.

Latham says '"" that the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands
properly so called (i. e., of liehring's and Copper Islands), of tlie
Rat Islands, of the Andreanowsky Islands, of the PrebUlowiini
Islands, of Unalaska, and of Kadiak, are all Esquimaux ; a fact
which numerous vocabularies give us full means of asccrtainiiicr.
In respect to the difference of speech between particular islands
there is external evidence that it is considerable. The people of
Atka have a difficulty in understanding the Unalaskans, and
vice versa. Again, the Kadiak vocabulary, as found in Lisianslvv,
differs very notably from the Unalaskan of the same author ;
indeed, it may be doubted whether the two languages are mu-
tually intelligible.

Dall states that '"^ the language of the western Innuit differs
totally in the vocabulary from that of any Indian tribes, while
there are many words common to the Greenlanders and the
Behring's Strait Esquimaux. On the other hand, the words of tlie
language of the Aleutians are in very large part quite dissimilar
to those of the most adjacent Innuit. There is more difference
in this respect between them and the Innuit of Kadiak than ex-
ists between the Greenlaiidic and Behring's Strait dialect. Never-
theless, the Aleutian language is clearly of the Innuit type, and
is only entitled to rank as a branch of the Orarian stock.

While Langsdorff repeats, almost verbatim, the words of
Ilwui Shan : " The inhabitants of Kadiak are but slightly dif-
ferent from those of Univ^n,«Ka. In general the people are some-
what taller and more robust, but otherwise they are undeniably
of the same race. The langnage is (liferent. The customs, man-
ners, methods of living, means of sustenance, and the clothing,
hoxcever, are almost exactly the same.'''' '™'

II. — The PEorLE have m>rks upon their bodies like
■■rVrLT^ beasts.

It does not seem quite certain whether Ilwui Shan meant
tb';t tiie marks were like those upon anima' '., or that they were
pictuH'^^ of wild beasts, or merely that the people resembled
animals from the fact that their bodies were marked.

If it is meant that the marks were representations of wild
blasts, the Ilaidah Indians, of Queen Charlotte's Islands, who

CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 345

live not far from Alaska, and who may have moved from a still
nearer neighbourhood during the last fourteen centuries, ex-
actly meet the description. They seem to be intruders in their
present location, as Swan states that there is a'"^* marked differ-
ence in their manners and customs from the Indians of the main-
land, lie adds that a singular ^*''^ custom which prevails among
them, and which seems to be a distinctive feature of this tribe, is
that of tattooing their bodies with various designs, all of which
arc fanciful representations of animrJs, birds, or fishes, either an
attempt to represent in a grocesquc form those which are known
and commonly seen, or their mythological and legendary crea-
tions ; he says aibo that "" each of the people will have on some
part of the body a representation in tattooing of the particular
figure which constitutes his or her family name or connection.
Tlie chief will have all the figures tattooed on his body to show
his connection with the whole.

If it is merely meant, however, that the people resembled
wild beasts rather than men, because their bodies were marked
or tattooed, it is not necessary to look farther than to the tribes
now living in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

Bancroft says that,"' were these people (the Esquimaux)
satisfied with what nature has done for them, they would be
passably good-looking. But with them, as with all mankind,
no matter how high the degree of intelligence and refinement
attained, art must be applied to improve upon nature. The few
finishing-touches neglected by the Creator, man is ever ready to
supply. Arrived at the age of puberty, the great work of im-
provement begins. Up to this time the skin has been kept satu-
rated in grease and filth, until the natural colour is lost, and
until the complexion is brought down to the Esquimaux standard.
Now pigments of various dyes arc applied, both painted out-
wardly and pricked into the skin.

John Ledyard, who visited Unalaska with Captain Cook,
stated that, among the people whom they sa'^ '"^ both sexes
had undergone the usual face painting and ornamentation ; and
Langsdorff mentions that'*'*' tattooing was very customary in
former times in the Aleutian Islands, especially among the women.
They punctured the chin, the neck, and the arms.

III. — In front (or upon tubib foreheads) tiiey have

THREE MARKS.

346

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Richardson says : '°* " The women tattoo their faces in bUio
linos, produced by making stitches with a fine needle and thread
smeared with lamp-black." Beechey reports that, betwoon
Kotzebue Sound and Icy Cape,"*' " all the women were tattooed
upon the chin with three small lines.^^ Armstrong states that,""
at Point Barrow, the women have on the chin a vertical line
about half an inch broad in the center, extending from the lip,
with a parallel but narrower one on either side of it, a littlo
apart. Choris assures us that,'"* on Behring's Isle, men as well
as women tattoo ; many men having the face tattooed. Coxe
mentions that '"* the women of the Aleutian Islands were orna-
mented with different figurcf^ sewed into the skin, and that '""
the faces of the women of the Fox Islands were marked with
blackish streaks made Avith a needle and thread in the skin ; and
Bancroft says that '"* young Kadiak wives secure the affection-
ate admiration of their husbands by tattooing the breast and
adorning the face with black lines ; while the Kuskoquim women
sew into their chin two parallel blue lines.

This custom seems to have spread over a large portion of
Northwestern America.

Ross says that all the Esquimaux women met by him'"' were
tattooed to a greater or less extent, chiefly oti the brow, and on
each side of the mouth and chin ; this ornament consisting in
lines alone, without any peculiar figures, and thus conforming
to the usages of the Northwestern Esquimaux of America, as they
have been described by different voyagers.

Mackenzie, after mentioning that "" the Chepewyans have a
tradition among them th.at they originally came from another
country, inhabited by very wicked people, and had traversed a
great lake which was narrow, shallow, and full of islands, where
they had suffereil great misery, it being always winter, with ice
and deep snow, adds that "" both sexes have blue or black bars
of from one to fou.' straight linos on their cheeks or forehead,
to distinguish the tribe to which they belong. lie also asserts
that"" the men of Itoth the Slave and Dog-rib tribes of Indians
have two double linos, either black or blue, tattooed upon each
cheek, from the ear to the nose, and that some of the Knistc-
naux women ''" tatoo three perpendicular lines, which are some-
times double, one from the center of the chin to that of the under
lip, and one parallel on either side to the corner of the mouth.

CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 317

Powers remarks that the Karok""*" squaws tattoo in blue three
narrow fern-leaves perpendicularly on the chin, one falling from
each corner of the mouth, and one in the middle, and that the
Wintun"" squaws all tattoo three narrow lines, one falling
from each corner of the mouth, and one between.

IV. — Ik the marks auk lakge and straight, they indicate

THAT TIIOSB WHO HAVE TIIEM APE OF THE HIGHER CLASSES ;
BUT IP THEY ARE SMALL AND CROOKED, THEN THEIR POSSESSORS
ARE OP THE LOWER CLASSES.

Armstrong states that at Point Barrow some of the wom-
en '°* " have two vertical lines protruding from either angle
of the mouth ; which is a mark of their hiyh 2}ositiun in the
tribe."

V. — The PEOPLE op the land are op a merry nature,

AND THEY REJOICE WHEN THEY IIAVK AX ABUNDANCE, EVEN OF
articles that ARE OP LITTLE VALUE.

It is singular that nearly every traveler to Alaska and the
Aleutian Islands has mentioned this peculiarity in the disposi-
tion of the people, by which they are clearly distinguished from
the taciturn and phlegmatic tribes occupying otlier portions of
the American Continent.

Bancroft states that"*' the Aleuts are fond of dancing.
Langsdorff asserts that"*" the character of the people of the
island of Unalaska is in general kind and good-natured, sub-
missive, and obedient. Dall states "" that originally the Aleu-
tian tribes were active and sprightly, and that,"*' like most
of the Innuit tribes, they were fond of dances and festivals,
which, like those of Norton Sound, were chiefly celebrated in
December. Food was then plenty, and the otter-hunting
season did not commence till a little later."" "Whole villages
entertained other villages, receiving the guests with songs and
tambourines. Successive dances of children, naked men beating
their rude drums, and women curiously attired, were followed
by incantations from the shamans. If a whale was cast ashore,
the natives assembled with joyous and remarkable ceremonies.
They advanced and beat drums of different sizes. The caroass
was then cut up, and a feast held on the spot.

This peculiarity seems to be shared by the Kamtchatkans,
for it is stated of them that '^" they pass their time in singing
and dancing, and in relating their intrigues, and the greatest

848

AN INGLORIOUS CGLUMliUS.

misfortuno that they can sufTcr is to bo dcprivej of these
amusements.

VI. — TuAVEMNd VISITORS DO NOT rRKI'AUK FOOD FOU Til Kill
JOURNKYS, AND TIIKY HAVE THE 8IIELTER OF THEIR (thk I\.
HAIUTANTS') DWELLINGS.

JJy referring to tlie seventeenth chapter, it will bo seen that
some of the former translators of this passage have thought that
reference was made t(» " a fertile land, where all that is neces-
sary to sustain life may be found in abundance"; to a country
where " the various products are abundant and cheap," and
where " the travelers who pass through it have no need to fur-
nish themselves with j>rovisions." The Marqnis d'llervcy do
Saint-Denys renders the first clause of the paragrai)h above
(pioted, " The traveler easily finds food"; and in another place
translates the same clause, " The traveler has no need to carry
food with him (the country furnishing it to him in abundance)."

The version of this passage by Professor Williams will bo
seen, however, to agree in its main features with that given by
the present author.

The statement of the Chinese account is, that "travelinur
visitors do not prepare food for their journeys"; and the in-
ference of former translators, that the reason is that " the coun-
try furnishes it in abundance," is merely an inference, and hap-
pens to be erroneous.

The true reason is, that the people, although poor, are so hos-
pitable that they supply travelers freely with all that they them-
selves have. This complete hospitality, which is carried to such
a point that it is considered to be a right of the traveler to share
freely of all that may be found in the dwellings that he enters,
and that there is no thought on either side that it is an act of
mere courtesy, is characteristic of the aborigines of the Ameri-
can Continent ; as it existed throughout all of North America,
at least, and was probably found in South America also ; while
it is doubtful whether the same universal and complete hospi-
tality has existed anywhere else in the world.

So accustomed were all or nearly all of the tribes of America
to this hearty welcome in every house that they entered, that
Mr. Stephen Badger, in a letter to the Massachusetts His-
torical Society, published in 1798, complains that '* the Indians
are strangely disposed and addicted to wander from place to

CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OF ♦'MARKED HOIHES." 349

place, and to make excursions into various parts of tlio country,
and Monu'times at no small distance from their proper homes,
without anything on hand for their sujtport in their perambula-
tions, as for this they depend, with unanxious concern, upon the
charity and compassion of others.

Mori^an says that''^" one of the most attractive features of In-
dian society was the spirit of hospitality by which it was per-
vaded. Perhaps no people ever carried this principle to the
same de;.';ree of universality as did the Inxpiois. Their houses
were not ou]y oj)en to each other, at all hours of the day and of
the night, but also to the wayfarer and the stranger. Such
entertainment as their means afforded was freely spread before
him, with words of kindness and of welcome, lie states again
that,'"''' among the Irocjuois, hospitality was an established
usage. If a man entered an Indian house in any of their vil-
lages, whether a villager, a tribesman, or a stranger, it was the
duty of the women therein to sot food before him. An omis-
sion to do this would have been a discourtesy amounting to an
affront. If hungry, he ate ; if not hungry, courtesy required
that he should taste the food and thank the giver. This would
he repeated at every house he entered, and at whatever hour in
the day. As a custom it was upheld by a rigorous public senti-
ment. The same hospitality was extended to strangers from
their own and from other tribes. Upon the advent of the Euro-
pean race among them it was also extended to them. Quotations
follow from *' Smith's History of Virginia," from the Rev. John
Heckewelder, from Lewis and Clarke, and from many others, to
show that this hospitality is universal among the Indian tribes.

In another place ''^' Morgan gives the following anecdote in
illustration of the difference between the hospitality of the In-
dians and that of the whites :

Canassatego, a distinguished Onondaga chief, who flourished
about the middle of the last century, said, in a conversation with
Conrad Wciser, an Indian interpreter : " You know our prac-
tice. If a white man, in traveling througli our country, enters
one of our cabins, we all treat him as I do you. We dry him if
he is w^et, we warm him if he is cold, and give him meat and
drink that he may allay his hunger and thirst ; and we spread
soft furs for him to rest and sleep on. We demand nothing in
return. But if I go into a white man's house at Albany, and ask

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AN INGLOKIOUS COLUMBUS.

for victuals and drink, they say, * Where is your money ? ' And
if I have none, they say, * Get out, you Indian dog f* "

Mackenzie speaks particularly "" of the generosity and hos-
pitality of the Knistenaux ; and Ross"** mentions several in-
stances "" in which he had " ample proof of the hospitality " ""^
of the Esquimaux whom he met.

To return to Alaska and the Aleutian Islands : Dall mentions
a case of great kind-heartedness shown to him by two of the
natives of Alaska."" He says again of the Aleutians that"" hos-
pitality was one of their prominent traits.

Quoting from Veniaminoflf, he says "" that it is the custom of
the Aleutians for the successful hunter or fisher, particularly in
times of scarcity, to share his prize with all, not only taking no
large share, but often less than the others ; and if he has forgotten
any one at the distribution, or any one arrives too late, he shares
the remainder with him. All those in need of assistance hasten
to meet the returning hunter at the landing, and sit down silently
by the shore. This is a sign that they ask for aid ; only the
infirm or orphans send persons to represent them : and the hunt-
er divides his prize, without expecting thanks or restitution.

Continuing his quotations from the same authority, he adds : ""

" The Aleuts are not inhospitable, but they practice hospital-
ity in their own way: They meet all strangers at the landing-
place, though rarely saluting them by word or sign, except
where they have learned the custom, dai'y becoming more uni-
versal, from the Russians. If the stranger has a relative or inti-
mate friend, he goes to him ; if not, no one will invite him, but
all are ready to receive him : he can choose his quarters himself.
Then he is entertained in the best manner ; the woman of the
house ta'ces care of his clothing, mending his kjimlayka, or what-
ever stands in need of repair ; but she is not obliged to receive
him, as was formerly customary. They never think of asking
their guest for anything, but let him stay as long as he may ;
they even provide him with food of every kind tcJien he departs.''^

The duplication by Veniaminoflf, in the clause in italics, of the
statement given in the Chinese account, should be particularly
observed.

Bancroft says that "' the Aleuts are given to hospitality ; and
Coxe mentions that "" when the natives of the Fox Islands are
on a journey, and their provisions are exhausted, they beg from

CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 351

village to village, or call upon their friends and relations for
assistance.

VII. — They have no fortifications or walled cities.

This is so well known to be true of the Aleutians and Alas-
kans, that no quotations upon the subject will be necessary.

VIII. — The residence of the king (or kings) of the
COUNTRY la adorned with gold and silver and precious

AND BEAUTIFUL OBJECTS ABOUT THE DWELLING.

I'irst, as to the ruler, Bancroft states that,"" in the Aleu-
tian Islands, every island, and, in the larger islands, every village,
has its toyon,* or chief, who decides differences, is exempt from
work, and is allowed a servant to row hb boat, but in other re-
spects possesses no power.

The houses of the chiefs are not now decorated in the Aleu-
tian Islands as described in the account, but some remnants of
such decoration still exist in Alaska, and, by going a little way
down the American coast, wo find, among the Ilaidah Indians
(who, as has already been stated, seem to be intruders in their
present position, and who may have migrated from the Aleu-
tian Islands or their neighbourhood duii/g the last fourteen
hundred years), carvings and decorations which recall the de-
scription given above.

As it is mentioned, a little farther on in the account, that, in
their birters, precious gems are used (as the standard of value,
instead of gold and silver), it is evident that, at the time when
the residence of the chief was adorned with gold and silver,
these metals were used merely as ornaments. After their value
as the medium of exchange with foreign nations was learned, it
is not likely that the outside of any dwelling would long be
covered with them, and they would, therefore, soon be replaced
with other decorations.

Swan, in his account of the Ilaidah Indians, gives an engrav-
ing which he says "" is intended to represent one of the carved
posts or pillars which are raised in front of the houses of the
chiefs or principal men. These pillars are sometimes from fifty
to sixty feet high, elaborately carved, at a cost of hundreds of

* This word, which is found with the same meaning, and witli but slight
changes in sound, throughout Eastern Asia, and in the Aleutian Islands and
Alaska, is a proof of an early communication between the two continents. — E.
P. V.

Iti'l

li^-:

«■■

352

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

blankets ; some of the best ones even costing several thousand
dollars : consequently, only the most xoealthy individuals of the
tribe are able to purchase the best specimens. These pillars arc
carved out of a single cedar-tree, the back hollowed so as to re-
lieve the weight when raising it in a perpendicular position.
They are deeply and firmly set in the earth, directly in front of
the lodge, and a circular opening n-" the ground constitutes the
door of entrance to the house. The Chimsean Indians, at Fort
Simpson, and the Sitka tribes, have this style of carved posts,
but they set them at a shi rt distance from the front of tht'ir
houses. The figures carved on these posts are the family totems,
or heraldic designs of the family occupying the house ; and as
these Indians build large wooden lodges, capable of containing
several families, the carvings may be said to indicate the family
names of the different occupants. The chief or head man owns
the house, and the occupants are his family and relatives.

Dall mentions similar '"- high posts, curiously carved, as being
frequently erected before the houses of the Thlinkeets, and says
that they are sometimes placed directly in front, so that an en-
trance is made through the block or log, which is often of enor-
mous size.

The Niskah or Naas Indians, of British Columbia, have elabo-
rately carved poles in front of many of their houses. Some of
the houses have their fronts built in the form of an animal's
head. The front of one of their houses is described as shaped
like a wolf's head, the nose being the porch, and the mouth the
door."" A chief's rank is marked by the height of the pole
erected in front of his house (on which the crest which distin-
guishes his division of the tribe is carved); and no offense leads
to more frequent quarrels than the attempt on the part of a
chief to put up a pole higher than his rank warrantt^."**

Fondness for ornamentation is shown by both the Alaskans
and Aleuts, their boats being frequently "" inlaid very prettily
with lozenge-shaped pieces of gypsum.

The same love for such ornamentation, which led to the deco-
ration of their houses, is still shown in many smaller matters.
Langsdorff says that "" the Aleutian, who but seldom has an op-
portunity of obtaining a piece of good wood a few inches in diam-
eter, when he obtains a suitable piece, occupies himself for weeks
together in shaping it into a board so made that, when it has

CCSTOMS OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 353

been soaked in water for some little time, it can be bent evenly
and uniformly. He then attempts to gradually bring together
the two corners of the little board, which he has previously
given the form of a semi-oval, and sew them together with sinew-
tliit'ad, by which means a pyramidical cap is made. If he is
successful in this work, which is not always the case, for the
board often either breaks or bends unevenly, he paints it with
coloured earth and ocher, brought from the far distant crater of
the volcano, and adorns it with figures labouriously carved from
wah'us-tusks, without any tools worthy of the name. He also
decorates it with glass or amber beads, obtained from the Rus-
sians, and with the bristles from the muzzle of the sea-lion, which
to a certain extent take the place of the ornamental plumes used
by Europeans ; the Aleutians placing a high value upon a bunch
of these bristles — which are the trophies of a successful hunter
— as each sea-lion has but four.

IX. — TllEY MAKE A DITCH OP A BREADTH OP ONE ROD (of

ten Chinese feet, or nearly twelve English feet), which is filled

WITH WATER-SILVER. AVhEN IT RAINS, THEN THE RAIN FLOWS
UPON THE SURFACE OP THE WATER-SILVER.

As the Chinese seldom punctuate their writings, it is uncer-
tain whether the clause " about the davelling," which in the
present translation was used as the closing member of the pre-
ceding phrase, may not really be the opening clause of the pres-
ent sentence ; in which case the ditch above mentioned should
be considered as surrounding the house or houses, either of the
ruler or of the people.

Coxe says that the inhabitants of some of the Aleutian Isl-
ands "" livo in holes dug in the earth, but elsewhere ''" explains
his meaning more clearly by saying that their "" dwellings are
hollowed in the ground, and covered with wooden roofs, resem-
bling the huts in tl ? peninsula of Kamtchatka. These are de-
scribed as "" surrounded by a wall of earth, or by a palisade.
Langsdorff states that "'* the dwellings of the Unalaskans consist
of pits, which are covered with a roof of earth thrown over them,
upon which, after they have stood for a few years, high grass
grows, so that a village then resembles a European church-yard
with high grave-mounds. He adds that,""' although the dwell-
ings of the inhabitants of Kadiak are in most respects like those
of the Unalaskans, they differ somewhat, from the fact that more
28

:,tl!

liil ' I '^ ' /I

(54:

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

wood is used in their construction. These houses, half-buriod
in tlie earth, although without stoves, are warm enough in tlie
winter to protect their inhabitants from the cold.

It is evident from these quotations that the earth, excavatctl
within the walls of the dwelling, is thrown 'ip about them out-
side and upon the roof. Those who have had occasion to erect
tents know that one of the most essential precautions to secure
comfort is to dig a small trench about them, to carry away any
rain that may fall ; and in a country so intolerably "" rainy as
is Alaska,"** it would seem as if a ditch about the houses were
an absolute necessity. Ilaj'den describes the cabins or huts of
the Arikaras "** in very much the same language as that used
above in picturing the dwellings of the Alaskans, and adds :
" Around the house, on the outside, a small trench is dug, to carry
away the rain." No such ditches are described as existinj^ in
Alaska, however, although Petroff states that*"* storms and tides
often inundate the swampy shore on which their ■/urtlysub-
terranean dwellings are built, and, filling them with water, drive
the inmates out ; while Dall also concurs in the statement that ""
their underground houses are, in summer, full of water.

It is not certain, however, that Hwui Shiin meant to say tliat
the ditch or ditches sunounded the houses. All that can be de-
rived with certainty from his words is, that somewhere in the
country he saw one or more ditches filled with a substance suf-
ficiently remarkable to be, in his opinion, worthy of mention.

He describes this substance as " water-silver." Now, although
this tc-m usually means quicksilver"*' (and it has therefore been
so translated by all others), yet here it seems to be impossible
that it can have been used otherwise than as a descriptive phrase
for ice. We, who see every year the wonderful transformation
of water into a solid crystalline substance, easily forget the sur-
prising nature of the change to one who has not be«". accustomed
to it. The king of Siam could believe all the marvelous tales
of foreign lands that were told to him, until this transformation
was mentioned. Then his credulity was taxed too far, and lie
announced his disbelief, and the reasons for it. " Water," said
|jg 1038 « jg j^ fluid, and a fluid is not a compact body ; therefore,
water can never appear in a compact form, and all the fables
about ice, snow, and hail are unworthy of credit."

Now, although ice is occasionally formed in Northern China,

CUSTOMS OF THE LAN'D OF "MARKED BODIES." 355

the temperature is seldom low enough *** to form it at Canton ;
aiul, as it is seen throughout the most of China and other coun-
tries of Southern Asia, it is merely a thin and easily melted cake,
differing widely from the glittering and immensely thick mass
which is formed in the ditches in the Aleutian Islands. It is
therefore not surprising that Hwui Shun should have spoken of
the great thickness of ice seen in this country. The character
ciu* in the phrase, may possibly be used, not in its most common
sense, as a mere particle indicating the relations to each other of
the words between which it is placed, but in its original sense
as a verb, meaning"" "to proceed, to go to,"'*" "to proceed
to,'' or, as Professor Williams defines it, "to pass from one
state to another," and it seems not impossible that Ilwui Shan
may have meant that the rain passed from the state of a fluid
into that of the " watc-' silver." The passage is very obscure,
and many educated Chinamen have confessed that they were
unable to decide with certainty as to its meaning.

Had it been the intention to say that the ditches were filled
with quicksilver, there is'**' a character'^" (^, hung) meaning
quicksilver, which could have been used instead of the compound
"water-silver." This would have placed the meaning beyond
question, and the nature of the Chinese language is such that
it will hardly permit two characters to be used when one would
fully express the meaning.

It is possible that the original term may have been "icy-
silver," as 7JC, PiXG, ice,*"* differs by only one dot from y^, siiui,
icater. It seems more likely, however, that Hwui Sh&n wished to
distinguish between this hard, solid, transparent ice of the Arctic
regions, and the thin crusts, scarcely deserving the name, which
were all that could be seen in China ; and, in order to do so, he
used a compound analogous to a number of others existing in
Chinese. Quartz crystal is, for instance, called'"* shui-tsing,
" water - crystal," or'"* shui-yuh, "water-gem." This last
term was also applied to glass,'"* " because it is clear as water
and hard as a gem," when that substance was first introduced in
China a few centuries ago. "Water-silver" is as appropriate
and natural a term for ice as the other compounds above named
are for the substances to which they are applied.

It should be again insisted that Ilwui Shiin is fairly entitled

* See chap, xvii, character No. 706.

■ L t

ilPiP

i
1

I <

J56

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

to that trjuiHLition of his account which will make his story con-
form with the truth, provided that such a translation is possible.
If ho wore relying upon his imagination, innumerable statcnu'iits
would be made which no possible ingenuity could harnionizr
with the truth. If "water-silver" is translated "ice," all ditll-
culties vanish, and his account becomes sinijjle and truthful. If
it is translated "quicksilver," we become involved in manifest
absurdities, as, for instance : " "When the ditch is filled with (juiok-
silver, and the rain Is allowed to flow oflF from the quicksilver,
the water is then regarded in the markets as a precious rarity."
This should not be understood as an imputation upon the stliol.
ar.'hip of the late Professor Williams, the depth of whose learn-
ing, and whose thorough acquaintance »^'ith the Chi.iese language-
are too well known to need mention. His translation is <juoted
merely as allowing the utter absurdity of the whole passage if
"water-silver" is translated by its usual equivalent of "quick-
silver." There never way a country in which there was a ditch
filled with quicksilver. If such u country had ever existed, rain-
water flowing upon it, and then flowing off from it, would not
be in any way affected by it ; and if the water were affected by
it, it could not be considered in the markets as a precious rariiy,
as an unlimited amount of water could have been permitted to
flow over it. Can it be believed that any sane man ^ould ever
have told so absurd a story ?

X. — In TiiEiR TRAFFIC THEY USE PRECIOUS GEMS (or Valu-
ables — as the standard of value — instead of gold or silver).

As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, Langs-
dorff stilted that '"^ no money was current in the country. Vtni-
aminoff "•" describes the custom of bartering existing among the
Aleuts, and says that " it is of great age, and has been preserved
without change." Dall mentions "'* amethysts, zeolites, tourma-
lines, garnets, spinel, agates, carnelians, variegated marble, hy-
pochlorite (commonly used for ornaments by the natives, resem-
bliiig jade, and sometimes called malachite), an<^ fossil ivory, as
existing in Alaska.

Langsdorff says that"" a species of mussel-shell, the sea-
tooth {Dentalium entails), which is called tache, or heihca, is
very highly prized by the Aleutians, and even now is in great
request. Bancroft states that "* at times amber is thrown up in
large quantities by the ocean on the south side of Kadiak, gen-

CUSTOMS OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 357

orally aftt-r a heavy cartluiuakc, and that at such times it forms
an important article of commerce with ila natives. Dall "^" also
ppcaks of their fondness for amber, and states that among '"* the
rtlics forwarded to th > Smithsonian Institution from the Aleu-
tian Islands, was one rude amber head, evidently of native make,
on a sinew thread. The amber was obtained from the lignite
bods, which are reported on the islands of Amchitka, Atka, and
Uiialaska, and may exist elsewhere. \Vc know that ambor was
held in great esteem by the early natives, and extraordinary
value set upon it. This bead, therefore, may havi represented
in value a good many sea-otter skins.

Amber is among the articles included by the Chinese under
the general term *' gems," and its value in China was formerly
very great.'"

XI. — TiiEY (the pjople c' Great Ilan) have s., military

WE.VroNS, AND DO NOT WAGE WAR.

This well characterizes the peaceful Esquimaux, and is a
statement that it would be impossible to make with truth regard-
ing any of the tribes of Northeastern Asia.

XII. — He who has committed a petty crime is scourged.
He who is accused of a crime deserving death is thrown
to wild beasts to be devoured. jp the accusation 18 ca-
umnious, the beasts keep at a distance from him, it is said
(instead of devouring him) :, then, after a night (of trial), he

IS SET AT LIBERTY.

This statement was copied by the Marquis d'llervey de Saint-
Denys from the Chinese "History of the South." Ma Twan-
lin, for soiTie reason, did not think it best to include it in his
acoount. The white bears and other large wild beasts, which
once existed in the Aleutian Islands, have long been extinct.
Xo trace of the custom above referred to can therefore now be
I'ound in those islands, and the most that could be expected to
have survived lo the present day would be some dim trace, to
be found among the nearly allied tribes of Kamtchatka or
Alaska.

The author fancies that he has seen an account of the aban-
donment to wild beast.% by the Alaskans, of some alleged witch-
es ; but if so, he is unable to find it again. Possibly the night
of trial through which their medicine-men pass before assuming
the office, whei, alone in the forest or plains, they wait for their

i ! .«

™'

358

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

guardian spirit to appear to them in the guise of some wild ani-
mal, may bo a trace of the ancient custom.

Something of the kind may still exist in Kamtchatka, as it
is stated that those who have committed a theft '"* are rekaseil,
for the first offense, by returning what they have taken, and hy
living isolated from dealings with their countrymen, without
being able to expect any help from them.

If it be considered that any difficulties in the foregoing ac-
count are not satisfactorily explained, let it be asked again,
Which one of the possible theories upon the subject is accum-
panied by the fewest and least serious difficulties ?

Is it possible that Ilwui Shiin could have told the following
truths, except as the result of an actual visit to America by way
of the Aleutian Islands ?

1. Land was to be found in the Pacific Ocean, some twenty-
three hundred miles northeasterly from Japan.

2. Some sixteen hundred miles farther east, land was again
to be found. '

3. The journey could bo continued easterly, for some six
thousand miles at least, and land would still be found.

4. The second of the countries mentioned by him was known
as a " great " land ; and it not only \sly east of the first coun-
try, but was so extensive that it also lay to the east of China.

5. The people of the first two countries were alike in their
customs, but their languages were different.

6. The people of the first of the countries tattooed their
bodies.

7. They had the custom of tattooing some portion of the
face with three lines.

8. These lines indicated the position of their owner in the
tribe.

9. The people were of so merry and joyous a nature that the
fact was worthy of notice.

10. They were so hospitable as to furnish their visitors, not
only with shelter, but also with food for their journeys.

11. They had no fortifications or walled cities.

12. They had no military weapons and did not wage war.

13. The dwellings of their chief men were curiously adorned,
externally.

14. The ditches in their land were filled with some singular

some BIX

CCSTOl.J OF THE LAND OF "MARKED BODIES." 359

substance to which the term "water-silver" could bo applied,
and this substance was in some way connected with the rain.

13. Gold and silver were not used as the standards of value,
but their place was filled by " gems."

If it be assumed that there is just one chance out of two
that each one of these statements would bo true as to any newly
discovered land, then the probability that they would iill be true
is as one to the fifteenth power of two, or one to over thirty-two
thuusand, a proportion which makes it practically impossible
that the story can have been imaginary. It will readily bo ad-
mitted that there is no more than one chance out of two that any
one of the fifteen statements above referred to would be true of
an unknown region, and it is evident that of some of them the
chance is not one in a dozen. The probability that such a story,
if invented by one who knew nothing of the region, would prove,
upon exploration, to be true, instead of being one in thirty-two
thousand, is really, therefore, but one in millions, and it is easier
to accept almost any difficulty, as to one or two of the points,
than to believe that the account was imaginary, or that it related
to any other country.

D'Hervey (see Chapter XII) has clearly explained the difficulty
into which earlier writers had been led by confounding the two
regions called Ta Han, or Great Han — one to the north of China
(and hence on the Asiatic Continent), and the other to the east
or northeast (and hence on the American Continent). This con-
fusion between the two countries, which caused de Guignes and
other writers to look upon the Asiatic Continent for Hwui Shiln's
Great Han country, has been the chief cause of the desperate
attempts to locate Fu-sang, also, somewhere else than in America.

iij

\ "- • .

i ■ •,■ • ; .
i ' ' 1 i

CHAPTER XX.

THE COUNTRY LYINd IV THE REGION INDICATKn BY inVl'I gHAN.

The tlircctlon from Cliiim, .Inpiin, and Great Ilan in wliich Fii-sun;; lay — Tlio
truiiil of the American I'acilic coast — The distortion of the conniion maps —
Mexico lien in tlie region indicated — The nations inliiil)itinft Mi'xico in ilio
fiftli century — Their lan<5(iaf;e — Traces of tlieir beliefs and customs existing;
one tlioiisnnd years iater— 'Aztec traditions — Tlio Toltecs — Tlieir character—
Their civilization — The time of their dispersion — Their longuoge — The I'acitic
coast — The evidence of place-names — The Aztec language — !-iinits of tiu'
Mexican empire — The name of the country — The city of Tenochtitlan — Tiie
application of the name "Mexico" — First applied to the country — Kaily
maps — Late application of the name to the city — Pronunciation of the word
— Similar names throughout the country — Meaning of the sylloble " co " —
Varying explanations — Real meaning of the term — "The Place of the Centu-
ry-plant "—Meaning of the syllabic "mk" — Meaning of the syllable " xi "—
Its mconing in other compounds — Other abbreviations — Appropriateness of
the designation — The god Mexitii — Proof thot he was the god of the century-
plant — Reason that the Spaniards were misled as to the meaning of " Mexico."

Having, in the preceding chapters, arrived at the conclusion
that the country referred to by Hwui Shiin under the name of
"Great Han " was located in the region now known as Alaska,
let us continue the examination of his story, and endeavour to
identify the land which he calls the country of Fu-sang.

His first reference to it is as follows :

I. — Fu-SANO IS SITUATED TWICE TEN THOUSAND LI OR MORE
TO THE EAST OP TIIE GrEAT HaN COUNTRY. Til AT LAND IS ALSO
SITUATED TO TIIE EAST OP THE MiDDLE KlNGDOM (China),

Attention should first be called to a fact, already noticed, that,
as the greater part of the route from Japan to the Great Han
country bears in a northeasterly direction, the route from the
land of Great Han to a country lying to the east of China can
not be directly east, but must lie somewhat southerly.

Probably but few realize how the western coast of America

THE COUNTKY INDICATED HY IIWUI SUAn. T.Ol

trentlH toward tho ooHt. Wc nro so aooiMtomod to ootiHwlcr tlio
top of our inapa m the north, iind tho hottoiii as thtt Koiitit, aiitl to
think, half unconHciouMly, that a perpendicular line upon the map
represents a true north and sojith line, that, when we see tlie
usual maps of North America drawn tipon the enstoinary projec-
tion, in which, in order to represent the rounding surface of tho
earth upon a plane surface with as little distortion as possihle,
the westerly meridians are drawn sloping from near the center of
the upper nnirgin of tho map toward the lower left-hand corner,
we forget that these sloping lines are tlie true meridians, and
learn to consider the western coast of America as bearing almost
north and south. If Ilwui Shiin ha<l said that the land six thou-
sand miles beyond Alaska lay to tho south of that country, j)rob-
ably no ono would have thought of objecting that it lay also to
the east ; and yot it is quite as true to say that Mexico lies to the
east of Alaska as it is to say that it lies to the south. A map of
the northern half of the hemisphere including the North Pa-
cific Ocean, drawn upon the customary projection, in which
the meridians passing through the western coast of America
are placed upon the right side of the map, instead of on tho
left, as we are accustomed to see them, will help to fix tho
true direction of the coast in the mind, and will also show how
natural it would have been for Ilwui Shan to consider his joiir-
noy beyond Alaska as a continuation of the same general course
which he had been pursuing, and not as an abrupt turn at right
angles from tho east to the south. (See Frontisi)iece.) It is
difficult for us to realize that San Francisco lies farther east of
the westernmost of the Aleutian Islands than Portland, Elaine,
lies cast of San Francisco, and that, in going from California to
Panama, the route trends so much toward the east that its termi-
nus is found to be upon nearly the same meridian as Washington.

If a voyage of some six thousand miles (making a due allow-
ance for the sinuosity of the coast, and for a slight but natural
exaggeration by a traveler who had ao means of measuring the
distance accurately) were made from Alaska, in an easterly di-
rection, but trending toward tho south, so that at the end of the
journey the destination would lie easterly from China, wlicre
would the traveler find himself ?

A few moments' study of a map will answer the question
clearly and unmistakably : on the coast of Mexico.

3G2

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

If a traveler had made this journey in the latter part of the
fifth century, a. d., what tribe of people would he have fouiul
upon the Pacific coast of Mexico, what language was then
spoken there, what were the manners and customs of the people,
what was their state of civilization, and by what name was the
coi'.nti'y then known?

Here, unfortunately, except for the account given by Ilwui
Shiin himself, we are compelled to rely upon tradition, supple-
mented only by a few scanty hieroglyphical records, and by
vague recollections of more complete accounts which once exist-
ed ; upon the ruins scattered about the country, and upon cus-
toms and arts, which had evidently come down from distant
generations, which were found to exist in the land at the time
of the Spanish conquest. It is surprising, however, to find how
much of the history of Mexico at the time spoken of may, on
close and careful study, be vaguely discerned through the mists
of the intervening centuiies.

M. Lenoir very justly observes that "" there necessarily ex-
isted a great affinity between the customs, arts, and beliefs of the
Mexicans, at the t'me of their conquest by the Europeans, and
those which existed, when the population of Guatemala flour-
ished, and Palenque and Mitla were founded. We may, there-
fore, by first examining the religion, the customs, the arts, and
even the literature, of the Mexicans during the reign of Monte-
zuma, hope to obtain some knowledge of these earlier tribes,
even though the Mexicans seem to have — ^to a great extent —
forgotten them, and to have been ignorant in regard to the
state of civilization which had been reached by the nations who
were the founders of their arts and sciences.

There is no question that several races of conquerors suc-
ceeded one another in the IMexican empire, and that they had suc-
cessively adopted the religion and the customs of the vanquished
people ; and it may be again repeated that it is indisputable that
some traces of the primitive religion and customs must have sur-
vived, and that a mixture of the old and the new religion must
have occurred, as was tho case in the history of Christianity
when it overcame paganism.

According to the traditions of the Aztecs, they migrated
during the eleventh '*"' or twelfth '"' century to the region where
they dwelt at the time of the conquest. "When they reached

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY IIWCI SHAN.

363

this country "** they, according to Humboldt, found the pyramidal
monuments of Teotihuacan, of Cholula, or Cholollan, and of Pa-
pantla. They attributed the immense works to the Toltecs, a
powerful and civilized nation which had lived in Mexico for five
hundred years ; they used hieroglyphic writing, and knew the
length of the year more exactly than the greater part of the
nations of the Old World. The Aztecs did not certainly know
whether other tribes had lived in the country of Anahuac before
the Tolt'-c's. In regarding the " Houses of God" of Teotihuacan
and Cholollan as the work of this last nation, they assigned to
them the greatest antiquity of which they had any ki.owledge.
It is possible, nevertheless, that they were constructed before the
invasion of the Toltecs— an event which, according to some
writers, occurred in the year 648 of our era.

Humboldt also states, in another place,'**" that the Toltecs
jreceded the Aztecs, m the country of Anahuac, by more than
five centuries, and differed from them by that love for the arts,
and that religious and peaceful character, which distinguished the
Etruscans from the first inhabitants of Rome.

M. Lenoir says that "" the Toltecs, who inhabited this part
of America toward the seventh century, and who, according to
tradition, had a mild and gentle religion, and offered only flowers
and fruits to their gods, were displaced successively by the
Chichimecs and the Aztecs, whose ferocious and sanguinary relig-
ion was practiced by the nation over whom Montezuma ruled
at the time of the Spanish conquest. According to the Mexican
tradition, the Toltecs who inhabited the land of Anahuac were
far advanced in the arts and sciences. After their migration to
the Bay of Campeche and Honduras, their country was occu-
pied by the Chichimecs, a warlike and ferocious nation, but one
whose people profited by the presence of some Toltecs who still
remained in their old home, and acquired, from them, a knowl-
edge of agriculture and the arts.

Bancroft also refers to "the old-time story, how the Tol-
tecs in the sixth century appeared on the Mexican table-land ;
how they were driven out and scattered in the seventh century ;
how, after a brief interval, the Chichimecs followed their foot-
steps ; and how these last were succeeded by the Aztecs, who were
found in possession."

The iireceding quotations fix the date of the arrival of the

wvi

!:if

364

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Toltecs in the land of Mexico as in the sixth or seventh century.
The traditions are too vagiio and unreliable, however, and the
scanty paintings which confirm them too brief and uncertain as to
their precise m 3aning, to permit the exact century to be deter-
mined with accuracy. No writer fixes the date later than the
sixth or seventh century, but many set it much earlier.

The Mexican historian, the Abbe Domenech,"* places the
Toltecs' arrival in New Spain about the third century before the
Christian era.

The Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg says that*" the uncer-
tainty regarding the origin of the Toltec race prevents the fix-
ing, with any surety, of the epoch when they appeared upon the
shores of Mexico ; everything leads to the belief, however, that
it was during the century before the Christian era, or in the
first century after Christ. A date mentioned by him, of which
he does not undertake to guarantee the authenticity, appears to
fix the time of the arrival of the tribes speaking the Nahuatl
language as in the year 279 b. c.

According to Bancroft,*" the date of the arrival of the Tol-
tecs in Iluehue Tlapallan is given by Ixtlilxochitl, in his first
Toltec Relation (p. 322), as 2,236 years after the creation, or 520
years after the flood. That is, it occurrel long before the
Christian era. In other places (pp. 206 and 459) the same author
represents the Toltecs as banished from their country, and mi-
grating to Huetlapan, in California, on the South Sea, in 387 a. d.;
and this last-named date is repeated by Gallatin (in Schoolcraft's
" Arch.," vol. V, p. 96) and Mailer (" Reisen," tome iii, p. 97).

As, according to Gallatin,""' we may safely conclude that,
within a few years after the conquest, there did not exist a
single historical painting in which events prior to the fifteenth
century were faithfully recorded under their proper date, it is
impossible to arrive at any positive conclusion as to the exact
time when the Toltec empire was founded ; but we can rely
with much confidence on the general conclusion, stated by Ban-
croft, that "' as the Nahua nations were living when the Span-
iards found them, so had they probably been living for at least
ten centuries, and not improbably for a much longer period.

We are, therefore, carried back to about the days of Hwui
Shim, and have reason to believe that if he had made the jour-
ney to Mexico he would have found there either the Toltecs,

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY IIWUI SHAn. 365

or some nation speaking substantially the same language, and
having many of the arts and customs which were possessed by
the Toltecs of later days.

The quotations already given show that'" the Aztecs derived
their system of hieroglyphics from the Toltecs, and that the
civilization of the latter was far superior to that of their suc-
cessors. According to tradition, it was'-* during the Toltec
period of Nahua culture that husbandry and all the arts pertain-
ing to the production and preparation of food were brought to
the highest degree of perfection, and similar traditions exist as
to all other arts known to the Mexicans at the time of the con-
quest.

The indications which we have, all agree '''* that the ancient
Toltecs and the seven tribes of Nahuatlacas, or Nahuas, had the
same origin, and spoke the same language, which was the Mexi-
can, Nahuatl, or Aztec. Buschmann says : *" " That the Aztecs
were of a common origin with the Toltecs, Acolhuas, and other
inhabitants of Mexico, is shown by the language common to all
and still known as the Aztec, although • the people are prefer-
ably and more usually called Mexicans."

Similar statements are made*" by Bancroft,'*' McCuUoh,'"*
Bandelier,*" and all other authorities that have referred to the
subject.

It might be thought, however, that the quotations which have
been given refer only to the region in the neighbourhood of the
city of Mexico, and that a different state of affairs may have
existed upon the shore of the Pacific. It is found, however, that
the Toltecs colonized that coast, and that the Aztec language
was spoken upon nearly the whole of the western border of the
country of Mexico.

Ixtlilxochitl,*^ in Kingsborough (vol. ix, p. 214), mentions a
Toltec party that emigrated to the Michoacan region, and dwelt
there for a long time. Sahagun (tome iii, let. x, pp. 145-14G) refers
to a Toltec migration as an issue from the same region. Veytia
(tome ii, pp. 39-40) speaks of Toltecs who founded colonies all
along the Pacific coast, and gradually changed their language
and customs. Gallatin *" says that Copan was a colony of Tol-
tecs ; and the Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg says that the Pipiles,
a tribe speaking the Mexican language, occupied a portion of
Guatemala '" before the great emigration of the ToltecB in the

360

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

eleventh century ; and he also states that,"' in that part of Ana-
huac which lay upon the sea-shore, north and south, and particu-
larly upon the shore of the Pacific Ocean, the Nahuatl (Mexican
or Aztec) language was found as the native dialect, and that "'
the Xinca language of Guatemala was probably a corrupt dia-
lect of the Mexican.

Between the east and southeast from Zacatecas,*** Ilervas
(vol. iii, p. 64) sets the Mazapili, who, according to him, proba-
bly spoke a dialect of the Aztec language. He also says that ''^'
this language extended far beyond the limits of the Mexican
empire, and quotes the statement of Ilerrera, that it was spoken
in Nicaragua and in Guatemala.

A glance at a map of Mexico, by one having even a slight
acquaintance with this tongue, will show that the names of
places are nearly all Aztec, even in regions of the country in
which other languages are spoken. The map given by Orozco
y Berra,*"" at tln^ end of his " Geografia," and reproduced by
M. Malte-Brun,"*" shows that the Aztec or Mexican-speaking
tribes had possession of the entire Pacific coast of Mexico, from
latitude 16" 40' (just south of Acapulco) to latitude 25° 20'
(about half-way between Mazatlan and Guaymas) ; but Mexican
names will be found far beyond these limits.

It has been generally admitted that *'*' the presence through-
out nearly the whole of the Spanish peninsula, of topographical
names significant in the Euskarian language, and evidently de-
rived from it, makes it a safe inference that this language had
formerly a similar extension ; and the same course of reasoning
leads to the conclusion that the Mexican language must once
have been spoken in nearly all portions of the present republic
of Mexico.

To account for this,"* says Bancroft, we have, if other causes
are not sufficient, the unknown history and migrations of the
Nahua people during the centuries preceding the Toltec era.

The Aztec language was, and is, according to Alexander von
Humboldt, *** the most widely extended of any in Mexico. It is,
as he states, " at the present day extended from 37° north lati-
tude to Lake Nicaragua, over a length of four hundred leagues."

Buschmann '" adds that the first reasons that present themselves
are not sufficient to explain the intensity of the extension of
Aztec place-names : the thick setting of such names in provinces

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWUI SIIAN.

367

in which other tongues, chiefly or only, were spoken, or their
dispersion, although more sparsely, to great distances — from the
extreme north of Mexico nearly to the southern boundary of the
kingdom of Guatemala. As an example of the strong setting
of Aztec names in provinces in which other languages ruled,
Oaxaca, Michoacan, and the whole northerly half of Guatemala,
may be mentioned.

Even at the time of the Spanish conquest, however, the Az-
tec civilization and the Azlec language ruled throughout a great
portion of the country. Bancroft says that "' the Nahua, Aztec,
or Mexican, the language of Mexican civilization, was spoken
throughout the greater part of Montezuma's empire, extend-
ing from the plateau of Anahuac, or valley of Mexico, as a
center, eastward to the Gulf of Mexico, and along its shores
from above Vera Cruz east to the Rio Coatzacoalcos, westward
to the Pacific, and upon its border from about the twenty-sixth
to the sixteenth parallel ; thus forming an irregular but continu-
ous linguistic line from the Gulf of California southeast, across
the Mexican plateau to the Gulf of Mexico, of more than four
hundred leagues in extent. Again, it is found on the coast of
Salvador and in the interior of Nicaragua, and it also had some
connection with the languages of the nations of the north.

Solis, speaking of the limits of the empire of Mexico at the
time of the conquest, says '"' its length from east to west was
more than five hundred leagues, and its breadth from north to
south was in some places fully two hundred leagues.

On the east it was bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, and
extended along its shores from Panuco to Yucatan. On the
west it touched upon the other sea, and looked out upon the
Asiatic Ocean (or the Gulf of Anian), from Cape Mendocino
as far as to the limits of New Galicia. On the south it was
bounded by the South Sea, from Acapulco to Guatemala, and
even insinuated itself through Nicaragua into that isthmus or
stretch of land which both divides and unites the two Americas.
On the northern side it reached to the district of Panuco, an .
included that province.

Orozco y Berra ^'^ states that the Mexican empire, when it
reached its greatest extension, included a part of the State of
Mexico ; those of Puebla and of Vera Cruz on the east ; on the
west the greater part of the country between the Zacatula River

368

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

L '

and the Pacific Ocean ; and that on the south it war, boun<^ed
by tlie river Coatzacoalcos.

Cliivij^ero '"" says that it extended toward the southweiit and
south as fur as to the Pacific Ocean ; and Bancroft says that it *^'
reached the Pacific coast, along which it extended from Zaca-
lotlan to Tututepec.

As to the identity of the civilization of the other inhabitants
of 3Iexico with that of the Aztecs or Mexicans, properly i^o
called, we liave the express statement of Gomara,"" that "speak-
ing of the Mexicans, h to speak in general of all New Spain."

Such information as we have, therefore, confirms us in the
conclusion that if llwui Shan had visited the Pacific coast of
Mexico during the latter half of the fifth century, he would have
found there a nation of the same blood as that from which the
Aztecs of Cortez's day descended, and one speaking substan-
tially the same language as that which was found to bo current
at the time of the conquest : a nation resembling the Aztecs in
many of their manners and customs, but of a milder, gentler
nature ; free from the horrors of the superstitious rites to which
the Aztecs of later times abandonee! themselves, and (u.uless the
greater civilization that is mentioned by tradition was wholly
the result of Ilwui Shan's visit) more advanced in many of the
essential arts of civilization.

The question now arises as to the name of this country.
Had ii any general name? If so, what was it, and what was its
meaning? It is well known that the country is now called
*' Mexico "; but it appears to be quite generally thought that this
term was properly the name of the city of Mexico, and that it
was not until after the coming of the Spaniards that it over-
spread the immense region now so designated. This statement
is made by Bancroft**' and Buachmann,**^ and was undoubtedly
repeated by thsra from some of the older historians of the coun-
try. The weight of evidence is strongly against this conclusion,
however. It is stated, time and again, by the best authorities,
that the real name of the city was not Mexico, but Tenochtitlan,
or some very similar term, different authors giving the variations
Temixtitlan,'^"" Tenuchtitlan,"»« Tcnuthtitlan,""' Tenustitan,"""
Temixtitan,'"" Tenuxtitan,'"' Tenuchtitan,""^ Temixitan,""' Tc-
mistitan,""'' Tenoxtitian,""' Temihtitlan,''" Themisteton,*'' Timi-
tistan,*"^' and Tenuchitlan."'

TUE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWUI BHAN. 369

Torquemada**' ("Monarq. Ind.," tomo i, p. 293) says ex-
plicitly : " The natives do not call it (the city) Mexico, but Te-
nuchtitlan." Gago "" states that " the old and first name of the
city, according to some historians, was Tenuchtitlan " ; and Solis
says,'"* " The great city of Mexico was formerly known by the
name of Tenuthtitlan, or by a similar name, which is given a
little different pronunciation by others." Even Buschmann, who
claims that the term Mexico was originally applied to the city,
and not to the country, states in other places that*** "the Mexi-
cans themselves appear to have called it Tenochtitlan in prefer-
ence, or at least a part of it (Tlatelulco not having been included
in that designation ***), and it appears that the Spaniards first
made the name Mexico general." Diaz "*' says that Temixtitlan,
or Tenuchtitlan, was the proper name of the city, but adds that
"Mexico" was certainly also an old appellation, which the elder
Indians rejected after the conquest, but which was afterward
accepted by the younger generation of Indians.

It certainly can not take long to decide whether the " elder
Indians " or the " younger generation " best knew the true Aztec
designation of the city. " Tenochtitlan " so evidently occurred
in the name, that many of those, who think the term Mexico to
have been also connected with it, give the compound " Mexico-
Tenochtitlan " '** as the true appellation."'

In order to explain this double name, Herrera stated that '"*
the old residence of the Aztecs, Tenuchtitlan, had two large
divisions, of which one was called Tlatelulco and the other
Mexico. Gage'**" makes the same statement, and adds that,
because the imperial palace was in this last-named portion of
the city, the whole city was also sometimes called Mexico, al-
though that was not its original name. Solis*" is of opinion
that Mexico was the name of the ward — Tenochtitlan being ap-
plied to the whole city; from which Bancroft concludes that the
compound Mexico-Tenochtitlan would signify the ward Mexico
of the city Tenochtitlan, but adds that it was but gradually that
the Spanish records began to add Mexico to Tenochtitlan, and
that in the course of time the older and moie intricate name
disappeared.

Brar ?eur de Bourbourg states, however, that '" the city was
divided into four quarters, sections, or wards, instead of two,
and that the names of these were Teopan, Atzacualco, Moyotlan,
24

i .

III

ilA.iUklM'

37:

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

TTTil!

and Quepopan. Uandclier ""^ copies this statement, spelling tjic
last name " Cuepopan," and translating the four terms in their
order, "Place of God," "House of the Heron," "Place of the
Moequitj," "Od "Place of the Dike."

The term "Mexico" was first heard by Europeans when
Grijalva landed on the coast in May, 1518, as the designation of
a country rich in gold.'"" Diaz says that when the Spaniards
asked where the Indians obtained their "old and jewils,'"" " they
pointed toward the place of sunset, and baid Culhua and J/cf-
»c'o." In another place '"" he states, " They could not give us
more gold, but in a land far away toward the settir ^ gun it
might bo found in abundance. Then they said Cvlha, Culba,
and Mexico, Mexico / but we did not understand the meaning of
these words." PrescoLt ***" and Zamacois *'*' repeat the statement.

Can it be believed that these Indians, when they pointed to-
ward the land from which their gold was obtained, referred to a
ward of the city of Teuuchtitlan ?

The early map-makers seem to have been for a long time un-
decided as to whether the temi Mexico was the name of the city
or of the country, and they usually compromised by so giving the
name that it might be understood either way. The two oldest
maps of America,'*'* have the name " Mexico " writttin in rather an
uncertain manner some distance back in the country, and do not
indicate whether they would have it understood to mean a prov-
ince or a city. In " Apian o, Cosmographica," 1575, is a map,
supposed to be a copy of one drawn by Apianus, in 1520, on
which the name " Themisteton " is given ippareji.tly to a largo
lake in the middle of Mexico ; *" Fernando Colon, in 1527, and
Diego de Ribero, 1529, both give the word " Mexico " in small
letters, inland, as if applied to a town, although no town is desig-
nated ; Ptolemy, in "Munster," 1530, gives " Temistitan " ;
"Munich Atlas," No. VI, supposed to have been drawn be-
tween 1532 and 1540, "Timitistan vel Mesicho" : Baptista Ag-
nese, 1540-'50, " Timitistan vel Mesico " ; Ramusio, 1 565, " Mex-
ico"; "Mercator's Atlas," 1569, "Mexico," as a city, and "Te-
nuchitlan" ; Michael Lok, 1582, "Mexico" ; in Hondius, about
1595, in Drake's " World Encompassed," the city is " Mexico,"
and the gulf, " Baia di Mexico " ; Hondius, in " Purchas, Ilis
Pilgrimes," Laet, Ogilby, Dampier, " Wcst-Indische Spieghel,"
Jacob Colon, and other seventeenth century authorities, give

THE COUNTRY INDICAT-^D BY IIWUI SIIAN. 371

uniformly to the city, or to tlie city and province, but not to the
counti J at large the name as at present written.

M. Nicolas Schotter, in connection with an essay regarding
Americus Vespucius,'"" exhibited to the Congress of Americanists,
at Luxemburg, in 1877, a remarkable map of the world, which is
* a reproduction upon a plane surface of a silver globe, which
made part of a ch*i!;co which the Duke Charles IV, of Lorraine,
brought from Germany, and which is now deposited in the
library at Nancy." Neither the name of the maker nor the date
of his work is known, although it is seen that the German car-
tographer gave to the southern part of the continent of America
tbc name of *' New America," to Mexico that of " New Spain,"
ana that all the remainder of North America is represented as
being an integral part of Asia, bearing the names of " Asia Ori-
entalis," "Asia Magna," and "India Orientalis." The Indian
Ocean is represented as extending from the eastern coast of
Africa to the shores of South America. Its southeastern part,
bowever, bears the names of the " Ocean of Magellan," and of
the " Pacific Sea," proving, beyond controversy, that the globe
in question was made after the year 1520.

Upon this map the capital of New Spain bears the name of
"Temixitan," while the term " Mexico " is found to the south-
west, not far from the Pacific Ocean. To the northwest again
occurs the name " Messigo," while not more than a dozen names
in all are given within the territory now covered by the country
of IMexico.

It appears from these references that it was not until about
half a century after the date of the conquest that the map-makers
felt certain that they were right in applying the term Mexico to
the city rather than to the country, and that in the earlier maps
the indications are that it was thought that it might be the name
of the land.

The Bishop Juan de Zumarraga dates a letter,"** in 1529, from
" Tenuxtitlan " ; again, in 1 530, he speaks of " this great city of
Tenuchtitan," and signs the same document, " Given in the said
city of Tenuxtitan." In 1529 he dates one of his letters from
" Mexico-Tenustitan " ""* and in it says, " The Calzonzi of Micho-
acan was, next to Montezuma, the most powerful king of all
Mexico." Here, only a few years after the conquest, the term
Mexico is used not as the name of the city or of a province, but

■ i 1

1 !■■ r

372

AN INGLOUIOUS COLUMBUS.

as tho name of the whole country, embracing even Michoacan,
which was not subject to Montezuma. In a work, publinhed
in 1523, the following passage occurs, " They have conquered a
city called Temistitan," *^' »re, again, in one of tho tirHt refer-
ence to the city that ^ , .red in Europe, there is no hint that
its i.ame was Mexico.

Cortez certainly had a favourable opportunity to learn tho
name of the city that he had conquered. Time and again ho
refers to """ ** tho great city of Temistitan" ; and in one place
he adds,'"" " Hefore I describe this great city and tho others
already mentioned, it may be well, for the liotter understanding of
the subject, to say something of tho configuration of Mexico in
which they are situated, it being the principal seat of Muteczuma's
power. This province is in the form of a circle, surrounded on
all sides by lofty and rugged mountains, its level surface com-
prising an area of about seventy leagues in circumference."

Summing up the evidence, it appears that the name " Mexico "
was first heard as the designation of the country from which the
Indians on the Gulf of Mexico obtained their gold ; that Cortez
applied tho name to the valley in which the capital city and
many others were situated, while do Zumarraga applied it to tho
whole region, including Michoacan ; that tho elder Indians did
not recognize it as the name of their city, and that all its wards
or divisions had other names ; that in the earlier maps and
accounts tho name of the city is given (with variations of spell-
ing) as Tonochtitlan ; and that it gradually passed through the
compound " Mexico-Tenochtitlan " to "Mexico," taking about
half a century to make the change. During all this time, how-
ever, the term " Mexico " was steadily applied to the country sub-
stantially as it is still applied.

No other term is given in any place as the name of the coun-
try ; and if the land had any general name by which it was
known, that name must have been " Mexico."

This was neither pronounced " Mec-si-co," nor, as the Span-
iards pronounce it, " Mejico," with the " j " sounding like the
German "ch" or Greek "x" ; ^^t "Mg-shi-co," the "x" being
pronounced like " su ' in English **^ or " ch " in French."^*

Numerous place-names, either from the same root or from one
very similar, will be found scattered over the country. The Abb6
Brasseur do Bourbourg mentions Mexilla *'* (evidently from Me-

THE COUNTRY INDICATED «Y IIWUI SIIAN. 373

a?j-j-tho Aztco i)lace-terrainati<)n "tlan"), Meztitlan"^ (from
Mez -\- tho terminations " ti " and " tlan "), Iztacmixtitlan '" (from
Iztac ^= viViiQ -\- mix -{■ iho terminationa "ti" and "tlan"),
Mtjriuhcan '** (from Mi-xinh -\- the termination " can "), and
Mixco^" (from J/Zx-f- tho phice-tormination " co "). Bancroft
mentions " Mexi-caltzinco " and " Mexiuh-tlan," *" and a glance
at a map of tho country will also show tho forma " Mixtan,"
" Mextitlan," and " Mexcala." If those words, or the majority
of them, have a common root, it is evident that its meaning
must bo applicable in some way to a very large portion of the
region known as Mexico.

The last syllable,

" CO," serves as a

9119

suffix **' to many place-
names, "'■" and "signifies in or loithin that which is signified by
the noun " (Parades, p. 39) ; or possibly it conveys the broader
meaning of tho ret/ion, " in " which it is situated, or " at " or
"near" that which is signified by the preceding syllables. Ex-
amples of its use are found in " Soconusco," *** (formerly
"Xoconochco "*«'), " Matlatzinco," «•* " Tenantzinco," "'« "Azca-
potzalco," "^ " Xochimilco," «" " Tezcuco," " Acapulco," "" etc.

The meaning of the remainder of the word " Mexico," or of
tho entire word, has been stated in many different ways by the
variouB authors who have attempted to explain it. McCulloh
says that '"' the etymology of Mexico is, " Place of Mextli"
the name Mextli being a synonym of Huitzilopoc^ "i, the desig-
nation of their god of war. He borrows this bU dement from
Clavigero, and is followed by Pimentel,*"** Buschraann,*** Tyler,'**
Bancroft,'" and others.

Brasseur do Bourbourg states that,"' according to several
authors, the Mexicas, or Mexicans, derived their name from one
of their first chiefs, Mecitl, or " the Hare of the Aloes." Saha-
gun says that ***' the name Mexicatl was formerly pronounced
Mecitl, formed from me or metl, which signifies the maguey, and
from citli, a hare. This, thtrt fore, should be written Mecicatl ;
but the change of c to aj has produced the corruption Mexicatl.
It is said that this name was given to the people because the
Mexicans, when they first arrived in the country, had a chief or
lord named Mecitl, who at the moment of his birth was sumamed
Citli (or the Ha/e). As, moreover, a large leaf of the m,aguey
was given to him for a cradle, he was therefore called Me-citl, as
if to say, the man raised in this maguey leaf. When he had

iii!*ii

^tBiP

lli

ill

374

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

j»rowTi up ho bocftmo prlc«t of their idol, and in this qunlity lio
hud reliitioris with tho demon — a thing which insured him reNpcrt
in the eyes of his Hubjccts, who, occording to the account of the
elders, a(h)pted the name of this high-pricut, and were called Mcx-
ira, or Mexicatl.

llerrera says '*** that, according to some, "Mexico" means a
sj)ring ; and this statement is of ten copied : but, upon reference to
the Aztec or ^Mexican dictionaries, it will be found that there is
no word in the language having any such moaning which bears
even the most distant resemblance to tho terra ** Mexico."

Uancroft has the following on the subject : *" " A number
of derivations have been given to the word Mexico, as mewUli,
* navel of tho maguey ' ; tnetl-ico, * place amidst the maguey ' ;
mcixco, * on the maguey border ' ; tnccitli, * haro ' ; metztli, ♦ moon ' ;
amexica, or mexica, ' you of the anointed ones.' The significa-
tion, ' spring ' or * fountain,' has also been applied. But most
writers have contented themselves by .assuming it to bo identical
with the niexi, rncxitl, or mecitl, aj)pellation8 of tho war-god,
Iluitzilopochtli, to which has been added tho oo, an affix imply-
ing locality; hence 'Mexico' would imply the place or settle-
ment of Mexica, or Mexicans. This war-god, Iluitzilopochtli, as
is '.veil kr wn, was the mythic leader and chief deity of the Az-
tecs, tho dominant tribe of the Nahua nation. It was by this
august personage, who was also called Mexitl, that, according
to tradition, the name was given them in the twelfth century,
and in these words, 'Inaxcan aocmoaraotoca inam aztcca ye am
mexica,' * Henceforth bear ye not the name Azteca, but Mexica.' "

Torquomada "" (" Monarq. Ind.," tome i, p. 203), referring to
the principal god of the Aztecs, which had two names, Iluitzilo-
puchtli and Mexitly, says that this second name means " Navel
of the Maguey."

Clavigero gives the following account :'"" " There is a great
difference of opinion between different authors as to the etymol-
ogy of the word Mexico. Some derive it from Metztli, *the
moon,' because they saw the moon reflected in the lake as the
oracle had predicted. Others declare that Mexico means 'at
the fountain or spring,' because they found a spring of good
water upon its site. But these two derivations are too violent,
and the first is not only violent, but also ridiculous. I thought
at one time that the name should be Mexicco, which would mean

I 1:

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWl'I SHAN. 375

•in the center of the maj^ueyi,' or Mexican nloe-plantH ; but,
from tlio Htudy of tlic luHtory of tlu'HC people, I have been un-
deceived, and have become convinced that Mexico mvnuti *tlie
jilace of Mcxitli* (or Iluitzilopoclitli — who wan tlio MarH of the
Mexicans), because of the sanctuary there Iniilt to him ; hence
Mixico means to the Mexicans the same that Juinutn Mart is
meant to the Romans. From words of this description, when
compounded, the Mexicans take away the final letters tt. The co
tliat is added is equivalent to our preposition in. The word
Mi'xicnltzitico means the place of the house or temple of the god
Mexitli : so that Jluitzilopochco, Mexicaltzinco, and Mexico, the
names of tho tlireo places which were successively inhabited by
the Mexicans, mean substantially the same thing."

Professor J. G, MuUer, commenting upon these various stato-
ments, says: """If wo Inquire conceming the meaning of 'Mex-
itli 'and 'Mexico,' wo find the singular answers that 'Mexitli'
means 'tho god of INIexico,' and that 'Mexico' means 'the
city of Mexitli.' Tho name of the place called Iluitzilopochco,
and the name of the god Iluitzilopochtli, might be explained in a
similar way by their connection with each other, or the name of
Tcnoch, tho mythical founder of Tenochtitlan, by its connection
Avith tho name of that city. Clavigero was therefore wrong
when he w^as induced, by this course of reasoning in a circle, to
withdraw his earlier view, according to which 'Mexico' meant
' in tho midst of tho maguey,' or tho Mexican aloe. The Mexi-
can word for maguey is ' metl,' from which tho final consonants
' tl,' as is tho custom in tho case of that termination in the Mexi-
can language, aro dropped when tho word is compounded with
others. This gives a very good explanation of the name ' ]\Iex-
ico.' The usual name of the city in olden times was ' Tenoch-
titlan,' meaning * the prickly pear upon the stone ' ; and this was
also the hieroglyph of the city, it being clearly an emblem of tho
wandering multitude who at first were oppressed with many
troubles. Soon, however, the place became a ' Mexico,' a jilace
in the midst of magueys — the plants which were the richest of all
in their blessings to the Mexicans, for they furnished them with
their favourite drink, called * octli,' and also with a species of
hemp, and with paper."

Having given this full account of the views of others, the
present author now hopes to show that the real meaning of the

rM'i

376

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

term Mexico is "Place of the Century-plant." The name of the
agave, or century-plant, in the Aztec language is nietl, "" and, as
already explained,"" nouns ending in tl lose that termination in
compounds and derivatives. The syllable me is sometimes used
as the plural termination of nouns,""* and it is in a few cases in-
terchanged with ma, the root of maitl,^ or maytl,^^ the hand •
as, for instance, in the word meaning to carry a burden on the
shoulders, which is sometimes written mama ""' and sometimes
meme}'^ With these exceptions, however, it is doubtful whether
the syllable me occurs in any Aztec word, except as the repre-
sentative of the name of the agave. There is no question as to
the power of the termination co, and the misunderstandings as to
the meaning of the whole word have all arisen from the difficulty
of explaining the syllable xi. The only explanation that has been
given is that of Clavigero, who, by writing the word " Me-xic-co,"
derived the middle syllable from xic-tli, " the navel." This is
not a satisfactory derivation, however, and it is surprising that no
one has noticed that the syllable xi is the abbreviated represent-
ative of the word xihuitl,^^^ or xiuitl,'^^^^ meaning an herb or
plant.'"^ In accordance with the rules of the Mexican language,
the tl would be dropped in the compound, and the abbreviation
of the remaining xiui to xi is less violent than that which takes
place in the Mexican language in many other cases. Buschmann,
who is one of the leading authorities upon the subject of the Az-
tec language, and whose soundness of judgment is universally
recognized, speaks as follows regarding a case of much greater
abbreviation : "'

" I may be permitted to call it great boldness to point out
the letter x in the forms maxtlatl and maxtli as the last trace
of the verb xeloa. As it is found there in close connection,
both with the following consonant and the preceding syllable,
it would at first sight seem that it should be regarded as a
middle letter, of a word. That an etymologist should venture
such an unheard of conjecture as that above made, has only
become possible through the unlimited power of induction,
proceeding cautiously step by step. In these two examples,
which I have treated with etymological accuracy, I have taken
a glance into the dark history of word destruction (or abbre-
viation) into which the tribes throughout the whole of North
America have plunged in lawless licentiousness ; the Aztec

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWUI SHAN. 377

idiom to a less degree than others, but still more than has been
believed. Only one example of a simple kind need be cited :
Kiltze, which Molina gives as an exclamation, ' ho ! halloa ! ' is
an abbreviation of nopiltzine, my son (from pilli = son, no = my,
tzin, the reverential form — applied here rather as an endear-
ment — and e, the sign of the vocative)."

In one case the syllables mexi (used with the same meaning as
in Mexico) are abbreviated so that the xi appears as x, s, or z.
This is in the word usually written mexcalli, but also appearing as
mexical, mescal^ mezcal, mezcale, mescali, mescale, and mizcal,^*
the name of the maguey-plant (i, e., the metl, pita, agave, Ameri-
can aloe, or century-plant — for these different terms are all ap-
plied to the same plant,'*** or to mere varieties of what is essen-
tially the same plant), or of a plant of similar growth, and a name
which is also applied to a spirituous liquor distilled from its
juice. Sahagun also defines the words as " the cooked leaves of
the aloe."

It may be stated, by the way, that the concluding syllable of
this word is evidently a form of qualli, good,"** which is perhaps a
participle of qua, to eat, meaning that which one can eat.*" Hence
the word mexical, mezcal, or mexcalli, would mean the good or
edible century-plant, or that part of the century-plant which can
he eaten or drunk when suitably prepared for the purpose. This
is surely a more appropriate etymology than that suggested by
Buschmann, who thinks it to be from metz-calli, meaning the
house or temple of the moon.**'

Returning to the word " Mexico " : In the Maya language of
Yucatan we find the word xihuitl abbreviated to xiu.^^ In the
Aztec language we find tne name of the Mexican balsam-tree "''
to be hoitzilo-xitl,"" and there is no other possible etymological
explanation of the termination of this word than that it is a
corruption of xihuitl. The form xitl, when followed by a word
with which it was compounded, would be reduced to xi, as we
have it in "Me-xi-co."

Fortunately, however, we are able to give a number of Mexi-
can words which can not be explained in any other way than
by considering the syllable xi as the representative of the word
xihuitl. This word is almost the only one in the Mexican lan-
guage which has two or more radically distinct meanings. It,
however, means not only an herb or plant, but also has the

■ ; ! t

iHff^I

■f

III

:i-'\

378

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

, 1>!8 <( ,

meanings •"" " a year," " a comet," and " a turquoise." Now,
wo find, in Molina's Aztec Dictionary,"'* the following words :

" jLimmictia, to choke or smother the plant of wheat, or
anything similar.

" Ximmatlaliztli, a sapphire, a precious stone.

" XippacJioa, to cover anything with herbs, or to choke the
plant of wheat, or anything similar."

In these words the doubled consonants indicate, merely, that
the preceding vowel is short, and it is necessary to reject one of
the two in order to arrive at the true etymology. The root
mic, which occurs in the first word, conveys the idea of death,
and is connected with miqul, to die ; *** tia is a verbal termina-
tion. Jlictia means " to kill," and xi-mictia, if we are right as
to the meaning of the first syllable, would mean " to kill a
plant." This is practically the definition given by Molina. The
third word is compounded from xi and the verb pachoa,^''"
meaning " to rule over, to govern, to set upon eggs like a hen."
Here, again, the idea of overshadowing, or covering over, ex-
pressed by pachoa, when combined with the idea of plants or
herbs expressed by xi, produces the definitions given in the dic-
tionary.

In the second case, the syllable xi means a turquoise ; Uztli
is a grammatical termination, and the matla of xi-matla-liztU is
connected with the word matla-Un,^^"^ meaning "an obscure
green colour." The whole word, therefore, means a turquoise of
an obscure green colour.

In these cases there seems no possibility of doubt as to the
fact that xi is an abbreviation of xihuitl. Two other cases may
be cited in which this word is abbreviated to tz and z, just as, in
the diflferent forms of mexcalU, it is reduced to x, s, or z. OUi
is the Aztec name for India rubber,"'* while metzolli means ""
"the marrow or soft part of the maguey." Here me means
the maguey, olli the soft elastic portion, and the tz can mean
nothing else that plant. We also find meztallotl,^^^^ "the white
heart of the maguey before it throws out its shoot," and metol-
lotl,'^^^^ " the marrow or soft part of the maguey." It is diflicult
to explain why the inserted z in the first word docs not aflFect the
meaning, on any other theory than that it means plant. Another
case in which the termination huitl is dropped in a compound
is seen in the word qiianimaitl,^^^ " a branch of a tree," of which

TOE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWUI SIIAN. 379

the part maitl means a hand or arm — in this case, a branch —
while the syllable qua can be nothing else than the abbreviated
representative of the word qicahuitl, a tree.

From these illustrations, drawn from the Mexican language,
it appears to be established beyond any reasonable question that
the term "Me-xi-co" (pronounced by the Aztecs Me-shi-co)
means "the Place of the Agave-plant," or "the Region of the
Century-plant. That this is an appropriate designation, and one
which would very naturally be given by any people coming into
the country from beyond its borders, will be admitted by all
who have visited it.

The plant is peculiar to the country ; it grows throughout
nearly all portions of the land ; its peculiarities are such as to in-
stantly attract attention ; and, as will be explained in the follow-
ing chapter, it may be claimed to be of greater value to the
inhabitants than any and all other plants growing in the
country.

There is, therefore, reason to believe that if Ilwui Shan visited
the region which he claimed to have explored, he reached the
country now known as Mexico, and then probably called by the
same name ; this appellation, as we have seen, being derived from
that of the most useful and remarkable plant which is found there.

The connection between the term Mexico and the name of
the god Mexitliy or Iluitzilopochtll, may be explained by suppos-
ing him to have originally been a deification of the century-
plant.

" They manufactured so many things from this plant called
maguey,"" and it is so very useful in that country, that the devil
took occasion to induce them to believe that it was a god, and
to worship and offer sacrifices to it." (" Spiegazione delle Tavole
del codice Mexicano," in Kingsborough's "Mex. Antiq.," vol. v,
pp. 179-180.)

His name of Huitzilopochtli — which has been supposed to be
derived from Huitzitzilin, or, as Molina spells the word, Vitzitzi-
Un,™'^ « t]jQ humming-bird," and the root ojyoch, found in the
word opochmaitl,''^^ " t\\Q left hand" {maitl meaning "hand")»
and which he was said to have been given because he had a fringe
of humming-birds' feathers adorning his left leg — seems rather
to have been derived from Huitzla,^^^ " a thorny place or a
thorny plant," and the root 2^och, with the termination tli, as

■

J'^" "

!fl

rf^H

n 1

Hi'

1 : '

380

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

found in tel-pochtli"* " a yovLth" and ich-pochtli,*^^ " 3. maiden,"
and to have meant "the Ever-youthful One of the Thorny
Plant."

The termination pochtli occurs in the name of the god
(?-joocA</«, protector of fishermen '"' (perhaps originally ^-^^oc/(?/?,
" the Youthful One of the Water"), and it here evidently has
nothing to do with the left hand. That the termination pochtli
was not an essential part of Huitzilopochtli's name is shown by
the fact that '" the place in which his temple was situated was
called JSuitzillan, a compound formed from JIuitzil with the
place-termination tlan.

Bancroft states'" that Iluitzilopochtli was the son of the
goddess of plants, and that his connection with the botanical
kingdom is shown by the fact that he was specially worshiped at
three ancient yearly feasts, which took place exactly at those
periods of the year that are the most influential for the Mexican
climate : the middle of May, the middle of August, and the end
of December.

The theory, that he was originally a deification of the century-
plant, is strengthened by the fact that he was considered as the
god of vegetation, by whose power it was annually revivified.""
We also find the word Vitzyecoltia^^^ (which by many other
authors would be spelled Iluitzyecoltia, Molina always using v or u
before a vowel to indicate the sound of the English w, which
other writers indicate by the letters hu) defined as meaning
" to celebrate the feast of the vine." The syllable yec is from
the root of yec-tli, meaning " good." The last five letters form
a verbal termination. The syllable vitz can mean nothing else
than a thorn or thorny plant, and must have originally referred
to the century-plant — which was the one from which the Mexi-
cans obtained their " wine," which was the only intoxicating
liquor with* which they were acquainted ; and the plant is therefore
frequently referred to by early authors as the " vine " of the
country. The Mexicans certainly had no feast dedicated to the
grape-vine, as, although it occurs in the country (as will be
shown in Chapter XXII), it is seldom referred to, and they never
made wine from grapes.'"

Since writing the above, I have found the following statement
in Sahagun : *"" " New wine made from the maguey is called
uitz-tli." This seems to remove all possibility of doubt of the

THE COUNTRY INDICATED BY HWUI SHAN. 381

connection of the verbal root variously spelled uitz, vitz, and
huitz, with the century-plant.

The name Camaxtle,^^^^ or Camaxtli,^™ under which this god
was worshiped by the Tlascaltecs, seems to have been formed
from the prefix ca (meaning unknown) and a variant of the
name Mexitli. This people also knew him by the name of 3Iix-
covatl,^"* in which another variation of the same word may be
seen.

While it is true that the word " Mexico " means " the Place
of the Century-plant," it could also be used with the meaning of
" the Place of Mexi-tli "/ Mexi-tli being (as above explained)
nothing but a name for ihe personified or deified century -plant.
Now, in the center of the city of Tenochtitlan, there was a large
square containing the temple in which the god Huitzilopochtli,
or Mexitli, was worshiped. This square and its temple would
be called " Mexico," meaning (in this connection) " the Place of
the God Mexitli," and this fact explains how it was that the
name was thought to apply, first, to a xoard of the city, and,
later, to the whole city ; why it was that many of the Spaniards
supposed it to be applicable to a limited area only, instead of to
the whole country, and why they failed to learn its original sig-
nification.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE rr-SANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

Connection between the name of the country and that of the " tree " — Application
to smaller planus of the Cliinese character translated " tree " — Application
of the term " tree " to the century-plant — Description of the mctl, maguey
agave, aloe, or century-plant — The leaves of the fu-sang — Disagreement of dif.
fc-rcnt texts — The t'ung tree — Evidence of corruption in the text — Conjoot-
ure as to original reading — Similarity of the young sprouts to those of the
bamboo — Their edibility — Thread and cloth from the fiber of the plant—
The finer fabric made from it — Variation in the texts — Manufacture of pa-
per — The red pear — Tlie prickly-pear — Resemblance of the century-plant to
the cacti — Preserves made from the prickly-pears — Confusion In the Mexican
language between milk and the sap of the century-plant — The Chinese " lo "
or koumiss — The liquor made from the sap of the century-plant — Its resora-
blance to koumiss — Indians never use milk — Confusion in other Indian lan-
guages between sap and milk — Meaning of the name fu-sang — Variations in
the characters with which it is written — The spontaneous reproduction of the
century-plant — Tite decomposition of the character " sang " — The tree of the
large wine-jar — The tree having a great cloud of blossoms — Blooming but
once in a thousand years — The Chinese name of the prickly-pear — Eitel's
definition of the term " fu-sang " — Professor Gray's statement.

Having thus settled, as far as it is now possible to do so, the
character of the nation which Hwui Shan would have found in
the region indicated by him, if he actually took the journey
which he claimed that he had made, and having attempted to
determine the name of the country, and its meaning, let us now
continue the examination of his story,

II. — That region has many fu-sang trees, and it is from

THESE trees THAT THE COUNTRY DERIVES ITS NAME OF Fu-SANG.

The leaves resemble ? and the first sprouts are like

those of the bamboo. tlie people op the country eat

THEM AND THE (or a) FRUIT, WHICH IS LIKE A PEAR (in form),
BUT OP A REDDISH COLOUR. TlIEY SPIN THREAD FROM THEIR

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE KED TEARS.

383

et U3 now

bark, from aviiicii tiiey make cloth op which they make
clothing ; thev also manufacture a finer fabric from it.
. . . tliey make paper from the bark op the fu-sang. . . .
They have the red pears kept unspoiled throughout the

YEAR.

One of the first points to attract the attention is, that there
is a connection between the name of the country and tliat of a
species of " tree " which grows there. It has already been shown
that there is a similar connection between the name " Mexico "
and the agave, or century-plant. It might be claimed, however,
that this is not a " tree."

In reply to this objection, it may be said that it is probable
that the century-plant would be included by the Chinese under
the general term muii, /fc, which is here translated " tree," this
character being used by the Chinese not only as the radical of
trees, but also of shrubs. "" Fig. 10 contains illustrations of two

Fio. 10. — Two pk.at8 classified in tho 'Kii-ta, under the heading muh, or " trees."

plants which in the 'Rh-ya (a book written by one of the most
celebrated scholars of the Ilan dynasty, between b. c. 202 and
A. D. 25) are included under this general heading of muii, or
"trees." It is evident that, if these insignificant plants can
properly be included in that term, the century-plant — the flower-
ing-stalks of which sometimes tower to a height of forty "" or
fifty '^'^ feet, throwing out branches on every side,^^" and being

T I V ; I

884

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

sufficiently solid to be used as beams,"'" of which houses are built
in many places ; """ these stalks being said to make ** very good
rafters," and being also used as fuel," — can hardly be excluded
either on the ground of size or of lack of woody consistenev.

As a matter of fact, the term " tree " was usually applied to
the century-plan* by the early writers. Acosta, for instance
soys: " " The ma(/HCi/ is the tree of marvels, to which the Indians
are accustomed to ascribe miracles, inasmuch as it gives them
water, wine, oil, vinegar, honey, syrup, thread, and a thousand
other things. It is a tree which the Indians of New Spain es-
teem very highly. . . . The wood of this tree is hollow and soft
and is used for preserving a fire, for it burns slowly like a match-
lock, and keeps the fire for a long time, and I have seen the In-
dians use it for this purpose."

So, too. Gage says : "" " About Mexico, more than in any
other part, groweth that excellent tree called metl" ; and,'^"
"There are also mantles made of the leaves of a tree called
metV Bartram also speaks of "a forest" of agaves, and ex-
plains : "° " I term it a forest, because their scapes, or tlower-
stems, arose erect near thirty feet high."

It is therefore manifest that Ilwui Shan is not alone in his
application of the term " tree " to the century-plant.

Before examining his description of the plant, or tree, from
which the country took its name, it will be best to note what is
said by other writers regarding the plant which, if Mexico is
identified with Fu-sang, must have been the " fu-sang tree " of
Hwui Shdn.

Prescott says : '*'*' " The miracle of nature was the magiiei/,
whose clustering pyramid of flowers, towering above their dark
coronals of leaves, were seen sprinkled over many a broad acre
of the table-land. Its bruised leaves afforded a paste from which
paper was manufactured ; its juice was fermented into an in-
toxicating beverage, jjulqxie, of which the natives to this day
are excessively fond ; its leaves further supplied an impenetrable
thatch for the more humble dwellings ; thread, of which coarse
stuffs were made, and strong cords, were drawn from its tough
and twisted fibers ; pins and needles were made of the thorns at
the extremity of its leaves ; and the root, when properly cooked,
was converted into a palatable and nutritious food. The agave,
in short, was meat, drink, clothing, and writing-materials, for the

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE KED PEARS. 335

Fig. 11. — A century-plant in bloBSom.

380

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Aztec ! Surely, never (lid nature inclose in so compact a form
so many of the element.s of human comfort and civilization '. "

Clavigero, in his "History of Mexico," has cpitomizcMl the
uses of the various kinds of agaves of that country in the fol-
lowing language : '""

"Some species furnish protecting inclosurcs, and aflFord im-
passable hedges to other objects of cultivation. From the juice
of others are extracted honey, sugar, vinegar, puhjuc, and ardint
spirits. From the trunk and the thickest part of the liavos,
roasted in the earth, an agreeable food is obtained. The flowtr-
ing-stalks serve as beams, and the leaves as roofs for houses. The
thorns answer for lancets, awls, needles, arrowheads, and other
cutting and penetrating instruments. But the fibrous substance
of the leaves is the most important gift of the agaves of ^Mexico.
According to the species, the fiber varies in quality from the
coarsest hemp to the finest flax, and may be employed as a supe-
rior substitute for both. From it the ancient Mexicans fabri-
cated their thread and cordage ; mats and bagging ; shoos and
clothing ; webs equivalent to cambric and canvas ; the ham-
mocks in which they were born, and in which they reposed and
died, and the paper on which they painted their histories, and
with which they adored and adorned their gods. The value of
these agaves is enhanced by their indifference to soil, climate,
and season ; by the simplicity of their cultivation, and by the
ease with which their products are extracted and prepared. It
is not, therefore, surprising that the ancient Mexicans used
some part or preparation of these plants in their civil, military,
and religious ceremonies, and at marriages and deaths ; nor that
they perpetuated an allusion to their properties in the name of
their capital." ""*

Fig. 11 is a cut of a century-plant, adapted by the engraver
from a photograph, by Mr. Taber of San Francisco, of a plant
now (December, 1884) in blossom in that city. The represen-
tation of the flowering-stalk is much better than that of the
leaves about its base.

It is unfortunate that the various Chinese authorities differ
so radically as to what it was that the leaves of the fu-sang tree
resembled, that it seems impossible to determine, with any cer-
tainty, the real statement of Ilwui ShSn on the subject.

In Ma Twan-lin's account, it is said that they resemble those

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

387

of the t'ung tree. This is said by Klaproth to bo the IJlgnonia
toraentosa, by Neumann to be the Dryandra cordifolia, by Julien
to be the Paullownia imperialis, and by Lelaud to bo the Dry-
anda cordata, or Eleococca verrucosa.

Fig. 12, copied from the 'Rh-ya, shows, on the left, tho
yunu-t'uno, or "Beautiful t'unq" tree; now called the wu-

Fio. 12. — TLo t'uiig tree ond the wild mulberry.

t'uxg ; and this in Williams's Dictionary (p. lOGO) is said to be
the Eleococca verrucosa. In the same engraving is given a pict-
ure of the wild mulberry, or mountain mulberry, the leaves of
which will be seen to closely resemble those of the yung-t ung.
Lcland states, however,"'* that in the " Year Books of the
Liang Dynasty," the character is not written ^, t'ung, the t'ung
tree, but ^, t'ung, copper. According to this older authority,
therefore, the leaves of the fu-sang tree resembled copper. The
old Chinese geography, called the Shan Hai King, adds to the
confusion by saying that the leaves are like mustard, or sinapis.
The two characters given above have the same " phonetic," or
"primitive" (the part at the right), and differ only in the "radi-
cal" (the part at the left), which, in the first is "tree," and, in
the second, is " :netal." The characters are so much alike that
the indications are strong that the first was substituted for the
second by some copyist or commentator, who reasoned as fol-

!• il

8«8

AN INOLOUIOUS COLUMUUS.

lowH : "Tho ai)|»ollution 'fu-Hau|^' mojins 'the useful miilhi'iry.'
Tho tree was tliereforo Horno specicfl of luulberry. Tlio HcjriH-
ters of the Liang DyimHty say tliat its leaveH resemble eopiicr.
Thirt is evidently a mistake ; there is no plant having leaves re-
Bembling copper ; the character, however, very miu'h resemhlcH
tiiat used for tho t'uno tree, and the ieaves of this tree are very
similar to those of the nndberry. It is therefore j)robable that
some copyist, transcribing the old records, written before print-
ifig was invented, mistook a carelessly written character, I'vsu
:f(3, meaning * tho t'uno tree,' for the character t'uno, ^, « coj).
per.' I will correct his error, ami restore the reading as it
must originally have stood." So, like many of our Shakespearean
commentators, he probably substituted his own conjecture for
the origin!)! text, merely because lie was unable to understand
the latter ; and thereby made it almost impossible for those
coming after him to detect the real meaning of the author.

If I may bo permitted to submit a surmise, which is con-
fessedly a mere conjecture, of which the most that can be said is
that it lapossiMi/ true ; I would suggest that the old reading •' cop-
per " is probably an error, but that the mistake is not in the radi-
cal, but in the phonetic. There is in the Chinese language a
character, |^, keu,"'" which closely resembles the one used for
"copper,"^. This character keu is defined as meaning "a
hook, a barb, a claw, a fluke ; a sickle, a bill-hook ; a crooked
sword ; to hook, to make crooked or hooked." It is evident that
the general idea is that of being crooked, sharp, and barbed ; and
the character was probably originally composed of the radical
" metal " with a picture of a f sh-hook and its bait. This character
is used in the compound kei -yao,"" " the barbed-exotic," which
is applied to a species of thistle found in Kiang-su. No charac-
ter in the Chinese language would better describe the curved
and prickly leaves of the century-plant, " armed with teeth like a
shark," '-^'^ than this term keu, " a hook, a barb, a crooked sword."
Now, if Ilwui Shan said that the leaves of the f u-sang resembled |i),
it is not beyond the limits of reasonable possibility that this may
have been so illegibly written as to have been mistaken for ^,
or that some copyist may have carelessly made this change
while transcribing. Then the course of reasoning above sug-
gested would very naturally have led to the substitution of the
character :fj^, and the accounts would have exhibited the confii-

:|||li>

THE FC-SANO TREE AND THE UED PEAUS.

8S0

sion and c'ontrn<liction tliut wo now And. It is not conti>n(U>(l
that thcHc changoH are proved, or anything more tliun merely
jmssiblo. It in elaimed, liowever, that unlesH Honie Huch eliangeH
took place, the variations in the texts can not be exphiined ; and
that it in now impracticable to decide with certainty as to tho
character originally nsed. The fact that the loaves of the cent-
ury-plant do not at all resemble those of the t'l'nu tree is thcro-
fore no proof that the fu-sang tree was not the century-plant

In llwui Shrill's next statement we tlnd a detail regarding
which there is no dispute, which makes it absolutely inij)ossiblo
that the original description of tho plant can have rei»rc8cnted
that its leaves resembled those of the I'lNd tree. This is the fact
that "the first sprouts are like those of the bamboo." Now, tho
bamboo is an endogenous plant, and the first s|)rout8 of nearly all
endogens have a similar general character, but differ widely from
those of the exogens. No mulberry, no t'uno tree (if this is cor-
rectly identified by any of the authors above named), ever exhib-
ited a " first sprout " which even the most careless observer could
consider as at all resembling that of the bamboo, while this com-
parison might be made with
justice as to tho sprout of
almost any endogenous plant.

Fig. 13, a copy of anotner
illustration of the 'Rh-ya,
gives a picture of these bam-
boo-sprouts. It is not difficult
to find specimens of the cent-
ury-plant in almost any of
our cities, and young sprouts
may frequently be found push-
ing up around them. If the
reader will take the trouble to
examine some of these, he will
see that the illustration of
bamboo-sprouts will answer
nearly as well for those of the
century -plant. The resemblance is very close and very striking.

Ilwui Shftn would hardly have been likely to mention these
shoots, however, if it were not a fact that their groat number
about the elder plants is such as to attract attention. M. Jourdanct,

FlG. 13. — Bamboo-aprouts.

[[FT''

390

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

in his notes upon £:ihagun, says that, '"' at an advanced period of
the plant's development, eight or ten shoots grow up about it ;
while Bartlett"' and Squier'"' agree in the statement that "an
infinity of shoots " springs from the decaying roots of the old
plants, and that no known plant multiplies with greater facility.

Our Asiatic traveler noticed a second point of resemblance to
bamboo-shoots, however, and that lay in the fact that they were
edible. Professor Williams states that '"" the tender shoots of
the bamboo are cultivated for food, and are, when four or five
inches high, boiled, pickled, and comfited. Crawf urd says that"^'
the young shoots of the bamboo are, with the natives of the In-
dian Islands, a frequent, favourite, and agreeable esculent vege-
table, and may be either boiled, or used with vinegar as a pickle.

The " Chinese Repository " gives the following account : ™
"The young and tender shoots of the bamboo are used as a
vegetable for the table in different ways ; if cut as soon as they
appear above the ground, they are almost as tender and delicate
as asparagus. They are white and palatable, and when in this
state are used as pickles, as greens, as a sweetmeat, and as a
medicine. The fondness for these young shoots is so general
that they are made articles of commerce, and are sent to the
capital and all parts of the empire. They are cured by exposing
them, when fresh, to steam, and afterward drying them. They
often fonn a part in the feasts of the rich, and constitute an im-
portant article of diet for the priests. These young shoots are
artificially cultivated during the most part of the year. All
classes use the pickle, as a relish, with rice and other vegetable
dishes."

The statement of Clavigero,"™ that, from the trunk of the
century-plant and the thickest part of the leaves, roasted in the
earth, an agreeable food is obtained, has already been quoted.
Bancroft mentions the maguey-plant, Agave Mexicana, among
the articles on which the natives of New Mexico rely for food,'"
and also names "roasted portions of the maguey stalks and
leaves'""" among the articles of food used by the natives of
Mexico. General Crook, in his report to the Government of his
expedition against the Mescalero Apaches (who take even their
name from the " mescal," before referred to — a species of agave),
states as one of the reasons which make it almost impossible to
capture them, that "*' " the agave grows luxuriantly in the mount-

%%m

THE FC-SANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS. 391

ains, and upon this plant alone the Indians can live." M. God-
ron says that "'^ they not only eat the tender roots of the plant,
but also the central shoot, keeping its soft and fleshy consistence.

It is reasonable to believe that the young and tender shoots
would be included among the parts of a " soft and flleshy consist-
ence," and so would be eaten with the rest. Other authors do
not mention them particularly, as they would form only a small
portion of the food derived from the plants, but Ilwui Shan
would be led to refer specially to them, because of their resem-
blance to the edible shoots of the bamboo.

The Chinese text says that the people of the country spun
thread from the bark of the fu-sang tree, from which they made
cloth, of which they made clothing, and that they also manufact-
ured a finer fabric from it.

In the case of most exogenous fiber-producing plants, it is
from one of the layers of bark that the fiber is derived, and those
who are accustomed to seeing flax, hemp, or the paper-mulberry,
naturally learn to associate fiber with the "bark," and to speak
of it as derived therefrom, even in the case of endogenous
plants, which have no true bark, and in which the fiber is scat-
tered through the stems and leaves. The Abb6 Brasseur de
Bourbourg, for instance, makes the statements that "' the Cak-
cbiquels made gannents from the hark of trees, and of magueys,
and that '" nequen is a species of coarse hemp which the Mexi-
cans draw from the hark of the aloe, or maguey.

Dr. Brinton, also, after mentioning that three Central Ameri-
can codices, described by him, were all*** written on paper
manufactured from the leaves of the maguey-plant, refers to the
statements of old writers, who said that the books of the Mexi-
cans were made of the hark of trees.

In Ma Twan-lin's text, the clause which I have translated,
" They also manufacture a finer fabric from it " (the thi*ead),
reads, " They make kin, |^, from it " (the thread). The term kin
is defined as meaning " embroidered stuff, or embroidered and
ornamented stuff in general."'"* Professor Williams (p. 399
of his dictionary) defines it as a kind of thin brocade, and in
the article, copied in Chapter XIV of this work, says that the
word is applied to embroidery and parti-coloured textures. It is
not so much the damask-like figure that is the essential point,
but among the Chinese the km always has a variety of colours.

, 1

ijl

Is •

h.n

392

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Mr. Lelantl says, however,"'* that the *' Year Books of tlie
Liang Dynasty " have, instead of kix, the character miex (evi-
dently 1^), which signifies fine silk. This ''Register of tlio
Liang Dynasty" is the original authority on the subject, and, in
case of a variation in the texts, its reading is entitled to at least
as much attention as that of Ma Twan-lin.

Hepburn defines the character miex, " cotton, floss silk," '^"
and says that the "Tree-MiEx," j^ |$> is a kind of cloth, mado
of the bark of the mulberry, worn in ancient times."" Professor
Williams defines the word, " soft, cottony, like fine floss or raw
silk, drawn out, prolonged, extended, as a thread or fiber."

It is therefore probable that in the time of Hwui Shan the
term was applied to some species of soft textile fabric, made
from the fiber of the paper-mulberry, of a finer quality than the
usual coarse material manufactured from it, and if the word was
so used in his days, he would naturally apply it to a similar ma-
terial made from the agave fiber.

As to the manufactures of the Mexicans, McCulloh says : ""
" From the maguey they made two kinds of cloth, one of which
was like hempen cloth, and a finer kind which resembled linen,''^

Clavigero states that'"*' "from the leaves of the pati* and
of the qiietzalichtU (species of maguey), they drew a fine thread,
with which they made cloth as good as that made of linen, and
from the leaves of other species of maguey they derived a
coarser thread similar to hemp." This account is repeated by
the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg.'"

Sahagun, also, when speaking of the merchant who deals in
mantles made from the fiber of the maguey, says : ''^'* " Some of
those which he sells are of light tissue, similar to those Avhich
are used for head-dresses, such as the finely woven mantles of
the single thread of the nequen, and those which are made from
the twisted threads of this plant. He also sells others of coarse
texture, very closely woven, and still others coarse and thick,
made either from the pita, or from the thread of the maguey."

The Chinese account says that paper, also, is made from the
bark of the f u-sang ; and the following quotations regarding the
paper manufactured from the fiber of the agave, maguey, or
century-plant will be of interest in this connection.

Bancroft says : "' " Paper, in Aztec amatl, used chiefly as a

* Pcrhapg a typographical error. The pita u probably meant. — E. P. V.

THE FU-SAXa TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

393

raatcrial on which to paint the hieroglyphic records, was made
for the most part of maguey fiber, although the other fibers used
in the manufacture of cloth were occasionally mixed with those
of this plant. The material must have been pressed together
when wet, ard the product was generally very thick, more like a
soft pasteboard than our paper. The surface was smooth, and
well adapted to the painting which it was to bear. Certain gums
are said to have been used for the more perfect cohesion of the
fiber, and the amatl was made in long, narrow sheets suitable
for rolling or folding."

The Cavalier Boturini,* a collector of Mexican relics, in-
forms us "" (yet from sources which he has omitted to quote) :
" Indian paper was made from the leaves of the maguey, which,
in the language of the natives, was called metl, and in Spanish
pita. The leaves were soaked, putrefied, and the fibers washed,
smoothed, and extended for the manufacture of thin as well as
thick paper." "*

Squier makes the following statement : '"* " The fiber of the
maguey is coarser than that of the Agave Sisilana, but it is,
nevertheless, of great utility, and is extensively used. The an-
cient Mexicans painted their hieroglyphical records and ritual
calendars on paper made from the leaves of this plant, macerated
in Avater, and the fibers deposited in layers, like those of the
Eg} ptian cyperus (papyrus), and the mulberry of the South Sea
Islands ; and in modern times the fibers are used for a corre-
sponding purpose. Indeed, the paper made from the raaguey
is so much esteemed for its toughness and durability, over that
made in the United States and Europe, that, in 1830, a law was
enacted by the Mexican Congress requiring that no other kind
of paper should be used in recording the laws, or in the execu-
tion of legal documents."

He adds "" that Mr. Brantz Mayer, in his work, " Mexico as
It Was and as It Is," p. 313, observes : "The best coarse wrap-
ping or envelope paper I have ever seen is made in Mexico, from
the leaves of the Agave Americana. It has almost the tough-
ness and tenacity of iron."

Ilwui ShSn's account says that the people of the country ate a
fruit which was like a pear in appearance, but which was red. The

*Cavaliere Lorenzo Boturini Benaducci, " Idea de Una Nueva Ilistoria Gene-
ral y Catalogo del Musoo Historico," Madrid, 1746, p. 95.

394

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Iff ■

If-

character siiiii used to designate the fruit, indicates that it did
not have a nut or kernel,"*' as, if it had, the term kwo '^"
would probably have been used instead. The connection is such
that it is naturally inferred that the fruit referred to was that
of the fu-sang. This seems the most probable meaning of tlio
text ; and yet I hardly think it entirely certain that the meaninir
may not have been that the people ate a fruit — instead of t/ie
fruit (of the fu-sang). The fruit referred to can be nothing else
than the well-known prickly-pear, otherwise called the woc</<,'""'
nopalU;^' nopal,'''' nochtli,''^ tuna,'''' or Indian fig."»« The re-
semblance of its shape to that of a pear is such that it derives
its best-known name from this fact, and, while there are species
of many different colours,"'* the common wild variety is red. It
is the fruit of a species of cactus. The agave, or century-plant,
belongs to a different botanical family, and yet it bo closely re-
sembles the cacti, in many of their most striking peculiarities, that
travelers frequently fall into the error of classing it with them.
Lieutenant Ilerndon, for instance, says that the " maguey is a
species of cactus."'"" An editorial article in the New York
" Herald," of February 17, 1883, says that *' the present customs
duty on hennequin, or Sisal hemp — which is the product of a
kind of cactus — is six dollars a ton " ; the fact being that
the so-called Sisal hemp is derived from a species of agave very
closely related to the century-plant. So, also, an article in the
Chicago "Tribune," of May 11, 1884, mentions "that species
of cactus called the maguey." Both the agaves and the cacti
are distinguished from other plants by their thick, fleshy, stem-
less leaves, which, in both cases, are usually armed with strong
spines or thorns. They grow in arid'*" and barren"" lands,
in which scarcely any other plant — except varieties of artemi-
sia„ or sage-brush— can live ; and it is not strange that they
should be considered by the unscientific observer as different
species of one general family. It is possible that Hwui Shlin
used the term fu-sang as a generic name, under which he in-
tended to include all varieties of the cactus, and that he classed
the agaves with them. Mexico is the home of both plants, and
they form the characteristic vegetation of a large portion of
that country. They are indigenous nowhere else except in the
neighbouring regions, and it is in Mexico that they present more
varieties and larger species than in any other part of the globe.'*'

THE FU-8ANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

395

The prickly-pear abounds in nearly all portions of Mexico, and
it is a frnit that is much esteemed, and which enters largely into
the food of the inhabitants. Gage says of it that it is '^'" " abso-
lutely one of the best fruits " in the country. Emory speaks of
its " truly delicious " taste. Diaz states that the army of Cortcz "°*
lived for a time upon it ; and Prescott says that the provisions
with which his camp was supplied from the friendly towns in the
neighbourhood consisted of fish and the fruits of the country, *""*'
"particularly a sort of fig borne by the tuna {Cactus Ojmntla)."

The last statement of the Chinese text regarding these " red
pears " is, that they are kept unspoiled throughout the year. In
the relation of the voyage to Cibola, undertaken in 1540, con-
tained in vol. ix, of the first series of the "Vyages," etc., pub-
lished by M. Ternaux-Compans, it is stated that the people of the
country "" " make many preserves from tunas, the juice of which
is so sweet that it preserves them perfectly without adding any
syrup." The statement is also made in another place that, " in a
province called Nacapan, many tunas, or Indian figs, are found,
of which the people make preserves." ""

The Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, in his notes, which are
given in the twelfth chapter of this work, calls attention to the
fact that the Encyclopedia, Ku-hin-tu-shu-tai-ching, gives the
passage of the Chinese text last above referred to, " They have
the pears of the fu-sang tree^'' etc., instead of the reading given
by Ma Twan-lin. This seems to indicate that there was a doubt
in the minds of variotis Chinese authors and compilers as to
whether the " red pears " were or were not the fruit of the fu-
sang tree.

Befpre leaving the account of the fu-sang, there is another
statement of the Chinese text, which, in my opinion, should be
connected with the details regarding this plant, and that is :

III. — Fkom milk they make koumiss.

As this phrase follows a reference to the deer of the country,
it has usually been translated, " from the milk of the hinds they
make butter, cheese, creamy dishes, or cream " ; for all these
articles are named by diflFerent authors as indicated by the Chi-
nese character lo, which in the translation given above is ren-
dered " koumiss." The words, " of the hinds," italicized above,
are not found in the Chinese text, and are supplied only from
the inferences of the translators.

^ Uf

390

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

According to the " Chinese Repository," '" the products of
the dairy, as milk, butter, and cheese, are hardly known amour;
the Chinese. Milk is usually cooked by boiling ; it is also em-
ployed in making cakes, pastry, etc. Butter and cheese are not
used by them, nor do they understand the process of making the
latter. Professor Williams refers to the same fact in the following
words : "" " The Chinese use very little from the dairy, as milk,
butter, or cheese ; the very small number of cattle raised in the
country, and the consequent dearness of these articles, may have
caused them to fall into disuse, for they are all common among
the Manchus and Mongols. A Chinese table seems ill-furnished
to a foreigner when he sees neither bread, butter, nor milk upon
it, and, if he expresses his disrelish of the oily dishes or alliaceous
stews before him, the Chinese thinks that he gives a sufficient
reply to the disparagement of his taste, when he answers, ' You
eat cheese, and sometimes when it can almost walk.'"

In many other parts of Asia, as, for instance, in Sumatra,
the natives use no milk or butter.'^'*

Koumiss, or s( e similar preparation, was made by the Chi-
nese, however,""* as far back as in the days of the Han dynasty
(b. c. 202 to A. D. 25), and the following account of it is given "^°
in the " Chinese Reposi*ory "' :

" The Chinese describe a preparation, made from the milk of
various domestic animals, that resembles the koumiso, found
among the Tartars. It is called lo, and is made in the follow-
ing manner : Put a quart of milk into a boiler, and simmer
it for some time, when another quart is to be added, and the
whole boiled until many bubbles arise to the surface, all the
while stirring it about with the ladle ; now pour it into a ves-
sel, and wait till it is cold, when the pellicle that forms upon
the surface is to be taken off to form the soo (a kind of oil
that is simmered from such pellicles). Now add a little old lo,
and cover it up for a Avhile with paper, until it is 'completely
made."

This is evidently the lo mentioned in our text, and it was,
therefore, neither butter, cheese^ cream, nor any similar article
of food.

Attention has been called to the fact that a " wine," much
resembling koumiss, was made by the Mexicans f'-om the sap of
the agave, and it has been claimed that if llwui ShSn was at-

■ifll!

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

397

tempting to describe the agave, or century-plant, in the tree which
he calls f u-sang, he would have referred to this liquor that was
made from it. Bancroft '"^ says that one of the most popular
Nahua beverages was that since known as pulque. This liquor,
called by the natives octli — pulque, or pulcre, being a South
American aboriginal term applied to it in some unaccountable
way by the Spaniards — was the fermented juice of the maguey.
One plant is said to yield about one hundred pounds in a month.
A cavity is cut at the base of the larger leaves, and allowed to
till with juice, which is removed to a vessel of earthenware or
of skin, where it ferments rapidly and is ready for use.

In another place "° he states that their principal and national
drink is pulque, made from the Agave Americana, and is thus
prepared : When the plant is about to bloom, the heart, or stalk,
is cut out, leaving a hole in the center, which is covered with the
outer leaves. Every twenty-four hours, or, in the hotter climates,
twice a day, the cavity fills with the sap from the plant, which
is taken out and fermented by the addition of some oh-eady-
fermented pulque, and the process is continued until the plant
ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor obtained is at first
of a iLick white colour, and is at all times very intoxicating.

Brasseur de Bourbourg also states that the colour of pulque is
whitish, like that of whey,"* and it is, therefore, evident that, in
its colour and general appearance, as well as in its fermentation
and its intoxicating quality, it closely resembles the koumiss, or
"lo," and no better term than this could be found for it in
Chinese.

That koumiss, or some other intoxicating liquor, was used
in Fu-sang, is indicated by that clause of the account in which
it is stated that the people of the country feasted and drank* at
the great assemblies which they held to pass judgment upon
criminals of a high rank.

The question instantly arises, however, " If this was the arti-
cle to which iiwui Shan referred, why did he say that it was
made from milk ? " The answer to this query is, that the Mexi-
cans applied the term milJc to the san of the century-plant, or
rather designated both articles by a common term, which was
originally the name of the sap.

Milk, in the Mexican or Aztec language, is called " memeyal-

* See character No. 182, in chapter xvi, p. 276.

■

398

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

lotl." "** The last part, " yallotl," is elsewhere spelled " yollotl,"«"
or " yullotli," '**' and means the heart, the life, or, in case of a
plant, the sap, the juice. The syllable " me " is, as is the case in
the word Mexico, from metl, a century-plant, or agave ; and the
reduplicated form, memey indicates the plural.""* The whole word
therefore means '* century-plants' sap."

Powers states that it '^' is a singular fact that the Indians
generally have no word for *' milk." They never see it, for they
never extract it from any animal, because that would seem to
them a kind of sacrilege or robbery of the young. Hence, an
Indian frequently sees this article for the first time among civil-
ized people, and adopts the Spanish word for it.

The conl'usion existing in the Aztec language between the
name for milk (i. e., the natural food of young children) and the
sap of the century -plant is shown by the following quotation
from Bancroft : '"*

'* The children were given to Xolotl to bring up, and he fed
them on the juice of the maguey : literally, in the earliest copy
of the myth that I have seen, the milk of the thistle, Ma leche de
cardo,' which term has been repeated blindly, and apparently
without any idea of its meaning, by the various writers that
have followed. The old authorities, however, and especially
Mendieta, from whom the legend is taken, were in the habit of
calling the maguey a thistle ; * and, indeed, the tremendous
prickles of the Mexican plant may lay good claim to the ^Xcmo
me impune lacessit ' of the Scottish emblem."

Thomas, also, speaking of "pellets of milk,^^ which were
burnt before a certain idol in Yucatan, says : '"' " By the term
* milk,' as here used, is meant the milky juice of some plant."

The same confusion between sap and milk exists in other
American languages ; as, for instance, in the Chippeway (or Ojib-
beway), in which milk is called "" " the sap of the breast," ""
and wine is called'''* "grape-milk."

The Chinese also occasionally use the word milk in a figura-
tive sense, as in the compoimds " milk-gold," "** for liquid gold
used in painting ; " bamboo-milk," for tabasheer ; and " milky

* " Maguey is the thistle from which they extract honey," Mendieta, " Hist.
Ecles.," p. 110. " Metl is a tree or thistle which, in the language of the islands,
is called maffitei/," Motoliuia, " Ilist. dc los Ind.," in Icazbalceta, " Col. de Doc.,"
tome i, p, 243.

^wli

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE RED PEARS.

399

perfume," for olibanum or incense : but they probably do not
use it any more freely in this figurative sense than it is so em-
ployed in English.

The foregoing explanations appear to remove all material
difficulties in llwui Sh&n's account, as far as it is quoted in this
chapter, and the statements which are copied from other authors
provt' that if he had gone to Mexico he would there have found
a country deriving its name from a remarkable plant, whose
first shoots were like those of the bamboo, and which were
edible ; that thread, clothing, and two varieties of cloth were
prepared from its fiber, and that paper was also made from it ;
and, finally, that a species of red pear was found in the land,
which it was the custom to presex-ve in such a manner that it
served as an article of food throughout the year. There is no
other country in the > orld as to which all of these statements are
true, and there therefore seems no escape from the conviction
that Ilwui Sh&n either visited Mexico himself, or else derived
his information from some one who had been in that country.

This chapter will be concluded with an account of the charac-
ters used by the Chinese in writing descriptions of Fu-sang, or
of the fu-sang tree, and with a reference to Chinese traditions
regarding the existence of a *' tree " having the most striking
peculiarities of the century-plant ; traditions which may be
founded upon the verbal statements of Ilwui Shan, which would
naturally be fuller and more complete than those embodied in
the official record.

The name fu-sang is usually written in Chinese with the two
characters ^ ^, of which the first means "to assist, to sup-
port, to defend " ; and the second indicates the mulberry. It is
probable that the characters are used only as phonetics, but there
is a possibility that their signification was borne in mind and
that the name was intended to mean "the useful mulberry," or
" the defensive mulberry " ; the term " mulberry " being applied
to the plant on account of the similarity between the uses made
of its fiber and those to which that of the paper-mulberry was
applied. As to the appropriateness of the term "useful," as
applied to the agave, there can be no question ; and if the first
character is considered to mean "defensive," or "defending,"
rather than " useful," this would also be appropriate, as it was,
and still is, a custom in Mexico to use the agaves as a defensive

■ '■

400

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

hedge;"* their strong and numerous spines rendering it impos-
sible for animals, or men, to force their way through it.

In some cases the character ^0, which is also pronounced vi-
is used instead of the first of the two given on the last page.' "

In one instance the character jj^, su, is used instead of ^, sang.
This is in the phrase, [ll ^ ^ j^, shan yiu fu-su, which Pro-
fessor Williams translates, "the hills produce mulberries." Tlie
first two characters mean, "the hills produce" (or "the island
produces "), and the term " mulberries " must therefore be his
translation of the last two characters. He adds the statement
that this ancient name vv-sv is probably the same as fu-sanm;.
The last character, su, is composed of a " plant," and " to revive,"
and means, " to resuscitate, to revive as when wilted, or from
apparent death, to breathe again, to rise from the dead." The
compound fu-su might therefore be translated, " the useful res-
urrection-plant," or " the useful plant that rises again when ap-
parently dead."

This definition might well be applied to the century-plant,
for it reproduces itself spontaneously.""" It perishes after efflo-
rescence,'*" but an infinity of shoots then spring from the decay-
ing roots, and no plant multiplies with greater facility."'

The character ffi^, sr, the phonetic of the word j^, su, men-
tioned above, is, on account of its meaning, used for writing
the last syllable of the name Jesus (Je-su).'"*^

The character ^, saxg, is sometimes decomposed into its two
parts, and written ^^ ^, joii muii, " the joh tree," which Pro-
fessor Williams describes '*" as a " divine, self-existing tree,
which grows in Fu-sang," and it can be nothing else than another
term for the fu-sang tree.

We find in the Chinese dictionaries '"' the character /|(g, xm
(composed of a ti'ee and a larffe xcine-jar), which is described as " a
fabulous tree, said to be a thousand feet high ; it flowers once in
a millennium, and perfects its fruit in nine more." This charac-
ter, and the description, seem to have grown from some exag-
geration of the peculiarities of the agave, which is a tree, or
plant which fills a large wine-jar with its sap ; which towers
above all °*^ surrounding plants, and which, although it does not
require either a millennium to develop its blossoms (as the Chi-
nese legend has it), or a century '"' (as our own popular tradi-
tions have it — hence the common name of " century -plant "),

THE FU-SANG TREE AND THE RED TEARS.

401

still does not blossom for quito a number of years — the exact time
of flowering varying with localities and climate.""

Hepburn '"' gives a word or j)hrasc, which in Japanese is
pronounced Udonge, and in Chinese yiu-t'an-iiwa, the charac-
ters meaning, " a great cloud of blossoms," which he defines as
the name of a fabulous flower, said to bloom but once in a thou-
sand years. Here again a tradition seems to have been pre-
served of some description that Ilwui Shfln gave of the century-
plant, for its flowering-stalk rises to the height of forty feet or
upward, and throws out branches on every side, like those of a
candelabrum, so as to form a kind of pyramid, each branch sup-
porting a cluster of flowers, greenish-red "" (in some species) or
yellow"' (in others). It is therefore evident that no plant better
deserves the appellation of " a great cloud of blossoms."

The Chinese call the prickly-pear '^'* |[1| ^ ^, sikn-jIx-ciiano,
"the palm of the fairy people's hand.""'" The first character,
which is translated " fairy," is composed of a man and a moimtain,
or island, and hence may have originally meant the inhabitant of
some mountain, island, or region beyond the sea. Many of the
Chinese legends called fairy stories relate to such a region, and
it is just possible that they knew that the prickly-pear was a na-
tive of such a trans-oceanic land.

In Eitel's Chinese Dictionary "" I very unexpectedly came
upon the following definition : " j^, Fu, in the phrase, ^^p ^,
Fu-SANO : a divine tree found in the East (Japan) ; a tree
{Affave Chinensis) found in Corea."

It is evident that the location of the fu-saxg tree in Japan,
in the first part of the definition, is founded upon the opinion,
enunciated by Klaproth, that the country of Fu-saxg must have
been situated in Japan. But how does Eitel come to describe
the term as being applicable to a species of agave ? The agaves
are all natives of America, and it does not seem possible that, if
they had ever been introduced into Corea, they could have sur-
vived for any length of timi' in so cold a country. Professor
Gray informs me that botanists do not know of any plant or tree
called the Agave Chinensis, or Agave Sinensis, and that he has
every reason to believe that no species of agave exist in that coun-
try. Mr. Yu Kill Clum, a gentleman connected with the Corean
embassy, who remained in this country after the other members
had returned home, was shown a picture of the agave, when he
26

likiltl

402

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

said that no such plant was to bo found in Coroa, and also took
occasion to say that tho statcmentH of thoso who attempted to
locate Fu-SANO in Corca or Japan woro false.

I am, therefore, uncertain as to tho authority which Mr. Kitil
had for saying that tho term fu-8AN(1 was applied to a species of
agave growing in Corea ; but it is certainly strange that of all
the plants in the world ho should have named tho one described
by Ilwui Shan.

CHAPTER XXII.

Will

THE LANQUAQE OP FU-SAXO.

Peculiarities of the Chinciio language — Difflculty of indicating pronunciation of for-
cign words — ExampIcH — Change in sound of Chinese characters — Tho pisang
or banana tree — Names of countries terminated with kwoh — The character
BANC! — Tho character rv — Tho most distant countries at tho four points of
tho compass distinguished by names beginning with rv — Mexican dialects —
Fl'-sano-kwoii and Hc-shi-co — The title of tho king— Montezuma's title — Ti-
tie of the noblemen of the first rank — Tho Mexican Tocuhtli, or Teulo — Tho
Petty Tni-LU — The NAB-TO-Bni, or Tlatoque — The title lower than that of
Tccuhtli — Its mcanin;^ — Transcription of foreign words by characters indi-
cating both the mr ling and tho sound — To-p'f-TA'ocs, or tomatoes — The
grape-vine — The tree of stone — A Mexican pun — Danger of being misled
by accidental or fancied resemblance.

Ix the precediug chapters the fu-sang tree has been identified
with tho agave, and the country of Fu-sang with Mexico, and tho
question will naturally arise, why the term "Fu-sang" should
have been used as tho transcription or translation of the word
" Mexico."

Before attempting to answer this question, it will be neces-
sary to examine some of the peculiarities of the Chinese lan-
guage, and of the transliterations which it adopts for other for-
eign proper names.

On this point the testimony is unanimous, that "' it is as im-
possible for the Chinese to render the correct pronunciation of
words of other languages by their hieroglyphs as it is to indi-
cate the exact pronunciation of Chinese characters by European
spelling. One will find, in the different manuals for learning
the Chinese language, the most detailed directions for pronounc-
ing Chinese characters. In Romanizing Chinese sounds, not only
all European letters and ciphers are laid under contribution, but,
besides this, the letters are marked with strokes, crotchets, ao-

404

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

cents, etc. This is a vain trouble. No Chinese will understand
the words pronounced by Europeans according to these rules.

According to Crawfurd,"^" the articulation or pronunciation
of the Chinese is so imperfect, and so utterly unlike that of all
the rest of mankind, that it is only by mere accident that tlicv
ever pronounce a foreign word rightly. Professor AVilliams says,
in reierence to this subject:'^" "If it is difficult for us to ex-
press their [the Ch'nese] sounds by Roman letters, it is still
stranger for the Chinese to write English words. For instance,
' baptize,' in the Canton dialect, becomes pa-p'i-tai-sz! ; * flannel '
becomes fat-lan-yin ; ' stairs ' becomes sz'-ta-sz / * impregnabU' '
becomes im-jn-luJc-na-pu-U, etc." So, also, in the transcription of
Sanskrit words, " Aurva " becomes Yu-liu ; "° " Kakshivat," Kla-
1c a . ■"' "Udaye," Yau-to-i;''' and " Visvamitra," Pi-she-jw.'^'

Max MUller remarks that '■ ' " the Chinese alphabet was never
mtended to represent the sound of words. With such a system
of writing it was possible to represent Chinese, but impossible
to convey either the sound or the meaning of any other lan-
guage. Every Sanskrit word, as transcribed by the Chinese Bud-
dhists, is a riddle which no ingenuity is able to solve. Who could
have guessed that Fo-to, or, more frequently, Fo, was meant
for ••I?'icdha'? Ko-lo-keou-lo for 'Rahula,' the son of Buddha?
ro-lo-ral for * Benares ' ? Tcha-U for ' Kshattriya ' ? Siu-to-lo
for ' SAdra ' ' Fan, or Fan-lan-mo, for * Brahma ' ? "

A? instances of the difficulty of identifying foreign words
which the Chinese have attempted to reproduce in their charac-
ters, the following are given, as specimens of a much longer list
which was pr spared, but which it would be wearisome to insert
at length :

Forelgfn Word.

Chinese Transcription.

Foreign Word.

Chinese Transcription.

Russia

Ngo-lo-sz.'5i'

Tak-kat."«
i Ila-la-ho-lin, usu-
\ ally abbreviated to
( Ho-lin.'«'

Pu-su-man.'*''
Tan-too-loo.'oo^

Sz-me-li.»='3*

France

Fah-lan-si."!'

Tasnil

Macassar

Barkoul

Bokhara

Constantinople . .

Kashgar

Azora

Bang-ka-sat."^*

Pa-le-kwan."*"*

P'u-hua.'"

Ki-sze-da-ni,'"

Ila-she-ko-urh.'osi

A-ko-lap.'o"3

Kak-tsze '""^

Caracorum

Mussulman (writ-
ten by Plano-
carpin " Bes-
sermin ")

Dcntro

Casa

Craddhavarma . .

grideva

Atch^rya

Ch e-Ia-t'o-po-m . ' ''^

Chi-li-ti-p'o.'«^'

Ngo-tcbe-li-ye.""

Siberia

THE LANGUAGE OF FU-SA^G.

405

transcription.

The last three words are from the Sanskrit, and some imper-
fections in the transliteration might be expected, from the fact
that the Sanskrit books from which the names were taken were
translated fourteen centuries ago, and that the powers of the
Chinese characters used to repre;^ent the syllables of these words
have changed in the mean time.'"*

The other words in the table are, however, of comparatively
recent adoption, and show how imperfectly, even when they are
first chosen, the Chinese characters represent the sounds which
they are intended to transcribe. When to this original imperfec-
tion is added that produced by the fact that, since the days of
Ilwui Shan, the sounds attached to the characters have b een in a
state of slow but constant flux,'^*' it may be admitted that the
present sounds, fu-sang, of the characters ^ ^ may be very far
from representing the pronunciation of the foreign word which
they were so long ago chosen to express.

As a further illustration of the changes produced in the
sound of tbe Chinese characters in the course of centuries, it may
be noticed that Sanskrit syllables, pronounced in all of the follow-
ing ways, i. e., 9ya, ye, 9a, yi, chya, yva, dja, djha, dha, dya,
dhya, and tcha,'"" were, some fourteen or fifteen centuries ago,
transcribed by Chinese characters all of which are now pronounced
CUE (the ch like the English sh).

The foregoing statements illustrate the extreme difficulty of
attempting to decide with certainty as to the sounds which the
characters now pronounced fu-sang were originally intended to
represent.

My own opinion is that, long before the Christian era, the
Chinese had obtained some imperfect knowledge of the Philippine
Islands, or some of the neighbouring islands, upon which the plan-
tain, or banana (called in Malay '*'*' the pisatif/^^"), grew, and that
there were then numerous popular stories and traditions regard-
ing this " Land of the Pisang,^'' and of the wonderful pisang-tree
to be found upon it, far away to the east or southeast, and that
the characters ^ ^, fu-sang, the " useful mulberry," or {^ ^,
FU-SANG, the "supernatural mulbery," or j^^ ^, fu-sang, the
"distant mulberry-tree," were adopted as both describing the
tree and transcribing its name. My reasons for this opinion will
be given in a following chapter. For the present, I will merely
say that if, when Hwui Shan reached China, from a distant

406

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

eastern country, which derived its name from a wonderful plant
or tree growing in it, the fact was that the Chinese already had
a number of vague traditions regarding a land situated in the
east and taking its name from a remarkable tree, they would
be very likely to consider the two countries as identical ; and if
the characters which they had adopted for expressing the name
of this land, already vaguely known, could, by any possibility,
be considered as representing the sound of the name of the
country mentioned by Hwui ShS,n, the likelihood that they would
consider the two regions as one and the same, and therefore
use foT the name of the newly discovered land the characters
already applied to the other eastern country, would be much in-
creased.

Absurd as it may appear at first sight, I think it very prob-
able thai the Chinese, having the characters Fu-sang, already
well known as the name of an eastern country, took these charac-
ters, with the addition of |g, kwoh,"^" meaning country, and
used them to transcribe the name " Mexico " of the country that
had been visited by Hwui Sh&n.

It should first be mentioned that in Chinese the names of coun-
tries are usually followed by this word kwoh, or, as it is some-
times written, kwo, " kingdom." ""* Mei kwoh, ^ ^ (the
Fertile or Beautiful Country), is used as the name of the United
States of America,*"'* and is unquestionably an attempt to trans-
literate the word "America," the character kwoh representing
the final syllable "ca" of America. As the Chinese have no
characters which have the sound either of " a " or " ri," both
these syllables have been omitted.

Great Britain'^' is called ^f; "ijp P, Ta-ying-kwoh (the Great
YiNG Land, or the Great Excellent Country). Here the ;^, ta,
" Great," is taken from the first word of the name Great Britain.
YiNG-KWOH represents " England," the syllable ting being in-
tended for the " Eng " of England, and the last syllable, " land,"
being translated by kwoh.

The character ^, kwoh, country, being so near, both in sound
and meaning, to the terminal syllable " co " (meaning at, in, place,
or region) of " Mexico," it is of all the characters in the Chinese
language the one which would most likely be chosen to transcribe
that syllable.

There is, therefore, no diflSculty, so far as the final syllable is

THE LANGUAGE OF FU-SANG.

407

concerned, in believing that Fu-sang-kwoh may have been used
by the Chinese as the transcription of Me-xi-co.

Now, as to the middle syllable : this, as we have already seen,
was pronounced by the Mexicans " shi." Can the character ^,
now pronounced sang, have ever been used to represent this
sound ? In some dialects of the Chinese, the character has prob-
ably been pronounced substantially as it now is, for two thousand
years or more ; but in other dialects the sound has, as probably,
been quite different. This character is now usually pronounced
so by the Japanese ; but Professor Williams (see Chapter XIV
of this book) says that the Japanese pronunciation of Fu-sang-
KWOH is Fu-SHi-KOKU. Here the middle syllable is pronounced
exactly as the Mexicans enunciated the corresponding syllable
of the name of their country. His authority for this pronun-
ciation is not stated, but there are other evit^onces that the
character was sometimes given nearly this sound.

It may be noted that the use of a character having a terminal
nasal is not always a proof that the transcribed syllable has such
a nasal. M. Julien says "" that kiang-lang was written for the
Sanskrit Mia, and t'oung-loung-mo for the Sanskrit drouma.
In this last word, the letters ng must be dropped, leaving t'ou-
Lou-MO, which was as near as the Chinese seemed able to come
to drouma. So, too, we find "" Man-lah-kia written for Ma-
lacca, and Meng-kia-saii for Macassar.

It has already been stated * that, when referring to the fu-
sang tree, the character ^ is sometimes decomposed into its two
parts and '"* written ^^ ;fc, " the joh tree." The first part is
the " phonetic " of the character ^, and is supposed to give to
it its sound. It is seen, however, that, when written separately,
the character is pronounced joh (j given the French pronuncia-
tion, like zii), and not sang. Attention was also called, in the
same connection, to the fact that a character pronounced su is
sometimes substituted for sang.

The Sanskrit word sramana, applied to a Buddhist priest, is
not only written in Chinese with characters pronounced sha-man,
but also H f% SANG-MAN,'"' and p f% shi-man."" Here the
character ^, sang, is used as the equivalent of other characters
pronounced sua and sin.

* See page 400.

408

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

In view of the illustrations already given of the imperfection
with which Chinese characters frequently represent the sounds
which they are intended to transcribe, is it beyond the bounds
of possibility that the character usually pronounced sang, but
fluctuating in sound at different times or in different dialects
toward so, su, siii, sha or zhoii, may have been considered by
the Chinese as a sufficiently good representative of the xi (or
SHi) of Mc-xi-co ?

As to the first syllable, M. de Paravev claims that, as a coun-
try in the extreme north was known as « u-yu (^ ^),^^" one in
the extreme south as Fu-nan (^ ^)>*^" ai^d one in the extreme
west as Fu-LiN (^ f|c),''^™ the Chinese adopted this fourth ru,
in Fu-SANG, as being properly expressive of a country at the ex-
treme east.

In the Chinese San-fuh-tsi,"" a term applied to a icingdom
in the island of Sumatra, and which is probably intended to rep-
resent the same name for which we have adopted the word
" Sumatra," the Chinese character run seems to be equivalent to
our syllable " ma." M. Julien finds the character ^, fu, written
for the Sanskrit bh4 in Subhilti, and for bo in B6dhisattva."'«
He also finds other characters, now pronounced fu, written f or joa
in Vachpa,'"' and for vC in Vetala,"" as well as for pic and pH.

It is therefore evident that, of the characters now pronounced
Fu-sArG-KWOH, the first may have been intended to represent any
of the sounds fu, fu, pu, pu, bo, bhu, pa, or ve ; the second to
represent sang, so, su, shi, sha, or znoii ; and the third to rep-
resent Kwoii, Kwo, or CO.

Now, let it be borne in mind that there have undoubtedly
been some changes in the sound of Mexican words during the
last fourteen centuries ; that different dialects varied in their
pronunciation ; and that one language is mentioned by Busch-
mann as closely connected with the Mexican, which substituted
V for the Mexican m, and which would therefore pronounce
" Me-shi-co " as " Ve-shi-co."

With this allowance, is it impossible that the characters now
pronounced Fu-sang-kwoh, and which at one time, or in some
particular dialect, may have been pronounced Pa-sha-co or Ve-
siii-co, may have been taken as the representatives of the Aztec
word " Me-shi-co," or of a possible variant " Ve-shi-co " ?

All this is not given as absolutely proving that the term Fu-

TDE LANGUAGE OF FU-SANG.

409

ronounce

PANG-KWOH was uscd for " Mexico," but merely as indicating that
the connection is not as distant as it appears at first sight, and
that any argument drawn from the apparent dissimilarity of the
words can have but little weight.

]VIy own opinion is, as already stated, that when Ilwui Shiln
related his adventures to the Chinese, and told that this distant
eastern land derived its name of " Me-shi-co " from a remarkable
"tree" growing there, they immediately inferred that the coun-
try was the same of which they had before heard as Fu-sang-
Kwoii ; believing that the possible sounds of these characters
were near enough to those ' the name of the country visited by
him to make it probable (when other circumstances were taken
into consideration) that the country was the same.

Having thus referred to the subject of language, let us now
consider that portion of Hwui Shan's story in which he gives a
number of the words of the language used in the country which
he visited.

IV. — The title of the king of the country is "the

The noblemen of the first

CHIEF OF the multitudes.
RANK ARE CALLED " TUI-LU " '

; those of the second rank,

PET-

TY TUI-LU " ; AND THOSE OP THE THIRD RANK, " NAH TO-SHA

The first clause is translated by others, "The king is called
'noble Y-chi,' ' T-kki,' ' Yit-Jchi; ' I-chi; ' I-li,' * Y-1ci; or
' Yueh-ki' ^^ / and if it wore not for the translation by de Rosny
of the Japanese form of the story, in which he says, "They
give to their king the name of KiJci-zin, that is to say, ' the most
honourable man,^ " I should have lelt more hesitation about ren-
dering the title as "Chief of the Multitudes." It appears to me
that the two characters should have been reversed, so as to read,
" K'l-YiH," instead of " Yih-k'i," if this were the meaning ; but a
number of educated Chinamen, whom I have consulted on the
subject, all concur in the statements that the characters as they
stand mean " the chief of the multitudes," and can have no other
meaning, and that, while they are not quite sure whether the
characters should be translated or transliterated, they are of the
opinion that it was not the intention to use them merely as
phonetics, and they therefore thmk that they should be trans-
lated as above. Moreover, the meanings of the characters,
taken separately, are so exactly those of the worus of which the
title of the Mexican ruler was composed, that I can not doubt

410

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

5-1

that the characters were intended by Hwui Shiin as its transla-
tion. The first character, yiii, 2»» naeans, " one, bent, the first "
(Williams's Dictionary, p. 1096), and the second, k'i, |i|$, "full,
abundant, very, large, numerous, multitudes, a crowd of people"
(Williams's Dictionary, p. 345). Medhurst "'" also gives the mean-
ing " great." This character is composed of a city, or region,
and to worship, and was probably first adopted as a representa-
tion of the assembly of the people, when they gathered, once a
year, to witness the public worship of the Supreme God by the
emperor. Hence its first meaning would be, " the people, the
multitude," from which the meanings " numerous," " abundant,"
" full," " large," and " great " would subsequently be evolved.
In Hwui Shan's time the word may have been in the first stage,
and have meant distinctively " the people."

The title of the Mexican emperor is seldom mentioned by
historians, and is in fact so rarely referred to, that some authori-
ties even state that the Mexican language has no word for em-
peror."® Nevertheless there are occasional references to Monte-
zuma's title, which is given as " Chief of Men," *"' " Tlaca-tecuh-
tli." '" This title is composed of " tlaca-tl," a man, or, in the
plural, men or people, and " tecuhtli," the title which will be next
considered, and which is equivalent to " lord " or " chief." The
compound therefore means " Lord of Men " or " Chief of the
People."

Sebastian Ramerez de Fuenleal, Bishop of San Domingo, in
a letter to the Spanish empress,""* dated Mexico, November 3,
1532, said : " Montezuma bore the title of Tecatecle Tetuan Intla-
catl, and this is the title which they also give to your majesties ;
its meaning being * Wise and Powerful Lord.' " The good bishop
evidently knew but little of the Mexican language. The first
word is a compound of " teca," meaning nation, tribe, or people,*
and " tecle," which is one of the numerous variations '"* of the
title given in the last paragraph as " Tecuhtli," meaning lord '"'
or chief. No such word as tetuan is found in the Aztec diction-
aries, but teuan is defined as " our," and this is probably the
word meant, " Intlacatl " is a compound of " in," nearly equiv-
alent to the English " the," and " tlacatl," " man or people." Here
the meaning is substantially the same as that of the title given

* The names of most of the Mexican tribes end in " teca," or its abbreviation,
*' tec," as, for instance, the •' Az-tecas " or Aztecs, tlie " Tol-tccas " or Toltecs.

THE LANGUAGE OF FU-SANG.

411

in the last paragraph, " chief " and " people " being found in both,
the whole meaning literally, " the Nation's Lord of our People."

Let us now examine the statement of Hwui Shin, that the
noblemen of the first rank are called Tui-lu, ^Jt- The first
character is not used in transcribing Sanskrit words, but it does
not seem to have been subject to much, if any, fluctuation in
sound. The second character is used to represent the Sanskrit
syllables lo, rd, ru, lu, rH and /n, "^' and when written with a
small square (or " mouth ") at the left — which does not affect its
sound — for Iri, r<J,'**" rw, and rti."^"

Was there any such title as this in existence among the Mexi-
cans ? Bancroft says : "* " There were several military orders
and titles, which v/ere bestowed upon distinguished soldiersfor
services in the field or the council. There was one, the member-
ship of which was confined to the nobility ; this was the cele-
brated and knightly order of the Tecuhtli. To obtain this rank
it was necessary to be of noble birth, to have given proof in sev-
eral battles of the utmost courage, to have arrived at a certain
age, and to have sufiicient wealth to support the enormous ex-
penses incurred by members of the order."

In another place "* he states that the rank of Tecuhtli was the
highest honour that a prince or soldier could acquire.

Molina"'* and Biondelli"" spell the word " Tecutli "—the
first defining it " a cavalier or chief," and the second, " a warrior,
a prince, a chief." Morgan gives the form "Teuchtli."'"" 01-
mos,"*' Buschmann, ^'^ aid Clavigero '"' use the form " Teuctli."
Bancroft also uses it in the compound Mictlan-teuctli, Lord of
Hades.*"* Olmos "" explains this change of spelling or pronun-
ciation by saying that sometimes, when ii follows after c, the w
is made liquid, and, although it is not lost in the written word, it
seenio to be lost in the pronunciation, or at least is but slightly
sounded, and the c remains in the pronunciation with the pre-
ceding vowel. As to the rank of these noblemen, Clavigero says
that the Teuctli took precedency of all others in the senate as
well in sitting as in voting ; "" and Buschmann says '"* that
Tecutli, or Teuctli, is the Mexican word for what we are accus-
tomed to call a cazique, prince, chief, chieftain, a lord in general,
or a high noble. In the name of Ometochtli, one of the numerous
Nahua gods of wine,*** the part " tochtli," which by itself means
rabbit, is evidently a variant of this title.

i' ■'•

412

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

The name of the general in command of the army first met
by Cortez is given as Teutile,"" Teuhtlile, *" or Teudile.^""
Here again we have the same title, which, as in other cases, took
the place of the name. '"* If proof is needed, it is found in the
fact that the name of his companion or lieutenant is given as
Pilpatoe, '"' which is evidently a title also : from Pllll, noble,^"
and Patio, precious. In a letter written by Nicholas DeWitt, in
1554, "Pipiltic" is named as one of the titles given to noble-
men.'"' The form " Teclc " has already been mentioned, and thia
is stated to be an older form than the preceding."* Zurita gives
the form " Teutley," '"* and Arenas, Teuhtli." Gallatin gives the
name of the god, before referred to, as llomcteull,^*^^ and de
Zumarraga""' and the auditor Salmeron"" and his colleagues
use the form " Teule." It will be seen that these various forms
differ as much between themselves as Ilwui Shan's form Tui-i.u
differs from any of them ; and it seems beyond all reasonable
doubt that ho intended to transcribe the title given above.

In the notes of M. the Marquis d'llervey de Saint-Denyg,
reproduced in Chapter XII of the present work, he states that one
of the Chinese texts gives this title as " Great Tui-lu " instead of
merely " Tui-lu." The use of a word meaning ** great " or
" noble," in connection with a title expressing elevated rank, is
common in all countries. As to its use in Mexico, Solis mentions
that,"** when approaching Montezuma, his subjects entered into
his presence barefooted, and made three reverences without rais-
ing their eyes from the earth — saying at the first, " lord ! " at the
second, " my lord ! " and at the third, " (/reat lord ! "

The Chinese account continues that the noblemen of the
second rank were called " Petty Tui-lu."

I have not found any case in which a word meaning " petty "
is attached to the title Teuctli. I find in Molina, hov/ever,"" the
forms Tlatoca-tepito, a petty ruler or king, and Tlatoca-fontli,
a petty king or lord. In these compounds Tlatjca 's the title
next referred to, tepito means " little, small," '°^" and tontU in-
dicates diminution,"^ littleness, depreciation, or humiliation.'"'
It is therefore evident that the Mexicans were accustomed to
divide at least one of their ranks of nobility into two classes, the
less powerful being indicated by attaching to the title a word
meaning "little'" or "petty."

Hwui Shan says that the nobles of the third rank are called

111

THE LANGUAGE OF FU-SANG.

418

Naii-to-siia. This is the INIoxican title referred to in the last
paragraph, which takes the forms Tlatocayo,"'^^ Tlatoani,'"" or, in
the plural, Tlatoque."'"

As to the use of naii for the syllable " Tla " : it should be re-
membered that the Chinese language has no word in which one
consonant is followed by another without the interposition of a
vowel, and it is therefore absolutely powerless to express such a
sound as " Tla." La would seem the most likely form to use for
it ; but I and n are so regularly interchanged with each other, in
the various Chinese dialects, that it is not strange that in this
case, as in many others, na should be nsed for la. In Med-
hurst's Dictionary,'"" a large number of words will be found
written with an initial I and pronounced with ?j, or written with
n and pronounced with I. In " Smith's Vocabulary of Proper
Names " we are told, under the heading lui,"^'" " For words
commencing with this character, see nui, the more correct
word."

In transcribing Sanskrit words, characters pronounced xa,
NiE; and NO are used to represent the Sanskrit syllable da (with
the cerebral d) and also the syllable da (with the dental (?).'*^

Bancroft says, in relation to the title : '" " The nobles of
Mexico, and of the other Nahua nations, were divided into
several classes, each having its own peculiar privileges and
badges of rank. The distinctions that existed between the vari-
ous grades and their titles are not, however, clearly defined.
The title of Tlatoani was the highest and most respected ; it
signified an absolute and sovereign power, an hereditary and
divine right to govern. The kings and the great feudatory lords,
who were governors of provinces, and could prove their princely
descent and the ancient independence of their families, belonged
to this order."

Although Bancroft seems to be uncertain as to the exact na-
ture of the distinction between various ranks, there is no ques-
tion that this title, Tlatoani, Tlatoca, or Tlatocayo, was a lower
title than that of Teuctli.

Buschmann says in regard to it : '''° " Tlatoani is the parti-
ciple, present, active, of itoa, or tlatoa, to speak.* It expresses,

* Tlatoa is derived from itoa^ " to speak," with tlie prefix tla, a species of
pronoun, meaning " it " or " sometliing." It therefore means, " to speali Bometliinic
of importance — something to which attention should be paid," i. o., " to command."

i^ii

in?

'.]'»!Rt.ir'''i»''
ii'-

b' ■ -

I' ! 1

^H '

HB '<

^^^^1

RVk

ETtT

If:'

414

AN INGLORIOUS 00LUMBU3.

first, in reality, 'speaker' ; second, however, and chiefly, 'great
lord, nobleman, governor, prince, cazique.' "

The word is really equivalent to the English title " Command-
er." The fundamental radical of the word is the syllable to (from
itoa, to speak), and this syllable is represented in Chinese by the
character II|IJ, to, also meaning to speak. There are a great num-
ber of other Chinese characters pronounced to, but this particu-
lar one was chosen because of its coincidence in meaning as well
as in sound with the s;, ble which it was to represent.

This is in accordance with the usual custom of the Chinese,
who, in transcribing foreign words, often seek for meanings,
allusions, fortuitous coincidences, and plays of words.'*" Thus,
for the word "opium," they use characters pronounced ya-
riEx'*^ (which is as near as they can come to the sound of the
word), and meaning " black flakes." For the name of the Ganges
(or Gunga) they use the characters iiang-iio,"" which, like the
original word, mean " the ceaseless river." So they transcribe
the word "Turk"'" with the characters t'iu-kiuk meaninc
" insolent dogs."

The last syllable of the words Tlatoca, Tlatocayo, or Tlatoque
is represented by a character pronounced sha, the sounds k and
811 being in this case, as in many others, interchanged.

Another phrase is used by Hwui Sh^n in which I think that
I detect an attempt to transcribe a Mexican word. This is the
statement that —

V. — They have to-p'u-t'ao-cs in that place.

The characters to-p'u t'ao I think to be intended for the
Mexican word"" which we have adopted as the name of the
tomato.

The translators have had much difficulty with this phrase,
rendering it : " They have the iris and peaches in abundance " ;
"There are also many vines"; "In addition there are many
apples and reeds, mats being made from the last " ; " There are
many grapes " ; and " Water-rushes and peaches are common."

The exact meaning of the characters, to-p'tj-t'ao is " numer-
ous reed-peaches," or "many reeds and peaches."

A compound,"" pronounced pV-t'ao, is used as the name of
the grape-vine by the Chinese,"" but it is written with different

The suffix ni, or cai/o, turns the verb into a noun, precisely as our suffix " er "
turns " command " into " commander,"

TUE LANGUAGE OF FU-SANO.

415

characters from those used i» the text. Klaproth claims that the
name was formerly written with the characters given in this
place, but I have not been able to tiiul any other authority for
the statement. Beal seems to think that the p'u-t'ao may have
been the BUgar-cane.'"

Reeds or rushes are found in great numbers along the water-
courses of Mexico, and Tulan, the capital of the Toltecs, took its
name from the " tules," or reeds, in its neighbourhood. This
Aztec word has passed into the English language, and the reeds
growing in the marshy lands of California are now universally
called "tules." The Mexicans wove the mats of which their
beds were made from these reeds, or tules.'"

The term " reed-peach " would have been particularly appli-
cable to the tomato, as the straggling vine upon which it grows is
somewhat analogous to a reed, and different compounds of the
word "peach," with a modifying adjective, are, in Chinese, used
to designate various soft, round fruits that are destitute of a
kernel or stone. Thus the " fairy peach " is a poetical name for
a fig,"" the " divine peach " is a variety of orange, the " fragrant
peach " is the lemon, and the " flossy blossoming peach " is the
flower-bud of cotton.

Bancroft refers *"' to the use made of the tomato by the Mexi-
cans, and, in fact, even at the present day there are few of the
characteristic dishes of the country of which it does not form a
part.

If the compound is decided to mean " grapes " or " grape-
vines," it is equally true that they were found in the country.
The fact that they were found in " Vinland," or New England,
does not prove that they existed in Mexico, some four thousand
miles distant. After finding, however, that grapes were indige-
nous '»»» to California,"" Texas,'"" Arizona,"' New Mexico,"" "*° »*»
and Sonora,"^ and at Parras, in the state of Durango, Mexico,"® I
finally found several references to their existence throughout the
land of Mexico, although it is evident that the fruit was not
esteemed, and that little use was made of it.

Prescott refers incidentally to the grape-vines in Mexico."*"'
Acosta says : '* In New Spain there are some vines which bear
grapes, although no wine is made from them." " Diaz states that,
"" " in the middle of August, in the year 1519, we left Sempoalla.
We came the first day to Xalapa and then to Socochina, a well-

416

AN INGLOUIOUS COLUMBUS.

kept |)lao(> of (liftlcult noccHHibility, whoro there aro a multitiulo
of iirboiirs of tlio prapi'-viiu'H of this country." To this Btatiiiunt
tho translator a<Kls the following note :

"Tho grajjc-vino was certainly l)rought from Europe to
tlio West Indies, yet it ean not bo doubted tlmt the Spaniards
had before found it growing wild in America." Oviedo, whose
work, HO far as it relates to the historical jjortion of natural his-
tory, is of great value, says, explicitly : " Theso wild vines hear
good, black grapes. I say good, for, considering that they are a
wild growth, they well deserve that appellation. They are found
throughout tho whole West Indies, and I belie vo that all the
vines now remaining there have descended from this wild stock."

Finally, Clavigero gives tho following account regarding
them : '"^»

" Grapes aro not entirely lacking in this country. The places
called Parras and I'arral, in the diocese of New Biscay, Avere so
named from the abundance of vines which were found there, of
which many vineyards were made, which, to this day, yield good
wine. In Mixteca there aro two species of wild vine, native to
that country : the one, in its shoots and in the figure of its leaves,
resembles the common vine, and bears red grapes, which are largo
and covered bv a hard skin, but which are of a sweet and acree-
able taste, which would surely be improved by cnltivation ; the
grapes of the other vine aro hard, large, and of a sour flavour,
but they make a very good preserve."

Tlie Chinese account may possibly refer to grapes, but I can
not help thinking that " tomatoes " is the true rendering.

In Chapter XV attention was called to tho fact that the Chi-
nese have a legend of a tree of stone, called " the agate gem," "the
green-jade-stono tree," or " tho coral tree." This may possibly
be founded upon Ilwui Shan's account of the gems, which were
most highly prized by the Mexicans, and which they called Chal-
chiuitl,^^^ or Chalchihuitl.'^^ These were green or bluish-green
stones, resembling amethysts,^" emeralds,"'''' or turquoises,'" and
probably very similar to the green-jade stone so highly prized in
China. These were considered as valuable by the Mexicans as
diamonds are by us,"'* and when Montezuma wished to send to
the ruler of Spain the most royal present which it was possible
for him to give, he sent his general to Cortez with four of these
stones, which were handed over with great solemnity as jewels

THE LANGUAGE OF FU-SAXG.

417

of inestimable valiu',"" and with the etatt'inent that he could
not conHcnt to part with thorn except to give them to so power-
ful a monarch as tlie one to whom Cortez yielded obedience must
1(0. Kach stone was declared to be worth a load of ^oUl *" (i. e.,
the Aveight that a man could carry — some Hixty pounds), or,
accordi ig to some authorities, two loads."** C/uilc/iihuitf was
one of the titles bestowed upon (^uetzalcontl, and it was the name
given to Cortez,"* by tho Mexicans, who knew of no title that
they could give him which would more fully express their sense
of his superiority.

This word is evidently composed of ieulli (pronounced a/i<ilti,
and, after dropping tho terminal //, scarcely distinguishable from
ch(tl), meaning sand or a sandy stone,'*" and xilmiti, a tunpioise ;
tho compound meaning " the stone turquoise." It has already
been explained, however, that xihuitl also means a i)lant. Hence
Ilwui Shitn. may have supposed the meaning of the appellation
to be " the stony plant," and tho Chinese legends may Ijave
grown from the accounts, carried to China by Ilwui !Shun, of
the Mexican Chalchihuitl.

It should be said, in concluding this philological portion of
the subject, that, if it stood by itself, but little confidence could
he i)laced in it. So many instances have occurred in which
careful students have been misled by accidental or fancied re-
semblances between words radically distinct, that great caution
is necessary in pursuing tho subject.

Nevertheless, when taken in connection with the other proofs,
given and to be given, of the truth of Hwui Shftn's statements,
these philological coincidences seem to add to their number.

If the Mexican language did not contain titles corresponding
with tho words found in the Chinese text, that circumstance
would be a valid argument against the truth of the story. The
words exist, however, and have been shown.

Let any who may think the resemblance accidental or fancied,

or to be the result of mere ingenuity, attempt to discover another

language in the world in the words of which, denoting degrees

of rank, any such resemblance to the titles named by Hwui Shlin

can be found.
27

■ffS-

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY.

The construction of the dwellings — Adobe walls — The " Casas Grandes " — Houses
of planks — Lack of armour — Absence of fortifications — Literary characters —
The pomp which surrounded the Aztec monarch — Musical instruments — The
evanescence of Montezuma's pomp — Rulers accompanied by musical instru.
ments — Tangaxoan — The king of Guatemala — The king of Quich6 — Homage
to the Spaniards and to the Spanish priests — The long cattle-horns — The
Chinese measure called a hdh — Animals of the New World erroneously des-
ignated by tlie names of those of the Old World — Bisons — Their range — An
extinct species — Its gigantic horns — The horns of the Rocky Mountain sheep —
Use of horns by the Indians — Herds of tame deer — The lack of iron — The use
of copper — Gold and silver not valued — Their markets — Barter — vJustoras at-
tending courtship — Sprinkling and sweeping the ground as an act of homage
— The customs of the Apaches — The fastened horse — The Coco-Maricopas —
Serenades — Huts built in front of those of the parents — The length of the
" year " — The punishment of criminals of high rank — The sweat-house, or
estufa — Indian councils — Severe punishment of men of distinction — Custom
in Darien — Punishment witnessed by Cortez — Smothering in ashes.

The next statement to be examined relates to the method of
building their dwellings :

VI. — In constructing their houses they use planks, such
as are generally used when building adobe walls.

This passage has been variously translated : " The boards
which are made from the fu-sang tree are employed in the con-
struction of their houses," and " Their houses are made of
planks," or " wooden planks " or " beams." It is to be noted
that it does not say that the planks are made from the fu-sang
tree, and also that the character used for the word " planks " is
not the ordinaiy character ;^, pan, composed of " wood," or " a
tree," and the phonetic pan, but is )^, pan, composed of this
last-named phonetic and the radical meaning " a slice," " a piece."
This character is not only used with the meaning " board " or

I' mi IN

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY.

419

!!U i!

" plank," but is employed specifically as the name of the small
boards or pieces of planks which are used when constructing
adobe or mud walls ; and it appears to have this meaning in our
text. In China, according to Professor Williams, durable walls
are made by pounding a compound of sifted gravel and lime,
mixed with water, into a solid mass, between planks secured at
the sides, and elevated as the wall rises."" Medhurst says that
the Chinese in Hok-k^en generally build their walls of mud,
Avhich is pounded and beaten between two boards fastened
together.

As to the dwellings of the Mexicans : we are told that they
varied with climate and locality, and that in treeless parts they
were constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks and stones.'"
Zaraacois says that "'* the houses of the wealthier classes were
of adobe, but were well whitened, and the habitations of the
greater part of the people were of clay hardened in the sun, and
of earth."** The celebrated ruins in New Mexico, known as the
" Casas Grandes," are of adobe, that is, the ordinary mud of the
locality mixed with gravel.'" It is specially stated, however,
that, according to appearances, the walls of these buildings were
huilt in boxes (moulds) of different sizes.*"* Bancroft adds
that'" the material, instead of being formed into small rectan-
gular or brick-shaped blocks, as is customary in all Spanish-
American countries to this day, seems in this aboriginal struct-
ure to have been moulded — perhaps by means of wooden boxes
— and dried where it was to remain in the walls.

Fartlett states that,"' of the " Casas Grandes," near the Gila
River, the exterior walls, as well as the division walls of the in-
terior, are laid with large square blocks of mud, prepared for
the purpose by pressing the material into large boxes about two
feet in height and four feet long. When the raud became suf-
fioionlly hardened, the case was moved along and again filled, and
so on until the whole edifice was completed ; and, referring af-
terward to the " Casas Grandes," in Chihuahua, Mexico, he says
that ^^ they are built with large blocks of mud, or what the Mexi-
cans call ta2na, about twenty-two inches in thickness and three
feet or more in length. In fact, the length of these blocks
seems to vary, and their precise dimensions can not be traced,
which loads to the belief that some kind of a case or box was
used, into which the mud Avas placed, and that, as it dried, these

420

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

cases were moved along. It is true they may have been first
made in moulds or cases, and, after being dried, placed on the
walls ; but the irregularity and want of uniformity in the IcMX'-th
of these layers indicate that they were made on the walls them-
selves.

If it be considered that Hwui Shan intended to say that the
houses were constructed of wooden planks, instead of by means
of these movable boards, there is just a possibility (but it can
not be called a probability) that such houses may at one time
have been built. Ixtlilxochitl tells us, in his second " Relation,"
that at Tollantzinco *' they [the Toltecs] constructed of planks
a house large enough to accommodate the entire nation."*"

Other writers have referred to the planks made by the na-
tives of Oregon and Washington Territory,'"" for the construc-
tion of their dwellings ; but this region is too far removed from
Mexico to make it probable that the two places would be re-
ferred to in the same account, as if they were only one coun-
try.

VII. — They have no citadels or walled cities, . . . they

HAVE NO MILITARY WEAPONS OR ARMOUR, AND THEY DO NOT WAGE
WAR IN THAT KINGDOM.

This duplication of a statement which was made in regard to
Great Han, indicates that the explorer was questioned by the
representative of the Chinese government as to the military
qualities of the nations which he had visited.

Dupaix says of the ruins of Central America : " The truth is
that there can not be found in any quarter the least trace of an
inclosure, of an adjoining defense of any kind, or even of exte-
rior fortifications." "'"

When Mexico was first visited by the Spaniards, the natives
wore an armour of quilted cotton, very similar to the quilted
dress worn by the Tartars for the same purpose. The res. .a-
blance is such that it seems not unreasonable to suppose that it
may have been introduced by the party of Buddhist priests as a
means of protecting their disciples from the arrows of their ene-
mies.

While the Aztecs were a ferocious and warlike people, it is
well known that their predecessors, the Toltecs, were milder and
gentler, and were not addicted to war. Landa and Herrera re-
port that the nations of Yucatan learned the art of war from the

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUXTRY.

421

Mexicans, having been an altogether peaceful people before the
Nahua influence was brought to bear on them.'"'

It may be, however, that Ilwui Shan reported what he
thought to be the change in the customs of the inhabitants of
the land which he had visited, brought about through their con-
version tu the doctrines of Buddha by means of the preaching of
the five Buddhist missionaries, rather than their character as it
was during the days when they were " ignorant."

VIII. — TlIEY HAVE LITERARY CHARACTERS.

The picture - writing of the Mexicans is so well known as
to require but few references. Bancroft states that it"' reveals
the phonetic element so developed as to endow the Mexicans
with that high proof of culture, written records, applied not only
to historic incidents and common facts, but to abstract subjects
of philosophic, scientific, and poetic nature. lie also says of the
Palenque inscriptions that they have all the characteristics of a
written language in a state of development analogous to the
Chinese with its word- writing ; and, like it, they appear to have
been read in columns from top to bottom.^*'

oahagun says that their holy chants were written in their
books,'"* and Dr. Brinton claims that no nation ever reduced
pictography more to a system."" It was in constant use in the
daily transactions of life. In these records we discern some-
thing higher than a mere symbolic notation. They contain the
germ of a phonetic alphabet, and represent sounds of spoken
language. The symbol is often not connected with the idea, but
with the icord.

M. Leon de Rosny goes still further in the following state-
ment, but does not mention the grounds upon which his opinion
is based : " I am much inclined to believe that writing, properly
so called, was known to the Mexicans at one time, probably
during the times when the Toltec empire flourished ; but I also
believe that this system of writing was absolutely distinct from
that of the didactic paintings which were in vogue during the
century of the last of the Montezumas.'""^^

IX. — The king of the country, when he walks abroad, is

PRECEDED AND FOLLOWED WITH DRUMS AND HORNS.

It is well known that '** the pomp and circumstance which
surrounded the Aztec laonarchs, and the magnificence of their
every- day life, was most impressive.

•

IS •

422

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Cortez exclaims :'"" " So many and various were the ceremo-
nies and customs observed by those in the service of Muteczuma,
that more space than I can spare would be required for the de-
tails, as well as a clearer memory, for their recollection, than I
possess, since no sultan or other intidel lord, of whom any knowl-
edge now exists, ever had so much ceremonial in his court."

The kings did not often appear among their people, the rule
being that they should not show themselves in public except in
urgent cases (see "Durj.n," chap, xxvi, p. 214).'"* Whenever
they did appear abroad, however, it wa*" with a parade that cor-
responded with their other observances.'" Prescott states that,
when Montezuma went abroad, it was in state, on some public
occasion, usually to the great temple, to take part in the religious
services ; and, a., ic passed along, he exacted from his people
the homage of an adulation worthy of an Oriental despot.**"'

Bancroft says that the Mexicans had instruments of music,
consisting of drums, horns, and large sea-shells ; '" and in another
place '*' mentions drums, flutes, trumpets, and sharp whistles as
their musical instruments.

It should be remembered that the Spanish conquerors had
but slight opportunity for beholding the pomp with which Mon-
tezuma had been surrounded in his daily life. His power and
vainglory vanished before them like mist before the rising sun.
They had but time to catch a glimpse of it, and il was gone
forever. When he came forth to meet Cortez, it was under cir-
cumstances so new and strange, that it is not surprising that
some of the ceremonies iisually observed when he ventured
abroad should have been dispensed with. His power had been
openly defied. These mysterious beings of another race, clad
in armour which could not bo pierced by the weapons of the
Mexican?, mounted ujDon strange animals of a strength, speed,
and docility of Avhich they had before had no conception, and
who breathed forth thunder and lightning, with which it was in
tlieir power to slay all those in their sight at their pleasure ;
these creatures, who in some respects resembled men, but who
had many of the attributes of the gods, came fearlessly to his
capital city, regardless of his command to the contrary. This
was no time for music or for public rejoicing, and, therefore,
Montezuma was borne along in silence.

That it was customary, however, for the rulers of Mexico to

THE PECULIARITIES OF TUE COUNTRY.

423

I I

Mexico to

be accompanied by the music of drums and trumpets, when they
appeared in public, is shown by the following quotations : When
the natives of the surrounding region came to assist Cortez
rebuild the city of Mexico after its conquest, " each chief of a
city or village arrived at the head of his men accompanied by
the sound of instruments." '** Tangaxoan, king of Michoacan,
set forth to visit Cortez, and pay him tribute, " preceded by the
music of his palace, and accompanied by a brilliant court." '■*'
" The king of Guatemala came forth from his palace to meet the
Spaniards, carried by his servitors upon a species of magnificent
litter, and surrounded by a cortege of noblemen and of musi-
cians." °" When Tecum Uman, king of Quiche, left the capital,
he was borne in his litter on the shoulders of the principal men
of his kingdom, and precedta by the music of flutes, cornets, and
drums."*

These signs of rejoicing, these acts of adulation, were almost
immediately exhibited before the conquering Spaniards. At
their entrance into the city of Tlascala, victorious shouts and
acclamations resounded upon all sides, and still greater confusion
was caused by the fact that they were mixed with the clamour
of the people and the dissonant music of their flutes, kettle-
drums, and trumpets.'*" Their entry into Cholula was similar
to that at Tlascala ; the streets were filled with an immense con-
course of people, through which ihey could only with difticulty
force their way ; tumultuous acclamations resounded upon all
sides ; women distributed bouquets of flowers, and scattered
them b ,-fore them. Caciques and priests did reverence to them,*
and smoked incense before them, and numbers of instruments
were played which made more noise than music.*^" So, too, at
the entry into Gualipar, " kettle-drums, flutes, and shells were
distributed in different bands, which alternated with and suc-
ceeded each other, making a noisy and agreeable welcome," '^^^
Zamacois says that when Xicotencatl came to meet Cortez, " a
numerous band of musicians, whose insti'uments consisted of
drums, trumpets, and sea-shells, with which they produced a hor-
rible noise, was seen in the first files of the troops.""" Cortez
himself refers to the subject in the following words : " Tht next
morning the people of Cholula came forth to receive me on the
road, with many trumpets and kettle-drums." "*"

Cortez was not the only one to whom this sign of homage and

^li

; :
■ i

424

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

welcome waa rendered. When the Spaniards invaded Nicara-
gua, the natives, on severol occasions, met the Spaniards in a
])roccssion of men and women, gayly decked in all their finery
marching to the sound of shell trumpets, and bearing in their
hands presents for the invaders.**' In the distant north, Alva-
rado, when he reached Cicuy4, was welcomed by the inhabitants
who went before him with great demonstrations of joy, accom-
panying him to the village to the sound of drums, and of flutes
similar to fifes, on which they often played.'^"

This method of showing joy in the presence of one whom
they wished to honour, was, in later days, used as a means of hon-
ouring the Spanish priests. Gage, in his account of his travels
through the country, mentions this fact time and again. In his
first journey, before he had fairly left the seaport of San Juan
de Ulloa, he says : "'' " Two miles before we came to the Town
of Vera Cruz, there met us on Horse-back some twenty of the
chief of the Town, presenting unto every one of vis a nosegay of
flowers ; who rid before us a bow shot, till we met with more
company on foot, to wit, the Trumpeters and the Waits, Avho
sounded pleasantly all the way before us. . . . When we took
our leaves, the Waits and Trumpets sounded again before us."
So, also, when he departed from the little town called St. Chris-
topher, " Waits and Trumpets " sounded before him.'**' On
leaving Comitlan, when being ferried over the river upon which
the town was situated, canoes went before his party with " the
Quiristers of the church singing " before them, " and with others
pounding their Waits and Trumpets." '^' He finally mentions,
as a general custom, that " to the Church there do belong, ac-
cording as the Town is in bignesse, so many Singers, and Trum-
peters, and Waits, over whom the Priest hath one Ofticer, who
is called FlscaV^ " They are to attend with their Waits, Trum-
pets, and Musick, upon any great man or Priest that cometh to
their Town, and to make arches with boughs and flowers in the
streets for their entertainment." '^

X. TlIKY HAVE CATTLE-HORNS, OF ■WHICH THE LONG ONES

ARE USED TO CONTAIN SOme of their POSSESSIONS, THE BEST OF

THEM REACHING a capacity of TWICE TEN times as much as an
ordinary horn-full. . . . The people of the country

RAISE DEER AS CATTLE ARE RAISED IN THE MiDDLE KiNGDOM

(China).

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY.

425

Tlie first sentence is rendered by different translators as fol-
lows :

" The cattle of the country bear a considerable weight upon
their horns." "The cattle have long horns, upon which bur-
dens are loaded, which weigh sometimes as much as twenty ho
(of one hundred and twenty Chinese pounds)." " The oxen have
such large horns that they contain as much as ten sheep-skins ;
the people use them to keep all kinds of goods." " Thoy have
cattle whose horns are very long, and who bear upon their liorns
a weight as great as twenty ho (the ho is a measure of ten
bushels)." " Ox-horns are found in Fu-sang so large that their
capacity is sometimes as great as two hundred bushels. They
are used to contain all sorts of things." " There are oxen with
long horns, so long that they will hold things ; the biggest as
much as five pecks."

It should be noted, however, that the statement refers to
cattle-/tor«s, and not to cattle. If the meaning were, they " have
long-horned cattle," the text would read, " yiu cii'axg kioii niu,"
the order of the words being the same that it is in English in
the phrase included in quotation-marks. The order in the text is,
however, yiu niu kioh ; they " have cattle-horns." One cause
of variation in the translations is found in the character ^, tsai,
which means both to contain and to bear ; and another cause lies
in the uncertainty as to the size of the measure called a iiuii (or

HO).

Professor Williams gives the following information regarding
it : '"° " f^, HUH (from a peck measure and a horn), to measure, a
measure ; the Chinese bushel holding ten pecks, or a picul, ac-
cording to some, but the common table makes it to measure five
pecks, or half a picul. At Shanghai the huh for rice holds only
205 pints, and that for peas 1*86 pints ; the Buddhists use it for
a full picul of 133^ lbs., av., but the Hindu drdna, which the nun
represents, weighs only 7 lbs. 11 oz., av."

Bearing in mind the fact that the character is composed of a
"horn" and a "measure," and that it is still used at Shanghai
for an amount of rice or peas but little greater than the capacity
of a large ox-horn, I can not help believing that it originally
meant a "hom-full," and that it was with this meaning that
Hwui Shan used it.

It is a plausible remark ""'of de Guignes (vol. ii, p. 173) that

!i u'-lualf

iii

h! ;i

42G

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

" the habit we fall into of conceiving things according to the
words which express them, often leads us into error when read-
ing the relations of travelers. Such writers have seen objects
altogether new, but they arc compelled, when describing them,
to employ equivalent terms in their own language in order to be
understood ; while these same terms tend to deceive the reader,
who imagines that he sees such palaces, colonnades, peristyles,
etc., under these designations, as he has been used to, when, in
fact, they are quite another thing."

"iiiow, Jithough the names of many animals in the New World
luiv , IV.-VT, frequently borrowed from the Old, the species are dif-
fpj . «8i "When the Spaniards landed in America," says an
emiuvut nat.oi ''st, "they did not find a single animal they were
acquainted with ; not one of the quadrupeds of Europe, Asia, or
Africa." (Lawrence, " Lectures on Physiology, ZoOlogy, and the
Natural History of Man," London, 1819, p. 250.)

Hence we can not expect that the " cattle " or " cattle-horns,"
described by Ilwui Shan, would be exactly the same as those of
Asia or Europe. It seems very doubtful whether our mission-
ary meant to state that there were " cattle " in the country. It
is not improbable that all that he meant was that he had seen
horns of a very large size in the possession of the people, and
he supposed them to be cattle-horns. There is nothing to indi-
cate that he ever saw the animals from which they were taken.

If, however, he meant to refer to animals so similar to cattle
as to be properly called by the same name, the buffaloes or bisons
must have been the animals meant. The term " wild cattle " '"
was occasionally applied, by both the early French and the early
English explorers, to the moose {Alces malchia) and the elk ( Cer-
vas Ccuiadensis),^^ but it was almost invariably applied to the
bison. And the fact, that the horns were called " cattle-horns," con-
clusively establishes the point that no animal of the deer species
could have been referred to in this case.

B(x,i(f sauvage was the name given to the bison by Du Pratz,*"
though it was often also called hiiffle, vache sauvage^ and some-
times bison (VAmh'iqiie, by the early French colonists, while the
Canadian voyageurs are said to have termed it simply le hcevf.
Kalra spoke of the American bisons as wilde Ochsen wid Kiiehe,
while the early English explorers also often referred to this ani-
mal under the same English equivalent, and also used for it the

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTKY.

mission-

names buffle and b<eiif sauvage. Charlevoix called the bison the
hceuf clu Canada, while Hennepin called it taureau sauvage.

The great kingdom '"' of " ( 'lola " (a name meaning " buffa-
lo "), although distant from the city of Mexico, must have been
known to Montezuma, for we find the Spaniards struck with
amazement at the sight of a singular animal in the zoological
gardens of the Mexican monarch, such as they had never seen
before. Nor, according to Venegas, was it known in Sonora, or
along the river Gila. By Solis, this animal is thus described : ""
"This greatest rarity — the Mexican bull — has a bunch on its
back like a camel, its flanks thin, its tail large, and its neck
covered with hair like a lion ; it is cloven-footed, and its head is
armed like that of a bull, which it resembles in fierceness, having
no less strength and agility." Hernandos '"' Jo describes the
animal by the name of the " Mexican bull."

When Cabrillo explored the coast of Ca. "ornla, he reported
that the natives on the coast,**'" and back in the interior also,""
had "many cows." The animals here raenl')ned, and which
were understood by the Spaniards to be cows, were doubtless
bisons, which formerly ranged to the ea: .rn foot-hills of the
Sierras, and accounts of Avhich, if not the skins of the animals,
must have reached the coast tribes. Although cows were intro-
duced into the New World by Columbus, and were brought to
Mexico as early as 1525, it was not until many years afterward,
on the permanent settlement of the country by the Spaniards,
that these domestic animals found their way to California.

Although the buffalo does not now range as far south as
Mexico, there is proof that it was formerly to be found in the
northern part of that country.

Respecting the extreme southwfistem limit of the former
range of the buffalo," Keating, on the authority of Calhoun, wrote
in 1823 as follows : "De Laet say;', quoting from Herrera, that
they grazed as far south as the banks of the Yaquimi {Americce
Uinusque Descriptio, Lugd. Batav. Anno 1633, lib. G, cap. 6, p.
286). In the same chapter the author states that Martin Piire
had, in 1591, estimated the province of Cinaloa, in which this
river runs, to be three hundred leagues from the city of Mexico.
This river is supposed to be the same which, on Mr. Tanner's
map of North America (Philadelphia, 1822), is named Iliaqui
(the Rio Yaqui, doubtless, of modern maps), and which is situ-

r^'Ml

! I

i'i I

r^i

hi''

428

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ated between the 27th r.nd 28th degrees of nortlj latitude.
Perhaps, however, it may be the Rio Gila, which empties itself in
latitude 32°." (Quoted from " Long's Expedition to the Source
of the St. Peter's River," vol ii, p. 28.)

Dr. IJerlandier," who was for a long time a resident of the
northeastern provinces of Mexico, and who at his death left in
MS. a large work, now in the Smithsonian Institution, on the
mammals of Mexico, speaks of the buffalo as formerly rangin.r
far to the southward of the Rio Grande. I am unable to say,
however, what are his authorities. In his chapter on this animal
he thus refers to its former range in Mexico :

" In Mexico, when the Spaniards, always eager for wealth,
pushed their explorations into the north and northwest, they did
not loiter to discover the buffaloes. In 1602 the Franciscan
monks, who discovered New Leon, found numerous herds of these
quadrupeds in the neighbourhood of Monterey. They were also
scattered throughout New Biscay (the states of Chihuahua and
Durango), and they sometimes went still farther south. Although
they formerly roamed as far south as the 2.5th degree, they now
do not pass the 27th or 28tb degree, at least in the inhabited and
well-known portions of the country."

In the map attached to Mr. Allen's work on " The American
Bisons, Living and Extinct," the former limit of the buffalo
range is put down as including the Mexican states of Nuevo
Leon, Coahuila, and Chihuahua.

The common bison has small horns, however, and the Asiatic
explorer would not be likely to call them " long." Still, remains
have been found of an extinct species of bison, which may have
been living fourteen centuries ago, to the horns of which the
term could be well applied.

The first remains of such an animal discovered in North
America were found in the bed of a small creek, about a dozen
miles north of Big-bone Lick, Kentucky." This specimen Peale
believed to indicate a species of the ox tribe of gigantic propor-
tions, whose horns must have had a spread of nearly twelve feet
— a conjecture that subsequent discoveries have proved Avell
founded. In 1846 the greater portion of the skull of a large
extinct bison was discovered on the Brazos River, near San Felipe,
Texas. This specimen was of the same gigantic proportions as
the one made known by Mr. Peale."

'W'

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY.

429

Among the measurements given hy Dr. Leidy of the first-
named discovery are : " Circumference of the horn-core at iU
base, 20} inches ; circumference of the horn-core, ten inches
from its base, 17^ inches. Tl»is specimen is still in the museum
of the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelj)hia. Through
the kindness of the curators of the museum, Mr. J. A. Allen was
enabled recently to examine the specimen at his leisure. He
found the circumference of the horn-core, fourteen inches from
the base (the point at which it is broken off), to be 10 inches, or
only four inches and a half less than at the base, and one and a
half inches less than at ten inches from the base. Mr. Peale, in
his description of the same specimen, nearly three fourths of a
century ago, expressed his belief that the horn itself could not
have been less then six feet in length.

The third specimen of cranial remains thus far known," as
unquestionably referable to the Jiison latifrons, consists of two
nearly perfect horn-cores, with small fragments of the frontal
bones attached. These remains were exhumed about three years
since, in Adams County, Ohio. They are nearly entire, lacking
only a little of the apical portions, and give the following
measurements : Total length, measured along the upper side,
32 inches ; total length, measured along the lower side, 34
inches ; circumference, at base, 20 inches ; circumference, ten
inches from the base, 16 inches ; circumference, fourteen inches
from the base, 14^ inches ; circumference, twenty-four inches
from the base, 9^ inches. They thus about equal in size the
specimens above described.

If this gigantic animal was living at the time of Hwui
Shan's visit, or if the horns were still occasionally found in the
country some time after its extinction, they may well havo at-
tracted his attention.

In case the reference is to the buffalo, it may be that one
clause of the account should be read, " The largest of them attain
(the weight of) twenty huh " ; and if the huh be considered as
indicating a weight of one hundred and thirty-three and a
third pounds, this would be but a slight exaggeration of their
size.

Audubon states the weight of old males to be nearly two
thousand pounds, that of the full-grown fat females to be about
twelve hundred pounds ; " and Brickell, in the " Natural History

430

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

of North Carolina," 1737, pp. 107-108, says : "TIiono monsters
(buffalocH)— as I have boon informed — weigh from sixteen hun-
dred to twenty-four hundred pounds weight." "

It seems more reasonable to believe, however, that IIwuj
Shiin referred to the enormous horns of the animal popularly
known as the Rocky Mountain sheep, which ho found in uku liy
the Mexicans as recept.icles for their property, and that, not
having seen the animals from which they were taken, he fell into
the error of considering them to be cattle-horns.

Coronado reported that, in or /"ear Cibola, ho found certaJ!)
sheep as big as a horso, with very gnat horns."" He adds, " I
have seen their horns so big that it is .\ wonder to behold tlair
greatness." The statements are also mude, " These aninuvis are
very large. T/iei/ have long horns,'" '"* and " They say that every
horn of theirs weigheth fifty pounds weight." "'" The following
is also given in the account of their journey : *"' "After having
marched three days in the desert, wc found, upon tho bank of a
river which ran through a deep caflon, a largo horn, which tlio
general had seen, and which he had left there that the army
might see it also. It was a fathom [hrasse) and a half in length ;
the base was as large as a man's leg, and in its shape it resembled
a goat's horn. It was a great curiosity."

As to the use of horns by the Indians to contain their prop-
erty, etc., Purchas says "" that " Lopez do Gomara reporteth that,
in Quivera, the BuflFalo Homes yeeld them Vessels." Gage also
reports of the Mexicans (p. 14.5 of the German edition), " From
horns they make drinking vessels and basins."

The peculiar custom of taming deer, and keeping herds of
them, as cattle are kept in other countries, existed in Mexico.

Bancroft states that *"' the common people kept and bred
techichi (a native animal resembling a dog), turkeys, qu&ils, geese,
ducks, and many other birds. The nobles also kept deer, hare,
and rabbits. He adds that the '" kings and nobles of the Chichi-
mecas kept forests of deer and hare to supply the people with
food, until, in Nopaltzin's reign, they were taught to plant by a
descendant of the Toltecs (Torquemada, " Monarq. Ind.,"tome i).
Bandolier, also,"' quoting from Torquemada, lib. i, chap, xlii,
p. 07, says : " Neither did the Chichimecas pay any attention to
it [agriculture or horticulture], for the reason that the Lords and
Kings had parks (" bosques ") of rabbits and deer, which sup-

THE PECULIARITIKS OF THE COUNTRY.

431

plied them with meat." Clavigero Htates '"" that in the i-Htutes
of the nobility were bred fiHh, <Ayt, rabbitn, and many varietien
of birds. Certain natives of (liiatemala, in the provinceH of
Acalan, called Mazatecan, kept deer in ho tame a Htate that they
were easily killed by the least active Boldiers."* Diaz says of
them : "'* " Another day we saw two great villages of the wamo
tribe. They are called the Mazatecas, which means * IVople or
Land of Deer'; and the name is certainly api>ropriate, f»»r our
path brought us soon into a great treeless meadow, where we
were fearfully burned by the sun, and the game grazed in such
numbers, and were so fearless, that wo soon killed more than
twenty. In reply to the question how this happened, we learned
that the people honoured these animals as holy, and neither
killed nor frightened them."

A letter written by the Adelantado Soto, regarding the ex-
ploration of " Florida," says that the Indians asserted that,""' at
a distance of five days' journey, fowls would be found in abun-
dance, as well as guatiacos shut up in parks, and tame deer which
were kept in herds. This report was probably without founda-
tion however.

XI. TUK GROUND IS DESTITUTE OP IROX, BUT THEY HAVE

COPPER ; GOLD AND SILVER ARE NOT VALUED ; IN THEIR MARKETS
THERE ARE NO TAXES OR FIXED PRICES,

It is not certain that Neumann does not express the real
meaning of the narrator in his rendering, ** Gold and silver are
not valued, and do not serve as the medium of exchange in
their markets."

Nearly every writer on the history of the Aztecs mentions
the fact that the use of iron, though its ores are abundant in the
country, was unknown to the natives,"" while copper could be
obtained in abundance.*'' Gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead
were the metals known to and used by the Nahuas. The latter,
however, is merely mentioned, and nothing is known about
V here it was obtained or for what purposes it was employed ; '"'
w.'iile tin also was but little used, and has never been found in
any great quantities.

S.ihagun makes the following statement : " There is gold in
this country, which is found in mines. There are also silver,
copper, and lead. They are procured in different ])la('es, in the
ravines, or in the rivers. Before the Spaniards came to New

432

AN IXGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Spain, no one eared to search for either silver or lead. The na-
tives sought only for gold in tlie rivers."*-'*

Preseott says that the Mexicans were as well acquainted with
the mineral as with the vegetable treasures of their kingdom.
Sil'-er, lead, and tin they drew from the mines of Taxco ; cop-
per from the mountains of Zacatollan.'""

Cui)i)er-mines are mentioned"' at Santa Rita del Cobre, in
what is now New ]Vrexico, rot far from the Mexican boundary
The copper wai formerly sent to the city of Mexico ; but it is
stated that " there is no longer a market in the city of Mexico
as other mines have been found much nearer." Copper was for-
merly exported in considerable quantities from Sonora, and silver
and golil are among the exports from that state."*

As to their markets: we are informed that'*^' a very large
square was set apart in all the principal cities of the kingdom
for the exhibition and sale of the various articles of merchandise
brought to market. Though these bazars were attended every
^^'^Yi yt-'t every fifth day was considered the principal or proper
market-day,*'" and, to suit the convenience of the various mer-
chants that constantly visited these marts, the adjacent cities
held their j^rincipal market on such days as Avould not interfere
with those of their neighbours. The number of persons col-
lected together at such timos in the city of Mexico has been es-
timated by the Spanish conquerors at forty or fi^ty thousand.

They made their purchases and sales by barter, each giv-
ing that of which he had an excess for such goods as he might
need.-"* Still, regular purchase and sale were not uncom-
mon, particularly in the business of retailing the various com-
modities to consumers. Although no regular coined money
was used, yet several more or less convenient substitutes fur-
nished a medium of circulation. Chief among these were nibs
or grains of the cacao, of a species somewhat different from that
employed in making the favourite drink, chocolate.*"'

XIT. — AVlIKN THEV MARRY, IT IS TIIK Cl'STOM FOR TIIK futUre

sox-iN-i,AW TO r.o and kiject a iiousk (or cabin) outsidk of

THE DOOR OF THE BWEI.I.nrG OF THE YOUNG AVOMAX whom he

desires to marry. Mormxg axd evexing he sprinkles axd
SWEEPS the ground for a year, and if the young woman is
NOT PLEASEo with him, SHE thex sends him away ; BUT if they

ARE MITUAI.LY PLEASED, THEN THEY COMPLETE THE MARRIAfiE.

The na-

ntcd with
kingdom.
SCO ; cop-

Cobro, in
joundary.
; but it is
f 3Ioxioo,
r was ft)r-
and silver

k'ery large
kingdom
?rchandise
Jed every
or proper
'ions mcr-
?ent cities
t interfere
rsons col-
been es-
msand.
each giv-
he might
nncom-
lous com-
d money
tutes fur-
n'cre nibs
from that

iiK future

TTSIDE OF

whom he

vLES AXD
VOMAX IS

r IF THEY

ARRIAGE.

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY,

433

■^m

The sprinkling and sweeping of the ground is evidently an
act of homage, the dust being laid and the stones and other ob-
stacles removed as a preparation of the road upon which the
bride walks. When the jjrince Cacumatzin, lord of Tezcuco,
and a nephew of Montezuma, came to visit Cortez, as soon as he
alichted from the litter in which ho was borne, some of his serv-
ami ran before him to sweep the ground upon which he was
about to tread.'^*' This homage rendered to their chiefs was
also, if we may believe Ilwui Shan, shown to the prospective bride;
and this, together with the entire freedom of choice left to the
young woman, shows a state of civilization and a regard for
woman very different from anything existing in China or other
Asiatic countries, cither at the time or since. This custom does
not appear to have existed among the Aztecs at the time of the
Spanish conquest, it having been extirpated by causes to be here-
after considered ; but, scattered among the neighbouring tribes,
we find, even among those which are usually considered the most
savage and degraded, certain usages of courtship which seem to
have been founded upon the same motives and feelings, and to
be the survivals of substantially the same custom, as that men-
tioned by Ilwui Shan.

Cremony states that "^ the Apache girls are wholly free in
their choice of husbands. Parents never attempt to impose
suitors upon their acceptance, and the natural coquetry of the
sought-for bride is allowed full scope until the suitor believes
his " game made," when he proceeds to test his actual stand-
ing. In the night-time he stakes his horse in front of her
roost, house, hovel, encampment, bivouac, or whatever a few
slender branches with their cut ends in the ground and their
tops bound together may be termed. The lover then retires,
and awaits the issue. Should the girl favour the suitor, his horse
is taken by her, fed, and secured in front of his lodge ; but
should she decline the proffered honour, she will pay no attention
to the suffering steed. Four days comprise the term allowed her
for an answer in the manner related. A ready acceptance is apt
to be criticised with some severity, while a tardy one is regarded
as the extreme of coquetry. Scarcely any one of them will lead
the horse to water before the second day, as a hasty perform-
ance of that act would indicate an unusual desire to be married ;
nor will any suffer the fourth day to arrive without furnishing

1%.

IISBMJJ

' imi

' >i

\Mi

^'"^

I ml

434

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMHUS.

the poor animal with its requisite food and drink, provided they
intend to accept the suitor, for such a course would render them
liable to the charge of extreme vanity.

As the horse has been introduced among the Apaches since
the time of the Spanish conquest, and as it is not likely that tlu;
custom above referred to can have spontaneously originated
since that time, we are forced to the inference that it must be a
changed form of some custom which formerly existed anion"-
them, and this may have been substantially the practice men-
tioned by our Asiatic explorer. It is to be noticed, however, that
the present custom of the Apaches, instead of showing a willing-
ness upon the part of the young man to wait upon and care for
his intended wife, requires service from her. Among the Coco-
Maricopas, however, there is an evident desire to jjlease the
young woman. Among these Indians, when a man desires to
marry,"' and has made choice of a girl for his wife, he first en-
deavours to win over her parents by making them presents. The
fair one's attention is sought by another process. To do this, he
takes his flute, an instrument of cane with four holes, and, seat-
ing himself beneath a bush near her dwelling, keeps up a plaint-
ive noise for hours together. This music is continued day after
day ; and, if no notice is at length taken of him by the girl, he
may "hang up his flute," as it is tantamount to a rejection, li
the proposal is agreeable, the fair one makes it known to the
suitor, when the conquest is considered complete.

It can hardly be disputed that there is a singular coincidence
between this custom and that which is mentioned by Hwui Shan.

In Yjicatan it was the custom for newly married pairs to live,
during the first few years after their marriage,"*" in cabins built
in front of the house of their father or father-in-law.

Although I can give no good reason for it, beyond a belief
that a year is a greater length of time than such a courtship
would be likely to have been continued, I can not refrain from
expressing my opinion that Hwui Shan meant to indicate some
other length of time, by the word translated " year," than the
period of twelve months, although this is certainly the only
meaning that the character now has. The " week " of five days,
referred to in the account of the " markets," would be a much
more probable length of time for the young woman to put the
patience of her suitor to the tes,+.

THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COUNTRY.

435

XIII. — "When a nobleman has committed a crime, the

PEOPLE OP THE COUNTRY HOLD A GREAT ASSEMBLAGE, AND SIT in

judgment on the culprit, in an excavated tumulus. They

FEAST AND DRINK BEFORE IIJM AND BID HIM FAREWELL wlicn

parting from him, as if taking leave of a dying man. Then

THEY surround HIM "WITH ASHES THERE.

The character whicli I have translated "an excavated tumu-
lus " has been rendered " a ditch," " an excavation," " a subterra-
neous place," and "a hollow or pit."

The usual character for a ditch, excavation, or hollow, is Jj^,
k'ang (composed of earth and the phonetic k'ang) ; but the one
used in this case is pjj (composed of a mound and the same pho-
netic), and means not only a ditch, excavation, or valley, but
also a tumulus.^^^'' Hence I have translated it as above stated.
Of all the characters in the Chinese language, there is none which
gives a better representation of the singular structure referred to
in the following quotations :

" The sweat-house,"' or, as the Spaniards call it, the esUtfa,
assumes with the Pueblos the grandest proportions. Every vil-
lage has from one to six of these singular structures. A large
semi-subterranean room is at once bath-hotise, town-house, coun-
cil-chamber, club-room, and church. It consists of a large exca-
vation, the roof being about on a level with the ground, some-
times a little above it, and is supported by heavy timbers or
pillars of masonry. Around the sides are benches, and, in the
center of the floor, a square stone box for fire, wherein aromatic
plar ts are kept constantly burning. Entrance is made by means
of a ladder, through a hole in the top, placed directly over the
fire-place, so that it also serves as a ventilator, and affords a free
passage to the smoke. Usually they are circular in form, and of
both large and small dimensions. They are placed either witi/n
the great building, or under ground in the court without. In
some of the ruins they are found built in the center of what was
once a pyramidal pile, and four stories in height. At Jemes the
estufa is of one story, twenty-five feet wide by thirty feet high.
The ruins of Chettro Kettle contain six estufas, each two or
three stories in height. At Bonito are estufas one hundred
and seventy-five feet in circumference, built in alternate layers
of thick and thin stone slabs. In these subterranean temples
the old men met in secret council, or assembled in worship of

486

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBLo.

their focls. Here are held dances and feytivili* j, isoclal inlrtr-
cours), and mourning ceremonies."

" Each pueblo ^" contains an estufa, which is used both as a
council-chamber and a place of worship, where they practice such
of their heathen rites as still exist among them. It is built partly
under ground, and is considered a consecrated and holy place.
Here they hold all their deliberations upon public affairs, and
transact the necessary business of the village." (Davis's "El
Gringo," p. 142.)

" In the west end of the town (S. Domingo) is an eatuffa, or
public building, in which the people hold their religious and
political meetings. The structure — which is built of adobes, ia
circular in plan, about nine feet in elevation, and thirty-five feet
in diameter, and with no doors or windows laterally — has a small
trap-door in the terrace or flat roof by which admission is
gained." (Simpson's "Jour. Mil. Recon.," p. 62.)

Morgan mentions these estufas at Taos,'"* Pintado,"" Peii-
asca Blanca,"" and other pueblos ; "^* and they are also referred to
by Bancroft,'''' Bell, '"' and Wheeler,*^' and in fait by all who
have written about the natives of New Mexico, Arizona, and
Northern Mexico.

The " gi'eat assembly," or council, is diiitinctively American,
and among nearly all the American tribes it m as the custom to
settle all important public matters at such ini'etings. Morgan
says (referring particularly to the Iroquois, thougb the statement is
equally true of most other American tribes) that it "'" is a singu-
lar fact, 'esulting ivcv .' ;■ structure of Indian institutions, that
nearly every transact.' >n .'hether social or political, originated or
terminated in a council. This universal and favourite mode of
doing business became interwoven with all the affairs of public and
private life. Immediately on the commission of a murder"^* the
affair was taken up by the tribes to which the parties belonged.
If the criminal belonged to one of the first four tribes, and the
deceased to one of the second four, these tribes assembled in
separate councils, to inquire into all the facts of the case. Had
it chanced tliat both parties belonged to one of the four brother
tribes, a council of this division alone would convene to attempt
an adjustment among themselves. Bandelier says of these coun-
cils among the Mexicans, that '" the council of the kin exercised
power over life and death.

THE PECULIARITIES OF THF COUNTRY.

437

As to the punisljinciit of noblos, the following quotation
from Sahagun"'* is pertinent : "Drunkenness was punished in
two ways. If a great lord, or a man of distinction, was guilty
of this crime, he was hung for its first commission, and his body
Avas finally dragged along the public highway and thrown into
a certain river. If the drunkard was of a lower class, he was
sold into slavery for his first fault ; but, if it occurred ? second
time, he was hung. In regard to this difference in the punish-
ment, the king said that he who was the most elevated in rank
merited the most rigorous treatment." ""

Solis also states that '^" capital punishment was the penalty
for any failure of integrity in the ofticers of the law. In Darien "''
a constable could not arrest or kill a noble ; consequently, if
one committed a crime punishable with death, the chief must kill
him with his own hand, and notice was given to all the people
by beating the large war-drum, so that they should assemble
and witness the execution. The chief, then, in presence of the
multitude, recited the offense, and the culprit acknowledged the
justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled, the chief struck the
culprit two or three blows on the head with a macana until he
fell, and, if he was not killed, any one of the spectators gave him
the finishing-stroke.

Cortez gives the following account of the infliction of capital
punishment by an assemblage of the people : '"^^ " When one o*^
the natives of Tlascala stole some gold of a Spaniard, . . , thiCy
placed him at the base of a structure resembling a theatre, whk-h
stands in the midst of the market-place, while the crier wont '
the top of the building and with a loud voice proclaimed hi.-i
offense ; whereupon the people beat him with sticks until he
was dead" ; and the Abb6 Brasseur de Bonr])ourg says thai,'""
if a chief of the Teo-Chichiraecs was guilty uf adultery, he was,
put to death by his vassals.

I am not aware that the custom of inflicting the death pen-
alty by smothering the culprit in ashes ever existed elsewhere,
yet this singular punishment survived in Mexico up to the time
of the Spanish conquest. Bancroft states that"' in Tczcuco
criminals of a certain class were "bound to a stake, completely
covered with ashes, and so left to die." Clavigero mentions
that'"" the laws published by the celebrated king Nezahual-
coyotl provided that a man guilty of a certain heinous crime

438

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

fli

should be " s iffocated in a heap of ashes" ; and Sahagun boars
his tostimoi y to the sanae practice in the following words : ""'
" A person guilty of a certain grave crime was (by the laws of
Nezahualcoi/otl, one of the worthiest kings of Mexico), after
other punishment, finally abandoned to the boys of the village,
who covered him with ashes, and with a pile of wood, to which
they set fire. His accomplice was also buried under a pile of
ashes, and there died of suffocation."

To my mind the singular facts mentioned in thir, paragraph ;
the custom of calling councils ; the practice of holding them in
an excavation or an excavated tumulus ; the power of life and
death lodged in such a council ; the custom of meting out a
heavier penalty to a criminal of the higher classes than was
visited upon one of lower rank ; and the remarkable method of
inflicting capital punishment by suffocation in ashes — are suf-
ficient to prove that ITwui ShS,n actually visited America, if no
further evidence were to be found in any of bis other statements.

)ii

CHAPTER XXIV,

THE NAKRA.TOR OF THE STOBY.

The condition of China at tho time — Tlie reign of a Buddhist emperor — The bhik-
shus, or mcnili'^ant riiests — Their duties — Rules for their conduct — The name
llwui Shan — Frequency with which the name Hwui occurs — Meaning of the
characters — The nationality of Hwui Shin — CophSne — Struggle between
Brahmanism and Buddhism — The route from India to China — The command
that at least three should go together when traveling — Persecution in China
in the year 458 — The journey to America by water — Ease of the trip — Proba-
bility that Hwui ShSn was but slightly acquainted with the Chinese language
— Yu Kie's criticism of Hwui Shin's statements — Causes of errors — Use of
the term " water-silver " — Accounts given by first explorers seldom free
from error — Absurdities narrated by other Chinese travelers — Pliny — He-
rodotus — Marco Polo — Maundevilc — Caesar — The unicorn — Elks without joints
in their legs — The Icelandic account of Vinland — DiflBculties in the account
— The Unipeds — The Zeno brothers — Ignorance of geograpliy in the fifteenth
century — Marvelous tales of early explorers — Allowances to be made — Hwui
Shin entitled to equal charity.

Before entering upon an examination of other statements re-
garding the land of Fu-sang, it Avill be best to consider the
circumstances under which the account was first given, and learn
what we can of the original narrator. The Chinese text has
the following upon the subject :

XIV. — In the first year of the reign of the ts'i dynasty
known by the designation yung-yuen (or " Everlasting Founda
tion," i. e., in the year, 499 a. d.), a shaman (or Buddhist priest)
named hwui shan, came to king-cheu from that country
and told the following story regarding th' country of fu
sang (or ru-8AN6-KWon). ... In the second tear of the
reign of the sung dynasty, in the period called ta-mixg (or
"Great Brightness," i. e., in the year 458 a. d.), five men, who
were pi-k'iu (i. e., bhikshus, or mendicant Buddhist monks),

who WERE FORMERLY fl'Om the COUNTRY OF KI-PIN (i. C., Co-

ph^ne), WENT by a voyage to that country.

440

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

The Marquis d'llervey has, in the notes contained in the thir-
teenth chapter of this work, given a full and vivid description
of the unhappy condition in which Ilwui Shan found China,
when he reached it from Fu-sang. He was obliged to remain in
the country some two or three years, until, as the result of the
civil war then raging, the old dynasty of the Ts'i was overthrown,
and the Liaxo dynasty was established in its place, its first em-
peror being known as Wu-ti. This monarch became so groat a
devotee of Uuddhism'" that he retired to a monastery, like
Charles V, but, having been persuaded to resume his crown,
he thenceforth employed his time in teaching the doctrines of
this religion to his assembled courtiers.'"'

Prior to his time, IJuddhism had been discarded by the Chi-
nese, but in his reign it again revived.'"^' Ma Twan-lin mentions
a Hindoo who, about a. d. 502, translated into Chinese some
Ijuddhist Shastras of the Great Development school.'"' In 506
a Buddhist priest, named Sanga Pala, introduced into China tlie
first alphabet for writing Sanskrit words,"** and the reign of
tlis emperor was particularly distinguished by the arrival in
China, from India, of Ta-mo (Bodhi-dharma), the twenty-eighth
of the patriarchs of the Buddhist religion, and by the extraor-
dinary prosperity of this faith under the imperial favour.'*'*

We are not informed as to the circumstances under which he
became converted to Buddhism ; but it seems not impossible
that the story of Ilwui Shan's adventures in its behalf may have
had a share in attracting his attention to the subject.

The Chinese term pi-k'iu is a transcription of the Sanskrit
word hhikshu, " mendicant," "^^ which was applied to those monks
who professed to obtain their sustenance by alms,'*** begging above
to sustain their intellectual life, and below to support their visi-
ble body.

Those who have devoted themselves to this kind of life have
to practice twelve kinds of observances, named t'eu-t'o, from a
Sanskrit word ■\\h;ch signifies to shake one's self, because these
disturbances help to clean away the dust and the foulness of
vice.'^'* The mendicant should shun all causes of disturbance ;
eschew vain ornaments ; destroy in the heart the germs of cu-
pidity ; avoid pride ; and, in purifying his life, search for supreme
reason, rectitude, and truth. The twelve observances which are
recommended to them with this view have reference to the four

THE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

441

actions or manners of being, named wei-yi ("gravity," or " that
which should be done gravely"), namely, to walk, to Htand, to
sit, and to lie down. The following is extracted from a book
specially treating upon the twelve observances, and entitled 8111-
kll-t'eu-t'o Kinu :

1. The mendicant should dwell in a place which is a-lan-jo
{dranyaka), that is to say, a tranquil j)hvce, a place of repose.
This is the means of avoiding disturbance of spirit, of escaping
the dust of desire, of destroying forever all the causes of revolt,
and of obtaining supreme reason, etc.

2. It is requisite that he always beg his subsistence (in Pali,
^nndapdtika), in order to extinguish cupidity. The mendicant
should accept no man's invitation. lie should beg the nourish-
ment necessary for the support of his material body and the ac-
complishment of his moral duties. He ought to recognize no
diflference in the food obtained, whether it be good or bad ; nor
to feel resentment if it bo refused him : but always to cultivate
the equanimity of a perfect spirit.

3. In begging he should take his rank (in Pali, vdthdpantari)
without being attracted by savoury meats ; without disdain for
any one, and without selection between rich and poor : with pa-
tience should he take his rank.

4. The mendicant who occupies himself with good works
should thus reflect : " It is much to obtain one meal ; it is too
much to make an early repast (breakfast), and a second (after
midday). If I do not retrench one of these, I shall lose the
merit of half a day, and my spirit will not be entirely devoted
to reason." He therefore avoids multiplicity of meals, and adopts
the custom of making one [eJca 2^dnika).

5. The food which the mendicant obtains shall be divided
into three portions : one portion shall be given to any person
whom he shall see suffering from hunger ; the second he shall
convey to a desert and quiet spot, and there place it beneath a
stone for the birds and the beasts. If the mendicant fall in with
no person in want, he must not on that account himself eat all
the food he has received, but two thirds only. By this means
his body will be lighter and better disposed, his digestion quicker
and less labourious. lie can then without inconvenience apply
himself to good works. When one eats with avidity, the bowels
and the stomach enlarge, and the respiration is impeded ; noth-

442

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

\nrr is more Injurious to tho procjross of reason. This fiftli ob-
serv.anee is called, in Sanskrit, kfi<dup(tsiriii(tH«ikt!nJca.

0. Tho juico of fruits, honey, and other things of tho Hamn
kind ought never to be taken by tho mendicant after midday.
If he drink of those, his heart abandons itself to desire, and he-
comes disgusted with the practice of virtue.

7. The mendicant ought not to desire ornaments ; let him
seek no sumptuous dresses, but take the tattered raiments that
others have rejected, wash and clean them, and make of thcni
patched garments, only for protection from cold, and to cover his
nakedness. New and handsome vestures give rise to the desire
of rebirth ; they disturb the reasoning, and they may, moreover,
attract robbers.

8. Tralchivariica, or only three dresses. These words import
that the mendicant should content himself with the kia-siia, of
nine, of seven, or of five pieces. lie has few desires, and is easily
satisfied. lie desires neither to have too much nor too little rai-
ment, lie equally eschews men dressed in white, who have
numerous dresses, and those heretics who, from a spirit of morti-
fication, go entirely naked, in defiance of all modesty ; each ex-
treme is contrary to reason. The three vestments hold the jiroper
medium. Moreover, the word kia-siia signifies "of divers col-
ours," because of the pieces which form the vestment of the first,
second, and third order.

9. SnuUdnika, or the dwelling amid tombs, obtains for the
mendicant just ideas of the three things which form the prime
gate of the law of Fo : instability^ or the brief duration of
bodies which, composed of five elements, return to their originals
and are destroyed ; imin, which oppresses the body from the mo-
ment of birth till that of death ; and vacuity, since the body is
borrowed, formed by the reunion of the four elements, and sub-
ject to destruction. This is, in fact, the observation made upon
this subject by Sakya IMuni himself, who opened by it the road
to supreme wisdom. By dwelling among tombs, the mendicant
beholds the exhibition of death and of funerals. The stench and
tho corruption, the impurities of every description, the funeral
pyres, the birds of prey, awaken in him the thought of instability,
and hasten his progress in goodness.

10. Vrikshaimdika, or being seated under a tree. The men-
dicant, who hath not attained wisdom amid the tombs, should go

^■^*fc

THE NARRATOR OF THE STORY,

443

moreover,

and meditate beneath a tree ; there k't him seek for wisdom, as
(lid Huddha, who aeeomplished under a tree the prineipal events
of his life ; who was there born, who there comi)leted the doc-
trine, there turned the wheel of the law, and finally there at-
tained h'xfi pa rill irtuhut. This is an effect of destiny. We learn
besides that other Huddhas similarly jjlaced themselves ; and the
tree is so connected with these supreme operations that the word
holidi equally means the tree and the doctrine.

11. To sit on the ground, dbhyavalciUhika, is vi\ additional
advan^ago for the mendicant. Seated beneath a tree so as to be
half covered by its shade, he enjoys the cool air. It is true
he is exposed to rain and moisture, that the droppings of birds
soil him, and that he is exposed to the bite of venomous beasts ;
but he also abandons himself to meditation ; seated on the earth,
his spirit is recreated ; the moon, in shining on hi?n, seems to
illumine his spirit ; and lie thus gains the power of more easily
entering the ecstatic state.

12. Nhishadhika, to be seated, not recumbent. The sitting
posture is that best becoming a mendicant ; his digestion and his
respiration arc more easy, and he thus more readily aotains wis-
dom. Vices invade those who abandon themselves to idleness,
and surprise them at disadvantage. Walking and standing set
tlie heart in motion, and the mind is at rest. The mendicant
should take his rest seated and should not allow his loins to
touch the ground.

It appears to me that the foregoing extract, from a work con-
secrated to the habits of Buddhist mendicants, will supply the
reader with more correct ideas of the sect than the repetition of
what travelers have said upon the subject. The observances in-
culcated in the eighth paragraph may be noted as directly op-
posed to the manners of the digambaras, or gymnosophists of
India.'^

As to the name Ilwui Shan : it is to be observed that it is the
practice of Chinese Buddhists, on entering a rf;ligious career,
to lay aside their family name, and, in token of rerowed life, adopt
another of moral or religious signification ; ""^ and no other sur-
name seems to have been so commonly adopted in such cases as
that of Hwui (or, as it is spelled by the Fre ich authorities who
have discussed the subject, Hoei), meaning " intelligent, wise,
mild."

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444

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

In the account of the travels of the Buddhist monk Fa Hian,
we find among the names of the priests who accompanied him,
or whom he met, those of Hoei King, Hoei Ying, Hoei Wei,'"'
Hoei Kian,"" and Hoei Tha.'^* We find the same surname also in
the case of Hwui-sheng, a priest who, in the year 518, accom-
panied Sung-ytln, who was sent to India for Buddhist books
by the prince of the Wei country.""

The name Shan (or, as it is spelled by other authorities — and
even by Professor Williams himself, elsewhere than in his dic-
tionary — Shin) means "deep, profound, learned." The Chinese
call the Pacific Ocean the " Shin " sea, i. e., the " Deep " sea."^
According to Hepburn,"" the Japanese use the character with the
meaning " to grow old, to grow late " ; and it therefore probably
once had that signification in Chinese.

An interesting question now arises as to the nationality of
Hwui Shan. The text says that he was from " that country,"
meaning the country of Fu-sang, for the Chinese character d^,
k'i, here translated " that," is equivalent in this connection to
the Latin "ille.""""

From the nature of the substantive verb /^, tiu, which
expresses his connection with Fu-sang, it may possibly be in-
ferred, however, that he was not a native of the country, but
merely a traveler who had visited it and returned from it.

Summers says of the Chinese substantive verbs that there
are several""' which vary according to th: uature of the case
in which they are used and the connection of the subject with
the predicate in a sentence. The logical copula "is" is ex-
pressed by the verb shi. It denotes either that the predicate
is, or that it is generally supposed to be, an attribute of the
subjec' 1) ■' nature. . . . The verb wei, " to do, to exist, to be-
come," is also used as a substantive verb, but only when the
notion of becoming something by mere conventional arrange-
ment is implied, not, as is the case with shi, when the relation
between the subject and predicate is a natural consequence. In
" fire is hot" use shi; in "the Yellow River is the boundary"
use wei. Also, especially before designations in the predicate,
"he is (wei) a slave." . . . When the substantive verb im-
plies location, the verb tsai, " to exist, or consist in," is used ;
and when the possession of some attribute, the verb yiu, " to
have " : e. g., in " he is here " use tsa'i, in " this is polite " use

THE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

445

yiu. . . . The verb yiu means to have some quality as an ac-
quired possession or as an accident, " to happen to be." He
says, again,**" the substantive verbs are variously used, accord-
ing to the logical relation of the subject and predicate in the
sentence. Thus ahi, " to be," means " is " where the simple copula
alone is required, the predicate being natural to the subject.
17?^ " to have," means *' is " when the notion of the property
having been acquired is intended, as in " he is rich."

His explanation of the different shades of meaning inherent
in these verbs, is repeated"'" in several places.'*"

According to these reiterated statements as to the power of
the various substantive verbs, it would appear that llwui Shan's
connection with the country of Fu-sang, which is expressed by the
verb Tiu, was an acquired, or accidental connection, and not one
to which he was bom. I must confess, however, that my confi-
dence in this conclusion is somewhat shaken by the fact that
this s?me verb yiu is used to indicate the connection of the five
Buddhist priests with Coph6ne ; and there can hardly be a doubt
that in their case it is meant that they were natives of that land.

The different authorities do not agree as to the exact location
of Coph^ne, although there is no doubt as to its having lain
northerly from India. One of the notes tc the Pilgrimage of
Fa Hian says that '•"* Coph6ne is the country watered by the
Cophes. Rennell supposed the affluent of the Indus, so named
by the ancients, to be identical with the CowmuU ; Saint Croix
believes it rather to be the Merhamhir. The syllable " Cow " is
probably a remnant of the ancient appellation. Ki-pin, which
Chinese authors confound with Cashmere, and which de Guignes
baa taken for Samarcand, supposing the latter to be identical
with Kaptchak, corresponds with the country of Ghizneh and
Candahar. It is celebrated in Chinese geography, and appears
to have been a flourishing seat of Buddhism.

A second note by another commentator says, however,'*** that
the Cophfene of the ancients is not, as Rennell and the French
editors suppose, the Gomal (not CowmuU), an inconsiderable
mountain-stream, dry all the year except at the season of the
periodical rains. The Cabul River is the only one that corre-
sponds with the accounts given of the Cophfene by the historians
of Alexander, particularly Arrian, who describes it as falling
into the Indus, in the country of Peukelaotis, and carrying along

446

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

with it the tributary waters of the Malantus, Suastus, and Gara-
CU8. ("Indica" iv, 11.) M. Pauthier says that the country of
Cophdne is Cabul,'"** and that the Chinese have given it succes-
sively"" the names of Kia-ahe-nii-lo (Cashmere), Tsao, Ko-
shi-mie, and Sa-ma-eul-kan (Samareand). Edkins says in one
place that it is the same as the modern Cabul,'"* and in another
that it is stated to be Candahar ; "** and F. Porter Smith says
that *'** it is a part of Afghanistan, whose capital is said to be
12,200 /* from the Chinese city of Si-ngan-fUy and that in some
Chinese works Kl-pin is said to be Samareand.

The priests of Coph6ne were noted for their zeal, and priests
from that country were the most diligent of any in translating
their scriptures in China.'"

In the fifth century a struggle in India between Brahmanism
and Buddhism ended in the overthrow of the latter in the land
of its birth,"" and its devotees sought in distant lands a refuge
from the intolerance of their persecutors. The extensive inter-
course that then began to exist between China and India may
be gathered from the fact "" that even Ceylon sent an embassy
and a letter to the Chinese emperor Sung Wen-ti. The journey
is one of almost incredible difficulty and peril ; the route pass-
ing through deserts and across a number of the highest mountain
ranges of the world, through passes far above the limits of
perpetual snow and along frightful precipices. Notwithstand-
ing these perils, however, and the fact that hostile and savage
tribes infest many portions of the country through which the
road passes, still, more or less communication has been kept up
between the two countries since that time. The Arabic ac-
count of voyages made to China in the ninth century states
that "" some of those who made the journey mentioned having
seen in China a man, who bore a leathern packet of musk upon
his back, who had come from Samarkand, having traveled the
distance on foot.

The fact that there were five priests in the party which went
to Fu-sang was in accordance with a rule of their religion which
required that in going to a distance at least three should be in
company,"" and it was, therefore, the common practice for Bud-
dhist priests, in the performance of their pilgrimages from town
to town, and from teiiiple to temple, from India to China, and
from China to India, to associate themselves in companies.""

; 1 1.

THE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

447

Although it may bo a mere coincidence, it seems worthy of
notice that, in the year 458, the year in which this party went
to Fu-sang, a conspiracy was detected in China in which a chief
party was a Buddhist priest. An edict issued on the occasion
by the emperor says that among the priests, " Many are men who
have fled from justice and taken the monastic vows for safety.
They take advantage of their assumed character to contrive new
modes of doing mischief. The fresh troubles thus constantly
occurring excite the indignation of gods and men." " The con-
stituted authorities," it is added, *' must examine narrowly into
the conduct of the monks. Those who are guilty must be i)ut to
death." "" It seems not unlikely that the examination then com-
menced amounted to a severe religious persecution, and this may
have caused some party of priests from Coph^ne, who had already
settled in China, or who, more probably, reached China from Co-
ph5ne at this time, to travel on beyond this land of persecution,
and so finally to reach America.

The Chinese character ^, tiu, translated " by a voyage,"
contains the radical " water," and therefore means properly " to
travel by water — ^to float, swim, or drift," although it has come
to have the secondary meaning of traveling, roving about. It
seems most likely, however, that fourteen centuries ago it would
have been used in its original meaning, and this character, to-
gether with the statement that Japan, the country of " Marked
Bodies," and the Great Han Couiitry were on the route to Fu-
sang, in'licates that the party went by boat, along the coast, by
way of the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, and thence down the
American coast.

The voyage in an open row-boat or canoe is not only prac-
ticable, but its difiiculties and perils are hardly to be compared
with those of the overland journey from India to China. The
ease of the trip from Asia, along the Kurile and Aleutian Islands,
to Alaska, and the fact that the natives constantly pass back and
forth between the two continents in the slightest of boats, scarcely
ever being out of sight of land while making the trip, have been
mentioned in the first chapter of this work. The remainder of
the voyage, along the American coast, is even easier. The excur-
sion from Oregon to Alaska can scarcely be termed an ocean trip.
Out of a total distance of more than a thousand miles, there
are hardly one hundred and twenty miles of open sea voyage.

448

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Tho remainder of the journey, on account of the remarkable
formation of the coast, is through a continuous archipelago,
serving as a breastwork against the storms and billows, and af-
fording quiet passageways through deep, narrow channels and
reaches, skirted on either side with well-wooded banks, high,
rocky shores, and towering islands.'***

The text does not say explicitly that Hwui Sh'An was one of
the five monks who made this voyage together, but this was most
probably the case. If so, he must have been a young man when he
started (and hence can have spent but little time, if any, in China),
and quite an elderly man when he reached China, on his way back
home, forty-one years later. When he gave his account to the
representative of the Chinese emperor, he had probably been in
China not more than some two or three years. It seems a
reasonable supposition that, in this length of time, he could not
have learned to speak and write Chinese perfectly, and hence his
story was probably told, as best he could tell it ; in disjointed
and ungrammatical phrases ; by the use of such Chinese written
characters as he had become acquainted with ; by signs and rude
drawings, to eke out his meaning when he was ignorant of the
proper word to use. Yu Kie, the officer who took down his story,
probably held long colloquies with him ; many questions may
have been asked on one side and explanations attempted on
the other, which were not fully understood. It is evident, from
the story narrated by Yu Kie, and given in the thirteenth chap-
ter of this work, that Hwui Sh8,n told him much which he either
realized that he did not comprehend or else which he did not
fully credit.

The story of the land of Fu-sang, as we have it in Ma
Twan-lin's text, is therefore the result of Yu Kie's criticism of
Hwui Sh&n's statements. In many places it may contain the
account of the latter just as he gave it, in imperfect Chinese,
and by the use of characters which did not exactly express
his real meaning, if construed strictly in accordance with the
grammatical rules of the Chinese language. In other cases Yu
Kie probably wrote down the substance of the understanding that
he had reached on the particular point in question, after hold-
ing a long colloquy on the subject with Hwui Shan. If this
theory is true, Yu Kie arrived at quite a complete comprehension
of Hwui Shin's statements, and showed much discretion and

ittif

THE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

449

judgment in the digest of his story, which he entered in the coun-
try's annals ; and yet there is just such an amount of confusion
and disconnection in the account as would be the natural result
of a conversation between two men of different nationalities,
who were able to understand each other but imperfectly ; while
it is noticeable that the various points, as to Avhich the story is
not strictly true of America, are points in which the truth is, as
it were, travestied.

The account was written down nearly a hundred years before
printing was invented in China,'*" and the liability of errors in
copying manuscript is very great. The numerous variations in
the several texts show that the original account has been more
or less corrupted. When allowance is made for these corrup-
tions and for misunderstandings of the text, it is not surprising
that, as to some of the details, the glimpse which we get of the
far off land of Fu-sang is si.oh as would be obtained of a distant
landscape through a window of old and imperfect glass — glass
streaked and faulty when first placed in position, and now dimmed
and cracked by unnumbered storms, and obscured by the dust of
centuries. There is imperfection and distortion in the view, and
yet it is evident that we are looking at a real landscape, the handi-
work of nature, and not at a mere human invention.

To the causes above mentioned should be attributed the use
of the term " water-silver " for ice ; the connection of the ac-
counts of the fu-sang tree and of the red pears, in such a way
that the latter may be supposed to be the fruit of the former,
and the statement that koumiss was made from *' milk," without
any explanation of the peculifvr nature of the milk. Yu Kie
seems to have understood that the milk was that of the does to
which Hwui Shan had referred in his statement that the people
of Fu-sang raised deer as cattle were raised in China ; and yet
there seems to have been some attempt on the part of Ilwui Shftn
to set him right, for he reverts to the vegetation, and immediately
makes a statement — otherwise disconnected— regarding the red
pears.

There are other instances of misunderstandings ; of statements
which seem to be connected with others near which they stand,
and which are untrue in that connection, and yet true if they are
allowed to stand by themselves ; but upon the whole Yu Kie
showed such good judgment in what he accepted and rejected,
29

450

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

.'.i

tiV

that the official account as given us by Ma Twan-lin ia as good
a description of a newly discovered land as any that we have ;
for it must be borne in mind that the tales which are toUl by
first pxi)lorcrs are seldom free from mistakes, even though the
discoverer of the formerly unknown region be a man of intelli-
gence, M'ho strives to tell the truth and nothing but the truth.
Possibly some errors may have arisen from misunderstandings
by llwui Shftn himself. It is not to be expected that he alone
among explorers would fail to narrate some tales on hearsav
to give in some cases his erroneous inferences instead of the
facts upon which his inferences were founded, or to exaggerate
or misunderstand some strange phenorae'^on that he had seen.

Fa Ilian is not denounced as a " lying Buddhist priest " be-
cause modern travelers fail to find the " venomous dragons,"
mentioned by him, " which dart their poison if they happen to
miss their prey." '*" Other Chinese mediteval travelers refer to
two-headed snakes,"* describe the ostrich as feeding upon fire,"'
mention "dragon-horses with scales and horns," ^^ and eagles
which lay eggs from which dogs are hatched out ; "" and yet there
is no question that they actually visited the countries which tlioy
attempt to describe. Some of these travelers heard of the cot-
ton-plant : this bears " wool," and hence may be considered as a
vegetable-sheep."" From this simple fact the following mprvol-
ous tale gradually grew in neighbouring lands, and was gravely
narrated by the travelers : " The * sheep planted on hillocks ' are
produced in the western countries. The people take the navel
of a sheep, plant it in the ground and water it. "When it hears
thunder it grows, the navel retaining a connection with the
ground.""'

Is the whole Svjry of the traveler who gives an account of
this nature to be rejected because of his credulity? Not at all.
The critic who will take the trouble to separate the true from
the false, and to extract from the false the kernel of truth which
lies concealed in it, will learn much which would never be other-
wise discovered.

Pliny tells many a maiTclous tale, and yet mixes many valu-
able facts with his accounts. Herodotus was for centuries de-
nounced as the " father o': liars " by critics who were too igno-
rant or too indolent to f.r d the truth in his history. "When ho
told of a land in whicL the air was filled with feathers,"" he

':t:ill'jli

TUE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

451

hillocks' are

himself detected the fact that this was merely a figurative de-
scription of snow ; but when he mentioned a land in which it
was said that men were found who slept sir months at a time,
'"' he could not credit the tale, although it is now evident that
the Arctic region, with its long night of nearly six months' dura-
tion, was the land which was described. The value of his his-
tory is but little lessened by the tales which ho repeats of mon-
sters with dogs ' heads,""^ of winged serpents,'"* and of ants
larger than foxes.'"'

It is well kncvn that for a long period after the clo3> of the
thirteenth century, when an account of the travels of Marco Polo,
of Venice, first made its appearance and was circuiated, in manu-
script, the information it gave of countries till that time unheard
of, and of manners incompatible with every idea that had been
entertained of the tarbarian-j of Tnrtary, was treated with levity
or ridicule by the generality of his countrymen, and read with
suspicion by the best-instructed persons in every part of Europe ;
'"' and yet the general truth of his account is now recognized by
all scholars, notwithstanding his description of the rukh, or roc, of
the Arabian Nights, a bird so large and strong as to seize an ele-
phant with its talons and to lift it into the air ;'*'* of oxen '*"^ as
large as elephants ;"" of men with tails,"" and of dogs the size of

IH05

asses.

Sir John Maundevile repeats Pliny's accounts of the land in-
habited by peoj>le having but one foot,"*^ of the Cynoccephali,
'*^' of the one-eyed people,'^ of the Androgynes, and others, and
also repeats other wild stories that he has heard, such as those re-
garding two-beaded geese, and hens without feathers, but having
wool, etc. ; and yet Maundevile repeated his marvels in good
faith, and added much to our knowledge of the condition of Asia
during the middle centuries.

Caesar's accounts of his military expeditions are not discred-
ited because he ii. lulges in a few wonderful tales, such as the
following :

* There is a\. or of the form of a deer, from the middle of the
forehead of which, between the ears, there rises a single horn
higher and straighter than the horns of any of the animals known
to us, and, from its summit, palm-like branches are widely spread
out. The appearance of the male and female is the same, and
the form and size of their horns are similar." "*

i • ^*^:^iib

f I! :

452

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

"There arc also animals that are called * alcea^ (elks), of
which the figure and the varied skins resemble those of the duor
but their size is somewhat greater ; they shed their horns, and
their legs are without joints or articulations. They do n(jt lie
down to rest, and, if they fall down, or are thrown down by
any accident, they are not able to rise. The trees serve tlicra
for beds ; they lean against them, and thus, slightly recliniiig,
they take their rest. When the hunters discover from their
tracks the places to which they are accustomed to resort, tlioy
either undermine all the trees at the roots, or they cut into tliera
80 far that the upper part has only the appearance of standing
firmly, and, when the animals lean against them, according to
their habit, the weakened trees are overthrown by their weight,
and they fall to the ground together." •"

Any one who has seen deer, antelope, or elks, cantering along
at a little distance, will easily discover the grain of fact upon
which this ridiculous story is based. These animals leap so
nimbly that the slight fraction of a second during which their
legs are bent is too short to enable the eye to detect the motion,
and the animals appear to be bounding along stifif-legged, as if
they were thrown forward by springs. One seeing them leaping
along in this style would imagine that " their legs are witl mt
joints or articulations." Caesar evidently reached this conclu-
sion ; but then came the question, How, then, could they lie down
to sleep, or rise again, being down, without levers to lift them
up ? Imagine imperial Csosar asking tbis question of some griz-
zly, bare-lirabed Gaul, and unsuspectingly writing down the out-
rageous reply of the fun-loving barbarian, who dared to gravely
jest with the conqueior of the world !

The accounts of the discovery of " Vinland " by the North-
men or Icelanders, about the year 1000 a. d., are now generally
believed, and, undoubtedly, with good reason ; and yet there are
many difHculties in the stories that have never been explained
away. They speak of finding " wheat," *"' but do not describe it
as being remarkable in any way ; *'^ and they make no mention
of maize, unless it is considered as thus referred to. They say
that no snow fell during the winter,"" and that cattle found
their food throughout the winter in the open field, thus describ-
ing the winters as very different from those which now occur
In this country. They describe Rhode Island or Massachusetts

i*H

T.iE NARRATOR OF THE STORY.

458

as being inbabitcil, not by Indians,*'" but by Esquimaux,""
and this at a time when the Esquimaux had not reached Green-
land.'"" Four names are given "" which seem never to havo
been identified with any American language. They state that
the " Skrellings " had a sort of war-sling. They elevated on a
pole a tremendously large ball, almost the size of a sheep's stom>
ncli, and of a bluish colour ; this they swung from the pole upon
land and over Karlsefne's people, and it descended with a fearful
crush, striking teiror into the Northmen as they fled along the
river.*"* Schoolcraft, to be sure, states that,"'" many generations
ago, the natives used to sew up a round bowlder in the skin of
an animal, and hang it upon a pole which was borne by several
warriors, and which, when brought down suddenly upon a group
of men, produced consternation and death ; but there is strong
reason for believing that the Northmen's account was his only
authority for the statement, as it is certain that nothing of the
kind is mentioned by any other writer.

Finally, we come to the following description of a nation of
one-legged men : ""

" It chanced one morning that Karlsefne and his people saw
opposite, in an open place in the woods, a speck which glittered
in their sight, and they called out toward it, and it was a Uni-
pod {Einfoetinffr, from ein, one, and fdtr, foot), which there-
upon hurried down to the bank of the river, where they lay.
Thorvald Ericson stood at the helm, and the Uniped shot an
arrow into his bowels. Thorvald drew out the arrow, and said :
' It has killed me ! To a rich land we have come, but hardly shall
we enjoy any benefit from it.' Thorvald soon after died of his
wound. Upon this the Uniped ran away to the northward ;
Karlsefne and his people went after him, and saw him now and
then, and, the last time they saw him, he ran out into a bay.
Then they turned back, and a man sang these verses :

' The people chased
A Uniped

Down to the beach.
Behold he ran
Straight over the sen —
near thou, Thorfinn ! '

They drew off to the northward, and saw the country of the
Unipeds."

Jf t

454

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

It is a curiouH fact that, in Cliark'voix,'"* wi? find an arcount
of UnipctlB. (See Shoa'H edition, vol. i, p. 124.) NcvcrtlK-k^s,
their mention by tl>e Nortlinien would Neein to riMjuin soine ex-
planation. Whether this is forthcoming ov not, the account con-
tains 80 much that is true, and whicli eouUl not, by any posni.
bility, have been guessed by one who ha<l not viHited Aineriia,
that the story must bo the record of a visit to this continent.

Major says of the voyages of tiie Venetian brothers Xicolo
and Antonio Zeno : ""

" It can scarcely be doubted that one of the leading causes of
the . . . puzzle having remained unsolved till now has been tiie
tendency to cope with outlying difficulties instead of first directing
attention to the proof of the authenticity of tlie document. . . .
Indeed, theautlienticity of the document is so jjreponderating an
element in the case, that, when once it is well established, tlio
minor objections might bo fairly left to shako themselves into
their places as best they could."

This remark is equally true of the travels of the Northmcii,
and it may be justly claimed to apply with equal force t(; the
journey of Ilwui Shjin.

At the time that America was discovered by Columbus, Europe
lay in a singular state of ignorance, even as to the countries that
might have been reached by a land journey, or by an easy coast-
ing voyage. Asia and Africa were almost as unknown regions as
America. The edition of Zachariah Lily's " Orbis Breviaruni,"
published in 1493, gives a fair idea of the little that was taught
on the subject. No modern travelers were considered worthy
of notice, and all the accounts were based upon the statements
of the classical authors. Among the countries described arc the
lands of the Amazons, of the Androgyna?,"" of the Centaurs,'"*
of the Gorgons,"" and of the Satyrs,"" while Paradise '"' and
Inferno '"* are not forgotten.

As to the early explorers and historians of America, Acosla,'
Charlevoix,"' Sharp,**' Wafer,"" and others,*" all insist that the
peccary has its navel on its back. Ilerrera (" Hist. Gen.," dec. 2^
lib. 10, chap, xxi) says that the humming-birds, when the rainy
season is over and the dry weather sets in, fasten themselves to
the trees by their beaks and soon die ; but in the following
year, when the new rains come, they come to life again.'""

Purchas mentions winged serpents *"" and tribes of Indians

THE NAUUATOIi OF THE STORY.

455

ill

ing causos of
has bc'oii the

who lived to be more than three huiulred years of age.''"" Her-
iiaiidez, in his exceedingly valuable description of the plants and
animals of Mexico, gives plates of the flying dragon " * and of
the two-headed serpent ; '"'and I'igafetta,"*' \'on Nord,"" Oviedo,
Argensola, Hawkins, do Weert,'"*" and others, all united in the
statement that Patagonia was inhabited by giants, and only dif-
fered as to wliether their average height was eight or ten feet.

In all these cases allowances aro charitably made for natural
causes of error. Should less allowance be made in the case of
Ilwui Shiin, who not only had that liability to mistake which is
common to all human beings, but w ho, in addition, laboured under
the disadvantage of telling his story in a language with which he
was but slightly acquainted, and of having the text of his narra-
tion more or less corrupted in its transmission to us ? Should not
allowance bo also made for our own ignorance of tho countries
which he describes, and for tho clianges which must there, as
elsewhere throughout the world. Lave taken place during the
last fourteen centuries ?

These questions aro asked because it aj)pears to have been
taken for granted that if a single point could be found in his
story which seemed to be untrue of America, then his whole ac-
count should bo rejected. When the theory has been presented,
however, that his journey was to some portion of Japan, then it
has not been thought necessary to prove that his account was
true of that country in more than one particular ; and the one
particular which has, as a rule, been insisted upon, is the ex-
tremely probable theory, that, when he said east, he meant
south, and, when he said twenty thousand li, he meant two or
three thousand.

Is this fair treatment of his story ? Is it not to be expected
that some difficulties will be found ? If it is shown that so many
of his statements are true, that it is inconceivable that they can
be the result of anything else than an actual visit to the country,
can wo not afford to temporarily accept, as to a few doubtful
points, explanations which, if they stood by themselves, might
scera improbable ; and wait for time and further investigation
to bring about their complete elucidation ?

i i

ts of Indians

•. m

s*^

tSi

CHAPTER XXV.

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION.

The former ignorance of the people — The introduction of Buddhism — The changes
of a thousand years — The two places of confinement — Meaning of the char-
acter FAH — Two species of prisons— One for those sentenced to death — The
other for minor criminals — The Mexican Hades — The future abode of the Az-
tec hero — The sojourn but temporary — The dark and dismal " Place of the
Dead," in the north — Confinement here eternal — The slave children — Treat-
ment of illegitimate chihiren anf' "^f orphans — Age at which children were
taken to the temple — TJoys at seven years of age — Girls at eight — Chinese
custom of calling children a year older than they would be considered by us —
The punishment of the family of a crimmal — Mourning customs — Fasts — Fu-
nerals — Images of the deceased — Reverence of these images and oflFerings to
them — The custom ir China — The absence of mourning-garments — The king
not fully crowned unti. some time after his accession to the throne.

One of the assertions that is made indicates that the account
that is given is, as to some of its details, rather a description of
the customs existing as the result of the teachings of the Bud-
dhip*^^ priests, some forty years after they first entered the coun-
try, than an attempt to picture the condition of the people at
the time that the party discovered the land. This is the follow-
ing statement :

XV. — Formerly they were ignorant (uncultured or un-
civilized), aiid knew NOTHING OF Buddha's rules (or religion) ;
. . . but the five mendicant priests who came to the country
. . . made Buddha's rules and his religious books and

IMAGES KN0V:N AMONG THEM, TAUGHT THE COMMAND TO FOR-
SAKE THE FAMILY (for the purposc of entering a monastery),

ASTD FINALLY REFORMED THE RUDENESS OF THEIR MANNERS.

It is, therefore, to be presumed that the account of the coun-
try will be coloured with statements as to Asiatic customs, beliefs,
and arts introduced by these missionaries, and existing at the
time of Hwui Shan's story, but which have since died out.

TEffi INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 457

Sahagun, in his day, remarked with reason that, in spite of
fifty years of continual preaching to the Mexicans, and in spite of
the efforts of the numerous pr ts working for their conversion,
and the Christian establishmtMits raised upon the ruins of their
temples, less than fifty years more would suffice to make them lose
all remembrance of Christianity, if they were left to themselves.'"

"We may, therefore, expect that some of the effects of the
teachings of the Buddhist missionaries would be found to be
only temporary in their nature ; and the real occasion for sur-
prise is that, as will hereafter be shown, so much of the results
of their efforts survived the storms of over a thousand years,
rather than that some few of the customs and beliefs then
founded should have perished.

XVI. — According to their ticles (of government or of re-
ligion) they HAVE A southern axd a nortiierx ilace of con-
finement. An offeni liR WHO has transgressed but slightly

ENTERS THE SOUTHERN PLACE OP CONFINEMENT, BUT IF HE
HAS SINNED HEAVILY HE ENTERS THE NORTHERN PLACE OF CON-
FINEMENT. If there is pardon for him, then he is sent
AWAY TO (or, possibly, from) the southern place op con-
finement, but if he can not be pardoned, then he is sent
away to the northern one. tliose men and women dwell-
ing in the northern place op confinement, when they
MATE (or have mated), and bear (or have borne) children,

THE boys are MADE SLAVES AT THE AGE OF EIGHT YEARS,
AND THE GIRLS AT THE AGE OP NINE YEARS. TlIE CRIMINAL

(or the criminal's body) is not allowed to go out up to
(or at) the time of his death.

The character fah, f^, which I have translated " rules," and
as to which I am not certain whether the reference is to rules of
government or to a religious belief, or to both, has heretofore
been rendered "laws." This is the natural translation if the
character meaning " country," which immediately precedes it, is
construed in connection with it ; for, while fah, by itself, or in
other connections, usually means "religious canons," the com-
pound, "a country's fah," usually means "a country's laws'*
rather than a country's religion. Still, it is not certain that the
words, "in that country" (see characters Nos. 103 and 104,
Chapter XVI), are not the concluding clause of the preceding
paragraph, rather than the beginning of a new sentence.

^!y

M;; t . 1 !

N]j

1 "■ '*

'fi

.Ki

•

l> ^' '

458

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

This character faii (often spelled fa) is used by the Bud-
dhists as a technical term for the translation of the Sanskrit
word " Dharma," signifying — Ist, morality or virtue ; 2d, the law
or the moral code ; and, 3d, the material effects or the phe-
nomenal world/"

The "Three Precious Ones" are Buddha, the personal
teacher ; Dharma, the Law or body of doctrine ; and Sanglm,
the Priesthood.'"*

There are three treasures, i. e., Buddha, the Laio, and the
Church."" This Avord Dharma has various meanings, but is
usually to be understood in the sense of " truth." It is not un-
frequently translated " the law " ; but this interpretation gives
an idea contrary to the entire genius of Buddhism. The Dharma
is therefore, emphatically, " the truth." '***

In the Pali canon there is a remarkable book called Dham-
ma-pada, which was evidently of great authority in the Buddhist
church. The Chinese translation of this is called the fa-kiiku
KING, the character fa being used as the translation of the Pali
word Dhamma (the Sanskrit Dharma).^^

Beal translates fa by the phrase "system of religion," in
the sentence, "Venerable sir, what system of religion (fa)
has engaged your mind during your contemplation to-
night?""*

Edkins translates the phrase fa-siiex " the embodiment of
the (religious) law," ""* and c'hu-kia fa (see characters Nos. 451
and 452, Chapter XVI), " the monastic principle." '"* Other in-
stances of the use of this character in a religious sense are in the
compounds " Buddha's faii," for the rites and ordinances of Bud-
dhism ;"" *' to develop fah," meaning to dFsseminate or propa-
gate religious doctrine ; "" " fah conversation," for preaching a
discourse on religious subjects ; "" " fah clothing," for a garment
worn by Buddhist priests ; "" " fah assembly," for an assembly
of Buddhist priests ; "" and " fah body," meaning shaven-headed,
like a Buddhist priest."'*

This technical use of the character by the Buddhists seems to
make it probable that Ilwui Shiin, a Buddhist priest, would em-
ploy the word in this religious sense ; particularly as he might
have used some other character, if it had been his intention to
speak of the laws of the government.

On investigating the history of the Aztec empire, however,

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 459

we find that the statement is substantially true, no matter
whether fah is understood to refer to law or to religion.

They had two species of prisons : one similar to ours, which
was called Teilpilojan, for debtors who refused to pay their
debts, and for those who had not merited the punishment of
death ; and the other, smaller, which was called Quauh calli,
made like a cage, for the prisoners who were to be sacrificed,
and for those who were guilty of capital crimes.""* The Abb6
Brasseur de Bourbourg"" and Mr. Bancroft *" follow Clavigero
in this statement.

There is no indication as to whether it was the custom to
build the prison for those condemned to death in the northern
part of the town, and the other place of confinement in the south-
ern part, unless such an indication is given in the fact that, in
the only case in which the location of this prison for condemned
criminals is mentioned, the one for the city of Mexico is said to
have been situated " over a mile northwest-by-north of the cen-
tral plaza of Mexico." (" Hist. Verdad.," pp. 70-71.) «'

If FAH is understood to refer to religious belief, however,
then the " prisons," or " places of confinement," must be the
supposed abodes of the spirits of the dead. The usual term for
*' Hades," '*" or the place in which the Buddhists suppose the spirits
of the wicked to be punished, is ti-yuh, or " earth's prison." "*'
The Roman Catholics designate purgatory by the phrase lien
YUH, "fire-separating prison."*"" The characters ti-yuh, or
"earth's prison," which are usually applied to "Hades," are
sometimes also used '"^ to designate a jail.'"

The future abode of the Mexicans had three divisions,'"** to
which the dead were admitted according to their rank in life
and manner of death.'** . . . The Aztec hero was borne in the
arms of Teoyaomiqui herself, the consort of Huitzilopochtli, to
the bright plains of the Sun-house, in the eastern part of the
heavens, where shady groves, trees loaded with luscious fruit, and
flowers steeped in honey, vied with the attractions of vast hunt-
ing-parks, to make his time pass happily. Here also awaited him
the presents sent by aflFectionate friends below. Every morn-
ing, when the sun set out upon his journey, these bright, strong
warriors seized their weapons and marched before him, shout-
ing and fighting sham battles. This continued until they reached
the zenith, where the sun was transferred to the charge of the

S! '■

iii

1 <s

460

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Celestial Women, after which the warriors dispersed to the chase
or the shady grove.

The members of the new escort were women who had died
in war or child-bed, and lived in the western part of the Sun-
house. Dressed, like the warriors, in martial accoutrement, they
conducted the sun to his home, some carrying the litter of
quetzal feathers in which he reclined, while others went in front,
shouting and fighting gayly. Arrived at the extreme west,
they transferred the sun to the dead of Mictlan, and went in
quest of their spindles, shuttles, baskets, and other implements
necessary for weaving or household work. The only other per-
sons who are mentioned as being admitted to the Sun-house, were
merchants who died on their journey. After four years of this
life, the souls of the warriors pass into birds of beautiful plum-
age, which live on the' honey of flowers growing in the celestial
gardens, or seek their sustenance on earth.

The second place of bliss was Tlalocan,* the abode of
TIaloc, a terrestrial paradise, the source of the rivers, and all
the nourishment of the earth, where joy reigns and sorrow is
unknown, where every imaginable product of the field and gar-
den grows in profusion beneath a perpetual summer sky. . . .
To this place went those who had been killed by lightning, the
drowned, those suffering from itch, gout, tumors, dropsy, leprosy,
and other incurable diseases. Children, also, at least those who
were sacrificed to the Tlalocs, played about in its gardens, and
once a year they descended among the living, in an invisible
form, to join in their festivities. It is doubtful, however, whether
this paradise was perpetual ; for, according to some authors, the
deceased stayed here but a short time, and then passed on to
Mictlan ; while the children, balked of their life by death or
sacrifice, were allowed to essay it again.

The third destination of the dead, provided for those who
died of ordinary diseases or old age, and, accordingly, for the
great majority, was Mictlan, " the Place of the Dead," which is
described as a vast pathless place, a land of darkness and desola-
tion, where the dead, after their time of probation, are sunk in a
sleep that knows no waking. In addressing the corpse, they
spoke of this place of Mictlan as " a most obscure land, where

* Tlalocan is the name given by some old writers to the country between Chi-
apas ana Oajaca,'*"

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 4G1

(ctween Chi-

light cometh not, and whence none can ever return." . . . The
indications are that Mictlan was situated in the antipodean re-
gions, or rather in the center of the earth, to which the term
" Dark and Pathless Region " also applies. This is the supposi-
tion of Clavigero,"** who bases it on the fact that Tlalxicco, the
name of Mictlantecutli's temple, signifies " center or bowels of
the earth." But Sahagun and others place it in the north, and
support this assertion by showing that Mictlampa signifies
" north." The fact that the people turned the face to the north
when calling upon the dead, is strongly in favour of this theory.

McCuUoh "" and others give a similar account of the religious
belief of the Aztecs.

It is evident that these three abodes of the dead are re-
ducible to only two, which are radically distinct from each
other : a land of bliss, situated in the region in which the sun is
placed — a country of " perpetual summer " (and, therefore, nec-
essarily in the south), which could be left by the spirits of the
dead after a time ; and a dark and gloomy region, " a place of
punishment," "^ from which there was no escape.

The Central Americans say that the future life is divided into
good and bad. The first is for the good. They represent it as
a life of delights, where they enjoy all the comforts of peace and
of abundant supplies, all the pleasures of the body, eating and
drinking, without pain or fatigue, under the perfumed shade of
a delicious tree, where they repose, sheltered from all the suffer-
ings of the world. The second, on the contrary, is represented
as a place situated below the other, where they suffer all the tor-
ments of frost, of hunger, and of sorrow, without any species of
consolation.***

That the " Hades " of the Mexicans was located in the north
is proved by the following quotations :

" Mictlan^ the Mexican Hades, a place of the dead, signifies,
either primarily or by an acquired meaning, northward or toward
the north."''*

"Mictlampa — to Hades — to the north. Mictlampa ehecatl,
the north wind."'"

" Mictlampa-ehecatl, the north wind, is said to come from
hell."«"

"The second wind blows from the north, where the natives
believe the infernal regions to be placed." "*'

- - . -

462

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

H 't

'Ml

Hffffff" ;

^^ M

" The realm of Mictla, the Aztec god of death, lay ^here the
shadows pointed."***

" It is believed that the dead go to the north. It is for
this reason that, among their superstitious practices regarding
the dead, after they have enveloped them in their wrappings,
the bodies of the dead are seated with their faces toward Mict-
lampa, or the north." ^^

"In cases of interment [of the Mexican kings], the de-
ceased was deposited in the grave seated on a throne, in full
array, facinf/ the north, wich his property and his victims around
him." '"»

The assertion of Ilwui Shan as to the existence of two
places of confinement, one in the north and the other in the south,
is therefore fully confirmed.

There is a difliculty in explaining the statement as to the chil-
dren that are made slaves, and in my opinion it may be found that
its source lies in the character p'ei, g£, which I have translated
"mate." The word means "to compare, to place together,
to pair, to match,"" to couple with, to unite," "" and hence
frequently refers to marriage, although it is not the cbarpjter
which is generally used for this purpose. There are some
traces, however, of an earlier and different meaning. Thus the
Japanese use the character not only with the signification above
stated, but also with the meaning " to exile, to transport a crimi-
nal," and, when it is followed by a character meaning " a place,"
the compound signifies "a place of banishment (for noble:t)."""
Professor "Williams also gives the phrase 'SS,^' ^ ^ as meaning,
"let him enjoy perpetual felicity in Hades." "" Here the last
three characters mean "to enjoy a thousand seasons," and the
reference to Hades must therefore be expressed by the first
character.

It therefore se-^ms possible that the character may refer either
to a temporary, illegal connection — in which case the children
referred to are illegitimate children — or else to the banishment
or sending away (to an earthly prison, or to Hades) of the par-
ents ; and in the latter case the children would be orphans. In
this case it would appear that Hwui Shan meant to refer to
children born before the parents were banished or sent away.

It is a well-known fact that slavery existed among the
Mexicans"" as well as among the nations to the south.'"

TUE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 4C3

Although it is stated by some authorities that the children of
slaves were invariably born free,"" there is much dispute on
the subject, and it is probable that this was a reform introduced
by King Nezahualpilli, not long before the coming of the Span-
iards.*** The statement is repeatedly made "* that parents could
sell their children "' as slaves,'" and that this was often done, par-
ticularly in times of famine.*"

But little is said as to the condition of either orphans or
illegitimate children ; it is stated, however, that the latter were
not allowed to share in the property or the dignities of their
father,"* and that they were excluded from all public offices.'"
Brasseur de Bourbourg'" and Bancroft"" both state that
victims for sacrifices were chosen from among the young boys,
from six to twelve years of age, bom among them, but of ille-
gitimate birth. De Olmos defines the word tlanamiqui, " he who
is born a slave or bastard," "*" thus indicating that the two con-
ditions were practically identical ; and las Casas, speaking of the
permission given to the Spaniards to demand a certain number
of slaves from the Indian chiefs, says that the latter '*^ seized
the children of their households to furnish the number demanded,
after having disposed of all the orphans, who were sacrificed
first. De Landa also states that in Yucatan (he orphans toho
had been reduced to slavery were induced to carry their com-
plaint to the monks.""

If, therefore, Hwui ShS,n meant to refer either to illegitimate
children, or to orphans who were left behind when their parents
were banished to the place of confinement in the north (i. e., to
the land of the dead), it seems quite possible that his statement,
that they were made slaves, is true.

There is nothing to show the exact age when slave-children
were compelled to commence active labour, but it may reason-
ably be supposed to have been at about the same age as that at
which their more fortunate companions were first sent to school.
Cortez states this age to have been " seven or eight years," ""*
which is the same as the custom in Japan "" and China. Bras-
seur de Bourbourg says : "' " At the age of seveti years the father
brings his son to the priest, and shows him how to draw blood
from various parts of his body," and '" " the young girls are
also brought to the temple at the age of eight years."

It will be observed that in this case the age of the girl is

li^lj

Nil

4C4

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

one year greater than that of the boy, just as it is in Ilwui
Shun's statement, but that the ages are seven and eight years
instead of eight and nine. This difference is explained by the
fact that Buddha allowed the age to be counted from the date
of conception, *'** instead of that of birth ; and that in Japan, and
(as I was informed by the late Professor Williams) in China also,
all children born during the year, even as late as the last day of
the twelfth month, are considered as being one year of nge on
the next Nt w Year's day.'"' Hence, childrr whom the Spaniards
would call seven and eight years old, would be described by the
Chinese as eight and nine years of age, and the ages mentioned
by Hwui Shan are thus brought into exact accord with those
named by the Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg.

XVII. — For a single crime (or & crime of the first magni-
tude), ONLY ONE PERSON (the Culprit) WAi HIDDEN (or SCUt)

AWAY. For two crimes (or a crime of the second magnitude),

THE CHILDREN AND GRANDCHILDREN WERE INCLUDED IN TUB

PUNISHMENT. FoR THREE CRIMES (or a Crime of the third mag-
nitude), SEVEN GENERATIONS WERE INCLUDED IN THE PUNISH-
MENT.

The " seven generations," to which reference is made, prob-
ably included the parents, grandparents, and great-grandpar-
ents, the criminal himself, with his wife, brothers and sisters,
and his children, grandchildren, and great-granichildren.

This custom of punishing not only the crinanal, but also his
relatives, when a heinous crime has been coiamitted, exists in
Asia. Thus Hardy says that, '**" if one man strikes another in
the street, he is merely fined for the offense ; but if he were to
strike the king, his hands and feet, and then his head, would be
cut off, and all his relatives, both on the side oi his father and
mother, to the seventh degree of relationship, would be de-
stroyed.

As to the existence of this custom in Mexico, Clavigero says
"'* that the traitor to the king or to the state was torn in pieces,
and his relatives, who knew of his treason and did not make it
known in time, were deprived of liberty.

Ixtlilxochitl writes *'° that the children and relations of the
traitor were enslaved till the fifth generation.

Bancroft '" repeats these statements,"" and the Abb6 Brasseur
de Bourbourg states that "* the robbery of sacred things, prof a-

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 405

nation of the temples, and insult to the ministers of religion or to
the person of th'; monarch, were considered as high treason, and
that the culprit was punished with death, his goods were con-
fiscated to the public treasury, and his family declared infamous.
In another place he mentions that *" the property of every man
conder-'ned to death is confiscated to the public treasury, and that
his wife and children are sold as slaves, without regard to the
rank to which they may have belonged, while *" all treason
against the state or the sovereign, the discovery of the secrets of
the government, or desertion to the enemy, brings the penalty
of death down upon /i o culprit ; his wife and children being
sold, and his goods confiscated.

He adds that *" the vassal who runs away from his master or
his lord, if he is captured, is put to death, and his wife and chil-
dren are reduced to slavery.

Fig. 14 is a fac-simile of an illustration of a Mexican manu-
script, contained in the collection of Mendoza, preserved in the
Bodleian Library of Oxford, and copied by Lord Kingsborough
in the first volume of his " Antiquities of Mexico." The expla-
nation is given in vol. vi '"* — and in a French work entitled
" Ilistoire du Mexique," published without name of author, date,
or place — that the central figure represents a cacique Avho re-
belled against Montezuma, and who, having been concpiered,
was strangled by two executioners. The figures at the right are
those of his wife and son, and the " collars " upon their necks
show that they have been reduced to slavery. In fact they indicate
that their wearers were reduced to a particularly severe form of
slavery, to which, as a rule, only the vilest were condemned.'**

Pi ^

Fio. 14.— Punishment of a ciiminal, by the Aztecs.
30

40C

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I^fll

XVITI. — Fob a fatiikr, motiieb, wife, or son they mourn

rOR 8KVEN DAYS, WITHOUT SATING. FoB A (IRANDFATIIER OR
ORANOMOTIIER THKY MOURN FOB FIVE DAYH, WITIIOLT EATING.

Fob an eldkb itBOTiiER, younukb brotiikr, father's kldkk

BBOTHEB OB FATIIEB'h Y ; BROTUER, OR FOR THE COUUK-

BPONI) >rO FEMALE RELi..l.^k«, OB FOR AN ELDER SISTER OR
TOUNC.ER SISTER, TIIBEE DAYS, WITHOUT EATING. TlIEY SET L 1-
AN IMAGE OF THE BPIBIT (of the dcCCaScd pcrSOn), AND BEVER-
ENOE IT, AND OFFER LIBATIONS TO IT MORNING AND EVENIN(i.
In THBIB MOURNING USAGES THEY DO NOT WEAR MOLRNING-OAU-
MENT8 OR MOURNING-BADGES. A KINO WHO INHERITS THE
THRONE DOES NOT OCCUPY HIMSELF WITH THE AFFAIRS OF THE
GOVERNMENT FOB THE FIRST THREE YEARS AFTER HIS ACCESSION".

According to Brasseur de Bourbourg,'*' tlio Mayas liad a
horrible fear of death. When they had lost a relative, they
wept for four days together, maintaining a sorrowful sileuct'
during the day-time, and spending the nights in dolorous wail-
ings. During this time the wife of the deceased, if she was nurs-
ing a child, retained her milk, not permitting the child to suckle ;
the fifth day a priest came to say that the dead was with the gods,
and that it was time to proceed with his funeral. De Landa adds
that they observed abstinences and fasts for the deceased,
especially in the case of a husband who mourned the loss of his
wife.""

For the death of a chief, or any of his family, the Pipilos
lamented for four days, silently by day and with loud cries by
night. At dawn, on the fifth day, the high-priest publicly for-
bade the people to make any further demonstration of sorrow,
saying that the soul of the departed was now with the gods."*
In Michoacan all remained seated, for five days, with bowed heads,
without uttering a word, except the grandees, who went in turn
by night to watch and mourn at the grave.*" Upon the graves
were placed flags, ornaments, and various offerings of food, dur-
ing the four days of mourning. Visits of condolence, with attend-
ant feasting, extended over a period of several days, however.'"
The dead had a diflScult road to travel before reaching their
future abode, which was on the fifth day after the burial."'
On that day, before daybreak, a grand procession formed for
the temple."'

If a Mexican merchant was killed by the enemy while he was

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 407

on a journey, his family mado a nmnnikin uf spIinterH uf pine,
such as were used for torches. These were fastened together
and covered with cloth. When made, the puppet was clothed
Avith the garments of the defunct, and then was carried to
the temple. Hero it was left for all of one day, during which
his friends wept over it as if it were the reul corpse of the de-
ceased merchant. At midnight the mannikin was taken and
burned in the court of Quauhxicalco and the ashes were interred
as usual."'

Although cremation was frequently resorted to in later days,
it seems to have been, at the time of the invasion by the Span-
iards, a comparatively recent custom, and it is asserted that the
Toltecs who remained in the country after the destruction of the
empire adhered to interment, as did the early Chichimccs.*"

According to Clavigero, M'hen a king died they cut off some
of his hair, which, with some that had been cut off in his infancy,
they preserved in a little box, to perpetuate, as they stated, the
memory of the deceased. Upon the box they placed the image
of the deceased, made of wood, or else of stone.'""

Brasseur de Bourbourg says that,^*" as soon as a king died, a
statue was always made in his image and placed upon the bed of
state.'" The chiefs of the senate, having the Cihuacohuatl at
their head, iirst paid their homage to it. It was then stripped of
its garments, and, after being washed from head ^o foot with
blue water, was reclothed and crowned with a diadei < ornament-
ed with a heron's plume. The singers approached it in turn,
having their faces tinted blue, and bearing flowers and perfumes
in their hands, to chant the praises of the king. . . . Both the
body and the statue were then transported to the temple of
Iluitzilopochtli.

Bancroft gives the following account of the obsequies of a
king or chief : *** " When the body had been tlioroughly burned,
the fire was quenched, the blocd :!ollected from the victims being
used for this purpose, according to Duran, and the ashes, sprinkled
with holy water, were placed with the charred bones, stones, and
melted jewelry, in the urn or casket, which contained also the
hair of the deceased. On the top of this was placed a statue of
wood or stone, att.red in the royal habiliments, and bearing the
mask and insignia, and the casket was deposited, at the feet of
the patron deity, in the chapel. On the return of the procession,

A(\S

AN IXr.T.ORIOUS COLUMBCS.

a j^ratul banquet was given to the guests, ending an uhuuI with a
preHontation of giftH. For four days the mourneni paid oonHtant
viHitH to the shrine, to nmnifest their sorrow, and to present tlie
ofTeriiigM of food, clothes, or jewels."

Ill Yucatan, people of condition made wooden statues of
their parents, of which the occiput was hollow ; they burned a
part of the body, and deposited the ashes in this receptacle, and
closed the opening. They preserved these statues, with much
veneration, among the idols, and kept both statues and idols in
the oratorios of their houses, where they were looked upon with
tenderness as well as reverence. On all feast-days and days
of general rejoicing they made offerings of food to them.'***

It is manifest from these statements that the Mexicans and
natives of Yucatan had a well-defined period of mourning, which
was usually of five days' duration. The early chroniclers would
hardly have paid attention to the deaths of the common people ;
and the customs of the indigenes were so soon swept out of exist-
ence, that periods of seven clays' mourning for the nearer rela-
tives, and three days for the more distant, may have existed un-
noticed.

The practice of making an image of the dead, which is men-
tion* d by ^'^wui Shrin, and the reverence bestowed upon it, re-
call a similar custom existing in China, which is probably to be
found in other Asiatic countries also. From the quotations
given above, it appears that this custom, with some modification
and distortion, survived in America until the sixteenth century.

As no mention of the use of mourning-garments in Mexico is
made by any of the historians, it is evident that the Aztecs
did not wear them. In China the mourning-dress consists of
coarse, unbleached linen robes and a white girdle.*** This refer-
ence to the absence of mourning-garments is conclusive proof
that Fu-sang can not have been any part of Japan ; for, as will
be hereafter shown, the Japanese used them from the earliest
dates mentioned in their histories. Klaproth must have been ac-
quainted with this fact, and it is, therefore, somewhat amusing
to observe the discretion which he exhibited in omitting from
his translation the clause which states that mourning-garments
were not worn in Fu-sang.

The custom of prohibiting the king from actively engaging
in government affairs, for some time after his accession to the

^MM

THE INTKODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 4(;9

throne, wiih jtrobubly of AHisitie origin. At the time of the Span-
Ml conquest, it wftH the rule in Mexico tliat,'" before the corona-
tion of a newmonarcli couhl l»e celehrated with fitting Holemnity,
and in a manner worthy of his iiredeccHsors, victims for Hacrifice
niiiHt be captured in large numbers ; it had become an establiHhod
custom for eacli newly elected king to undertake, in person, a
campaign with the solo object of procuring captives,'*' and it
was always required that he should obtain some victory over his
enemies, or reduce some neighbouring or rebellious province to
subjection, before ho could bo crowned, or ascend the royal
throne."" Special mention is made of an expedition of this na-
ture against the Chalcas, undertaken by Montezuma before his
coronation.***

rill I

im"

w: J'.

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. — (Concluded.)

The colour of the king's garments — Colours in Asia — Green and blue confounded —
The dyes used by the Mexicans — Changes of the king's garments — Dresses of
different colours for different occasions — Various species of mantles worn —
Changes because of superstitious ideas — Length of the " year " — Divisions of
the day — The marriage ceremonies — Chinese customs — Mexican customs at-
tributed to Quetzalcoatl — Mexican weddings — The horse-carts, cattle-carts,
and deer-carts — Difficulties of this passage — Explanations suggested — The
introduction of the horse into America — Extinct species of horses in Ameri-
ca — Indian traditions — Name may have been applied to some other animal —
Mirage — The Buddhist description of the " three carts " or " three vehicles."

Having thus examined the account of the king's coronation,
we may now turn back to the description of his clothing.

XIX. — The colour of the king's garments is changed

ACCORDING TO THE MUTATIONS OF THE TEARS. ThE FIRST AND

SECOND TEARS (of a tcn-ycar cycle) thet are blue (or green) ;

THE THIRD AND FOURTH TEARS THET ARE RED ; THE FIFTH AND
SIXTH TEARS, TELLOW ; THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH TEARS, WHITE ;
AND THE NINTH AND TENTH TEARS, BLACK.

This connection between certain colours and the divisions
of time exists among a great number of the nations of Asia, and
the order of enumeration of the colours is, usually, exactly that
above named, i. e., blue, red, yellow, white, and black.'^* Klap-
roth '"' mentions the same symbolism of the years of a ten-year
cycle, by the five colours above named, among the Mongols,
that Hwui Shdn says was recognized by the dress of the king
of Fu-sang. The ten years were by the Tartars designated re-
spectively by the colours blue and bluish, red and reddish, yel-
low and yellowish, white and whitish, and black and blackish.
Hue, also, repeats the statement that,'"* among the Tartars and
Thibetans, the signs of the denary cycle are expressed by the

:iHMii^!l

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION, 471

names of the five elements repeated twice, or by the names of
the five colours with their shades.

The Chinese emperor, acting as a high-priest,"' when he wor-
ships heaven, wears robes of azure colour, in allusion to the sky.
When he worships the earth, his robes are yellow, to represent
the clay of this earthly clod. When the sun is the object, his
dress is red ; and for the moon he wears a pale white.

Neither the Chinese nor the Mexicans discriminated between
different colours to a refined extent, both failing to distinguish
green from blue,'" and the two colours are therefore, in both
languages, designated by the same word.

Brinton says that in Central America *'* the names of the five
main colours are constantly recurring as signs and metaphors.
They are white, black, red, green, and yellow. The poverty of
this list was eked out by certain terminations which modified
the force of the root indicating that the colour was light or
shaded toward white.

It is almost impossible to doubt that the coincidence of the
connection of the divisions of time with five colours in a certain
order, which existed both in Asia and Fu-sang, must have been
the result of the introduction of the custom into Fu-sang from
Asia — probably by the five Buddhist priests themselves.

In the preparation of dyes and paints by the Mexicans, min-
eral, animal, and vegetable colours were all employed, the latter
extracted from woods, barks, leaves, flowers, and fruits. In the
art of dyeing they probably excelled the Europeans, and many of
their dyes have, since the conquest, been introduced throughout
the world. Chief among these was the cochineal, nochiztlc, an
insect fed by the Nahuas on the leaves of the nopal, from which
they obtained beautiful and permanent red and purple colours
for their cotton fabrics. The flower of the matlalxihuitl sup-
plied blue shades ; indigo was the sediment of water in which
branches of the xiuhquilipitzahuac had been soaked ; seeds of
the aehiotl boiled in water yielded a red, the French roiicou ;
ochor, or tecozahidtl, furnished yellow, as did also the plant xochi-
palU, the latter being changed to orange by the use of nitre ;
other shades were produced by the use of p.ium ; the stones
chimaltizatl and tizatldlu, being calcined, produced something
like Spanish white ; black was obtained from a stinking mineral,
tlaliac, or from the soot of a pine, called ocotV^

f '

472

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Sahagun '"" gives a long description of the colours and dyes
used by the Mexicans, and says that "" they include cochineal
and several other red colours, yellow and a light golden colour,
black, indigo and other blues and greens, violet, and fawn colour.
Palacio tells us of priestly robes in Salvador of different colours,
black, blue, green, red, and yellow."'

It is said that among the Mexicans the king changed his dress
four times each day, and that a dress once worn could never be
used again.'" Concerning this custom, Peter Martyr, translated
into the quaintest of English, writes : " Arising from his bed, he
is cloathed after one manner, as he commeth forthe to bee scene,
and returning backe into his chamber after he hath dined, he
changeth his garments ; and when he commeth forthe againe to
supper hee taketh another, and returning back againe the fourth,
which he weareth vntill he goe to bed. But concerning his gar-
ments, which he changeth every day, many of them that returned
have reported the same vnto me with their owne mouth ; but
howsoeuer it be, all agree in the changing of garments, that be-
ing once taken into the wardrope, they are there piled vp on
heaps, not likely to see the face of Muteczuma any more."

In fact, there appears to have been a different dress for every
occasion."" We are told, for instance, that when going to the
temple the king wore a white mantle, another when going to
preside at the court of justice, and here he again changed his
dress, according as the case bofore the court was a civil or crimi-
nal suit. Sahagun also states that the king, when offering in-
cense to the god Iluitzilopochtli, during the ceremony of anoint-
ment, was dressed in a tunic of dark-green cloth. The veil was
also of green cloth, ornamented with skulls and bones, and, in
addition to the articles described by other writers, this author
mentions that they placed dark-green sandals upon his feet.
(•' Hist. Gen.," tome ii, p. 319.) '*»

Cortez says that Muteczuma was dressed every day in four
different suits, entirely new, which he never wore a second time ; ""*
but Diaz makes the much more probable statement that ""' a gar-
ment which the Mexican king had worn one day was not per-
mitted to be brought to him again earlier than after four days.

Sahagun,"^* in the eighth chapter of his eighth book, de-
scribes sixteen species of mantles used for clothing the kings.
A first species, very rich, called coaxayacayo tilmatli (i. e., a

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 473

cloak with the figures of serpents), is of a reddish colour, covered
with silver circles, bearing upon a red field a figure of a monster
or a demon. The border is fringed and ornamented within with
figures like the letters S S, contained in little squares alternated
with others that are destitute of ornaments. On the ends this
fringe has small massive balls not very near to one another.
The kings wear these mantles, and give them to personages of
eminence, and to men who have distinguished themselves in
war, with permission to wear them. They also wear other man-
tles, called teccizyo tilmatU (i. e., a mantle with large shells),
which are given this name because they are woven with designs
representing sea-shells in red tochomitl upon a field representing
the Avaves of the sea figured in light blue. This mantle is bor-
dered by a first band, half light blue and half dark blue, and by
a second band of white feathers, with a fringe of red tochomitl^
not fringed out, but pierced with small holes.

They also wear another mantle, called temalcacayo tilmatli
tcnixio (i. e., a mantle having mill-stones and with a border of
eyes). It is made of a cloth with a reddish-brown ground, in
which thei'e are woven designs repiosenting a sort of mill-wheel,
of which the circumference is black ; a circle, made of a larger
white band, is inscribed ; in the center there is a small ring sur-
rounded by another of a black colour. There are twelve of these
figures grouped together, three and three, and forming a square.
The border of this mantle is formed by a fringe in which eyes
are represented upon a black ground. It is on this account that
it is called tenixio.

They also wear another mantle, called itzcoayo tilmatli (i. e., a
mantle with obsidian serpents). It has six saw-like figures placed,
two upon each side and two in the middle, upon a reddish field.
Between these groups there are figures like the letters S S alter-
nating with others like O O. The remainder of the entire de-
sign consists of two bands upon a fawn-coloured field. A fringe
extends all about the mantle, with a lace-work of feathers upon
a black field.

They also wear a mantle, called ome tetecomayo tilmatU (i. e.,
a mantle having two vases), which is strewed with representations
of very beautiful and very rich vases, with three feet, and orna-
mented with two wings like those of butterflies. The lower part
is round, and red and black in colour. The wings are green,

Bii '

i^ffif

HIHm I

i >

■ f

1 ?iH*( ' '• W"'

' :

474

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

with a yellow border and three small rings of the same colour in
each. The neck of this vase has the form of the ornaments of
the vestments of a marquis, surmounted by four small staves
embroidered with blue and red feathers. The designs of the
vases are represented upon a white field. This mantle has upon
its border, in front, two red bands, which cross the white bands
close together, two and two.

We will not describe the other mantles, as they are commonly
worn by all the world. But it is important that we should call
attention to the skill of the women whose trade it is to weave
them. It is they who trace the designs, when manufacturing
the cloth, and weave the coloured thread in place according to
the design ; taking care to weave in the same fashion that they
have designed, and changing the shade of the thread in conform-
ity with the pattern which they follow.

They wear other mantles, called papaloyo tilmatli tenixio
(i. e., mantles which have butterflies and borders furnished with
eyes), which have a reddish ground, upon which butterflies are
woven in white feathers, each bearing a human eye upon the
middle of its body. These butterflies are placed in a row, reach-
ing from one corner of the mantle to the other, the edge being
terminated by a border bearing eyes woven upon a black ground,
with a red fringe pierced with small holes.

They also wear another mantle, covered with flowers called
ecacozcatl, grouped in threes, and separated by small bouquets of
white feathers woven in the stuff. This mantle is ornamented all
around by a fringe and feathers, with a border of eyes. It is
called xaualgiiauhyo tilmatli tenixio (i. e., a mantle having an
ornament of eagle feathers and a border garnished with eyes).

They wear other mantles, called ocelotentlapalli yitic ica
ocelotl (i. e., having a tiger within, and a red-coloured border).
A tiger's skin is figured in the center of these, and for a border
they have a red band terminated exteriorly by a web of white
feathers.

The said mantles are icorn because of superstitious ideas.
There is among them one called ixneztlaciulolli (i. e., that which
is worked in a manner very apparent), and another called olUn,
upon which the sun is figured in different colours and embroid-
eries.

The sentence in italics, above, shows that the changes in the

Mii

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 475

dress of the monarchs were connected, in some way, with their
religious belief, and it seems that the different mantles were
used as symbols.

Prescott says that the dress of the courier denoted by its
colour the nature of the tidings that he brought,"" thus indi-
cating that his dress also was governed by a similar symbolism.
Bancroft, quoting from Zuago,'** mentions similar changes of
gp.rraents, even in the case of the wrappings of a corpse. The
statement is that the corpse was decorated with feathers of vari-
ous colours, and seated in a chair to receive the expressions of
sorrow and respect of friends, and their humble offerings of
flowers, food, or dresses. After a couple of hours a second set of
shrouders removed the garments, washed the body again, re-
dressed it in red mantles, with feathers of the same colour, and left
it to be viewed for an hour or more, according to the number
of the visitors. A third time the body was washed by a fresh
corps of attendants, and arrayed, this time, in black garments,
with feathers of the same somber colour. These suits were
either given to the temple or buried with the body.

In the case of the customs of courtship, the doubt was ex-
pressed as to whether Hwui Shun may not have intended to indi-
cate some other period of time than a year by the character ^.
The very similar character ^ is used for noon,"" or the time
from 11 A. M. to 1 P.M.,"" and, although there is no proof that
the one first above given ever meant anything else than a year,
I can not help thinking that Hwui Shan may have used it to
denote the fractional parts either of a day or of the Mexican
week of five days."'

The Javanese, who, like the Mexicans, had a week of five
days, consider the names of the days of their native week to have
a mystical relation to colours, and to the divisions of the horizon.
According to this whimsical interpretation, the first means white
and the east ; the second, red and the south ; the third, yellow
and the west ; the fourth, black and the north ; and the fifth,
mixed colour and the focus or center.""

The Mexicans had not only a week of five days, but also had
an accurate system of dividing the day into fixed periods, corre-
sponding somewhat to our hours.****

The day commenced with sunrising, and was divided into
eight portions of time, a division recognized by the Hindus,

JtililSi f

i '

ill

f: ■

3 4 " i I' ■»

t\f> *. d 1 f! .

n ] ' » ' ( «

:'J

476

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Romans, etc.'"' The hours of the night M'cre regulated by the
stars,'"" and the ministers of the temple, whose duty it was to
watch thorn, sounded certain instruments like trumpets, by which
the town was informed of the time.

Among both the Mayas and the Mexicans, the natural day
is divided into four principal parts ; the first commences at the
rising of the sun, and closes at noon. Noon is called by name-
which, both in Maya and in Aztec, signify the center or middle of
the day. Oc na kin, in Yucatan, and Quaqui Tonatiuh, in Mexi-
co, designate the commencement of the night, and Chumuc Akah
and Yohudl Ncpant^a the hour of midnight. Each of these four
parts is subdivided sgain into two other equal parts, which corre-
spond to nine o'clock in the morning and three o'clock in the
afternoon, nine o'clock at night and three o'clock in the morn-
ing. Gama remarks that, besides these subdivisions, the civil day
is divided into sixteen parts, each having its own name ; eight
for the day and eight for the night. They commenced at the
rising of the sun, as among most of the nations of Asia."'

Now, although it may be admitted that some of the customs
existing in Mexico in the sixteenth century do not precisely
correspond with the statements of Ilwui Shan, it seems to be
conclusively proved that, in each case, the Spaniards found in
Mexico something very much like the custom described by the
Buddhist traveler ; and I can not help thinking that the differ-
ences are no greater than would be naturally produced by the
gradual changes which would inevitably occur during the period
of more than a thousand years.

XX. — The marriage ceremonies are, for the most part,

LIKE THOSE OP THE MiDDLE KiNGDOM (i. C., China).

In China there are six ceremonies which constitute a regular
marriage : "*'

1. The father and elder brother of the young man send
a go-between to the father and brother of the girl, to inquire
her name and the moment of her birth, that the horoscope of the
two maybe examined, in order to ascertain whether the proposed
alliance will be a happy one.

2. If so, the young man's friends send the mei-jin (go-be-
tween) back to make an offer of marriage.

3. If that be accepted, the second party is again requested to
put their assent in writing.

TUE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 477

4. Present are then sent to the girl's parents, according to
the means of the parties.

5. The go-between requests tliem to choose a lucky day for
the wedding ; and,

6. The preliminaries are concluded by the bridegroom going,
or sending a party of his friends, with music, to bring the bride
to his own house.

The principal formalities of marriage are everywhere the
same,""'' but local customs are observed in some regions which
are quite unknown, and appear very singular, elsewhere. In Fuh-
kien, when the lucky day for the wedding comes, the guests
assemble in the bridegroom's house to celebrate it, where also
sedans, a band of music, and porters arc in readiness. The
courier, who acts as guide to the chair-bearers, takes the lead
of the procession, and, in order to prevent the onset of malicious
demons lurking in the road, a baked hog or large piece of pork is
carried in fronc, that it may safely pass while they are devouring
the meat. Meanwhile the bride arrays herself in her best dress
and richest jewels. Her girlish tresses have already been bound
up, and her hair arranged by a matron, with all due forinality ;
an ornamental and complicated head-dress, made of ri( . mate-
rials, not unlike a helmet or corona, often forms part of her coif-
fure. Iler person is nearly covered by a large mantle, over
which is an enormous hat, like an umbrella, that descends to the
shoulders and shades the whole figure. Thus attired, she takes
her seat in the red gilt marriage sedan, called hica-Jciau, borne
by four men, in which she is completely concealed. This is
locked by her mother or some other relative, and the key given
to one of the bridemen, who hands it to the bridegroom, or his
representative, on reaching the house.

The procession is now rearranged, with the addition of as
many red boxes to contain her wardrobe, kitchen-utensils, and
the feast, as the means of the family, or the extent of her par-
aphernalia, require. As the procession approaches the bride-
groom's house, the courier hastens forward to announce its com-
ing ; whereupon the music at his door strikes up, and fire-crackers
are let off until she enters the gate. As she approaches the door,
the bridegroom conceals himself, and the go-between brings for-
ward a young child to salute her, while she goes to seek the
closeted bridegroom. He approaches her with becoming gravity,

478

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

\h\ii>

I '

and opens the sedan to hand out bis bride, she still retaining the
hat and mantle ; they approach the ancestral tablet, which thev
salute with three bows, and then seat themselves at a table upon
which there are two cups of spirits. The go-between serves
them, though the bride can only make the motions of drinkiiifr,
as the large hat completely covers her face. They soon retire
into a chamber, where the husband takes the hat and mantle
from his wife, and sees her, perhaps, for the first time in his life.
The bridal procession is as showy and stylish as the means
of the parties will allow,"" consisting of friends, a band of mu-
sic, sedans, and boxes containing the marriage-feast and other
things, all of them painted red, and their bearers wearing red
jackets. The tablets of literary rank held by members of the
family, wooden dragons' heads, titular lanterns, and other offi-
cial insignia, are borne in the procession, which, with all these
additions, sometimes stretches along for a quarter of a mile or
more. In some cases, an old man elegp.ntly dressed heads the
procession, bearing a large umbrella to hold over the bride when
she enters and leaves the sedan ; behind him come bearers with
tablets and lanterns, one of which bears the inscription, " The
phoenixes sing harmoniously." To these succeed the music and
the honourr.ry tablets, titular flags, state umbrella, etc., and two
stout men as executioners, dressed in a fantastic manner, wearing
long feathers in their caps, and lictors, chain-bearers, and other
emblems of office. Parties of young lads, prettily dressed, and
playing on drums, gongs, and flutes, or carrying lanterns and ban-
ners, occasionally form a pleasing var'.ety in the train, which is
continued by the trays and covered tibles containing the bride's
trousseau, and ended with the sedan containing herself.

The ceremonies attending her reception at her husband's
house are not uniform. In some parts of the country she is
lifted out of the sedan, over a pan of charcoal placed in the
court, and carried into her chamber. After a brief interval she
returns into the hall, bearing a tray of betel-nuts for the guests,
and then worships a pair of geese, brought in the train with her
husband — this bird being an emblem of conjugal affection. On
returning to her chamber, the bridegroom follows her, and takes
off the red veil, after which they pledge each other in wine, the
cups being joined by a thread. While there, a matron who has
borne several children to one husband comes in to pronounce a

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 479

blessing upon them, and make up the nuptial btd. The assem-
b'ed guests then sit down to the feast, and ply the sin lang,
" new man," or bridegroom, pretty well with liquor ; the Chi-
nese on such occasions do not, however, overpass the rules of
sobriety. The sinfu-jin, " new lady," or bride, and her mother-
in-law also attend to those of her own sex, who are present in
other apartments ; but among the poor a pleasanter sight is now
and then seen in all the guests sitting at one table.

In the morning, the pair worship the ancestral tablets, and
salute all the members of the family. The pledging of the bride
and groom in a cup of wine, and their worship of the ancestral
tablets, ana in some cases a united prostration to his parents,
may be considered as the important ceremonies of a wedding
after the procession has reached the house. Marriage processions
are heard at all hours, though twilights and evenings are consid-
ered the most propitious ; the spring season, or the last month
in the year, being regarded as the most felicitous nuptial peri-
ods. The Chinese do not marry another woman with these ob-
servances while the first one is living ; but they may bring home
concubines, with no other formality than a contract with her
parents.

The foregoing account ia from Professor Williams's work
entitled "The Middle Kingdom." A very similar description
of the marriage ceremonies of the country will also be found in
the " Chinese Repository." '*="

The ceremonies of marriage which were in use among the
Aztecs were attributed to Quetzalcoatl, the mysterious stranger
to whom most of their civilization and of their arts was also at'
tributed.*'* (See Veytia, cap. xvii, in Lord Kingsborough's work.)

The laws of Mexico and those of Michoacan severely prohibit
all marriages between relatives of the first degree, either by con-
sanguinity or affinity, except between a brother-in-law and sister-
in-law.'"* The father, having made choice of a wife for his son,
first consults the priests, and, if the prognostics are unfavourable,
he looks for another. Certain female go-betweens, named cihua'
tlanque, demand her of her parents, repeating their overtures two
or throe times, and offering presents, until the latter respond to
their requests. On the day of the wedding, the father and mother
of the betrothed give her a long discourse upon conjugal fidelity
and obedience, and exhort her to honourable conduct. Finally

480

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

they conduct her in pomp to the house of her future husband.
The hitter comes forth to meet them with his relatives, preceded
by four women bearing torches, and the two parties, when they
meet, scatter perfume upon each other from their censers. The
young man then takes his bride by the hand and leads her into
his house, and they sit down together upon a mat placed in the
middle of the room, having a lighted brazier before them ; a
priest ties one end of the gown of the bride to the extremity of
the mantle of the bridegroom, this ceremony being the true es-
sence of the matrimonial contract. After this they walk together
around the hearth or brazier seven times and throw into it some
grains of copal, and return to sit upon the mat, where they offer
presents to each other. The banquet then takes place — the guests
eating with the relatives, while the young couple remain upon
their mat and wait upon each other.

McCulloh,'"' Sahagun,'"* and Bancroft"' all give substan-
tially the same account of the marriage ceremonies in Mexico,
and it can not be denied that they present a great similarity to
those of China, although they are mixed, as will hereafter be
shown, with some of the customs of India.

XXI. — They have horse-carts, cattle-carts, and deer-
carts.

This is the statement which has usually been relied upon to
prove that Fu-sang could not have been located in America, and
that it must have been situated in some part of Japan ; and yet
it is just as untrue of Japan as of America, for the Japanese
have had no roads upon which carts of any nature could boused,
and, until very lately,"'* the only vehicle employed in traveling in
Japan was the palanquin. In fact, there has never been a country
in which horse-carts, cattle-carts, and deer-carts were all in com-
mon use at the same time. A nation possessing horses would not
be likely to employ deer as draught animals ; and the only coun-
tries in which deer (i. e., reindeer) are employed are countries
in which horses and cattle could not well be used.

The statement in question might therefore be used in support
of the hypothesis of the utter falsity of Hwui Shan's story. So
many of the details mentioned by him are shown to be true, how-
ever, that it is impossible to entertain this theory. The only
alternative is, therefore, to believe that the statement does not
correctly convey the idea which he meant to express.

THE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 4S1

AND DEER-

A number of explanations may be given, no one of which io
very satisfactory, and yet it is infinitely easier to accept eonic
one of them, or to believe that an explanation of some kind will
hereafter be found for the statement, than to think that Ilwui
Shan can have invented the account of his travels.

First. — The character cue, ^, translated " carts," may possi-
bly have been used as a sign of the plural. One of its meanings
is, "to be piled up, heaped up by laying one ujjon another, to in-
crease in number by adding one to another," '"" and it is used as
the numeral for things placed one above another, as boxes, stairs
of a tower, or folds of cloth."**' The character 3[, differing from
it by only the addition of two strokes, is employed as the classi-
fier of "heavens."""* The character % (also very similar)
means "a concourse, a sign of the plural of persons, an adjective
of number, much, many, all ;""but it should precede the noun.
Pei, If, or 3Jt, means "a class, a sort, things, kinds," "" and is a
sign of the plural,""' or, as Summers expresses it, is one of the
characters "used after nominal notions to express plurality."""
Still another similar character, ^, kiijn, means " numerous, many,
a legion,"" an army, troops." "*'

It is possible that the character may have originally been
some one of those above named, and that the text may have
been corrupted so as to read ^.

Second. — Some of the characters may have been used as
phonetics, instead of with their usual meaning. Thus the phrase
may have been meant for " they have ma-cii'e-niu armies, or
deer-armies "; in which case, if the third character is pronounced
LIU {I and n being frequently interchanged by the Chinese), it
might possibly be considered as an attempt to transcribe the
Mexican word " mazatl," meaning deer.""

Third. — It is well known that, at the time of the invasion by
the Spaniards, the Mexicans had no horses, or other beasts of
burden,'" and that their only way of transporting property was
by the use of porters."' In New Mexico,"** dogs were used to
carry burdens."** They were the only animals pressed into the
service of the natives of North America, and they merely drag-
ged along the tent-poles, with possibly a few articles laid upon
them ; nothing of the nature of a vehicle having ever been
known.'"' The horse was introduced into America from Spain."
Nevertheless, there seems a bare possibility that this animal may
81

Fry

■:•]

482

AN INGLORTOrS COLUMBUS.

have existed in America fourteen huntlre<l years ago. Professor
Leidy says: '"* "The horso did not exist in America at the time
of its discovery by Europeans ; but it8 remains, consisting
chiefly of molar-teeth, have now been bo frequently found in
association with those of rodent animals, that it is generally
admitted to have once been an aboriginal inhabitant. When I
first saw examples of these remains, I was not disposed to view
them as relics of an extinct species ; for, although some presented
characteristic differences from those of previously known species,
others were indistinguishable from the corresponding parts of
the domestic horso, and among them were intermediate varieties
of form and size. The subsequent discovery of the remains of
two species of the closely allied extinct genus Jlippariou, in ad-
dition to the discovery of the remains of two extinct equine
gener!\(Anchitheriuman(lMeri/chippits) of an earlier geological
period, leaves no room to doubt the former existence of the horso
on the American Continent, contemporaneously with the masto-
don and megalonyx ; and man probably was his companion."

In another place Professor Leidy says that,'"* though no in-
digenous species of horse appears to have existed on the Arrieri-
can Continent during the period of man, a number of them in-
habited the country just previously and contemporaneouslj' with
the great mastodon, tho elephant, etc. The name of E/juusfra-
ternus has been proposed for a species, based on remains found
in association with those of the mastodon, etc., although they
are neither distinguishable in size nor dctnils of form from cor-
responding parts in the domestic horse.

The proof will be presented in another chapter, that a species
of elephant or mastodon probably existed in America up to quite
a recent period, and the horse also may have lived during the
same time, and have recently become extinct.

Professor Powers says that,'*'" many hundreds of years ago,
according to the old Indians, there existed on earth a horse and a
mare which were extremely small. The Indians called them by
a name {ad-to-wats), which they at once applied to the first horses
brought by the Spaniards. They perished long before white
men ever saw California. It is possible that these liliputian
ponies of the Indian fable were the extinct species of horse
of which the remains have been discovered by Mr. Condon, in
Oregon.

THE INTRODUCTION' OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 4S3

Mr. E. L. Bcrthouil, in an article entitled '• The American
Home,""* cuntaincd in the "Kansas City Ueview," for Novem-
ber, 1881, mentions reasons for believing that horses were found
in South America soon after the discovery of the country, and
at a time and place when and where it is ditHcult to believe that
they could have been the progeny of any horses that could have
been introduced into the country from Europe.

Fourth. — It is possible that the name " horse " may have been
applied by Ilwui Shan to some other indigenous animal ; or that
he may have seen a troop of far-off animals, and, because of the
great distance, or because of a mirage, have mistaken them for
horses. Marcy says that "" the very extraordinary refraction of
the atmosphere upon the elevated American plateaus causes ob-
jects in the distance to be distorted into the most wild and
fantastic forms, and often exaggerated to many times their true
size. A raven, for instance, would present the appearance of a
man walking erect, and an antelope often bo mistaken for a
horse or a buffalo. James states that "" nothing is more difficult
than to estimate by the eye the distance of objects seen in these
plains. A small animal, as a wolf or turkey, sometimes appears
of the magnitude of a horse, on account of an erroneous impres-
sion of distance. Three elks, which were the first he had seen,
crossed his path at some distance before him. The effect of tho
mirage, together with his indefinite idea of the distance, magni-
fied these animals to a most prodigious size. For a moment he
thought he saw the mastodon of America moving in those vast
plains, which seem to have been created for his dwelling-place.
An animal seen for the first time, or any object with which the
eye is unacquainted, usually appears much enlarged, and inaccu-
rate ideas are formed of the magnitude and distance of all the
surrounding objects.

Some of the early explorers say that wild horses existed in
Newfoundland prior to the year 1600,** while others mention
goats and wild swine in Canada, and monkeys and apes in Vir-
ginia ; all of these statements being evidently erroiicous. Elks "
are called cows or buffaloes," and there is scarcely a conceivable
case of misunderstanding or misnomer into which some of the
first explorers did not fall.

Montezuma,*"" and the Mexicans generally,*''* called the horses
of the Spaniards "gigantic deer." Some of the Indians with

Wf^^

484

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I :1

i.i'i'v

whom Cortez left a wounded horse called it a " white tapir" ; ""
and Acosta,' Clavigero,"" and Charlevoix,'" "' all compare the
tapir to a horse, mule, or ass. Hwui Shun may have confounded
these animals, in the same way, and applied the term *' horse "
either to some species of deer or to the Central American tapir.

The horse commonly seen in China is a mere pony, not much
larger than the Shetland pony ; it is bony and strong, but kept
with little care, and presents a worse appearance than it would if
its hair were trimmed, its fetlocks shorn, and its tail untied.""'
The antelopes, which are very common in Mexico ""* and the
western part of America,"" the females of which are devoid of
horns,'^* may have been compared to these small Chinese
horses.

I have mentioned these possibilities, not that I think any of
them probable, but merely because the truth might lie hidden in
some one of them. There is another possible explanation, how-
ever, which I think more plausible, although it is not completely
satisfactory.

Fifth. — The Chinese Buddhists use the tenn H $> " t^e three
carts," " three carriages," or " three vehicles," for three modes of
crossing sansara to nirvana, as if drawn by sheep, oxen, or deer,
which shadow forth the three degrees of saintship ; and this term
is further used for three developments of Buddhist doctrine."'^

One of the notes to the Pilgrimage of Fa Hian says that '"'
the less translation and the great translation are expressions of
such frequent recurrence in the narrative, that it is well to ex-
plain their import : Ta cMng, in Chinese, means the great revolu-
tion ; Siao cJiing, the little revolution. Ching signifies transla-
tion, passage from one place to another, revolution, circumference ;
and also the medium of transport, as a car or riding-horse. Its
exact Sanskrit equivalent is ydna, and the significations of these
two terms are identical. But each of these acquires, with refer-
ence to the doctrines of Buddhism, a characteristic and peculiar
significance. They are mystical expressions, indicating that in-
fluence which the individual soul can and should exercise upon
itself in order to effect its transference to a superior condition.
As this action, or influence, and its results are of different kinds
or degrees, so they are distinguished into two, three, or more
ydnas (in Chinese, ching ; in Mongol, hulgun) ; and, according
as his efforts are directed to the attainment of greater or less

TUE INTRODUCTION OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION. 485

perfection, the Sanga (Buddhist priest) belongs to the less, the
mean, or the great translation.

The vehiciclum, which is common to all the translations, is
the contemplation of the four realities, namely : pain, reunion,
death, and the doctrine, and that of the twelve concatenations.
By this means man is transported beyond the boundary of the
three worlds, and the circle of birth and death. Strictly speak-
ing, there is but one translation, that of Buddha, the practice of
which is enjoined upon all living beings, that they may escape
from the troubled ocean of birth and death, and land on the
other shore, namely, that of the absolute. Buddha would at
once have spread abroad the knowledge of the Law, and taught
mankind the one translation ; but he found it indispensable to
adapt his instructions to the various faculties of those who re-
ceive them, and hence arose the different ydnas, or means of
transport. "We may, in the first place, distinguish the transla-
tions of discijiles or auditors and that of distinct understandings.
To these must be added a third, that of the Bodhi-satticas, who
are beings far more nearly approaching to absolute perfection.

It is to the Tri ydna that the double metaphor is applied of
the three cars, and the three animals swimming a river. The car
is to be taken here as the emblem of that which advances by re-
volving, or that which serves as a vehicle ; and the idea is con-
nected to that attached to ydna, and the means by which man
may escape from the world and enter upon nirvana. To the
first car is yoked a sheep, an animal which in flight never looks
back to see whether it be followed by the rest of the flock ; and
thus it represents the ShrdioaJcas, a class of men who seek to es-
cape from the three worlds by the observation of the four reali-
ties, but who, occupied wholly with thtir own salvation, pay
no regard to that of other men. The second car is drawn by
deer, animals that can look back upon the herd which follows
them ; this is typical of the PratyeJca Bitddhas, who, by their
knowledge of the twelve Niddnas, effect their own emancipation
from the circle of the three worlds, and at the same time neglect
not the salvation of other men. The third car is drawn by an
o.r, which typifies the Bodhi-sattwas of the doctrine of the
three Pitakas, who practice the six means of salvation, and seek
the emancipation of others without regard to themselves, as the
ox endures with patience whatever burden is imposed upon him.

:i|

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J::i!

486

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

A complete exposition of all that is understood by the ob-
servance of these various classes would be nothing short of a
treatise of Buddhism ; suffice it that these modes of translation
are so many probationary steps, by which men are led to a higher
or a lower grade in the psychological hierarchy extending from
inferior beings to the absolute. Explained according to Eu-
ropean notions, the less translation consists in morality and ex-
ternal religious observances ; the mean, in traditional or sponta-
neous psychological arrangements ; and the great translation
is an abstruse, refined, and highly mystical theology.

It seems possible that Hwui Shan may have meant to refer
to the " three vehicles " as above defined ; and to say that these
people who had been reformed, who had accepted Buddha's
doctrines, and some of whom had undertaken to live in monas-
teries, had been taught the mysteries of these " three transla-
tions," "three carts," or "three vehicles."

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS.

■

Stories of Amazons — Account of Ptolemy — That of Maundevile — Marco Polo —
The Arabs — The Chinese — Similar stories in America — Explanations of these
accounts — " Cihuatlan," the Place of Women — The account given by Cortez
— Xufio de Guzman — The expedition to Cihuatlan — The monkeys of Southern
Mexico — Their resemblance to human beings — Stories of pygmies— Classical
tales — Pliny's account — That of Maundevile — The worship of Hanuman in
India — Chinese stories — The Wrangling People — ^The Eloquent Nation — ^The
Long-armed People — " Chu-ju," or the Land of Pygmies — Pygmies in America
— Mexican monkeys — Their long locks, queues, or tails — Their migration —
Their bickering or chattering — Their rutting-season — The period of gestation
— The beginning of the year in China, Tartary, and Mexico — The absence of
breasts — Nursing children over the shoulder — Young monkeys carried on
their mothers' backs — Long hair at the back of the head— A different trans-
lation suggested — Age at which they can walk — That at which they become
fully grown — Their timidity — Their devotion to their mates.

Having thus completed the examination of Hwui Shlin's ac-
count of Fu-sang, we will next consider his statements regard-
ing a country situated some three hundred miles to the east.
These have always been considered so wild and absurd that their
supposed falsity has been used as a strong argument for casting
discredit upon his whole story.

I. — Hwui Shan says that the Country of Women is

SITUATED A THOUSAND LI EAST OF Fu-SANG.

It is strange that a story of a region inhabited exclusively by
women, situated in some unknown or distant land, has existed
in almost every country. The classical accounts of a land of
Amazons were believed in up to the time of Columbus, and even
later.

Amazonia, as described by Ptolemy in his fifth book, is a
region of Scythia. The Amazons are female Scythians, who first
dwelt in the country near the river Don. Thence they removed

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i':

n^ 111

111

488

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

to a place near the river Terma, and finally they conquered a
great part of Asia by their arras.'"'

Maundevile "" gives the following account of this mythical
country :

" Besyde the Lond of Caldee is the Lond of Amazoyne. And
in that Reme is alle Women, and no man ; noght, as sumc men
seyn, that men mowe not lyve there, but for because that the
Women will not sufFre no men amonges hem, to ben here Sov-
ereynes. For sura tyme, ther was a Kyng in that Contrey ; and
men maryed, as in other Contreyes : and so befelle that the Kyng
had Werre, with hem of Sithie ; the whiche Kyng highte Colop-
eus, was slayne in Bataylle, and alle the gode Blood of his Reme.
And whan the Queen and alle the othere noble Ladyes sawen, that
thei weren alle Wydewes, and that alle the rialle Blood was lost,
thei armed hem, and as Creatures out of Wytt, thei slowen alle
the men of the Contrey, that weren laft. For thei wolde, that
alle the Women weren Wydewes, as the Queen and thei weren.
And fro that tyme hiderwardes thei nevere wolden suflFren man
to dwelle amonges hem, longer than 7 dayes and 7 nyghtes ; ne
that no Child that were Male, scholde duelle amonges hem,
lenger than he were noryscht ; and thanne sente to his Fader."

Marco Polo says that,'"* distant from Kesmacoran about
five hundred raiies toward the south, in the ocean, there are two
islands, within about thirty miles of each other, one of which is
inhabited by men without the company of women, which is
called the Island of Males, and the other by Avomen without
men, which is called the Island of Females.

The Arabs had a similar tradition regarding an "Island of
Women." ""

The Chinese writings mention many countries of Amazons,""
one in particular being known as ^ -^ ^, Nu-tsz'-kwoh, and
said to be situated to the north of Wu-bien.

In the fabulous account of the origin of Ceylon, detailed by
Hiuen Ts'ang, it is stated that two vessels loaded with provisions
and necessaries set sail from Southern India, one carrying young
men and the other young women. The vessel on which the
damsels embarked arrived at the western part of Persia, in a
country inhabited by genii. Those who landed had children by
their intercourse with the genii, and established the "Great Oc-
cidental Kingdom of Women." '^"

THE COUNTRY OF TVOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 489

De Paravey,*"* after enumerating several countries of Ama-
zons mentioned by Chinese writers, says :

" The Chinese books also place an ancient Country of Ama-
zons near the Caspian Sea." "The Chinese texts name them
Kiu-mou-yo, and also, by abbreviation, Niu-moUy and in this
name the character moii is written in three or four different
manners ; and it was undoubtedly the same with the character
yo, which originally accompanied it. If the name is written
^, Niit, ^, mou, ^, yu, it signifies ' "Women without Breasts,''
and exactly translates the name given them by the Greeks,
A-mazons (from d, without, and [la^b^y breast).''^

It is well known that in America the largest river of the
world took its name from a similar story."" In Charlevoix's
" History of Paraguay " it is stated that, when Ribera was among
a tribe of Indians named the Urtuezez, he examined separately
many of the Indians of the neighbourhood concerning the coun-
try that lay beyond them, and they unanimously told him that,
at ten days' march to the northwest, there were large towns in-
habited by women, who were governed by a woman.'"

Cronise, in his " Natural Wealth of California," makes men-
tion of an ancient tradition to the effect that, when the Spaniards
first arrived in California, they found a tribe, in what is now
Mendocino County, in which the squaws were Amazons, and exer-
cised a gynecocracy ; and Powers adds that he is inclined to think
that the fable was not without some foundation.""" Hervas "*' says
that among the Chulotecas in Nicaragua the men " are subject to
the women." Mention is also made"' of a cape of Yucatan called
the " Cape of the Women," and said to be so called because of
the idols of women which were found in a temple there.

The opinion has frequently been expressed that these tradi-
tions regarding tribes of women may have originated from the
contemptuous application of the term "women," by warlike
tribes, to those in their neighbourhood whom they thought less
valiant than themselves. The Mexicans applied this epithet to the
Tlascalans,'*'*" when they approached the capital with the Span-
iards, and also designated the Tlatilulcas by the same term.'"

A more likely explanation seems, however, to be found in the
fact that when, as for instance among the Caribs,"" the men
went on a military expedition, the women defended their homes
against the attacks of enemies ; or else in the custom — which has

■[•r

i >

490

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

been made use of by some timid and peaceful tribes when they
were threatened with attack by powerful enemies, or when they
wished to propitiate strangers — of sending the women to meet
them, while the men remained at home ; this action being con-
sidered as a pledge of friendship and security.""

Whatever the cause may have been, the fact remains that
among the Mexicans there were traditions not only of white
men, and men with beards, but also of a nation of Amazons.""

In all the old maps of Mexico there will be found, upon the
Pacific coast, the name " Cihuatlan," sometimes spelled with an
initial S or with the h replaced by g or q. Scarcely any two of
them agree as to its exact location, the old maps of the coun-
try being so incorrect that Clavigero says that he did not find a
single one among them which was not full of errors, as well in
respect to the latitude and longitude of the places as in regard
to the division of the provinces, the course of the streams, and
the direction of the coast.""

In the " Munich v^ tlas," No. 6, supposed to have been drawn
between 1532 and ; *0, the name appears with the termination co,
as Ciguatanco. De Laet gives the name as Cimatlan.'"* George
Home gives it as Ciguatlan, and says that it is situated in Cul-
vacan."" In Clavigero' > map^ Cihuatlan appears upon the Pacific
coast, in the province of Zacatollan, a little southeast of the city
of that name.""* Ranking, who follows Clavigero, with the ex-
ception of rectifying the latitudes and longitudes, places this
town or district in about 103° 30' west longitude, and 18° 30'
north latitude, some distance northwest of Acapulco.'"' Gage
places Ciguatlan upon the Pacific coast, almost due west of the
city of Mexico, and Siquatlan near Sacatula, a few miles back
from the coast ; "" while d'Avity gives two places named Cigua-
tlan, one near the extreme north and the other near the extreme
south of Mexico."

Buschmann says that '" " Cihuatlan" (meaning " the Place or
Land of Women ") is the name from which the south wind takes
its designation, and is applied to an old place upon the Pacific
Ocean, somewhat southerly from Zacatollan, and to a place
southerly from Tabasco, upon the eastern coast, apparently in
the land of Guatemala. Cihxiatlampa is defined as meaning "to
the west," and the west wind is therefore called Cihuatlampa
ehecatl {ehecatl meaning wind), and he says that the word in

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 491

question is derived from Cihuatl, *^ woman," combined with tho
place-particle tlan, and the post-position joa, " toward, against,
near"; thus the compound means "toward the Woman's Land,"
or from there here, or it may also be defined us •* toward Cihuat-
lan." *" Sahagun says that Cihuatlampa means " near the wom-
en," and adds that the Indians supposed that the women who
died in childbed went to that part of tho heaven where the sun
sets ; hence the term was used figuratively to denote the west.

The commander-in-chief of the Mexican army, who was slain
in the battle at Otumba in 1520, was named Cihuacatzin, meaning
" the honoured chief of Cihuacan," or of " the Woman's King-
dom." ^"

Cortez, in one of his letters to the Spanish emperor, says :
" Not only the province of Zacatula, but many others adjoining
it, offered themselves as vassals of your imperial majesty, name-
ly, Aliman, Colimonte, and Ciguatan. A captain, sent on an ex-
pedition to Zacatula and its neighbourhood, brought an account
of the land of Ciguatan, in which there is affirmed to be an island
inhabited by women without any men, although at certain times
they are visited by men from the main-land : and if the women
bear female children, they are protected ; but if males, they are
driven from their society. The island is ten days' journey from
that province, and many have gone there and seen it. They
also tell me it is very rich in pearls and gold ; respecting which
I shall labour to obtain the truth, and to give your majesty a full
account of it." "««

Nuiio de Guzman undertook an expedition in search of this
land of Amazons, which, in some accounts, was stated to lie at a
distance of only three days' journey from the city of Mexico.""

In an interview with the chief Tangaxoan, he, " thinking to
obtain information that would be useful to him in the expedition
which he contemplated making to the north of Mexico, inter-
rupted him to demand a description of the northern provinces.
* Who of you, said he, * has heard mention made of the cele-
brated cities of Teo-Culhuacan and Cihuatlan, where the women
are sovereign to the exclusion of the me" ? ' They answered that
they had no knowledge of them. * Ah well ! I know where they
are situated,* replied Guzman, * and I am in hope of going there
to conquer them, and one of you shall accompany me.' " '"

After a month's stay at Chametla, the army proceeded nor h to

492

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the Quozala province, and thence to Piastla, easily subduing the
natives of the district. The women were becoming more beauti-
ful as thoy continued their course, which seemed to indicate that
they were approaching the object of their dreams ; and indeed
glowing reports of Cihuatlan, the " Place of Women," confirmed
the marvelous tales which had reached the capital. . . . These
Spaniards awoke to disappointment when they learned, at Cihu-
atlan, that the Indians had been telling stories to amuse them ;
that there was no Amazon island or other great wonder there
awaiting them. Yet for a long time they continued to talk of
these things, and in a measure to believe in them, though they
knew them to be false.*"

Bancroft , in his " History of the North Mexican States," says
that Ciguatan, " Place of Women," was a province of eight pueb-
los, on a river of the same name, also called, in Spanish, Rio de las
Mugeres, and apparently to be identified with the stream now
known as Rio de San Lorenzo. The name Quil4, used in the
narratives, is still applied to a town on that river. The rich and
mysterious isles of the Amazons had been from the first one of
the strongest incentives to northwestern exploration in the minds
of both Cortez and Guzman. The cosmographer, by his vagaries,
had furnished the romancer with sufficient foundation for the
fable ; the tales of natives from the first conquest of Michoacan
had seemed to support it ; and as Guzman proceeded northward,
and drew nearer to Ciguatan, his hopes were greatly excited. Na-
tives along the route were willing to gratify the Spanish desire for
the marvelous, or perhaps the interpreter's zeal outran his lin-
guistic skill. The women of Ciguatan were represented as living
alone, except during four months of the year, when young men
from the adjoining provinces were invited to till their fields
by day, and rewarded with their caresses at night. Boy babies
were killed or sent to their fathers ; girls were allowed to grow
up. These details, with some variations, are repeated by each
writer as having been told before they arrived and as corrobo-
rated more or less completely by what they saw and heard at
Ciguatan, where they found many women and few men. But,
as several of them admit, it was soon discovered that the men had
either fled to avoid the Spaniards, or to make preparations for an
attack. The Amazon bubble had burst ; but the soldiers were by
no means inclined to forget the marvels on which their imagina-

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 493

tioii had so long feasted : they continued to talk, long after they
returned to Mexico, of the wonderful City of Women.

Lopez, " Rel.," p. 443, says only three males and one thousand
women were found in one town. Armienta, "Apuntes pura la
Historia de Sinoloa," says : " These towns were found to be at
this time inhabited by women alone, in conformity with a religious
vow which obliged them to live separate from their husbands for
a period of twenty Aztec years." He calls the Amazon towns
Abuya and Binapa, at the base of the Tacuchamona range, on
the other side of which was Quezala — confounded with the later
and more northern Casala. lie also describes the reception at
Navito by sixty thousand natives. This narration, written for a
Sinoloa newspaper, seems to be mainly taken from Tello's work.

Oviedo, iii, 576-577, heard these tales from the soldiers in
Mexico ; but, meetl .g Guzman later in Spain, was told the truth.
This author says the chief pueblo was a well-built town of six
thousand houses, lie also names Orocomay as another Amazon
pueblo. Herrera, dec. iii, lib. viii, chap, iii, calls the town
Zapuatan.*"

Gonaara suggests that all the stories of this wonderful land
may have originated from the name *' Place of Women." *'*
Whatever the reason may have been for the existence of this
name, the fact is beyond dispute that there was a region of
Mexico so-called ; and it is a proof of the lack of care, in former
examinations of Hwui Sha,n's story, that no one has ever called
attention to this fact in connection with his accoi t. As to
the statement that the Country of Women lay to the east of
Fu-sang, a glance at a map of Mexico will show that the Pacific
coast of that country lies almost due east and west, and that a
region farther down the coast than that in which a voyager from
Asia would naturally land would lie easterly from it, as well as
to the west or southwest of the city of Mexico.

II. — Its people's bodies are hairy, and they have long

LOCKS, THE ENDS OF WHICH REACH TO THE GROUND.

The whole account of these inhabitants of the " Country of
Women " is so evidently a description of the monkeys of South-
ern Mexico, that it is surprising that it has never before been
noticed.

Where monkeys are found, the idea seems often to have oc-
curred to men to account for the resemblance of the monkey to

'■fv

!ir

;Il:

I'l

jlUUin'

IP.

404

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

mankind by making of the first a fallen or changed form of the
latter.*" According to the Quiches, when man was, for the third
time, created, the gods took counsel together. It was decided
that a man should be made of wood and a woman of a kind of
pith. They were made ; but the result was in no wise satisfac-
tory. They led a useless existence ; they lived as the beasts
live ; they forgot the Heart of Heaven. Then was the Heart
of Heaven wroth ; and he sent ruin and destruction upon those
ingrates. Thus were they all devoted to chastisement and de-
struction, save only a few who were preserved as memorials of
the wooden men that had been ; and these now exist in the
woods as little apes.'""

The stories of pygmies have probably all been founded upon
the existence of quadrumana ; and it is not wonderful that a
traveler, passing through strange lands, and meeting many
remarkable tribes, with peculiarities and customs formerly un-
known, should, when he first sees monkeys or apes, suppose that
they too are some strange wild tribe of human beings.

According to Latin authorities, the Pygmies are a small kind
of people living in Arabia, as stated by Pomponius in his third
book. As Pliny also writes, in his seventh book, the Pygmies
inhabit the farthest mountains of India, a region always health-
ful and spring-like, opposite to the northern mountains, and
they are greatly molested by the cranes. It is said that, in the
spi'ing-time, they, being armed with arrows, all descend to-
gether, in an array, to the sea, and live upon eggs and young
birds ; being in such flocks that they can not be resisted. Gelius
testifies that their height does not exceed two feet and a quarter.
Their females bear young when five years old, and they become
aged at the age of eight years. ""

Maundevile states that in'''* "the Lond of Pigmaus, the
folk ben of litylle Stature, that ben but 3 Span long : and thei
ben right faire and gentylle, after here quantytees bothe the
Men and the Wommen. And thei raaryen hem, whan thei ben
half Yere of Age and geten Children. And thei lyven not but
6 Yeer or 7 at the moste. And he that lyvethe 8 Yeer, men
holden him there righte passynge old.'*

It will be observed that these accounts of the pygmies agree
in several respects with Hwui Shan's statements as to the pecul-
iarities of the inhabitants of the Country of Women.

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 495

Muundevilo's account of an " Ylo " in which " ben folk, that
gon upon hire Ilondes and hire Feet, as Bcstes : and thei ben
alle skynned and fedred, and thei wolde lepen als lightly in to
Trees, and fro Tree to Tree, as it were Squyrelles or Apes," ""
is evidently another variation of the descriptions of the quadru-
mana.

The notion of mountaineers with tails seems to have its origin
in the name of orang utan, or " wild men," given to certain apes
that particularly resemble the human species.""

In India, the worship of Hanuman, a rational and very
amusing ape of the Hindu mythology, who, with an army of his
own species, assisted Rama in the conquest of Ceylon, has pro-
duced a feeling of veneration for the whole race of quadrumana,
hut particularly for those of the larger class, whose form ap-
proaches nearest to that of the human race. Here we have a
variation of the customary confusion, however, as it has been
conjectured, with much plausibility, that in this case the so-called
monkeys of Rama's army were in fact the half-savage mount-
aineers of the country near Comorin.'"'

Several cases of confusion between quadrumana and human
beings occur in the Chinese books. Thus the " Wvungling or
Remonstrating People " are described as a race of pygmies seven
inches high."" The people of " Lik-pit " are said to be about
three inches high, having wings, and because of their skill in
talking and joking they are called " the Eloquent Nation." ""

In both cases there is an evident reference to the almost
ceaseless chattering of a troop of monkeys ; while the statement
that they have wings, is merely a figurative method of expressing
the lightness and ease with which they vault from tree to tree,
for, as Acosta says, " " they almost seem to fly like the birds."

The Chinese also mention a country of Long-armed People: '"*
again an evident allusion to some species of ape. One of the
most unquestionable references to a country inhabited by apes
is found in their account of the country of Chu-ju, the Land of
Pygmies.'"' A literal translation of Ma Twan-lin's account of
this land is given below :

" In the Chu-ju (or Pygmy) country, the people are only
four (Chinese) feet tall (or four feet eight inches of our stand-
ard). It is south of the Black-teeth and Naked-people's coun-
tries, which are four thousand U or more distant from Japan.

490

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Tlio ship whould then go to tho southwoHt for perlmps a year,
some It'll thousand //, when tho Sea-people are reached. They
have black bodie.s and white eyes, and are naked and ugly.
Their ttanh is delicious, and the travelers Honjctimes shoot and
eat them."

The last sentence has usually been translated, "The travel-
ers who arc plump run tho risk of being killed with their arrows,
and then eaten." Tho Chinese text, however, clearly indicates
that the bancjuet is not one at which the pygmies eat, but one at
which they are eaten. As tho travelers referred to were not
cannibals, these pygmies can have been nothing else than apes.

In America, Hennepin reports that some of tho Indians who
visited him from the extreme west, who occupied four months
in making the journey, said tliat beyond them there were pyg-
mies, or small men."" Juan Alvarez Maldonado, wlio made an
expedition from Cuzco in the year 1501, reported that when he
descended the eastern range of tho Andes, ho had scarcely cleared
the rough and rocky ground of the slope when his party encount-
ered two pygmies. They shot the female, and the male died of
grief six days afterward.'"'

It will be seen, from the references that have been given, that
travelers in all parts of the world have frequently described
monkeys as people, or as pygmies, and yet there are, undoubted-
ly, many who will be ready to denounce Hwui Shtin as " a lying
Buddhist priest," because he falls into the same error, notwith-
standing the fact that he gives an accurate description of the
Mexican monkeys, and mentions many peculiarities which were
never possessed by any race of human beings ; and one which
distinguishes them from all other monkeys of the world.

As to the monkeys of Mexico, the Encycloptedia Britan-
nica says that,"" in America, north of Panama, the genera as
yet known to be represented are Chrysothrix, JVi/ctipithecus,
Cebus, Ateles, 3Ti/cetes, and JTapale, in Veragua ; Nyctipithe-
cus, Cebus, Ateles, and Mycetes, in Costa Rica and Nicaragua ;
Ateles and Mycetes, in Guatemala ; and Ateles, in Southern Mexi-
co. The statement is added that,""" in the New World, the
highest northern latitude certainly known to be attained is 18"
or 19° [Ateles melanochir), in Southern Mexico, but they possi-
bly reach even latitude 23°.

Nott and Glidden,"" quoting from Richardson's " Report on

TUE COUNTUV OF WOMEN AND ITS INIIAUITANTS. 497

North American Zoology," contiiiuod in tlio publications of tho
ItritiHh AHHOt'itttion fur tlu> Adviiiici'iiient of Scii'ticc, vol. v,
1837, p. I'M, say that tho inonki'ys whiih enter into the Houthern
provincoM of Mexico beloiijjf to tho genera Mi/irten and J/ajxile.
They alwo mention Wagner's statement (found in tho publica-
tions of tho liavariu Academy at Munich for 184(1, p. fil), that
apes are found in the southern provinces of Mexico.""^ Of tho
two hundred and ten wpecies of monkeys whi(;h were classified
in 1882, twenty-six belonged to the genua Ilainde and seven to
the genus Mt/cetea,"^^

The statement is made by Acosta that '^ all the mountains
of the islands, of tho main-land, and of tho Andes, have an in-
finite number of Micos, or apes, which aro of tho race of monk-
eys, but different from tho fact that they have a very long tail.
Among them are some species which are three times or even
four times as largo as tho common ones ; some are entirely
black, others chestnut coloured, others gray, and others spotted
and mixed. Their agility, and their manner of doing things {leur
fafon defaire)y aro admirable ; for they seem to have reason,
and to discourse with each other as they travel through tho trees.

Clavigero says that ""* all the species of quadriimana found
in that kingdom are known to tho Mexicans by the general
name of Ozomaili, and to the Spaniards by that of Monos.
They are of different sizes and shapes, some small and singularly
diverting, others of medium size, about as large as a badger, and
others large, strong, ferocious, and bearded, which, by some, are
called Zambos. These, when they stand erect, as they sometimes
do, upon two feet, almost equal a man in stature.

Hernandez states that ""^ they are of various sizes and colours,
some being found that are black, others whitish, and others
brown ; some being large, others remarkably small, and still
others of medium size ; others have canine heads, and nearly all
are burdened by clasping their young.

It is wonderful bow they bend and throw the branches of
the trees, which they have climbed on account of the traveler ;
how they cross rivers by grasping each other with their tails,
and swinging from the trees over the neighbouring rivers ; and,
above all, how well they, when wounded with an arrow or shot,
bear the wound as well as men would do, and apply moss or the
leaves of the trees to the woimd, in order to check the flowing
82

'ii.

498

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

blood, and so, if possible, to save their lives. They raise one
little one, which they carry about with them, it clinging fast
and they embracing it with wonderful devotion and love. They
are found near the heights and chief peaks of the mountains.

If it be admitted that Hwui ShUn was speaking of monkeys,
his statement, that they had hairy bodies, is evidently true, and
the lonji^ " locks," the ends of which reached to the ground, are
their tails.

The character translated " locks " closely resembles the one
since adopted for the Chinese queue. The ancient Chinese wore
their hair long, and bound upon the top of the head, somewhat
after the style of the inhabitants of the Loo Choo Islands, and,
taking pride in its glossy black, called themselves the " Black-
haire(^ Race." "*" But in 1627, while the Manchus were in pos-
sessio". of only Liautung, they Issued an order that all the Chi-
nese under them should adopt their coiffure, on penalty of death,
>.3 a sign of allegiance.'**' The fashion thus begun by compul-
sion is now followed from choice.

III. — At the second ok third month, bickering, they
ENTER THE WATER (possibly " comc dowu to the low lands or to
the streams," or perhaps " enter upon a migration " — the charac-
ter shut moaning not only " water," but also " a trip from one
placf to Piiother "). They then become pregnant. They

BEAR their YC. JNG AT THE SIXTH OR SEVENTH MONTH. (Prob-
ably of g':-9tation, but possibly of the year.)

Four statements tre made here, all of which are true of
monkeys, and i.one of which can be considered as to the same
extent charactei*ntic of any tribe of human beings :

1. They migrate at a particular season of the year.

2. They " bicker " or " chatter " so much as to excite atten-
tion to the fact.

3. They have a well-defined rutting-season.

4. The period of gestation is much shorter than it is in the
case of the human race.

Audebert says of the Sai or capuchin monkeys, that they go
in great troops in the trees, and it is particularly during the
rainy season that they are found thus collected together."

The migrations of monkeys, and their habit of coming to the
water, in great troops, in the spring, are mentioned in the ac-
counts of the pygmies which have already been given.

TliE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 499

The character ^, king, translated " bickering," was originally
formed of " words " above " a man," and this was repeated ; thus
picturing two men talking to each other, both at once. No
more appropriate character could be used to indicate the chat-
tering of monkeys.

It is strange that former translators should have imagined
that the statement of the text was intended to convey the idea
that their pregnancy was the result of bathing, rather than that
these beings had a regular rutting-season, which occurred at the
same season each year as that at which they came to the water.
The period of gestation is sufficient to put it beyond th? pale of
possibility that Hwui Shan can have been speaking of any race
of human beings. In the case of the lower Simiadce, however,
gestation lasts about seven months, while in the Ifapilince its
duration is only three months.""

It is difficult to decide as to the exact months of our year in
which the second or third months referred to by Hwui Shun
would fall.

In China the year is lunar ; but its commencement is regu-
lated by the sun, and the new year begins on the first new moon
after the sun enters Aquarius, which makes it come not before
the 21st of January, nor after the 19th of February.**"' The civil
year in China ordinarily consists of no more than twelve luna-
tions ; but an intercalary month is introduced as often as may
be necessary to bring the commencement of every year to the
second new moon after the preceding winter solstice.'*'

The year seems to have commenced on the same day in Tar-
tary, for Marsden states, in his notes upon the " Travels of Marco
Polo," that ^"' in the " Epochao Celebriores " of Ulugh Beig (the
son of Shah Rokh), translated by the learned Greaves, we are
informed that the solar year of the Kataians and Igurians com-
mences on that day in which the sun attains the middle point of
the constellation of Aquarius, and this we find from the Ephe-
meris fluctuates between the third and the fifth of February, ac-
cording to our bissextile. With respect to their civil year, we
have a satisfactoiy account in the "Voyage de la Chine," of P.
Trigault, compiled from the writings of the eminent Matt. Ricci,
who says, ** At each new year, which commences with the new
moon which precedes or closely follows the fifth of February,
from which the Chinese date the commencement of spring, an

^\. ■

iiU y

mi
lis

600

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

embassador is sent from each province to pay an official visit to
the king " : by which we should understand the new moon that
falls the nearest to (either before or after) the time of the sun's
reaching the middle point of Aquarius ; and consequently the
festival can not be assigned to any particular day of the Euro-
pean calendar.

It has been frequently attempted to fix accurately the time
when the Mexican year commenced, according to our dates ; '"
but there is no agreement upon this point between the old histo-
rians, and although many elaborate calculations have been made,
for the purpose of verifying the one or the other statement, the
results seldom agree with one another.

Sahagun says that "■" in some places they told him that it
commencfccl on a certain day in January ; in others, on the first
of February ; in others, in the beginning of March. Having
assembled in the Tlaltelolco many old Indians, the most sagacious
that could be found, and the ablest of the Spanish professors,
they discussed the matter several days, and they all concluded by
saying that the year commenced on the second day of February.

As the years were of 365 days, and thirteen days were added
at the end of fifty-two years, the first day of the year must have
varied through a cycle of thirteen days, and this will explain
some of the discrepancies quoted below.

In a table, presented by Bancroft,'" it is shown that Sahagun,
Martin de Leon, and Veytia say the year began on February
2d ; Acosta, de Laet, Clavigero, Klemm, and Carbajal Espinoso
say February 26th ; the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Telleriano
Remensis say February 24th ; Motolinia and Duran say March
1st ; Gemelli Careri says April 10th ; Gama (who is followed by
Humboldt and Gallatin) says January 9th ; Mueller says March
20th. In the fragment of the Tarasca calendar, preserved by
Veytia, it is said that the year commenced on March 22d.°'"

There is a similar disagreement as to the name of the month
which began the Mexican year. Sahagun, Torqueraada, and
Clavigero say that the first month was the one variously called
Atlcahualco, Quahuitlehua, Cihuailhuitl, or Xilomanaliztli ; ^^
Martin de Leon, Duran, Vetancurt, Klemm, Brasseur de Bour-
bourg, Carbajal Espinoso, and the Codex Vaticanus concur in
this statement. Gomara, Gemelli Careri, de Laet, and Mueller
give Tlacaxipehualiztli as the first month, with the synonym of

I Hi

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 501

Cohuailhuitl; Veytia andLorenzana give the first month as Ate-
moztli ; and Leon y Gama (repeated by Humboldt and Gallatin)
names Tititl or Itzcalli as the first month."* Other authors as-
sign the first place respectively to those months which are either
the last, the third, or the fourth month, according to Gama.*"'

Whatever the month may have been, the calendar was sub-
stantially the same in Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala, Nicaragua,
and Oaxaca as on the Aztec plateau, thus furnishing a convincing
proof of the identity of their civilization ; *" with the exception
of some variants of little importance, and some difference in the
arrangement of the names, the days of the month are found to
be everywhere the same, their meanings being probably identical
in the greater number of the different languages.*"

The weight of evidence preponderates so greatly that the first
of the year occurred some time in the latter part of the month
of February, that we can assume with a tolerable degree of cer-
tainty that the " second or third month," referred to by Hwui
Sh^n, corresponded nearly with our month of May.

IV. — Tub female-people are destitute op breasts in

FRONT OF THE CHEST, but BEHIND, AT THE NAPE OF THE NECK

(or back of the head), they have hair-roots (short hair, or a
bunch of hair, or a hairy organ), and in the midst of the
WHITE hair it is PLEASING TO THE TASTE (or there is juice).

The explanation has been made that this statement probably
arose from the fact that in some countries it has been the custom
for mothers to nurse their children over their shoulders. Mor-
gan mentions the existence of this practice in the valley of the
Columbia, and among the Esquimaux, and the Village Indians of
Colorado."" Petitot says that the women of the D6ne-dindjie8
carry their young children upon their back ; *""* and Powers
refers to the custom as in existence among the California In-
dians.'O'*

The true explanation may possibly be found in the fact that
it is the custom of monkeys to carry their young upon their
back, and the latter hang on with teeth and nails, in order to
retain their places as their mothers bound from tree to tree.
"Wafer says,""' "They skip from bough to bough, with the
young ones hanging at the old ones' back." Herndon says
that,"" among the monkeys of Brazil, the mother carries the
young upon her back until it is able to go alone. Dobrizhoffer

502

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

States that,"" in the woods, when quite young, they are carried
about on the backs of their mothers, round whose necks they
put their arms, like infants, and in this manner are borne along
the boughs of trees, wherever there is any chance of finding
food ; and Dampier confirms the statement as follows : "" " The
female monkeys find it difficult to leap with their young after
the males. They usually have two, of which they carry one
under one of their arms, and the other, which is seated upon its
mother's back, holds on with its two paws clasped about her neck
in front."

It would not be surprising if a traveler, seeing the young so
clinging to their mothers, should fancy that they were nursing.

Long hair at the nape of the neck, or back of the head,
whitish at the roots, is a peculiarity of some varieties of the genus
Ilapale, found nowhere else in the world except in Me .co and
south of that country.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica says,"'* "As to the head,
long hair is found thereon in Ilapale cedipus, and long hair is de-
veloped from the shoulders in Ilapale humeralifer.''^ Nott and
Glidden give a picture of Ilapale cedipus, showing it to be dis-
tinguished, from all the other species pictr red, by long hair at the
back of the head and neck."'* Audebert, in his description of
this species, says that " the top of the head is ornamented with
long, white hair, which forms a species of plume, which is all the
more remarkable from the fact that the rest of the head is bare.

In the female quadrumane there is no protrusion of the breast
as in the human being,"" or, in the words of Owen,''*^ " the in-
tegument covering the mammary gland is not protruded by its
enlargement in the form of a hemispheroid * breast ' ; it is cov-
ered with hair, like the rest of the body."

Since the foregoing was written, Mr. Saum Song Bo has
suggest' d to me a translation of this clause of the Chinese text
which, Trhile it is not strictly in accordance with the classical
signification of the characters, yet seems to me to convey the
idea which Hwui Sh&n intended to express.

In common, every-day use, the character ^, hiang, is some-
times employed for J^, ting, "the top or tip" of anything ; this
confusion being caused partly by the great similarity between
the two characters, and partly by the fact that the signification
of "top" is merely an extension of the original meaning of iiiaxg,

it 18 COV-

TIIE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 503

"the back or upper part of the head"; very many Chinese
characters having, in the course of centuries, had their original
power so enlarged. IIiang is therefore sometimes applied (col-
loquially) to the top of a mountain, or the tip of a finger.

Doolittle's " Vocabulary and Iland-Book of the Chinese
Language " "" gives ^ j|g, as meaning " nipple."

The characters are so much alike that it is possible that 3^,
HiAXG, has been substituted for |^, ting, cr 5K, t'eu, in the
original text. I am strongly inclined to think that this change
has been made, or that, if Hwui Shfin used the character iiiang,
he employed it with the mea.ilng "top" or " tip" (of the breast),
i. e., the " nipple," and that what he intended to say was :

" The female-people are destitute of breasts in front of the
chest, and back from the " tip " (i. e., the nipple) they have short
hair (i. e., the whole chest or breast is, with the exception of the
nipple, covered with hair), and the milk issues from the midst of
this whitish hair."

This statement is strictly true, and the common or colloquial
use of the word gives some ground for thinking this to have
been Hwui Shan's meaning ; notwithstanding the fact that the
classical dictionaries recognize only the fundamental signification
of the character.

V. — They nuese their young for one hundred days, and

THEY can then WALK. WhEN THREE OR FOUR YE4.RS OLD, THEY
BECOME FULLY GROWN. TlIIS IS TRUE ! "WlIEN THEY SEE A
HUMAN BEIXG, THEY ARE AFRAID AND FLEE TO ONE SIDE. TlIEY

VENERATE (or are devoted to) their husbands (or mates).

The statements regarding the age at which they are able to
walk and become fully grown are, of course, untrue of any race
of human beings ; but they are in curious accordance with the
classical tales of the pygmies.

The assertion, that they are afraid and flee to one side when
they see a human being, states a characteristic peculiarity of the
quadrumana, and well describes their timidity and agility. Pro-
fessor Williams's translation, in which he substitutes " man " for
" human being," seems inadmissible, as the Chinese word J^, jan,
signifies homo, not vir. There is no trace of sex in its meaning;
it is applied as often to women as to men, and it is necessary
to prefix NAN, " male," or Nir, " female," whenever it is wished to
express the gender. His translation, " They are afraid of having

504

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

husbands," differs from that of all others who have transcribed
the phrase ; and there seems to be no reason for doubting that
the true rendering is, " They venerate their husbands " : the
character ^, wei, expressing veneration, respect, awe, or devo-
tion, rather than an abject fear.

It is well known that monkeys are very faithful and affec-
tionate to their mates, and many affecting tales fire told of the
devotion shown by these animals toward their mates when the
latter have been shot."'*

It, is very singular that the assertion that these peculiar
beings inhabited a land called the Country of Women should,
for more than a century, have caused them to be considered
Amazons, in spite of the fact that they were expressly stated to
have " husbands," to whom they were faithful and devoted.

h !

I I

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. — (Concluded.)

The habit of standing erect — The colour of the inhabitants — Albinos — Aztlan,
" the White Land " — The mountain Iztaccihuail, or " the White Woman " —
The Iztauhyatl, or " salt-plant " — The salt of the Mexicans and Chinese —
References of Sahagun to the Izlauhyatl — An erroneous identification —
References to it by Hernandez — The salt-weed — The sage-brush — The char-
acteristic vegetation of Mexico — Food of the monkeys — Cattle and game
fattened upon the white sage — Its value in Asia — The Mexican rainy season
— The preceding month of "hard times" — Difficulty of obtaining food at
this season — Animals coming to lowlands in the spring to feed upon the
early vegetation — A sweet variety of sage — The use of an herb to sweeten
moat — Chinese description of monkeys — An Aztec pun — Shipwreck of a
Chinese fishing-bout — Corean fishing-boats — Japanese vessels wrecked on
the American coast — The laud reached thought to be that mentioned by
Hwui ShSn — The women of the country — The language that could not be
understood — Heads like those of puppies — The Cynocephali — Their voices
— Barking Indians — ^Their food — Their clothing — Their dwellings — The door-
ways.

There seems to be seme difficulty in accurately translating
the sent'^nce next to be considered.

VI. — Its people's manner of appearance is straight
erect (or is very correct), and their colour is (or their coun-
tenances are) a very pure white.

The i>vc characters, translated " straight erect," are defined
as meaning " upright, either physically or morally." The two
rendered " manner of appearance," mean '* air, manner, appear-
ance," when considered separately, and "the aspect of one's
manner, the appearance, air, demeanour," when taken together.
The word for " colour " also means " countenance," or " beauty."
D'Hervey translates this phrase : " The women of this kingdom
have very regular features and very white faces," while Professor
Williams gives the rendering : " The people are very sedate and
formal ; their colour is exceedingly clear and white."

!:!

ili

1 !

Ill

wK^^^^^^^^k' ■

'■'n ' ■- j' ' '

506

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

My own opinion is that it was Ilwui Shan's intention to men-
tion a fact, to which he would never have thought of referring
if he had been speaking of real men, and that was the ability of
these peculiar beings to stand erect. As to the colour (which
may be no more than the colour of their faces), it is the general
statement that, while many or most of the monkeys of Southern
Mexico are dark in colour, some of them are whitc.'^**' Audebert
says of the JIapale cedipua " that the breast, the abdomen, the
arms, the fore part of the logs, and the four extremities are white ;
and of the capuchin monkey, that, while it has undoubtedly taken
its name from the brown colour of most of this species, it varies as
to colour," there being some which are black and white, and
others gray and yellowish. He mentions particularly a white-
throated species, which differs from the capuchin monkey, prop-
erly so-called, by having a flesh-coloured face, and hair of a
beautiful white colour over the cheeks, the fore-arms, and the
breast.

Possibly Ilwui Shtin confounded the stories of these peculiar
inhabitants of Cihuatlan with the accounts of albinos which seem
to have always existed in this part of the world. Wheeler,""
Bell,"* Emory,"" and McCulloh,'"* all speak particularly of the
number of albinos to be found among the Zufiis ; Wafer gives a
long description of those found near the Isthmus of Panama,""
and Gabb "°" mentions the general report in Costa llica that
some of the Guatusos are of light colour, and have brown hair,
one w^oman bting described as being "as white as an English-
woman." Either the existence of these Albinos, or the fact that
Aztlan, the name of the traditional home of the Nahuas, or
Aztecs, means literally " the White Land," *"** may have given rise
to numerous tales of a tribe of white people to be foimd some-
where in America.

The belief that the inhabitants of Cihuatlan were white, and
were women, may, however, have arisen from the oirci.mstance
that one of the highest mountains of Mexico bears the name of
Iztaccihuatl, an Aztec tenn meaning " the White Woman," de-
riving this appellation from the fact that it mimics in its form
a fantastic dame clothed in white drapery,'''* The accompany-
ing engraving (Fig. 15), copied from a photograph by Kilburn
Brothers, of Littleton, N. II., contained in Mr. Becher's book
entitled " A Trip to Mexico," "' will show why the mountain re-

.IV' -I \ \

■.\ 'Hf

ion to men-

THE COUNTRY OF "WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 507

ceived its name. As all the region about Pike's Peak was once
known as " the Pike's Peak country," so the district in the neigh-
bourhood of " the White Woman " may have been referred to

Fio. 16.— The mountuin called Iztaccihuatl, or " the White Woman."

as " the White Woman's country," and a visitor landing upon the
coast of Mexico, and making his way some little distance into the
interior, may have had this mountain pointed out to him, rising
fur off in the southeast, and told, " There : there, in * the White
Woman's country,' these strange beings are to be found."

VII. — They eat the salt-plant. Its leaves resemble
those of the plant called by the Chinese the sie-hao (a species
of absinthe or wormwood), but its odour is more fragrant,

AND ITS TASTE IS SALTISH.

Professor Williams translates the opening words of this sen-
tence, " They eaX pickled greens " ; but in this he differs from
all other translators, and can hardly be right. As the Chinese
characters are generally used to express an idea in its broadest
sense, the same word which is used for " salt " might also be
employed for " saltish " and '* salted," but, while the character
occurring in this sentence might possibly be used with the mean-
ing " salted " or " pickled," its more usual signification is " salt in
taste, salty," "**• "saltish, briny, of a saltish taste." '"' The char-
acter ts'ao, ]& translated " plant," is the word from which the

riff'

IIIlM,,

^15

;. !

li' !

|i!j ;•!

PIlHlfil'

•I"

If!

^^M ?

508

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

English term "poy " has been derived, and is applied to all plants
used for salad — as lettuce, cabbage, and spinach — and also to the
leaves of turnips and radishes when used as greens.*'^ Hence
it will be seen that the characters translated ** salt-plant " might
also mean " salted plants " or " pickled greens " ; but the con-
nection is such that there seems no good reason to doubt that
the correct rendering is that given at the head of this section.

When I first saw the phrase, " They eat the * salt-plant,' " I
turned to the Aztec die naries to see whether they gave any
term equivalent to " salt-plant," and immediately found the word
"Iztauiiyatl"*"' defined as "absinthe," " axenxios, o asenaios
yeriia" "" or " wormwood." '" This word is evidently a com-
pound of iztatl,^^"^ "salt"*"' (the terminal tl being dropped in com-
pounding, according to the usual rule), with a form of the verbal
root A«cya,"' " to grow, to increase." The plant in question
therefore corresponds, both in its name and in the botanical
family of which it is a member, with the description of Hwui
Shan. It undoubtedly derived its name from its taste, which
must more resemble that of the crude, bitter salt, containing
magnesia, which is made in China by the evaporation of sea-
water,"** or the alkaline efflorescence used by the Indians of Mexi-
co,'"^ than that of the refined article to which we are accustomed.

As to the plant in question, Sahagun states that, the evening
before the feast of Uixtocihuatl* (the goddess of salt), the women,
old and young, and the girls, devote themselves to dancing,*'*"
moving in a ring, united by small cords, of which each holds an
end, which are called xochin^jcatl (i. e., flowery ropes ; from xoch-
itl, flowers, and mecatl, a rope, cord, or garland), and which are
wreathed with the flowers of the absinthe of the country, which
is called iztauhyatl. The French translators of Sahagun's work add
a note, stating that the plant is the Artemisia lacifiiata, and is
called in Spanish estqfiate ^an evident corruption of the Aztec
name). The botanical name was probably given on the author-
ity of Colmeiro ; '"*' but Professor Asa Gray informs me that it can
not be correct, as the Artemisia laciniata is a native of Asia, and
is not found in America.

Sahagun, in other places, refers to it as an odourif erous plant,
resembling the absinthe of Spain,"'" and also says that it " resem-

* This name should evidently be spelled htacihuatl, from ixtatl, salt, and
cihucUl, woman. — E. P. V.

sUail, salt, and

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 509

bles the incense used in Spain." "" IJancroft tli'sc ribcs it as " a
sweet-smelling herb." '"'* Hernandez makes a number of refer-
ences to it, but beems to treat it as a plant too eomnion and too
well known to be worthy of description. He says, for instance,
that the tzayuanyueni is an herb having long, large, and narrow
leaves, divided into five parts, and resembling the Iztau/ii/atl, or
Jndlcum absinth ium.^^'^ The flowers of the (Idnof/itilonipath',
which are described as "yellowish and growing in a thin si)ike,"
are said to be not dissimilar to those of the absinthium."'"' A
decoction of xoxocapatli and iztauhiatl is said to be used as a
remedy for pains in the joints.'"" The yztacchyatl, or " bitter
salt " (possibly a mere variant of the name iztauJujatl), is de-
scribed"** as an herb similar in form and properties to absinthe,
and is said to be, on that account, indiscriminately substituted
for the latter in New Spain. Two species are known, the broad-
leaved and the narrow-leaved. It grows in temperate and warm
places, and its seeds, having probably been carried to Spain for
sale, have been dispersed there. It is used to cure pains arising
from cold, for colic, and for the bowels. Quauh yetl or pieictl
(two species of tobacco) is usually added, to strengthen the inter-
nal organs ; it is beneficial to patients who are suffering from
nausea, and to infants that throw up milk. Administered with
ecapatli, or the JLaurus Indica, it acts as a physic : the decoc-
tion is used to bathe the swelled legs of the infirm. Hernandez
also describes a plant named the iztauhyapatli, and as ^'patli "
means "remedy," the compound is equivalent to " the Iztauhyatl
remedy," and the plant is therefore very probably the same that
is elsewhere called the yztauhyatl, or iztauhyatl. This is de-
scribed as follows : " The root is ovate and ferruginous ; the wil-
lowy leaves are in fours, long, not serrated, and are ash-coloured
on the under side ; the length of the leaves is about six inches,
and the breadth does not exceed half an inch." '""

I have not been able to learn the botanical name of the plant,
or obtain any further information regarding it, but it must be
common in Mexico. There is a town in that country, in Oaxaca,
on the Rio Grande, called, after it, Istayata. Morgan '"" and
Bandelier '-* mention a plant named the " salt- weed" as growing
in the adobe soil of Southern Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexi-
co, which may or may not be the same plant.

The common sage-brush of the plains was called absinthe by

510

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

tho Canadian voyagonrs,"" and IK'll i)articiilarly mentions the fact
that, in the uplands of tho valley of tho Colorado Kiver, in Ari-
zona, most of tho plantH, ineludinp especially tho artcraisias and
other Khrubhy corn])osit(B, aro smoarod with a resinous varniHh,
which ^ives out a jileasant, stimulating aroma, noticed by ncnrly
all desert travelers."' In this respect, at least, the artemisias
described by him thcreforo corresponded with tho " salt-plant "
mentioned by Ilwui Shun. Professor Haird informs mo that, while
the sage-brush of tho West is principally tho Artemiain, triden-
tata of Nuttall, tho term is also applied to two or throe other
species which resomblo it, mainly Artenmia arcana, A. arhus-
ciihi, and A. trijida. Appletons' Cyclopaedia *' says that the com-
mon sage-brush of tho American plains is Artemisia Lndovi-
ciana. Haydon's "Preliminary Report of tho United States
Geological Survey of Wyoming " '"' mentions tho A. tridcntata,^*"
Canadensis, trijida, cana, Ludoviciana, Jiichardsoniana, /ri-
ff ida,^" scopulonem, borealis, and Jilifolia,^^* as different varieties
of artemisia found in that Territory. Whatever tho species or
variety may bo, there can be no doubt that tho iztauhyati, or
" salt-plant," of Mexico, is some variety of artemisia, not widely
different from the sago-brush of tho Northern plains. Those who
have traveled in Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico will, I think,
admit that the characteristic vegetation of the country, and in
fact nearly all of the vegetation that can be seen in many dis-
tricts, consists of varieties of the agave, or century-plant, of spe-
cies of cactii (of which the prickly-pear is an exceedingly common
and representative form) and of the sage-brush. With the ex-
ception of the last, this vegetation is not only characteristic of tho
region in question, but it is indigenous nowhere else. If it be
thought that the story of Hwui Shdn is a fable, it is certainly
remarkable that he gives a description of just these three plants
and of no others. In Mexico and its neighbourhood, plants
answering his descriptions are to bo found, and they can not be
found elsewhere in tho world.

IJut is this " salt-plant " over eaten by the monkeys of Mexi-
co ? On this point I can not obtain any very positive informa-
tion, although those whom I have consulted, who are acquainted
with the habits of these animals, do not think it likely that they
feed upon it. Dr. Oswald informs me that, although their natu-
ral food consists of fruits and nuts, tho monkeys of Gibraltar

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS IN'HAHITANTS. 611

will somutimt'S tat the Rprouts of currant-huHhos. It may not
bo out of plaoo to call attention to tho fact that, howcvor <lirt-
tasteful wormwood or sago may bo to us as a food, numerous
animals feed upon these plants with avi<lity. Many of the cattle
of tho far West, as well as the game of tho same region, feed and
fatten )ipon little else than tho " white sage." James mentions
the fact that several species of artemisia are eaten by the bisons,
and that his horses were sometimes " reduced to the ni'cessity "
of feeding upon them ;"" and Boll says that a spoc'ies of wild
sage, which grows in many places in Mexico, giv^es the beef a
peculiar and delicious flavour.*** Pallas mentions that the"'"*
white absinthium {Artemisia alha) and tho cami)hor-plant {('am-
phoroama monspeliaca) are found in all the deserts of Asia,
covering extensive regions with their creeping roots and their
shoots, which make a species of turf, like fine moss. In win-
ter they form tho principal food of the numerous herds of the
Kalmucks and the Kirguis, as they preserve their natural state
under the snow, which is but scanty in this country, tho little
that falls melting almost immediately. Tho lierds therefore
have but little difficulty in finding these plants. They eat them
but little during the summer, as they liavo a great number
of others upon which they rely. The Kirguis call these two
plants jottschanu, and take great care to establish their win-
ter habitations in places in which they grow. This small species
of absinthium is remarkable for its flower, which, in its odour,
taste, and figure, resembles the "worm-seed." If this latter
were not mixed with small stems, it might be mistaken for
this plant.

In Mexico the rainy season begins as a rule in the first half
of May,"" or in some districts not until tho beginning of June,*"
and lasts until October •^^ or November."" No drop of rain falls
in December and January, and but little in February or April.*"
In the month of May the whole countiy seems parched and
^j.y S058 j^qj. ^ \QSkiy not a bud ; the branches and boughs are
naked, and covered with a thick coating of gray dust ; nothing
to intercept the sight in the thicket but tho bare trunks and
branches, with the withes entwining them. Early in June come
the first refreshing showers. As if a magic wand had been
waved over the land, the view changes — life springs every-
where. In the short space of a few days, the forests have re-

512

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

{

!ii

'(«i

Bumed their holiday attire ; buda appear and the leaves shoot ;
the flowers bloom, sending forth their fragrance, that, wafted by
the breeze, perfumes the air far and near ; the birds sing their
best songs of joy ; the insects chirp their shrillest notes ; butter-
flies of gorgeous coloirs flutter in clouds in every direction, in
search of the nectar contained in the cups of the newly openod
blossoms, and dispute it with the brilliant humming-birds. All
creation rejoices, because a few tears of mother Nature have
brought joy and happiness to all living beings, from the smallest
blade of grass to the majestic palm, from the creeping worm to
man.

Of the months occurring at the dry season of the year,
Atlcahualco bears a name meaning "the buying or scarcity of
water," "" Atemoztli means " the drying up of the waters," '*" the
following month, Tititl, was called the month of " hard times," '"
and Itzcalli * means " revivification," or " the sprouting of the
grass." ""

From the name "Tititl," the month of "hard times," it ap-
pears that the Aztecs found it diflicult to obtain food during the
dry season, when the old crop was nearly exhausted, and the new
one had not commenced to grow. If they found this a season
of " hard times," the quadrumana can hardly have fared better.
Living upon fruits and nuts, when they could be obtained, they
must have found some substitute during the season when these
were not to be had. Sahagun says of the raccoon that, "during
the winter, when neither fruits nor maize can bo found, it eats
rats and reptiles.""" To what did the quadrumana resort?
Andebert, quoting from Buffon, says that the capuchin monkeys
are very fond of cockchafers and snails." Wafer claims that he
saw monkeys breaking oyster-shells on the sea-shore, and eating
the oysters. ^^^^ It is therefore evident that they are not wholly
confined to fruits, nuts, and roots.

Why did the peculiar inhabitants of the Country of Women
come to the water at the second or third month, or just about
the beginning of the rainy season ? In the United States, the
antelopes of the Rocky Mountain region, which spend the winter
in the mountains, come down to the plains in great numbers in
spring to eat the tender vegetation, which first starts in the low-

* Molina defines Izcalia " to open, to expand, to come to one's self, to resusci-
tate, to revive."

fSral^R

TFIE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 513

lands near the streams. May not a similar cause lead the quad-
rumana of Mexico to the lowlands near the water at the beginning
of the rainy season ? If so, they could not find either fruits or
nuts, but Avould be compelled to live upon the young and tender
sprouts of some one or more species of plants. It would seem as
if, at this season of the year, no other plant would be more likely
to furnif.h them with edible sprouts than some species of sage-
brush, the iztauhyatl, or " salt-plant." This is of course a mere
presumption. It is not proved that the monkeys eat the plant
in question, but it certainly does not seem impossible that they
may, and, for myself, as Hwui Shiin tells so much that is proved
to be true, I do not think it unsafe to rely upon his statement
in this case.

It is possible, however, that there is a reversion, at this point
in his account, from the monkeys of Cihuatlan to the people of
that region, and that he means to say that the latter eat the
salt-plant. Dupaix mentions that, in the neighbourhood of
Tequilla, he found a species of sage gi'owing vigorously in the
shape of a branching bush, its taste being so agreeable that it is
there called " the sweet herb." ^"^ Possibly this may be the plant
to which reference is made, or the practice mentioned by Gage
may be referred to.'^*

" These also will now and then get a wild Dear, shooting it
with their bows and arrows. And when they have killed it, they
let it lie in the Wood, in some hole or bottom, covered with leaves,
for the space of about a week, untill it stink and begin to be
full of wormes ; then they bring it home, cut it out into joints,
and parboil it with a herbe which groweth there, somewhat like
unto our Tanzy, which they say sweetcneth it again, and maketh
the flesh eat tender, and as white as a piece of Turkey."

Although it seems impossible, with our present information,
to decide whether the iztauhyatl is eaten either by men or monk-
eys, the fact remains that there is in the region indicated by Hwui
Sh5n a plant which answers to his description, inasmuch as it is
called " the salt-plant," and, being a species of absinthe, must re-
semble the Chinese plants of the same genus ; its taste is saltish,
and its odour fragrant, just as stated by our Buddhist traveler.

Identifying the " people " of the ** Country of Women " as
monkeys, it seems strange that mention is not made of their
size, and of the fact that they live in the trees.
88

! !

AN INGLORIOUS OOLLMBUS.

It has occurred to me as possible that Yu Kie may have failed
to understand Hwui Shan on these points, or may have doubted
his report, and so suppressed what he said regarding them. One
of the most common names given by the Chinese to a mythical
land of Amazons is ^ -f^ @, woman-child-lax ' . This is
usually translated the " Land of Women and Children " ; but the
Chinese frequently '™' suffix ^, child, as a diminutive ; "" and
the compound -^ ■^, woman-child, is used for "girl." "" The
name of the Amazonian country may, therefore, have meant
originally the " Land of Zittle Women," rather than " the Land of
Women and Children " ; and the traditions among the Chinese,
that the inhabitants of Fu-sang have the power of flying in
the air, may have arisen from stories of the gambols among the
trees of the inhabitants of the " Woman's Land."

We should hardly expect complete accuracy in the reports ex-
tant in a land like China, in which the most scientific account that
they have of a species of monkey living in their own country is
that " its nose is turned upward, and the tail is very long and
forked at the end, and whenever it rains the animal thrusts the
forks into its nose. It goes in herds, and lives in friendship ;
when one dies, the rest accompany it to burial." '**'

In closing the examination of this account of the Country of
Women, it may be well to endeavour to discover the origin of
the term. Several explanations have already been suggested ;
but none of them seem satisfactory. It is my opinion that the
traditions regarding the land of Amazons arose from the name,
as an attempt to explain it, rather than that the name arose from
the existence of any region inhabited exclusively by women. It
seems to me to be possible that, when the inhabitants of the
northern part of Mexico heard vague reports of the remarkable
beings found in the southern part of that country, they, not hav-
ing formerly heard the word opMma^^j,"" "° or offomatli^^^ (for
the Mexicans always confounded the vowels o and u, some pro-
nouncing their words with one vowel and some with the other,"""),
which was the term applied to monkeys, mistook it for the very
similar word pouatl,^*^ s^ohuatl,^^* ciuatl,^*^^ or eihuatl,^'^ meaning a
woman ; and hence supposed the term O^omatlan, meaning " the
Region of Monkeys," to be the compound ^ohuatlan, or Cilma-
tlan, signifying " the Region or Country of Women." After this
mistake bad once been made in the name, traditions of a land in-

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 515

habited exclusively by women would, almost inevitably, spring
up.

Our examination of the official record of Ilwui Shan's state-
ments has been completed, and, with the exception of the short
account next given, there seems to be no reason to believe that
the lands described by him were ever visited by any of the Chi-
nese. Ma Twan-lin seems to have thought, however, that some
Chinese sailors, who were shipwrecked on a distant seacoast, and
who succeeded in making their way back to China, were thrown
upon the shores of the same Country of Women that was do-
scribed by our Buddhist explorer, and he therefore joins their
story to the account of that land given by Ilwui Shiin.

VIII. — In the reign of the Liang dynasty, under the em-
peror Wu-Ti, in the sixth tear of the period designated by the
name Tien-kiex, or "Celestial Protection" (i. e., in 507 a. d.),

SOME MEN OF TsiX-NGAN, WHO WERE CROSSING THE SEA, WERE
DRIVEN BY THE WIND TO A CERTAIN ISLAND (or tO the Same

island or seacoast). They went ashore and found the in-
habitants' DWELLINGS.

Piofessor Williams says "a man," instead of "some men,"
and, as the Chinese language does not, as a rule, distinguish be-
tween the singular and the plural, it can not be determined, other-
wise than by inference, which was meant, in this case. It seems
more probable, however, that a large boat, Bucb as would carry a
number of men, would live through a storm which would drive
it across the Pacific, than that a small boat with only a single man
should pass through such a tempest. A number of men would also
be more likely to frighten the natives away from their homos,
and thus protect themselves against attack by the inhabitants,
than would a solitary sailor. Oppert says of the Corean fisliing-
boats "'* that they resemble the Japanese more than the Chinese,
but that they are of rude construction. Each of these boats
usually carries a crew of some thirty to forty men, but some
have a crew of more than sixty.

It seems not unlikely that the vessel which was wreyked upon
the distant land, that is mentioned by Ma Twan-lin, may have
been a fishing-boat of tlie kind above referred to. It has already
been stated that Japanese junks are frequently wrecked upon the
coast of America ; but, so far as I know, no other case is mentioned
in which the survivors of the shipwreck succeeded in making

'k?'

1«

B'pi

■ m

510

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

their way back home again. It is noticeable that the case men-
tioned occurred only about half a dozen years after Ilwui Shan's
story was told in China ; and it seems not impossible that these
men may have heard the story of his travels, and of the route by
which he reached China, and so may have made their way home
up the coast of America to Alaska, and thence across to Asia, and
down the coast of that continent via the route pointed out by
our Buddhist priest.

I have ventured to Biggest that the characters — ' ^, yiii
TAG, which have formerly been translated " an island," " a certain
island," or "an unknown island," may possibly mean " the same
seacoast." The first character, although meaning literally " one,"
is sometimes used for "the same," and as it is not customary to
use the character erely as the indefinite article, and as it seems
evident that Ma Twan-lin thought this land to be the same as
that described by Hwui Shiin (for otherwise he would not have
included the two accounts in the same section), it seems probable
that he intended to use it here in its secondary meaning. The
second character is a picture of a bird and a mountain, and hence
means " a hill on which birds can alight in crossing seas," and
thus might be applied to a seacoast reached after crossing a vast
expanse of watex*, without much regard to the size of the land.

IX. — The women resembled those of the Middle Kinc-
DOM (China), but the wokds of their language could not

BE UNDERSTOOD. ThE MALES HAD HUMAN BODIES, BUT TUPPIEs'
HEADS, AND THEIR VOICES RESEMBLED THOSE OF DOGS BARKING

(or howling).

The shipwreck seems to have occurred at a point where there
eristed the custom, formerly referred to, of leaving the women
to entertain the strangers, whUe the men ran away ; and the
Chinese seem to have seen only these women, and to have sup-
posed the apes in the woods to be the males.

Many writers have spoken of the great resemblance of many
cf the tribes of the western coast of America to the Chinese,
and Mr. Leland discusses the subject at length.

It is noticeable that nowhere else in the accounts is it men-
tioned that the language of the people could not be understood,
and this statement seems applicable rather to tho chattering of
monkeys, than to any human language, of which strangers would
soon be able to understand a few words.

^»

THE COUNTRY OF WOMEN AND ITS INHABITANTS. 517

Although some tribes of savages have been referred to as hav-
ing dogs' heads,'"" the description seems rather to be that of the
Mexican monkeys, some of which, according to Clavigero, " from
having the head of a dog, appertain to the class of the Cyno-
cephali." ""' It is probable that the comparison of their voices
to those of dogs refers rather to howling than barking ; but as
the bark of the Chinese dogs is a short, thick snap, very unlike
the deep, sonorous baying of our mastiffs,'*** it is possible that
barking may be meant.

Attention should be called, in this connection, to the singular
fact that this same comparison has been made regarding the
conversation of a tribe living near the northern boundary of
Mexico. Captain Emory says of one of his interviews with the
Indians : " The chief perso.: talked all the time in a tongue re-
sembling more the bark of a mastiff than the words of a human
being. They were supposed by some to bo the Cayotes (i. e.,
"Wolves), a branch of the Apaches ; but Londean thought they
belonged to the tribe of Tremblers, who acquired their nrme from
their emotions at meeting the whites ; "^^ while Captain A. R.
Johnston says of the Apaches, ' They bayed at us like their kin-
dred wolves.' " """

X. — Among their food was "siao-teu" (little beans).

TlIEIB CLOTHING RESEMBLED LINEN (or pcrhapS COttOu) CLOTH.

Beating down the earth, they made adobe walls of a round
shape, the doors of which resembled burrows.

It seems not impossible that the characters siao-teu, mean-
ing " little beans," may have been used as an attempt both to
transcribe and translate the Aztec word cintli,'*'^ or centU,^^^^
meaning " ears of maize, cured and dried." Teu is the Chinese
term for pulse of any kind,*** and, as has been explained by M.
the Marquis d'llervey, might include grains of maize. It is a
fact, however, that the Aztecs raised beans,'" which formed one
of their principal articles of diet,"" while it was a matter of tradi-
tion that the Olmecs raised both maize and beans, before the time
of the Toltecs (Veytia, " Hist. Ant. Mej." tome i, p. 154)."* The
cloth made by the Aztecs from the fiber of the agave ^ifis already
been described, but they also made cotton cloth.'" The m;rnner
of beating down the earth, to make the adobe walls of their d .veil-
ings, seems to be the same as that mentioned by Ilwui Shtin.
Powers, in describing the houses of the aboriginal Califoruians,

iiiitB '<^

lis'

it '

i'!t! .

518

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

says that "*" the round, dome-shaped, earth-covered lodgu is con-
sidered the characteristic onr of California ; and probably two
thirds of its immense aboriginal population lived in dwellings
of this description. The doorway is sometimes directly on
top, sometimes on the ground at one side."" Wheeler states
that "" the houses of the Southern Califomians were probably
of a simple construction, though varying somewhat in different
localities. Usually they are described as conical in shape, and
built over a hole dug to the depth of a few feet. Around this
hole, poles were set, forming the frame, which was covered with
rushes and oarth. The door was sometimes on a level with the
ground, while in other houses it was placed near the top, when
it also served for an exit to the smoke.

By the term " door," as used above, it is evident that " door-
way " is meant, for they had no doors to their houses, although
among some of the American tribes a curtain was hung before
the entrance to prevent any inquisitive examination.'"'

A doorway, which might be well compared to a " burrow,"
is that used by the Esquimaux, as well as by the Mandans and
some other tribes ; the entrance to their dwellings consisting of
a passageway some five feet wide, ten or twelve feet long, and
about six feet high, constructed with split timbers, roofed with
poles, and covered with earth.""

CHAPTER XXIX.

TU kie's statements regakjing fu-sang.

The envoy from the kingdom of Fu-sang — ^Thc commission of Yu Kie — Hwui ShSn
the envoy mentioned — Yu Kie's story— The presents given to the emperor
—Til'} custom of offering tribute— The yellow silk— The term applied to
vegetable fibers — Sisal hemp — Its strength — Probability that the agave fiber
would be brought home by a traveler— The semi-transparent mirror — Mexl
can obsidian mirrors — Nature of obsidian — The " Palace of the Sun " — The
Clunese zodiac — Their horary cycle — Concave and convex mirrors — Obsidian
mirrors peculiar to Mexico — The silk taken from the agave — Lack of cocoons
— The seeds of the century-plant carried to Corca — The use of agave leaves
as fuel — The ashes used for obtaining lye — The agave fiber steeped in an
alkaline solution— The feast of Huitzilopochtli— Intercourse between Corea
and China — The Corean records — Possibility that further information may
be found in them- The palace of the king— The glitter of obsidian in the
morning light — The Country of Women again— Serpent husbands — The ex-
pedition of Nuiio de Guzman — ^The Smoking Mountain — Volcanoes — Hairy
worms — The "nopal de la tierra" -The fire-trees — The fire-rats — The Black
Valley — The Snowy Range — Huitzilopochtli — The intoxicating liquor — The
" Sea of Varnish " — Petroleum — Mineral springs — Hot springs — ^The extent
of the land — Animals — Winged men — Birds that bear human beings.

Is the appendix to the account of Fu-sang, given by the
Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, contained in the thirteenth
chapter of this work, and in the slightly different version which
was translated by Professor Williams, and which is copied in the
fourteenth chapter, it is stated that, in the commencement of the
years called tien-kiex — which were the first years of the reign
of the emperor Wu-ti, of the Liakg dynasty, beginning in 502
A. D. — an envoy from the kingdom of Fu-sang presented him-
self, and offered to the emperor divers objects from his country,
"SVu-Ti charged an official of his court, named Yu Kie, to inter-
rogate him regarding the customs and the productions of Fu-
sang, the history of the kingdom, its cities, its rivers, its mount-
ains, etc., as was the custom in similar cases whenever a for-

: I
1 1

520

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

eign erabassador visited the court. D'llervcy gives conclusive
reasons for believing that this envoy was none other than the
monk Hw'ui Shfi,n, It seems that Yu Kie wrote down the
account found in the Chinese official records, and that he in-
cluded in it only such statements as he thought worthy of a
place in these records, and as he felt convinced that he thor-
oughly understood ; all that seemed doubtful or unworthy of
belief being omitted.

It happened, however, that he one day entertained the attend-
ants at coo ft with an account of the wonders of Fu-sang, and a
poui:>- *'f Ms narration has been preserved. This was told in a
joki: • «vaj , ndmany of the facts were evidently exaggerated or
pervei.ed; Wsu other details seem to be founded upon amis-
understanding of the imperfect Chinese of a man who had been
but two or three years in the country. Yu Kie appears to have
thought, however, that the account related to him by Ilwui Shiin
was as wonderful as anything that he could himself invent,
and he therefore seems to have adhered quite faithfully to the
story that he had heard. While his joking account can not be
fully relied upon as to any particular point, many statements
are contained in it which throw light upon facts which are but
imperfectly described in the official record.

Before examining this merry tale, however, it will be well to
notice the statements made in regard to the presents which were
brought to the emperor by Ilwui ShSn. The account of these gifts
seems as reliable as any portion of the record that was copied by
Ma Twan-lin, and it is therefore necessary to inquire whether the
articles were such as were produced or made in Mexico, and as
would be likely to be taken by a foreigner, when about to leave
the country, as being representatives of the most valuable or
most wonderful articles to be found in it.

I. — The presexts which he offered consisted principally
OF three hundred pounds of yellow silk, spun by the silk-
worm OF THE FU-SAXa TREE, AND OF AN EXTRAORDINARY
STRENGTH. ThE EMPEROR HAD AN INCENSE-BURNER OF MASSIVE
GOLD, OF A WEIGHT OF SOME FIFTY POUNDS. TlIIS COULD BE
LIFTED AND HELD SUSPENDED BY SIX OF THESE THREADS, WITHOUT
BREAKING THEM.

Maundevile, in speaking of the emperor of China, says : "^
"The custom is suche, that no Straungere scballe come before

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REGARDING FC-SANG. 521
•''
him,butgif hegcve hym sum raanerc thing, aftrethc oUc Lawe,
that scythe, Nemo accedat in compectu meo vacuus."

It therefore appears that Il\ ,i Shan, in his oflFer of tribute,
was but complying with one of the necessary conditions of an
imperial audience.

The •' yellow silk " presented by him was unquestionably the
fiber of the agave. The usual Chinese character for silk is j^.,
sz'. This is defined by Professor Williams : '"» "Silk as it comes
from the cocoons ; silk in general ; thejibers of nettle-he)) i]^ (Bceh-
meria) and other jilants'^ Copper-wire is also called "copper-
silk." It therefore appears that the character j^, being equally
applicable to any lustrous vegetable fiber, does not necessarily
mean silk, but might be used with propriety for the glossy fiber
of the American agave. This is of a beauti A ''qfht golden
yellow colour, as may be seen by any one who --^ U take the
trouble to examine a strand of the so-called *• , '.".al hemp." Its
strength is such that a weight of at least eight pounds can be
lifted by a single fiber ; and the statement iv to the weight
which was lifted by six of the fibers (probo' ly twisted together)
does not seem to be exaggerated. Here \ . Kie seems to have
misunderstood Ilwui Shan. He gathered from his account the
fact that the so-called " silk " was in some way connected with
the fu-sang tree (i. e., the agave), but failed to learn what the
exact connection was. His reference to the silkworm of the
fu-sang tree seems to have been based upon the belief that the
fiber, although so coarse and strong as to differ greatly from
common silk, was in reality a species of true silk, and that it
must therefore be the product of a silk-worm.

The weight that was presented to the emperor is not in ex-
cess of the remount that could be carried by a single man in an
open boat, coasting along the shore from Mexico to China by
the route heretofore pointed out.

As the fu-sang tree, or agave, was not only the plant from
which the country took its name, but was also both the most
wonderful and the most valuable plant contained in it, and as its
chief value lay in its fiber (which was used. for making cordage,
cloth, and paper), it would be surprising if a stranger who visited
the land, and who wished to take with him specimens of its
strangest, most valuable, and most characteristic products, should
have failed to include among them the fiber in question.

' ;*r ■\',.V

522

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

IT. — There was also among the presents offered to

THE EMPEROR A SORT OP SEMI-TRANSPARENT PRECIOUS STONE,
CUT IK THE FORM OP A MIRROR, AND OP THE CIRCUMFERENCE
OP MORE THAN A FOOT. In OBSERVINO THE SUN BY REFLEC-
TION, BY MEANS OP THIS STONE, THE PALACE WHICH THE SUN
CONTAINS APPEARED VERY DISTINCTLY.

Nearly all the historians of Mexico mention the fact that the
Aztecs made mirrors of obsidian,"' which were often ornamented
with gold. Bancroft says that their mirrors of rock-crystal, ob-
sidian, and other stones, brightly polished, and encased in rich
frames, were said to reflect the human face as clearly as the best
of European manufacture,"' and he refers particularly to Peter
Martyr (dec. v, lib. x), who says of the obsidian of the country :
" Excellent glasses may bee made thereof by smoothing and pol-
ishing them, so that wo all confessed that none of ours did bet-
ter showe the naturall and liuely face of a manne." "* These
mirrors were found as far north as New Mexico *** or Arizona,"'
and as far south as Yucatan and Nicaragua,"* and specimens of
them are still preserved in the National Museum of the City of
3Iexico.''* Masks, and even rings and cups, were sometimes
worked from the same material,"' and it was also the stone of
which they made their knives, razors, swords, daggers, and other
cutting instruments.'"* Hernandez says of this stone : "'*

"Three varieties are distinguished, the blue, white, and
black, all of which are translucent. When cut into shape, they
are bright and sparkling, and of wonderful transparency. They
are dug out of veins, of which many are found in Mexico, and
are cut into moderately small pieces, of such size and shape as
may be desired, the angles being rubbed down with other small
stones of a gritty nature."

Respecting obsidian relics, Mr. Tyler says : *** "Any one who
does not know obsidian may imagine great masses of bottle-
glass, such as our orthodox ugly wine-bottles are made of, very
hard, very brittle, and, if one breaks it with any ordinary im-
plement, going, as glass does, in every direction but the right
one. Out of this rather unpromising stuflf the Mexicans made
knives, razors, arrow and spear heads, and other things, some of
great beauty. I say nothing of the polished obsidian mirrors
and ornaments, nor even of the curious masks of the human face
that are to be seen in collections, for these were only labouriously

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REGARDING FU-SANG. 523

cut and polished with jewelcra' sand, to us a commoni»laoe pro-
cess."

But if the semi-transparent mirror which Ilwui Shan present-
ed to the emperor was brought from Mexico, what is " the palace
which the sun contains," which was said to be reflected in it ?
Here there is a possibility of error, owing to the fact that we
have no copy of the statement in Chinese. It seems probable,
however, that the character translated "palace" is §, kino,
which means " a mansion or palace." Now, the Chinese divide
the zodiac into twenty-eight kung,"'" constellations, lunar man-
sions, houses, or palaces.'"'^ The zodiac is further divided into
twelve signs, or palaces, ranging from 25" to 38° in length,
named after the twelve branches, or the animals representing
them ; ""'* and these last are probably the divisions referred to by
Schlegel, when he says:*"' "The twelve divisions of the Chi-
nese horary circle are named in Chinese the twelve rung, or
palaces." As the phrase tueii rung, "the moon's palace,"
means " the bright moon," "" it is possible that " the sun's pal-
ace " may mean " the bright sun," or " the brightness of the
sun." I think, however, that there is here a reference to the
fact that a spherically concave or convex mirror will, when laid
horizontally, with its reflecting surface facing the zenith, exhibit
an image of the sun, in some particular part of the mirror ; the
exact place being governed by the position of the sun in the
heavens. Hence, the distance of the sun above the horizon
could be seen represented in the mirror, and from this it would
be easy to determine the rung, or celestial mansion, or palace,
in which the sun then was.

We have unquestionable proof that the Aztecs had not only
plain mirrors, but also made them both concave
and convex. Herrera says that they had mirrors
" as large as one's fist, round as a ball, framed
in gold." "* Castaiieda's plates include a serai-
spherical mirror of copper-covered lava, three
and a half inches in diameter.**" Clavigero gives
the accompanying engraving,'"*" and says that '"**
it is a picture of a Mexican mirror, which repre-
sents the city of Tehuillojoccan, which name
means "the Place of the Mirrors." Brasseur de Bourbourg
says : "' " They sold mirrors having two faces, polished on both

Fio. 16.— An Az-
tec mirror.

■i; ;^ i.

):-.

1i'

if'!

524

AN INT.LORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Hiden, aiul inatlc some of tht'm cotwdve, of white or black wtono."
He also Hay 8 that tlie priests of Central America, by the use of a
mirror, caused the holy fire to descend upon the victim, wiiich
was thus immediately consumed."' This could only have been
done by a concave mirror. Finally, Sahagun states that the
Mexicans made mirrors which reflected the figure differently from
what it really was, for they enlarged the different parts of the
visage, and made them appear deformed. They were given dif-
ferent forms, round, triangular, etc."" These must have been
cither concave or convex.

It should be notice<l that, in the cases in which the size of the
mirrors is mentioned, this corresponds 'losely with the dimen-
sions of the one presented to the empertr by Ilwui Shsin ; and
it seems that a concave or convex mirror of obsidian, such as
were made by the Aztecs, would fully answer the description
given in the Chinese account. So far as I know, these peculiar
mirrors were never made in any other country in the world, and
the account of this one article seems sufficient to prove that its
giver must have brought or obtained it from Mexico. Accus-
tomed as the Spanish conquerors were to excellent mirrors, they
thought that these of Aztec manufacture were worthy of special
mention, and wo find them named among the list of precious
articles which Montezuma and other chieftains presented to their
enslavers.'"* The only reflectors manufactured by the Chinese
in the days of Ilwui Shiin were metallic ; '"" and, as they were
then unacquainted with glass, the semi-transparent mirror pre-
sented by the Buddhist priest must have struck them as both
new and wonderful.

To me, the presents brought by Ilwui Shan seem to be ex-
actly such articles as a traveler would be likely to bring from
Mexico, as representative of its most characteristic and most val-
uable productions, and I know of no other land from which they
could have been obtained.

Recurring now to Yu Kie's statements, we find the following :

iii. — silk-wokms are found ix fu-8ang which are seven
feet long and as much as seven inches in circumference.
Their colour is golden. It takes a year to raise them.
On the eighth day of the fifth month they spin yellow
silk, aviiich is extended upon the branches of the fu-sano
tree, for they make no cocoons. This silk is naturally

YU KIE'ft STATEMENTS IlEOARniXCi FlI SAN(;. 505

an, such as

VERY WKAK, BUT IT 18 COOKKI) (or HOII.KI) ; l)Orli:iJ)S tlu' IlU'imillcr
is " HtoCplMl ") IN LYE rUKI'AKKI) I'llOM THE ASMKS »tl' THE WOOD
OK THE Kl'-HAN(J, AND THUS AC(HIUEH SUCH STUENOTII THAT rolU
THREADS TWISTED TOiJETHEU ARE SlEKiriENT TO RAISE A WEKillT
OK THIRTY CUINKSB POUNDS. TlIE E(i<iS OK THESE SILK -WORMS
ARE AS LARGE A8 SWALLOWS* EdOS. SoME WERE TAKEN TO Co-
REA ; RUT THE VOYAGE INJURED TIIEM SO THAT NOTHING ISSUED
FROM THEM BUT SILK-WORMS AS SMALL AS THOSE OK ClIlNA.

Here, for the second lime, wo find an error arising from an
imperfect understanding of Ilwiii Shan's faulty C'liineso, and
from tlii3 belief that the fiber shown was true silk, and, therefore,
the product of a silk-worm. The fiber of the agave is produced
from something which is about seven feet long and about seven
inches in circumference (or rather breadth) ; this much Hwui
Shan succeeded in causing Yu Kie to understand ; but that some-
thing is not a silk-worm, but the leaf of the plant. The golden
or yellow colour is the tint of the fiber.

It may easily be imagined that the explorer endeavoured to
explain that the fiber was in the leaf of the fu-sang tree and ex-
tended through it ; and all that Yu Kie could make of his few
Chinese words, helped out by signs, and possibly by rude draw-
ings, was that the " yellow silk " was " extended upon the branches
of the fu-sang tree," while Ilwui Shan's attempt to set him right,
by explaining that there were no cocoons, was unsuccessful.

The so-called " eggs " are undoubtedly the seeds of the agave.
Some of these he brought with him as far as Corea, and there
they were either found to have been killed by the cold of the
Arctio regions, through which he had passed, or else, having
been planted, he was obliged to leave the young plants there
while they were small.

As to the reference to the lye prepared from the ashes of the
wood of the fu-sang : we find, first, that the leaves of the agave, or
maguey, formed a common fuel'" in Mexico."' Becher says that
tortillas " are cooked in an earthen dish over a fire, generalbj of
(fried maguey leaves^* ; and Sahagun names, among the articles
sold by the dealer in fire- wood, " the leaves of the maguey," ""*
and adds that *"° " they make an excellent fire, and the ashes are
verf/ good for lye."

The general statement of the Mexican historians is, that the
maguey fibers were prepared for use by the same process as

nwwiw^:-

m^y

■nit

1 ■

I 1

l\ j

Ul ';•

[;i

526

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

that adopted for the preparation of flax in other countries."' The
Aztecs macerated the leaves, steeping them in water,"' then
cleaned the fiber, dried it in the sun, and beat it until fit to
gpjjj 10S3 Xhere is no proof that they were acquainted with the
use of an alkaline bath for treating the fiber, although Sahagun's
statement leads to the reasonable inference that the Mexicans ex-
tracted lye from the ashes of the agave leaves ; and alkalies are
used in the process now most frequently employed. Squier says
that, at Key West/'" the people either preserve the primitive
process which is practiced in Yucatan, of beating or scraping the
leaves, or, after crushing them between a pair of rollers, the)/
stcejy them bi an alkaline solution for a few days, and then hackle
them. lie adds that''^" the use of alkalies in treating fibers, either
with or without pressure, in the process of boiling, will take out
much of the gummy and colouring matters which they contain,
but the heat will fix or set that which is left of a buff colour, of
greater or less depth, according to the strength of the alkaline
bath used.

The statement that it takes a year to raise the worms, or the
silk, and that the silk is spun upon the eighth day of the fifth
month, each year, seems to vaguely indicate that the agave leaves
Avere cut or the fiber gathered on a fixed day of the year, and, if
so, the customs of the Mexican people were such that this annual
harvest would probably be connected with a feast or festival in
honour of the god Huitzilopochtli, "the Ever-youthful One of
the Thorny Plant," whom we have already identified as a deifi-
cation of the plant in question.

Bancroft says that the first half of the month called Toxcitl
(which was probably the fifth month) was,'" among the Mexi-
cans, taken up with a continuous scene of festivals in honour of
Tezcatlipoca ; the latter half of the month was devoted to the
worship of his brother god Huitzilopochtli.'" From Sahagun's
statement it would appear, however, that the feasts and banquets
in honour of Tezcatlipoca lasted hnt Jive dai/s;^^''^ then, according
to Lenoir,"" two days before the feast of Huitzilopochtli (or
Vitzhpulfzi, as he spells the name) a statue representing him
was kneaded from corn-meal and honey. It therefore appears
not impossible that the feast of Huitzilopochtli fell on the
eiffhfh day of the fifth month. It is probable that too little is
now known of the life of the aboJginal Mexicans to enable us

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REGARDING FU-SANG. 527

to determine whether this was the exact date of his feast, or
whether it was connected in any manner with the gathering of
the fiber of the century-plant.

The mention of the circumstance that the *' eggs," or seeds,
Avere taken to Corea, shows that Ilwui Shun passed through that
country on his way to China. Attention has already been called
to the fact that some knowledge of his story seems to have been
preserved in that country. Corea paid tribute to China through-
out the fifth and sixth centuries, and there was then constant
communication between the two countries,"*' so that the Bud-
dhist priest must have found this portion of his journey very easy.
It is possible that the visit to the Chinese emperor Liang Wu-ti '""
(the empe/or to whom Ilwui Shan presented the "silk " and the
semi-transparent mirror), of Corean embassadors, who came to
ask for the Buddhist classics, was brought about by the interest
in Buddhist doctrines occasioned by the visit of Ilwui Shun.

The Coreans first adopted the ideographic writing of the
Chinese ; but as their language is susceptible of being written by
means of an alphabet, they either invented or adopted one, in the
year 374 a. d. This alphabet is still in general use in Corea,
although Chinese characters are also used in almost all scientific
works.""

As the Coreans were able to write at the time that Ilwui
Shun visited them, it seems not unreasonable to hope that some
account of his story may still be found among their records,
M'hich will supplement and complete the account which we have
borrowed from the Chinese.

Oppert says, however:"" "The few native writings, pre-
tending to supply historical accounts, contain in truth nothing
whatever that throws light upon any subject of importance. They
limit themselves solely to the enumeration of the different kings
and queens, without furnishing dates of any important events
that may have occurred ; the most likely conjecture for which,
perhaps, is that they really have had no prominent facts to re-
cord. It is true that a journal was kept in every magistrate's
office, giving an accurate account of even insignificant occurrences
happening in the district ; this kind of registration appears, how-
ever, to have been carried on more for the purpose of facilitating
the superintendence of the central government over the different
parts of the country, than with a view to record monuments of

1,1

IHii

^Rfn^il

1:^

. -ii'

-1

528

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

historical interest. Nearly four hundred volumes were found,
on the occasion of Admiral Roze's visit to Kangwha, in the
buildings of the Prefecture, containing journals of such district
records, but which the French believed at the time to contain
matters of great historical moment. These books were sent to
Paris, and placed in the then Bibliotheque Imp6riale, where they
still are. It is almost unnecessary to add, after what has been
stated above, that they are not of the slightest value for the pur-
pose of researches on the general history of the country."

Still, notwithstanding Oppert's statement, something of value
may yet be found in these records.

As there seems no other possible explanation of the fact,
mentioned by M. the Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Deny s (see
Chapter XII of this work), that the highest dignitaries of Coroa
bear the same title of " Great Tui-lu " that was borne by the
first rank of the nobility of the country of Fu-sang, I venture
to suggest the theory that, after the story of the land of Fu-
sang had become well known in Corea, the officer of some secret
society, or some political party, assumed this foreign title — just
as in America the chief officer of " Tammany Hall " assumed the
aboriginal title of " sachem " — and at some later date this soci-
ety or party succeeded in forcing a recognition by the govern-
ment, and shared in the power of the throne. The fact tha'
the mandarins of this title in Corea are elected and deposed
by the members of this rank, by their own authority, without
consultation either with the king or his ministers, indicates an
independence which can hardly have originated otherwise than
in the manner above suggested.

IV. — The palace of the king is surrounded by walls or

CRYSTAL, WHICH APPEAR CLEARLY BEFORE DAYLIGHT ; BUT THESE
WALLS BECOME QUITE INVISIBLE DURING AN ECLIPSE OF THE
MOON.

Here there seems a reference to walls built of some semi-trans-
parent or translucent stone, such as obsidian, alabaster, or gypsum.
The Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg states that "* marble, jasper,
porphyry, alabaster, and obsidian were everywhere used as mate-
rials cither for ornaments of the palaces and temples, or for statues
and other sculptured objects, and he mentions that "' the edifice
designed for the preservation and propagation of the birds,
whose feathers were used for the manufacture of mosaic feather-

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REGxVRDlNG FC-SAXG. 529

work, was surrounded by porticos of alabaster, wbich opened upon
vast gardens. Tecali, a transparent stone resembling alabaster,
was sjmetimesusedin the temples for window-glass,"^" and plates
of gypsum are still sometimes used in Mexico or New Mexico for
the same purpose.""

Diaz states that Montezuma's palace was of stone and lime,
and the walls were covered with marble, jasper, and por])hyry, in
the smoothly polished surface of which one could see his reflected
image ; "°* and among the notable edifices of Mexico is mentioned
the TezcacalUy or " House of Mirrors," so called from the (ob-
sidian) mirrors which covered its walls.-^'' If the ancient tradi-
tions may be believed, the Toltec monarchs built as magnifi-
cent palaces as their Aztec successors."" The sacred palace of
that mysterious Toltec priest-king Quetzalcoatl had four prin-
cipal halls, which were ornamented respectively with gold ; with
emeralds, turquoises, and precious stones ; with silver and sea-
shells, and with red jasper.

To one unacquainted with true glass, the glitter and transpar-
ency of obsidian, iztli, or volcanic glass would seem very remark-
able. Both Prescott and Bancroft *'* mention the glistening of
obsidian in the dawning light, the former in these words : '"'
" The first gray of the morning was coming over the waters, . . .
while the bosom of the lake, as far as the eye could reach, was
darkened by canoes, crowded with warriors, whose spears and
bludgeons, armed with blades of ' volcanic glass,' gleamed in the
morning light,"

Some such reference as this seems to have been made by
ITwi.i Shan to the gleam of the obsidian or alabaster in the walls
of the king's palace, when ilhuninated by the first light of the
morning, and Yu Kie exaggerated it into the shape given in the
text.

V. — The lord Yu Kie said besides : At the xortiiwesi,

ABOUT TEN THOUSAND LI, THERE EXISTS A KiNGDOM OP "WoMEN
WHO TAKE SERPENTS FOR HUSBANDS. MOREOVER, THESE REP-
TILES ARE INOFFENSIVE. ThEY LIVE IN HOLES, AVIIILE THEIR
WIVES, OR CONCUBINES, LIVE IN HOUSES AND PALACES, AND EX-
ERCISE ALL THE CARES OF STATE. In THIS KINGDOM THERE ARE

no books, and they know nothing of the art of writing.
They believe firmly in the efficacy of certain forms of

PRAYERS, OR OF MALEDICTIONS. ThE WOMEN WHO ACT UPRIGHTLY
84

ills

530

AX INGLORIOUS COLL MB TS.

PROLONG THEIR LIVES, AND THOSE WHO I^WKKVE ^VOM TIiE EIGHT
ARE IMMEDIATELY CUT OFF. TlIE WOKSUII' OP Sl'IRITa IMPOS. a
LAWS THAT NONE DARE TO VIOLATE.

Here there is a reference to the " Country of Women." In
the account of the voytige to Cibola, contained in the collection
of M. Ternaux-Compans, it is stated that the Tahuas. living
in the province of Ciiliacan (the province in which the Country
of Women was often said to be situated), raised large serpents,
for which they had great veneration.""' A full description of
this curious custom is given in the " First Anonymous Account of
the Expedition of Nufio de Guzman," published in the collec-
tion of Icazbalceta."'* "In the religious rites of this land, the
devil is worshiped as their god ; and in many houses of this
country they keep numerous great dcrpcnts, which live in a cor-
ner in the darkest part of the house ; the serpents are twined
together in a great ball or heap, and some of these masses of
serpents are very large. When they are thus twined togeluor
in a round ball, from which the head of one projects at the top,
and another from the bottom, and others from, the middle, the
spectacle is one that is frightful to behold ; for they are as large
around as the arm, and they open their mouths ; but they do no
harm, for the Indians take them in their hands and feed them.
These Indians say that the serpents have the form of the demon
whom they adore, and they therefore pay the'n great honour."

A story of a custom of this kind, existing in a land named
" the Country of Women," might very readily give rise to the
curious melange narrated by Yu Kie, if it was related to him by
a man \vho had but a ' r: t knoAvledge of Chinese, and who was
therefore unable to ma j j»iraself fully understood.

VI. — To THE SOUTH OF Ho-TCHEOU (the " Island of Fire " —
probably ij^, iiwo, "fire," and cheu, »J'I'|, "an island or district "),

SITUATED TO THE SOUTH OF THIS COUNTRY, IS THE MOUNTAIN YeN-

KOUEN (" Burning Mountain " — probably jjQ, yen, " smoke," and
^, KAVUN, " a peak, a high mountain "), the inhabitants of

AVHICH EAT LOCUSTS, CRABS, AND HAIRY SERPENTS, TO PRESERVE
THEMSELVES FROM THE HEAT. In THIS LAND OF Ho-TCHEOU, THE

iio-Mou (trees of fire — probably >^, iiwo, " fire," and "f^, muh,
" wood, a tree ") groav ; their bark furnishes a solid tissue.
Upon the summit of the mountain Yen-kouen there live
FIRE-RATS (iio-ciiou, probably hwo, >/^, " fire," and ^, shu, " a

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REG.VRDrNC FU-SVNG. 531

TI)E RIGHT
IT6 JMPOS. a

omen." In
le collection
map. living
;he Country
5c serpents,
stfiption of
1 Account of
the collcc-
lis land, the
ises of this
ive in a cor-
are twined
je masses of
ed togeluer
a at the top,
; middle, the
' are as large
t they do no
1 feed them,
if the demon
,t honour."
land named
rise to the
1 to him by
nd who was

of Fire"—
|r district "),
rxAix Yen-
imoke," and

.BITANTS OF
TRESERVE
hCIIEOU, THE
(d ;fC, MUH,
>LID TISSUE.
HERE LIVE

SHU, "a

rat, mouse, weasel, yqi.irrel, or similar animal "), the hair op

WHICH SERVES ALSO FOR THE FABRICATION OF AX INCOMBUSTIBLE
STUFF WHICH IS CLEANED IX FIRE IN'STEAll OP IX WATER.

The Marquis d'llervey's transcription of the words which he
renders "IJurning Mountain" shows that the translation should
rather be " Smoking Mountain." This is exactly the meaning of
the Aztec name, *' Popocatepetl," '"" which is applied to the high-
est mountain and most active volcano of Mexico (from pojwca,
•' smoking," and tepetl, "a mountain"). South of Mexico several
mountains are to be found, the native names of which mean
either " Fire IVIountain," " Burning Mountain," or " Smoking
Mountain." No equal extent of the American Continent, per-
haps of the globe, possesses so many volcanoes, active and ex-
tinct, or exhibits so many traces of volcanic action as Central
America ; that is to say, the region embraced between the Isth-
mus of Tehuantepec and that of Panama, or Darien. In the
words of Mr. Stephens, the entire Pacific coast of this remark-
able country " bristles with volcanic cones." *^"

Oviedo makes a long enumeration of the volcanoes known at
the time, and continues : "But it seems to me that none of these
volcanoes are to be compared with that of Masaya, which, as I
have said, I have seen and examined myself. Of this the reader
shall be the judge, after he has' read the description of that
mountain whose name signifies "the Burning Mountain," in tl e
language of the Chor(jtegans, in whose territory it is situated.
In the language of Nicaragua it is called Popocatepec, whi'^u
means 'Boiling Strenm.'"

Mr. Squier explains that this translation is a mistake of tiie
chronicler ; " Popocatepec " meaning * " Smoking Mountain." '^^

As to the "hairy serpents," Purchas*"* states that, in prepar-
ing an unction for purposes of sorcery, "they uid likewise grind j
with these ashes blacke and hairie wormes, whose haire onelie is
venomous : all which they mingled together with blacke, or the
fume of rosine, putting it in small pots, which they set before
their God, saying it was his meate, and therefore called it a Di-
uine meate." The statement that these hairy serpents were eaten
" to preserve them from the heat " seems, however, to indicate,
that Ilwui Shan made a rude drawing of the " nopal de la tierra,"

* Or rntlior " At the Smoking Mountain," or " The Region of the Smoking
Mountain."— E. P. V.

m- ■

hir ■

h ■;

V: '

liilJ!!;

II:!!

532

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

a species of cactus very common in Mexico, whose round, prickly
stems, stragg' ng about upon the ground, would look in a draw-
ing much lik..' "hairy serpents." This species of nopal is often
eaten in the hot and arid districts of Mexico, and its juicy stems
serve to quench the thirst in many regions where water can not
be otherwise obtained.

Hernandez says that a species of rhododendron is called
quaiihtlepatU, or " the iire-tree remedy," '"' and he also mentions
the tlepatli, or " fire-remedy," ""^ Avhich may be the sa.ne plant.
Ocotly the name of the pitch-pine tree, was also applied to a
torch, lamp, or candle ; *" and hence ocotochtU,^^'''' the name of
the marten,"'"'' meaning literally the " pine-rabbit," might be
understood to mean the "torch-rabbit." The "hair" of the
" fire-rat " is evidently asbestos, once known as " salamander's-
wool," and as in Europe and Asia this substance, which " when
woven into cloth and thrown into the fire remains incombusti-
ble,""" gave rise to the myth of the salamander, it may in
Mexico have led to similar stories of a species of " fire-rat."
The Ychcatetl, or " cotton-stone," mentioned by Hernandez "" as
among the productions of Mexico, seems to have been a variety
of asbestos.

VII. — To THE NORTH OF THIS KiNGDOM OF WoMEN IS THE

Black Valley (IIe-ko, pi-obably ||, non, " black," and kuii, ^,
" a ravine, gully, gorge, canon"), and north of the Black Val-
ley AIvE MOUNTAINS SO HIGH THAT THEY REACH TO THE HEAV-
ENS. Snow covers them all the year. The sun does not

SHOW ITSELF THERE AT ALL, It IS THERE, IT IS SAID, THAT THE

ravGON Tciio-LONG (the "Luminous Dragon" — probably j^,
CHUH, "an illuminatior, a torch, to illumine," and g|, lung, "a
dragon") resides.

North of Mexico is found the Canon of the Colorado River,
the most wonderful chasm in the world, with walls so steep,
high, and close together, that, a? T once heard General Crook ex-
press' it, " it is necessary to lie down upon one's back in order
to sf e the sky." Into much of this deep gorge no ray of sun-
s' vine ever falls, ai'd it well deserves the name of the " Dark
Canon " North of this is found the Sierra Nevada, " the Suowy
Range." The reference to the Luminous Dragon is probably bor-
rowed from some superstition of China, but it is not impossible
tjat the worship of lluitzilopochtli, who, according to Saba-

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS REGARDING FU-SANG.

')33

gun

3174 «

bore upon his escutcheon a frightful head of a dragon

vomiting flames," was, in later days, mixed with that of some
god who, in the fifth century, was adored only in the region
north of Mexico,

VIII. — At the wkst is a fountain that inkbriatks, and

HAS THE taste OF AVINIC. Ix THESE RECIONS THERE IS ALSO

FOUND A Sea of Varnish, of which the waves dye black the

FEATHERS AND FURS THAT A.iE DIPPED IN THEM ; AND ANOTHEU
SEA OF THE COLOUR OF MIL'v.

That which inebriates, and has the taste of wine, is probably
the liquor made from tne juice of the agave, which Yu Kie erro-
neously understood to ''-• ne product of a fountain. The "Sea
of Varnish" is thus descrir 1 by Sahagun : ''*"

"What is the chapopotli? It is a bitumen which comes
from the sea, and which resembles Spanish pitch when it is soft.
The waves of tlic sea throw it upon the shore, particularly on
certain days at the times of the waxing of the moon. It lies
spread out upon the waves like a great piece of cloth, and those
who reside near the shore gather it upon the coast. The rhapo-
potH is fragrant, and much esteemed by the women. When
thi'own upon the fire its odour extends to a great distance."

Hernandez gives the following account of "chapopotli, or
the bitumen of the sea-shore of New Spain " : "" " Chapopotli is
a mineral which is of a dark yellowish colour, and from old
times has been called Jewish bitumen. When of a purple colour,
and exhaling a powerful odour like that of trefoil, asphalt, or
rue, it is considered very valuable. It tlows forth by the North-
ern Ocean, and the flowing liquid immediately runs along the
shores of this New Spain in sheets which are said to be sometimes
two miles in length, and when chance favours, two or three
spans in thickness. Such is its abundance in these regions that
it is of but little value. The Mexican Avomen chew it, and not
without pleasure, as its cleanses the mouth, and restores the teeth
to their original brightness." Brasseur de Bo . 'bourg describes
it as " a black matter, analogous to pitch, which is found in the
neighbouring seas, which is thrown up by the waves upon the
coast"; '"'and Acosta' mentions a spring or fountain of bitu-
men as occurring upon the Pacific coast. This native petroleum,
or bitumen, was one of the substances used by the Mexicans as
a means of producing a black colour.""*^

'^'':,,

534

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I know of no soa " of the colour of milk " in Mexico, but the
western portion of the American Continent contains so many
springs and lakes of strange qualities, that the prohahility is
that one thoroughly acquainted with the country could point out
more than one lake or 8j)ring which would answer the descrip-
tion. Sahagnn says ; " In regard to the springs, there are so
many in that land, and they are of such diverse qualities, that
they would merit a separate treatise, especially if we Avere to
enumerate those of the kingdom of Michoacan. There are an
infinite number of springs of mineral water, nitrous, sulphurous,
vitriolic, and aluminous.""" Squier'"'^' says that, at the edge of
Lake Managua, in Nicai-agua, there were hundreds of hot springs.
*' In fact, for a considerable extent, the ground was covered with
white incrustations, resembling a field of snow ; and, as we walked
over it, the sound of the water beneath was like that of a vio-
lently boiling cauldron."

IX. — The tkruitory surroundkd by these natural mar-
vels IS OF GREAT EXTENT AND EXTREMELY FERTILE.

This well describes Mexico and the neighbouring regions of
America, but would be wholly inapplicable to any other location
which has been suggested for Fu-sang.

X. — Dogs, ducks, and horses of a great height live
IN IT . . . The rabbits of this country are white, and as
large as horses, their hair being a foot long. The

OF extraordinary thickness.

Dogs and ducks were common in Mexico, as .veil as in other
parts of America. The question of the existence of " horses " in
the country has been considered in Chapter XXVI.

The rabbits of the western portion of America, commonly
called " jackass rabbits," while not " as large as horses," are the
largest of their race, and weigh at least four times as much as
the common rabbits of other countries. The " sables " may pos-
sibly have been bea-s ers.

XI. — Birds whioh produce human beings live in this
COUNTRY. The males born of these birds do not live.
The daughters only are raised with care by their
fathers, who carry them with their beak or upon their
wings. As soon as they commence to walk, they become
mistresses of themselves. tliey are all of remarkable

YU KIE'S STATEMENTS KEGARDING FU-SANG. 535

JRAL MAR-

BEAUTY, AND VKRY HOSPITABLE, BUT TIIEY DIE BEFORE REACII-
IXO THE AGE OP THIRTY YEARS.

This appears like a remarkable perversion of the peculiarities
of the inhabitants of the " Country of Women." Tlie name leads
to the myth that the males die and only the daughters are
raised. As soon as they are able to walk, they commenco to
provide for themselves, and they die of old age " before reach-
ing the age of thirty years." They are said to be born of " birds,"
because a monkey's " swiftness on the trees is said to l)e like the
flight of a bird," *'" and being thus described as like a bird,
Yu Kie seems to have understood that Ilwui Shiin meant that
they were really birds. Traditions of men with wings exist in
many countries. Mackenzie mentions such a myth as current
among one of the Indian tribes met in his travels in Northwest-
ern America ; "" the Chinese give a similar account of the Mao-
tsz' aborigines in Kweichau ; "■*' and the religious books of the
Buddhists contain numerous tales of the kind.'"'- """•""- '''"•""

On the whole, although Yu Kie's account contains many ab-
surdities, most of them seem mere perversions or exaggerations
of the truth, or to be founded on a misunderstanding of Ilwui
Shan's statements ; and some of the points referred to appear to
throw additional light upon the facts mentioned in the ofiicial
record.

horses in

' i'-

: 1^

IK;
if;

fill

ii^i

CHAPTER XXX.

iii:

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

Mexican hieroglyphic!) — Tlie triulition regarding Wixipccocha — Ili.s arrival — Ilia
appearaiico — Ilia coiuhiet — Ilia teachings — Persecution — Hid dejjarture —
Survival of tlie doctrines he taught — Tlie " Wiyatao " — Another version of the
tradition — The written account preserved by the Mijes — The " Taysacaa " —
Identity of the term Wixtpecocha witii the name and title " Ilwui Shin, bhik-
Bhu " — The Mexican language — Huazontlan — Quetzalcoatl — Ilia history not a
myth — The epochal which he lived — His arrival — Ilis garments — His attend-
ants — Their Itnowledgo of arts -Another account — Customs introduced —
Religious penan'cs — The foundation of monasteriea and nunneries — Belief
that he was a Buddhist priest — IJrahmanism and Buddhism — The worship of
Siva — The religion of Nepal — The goddess Kali — The worship of Mietlanci-
huatl — Quetzalcoatl's horror of bloodshed — The arts he taught — The calen-
dar — His promise to return — His vow to drink no intoxicating Tupior — His
temptation and fall — Hia sorrow — Etymology of his name — Its true meaning
not " the Plumed Serpent," but " tlie Uevcrcd Visitor " — Term applied to the
priests of Nepal — The Mexican " Cihuacoatl " — The arrival of Quetzalcoatl
from the east — Possible explanations — The crosses on his mantle — Explana-
tion of occurrence of crosses in Yucatan — Intercourse with the West Indian
Islands — The god Ilurakan — Oracles and prophecies — Veneration of the cross
in ancient times — Its occurrence in India and Egypt — Its use in Asia as a
symbol of peace — The patchwork cloaks of the Buddhist priests — Buddha's
commands — The mark of a foot-print in the rocks — Occurrence of such foot-
prints in America and Asia — Veneration shown them.

We have now finished our examination of the records found
in Asia of Ilwui Shan's trip to Mexico, and shall next inquire
whether any record or tradition of the visit can be found in
America.

The hieroglyphics of the Mexicans were, at the best, but an
imperfect method of recording historical events ; but we might
have hoped to find, among the books or paintings in their posses-
sion at the time of the Spanish conquest, some reference to a
visit having so important an influence upon their life and civili-

MEXICAN TRADITION'S.

537

zation as tliat of this niuMliist monk, if it were not for tiio
unfortunato fact that the Spanish priests — thinkinj^ tiio iiioro-
glyphic records of the Indians to ho closely connected witli the
Htiperstitious worship of their i(U)Is — <lestroyo<l all their native
documents so thoroughly that scarcely one escapeil their hands.

We are therefore thrown back on the still more unreliahlo
witness of tradition, and find that this furnishes us with a tale in
striking conformity with the account which we have been con-
sidering. This story is thus narrated by the Abbe IJrasseur do
IJourbourg : *"'

"The construction of 'he great edifices at Yopaa, which 1ms
since been so celebrated under the name of Mictlan (the IMaco
of the Dead), has been attributed to the disciples of (^uetzal-
coatl. This place, however, has been rendered famous by the
appearance here, at about the same epoch, or in earlier times, of
an extraordinary personage, having a white complexion, to whom
tradition gives the name of Wixipecocha. This name is still
preserved for the statue of this person, which is erected upon a
high rock at the village of Magdalena, about four leagues from
Tehuantepec. It is not known to what race he belonged, or
from what region he came, when he presented himself to the
Zapotec people. A vague tradition states that he came from
the South Sea, a cross in his hand, and debarked in the neigh-
bourhood of Tehuantepec. His statue at Magdalena represents
liim as a man of a venerable appearance, having a white and
bushy beard. His garments are composed of a long robe, and
of a mantle in which he is enveloped, covering his head like a
cowl, in the manner of a monk. His statue represents him as
seated in an attitude of reflection, apparently occupied in listen-
ing to the confession of a woman kneeling at his sitle. His
speech, to accord with his appearance, was of a remarkable
sweetness. He taught the people to detach themselves from the
things of this world, and to devote themselves to the j)ractice of
penitence and mortification, and to abstain from sensual pleas-
ures. Adding example to pre^cept, he kept away from women,
and did not permit them to approach him, except for the purpose
of auricular confession, which was part of his doctrine.

" This extraordinary conduct inspired the respect of the wicked,
for they considered it an unheard-of thing that a man could dis-
pense with man'iage ; but he was often persecuted by those

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538

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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wliose views and superstitions he attacked. Pursued in one
province, he passed into another. Thus he arrived at the Zapo-
tec Valley, the greater part of which was then taken up by a
lake called Lake Rualo. Having finally entered into the country
of the Mijes, to work for their conversion, some of them sought
to put him to death. Those who had been sent to capture him
overtook him at the foot of Cempoaltepec, the highest peak
in the country ; but at the moment when they thought to seize
him he disappeared from their sight, and soon after, the tra-
dition asserts, his form was seen upon the highest summit of the
mountain.

*' Full of astonishment, they hastened to climb its sides ; but,
when they reached the top, Wixipecocha appeared to them again
for a few moments : but, like a phantom, he vanished for the
second time, leaving no other trace of his presence than the im-
print of his feet engraved upon the rock which he left. Thence-
forth Wixipecocha was seen no more ; but tradition adds, never-
theless, that he was seen again upon the enchanted island of
Monapostiac, not far from Tehuantepec, where, perhaps, he em-
barked for the purpose of going to make new proselytes.

" His doctrine lost nothing of its influence by the departure of
its first apostle. In spite of the silence of history concerning
the date of his appearance and the disciples whom he left, it can
not be doubted that the pontiff of Yopaa continued his work,
and that the * Wiyatao,' who for several centuries exercised the
functions of high-priest and supreme pontiff of Zacotecapan,
was merely the vicar and successor of the prophet of Mona-
postiac. It seems impossible to decide whether the worship of
Quetzalcoatl derived from him the innovation which the prophet
of ToUantzinco introduced among the Toltecs, or whether it is
from the latter that Yopaa received the institutions which are
found in the two religions ; but it is certain that, in spite of some
notable differences between their rites and customs, there are
striking resemblances which militate strongly in favour of a com-
mon origin." Quotations are made from " Papeles Curiosos de la
Ilistoria de las Indias, recogidos por Don Mariano Veytia" ;
*' Rasgos y Senales de la Primera Predication en el Nuevo Mun-
do, MS. de Don Isidro Gondra" ; Carriedo, "Estudios Historicos
y Estadisticos del Estado Oaxaqueno," Mexico, 1850, tome i,
cap. i ; and Burgoa, " Geogr. Hist, de Guaxaca," etc., cap. Ixxii.

(■ !

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

173

689

who

This account of the tradition is repeated by Bancroft,'
in other places gives the following variation of the tale : '"

" However doubtful the tradition regarding Votan may be,
there is one among the Oajacans which to me has all the appear-
ances of a mutilated version of the myth of Quctzalcoatl, de-
formed still more by the orthodox Fathers. In very remote
times, about the era of the apostles, accordmg to the padres, an
old white man, with long hair and beard, appeared suddenly at
Iluatulco, coming from the southwest by sea, and preached to
the natives in their own tongue, but of things beyond iheir un-
derstanding, lie lived a strict life, passing the greater part of
the night in a kneeling position, and eating but little. He dis-
appeared shortly after as mysteriously as he had come, but left
as a memento of his visit a cross, which he planted with his own
hands, and admonished the people to preserve it sacredly, for one
day they would be taught its significance. Some authors describe
a personage of the same appearance and character coming from
the same quarter, and appearing in the country shortly after ; but
it is doubtless the same old man, who, on leaving Iluatulco, may
have turned hia steps to the interior. His voice is next heard in
Mictlan, inveighing in gentle but firm accents against the pleas-
ures of this world, and enjoining repentance and expiation. His
life was in strict accordance with his doctrines, and never, except
at confession, did he approach a woman. But the lot of Wixe-
pecocha, as the Zapotecs call him, was that of most reformers.
Persecuted by those whose vice and superstitions he attacked, he
was driven from one province to another, and at last took refuge
on Mount Cempoaltepec. Even here his pursuers followed him,
climbing its craggy sides to lay hands upon the prophet. Just
as they reached the summit, he vanished like a shadow, leaving
only the print of his feet upon the rock.

" The Mijes had this tradition written in characters on skin.
(Burgoa, * Geog. Descrip.,' tome i, pt. ii, fol. 299.)

" It is in Zapotecapan that the disciples of Quetzalcoatl ap-
pear most prominently. There they are said to have founded
Mitla or Yopaa, and to have diffused their arts and religious
teachings throughout the whole country, as far as Tehuantepec.
The mysterious apostle Wixipecocha, of whom a full account has
already been given, is said to have appeared in these regions.
He "was generally respected, but was sometimes persecuted,

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540

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

especially in the Mije country, whither he went after passing
through the Zapotec Valley.

" Nothing definite is known of the early history of the Miz-
tecs (or Mijes) and Zapotecs. All that has been preserved is
some account of their spiritual rulers. Thus, we are told that
the Kingdom of Tilantengo, which comprised Upper Mizteca,
ws spiritually governed by the high-priest of Achiutla, who
bore the title of * Taysacaa,' and whose power equaled, if it
did not surpass, that of the king ; while in Zapotecapan the
* Wiyatao,' or sovereign pontiff, united in his person the supreme
sacerdotal and secular power." ***

Bancroft also makes several other references to this preacher
of strange doctrines,"' and to the statue *" set up in his honour,'"
and Brasseur de Bourbourg also refers again to the statue of
Wixipecocha,'" but nothing of importance is added to the fore-
going statements.

As to the name, it should be noticed that the syllables
" Wixi " or " Wixe " express very nearly the same sounds that
occur in the name Hwui Shiin. Nearly all other authors than
Professor Williams (and he himself elsewhere than in his dic-
tionary) spell the last name of the Buddhist priest "Shin" instead
of " Shan." The « x " in « Wixe " or " Wixi " is intended to ex-
press the sound " sh," and we would, therefore, spell the name
Wixi-pecocha, " Wi-shi-pecocha." The closing portion of the
term I imagine to be derived from the Sanskrit word, "bhik-
shu," which was used as the title of the wandering Buddhist
monks. It was customary to place this title after the name,
and Hwui Shan's full name and title would, therefore, have been
" Hwui Shiin, bhikshu." Of "bhikshu " the Mexicans can hardly
have made anything else than " pecocha," or " picoxa," for they
had neither b nor Ih in their language, and jo is the letter which
tlioy would naturally substitute therefor. It is against their rules
to permit two consonants to stand together, without the insertion
of an intermediate vowel {tl, tz, x, and ch being regarded as sin-
gle sounds), and they would, therefore, insert o or some obscure
vowel sound between k and sh ; and they seem to have seldom,
if ever, peni.itted a word to end with o or ii.

With the exception of the dropping of the terminal nasal of
Hwui Shiin, or Ilwui Shin, the term Wi-shi-pecocha is as faithful
a preservation of " Hwui Shin, bhikshu " as could be expected.

i.iA*-j'ti

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

541

}r the name,

As to this terminal nasal, it should be remarked that, in the
Aztec language, such a nasal played nearly the same part as the
"anuswara" of the Sanskrit, and was often either assimilated to
the following consonant or else dropped. Thus the word for
" one," when standing by itself, is ce ; but " one stone " (" stone "
being tetl) is centetl, and " one tally " (" tally " being poalli) is
cempoalliy " twenty." A similar fluctuation of the terminal nasal
sound is seen in the Maya language of Yucatan, some authorities
writing Chilan Balam for the same words which others spell
Chilam lialan or Chilam Jialam.^"

Upon the Pacific coast of Mexico, near the mouth of the
Tehuantepec River, is a town called Huazontlan, or " the Place of
Huazon," which may possibly preserve the name of our Buddhist
explorer in a slightly different shape.

The statements made in regard to Wixipecocha show that
there was some confusion in the native traditions between this,
prophet and Quetzal coatl, the so-called " Plumed Serpent " ; the
civilizer who was afterward deified, to whom the legend attrib-
utes all the doctrines, all the arts, and all the industries which
characterize the Toltec period.'***

The history of Topiltzin Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl is one of the
most interesting episodes of the annals of Mexico.**" His mys-
terious appearance, his glory, and his misfortunes have popular-
ized his name, which is indissolubly connected with that of the
Toltecs in all the countries in which the Nahuatl language is
used. His triple reign in Anahuac, at Cholula, and in Yucatan is
not one of the least singular phenomena of the life of this extra-
ordinary personage, whom all the traditions of North America
have celebrated, and regarding whom so many authors have
written siuce the discovery of the Western Continent. This his-
tory is not only interesting, however, but also contains much that
is difficult to explain.

Too frequently confounded with the mythical creations which
are found in the ancient theogonies, Quetzalcoatl, in the eyes of a
great number, is merely an allegorical figure, symbolizing, like
many others, certain attributes of the divinity; but careful study
of the Mexican histories and traditions gives positive proofs to the
contrary. Living at an epoch contemporaneous with that of Charle-
magne and Haroun-al-Raschid, Quetzalcoatl, in America, united
in his person all the splendours of the civilization of his century.

542

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

He was made tho instrument and the personification of all that
was most august, as was the case with the two rulers of Europe
and Asia above named. High-priest of the nation of which ho
was the supreme chief, if he did not change the dogmas of the
Toltec religion, he at least modified them considerably, clothed
them with the veil of mystery, added new feasts and ceremonies
to the ritual, and surrounded the worship of their ancient relig-
ion with pompous display. Far from being merely a personified
symbol, he identified with himself the pre-existing symbols, and
prepared the apotheosis of the heroes of his family by personify-
ing the ancient myths in them. Finally, he surrounded himself
with so much mystery, and enveloped himself in an exterior so
solemn, that while some deemed him a true god, others, irritated
by his pride, were repelled from him, and commenced the great
Toltec schism which, at the close of a civ?l and religious war of
which he was the object, and of which his intolerance was the
cause, ended by the destruction of the empire.

More than fifteen years after the death of Totepeuh Nonohu-
alcatl, the news of the appearance of Quetzalcoatl was spread
throughout the provinces of the Toltec dominion. He was a
person of an ^honourable deportment, large, well made, of a pre-
possessing countenance, white of colour, with blonde hair, and
with a beard that was bushy and well trimmed. Like his com-
panions, he wore long and flowing garments ; his robe being of a
white stuflE strewed with black flowers. Several authors say that
his robe was decorated with red crosses,'"* and still others state
that the crosses were black. "We, however, accept the testimony
of las Casas that the ornaments were black flowers.

The sleeves of his robe were large, but were fastened above
the elbow.

His suite was numerous, all composed of men equally skillful
in the works of art and in the combinations of science : architects,
painters, sculptors, masons, goldsmiths, jewelers, mathematicians,
astronomers, musicians, and men of all other trades and profes-
sions, even those who by their art were able to add to the pleas-
ures of the table. They were a true colony of artists, who appear
to have purposely sought these countries. They were seen for
the first time in the neighbourhood of Panuco, where they had
debarked, but no one ever knew whence they had come.*"*

Bancroft condenses a passage from Torquemada as follows :

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

543

Btened above

•" " Certain people came from the nortli by way of Panuco. These
were men of good carriage, well dressed in long robes of black
linen, open in front and without capes, cut low at the neck, with
short sleeves that did not come to the elbow ; the same in fact
that the natives use to this day in their dances. From Panuco
they passed on very peaceably, by degrees, to Tulla, where they
were well received by the inhabitants. The country there, how-
ever, was already too thickly populated to sustain the new-comers ;
so these passed on to Cholula, where they had an excellent re-
ception. They brought with them, as tlieir chief and head, a
personage called Quetzalcoatl, a fair and ruddy-complexioned
man with a long beard. In Cholula, these j)eople remained, and
multiplied, and sent colonies to peoj)le l'i>per and Lower Mixteca,
and the Zapotecan country ; and these it is said raised the grand
edifices, whose remains are still to be seen at Mictlan. 'J'hcse
followers of Quetzalcoatl were men of great knowledge and cun-
ning artists in all kinds of fine work ; not so good at masonry
and the use of the hammer as in casting metals, in the engraving
and setting of precious stones, in all kinds of artistic 8culi)ture,
and in agriculture."

Sahagun says that he was represented as wearing upon his
head a miter spotted like a tiger's skin, and ornamented with a
plume of the feathers called quetzalli.^^'* A small image of
Quetzalcoatl, contained in the Parisian Museum of Ethnograjdiy
(see Fig. 22, Chapter XXXII), represents him as wearing a
plaited conical bonnet, fastened in front by a large band, orna-
mented with great buttons, and which, according to Ilamy,""
" reminds one of the bonnets worn by the Lama priests."

Quetzalcoatl seems to have been the leader of the party of
five Buddhist priests referred to by Hwui Sh^n, from whom
the latter, in some way, became separated. Von Humboldt says
of him that he was without doubt the most mysterious being of
all the Mexican mythology. He was a white and bearded man,
like Bochica, the hero of the Muyscas of South America. He
was the high-priest of Tollan, a legislator, and the chief of a re-
ligious sect which, like the Sonyasis, and the Buddhists of Hindo-
stan, imposed the most cruel penances upon themselves. He
introduced the custom of piercing the lips and ears, and of dis-
figuring the rest of the body, with the thorns of the leaves of the
century-plant, or with the spines of the cactus, and of introduo-

544

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

V k

i t;

ing reeds into the wounds, bo as to cause a more abundant flow
of bluod. One fancies that he sees one of the Kisbis, hernuts
of the Ganges, of whom the Puranas celebrate tlie pious aus-
terity.'"* He adds that ''*** he permitted no other offerings to the
divinity than the iirst-fruits of the harvest.

Nearly all the accounts tell us that Quetzalcoatl was never
married, and that be held himself aloof from all women in abso-
lute chastity.*"* Following the example of their master, many of
the priests of his cult refrained from sexual relations, and, as a
mortilication of the flesh, they practiced a painful rite by trans-
fixing the tongue with the sharp thorns of the maguey-plant, an
aust rity which, according to their traditions, he was the first to
institute. There were also in the cities where his special wor-
ship was in vogue, bouses of nuns, the inmates of which had
vowed perpetual virginity, and it was said that Quetzalcoatl
himself bad founded these institutions.

Von Tschudi is led, by the general resemblance of tbc dress
and doctrines of this teacher to those of the devotees of the re-
ligions of India, to state bis belief that he, as well as Manco
Capac of Peru, was a missionary of the worship either of Brahma
or Buddha ('« Peruv. Antiq.," pp. 17-20).*" Von Humboldt is in
error in his statement that the Buddhists impose cruel penances
upon themselves j these penances belong rather to the Brah-
manic than to the Buddhist religion. It is a fact, however, that
the truth of the Brahmanic mythology was not denied by the
founder of Buddhism or his followers,'**' and that Brahmanic
ideas form a strong element in Buddhism.'*"* It is a religion,
contemplative, mild, a little sad, and eclectic. Propagandistic by
nature, it converts by reason and example, never by force. It
appropriates, with the greatest facility, all that it finds good in
the religions which it meets, and, pushing this principle to ex-
tremes, it finds no difliculty in adopting and j^ lacing in its pan-
theon the gods of the nations among which it is transplant*. I,
making these deities subordinate to Buddha.'*** Hence it did not
suppress the gods of Brahmanism^ '**' and, by vhe latter part of
the fifth century, its doctrines had become mixed with the incon-
gruous teachings of the Brahmanic religion, '**' and the term
" A Brahman Buddhist " is an expression that occurs more than
once.'"* It is particularly in what is called Northern Buddhism
that Brahmanic ideas are most prevalent,''** and the religion in-

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

645

troduccd into Thibet was much corrupted bySivaisin — a mixture
of witchcraft and Hindu philosophy."^' In Java, also, the wor-
ship rt'as that of Siva united to Huddhibm ; "" and Crawfurd holds
that the testimony afforded by the relics of Hinduism, in the
principal temples of Java, may be considered as a proof that the
religions of Brahma and Buddha are essentially the same, \he
one being nothing but a modification of the other."" Dr. Ste-
venson, of Bombay, in an article contributed to the seventh vol-
ume of the " Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society," mentions a sect
in the Marhattacviuntry, iuGuzorat, Central India, and theCarna-
tic, who combine the worship of Buddha with that of Vishnu.'^'*
It is well known that the Buddhists of India admitted a great num-
ber of Indian idols into their temples, and that even now, in the
countries in which Buddhism is the ruling religion, they do not
exclude the local divinities from their places of worship ; but that
now, as formerly, they unite the doctrines of the local religion
with those properly pertaining to their own system, or subordi-
nate the former to the latter.'*^ All accounts agree that, when
gods that are plainly and decidedly Brahmanic are found in
connection with Buddhistic ideas, it is usually Siva and the
mythical beings connected with that worship that are found, and
very seldom either Brahma or Vishnu, or idols of this branch of
the Indian pantheon. Schmidt notices this fact, especially, also,
in regard to the nations of Central Asia."^'

Convincing proofs of a connection between Buddhism and
the worship of Siva are furnished by the ruins of Buddha-Gaya,
and the religious situation in Nepal. In the first, so many of
the sculptures are connected with the worship of Siva, that
Buchanan-Hamilton thought it probable that the former Bud-
dhists of this region worshiped more especially Siva and the ac-
companying destroying feminine power. The number of these
remains is as great as those of the images of Buddha, and some
are so large and remarkable that they can not be considered as
mere decorations. In Nepal, the worship of Siva is so mixed
with Buddhistic customs and ideas, in the views and religion
of the people, that the pure teachings of Buddha can only be
learned from the religious books.'""

Two scholars who have studied this subject with a, thorough
knowledge of Oriental writings, MM. Schmidt and W. von Hum.
boldt, have asked why Buddhism allies itself vather with Sivaism.
8A

li il

540

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

than with Visbnuism, and the oonclusion is reached that there
has not been a complete fusion of the two religions, but that there
has been merely the practice of diverse ceremonies, and an adora-
tion by the Buddhists of different gods belonging properly to the
worship of Siva ; the worshipers being but little disquieted by
the discordance between their ancient faith and their new super-
stitions.***

Count Stolberg is of opinion that the two great religious
sects of India, the worshipers of Vishnu and those of Siva, have
spread over America, and that the Peruvian cult is that of Vish-
nu, when ho appeared in the form of Krishna, or the Sun, while
the sanguinary religion of the Mexicans is analogous to that of
Siva, in the character of the Stygian Jupiter. The wife of Siva,
the black goddess Kali, or lihavani, symbol of death and destruc-
tion, wears, according to Hindu statues and pictures, a necklace
of human skulls. The Vedas ordain human sacrifices in her
honour. The ancient cult of Kali, continues Humboldt, presents,
without doubt, a marked resemblance to that of Mictlancihuatl,
the Mexican goddess of hell. (Quoted from Humboldt, " Vues,"
tome i, pp. 256-257, and " Geschicbte der Religion Jcsu Christi,"
tome i, p. 426.)*"

Bancroft adds that, not only does the worship of Mictlanci-
huatl preserve the most perfect analogy with that of the sangui-
nary and implacable Kali, but the legends of the Mexican divin-
ity Teoyamiqui recall with equal force the formidable Bha-
vani ; both these Indian deities were wives of Siva Rudra.*"*

M. Viollet-le-Duc notes a similar analogy between the
Brahmanic ideas concerning the divinity and certain passages
of the Popol- Vtihf or Sacred Book of the Quiches of Central
America.""

The Abb6 BrasseurdeBourbourg suggests '**that Quetzalcoatl
introduced the drawing of blood by thorns as a hygienic meas-
ure, rather than as an act of religious worship. It seems more
probable, however, that the five Buddhist monks were devotees
of an impure form of Buddhism, more or less mixed with the
worship of Siva, and that they introduced into Mexico religious
penances somewhat similar to those which they had practiced in
their distant home north of India.

The analogy between the religion introduced into Mexico by
Quetzalcoatl and that prevalent in Eastern Asia, and between the

: IJi.1

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

547

cd that there
but that there
and an adora>
>roperly to the
disquieted by
eir new super-
heat religious
of Siva, have
I that of Vish-
Lhe Sun, while
^ous to that of
e wife of Siva,
h and dcstruc-
res, a necklace
jritices in her
>oldt, presents,
l^Iictlancihuatl,
)oldt, "Vues,"
Jcsu Christi,"

of Mictlanci-
of the sangui-
\Iexican divin-
■midable Bha-
I Rudra/*«

between the
•tain passages
les of Centra!

Quetzalcoatl
ygienic meas-
seeras more
vere devotees
ixed with the
xico religious
d practiced in

to Mexico by
i between the

arts of these two regions of tlie world, will be considered here-
after. For the present, it is sufficient to note that all the tradi-
tions represent this missionary to have been of an exceedingly
chaste and quiet life, and of great moderation in all things. The
people had at least three reasons for the great love, reverence,
and devotion with which they regarded hiui : first, he taught the
silversmith's art, a craft the Cholulans greatly prided themselves
on ; second, he desired no sacrifice of the blood of men or ani-
mals, but delighted only in offerings of bread, roses, and other
flowers, or perfumes, and sweet odours ; third, he prohiliited
and forbade all war and violence,"" and even covered his ears
when the subject was mentioned.'"

He taught not only the art of casting metals,"** but also
that of cutting gems,"" and, as some say,'" taught them the
arrangement of their seasons and calendar.""* lie also taught
the people agriculture.*"

The influence of his teachings was so great that the predic-
tion which bo made when he left them, that in the future his
descendants (or the people of his nation) would return '*' to
moderate the laws of the country and put its government in or-
der,**** was firmly believed in, both by Montezuma and his peo-
ple, at the time of the coming of the Spaniards ; and much of the
ease with which they conquered the country was due to the fact
that their arrival was regarded as a fulfillment of this predic-

4ia

tion.

In the legends regarding Quetzalcoatl it is usually stated that
when he became oppressed with the weight of old age he was
induced to drink,'"' as a medicine, of the intoxicating liquor *"*
prepared from the juice of the agave,*** notwithstanding the fact
that when first urged to taste it he replied, " No ; I can not drink
it : I can not so much as taste it." *" Much is said of the sorrow
which he evinced at having thus weakly yielded to temptation.
Now, although it can not be claimed that this doctrine of ** total
abstinence" is peculiar to the Buddhist religion, it seems at least
worthy of notice that on this point, as on so many others, the
principltj by which this teacher professed to be governed were
in strict accordance with the doctrines of the Buddhists. Accord-
ing to their teachings, of the fi^e crimes, the taking of life, theft,
adultery, lying, and drinking, the last is the worst ; for, though a
man be ever so wise, when he drinks he becomes foolish, and like

548

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

. il

irii!' V

IS'';

mj • ■

an idiot. It in thcroforo the cause of all other sins, and for this
rcaHon it is the greatcHt crime.'**'

I'ossibly the true etymology of the name Quctzalcoatl may
bo of assistance in forming a conclusion as to the character uf
the man to whom it was applied. As tjuetzdlli is the name of a
gpoiiies of feathers much valued by the Mexicans ; as coatl means
*♦ serpent " ; and as the Aztecs wrote the name by picturing a ser-
pent with feathers — it has been thought that the meaning was
" Plumed Serpent," and no other derivation has been sought.
The French editors of Sahagun's work, however, give the follow-
ing definition of the term qiidzaUi: "" " This is a very long and
beautiful feather from the tail of the bird {tototl) called quetzal
tototl. It is so valued that the Mexicans metaphorically address
a beloved child by the word noquetzale, * Oh, my beautiful feather! '
They also designate by this term a chief, a superior, a father, a
mother — in one word, any powerful person.''^ By reference to
the Aztec dictionaries it will bo seen that coatl not only means a
serpent, but from its compounds it is evident that the word once
also had the meaning of a guest or a visitor. The compound
Quetzalcoatl is therefore susceptible of the meaning " the revered
guest," or " the honoured visitor," and I am strongly of the
opinion that the term should be so translated, rather than by the
absurd rendering of ** the Plumed Serpent." *

In this connection it should be noticed that the Buddhist
priests of Nepal are frequently referred to in their religious books
by the term Va(^ra (itchdrya, meaning " the diamond teacher,"
or " the precious teacher," *" and it can not be considered strange
that the leader of this party of missionaries should have been
given a name which is practically a translation of the title which
he had borne in bis own country.

The most serious objection that can be urged against the
theory which identifies Quetzalcoatl with the leader of the party
of Buddhist monks mentioned by Hwiri Shan is that Quetzal-

* One of the highest cfflcera of the Mexican gorernment bore the title of
" Cihuacoatl." This has usually been translated "the Woman-Serpent." I would
suggest that its true meaning is " the women's guest," or *' the wives' guest." In
some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean there is an officer, stnnding next in rank
to the chief, who, during the absence of the latter on military expeditions, fills
his place at home in both governmental and domestic affairs. The rank and title
of the Mexican Cihuacoatl suggest that his duties were the same, when the office
was first established, if not at the time of the Spanish conquest. — E. P. V.

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

549

I, and for this

:zalcoatl may

character of
the name of a
18 coatl mean:4
icturing a ser-

mcaning M'an
been sought,
vc the follow-
vory long and
called quetzal
ically address
tiful feather! '
jr, a father, a
J reference to

only means a
the word onco
'he compound

" the revered
rongly of the
jr than by the

the Buddhist
eligious books
t)nd teacher,"
dered strange
Id have been
e title which

against the
of the party
Ithat Quetzal-
pore the title of
rpent." I would
lives' guest." In
ling next in rank
^expeditions, fills
lie rank and title
\, when the office
-E. P. V.

coatl is said to have come from the caHt. All the incidental cir-
cumstances that are mentioned, however, agree so closely with the
theory that this reformer came from Asia, and are so incompatible
with the belief that hocamo from Kurope, that the mere mention
of the east is not sufticient to outweigh them all. I can only
suggest as possible explanations, the following :

l'^ir»t. — The party may have crossed the western portion of
the American Continent by some one of the routes pointed out
by Mr. Morgan,'*" and have reached the Gulf of Mexico by way
of the Mississippi lliver, and i'ence have arrived at Mexico from
the east, while Ilwui Shilln, who seems to have become separated
from the rest, came down the Pacific coaht.

Second. — As the party left Asia by way of Corea and .Japan,
their references to these countries as " the Land of the Freshness
of the Dawn,""" and " the Land of the Rising Sun """ (these
phrases being translations of the names of the countries in ques-
tion), may have led to the impression that the country from
which they came lay to the east ; Chivim*'* the term preserved
in Guatemala as the name of the land from which Votan came,"'
is at least as near to the name of Japan as the form Sipanr/u,
which is given by Marco Polo.

Third. — The old traditions may have had this statement
added to them after the arrival from the east of the Spaniards,
who were supposed to be the descendants of their iormer prophet
and teacher. Bandelier calls attention to the f ict, that it was
not until many years after the conquest that the detail that
Quetzalcoatl came from or sailed to the east was added to the
earlier accounts regarding him, and he reaches the conclusion
that "' there is absolutely no evidence to prove that this return
was expected by sea, rather than by land, or, in general, from
any quarter or country whatever in preference to any other.

The reference to crosses upon the mantle of Quetzalcoatl may
have been another addition to the legend that was made after
the arrival of the Spaniards ; and the fact that some versions of
the story refer to the figures as flowers, rather than as crosses,
would seem to favour this belief. It is undeniable, however, t'l&i
crosses were actually found in Mexico and Central America by
the Spaniards. Signor Zamacois gives both the following ac-
count of the discovery of a cross and a theory Avhich seems to
give a reasonable explanation of its existence:

^At

*!'

!'"

550

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

iii[

pit

" When the expedition of Grijalva reached the island of
Cozumel, near the coast of Yucatan, he called the attention of
the Spaniards to the solidity of the houses, and the beautiful
construction of a number of temples, all of lime and stone.
Among the last there was one surpassing all the rest, of a pyra-
midical form, surrounded by a wall, in the spacious lower porch
of which a stone cross, three yards in height, and perfectly
worked, was conspicuous.

"The sight of this cross, and of many others which were
afterward found in the peninsula of Yucatan, has causeu many to
suppose that the apostle St. Thomas came to preach the Gospel in
these remote countries. Other writers suspect that in 1517 the
Governor Don Francisco Montejo reached a point only fourteen
leagues distant from Merida, and that the inhabitants, when the
Spaniards, whom they took for celestial beings, had retired,
adopted the cross among their divinities. But no one of the sup-
positions that have been made regarding the origin of the sign
of the cross in Yucatan rests upon a secure basis, and they are
all open to question. If I may be permitted to enter the vast
field of simple conjecture, I will venture to state my opinion in
respect to the manner in which, as I conceive, the cross may
have been planted in that part of the New World, while it was
not encountered in any other part of America.

"The island of Cuba was occupied by Velasquez in 1511, when
the Indians embraced Catholicism almost immediately. Various
insurrections set on foot by the caciques, and crushed out by the
Spaniards, obliged many Indians to emigrate from the island ;
but it is reasonable to suppose that they would not seek countries
under the rule of the Europeans. It being then impossible for
them to seek a home in San Domingo, it might easily happen
that, floating aimlessly on the sea, they should be thrown by
the currents upon Cozumel, or some other place upon the coast
of Yucatan. Being admitted among the inhabitants, and con-
tinuing the adoration of the cross of the new religion, of which
they had scarcely any true knowledge, it might easily happen
that the inhabitants, hearing of the prodigies which they related
regarding it, should have admitted it into the list of their divini-
ties, while having no knowledge whatever of that which it sym-
bolized.

" This is merely a conjecture, although it seems to be based

Ml.

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

551

Is to be based

upon some probability. In any case, it is true that t)ie cross
figured in the religion of various tribes of the peninsula of Yu-
catan, and that it represented the god of Rain." ''"

Bandelier thinks, however, that the crosses, which were fre-
quently used previously to the conquest by the aborigines of
Mexico and Central America, were merely designed as ornaments,
and were not the objects of worship among them, while the so-
called crucifixes, like that on the " Palenque tablet," were only
the symbol of the "new tire," or close of a period of fifty-two
years. He believes them to be merely representations of " fire-
drills," more or less ornamented.***

The theory of Signor Zamacois, that there was more or less
communication between the natives of the West India Islands
and those of Yucatan, prior to the time that the Spaniards
reached this last-named country, is confirmed, however, both by
the fact that a god named Hurakan, the deification of the power
of the tempest, was worshiped alike in these two regions,*"' and by
the circumstances that the natives of Espanola are said to have
received an oracle, shortly before Columbus's arrival, announcing
the coming of bearded men with sharp, bright swords. (Villa-
gutierre, " Hist. Gonq. Itza.," p. 33 ) The Yucatec records abound
in predictions to the same effect, more or less clear. The most
widely quoted is that of Chilam Balam, high - priest of Mani,
and reputed a great prophet, who foretold that, ere many years,
there would come from the direction of the rising sun a bearded
white people, bearing aloft the cross which he displayed to his
listeners. Their gods would flee before the new-comers, and
leave them to rule the land, but no harm would fali on the peace-
ful, who admitted the only true God. The priest iiad a cotton
mantle woven, to be deposited in the temple at Mani, as a spe-
cimen of the tribute required by the new rulers, and he it was
who erected the stone crosses found by the Spaniards, declaring
them to be the true tree of the world. Cogalludo, " Hist. Yu-
cathan," pp. 99-101, gives the prophecy at length.*"

These prophecies can hardly be accounted for on any other
theory than that their authors had obtained some knowledge of
the arrival of the Spaniards in the neighbouring islands, and that
they thought it safe to predict that these wonderful strangers
would soon find their way to Yucatan.

If it be thought that the mantle of Wixipecocha was really

i I i ■ - • M

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ihii!i

11=

I! ;

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In!

552

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

embroidered with crosses, their presence may possibly be ac-
counted for by remembering that the cross was venerated as
the object of religious worship in regions of Asia where the
light of Christianity had never risen.*"' That it was of pagan, not
of Christian origin ; "* that in the earliest times it was the most
sacred symbol in the eyes of our Aryan ancestors (see " Edin-
burgh Review " for October, 1870) ; **' that it was the sign used
to seal the jars of holy water taken from the Nile and Ganges ; ""
that it was the monogram of Vishnu and Siva,"" and was used in
India before the Christian era as a symbol of Buddha,"* and a sign
of recognition of orthodoxy in Buddhism.*" The form of cross
most frequently used for these purposes is known as the Swas-
tika '■" fylfot, or gammadion, and this same form was frequently
used by the Chi'istians of the Middle Ages as a decorative de-

vice

IU>S

Mr. Oodfrey Higgins, in his " Celtic Druids, ' p. 126, says :
" Few causes have been more powerful in producing mistakes
in ancient history than the idea, hastily taken up by Christians
in all ages, that every monument of antiquity marked with a cross,
or with any of those symbols which they conceived to be mono-
grams of Christ, were of Christian origin. . . -. The cross is as
common in Tndia as in Egypt and Europe." "*

If crosses were actually worn upon the mantle of Wixipeco-
cha, they may have been used, as they still are in the curtains of
the windows of Buddhist monasteries in Thibet, as symbols of
quietness or peace.'"* In Japan the loop-holes of the forts are,
in times of peace, covered with such curtains embroidered with
crosses ; when a war breaks out they are removed. This mis-
sionary may, therefore, have worn them as a traveler might now
carry a white flag : as a sign of peaceful intentions.

The disagreement between the several versions of the tradi-
tion, as to the nature of the ornaments with which his mantle
was adorned, seems rather to indicate, however, that the story
owed its origin to the fact that the outer garment of Buddhist
priests is, in accordance with the commands of the founder of
their religion, made of patchwork.

The physician Juvaka, having given two magnificent robes
to Gotaraa Buddha, the sage reflected that if the priests were
allowed to receive robes of this description they would be in dan-
ger from thieves, and he therefore intimated this danger to his

• i

liji

!l i

MEXICAN TRADITIONS.

553

attendant, Ananda, who cut thera into thirty pieces, and then
sewed them together in five divisions, so that the robe resembled
the patches in a rice-field divided by embankments."" On see-
ing this contrivance, Buddha made a law that his priests should
only have three robes at one time, and that they should always
be composed of thirty pieces of cloth.'*** Buddhist ascetics have
three kinds of dresses : Firat. The Seng-kia-li, so called from a
Sanskrit word {aanghdti), signifying " joined or doubled," be-
cause it is made of pieces cut and united together again. As to
its use, it is called " a dress to enter the palace of kings," or " a
dress for a public place," because it is worn on the occasion of
preaching the law in palaces, as well as begging in the cross-
ways. Second. Yu-to-lo-seng {uttarasangMti), a Sanskrit
word signifying the " upper garment," " surtout " ; it consists of
seven pieces, and is worn on the occasion of ceremonies, prayers,
festivals, and preaching. Third. An-tiio-hoei : this word means
an inner vesture used in sleep and worn next the body. A
Buddhist work calls it " the nether garment," and states that it
is composed of five pieces. Its use is defined to be " a garment
formed of several pieces worn in-doors by those who practice the
law." Its Sanskrit name is antaravdsaka."^*

A mantle so patched that it " resembled the patches in a
rice-field divided by embankments " may easily have given rise
to the story that it was embroidered with crosses.

It should be noticed that the tradition states that when
Wixipecocha disappeared he left the imprint of his feet engraved
upon the rock on which he had stood ; it is also said of Quetzal-
coatl that, in a valley near Tlalnepantla or Tanepantla, he
pressed hand and foot into a rock with such force that the im-
pression has remained down to the latest centuries."" Similar
statements are also made regarding the mysterious teachers men-
tioned in the legends of several nations of South America, and
referred to in the following chapter. I can hardly think it a mere
coincidence that a favourite form of relic worship among the
Buddhists consists of respect paid to the impressions of Gotama's
foot, called Srt-pdda. On the third visit of the sage to Ceylon,
in the eighth year after he obtained the Buddhaship, be left
such an impression on the summit of the mountain, usually
known by the name of Adam's Peak, seven thousand four hun-
dred and twenty feet above the level of the sea, intended as *' a

tt!'

554

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

seal to declare that Lankd would be the inheritance of Buddha."
In the same journey he left other impressions of a similar kind
in different parts of India.'"*

Buddhists mention a groat many foot-prints of this kind ; the
veneration these receive, scarcely inferior to that paid to Bud-
dha himself, has no doubt contributed to augment the number. It
is quite plain that every country must have its own, and that each
sect pretends to honour in it the divinity it adores, or the head
of the doctrine it has embraced. All, therefore, do not belong to
Sakya Muni ; indeed, the Pali texts recognize but five genuine
ones, named Pancha pra patha, " the five divine feet." Captain
Low has devoted an article to this subject in the " Translations
of the Royal Asiatic Society of London." ""

Foot-prints of this nature are mentioned by Fa Hian as exist-
ing near Palibothra,'"' and in the kingdom in the north of India
which he designates as Ou-chang,'^' as well as in Ceylon.""

)!• ;-.

,!'}

It is a remarkable fact that, throughout all the American Con-
tinent south of the United States, there were traditions of a visit
by one or more white and bearded men, dressed in long robes,
who taught the people all t o religious precepts as well as all the
arts with which they were acquainted at the time that they were
first visited by Europeans. These tales are so similar that the
first impulse is to believe that they must have been borrowed by
one nation from another ; and yet there was so little possibility

;

CHAPTER XXXI.

VARIOUS AMEBICAX TRADITIOXS. — BUDDHISM.

I ; ■

White and bearded men wearing long robes — Tlie great numbers of countries in
which such traditions exist — Non-intercourse between them — Traditions of
Yucatan — Zamn& and Cuiculcan — The introduction of the alphabet — Attend-
ants — The name Cukulcan — The three brothers of Chichen Itza — The build-
ings erected — The teachings of Cukulcan — His departure — The survival of his
doctrines — Votan — His long-robed attendants — Resemblance of name "Vo-
tan" to Asiatic perversions of "Gautama" — The time of these visits — The
" katuns " of Yucatan — South American traditions — The Muyscas — Their civil-
ization — The arrival of a white stranger — His names — The arts he taught — His
doctrines — The veneration of the people for him — Resemblance of his names
to Buddhist titles — A Paehcheko — The Updsakas — The Chinese Ho Shanff —
Tradition of the Guaranis — Tamoi, Tamu, Tumc, or Zume — His teachings —
The impress of his foot-prints — The tradition in Paraguay — His promise to re-
turn — Adventure of the fathers de Montoya and de Mendoza — The Brazilian
tradition — The great road — Foot-prints — Another tradition — ^The story in
Chili — Tonapa in Peru — His appearance — His mildness — His teachings — His
departure — Viracocha — The pyramids of Peru — Con, or Contice — The Bud-
dhist decalogue — Avoidance of women — Buddhist practices — The dress of the
priests — Hats not worn by the Indians — Resemblance of teachings of the
American culture-heroes to those of the Roman Catholics — Resemblances be-
tween Buddhism and Roman Catholicism — Their monasteries — Their doctrines
— ^The costume of the Grand Lama — Belief in an early mixture of Christianity
and Buddhism — A Central American image — The calendar — ^The arts prac-
ticed by Buddhist priests — The art of casting metals — Sculptured vases.

*f!V

fen'

\m\

vi>

ti"

1 »

t ' i

Ifi^l

M-'

550

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

of intercourse Lotwcen the tribes of Yucatan, Central America,
New Grenada, Brazil, Peru, Cliili, and Paraguay, that this theory
seems wholly untenable. Barney says that while some portions
of the legends of New Grenada bear so close a resemblance to
those of Mexico that one is led to suspect invention and collu-
sion among historians or their informers, yet it is very difficult
to see how such could have been, or what object was to be gained
by the deception.*'" The only other reasonable explanation of
the existence of these storieS; a^nong tribes so widely separated, is
that each nation actually preserved some recollection of a visit
from a missionary who taught the doctrines which were still
enshrined in their hearts, and, if so, the missionary can hardly
have been any other than one of the party described by Ilwui
Shan. These devoted men seem to have become separated, and
some of them continued to push on farther and farther into the
unknown land to which they had found the way, until they at
last wandered as fsir as Chili and Paraguay.

In Yucatan, nearly or quite every tribe had its traditions of
teachers wlio came in the distant past to seek new homes, escape
r)ersecutions, or introf^uce new ideas.'" The most popular names
w orij Zarana and Cukulcan, both culture-heroes, and considered
by some to be identical. The tradition relates that, some time
after the f.all of the Quinamean empire, Zamn& appeared in Yu-
catan, coming from the west, and was received with great re-
spect wherever he stayed. Besides being the inventor of the
alphabet, he is said to have named all points and places in the
cotrntry.'** He was also called Itznamnd, and the Indians gave
the same name to the characters which they used as letters (Co-
golludo, " Hist. Yuc," p. 185).'" He was accompanied by a band
of priests and artisans, and was the first temporal and religious
leader of the people,"" and, like Votan, united in himself the
qualities of ruler, law-giver, educator, and priest.*"

Cukulcan appeared in Yucatan from the west, with nineteen
followers, two of whom were gods of fishes, two gods of farms,
and one of thunder, all wearing full beards, long robes, and san-
dals, but no head-covering. This event is supposed to have oc-
curred at the very time that Quetzalcoatl disappeared in the
nLighbouring province of Coatzacoalco, a conjecture, which, in
addition to the similarity of the names, character, and work of the
heroes, forms the basis for their almost generally accepted iden-

AMERICAN TRADITIONS.

557

344

tity."* The name Cukulcan is merely tbe Maya translation of
the Aztec term Quetzalcoatl.

At Chichen Itza, ten leagues from Itzamal, the ancients say
there reigned three lords, brothers, who came from the west, and
gathered together many people, and reigned some years in peace
and justice ; and they constructed large and very beautiful edi-
fices. It is said that they lived unmarried and very chastely ;
and it iu added that in time one of them was missing, and that
his absence worked such bad results that the other two b^gan to
be unchaste and partial ; and thus the people came to hate them,
and slew them, and scattered abroad, and deserted the edifices,
especially the most stately one, which is ten leagues from the sea.
" Those who established themselves at Chichen Itza call them-
selves Itzas : among these there is a tradition tliat there ruled a
great lord called Cukulcan, and all agree that he came from the
west ; and the only difference among them is as to whether he
came before, or after, or with the Itzas ; but the name of the
building at Chichen Itza, and what happened after the death of
the lords above mentioned, show that Cukulcan ruled the coun-
try jointly with them. Ho was a man of good disposition ; was
said not to have had either wife or children, and not to have
known woman ; he was devoted to the interests of the people,
and for this reason was regarded as a god. In order to pacify
the land, he agreed to found another city, where all business
could be transacted. He selected for this purpose a site eight
leagues farther inland from where now stands the city of Merida,
and fifteen leagues from the sea. There they erected a circular
wall of dry stone, about a half-quarter of a league in diameter,
leaving in it only two gate- ways. They erected temples, giving
to the largest the name Cukulcan, and also constructed around
the wall the houses of the lords among whom Cukulcan had di-
vided the land, giving and assigning towns to each." *

Bancroft believes that Cukulcan should be identified with
QuetzalcoatI, and he regards his appearance, and the rule of the
three " holy princes " at Chichen and Mayapan, as the first intro-
duction of the Nabua influence in Yucatan.*^" The teachings of
Cukulcan forbade the sacrifice of human victims,'" and he intro-
duced the practice of confession,"'

* Translated from Herrera's " Historia de las Indlas Occidentalcs," dec. iv,

lib.

X, cap, 11,

893

'Hi \

''1.11:

558

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Another singularity is preeenteJ in his history : it is his ab-
dication and departure from Yucatan. Nothing in the shor*;
fragments that we possess indicates the motives whicu induceu
him to take this course. No other reason can be seen than his
great age, or the fear of draw.ng tho arms of his enemies upon
the Mayas."*

After the mysterious departure of Cukulcan from Yucatan,
the people, convinced that he had ^one to the abode of the godS;
deifi ' him, and built temples and instituted feasts in his honour.'**

The first seven sovereigns who reigned after Cukulcan, upon
the throne of Mayapan, continued, in emulation one of the others,
to render services to their country which surrounded the reign
of the (^ocomes with a glorious aureole. Without excepting the
re-establishment of justice, and the exact observance of the civil
and religious laws so strongly recommended by Cukulcan as the
only babis of national prosperity, tradition, usually so vague,
mentions fully their benefactions to their subjects, and the mon-
uments which they erected in so many places. Fountains, roads,
palaces, temples, schools, hospitals for the old and infirm, retreats
for widows and orphans, inns for travelers and pilgrims, baths,
and artificial ponds : such were the titles of the Cocomes to the
public remembrance."'

In Guatemala a itory is told of a culture-hero named Votan,
'" very similar in its details to those which have already been
given reg^ rding Wixipecocha, Quetzalcoatl, Cukulcan, and Zamnd.
He brought with him, according to one statement, or, according
to another, was followed from his native land by, certain attend-
ants or '■ ibordluates, called in the myth tzequif, " petticoated,"
from the long and flowing robes they wore.*" Bancroft thinks
that he was probably a companion of Zamna.***

To me the name Votan seems to be a possible corruption of
" Gautama," which in Chinese is changed to Kin-tan, in Thibetan
to Geoiitaniy^*^* in Siamese to K'odom, and in Manchu and Mongo-
lian to Goclam; "" while Zamnd. may possibly be the Sanskrit
Sramanay the Siamese Somona, an epithet often attached to the
name Gau.ama,'"' and a term afterward applied to those of his
disciples who devoted their life to his service. It is the Chinese
SiiA-MAN already referred to, which appears in English in the
same form, and which is the usual designation of Buddhist priests.

As to the time when these missionaries visited Yucatan and

i;'-

^W .J,

AMERICAN TILU)ITIONS.

559

Guatemala, the only clew that we have is contained in the records
known as the Books of Chilan IJalam, which have been preserved
in Yucatan. The total period of time, from the earliest date
given to the settlement of the country by the Spaniards, is sev-
enty-one "katuns." If the katun is estimated at twenty years,
this equals 1,420 years ; if at twenty-four years, then we have
1,704 years.

All the native writers agree, and in spite of the contrary
statement of Bishop Landa we may look upon it as beyond
doubt, that the last day of the eleventh katun was July 15th,
1541. Therefore one of the above calculations would carry us
back to A. D. 121, the other to b. c. 173.

The chief possibility of error in the reckoning would be from
confusing the great cycles of 260 (or 312) years, one with an-
other, and assigning events to different cycles which really
happened in the same. This would increase the number of the
cycles, and thus extend the period of time they appeared to
cover. This has undoubtedly been done in at least one case."'

Thomas believes that,'*** if we assume that these great periods
were numbered in regular order, 1, 2, 3, 4, which is more than
probable, as they were but seldom referred to, then we have evi-
dence that the Itza record ran back three great cycles — 936 years
before the year a. d. 1519, that is, to the year 583 of the Chris-
tian era.'*** He also fixes the date when the Itzas set out upon
their travels from Tulapan to Chichen Itza as between the years
486 and 510.»**»

Bancroft thinks that these visits occurred " within the first
two centuries of the Christian era." **° The Abbe Brasseur de
Bourbourg thinks the year 174 a. d. to bo the earliest historical
date named in the records of Yucatan ; *" and Lenoir '"' mentions
660 A. D. as the year in which Huematzin, a celebrated Toltecan
astronomer, wrote the divine book Teoamoxtli, containing the
history of the heavens and the earth, the cosmogony, the descrip-
tion of the constellations, the divisions of time, the migrations
of the people, the mythology, and the moral law."^

Tt will be seen that, while the exact date can not be deter-
mined from the traditions or records of Yucatan, they seem to
fix the time of the introduction of civilization into the country,
by these white, bearded, and long-robed teachers, at about the
same era as the dates mentioned by Hwui Shun — 458 and 499 a. d.

#^i

I':
■ It

<V 1,

11!

Ill

11,:.

560

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

In South America there are numerous traditions of a visit by
civilized strangers. On the lofty plateau of the Andes, in New
Grenada, where, though nearly under the equator, the tempera-
ture 18 that of a perpetual spring, was the fortunate home of the
MuyscHS. It is the true Eldorado of America — every mountain-
stream a Pactolus, and every hill a mine of gold. The natives
were peaceful in disposition, skilled in smelting and beating the
precious metal that was everywhere at hand, lovers of agricul-
ture, and versed in the arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing cot-
ton. Their remaining sculptures prove them to have been of no
mean ability in designing, and it is asserted that they had a form
of M'riting, of which (heir signi) for the numerals have alone been
preserved.

The knowledge of these various arts they attributed to the
instructions of a wise stranger, who dwelt among them many
cycles before the arrival of the Spaniards. lie came from the
east, from the llanos of Venez aela, or beyond them, and it is said
that the path he made was broad and long, a hundred leagues in
length, and led directly to the holy temple at his shrine at Soga-
moso. In the province of Ubaque his foot-prints on the solid rock
were reverently pointed out long after the conquest. His hair
was abundant, his beard fell to his waist, and he dressed in long
and flowing robes."*

His names were various, but one of the most usual was Chimi-
zapagua, which we are told raeans a messenger from Chimini-
gagua ; other names applied to this hero-god were Nemtereque-
teba, Bochica, and Zuhe or Sua, the last mentioned being the
ordinary word for the sun. He was reported to have been of
light complexion.'" He it was who invented the calendar and
regulated the festivals.**' He also taught them how to build
and to sow, formed them into communities, gave an outlet to
the waters of the great lake, and, having settled the government,
civil and ecclesiastic, retired into a monastic state of penitence
for two thousand years."*

"The matters that Bochica taught," says the chronicler Pie-
drahita, " were certainly excellent, inasmuch as these natives
hold as right to do just the same that we do." " The priests of
these IMuyscas," he goes on to say, " lived most chastely and
with great purity of life, insomuch that, even in eating, their food
was simple and of small quantity, and they refrained altogether

AMERICAN TRADITIONS.

5G1

from women and marriage. Dul one transgress in tins respect,
ho was dismissed from the priesthuod.*"*

Barney relates the legends regarding this teacher, as fol-
lows : ** " The ' culture-hero,' who, according to one of their tra-
ditions, was the originator and organizer of their religion and
laws, was generally designated by two nanics, Ncnitereiiueteba,
or '* the sent from God," and Xue-Chinizapaciue, which had a
similar signification. ... He taught the peo])lu not only to Hpin
and weave, but to colour their cloths red and blue, yellow and
brown, etc., that they should not forget his teachings. He also
instructed them in government and a system of religions faith,
which bears much resemblance to the doctrines of Christ, not-
withstanding the many perversions which crept in during the
lapse of the ages after his departure. ... So great was the ven-
eration of the people for him that, to facilitate his return, they
constructed and paved a road that he might ascend again to the
plain with ease. He was not worshiped by the Chibchas as a
god, but wag greatly venerated as a man of wonderful purity of
life and of great usefulness. The early priests of the Catholic
faith seem to have believed that this culture - hero could have
been none other than St. Bartholomew or St. Thomas."

In the name Nemterequeteba, the last three syllables seem to
be a corruption of " Gautama." Bochica may possibly be for
the Sanskrit "Pachch6ko," which is a term applied to an inferior
being, or saini who is never co-existent with a supreme Buddha ;
'"' or it may represent the term " Updsaka," "" a title applied to
lay devotees of Buddha,'" whose duties are thus described : '*'•

" The class of persons called Upasakas, in some districts, and
especially in the neighbourhood of Matura, go about from house
to house, after the manner of the Scripture-readers, reading works
on religion that are written in the vernacular Singhalese, accom-
panied with familiar expositions. It is by this means that Bud-
dhism is, in many places, principally supported."

The Upasakas were under vows of chastity, etc., but not so
completely as the Bhikshus. A Bhikshu, or full Buddhist monk,
was forbidden to labour in the fieUl, but the Upasaka was not ;
the Bhikshu wore yellow robes, the Upasaka woro white gar-
ments."'

The expression hg-siiang, much used in China, is explained
in the ordinary dictionaries as " priest of Foe, bonze." It is for-
80

o62

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

m -4-

eigti to tho Chincso language, and belongs to that of Khoten, in
which it ri'prcHcntH tho SiujHkrit word Up&suka. Tho ChincHo
interpret it mj'orteaj robore nuti, in vi viventes; also as puriasimi
(/octorcn, and officio proxinii, which is further explained by Hay-
ing that these are men who by their purity approach the state
necessary for the reception of the doctrine of Foe. Uptlsaka
means simply "faithful,*' in a religious sense, and is the general
name of the Huddhists of Ceylon and Pegu. But this word more
particularly designates the laics,'*'* although in Eastern Turkes-
tan it was extended to all monks."**

The (iuaranis,*** from the llio de la Plata to the Antilles, and
from the shores of Brazil to the foot of the Bolivian Andes, rev-
erence, without fearing him, a beneficent being, their first father,
Tamoi, or "the Venerable Man from Heaven," who appeared
among them, and taught them agriculture, and finally disap-
peared in the east, from whence he protected them. Among the
Guarayos prayers were addressed to him in octagonal cabins,
but never either offerings or sacrifices. The Payes, or Piac/ua,
"sorcerers," were his diviners, his interpreters.'^'''*'*'"^

Wherever the wide-spread Tupi-Guaranay race extended, the
early explorers found the natives piously attributing their knowl-
edge of the arts of life to a venerable and benevolent old man
whom they called "our Ancestor," Tamu, or Tume, or Zume.
Tho legend was that Pay Zumc, as ho was called in Paraguay
( Pay = magician, diviner, priest),* came from the east, from the
Sun-rising, in years long gone by. The spot where ho stood is
still marked by the impress of his feet.*"

Purchas gives the name as Paicume, and states that in Brazil
the peoj)le say that they were taught by him to shave their heads.
'"^ Brinton says that ho was called " Grandfather " and " Old
Man of the Sky." "" Dobrizhoffer mentions the tradition as ex-
isting in Paraguay; "** and Charlevoix *" gives the following full
account of the legend :

" There had been current, for a long time past, in the adja-
cent provinces, a tradition, to which perhaps more credit has
been given in some relations than it really deserves ; but which,
however, it is, I believe, as difficult to refute as to prove. As
soon as the Fathers Cataldino and Maceta had removed to a
greater distance from the Spanish settlements, in order to meet

*.Pai/, father, is a word for priest introduced into America by the Portuguese.""

AMERICAN TRADITIONS.

503

with fi'wcr obstacles to the cunvorsion of the GuaraniH, Home of
the principal men araonj;f these Indians assured them that they
had been informed by their ancestors that a holy man called
Pay Suma, or Pay Tunia, had preached in their country the
faith of Heaven (so they expressed themselves) ; that numbers
had put themselves under his conduct ; and that, at his de-
parture, he had foretold that they and their descendants would
abandon the worship of the true God, whom ho had made known
to them ; but that, after some hundreds of years, new envoys of
the same God would appear among them, armed with a cross
like that which ho carried, and would re-establish the same wor-
ship among their descendants.

"Some years after this, the Fathers do Montoya and de Mon-
doza, having penetrated into the canton of Tayati, the inhabit-
ants, seeing them come with crosses in their hands, received
them, to their great siirprise, with uncommon demonstrations of
joy and affection, and, on the fathers expressing their surprise,
related to them the same ])assages that the Fathers C'ataldino
and Maceta had heard from other Indians, adding, that the holy
man was, likewise, called Pay Abara, or " the Father, who lives in
a State of Celibacy." The tradition of the Brazilians tallies with
that of the Gu.aranis, even to adding that the father landed in
the port of Saints, opposite to the bar of St. Vincent, and that
he instructed the inhabitants in the arts of cultivating manioc,
and making bread of it.

" There is a great road leading from Brazil to Guayra, which,
though very seldom used, is never overgrown with any but small
weeds ; and the nativjs call it the road of Pay Suma. In short,
there is, above the Assumption, a rock, whose summit forms a
terrace, where some people imagine they can perceive the tracks
of human feet ; and the Indians say that it was from this spot
Pay Suma used to preach the Law of God to their forefathers.
The Peruvians, who give him the same name, show some simi-
lar vestiges in their country, and relate a great many wonders,
which, they say, the saint wrought among them. Be this as it
will, several Spaniards have given credit to the tradition, and
pretend that Pay Suma was the apostle Saint Thomas."

This account is quoted in the proceedings of the Second Ses-
sion of the Congress of Americanists, "'*' and the following re-
marks are added :

^»

I^?

r 1 ' ■ V-

Vt'

i'l ■•■ '

564

AN INGLORIOUS C0LUMBU3.

" The committee of publication call attention to the facts :
1. That the tradition in question was first made known by Fathers
Cataldino and Maceta more than a hundred years after the
discovery of Paraguay. 2. That Father Charlevoix, a priest of
the Society of Jesus, was evidently not well convinced of the
truth of this tradition.

"The second tradition is also reported by Father Charlevoix
(tome ii, livre xv, p. 274).

" This nation is ver^/ superstitious. An ancient tradition
states that the apostle Saint Thomas had preached the Gospel
in their country (that of the Maiiacicas), where some of his dis-
ciples had been sent ; this at least is certain, that among the gross
fables and the monstrous dogmas of which their religion is com-
posed, some traces of Christianity may be discovered. It ap-
pears especially, if what they say is true, that they have a clear
idea of a God made man for the good of the human race ; for
one of their traditions is that a virgin, gifted with a perfect
beauty, without having known any man, conceived a very beau-
tiful son, who, when he had arrived at the age of manhood,
worked great prodigies, resuscitating the dead, making the lame
walk and giving sight to the blind. Having one day assembled
a great multitude of people, he was raised into the air, and trans-
formed into the sun which gives light to us. The Maponos say
that if he were not at so great a distance all the features of his
countenance might be distinguished."

In Chili, also, a similar tradition existed, which is thus re-
peated by Bancroft : **"•

In former times, as they (the Chilians) had heard their fa-
thers say, a wonderful man had come to that country, wearing a
long beard, with shoes, and a mantle such as the Indians carry
on their shoulders, who performed many miracles. (Quoted
from Rosales inedited " History of Chili," in Kingsboiough's
" Mexican Antiquities," vol. vi, p. 419.)

In Peru the following version of the story was current : ""
" There came to these provinces and kingdoms of Tabantinsuyo,
a bearded man of medium size, with long hair and with moder-
ately long robes, and they say that he was a man who had
passed the age of youth, having gray hairs, and being thin, and
traveling with a pilgrim's staff, and that he taught the natives
with great love, calling them all sens and daughters, a thing

AMERICAN TRADITIONS.

566

Charlevoix

never before known among the natives, and that he went through
the provinces performing many miracles and wonderful works ;
he cured the sick merely by touching them, and they say that he
spoke all the languages of the country better than the natives,
and he was called Tonapa or Tarapaca ( Tarapaca means ' eagle '),
Viracochan pachayachicachmi or Paechctcan and Bicchhayca-
mayoc Gunacuycamayoc. The old men say that the command-
ments which he preached were very nearly the same as those of
God, principally the seven precepts. There was lacking only the
name of God our Lord, and of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord,
which was a fact well known to the elderly people of those days ;
and the punishments were severe for those who transgressed
those commandments. They say that the said Tonapa went
along the river Chacamarca until he came to the sea, and it is
understood that he went by the passage * toward the other sea.
This was investigated and established by the ancient Incas."

Viracocha, under any and all bis surnames, is always described
as white and bearded, dressed in flowing robes, and of imposing
mien. His robes were also white, and thus he was figured at the
entrance of one of his most celebrated temples, that of Urcos.
His image at that place was of a man with a white robe fall-
ing to his waist, and thence to his feet.*'"

The Abb4 Brasseur de Bourbourg makes the following state-
ment regarding some of the monuments found in Peru ;"*

" M. L. Angrand, formerly Consul-General in Guatemala, and
more lately in Peru, who has carefully examined the archsBO-
logical remains of this country, has called our attention to a mat-
ter of great interest from the double point of view of the art
and the religion of the American nations. * In the provinces of
Huamanga and Abancay, situated to the north of Cuzco, which
were formerly inhabited by several tribes, of which the princi-
pal was that of the Huilcas, there are found numerous monu-
ments of a pyramidal form, composed of several superposed
terraces, constructed with more or less care. A stair- way mounts
to the summit of the edifice, and occupies one of the faces. The
number of terraces varies from three to five, and their total
height varies from five to thirty metres. These edifices are
isolated, and there is never more than one in a place, but they
are always surrounded l)y other constructions which served as
* This may be a mountain-paas or a strait.

rli

■fit

!,*!■ IMt'l ii :

i-lfM

Ml . 'I'

Ji. Jl-

566

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

habitations, and some of which were very extensive.' "VVe have
seen designs of several of these pyramidal edifices ; they are
true teocalliSy like those of Mexico and Central America. These
designs, taken in connection with the preceding observations,
confirm the views which we have always held regarding the
propagation of the civilization and religion of the Toltecs in
South America, even far beyond the neighbouring provinces of
the Isthmus of Panama, from which those of Abancay and llua-
manga are distant more than four hundred leagues to the south.
This conviction is supported by the fact that, before the religion
and the rule of the Incas existed in Peru, there was, according
to the historians of this country, another more ancient religion,
which had been preached by a divine personage named Con, or
Contice (probably the Comitl or Huey-Comitl of the heroic tra-
ditions of Mexico), who had come to preach the doctrines and the
knowledge of one God alone, from far beyond the high mount-
ains of the north. The time, the name of the preacher, and the
circumstances of his preaching, seem to indicate a disciple of
Quetzalcoatl, who set forth, perhaps from Cholula, at the same
time as those whom the prophet sent into Mixteca and Mictlan."

A full description of the teocallis of Mexico, showing their
resemblance to the pyramids raised by the Buddhists of Asia,
will be found in a following chapter.

The Buddhists have a decalogue which is in some respects
curiously like that of the Bible. According to the commentators
upon the Pilgrimage of Fa Hian, the five precepts are :

1. Not to kill any living being.

2. Not to steal.

3. Not to commit adultery or to marry.

4. Not to lie.

5. Not to drink wine.

These five precepts answer to the five corresponding virtues :
humanity, prudence, justice, sincerity, and urbanity.
Three others are added to these, making eight :

6. Not to bit on a large bed, or a large or lofty seat.

7. Not to wear flowers or ribbons on the dress.

8. Not to become fond of songs, dances, or comedies.

The two following are likewise enumerated, completinf? the
number of ten :

9. Not to wear on the arms ornaments of gold or silver.

BUDDHISM.

567

10. Not to eat after noon.

Such are the precepts which the aspirant to the rank of the
Shamans should observe. They are called " the Ten Precepts
of the Ascetics." '"^

The order of the last five does not seem to be settled, as Pro-
fessor Williams gives them, with some variations in the wording,
in the order, seventh, eighth, sixth, tenth, and ninth,"'* and Mr.
Hardy in the order tenth, eighth, seventh, sixth, and ninth.""

The first five of these obligations are called " the pancha-sil."
They are repeated by some persons every day at the " pansal,"
especially by the women. The first eight are called " the ata-sil,"
and they are repeated only on " poya" days, or festivals. When
taken by a laic, they involve the necessity of his living apart
from his family.

Among the commands of Buddha was the following which
he addressed to the Shamans : " Beware of fixing your eyes upon
women ! If you find yourselves in their company, let it be as
though you were not present." '"* The tradition as to the care
with which these teachers avoided the society of women is there-
fore in strict accordance with the commands of the Buddhist re-
ligion.

The priests, from the commencement of their novitiate, are
shaved ; '*''^ but the shaving is often confined to the crown of the
head, while the remainder of the hair is allowed to grow to its
full length, and the hair of the Buddhist hermits is allowed to
grow entirely unshorn,"*' the custom being so general that the
typical representation of a hermit is always that of a man with
long uncut hair and beard,'"* while in Chinese the phrase " to let
the hair fall" means to become a priest or nun.'"*

When first entering the priesthood the Buddhist monks wear
black robes;"" these are sometimes succeeded by yellow gar-
ments, or, in Corea, by long white robes."" In Tartary the priests
wear miter-shaped caps,""' similar to the one which Quetzalcoatl is
represented to have worn. Schlagintweit thus describes the caps
of the Thibetan lamas: "Thrv are conical, with a large lap,
which is generally doubled up, ►.ut is let down over the ears in
cold weather. Some head-piiests have a kind of miter of red
cloth, ornamented with flowers of gold worked in the stuff. This
latter kind of cap bears a remarkable resemblance to the miters
of the Roman Catholic bishops." "^ Hats or caps are not worn

K
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568

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

III*

■■I

]':'■[ ' i i < -

r! iif

by any Indian tribe, the nearest approach to them being in the
case of the Mexicans, who at the most wore merely an ornamental
head-dress. This fact was seized by most of the Indians of the
United States as forming the easiest and most characteristic
means of distinguishing between whites and Indians in their rude
drawings ; the former always being represented with hats, and
the latter withoftt.

The dress of the teachers mentioned in the traditions, and
the doctrines which they were stated to have taught, were so
much like those of the Roman Catholic priests, that the Spaniards
believed that St. Thomas, or some other missionary of the Chris-
tian faith, had succeeded in carrying the Gospel into this un-
known quarter of the world. Even at the time of the conquest,
there were so many analogies between the dogmas and rites of the
Roman Catholics and those of the Mexicans, which struck Monte-
zuma '" and the other chiefs of the land,'" as well as the Span-
iards, that the latter were often led to ascribe them to imitation
by Satan of the rites of the Christian Church." It is not sur-
prising that this resemblance should be noticed, if the teachers
referred to in the traditions were Buddhist missionaries, as the
same resemblance has been remarked between Roman Catholi-
cism and Buddhism in Asia — a resemblance so striking that the
first Roman Catholic missionaries in Asia, like their brethren in
Mexico, thought that it must be an imitation by the devil of the
religion of Christ.""' Every one who visits their monasteries can
at once discover the resemblance.***

Their celibacy, their living in communities, their cloisters,
their service in the choirs, their string of beads, their fasts, and
their penances, give them so much of the air of Christian monks
that it is not surprising that a Capuchin should be ready to hail
them as brothers.""

Father Grueber was much struck with the extraordinary
similitude he found, r? well in the doctrine as in the rituals, of
the Buddhists of Lassa to those of his own Romish faith. He
noticed : 1, That the dress of lamas corresponded with that
handed down to us in ancient paintings as the dress of the apos-
tles. 2. That the discipline of the monasteries, and of the dif-
ferent orders of lamas or priests, bore the same resemblance to
that of the Romish Church. 3. That the notion of an incarna-
tion was common to both, as also the belief in Paradise and Pur-

BUDDHISM.

5C0

' I I ! i

iliU

gatoiy. 4. He remarked ihat they made suffrages, alms, prayers,
and sacrifices for the dead, like the Roman Catholics. 5, That
they had convents, filled with monks and friars, to the number of
thirty thousand, near Lassa, who all made the three vows of pov-
erty, obedience, and chastity, like Roman monks, besides other
vows. 6. That they had confessors, licensed by the superior
lamas, or bishops ; and empowered to receive confessions, impose
penances, and give absolution. Besides all this, there was found
the practice of using holy water, of singing service in alternation,
of praying for the dead, and a perfect similarity in the costumes
of the great and superior lamas to those of the different orucrs
of the Romish hierarchy.""" The Buddhists also use rosaries for
counting the number of their prayers.*"'

Father Hue says that he and his companion one day had an
opportunity of talking with a Thibetan lama for some time, and
the things he told them about religion astounded them greatly.
A brief explanation of the Christian Ijtrine, which they gave
to him, seemed scarcely to surprise him ; he even maintained
that their views differed little from those of the grand lamas
of Thibet."" He adds that, if the person of the grand lama
did not particularly strike them, his costume did, for it Avas
strictly that of their own bishops ; he bore on his head a yellow
miter, a long staff in the form of a cross {or crosier) was in his
right hand, and his shoulders were covered with a mantle of
purple-coloured silk, fastened on the chest with a clasp, and in
every respect resembling a cope.'"*

Hue was led by these resemblances to the belief that the
modern form of Buddhism in Thibet arose from a mixture of
Christianity with that religion."" The following quotation from
Marsden shows that he too was inclined to adopt the same opin-
ion:

" The belief of an early spreading of the Gospel in these
parts derives some additional strength from an opinion enter-
tained by some of the best informed missionaries that the lama
religion itself is no other than a corrupted species of Christianity ;
and although this may be too hasty an inference from what they
had an opportunity of observing in the country, it will not be
found upon examination so unlikely as it may at first appear.
In its fundamental principles the religion of the country which
bears the names of Butan, Thibet, and Tangut, is that of the Bud-

570

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

dhists of India ; but at the same time the strong resemblance
between many of the ceremonies and those of the Christian
churches, both East and West, have been pointed out by every
traveler who has visited Tartary — from Carpini and Rubruquis,
by whom it was first noticed, to our countrymen and contempo-
raries, Bogle and Turner, who resided at the court of one of
the grand lamas. We finu it avowed even by the Jesuit mis-
sionaries, whom we can not suppose to have been influenced in
their observation by any undue bias." ""

A more probable opinion is, however, that sundry of the
observances of the Roman Catholic Church were derived from
Buddhistic sources,'*" the chain of evidence that establishes the
greater antiquity of these practices by the Buddhists being com-
plete.""'

Isaac Taylor drew attention, in his " Ancient Christianity," to
the knowledge of Hindoo monasticism possessed by Clement of
Alexandria, and traced the origin of the monasticism of Chris-
tianity to that of India.'"*

On the supposition of the pre-existence of Buddhism, such
as their sacred books describe, and its professors still preach, the
rapid spread of Christianity in the first and second centuries of
our era is not surprising. To a mind already impressed with
Buddhistic belief and Buddhistic doctrines, the birth of a Sav-
iour and Redeemer for the Western World, recognized as a new
Buddha by wise men of the East, that is, by Magi, Shamans, or
Lamas, who had obtained the Arhat sanctification, was an event
expected, and therefore readily accepted when declared and an-
nounced. It was no abjuration of an old faith that the teachers
of Christianity asked of the Buddhists, but a mere qualification
of an existing belief, by the incorporation into it of the Mosaic
account of the creation, and of original sin, and the fall of man.
The Buddhists of the West, accepting Christianity on its first
announcement, at once introduced the rites and observances
which for centuries had already existed in India. From that
country Christianity derived its monastic institutions, its forms
of ritual, and of church service, its councils or convocations to
settle schisms or points of faith, its worship of relics, and work-
ing of miracles through them, and much of the discipline and of
the dress of the clergy.'-"*

As a description of the robes of Buddhist priests is given in

BUDDHISM.

671

some of the foregoing quotations, the following engraving of an
image found in Campeachy is inserted as showing how accurate a
knowledge of their appearance has been preserved by tradition.

The legends assert that the Mexicans and natives of Yuca-
tan and Central America owed their
calendar to the same strangers to
whom they were indebted for nearly
all the arts which they possessed. It
is not necessary to attempt to add
anything to the remarks of Hum-
boldt on this subject, which are quoted
in Chapter IX, the resemblance be-
tween the Asiatic and Mexican cal-
endars being so great, that he was
convinced, by this one fact alone, that
there must have been some early con-
nection between the two regions of
the world. Attention may, however,
be called to the fact that both the
Javans "*' and the Mexicans "' had a
week of five day '" by which their
markets or fairs were regulated.'"'
Just as in Mexico w^e find Asiatic
names for the months, but not in their
proper order, so in Java the names
of the Hindoo months have been wan-
tonly transposed,"^ and Crawfurd is

therefore led to the belief that the Bugis year is the relic of
an indigenous calendar, which was modified by that of the
Hindoos ; an explanation which will account equally well for the
similar transpositions found in the Mexican calendar. Sahagun
states that the Mexicans attributed their calendar to four sages,
who "iiivented judicial astrology, and the art of interpreting
dreams, established the reckoning of the years, lae night, the
hours, and the differences of the seasons ; all things which were
preserved under the government of the kings of the Toltecs, the
Mexicans, the Tepanecas, and the Chichimecas." ''"''

The men who accompanied Quetzalcoatl were said to have
been cunning artists, especially in casting metals, in the engrav-
ing and setting of precious stones, and in all kinds of artistic

Fio. 17.

-An imni^e found in
Cainpeacliy.

572

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

•■!..^t;

'{ ',

sculpture. These were precisely the arts which a party of Bud-
dhist priests would have been able to teach. Hue says of the
lamas of Tartary that they are not merely priests, but are also
the painters, poets, sculptors, architects and physicians of the
land;"" and dc MilIou<^ states that, when the first Buddhist mis-
sionaries arrived in Japan, they carried with them many indus-
tries previously unknown in that country, which were necessary
to their worship. They made rich sacerdotal cloths, sacred ves.
sels of pottery-ware or bronze, gilded idols and luxurious tem-
ples ; and, finally, the priests advanced as sculptors, as chiselers,
as gilders, as painters, as weavers, as potters, as founders : a
complete invasion of mechanics with shaven heads, of artists with
lowered eyes, of labourers in frocks and chasubles.""*

Elsewhere in North America nothing was known of the art of
melting or casting metals. In cases in which gold or copper was
used, the northern Indian simply took a stone and by physical
force hammered the metal into the required shape.'"' The Mexi-
cans, however, to make jewelry, idols, and other objects of art,
melted the metal in crucibles, and cast it in moulds made of clay
or charcoal.**'

The so-called " lost art " of casting parts of the same object
of diflferent metals was known : **• thus fishes were modeled with
alternate scales of gold and silver ; copper and other metals
were gilded by a process which would have made the fortune of
a goldsmith in Europe ; furnaces, perhaps of earthen-ware, and
blow-pipes, are depicted on native paintings in connection with
gold- working. This art of casting metals was the one which was
held by them in the highest esteem."* Cortez admitted that in
this the Mexican smiths far excelled those of the Spaniards.""'

Their miracles in that art would not be believed if it were
not for the fact that, in addition to the testimony of those who
saw them, many of these curiosities were sent to Europe."*' The
works of gold and silver sent as presents to Charles V, by the
Conqueror Cortez, filled the goldsmiths of Europe with astonish-
ment, who, as several writers of that period testify, declared that
they were altogether inimitable.**"

Herrera, who says they could also enamel, commends the skill
of the Mexican goldsmiths in making birds and animals with
movable wings and limbs, in a most curious fashion. (" Hist.
Gen.," dec. ii, lib. vii, cap. 15.) Sir John Maundevile, as usual,

■■A

\\\l

BUDDHISM.

673

"... With his hair on end
At his own wonders,"

notices the " gret marvayle " of similar pieces of mechanism at
the court of the grand Chane of Cathay. (See his "Voiage and
Travaile," chap, xx.)*"'

The Aztecs not only knew how to cast gold and silver, and
how to make the casting take any shape that they desired, but
they also worked all species of gems very dexterously ; and this
was, more than all others, the particular art which rendered their
name the most celebrated.'"""

M. Lenoir makes the following statement in regard to sculpt-
ured vases found in Mexico :

" As to these vases, ornamented with fantastical figures and
made of granite, of green or black basalt, of jade, or of glazed
terra cotta, a great resemblance is noticeable between them and
the vases of the Japanese made of jade, of soft stone, of rice
paste, or of porcelain. My opinion has been confirmed by M.
Baradfere who, on seeing in my cabinet an old Japanese vase
of white jade, mistook it for a valuable vase which he had seen
in the Museum of Mexico, the form and the details were so simi-
lar. It is very remarkable to observe such a resemblance be-
tween two of the works of art of nations so widely separated by
the seas, and between which there seems to have never been any
communication. In the collection of designs executed by M.
Franck, of the objects contained in this same Mexican Museum,
several of the jade vases have a great analogy, a resemblance al-
most perfect, to some I possess which are of Japanese origin.
He has also drawn a small figure, carefully worked from some
hard substance, of which the head, the pose, and the costume are
evidently Chinese. This, therefore, raises a new presumption
that some ancient communication may have existed between Asia
and America." "'"

Had M. Lenoir been acquainted with all the proofs of a visit
to America by Buddhist priests (priests of the same faith being
also the introducers into Japan of many of the arts of civiliza-
tion), and with the fact that the traditions of Mexico uniformly
attributed to these missionaries the knowledge which the natives
possessed of the arts of casting the metals and of cutting gems,
he might have omitted the statement that there seemed never to
have been any communication between the two nations.

|Ihi<' ^

til

illipr'lH;!

CHAPTER XXXII.

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS

The incongruity of the religious system of the Aztecs — The Toltccs — Contentions
between rival sects — Monasteries — The " Tlamacazqui "— The herb-eaters —
Their asceticism — The monastery and nunnery attached to the chief temple of
the city of Mexico — The duties of the devotees — Their clothing — The discipline
— The differences in rank — Other ascetics — Probation of candidates — Vows not
for life — Married priests — The monastery of the Totonacas — The pontiff of
Mixteca — The title " Taysacaa " — Auricular confession — The practice of bear-
ing a calabash — The dress of the priests — Continence — Prayers — Fasting — The
early disciples of SAkya Muni — The Buddhist monasteries — Candidates for the
priesthood — Education of children — Food and clothing — Penances — Nunneries
— Life of the inmates — Punishment of incontinence — Time for meals — Cloth-
ing of idols — Absence of vital points of Christian doctrine — Marriage of the
priests — Vegetarianism — Failure of the Buddhists to strictly comply with the
tenets of their religion — The eating of flesh — A curious anomaly in Buddha's
teachings — Religious terms — The name S&kya — Its occurrence in Mexico —
Otosis — Gautama — Guatemala — Quauhtcmo-tzin — Tlama and lama — Teotl
and D6va — Refutation of a negative argument — Religious tenets — The road
to the abode of the dead — The divisions of the abode of the dead — Transmi-
gration — Yearly feast for the souls of the dead — The tablet at Palen([ue —
The lion-headed couch — Seated figures— An image of Quetzalcoatl — The story
of Camaxtli — Preservation of his blonde hair.

In contemplating the religious system of the Aztecs, one is
struck with its apparent incongruity, as if some portion of it had
emanated from a comparatively refined people, open to gentle in-
fluences, while the rest breathes a spirit of unmitigated ferocity.
It naturally suggests the idea of two distinct sources, and author-
izes the belief that the Aztecs had inherited from their predeces-
sors a milder faith, on which was afterward engrafted their own
mythology.*^* Tradition imparts to the Toltecs a higher civiliza-
tion than that found among the Aztecs,*'* who had degenerated
with the growth of the warlike spirit,"* and who destroyed much
of the culture of their predecessors ; "' and it is plain that much

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

575

of the religion of this earlier nation may now be unknown — their
temples and altars having been appropriated for the worship of
a different religion, modificativc or subversive of the first. '"" It
seems to have been an ineradicable Toltec tendency to indulge
in religious controversy, to the prejudice of their national pros-
perity,*" and these struggles over religious creeds would naturally
result in numerous and radical changes in the current belief.
Tradition states that in early days there was bitter contention
between the rival sects of Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, and that
with the growth of the Aztec influence the bloody rites of the
latter sect had prevailed, under the auspices of the god Iluitzilo-
pochtli ; and the worship of the gentler Quetzalcoatl, though still
observed in many provinces and many temples, had with its
priests been forced to occupy a secondary position.*" Still, even
at the time of the Spanish conquest, there were many traces re-
maining in the land of the pure and gentle faith tanglit by Wixi-
pecocha and Quetzalcoatl. In nothing was the influence of these
teachings more apparent than in the monasteries or colleges for
the two sexes, which existed throughout the land, and the first
of which were said to have been founded by Quetzalcoatl.*"
In these the doctrines of the prophet were preserved, and his dev-
otees occupied themselves in the study of science, and in prayer
to heaven for the abolition of the bloody sacrifices, and the
scourges which afflicted the land."*

The Toltec civilization, intrenched behind the mountains of
Zapotecapan and of Mixtecapan, was much better preserved
from contact with barbarism than in the provinces near Ana-
huac. The people of these states were, therefore, given the special
designation of the children of Quetzalcoatl.**' Still, even in the
city of Mexico and its neighbourhood, some knowledge of the
earlier faith was preserved, although mixed with th"^ savage rites
by which it had been nearly superseded.

To each temple was attached a monastery, the laembers of
which enjoyed privileges similar to those of our canons. The
Tlamacazqui, '* deacons " or " ministers," and the Quaquacuiltin,
" herb-eaters," were those who dedicated themselves to the service
of the gods for life. They led a very ascetic life ; continence was
imposed upon them, and they mortified the flesh by deeds of pen-
ance, in imitation of Quetzalcoatl, who w^as their patron deity.

Some dedicated their whole lives to the service of the gods ;

670

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

i 'I

others vowed thomHelvt's to perpetual continence. All were poorly
clothed, wore their hair lonj^, lived upon coarMO and scanty fare,
and did all kinds of work. At midnight they arose and went
to the hath; after washing, they drew blood from their bodies
with spines of the maguey-plant ; then they watched, and chanted
))raiseH of the gods, until two in the morning. Notwithstanding
this austerity, however, these monks could betake thenjselvos
alone to the woods, or wander through the mountains and des-
erts, there in solitude to spend the time in several ways.'**

The monastery and nunnery attached to the chief temple of
the city of Mexico are thud described by Purchas : *"* •* Within
this great Circuit of the principall Temple were two houses, like
Cloisters, the one opposite to the other, one of men, the other of
women. In that of women they were Virgins only, of twelve or
thirteen yeares of age, which they called the Maids of Penance ;
they were as many as the men, and lined chastely, and regularly,
as Virgins dedicated to the seruice of their God. Their charge
was to swcepe and make cleane the Temple, and euery morning
to prepare meate for the IdoU and his Ministers of the Almes
the Religious gathered. . . . These Virgins had their haire cut,
and then let them grow for a certaine time ; they rose at mid-
night to the Idol's Mattins, which they dayly celebrated, perfonn-
ing the same exercises which the Religious did. They had their
Abbesses. . . . Their ordinary habite was all white. . . . They
did their penance at midnight. ... If any were found dis-
honest , they were put to death without remission, saj ing, shee
had polluted the house of their God. . . . This profession con-
tinued a yeare, during which time their fathers and themselues
had made a vow to seme the Idol in this manner, and from thence
they went to be married.

" The other Cloyster or Monasterie was of yong-men, of eigh-
teene or twenty yeares of age, which they called Religious.
Their crownes were shauen, as the Friers in these parts ; their
haire a little longer, which fell to the raiddest of their eare, except
on the hinder part of the head, where they let it grow to their
shoulders, and tied it vp in trusses. These serued in the Tem-
ple, liued poorely and chastely, and (as the Leuites) ministered
to the Priests, Incense, Lights, and Garments, swept and made
cleane the holy Place, bringing wood for a continiiall fire, to the
barth of their God, which was like a Lampe that still burned be-

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND HELIEFS.

577

fore tho Altar of tlu'ir Moll. llcHiflo tlieso, there wore other
little hoyea that Herued for muiiual vhch, us to decke the 'IVinplu
with Hoiij^hs, UoMeH, and lleedes, j^iuo tho PrieHtM water to wash,
Kasours to Hacritiee, and to j^oe with Hueh an bej^j^ed AlnieH, to
carric it. All these had their superiours, who had the j.;overno-
ment ouer them, and when they came in puhlike, where women
were, they carrie<l their eyes to the jj;round, not <larinj5 to hehoMo
them. They had linnen garments, and went into the Citie foiiro
or sixe together, to asku almes in all quarters, and if they goto
none, it was law full for them to goo into the Cornetii-lds, and
gather that which they needed, none daring to contradict them.
There might not aboue Hftio lino in this penance ; they rose at
midnight and sounded tho Trumpets, to awake the people. Kuery
one watched by turne, least the tire before the Altar should die.
They gave tho censer with which tho I'riest at midnight incensed
the Idoll, and also in tho morning, at noone, and at night. They
were very subiect and obedient to their Superiours. . . . This
ousteritie continued a yeare. The priests . . . drunke no wine,
and slept little. . . . Gomara speaketh of others . . . which
lined in those Cloysters . . . euery one abode there as long as
they had vowed, and after vsed their libertie."

Of the several religious orders, the most renowned for its
sanctity was tho Tlamaoazcayotl, which was consecrated to tho
Borvico of Quctzalcoatl. Tho superior of this order, who was
named after the god, never deigned to issue from his seclusion
except to confer with tho king. Its members, called Tlamaoaz-
qui, led a very ascetic life, living on coarse fare, dressing in sim-
ple black robes, and performing all manner of hard work. They
bathed at midnight, and kept watch until an hour or two before
dawn, singing hymns to Quctzalcoatl ; on occasions, some of them
would retire into the desert, to lead a life of prayer and penance
in solitude.''*

Acosta makes mention of certain ascetics who dedicated
themselves for a year to the most austere life ; they assisted the
priests at the hours of incensing, and drew much blood from their
bodies in sacrifice. They dressed in white robes, and lived by
begging. (" Hist de las Ynd.," pp. 341, 342.)

The only food of the candidate for the priesthood, during the
year of probation, was herbs, M'ild honey, and roasted maize ; "'
his life was passed in silence and retirement, and the monotony
87

578

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ill:

,']

of his existence was only relieved by waiting on the priests, tak-
ing care of the altars, sweeping the temple, and gathering wood
for the fires. When four years after his admission to the priest-
hood had elapsed, during which time ho seems to have served a
3ort of apprenticeship, he was permitted to marry, if he saw fit,
and at the same time to perform his priestly functions. If he
did not marry, he entered one of the monasteries, which were de-
pendent on the temples, and, while performing his regular duties,
increased the austerity of his life. If one of them violated his
vow of chastity, he was bastinadoed to death.

In spite of the austerity of their retreat, the monks neverthe-
less sometimes repaired alone to the woods, to wander in the
mountains and deserts in a spirit of contemplation.'"

The title of " Teopixqui," or sacred guardian, designates in-
differently all the members of the priesthood.**" Some of the
number are married, and live an ordinary life in the world, with-
out retiring therefrom except when engaged in the service of the
temple. Others, following the example of Quetzalcoatl, who in-
stituted ecclesiastic celibacy, bound themselves by a vow to
continence, either perpetual or for a term ; these taking the
title of " Tlamacazqui," which corresponds to that of deacon or
priest. The conduct of all these men, consecrated to the altars
of their gods, is extremely reserved and austere. Whenever they
meet women, in the streets or in the houses, they bend their eyes
upon the ground. They never drink any intoxicating liquor ; all
their exterior announces mortification, gravity, and circumspec-
tion, and their maintenance is imposed iipon the people ; they
are considered as beings superior to the rest of mortals, and as
of a divine perfection, and a blind confidence is felt in the truth
of everything that they say.

Ccntcotl (the goddess of maize) is the principal divinity of
the Totonacas ; they h.ave among them a college of priests who
are specially consecrated to her. Their life is passed in a suc-
cession of austerities, analogous to those of the East Indian an-
chorites ; but they do not admit into their monastery any others
than aged priests, more than sixty years old, of good habits and
especially of an irreproachable continence. The number of
these priests is fixed, and a new member can not be admitted
except at the death of one of the community. They give them-
selves constantly to works of penitence and mortification, pray-

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

579

ing to the goddeas and the other gods for the prosperity of tlie
people, and Hupplicating them to put an end to human sacri-
fices. They never go forth into the world, and never speak to
any one, exce])t for the purpose of giving advice as to the con-
duct of those who come to consult them upon the subject. On
such an occasion they sit upon a bench, and, with eyes humbly
lowered, they listen to that which is said to them, and reply with
kindness to all that is asked of them, consoling the afflicted, and
resolving the difficulties which are proposed to them. All the
world has so great consideration for them, that the highest and
most dignified pontiffs, and even the king himself, resort to them
for counsel as if to living oracles.

Except for the hours passed in prayer and contemplation, they
occupy their time in drawing up and writing out the annals of
the country, and in composing sermons, which the high-priest
finally reads in public."* (Torquemada, " Monarq. Ind.," lib.
viii, cap. 5, and lib. ix, cap. 8.)

They dressed in skins and ate no meat."' (Las Casas, " Hist.
Apologetica," MS., cap. cxxxii.)

The kingdom of Tilantongo, which comprehends Upper Mix-
teca, is governed spiritually by the high-priest of Achiuhtla, who
has the title of " Taysacaa," and whose power equals, if it does
not exceed, that of the sovereign. The title is probably derived
from tay, a man, and sacaa, pontiff. (** Vocab. of the Mixteca
Language.")

The supreme pontificate is preserved, to all appearance, in the
royal family, and is transmitted in the male line ; but the "sacaas,"
or simple priests, may be chosen indifferently from among any of
the free families. All, even to the successor of the pontiff, render
a rigorous novitiate of a year, from which no one of them can be
excused. Up to this moment they are required to have con-
stantly lived in a state of perfect chastity, and he who has before
this time known any woman is considered unworthy of the gods.
Their food, during the novitiate, consists of herbs, of wild honey,
ard of roasted maize ; their life is austere, and they pass it in
silence and " in retreat " ; their sole occupation being to serve the
priests, to have the care of the altars, to sweep the sanctuary,
and to provide the wood necessary for the sacrifices."'

Among the rites in use in Nicaragua was that of auricular
confession. It was not an ordinary priest who was charged with

580

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Hi!i!;

the duty of hearing such confessions, but a venerable man,
chosen usually from among the wisest and the most venerable of
the country. At his death another was chosen in his place. He
must be a celibate, of pure and austere life, living in his own
house, where he listened to those who came to him. This office
was much esteemed, and, as a mark of the office, he carried a cala-
bash suspended from his neck. Those who had committed any
grave fault approached him with humility, and remained stand-
ing in his presence, confessing their sins to him, persuaded that
after this avowal their conscience should be entirely eased. The
venerable man guarded their secret scrupulously, and imposed a
penance for the profit of the temple, such as the sweeping of it, or
the bringing of wood for its use, and finally dismissed them, say-
ing, " Go and sin no more." *"

The ordinary dress of the Mexican priests differed little from
that of other citizens ; the only distinctive feature being a black
cotton mantle, which they wore in the manner of a veil thrown
back upon the head. Those, however, who professed a more
austere life, such as the Quaquaquiltin and Tlamacazqui before
mentioned, wore long black robes ; many among them never cut
their hair, but allowed it to grow as long as it would ; it was
twisted with thick cotton cords, and bedaubed with unctuous
matter, the whole forming a weighty mass, as inconvenient to
carry as it was disgusting to look at. The high-priest usually
wore, as a badge of his rank, a kind of fringe Avhich hung down
over his breast, called Xicolli ; on feast days he was clothed in
a long robe, over which he wore a sort of chasuble, or cope,
which varied in colour, shape, and ornamentation, according
to the sacrifices he made and the divinity to which he offered
them.""-

The usual dress of the Zapotec priests was a full white robe,
with openings to pass the arms through, but no sleeves ; this
was girt at the waist with a coloured cord. During the ceremony
of sacrifice, and on feast days, the Wiyatao wore, over all, a
kind of tunic with full sleeves, adorned with tassels, and em-
broidered in various colours with representations of birds and
animals. On his head he wore a miter of feather-work, orna-
mented with a very rich crown of gold ; his neck, arms, and
wrists were laden with costly necklaces and bracelets ; upon his
feet were golden sandals, bound to his legs with cords of gold

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

581

and bright-coloured thread. The Toltcc sacerdotal system so
closely resembled the Mexican that it needs no further descrip-
tion in this volume. Their priests wore a long black robe reach-
ing to the ground ; their heads were covered with a hood, and
their hair fell down over their shoulders and was braided. They
rarely put sandals on their feet, except when about to start on
a long journey. The common Totonac priests wore long black
cotton robes with hoods ; their hair was braided like that of
the other common priests of Mexico, and was anointed with the
blood of human sacrifices. The common priests of Michoacan
wore their hair loose and disheveled ; a leathern band encircled
their foreheads, their robes were white, embroidered with black,
and in their hands they carried feather fans. In Puebla they
also wore white robes, with sleeves, and /ringed on the edges.
The papas, or sacrificing priests of Tlascala, allowed their hair
to grow long, and anointed it with the blood of their victims.'"
The pontiff at Mictlan, in Salvador, who stood on nearly the
same level as the king, bore the title of Teoti, *' divine," and
was distinguished by a long blue robe, a diadem, and a baton
like an episcopal cross ; on solemn occasions he substituted a
miter of beautiful feathers for the diadem.'^'

Continence was strictly imposed on the Zapotec priests,"'
but in Yucatan,"" as well as in Mexico, many of the priests were
married.

Their prayers were standard compositions, learned by rote at
school ; while reciting them they assumed a squatting posture,
usually with the face toward the east ; on occasions of great
solemnity they prostrated themselves.'^"

Fasting was observed as an atonement for sin, as well as a
preparation for solemn festivals. An ordinai*y fast consisted in
abstaining from meat for a period of from one to ten days, and
taking but one meal a day, at noon ; at no other hour might so
much as a drop of water be touched.'"' The female recluses also
made it a practice to fast strictly, eating but once a day, and
never before noon, and taking but a meager collation after

noon

105

All the Tlamacazqui were required to sleep in their monas-
tery ; they occupied four hours in the morning in sweeping and
cleaning, and they were all bound by vows to live chastely, to
be temperate and truthful, to live devoutly, and to fear God.'""

582

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

If i

^^ 1

!!!'

1 '

^1 1

III

1 .
i

i! ■

h\ '

To one p.t all familiar with the accounts of the life of Buddhist
ascetics in the different countries of Asia, the foregoing relation
of the duties and practices of the priests and nuns of Mexico will
recall many analogies between the beliefs and customs of the two
regions of the world ; and in fact much of the account of the
Mexican ascetics might with equal truth be applied to their breth-
ren in Asia, and with only a few changes might be thought to be
the relation of some Asiatic traveler.

The early disciples of Sakya Muni are generally represented as
wandering about with their royal master ; others, in consequence
of his frequent exhortations to lead a solitary life, are said to
have retired to the forests and woods which surround the settle-
ments, or to have lived in solitary and forsaken houses, which
they only left at certain periods in order to betake themselves to
Sakya Muni and listen to his words.'"* Monasteries were almost
immediately established, however.

The tenets of Buddhism require a renunciation of the world,
and tlie observance of austerities to overcome evil passions, and
fit its disciples for future happiness. Avow of celibacy is taken,
and the priests dwell together, for mutual assistance in attaining
perfection by worshiping Buddha and calling upon his name.
They shave the entire head as a token of purity, but not the
whole body, as the ancient Egyptian priests did ; they profess to
eat no animal food, wear no skin or woolen garments, and get
their living by begging, by the alms of worshipers, and the cul-
tivation of the grounds of the temple.'"*

The bonzes are taken young into the service ; and, if there
are no volunteers, young boys are bought ; their heads are then
shaven ; they wear a yellow dress ; and commence the recitation
of short prayers, while at the same time they perform the duties
of scullions and menial servants. Finally they are ordained.""

In Arrakan, candidates for the priesthood are received with-
out any regard to their country, caste, or previous religion. If
the age of the postulant does not exceed fifteen years, he is
appointed to the performance of menial duties, and gradually
instructed about the duties he will afterward be required to
attend to, until he arrives at twenty years of age, the period
appointed for ordination. It is not unusual for young men to
enter the order for a limited period, that they may acquire merit,
or expiate some crime. The children of the laity are educated

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AXD BELIEFS.

5S3

at the monasteries, no distinction being made between the rich and
the poor ; and no remuneration is received by the priests beyond
their usual allowance of alms. Some of the boys are allowed to
go home to their meals, but they are obliged to sleep in the
monastery, as the lessons they have learnt during the day are
repeated in the evening, or at daybreak on the following morn-
ing.'"'- In Mexico, alsOj the children arc educated by the
priests, and are allowed to go home to cheir meals, but required
to sleep in the establishment. ""•

The priests of Thibet are permitted to eat treacle, to cook for
themselves in time of famine, to cook in ten kinds of places, to
eat meat under certain restrictions, and to accept gifts from the
laitj'. They are to wear not more than three pieces of cloth, of
a red colour, to wear cotton garments when bathing, to be clean
in their dress and in their bedding, and never to go naked.'*"

They do nothing but keep the vigils. There are convents
containing from fifty to one hundred, whose sole occupation
consists in reading mass and observing vigils.'""'

The principal exercises of penance appear to bo sweeping the
court-yard, and sprinkling sand under the bo-tree, or near the
dagobas.'""-

In the commencement of Buddhism there was an order of fe-
male recluses,'"' and there still are a number of nunneries, but
they are not so numerous as the monasteries, and the inmates are
comparatively few. The rules are nearly the same, adapted to
the peculiarities of the sex.'"'* The novice is not admitted to
full orders till she is sixteen, though previous to this she adopts
the garb of the sisterhood ; the only difference consists in the
front part of the head being shaved, and the hair plaited in
a queue, while the nuns shave the whole. . . . The Chinese
nun ... is required to live a life of devotion and mortification,
to eat only vegetables, to care nothing for the world, and to think
only of her eternal canonization, keeping herself busy with the
services of the temple. " Daily exercises are to be conducted by
her ; the furniture of the small sanctuary, that forms a part of the
convent, must be looked after and kept clean and orderly ; those
women or men who come to worship at the altars, and seek guid-
ance and comfort, must be cared for and assisted. When there
is leisure, the sick and poor are to be visited ; and all who have
placed themselves under her special directions, and spiritual in-

58-t

AN INGLOKIOUS OOLCMBUS.

P!!;ii!ii

ill 'fl

! i

struction, have a strong claim upon her regard. That she may
live the life of seclusion and self-denial, she must vow perpetual
virginity." ""

If a monk and a nun happen to succumb to the temptations
of the flesh, the one is expelled from the convent, sent back
ignominiously to her family, and dishonoured for life ; the other
is driven out of the order, branded upon the forehead with a led-
hot iron, and exiled to the mountains, to live with the wild beasts
for several years, in a temperature so frigid as to cool the pas-
sions. But if neither of the two culprits has bean fully admitted
to the order, they are permitted to repair their fault by marriage.
In case of refusal, the monk is publicly bastinadoed, and is sent
away from the place which he has scandalized.'*'

What the Buddhists call time in reference to meals is thus ex-
plained : The time of the gods is the early morning, the hour
chosen by the gods to take their repast. The time of the law is
noon, the hour selected by the Buddhas, past, present, and to come,
for their refection. The time of brutes is evening, when animals
feed. The time of the genii is night, during which good and evil
spirits eat. Thus all meals taken after midday are unseasonable
for ecclesiastics, and all who observe the precepts rigorously
abstain from such.*" Those, however, who are sick, observe no
such distinction, but eat when they please.''*'

In addition to the analogies which may be observed in the
preceding accounts, it should be observed that the most scrupu-
lous modesty is observed in the invention and the execution of
the Mexican idols, as well as in the arrangement of their drape-
ries. The care in this respect gives them a great resemblance to
the paintings of the gods and goddesses of India, who are repre-
sented with almost precisely the same styles of head-dresses and
the same vestments as those of the Mexican divinities.""

Buddhism does not sanction shocking rites or Bacchanalian
orgies, like the other idolatrous systems of Asia. Nor have -"'e
to complain of indecency in its representations of idol gods ;
they may be hideous, but they are never repulsive to the feelings
of modesty."*

"We add, with Mr. Wilson, that the obligation of the priests
of being always covered furnishes to archjeology a character of
the first importance, by which to determine the authenticity of
statues or sculptured scenes, as to which there is doubt whether

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

685

rhat she may
ow perpetual

i temptations
nt, sent back
fe ; the other
id with a led-
be wild beasts
cool the pas-
'ully admitted
; by marriage,
d, and is sent

als is thus ex-
ing, the hour
I of the law is
t, and to come,
when animals
good and evil

unseasonable
)ts rigorously

ik, observe no

iserved in the
most scrupu-
execution of
: their drape-
esemblance to
fho are repre-
d-dresses and
ies.'"'

Bacchanalian
Kor have ^e
)f idol gods ;
the feelings

of the priests
character of
ithenticity of
oubt whether

they should be considered Buddhistic or not. The scenes in
which the religious personages are clothed pertain, very prob-
ably, to Buddhism ; but this can not be said of those in which
they are nude."*

Many of the facts which have been mentioned recall Roman
Catholicism as strongly as they do Buddhism, and may well have
been considered by the first Catholic missionaries as furnishing
strong confirmation of the belief that America had, in the early
centuries of the Christian era, been 'sited by a traveler of their
own faith.

These are all points, however, in which, as has already been
explained, Roman Catholicism and Buddhism strongly resemble
each other. That the missionary who exerted so great an influ-
ence on their customs and beliefs could not have been of the Ca-
tholic Church is shown by the entire absence of any reference to
the Christian Sabbath ; by the lack of any mention of the Virgin
Mary ; by the fact that the adoration of the cross was not car-
ried to the extent which would have been taught by a Catholic
priest ; by the failure of all reference to a Trinity, or to the name
of the Saviour ; and by the fact that the ascetics were allowed to
take their vows for a limited length of time, instead of for life.

When my attention was first called to the subject, it seemed
to me that the permission to marry, enjoyed by the Mexican
priests, and the fact that although some of them were called
" herb-eaters," nevertheless the greater part of them also ate
flesh, militated against the belief that they were the represen-
tatives of the Buddhist faith, which had been introduced into
the country more than a thousand years before. I found, how-
ever, on investigation, that even the Buddhists of Asia were not
governed very strictly by the laws by which they professed to be
guided. Evon the prohibition of intoxicating liquors is but little
regarded »" by the lamas of Mongolia.'" In Burmah the priests
make their mantles of cloth of the finest quality,'*^' instead of
from the coarse material prescribed by Buddah ; and, in Ceylon,
caste exists among the disciples of this religion, although directly
co.itrary to the tenets of its founder.

Although celibacy was enjoined on the priests of Buddah, it
is by no means universal,""* and married priests are found in
China, Japan,"" Nepal,'" Thibet,'"' and Ceylon.""

Gautama's teachings present the curious anomaly that, al-

'•'

586

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

though he absolutely forbade the taking of life, yet he nevertheless
permitted his disciples to eat the Hcsh of animals which had been
killed by others ; "*' and to this day his followers will not adroit
thut by purchasing the flesh they make themselves partakers in
the sin of killing."' They, therefore, do not refuse any kind of
food that is offered them, and whatever dies of itself they con-
sider to be killed by God, and they therefore feel at liberty to
eat it.""

One of Buddah's disciples suggested to him that it would be
well to issue an order that no priest be permitted to eat flesh of
any kind. " There are others who observe this ordinance," said he,
*' and, as there are many persons who think it is wrong to eat
flesh, the non-observance of this ordinance by the priests causes
the * dharma ' to be spoken against." But Buddha replied, " I
can not consent to the establishment of such an ordinance.
The Buddhas are not like the blind, who require to be led by
another ; they do not learn from others, or follow the example
of others. The faithful give to the priests flesh, medicines, seats,
and other things, and thereby acquire merit. Those who take
life are in fault, but not the persons who eat the flesh ; my
priests have permission to eat whatever food it is customary to
eat in any place or country, so that it be done without the indul-
gence of the appetite or evil desire. There are some who be-
come rahats at the foot of a tree, and others in pansals ; some
when they are clothed in what they have taken from a cemetery,
and others when clothed with what they have received from the
people ; some when abstaining from flesh, and others when eat-
ing it. If one uniform law were enforced, it would be a hindrance
in the way of those who are seeking nirvana ; but it is to re-
veal this way that the oflice of the Buddhas is assumed." ""

Hence, although Buddhism teaches that man should view all
animated beings as his brethren and relations, and not kill them,
and although there is a proverb which says, " To eat flesh is
equal to eating one's relations," "" many of the Buddhist priests
eat whatever is offered them in alms ; and the fact that Gautama
Buddha himself died from indigestion, produced by eating pork,
has been a circumstance too well known to be set aside by the
more rigid of his disciples, who might otherwise have been ready
to insist upon a dietetic discipline more extensive in its prohibi-
tion.'"^*

1! .,Si *

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

587

It therefore appears that neither the marriage of the Mexican
priests, nor the fact that they were permitted to eat meat, is any
proof that they were not the representatives of Hiuldhism.

It would appear that if Buddhism were preached in Mexico,
and if it had sufficient influence upon the people to produce any
changes in their customs or beliefs, some traces of the name or
names of its founder, of its chief religious terms, and of the
images which were brought by the missionaries, should be found
in the land.

Although "Buddha" is the name by which the founder of
this Asiatic religion is best known among us, this word is mere-
ly an epithet, meaning " the Enlightened," and in Asia he is
usually designated either by his patronymic, " Gautama," or
by the name of his race, " Sakya " ; and it is these names which
we might expect to find in Mexico. It has already been men-
tioned that the high-priest of Mixteca bore the title of Tay-
sacaa, or "the Man of Sakya" — Ihy meaning "man," and sacaa
having no meaning in the language, but being merely the term
which was applied to a priest. AVe also find the term Zitca-tkm,
or " Place of Sakya," applied to the state of Chiapas,"' and Zaca-
tepee, or " Mountain of Sakya," applied to one of the most beauti-
ful departments of the Republic of Guatemala.'*'

It is true that other explanations are given of these names —
the " Zaca " in the last two cases being supposed to be connected
with Sacatl, the torm applied to herbage or fodder for animals ;
but it is well knov n that otosis, or the substitution of a familiar
word for an archaic one of similar sound but wholly diverse
meaning, is a very common occurrence and easily leads to myth-
making. For example, there is a cave near Chattanooga which
has the Cherokee name Nik-a-jak. This the M'hite settlers have
transfonned into Nigger Jack, and are prepared with a narrative
of some runaway slave to explain the cognomen.*"

So, too, the fruit of the Persea gratisaima, known by the Mex-
icans as the Ahnacatl,''^*^ after having its name changed to the
" avocado pear," "" came to be known by sailors as the " alligator
pear," "" and the explanation that it is so called because of the
fact that alligators are exceedingly fond of it is always ready.

It is therefore evident that the fact that some kind of an ety-
mology may bo found for a name, in the language in which the
term is used, is not conclusive proof that it may not be a foreign

588

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

word, adopted into the language and possibly more or loss
changed, and we hIiouUI not feel debarred from seeking the true
meaning of the term in the language from which it was bor-
rowed.

In addition to the names Zacatlan and Zacatepcc, already
mentioned, wo also find the towns of Sacapulas, Sacatecoluca,
Saco, Zacapa, Zacapata, Zacatecas, Zacatula, and Zacoalco, nearly
all these names being found in one small district upon the Pacific
coast, near the boundary-line between Mexico and Guatemala, the
exact district which Wixipecocha is said to have visited. The
name Guatemala I believe to be from Gautama-tlan, " the Place
of Gautama.''' Bancroft gives the following account of the futile
attempts that have been made to find a meaning for the word in
the language of the country : " The name Guatemala is, accord-
ing to Fuentes y Guzman, derived from Cocteemalan, that is to
say, Palo de leche, milk-tree, commonly called Yerba mala, found
in the neighbourhood of Antigua Guatemala. See also Juarros,
'Guatemala,' ii, pp. 527, 528, In the Mexican tongue, if we
may believe Vasquez, it was called Quatihtimalli, * rotten tree.'
(' Chronica de Guatemala,' p. 08.) Others derive it from Uhatcz-
malha, signifying * the hill which discharges water' ; and Juarros
suggests that it may be from Juitemal, the first king of Guate-
mala, by a corruption, as Almolonga from Atmulunga, and
Zonzonate from Zezontlatl. The meaning of the word would
then be * the Kingdom of Juitemal.' " **'

It is scarcely necessary to say that no one of these derivations
is satisfactory', and that they have merely been suggested in
the absence of any other clew to the meaning of the word.

In Michoacan we find a town called Iluatamo, and in Jalisco
one called Huazamala, both of which seem to preserve the term
Gautama. The name seems to have survived as a personal
designation up to the time of the Spanish conquest. After the
death of Montezuma, the strongest candidate for the Mexican
throne was the former high-priest Quauhtemo-tzin."' The native
authorities incline to the form " Quauhtemoc " ; but the Spanish
generally add the " tzin," the " c " being elided, and the " Q "
changed to " G," making the name Gautemotzin.**^ Solis spells
the word Guatimocm,*"'^ and Diaz, Quauhtemoctzin.^^"^ Prescott
explains that the Aztec tzin was added vo the names of sover-
eigns and great lords as a mark of reverence."**" It therefore

IlELKilOUS CUSTOMS AND IJELIEFS.

5S9

e derivations

appears quite as probable tliut the name meant "the Great Gau-
tama" as that it meant "the Kagle that Stoops,"^"

The title " Tlamacazqui " of the Mexican priests has already
been mentioned. Of this the radical part is " Tlanni," "" a term
which was also used alone as the appellation of a "medicine
man" or physician. I)e Paravey called attention to the similar-
ity of this word to the title of " lama," applied in Thibet to the
Buddhist priests. It appertains by right to the superior priests
only, but it lias come to be regarded as a title which courtesy re-
quires one to give to every lUiddhist priest.'"'

The Mexican language has no word with an initial " 1," and
"tlama" is the form which a foreign Avord " lama" would inevi-
tably take if adopted into the Aztec tongue.

The religious establishments of the priesthood in India are
called Viharas.^^^ In Zapotecapan the supreme pontiff was
called the Wiyatao"^ a term which may possibly be connected
with it. Burgoa writes this word Jluijatoo, and translates it as
" Great Sentinel." The Zapotec vocabulary translates it by the
word "pope" or "priest.""" Wiyana was a term applied to
priests of a low ;;r order."*

The resemblance to " Deus " of the term " Teotl," applied by
the Mexicans to the Divine Being, of whom they seem to have
had some indistinct ideas, almost eradicated by the idolatry
which they practiced, may be accounted for by the introduption,
by the party of Buddhist priests from Coph6ne, of the Sanskrit
" Deva," "'^* or some word very similar, from the Pali or other
language closely connected with Sanskrit.

I do not claim any very great value for these efforts to point
out resemblances to names used by the Buddhists. There is no
one of the cases as to which the explanations that are given may
not be erroneous ; and yet it does not seem probable that so
many resemblances can be wholly accidental. They have been
mentioned, however, mainly in refutation of the negative argu-
ment which might be urged if the names " Sakya," " Guatama,"
etc., were not found in the country, that therefore the religion
of this sage could never have been so preached in the land as to
have had any effect upon the belief of its people.

Several of the religious tenets and practices of the Aztecs,
which bear a striking analogy to those of the Buddhists, may be
mentioned.

590

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I r

Among tlu'80 may ho namctl tho belief as to the road to the
abode of the dead.

The officiating priests laid passports with the body, which
were to serve for various points along the road. The first papers
l)assed him by two mountains, which, like the symplegadcs,
threatened to meet and crush him in their embrace. The second
was a pass for tho road guarded by a big snake ; the other
papers took him by tho green crocodile, Xochitonal, across
eight deserts, and over eight hills. Then came the freezing
itze/u'C<ti/a, " wind of knives," which hurls stones and knives upon
the traveler, who now more than ever finds the oflFerings of his
friends of service. How the poor soul escaped this ordeal is not
stated. Lastly ho came to tho broad river Chiconahuapan, ** nine
waters," which could be crossed only upon the back of a dog of
reddish colour, which was killed for this purpose by thrusting an
arrow down its throat, and was burned with the corpse. Accord-
ing to Gomara, the dog served for a guide to Mictlan ; but other
authors state that it preceded its master, and, when he arrived at
tho river, ho found it on the opposite bank, waiting with a num-
ber of others for their owners. As soon as the dog recognized its
master, it swam over, and bore him safely across the rushing
current.'"

The Buddhists also speak of a mountain in Hades, near which
passes the road which the souls of the dead must travel to reach
the place of judgment, and of a river which must be crossed on
tho way.""

It is possible that tho nine divisions of the abode of the
dead, which are mentioned as having had an existence in
the Aztec faith, were the eight places of torment of the Bud-
dhists,"" added to the one land of darkness of their earlier
faith.

A belief in transmigration, so firmly rooted and widely prop-
agated in Oriental countries, also existed in Mexico.'"** In both
regions it was the practice to adorn the temples with hangings of
paper,"*' and in both a belief in enchantments and magic played
a great role.*" It is possible that if the details as to the belief
in lucky and unlucky days, and other superstitious notions as to
good and evil fortune, could be brought to light, as it has ex-
isted in the two regions of the world, a comparison would go far
toward a settlement of the question as to whether these beliefs

UKUGIOUS CUSTOMS AND HELIKFS.

road to the

body, which
le first papers
Byniplt'gadoH,
The Hecond
e ; the other
tonal, across

the freezing

1 knives upon
ferings of his

ordeal is not
tuapan, ** nine
k of a dog of
r thrusting an
)8e. Accord-
in ; but other
he arrived at
; with a num-
recognized its
I the rushing

a, near which
ivel to reach
)e crossed on

ibode of the
existence in
of the Bud-
their earlier

widely prop-
'»" In both
hangings of
nagic played
to the belief
lotions as to
as it has ex-
vould go far
hese beliefs

had a common origin, or liad grown up in each region independ-
ently of the other.

One of the most striking analogies between the religious tenets
of the two regions is that in Mixteeapan or Zapotecapan they are
convinced that the souls of the dead wander about for a certain
number of years, before they enter into the eojouiri of the
blessed, and that they return, once each year, to visit their fami-
lies. This opinion has given rise to a singular feast, conse-
crated to the reception of these returning spirits, which is luld
in the twelfth month of the Zapotec year, corresponding to the
month of November.*** It is also a practice of the IJuddhist
priests to celebrate every year a great nocturnal feast of the
dead, summoning the hungry ghosts by beat of gong and sound
of bells."*"

f 10. 18.— Sculptured tablet at Palenquo.

f - ' ■ I

A., i

'pMMil
iiift:

592

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

In the translation of d'Eichthal's " Study," contained in
Chapter VIII, an engraving is given (Fig. 2, page 128) of a bas-
relief found at Palenque, which contains a figure seated in the
characteristic attitude of Buddha, upon a lion-headed couch.
Figs. 18 and 19 are reproductions of the same design as drawn
by different artists.

Fio. 19. — Another reiiresontation of the sculptured tablet at Palenque.

I am indebted for both cuts, as well as for most of those
which follow, to the courtesy of Mr. II. II. Bancroft, from whose
great woi-k, entitled " The Native Races of the Pacific States,"
they are borrowed.

It will be seen that while the several artists have differed
somewhat as to a number of the details, the general resemblance
to the usual Asiatic representations of Buddha, as shown in Fig.
1, page 128, and Fig. 9, page 135, is equally striking in all the
copies.

KELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

593

contained in
128) of a bas-
seated in the
paded couch,
ign as drawn

ost of those

from whose

cific States,"

ave differed
resemblance
town in Fig.
g in all the

The representations of Buddha by the Asiatics, when he is
drawn as occupying the central part of a i)icturc, present him, as
a rule, as seated upon " the throne of lions " (in Sanskrit, iSim-

Fig. 20. — Beau-relief in stucco at Pulunnuo.

Msana ; in Thibetan, Sengti, or Scnge chad ti, " the seat of eight
lions "). The throne is so called from the eight lions which sup-
38

||iit

f'i;

t*l!

i\V\

its

i;.

1- . I i;i

■ Hi'

i !

594

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

port it ; in the drawings, however, two lions only are seen in
front.'"" Fig. 20 (see last page) represents a cross-legged figure
found at Palenquc, seated upon a similar couch,"' upheld by the
heads and forelegs of two of the American animals which most
nearly resemble the lion, and which are often called by that
name.

Above the doors of the " House of the Monks," at Uxmal,
there are niches containing seated figures (see Fig. 21) which

*?siiiiiii;

iiiiiki.!:,i;;.iiiiiiilllii!iillliiiii!iiiiS!!ia

Fio. 21. — Detail of facade of a building at Uxmal

iiillllil&iiiiiiiiiiliiiCiliiilliilliiiiii^

bear a great resemblance to the statues of Buddha, which are
placed in similar niches in the walls of many Asiatic temples.

Taken by itself, the similarity might be considered as acci-
dental ; but when consideration is given to the nature of the
building in which the American figure is found, and to its won-
derful resemblance to the religious structures erected by the
Buddhists of Asia, much weight is added to the assumption that
both figures are the product of the same religious belief.

If those resemblances are accidental, why is it that the ac-
cident occurs nowhere in the world except in the region de-
scribed by Ilwui Shun ?

y are seen m
legged figure
ipheld by the
s wliich most
illed by that

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS.

695

Perhaps the most remarkable similarity to the Asiatic images
of Buddha which is found in any Mexican object is, however,
exhibited in a small image now contained in the museum of the
Ethnographical Society of Paris, and said to be a representation
of Quetzalcoatl.

Fio. 22.— A Mexican imaje, said to represent Quetzalcoatl,

region de-

Fig. 22, which (as well as the cut of the elephant-mound in
the following chapter) is copied by permission of Messrs G. P.
Putnam's Sons, from the translation published by them of the
Marquis de Nadaillac's " Pre-IIistoric America," shows the com-
])lete identity of this image with those which are found in Asia.

The Chinese character for Buddha is ^. Fo, which consists
of the Chinese represcjitation of a "bow," ^, Ku>'0, and four
nearly vertical lines. On each side of the seated figure, of which

596

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

I'ti r , -

I ill HI

I ;

fcl

• J''|P*|ll'i^ '^

an illustration is given on the last page, there may be seen a
number of hieroglyphics ; and the one in the upper left-hand
corner consists of an exact reproduction of the Chinese "bow"
(except for the reversal — which may exist only in the engrav-
ing, not in the original figure), together with four vertical lines.
It certainly does not seem impossible that the Chinese character
Fo, copied blindly by one generation cf Indians after another,
may, in the course of centuries, have degenerated to the form
showr in this image ; and it is at least a surprising coincidence
that -I igure which so closely resembles the representations of
the Asiatic Buddha should bear a hieroglyph so similar to t!)e
one by which he was designated by the Chinese.

If any reliance can be placed upon the story in regaid to
Camaxtli, who is said to have been the father of Quetzalcoatl,'"
it may be considerec as adding something to the proofs which
have already been adduced of an early visit to Mexico by a party
of men of the Caucasian race.

This story is thus told by Bancroft : ^" " It is stated that
when the Mexicans were practically forced into a nominal ac-
ceptance of Christianity, 'the people secretly hid the adored
imagec, and while accepting baptism still retained the old wor-
ship in secret.' Among the idols and relics saved from the
general destruction were the ashes of Camaxtli, the chief god of
the tribe, said by some to have been the brother of Tezcatlipocc,
by others the father of Quetzalcoatl. They were jealously
guarded by the chief Tecpanecatl Tecuhtli, of Tepeticpac, till
1576, when, tired of the temporal injuries which were falling
upon him, owing to their presence in his house, he turned to the
Church and surrendered the relic, and died the same week, on
Holy Thursday, while penitently lashing himself before the
Madonna. On opening the envelope of the relic, a mass of
blonde hair fell out, showing that tradition was true in describ-
ing the god as a white man." (Camargo, " Hist. Tlax.," pp. 151-
159, 178, 179.)

Having thus called attention to many analogies between the
religious belief and practices of the Aztecs, and those of the
Asiatic Buddhists, the following chapter will be devoted to an
examination of the similar analogies existing ir the pyramids,
temples, and other buildings, and in the arts a..d customs of the
two regions of the world.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE PYRAMIDS, IDOLS, AND ARTS OF MEXICO.

1 , •

1 \

i i

Temples built upon truncated pyramids — ilounda antedating Aztec occupation —
Speculations as to the date of their erection — Tlie Place of tie House of
Flowers — The monuments of San Juan Tcotihuacan — Their size — Their con-
struction — Mexican " teocaUis " — Their proportions — Resemblances to the
pyramids of India — Pyramids found wherever Buddhism prevails — The tumu-
lus or tope — Its occurrence at Nineve*^, in China, and Ceylon — Resemblances
noticed by several authors — The temple of Boro-Budor in Java — Ihe palace
at Palenque — Dome-shaped edifices — The dome at Chichen — The construc-
tion of the pyramids — The layer of stone or brick — The layer of plaster
— The false arch — Decorative paintings — The priests the artists — The orna-
ment upon the breast — The name Chaacmol — Cornices — Friezes— Representa-
tion of curved swords — An elephant's head as a head-dress — Other ornaments
in shape of an elephant's tnmk — The elephant the symbol of Buddha — The
tapir — Remains of the elephant or mastodon in America — Their possible con-
temporaneity with man — Pipes carved in the shape of elephants — Their dis-
covery — An inscribed tablet — The elephant mound of Wisconsin — A Chippe-
wa tradition — Gandsa — Tcoyaomiqui — Tlieir resemblance — The conception of
Iluitzilopochtli — The story of Cuaxolotl — Tezcatlipoca — The mirror held by
him — Similar idols in Asia — The imprint of the hand — The cataclysms by
which the human race has been destroyed — The cardinal points — Their con-
nection with certain colours — The temples of Thibet — The palace of Quetzal-
coatl — A small green stone buried with the dead — Sweeping the path before
the monarch — The use of garments and dishes but once — The brocch-cloth —
Quilted armour — Suspenpion-bridges — Books — Marriage ceremonies and cus-
toms — Tying the garments together — Postponement of the consummation of
marriage — Polygamy — Children carried on the hip — Children's toys — The
cakes used as food — A game — Practices of many Asiatic countries — Milk
not used — Authors led to believe in a connection between Asiatic and Mexican
civilization — Differences betwecL. the Mexicans and other American tribes —
Erroneous criticism.

"N^TiEN the Spaniards first pushed their way into the Mexi-
can country, tLjy found in each Aztec settlement one or more
temples or places for the worship of the natives' gods. The idols

59S

AN INGLORIOUS C0LUMBU3.

.{;•;('

"s>i 1; ii

and the buildings containing them were uniformly placed upon
the summit of a truncated earthen pyramid. Some of these
structures were of immense size, and the ruins of many are still
to be found in Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan. Although
some of the smaller mounds may have been built by the tribe
then occupying the country, they were, if so, merely imitations
of the larger and more perfect pyramids erected by some more
civilized nation which had been displaced by the Aztecs. It is
the uniform testimony of travelers that the most ancient archi-
tecture is in the highest style, and shows " marvelous workman-
ship," while the later additions are much inferior, and seem to
be the work of a people less advanced in culture and skill."'

That the mounds of Mexico antedate Aztec occupation is
proved by records that the Aztecs did not enter the valley until
the close of the thirteenth century, and by investigations showing
that the mounds contain skulls thai are not Aztec, and that they
contain specimens of the plastic art which could not have come
from the hand of an Aztec ; "^^ while the tradition, still existing
among the natives in many places, also credits these monuments
to an earlier race."' An old Indian, living near Uxmal, in 158G,
told a traveler that, according to the native traditions, the struct-
ures there found had been built nine hundred years, and that
their builders had left the country nearly that long ago.*-* The
editor of the " Antiquites Mexicaines " thinks that the temples at
Palenque " may antedate the beginning of the Christian era," '"^
and Brasseur de Bourbourg refers to them as " antediluvian," ""
while the very name Palenque means " a thing that is decayed." ""

There is therefore reason for believing that these pyramids
may have been built for the worship of a gentler and purer relig-
ion than that which was dominant in the country in the early
part of the sixteenth century. Humboldt remarked that one of
these ancient sacred structures bore the name of Xochicalco,
meaning "the Place of the House of Flowers," and asked
whether this name might not have been given it "because the
Toltecs, like the Peruvians, offered nothing to the divinity but
fruits, flowers, and incense." "*'

The monuments of San Juan Teotihuacan, said to be, with
the exception of Cholula, probably the most ancient remains
on the IVEexican soil, are thus described : "" " They were found
by the Aztecs, according to their traditions, on their entrance

\$4

j t ■ ■

MEXICAN PYRAMIDS.

599

into the country, when Teotihuacan (the Habitation of the Gods),
now a paltry village, was a flourishing city, the rival of Tula,
the great Toltec capital. The two principal pyramids were
dedicated to Tonatiuh, the Sun, and Mez:lt, the Moon. The
former, which is considerably the larger, is six hundred and
eighty-two feet Itjng at the base, and one hundred and eighty
feet high, dimensions not inferior to those of some of the kin-
dred monuments of Egyi)t. They were divided into four stories,
of which three are now discernible, while the vestiges of the
intermediate gradations are nearly effaced. The interior is com-
posed of clay mixed with pebbles, incrusted on the surface with
light porous stone. Over this was a thick coatiug of stucco, re-
sembling in its reddish colour that in the ruins of Palenque. Ac-
cording to the traditions, the pyramids are hollow ; but hitherto the
attempt to discover the cavity in that dedicated to the Sun has
been unsuccessful. In the other an aperture has been found in the
southern side at two thii-ds of the elevation. It is a narrow gal-
lery, which, after penetrating several yards, terminates in two pits,
or wells, the largest about fifteen feet deep, the sides faced with
unbaked bricks ; but to what purpose devoted, nothing is left to
show. It may have been to hold the ashes of some powerfid chief,
like the solitary apartment in the great Egyptian pyramid. That
these monuments were dedicated to religious uses there is no doubt,
and it would only be conformable to the practice of antiquity, in
the Eastern Continent, that they should have served for tombs as
well as temples. Distinct traces of the latter destination are said
to be visible on the summit of the smaller pyramid, consisting of
the remains of stone walls, showing a building of considerable
size and strength. There ai'e no remains on the top of the pyra-
mid of the Sun. The summit of this larger mound is said to have
been crowned by a temple. . . . Around the principal pyramids
are a great number of smaller ones, rarely exceeding thirty feet
in height." (Copied from Prescott.)

The Mexican teocallis were very numerous. There were sev-
eral hundred in ei»ch of the cities, and the towns, villages, and
districts had their share, many of them, doubtless, but humble
edifices. They were masses of earth cased with bricks or stone,
about one hundred feet square, and in their form resembled the
pyramids of Egypt, except thut they were truncated. The as-
cent was by four or more stories, by a flight of steps turning at

'tJ

III

i;
III

itl;

^ ! - ' ' ' 1 1

if'- f-

■ f

3' ■!

II' ,

600

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the angles of the pyramids, so that one or more circuits had to
be made before reaching the top, or, in other cases, the steps led
directly to the summit ; the top was a broad area with one or
two towers forty feet or more high."^ The base was either
circular or quadrangular ; the pyramids sometimes consisted of
only a single story, but were usually of several, each smaller than
that below it."" None of them terminated in a point. They
always had a platform of greater or less extent, which served,
without doubt, as a foundation upon which to place the statues
or the sacrificial altars of their divinities.'"' At the first view
one is not only struck by their conical or pyramidical form, but
also by the slight elevation of the edifices as compared with their
extent, as well as by the solidity of their construction.'" The
main teocalli of the city of Mexico, as well as others elsewhere,
stood in the midst of a vast area, encompassed by a wall of stone
and lime."'

These pyramids have often been compared with those of
Egypt ; but the resemblance is more in the name than in the ap-
pearance, the material or style of construction, the proportions of
the structure, or the purposes for which it was erected. The
Egyptian pyramids were of stone ; the Mexican mainly of earth.
The Egyptian pyramids were carried up to a point; the Mexican
were always truncated. The Egyptian were nearly as high as the
diameter of their base ; the Mexican were usually very much
broader than their height. Stephens urges the following addi-
tional facts in proof of their radical dissimilarity : ""

" The pyramids of Egypt are peculiar and uniform, and were
invariably erected for the same uses and purposes, so far as those
uses and purposes are known. They are all square at the base,
with steps rising and diminishing until they come to a point.
The nearest approach to this is at Copan ; but even at that
place there is no entire pyramid standing alone and disconnected,
nor one with four sic'es complete, but only two, or, at most, three
sides, and intended to form part of other structures ; all the rest,
without a single exception, were high elevations, with sides so
broken thftt we could not make out their form, which, perhaps,
were merely walled around, and had ranges of steps in front and
rear as at Uxmal, or terraces or raised platforms of earth, at most
of three or four ranges, not of any precise form, but never square,
and -"vith small ranges of steps in the center. Besides, the pyra-

Ih \

MEXICAN PYRAMIDS.

601

mids of Egypt are known to have interior chambers, and, what-
ever their other uses, to have been intended and used as scpul-
chers. These, on the contrary, are of solid earth and stone. No
interior chambers have ever been discovered, and probably none
exist ; and the most radical difference of all is, the pyramids of
Egypt are complete in themselves ; the structures of this country
were erected only to serve as the foundations of buildings.
There is no pyramid in Egypt with a palace or temple upon it ;
there is no pyramidal structure in this country without, at least
none from whose condition any judgment can be formed.

" But there is one further consideration, which must be con-
clusive. . . . There is no doubt that originally every pyramid in
Egypt was built with its sides perfectly smooth. The steps
formed no part of the plan. It is in this state only that they
ought to be considered, and in this state any possible resemblance
between them and what are caii..d the pyramids of America
ceases."

If the American pyramids do not resemble those of Egypt,
have they any similarity to any found elsewhere, or do they
stand alone in the world ?

Mr. Squier has answered the question, though in a manner
somewhat contrary to what seems his own predilection for the
theory of an aboriginal civilization, by stating that " in India are
found the almost exact counterparts of the religious structures of
Central America ; analogies furnishing the strongest support of
the hypothesis which places the origin of American semi-civiliza-
tion in Southern Asia." "" Wherever the religion of Buddha pre-
vails, temples of a pyramidal forru, both with square and circular
bases, are to be found,'*"* in porae instances rising to an elevation
that has only one parallel among the works of man.'**' The ear-
liest Buddhist temple was the tumulus (tope). Outside was a
circle of rude stone monoliths, like those of Avebury, Stennis,
Stonehenge, etc., and within this circle was the principal edifice,
the tope, a gigantic hemisphere of brick or stone, and earth, con-
taining a tiny little secret chamber in the center. Huge statues,
and sumptuous railings of stone and marble, with gateways at
intervals, were erected around the tope.'™ Truncated earthen
pyramids are found throughout Central and Eastern Asia. There
is one near the ruins of Nineveh."*' They were erected in China
in early days, as is shown by the character t'an, J^,"'* which is

hhv

ii t

!:. :

;iii

liliill

iH''-

602

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMnUS.

defined as "an open altar on wliich to ofTtT sacrifice, a liigh ter-
race for worship." In Ceylon, the principal di'ij^obas (as these
religious structures are sometimes called) are at Anuriidliapura ;
and though time has divested them of a ])art of their original
majesty, they are yet most imposing in their ajjpearance. The
Ahhayagiri was originally four hundred and five feet high, being
only about fifty feet less than the highest of the jtyramids of
Egypt, or the dome of St. Peter's at Rome, and fifty feet higher
than St. Paul's at London. Its elevation is not now more than
two hundred and thirty feet. The wall around the ])latform
upon which it is built extends to the distance of one mile and
three quarters. The Jaitawanarama, completed a. d. 310, was
originally three hundred and fifteen feet high, but is now reduced
to two hundred and sixty-nine feet. It has been calculated that
the contents of this erection are 456,071 cubic yards, and that a
brick wall twelve feet high, two feet broad, and ninety-seven
miles long might be built with the materials that yet remain.'"'

It will be seen that in size, proportions, materials, uses, and
appearance, these Asiatic structures closely resemble those of
Mexico and Central America. Von Tschudi mentions, with sur-
prise, " the characteristic likeness which exists between the pa-
godas of India and the teocallis of Mexico."*^* Hardy says
upon the subject :

" The ancient edifices of Chichen, in Central America, bear a
striking resemblance to the topes of India. The shape of one of
the domes, its apparent size, the small tower on the summit, the
trees growing on the sides, the appearance of masonry here and
there, the style of the ornaments, and the small doorway at the
base, are so exactly similar to what I had seen at Anuradhapura,
that when my eye first fell upon the engravings of these remark-
able ruins, I supposed that they were presented in illustration of
the dagobas of Ceylon." '"^

The writer of an article in the " Edinburgh Review," for
April, 1867, says :

" The great temple of Palenque corresponds so exactly in its
principal details to that of Boro-Budor, situated in the province
of Kedu (in Java), that it is impossible to reasonably dispute the
community of the origin and of the purpose of the two monu-
ments." "

It should be observed that these two writers had no theory

MEXICAN PYIIAMIDS.

608

e. a liigh ter-
).as (as these
lunidliapura ;
tlit'ir orij^iiial
irancc. The
ft high, beinjT

l)yraiTiitls of
y feet higher
)\v more than
the phitform
one mile and
, I). 310, was

now rednced
ilculated that
Is, and that a

ninety-seven
^et remain. '^'^
als, uses, rmd
iblo those of
ms, with sur-
ween the pa-

I lardy says

lerica, bear a
ape of one of
! summit, the
nry here and
orsvay at the
auradhapura,
hese rcmark-
llustration of

lleview," for

exactly in its
the province
f dispute the
e two monu-

to serve, and that they were probably unaware of any other
reason for believing that there had been early eommunieatioii
of any kind between the two eontinents. In order that the won-
derful resemblance last mentioned may be seen by the reader,

Fio. 23.~The tomplo of Boro-Budor iu Juva.

Figs. 23 and 24 have been inserted : the first being a copy of
the frontispiece of Volume II of Crawfurd's "History of the
Indian Archipelago," illustrating the temple of Boro-Budor, in

Fio. 24. — The "palace" or temple at I'alenque, Yucatan.

IIIM

C04

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMHUS.

Jftva ; and tlio Hecond beinpf a jdate of the flo-oalled " palace "
at I'alt'nquo, Yucatan, enlarged from an illustration found on
page 394 of the Hccond volume of the ninth edition of the *' Kn-
eyclopa^dia Britaimica" — American reprint.

If these engravings are compared with a representation of
the pyramids of Kgypt, the dissimilarity of the latter 1,0 the
structures of Asia and America will be very apparent, and the
close resemblance of these last to each other will be brought out
by the contrast.

Most of the Buddhist edifices in Asia are dome-sha))ed.
Again we find the coincidence that, while most of the tem]>le3 of
Mexico were quadrangular,"** those which were specially dedi-
cated to Quetzalcoatl were completely circular, "without an
angle anywhere," "' and were surmounted by a dome.'" Chief
among the temples of Cholula was the semi-spherical structure
devoted to Quetzalcoatl, standing upon a quadrilateral mound
nearly two hundred feet, ascended by one hundred and twenty
steps, and with a larger base than any Old World pyramid."' A
similar dome at Chichen is thus described by Norman : ""

" This building stood upon a double foundation, as far as I
could judge, although I was unable to satisfy myself complete-
ly, owing to the fallen ruins, which once formed a part of its
structure, but which now almost concealed its" base from the view.
I found, on the east side, broken steps, by which I ascended
to a platform, built about thirty feet from the base, the sides of
which measured each about one hundred and twenty-five feet.
The walls were constructed of fine hewn stone, beautifully fin-
ished at the top, and the angles, parts of which had fallen, were
tastefully curved. In the center of this platform, or terrace, was
a foundation work, twelve feet high, and in ruins ; the four
broken sides measuring about fifty feet each, upon which is built
a square of a pyramidical form fifty feet high, divided off into
rooms, but inaccessible, or nearly so, owing to the tottering con-
dition of the walls. I could discover, however, that the inside
walls were covered, and the wood that supported and connected
the ceilings was in good preservation. In the center of this square
is the Dome, a structure of beautiful proportions, though par-
tially in ruins. It rests upon a finished foundation, the interior
of which contains three conic structures, one within the other, a
space of six feet intervening, each cone communicating with the

!:, s

L- 'h

MKXkAN I'YUAMIDS.

005

)f the " Kn-

otliera by doorways, iho inner ono fornung the plmft. At the
height of about ten feet the concH are unitotl l)y means of tran-
soms of zaporte. Arounil tlioHc couch are evident't's of Hpiral
stairs, leading to the summit."

The pyramids of Asia are cithor of brick,'"' or else of eartli,
covered with a hvyer of stone or briik, tiie whole overlaid with a
plaster or stucco, whieh, according to Hardy, is composed of
"limo, cocoanut water, and tlic juice of the paragaha." "^'

The pyramid upon whicii stood the temple of Mexico was
composed of v^ell-hammered earth, stones, and clay, covered with
a layer of large square pieces of "tet/.ontli" (a species of stone
or lava), all of etpial size, hewn smooth, and joined with a tine
cement, which scarcely left a mark to be seen ; it was, besides,
covered with a polished coating of lime or gyi)sum.""

Nearly all the pyramids of which the nuvterial is describi d
were similarly constructed,"" among them one near San Andrea
Chachicomula,'"'" and ono near Tehuantepec,'''" but some were
partly built of the sun-dried brick of the country. One of the
mounds of Cholula was known by the name Lrfaie.vtl,'''^ or " Lime-
faced " ; evidently derived from t.HU, "face," and (rncrfli, " lime."
This ** lime " was a native carbonate Avhich was not burned, and
which still gives a strong effervescence when treated with
acids."" The stucco with which nearly or quite all the pyramids
were originally covered is said to have been composed solely
of this native carbonate of lime, mixed with water in which the
bark of a certain tree had been : ioeped. (See Brasseur do Hour-
bourg's "Relation des Choses de Yucatan, de Diego de Landa,"
p. 335.) "' This is nearly the same composition as that used in
Asia.

Another similarity is found in the fact that the stones of the
ancient Buddhist temples of Java "overlap each other within, so
as to present to the eye the appearance of the inverted ste))s of
a stair." '"• This peculiarity is found in nearly all the ruins of
Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan. The nations of Amer-
ica were not acquainted with the principle of the arch, and the
species of false arch above described is the nearest approach to it
that they ever made.

We are informed that in Asia the inner surface of the walls
of Buddhist temples is whitewashed, or covered with a kind of
plaster. This is then generally decorated with paintings rep-

606

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

1;!:;. ;i;

resenting episodes taken from the life of the Buddhas, or images
of gods of dreadful countenance."^* The lamas are the only art-
ists who contribute to the ornament and decoration of the tem-
ples. The paintings are quite distinct from the taste and princi-
ples of art as understood in Europe, the fantastical and the
grotesque predominating inside and out, both in carvings and
statuary."" At Palenque, as well as elsewhere in the neighbour-
ing region of America, the walls and roofs of the temples were
covered with stucco,'^^* and the excellence of this material, which
was also employed for making bas-reliefs, is said to be difficult
to describe, for neither sand nor powdered marble can be distin-
guished in its composition, and, in addition to its hardness and its
fineness, it is of a beautiful white colour."*^* The paintings, bas-
reliefs, and statues well come under the description of " fantas-
tical and grotesque."

Le Plongeon states that the ornament hanging from the breast
of the American figurCj shown in Fig. 2, page 128, is a badge of
his rank ; that the same is seen at the breast of many other per-
sonages in the American bas-reliefs and mural paintings, and
that a similar mark of authority is yet in usage in Burmah.""^
The name Ghaacmol, mentioned by him, is as good a preservation
of the epithet SdJcya Muni (I and n often being interchanged in
American languages) as could be expected to have come down
through the vicissitudes of fourteen centuries.

Above one of the ruins at Mictlan there was a projecting cor-
nice, ornamented with capricious sculptures, which formed a sort
of diadem placed upon the summit of the edifice. This crown,
which still existed in the times of Burgoa, who gives an incom-
plete description of it, seems to resemble, as far as we can judge,
those of certain temples of Hindostan."*" It may also be noticed
that the frieze which surrounds one of the stories of the pyramid
of Xochicalco presents a series of small human figures, seated in
the Eastern manner, with the right hand crossed on the breast
and the left resting on a curved sword, whose hilt reminds us of
ancient swords ; a thing the more worthy of attention since no
tribe descended from the Toltecs or Aztecs has made use of this
kind of arms.*^*

Stephens, in his " Incidents of Travel in Central America,"
etc.,"" Humboldt, in his " Vues dos Cordilleres," plate 15, figure
4,'"" and the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg, in "Monuments

MEXICAN PYRAMIDS.

607

Anciens du Mexique," figure 2, plate 13,'" give an engraving
of a bas-relief in stucco, on the west side of the palace at Pa-
lenque. The resem-
blance of the head-dress
to an elephant's head and
trunk is somewhat strik-
ing."' (See Fig. 25.)

At Uxmal, in Yuca-
tan, an ornament of the
walls, in the shape of a
curved projection, has
been " supposed by more
than one traveler to be
modeled after the trunk
of an elephant." =•" The
trunk is yet visible on
the east side, though the
whole figure is much
broken on the west
side.'"^ The elephant
trunk reappears in the
interior steps at Kabah,
Yucatan,'*^ and again in
the wall at Zayi, Yuca-
tan. *'" The resemblance
is hardly so close as to
make it absolutely cer-
tain that the ornaments

were intended as representations of an elejihant's trunk, although
many seem to think that there can be no question on tlie subject.
Waldeck says that the head-dross first mentioned "is evidently an
elephant's head," and that the same figure is also found in other
reliefs and among the hieroglyphical characters."' lie also men-
tions another building as possessing "a small chancel containing
two birds perched upon elegant scroll-work, in adoration before
an elephant's head " ; ''' and Le Plongeon states that the mas-
todon's head forms a prominent feature in all the ornaments of
the edifices of Yucatan. '"'•'''' Lillie also claims that " the elephant
is everywhere " "^^ in the drawings of the Abb6 Brasseur de
Bourbourg (I admit, however, that I am unable to find it), and

Fio. 25. — The eleplwut's-head head-dresa.

fit

608

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Fio. 2fi.-Iiillio'8 drawing
of an elephant's head,
enkl to be sculptured
at Palenque.

he gives an engraving, of which Fig. 20 is a copy, as repre-
senting a sculpture at Palenque."" This is a perfect elephant's
head, and, if the drawing is correct, may be considered as settling

the question of the existence of this orna-
ment in the temples of America. He does
not give his authority, however, and there
seems a possibility that the original sculpt-
ure may not settle the point so decisively.
The question is one of interest, since any
knowledge on the part of the Mexicans of
even one species of animal peculiar to the
old continent, and not found in America,
would, if distinctly proved, furnish a con-
vincing argument of a communication hav-
ing taken place in former ages between the
people of the two hemispheres.'*'" It is of the greater interest, as
the elephant is in Asia the usual symbol of Buddha,"** and a
Guatemalan tradition asserts that Votan, who was probably one
of our party of Buddhist priests, created,*" or brought with him,"''
the tapir — the nearest American representative of the -elephant —
which was therefore considered in Guatemala, as the elephant is in
Siam and other Buddhist countries, as a sacred animal.

If the sculptures of Yucatan are really intended for elephants'
trunks, a possible explanation of their existence may, however,
be found in the theory that some species of elephant or masto-
don existed in Amei'ica until a comparatively recent date, and
has become extinct in what may be called modern times. Re-
mains of the mastodon are occasionally disinterred in the Mexi-
can Valley*''"'' (see Latrobe's "Rambler in Mexico," p. 145), and
Professor Newberry, some years ago, made the following state-
ments on the subject : '"*'

" We know that both these '•■ reat monsters — the elephant and
mastodon — continued to inhabit the interior of our continent long
after the glaciers had retreated beyond the upper lakes, and
when the minutest details of surface topograjihy were the same
as now. This is proved by the fact that we not infrequently
find them embedded in peat, in marshes which are still marshes,
where they have been mired and suffocated. It is even claimed
that here, as on the European Continent, man was a contemporary
of the mammoth, and that here, as there, he contributed largely

MEXICAN PYRAMIDS.

609

to its final extinction. On this point, however, more and better
evidence than any yet obtained is necessary, before we can con-
sider the contemporaneity of man and the elephant in America
as proven. The wanting proof may be obtained to-morrow, but
to-day we are without it."

FiQ. 27. — Elephant-pipe, found in a field in Iowa.

Since the above was written, the lacking evidence scorns to
have been obtained. There are in the possession of the Academy

elephant and
jntinent long
lakes, and
ere the same
infrequently
^till marshes,
3ven claimed
ontemporary
(uted largely

Fio. 28. — Elephant-pipe, found in a mound.

of Natural Sciences of Davenport, Iowa, two carved stone
pipes, of which representations are given in Figs. 27 and 28.
89

Mil

5' '

llj

ill

li.

^ I

I (It

.^' t

1 1

'1 i:

CIO

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

The first was found in Louisa County, Iowa, about the year 1870,
by Mr. Peter Mare (now living in Kansas), while planting com
on his farm."** The discovery of the second is thus described
by the Rev. Ad. Blumer, in a letter dated Genesee, Illinois,
March 27, 1880 :""

"Having formerly resided in Louisa County, Iowa, ... I
visited that place, during the first week of the present month, in
company with Rev. J. Gass. . . . We visited several groups of
mounds, . . . and finally determined to open those of a group
situated two miles east of Grand View, and three miles south of
the boundary of Muscatine County. . . . Our work was begun
on the farm of Mr. P. Haas, S. W. i, N. E. i, Sec. 25, Twp.
75, N., R. 3. . . . The first mound we opened, and the only one at
the exploration of which I was present, proved to be a sacrificial
or cremation mound. . . . An opening of five by ten feet was
made. The surface was a layer of hard clay, about one and a
half foot thick. Beneath this layer, which exhibited here and
there the effects of fire, we found a layer of red burned clay, about
as hard as a rather soft-burned brick. This layer was of an
oval form, five feet in the shortest diameter, one foot thick in the
center, and gradually diminishing to three inches at the circum-
ference. Under this was a bed of ashes thirteen inches deep in
the middle, and also gradually diminishing to the edges, where
it terminated, with the burned clay above. ... In the midst of
this bed of ashes, a few inches above the bottom, were found
... a carved stone pipe, entire, and representing an elephant,
which was first discovered by myself."

The illustrations given upon the last page were copied by a
photo-engraving process from photographs of the pipes in ques-
tion. They seem to be unmistakable representations of an ele-
phant or some closely allied quadruped, and their makers must
have been acquainted with the aninjal.

The Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences also have a
tablet, found in a mound near their city, containing some thirty
rude pictures of animals, most of which can be recognized, and
among them there are two that seem intended for elephants."*'
It may be worthy of notice that in these drawings, in the pipes,
and in the sculptires of Yucatan, the animal's head is uniformly
represented without any trace of tusks. In that otherwise truth-
ful representation of the mastodon, the elephant-mound of Wis-

Rii

MEXICAN IDOLS.

611

consin (see Fig. 29), the artist has also totally omitted the tusks,
and shortened the trunk to very moderate dimensions. Surely

Fig. 29.— Tho " Elophant-Mound " of Wisconsin.

not for want of space, for the whole animal has a length of over
one hundred feet, and a proportionate height. There, therefore,
seems some reason for believing that an animal much lesem-
bling the elephant, but destitute of tusks, existed in America up
to a comparatively recent date.

Schoolcraft mentions a Chippewa tradition which was nar-
rated by Maidosegee, an aged chief of that tribe, regarding the
former existence of an animal from whose skin the wind had
blown the hair."*" When first found he was very small, but he
began to shake himself, and at every shake he grew. His body
became heavy and massy ; his legs thick and long, with big,
clumsy ends, or feet. He still shook himself, and rose and
swelled ; a long snout grew from his head, and two great, shin-
ing teeth out of his mouth. Hia skin remained as it was, naked,
and only a tuft of hair grew on his tail. He was enormous. " I
should fill the earth," said he, " were I to exert my utmost
power, and all there is on the earth would not satisfy me to
eat."

This may possibly be a genuine tradition of the compara-
tively recent existence in America of some elephantine quad-
ruped.

Fig. 30 is a copy of the frontispiece of the second volume
of Sir Thomas Rafflcs'si " History of Java," "" and represents the
elephant god Bitara Gana or Ganesa, worshiped in that island.
Fig. 31 is a picture of one of the gods of the Mexicans, said to
be Teoyaomiqui, copied from the plate given on page 513 of
the fourtl volume of Bancroft's " Native Races of the Pacific

G12

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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States.'" ^'' A comparison of the two will show bo many resem-
blances that the conclusion liardly seems far-fetched that the lat-

Fio. 80. — Bitara Gana, or Gandsa.

ter is merely a modification of the former, brought about by
gradual changes, which have accumulated through many cent-
uries. In both we see skulls and encircling serpents. The po-

MEXICAN IDOLS.

613

Fio. 31.— An ^\ztec god— said to be Teoyaomiqui.

614

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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sition of the four hands and feet is nearly the same in both,
with an additional pair of hands appearing near the shoulders ;
and the distorted head of the Mexican idol may possibly have
been made by workmen who, knowing nothing of the existence
of the elephant, or any other animal with a long proboscis, there-
fore, by gradual changes, shortened up the trunk and split it, as
shown in the protruding tongue of the engraving, and changed
the tusks into the two projections at each side of the tongue.
A god with four or six hands, as here shown, is an anomaly
in Mexican and Central American mythology,***' and its counter-
part can be found only in Asia.

There was a tradition current in Mexico of the miraculous
conception of Iluitzilopochtli, which closely resembles the Asiatic
stories of the conception of Buddha, and which Clavigero relates
as follows : ^" " In the ancient city of TuUa lived a most devout
woman, Coatlicue by name. Walking one day in the temple, as
her custom was, she saw a little ball of feathers floating down
from heaven, which, taking without thought, she put into her
bosom. The walk being ended, however, she could not find the
ball, and wondered much, all the more that soon after this she
found herself pregnant."

The Mexican story of Cantico, or Cuaxolotl, who, having sac-
rificed after having eaten fried fish, was changed into a dog, as a
punishment for not having kept fast until after sacrifice,'*^ also
closely resembles an East Indian tale.

Tezcatlipoca, one of the principal deities worshiped in Mexi-
co,'"' was represented as holding in his hand a great circular
mirror of gold, bordered, like a fan, with precious featheia,
green, and azure, and yellow ; the eyes of the god were ever fixed
on this, for therein he saw reflected all that was done in the
world.*"* A similar story is told in Thibet, of Shinje, " the Lord
of the Dead," " the King of the Law," who is said to possess a
wonderful mirror which shows him all the good and bad actions
of men.*'*' In Japan, also, the same tale is told by the Buddhists
regarding a great judge, before whom the souls of the dead are
tried, before whom stands a large mirror in which the actions of
all men are imaged forth."'*

Dr. Le Plongeon says that the tribes of Yucatan, and
several of those that dwell in Hindostan, have in common
the custom of printing the impress of the human hand, dipped

MEXICAN ARTS.

615

in a red-coloured liquid, on the walls of certain sacred edi-
fices.'^"

In Chapter IX have been given the remarks of von Humboldt
tpon the analogy which the Mexican i ■ thology presents, in its
fable regarding the system of the uni erse, of its periodic de-
structions and regenerations, to the a* -^ount contained in the
sacred books of the Hindoos of the four ages, and of the pralayas,
or cataclysms, which, at different epochs, have caused the de-
struction of the human species. It will, therefore, be unneces-
sary to repeat these legends here, although it may be stated that
the traditions of the two countries so closely resemble each other
that both speak of four ages, each terminating by a general
catastrophe, and each catastrophe exactly the same in both. At
least that is ' j doctrine of one of the Shastras. The race, it
teaches, has fc en :;stroyed four times : first, by water ; second-
ly, by win»?- ; tLudly, the earth swallowed them; and, lastly,
fire consumed them. (Sepp, " Ileidenthum und Christenthum,"
i, p. lOl.)'"*

In Mexico,''*" as in China, the leading one of the four points
of the CO ^ass was the south ; Gemelli and Sahagun both follow-
ing exactly the same order in the enumeration of the quarters of
the world : first,. the south, then the east, and finally the north
and the west ;'" and one point, as to which there «o*>ms much
reason for believing that the American custom was influenced by
communication with some of the nations oi Asia, is the employ-
ment, in both regions of the world, of definite colours to symbol-
ize the points of space.'"

Schlagintweit says that in Thibet the walls of the temples
look toward the four quarters of heaven, and each side should be
painted with a particular colour : the north side with green, the
south side with yellow, the east side with white, and the west
s:de with red ; but this rule was not strictly adhered to, as many
temples were seen with all sides of the same colour, or simply
whitewashed."^ If the Mexican traditions may be believed, the
sacred palace of that mysterious Toltec priest-king, Quetzalcoatl,
had four principal halls, facing the four cardinal points. . . .
That on the east was called the Hall of Gold, because its walls
were ornamented with plates of that metal, delicately chased
and finished ; the apartment lying toward the west was named
the Hall of Emeralds and Turquoises, and its walls were pro-

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CIG

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

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fusely adorned with all kinds of precious stones ; the hall faoiiii;
the south was decorated with plates of silver, and Avith brilliant
coloured sea-shells, which were fitted together with great skill.
Tho walls of the fourth hall, which was on the north, were ro(l
jasper, covered with carving, and ornamented with shells.
Another of these palaces or temples, for it is not clear which they
were, had also four principal halls decorated entirely with feather-
work tapestry. In the eastern division the feathers were yellow;
in the western they were blue, taken from a bird called Xiuli-
tototl ; in the southern hall the feathers were white; and in that
on the north they were red.'"

The colours used to symbolize the points of the compass varied
among different races. In Java the divisions of the horizon and
the corresponding colours were named in the following order :
first, white and tho east ; second, red and the south ; third, yel-
low and the west ; fourth, black and the north; and fifth, mixed
colours and the focus or center."" Among the Mayas of Yucatan
the east was distinguished by yellow, the south by red, the west
by black, and the north by white.*" In IVIexico, according to
the declaration of Geraelli, the hieroglyph of the south is a hare
upon a blue field ; that of the east, a reed upon a red field ; that
of tho north, a lance upon a yellow field ; and that of the west, a
house upon a green field."^* The order of the first three colours
is the same as that of the colours mentioned by Ilwui Shan — blue,
red, and yellow. It is true that a difference appears in the colour
appropriated to the west, but it is not at all improbable that
Gemelli was mistaken as to that point, as the Mexicans desig-
nated blue and green by the same term, and had no way of dis-
tinguishing between the two colours ; it, therefore, seems not im-
probable that the hieroglyph of the west Avas painted upon a
field Avhich the Mexicans intended for white, but which, from
some cause, was of so dingj"- a colour that Gemelli mistook it for
light green. The colour black, of which we are not able, other-
wise than as a matter of conjecture, to establish the employment
among the Mexicans as symbolizing any point of space, plays as
important a part as any of the other colours in the account of
Fu-sang, and appears to correspond to the central region. Here
there are traces of archaism, easy to explain among a people
whose civilization goes back to a much earlier date than that of
other American races.'"

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MEXICAy ARTS.

Another practice of the Mexican i, to which attention RhoiiM
bo called, was that of interring '; small green stone with the
dead."" This was also done in Yucatan,'"'"' and the custom is in
striking accord with the Chinese belief that smooth and dean
jade-stone has the power to harmonize the hundred spirits of
Nature, and that it should be placed in the tomb to illuminate the
path of the spirits.'*"*

It has been a common Asiatic practice to " prepare the way,"
and " make the path straight," before any great ruler when he vent-
ured abroad. Thus a mandate was issued by the king, the father
of Buddha, throughout his dominions, that, wherever the prince
should go, the roads and streets should bo swept and watered,
perfumes should be burned, and tapestries, Hags, and canopies
hung up."" A similar custom existed in Mexico ; and it is
said that when the prince Cacumat/.in, lord of Tezcuco, and a
nephew of Montezuma, came to visit Cortez, as soon as ho
alighted from the litter in which he was borne, some of his serv-
ants ran before him to sweep the ground upon which he was
about to tread.'"'

Mention has already been made of the repeated statements
of the Spanish conquerors, that Montezuma never used either the
same garments or the same dishes twice.''^ The same thing is
said of the Dairi of Japan. "He and his wives wear new gar-
ments every day. Everything necessary for their meals, and
everything for their personal use, is renewed every day." "*'

In India the common native dress consists of a large piece of
cloth, which is rolled around the waist, one end being passed be-
tween the legs, and then drawn up and fastened to the girdle.
This method of euvering is very ancient, for we find it repre-
sented in numerous ancient figures."^* This was precisely the
dress adopted by the Aztecs. An early English translation of
Herrera describes it as follows :

"The prime men wore a Rowler eight fingers broad round
about instead of Breeches, and going several times around the
waste, so that one end of it hung before and the other be-
hind." '">'

Gabriel de Chaves, in a report preserved in the publications
of M. Temaux-Compans, gives the following description of the
clothing of the natives : " All classes cover their nakedness with
a long band of cloth, similar to an almaizar, which they wind

C18

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

several times about the body and then pass between the legs, the
extreraitieH falling in front down to the knees." "**

This article of clothing was known as a tnaxtli, of Avhicli
Bancroft says that it was about twenty-four feet long, and nine
inches wide, and was generally more or less ornamented at the
end with coloured fringes and tassels, the latter sometimes nine
inches long. The manner of wearing it was to pass the middle
between the legs and to wind it about the hips, leaving the ends
hanging one in front, and the other at the back, as is done at this
day by the Malays and other East Indian natives.""

>\ hile speaking of the dress, it may also be noticed that the
Mexicans wore an armour of quilted cotton, which, while it an-
swered its purpose of protecting the wearer from arrows, was
useless against the musketry of the Spaniards. A similar quilted
dress was worn by the Tartars as a defensive armour.'"

It is well known that the Chinese used suspension-bridges
for many centuries bef jre they were known in Europe. The
Mexicans also, as well as the Peruvians, used bridges of this
kind, which are thus described by Clavigero : " They are
woven of certain ropes or natural ligaments of a tree more
pliant than the willow, but larger and stronger, called in
America the Bejucoa. The extremities of these are attached to
the trees on opposite sides of the stream, and the network is sus-
pended in the air between them like a swing. Some bridges had
their ropes so tightly drawn that they did not undulate, and they
all had their side supports made of these same ropes. Over some
rivers, bridges of this nature are still found." ""'

The books of the Mexicans and Mayas also resembled those
of some of the nations of Asia ; being written " on a large leaf,
doubled in folds, and inclosed between two boards, which they
made very fine [decorated], and they wrote on both sides in col-
umns according to the folds." "" The paper was folded back and
forth in a particular manner, almost like the paper or other
material of our fans. In this respect the Mexican paintings
oflPer a close analogy to the Siamese manuscripts, wh. h have been
preserved in the Imperial Library of Paris, which arc also folded
" en zigzag.''^ '"'

One of the most remarkable peculiarities in which tho Mexican
customs resembled those of some of the Buddhist nations of Asia
was connected with the ceremony of marriage. In Mexico, the

MEXICAN ARTS.

C19

priest, after the arrival of the bride at the house of the britle-
groom, tied the gown of the one to the mantle of the other ; and
in this ceremony the matrimonial contract chietly consisted.""*

The newly married couple Hit upon a mat together during the
first four days after their marriage, not leaving it until midnight,
when they go together to burn incense before the domestic gods.
. . . For the young married couple these four days are a time of
penitence, during which they clothe themselves with the orna-
ments of the gods for which they have the most devotion. They
pass the nights separated from each other, each upon a separate bed
prepared by the priests. These beds consist of mats covered with
superstitious symbols, having at the side some ears of maize, and
some maguey-thorns, with which to draw blood in honour of the
divinity. It is not until the fourth day that they are permitted
to consummate their marriage, any anticipation being considered
as unlucky for the future.""

The marriage ceremonies of the Hindoos are remarkably simi-
lar to those of the Mexicans in some leading particulars (" Asiat.
Res.," vii, p. 309; Ward's "View of the Hindus," i, p. 173),
and which, to avoid a tedious description, Ave shall but recapitu-
late. The bridegroom goes in procession to the house of the
bride's father, and is there welcomed as a guest. The bride is
then given to him in the usual form of any solemn donation,
and their hands are bound together with grass ; the bride-
groom then clothes the bride with an upper and lower garment ;
then the skirts of their mantles are tied together ^ the bridegroom
makes oblations to the fire, and the bride drops rice upon it, and
after several inconsiderable ceremonies the company is dismissed ;
the marriage being now complete and irrevocable. In the even-
ing of the same day, the bridegroom points out to her the pole
star, as an emblem or figure of constancy ; during the three subse-
quent days the married couple must live chastely and austerely,
and after these three days, which is the fourth from the celebra-
tion of the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom conducts the bride
to his own house. The custom of tying the garments of the bride
and bridegroom together was also practiced in the marriage of the
ancient Persians. (Hyde, " De Religio Vet. Pers.," p. 405.) '«^»

In some parts of India marriage is not consummated until the
husband and the wife, sleeping apart, have for seven days eaten
together seven times a day.""

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620

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

In the Mexican empire, as in most Asiatic countries, polyg-
amy was tolerated, the kings and princes taking a great nunibor
of wives ; but in general they had only one who was regarded as
their legitimate spouse, and of whom the marriage was cele-
brated according to the customary rites.''" In both Yucatan
and India it was customary to carry young children astride on
the hip ; '•"'" and in Mexico, as in China, it was the practice to place
in the hands of a child, at a festive gathering, held a few days
after its birth, toy instruments of war, of craft, or of household
labour,'"' symbolical of those with which it was expected that
its after-life would be engaged.

Anions: the minor coincidences between Mexican and Asiatic
life, it may be mentioned that the thin oval cakes of meal which
formed the principal food of the Aztecs, as well as of the Mexi-
cans of the present day, closely resemble the chapati of India,""
and that a Mexican game c^Wedi patolli, which is described in the
Spanish chronicles as played with coloured stones moved on the
squares of a cross-shaped figure, according to the throws of beans
marked on one side, corresponds closely with the Hindoo back-
gammon called pachisi. (See Tylor, in " Jour. Anthrop. Inst.,"
voh viii, p. IIG.) '"«

In presenting these coincidences between the religious prac-
tices, the arts and the customs of the Mexicans and the na-
tives of Yucatan in America, and those of the Asiatic Buddhists,
many countries in Asia have been mentioned. This has seemed
legitimate, as the five Buddhist priests must have been acquainted
with many Asiatic countries before they reached America.
Moreover, a large part of the civilization of Asia is Buddhistic in
its origin, and the same practices, customs, and arts were intro-
duced by the Buddhist priests throughout nearly all Asia. Many
practices mentioned by travelers as existing in a certain country
may also exist in others, without having been mentioned by
any explorer ; and arts and customs once introduced into many
lands may now survive in only one.

It may be said that not only did the Mexican civilization so
closely resemble that of Asia as to make it almost incredible
that the two can have grown up entirely independent of each
other, but that even the arts and useful customs known to the
Europeans, and not known to the Mexicans, were either equally
iinknown to the Asiatics or were not practiced by them.

MEXICAN ARTS.

621

Milk, and food made from it, were, for instance, formerly
unknown to the Americans as articles of diet.''*' If the Mexi-
can civilization had been founded upon any introduction of PJuro-
pean ideas, there can be no doubt that the use of these articles
would have been known. Humboldt pointed out, however, that
several nations of Eastern Asia equally ignored their use."''
Milk, butter, and curds are all insupportably odious to a Chi-
nese,'"" and the Buddhists of Java, who are so little scrupulous in
diet as to eat not only the flesh of the cow, but even that of
dogs and other animals, never use milk as an article of food.'"''^

Before closing this chapter, it may not be out of place to
again call attention to the fact that many independent observers
have been led, by some one or more of the coincidences that have
been noted, to the belief that they could be most easily accounted
for on the supposition that the practices or arts in question were
borrowed by the Mexicans from Asia. The authors of the arti-
cle upon Mexico in the Encyclopajdia Britannica (Tylor and
Keane) say that these details of Mexican civilization do not
seem ancient enough to have to do with a remote Asiatic origin
of the nations of America, but rather to be the results of com-
paratively modern intercourse between Asia and America, prob-
ably since the Christian era.'"* In other words, these gentle-
men, paying no attention to the story of Hwui Shan, have been
led, by the study of Mexican civilization, to the belief that there
was a visit of some kind from Asia to America, at just about the
time that Ilwui Shan says the party of Buddhist priests visited
Fu-sang.

More than a century ago there sprang up a school of critics
who disputed the unanimous testimony of the ecclesiastics, the
soldiers, and the historians who first witnessed the remarkable
civilization of Mexico. No such arts, customs, or religious prac-
tices were found elsewhere in America ; the Americans were in
reality one homogeneous people, and therefore those who bore
witness of the peculiar civilization of Mexico were either them-
selves deceived or else deliberately attempted to deceive others,
and their stories were either without foundation, or else were
gross exaggerations or perversions of the truth.

This was the course of reasoning adopted by tLese critics.
The facts were all against them, it is true — so much the worse for
the facts. Clavigero, meeting this species of criticism, when he

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622

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

commenced the publication of his " Ancient History of Mexico,"
replied to it as follows :

" Those who foolishly claim to know all about the ancient
Mexicans by their descendants, or else by the nations of Canada
or of Louisiana, will consider as fables, invented by the Spaniards,
what we have to say of their knowledge, their laws, and their
arts. But that w^e may not violate the laws of history, nor the
fidelity due to the public, we shall candidly set forth all that we
have found to be true, without fear of censure." ""

Of late there has been a revival of the same species of criti-
cism as that of which Clavigero complained, and there are not
wanting those who are ready to deny the unanimous testimony
of innumerable independent witnesses, in order that their own in-
ferences may take the place of the proven facts. Mr. Bancroft's
" Native Races of the Pacific States " has been attacked by several
of this ilk, on the ground that he, like other historians, has been
guided by the statements of eye-witnesses, rather than by the
customs of " the nations of Canada."

The grain of truth contained in the views of these critics
renders their argument all the more dangerous. The natives of
Mexico were Indians, of the same race as other American In-
dians. Many of their customs were undoubtedly founded upon
practices existing before their liv es had been swayed by any for-
eign inlluence. Upon these, the discoveries of Morgan and his
followers, in regard to the organization and customs of other In-
dian tribes, vill undoubtedly throw much light ; and many things,
which the early Spanish historians understood but imp rfectly,
may in this way be now more fully explained. There is only one
theory, however, which will account for all the facts. That is
that, at some time in the past, the nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and
Central America were powerfully affected by the introduction
of Asiatic arts, customs, and religious belief ; that, when this
region was rediscovered by the Europeans, many evidences of
this influence still existed in these countries, and that the state
of civilization found by the Spaniards was the result of this
adoption of Asiatic customs and beliefs, which were mixed with
or engrafted upon such civilization as the natives themselves had
previously been able to attain.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

Records reaching back nominally to 660 n. c. — Gaps in the history — Great age of
sovereigns — A giant — Absence of exact dates — Thii introduction of writ-
ing — Manufacture of paper — Chinese records of embassies — Mention of a
Japanese sovereign whose name does not appear in the Japanese annals —
Translation of extracts from the Japanese history — Intercourse with Corea
and China — Embassies — Wars — Introduction of Buddhism — Titles of nobility
— Copper, silver, and gold — Intercourse of Corea with Japan and China — The
Chinese account of Japan — The route from China to Japan — The distance —
Cattle and horses not raised — Tattooing — Clothing — Cities — Polygamy — Laws
—Burial of the dead — The " Chi-shuai " — An envoy — A later embassy — A
Japanese princess — The kingdom of Kiunu ; that of Chu-ju — The Eastern
Fish-People — A Chinese expedition to seek for P'ung-lai — Tan-cheu — Route to
Japan — The divisions of Japan — Titles of the officers — Embassies — Tattooing
— Absence of writing — Mourning-garments — Buddhism — Route to Japan —
Discovery of gold, silver, iron ore, and copper — The Country of Women —
Reasons why Fu-sang can not have been situated in Japan — Consideration
of other theories — Proof that Hwui Shin had visited some unknown land —
Had the Chinese any earlier knowledge of America ? — The Shan Uai King.

As it bas been thought by some that the country visited by
Hwui Shun was situated in some part of Japan, it will be perti-
nent to examine the history of that kingdom, and the accounts
regarding it possessed by tV' Chinese in early ages, to see
whether any such coincidences can be found in the manners and
customs of the people, and in the plants and animals of the coun-
try, with those of the land of Fu-sang, as to make this theory
tenable.

The Japanese possess a concise history of their country,
which gives a short account of the principal events occuring in
the land, and which runs back, nominally, as far as the year 660
B. c. There are numerous gaps in the record for the first thousand
years, however, and as late as a. d. 435 there is a hiatus from that

IP™'

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624

/^y INGLORIOrS ^ e!:. J:tiI>DS.

1 :'

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dato until liie yrnr 4r>[. It is evident that until this time, or a
little later, ;,h<^ rosord i; of litti;' alue, and is merely a compilation
at some later date ot the traditions then current in the country
as to its early history. From the earliest date that is named
(GGO B. c), up to the year 399 a. d., we are presented with a list
of sovereigns, almost a'l centenarians, some of whom are said to
have attained the age of one hundred and forty years, and one
of wliom is stated U: have been ten feet tall ; it is also notice-
able that neither the iuonth, nor the day of the month, on which
any event occurred is mentioned prior to the year 643 a.d.,'"*
but that after that time they are frequently named.

The date of the introduction of the art of writing, and that of
the first manufacture of paper in the country (which will be re-
ferred to farther on), also indicate that their history was not re-
duced to writing prior to the third century a. d., and more prob-
ably not until about the sixth centui'y.

It ib the long life attributed to their early sovereigns, how-
ever, which more than any other cause tends to throw sus-
picion upon th( Ir historical records. Such a chronology imme-
diately inspires mure than doubt, and the idea at once presents
itself that the memory of a good many of the ancient sover-
eigns has been lost, and that the gaps which would be so caused
in Japanese history are filled up by extending the reigns of
which the n niOinbraiK-e has been preserved. Klaproth evi-
dently had tins f^uspicion when he wrote, "From the year
060 B. c. to 400 A. D., the history of Japan mentions only sev-
enteen emperors, a number too small for so great a length of
time." liut that which for Klanroth Avas merely a probable
hypothesis has been placed by M. d'llervey beyond all reason-
able doubt. Ma Twan-lin, in his writings, mentions all the em-
bassies sent by Japan to China, naming the Japanese emperors
from whom they bore homage or tribute, and also stating the
dates. A mong others, he mentions that in the year 107 a. d.
envoys came to China, from the king of Japan, named Shui Shing.
The Japanese chronology indicates that at this date a prince Avas
reigning aged one hundred and seventeen years, named Kei Ko
(or, in Chinese, King Hang), who lived to the age of one hundred
and forty years, and it does not mention the kini^ Shui Shing of
whom Ma Twan-lin reveals the existence and preserves the name.

It is therefore evident that the early portion of the record can

THE HISTORY OF JAPA.^.

625

not be relied upoii^ nuy rurther tlian ilatil i? pr-^Vabiy u ) litliful
presewatiou of the recollections and traditv ns of iLo country
as they existed about the sixth century a. v. I'he account of
events that happened as late as the dat« o- llwui iShi'in's visit to
China (499 a. u.) seems, however, to be dtst. I'ving of entire credit,
as there was then some little knowledge in ue (•\>untry of -writlnj^
with Chinese characters, and the official history of the kingdcui
was reduced to writing either about this tiiue or within a cent-
ury after.

The following extracts are presented from the translation of
these records, which was made by Siebold, as having a bearing,
;aoi"e or less direct, upon Ilwui Shan's story :

IVIany immigrants arrived from foreign countries.'"'

By command of the Mikado, ships Avere built in '''" dif-
ferent districts.

Japan received the first visit from Mimana, a land
in the southern part of the Corean peninsula.""

A son of the king of /Sin-ra * came to Japan and
brought many valuable things, f '"*

A deputation went from Japan to Ilan (China). J An
account of this visit is contained in the Chinese
history of the later Han Dynasty.''"'

Kijojiko, a descendant of the prince who came from
Sin-ra in the year 27 b. c, presented to the court of
the Mikado the ci :ositi''a t hioh had been brought
into the country b, lie |.rincc. Tliey were es-
teemed as objcc* •' groat value, and carefully pre-
served in the tre;. iiry,*"^'

Tatsima 3fori left Ja^san, by order of the Mikado, in
order to bring back tbr '• fragrant fruit."""

Ta'sima 3Iori retv.'-'.od %>> Japan from Toho jono
Jcuni (the Land of Eternity), ])ringing "with him the
"fragrant fruit" (i. e,, the pomegranate)."'*

87.

81.

33.

27.

.57.

A. D. 59.

A. D. Gl.
A. D. 71.

*The ancient kingdom of Sin-ra (or ''Sin-1o," as the Chinese prououvicc the
name) occupied the province cf Corea, now called K'ing Chang, "''^'' whicii is situ-
ated ia the eastern part of that country. ''"'"-

\ These presents are said to have consisted of mirrors, Oriental jade, sabers,
cutlasses, and other valuable a'-tieles.'^'^

X This embassy reached China in the last year of the reign of the emperor
Kwang Wu H\yang Ti.io"
40

I :

li>i

I'M ..

I' 1

ii^'*

020 AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

A. D. 193. In this year ITung 3fan-ioan(/, a descendant of the
Chinese emperor Shi Ilicang Ti, came to Japan.'""'

A. D. 201, The fifteenth Mikado was Zin-gu Kioo-gu, known in
her life-time as Oki naga tarasijimeno mikoto,
great-granddaughter of the Mikado Kai Juca,
daughter of the prince Okinaga Sukune. In the
third month she conquered the race of Kuma-oso,
in Klitsiu, with her troops, and annihilated the
robb'^r Kuma-ioasi with his followers, and peace
and order were restored in Kiusiu. In the tcnlli
month she with her large army undertook a plun-
dering expedition against Sin-ra, whose king im-
mediately surrendered to her. Kao-U * and Pe-tsl \
also came and submitted themselves to her, so that
the three Kara state all became subject to the
Japanese empire. In the twelfth month, after re-
turning to Japan, she bore a son in Tsukust who
afterward succeeded her upon the throne of the
Mikado."**'

A. D. 239. An embassador was sent to the Wei dynasty '"" (of
China).t

A. D. 240. The Wei dynasty sent an embassy in return.""

A. D. 24:6. Embassadors were sent to Toksiu.^^*

A. D. 249. A Japanese expedition went to Toksiii, and from that
country attacked Sin-ra.^^^^

A. D. 250. By command of the government, stations were intro-
duced throughout the kingdom for the change of
post-horses.''"**

A. D. 2G2. A Japanese expedition attacked Sin-ra.^^"

A. D. 26G. A Japanese embassy visited Tsiti (China). '"^

A. D. 272. The country of Pe-tsi neglected to pay tribute to Ja-

*Kao-li (pronounced "Ko-rai" by the Japanese) was a province of Corca,""
from wliich the whole country has since taken the name by which it is known to
Europeans.""

f Tiie ancient kingiiom of Pc-tsl was situated in the province of Corea, now
called T-s'Iuan-'s***

\ The " History of Cliina " speaks of this embassy as follows : " Tlio second of the
years king t'su (238 a. n.), under the emperor Ming Ti, of the Wei dynasty, Pi Mi
Hu, queen of the country of Wo (Japan), sent to the capital one of her noblemen,
who bore tribute. The emperor gave him a golden seal in an envelope of purple
silk.'«'9

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

G27

ind from that

;e of Corea, now

A. D. 276.
A. D. 284.

A. D. 285.

A. D. 289.
A. D. 324.

A. D. 368.

A. D. 414.

A. D. 462.

A. D. 464.
A. D. 465.

A. D. 467.

A. D. 463.

A. D. 475.
A. D. 477.

A. D. 493.

A. D. 543.

A. D. 546.

pan. In retaliation Kltswio SnJcune was sent with

an expedition against it. The inliabitants of the

country slew their king. The .Tai)anese placed

AJaoa upon the throne and returned home."*'
San Kan and Mimana brought tribute.""
The king of Pe-tsl sent his son Atooi with horses to

Japan. Atogi laid in Japan the first foundation of

a knowledge of Chinese writing.""
The Chinese philosopher ^Vang Shin came from Pe-tsl

to the Japanese court and gave the first instruction

in Chinese literature.''''
Inir.'k ■•'<^ion of two Chinese families.""
An ion shield and target were sent to Japan from

Kao-U, and an officer of the shield-bearers pierced

them witlj an arrow-shot."'*
The people of Jesso revolted. Damitsi undertook

an expedition against them, suffered defeat, and re-
turned.""
A Chinese physician was called from Sln-ra in order

to cure the Mikado of a disease.""
Strangers from the land of Wii brought presents to

the court. * '"'
A deputation was sent to the land of TF5<.""
A Japanese expedition made war upon Sin-ra, and

suffered a defeat.""
Kid Sin, a native of the land of TH/, came from Pc-tsi

to Japan. ^'^o
Musa)io-awo and a learned man of Finokmna went

as an embassy to the land of TF?*."**'
Kao-U conquered Pe-tsi.^^^^
Pe-tsi, under King 3To7isu, recovered its independ-

S2S3

ence.
FitaJca no kisi (falconer), of JVaniva, returned from

. mission to Kao-li, with two architects.""
Pe-tsi sent a valuable apparatus, which pointed out

the south"-* (i. e., a magnetic compass).
The embassadors from Pe-tsi returned home with a

present of seventy horses and ten ships."***

1679

* China was at this time divided into three kingdoms, called Wei, Shu, and \Vu.

E-i; i

628

A. D,

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Pc-(si sent a statue of Buddha to the Jajjanese court,
aud also Buddhistic utensils aud books ; but as a
contagious disorder broke out among the people at
this time, the statue was, by order of the higher
authorities, sunk in the river, and the temple built
for it was burned.*'^"*' (Although these last facts
are entered under the year 553, they did not take
])lace until 585, thirty-three years later. See the
record for this last-named date.)

A. D. 553. Two colossal statues of Buddha were made by high
authority.'-'"^

A. D. 50:2. 0/iodomono Sadefiko undertook an expedition against
Kiio-li, with several legions of men, conquered it,
and returned to Japan with rich booty, among which
were many books in the departments of Chinese
Buddhistic and medicinal literature, and also many
images of Buddha, and musical instruments."-'

A. D. 577. The king of Pe-tsi sent books and writings, two Bud-
dhist priests, a nun, and a sculptor.-^""

A. D. 579. Sin-ni sent tribute ; among the rest an image of Bud-
dha.""

A. D. 584, Two Japanese, Iva fukano iconnoko and Sae kino
micrazi, brought images of Buddha from Pe tsL
Sogano Mumako built a temple in which they were
placed. The religion of Buddha constantly spread
more and more throughout the country."^*

A. D. 585. A contagious disease broke out, which carried off a
great part of the people. Oho murazi 3Ionono
heno juke mortja gave the command to lay the
temple of Buddha in ashes, and to throw Buddha's

* The following account is given in another place : '"^^ This embassy pre-
sented to the emperor an imairo of Buddha, tents, parasols, and the classical books
of the religion of Buddha. These presents were very agreeable to the Dairi. Tiie
minister Iname attempted to persuade him to adore this god ; but Mono no-he no-
ogosi dissuaded him, saying, " Our kingdom is of divine origin, and the Dairi
already has many gods to adore. If we worship those of foreign countries, our
own gods will be angry." Intimidated by this argument, the Dairi jiroscnted the
image to /name, who with joy pulled down his house, and constructed upon its
site the temple of Urang-yuin-Ku. Here he placed the idol, and constantly paid
his worship to it. It is from this time that the introduction of the religion of
Sakya (Buddha) into Japan dates.

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

G29

A. D. 588.

A. D. 590.

A. D. 593.

A. D. 594.
A. D. G03.
A. D. 604.

A. D. GOO.
A. D. G12.

A. D. G24.
A. D, G25.
A. D. 708.

A. D. 709.
A. D. 749.
A. D. 750.
A. D. 7G0.
A. D. 792.

images into iHo canal Fori-jc, of Xaniva. Three
months later < 'oqano Mntyiako asked for permis-
sion to profess the IJiulclhist faith, and the Mikado
refused to give hi consent.""

The minister Jlumcd-o built the Hiiddhist temple
F6-1cio-sl, i. e., the Temple of the lleception of the
Law.''^'

Several nuns, at the head of whom was Sen Sin, ** the
Virtuous, the Believing," came from Pc-tsi to Ja-

pan

iVli

Prince Mtonajadono inlko founded the IJuddhist
temple called the "Temple of the Four Heavenly
Kings." "^«

An order was i><sucd to extend the Buddhist doctrine
and to build Buddhist temples. '^''^'

The twelve ranks or titles of nobility, with distin-
guishing caps, were introduced. "*'''

Prince 3fumajadono rnlko composed the seventeen
Buddhist precepts, and introduced innovations in
the court creemonies.'^""

The colossal copper image of Buddha was set up in
the Temple of the Reception of the Law.""'

Music was taught for the first time.''"''

The Buddhist clergy were organized, and placed un-
der the supervision of a high-priest. ''"^

Kao-ll sent the Buddhist priest Jei Kioan to Ja-

pan

2304

The first silver was received from the province of

Musasi. The copper mint Wa-do-kai-tshi was

established.'^'
A law was established against the private coinage of

silver money.""'
The province of Mntsxi delivered the first gold to the

emperor.™'
The prince of the province of Surxiga brought gold,

which he had found, to the court of the Mikado.""*
New copper, gold, and silver mints were established

and set in opei-ation.""'
The learning of the Chinese language according to

the JIan dialect was commanded."'"

;. A

l! 1 =

030

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

A. I). 801. The calendar which liad been in use in China since

M21 was introduced into Japan.'"'
A. I). 1034. The study of the Chinese literature l)ecanje a means
of obtaining a livelihood."'*

Fortunately, we are not conij)illed to rely upon this record
alone for our knowledge of the early contlition of .lapan. Corca
and Japan have had constant relations with each other from a
date prior to the commencement of the Christian era, as have
also Corea and China. The Chinese nuist have, therefore, had
some knowledge of Japan, even at the time, in the year 57 A.
I)., Avhen the first recorded embassy from that country visited the
Chinese emperor. After that date, visits back and forth ho-
tween the two countries were of frequent occurrence.

In accordance with their usual custom, the Chinese historians
reduced to writing such information regarding the country as
they were able to obtain, and as they thought of interest. These
accounts were collected and condensed by Ma Twan-lin, and ex-
tracts from the translation of his work made by M. the jNLanjuis
d'llervey do Saint-Denys are given below. It may be pre-
mised that the Chinese author arranged his authorities in chro-
nological order, and the first statements are therefore drawn from
the oldest authorities.

The country of Wo, Japan, is southeast of the country of the
ITan, and of the government of Tai-fanr/.^^*^ It is formed of a
collection of islands situated in the midst of the Great Sea. The
distance of the journey to it from the districts of Lo-lang or
Tai-fang is about twelve thousaid ^/.* It contains more than a
hundred kingdoms. At the time when the emperor Wu-ti, of the
Ilan dynasty, conquered Chao-sien (Corea), more than thirty of
these kingdoms maintained steadfast relations with the Chinese
empire by embassies, or by messages.

Each kingdom has its hereditary king. The great king of

* This distance seems to have been given by the Corenns, and adopted by the
Chinese. M. de Rosny thinks, however, that he lias found the oiij^inal document
from which Ma Twan-lin drew hia gcofjraphical descriptions, and calls attention to
a variation in the reading which gives the distance of one of the divisions of the
journey (that from Kiu-yc-han to Tsusimd) as one thousand li instead of seven thou-
sand. This correction removes most of the confusion regarding the length of the
/?, which has arisen from the fact that the journey to Japan was described as being
twelve thousand li in length. See d'llervey's " Ethnography."— E. P. V.

v.'l'

TUE IIISTOUY OF JAPAX.

631

Wo resides in tlio kingdom of Yc-yen-tal (now pronounced
Ye-nio-to, i.e., Yatnato), wliioh kingdom is found twelve thou-
sand // from tile frontiers of the government of Lo-honj and
more than seven thousand li from the kingdom of Kiu-ye-fntn
(a small kingdom situated at the southeastern extremity of
Corea), which is toward the northwest. Its territory is almost to
the east of Kuei-ki and Tong-ye. It is near ( 'hu-yai and 7'(Oi'
eul, and the customs and laws of these diffeiont regions are very
similar to each other.

The soil is suitable for the cultivation of rice and henii), a.ul
of mulberries, which are used to feed silk-worms. The peojjle
know how to spin and weave ; they make the silk cloth called
Iclen-jm. They have white [)earlsand green jade. Their mount-
ains furnish cinnabar. The climate is temperate. In winter,
as in summer, they reap crops. Neither cattle, horses, panthers,
sheep, nor fowls are seen.

The arms of the Japanese are the lance, the shield, the
wooden bow, and bamboo arrows, the heads of which arc some-
times made of bone. All the men havo the face marked with
black spots, and the body tattooed. According as the tattooing
is upon the right or left side, large or small, it indicates the
nobility or the humbler position of the person. The men clothe
themselves by placing cloth about their bodies and holding it to-
gether by means of knots. The women at first let their hair fall
about them, and then coil it up and fasten it in place. Their
robe is like a simple covering, or piece of cloth, with a hole
through which the head is passed. They smear their bodies
with a red powder, just as the Chinese women do with paint.

The Japanese have cities surrounded by an inclosure of
palisades and great houses. The father, the mother, the elder
brothers and the younger brothers live separately, but the boys
and girls show themselves freely in public. They cat with
their fingers, but they use vases similar to those which in China
are called pien-teu (a species of vases made of bamboo). It is
a general custom with them to go barefoot. They do not con-
sider it impolite to sit without attention to their position, leaning
upon their elbows with their legs extended, or even holding
their knees with their hands. They love to drink wine. They
often live to a great old age, many of them being more than
one hundred years old. In their country there are many girls

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(716)072-4503

032

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

(i. e., more girls are born than boys ; a fact said to bo true at
the present day). The great personages have generally four
or five wives. Others possess two or three. The women are
neither debauched nor jealous. The men are not inclined
either to robbery or brigandage. They have few legal forms.
If any one violates the law, his wife and children are reduced to
oervitude. If the crime is very grave, his entire race is externii-
nated. The bodies of the dead are preserved for cen days or
more, the people of the house lamenting, and abstaining from eat-
ing and drinking ; then their friends come singing and dancing
to drive away their sorrow. The bones of the dead are burned,
to be used in sorcery, good or evil omens being drawn from
them.

The sailors take with them a man, who is forbidden to comb
or wash himself, to eat food, or to approach any woman. This
man is called Chi-shiial. If the voyage is fortunate, he is re-
warded with rich presents ; but if unfortunate, if they have met
with accidents, or suffered from disease, it is thought that tlie
Chi-shuai has not been attentive to his duties, and they all join
in putting him to death.

In the year a. d. 57 the kingdom of Japan sent an embassador,
bearing its homage, and its felicitations, and carrying presents.
This embassador jrave himself the title of Ta-fu. His master
resided in the southern portion of Japan. The emperor Kwang-
wu gave him an official seal with its s'lk envelope.

In the year 107 a. d. the envoys of the king of Japan, named
Shui Shing, came offering slaves to the number of a hundred
and sixty, and soliciting an audience of the emperor.

At about the time when Iliao Ling-ti inherited the throne of
h^.s father (168 a. d.) great troubles burst upon Japan. Civil
war coloured the waves with blood, and for a number of years
the country remained in a state of anarchy. There was then a
princess named Pi-mi-hu (the same whom the Japanese call Zln-
git Kioo-gn, or the empress Zin-gu). When she became of ago
she would not marry, but devoted herself to the worship of
demons and spirits, and astonished the people with her sorceries ;
and hence they all recognized her as their queen. She had a thou-
sand servants. She allowed herself to be seen but seldom, and
had an attendant who carried food to her, and who conveyed hor
orders. She lived in a palace fortified with towers several stories

.i -Mi

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

633

in height, and surrounded by palisades, and always guarded by
soldiers. Her laws were severe.

From the kingdom of this queen, in an easterly direction, and
across the sea at a distance of more than one thousand U, the
kingdom of Kiu-mi was to be found ; of which the inhabitants,
although they were all of the same race as the Japanese, were
nevertheless not submissive to the authority of the queen.

From the kingdom of this queen, toward the south, at a dis-
tance of more than four thousand //, is the kingdom of C/iu-Jit, of
which the people are of the height of three or four Chinese feet.
To the southeast of Chu-Ju, by sailing a year, the Kingdom of Zo,
or the Naked People, is found, and the Black-Teeth Kingdom,
countries with which periodical relations have been maintained.
No one has ever been farther.

Beyond the sea of Kwei-M (the sea from the mouth of the
Iloang-ho or the Yang-tse-kiang to the strait of Formosa, now
called Tong-hai, or the Eastern Sea) are the Tonrf-ti-jin * (the
Eastern Fish-People). They form more than two thousand
kingdoms.

Y-c/ieu and Tan-c/icit are also to bo f 'Uiid. Tradition reports
that formerly IVin Shi Ilicang Tl sent a priest, of the name of
Sin-fu, with some thousands of young people, boys and girls, to
explore the sea and seek for P'ung-lai, the home of the immortals.
Not being able to discover this marvelous place, and fearing the
punishment which Tsin Shi ILrang Ti might inflict upon him,
Sin-fn did not dare to return. He remained in the islands which
bejir his name. In the course of generations they were peopled
with several scores of thousands of families, and from time to time
the people of this country have come to Kuei-ki for the purposes
of commerce.

It is also stated that inhabitants of Kuei-ki and of Tong-ye^
sailing upon the sea, have been driven by the winds until they
reached T<in-cheti ; but the distance is so great that (as a rule)
it is impossible to go or return.

* Williams, p. 884, defines the Toin^-ti-jin as the Chusan Islanders. D'Horrcy
adds this note : " Ma Twan-lin does not say anything more about these people ;
but if wc remember that beyond this Eastern Sea there is the Paeifie Oecan, we
may suppose that this term is used to designate the numerous islanders, as to which
the Chinese lacked precise information, although they were not ignorant of their
csistcncc in the midst of the Great Sea."

634

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

"i ,

(Here follow the accounts of a country situated at a great
distance southwest of Japan inhabited by naked black people, as
given in the description of Cuu-ju. Also the accounts of Wkx-
sniy — or the land of "Marked Bodies" — and Great IIan.)

We read in the " Chronicles of the Wei Dynasty " : " To reach
Japan, starting from the government of Tai/anff, the coast
should be followed. The country of the Ilan is passed and loft
behind, at first to the south, anu then to the west, and in this
way the northern coast is reached, where the country of Klu-ye-
hull is situated. After having gone seven thousand //, the coun-
try of I'ui-hai is reached.* . . . Then, turning to the south, a
sea of more than one thousand li, called the Ilan-haiy is crossed
(the name Ilan-hai is also, according to M. de Rosny, given to
an island situated near the southern coast of Corea), and a great
country is reached, about three hundred li square. . . . Crossing
a sea of more than one thousand li, the country of Mo-lu is
reached. . . . Then, going by land about five hundred li to the
southeast, the country of Yn-tu is reached. . . . One hundred
li to the southeast is the kingdom of Ifu. One hundred li to
the east is the kingdom of Ihi-nii. . . . By sailing along the
southern coast for twenty days, the kingdom of Teu-ma is
reached. . . . Finally, by sailing toward the south for ton days,
or else by a land voyage of a month, the kingdom of Ye-nui-y
is reached, which is that in which the queen resides. From the
kingdom of this queen, toward the north, the population and
the distances are known with approximate accuracy, but those of
the distant kingdoms situated in other directions are not accu-
rately known. The kingdoms which are known are those of
Sse-yen, Ki-jye-chi, Y-ye, Kiun-ehi, Mi-nu, Ilao-ku-tu, Pu-liu,
Tsie-nUy Tui-su, Su-nu, Ifu-y, Iloa-nu-su-nUy Ivwei, Wei-ii,
Jiicei-mif Ye-ma, Kong-chin^ Pa-li, Chi-wei, U-nu, and Kif,
which is the boundary of the sovereignty of the queen. To the
south of this last kingdom is that of Kiu-nu. It is governed by
a king, Ilis functionaries are called Keu-ku-chi-pi-keu, From

* The name means " a country which faces the sea." According to M. do Ros-
ny, it 13 the island of Tsitsima. See a former note for an account of a variu-
tion in tlie reading, discovered by M. de Rosny, 'u what he thinks to be the
original document from which Ma Twan-lin drew his account, which reduces the
distance from Ki-.-ye-han to Tsusima to one thousand li instead of seven thou-
sand.

\Mm

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

635

the capital of this kingdom to the kingdom of the queen the dis-
tance is at least twelve thousand li^

The titles of the mandarins or officers of most of the coun-
tries above named are then given. None of them at all resemble
the titles found in Fu-sang. Next in order come accounts of the
visits of embassies from Japan to China, in the years 238, 243,
240, 265, some time between the years 307 and 418, in 421, 425,
444, 452, 463, 478, and at later dates.

"A great number of the men and women have the back
tattooed in black, the face marked in the same way, and
the entire body often tattooed. They plunge into the water
to fish. They have no writing, but merely cut certain marks
upon wood, and make knots in cords ; but, in order to study
the Buddhist religion, books were brought from the king-
dom of Pe-tsi, and they thus became acquainted with written
characters. . . . The dead are inclosed in a double coffin.
The relatives and friends come singing and dancing to visit
the body. The wife, the children, and the brothers wear mourn-
ing-garments of white cloth. . . . Some time between the
years 581 and 588 a, d. a Japanese embassy was sent to China
by the direct maritime route, in order to obtain the Buddhist
books called * The Books of the Flowers of the Law.' ... In
653 A. i>. Lii-sse-tao went to China to study the Buddhist relig-
ion. He studied three years under the bonze Iliuen-chong,
and the books called Lxi-lun were given him. ... In 701 a
borze called So-tien was sent officially to China, to obtain the
Buddhist books of which Lu-sse-tao had previously learned, and
bis mission was successful. . . . About the middle of the eighth
centurv^ .an embassv was sent to China, which included several
priests, whose mission it was to procure a complete collection of
Buddhist books, and to learn the deepest mysteries of the doc-
trine of Fo."

The historians of the empire have written : " To go to the
kingdom of Japan, setting forth from Tai-fang, the kingdom of
Chao-aien (Corea) is passed ; and sailing first toward the south
and then to the west, three seas are crossed, and seven countries
are visited ; and after having traveled a total distance of twelve
thousand liy the capital is reached."

The historians say again : " In order to reach it (the capital of
Japan) from Lo-lang^ or Tai-fang, the distance from either is

C36

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

("I

twelve tliousaiul IL Japan is situated to the east of Kirel-ki, aiul
it is not very far from Tan-eul. The route is therefore extrtnuly
long via Leao-towj^ but it is quite short by the direct route
from the coast of Min or of CAc."

In addition to the foregoing extracts from the " Ethnography "
of Ma Twan-lin, the following statements, derived from a num-
ber of different sources, will assist in throwing light upon the
state of aflfairs in Japan during the fifth century of the Christian
era:

Gold was first discovered and melted in Japan in the year
749 A. I)., during the reign of the emperor Shomu ; '"" it came
from the department of Oda, in the province of Oshiu, and in tlie
following year more was found in the province of Suruga.

Silver ore was discovered accidentally in the year G67 a. d.,
in the island of Tsu-sima ; this ore produced the first Japanese
silver metal, in the year 074.

Loadstone was discovered in the year 713, in the province
of Omi. The exact date of the first manufacture of iron is un-
known. . . . Japanese legends assert that the first sword was
forged in the reign of the emperor Seijin (97-30 n. c.) ; but
this statement is, of course, open to considerable doubt. Copper
was, it is said, smelted in Japan for the first time in the year
098, at Inaba, in the province of Suwo ; and in the year 708 the
first Japanese copper coin was cast in the province of Musalii.

We read in the history of Japan called Ni-pon Ki: "The
third year of the reign of Ten-hu-ten-o, white silver was offered
to him, the seventh day of the third month, by the prince of
Tt;>i nma. It is the first time that the mines of this metal had
been worked in the empire." "" Klaproth adds to this transla-
tion the statement that it is from this time that the use of silver
in Japan dates.

In a Japanese work entitled " Ko Dou Dz ' Roku," or " A
Memoir on Smelting Copper," it is said that for about a thousand
years the copper from every district was chiefly of the third qual-
ity, as the Japanese had not learned how to extract the silver;
so that they might be called deficient in manipulation. This is
known from the fact that if broken copper utensils, made in the
reign of Tenshei, and before him, be smelted, silver can always
be extracted from them. The silver used in those days was all
obtained from mines. At the end of Tenshei's reign certain for-

TUE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

637

)an in tlie year

eign merchants came to Sakai, in the country of Shon, and taught
the mode of extracting silver to Sumitomo Zhiyusai ; this was
in the year 1591.'»'»

In 1708 an influential minister of Japan brought the subject
of the currency before the government, in an able memorial, of a
portion of which the following is a translation : "A thousand
years ago, gold, silver, and copper were unknown in Japan, yet
there was no want of necessaries. The earth was fertile, and this
is undoubtedly the most desirable sjjccies of wealth. After the
discovery of these metals, the use of them spread but blowly, and
so late as the time of Gongin they were still very rare. That
prince was the first who caused the mines to be diligently
wrought. ... In ancient times, as I have said, when the people
were imacquaintod with gold, silver, and copper, they knew no
want, and were good and virtuous. Since those metals were dis-
covered, the heart of man has become daily more and more de-
praved." "^

From a statement made by Fischer,'"" it appears that even at
a comparatively recent date the Japanese did not understand
the art of separating gold-dust from the sands of the rivers
which contained it.

The art of writing did not exist in Japan before the reign of
the Mikado O-zin (270 to 312 a. d.)."" It is stated that it was
in the year 284 "" that a prince of Corea brought the first knowl-
edge of the art, and that immediately after, the tutor to that
prince, a Chinese, named Wang Shin, having been invited, the
Japanese courtiers applied themselves to the study of the Chinese
language and literature. According to the Japanese historians,
Wang Shin was the first teacher of the Chinese language in
Japan. He brought the Lxin yn (one of the books of Confucius)
and other books, which he presented to the emperor, whose son he
taught to read and write. Then were also introduced the arts of
spinning, weaving, and sewing. He came from the kingdom of
Wu, in Southern China. Since his time the ideographic characters
of the Chinese have remained in use in Japan ; . . . but as the
construction of the Japanese language differs materially from
that of the Chinese, the syllabaries, called kata-kana and ^ra-
hma, were invented during the first half of the eighth cent-
ury."«"

In China, silk or cloth was used for writing before paper was

038

AS INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

'!iii

"'K-

made. This was invented by Tn'ai King-chung, alias 'JVai I^im,
about A. D. 100, wbo made it of the bark of the Hroiissonetiii
old rags, and fishing-nets, all cut and rasped together.'""

In Japan, however, the introduction of writing-paper dated
from the reign of the Mikado Sui-ko (593 to 028), with whidi
an embassy bearing presents had been sent from the kiiij^dom
of Kao-li (in Corea) ; but this paper lacked solidity and was bored
by insects. The hereditary prince therefore tried the black inul-
berry (Hroussonetia), which has since continued to be the cliief
material used in the manufacture of Japanese paper."**'

The tree from which paper is made'"" ia \ho Jirotmoiudi
papt/rifera,^*^ commonly knowr as the paper-mulberry. Tlio
Chinese call it ^', cii'u, or, more specifically, p^ ^, cii'u saxo. A
coarse kind of cloth is also made of it by the Coreans, bin the
paper itself is much used for gfirraents.""

Among the titles applied to the rulers and noblemen of
Japan are "Mikado "and "Siogoun." The potentate bearing
the first of these two titles is also designated by a great ninnber
of others : among them being Kubo, Kuho sama (i. e., " Lord
Kiibo "), Kinri Wori or II ori sama, Dairi, Sora Mikado, and
Kiuri. The Siogoun ia also called Tejika or Tenka sama,^"'" ^wd
the title Kuho is also sometimes applied to him."'" Tj/bmi,
Koogih, Daimio, and ^ata moto are terms applied to various
grades of Japanese officials,'*" as are also Koki'-shi, Sai-mio, and

As the fact that a certain region of Japan was known as
"the Country of Women" has been considered to add some
weight to the theory that the country visited by Ilwui Shiin was
situated in Japan, it may be of interest to learn to what portion of
the kingdom this name was applied, and the reason of the desig-
nation.

At about the end of the first century of the Christian era, the
Japanese Dairi sent his officer, called " the Prince of the War-
riors of Japan," to crush out an insurrection of the Eastern
Barbarians. While at sea, he was assailed by a great tempos*,
and one of his wives, believing the god of the sea to be angry
with him, threw herself into the sea to appease him, and the tem-
pest ceased. Afterward the prince, when he came to the top
of the mountain called Usu fi toghe, from which there is a
beautiful view to the south and east, recalled the death of his

THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.

G39

lim.w'o Tt/l'oon,

wife, and cried with a deep sigh " Akatsuma" (i. e., "my wife,"
"ma/emme"), and hence the eastern provinces of the empire
received the name of "At8uma,"or"tl.o Country of Women.""'*
With the foregoing information as to the early history of
Japan, we are now prepared to consider the question whether this
could hy any possibility have been the country which Hwui
Shan visited, and of which he attempted to give a description.
The following facts seem to make this theory wholly incredible :

1. Japan was not an unknown country, or land of mystery, as
to which i..arvelou8 tales would be likely to be toir. It had had
relations with Corea before the beginning of the Christian era,
and had sent an embassy to China in 57 a. n., fully four cent-
uries before the party of J^uddhist priests mentioned by Hwui
Shtln started on their travels. Since that time the visits back
and forth had been numerous, and the Chinese of the fifth cent-
ury were well acquainted with the country, its history, and its
customs,

2. Fu-sang was said to be situated twenty thousand II easterly
from the country of Great Han (or rather, as is shown by other
statements, southeasterly). This was five thousand li or mure
cast of the country of " Marked Bodies," which in turn was seven
thousand li or more northeasterly from Japan. How can it be
believed that a traveler, starting from Japan, going seven thou-
sand li to the northeast, then five thousand li to the oast, and
then twenty thousand li to the east or southeast, would at the
end of his journey find himself in Japan, in the neighbourhood of
the district from which he had set out ? If Great Han was
twelve thousand li from Japan, how could Japan be twenty
thousand li from Great Ilan ? It should also be remembered that
Ma Twan-lin expressly declares that Japan is situated directly
to the east of China, and that Fu-sang is situated directly east of
Japan, and at a distance of thirty thousand li from China. (This
IS in a direc '- line, while the total distance of forty-four thousand
//, which was traveled in going from one country to the other,
shows tuat the route was indirect.)

3. The most reliable histories of Japan emphatically deny
that their country was ever called Fu-sang, or that any such region
as that described by Hwui Sh&n was ever to be found in it.

4. A country which lay both to the east of Great Han (a
country twelve thousand li northeasterly from Japan) and to the

640

AN INGLORIOUS COLl'MHUS.

:■' <\ '

i K.i'-:

east of Cliina, must have been of great extent, or else situatcil at
a great distance, or both, and lienco could not have l)C'iii a
nrovince of any of the islands constituting the kingdom of
JajKin.

T). The country viiiited by llwui Shiui derived its name from
a wonderful plant or tree growing there. Neither Japan nor
any of its districts derived its name from any plant or tree, and
nothing at all answering to the fu-sang tree is found in that
country. The oidy tree which answers the descri])tion In aiiv
respect is the cn'v sxso, or paper-mulberry, and, altlioiii^h
the people now make paper from its bark, this art was not
known until at least a century after the days of our Buddiiist
priests. Furthermore, its first sjirouts do not in the most re-
mote degree resemble those of the bamboo, and the people n-.-vor
eat them. Its fruit is not a red pear, and no fruit of the kind
is found in the country.

0. The Japanese wcro not destitute of citadels and walled
cities, or of military weapons or armour, and they wcro almost
constantly engaged in military enterprises.

7. Although they had some knowledge of the Chinese ch.ir-
acters, they had no system of M-riting of their own until some
centuries later.

8. The titles of the ruler and of his nobility do not in any
way resemble those of the kingdom of Fu-sang.

9. Although they probably knew something of the value of
gold and silver, they mined none themselves and they had no
copper. They probably had iron, or at least knew something
about it, and about sabers and shields made from it, several
centuries before.

10. It was their custom to wear mourning-garments.

11. Although there was a region of Japan which was some-
times called the Country of Women, this region was well known,
and ("^id not contain any such inhabitants or plants as those
described by llwui Shftn.

13. The strongest argument against the location of Fu-sang
in America — that it is said that horse-carts, cattle-carts, and deer-
carts are found in the country — may be urged with equal force
against the identification of that country with Jai)an. 3Ia
Twan-lin states distinctly that neither cattle nor horses were
raised in the country, and, up to the present day, carts or wagons

THE IIISTOUY OF JAPAN.

641

.'Isc situati'il at
; have bom ;i
e kingdom df

its name from
her Jai)an nor
nt or trot', and
found in tliat
ri|)(ion in any
and, alllioiiLjh
18 art was not

our Buddhist
1 the most re-
10 ])eoplo novor
lit of the kind

els and wallod
•y were almost

I Chinese char-
\vn until some

do not in anv

the value of
they had no
c\v something
)in it, several

nents.

ich was some-
is well known,
ants as those

m of Fu-sang

irts, and doer-

a equal force

Jaj)an. Ma

horses were

rts or wagons

arc not used, and it is doubtful whether there is a road in the
country upon which they could be used.

13. Nothing at all corresponding to the southern and north-
ern place of confinement ; to the groat assembly of the people to
judge a guilty nobleman ; to the infliction of the death-penalty
by smothering in ashes ; to the change of the colour of the
king's garments from year to year ; to the use of immense
boms ; to the practice of raising deer, or to the peculiar method
of courtship mentioned by Ilwui Shan — has ever been stated to
exist in Japan.

14. Perhaps the most convincing proof, however, that Japan
and Fu-sang could not possibly have been the same country, is
found in the fact that the Buddhist religion was introduced into
Fusang in 458 a. d., while the testimony is uniform and over-
whelming that it was not until the year 552 that the first knowl-
edge of the Buddhist religion reached Japan.

If the argument is made that Fu-sang was situated in some
remote region of Japan, n^ t then under the sovereignty of the
ruler of that country, and which had not previously been visited
by the Chinese, or by the natives of the known portion of Japan,
the facts that the people of Fu-sang were acquainted with the art
of making paper, with the use of copper, and with the doctrines
of the Buddhist religion, will be sufticient to overthrow the argu-
ment ; for it can hardly bo believed that any wild tribe in a
remote corner of the country can have been further advanced in
civilization than the people of the groat empire of Japan, who
for many centuries had visited, and been visited by, the people
of the Asiatic Continent.

As the hypothesis that Fu-sang was a portion of Japan seems
to be wholly untenable, we are therefore thrown back upon the
theories that Fu-sang was situated in America, or else that Ilwui
Shun invented the whole story. This last hypothesis is incredible
to one who will read his account with any care. The motives which
led to his journey, the credence which he succeeded in obtaining
from all to whom he told his story, the so-called " silk " and the
strange mirror that he brought back with him, the lack of the
marvelous or impossible in his tale, the numerous little points in
which his account is just such as would have been given by an
eye-witness, and which no impostor has ever been able to success-
fully imitate, all place it beyond question that he had been some-

8',' '''

111

i, |:

\ li ^ \

n ^\

i:i': Ji • ^

C42

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMHUS.

whore, and that ho attompted to givo a truthful account of thn
land that ho had found.

This country must havo been either in Japan or Anurica.
It is evident that it was not in Japan. No explanation of Iiis
Btory is therefore left us except that ho had actually visitij
America.

Before concluding this work, the intpiiry may be made wlutlior
the Chinese had any earlier or other knowledge of America than
that given them by Ilwui Shtln. It seems unquestionable tliat
they had some earliti- knowledge of a land which they called
Fu-sang : but I hope to be able to show that this was a difTcieiit
country ; that it took its name from the plantain or banana tree
(called pisang by the Malays), and that it was situated in the
Philippine Islands, or in some of the islands in their neighbour-
hood, southeast of China. As, with the exception of the extracts
translated by M. the Marcpiis d'llervey de Saint-Denys, the prin-
cipal account of this land of Fu-sang is found in the Siiax IIai
KiN<J, or Chinese " Classic of Mountains and Seas," I have at-
tempted to translate all that part of the work which relates to
the regions east of China. I am well aware of the fact that soino
errors will probably be found in the translation, by those who are
more conversant than myself with the Chinese language. Never-
theless, as no one else has undertaken to translate it, and as it
seemed important that some light should be thrown upon the
knowledge possessed by the Chinese regarding the countries lying
east of them, I have ventured to do the best that I could with it,
believing that I could at least give a correct general idea of the
work, and that those who are able to rectify my errors will most
deeply appreciate the disadvantages under which I have la-
boured, and will be disposed to view with leniency such mistakes
as I may make.

This translation will be found in the following chapter.

m M, : [j^

account of iho

CHAPTER XXXV.

THE CIIINESK "classic OF MOUNTAIN'S AXD SEAS."

Preface — Sua-ciiti Mountain — Tlic Mountain of Creeping Plnnts— Aspen Mountain
— Hairy birds — The Foreign Range — Kan flnli— Kl-jiao, Kao-siii, Lofty,
Wolf, Lone, ^ald, and Oaniboo MountainH— K't'sasANo, Th'ao-ciii, Yiii-kao,
and Ueaa Mountains — An excessively higli peak — Tu-ku, KInu, Ll'-k'i —
Ku-»nE, fircen Jadc-stono, Wt:i-aiii, Kl'-funo, Fu-m, and Yin Mountains —
Sjii-iiu, K'l, Cnu-KEU, Middle Fu, Iln-siiE, Maso-tsz', K'i-ciiuno, Mei-yu, and
AVu-KAO Mountains — The Fu-Trcc (or Fi-sano) — North Hao, Mao, Eastern
Shi, NO-chino, K'in, Tsz'-tuso, Yen, ond T'ai Mountains—Tlic Ciu Iliil —
The Great Men's Country — Hhe-pi's body — The Country of Refined (ientlcincn
— IIuNo-HCNO — The Valley of the ManifoHtation of the Dawn — The Green Hills
Country — The journey of Shu-hai — The Uiack-Teeth Country — The Warm
Springs Ravine — Fu-sano — The Place where the Ten Suns bathe — An ac-
count of the Ten Suns — Yi'-sui's concubine — The Ulack-Hip Country — The
Hairy People's Country — A boat upon the sea-shore — The Distressed Peo-
ple's Country — K'eu-wani — A great valley — Siiao-hao — Pi-mu-ti Hill — Place
where the Sun and Moon rise — The Great Men's Country — Giants and dwarfs
—The Great People's Market— The Little People— KtJEn Mountain— The
Country of Plants — Hoh-hu Mountain — The Mountain of the Eastern Pass —
The Mountain of the Bright Star- The White People's Country— The Green
Hills Country — The Nation of Courteous Vassals — The Black-Teeth Country —
Summer Island — The Kxi-Ti) Country — Ciieh-tan and the Place of the Rising
of the Sun — Yt)-iwoH — Quaking Mountain — The Black-Hip Country — The
Needy Tribe — King Hai — Nu-cheu — Yeh-yao-kiGn-ti Mountain — ^The Fu-
tree — Warm Springs Valley — I-t'ien-su-man Mountain — The Y'lxo Dragon —
The Mountain of the Flowing Waves,

The Classic op Mountains and Seas.

PREFACE.

The edition of the (book written by Confucius entitled)
" Spring and Autumn," which was edited by Lti-sni, says that
(the domain of the emperor) Yu (who reigned about 2205 b. c.)
reached on the east to the " Country of the Fu-tree," the nine
" Places where the Sun Rises," the " Green Shepherds' Plains," the

;, |,

644

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

" Land of Xumerous Trees," the " Mountain which Touches Heav-
en," the " Valley of Birds," the " Region of the Green Mounds,"
and the "Black-Teeth Country."

The Classic op Mountains and Seas.

FOURTH BOOK.

The Classic of the Eastern Mountains.

1. The beginning of the " Classic of the Eastern INIountains "
says that Suh-chu Mountain * on its northern side adjoins Kax-
MEi Mountain (or Sunless Mountain), f Shih River (or " drinkable
water ") is found here, a stream that flows northeasterly into the
sea= In it there are many water animals called ylxg-yung.
These look like brindled cattle [i. e., they resemble cattle that
are striped like tigers]. Their voices sound like the grunting of
swine.

2. And it eays that, three hundred li to the south. Lei Mount-
ain (or the Mountain of Creeping Plants) is to be found. L'^pon
this there are gems and below it there is gold. Hu River is found
here, a strenm that flows easterly into Sum River. In this there
are many i.woH-siii. [These are tadpoles; the book entitled
the Rii'-YA calls them hwoh-tung.]

3. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Keu-chwanct
Mountain (or Aspen Mountain) is to be found. L^pon this there
are many gems and much gold, and below it many green jade-
stones. Wild animals are found there which look like dogs with
six legs. These are called ts'uxg-ts'uxg, the name being given
them in imitation of their cry. Birds are also found there which
look like domestic fowls, but which have hair like a rat. These
are called xsz' rats. When they are seen, the country is subject

* The character translated " mountain," in thia and other cases, may mean
"island" instead of "mountain." All islands are described as "hills" or
" mountains," under the terms shan and TAr. (See F. Porter Smith's " Vocab. of
Chin. Prop. Names," p. 56.)

f The words included in parentheses ( ) are possible variations in the transla-
tion, or additions necessary to complete the sense. Those included in brackets
[ ] are notes by the Chinese commentator, in the original work. The para£;raph3
are not numbered in the original, numbers being used in the translation for con-
venienco of reference. Many of the following notes have little or no bearinp: on
the work ; but it was thought best to give everything that the translator could find
which could be of any possible aid.

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 645

to great drought. The Chi River is found here, a stream flowing
northerly into IIu River. In this there are many lancet-fish.
These are of a dark colon- spotted (or striped) with blue, and
have a bill like a lancet. L^'licse were originally found in the
Eastern Sea,* and they are now found in the Kiang-tuko f Rivor
also.] Those who eat them are not subject to epidemic diseases.

4. And it says that, three hundred // to the south, Puii-t'san
Mountain is found. It has no grass or trees, and no water.

5. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Fan-t iao
Mountain (or the Foreign Range) is to be found. It has no grass
or trees, but has much sand. The Kiex J (Diminishing) River is
found here, a stream flowing northerly into the sea. In this
there are many kax fish. (The kan fish is described as a fish
three feet long, that is found in the Yang-tsz' River, having a
large mouth and yellowish gills, and a greenish back.) [One
authority names those '* the yellow-jawed fish."]

6. And it says that, four hundred li to the south, Ku-mao
Mountain (or the Mountain of the Maiden) is found. Upon this
there are many lacquer-trees, and below it many mulberry-trees,
and silk-worm oaks. Ku-mao River is found here, a stream flow-
ing northerly :'nto the sea, in which there are many kan fish.

7. And it says that, four hundred li to the south, Kao-sui *
Mountain is to be found. Upon this there are many gems and
below it many sharp stones. [From these they are able to
make smooth lancets to cure boils and swellings.] Ciiu-suing
River is found here, a stream flowing easterly into a marsh, and
in it there are many gems and much gold.

8. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Yon || (Lofty)
Mountain is found. Upon this there are many mulberry-trees,

* The " Eastern Sea " is the sea off the southeast coast of China. (See " Vocab.
of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 68.)

f KiANO-THNO is a term applied to the ri<,'ht bank of the river Yang-tsz' in its
course through Hc-peb. This name is also applied to Su-chau. (" Vocab. of Chin.
Prop. Names," p. 20.)

J There is a river in Chih-li bearing this name. (See Williams's Diet., p. 383.)

^ICao-shi was the name of a man who usurped the kingdom of Corea, during
the Han dynasty (between 202 b. c. and 25 a. d.), and named it after himself.
(" Vocab. of Chinese Prop. Names," p. 17.)

I This is a term applied to five mountains in China, the easternmost one being
the T'ai Mountain, in Shan-tcno, mentioned a little farther on. (See Williama'a
Diet., p. 1117.)

HI ^

!.i

! I

640

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

and below it many ailantus-trees. Lon * River is found here, a
stream flowing easterly into a marsh, and in it there are many
gems and much gold.

9. And it says that, three hundred li to tho south, "Wolf Mount-
ain is to be found. Upon this there is no grass and there are
no trees, and below it there is much water (or there are many
streams), in which there are many kan-tsz' fish. [These are not
fully described.] They have wild animals, which look like the
(quadrumana, called) kw'a-fu, but they have hair lik' that of
swine, and their voice is like an expiration of the breath. When
these are seen, then heaven sends down great rains.

10. And It says that, three hundred li to the south, Lone
Mountain is found. Upon this there are many gems and much
gold, and below it many beautiful stones. Moh-t'u (Muddy)
River is found here, a stream flowing southeasterly into a mighty
flood, in which there are many T'iao-yung. These look like yel-
low serpents with fish's fins. They go out and in. They are
bright (or smooth). When these are seen, then that region is
subject to great drought.

11. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Txi\
(Bald) Mountain is found. [Then the mountain was called the
Eastern Yoh or T'ai-tsung, which is new called T'ai Mountain.
It is in the northwestern part of Fung-kao district, and the dis-
tance from the foot of the mountain to its summit is forty-eight
li and three hundred paces.] Upon this there are many gems,
and below it there is much gold. Wild animals are found here
which look like sucking pigs, but they have pearls. They
are called tung-tung, their name being given them in imita-
tion of their cry. The Hwan J River is found here, a stream
flowing easterly into a river (or into the river, i.e., the Yang-
Tsz' River ).* [One authority says that it flows into the sea.]
In this there are many water-gems (quartz crystals).

* This is the name of a river near the city of Tsi-nan in the north of Shan-
tung, (Williams's Diet., p. 654.)

f This is the high peak in T'ai-ngan fu, in Shak-tcno. (See Williams's Diet.,
p. 848.)

X There is a district known as the Hwan district, among the mountains in
the cast of Kan-suh, on a branch of the River Kino. (See Williams's Diet., p.
245.) There are several rivers in China named Kino (Williams's Diet., p. 405),
and the " Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names " (p. 22) states that the name is applied to
the Yaso-tsz' River for a part of its length. * See Williams's Diet., p. 362.

ire, a stream

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 647

13. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Bamboo
Mountain is found, bordering on a river (or the river). [One
authority says that it is on the shore — or that it is at the bound-
ary-line. ] There is no grass or trees, but there are many green-
jasper and green-jade stones. The Km * River (or water im-
peded in its course by rocks) is found here, a stream flowing
southeasterly into Ts'u-tan River (or body of water). In this
(country) there is a great abundance of dye-plants.

13. The first section of the " Classic of the Eastern Mount-
ains " thus gives the entire distance along the twelve mountains,
from Sun-CHU Mountain to Bamboo Mountain, as three thousand
six hundred li. Their gods all have human bodies and dragons'
heads. When they are offered a sacrifice of animals having hair,
a dog is used. In other sacrifices the blood of a fish is used to be-
smear the things offered. [To use blood in besmearing the things
offered in sacrifice is called " ni." Kung-yang's " Chronicles "
say that in offering sacrifices of creatures having flesh and blood,
to the god of the land, and of grain, they besmear with blood the
being that is sacrificed. The name of this species of sacrifice is
pronounced " ni."]

1. The beginning of the second section of the "Eastern Clas-
sic " says that K'ung-sang Mountain (or the Mountain of the
Empty Mulberry-Trees) on the northern side adjoins the Shih
River. [This mountain rises from the Kin-seh Forest (the For-
est of Lutes and Lyres) — see the book called " Cheu-li."] On
the eastern side (it adjoins the states of) Tsij \ and Wu ; J on the
southern side a number of sandy mounds, and on the western side

* A country to the south of Fc-nan, whose people usurped the kingdom of
Fn-NAN, was called the Km country. (Sec " Vocab. Chin. Prop. Names," p. 21.)

f Tsij is the name of an affluent of the Yang-tsz' River, west of K'ino-chau
FU, in Hu-PKH ; a branch of the river Han, and the name of an ancient district
near their basins, now the extreme south of Shen-si in Han-chcno fu ; also a
branch of the River Wei in Western Shen-si, which it joins near Lin-tuno rikn.
(Williams's Diet., p. 1009.)

X Wu was the eastern of the " Three States," a. d. 250, comprising Cheh-kiano,
and extending north and west. (Williams's Diet., p. 1060.) Wu, in Confucius's
time, included the north of Ciibh-kiano (IIu-chau, Yen-chau, and Kia-hino-chau)
Province, and the southern part of Kiano-su. In the triarchy of the "Three
States "it included the San-kiano Provinces, or 61 prefectures. The kingdom
of Wu was merged into that of the conquering state of Yueh in the same prov-
inces. (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 62.)

G48

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the MiN (or Muddy) Marsh. Here there are wild animals which
look like cattle, but which are striped like tigers. Their voices
resemble the sound of a person stretching and yawning. [Per-
haps rather the sound of one moaning.] These are named
LING-LING, and this name is an imitation of their cry. When
these are seen, then heaven sends down great rains.

2. And it says that, six hundred li to the south, Ts'aq-ciu *
Mountain is found. Below this there are many paper-mulberry
trees, but there is no water (or river). There are many birds and
wild animals.

3. And it says that, four hundred li to the southwest, Ym-
KAO f Mountain is found. Upon this there are many gems and
much gold, and below it there is much white plaster-rock. The
YiH-KAo River is found here, a stream flowing easterly to the
KiH-NuJ River. In this there are many clams with pearly
shells. [These are clams or mussels with pearly shells, as beauti-
ful as gems, these pearly shells belonging to a species of mussel
called sha:,-pan.]

4. And thence going to the south, five hundred li by water,
and three hundred li over shifting sands, * one end of the Kou
(or Bean) Mountains is reached. There is no grass and there are
no trees here, but there are many smooth whetstones.

5. And it says that, three hundred and eighty li to the south,
the other end of the Bean Mountains is found. There is no grass
and there are no trees here. The Li || River is found here, a
stream flowing easterly into the Yir Marsh. In it there are
many ciiu-p'ieu fish (or water-animals). These look like lungs,
but have eyes, and six feet, and they have pearls. They taste

* Ts'ao waa a small feudal state, conferred on a brother of Wc-'wano, d. c.
1122 ; it had a separate existence under fifteen rulers, from b. c. 156 to 486, when
it was annexed by Suno ; its capital was in the present Tsao-cheu fu, in the south-
west of Shan-tuno, along the Yellow River. (Williams's Diet., p. 955.)

f YiH is the name of a hill in Ts'ao-hien in Shan-tcno, and of another in Pei-
HiEN, in the north of Kiang-su. (Williams's Diet., p. 1094.)

J The character Km used here means " water impeded in its course by rocks,"
and is used as the name of one of the rivers mentioned in the preceding section.
The character sv used here means a woman.

* The term " shifting sand " is applied to quicksands, and in the " Book of
Records " is applied to the Gobi Desert. (Williams's Diet., p. TSO.)

I The Li River is one of the aCBuents of the Tuno-tino Lake, which drains the
northwestern portion of Uu-nam. (Williams's Diet., p. 620.)

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 6rt9

sour, but pleasant, and are eaten without producing sickness.
[They do not cause diseases at any time, LiJ-sHi's edition of
the book of Confucius, called " Spring and Autumn," says that
the Li River contains fish called chu-pikh, which have six feet,
and which are beautiful as the " vermilion " fish.]

6. And it says that, three hundred and eighty li to the south,
Yt^-NGO Mountain (or an excessively high peak) is found. Upon
this there are many japonica-trees and jAN-trees, and below it
there is much prickly succory. The Tsah-yu River is found
here, a stream flowing easterly into the Yellow River. Here
there are wild beasts which look like rabbits, but which have a
crow's bill, an owl's eyes, and a serpent's tail. When they see
a man, they pretend to sleep. They are called Ciiiu-Ytj, this
sound being an imitation of their cry. When these are seen,
grasshoppers or locusts cause great destruction. [Grasshoppers
are a species of locusts. It says that they ruin the herbage.
Their name is pronounced chung.]

7. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Tu-fu
Mountain is found. There is no grass and there are no trees
here, but there is much water (or there are many streams).

8. And it says that, three hundred H to the south, Kang *
Mountain is found. There is no grass and there are no trees
here, but there is much water, and there are many green-jade
stones (or there are many water-jade stones). [These are a spe-
cies of water-gems — i. e., rock crystals.] There are many great
serpents, and there are also wild beasts which look like foxes, but
which have fish's fins. These are named chu-ju, and derive
their name from their cry. When these are seen, the country
has reason to fear disasters.

9. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Lu-k'i f
Mountain is found. There is no vegetation, and there are no trees,
but there are many stones and much sand. The Sand River is
found here, a stream flowing southerly into the Ch'an J River

jourse by rocks,"

* ElNa was the name of the capital of the empire of the Shano period, an-
swering to the present Fino-yang fv (Shan-si). (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Nai J,"
p. 17.)

t A wild tribe that anciently occupied some parts of Uu-peh was called Lu.
(Williams's Diet., p. 664.)

X There is a river of this name in Han-chung fu in Sham-si, a branch of the
river Han. (Williams's Diet, p. 21.)

■•tf;ir

' r t ' . '

650

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

.■|i

(or into a limpid river). In this there are many lj pelicans •
these look like ducks, but have men's legs. They do»ive their
name from their cry. When these are seen, then tue country will
see great literary achievements. [These pelicans have long lef»s
which somewhat resemble human shanks.]

10. And it says that, three hundred and eighty ^i to the south,
Ku-SHE Mountain is found. There is no grass and there are no
trees there, but there is much water (or there are many stream*).

11. And it says that, going to the south, three hundred // by
water and one hundred li over shifting sand, the Northern Ku-
SHE Mountain is found. There is no grass and thove are no
trees there, but there are many stones.

12. And it says that, three hundred ^e to the south, Southern
Ku-SHE Mountain vs found. There is no grass, and there are no
trees there, but there is much water (or there are many streams
there).

13. And it says that, three hur.dred li to the south. Green-
jade-stone Mountain is found. There is no grass here, but there
are many trees. Many great serpents are found here, and there
are also many green-jade stones and quartz crystalo.

14. And it says that, five hundred li to the south, Wei-siii *
Mountain is found. There is no grass, and there are no trees
here, but there are many gems and much gold. Yuen f River
is found here, a stream flowing easterly into Sand Marsh (or
into a sandy marsh). [One authority states that the name of the
mountain is pronounced Kiah-shi instead of Wiu-shi.]

15. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Ku-fuxg
Mountain is found. There is no grass, and there are no trees
here,, but there are many gems and much gold. Wild beasts are
found here which look like foxes, but which have wings (or
fins). Their voice sounds like that of a wild goose, and they
are called pi-pi. When these are seen, then heaven sends down
a great drought.

16. And it says that, five hundred li to the south, Fu-li J

* Wei-tano was the name during the middle period of the Ming dynasty of the
province now called Yang-chau fu. ("Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 61.)

f The term " Middle Ycen " at first denoted Ho-nan, but now means all China.
(Williams's Diet., p. 1133.)

I A large department in the northwest of Ycn-nan, through which the Yang.
isz' River flows, is called the Li River District. (Williams's Diet., p. 524.)

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS.'» 651

Mountain is found. Upon this there are many gems and much
gold, and, bdow it, many lancet-stones. They have wild beasts
which look like foxes, but which have nine tails and nine heads,
and tigers' claws. They are called luxg-chiii. Their voice is
like that of an infant child, and they eat men.

17. And it says that, five hundred li to the south, Yin Mount-
ain is found. To the south the Yin River is to be seen, and to
the north the Hu * Marsh (or lakes and marshes). Here they
have wild beasts which look like horses, but they have sheep's
eyes, four horns, and cattle tails. Their voice is like the howl
of a dog, and they are called yiu-yiu. When these are seen, the
country will be visited by many crafty foreigners. They have
birds which look like ducks, but they have rats' tails, and can
climb trees. They are called chie-keu. When these are seen,
the country will have much sickness.

18. The second section of the " Classic of the Eastern Mount-
ains " thus gives the entire distance along the seventeen mount-
ains, from K'uNG-SANG Mountain to Yin Mountain, as six thousand
six hundred and forty li. Their gods all have wild beasts' bodies,
but human faces. They bear the koh f fish. [With a species of
stags' or deers' horns they catch (or hold) the koh fishes.]
When they are offered a sacrifice of living beings having hair or
feathers, a fowl is used. When the people pray to them for off-
spring, they retire to a screened place.

1. The beginning of the third section of the " Eastern Classic "
says that Shi-hu \ Mountain on the north adjoins Siang Mount-
ain. Upon it there are many gems and much gold, and below
it there are many thorny plants. Here there are wild beasts
which look like elks, but which have fish eyes, and they are called
WAN-HU (or YUEN-Hu), deriving their name from their cry.

2. And it says that, going to the south by water for eight
hundred liy K'l ** Mountain is found (or a mountain with two

* Hn-KWANa is the old designation of Hu-peh and Hu-nan. (" Vocab. of Chin.
Prop. Names," p. 12, and Williams's Diet., p. 222.)

f For a description of the koh fish, see p. 653.

X The term He is applied to the Mongols, Huns, and other tribes of Central
i"ia, and hence it is used for " foreign " or " Turkish." (Williams's Diet., p. 221.)

* There is a state of this name in the present Fcno-tsiano rtr, in the south-
west of Shan-si, not far from the river Wei. (Williams's Diet., p. 346.)

652

AX INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

i ill

'■'i

»|.-'s

:.:;:|

I'li.H 'i

lir:

peaks). Upon this there are many peach-trees and plum-trcos.
There are also wild boasts and many tigers.

3. And it says that, going to the south by water for five luui-
dred //, Ciiu-keu Mountain is found. There are no trees or
g/iiss here, but there are many stones, and much sand. The
distance around the mountain is one hundred li. Theri. are
many mei (or sleeping) fish here. [These mei fish are of excel-
lent flavour.]

4. And it says that, going to ♦be south by water for Kcven
hundred //, Middle Fu Mountaiw is found. Here there are no
trees or grass, but there is much sand.

5. And it says that, going to the east by water for one thou-
sand li, IIu-siiE ♦ Mountain is found, Here thee are no trees or
grass, but there are many stones and much sand.

6. And it says that, going to tie south by water for seven
hundred li, Mang-tsz' (the Eldest Child) Mountain is found.
Here there are many trees ; japonicas and t'ong trees, and also
many peach-trees and plum-trees. In the grass there are many
mushroom-rushes (or mushrooms and rushes, or kiun rushes).
[These are not fully described. They are called kw'un.] They
have wild beasts, and many elks or deers. The distance around
the mountain is one hundred li. Upon it there is a flowing
stream called Pih-yaxg (or the River of Clear Jade-stone).
In this there are many sturgeons and mud-sturgeons. [These
mud-sturgeons are a species of eel. They resemble sturgeons,
but have a long body like an eel. One authority says that they
are a species of herring.]

7. And going to the south by watr r for five hundred li, and
over shifting sand for five hundred «.<.", a mountain is reached
which is called K'l-cnryG Mountain, the distance around which is
two hundred li. There is no grass and there are no trees here, but
there are great serpents, and upon the mountain there are many
precious stones. It has a body of water, the distance around
which is forty li, all bubbling up and running off.f [Now, to the

* The character He here used is the same as "-at used in the first paragraph
of this section in the name Shi-hu, and the character she is the same as that used
in the name Ku-shk.

f An affluent of the Yano-tsz' River, in the north of Hu-i-En, is named Yrxo,
the character meaning " bubbling up and running off," and being the same that is
used here. (Williams's Diet., p. 1148.)

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." C53

east of the Yellow River is the Fan ♦ River, and in the Yin
(Dark) District it has the Fun f River's Spring (or source). In
th" place tiiC water rushes out, overflowing, bubbling up, and
running rapidly. It is deep, and it can not be restrained. This
is of the same class as the water above referred to.] This is
called Su1n-T8EH (or the Deep Marsh). In it there are great
t< xtoises. [They have beaks like the common tortoise, the tor-
toise being a ?»*eat turtle ; the shell has variegated marks, like
those of the precious tortoise-shell, but it is thinner.] Here there
are fish (or water-animals) which look like carp, but which have
six feet and a bird's tail. These are called Kou-koii tish, deriv-
ing this name froL an imitation of their cry.

8. And it says that, going to the south by water for eight
hundred li, Mei-yu Mountain [or Min-tsz'] Mountain is reached.
Upon this there are many trees and much grass, and an abun-
dance of gold and gems, and also much ocher. Here there are
wild beasts which look like little cattle, but which have horses'
tails, and which are called tsing-tsing, deriving their name from
an imitation of t aeir cry.

9. And going to the south by water for five hundred II, and
over shifting sand for three hundred 11, Wu-kao (or Not Lofty)
Mountain is reached. Here the Yiu (Young) Sea may be seen.
[This is now called the " Little Sea." Hwai-nan-tz' J says that
the great island of the Eastern Region is called the "Little Sea."]
To the east the Fu-tree may be seen [or Fu-sang]. There is
no grass and there are no trees here, and much wind is found
upon the mountain. The distance around it is a hundred li.

10. The third section of the " Eastern Classic " thus gives the
entire distance along the nine mountains, from Shi-hu Mountain
to Wu-KAo Mountain, as six thousand eight hundred li. Their
gods all have human bodies and sheep's horns. When a sacrifice
is offered to them, a ram is used. Thev use millet for food.
When these gods are seen, then wind, rain, and floods cause ruin.

1. The beginning of the fourth section of the " Eastern
Classic " says that the Northern Hag Mountain slopes down to the

* The Fan River is the olucf river of Shan-si, which joins the Yellow River
at LuNO-MAr. ^TVilliaras's Diet., p. 130.)

f FcN is the old name of a stream in Pc-cheti fu in the southwest of Shan-SI,
whose headwaters spout up as a fountain. (Williams's Diet., p. 132.)

X For note regarding Uwai-nan-tz', see page 47.

C54

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Ill-

! !i':!

W:r

ill I

M^l

„ ^ih

.•■*: '

i:' I

North Sea.* It has trees which look like aspens, but which have
red flowers. The fruit is like the jujube, but it has no pit. It
tastes sour, but delicious. It is eaten without causing any ill
results. Tho Sum lliver (or drinkable water) is found hero, a
stream that flow" .asterly into tho sea. Here there are

wild animals whi. 4 .-/k like wolves, but which have red heads
and rats' eyes. Their voices sound like those of sucking pigs
and they are called HiEii-Tsft. They eat men. There are birds
here which look like domestic fowls, but they have white heads,
rats' legs, and tigers' claws. They are called kwei [or k'i] birds,
and they eat men.

2. And it says that, three hundred li to the south, Mao
Mountain is found. Here there are no trees and no grass. Tho
Ts'ano-t'i River is found hero, a stream flowing westerly into
the Chen River (or into an extensive body of water). In this
there are many siu fish. [These are shrimps, or the eels in-
dicated by the character ts'iu, and possibly the character siu
was then pronounced the same as ts'iu.] These look like the
carp, but have a larger head. Those who eat them have no
swellings.

3. And it says that, three hundred and twenty li to the south,
the Eastern Siii Mountain is found. Upon this there are many
green gems. Here there are trees which look like aspens, but
which have red veins. Their sap is like blood, and they have
no fruit. These are called k'i. They can break horses by its
use [i. e., by rubbing them with this sap, horses become tame
and gentle]. Clear River f is found here, a stream flowing north-
easterly into the sea. In this there are many delicious cowries
and many cuttle-fish. These look like a goby, and have only one
head with ten bodies. They smell like sedge-grass or a jungle.
Those who eat them have no asthma. [It says that they cure
the disease which consists of a difficulty in breathing.]

4. And it says that, three hundred li to the southeast, Nt^-
CHiNG Mountain is found. Upon this there are no trees, grass, or
stones. Kao (Rich, Fertilizing) River is found here, a stream
flowing westerly into Liii (Cauldron) River. In this there are

* The " North R'^ " is a name given by the Cliineso to the Gulf of Peh-chih-ii,
but ubually assigned in foreign works to Lake Baikal, in Irkutsk. (" Vocab. of
Chin. Prop. Names," p. 39.)

f Thii is an old name of a stream in Ila-NAN. (Williams's Diet., p. 1034.)

OUINESE •' CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 055

many thin fish which look liko herring, but have only ono cyo.
Their voico sounds liko vomiting [i. c, liko the sound of a man
retching and vomiting]. When those aro soon, thou heaven sends
down a groat drought.

5. And it says that, two hundred li to tho southeast, the K'in
(Imperial or Majestic) Mountain is found. Hero there are many
gems and much gold, but no stones. The Siii River is found
here, a stream flowing northerly into Kao * marsh. In this there
are many eels and many beautiful cowrie-shells. Here there aro
wild animals which look like sucking pigs, but which have tusks.
These aro called tano-k'anij, deriving their name from their cry.
When these aro soon, then heaven causes tho earth to produce
much grain.

0. And it says that, two hundred li to the southeast, Tsz'-t'uno
Mountain is found. Tsz'-t'uno River is found here, a stream flow-
ing westerly into Ytf-j<j Marsh. In this there aro many hwaii f
fish. Those look like fish, but have birds' wings. They go out
and in. They aro bright. Their voices sound like those of
tho YUEN-YANo.J Whou thoso aro seen, then heaven sends down
a great drought.

7. And it says that, two hundred li to tho northeast, Yen
(Sharp-pointed) Mountain is found. Here there are many pre-
cious stones and much gold. There are also wild beasts which
look like swine, but which have men's faces and yellow bodies,
but red tails. These are called iiOH-Ytr. T .-ir voices sound
liko that of an infant child. These wild animt Is eat men, and
eat vermin and serpents. "When those aro seen, then heaven
sends down great rains.

* The character Kao used here is not the same as that used in the name of the
Kao River, mentioned in the last paragraph, but is the same as that used in the
name of the Wu-kao Mountain, in the ninth paragraph of the third section of the
fourth book.

f IIwAH, a reptile with four i set, found in marshes, resembling a snake, and
having wings, which feeds on &i a. Probably the basilisk lizard. (Williams's
Diet., p. 242.)

f The TCEN-TANa is an aquatic bird, frequenting ponds and marshes ; it is of
the size and form of the wild duck, but its beak, instead of being flat, is round ;
its red head is sprinkled with white, its tail is black, and tho rest of its plumage
a fine purple ; i> 3 cry is exceedingly loud and mournful, not the song of a bird,
but a sort of deep, prolonged sigh, resembling the plaintive tones of a man under
suffering.'"'

056

AN IKOLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

.■;::i*'

'll

8. And it says thsit, two hurxlred /* to tho cost, T'ai* (Im.
mctiHo) M«)untain is foiiiul. Upon it there nro many procioiis
stones ami mueli gold, and there are also many wax-trees. [TIksc
wax-trees do not shed their leaves in winter.] Here there .are
wild animals whieh look like cattle, but which have a white heail,
one eye, and a serjient's tail. They are called fei. When they j;o
upon the water they dry it up, and when they go upon the grass
they kill it. When these are seen, then heaven sends down a
great pestilence. [It says that its body is full of a poisonous
principle. Tho book called "K'i-kin" s.iys that it is a locust
or cricket called k'iCncj. Its body looks harmless, but it causes
tho veins to wither and dry up, being more poisonous than tho
ciilN.f All creatures fear it, and wish to keep at a great dis-
tance from it.l Tho Keu River is found hero, a stream tlowiinr
northerly into the Lao J River. In this are many fish.

9. The fourth section of tho " Eastern Classic" thus gives the
entire distance along the eight mountains, from IIao Mountain
to T'ai Mountain, as one thousand seven hundred and twenty //.

10. The above record of tho *' Classic of the Eastern Mount-
ains " thus gives the distance along these forty-six mountains as
eighteen thousand eight hundred and sixty li.

Th jj NixTii Book op the Classic of Mountains axd Seas.

THE classic of TnE UEOIOXS BETOXD THE EABTEBN SEA.

In regard to the lief/ions beyond the Sea, from its Southeast
Corner to its Northeast Corner.

1. Tho CiiA Hill. [Pronounced CiiA or perhaps Fail] It is
said that this country produces i gems, green horses, siii-juii,
common willows, delicious cherries, sweet flowers, and excellent
fruits. It is in the Eastern Sea, between two mountains. Upon
the hill there are lofty trees. One authority says that its name is

* This is not the same character as that used for tho name of the T'ai Mountain
formerly mentioned.

f Tho Chinese describe the chXn as a bird lilce the secretary-falcon, with a long
black neck and red bill ; it eats snakes, and is supposed to be so noxious that
fish die where it drinks, the grass around its nest withers, and its feathers steeped
in spirits make a virulent poison. (Williams's Diet., p. 18,)

I The term Lao appears in the twelfth paragraph of the ninth book as the
name of the " Distressed " People's Country.

CHINESE •' CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 057

e T'ai Mountain

tU book as the

CiiA-Kiu, and one sayHtlmt the Country of a Iluntlroil Fruits lies
east of Yao's* buriul-placc.

2. The Great Men's Country in north of this. Ik-cnuHc the
men are great they sit and Heizo passing boats. One authority
says that this country is nortli of Ciia-kiu.

3. kSiik-im'h Body is north of this. [This is the name of a
god.] He has a wild animaPs body and a man's face. He has
largo ears, and for ear-ornaments has two greon serpents [i. o.,
ho has ear-ornaments like serpents strung in his ears]. One
authority says that Kan-yC's Body lies north of the (Jreat Men's
Country.

4. The Country of Refined Gentlemen lies north of this.
They have clothing, caps, sashes, and swords. They cat wild
beasts, and have two great tigers, one on each side. They are
very gentle, and do not quarrel. They have fragrant plants.
[Perhaps " clay " should be read instead of " fragrant plants."]
They have a flowering-plant which produces blossoms in the
morning which die in the evening. One authority says that it
is north of Kan-yC's Body.

5. IIuxa-iiuNO lies north of this. They all have two heads.
[The name is pronounced the same as that of the character iiuNO,
which means the rainbow.] One authority says that it is north
of the Country of Refined Gentlemen.

6. The god of the Valley of the Manifestation of the Dawn
(Chao-yang) f is called Tiex-wit. He is the god of the water.
He dwells north of HuNO-iirxo, between two bodies of water.
When he appears as a wild animal ho has eight heads with
human faces, eight legs, and eight tails, and is all green and yel-
low. [The " Classic of the Great Eastern Waste " says ho has
ten tails.]

7. The Green Hills Country is situated north of this. [The
people eat all kinds of grain, and have silken clothing.] Here
there are foxes with four legs and eight tails. One authority
says that it is situated north of the " Manifestation of the Dawn."
[Kin-KiftN's " Bamboo Book " says that P'oii-siiu-tsz' went on a
military expedition in the Eastern Sea for fully three years, and

* Yao was a celebrated sovereign, who is said to have reigned one hundred and
three years, from b, c. 2387 to d, c. 2256.

f Chao-sien (the Brightness of the Dawn) is the Chinese official name of Corea.
(" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 3.)
42

658

AN INGLORIOUS OOLUMBUS.

hi^ i''

■ fi

found a fox with nino tails, which, perhaps, was a species of the
fox above described.]

8. The sovereign ordered Shu-hai to walk from the farthest
limit of the East to the farthest limit of the West, five hundred
thousand and ten times ten thousand paces [Shu-hai was a
dauntless traveler] and nine thousand eight hundred paces. Snc-
HAi grasped an abacus in his right hand and with his left hand
he pointed to the north of the Beautiful Green Hills. One
authority says that it was the emperor Ytj * who commanded
Shu-hai ; one says that the distance was five hundred thousand,
ten times ten thousand, nine thousand and eight hundred paces.
[The poem Ts'axg-shan-wu says that heaven and earth, from east
to west, are three hundred and thirty-three thousand li, and from
south to north, two hundred and one thousand five hundred li.
To inspect heaven and earth, go one hundred and fifty thousand
li]

9. The Black-Teeth Country lies north of this. [The "His-
tory of the Eastern Barbarians " f says that forty li J and more
east of Japan there is a country called the Naked People's Coun-
try, and that southeast of this lies the Black-Teeth Country. A
ship can reach it by sailing for one year. The " Account of Strange
Things " says that the Western Butchers dye their teeth and
are like these people.] The people are black, and eat rice. They
also eat serpents, some red and some green. [One authority men-
tions only the green serpents.] It is very great. One authority
says that it is north of (the country of) Shu-hai, and has peo-
ple with black hands, who eat rice, and who use serpents, one ser-
pent being red. Below it is the Warm Springs (T'ang) * Ravine.
[In the ravine there is hot water.] Above Warm Springs Ra-
vine is Fu-SAxa [i. c., the fu-sang tree, or the useful mulberry-

* The Great Yv reigned about twenty-two hundred years before the Christian
era. (See Summer's " Handbook of the Chin. Lang.," part i, p. 205.)

f By the " Eastern Barbarians " the Chinese mean cither the Coreans "" or
else the uncivilized races of Eastern Japan.'*"

J Here the character " thousand " has probably been changed to "ten" between
" four " and " /i." The account that is given can not be applied to a co»intry only
forty li (some thirteen miles) from Japan. 3fa Tican-Un states that the distance
is four thousand li and that the direction is to the south. (See d'Hcrvey's " Eth-
nography," p. 410.)

* There is a river named T'ano in the southwest of Cuih-li. (Williams's
Diet, p. 860.)

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 659

a species of the

iH-Li. (Williams's

tree]. The place where the ten suns bathe lies north of the
Black-Teeth (Country). In the water there is a large tree having
nine suns in its lower branches and one sun in its upper branches.
[Chwano-cuku * says that formerly these ton suns rose all to-
gether, and the grass and trees were burned and withered IIwai-
NAN-Tz' says that (the emperor) YAof then commanded (the
prince) I to shoot nine of the ten suns, and the bird in the suns,
until dead. The " r'issipation of Sorrows " says in reference to it
that 1 1 brought the san-bird * to an end, and that it dropped some
of its feathers, and that I took them home and kept them. The
CiiixG-Mu Classic says that formerly this I shot skillfully, and
brought these ten suns to an end. Kui-kiun's "Bamboo Book "
says that when Yix-kiah ascended the throne and dwelt at Si-iio
there were strange prodigies. Ten suns rose and shone together.
This is a wonder of nature, but there is proof of it. Tradition
says that there were ten suns in the sky, the number of suns being
ten. This account says that nine suns dwell in the lower branches
and one sun in the upper branches. The " Classic of the Great
Waste " says that when one sun sets, another sun rises and lights
heaven and earth, and, although there are ten suns, they rise alter-
nately, and so revolve and shine ; but at the time referred to they
all rose together, and so heaven sent down supernatural calami-
ties. Therefore I, having asked for Yao's instructions, and thor-
oughly understanding his heart's desire, looked up to heaven, and
pulled the bow-string, and nine suns retired and concealed them-
selves. . . . If we examine into this in a common-sense way we find
that it is not reasonable, but if we investigate the principles of des-
tiny we find that nothing is impossible. You, who stand by and
see ought to try to comorehend this mystery. Those things which
relate to the mysterious and obscure are hard to understand, but
nevertheless they go on their course without obstruction,] Ytr-

* CnwANG-CHEr muy possibly be Chwano-tsz', one of the most eminent of the
riiinoso writers of antiquity ; he flourislicd about n. c. 368. (Summer's " Hand-
book," part ii, p. 1.)

\ Vao was a celebrated sovereign, snid to have reigned b. c. 2357 to 2255.
(Williams's Diet., p. 1076.)

X I, the prince of KiiJNO, was a famous rebel in the IIia dynasty, a mipjhty
archer, who drove T'ai-k'ano beyond the Yellow River, about n. c. 2161>, and kept
the power till his death. (Williams's Diet., p. 283.)

* Wild geese are sometimes called " sun-birds." (See Legge's " Sacred Books
of China," part I, p. 67.)

660

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

f I

SHi's Concubine dwells north of this. [Yu-siii is the same as
P'lNG-i, the God of Rain.] He, as a man, is black, and in each
of his hands be holds a serpent. In his left ear there is a green
serpent, and in his right ear a red serpent. One authority says
that he dwells north of (the country of) the Ten Suns, that as a
man he has a black body and a human face, and that each (liand)
holds a tortoise.

10. The Black-Hip Country lies north of this. [So called be-
cause the people are all black below the waist.] These people
make clothing from fish or water-animals — [i. e., they make cloth-
ing from the skins of lish— or water-animals]. They eat gulls.
[Gulls are water-birds. Their name is pronounced tiu.] They
use two birds, carrying them in their arms. One authority says
that this lies north of Yu-shi's Concubine.

11. The Hairy People's Country lies north of this, and has
people upon whose bodies hair grows. [At the present time, by
leaving the region of the Lin Sea, and going two thousand li to
the southeast, the place of residence of the Hairy People is found
upon the Great Loh Island.] Upon this island there are people
with short, small faces, and with their bodies entirely covered
with hair, like a hog or a moose. They live in caves, and have
no clothing or garments. [In the reign of the Ts'in dynasty in
the fourth year of the period distinguished by the appellation
YUNG-KiA (or " Perpetual Excellence " — i. e., in the year 310
A.D.) an officer named Tai, having charge of the salt at Wu-
KiEX, found upon the sea-shore a boat containing men and
women, four people in all. These all looked alike and spoke a
language which was not intelligible. They were sent to the
prime-minister's palace, but before they had reached it they
all died on the way, except only one. The ruler gave him a
wife, who bore children to him. Going to and coming from
the market and wells, he advanced' slowly in acquiring the lan-
guage. His native place was the Hairy People's Country. The
" Classic of the Great Waste " says that the Hairy Tribe eat a
species of millet for food.] One authority says that this country
is north of the Black-Hip Country.

12. The Distressed (Lao *) People's Country lies north of this.
It has people who are black [and who for food eat the fruits of

* Sec the reference to the River Lao in the eighth paragraph of the fourth sec-
tion of the fourth book.

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 661

trees and plants ; they have a bird with two heads]. Perhaps
the name should be read " the Kiao * People," instead of the Dis-
tressed (or Lao) People. One authority says that it lies north
of the Hairy People, and has people having their face, eyes,
hands, and feet entirely black.

13. The K'eu-wang of the Eastern Regions has a bird's
body,f and a human face, and he rides upon two dragons. [He
is the God of Wood, and has a square face, and wears plain ap-
parel. MoH-TSz' says that formerly, in the Ts'in dynasty, Muu-
KUNO was of illustrious virtue. The Supreme Ruler caused
K'eu-wang to lengthen his life by nineteen years.]

The Classic of Mountains and Seas.

foubteenth book.
The Classic of the Great Eastern Waste.

1. The Great Caiion beyond the Eastern Sea J [the poem
called Ts'ang-shan-wu says that in the east there is a stream flow-
ing in a bottomless ravine. It is supposed to be this canon. The
" Dissipation of Sorrows " calls it Kiang-shang's Great Caiion]
is SiiAo-iiAo's Country. [The emperor Shao-hao, * of the
" Golden Heaven " family, gave it this designation.] Shag-
hag's Descendant, the emperor Chwen-suh || [of whom no fur-
ther description is given], left there his lute and lyre. [It says
that his lute and lyre are in this canon.] It has a beautiful
mountain, from which there flows a delightful spring, producing
a charming gulf. [The water accumulates and so forms a gulf.]

2. In the southeastern corner of the Great Eastern Waste
there is a mountain called the Pi-mu-ti Hill.

3. In the Great Waste beyond the Eastern Sea there is a
mountain which by hyperbole is called " the Place where the Sun
and Moon Rise." It has rolling valleys and mountains. This is

♦The term Kiao sect is applied to the Mohammedans. ("Vocab. of Chin.
Prop. Names," p. 20.)

•f The account of a being or beings with a bird's body and a human face may
have arisen from the fact that the Aleutian islanders "" dressed in the skins
of birds.'"*

X The " Eastern Sea " is the term applied to the sea off the southeast coast of
China. (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 58.)

* Who reigned about 2500 d. c. (Summer's " Handbook," p. 205.)

I The successor of Shao-hao. (Williams's Diet., p. 117.)

062

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

¥ !'

-m

the Great Men's Country. [In the reign of the Ts'ix dynasty, in
the second year of the period distinguished by the designation
YUNG-KiA (" Perpetual Excellence," i. e., in 308 a. d.), there wcii>
ducks collected in Ngao-po, twenty li south of the district of
Sni-NGAN. A man by the name of Cheu-fu-ciiang picked up a
wooden arrow with an iron point, which was six feet* and a half
long. Reckoning from the length of the arrow, the shootir
must have been a rod f and five or six feet tall. The Coreans
say that formerly some people from the kingdom of Japan,
who encountered bad weather upon a voyage, were blown across
the " Great Sea," | and beyond it they discovered a country
where the people were all a rod tall, and moreover, in their
form and appearance, they looked like Mongols. They were tall
savages of a foreign tribe. The arrow came from this coun-
try. The Wai-cuwex says that the shortest of the Scorched
Pigmy * People were only three feet high, and the tallest of
these did not exceed ten rods. In Ho-tu's " Album of Gems "
it is said that ninety thousand li north of the Kwun-lux (Range
of Mountains) the Lung-poh Country is found, where the peo-
ple are thirty rods tall, and live for eighteen thousand years,
but they then die. East of the Kavun-lun (Mountains) || Ta-
TsiN ^ is found. The people are ten rods tall, and all wear plain
garments. Ten times ten thousand /* to the east the country of
the T'iao People is found. They are thirty rods and five feet
tall. East of this, ten times ten thousand li, is the Central Tsix
Country, whose people are one rod tall. The Kuh-liaxg His-
tory says that the body of a tall savage, measured crosswise,
covered nine Chinese acres. When riding, his head and shoul-
ders reached above the cross-bar of the chariot. This man must
therefore have been several rods tall. In the time of the Ts'ix

* The Chinese " foot " is equal to about fourteen of our inches,
f Of ten Chinese " feet."

X The term " Great Sea " is loosely applied to the Pacific Ocean and the China
Sea. (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 50.)

* The character Yao, here translated " Pigmy," is applied to a nation of Pig-
mies said to be three f oct in height, called Yao-tao, found southwest of China ; the
Negritos or Papuans of New Guinea may be intended. (Williams's Diet., p.
1076.)

I For an account of these Mountains, see Chapter XV of this book.
^ The Roman Empire, or some portion of it. (Williams's Diet., p. 991 ;
" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 51.)

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." 6G3

lean and the China

dynastj'' a giant was seen in Lin-t'ao * who was five rod" tall,
and his foot-prints were six feet long. If the above accounts
can be considered to be true, then there is no limit to the height
of these tall men.] It has the Great Men's Market, which is
called " the Great Men's Mansion." [This is a mountain which
is so named because of its resemblance to a large mansion.
The Great Men collect near it at market-times, and hold a
market upon and about it.] It has a great man crouching upon
both of its sides. [Perhaps the character translated "crouch-
ing " formerly meant " sitting erect." Chwang-tsz' f says that
he sat in Hwui-k'iai.] It has a country of " Little People "
who are called the Tsing People. [The poem called Ts'ang-
sHAX-wu says that the farthest region to the northeast is in-
habited by people who are only nine inches high.] Its god has
a human face and a wild beast's body, and he is called Li-ling's
Body.

4. There is also a mountain named KiJEii, from which the
Aspen River flows.

5. There is also a Country of Plants, where millet is used for
food. [It says that millet grows in this country. The name of
the country is pronounced Wki.] They employ (or have) four
(species of) birds (i. e., they have numerous varieties of birds) ;
also tigers, panthers, brown bears, and grizzly bears.

6. In the Great Waste there is a mountain called IIoh-hu.
It is the place where the sun and moon rise. It has Cii'jng-
yung's Country. Ti-tsun (or the emperor Tsun) begat Ciiung-
YUNG. The people of Chung-tung eat wild beasts and the fruits
of trees. [In thip country there are red trees with dark wood,
which have delicious flowers and fruit. See Lij-siii's edition of
the work of Confucius called " Spring and Autumn."] They
use four birds (i. e., they have numerous species of birds), and
also panthers, tigers, brown bears, and grizzly bears.

7. There is also the Mountain of the Eastern Pass, and here
is the "Country of Refined Gentlemen." These people have
clothing, caps, sashes, and swords. [They have tigers and pan-
thers, which are gentle and give way.] Here is the Country of
the Presiding Spirits. Ti-tsun begat Yen-lung, who begat the

* A former name of Min-cheu, in the north of Sz'-ch'pen, where a great goat
nearly as large as a donkey is produced. (Williams's Diet., p. 869.)

f A famous philosopher of the Ciieo dynasty. (Williams's Diet., p. 112.)

C64

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

* 1

mum

Presiding Spirits. The Presiding Spirits have offspring, but the
pure-minded male has no wife, and the pure-minded female has no
husband. [It says that these people are pure in their thoughts.
and are not affected by passion, and do not mate, but tliat
they conceive children with all purity, like white doves looking
steadfastly into each other's eyes, each being affected by the
purity of the other.] They eat millet and wild beasts, and have
numerous varieties of birds. Here is Ta-o Mountain (or the
Mountain of the Great Ridge).

8. In the Great Waste there is a mountain named Ming-sinu
(or the Bright Star). It is the place where the sun and moon
rise.

9. Thero is also the White People's Country. Ti-tsux begat
Ti-iiung, who begat the White People. The White People have
no surnames. They eat millet, and have numerous varieties of
birds, as well as tigers, panthers, brown bears, and grizzly bears.
[And they have teams of yellow wild beasts, which they drive,
using them in order to reach a great age.]

10. There is also the Green Hills Country. Here there are
foxes with nine tails. [When they are very little disturbed they
come out (of their holes), and this is considered a good omen.]
It has the Jeu-puh * (or Courteous Vassal) Country. They live
in a country of luxuriant land. [It is luxuriant as if irrigated.
The name is pronounced YiNG.f] It has the country of Black
Teeth. [Their teeth are like lacquer.] Ti-tsun begat the Black
Teeth. [As the teachings and example of the sage do not reach
all regions, therefore in after ages his descendants differ in their
pursuits and outward appearance. Every one says that those
who are now living are his descendants ; but they surely can not
be posterity which he himself begat.] The Kiang J tribe eat
millet for food, and have numerous varieties of birds. Here is
also the Hia-ciieu * (Summer Island) Country. Here is also the

* Jep Country was an ancient principality on the coast of Shan-tuno. It is
said in tlic annals of ti^e Eastern Han to have belonged to Lang-ta kiun the
present Ni-chau fit.

f YiNO was the family surname of Tsin Cni IIwang-ti, derived from Shao-
HAO, B. c. 2697. OVilliams's Diet., p. 1107.)

t KiANO was the surname of Shin-nuno. (Williams's Diet., p. 362.) SniN-
NCNQ was an emperor who reigned about 2700 b. c, just before the Yellow Em-
peror. (Summer's " Hand-book," i, p. 206.)

* The term Hia is the name of the dynasty which reigned from b. c. 2206 to

5*;

ii T

ved from Shao-

om B. c. 2206 to

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." CG5

KAi-TiJ * Country. It has a god with eight heads, with human
faces, a tiger's body, and ten tails. He is called T'ien-wu. [He
is the God of the Water.]

11. In the Great Waste there is a mountain called Kun-Lmo-
Yu-T lEN. It is at the farthest limit of the east with Li and
Meu. [These are the names of three mountains.] At the place
where the sun and moon rise [there is a god] called Cheii-
TAX. In the Eastern Region he is called Ciieii. The "coming
wind" is called Chax. [It is not fully described where the
Place of the Coming Wind is situated.] He dwells at the
farthest limit of the east, and produces the eight winds. [It
says that this man is able to regulate the proper times for the
winds to come forth and return. ]

12. In an island of the Eastern Sea there is a god with a hu-
man face and a bird's body, having two yellow serpents for ear-or-
naments. [These serpents are passed through his ears.] He treads
upon two yellow serpents, and is called Yu-kwoh. Hwang-ti be-
gat Yij-Kwoii, and Yu-kwoii begat Yu-king. [Yu-king is the
same as Yu-kiang.] Yu-king dwells in the North Sea, and Yu-
kwoh dwells in the Eastern Sea. They are sea-gods. [They
are each called the god of that particular sea over which they
rule. One original authority reads Hao instead of Kwoh.]

13. There is also the Ciiao-yao (Quaking) Mountain, where
the Yung (Melting) River flows. Here there is a country called
the Black-Hip Country. [From the hips down they are black like
lacquer.] They have millet for food, and have numerous varieties
of birds. Here is also the country of the Kw'un (Needy) Peo-
ple, whoso surname is Keu, who eat (these birds). Some say that
King Hai held a bird in his two hands, and, when he had eaten its
head. King Hai sent it to Yiu-i, Ho-poh, and Puii-niu [Ho-poh
and PuH-Niu are both names and surnames — see Kih-kiun's
" Bamboo Book "]. Yiu-i slew King Hai, and captured Puii-niu.
[The " Bamboo Book " says that Hai, the son of the emperor Yin,
went as a visitor to the house of Yiu-i, and committed adultery
there. Therefore Yiu-i's sovereign, Min-ch'an, slew him, and

1 706. The terra " Cultivated III a " is still used for China, denoting the country, not
its government ; while CiitJ-IIiA (all the IIias) for the same has become obsolete
(Williams's Diet., p. 184.)

* The character Kai is used in the name of Kai-p'ino hien, in Shin-kino, a
district town in F'ung-tien fu. (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop. Names," p. 16.)

606

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

thus made an t'xami)le of him. Therefore the Emperor Vix
KiEii-ciiiNG borrowed troops of Ilo-roii, with which to punish
Yiu-i, overthrow his country, ami slay his sovereign Mm-cirA\.l
Ho pitied Yiu-i, and allowed him to leave the country secret I v,
and go to a region of wild beasts ; and because he ate the \\\U\
beasts, he was called a Y\o man. [Yiu-i was originally a friend of
Ho-pon, and a good scholar ; but because Kieii-ciiing, who was
then the emperor of the Ying Country, had a good and ri<,'litfiil
reason for borrowing troops to punish crime, !Io-Pon could not
do otherwise than help to overthrow his country. It was be-
cause he pitied Yiu-i that he allowed him to leave the country
secretly. After ho had left he became a Yao man.] The sover-
eign Shun * begat Ilr, and Hi begat the Yao (Quaking) People.
In the sea there are two people. [These are the people to wliom
Yiu-i went.] They are called Ntt-ciiEr. [They are the same as
NiJ-CHEu's Body. There is no certainty as to the time when, or
the kind of being into which, she (Nu-cheu's Body) may be
metamorphosed ; for at one time she walks on water, and at
another time she vanishes into earth. There is no place which
she could not reach if she desired to reach it. We hear also
that the ways of the class of Fan-lis are similar to those of
Nij-ciiEu's Body.] Nii-cnEu has great crabs. The breadth is
teu It.

14. In the Great Waste there is a mountain called Yeii-yao-
KiuN-Ti. Upon it is the Fu-tree, having a trunk of three hun-
dred li. Its leaves are like mustard. [It resembles a pillar rising
to a great height, and its leaves are like mustard-grecns.f ] It
has a valley called the Warm Springs Valley. Above the Warm
Springs Valley is the Fu-tree [i. e., Fu-sang lies above]. When
one sun sets another sun rises. [It says that they alternate with
each other.] They all contain a bird. [In them there is a two-
footed bird.] Here there is a god with a human face, dogs' ears,
and a wild beast's body. For ear-ornaments he has two green
serpents. He is called She-pi's Body. They have birds varie-
gated with all colours. Ti-tsun condescended to be their friend.
Ti descended two high terraces (for worship) which were ruled
by the variegated birds. J [It says that below the mountain were

* A monarch who reigned b. c. 2255 to 2205. (Williams's Diet., p. 184.)

+ Sinapis. (See Williams's Diet., p. 360.)

:{ It is a custom in some Chiuesc monasteries to feed a bird with a few grains

CHINESE "CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS." CG7

Emperor Yin
hich to puiiisli
gnMm-cii*A\.]
juntry secretly,
he ate the Avild
nally a f rieml of
:;niNG, who was
0(1 and rijrlitful
)-ron could not
y. It was be-
ive the country
n.] The sovcr-
iiaking) People.
people to whom
are the same as
B time when, or
Body) may be
n water, and at
no place which

We hear also
ilarto those of

The breadth is

illed Yeii-yao-
of three hun-
s a pillar rising
greens.f ] It
)ove the Warm
ibove]. When
alternate with
there is a two-
ace, dogs' ears,
las two green
ve birds varie-
)e their friend,
ich were ruled
mountain were

Diet., p. '784.)
with a few grains

ShiJn's two high terraces for worship, and that the variegated
birds ruled over them.]

15. And in the Great Waste there is a mountain called I-t'iex-
8U-MAN.* It is the place where the sun and moon were born, and
here is the HtrEX (a pipe, a musical instrument) People's Coun-
try. Hero is also the K'l (Dark Gray) Mountain, the Yao
(Quaking) Mountain, the Tsang Mountain, the Man-hu (or
Household) Mountain, the Siiixu (Fertile) Mountain, and the
Tai Mountain. Here there are variegated birds.

16. In the Eastern Waste there is a mountain called Hon-
MING-TSUN-Tsiii. This is the place where the sun and moon rise.
There is also the Kih-yung Country, northeast beyond the sea.
They had three blue (or green) horses, and three horses that
were black with white spots, sweet flowers, yuen-yiu, i gems,
three green (or blue) horses, and three black horses with white
spots like eyes on their flesh, sweet flowers, delicious cherries,
and numerous varieties of grain in this place. [It says that these
are produced spontaneously.]

17. There is also the country of Nu-hwo-yueh-mu, having
a man called Yu^n. In the northern regions they say that Yuen,
who brings them the wind, is called Yex. [It is said that he has
these two names.] He dwelt at the extreme eastern corner, for the
sun and moon dwelt there. They did not have a uniform timt
for rising and setting, and he controlled them as to whether the
time should be short or long. [It says that Yuen had the man-
agement of the observations of the rising and setting of the sun
and moon. He did not let them run out of order, and he knew
the length of the days.]

18. In the northeast comer of the Great Waste there is a
mountain called Hiung-li-ti Hill. The Ying Dragon dwells at
its extreme southern limit. [The Ying Dragon is a dragon hav-
ing wings.] He killed Cii'i-\ iu,t together with Kw'a-fu [Ch'i-
yiu was a soldier]. He could not ascend again. [The Ying
Dragon therefore dwells below the earth.] Formerly, when be-
low, he was the occasion of dry weather [then it did not rain

of rice just before the morning meal has commenced. '^"^ Some such custom may
have given rise to this story.

* StT-MiN-TAH-LAH TAU is the island of Sumatra. (" Vocab. of Chin. Prop.
Names," p. 49.)

t Ch'i-yiu lived b. c. 2637. (WilUoras's Diet., p. 63.)

! IN

GC8

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

above], but when the Ying Dragon made his appearance there
was a very great rain. [The dragon that is in heaven now was
produced by the vapour ascending from the Ying Dragon. This
is the work of the mysterious and obscure, and man is not capa-
ble of accomplishing it.]

19. In the Eastern Sea is the Mountain (or Island) of the
Flowing Stream, seven thousand li distant in the sea. Upon
this there are wild beasts which look like cattle, with green (blue or
hoary) bodies, but they have no horns, and only one foot. When
they come out of or go into the water, then there is wind and
rain. They arc bright like the sun and moon, and their voice is
like thunder. They are called k w'ei. The Yellow Emperor *
obtained them and made drums of their skins, beating them
with drum-sticks made from the bones of wild beasts. [The
Thunder-beast is the God of Thunder. lie has a man's face and
a dragon's body. He drums his abdomen, beating it with drum-
sticks.] The sound might be heard for five hundred It, terri-
fying all beneath heaven.

* The Yellow Emperor is said to liave ruled 2597 d. c. (Summer's " Hand-
book," i, p. 206.)

CHAPTER XXXVI.

COMMENTS UPON TIIK "CLASSIC OP MOUXTAIN8 AND SEAS.

Iummer'3 "Hand-

The oldest geography of the world— Article by M. Bazin, Sr. — Its divisions —
Groups of mountains — Taoii^ts of the fourth century — The spirits governing
the earth — Extravagoncies of the work — First mention of the book — The
Familiar Discourses of Confucius — Thought to be apocryphal or corrupted —
Tseu-hia — Ssc-ma-ts'icn — Sse-ma-ching — Chao-shi — Wang-chong — Tso-986 —
The "Book of Waters" — Chang-hoa — Consideration if the western and south-
em kingdoms — Summaries of the geography of Tu-yu — Lo-pi — Kia-ehing phi
— Cheu-pang — Tsu-tse-yu — The Encyclopaedia of Tu-ycu — Conclusion of M.
Bazin — The imperial academy of the Ilan-lin — The Shan Ilai King read as a
romance or pastime — Particularly by young men — Opinions of commenta-
tors — Notes — Gaps or omissions — The " Bamboo Books " — Length of the work
— No translation heretofore made — M. Burnouf's intention to translate it —
Change of opinion among scholars as to its value — Monsters mentioned by
other writers — Tacitus — Men clothed in skins — A river with eight mouths —
The compass — The T'ien Wu : Lord of the Water — Seals, sea-lions, and sea-
otters — The Islands of the Flowing Stream — Cuttle-fish — Birds with hairy
legs — Serpents as ear-ornaments — The Shan Ilai King a compilation of a
number of distinct accounts — Regions mentioned twice or more — Description
of Japan — The genii who once ruled the earth — The state of civilization —
Tigers and bears — A poisonous Insect — The Ravine of the Manifestation of
the Dawn — The Hairy People — Fu-sang and the Black-Teeth Country — The
Malay custom of blackening the teeth — The Philippine or Luzon Islands —
The banana or plantain (jtisang) — The " ten suns."

The Shan Hai King, or Chinese " Classic of Mountains and
Seas," extracts from which are translated in the last chapter, is
not only claimed to be the most ancient geographical work which
the Chinese possess, but is also thought by some to be the oldest
geography of the world.*'" It originally contained thirty-two
books or divisions, but in the fifth century a. d. they were re-
duced to eighteen.**"

M. Bazin, Sr., in 1839, contributed an article to the " Journal
Asiatique " which contained translations of some fragments of

670

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

the work, and alHo gave an account of its history, and of tlio
views regarding it held by Chinese schohirs."' This article
somewhat condensed, is copied below :

llr I

\t il:

•* The aS'/k/m //<// Kimjf ' The Book of Mountains and Seas,'
contains a fabulous description of the world which is, by some
historians of the sect of the Tacists, attributed to the great Vu
and to l*e-y, ministers of the emperor Shun (2;:255 b. c).

*' This cosmography, founded upon a system peculiar to China,
and which has its origin in the religious traditions of the cm-
pire, is divided into eighteen books, which treat respectively of
the mountains to the south, to the west, to the norih, t() the
cast, and of the central mountains ; of the regions beyond the
sea to the south, to the west, to the north, and to the east ; of
the regions on the nearer side of the sea to the south, to the
west, to the north, and to the east ; of the eastern, southern,
western, and northern portions of the great deserts ; and of the
islands of the sea.

" The authors of the cosmography hold that there are five
principal groups of mountains upon the earth, being the groups
of the south, west, north, east, and centre, respectively. From
each of these groups, as a common point, great ranges of mount-
ains proceed toward the south, the west, the north, and the
east. All the rivers of the earth have their sources in these
mountain ranges, which, for the greater part, are covered with
the products of an extraordinary vegetation. Quadrupeds, birds,
reptiles, and fabulous monsters with a tiger's claws and a leop-
ard's tail, appertaining to the three hundred and sixty varieties
of the Ki-Un, to the three hundred and sixty varieties of the
Fong-hoang, of the dragon, or of the turtle, have their abode
upon these gigantic mountains.

" The probable origin of this systematic division is as fol-
lows : In the fourth century of our era, the writers of the mod-
ern sect of the Taoists, wishing to strike the im.agination of the
multitude, or to impose upon the credulity of the simple, in or-
der to obtain credence for the cosmography which they pub-
lished, borrowed the great names of Ya and Pe-y. These writers
had neither any idea of the structure of the earth, nor any
knowledge of foreign lands ; but, as among all the mountains of
the Celestial Empire there are five which the Chinese geogra-

"CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS."

671

phors Hlnco tho days of tlu' Clu'u dyimHty hjive placed in the
first rank, and havo dcHignatcd hy distinct titli's, the authors of
tJJO S/tan Ilai King, in ordiT to find a base or point of depart-
ure, imagined five principal groupH, or five great rangcH of
mountains, to take tho place of these five mountains which had
been consecrated by tradition, by religious ceremonies, and by
history.

" Whether this conjecture is accepted or rejected, it is none
the less true that the Shan llni hln(/i\ocH not present a positive
and credible cosmography, and that it should not bo imagined
that it is possible to determine the situation of the places which
tho authors, whoever they may have been, announce as existing.
Tho truth of this assertion can easily bo seen by reading a few
extracts from it.

" Tho last thirteen chapters of tho Shan JTai King contain a
description of foreign countries — that is to say, of the countries
inhabited by spirits and by some of tho three hundred and sixty
varieties of tho human race.

"Tho spirits which governed or dwelt upon the surface of
the earth in the days when tho great Yu and Pe-y, ministers of
the emperor Shun, both laboured for the draining off of tho
waters of the deluge (about tho year 2255 b. c, according to the
chronology of the l^seu-chi t'ong-kien of Ss^-ma-kuang), differed
from tho spirits which lived under the reigns of Fu-hi, Iloang-
ti, Chao-hao, Chuen-hio, and Ti-ko. Tho spirits of tho sun, tho
moon, and the five planets, which are mentioned in the twelfth
book of tho Shin-yi-tien (History of tho Gods and of Prodigies),
are not referred to in tho Shan Hal King, and its authors have
turned tho spirits of the earth {ling-ki) into monsters or fantas-
tic animals, and on this account there is some temptation to
regard the description which they have transmitted to us as a
malicious parody, invented by a writer of but medium capacity,
to bring derision upon the beliefs of tho Taoists.

" As extracts from the work will sufficiently demonstrate the
fact that the Shan Ilai King does not present a true cosmogra-
phy from which modern science could derive information, but
that it is instead merely a document, which contributes to the
history of the errors and extravagancies of the human mind, I
will pass to the second part of my essay (which seems to me
more worthy of interest), and show what were tho opinions of

672

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

Wm-H

the principal Chinese writers concerning the origin of this strange
book, its contestable authority, its presumed authors, and its
pretended antiquity.

" It is mentioned for the first time in the Kia-yu (Familiar
Discourses) of Confucius. This book is thought to be authentic
by the Taoist authors. If the testimony of a chronicler is to be
believed, it was found on the demolition of the house of Confu-
cius, together with the Lun-yu (the Book of Exhortations), the
Hlao King (the Book of Filial Piety), a part of the dictionary
'Jih-ya, etc., and offered to the emperor Hiao-wu-ti by Kong
Ngan-kue, who was a descendant of the great philosopher. The
writers of the orthodox school rank the Kia-yu among the an-
cient books which were interpolated, altered, or corrected by the
writers of the Ilan dynasty. Others, in greater number, regard
the Kia-yu as an apociyphal book. However it may be, the work
merits our attention, and, if it is admitted that it was composed
during the Han dynasty, or about the commencement of the
Christian era, it is still the most ancient work that mentions the
Shan Ilai King.

" Tseu-hia, a disciple of Confucius, whose family name was
Po-yang, who wrote a commentary upon the Y King, expresses
himself in these terms in the Kia-yu :

" 'During the reign of the Shang dynasty (1783 to 1134 b. c.)
mention was made of a Book of the Mountains {Shan King).''

" Tseu-hia says again :

" * In this book the east and the west are designated by the
term icei ; the south and the north by the term hing^

" We can not fail to recognize the Shan Ilai King in the
Shan King of which Tseu-hia speaks. The words wei (woof)
and king (warp) are terms of nomenclature, or of classification,
of which the real meaning is lost. They are found now among
the astronomical terms of the Chinese, the five planets being
called loei, and the twenty-eight constellations king.

*' Ss4-ma-ts'ien, the most celebrated of the Chinese historians,
expresses himself thus in the Sse-ki :

" * The Book of the Mountains {Shan King) is attributed to
the great Yu ; but such extraordinary things are contained in
this book that I do not dare to speak of them.'

" I do not approve the position taken here by Sse-ma-ts'ien,
and I believe that the renown which he acquired as the founder

"CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS.'

073

of historical criticism in his country has caused his silence on
this subject to be the means of exciting indecision on the part
of later wi'iters. Nevertheless, I hasten to say that his skepti-
cism can hardly be considered as a fault, as the biographers of
this great man attest that he did not exhibit it until after long
and painful researches.

" In the seventh century of our era a Chinese historian called
Sse-ma-ching undertook to trace the history of the primitive
times, which was lacking in the JSse-ki of Sse-ma-ts'ien ; and, in
a general explanation of the book entitled Kuo-yen-nien-sse, the
following is found :

" * The great historian did not dare to speak of the Shan Tlai
Kingy either good or evil. It is assuredly a book composed dur-
ing the Ts'in dynasty. The facts that are reported are in part
credible and in part doubtful.'

"After Sse-ma-ts'ien comes Chao-shi (Chao-hoa), who lived
during the reign of the Han dynasty. In his commentary upon
the Chronicle of the Kingdoms of Wu and Yue, a work of
which the authority is very doubtful, he states that Yu, after
consulting the spirits of the mountains and the lakes, and ob-
taining information from them as to the mountains and rivers
which contained gold and jade ; as to the birds, quadrupeds,
reptiles, and living creatures which were to be found there ; as
to the customs of the peoples of the eight divisions of the world ;
and, finally, as to the extent of the foreign kingdoms and coun-
tries — ordered Y to note all these details, to add a commentary,
and to compose the book entitled the Shan Hai King.

" The complete account of Chao-shi abounds in errors. "With-
out speaking of its fabulous details, it contains anachronisms of
a kind which are never found in the better class of Chinese works.

" Wang-chong, who lived during the reign of Hiao-ho-ti, of
the Han dynasty, who ascended the throne in the year 89 a. d,,
in the work which contains his astronomical dissertations, makes
the following statement :

" * The great Yu received the order to labour for the drainage
of the waters ; Y was charged to vrrite the history of extraordi-
nary events. These two men visited all the provinces, ascended
the highest mountains, and visited the countries situated beyond
the seas, and, from all that they had seen and heard, they com-
posed the Shan Hai King."*
43

iP!:

674

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

^AM

"A poet, who lived during the epoch of the San Km (221-
265 A. D.), and who has the reputation of being the ablest man
of his times known to historians, a man named Tso-sse, mentions
the Shan Hai King in a piece of verse entitled Wu-tu-fu (Verse
on the Five Capitals).

" Mention is made of it in the preface of a commentary on
the Shui King (Book of the Waters), a work composed durino-
the epoch of the San Kue. The author says :

"'Formerly the great Yu composed the Shan Hai King.
He collected the material for this book in his long voyages.'

" Another commentary of the Shui King says :

" 'The Shan Hai King is a mutilated history ( Choang- Chi);
but, nevertheless, the great Yu gave a description of foreign
countries.'

" Chang-hoa, who lived during the reign of the Ts'in dynasty
(265-420 A. D. ), in the preface to the Po-we-chi (Fabulous En-
cyclopajdia), says :

" * Two of the most ancient books still exist ; these are the
Herbal of Chin-nong (the Pe7i-tsao), and the Shan Hai King,
which several writers attribute to the great Yu.'

" In the * Consideration (Lan) of the Western and Southern
Kingdoms,' a book published during the dynasty of the Later
Han (947-951 a. d.), the following passage occurs :

" * The Book of Mountains contains a description of the world,
from the country where the sun rises to the place where it
sets.'

" Finally, in the summaries of the Geography of Tu-yu we
read :

" * The twenty-eight constellations of heaven have long been
designated by special titles ; the mountains and the streams of
the earth long ago received special names. All these titles and
names are found abridged in the Yu Kong and the Shan Hai
King, monuments bequeathed by the men of ancient times to
the following generations ; but if it is desired to go deeper into
the matter, and learn the names of the kingdoms and cities more
in detail, the Chun-tsieu of Confucius should be read.'

" Without stopping to discuss a multitude of assertions, which
hardly seem worthy of the trouble, I come to the opinion of Lo-
pi, who in 1190 a. d. published a book called the Jju-sse, in which
he states that Y established a classification of living beings, dis-

"CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS."

675

tinguishing those which were harmful from those which were of
use to mankind, and composed the Shan Ilai King.

" Among more modern works we read in the Ku-yang-tsa-tsu
of Kia-ohing-shi :

" ' All the operations of heaven and earth are mysterious and
incomprehensible, and withdraw themselves from the investiga-
tion of men. This is why the Shan Ilai King and the diction-
ary ''Rh-ya are books which can not be comprehended.'

" In the collection of poems of Cheu-pang-yen, it is said :

" * The Book of the Mountains is a book of which the origin
is not known ; the kingdom of Tsi is a kingdom which no one
has ever seen.'

" Finally, the book entitled Tsu-tse-yu mentions this work in
the following terms :

" ' Heaven and earth are great ; what do they not contain ?
The Shan Hai King is full of doubtful statements, but who can
affirm that the assertions which seem doubtful to us are abso-
lutely false ? '

*' That which we think the best opinion is expressed in the
book entitled Tu-yeu T'ong-tien (the Encyclopaedia of Tu-yeu), a
work which was first published under the T'ang dynasty. Tu-
yeu, whose opinion is universally received by the orthodox school,
expresses himself as follows :

" ' As to the Yu Pen-ki (the History of Yu), and the Shan
Hai King, I do not know under which dynasty they were com-
posed. They contain statements which are strange and whimsi-
cal, and directly in opposition to the facts reported in the classical
authorities known as the King. I suspect that these two works
were written, after Confucius had revised the Shi King and the
Shu King, by some man who loved the Tnarvelous. It is pos-
sible, however, that the Yu Pen-ki and the Shan Ilai King ex-
isted before the days of Confucius, and that the fables which
they contain were interpolated by writers of following genera-
tions, such as those who composed the Ku-cheu-shu, the Chron-
icle of the Kingdoms of Wu and Yue, the Yue-taiuei and the
Chu-wei-shx(.''

" I do not think that it is necessary to go beyond the state-
ment of the author of this encyclopredia, to come to the conclusion
that the Shan Hai Kiyig is a fabulous book, of which the origin
is not really known, and for my part I declare this to be my

1';:.

•()■ : ■ ■ ■

676

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

ilii: '•'.''

' '

=(')

ii-; : ''[{»

if-'! ■

.•■•11
III

\r\

opinion. When, one after another, I have questioned the Chi-
nese writers of the sect of the Taoists, whose conjectures are so
vague and whose hypotheses are so confused ; when I have added
new testimony to that which I have reported — the most imposing
authority can not balance that of the imperial academy of the
Han-lin ; and the editors of the Ko-chang-tiao-U (the Code of
Competitive Public Examinations), in placing the Shan llai
King upon the index, have proved that they are of the same
opinion as Tu-yeu. In spite of this, however, scholars always
read this book, but they are careful not to seriously quote the
traditions which it contains. They read it rather as a romance
is read, as an agreeable pastime, and because it is best to be
acquainted with all that has been written. 'The Shan Ilai
King has almost always been studied,' says the author of a
work entitled Lieii-fong-tsa-tsu, ' and even now among the best
scholars there are many who read and study it, but who regard
it as a book in which the marvelous dominates.'

*' It serves to stimulate the imagination of the youthful Chi-
nese, who read this fabulous cosmography with avidity, and
hence phrases like the following are often found in prefaces :

" * In my youth, I read the Shan Ilai King, and I remember
that the monstrous animals of which it speaks nearly all had
whimsical names.' {Kuei-yeu-Jcuang-shi.)

" * When I was young, I loved to copy books, and I twice
transcribed the dictionary ''Mh-ya, the Shan Hai King, and the
len-tsao^ (Preface of the book entitled Nan-ssk-wang-yun-
chicen.)

" After having brought together all that I could, but perhaps
in too narrow a circle of Chinese erudition, as to the opinions
which the writers of the Celestial Empire have expressed concern-
ing the Shan Hai King, I will now briefly examine the opinions
of the commentators.

" These, Kuo-p'o, Jin Chin-ngan, etc., generally reproduce the
opinions of the original writers. They sometimes add notes ; but
these notes, although instructive to the Chinese, have no interest
for us. The famous philosopher Lie-tseu, he who lived forty
years in a desert, attributes the editing of the Shan Ilai King
to Meng-kien. He says : * The great Yu discovered (the mount-
ains and the seas) in his voyages ; Pe-y remembered (that which
the holy man had described), and gave them their names. Meng-

"CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS."

67T

kien understood (the narration of the voyages from the mouth
of Pe-y) and consigned it to writing.' Other commentators con-
fine themselves to a citation of the extraordinary facts mentioned
in the book. Some pass in review the foreign nations that live
beyond the seas. They insist particularly upon the divisions of
the book and upon the terms of nomenclature. They almost all
differ from one another as to the number of chapters which it had
during such or such a dynasty. Kuo-p'o states that in the days
of the Ts'in dynasty each chapter was followed by a summary in
which everything of interest contained in it was recapitulated.
A fact worthy of notice is that there were formerly gaps or
omissions at the beginning and end of the book, and that under
the Lesser Tsi dynasty (479-502 a. d.) a ^ .holar called Kiang-
yen wished to add a supplement, just as Li-shi, under the Ts'in
dynasty, added a supplement to the Po-ioe-chi. The commenta-
tors have not submitted the geographical names of foreign coun-
tries to judicious criticism, but they endeavour to prove that such
a mountain of the Shan JTai King corresponds to such another
of the Yii Kong. Finally, two commentators place this book
among the GJm-shii, or the * Books written upon Bamboo Tab-
lets,' and found in the tombs the first year Tai-shi of the reign
of Wu-ti of the Ts'in dynasty (265 a. d.). The Chu-shu are evi-
dently apocryphal books, and nothing could more enfeeble the
authority of the Shan Ilai King than this assertion of the two
commentators.

" The book contains over thirty thousand characters in the
text, and over twenty thousand are found in the commentaries,
which is a great number for a book containing such extrava-
gancies, and which does not merit deep study in a country like
China, in which the amount of true geographical knowledge is
far from despicable."

It will be seen from the foregoing remarks of M. Bazin that
he considers the work to be unworthy of serious attention ; and
founds this belief largely upon its stories of the existence of
fantastic monsters. There is reason to believe, however, that
the accounts of these monsters are partly interpolations by the
Taoists, who have attempted to bolster up their belief in the
existence of innumerable spirits, which animate the works of
Nature, by incorporating descriptions of these " supernatural be-

GTS

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

!l .

hi. Ill

f '^ m

ings" with the accounts of foreign lands, and are partly crude
and unscientific or poetical descriptions of existing beings.

For some reason (perhaps because of M. Bazin's belief that
the work was unworthy of serious study) no translation of it
into any European language has been made. M. £mile Burnouf
has recently published a few short extracts from it, however,
and has announced his intention of translating the entire work.
The editor of the " Proceedings of the Provincial Congress of
French Orientalists " makes the following comments upon this
announcement ;

"This book has been treated with too little attention by
Orientalists ; but their opinions in regard to it are now daily
being changed. Bazin saw nothing in it but a tissue of absurd
legends ; but the opinion of this Sinologue was based merely
upon the grotesque pictures which ornament the popular editions
of tlis book. A more careful examination of the original text
of the Shan Ilai King demonstrates, beyond question, that this
* Sacred Book of Geography ' contains not only fabulous tales,
such as mig^ be expected in a work of such great antiquity, but
also precise scientific statements from which the scholarly world
can obtain much knowledge of the archaic period of the Chinese
monarchy."

The strange monsters of the Shan Hai King are not more
absurd and grotesque than many that are meni'oned in other
early histories. Tacitus, for instance, concludes his "Gerraa-
nia " with a reference to the story that the Oxiones have the
head and face of a man, and the body and limbs of a beast.
Zeus has ingeniously explained that these animals with human
faces could have been nothing else than men clothed in
skins.^*"

In the Japanese traditions, mention is made of a terrible ser-
pent having eight heads and eight tails, called " the eight-headed
serpent." The same monster is described in the Shan Ilai King,
and we should be at a loss to know what was meant if the Ja-
panese commentators did not explain that this is the name of a
rapid river having eight mouths."^'

It is stated that a Japanese army was guided in its march by
a " crow with eight feet." The Chinese divide their compass
by eight points — the four cardinal points and the intermediate
points ; and it is therefore probable that the '' crow with eight

!l'il

"CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS."

G79

feet" was the name given to the compass by which Ziii nui
was guided in his expedition ' '"

It does not seem impossible that the same explanation may
account for the story of the T'iex wu, the " Lord of the Water,"
having eight heads, eight tails, and eight legs.

The animals, which are variously described as resembling
striped cattle ; cattle with blue bodies, no horns, and one foot ;
dogs with six legs ; foxes with fishes' fins, and swine with men's
faces, are probably seals, sea-lions, sea-otters, and other phoca-
ceans. The Chinese describe their voices as resembling the grunt
of a hog ; that of a person stretching and yawning, or rather
moaning; that of an infant ; the cry of a wild goose, or an expira-
tion of the breath. Pinart says that the otter, when attacked,
utters heart-rending cries, which almost resemble the groans of
a human being ; ''*" and the " History of Kamtchatka " says that
the cry of the old sea-calves resembles that of a person endeavour-
ing to vomit, and the young ones cry like a person in pain."™

Seals may be said to look like a dog with six legs, for the
fore-flippers may be counted as two legs, and the hmd-flippers,
heiJd out straight behind, look as the legs of a dog would look
who dragged an extra pair behind those Avith which his race are
furnished. Other describers might fancy the sea-lions to be like
cattle with one foot. In this case the fore-flippers would be con-
sidered as "fins," and the hind-flippers, fastened together and ex-
tended behind, would be regarded as one member.

In the last paragragh of our extract from the Shan Ilai King
mention is made of an animal found in the " Islands of the
Flowing Stream," situated in the sea at a distance of seven thou-
sand U. The " flowing stream " may be the gulf -stream of the
Pacific, the Kuro Siwo ; and the islands are probably either the
Kurile or the Aleutian Islands. The animals found upon them
are said to look like cattle with blue bodies, but no horns, hav-
ing one foot, and coming out of and going into the water. This
descriptir*> should be compared with that given by Klaproth of
the sea-otters : '"" *' The largest are about ten feet long, and are
of a purple colour. Although the Chinese call them sea-cattle,
they have no horns."

We should hardly know what to make of the description of
the fish with one head and ten bodies if it were not stated that
the cuttle-fish is meant ; and the account of a fish that looks

680

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

like a lung, but which has eyes and six feet, is probably another
attemjit to describe the same creature.

The animal like a rabbit, with a crow's bill, owl eyes, and
serpent's tail, is probably some species of large lizard ; the hrCd
with two heads may be the horn-bill, or some species of swan
with a large tubercle at the base of the bill ; and the fox with
eight or nine tails may have been the beaver. The bird with
rats' hair or rats' legs is mentioned by Hue as follows :

" We reniarked in Tartary another species of migratory bird
about the size of a quail ; its legs, instead of feathers, are covered
with a sort of long, rough hair, like that of the musk-deer." ""

The v;caring of serpents in the ears, as ear-rings, has probably
been a custom of moi-e than one savage tribe. Purchas describes
its existence in America in these words : " In each earo com-
monly they haue three great holes, whereat they hang chaines,
bracelets, or copper ; some weare in those holes a small snake,
coloured greene and yellow, neare halfe a yard long, M'hich,
crawling about his neck, offereth to kisse his lippes." '""

It should be noted that the Shan Ilai King seems to be a
compilation of a number of distinct accounts of the countries
which are described. Thus the first, second, and fourth sections
of the fourth book all begin with a description of the country
near the Shih River. The ninth and fourteenth books both give
accounts of the Great Men's Country ; of the Land of Refined
Gentlemen ; of the Land of People with Black Hips ; of the Dis-
tressed People's Country, and the Green Hills Country ; while
the description in the ninth book of the Cha Hill is in the four-
teenth book applied to a country called Kin-tung.

It is probable that a scholar thoroughly versed in Chinese
geography could, with the aid of a native student, identify most
of the eastern mountains (or islands) and countries that are
described.

The statements regarding the mountain or island of the
" Eastern Pass," the Land of Refined Gentlemen, and the Coun-
try of the Presiding Spirits, evidently refer to Japan. See pp.
663 and 664, and compare the statement on the last-named page
with the traditions current in Japan, as to the seven successive
genii who ruled the earth before men were placed upon it. Of
these the first three were self-engendered, and were masculine.
The fourth celestial spirit had a female companion, and since

CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS.

081

that time there have been males and females. These two, how-
ever, were not husband and wife, in the gross, earthly sense, and
they and the three following pairs of genii followed the laws of
heaven &nd earth,"** and produced offspring in all purity, con-
ception taking place only by a sort of contemplation of each
other on the part of each couple, by supernatural means which
Ihe degradation of mankind prevents them from comprehend-
ing."" The statement, that they have clothing, caps, sashes,
and swords, shows that they had attained a state of civilization
greater than that of the nations north and south of them, and
approximating that of the Chinese. Even to this day the Japan-
ese are noted among the neighbouring nations for their custom
of wearing swords or sabers.""

The gentle tigers that slink away at the sight of a human
being may be n^-w exterminated, but tigers' skins are among the
articles which were formerly exported from Jesso,"" and bears
are still found in the forests of the country."" Tigers and leop-
ards were also once found in Corea.'"' The poisonous locust,
mentioned in the eighth paragraph of the fourth section of the
fourth book (see page 656), is probably the insect referred to in
the traditions of Ja[)an, which assert that, when the land was first
settled, the province of Fiouga, near that of Satsuma, was infested
by flying insects, two inches in length, named tsu-su-ga, of which
the bite was mortal, but that as the country was cleared up and
cultivated the insects disappeared.""

CiiAO-YANG (The Ravine of the Manifestation ^i the Dawn)
is probably Corea, which is now known as Chao-sien (The Bright-
ness of the Dawn). The " Hairy People " are unquestionably
the Ainos of Jesso and Northern Japan, Avhose hairiness has
attracted the attention of all travelers in that region.

The best clew to the location of the land of Fu-sang, or of
the Fu-tree, that is mentioned in the Shan Hai King, is found in
the fact that it is nearly always mentioned in connection with
the Black-Teeth Country, and that it is said to adjoin that land
on the north. This Black-Teeth Country must have been some
region inhabited by the Malays, whose practice it is to file and
blacken their teeth. The custom, as it exists in Sumatra, is thus
described by Marsden :

" Both sexes have the extraordinary custom of filing and
otherwise disfiguring their teeth, which are naturally very white

G82

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

rP; i|.

Ill

,ill''

and beautiful. Many, particularly the women of the Lampoiijr
Country, have their teeth rubbed down quite even with thi'
gums ; others have them formed in pointa ; and Home file olT no
more than the outer coat and extremities, in order that they may
the better receive and retain the jetty blackness with which tluy
almost universally adorn them." "'*'"

This fashion exists throughout the Indian Archipelago and as
far to the northeast as the Philippine or Luzon Islands."-^ It is
therefore in these islands, or in their neighbourhood, that we
must look for the Fu-sang of the Chinese " Classic of Mountains
and Seas." These islands were probably known to the Chinese
before they discovered the much nearer island of Formosa, as
they lay in the direct course of the monsoons, and afforded some
of those commodities of their peculiar luxury, in quest of which
they made still more distant voyages to the islands farther
west."" The banana or plantain {Musa paradisiaca,Jj.)^'*^^ is
known to the Malays by the name pisanr/,''*'"^ and, as it is the
most valuable and remarkable tree or plant found in that region,
it seems that this must have been the plant which first gave to
the Chinese the name Fu-sang. The description of its fruit that
is given in the Shin I King (see Chapter XV, p. 250), where it
is said to be three feet and five inches long, adds to the likelihood
that this is the plant that was meant, as the "hand," or bunch, is
about three feet in length, and the individual fruits about five
inches. The description of the leaves, as being ten feet long and
six or seven broad, is also in fair accordance with this view.

There seems a possibility that the apparently absurd story of
the " ten suns" may assist in determining the true location of the
land ; for if we consider that the word " branches " is used by
the Chinese to designate divisions of time, it will appear that the
statement, that nine suns are contained in the lower branches and
one sun in the upper branches, may have been an archaic or
poetical way of saying that nine tenths of the time the sun, when
it crossed the meridian, was south of the zenith, and one tenth
of the time it crossed to the north ; a statement which would
indicate that the land lay in about 20° north latitude.

I therefore believe that the Chinese had, before the Christian
era, some knowledge of the Philippine Islands, and of the pisang
cr banana tree found upon them, and that this was the source of
their first legends regarding Fu-sang, and the fu-sang tree.

♦'CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS."

683

the Lampoiif^
'ven with tlio
oinc file oil IK)
that thoy may
ith which thoy

jipelago and as
lands."'* It is
hood, that we
2 of Mountains
to the Chinotse
if Formosa, as
afforded some
quest of which
islands farther
siaca, L.) ""' is
id, as it is the
in that region,
h first gave to
of its fruit that
L 250), where it
D the likelihood
or bunch, is
uits about five
feet long and
this view.
)surd story of
ocation of the
IS " is used by
ippear that the
branches and
an archaic or
the sun, when
and one tenth
which would
ide.
the Christian
of the pisanfj
8 the source of
fu-sang tree.

AVlien Ilwui Shtin returned from Mexico, the name "Me-shi-co"
was thought to sufficiently resemble the appellation Fu-sang-
kwoh (i. c., Fu-sang country) to indicate that the land was the
one referred to in their old legends ; and the facts that both
countries lay to the east, or to the south of east, and that both
derived their names from a remarkable plant or tree, were thought
to make it certain that the country which he had visited was the
one mentioned in their traditions. After his days the two coun-
tries were therefore assumed to be one and the same, and Ilwui
Shan's description of the agave was mixed and confused with the
earlier accounts of the plantain.

ill

ijljii

ciiaptp:r XXXVII.

'■ ■!

li::!.:

UKCAriTULATION.

Summary of reasons for thinking tlint Ilwui ShSn visited Mexico — Tho commund
of Huddlia — Tlie case of tlic journey — The " Mk " and mirror brouglit hmk
by him — Tiie belief of his contemporaries — Fu-aang must have been in Juiiim
or America, and was not in Japan — Ilwui ShJn's story parallclod with ac-
counts of tlio coinitrics by otlicr authors — The Country of Marlced Hodios —
flrcat Ilan — Fu-saiig — The Country of Women — Summary of facts tncutionod
by Ilwui Sliiln — TIjc transparent mirror could not have been obtained else-
where than in Mexico — The Mexican tradition of Ilwui ShSn's visit — Coimi-
dcnces between Asiatic and American civilizations — Pyramids — Architect-
ure — Arts — Ueligious structures — Religious customs and beliefs — Idols —
Marrioge ceremonies — Dress — Food — Books — Games — The working of mcta's
— Suspension-bridges — The calendar — Civilized nations of America all upon
tho Pacific coast — Allowances to be made — Errors of first explorers — Ilwui
Shiin not a Chinaman — Errors of manuscripts — Changes in language —
Changes in customs — Our imperfect knowledge of Mexican civilization — The
argument stronger than its weakest parts — Conclusion.

Havixo, in the foregoing pages, given in extenso the reasons
for believing that Ilwui Shun visited Mexico, this work will be
concluded with a brief summary of the grounds upon which this
belief is based, as their united weight, when all are brought
together, will be found much more convincing than any argu-
ment founded upon only one or a few of the points that have
been presented.

The command of Buddha to his disciples, to preach his doc-
trine to all men without exception, constituted a reasonable mo-
tive for the journey. His disciples penetrated all parts of Asia,
and probably reached Europe also, and in their wanderings made
many journeys nearly or quite as long, difficult, and hazardous
as the voyage from Asia to America. If, therefore, there was a
practicable route from Asia to America, it is not improbable joer
se that some of these devotees should have found and followed it.

■fr-ffM

u-m

I!- ;

RECAPITCLATION.

085

CO — Tho coiuninml
irror brouglit l)afk
lavc been in Jmnin
)arnlleK'(l with ac-

Marked liodicB —
of faetH incntionod
een obtained elsc-
iSn'H visit — Coinii-
ramids — Areliitcct-
1 beliefs — Idols —
! worl<ing of meta':i

Amcrieu all upon
t explorers — Ilwui
;e8 in languaf^o —
1 civilization — The

reach his doc-
easonable mo-
parts of Asia,
iderings made
md hazardous
e, there was a
mprobable per
id followed it.

II.

Tl»o route via China, Coroa, Japan, the island of Saghalien,
the Kurilo and the Aleutian Islands to Alaska, and tlioncc down
the American coast, is a practicable route for one man or a small
party of men to take in an open row-boat or small sail-boat.
There is but one place at which the voyager would be out of
sight of land, and then only for a few hours. Furthermore, each
step of the journey is well known to the natives, so that an ar-
dent missionary, determined to carry his doctrines to the utmost
limits of the earth, would merely have to press on from one
island to another — being told in each of another island lying
farther to the cast — to ultimately iind himself in America.

III.

Ilwui Shiin had evidently visited some unknown eastern
land. The so-called "silk," which differed from any that the
Chinese had ever seen, and the wonderful mirror which he
brought back with him, sufficiently prove this fact.

IV.

In addition to this tangible proof, the fact that he succeeded
in inspiring all whom he met with confidence in his story is a
reasonable ground for the belief that he was honest in his ac-
count, and told the truth in regard to his journey. No impostor
who pretended that he came from an unknown foreign land has
ever escaped detection, and even most explorers who are now
known to have been honest in their litatements were derided by
those to whom their tale was first told. Moreover, the nature of
his story is such that no one can read it carefully without a con-
viction of its truth. When properly translated, it contains noth-
ing marvelous or unnatural, and the internal evidence of truth-
fulness is such that very few have ever adopted the theory that
his account is but a figment of the imagination.

The only eastern countries which it has ever been thought
possible to identify with Hwui Shin's land of Fu-sang are Japan
and America ; but that the country could not have been Japan
is shown by the facts presented in Chapter XXXIV. No other

p-:h''.

686

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

hypothesis is therefore left to us than that Fu-sang must he
sought in America.

Ilwui ShUn's story gives a faithful and accurate account of
the Aleutian Islands, of Alaska, and of Mexico ; and it is still
; ossible to prove that nearly every one of his statements was
true. Tbis can be shown most succinctly and convincingly by
giving his account in one column, and in a parallel column pre-
senting statements of well-known facts, and extracts from vari-
ous authors who have described the lands in question. In the
following columns, quotations are distinguished by being printed
in italics, and the references will, as in other cases, be found in
the Appendix :

The country of " Marked
Bodies " is situated seven thou-
sand U (about 2,300 miles) and
more to the northeast of the
country of Japan.

Its people have marks upon
their bodies like wild beasts.

In front (or upon their fore-
heads) they have three marks.

If the marks are large and
straight, they indicate that those
who have them are of the high-
er classes ; but if they are small

The Aleutian Islands are sit-
uated about two thousand miles
northeasterly from Japan.

Tattooing was very custom-
ary in former times in the Aleu
tian Islands."'*

Pigments of various dye are
applied (to the skin of the peo-
ple), both painted outicardly
and pricked into the sA-Zn.""

The women have on their
chin a vertical line about half
an inch broad in the center, ex-
tending from the lip, loith a
parallel but narroioer one on
either side of it, a little apart}'^^
On Hehring^s Isle, men as well
as loomen tattoo. 3Iang men
have the face tattooed.^""

At Point Barrow some of
the women had txco vertical
lines protruding from either
angle of the mouth, which is a

I I

■sang must be

ate account of

and it is still

itatements was

OS, be found in

s very custom-
,es in the Aleu

RECAPITULATION. 687

and crooked, then their possess-

mark of their high jiosition

ors are of the lower classes.

in the tribe.^'"^

The people of the land are

Originally the Aleutian

of a merry nature, and they re-

tribes loere active and sprightly,

joice when they have an abund-

fond of dances andfestivals.*^^^

ance, even of articles that are

Whole villages entertained other

of little value.

villages, receiving the gueststcith

songs and dances. If a ichale

was cast ashore, the natives as-

sembled icith joyous and remark-

able ceremonies. ^^^''

Traveling visitors do not

They meet e^^ery stranger

prepare food for their journeys.

at the landing-place. If the

and they have the shelter of

stranger has a relative or inti-

their (the inhabitants') dwell-

mate friend, he goes to him.

ings.

If not, no one icill invite him.

but all are ready to receive him.

lie can choose his quarters him-

self. There he is entertained in

the best manner. They never

think of asking their guest for

anything, but let him stay as

long as he may ; they even pro-

vide him loith food of every

kind xohen he departs.^^^'^

They have no fortifications

It is a well-known fact that

or walled cities.

the Aleutians have no fortifica-

The residence of the king
(or kings) of the country is
adorned with gold and silver,
and precious and beautiful ob-
jects about the dwelling.

tions or walled cities.

In the Aleutian Islands,
every island, and, in the larger
islands, every village, has its
toy on or chief. ^^'^

Among the Ilaidah Indi-
ans, carved j)osts or pillars are
raised in front of the houses
of the chiefs or principal men.
Some of the best ones cost sev-
eral thousand dollars; conse-
quently only the most wealthy
individuals of the tribe are able

688

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

w 1

'I, ;ll
> 1,1

They make a ditch of a
breadth of one rod, which is
filled with "water -silver."
When it rains, then the rain
flows upon the surface of the
" water-silver."

In their traffic they use pre-
cious gems (or valuables, as the
standard of value, instead of
gold or silver).

" Great Han " is situated
five thousand li (some sixteen
hundred miles) or more east of
the country of " Marked Bod-

ies.

to purchase the best specimens.
The Sitka tribes have this style
of carved posts.^*^^

The term " water-silver " is
a good descriptive term for ice.
The country is intolerably rainy,
and the rain, which accumulates
in ditches or hollow places, must
often be frozen into thick ice,
having the transparency of wa-
ter and the purity and glitter-
ing hardness of silver.

No money was current in
the country. The custom of
bartering existing among the
Aleuts was of great age. ""^Am-
ber formed an important article
of commerce with the natives,""
and extraordinary value was set
upon it, a single bead repre-
senting in value a good many
sea-otter skins."'*

Alaska is situated some fif-
teen hundred miles easterly of
the most westerly of the Aleu-
tian Islands. The name Alaska
is derived from a root meaninff
a great coicntry or cotitinent.^^'^'^
The Chinese character Ilan is
composed of two parts, mean-
ing respectively "water" and
" hardship." It is applied to a
river noted for its "swirling
waters," '"* and also applied to
the Milky Way, thus indicating
that its original meaning was
"foaming or dashing water."
If it was used with this mean-
ing, it is particularly applicable
to Alaska or the Aleutian Isl-

RECAPITULATION.

689

test specimens,
have this style

ater-silver " is
e term for ice.
;olerably rainy,
jh accumulates
•w places, must
into thick ice,
parency of wa-
ty and glitter-
ilver.

r^as current in
he custom of
ig among the
sat age.'™ Am-
portant ai'ticle
li the natives,"*
y value was set
ie bead repre-
a good many

ated some fif-
es easterly of
of the Aleu-

e name Alaska
root meaning

>r co7itinent?^^^

iracter Ilan is
parts, mean-
" water" and

is applied to a

its "swirling

so applied to

hus indicating

meaning was

shmg water."

h this mean-

rly applicable

Aleutian Isl-

ands, the coasts of which are
rocky and surrounded by hreaJc-

Its people have no military-
weapons and do not wage war.

The rudeness of their cus-
toms is the same as that of
the people of the country of
"Marked Bodies," but the
words of their language are
different.

Fu-sang is situated twice ten
thousand li (some seven thou-
sand miles) or more to the east
of the country of Great Han.
That land is also situated to
the east of the Middle King-
dom (China).

That region has many fu-
sang trees, and it is from these
trees that the country derives
its name. The leaves of the
fu-sang resemble ?

ers.

Alaska is inhabited by Es-
quimaux ; and these people are
noted, wherever they are found,
for their peaceful and unwar-
like disposition, differing in this
respect from nearly all other
tribes of Asia and America.

The people are undeniably
of the same race. The lan-
yuage is different. The cits-
tomSf manners., methods of liv-
ing, means of sustenance atid
the clothing, hoicever, are al-
most exactly the saine.""^

Mexico is situated some five
thousand miles southeasterly
from Alaska, and is also direct-
ly east of the southern portion
of China. It is evident that
Ilwui Shan's course from Great
Han to Fu-sang was southeast-
erly rather than easterly, as the
first part of his journey from
Japan lay in a northeasterly
direction, and ho must there-
fore have worked to the south
in order to corue to a country
east of China.

"Mexico" means "the Land
of the Century-plant," and there
is, therefore, the same connec-
tion between the name of the
country and this plant that
there was between Fu-sang and
the remarkable plant or tree
found in it. The Chinese would
probably apply the character

090

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

l!Fn::li.

III

ml''

u m.

'!',

The first sprouts are like
those of the bamboo.

The i'^ople of the country
eat them.

And the (or a) fruit, which
is like a pear (in form) but of
a reddish colour.

They spin thread from their
bark,

from which they make cloth, of
which they make clothing.
They also manufacture a finer
fabric from it.

In constructing their houses,
they use planks such as are gen-
erally used when building adobe
walls.

which we translate "tree" to
the century-plant, so that its
use is no proof that this plant
was not the " tree " referred to
by Hwui Shan.

The first sprouts of the cent-
ury-plant or agave are wonder-
fully similar to those of the
bamboo.

They not only eat the tender
.-uJt, but also the central shoot,
keeping its soft and fleshy eon-
sistence?*"

Upon this plant alone the
Indians can liv- "*'

The prickly-pear, the fruit
of a species of cactus native to
Mexico, is of the shape of a pear.
There are species of many dif-
ferent colours,"^* but the com-
mon variety is red. The army
of Cortez lived for a long time
upon it.'*^

Nequen is a species of coarse
hemp, ichich the Mexicans draw
from the bark of the aloe or
maguey (i. e., the agave or cent-
ury-plant), of which they make
cloth.^^^ From the maguey they
made two kinds of cloth, one of
tchich teas like hempen cloth,
and a finer kind, which resem-
bled linen.^^'^

The habitations of the great-
er part of the people were of
clay hardened in the sun, and
of earth:-'"' The walls of tlie
so-called "Casas Grandes" are
laid icith large square blocks of
mud, prepared for the purpose

RECAriTULATION.

691

They have no citadels or
walled cities.

They have literary charac-

ters,

and make paper from the bark
of the fu-sang.

They have- no military
weapons or armour, and they
do not wage war in that king-,
dom.

According to their rules (of
government or of religion) they
have a southern and a northern
place of confinement. An of-
fender who has transgressed
but slightly enters the south-

by 2^ressinff (he material into
large boxes aboiit tico feet in
height and four feet long.
When the mud became suffi-
ciently hardened, the case was
moved along and again filled,
and so 07i, until the whole edi-
fice teas eompleted.'^^

TJir. truth is that there can
not be found in any quarter
the least trace of an inclosure,
of an adjoining defense of any
kind, or even of exterior forti-
fications}'^^'^

N^o nation ever reduced pic-
tography more to a system. In
these records ice discern some-
thing more than a mere sym-
bolic notation. They contain
the germ of a phonetic aljyha-
bet.^"^ Their paper was made
for the most jxirt of maguey
fiber.''''

The Toltecs were much
milder and gentler than the
Aztecs, who conquered them
and wrested their country from
them. It is reported that the
nations of Yucatan learned the
art of war from these Aztecs,
having been an altogether 2)eace-
ful 'people before the Nahua in-
fluence icas brought to bear on
them.'''^

There is here some confu-
sion between the criminal laws
of the Mexicans and their re-
ligious belief as to punishments
after d(»ath.

They had two species of

I'tWl If,

liM

692

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

em place of confinement, but
if he has sinned heavily he en-
ters the northern place of con-
finement. If there is pardon
for him, then he is sent away
to (or, possibly, from) the south-
em place of confinement, but if
he can not be pardoned, then
he is sent away to the northern
one.

Those men and women
dwelling in the northern place
of confinement when they mate
(or have mated) and bear (or
have borne) children, the boys
are made slaves at the age of
eight years and the girls at the
age of nine years. The crimi-
nal (or the criminal's body) is
not allowed to go out up to (or
at) the time of his death.

prisons — one for those who Jiad
not merited the punishment of
death, a7id the other for the
jyrisoners who were to be sacri-
Jiced, and those xcho were guilty
of capital crimes}''^^

The A'itec hero was home
(after death) to the hright
plains of the Sun-house}''^

After four years of this life,
the soxds of the warriors jxiss
into birds of beautiful plum-
age.^^ Children balked of their
life by death or sacrifice icere
allowed to essay it again. Mie-
tlan, the Mexican hades, signi-
fies '■^ nprthward^'' or "toicard
the north." It was a dark and
gloomy region, a place of pun-
ishmetit,^'* from which there
was no escape.

The children referred to
were probably either illegiti-
mate children or orphans, and
there is reason to believe that
these classes "" were often re-
duced to slavery."^"

At the age of seven years
the father brings his son to the
2)riest.^^^

The young girls are also
brought to the temple at the age
of eight years.^^^

Children whom the Span-
iards would describe as seven
and eight years of age respect-
ively would be said by the Chi-
nese to be eight and nine years
old.'"' Hence the ages above
stated are the same as those

RECAPITULATION.

693

When a nobleman has com-
mitted a crime, the people of
the country hold a great assem-
blage and sit in judgment on
the culprit, in an excavated tu-
mulus. They feast, and drink,
and bid him farewell when
parting from him, as if taking
leave of a dying man.

mentioned by Hwui Shan, and
it is reasonable to suppose that
children who were made slaves
would be obliged to commence
their work at the same age that
more fortunate children were
first sent to school, or taken to
the temples.

Each pueblo contains an
eatufa, which is used both as a
council-chamber and a place of
worship. It is built partly
under ground. Here they hold
all their deliberations on public
affairs, and transact the neces-
sary business of the village.^'*''
It is a singular fact, resulting
from the structure of Indian
institutions, that nearly every
transaction, whether social or
political, originated or termi-
nated in a counciV^^^ The
" Council of the Kin " exercised
power over life and death!"^

A difference was made in
the punishment of criminals ac-
cording to their rank, the king
saying that he xoho was the
most elevated in ranJc merited
the most rigourous treatment.^^''^

In Darien, if a noble com-
mitted a crime punishable with
death, notice was given to all
the people, so that they should
assemble and witness the execu-
tion. The chief then, in the
presence of the multitude, recit-
ed the offense and the culprit
acknowledged the justice of the
sentence.^'*

694

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

''^ ! I

»«M

Then they surrounded him
with ashes there.

For a single crime (or a
crime of the first magnitude)
only one person (the culprit)
was hidden (or sent) away. For
two crimes (or a crime of the
second magnitude) the children
and grandchildren were includ-
ed in the punishment.

For three crimes (or a crime
of the third magnitude) seven
generations were included in
the punishment.

The title of the king of the
country is " the chief of the
multitude."

The noblemen of the first
rank are called " Tui-lu,''^

those of the second rank, " Zit-
tie Tui-lu;'

and those of the third rank,
" JVah-to-s/^a."

Criminals of a certain class
were bound to a stake, com-
j)letehj covered xoith ashes, and
so left to die.''^^

T he robbery of sacred thin ijs,
profanation of the temjtk, in-
sult to the ministers of religion,
or to the j)<^Ti'son of the mon-
arch, were considered as high
treason, and the culprit u'as
punished with death, his goods
were confiscated to the public
treasury, and his family de-
clared infamous.^

The children and relations
of the traitor were enslaved till
the fifth generation?^'*

Montezuma's title was
Tlaca-tecuhtli,^^* meaning
" Chief of Men," ^'" or Tccatecle
Tetuan Intlacatl,^^^^ meaning
" the Nation's Lord of our Peo-
ple."

The rank of Tecuhtli was the
highest honour that a prince or
soldier coidd acquire?^ This
title is spelled by others,
TecutU;''' Te:ichtU,^'"> Teuctli,
"" Tecle,''' Tiutley,"^ Teuhtli,''
TeuU;*'' and Teide:'''

The words tcpito^^"-" or
tontli,^^^ meaning little or
pettj', are suffixed to the title
Tlatoca, to express a lower
rank of nobility than is indi-
cated by the title without these
suffixes."''

The Mexican title Tlatoque
or Tlatoca is probably the one
which Hwui Shan attempts to

RECAPITULATION.

695

^■,"* meaning
'"' or Tecatecle

3Ciihtlt was the

Tlie king of the country,
when he walks abroad, is pre-
ceded and followed with drums
and horns.

The colour of his garments
is changed according to the
mutations of the years. The
first and second years (of a ten-
year cycle) they are blue (or
green), the third and fourth
years they are red, the fifth
and sixth years yellow, the
seventh and eighth years white,
and the ninth and tenth years
black.

They have cattle-horns, of

transcribe with the Chinese
characters pronounced Niih-to-
sha.

The pomp and cirnim-
stance which surrounded the
Aztec monarch teas most im-
pressive.^'^ The kings did not
often aj^pear among their 2ko-
ple. Whenever they did appear
abroad f however, it teas loith a
l)arade that corresjiondcd with
their other observances.^^* The
Mexicans had instruments of
music, consisting of drums,
horns, and large sea-shells. ^^^
Each chief of a city or village
arrived at the head of his men,
accompanied by the souiid of in-
struments.''*^ Tangaxoan, king
of Michoacan, icas jjreceded by
the music of his palace, and
accompanied by a brilliant
court.''*^ The king of Guatema-
la xcas surrounded by a cortege
of noblemen and musicians.^^^

Tlie names of the five main
colours are constantly recurring
as signs and m,etaphors. They
are white, black, red, green, and
yelloic.^^*

3Totitezuma teas dressed
every day in four different
suits,^^'^ and had a different
dress for every occasion.^"^ Sa-
hagun, who mentions numerous
different varieties of mantles
worn by the king, says that the
said mantles are worn because
of sitperstitious ideas.^^'^

Coronado reported that in

690

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

which tho long ones are used
to contain (some of their) pos-
sessions, the best of them reach-
ing (a capacity of) twice ten
times as much as the capacity
of a common horn.

They have horse-carts, cat-
tle-carts, and deer-carts.

The people of the country
raise deer as cattle are raised
in the Middle Kingdom (China).

From milk they make kou-
miss.

or near Cibola he found certain
sheep as big as a horse, trith
very great hortis.^*^'' lie adds :
I have seen their horns so bir/
that it ia a loonder to behold
their greatness.^"''

They have long horns,''*'''
and they say that every horn
of theirs iceigheth fifty pounds
iceight.^"^

Huffalo-horns yield them
vessels.""^

This in its literal sense is
untrue of any and every coun-
try in the world. It is proba-
ble that Ilwui Shan referred to
the " three carts " or " three ve-
hicles," a term used by the
Buddhists to indicate t/iree
modes of crossing Sansara to
Nirvana, as if drawn by sheep,
oxen, or deer, which shadow
forth the three degrees of saint-
ship, and this term is further
used for three developments of
Bxiddhist doctrine.^^

The kings and nobles of the
Chichimecas kept forests of
f?ecr."' Certain natives of Gua-
temala kept deer in so tame a
state that they were easily killed
by the least active soldiers.^"^

Milk is, in the Aztec lan-
guage, designated by the word
" memeyallotl," ""' which means
literally " agaves' sap." Their
principal and national drink
is pulque, made from the Agave
Americana, from the sap of the
plant. The liquor obtained is

fli

RECAPITULATION.

C97

They have the red pears
kept unspoiled throughout the
year;

and they also have To-ru-
TAoes.

The ground is destitute of
iron,

but they have copper.

Gold and silver are not
valued. In their markets there
are no taxes or fixed prices.

When they marry, it is the
custom for the son-in-law to
go and erect a house (or cabin)
outside of the door of the
dwelling of the young woman
(whom he desires to marry).
Morning and evening he sprink-
les and sweeps (the ground)
for a year : and if the young

at first of a (hicJc white colour,
and is at all times very intoxi-
cating^^

They make many preserves
from tunas (i. c.,pri('kly-j)C'ars),
the Juice of which is so sweet
that it ^^'cvfrtjcs them perfectly
without adding any syrup.''*'^''

This seems to be intended
for a transcription of the JNIcxi-
can word tomatl,^*''^ from which
our own word " tomato " was
derived. The plant was raised
by the Mexicans, and its fruit
formed a part of many of their
dishes.

The use of iron, though its
ores are abundant in the coun-
try, was unknown to the na-
tives,^^ while coj)per could be
obtained in abundance. '^''^

They made their purchases
and sales by barter, each giving
that of lohich he had an excess
for snch goods as he might
wecf/."" A very large square
%cas set apart in all the princi-
pal cities of the kingdom for
the exhibition and sale of the
various articles of merchandise
brought to market}^^

Among the Apaches the
lover stakes his horse in front
cf the young woman''s house,
and then retires and cncaits the
issue. Shoidd the girl favour
the suitor, his horse is taken by
her, fed, and sectired in front
of his lodge ; but shoidd she
decline the proffered honour, she

COS

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

;;*f

llr ' I"

woman is not plt'asod with liim,
filic tlu'n Hcnds him away ; but
if tlicy arc mutually ])leaso(l,
tlicn the marriage is completed,

tlie marriage ceremonies being
for the most part like those of
the Middle Kingdom (China).

For a father, mother, wife,
or son, they mourn for seven
days, without eating ; for a
grandfather or grandmother
they mourn for five days with-
out eating ; for an elder broth-
er, younger brother, father's
elder brother, or father's
younger brother, or for the
corresponding female relatives,
or for an elder sister or young-
er sister, three days without
eating.

They set up an image of

trill pa 1/ no (tth'Ntiot) to the sttf.
ferhif/ steed."" Among the Co-
oo-IMaricopaH, the Iovit t((/,r,s
Ilia flute, (Old, seatintj hinmclf
beneath a bush near her dird/.
inff, keeps vp a plaintive noise
for hours together."" In Yu-
catan it iras the custom of n etc-
It/ married pairs to live in eab-
ins built in front of the house
of their father or father-in-lair,
during the first few years after
their marriage.'^^''^ The exist-
ence in Mexico of the custom
of sweeping the path of one to
whom it was the desire to do
liomage, is shown by the fre-
quent mention inade by the
Spanish chroniclers of the
sweeping of the path before
the king.'*"

For a full statement of the
numerous and striking resoni-
blances between the marriage
ceremonies of Mexico and Chi-
na, see Chapter XXVI.

When they have lost a rela-
tive, they iceep for four days
together.^^ They observed ab-
stinences and fasts for the de-
ceased, especially in the case of
a husband who mourned the
loss of his icife.'"'' The fifth
day a 2^riest comes to say thai
it is time to 2^foceed with the
funeral.^ In 3Iichoacan, all
remained seated for five days
with bowed heads.^^

In case of the death of a

RECAPITULATION.

GO!)

'(>» to tin' .vif.
moiij^ till' Co-
I lover taketi
itutff hiDinc/f
ear her tlinll-
ilai/ith'c noise
!r."" In Yn.
imtotn (if )icw-
to live in ail)-
! of the house
father- in-lair,
iw years after
'• Thu exist-
jf the custom
path of one to
! desire to do
n by the fre-
made by the
clcrs of tlie
3 path before

tement of the

iking rcsoni-

the marriage

xico and Chi-

CXVI.

ive lost a rela-

br four days
observed ab-

is for the de-
in the case of
mourned the

■""3 The fifth
es to say that
)ceed with the
'ichoacan, all
for five days

9640

e death of a

the spirit (of the deceased por-
Hon), and reverence it and offer
libations to it morning and
evening.

In their mourning usages
they do not wear mourning-
garments or mourning-badges.

A king who inherits the
throne does not occupy himself
with the affairs of the govern-
ment for the first three years
after his accession.

Mexican king, his ashes were
placed in an urn or casket. On
the top of this iras placed a
statue of wood or stone, aft in d
in the royal hftbiliinmts, and
beariny the mask and insiynia,
and the casht tras d< posited at
the feet of the patron deify in
the chapel. For four days the
mourners 2)aid constant visits
to the shrine, to manifest their
sorrow, and to j)r€sent the offer-
inys of food, clothes, or Jeictls.^^^
In Yucatan, people of condition
made wooden statues of their
parents. They preserved these
statues, with much veneration,
among their idols, and kept
both statues and idols in the
oratories of their houses. I ^pon
all feast-days, and days of gen-
eral rejoicing, they made offer-
ings of food to them.^'"*

As no reference to the use
of mourning-garrac-nts in Mexi-
co is made by any of the his-
torians, it is evident that the
Mexicans did not wear them.

Before the coronation of a
nexo monarch could be celebrat-
ed u'ith fitting solemnity, vic-
tims for sacrifice must be capt-
ured in large numbers,*'^^ and
it was always required that the
king should obtain some victory
over his enemies, or reduce some
neighbouring or rebellious prov-
ince to subjection, before he
could be crowned or ascend the
royal throne.^'^^^

700

AN IN(}I-OHI()Urt OOUIMBUa.

It'

Tlio Country of Womumi Ih Vihudtlan (niMninff ^' thn

nitualt'd h fhoiiMaiul li o;ih(. of Pfore or Laud of WoniciC') is
Fu-.sjing. *lu' iiiimo from which tlic noiiHi

wind t.'ikoH its (h'sigMiilion, and

is ii|)])li(Mi (o iin oM |)l:t('i> (i|inii

(ho I'jicill',' Ocoan, H(»iii(>\vliai,

HonthcM-ly from Zaoatollan.

TliiN place was said hy houk! to

li«> at a diHiaiu'o of ten days'

journey,""" and by otherH to ho

only three days' journey, from

the city of Mexico.''"'

Its people's manner of ap- These "people'' an> (he

poaranco is straight erect (or is monkeys of Southern Mt'xico.

very correct), and their colour Where inon/tri/s arc fountl,

is (or their oountenances are) a the idea aeenm i\ftcn to have or-

vory pure white.

eurred to men to aeeonnt for
the resend>/anee of the ino)iheti
to mankind hj mahintj of the
frst a fallen or ehan(/rd fonn
of the latter.'"* This error of
considering monkeys as hc-
iojiging to llie human ra(>e gave
rise to the numerotis tales of
a land of pygmies. Jn the I/a-
pale (Kdipm, ono of the monk-
eys of Southern Mexico, the
hreasf, the arms, the abdomen,
the forepart of the Icijn, and
the four extremities are trhite.''^
The capuchin monkey vai^ieii
as to eolour. The white-throated
species has a fesh-coloured faee,
and hair of a bcantifd vhitc
colour oi'er the cheeks, the fore-
arms, and the breast.'^* The
lart/est, irhen the;/ stand ereef,
as thei/ sometimes do, upon (mo
feet, almost equal a man in
stature.^'^'* Possiblv the name

mr-

KEOAPITULATION.

701

Tlioir bodicH nro liiviry, and
llipy li.'ivo lo'if? IocUh, tlio i'IhIh
of which rt'iioh to th(^ ground.

Ail th<< Hocond or tliird
month, bickorinjij, they rnt<'r
the w;vt(!i' (conu^ «lown to tho
h)\v-l,'vndH, or to liio Htrc.'vttiH,
or |M'rli!i|)H "rntcr tipon u mi-
gration," i\w character hiiui
meaning not only " wat«'r," hut
also "a tri|) from ono ])lftco to
another ").

Tlicy tlicn become preg-
nant.

They hoar their young at
tho sixth or seventh month
(probably of gestation, but pos-
sibly of the year).

The female-people are des-

of the mountain, hJacoihudtl
(i.e., "the White Woman"),
gave rise to tho story that tli(^
inhabitants of the fiand of
Women wen; of a very ]>nre
white colour,

'I'heir " huig locks" or
(/ncucs are their tails.

77(^7/ f/n hi frnfif>H in (hr,
trecHy (iikI it in pitrfi'iiffir/;/
durinf/ the raiiof Hromni t/uii
till' If i(ri\foii,nil t/iiiH oiiUri'tvil tit-
(jitlirr:'

The Mexican year pn»l>ably
c<»tnmenced some timo during
tlie latter part of Fei)rtiary (or
about tho time that tlu! Chinese
year comtnetices), Jind the sec-
ond or third month tliereforc
nearly coincides with our
month of May. In Mexico the
rainy sniHon hvi/iiiM^ iih a, ridi\
in thejirst hitlf of May^''

IMiny says of tho pygmies
that thi'y in the Hprivy-time
(ill (JoHCcnil foyether in, nn, army
to the flc^.'"'

The "bickering" or chat-
tering mentioned l»y Ifwui
Shan is characteristic of monk-
eys.

Monk(fys, in common with
most other animals, have a rut-
ting-season in the spring.

In the lower Siiniadin ges-
tation lastn ahovi seven months,
but in the Jfr/palinm only three
months.^^*

In the female quadrumana

702

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

^K..

'.'

titute of breasts in front of
their chests, but behind, at the
nape of the neck (or back of
the head), they have hair-roots
(short hair, or a bunch of hair,
or a hairy organ), and in the
midst of the white hair it is
pleasing to the taste (or there
is juice).

They nurse their young for
one hundred days, and they
can then walk. AVhen three or
four years old, they become
fully grown.

there is no protrusion of the
breast, as in the human being,'^'^'^
and Hwui Shan may have been
led to make this curious state-
ment by seeing the females
leaping auiong the trees with
their young clinging to their
backs and holding fast about
their necks. They skip frotyi
bough to bough with the young
ones hanging at the old ones''
back.'*''

The young ones are carried
about on the backs of their
mothers, round whose necks
they put their arms like in-
fants.'''"

As to the head, long hair is
found thereon in IlajKde (Edi-
pus, and long hair is devel-
oped from the shoidders in Ila-
p>ale Humeralifer.''^^^ The top
of the head of the Ilapale (Edi-
2)us is ornamented icith long
tohite hair, xchich forms a spe-
cies of plume (falling down upon
the najje of the neck and back
of the head), ichich is all the
more remarkable from the fact
that the rest of the head is bare.''^

The accounts of the pyg-
mies say of them :

Their females bear young
when five years old, and they
become aged at the age of eight
years.'"'^'

They are married ichen they
are only half a year old, and
get children; and they live
cnly six years, or seven at the

}'■

a 1

an;

?..■

no^

soi

nai

RECAPITULATION.

703

"When they see a human
being, they are afraid and flee
to one side.

They venerate (or are de-
voted to) their husbands (or
mates).

They eat the "salt-plant."
Its leaves resemble (those of
the plant called by the Chinese)
the siE-nAo (a species of ab-
sinthe or wormwood), but its
odour is more fragrant and its
taste is saltish.

ed ichen they
year old, and
id they live
seven at the

most, and he that liveth eight
years, men think him right
2)assing old.^^^*

A characteristic description
of monkeys that " flee to one
side " and then peep out to see
the passer-by, when they think
that they have attained a place
of safety.

Monkeys are noted for their
faithfulness and devotion to
their mates.

The Mexican dictionaries
define " Iztauhyatl " as ab-
sinthe,""^ or wormwood.*" This
word is a compound, of " Iz-
tatl," salt""* (the tl being
dropped in the compound, as is
the rule in such cases), with a
form of the verbal root " hue-
ya," to grow,*" with the termi-
nation " tl." It is a siceet-smell-
ing herb.^^^ Bisons,"'^ horses,
and cattle feed upon species of
artemisia, and in winter they
form the principal food of the
herds of the Kalmucks and the
Kirguis of Asia.""'

In the nineteenth chapter, fifteen facts were enumerated,
which were mentioned by Hwui Shun, and which were of such
a nature that it seemed impossible that he could have known
anything about them unless he had actually made the journey
which he said that he had taken. To those statements we may
now add the following :

16. The country found some six or seven thousand miles
southeasterly from the land of Great Ilan (Alaska) received its
name from a remarkable plant or tree growing there.

17. The first sprouts of this plant resembled those of the
bamboo.

704

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

1 i^i

>'i I

18. They were edible.

19. Thread was spun from its fiber.

20. Two kinds of cloth, one coarse and one finer, were made
from this thread.

21. And paper was also made from the fiber.

22. An edible fruit was also found in this land which was
of the shape of a pear, but which was red in colour.

23. It was of such a nature that it could be preserved and
kept thrv>ughout the year.

24. In constructing their houses, they used boards for hold-
ing the mud or adobe in shape until it was dry, similar to the
boards used for the same purpose in China.

25. They had no citadels or walled cities.

26. They had a species of writing.

27. Ei^hf r in their laws or in their religious beliefs, or in
both, they hud two places of confinement.

28. The place reserved for the worst criminals was in the north.

29. Children commenced the active duties of life, the boys
at the age of eight (as the Chinese reckon age) and the girls at
nine years.

30. The people had the custom of holding great assemblages
a* which serious crimes were judged.

31. These were held in an " excavated tumulus."

32. The custom existed of inflicting capital punishment by
suffocating the criminals in ashes.

33. The relatives were punished, as well as the criminal, iu
cases of heinous crimes.

34. The highest rank of noblemen were known by the title
of *' Tui-lu " (Teuli or Teule, as it is spelled by some Spanish
authors).

35. The king was accompanied by musicians when he walked
abroad.

36. AVhose instruments were horns and drums.

37. He had the custom of wearing garments of different col-
ours at different times " oecause of superstitious ideas."

38. "Very large and long horns were found in the country.

39. The people raised deer.

40. They made a drink resembling koumiss.

41. Either frori milk or from something that was given that
name.

RECAPITULATION.

705

r, were made

42. They bad no iron.

43. But had copper.

44. They did not value gold or silver.

45. The marriage ceremonies resembled those of China.

40. They kept statues of deceased relatives, to which tbey
offered food, etc.

47. They did not wear mourning-garments.

48. The king did not fully succeed to the throne until some
length of time after the death of his predecessor.

49. Some three hundred miles southeasterly from this land
there was a place known as " the Country of Women."

50. Which was inhabited by peculiar beings, whose bodies
were hairy, and who had long locks, (iueues> or tails hanging to
the ground.

51. They had a rutting-season in the spring.

52. The period of gestation was six or seven months (or pos-
sibly only three or four months).

53. They carried their young upon their backs.

54. They had long hair at the back of the head, which was
whitish at the roots.

55. They were able to walk when one hundred days old.

56. They became fully gi'own when three or four years
old.

57. They were faithful and affectionate to their mates.

58. A plant called the " salt-plant " grew in the country, de-
riving its name from its taste.

59. This plant resembled a species of absinthe,
CJ. But its odour was more fragrant.

en lie walked

different col-

It passes the bounds of belief that Hwui Shan could have in-
vented all these statements, many of them true of no other coun-
try in the world than the one lying at the distance and in the
direction from China that he said that the land visited by him
was to be found ; and his story can not be explained upon any
other theory than that he had actually made the journey which
he so truthfully and soberly described.

VII.

The fiber and the transparent mirror, which he brought back
with him, were just such articles as a traveler would be likely

mrf

m' ■
h

706

ATI INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

to take from Mexico, and the latter, at least, could not have
been obtained from any other country in the world.

VIII.

There exists in Mexico a tradition of Hwui Shan'b visit. This
gives his name and title of Ilwui Shin, bhikshu, as Wi-Shi-peco-
cha ; tells the district of the Pacific coast upon which he landed ;
describes his complexion, his beard, and his dress ; relates the
doctrines that he preached ; mentions the success that he met in
his mission, and states the reason for his return to Asia. Tra-
ditions also exist of the visit of the party of JJuddhist priests
men'aoned by Hwui Shan, from whom he seems in some way
to have become separated.

IX.

The religious customs and beliefs of the nations of Mexico,
Yucatan, and Central America, their pyramids, their architect-
ure, their arts, their calendar, and almost innumerable little prac-
tices of their daily life, as they existed at the time of the Si)anish
conquest, show such surprising coincidences with the details of
Asiatic beliefs and Asiatic civilization that many independent
observers, who have either known nothing of the story of Ilwui
Shun, or who have paid no attention to it, have become con-
vinced, from these coincidences alone, that there must have been
communication of some nature between the two regions of the
world, and that this communication had probably taken place
since the beginning of the Christian era.

Among these coincidences the following may be noted, i. e. ;

1. The existence of monasteries and nunneries, said to have
been founded by Quetzalcoatl, the " Revered Visitor."

2. The vows of continence taken by their inmates.

3. The fact that these vows were not necessarily for life.

4. The daily routine of life of these ascetics, consisting of
watching, of chanting hymns to the gods, of sweeping the tem-
ples and their yards, etc.

5. These priests were the educators of the children.

6. They were divided into orders, and some portion of their
number were of superior rank, and governed the others.

7. They lived upon alms.

8. They occasionally retired alone into the desert, to lead a
life of prayer and penance in solitude.

RECAPITULATION.

TOT

Id not have

9. They were known by the title Tlamacazque or TIama, cor-
responding to the title of Lama given to the Buddhist priests of
Asia.

10. It was thought best to eat but once a day, and then at
noon,

11. They celebrated once each year a " feast of the dead,"
at which they supposed that the hungry spirits of their deceased
friends returned to be fed.

12. They worshiped upon large truncated earthen pyramidj.

13. These were covered with a layer of stone or brick, and
the whole covered with plaster or stucco.

14. They used the false arch of overlapping stones, but not
the true arch.

15 The inner walls of their temples were coated with stucco
or plaster, which was ornamented with grotesque paintings.

16. A seated cross-legged figure was found in one of their
temples, resembling in its attitude, in the lion-headed couch
upon which it was seated, in the niche in which it was found,
and in its position in the temple, the statues of Buddha found in
Buddhist temples.

17. The tradition of the conception of Iluitzilopochtli closely
resembles the Asiatic stories of the conception of Buddha.

18. They represented one of their gods as holding a mirror
in his hand, in which he saw all the actions of men.

19. They believed that the inhabitants of the world had been
four times destroyed — by water, by winds, by earthquakes, and
by fire — and re-created after each destruction.

20. They had the custom of placing the walls of their tem-
ples facing the four cardinal points, and decorating each wall
with a distinctive colour.

21. They buried a small green stone with the corpses of the
dead.

22. Their idols were always clothed, and were never offen-
sive to modesty.

23. The custom of tying the corners of the garments of the
bride and groom together constituted one of the most important
of the marriage ceremonies.

24. Marriage was not consummated until the fourth day after
the ceremony.

25. They placed in the hands of young children, a few days

n- M!i

708

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

it' '„"■'

'tV''

k_: . '•

E'l

after their birth, toys symbolical of the instruments of craft or
of household labour which it was expected that they would use in
after life.

26. The long band of cloth worn about their waist was pre-
cisely like that worn by the natives of India.

27. They wore quilted cotton armour similar to that worn in
Asia.

28. Their cakes of meal were similar to those made in India.

29. Their books were folded back and forth like those of
Siam.

30. They played a game called jkUoIU, which seems to have
hr n substantially the same game as the pachisi of the Hindoos.

. '. They understood the arts of melting and casting the
preci.M'. metals and of working jewels, attributing their knowl-
edge to Quetzalcoatl.

32. IJut they knew nothing of the use of milk or of any food
prepared from it.

33. Their anchors were like those usee? in Asia, with four
hooks without a barb.

34. They understood the art of constructing suspension-
bridges ; and

35. Their calendar showed so many resemblances to that used
by many of the nations of Asia, that from this fact alone Hum-
boldt was convinced that there was some cor iiection between
the civilizations of the two regions of the world.

Almost any one of these coincidences might be fortuitous, but
it seems impossible that so many coincidences could have existed
unless the civilization of one continent was, to some extent, bor-
rowed from that of the other.

The fact that the civilized, or partly civilized, nations of
America were all found upon or near the Pacific coast, indicates
that their civilization was derived from Asia.

Mj.J ''

XI.

For any difficulties or seeming untruths in the statements of
Hwui Shan the following allowances should be made :

1. The first explorers of any newly found land are usually
deceived as to some one or more points, being misled by tales of

RECAPITULATION.

709

y suspension-

tho natives, often but imperfectly understood, and having no
possibility of rectifying their errors by comparing their experi-
ence with that of any other ^ . rson.

2. Ilwui Shan was probabi/ a native of Coph5ne, and under-
stood Chinese but imperfectly at the time that he tried to de-
scribe to Yu Kie the countries that he had visited, so that the
latter probably failed to correctly understand some of the state-
ments that he attempted to make.

3. The account was written down before printing was in-
vented, and some errors have crept in in copying it, as is evident
from the variations in different texts.

4. Although the Chinese language changes more slowly than
almost any other, it is probable that there have been many im-
portant changes in the last fourteen centurii a'Hi that many of
the characters do not now express precisely the leaning which
they were then used to convey.

5. JNIany changes must have occurred in the countries visited
by Hwui ShJin during the thousand years tl \t elapsed after his
visit before America was rediscovered b" Columbus ; and

6. The indigenous civilization was s* ;oon replaced by that
of the Spaniards, and the only chroniclers who bad an opportun-
ity of seeing it, as it existed when the country was first explored,
felt so little interest in the details of the daily life of the people,
and of their knowledge, their arts, and their religious belief, that
the accounts whi-^h we possess on these points are, at the best,
exceedingly imperfect, and many proofs which then existed of
the truth of Hwui Shan's story may now have been long swept
out of existence, leaving no evidence behind that they were ever
to have been found.

Attention may be called, in conclusion, to the fact that the
different points presented in support of the credibility of Ilwui
Shan's account arc not connected together like the links of a
chain, which is no stronger than its weakest part, and the rupt-
ure of one of which severs the whole chain. They are rather
like the ten thousand threads with Avhich Gulliver was fastened
to the earth, many weak in themselves, many easily broken ; but,
after breaking numbers of them, thousands still remained, bind-
ing him to the earth as firmly as ever. Doubtless, errors will be
found in the arguments that have been urged, and many of them,

710

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

fir'l

when considered by themselves alone, will seem but weak ; and
yet, after breakirg here one cord of conneetion and there an-
other, it will be found that numerous links remain, whose united
strength binds together the civilizations of Asia and Anicrit-a
with a power that can not be overcome.

Nearly fourteen centuries have passed since Ilwui Shan — led
by his religious faith to carry the feeble rush-light that shone
upon his path to illuminate the lives of those who lay in darkness
— pressed on from one unknown land to another, preaching the
faith by which his life was guided. Of the toils and dangers that
he underwent, we can catch but a glimpse, through the mists of
these fourteen hundred years, but we have reason to believe that,
of the company of five that started, he alone returned to Asia ;
that he was an old man when he reached China, and that lie
probably never saw his native land again. The Chinese believed
his story, but knew nothing more of the land which was visited
by him. European and American scholars have for many years
known something in regard to his statements ; but for lack of
sufficient careful investigation many have been inclined to dis-
credit them.

It is the hope of the author that the proof herein presented,
that Ilwui Shan discovered America a thousand years before it
was known to Eu/opeans, will be found sufficient to induce the
world to give to this faithful missionary of the Buddhist faith
the honour to which he is entitled, so that he may no longer
remain

AN INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS.

(* i-

APPENDIX.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCES.

Ix tlie following table, the munerators of tlio pseudo-friictions (which,
as will be seen, follow one another in regular order, with tlio cxcoptiou of
some omitted numbers) indicate the number of the reference; while the
denominators indicate the page of the work, below the title of which the
fraction is placed, upon which the quotation may bo found.

Thus, for instance, tho first reference in Chapter I is given by the
number 1880. Turning to tho Appendix, and looking along tho numera-
tors of tho fractions until that nuaiber is found, it will be seen that its de-
nominator is 5, and that tho fraction in question is found below " Lo
Bouddhisme: son Ilistoire," etc., by L. de Milloue ; thus indicating that
tho quotation or reference may bo found on tho fifth page of that work.

The Natural & Moral History of the Indies. By Father Joseph de
Acosta. Eeprinted from tho English translated edition of Edward
Grimston. 8vo. London, 1880. Vol. I.

ToffJ

Ilistoiro Naturelle et Morale dcs Indes. Par Joseph Acosta. Traduite
en Francois par Robert Regnault Cauxois. 8vo. Paris, ICOO.

tVj> iVff' iVj> VoVj ?Vj'
Congrfis International des Am^ricanistes — Compte-Rendu do la PremiCre
Session. Nancy, 1875. Vol. I. 8vo. Paris, 1875.
An article read by M. Lucien Adam — condensed translation.
Reference No. 17.

Congr^s International des Am^ricanistes— Compte-Rendu do la Secondo
Session. Vol. I. 8vo. Luxembourg, 1877.

Extract from an article entitled "La Tres-Ancienno Amdrique,"
by Mr. Francis A. Allen.
Reference No. 19.

The American Bisons, Living and Extinct. By J. A. Allen. 4to. Cam-
bridge, 1876.

¥, ¥. ¥, ft, % -n, li M, li U, ^A, i¥ir-

f^w,

712

APPENDIX.

Tho New Atiierionn Cycloimidin. PuLliHliod by D, Aiiplctou & Co. 10
vols., 8vo. New York, 1H72.
Koforcnco No. 41.

Amcrlcnn I'liilological Miifinzino. August, If^flO.

«1

:i-;. '

An Account of tlio Iiuportntion of Ainorlcnn Cocliinonl Insects Into Ilin-
doMtim. ]\y James Anderson, M. D. Mudnis, 17l>5.
Keforenpo No. fiS.

Vocabuliirio Manuel do las Lenguas Castellana y Mcxicana. Tor Pedro
do Arenas. lOiuo. Pueblo Mexico, 18:31,

Atlas zur Kntdcckungsgcscbidito Ancricas. Aus Ilandt-criftcn dor K.
Ilof- und Stnats-Uibliotiiuk der K. Universitaot und dcs llaiiptscoiiHur-
vatoriuniH dor K. H. Armco. Ilorai.sgegeben von Friedridi Kun^t-
niann, Karl von Spruner und Cmotg M. Tbomas. Atlas lollo.
Mancben, 1850.
(Tbo roferonces indicate tbe number of tbo maj), not tho jtage.)

Ilistoiro Naturello dcs Singes ot des Makis. Par J. U. Audebcrt. Folio.
Paris. 8th year.
Tiie Sai (Simia Capucina).

lieferenco No. 71.
The Pincho — Siniia (Edipus (Ilapale (Edipus).
Keforonco No. 72.

Description G6n6rale del' Amd'riquc. ParM. d'Avity. Folio. Paris, 1C37.
Reference No. 76.

Collections of tho Massachusetts Historical Society, for the year 1798.
Letter from Mr. Stephen Badger.

Prehistoric Nations. By John D. Baldwin, A. M. Svo. New York, 1873.

8 1_ 9 3 8.4

Tho Works of Hubert IIowo Bancroft :

Tho Native Races of tho Pacific States of North America. 5 voIji.,
Svo. Now York, 1878.

Vol. I., JjV-, W, W, V^ W, W, W, W, W, Uh

m, m, i-H, m, m, ni m, m, m voi. n., w,
w, m, m, m, m, ui m, m, m, \n, ni hi
m, m, m, uh m, ni m, Hi m^ fH. ui ui,
m, m, m, m, Mi, m, m, m, m, m, in, m,
m, m, m, ni m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m,

APrENOIX.

718

ou & Co. 16

ects into Ilin-

I. Tor Pedro

cbort. Folio.

uh uh uh uh ui iv. ni ni ni ui ni ni

m, in, uh m, su. i\h ui uu m, ni ni m*

Zxh B m's> i! 5» fl(il)> i|i)7» ilii ft) rt 1 i» li I i!> il I 1' If I 4' i! I HI n 8(i>
n^i> fl I ii> fliifo liir.' Iiifli la't** 1:1 51 vtip» 1 n m 1«hi HmJ* Rul*

III Vol.111., w, w. w, ni ni ni ui in, uh
m, uh m, ui uh HI ni m, ni m, m, ni
m, ni uk, in, ui ui n% m, m, ^ti m, m,
in, in, m, m, m, in, m, m, lu, va, ni m
Vol. IV., 3.U m, n^n ni ni m, ui, ui m, m,
m, VA, uh m, VA, in, m, m, ni ni m, m-
Vol. v., ViS w, ^','.*, v.s v.^ hv, V:^ v.^ uh m,
ui m, m, m, iu, tn, ni m, ui, w^, ni, ni
iu,m, rihm-

Tlio Works of Hubert Howe iJancroft:

History of Mexico. 2 voiti., Svo. Snn Frnnoisro, 1883.

Vol. I., VsS ni mm va, m, m, ni ni m,
tn, m, ni m, ni voi. n., i^v, w, m-

History of Oentrftl America. 2 vols., 8vo. Sun Francisco, 1883.

Vol. I., y J. Yo\.u.,m,m-

History of tlio North Mexican States. 8vo. San Francisco, 1884.
(Quotation from advance slieets, by the kindness of the author, and his
assistant, Mr. Henry L. Oak.)
Vol. I., Vs*--

The Early American Chroniclers. By Hubert Howe Bancroft. 8vo.
San Francisco, 1883.

Papers of the Archroological Institute of America. American Scries. II.
Report of an Arciiojological Tour in Mexico in 1881. By A. F.
Bandelier. 8vo. Boston, 1884.

m,m,m,m'

Reports of the Peabody Museum of American Arcluoology and Ethnol-
ogy. Vol. II. 8vo. Caml)ridfro, 1880.

Article entitled " On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare of the
Ancient Mexicans," by Ad. F. Bandelier.

i.0 8. Ma .8 04 no a 6 0.6 5 07 60 8
1 10) its, 1 iT> I'ii, I'iS, lit, 1 au*

Article entitled " On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands, and the
Customs with Respect to Inheritance, among the Ancient Mexicans,"
by Ad. F. Bandelier.

m, m, Uh m-

APPENDIX.

Reports of the Peabody Museum of American Archajology and Ethnol-
ogy. Vol. II. 8vo. Cambridge, 1880.

Article entitled " On the Social Organization and Mode of Govern-
ment of the Ancient Mexicans," by Ad. F. Baudelier.

m, m, uh m, uh m-

The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Vol. V., No. 2. April,
1883.

Article entitled "The Native Races of Colombia," by E. G.
Barney.

Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico,
California, Sonora, and Chihuahua. By John Russell Bartlett. 2 vols.
Svo. New York, 1854.

Vol. I., m, m, m, m- voi. n, m m, m, §^4,
m, m, m, m, ni

Travels through North and South Carolina, etc. By William Bartrani.
8vo. London, 1792.

Reference No. 550 — Introduction, p. six.

Journal Asiutique. Third Series, Vol. VIII.: number for November,
1839.

Article entitled " An Account of the Shan Ilai King, a Fabulous
Cosmography attributed to the Great Yu," by M. Bazin, Sr.

The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king: a Life of Buddha. Translated from Chinese
into English by Samuel Beal. Svo. Oxford, 1883.

^1^ ^P-, ¥8^ W-

Abstract of Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China. Dehvered at
University College, London, by Samuel Beal. 8vo. London, 1882.
Reference No. 561, p. xii. Reference No. 502, p. xv.

iBA iAIi 3 it 16T.
T 2 > 02 > 1 8 3) 1 S3'

A Trip to Mexico. By II. C. R. Bocher. 8vo. Toronto, 1880.

w, m, Hh m, m-

New Tracks in North America. By William A. Bell, M. A. Svo. Scc^
ond edition. London, 1870.

m, m, m, m, m, m, m-

The Kansas City Review of Science and Industry. Vol. V., No. 7. No-
vember, 1881.
Article entitled " The American Horse," by E. L. Berthoud.
Reference No. 596.

(■;■( ; 1

APPENDIX.

715

and Ethnol-
of Govern-

>fo. 2. April,
," by E. G.

New Mexico,
rtlett. 2 vols.

t2 R43 B44

liam Bartram.

or November,

jg, a Fabulous
Sr.

"rom Chinese

Delivered at
ndon, 1882.

880.

8vo. Scc^

No. 7. No-
houd.

The Kansas City Review of Science and Indiistr}^. Vol. V., No. 10.
February, 1882.

Article entitled "Explorations in Idaho and Montana," by E. L,
Berthoud.

Reference No. 598.

Glossarium Azteco-Latinum et Latino-Aztecuni. Cura ot Studio Bernar-
dini ]}iondeIli Collectura ac Digestum. Quarto. Milan, 1809,

W, W. W, W, h% W, W, W, W, W, W-, ^^
W, Uh HI W, W, W, W'

Ilistoiro des Nations Civilis6es du Mexique et de rAmorifiue-Centrale.
Par M. l'Abb6 Brasseur de Bourbourg. 4 vols., 8vo. Paris, 1857.

Vol. I., i^,t, iv=^, w, n^, m, m, m, m, m, m-

Vol II -S-^J- -SAJ- i^cta i!4 4 64 5 r..4 04 7 44^% J 5 1 54

SM. J511 6 AS .55.9. .000 .0 2 .0 3 .0.0 6 6 01 .6.0 S .0 9 .6 T a
120' 172» n tr> iHtT' l^it' 2iiS> 4 11' 62:{» 55H» 5«'J> 6 »J 6'2f

m, m, uf Vol. III., H^, w, -w, %s ^/(Z'-, w, w,

■%!"» 30 iSh 'i6i' IfTS' "4CT» rTf' i^'.if "4 H «> 6uC' 4 u 0' OlflJ

m, m, -uh -uh m, uh m> m, uh ui m, ui,
m, m, m, m, nh m- voi. iv, ^±, ^^ -ws w,
w, ¥¥t, m, m, m, nh uh m, uh m, ni, m,
Uh m, m, m, m, m-

Monuments Anciens du Mexique. Texte redigo par M. rAbb6 Brasseur
de Bourbourg. Atlas folio. Paris, 1860.

Introduction, -W-, -\"^. Reference No. 703 ; Avant Propos, p.
xix. References Nos. 706 and 707; Explication dos Planches,
par M. do Waldeck, pp. iv. et v.

Lettre u M. Leon de Rosny sur la Decouverte de Documents Rolatifs a la
Haute Antiquity Am6ricaine. Par M. rAbb6 Brasseur do Bourbourg.
Bvo. Paris, 1869.

The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal. Vol. HI., No. 5. Foo-
chow, October, 1870.

Article entitled "Fu-sang, or "Who Discovered America," by E.
Bretschneider, ^I. D.
Reference No. 774.

On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese, of the Arabs, etc.
By E. Bretschneider, M. I). 8vo. London, 1871.

Notes on Chinese Medioaval Travelers to the West. By E. Bretschneider,
M. D. 8vo. Shanghai, 1875.
Reference No. 781, p. ii

w, -w, w> -Vih m-

•1 H"~>

-1 «A iSA 1«A

( > (Tff ' 515 »

BJJT

716

APPENDIX.

'U]'-]>'-

i ^: III

'■i^.Ul

Tho Myths of tlio New World. By Daniel G. Briuton, M. D. 8vo. Now
York, 1876.

fljfi i03 304 £05. 8 05 807 800 8 10 811
■Yi) > Si > »3 > Do J 1U«' lUUJ tH' 2 3' STf'

Tho Names of the Gods in tho Kicho Myths. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D.
Svo. Philadelphia, 1881.

Tho Books of Chilan Balara. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. Svo. Phila-
delphia [1882].

Tho Maya Chronicles. Edited by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. 8vo. Phila-
delpiiia, 1882.

^3 > 1 1 rt> TaT*

American IIcro-Myths. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. Svo. Philadel-
phia, 1882.

89(5 827 828 829 830 831 832 8 3^3 8 3.4 835

22"j ia^o 1 2T' iaa» luS' 2iT' 2ao'' Ti-i'y ^S3j 234-

Contributions to American Ethnology. Vol. V. Quarto. Washington,
1882.

Article entitled " A Study of the Manuscript Troano," by Cyrus
Thomas; introduction by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D.
Kofercnce No. 841, p, xxxii.

La Croix Pai'enne ct Chr6tienne. Traduction faito sur la Deuxieme Edi-
tion, par Mourant Brock, M. A. 16mo. Paris, 1881.

14 A Ml 848_ 84 9
2 5 3 J 4 1 J 6 5 •

The American Philological Magazine. No. for August, 1869.

Article entitled ''Where was Fusang?" by tho Rev. Nathan
Brown, D. D.

Essai sur le Pali. Par E. Burnouf et Chr. Lassen. Svo. Paris, 1826.

8 5 1 8 5 2
-JS'i "ill"'

Intrnducti(m a I'llistoire du Buddhismo Tndien. Par E. Burnouf. Sec-
ond ed. Largo Svo. Paris, 1876.

85 3 8A4 8A_5 8 5 6 8 5_T .85 8 «50
T^T > 2-lH' 2 7 ?J JTOJ loi» frSOf 4HT'

Congres Provincial des Orientalistos Francais. Compte-Rendu de la Ses-
sion Inaugurale. Levallois, 1874. Svo. Paris, 1875.

Article entitled "Le Chan-hai-king (Livro des Muntagnes et des
Mors)." Traduction du Chiuois, par Emilo Burnouf.

880
1 38"

0. New

on, M. D.

0. Thila-

,•0. Phila-

Plaladel-

t'asliington,
," by Cyrus

ixieme £ili-

APPENDIX.

717

tv. Natban

lis, 1826.
Iiouf. Sec-

ilc la Ses-
Inos et (le3

Ueber die Aztekiscben Ortsnamen. Yon Ilrn. Buscbniann. Read before
tbe German Academy of Sciences, Nov. 11 and Dec. 9, 1852. Quarto.

uh u-h uh m, m, m, m, m> ni wi, v. i, m-

Die Spuren der Aztekiscben Spracbe. Von Job. Curl Ed. Buscbniann.
Quarto. Berlin, 1859.

J>0 1 JLOjL 9 or 9QJI 004 li.OO

f 1 > T 8 > T) 3 , or, 1 oT, 1 S 5'

C. Julii Caisaris, Commentarii do Bello Gallico.

References Nos. 916 to 919, inclusive. Bk. V., cb. 12; Bk. V.,
cb. 14; Bk. VI., cb. 20; and Bk. VI., cb. 27.

Compendio del Arte de la Lengua Mexicana del P. Iloracio Carocbi. Por
el P. If,'nacio de Parades. Small quarto. Mexico, 1759.

»31 Jt_2 2_
() , 31) •

CEuvres dc Don Bartbelemi dc las Casas, Ev6que do Cbiapa. Accom-
pagnees de Notes par J. A. Llorente. 2 vols., Bvo. Paris, 1822.

Vol. I., ^3^-, W-

Des Affinites do la Languo Basque avec les Tdiomcs du Nouveau-Monde.
Par M. 11. do Cbarencey. Bvo. Paris, 1867.

Des Couleurs consider6es comme Symboles des Points de I'llorizon cbez Ics
Peuples du Nouvean-Monde. Par II. de Cbarencey. 8vo. Paris, 1877.
iii A,3^g. J)^3_3. J) 34

Cbronologie des Ages ou Soleils, d'apres la Mytbologie Mexicaine. Par
M. de Cbarencey. 8vo. Caen, 1878.

Tbe nistory of Paraguay. Written originally in Frencb, by tbe celebrated
Fatber Cbarlevoix. 2 vols., 8vo. Dublin, 1709.

Vol. I., -»,v-, -%% III, m, m-

The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal. Bvo. Shangbae.

Vol. v., iVV-. Vol. VI., i^j^sS ¥/-.
Tbe Cbineso Repository. Bvo. Canton.

Vol. IT., w, ni Uh m, m, m, m, m, m- voi.
III., w, w, w, n^^ Ml, If I, nh n-h m- voi. iv.,

Hf. Vol.V.,fH. Vol.VL.-WV-.-^V^ Vol. VII., J,o,o7,
¥0*^, \%V-. Vol. IX., i{fp, X-p, 10|± l.o^JL, l^)^t^t, i^o^^,
101 s jo2t 1,0 ss losfi 102 1 102 9 Vol Y ioAil J.04J.

m^, ^X^, Wf , Wo*^- Vol. XL, \%\\ Vol. Xll., v/^

718

APi'ENDIX.

Ikl.:

f f

t 1

Storia Antica del Messico. Opera dell' Abaio D Trincir c > Saverio Clavi-
gero. -t vols., quarto. Cesena, 1760.

Vol. L, HU-, J-gp, m3., m^ .to5A,.i<j^jL,j^|i i^.^a,
\%%K Vol. II., is^i^, n>^^, i-V^, J-n^, ^?i^ ^E!i^, Hl^

\%\\ 'N^, V2¥-, ^iVo^, ^^V-, hV^ \\\\ h%V, JiV/, V«V-,

lOfU. J082 JQ81 JOM.

Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through Russian and Sioerian Tartary.
By Captain John Dundas Cochrane, R. N. 2 vols., 8vo. Second
edition. London, 1824.
Vol I ^PX^ JA^l

Cohneu'o — Diccionario do los Diversos Nombros Vulgares de Muchas
Plantns Usuales 6 Notabiles del Antiguo y Nuevo Mundo.
Reference No. 1089.

CongrOs International des Am^ricanistes. Conipte-Rendu do la Premiere
Session. 2 vols., 8vo. Nancy, 1875.

See Lucien Adam, Leon de Rosny, and M. Godron.

Congres International des Am6ricanistcs. Conipte-Rendu de la Seconde
Session. 2 vols., 8vo. Luxembourg, 1877.

Vol. I., ^YjS ¥/j-- 'See aUo Francis A. Allen and Y. A.
Malte-Brun.

The Despatches of Hernando Cortes. Translated by George Folsom.
Svo. New York, 1843.

1.0 flU iOfll r09A iQ.iiJI nOil JJOil JUL03. JMLOA 1108 JIOO.

The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by thr Northmen. By B. F.
de Costa. 8vo. Albany, 18G8.

Reference No. 1110, p. vii. -Hi"^-

The l^forthmcn in Maine. By the Rev. B. F. de Costa. Svo. Albany,
1870.

Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America. By Will-
iam Coxe, A. M., F. R. S. Svo. Third edition. London, 1787.

1L1£ 11 U. JllA 11.1 Jl ±12 J12JL JLIS^ U2A l_tJ!A Xt.3_B.

History of the Indian Archipelago. By John Crawfurd, F. R. S. 3 vols..
Svo. Edinburgh, 1820.

Vol. I., i„VV, ^W, VhV, Wo*, hW, Wt^. Vol. II., w/,

^W, Wf, W^, ^sW, VsV^. Vol. Ill , iji,S!^.

Life among the Apaches. By John C. Cremouy. Svo. San Francisco,
1868.

APPENDIX.

719

verio Clavi-

-OOJl iOlii
3 J IP 5 5

1019. J, S
1 T !) y 1 « a )

ian Tartary.
0. Second

do Much as

la Premiere

1.1 Scconde
a and Y. A.

irgo Folsora.

11 OS J too.
T? S ' 3 '5 ii •

1. ByB. F.

[o. Albany,

|a. RyWill-

1787.

IlUA 11-2-6.

I. S. 3 vols.,

n J 1 3 ft,

Francisco,

Annual Rejiiirt of Brigadici--General George Crocj., U. L. A., Comniand-
inrt Department of Arizona. 12mo. 1883.

Alaska and its Resources. By William II. Dall. 8vo. Boston, 1870.

H4JL IJ-HS il6 3. 1154 JJ58. J16t 115« 1150 1160 1161

1,1 6 2_ lies

" 6 2 5 S 3 4 •

4 6 1 > 4T U">

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 318.

On tlie Remains of Later Pre-IIistoric Man obtained from Cavos in
the Catherine Arcliipelago, Alaska Territory, and esfjccially from tlio
Caves of the Aleutian Islands. By W. II. Dall. Quarto. Wasliing-
ton, 1878.

U^, JJjT^, J.1|A J4|A

Nouveau Voyage Autour du Monde. Par Guillaume Dampier.
18mo. Rouen, 1715.

Vol. III., i^y..

Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences,
and III. 8vo. Davenport, Iowa, 1877-1880.
Vol. II., if,«f , JgV^ Vol. III., -^Vs^-.

El Gringo ; or, New Mexico and her People. By ^Y. W. II. Davis. Svo.
New York, 1857.

5 vols..

Vols. II.

V^^-

The Folk-Lore of China, and its Affinities with that of tlie Aryan and
Semitic Races. By N. B. Denny ss. Ph. D. Svo. Ilong-Ivong, 1876.

JJ_gJL ISJA
82 » l^ft •

Le Bouddhisme et I'Apologetique Chr6tienne. Par l'Abb6 A. Deschamps.
Svo. Paris, 1860.

De la Discipline Bouddhique. Par l'Abb6 A. Deschamps. Svo. I st'is,
1862.

(XJLhU)

V-JSVi^ i^Ui',

ou Li\re des

Merveilles de TTnde. Traduction Fran(;aise, par L. Marcel Devic.
Quarto. Leide, 1883.

1 « •

Die Entdeckung und Erobornng von Mexico, nach des Bernal Diuz del
Castillo gleiclizeitiger Erztihlung; bearbeitet von der Uebersetzerin
des Yasari. 12mo. Hamburg, 1848.

HV-, HF, W^, ^^l, 'MS ¥iV-5 -VA" , Vi^^S hS% W^

720

APPENDIX.

Hi-:!

iff uUii

:'i:'

An Account of the Abipones, an Equestrian People of Paraguay. From
the Litin of Martin Dobrizhoffer. 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1822.
\'ol. I„ m^ ¥sY. Vol. II., JiV^, \%\K

Vocabulary and Ilaud-Book of the Chinese Language. By Rev. Justus
Doolittle. 2 vols., small quarto. Foochow, 1872.
Vol. I., ^iK

Cit6s et Tluines Americainos. Photogra[>hi6e9 par D6sir6 Cliarnay, avec
uu Toxto par M. Viollot-lo-Duc. 8vo. Paris, 1803.

Antiquitus Mexicaincs. Relation des Trois Expeditions du Capitaino
Dupaix. Folio. Paris, 1834.

First Expedition, ^f^ -L-VA ^ f^, ^ ]^ m^. Third Expe-
dition, -L^, i^, -Lf f^ m^ m^

Chinese Buddhism. By Rev. Joseph Edkins, D. D. 8vo. Boston, 1880.
Reference No. 1241, p. viii. J-f |3, if |A, HfA, J-ff^ -L||Ji,

J.S6iI i2i;i 18 51 J.2 63 13 Si. 1.2 5 A IgJi.JL 13JJI IBAS J J 5 9

•f.s y tl > ti ! nt^y »t » lu > kh > loo > j (mTj TITTj

JSfi.a i'iJiX 12JSi 126 3 J 2 04 12«5 J268 12_0i 12_B8 1 26 fl

1210 12 71 J 2 7 2 12^1 3 15 74
4¥2 5 f() » > fI3>^l-f» 4 IT •

Etude sur les Origines Buddhiques do la Civilisation Am<jricaine. Par M.
Gustave d'Eichtlial. Premiere Partie. 8vo. Paris, 18G5.
Reference No. 1277.

A Chinese Dictionar" in the Cantonese Dialect. By Ernest John Eitel.
8vo. IIong-Kong, 1877.
Part I., -ViV-.

Thirtieth Congress, First iSession. Ex. Doc. No. 41.

Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from Fort Leavenworth, in Mis-
souri, to San Diego, in California. By Lieutenant-Colonel W. II.
Emory. 8vo. A^asi ington, 1848.

13J1.1 12«JL 1-&B-3- IS p. Xil«t J-?AS

4fi » S» -^0 > 1)0^' r^'J y 4 1)3'

The Encj'cloprcdia Britannica. Ninth edition (American reprint).

Vol T l-~9,2 Vol IT 12 ni J 295 Jl2!)6 J 2!) 1 1 3 ft « Vnl
V Ol. 1., 43J . V Ol. 11., ^01,1 3^ , jfa , ■^fi^'-, liS'' > 01.

IV., VA^ 'm, ¥^^. yoi v., J^i^, i^/v^. Vol. VI.,

J/^j^-. Vol. XII., J Vf . Vol. XIII., JgVa^ W^' Vol.
XIV., :SV^ Vol. XVI., J=^jJ^, i^^ Vi^.

The Kansas City Review of Science and Industry. Vol. V., No. 11.
March, 1882.

Article entitled "The Mound-Builders and the Aztecs," by Mr. S. B.
Evans.

Reference No. 1323.

■^pr

APPEXDIX.

r2i

; John Eitel.

Tlie PilgriiiiaffO of Fa Ilian. From tlio French edition of the Foe Kouo
Xi of MM. Remiisut, Khiproth, and Landrcsse, with Additional ^Jotos
and Illustrations. 8vo. Calcutta, 1848.

^i^, ^^, ^^"^ ^^-^ ^^^^ hi-, m^ ^l^ m^ hf,
^l^ Hi^ \\\% ¥o*3S ¥.¥, J,w. ¥As hw, wr-, \w-,

J^S.L 13 5 2 JJi/'l 13 5 4. J3BR J 3 51 13 5 d J 3 60 J 3 (i t 1308,

3 4 3 > 3 4V> 3 3 3"

Lettres . . . sur I'Archipel Japonais, ct la Tartaric Orientalc. Par Ic P.
Furet. 18nio. Paris, 180U.

13 Tl 13 7iL
3 3' a 8 •

A New Survey of the "West Indies. By Thomas Gage. Quarto. Lon-
don, 1055.

1.3 ra 13.Ti. 1344 1.311 13X1 13 7 8 14.1^. 13 8 13.81 13 8 2
•JfJ ^C> 4TJ> 46> 5U>52» 61 f T3» U6>il2>

13 8 3 13 84. 13 81 1.3.81
T^43 > 14T » 00 J 68 •

On the Indian Tribes and Lanj^'iiages of Costa Rica. By William M. Gabb.
(Read before the American Philosophical isociety, Aug. 20, 1875.)
8vo. Philadelphia, 1875.

1.3.00.

4 84 •

Silabario de Idioraa Mexicano. Por el Lie. D. Faustino Chimalpopocatl
Galicia. IGmo. Mexico, 1849.
1^.

Transactions of the American Ethnological Society. Yol. I. Svo. Xew
York, 1845.

Article entitled " Notes on the Semi-civilized Nations of Mexico,
Yucatan, and Central America," by Albert Gallatin.

1401 14 3 1403 14 5 141)6 ULO 1

Nouvelle Journal Asiatique. Paris, 1832.
Letter from Pero Gaubil.

14 01

Annales des Voyages de la G6ographie, de mistoire, et de I'Archeologie.
Tome 4. 8vo. Paris, 18G8.

Article entitled "Une Mission Buddhiste en Amdriquo an Y' Siecle
de TEre Chr6tienne," par Dr. A. Godron.
ligtl.

Congros International des Araericanistes. Compte-Rendu de la Premiere
Session. Nancy, 1875. Yol. I. Svo. Nancy, 1875.
Article on the Maguey (Agave Americana), by Dr. A. Godron.

722

APPENDIX.

MtTiioirca do Litterntnrc, tires dcs Registres dc I'Acad^'inic Pioyalo dcs
IiiscriptionH ft Bollos-Lottref*. Tome XXVJII. Paris, 17G1.

Artli'lo entitled "liechorchcs sur lea Navigations des Ciiinois du
CAto do l'Am6ri(iuo, et siir quelcjues Peiiples situd'S d l'Extr6init6
Orientalo do I'Asie," par M. do Guignes.

J,41S

On tlio Present State of Ruddliisii- in China. By the Rev. Dr. C. Gutz-
laff. 8vo. London [no date].

Colleccion do Docunicntos para la Ilistoria do Mexico. Publicada por
Joaciuin Garcia Icazbalceta. 2 vols., 8vo. Vol. II. Mexico, 18G0.

Prlmera Relaeion Andnima dc la Jornada quo liizo Nuflo de Guz-
man li la Niieva Galicia.
Reference No. 1423.

By the Rev. J. J. Ualcombe, M. A. 12iuo.

Stranger than Fiction.
London, 1882.

Les Tolt6(iues. Par M. E.-T. Ilamy.

Extrait du Bulletin hobdomadaire No. 118 do I'Association Scienti-
fiquo de France. Conference du 25 Mars, 1882.

Eastern Monachism. By R. Spcnce Hardy. 8vo. London, 1800.

ii.3i li

Lip. 143 3 14 3.4. 14 3 6 14,3,6. 14X1 -t4,3 8 XA?„^ XX^A

1 > r^> 1125 llO'TJl' I4i)> ^T8 > 1 5 6 J ^ IS 6 > 2 u 1 >

14 Al 144 8. JL4,4J. 14 44 14 46 14 4 6 144&

A Manual of Buddhism, in its Modern Development. By R. Spencc
Hardy. Second edition. 8vo. London, 1880.

HV^, Hl^ H'.^ ¥/cS Wo^ ^W, \%S^ h\\^-

Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the
Missouri Valley. By F. V. Ilayden, M. D. Quarto. No place or date.

Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of "Wyoming.
By F. V. Ilayden, M. D. 8vo. Washington, 1871.

HV" ^Vif- See also J. S. Newberry, Thomas C. Porter, and
Dr. G 0. Parry.

Nouvolle Deccuverte d'un Tr6s Grand Pays. Par le E. P. Louis Iloime-
pin. 16mc, Utrecht, 1097.
JAP-

A Japanese and English Dictionary. By J. C. Hepburn. 8vo. London,
1867.

F, ^W, Wf , ¥^, JiV,S ¥??-.

1411 14 TE

aT^j 3 5

l.i.1^ 11

1'"

71 14

APPENDIX.

728

Dr. C. Gutz-

M. A. 12mo.

iation Scienti-

ivo. London,

¥«^^ ¥hV, j/i^s »///-, WaS v,v, WsS vas vas VoV,

ex Fruncisci ller-

^fi*AS J'*'''-^-

Rernm Mt'dicarmn Novro Tlispaniio Thosnurns .
iiiuulez. Small folio. Rome, 1051.

iiJl J.OJ1 14 5. 16 IB 01 J 6 0S 18 03 115 6 IB 0,T J BOA
^1 > 6 1 > «T » 1(1 >^H » 1(11 > 113 > 2iift> iJiiltJ 21 >

JL6Q.ll 1,6,18. J6t3. J 6 14 J 616 J 6.1 « J B 1 T 1B2 J B 2 1_ 16,^1
ToS> 31s> 3 24' :iir. > 33()> 33(i> aJoJ 4 63' 6 Hi' 1 0T^>

Vi'u'*-. i^upplement, ^^.

Exploration of tlio Valley of tlie Amazon. By Lieutenant William Lewis
Ilerndon. 8vo. AVasliington, 1854.

16 3JL J 6 33 J 6 34
I 3 ' I IV' li4 •

Hpofidrou Toil ' AXiKapvijtfoi 'Isropiij, 't/ 'itropiwu Bi/3Xoi G, 'Eniypa(j}ofi(vai
Moisai,

KeferenccB Nos. 1535, 1536, 1537, 1588, and 1540. Bk. ITL, ch.
102; Bk. IIL, ch. 107; Bk. IV., ch. 25; Bk. IV., ch. 31 ; Bk.
IV., ch. 191.

Catalogo do las Lenguas do las Nncioncs Conocidas. Su Autor el Abate
Don Lorenzo Ilervas. C vols., 8vo. Madrid, 1800.

Vol. I., Wo^, WiS sw-

M^moiro sur lo Pays connu des Anciens Chinois sous lo Nom de Fou-sang.
Par M. lo Marquis d'llervey do Saint-Denys. Extrait des Comptes-
Rendus des Stances de l'Acad6mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
Bvo. Paris, 1876.

Reference No. 1544.

Ethnographie des Peuples <jtrangers d la Chine. Ouvrage compose au
XIII' Siecle de notro Ere, par Ma-Touan-lin. Traduit pour la pre-
miere foisdu Chinois, avec nn Commentaire Perp6tuel. Orientaux. Par
le Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys. Small quarto. Geneva, 1876.

Ht^ hW> ^W' W/-, ¥oV-' -WeS ¥oV-' Hi5A ¥i«o^-

A Japanese Grammar. By J. J. Iloffraann. 8vo. Leyden, 18G8.

Traces de Buddhisme en Norvege. Par M. C. A. Ilolmhoe. 8vo. Paris,
1857.

The Six Scripts. A translation by L. C. Ilopkins. 8vo. Amoy, 1881.
Reference No. 1558, p. xxi.

Georgi Ilorni. De Originibus Americanis. 16mo. Lugduni Batavorum,
1G52.

724

APPENDIX.

Trawls in Tartnry, Thibet, niid Cliiim. Hy M. ITuc. Translated from the
rrcuch l>y W. Ilazlitt. 2 vols., Bvo. London, 1851-'5'2.

Vol. I., i^^ H'o^ ^W, \%V, \\V, Ys?, V«V. Vol. II.,

Vuos do9 Cordillurcs et MonunionH dcs Peuplos indifj;ine9 do I'AtnoriqiK'.
Par Al. do llunilioldt. Largo folio. Paris, 1810.

J{ulorenco8 Noa. 1(579 to 1584, IncKiHivc, pp. i., xl., xiii., xx., xxx,,
and xxxi. 1^ «i, ij «il, J »^a, igS^ H r, JA¥, ^.W, \'i'^,

Ili^> 2ui> 3l0> 23u'

Political Essay on tlio Kingdom of New Spain. By Alexander de Ilmn-
boldt. Translated from the original French by John Jilack. 4 vols.,
8vo. London, 1811.

Vol. IL.Jn^WiS Wf.

Uebor dio Knwi-Spraclio anf der Insel Java. Von Wilhelm von Iluni-
boldt. 3 vols., quarto. Berlin, 1830.

J 6 S J (ton J n 1 (L

Joaquin Garcia Icazbalocta. See do Guzman.

Ancient Faiths embodied in Ancient Names. By Thomas Inman, M. I).
Second edition. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1872.
Vol. L, VoV.

Account of an Expedition from Pittsbnrgli to the Rocky Mountains, under
the Command of Miyor Stephen II. Long. Compiled by Edwin James.
2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1823.

Vol. i.,\v«^w^

Thirtieth Congress. First Session. Ex. Doc. No. 41.

Notes of a Military Reconnoissacce from Fort Leavenworth, in Mis-
souri, to Sau Diego, in California. Journal of Captain A. K. Johnston.
16 1 s

6 0~-

Memoires sur les Contrdies Occidentales. Traduit du Sanscrit en Chinois
en I'An 648 par Hiouen-Thsang, et du Chinois on Fran^ais par M.
Stanislas Julien. 2 vols, largo Svo. Paris, 1858.

M6thode pour Dechiffrer et Transcrireles Noms Sanscrit que so Rencontlent
dans les Livros Chinois. Par M. Stanislas Julien. Svo. Paris, 18G1.

■^m, H¥; Hl^ ^fB HF, -4H \W, \W, ¥o¥-, W?^

Syntaxe Nouvelle de la Languo Chinoise. Par M. Stanislas Julien. 2
vols., 8vo. Paris, 1869.
Vol. I., ^^.

APPENDIX.

725

riistoiro do Kftnitschntkii, dcs Isk'S Kurilwki, ct dos Contr6c8 Voihincs.
Trudiiito piir M. K. 2 voIh., 18mo. Lyons, 17f57.

Vol. I., ^^^ v,v. Vol. II., ig*!, j,v„i, iti^Y,

Essnys: EtlinoloKical iind Lin^Mii.stic. Hy the Into James Kennedy. 8vo.
London, 1881.
Estiiiy on the Probable Origin of tlio Auierican Indians.

Anti(inities of Mexico. 15y Lord Kingsborougii. vols., imp. folio.
l88U-'48.

Vol. VT., i-^Jii.

NouvoUoH Annftles des Voyngo.i. Tome LI. Parin, 1R31.

Article entitled "Reoherches stir le Pays de Fou Simg, montionno
dansk'H Livres Chinois, ot pris, mal a-propos, pour uue I'artiy do TAm^j-
ri(pio," par M. J. Klaproth.

Fragmens BoiiddIii(ines. Par ^I. ,T. Klaprotli. Bvo.

Extrmt du Nouveau Journal Asiatitpio, Mars, 1831.

San Kokf Tsou IJan To Sots, on Aporfu (i^'ii^ral dos Trois Royaumes.
Tradiiit do Toriginal' Japonais-Chinois, par M. J. Klaproth. 8v'o.
Paris, 1832.

10^«_L, L3^U., :L««A, 1«5A 1|«1 16BJL, i^n^K^T, J^OO^ J^OM, WlS

Nipon O Dai Itsi Ran, ou Annalca des Empereurs du Ja[)on. Accom-
pagn6 do Notes, et pr6c6d6 d'un Aper^u de I'ilistoire Mythologitiuo du
Japon. Par M. J. Klaproth. Quarto. Paris, 1834.

References Nos. 16C5 to 107(1, inclusive, pp. ii., iv., vi., xi., xix..

and xxviii. JJjil, J-0,TiL, lfi(,t^% X6 1.1, J.0 ] a, J..

•l.?«0 lOM l.fiRi 1685. 1B«B 1«8,Q..

n^Hv, Hi^

Die Beiden Aeltesten General-Karten von Amerika. Ausgefiihrt in den
Jahren 1527 und 152;), Auf Befehl Kaiser Karl's V. ErJiiutert von
J, G. Kohl. Atlas folio. Weimar, 18(50.

^w,

■ 8 •

Johannes de Laet. Notfo ad Dissertationem ITugonis Grotii De Origine
Gentium Americanarum. 18mo. Amstelodami, 1643.
18 go

Relation des Glioses de Yucatan, do Diego de Landa. Traduction Fran-
jaise par I'Abb^ Brasseur de Bourbourg. 8vo. Paris, 1804.

HV^, H'o't-^ ¥&¥-» ^iW.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

11.25

12^

Z U£ |2.0

■*'

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WiST MAIN STRUT

WnSTER.N.Y. I4SS0

(7I«)673-4S03

726

APPENDIX.

^v.

i i' '■,•^

f 1

.llf

^11

WW'- ■■ ■

I'Jl

'^^w\

lit;

Bemerkang auf einer Eeiso iim dio "Welt. Von G. II. von Langsdorflf. 2
vols., quarto. Frankfurt am Mayn, 1812.

Vol. II., m^ ^^, Hv-, ^l^ H^, m^ hv, hi-,

The Natural History of the Varieties of Man. By Robert Gordon Latham.
8vo. London, 1850.

The Sacred Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by
James Legge. Part I. 8vo. Oxford, 1879.

Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of Wyoming,
etc. By F. V. Ilayden. 8vo. Washington, 1871.

Special Report by Joseph Leidy, LL. D., on the Vertebrate Fossils
of the Tertiary Formations of the West.

3Sft ■

Who Discovered America? Evidence that the New World was known to
the Chinese Fourteen Hundred Years Ago.

(From the " Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal " for May,
1870, Vol. II., p. 344. Copied from the "Gentleman's Magazine."
Probably by Charles G. Leland.)
Reference No. 1711.

Fusang, or the Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests in the
Fifth Century. By Charles G. Leland. 12mo. London, 1875.

Hl^, Hh^ m^ VaV, V.Y. \W, Wf.

ParallSle des Anciens Monuments Mexicains avec ceux de I'figypte, de
rinde, etc. Par M. Alexandre Lenoir. Folio. Paris, 1834.
References Nos, 1726, 1727, 1728, 1729, 1730, and 1731.

The Hill Tracts of Chittagong. By Captain T. H. Lewin. 8vo.
cutta, 1869.

Cal-

Buddha and Early Buddhism. By Arthur Lillio. 8vo. London, 1881.

-^fP, ^F, ^iF, -4^ ^W, ^W, V**^, Vi¥-

ZachariiD Lilii — Orbis Breviarum. Small quarto. Florence, 1493.

References Nos. 1751 to 1757 inclusive, pp. b. ii., c. viii., f. iii., g.
iv., 1. ii., m. i., and m. viii.

Grammar of the Chinese Language. By the Rev. W. Lobscheid. In two
parts. 8vo. Hong-Kong, 1864.
Part I., J-^.

APPENDIX.

727

^as known to

liekl. In two

Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader. By J. Long.
Quarto. London, 1791.

3!t JK jS ^' W'AN-niEN Tvya-K'w, or " A Thorough Examination into
Antiquity," by 0] j^^ f^, Ma Twan-lin.

References Nos. 1704, 1765, 1700, and 1767.

Voyages from Montreal . . . through the Continent of North America.
By Sir Alexander Mackenzie. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1802.

References Nos. 1771, 1772, 1773, and 1774, pp. xci., xci., cxii.,
and cxiv, -4 J^, m^.

The Voyages of the Venetian Brothers Nicol6 & Antonio Zeno. By
Richard Henry Miyor, F. S. A. Svo. London, 1873.
Reference No. 1778, p. xxxiv.

Congres International des Am6ricanistes. Compte-Rendu do la Secoude
Session, Luxembourg, 1877. 2 vols., Svo. Luxembourg, 1877.

Article entitled "Tableau de la Distribution Ethnographique des
Nations et des Langues au Mexitpie," par M. V. A. Malte-Brun.
Vol. 11., J^]|a.

Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., for 1878. 8vo. Wash-
ington, 1878.

Appendix NN. Article entitled " Notes upon the First Discoveries
of California, and the Origin of its Name," by Professor Jules Marcou.

Thirty Years of Army Life on the Border. By Bvt. Brig.-Gen. R. B.
Marcy, iJ. S. A. 8vo. New York, 1874.

The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated from the Italian, with Notes, by
William Marsden, F. R. S., etc. Quarto. London, 1818.

References Nos. 1788 and 1789, pp. xxiv. and xxxix. ^\S

Wf , Wi^» ^m, hw^ hw> hw, ¥//, v.'y^. ¥oV, ^w,

^'^h ¥AS ^zV, ¥iV-, Vi¥, VM Wi\ ¥dV-, y^-

The History of Sumatra. By William Marsden, F. R. S. Third edition.
Quarto. London, 1811.

HF, h"^^, ^h hW-

The Chinese : their Education, Philosophy, and Letters. By W. A. P.
Martin, D. D., LL. D. Svo. New York, 1881.

The Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundevile, Kt. Svo. London, 1866.

'm, ¥i^> ¥s^. h'h\ h'N-, Vi¥. ¥4¥> ^W, hW, "m-

728

APPENDIX.

h ti

I* '

w- 1

Reacarches, Philosoplilcal and Antiqnarinii, ConcerninK tlie Aboriginal
History of America. By J. II. McCulloli, Jr., M. D. 8vo. lialti-
moro, 1829.

isisi. ifiAji i8JL3 ifiiA IMA K'^X*. ^^A^ K'^K'i- JA8.i^ J^es

^2 » lift? 1 80 > 1 H (1 > 1 9 > 102 » TOO 203 > 820 > 228 J
833> 243» 2fl1> 2tf8> iuT"

A Dictionary of the Ilok-keen Dialect of tlio Cliineso Language. l}y Vt\
II. Modhurst. Quarto. Macao, China, 1832.

H'i^, ¥i^oS WA YoV, VoY, V«V. h\Y, WgS Vi¥, Y^^
VsV', WhS VsV-

Second Recueil do Pieces sur lo Moxiquo. Published by M. Ternaux-
Conipans. 8vo. Paris, 1840.

Letter of Don Antonio de Mendoza, First Viceroy of Mexico, to the
King of Spain.

Le Rouddhisnio : son Ilistoiro, sea Dogmes, son Extension, et son Influence.
Par L. de Millou6. 8vo. Lyon, 1882.

H^, iJjP, if l-L, m^, i-«fl, 1§«A i||JL, i||Jl.

The Indian Saint ; or Buddha and Buddhism. By Charles D. B. ^lilis.
8vo. Northampton, Mass., 1876.

L1>IK IJgil, 18«il, i|91, ±^±, m^, IS^A, ig^il.

Gramraairo Palio. Par J. Minaycf. Traduito du Russo par M. Stanislas
Guyard. 8vo. Paris, 1874.

Yocabulario de la Lengua Mcxicana. Compnesto por el P. Fr. Alonso de
Molina. Publicado de Nuevo por Julio Platzmann. Quarto. Leip-
zig, 1880.

^l^ Hl^ h^, ^es^ hp-, m^ h^>^, ^sf, h^a hv,
H!!^ Hf^, m^ hj^ hb h^, ^u^ m^ h-i^ m^

H\^, Hl^, W'h Vi¥, ^^^ h'hS VM ¥i?D^ WdS ¥*n^-i

Travels in Central America. . . . From the French of the Chevalier
Arthur Morelet, by Mrs. M. F. Squier. 8vo. New York, 1871.

League of the ITocKmosaunco, or Iroquois. By Lewis II. Morgan. 8vo.
Rochester, 1851.

¥o¥, V2¥, hW> W^-

Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family. By Lewis
II. Morgan. Quarto. "Washington, 1871.

-SW, V2V-, VaV^.

■j .'- I i

\i-t-H

APPENDIX.

729

jon Influence.

3 D. B. Mills.

r M. Stanislas

The Indian Miscellany. Edited by W. W. IJeach. 8vo. Albany, 1877.
Article entitled "Indian Migrations." By Lewis II. Morgan.

Reports of the Peabody Mnseum. Vol.11. 8vo. Cambridge, ISKO.

Article entitled "On the Ruins of a Stone Pueblo on the Aniniaa,
in New Mexico; with a (Jround Plan." Bv lion. Lewis 11. Morgan.

Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol. IV. Quarto. M'ash-
ington, 1881.

Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines, by Lewis II.
Morgan.

Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims. By Max Miiller, M. A. 8vo. London,
1857.

Der Mcxikanische Nationalgott Iluitzilopochtli. Von Professor Dr. J. G.
Mailer. Small quarto. Basel, 1847.

m^ HF, HF-
Zeitschrift fi\r Allgemeino Erdkundo. New Series, Vol. XVI.

Article entitled " C).st-Asieu und West-Amerika nach Ciiinesischen
Quellen ausdem Funften, Sechston, und Siebenten Jahrhundert." Von
Karl Friedrieh Neumaim.

Reference No. 19G6, p. 305.

Prehistoric America. By the Marquis do Nadaillao. Translated by N.
D'Anvers. Edited by W. II. Dall. 8vo. Published by (i. P. Put-
nam's Sons, New York and London, 1884.
Reference No. 1967, pp. 125 and 273.

Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of Wyoming.
By F. V. Ilayden. 8vo. ^Vashington, 1871.

Article entitled " The Ancient Lakes of Western America." By J. S.
Newberry, LL. D.

History of South America and Mexico. By Hon. John M. Nilcs. 2 vols.,
8vo. Hartford, 1844.
Vol. L, ^V--
Rambles in Yucatan. By B. M. Norman. 8vo. New York, 1843.

Indigenous Races of the Earth. By J. C. Nott, M. D., and George R.
Glidden. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1857.

Reference No. 1975, p. xxiii. ^i^a, ^tV, VtIo W^-- •

730

APPENDIX.

",i

111 '

! I' '

^ I '

Grammairo do la Languo Nahuatl ou Mexicaino. Compos6o en 15-47 par
le Franciscain Andr6 do Olinos, et Publico uvec Notes, JEclaircissoineuts,
etc., par Wdvax Simeon. 8vo. Paris, 1876.

Hlh Hl^ HI"-, ^8^ HI"-, VoV-, Vo^^ h

8vo.

A Forbidden Land : Voyages to the Corca. By Ernest Oppert.
New York, 1880.

H»^ HS^ ¥M hh'h \W'
L'llomine Am6ricain. Par Alcide d'Orbigny. 2 vols., 8vo. Paris, 1839.

Vol. I., v^o^, *3<vv-, VA^ V/.^- Vol. II., H^.

Geografia do las Lenguas, y Carta Etnograflca do Mexico. Por el Lie.
Manuel Orozco y Berra. Quarto. Mexico, 1864.
Reference No. 2U07, map.

By Richard Owen, F. R. S. 3 vols.,

H^^-

On the Anatomy of Vertebrates.
8vo. London, 1868.

Vol. III., ^«8<^i

Voyages do M. P. S. Pallas, en Diff6rontes Provinces de I'Empire do Rus-
sie, et dans I'Asie Septentrionale. Traduits do I'Allemand, par M. Gau-
thier de la Peyronie. 5 vols., quarto. Paris, iT&B.
Vol. I., ^^K

Memoire sur TOrigine Japonaiso, Arab© et Basque, de la Civilization des
Peujjles du Plateau do Bogota. Par M. do Paravey. 8vo. Paris, 1835.

Origine Asiatique d'un Peuple de I'Amerique du Sud. Par M. de Para-
vey. (Extract from No. 15, Vol. IIL, of the Annales de Philosophio
Chr6tionne.)

Dissertation sur les Amazones dont le Souvenir est Conserv6 en Chine.
Par M. le Cher do Paravey. 8vo. Paris, 1840.
SJ)AA

L'Am6rique sous lo Nom de Pays do Fou-sang. Par M. de Paravey. 8vo.
Paris, 1844.

Reference No. 2015.

Nouvelles Preuves que le Pays du Fou-saug mentionn6 dans les Livres
Chinois est I'Amfcrique. Par M. do Paravoy. 8vo. No place or date.
Reference No. 2017.

Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of Wyoming.
By F. V. Ilayden. 8vo. Washington, 1871.
" A List of Plants collected by C. Thomas." By Dr. C. C. Parry.

APPENDIX.

731

Journal Asiatiiiue. October and November, 1839.

Article entitled "A Metliodical Examination of Facts Concerning
Tien-chu, or India." Translated from the Cbinese by M. Pautbior.

Catalogue des Livrcs Cbinois, compcsant la BibliotbcHiue do feu M. U.
Pautbier. 8vo. Paris, 1873.

Revue Oriontalo et Am^ricaino. Vol. VIII. Paris, 1802.

Article entitled " Memoire sur les Relations des Anciens Am^ricaincs
avec lea Peuples de I'Europe, do TAsie, et de rAfriyue." Par M. Jos6
Perez, D. M.

lieference No. 2020.

Congr^s International des AmC'ricanistcs. Compto-Rendu do la Premiere
Session, Nancy, 1875. 2 vols., 8vo. Nancy, 1875.
Article entitled " Tbo D6u6-Dindjiea." By M. Petitot. Vol. II.

Transaction;' of the Anthropological Society of Washington. Vol. I. 8vo.
Washington, 1882.

Summary of a paper entitled "Amphibious Aborigiues of Alaska."
By Ivan Petrofif.

Premier Voyage nutoar du Monde. Par le Chcv Pigafetta. 8vo. Paris.
Year IX.

Cuadro Descriptivo y Comparative de las Lenguas Indigenas do Mexico.
Por I). Francisco Pimentel. 2 vols., 8vo. M6xico, 1862.
Vol. I., %S 5fW.

Mdmoircs de la Soci6t6 d'Etbnograpliie. Session do 1872. No. 03.

Tome XI.
Article entitled " Les A16outes ct letir Orlgine." Par Alphonse Pinart.

Esquimaux et Koloches: Id6es Religieuscs ct Ti-aditions des Kaniagmiou-
tes. Par M. Alphonse Pinart.
(Extract from La Revue d' Anthropologic, 4o numero de 1873.)

Notes sur les Koloches. Par M. Alph. Pinart. 8vo. Paris, 1873.
Reference No. 2045.

La Chasse aux Animaux Marins et les Pecheries chez les Indigenes de la
Cote Nord-Ouest d'Am^rique. Par M. Alph. Pinart. 8vo. Bou-
logno-snr-Mer, 1875.

732

APPENDIX.

S'l

V^ostigos of tlio Mayas. By Augustus Lo Plongeon, M. D. 8vo. New
York, 1881.

Prelitiiinary Report of tho United States Geological Survey of Wyoinin".
By F. V. llayden. 8vo. Washington, 1871.
" A Catalogue of Plants." By Professor Thomas C. Porter.

Contributions to North Atnerican Ethnology. "Vol. III. Quarto. Wash-
ington, 1877.

"Tribes of California." By Stephen Powers.

Hi^ Wo% 'm, *8W, WiS WiS V3¥.

History of the Conquest of Mexico. By William II. Prescott. 8 vols.,
8vo. Philadelphia, 1871.

Vol. I., m*^, n'^, *,w, VA', *,w, 'm, w-s w«s
i^sVt/i. Vol. II., ViV-, Wo«, w^ Vol. III., m^ VsV,
w^ WsS "^^y VM wh h%'^ \'^, 'm, hw-

Tibet, Tartary, and Mongolia. By Ilonry T. Prinsep, Esq. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1852.

m^ m^ Va'/, WA ^w, ^oV. w^

Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. By James Cowles
Pritchard, M. D. Fourth edition. 5 vols., 8vo. London, 1841.

Vol. III., m^..

The Natural History of Man. By James Cow los Pritchard. Fourth edi-
tion. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1855.

Vol I., i^v^

Purchas : his Pilgrimage. In foure Partes. By Samuel Purchas. Small
folio. London, 1613.

Part L, Wi^, ^^,% ^^Y, ^'b*-, WA Wt'-, W^, -VdV^,

Second Recuoil de Pieces sur le Mexique. Published by M. Ternuu.\-
Oompans. Svo. Paris, 1840.
Letters of the Auditor Quiroga to the Empress of Spain.
See " Salmeron," Reference No. 2222.

The History of Java. By Tiiomas Stamford Raffles. 2 vols , quarto.
London, 1817.

Vol. T., ^ji. Vol. II., Reference No. 2125, frontispiece.
References Nos. 2127, 2128, and 2129, pp. c, clxvii., and
ccxyxix.

ii '!<

Hit

APPENDIX.

733

rto. "Wash-

Fourth ctli-

M. Ternuux-

Antiqultutes Ainericnnro. Edidit Societaa Rcgia Antiqvarioruin Septen-
trionaliura. Studio et Opera Caroli Christiani Rufn. Quarto. Copen-
hagen, 1846.

Reforencea No8. 2131 to 2137, inclusive, pp. xxx., xssi., xxxii.,

xxxii., xxxii., xxxii., and xxxiii.

Second Recueil do Pieces sur lo Mexiquo. Puhlished by M. Ternaux-
Coinpans. 8vo. Paris, 1840.

Letter of Sebastian Ranierez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Sun Domii '^o,
to tlio Empress of Spain.

Historical Researches on the Conquest of P'^ru, Mexico, etc. 13y John
Ranking. 8vo. London, 1827.

Relation des Voyages fait par les Arabes et les Persans, dans I'lude et i la
Chine, dans lo JX sidcle de I'fire Chr6tienno. Publi6 avec des Correc-
tions . . . et d'Eclaircisscments, par M. Reiuaud. 2 vols., ISiuo.
Ppt's 18^5.

Vol. I., ^^,^.

W fS ^ ^, 'Rh-ya SC-tu. The 'Rn-TA (or "Ready Guide"), ar-
ranged in Order, and Complete.

References Nos. 2145, 2146, and 2147.

Congr6s International des Am^ricanistes. Compte-Rendu de la Premiere
Session, Nancy, 1875. 2 vols., 8vo. Nancy, 1875.

Vol. I., p. 140. Extracts from the Remarks of M. L6on de Rosny
on a Note of M. Foucaux, Regarding the Relations which the Bud-
dhists of Asia and the Inhabitants of America may have had with each
other at the Ccmmencement of our Era.
Reference No. 2151.

Les Documents Ecrits de rAntiquit6 Ara^ricaine. Par LC'on de Rosny.
Quarto. Paris, 1882.

La Civilisation Japonnise. Par L6on de Rosny. 18mo. Paris, 1883.

HE^ H^^ Hi^ H^> HP, ¥/iP-.

Na'''*ative of a Second Voyage in Search of a North-West Passage. By
Sir John Ross. Quarto. London, 1835.

Wi^, %¥, ¥^, W^

Ueber den Doppelsinn des Wortes Scharaane, und ueber den Tungusischen
Schamanen-Cultus am Ilofe der Mandju-Kaiser. Von "W. Schott.
Small quarto. 1842.

734

ArPENI IX.

Ilistoire (i^iii-riilo ilos Choses do 1ft Nouvelle-Espftgnc. Par lo II. P. Vray
Hornurdino de UalinKun. Trudiiito ot annut6o pur D. Juurdunct ct pur
Komi Simeon. Quarto. Purls, 1880.

PofcroncoH Nos. 2171 nnd 2172, p. Ivi.

H^^. Hl*^, *1P, *U^ *iF, Hl^ *H^ ^I'lV. %\V, V.?,
VAS Vs'if^. %V. *2W, «8W, VoV, WsS W7. *4W, ''AV,
¥uV. V.%S »flW. VaV. VaV. W/, WsS WiS Vb'aS WiS

V3»^, VflV, W4^ W«^ ¥7S.S V78S ¥«^.

Second Recueil de Pii^ces sur lo Mexiciue. PubllHliod by M. Toriiniix-Com-
pnns. 8vo. Puris, 1840.

Letters of tlio Auditors Saltncron, Maldonado, Ccynos, and Quiroga,
to the Empress of Spain.

Buddhism in Tibet. By Eniil Sclilaprintweit, LL. D. 8vo. Leipzig, 18C3.

^tF, ¥i?..S W% W3% *W, W^ ^iW, %¥> W/, WoS

tlranographie Cliinoiso. Par Gustavo Schlegel. Quarto. Leydo, 1875.
Part I., if p.

History, Condition and Prospects of tho Indian Tribes of tho United
States. By Henry R. Schoolcraft. vols., quarto. Philadelphia,
1851-'57.

Vol. VI., \W.

Oncota ; or, Oharactoristics of the Red Race of America. By Henry R.
Schoolcraft. Bvo. New York, 1845.

Die Volksnamen dor Amerikanischen Pflanzen. Gesamraelt von Berthold
Seeman. 8vo. Hanover, 1851.

lU f§ M- The Shan Hai Kino, or "Classic of Mountains and Seas."
References Nos. 2245 to 2248, inclusive : an extract from the
Preface, and the Fourth, Ninth, o.nd Fourteenth Books in full.

Wu Nen Kei, sive Succincti Annales Japonlci. Curante Ph. Fr. de Sie-
bold. Quarto. Lugduni Batavorum, 1834.

iU/JL, Igjti, iJjtt^, ilfL^ AiyiA, iS^l, SAfi, 4^, 15^, ^^,
JL-^«a, lii^li iJ^, iJL,<LJL, JL^, iU,U, Aiigia iSgOJL, AJ^Til, i5^,

H^, ^6^, ^^^ ^fP^, H^^ ^F, *H^, ^i^, ^11^ ^?F,

np, ^F, ^m ^M^ MF> M!^, ^f f ^ ^?F, ^F, m^
^H^ ^F, MF, ^F, -IF, ^4F, ^4F, ^F, ^F, ^F
^i HF, ^iF, ^IF, m^> HF, ^F, ^F, ^IF, ^IF-

ii'^HTin

APPENDIX.

73;

von BertLold

i^ul !Io, slvo Voonl)ulnrlHni Hinonsc in KAraiiinnm Conv'.rHtmi. Uy IMi.
Fr. Jo Siuholtl. Quarto. Lnpliiiii Hatavonun, 18;J8.
Ilofcrenco No. 2314, cliuractor No. 10G5.

Fuwanj?; or, tlio Discovery of AiniTicii l>y CliineHO liuddliist I'riosts iu tho
FIftIi Century. 12mo. London, 1875.
Letter of Tlieos. Siini)Hon.

A Vocabulary of Proper NnmcH in CliinoHO and Englisii. Hy F. Porter
Sniitti. 8vo. HhunKiiai, 1H70.

*¥^ iv*. *Y^ *¥^ '"¥s '^'^ 'u^, nv, 'u^nw
Hi^ H^^ ni"^, m^ Hi^, HI''.

Ilistoria do la Conciuista do Mexico. Par Don Antonio do Solis y PJva-
denoyra. Small (juarto. ^fadrid, 1790.

H^\ 'H', Ht^ ^.V.S '."SV, VhV. 'AW ',\\\ V.V. VAN
*«W, V3¥. ¥A', *8W, W/, VoV.

Nicarng'.ifl : its People, Scenery, Monuments, etc. By E. G. Scjuier. Svo.
New York, 1800.

W/, W^ VsV, hW.

Tropical Fibres: heir Production and Economic Extraction. By E. G.
Squior. Svo. London, 18(i3.

Chinese Repository, Vol. II. Quotation from Ta Tsing Lonli-le. Trans-
lated from the Chinese by Sir George Thomas Staunton. London, 1810.

HI''.

Incidents of Travel in Central America, Cliiapas, and Yucatan. By John
L. Stephens. 2 vols., Svo, New York, 1843.

Vol IL, J!^w. ¥1*^^, ¥^S hW-

Summer Saunterings over tho Linos of the Oregon Railway and Naviga-
tion Co. Svo. Portland, Oregon, 1882.

Les Rcligieuses Bouddhistes. Par Mrae. Mary Summer. 18mo. Paris,
1873.

A Handbook of tho Chinese Language. Parts I. and II. By James Sum-
mers. Svo. Oxford, 1863.
Reference No. 2390, p. xx.

Part I, Ii^si^^^,&^l^,^^,^^l,^^si,^l^,^^,

Hi^, "H^^ "m, ¥i¥-, WsS ¥2^, ¥i^, ¥6^, ^i^- Part

n., H^, H^.

730

APPENDIX.

Tlio KudimontH of tlio Clilrieso Laiigiinge. By tlio Rev. JamoH Suraniern.
IGiiiu. Loudun, 1804.

HmitliHonion Contributions to KnowlodKP, No. 267.

Tliu Ilnidiiii Indiiiurt of Quocn Cimrlottu's Mandi). Dy Juines G.
8 wan. Quarto. Washington, 1874.

iij^ji, «Yi, '^;^.

Vooahnlary of tlio English and Malay LnnguagOH. Hy Frank A. Swctten-
ham. 2 vols., 12ino. tSiugaporo, 1881.
Vol. I., Atf4.

VoyagoH, lU'lationn ot M^moires Originaux pour Servir i\ I'llistoiro do la
D6couvorto do rAni^'ri(iue. PubliC'H par II. Tcrnuux-Coinpons. Vol.
IX. First Sorio8. 8vo. Paris, 1838.

IJc'lation du Voyage do Cibola, Entorpris en 1540.

MF. MF, M?^ VaV. Wo^ *iW, VjV-

Voyages, lidations ot Meinoires Originaux pour Sorvir d rilistoiro do la
D6couverto dt rAmdritjuo. Publics par II. Ternaux-(^)inpan9. Sec-
ond Recuoil de Pi6oes Bur lo Moxique. 8vo. Paris, 1840.

VsV^j VlV' '^''■^ '^^"^ Zuniarrnga, Solineron, Hamorcz, and Men-
doza.

Voyages, Relations et Mdmoires Originaux pour Servir i\ I'llistoiro de la
Dd'couverte do l'Am6rique. Publids pour la Premiere Fois on Fran-
cais, par 11. Ternaux-Coinpana. Recuoil do Pieces sur la Florido. 8vo.
Paris, 1841.

Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol. V. Quarto. Wash-
ington, 1882.
A Study of the Manuscript Troano, by Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D.

HP, *iW. VoV^, *iW-

Les Migrations des Peuple.9, ot Particnli6ronient coll© des Touraniens. Par
Ch. E. do Ujfalvy do MezO-KOvesd. 8vo, Paris, 1873.

HP.

Mexican Paper — An Article of Tribute. By Ph. J. J. Vulentini, Ph. D.
8vo. Worcester, 1881.

Venegas, Miguel. — Histoire Naturelle et Civile de la Californie. Traduite
de I'Anglois, par M. E. 8 vols., 18mo. Paris, 1767.
Vol. I., Hf 1.

M. VioUet-le-Duo. See le Duo.

1h.

pi'" ,('..;

tiilit

APPENIJIX. 787

L'Ann^o (J6o}(raitliir|ne. Tliinl Yenr. 8vo. Pnri», 1805.

CliiiptiT oiitilliMl "Uno Vieillo lliHtoiro Ilt'Uiiso A Flot." \\y M.
Vivii-n (le Suint-Murtln.

A Voculnilnry of tlio Englinli, Bugis, nnd Malay Languages. 8vn. Siiiga-
puro, 1H38.

A New Voyage an*l Dos<'rii)tion of tho Itttliiuutt of Aniericji. Uy Lionel
Wafer. Hvo. London, IC'.tK.

1 O 1 r* 1 rt » I .14 » \\)i •

Report upon United States (leognipliical Surveys West of the lOOth Me-
ridian, in Cliargo of First Lient. (Jeorgo M. Whoeier. Vol, VII.
Arclucology. CJuarto. Wa^<hington, 1H79.

118 1» «410 8418 541 a J!,4 1 4 J 4 15
80 » 43>TU4» a()1» ain» 32 3*

Reports of Kxplorations and Surveys from tlio Mississippi River to tho
I'aoific Oeeun. 12 vols., (junrto. WuHliington, 1H50.

Vol. III. Article entitled " Rej)ort upon the Indian Tribes." By
Lieut. A. W. Whipple, Thomas Ewbank, Est^., and Professor William
W. Turner.

8411 1411 2419. 84«a J4HL

1 10 > 1 in *i f r» 11 8 > 320 •

Magazine of American Ili.story. Vol. IX., No. 4, April, 18S.3.

Article entitled "Concerning Fusang"; coutuiuiug a letter from the
Rt. Rev. Channing M. Williams.
Reference No. 2483.

Tho Middle Kingdom. By S. Wells Williams. Fourth edition. 2 vols.,
Svo. New York, 18G1.

Vol I., VcY, W«^ WaS Ws^ W..S ¥oV. Vh?, W^
Vol. II., iLi^-A, iLyiA, ^|j{ii, 11^, ll^l, igp, mi., l,Y^,

w«^ Wo% ViV-, 'iW, ¥s*4^ Vi'fl^, WffS ¥4'o^ ^s*!*. hw>

A Syllabic Dictionary of tho Chinese Language. By S. Wells Willinms,
LL. D. Quarto. Shanghai, 1874.

m^, Hi^ Hv, Hi^ ^l^ *m, ^w-^ 'm> ^¥4^ ¥<^4S

m^ \W, ¥;»¥, 'm^ Wh ¥i^. ¥i>^» ^f'o^ ¥W, ¥2¥,
¥4^. ¥tV-. VsS^, ¥M WS W4^ ¥AS ¥o*(r% ¥sSS ¥oV,
¥!»¥, ¥M ¥i't^, ¥iSS Wrf% W«S ¥i>'i^ W4^, ¥^4^. ¥2^,
¥A^ ¥2^, %¥. W4^> ¥AS ^^^. ¥0^, f HI , !Hf> f Hi,

'.;

738

APPENDIX.

HysasirSc*!"

Notices of Fu-sang, and Other Countries Lying East of Cliina. By Profes-
sor S, Wells Williams. Presented to the American Oriental Society,
October 25, 1880.

Reference No. 2581.

Las Ilistorias del Origin de los Indios de Esta Provincia da Giinteniala.
Traducidas por el R. P. F. Francisco Ximenez. 8vo. Vienna, 1857.

Tres Relacioncs de Antiguedades Pcruanas. Publfcalas el Ministerio de
Fomento. 8vo. Madrid, 1879.

Article entitled "Relacion do Antiguedades desto Reyno del Piru."'
Por Don Joan do Santacruz Pachacuti Yaniqui.

nistoria de Mejico. Por D. Niceto de Zamacois. 11 vols., 8vo. Barce-
lona and Mexico, 1877-'80.

Vol. II., ^#, ^^, ^%% ^^^, s^,Y, ^SV, 5,Vo", %?,
VdV-, W2^ W*^ ¥A^-

Second Recuei' de Pieces sur le Mesique. Published by II. lernaux-
Ctmpans. 8vo. Paris, 1840.

Letters to the King of Spain ; written by Juan de Zuraarraga, Bishop
of Mexico.

m^ ^r, HF, ¥1^^

' i

Quotations made by other writers, from the works of the
authors named below, are repeated m this book, i. e. :

Abeel, Rev. P.ivid, 243.

Acosta, Joseph de, 32, 33, 101, 112,

500, 577.
Allen, Francis A., 200.
Aratus, 145.

Armstrong, Alex., 245, 346, 347.
Audubon, J., 429.
Baer, K. E. von, 81.
Bailly, Jem Syl^ain, 146, 147, 158.
Bancroft, II. II., 199, 231, 241, 245.
Bartolli, P. Dan., 103.
Beechey, C.ipt. F. W., 102.
Boll, John, 1; 2.
Berlandior, Dr. 428.

Biedma, Luis ITernandez de, 109.

Boturiui Bernaducci, Cavaliere Lo-
renzo, 145, 393.

Bradford, Alex. W., 168.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Abbe, 111,
128.

Bretschneider, Dr. E., 242.

Brickell, John, 429.

Buchanan- Hamilton, Francis, 545.

Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc,
Comte de, 49.

Burgoa, Franciiico de, 538, 539, 600.

Burnouf, Eugene, 71, 72, 124, 120.

Bustamante, Carlos Maria de, 109.

APPENDIX.

739

Cabrera do Cordove, L., 116.

Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 427.

Carbiyal Espinosa, Francisco, 500.

Carriedo, Juan IJ., 538.

Casas, B. de las, J, 579.

Castafleda do Najj;ora, Pedro de, 74,
115, 110, 169, 170.

CastaficJa, Luciano, 132.

Catherwood, F., 129, 134.

Catlin, Goorge, 123, 199.

Charlevoix, Fr. Xav. de, 35, 427.

Chateaubriand, Viscount de, 75.

Ch6zy, A. L. de, 152.

Choris, Louis, 346.

Ciega do Leon, Pedro de, 170.

Clavigero, Francesco Saverio, 96,
97, 145, 500, 614.

Cogolludo, Diego Lopez, 551.

Coleman, C, 134.

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de,
31, 430,

Coxe, Wm., 346.

Crawfurd, John, 72, 127, 128, 135.

Cronise, Titus Fey, 489.

Davis, W. W. IL, 436.

Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, 99.

Drake, Francis, 370.

Dupaix, Capt. Guillermo, 72, 109.

Duran, F. Diego, 467, 500.

Edrisi, Abu Abdallah M. Ben, 94.

d'Eichtal, Gustavo, 199.

Forster, John Reinhold, 83.

Fuentes y Guzman, 588.

Gallatin, Albert, 500.

Garcia, Gregorio, 112.

Gaubil, P6ro, 20, 82, 147.

Geraelli Carreri, Giovanni Francis-
co, 500, 615, 616.

Geminus, 45.

Gentil, M. lo, 147.

Gobineau, Count de, 179.

Gomara, Francisco Lopez do, 115,
145, 154. 167, 169, 430, 493, 508.

Gondra, Don Isidro R., 538.

Greaves, John, 499.

Grotius. IL, 112.

Gi'lfeues, Jos. de, 425.

Ilauiy, M. E-T., 543.

Ilanlay, J., 171, 172.

Ilockewolder, Rev. John, 349.

Hennepin, Louis, 427.

Ilorrera, Antonio de, 98, 420, 427,

454, 493, 523, 557, 572, 617.
Ilesiod, 168.

Ilieroninius d'Angelis, 102.
Iliggins, Godfrey, 5u2.
Hodgson, B. IL, 124.
Iloffman, J., 176.
Ilorre, George, 31, 34.
Hugo, J., 112.
Humboldt, Alex, von, 14, 69, 100,

112, 158, 167, 168, 210, 500, 546.
Humboldt, Wm. von, 545.
Hyde, Thos., 619.
Icazbalceta, Joaquin Garcia, 398.
Ixtlilxochitl, F. de Alva, 365.
James, Edwin, 428.
Jarves, J. J., 102.
Jaubert, Chevalier, 71.
Juarros, Domingo, 588.
Kaempfer, Engelbrecht, 29.
Kalm, Peter, 426.
Keane, A. IL, 621.
Keating, Wm. H., 127.
Kennon, Col. Barclay, 8, 171.
Kingsborough, Lord, 132, 136, 365.
Klemm, Gustave. 500.
Koeppen, C. F., 141.
Laet, Joannes de, 427, 500.
Landa, Diego do, 107, 168, 420.
Langsdorff, G. IT. von, 122.
Latrobo, Clinrles Joseph, 608.
Lawrence, William, 426.
Lay, G. T., 338.
Lodyard, John, 345.
Loidy, Dr. J., 429.
Leland, C. G., 200, 231, 247.
Lenoir, Alex., 127, 136, 199.

740

APPENDIX.

is '

Leon, Martin de, 500.
Leon y Gama, A. de, 500, 501.
Lewis and Clarke, Capts., Y5, 349.
Long, M^j. S. H., 428.
Lopez, Ger6nirao, 493.
Lorenzano, Arzobiapo F. A., 501.
Loureiro, J. de, 94, 195.
Low, Capt. Jas., 133, 554.
Lubbock, Sir J., 118.
Maldonado, Juan Alvarez, 480.
Martin, P6re, 427.
Martyr, Peter, 98, 472.
Maundevile, Sir John, 159.
Maury, Lieut. M. F., 121, 122, 131.
Mendieta, Geronimo de, 398.
Miles, Colonel W., 82.
Mofraa, Dutiot de, 68, 75.
Molina, Alonso de, 65.
Morrison, M. C, 243.
Motolinia (Toribio de Benavente),

197, 398, 500.
Mueller, J. W. von, 500.
Niza, Fra Marcos de, 170.
Oviedo y Vald6s, G. F. de, 493.
Pauthier, G., 74.
Piedrahlta, Don Lucas F., 560.
Pinto, F. Mendez, 243.
Plan-Carpin, J. du, 570.
Polo, Marco, 159.
Pratz, Le Page du, 420.
Prescott, William H., 9b-99, 158,

172, 210.
Rafn, 0. Christian, 116.
Rennell, J., 445.
Richardson, John, 346.
Rio, Antonio del, 133.
Riviero, Mariano Eduardo, 162.
Rosny, L6on de, 174.
Rubru(juis, G. de, 570.
Sabin, M. de, 126, 188.
Sahajrun, Bernardino de, 169, 237,

865, 500, 615.

Saint Pierre, Bernardin de, 68.
Schmidt, L J., 545.
Schoolcraft, Henry R., 453.
Siebold, P. F. de, 86.
Simpson, James IL, 436.
Smith, Capt. John, 349.
Sotu, Fernando do, 169, 431.
Squier, E. G., 133.
Stephens, John L., 127, 134, 199.
Stevenson, Dr. J., 545.
Stolberg, Count, 546.
Swift, Dean J., 243, 709.
Taylor, Isaac, 570.
Ternaux-Compans, Henri, 62, 74^

115, 169, 617.
Titsingh, I., 85.
Tonti, Chevalier de, 31.
Torquemada, Juan de, 101, 145,

369, 430, 500, 542, 579.
Trigault, P., 499.

Tschudi, John James von, 544, 602.
Turner, Capt. S., 570.
Tylor, Edward B., 522, 620, 021.
Vfilad^s, P. F., 145.
Valraont de Bomare, 59.
Vusquez, Antonio, 588.
Vater, Johann Severin, 143, 158.
Venegas, Miguel, 427.
VeniaminoflF, Ivan, 6, 121, 350, 356.
Vetancurt, Augustin de, 500.
Veytia, Don Mariano, 305, 500,

538.
Villagiitierre Soto-Mayor, Juan de,

551.

Viollet-le-Duc, M. , 199, 546.

Waldeck, Frederic de, 134, 199,

200.
Whipple, A. W., 123.
Wrangell, Admiral F. von, 121.
Yule, Col. IL, 111.
Zuago, Alonzo, 475.
Zurita, Alonzo de, 99.

INDEX.

Transcriptions of Chinese words, in small capitals ; English, in Roman ; and
other languages, in Italics,

A'onncay, pyramids in, 565.

Abara, a name of Tuma, 563.

Abbassides, an Arabic dynasty, 37.

Abhayagiri, a pyramid in Ceylon, 603.

Abhyavakashika, definition of, 443.

Abode of the dead, Aztec road to, 5!)0.

Absintlie, a plant resembling, 30 ;
jMexican, 508 ; sage-brush so called,
509; eaten by animals, 511. See,
also, Artemisia.

Abnya, an Amazon town, 493.

Abyssinia, idols in, 71.

Acalan, tame deer kept in, 431.

Acnfl, a Mexican sign, 150.

Ac/iiotl, seeds of, 471.

Achiutla. high-priest of, 579.

Adam, M. Liicien, article by, 193.

Adam's Peak, Buddha's foot-prints
on, 73, 553.

Adams County, Ohio, bones found in,
439.

Adobes, used in construction of pyra-
mids, 605.

Adobe walls, boards used in con-
structing, 419; in Fu-s)mg, 368 ; in
Country of Women, 314; in Cali-
fornia, 518.

Adultery, punishment of, in IMexico,
437.

Afghanistan, Cophene situated in,446.

Africa, conquests in, by Arabs, 37;
imknown to PJuropeans, 454.

Agates, found in Alaska, 356.

Agate-gem, a mythical tree, 416.

Agave (American aloe, maguey, mefl,
or century-plant); peculiarities of,
400 ; description of, 98, 195, 384 ;
illustration of, 385 ; abundance of,
in Mexico. 08. 394 ; reproduction
of, 400; Mexican name for, 375,

376 ; a double species, 330 ; resem-
blance to cacti, 394 ; called a this-
tle, 398; called hemp, 173; callwl
a tree, 384; indifference to soil,
386; value to the Aztecs, 98, 173,
375, 379 ; sprouts, 390 ; resem-
blance to those of baml)00, 389;
edibility, 390 ; thorny leaves, 388 ;
used as fuel, 535 ; lye made from
its ashes, 535 ; thorns used in pi'U-
ance, 544 ; not mentioned in ac-
count of Fu-sang, 195 ; ])lants used
as hedges, 399; size of flowering-
stalks, 383; used as beams, 386;
period for blossoming, 400 ; de-
scription of fiber, 393 ; its value,
531 ; called "silk," 531 ; the leaves
the " silk-worms " of Fu-sang. 535 ;
preparation of fiber, 530 ; uses. 98 ;
paper made therefrom, 393; cloth
made therefrom, 393; sap called
" milk," 397 ; liquor made from
sap, 98, 196, 384, 397 ; now called
" i)ul(iue," 384, 397 ; said not to bo
mentioned in accoimt of Fu-sang,
235; called vitztli, 380; or orfli,
397; described as wine, 533; whit-
ish like whey. 397: plant identified
as the fu-sang tree, 165 ; said not
to be the fu-sang tree. 194 ; did it
exist in Coreaf 401; its introduc-
tion in China, 173. See, also. Ma-
guey and Fu-sang tree.

Age, great, of Japanese, 631 ; of Japa-
nese sovereigns, 634.

Age at which inhabitants of Country
of Women became adult, 30<».

Age to which pygmies live, 494.

Age of mines near Lake Superior, 118.

Age of ^lexican pvramids and tem-
ples, 598.

Age, liow reckoned by Buddha, 404

T42

INDEX.

[1 '.

1.1. '

[1(1 fi "

Apo, how reckoned in Cliina and
Japan, 404.

AgoM, four, Jlindoo account of, 015,

Affncso, Haplistc, nuip drawn l)v, ;JTO.

Agriculture, taught bv tiie Toltees,
4;{().

Afntacafl, a Mexican fruit, .WT.

Ainos, ilescription ot, H:{, H'y; de-
scribed iu< "Hairy People," (581;
growtli of liair upon. 84 ; home of,
84; tattooing, 84; dwellings, 8(5;
ditferences Ix'tween, and Tartars,
187 ; resenil)lance to American
tribes, 14:5 ; accompanied a Japa-
nese embassy, 8-*) ; identitied as the
WAN SiiAn, 84, 18(5.

Akatnuma. See Atuxma.

Akicn, king of Pk-tsi, (527.

Alal)aster used for ornamenting build-
ings, 528.

A-i-AN'-Jo, definition of, 441.

Alarcon, ox[)edilion of, 1(5!),

Alaska, meaning of the name, SJIO;
cr)mmunication between, and Asia,
{); visited from Kanitchalka, 18;{;
distance from Kamtchatka, 1(54;
from Central America, 18;{; at tlis-
tance stated from Fu-sang, 18!);
excursion to, from Oregon, 447; as
much west of Jlexicoas north, .'5(51 ;
breakers near, 840 ; Jaiiant^se crew
wintered near, 101; Ilwui Sluln's
description of, 324, ;}3(); jirecious
stones found in, 85(5; climate, 121,
3.54; identified as Groat Han, !)2,
33(5.

Alaskans, roligiotis ideas of. fl ; hospi-
tality. 348; kindness, 350; merry
nature, 347 ; fondness of orna-
ments, .352 ; tattooing, 345 ; inunda-
tions of dwellings, 354; lack of
fortifications, 351; trials of medi-
cine -men, 357; punishment of
witches, 357; language, .344; word
" Shaman " in, (5 ; customs same as
tlioso of Aleuts, 344.

Albinos in America, .50r).

Aleutian Islands, skirted by Pacific
gulf-stream, !); peaks of a sid)-
marine mountnin-chain, 9; connect
Asia and America, 8, 9, 39; route
to Fu-sang passed cm, 447; bound-
ary between two seas, 8 ; climate,
9, 121; breakers upon, 340; ship-
wrecks u])on, 10: large wild ani-
mals exterminated in, 357; descrij)-
tion of, 122; identified as land of
WAN Sn An, 92, or " Marked Bodies,"
835; Ainos in, 84; population of, 341.

Aleutian family, members of, 90.

Aleuts, tradition as to fnrnier liome,
340; voyages made by, 171; de-
scription of, 8(5 ; hospitality, 34S,
3.50; merry nature, 347 ; tatiooing,
92, 345, 34(5; 1» ring of nose, etc.,
92; fondness of ornaments, 3.V2 ;
luits made l)y, 3.52 ; dwellings, 3.53;
lack of fortifications, .551; chiefs
of, 351 ; all Ks(|uimaux, 344 ; lan-
guage, 344; customs same as those
of Alaskans, 344 ; no money used
by, 35(5,

Alexander the Great, fables regard-
ing, 95.

Alinum, a Mexican ])rovince, 491.

Alkalies, used in preparing agave-
fiber, 520.

Alligator-pear, a Mexican fruit, .5M7.

Allowances to be made foi' errors in
llwui .Shan's story, 335, 708.

Ahnaizar, a garment, 017.

Aloe. iSee jVgave.

Alpacas, possil)Iy called " horses," 50.

Alphabet introduced into China, 440.

Alphabet of Yucatan, inventor of, 550.

Altars, IJuddhist, 133.

Altai's upon jjyramids, (500.

Alum used as a mordaunt, 471.

Alvarado, welcomed with music, 424.

Amamtni, designation of priests, 74.

Amursinh, reference to works of, 144.

Amazons, Hwui Shftn's account of,
!)3 ; mention by Maundeviio and
IMarco Polo, 244; by Lilv, 454;
tales regarding, 213, 487, 488, 489,
490, 491, 492, 493; explanation re-
garding, 220; derivation of name,
489. See. also, Women, Country of.

Aml)er, prized by Aleuts and Chinese,
357.

America, Buddha's command a siifTi-
cient reason for visiting, 8, 084;
Who Discovered? 171 ; several dis-
coveries, 193 ; thought to be Mero-
pide, 55 : visited by Northmen, 49 ;
and by Irish, 92 ; imcient relations
of other nations with, 50 ; western
coast of long unexplored, 54,55;
discovery by liussians, 22 ; its
northwestern coast, 28 ; its pccul-
iarities, 447 ; trend of the const,
3(50 ; suggestion that Chinese came
from, 220; natural marvels, 233;
routes by wliich crossed, 549 ; made
for Americans, 201 ; its oldest his-
tory, 95 ; Chinese transcription of
the name, 400 ; pygmies in, 40(5 ;
animals of, 115 ;' different from

INDEX.

743

jles i'i'K!ii"'l-

those of 01(1 World, 420 ; but piveu
names of tiioso of Euro|ie, ;j;J ; tat-
tle bi'()u;jlit to, by C"oluml)Us, 427;
horses and iiiainiiiotlis in, 20;j ;
elephants in, ()()8 ; deer, G!) ; tloni
connceted with that of Asia, 07;
ini|)erfeet knowledge of iloni of,
105; vines in, 04, 110, IKi, 211,
212,415; no fu-sang tree in, IH!) ;
identified as Fu-sang. 118, 140;
not Fu-sang, IHO ; no other largo
country east of Ciiina and Japan,
57 ; ease of voyage to, from Asia,
8, 121, i;Jii, 155', 171, 18;}. 19;{, 104,
447, 085; dilllculties of voyage,
100 ; reached l)y Paeifi(! gulf-
stream, 0; winds toward, 0.5; dif-
ferent steps of route to, known by
natives, 085; Chinese and Japanese
may have drifted to. 241 ; Chinese
voyage to, 10, 1(»8; known by Chi-
nese and Ja|)anese, 104 ; and by
other ■Asiatic tribes, 87; migration
to, very early, 150, 100; jn-obablo
communication with Asia, 158 ; be-
lief therein, 021 ; lack of proof. 122,
351; communication with, bv Bud-
dhists, 7, li;$. 102, 107; how j.eo-
jtled, ;J4, 35, 81, 231 ; Asiatic tribes
transplanted to, 153; not peopled
by Asiatics, 180. .SVe, aim, Alaska,
Oregon, Cnlifornia, Arizona. New
Mexico, Mexico, Yucatan, Ciuate-
niala, Anahuac. Palen(|ue, Peru,
Hogota, and South America.
American tribes, not autochthones,
70; civilization of, 108; confined
to Pacific coast, 173, 708; resem-
blance of, to Asiatics, 35, 30, 81,87,
110, 111, 155, 158, 172, 184. 510 : all
of same race. 022 ; wars of, 108 ;
cruelty of, 33 ; extermination of
some tribes, 33, 05 ; decadence of,
132, 153 ; fondness for wandering,
348; reliance ujxm hospitality, 340;
councils of. 430 ; tattooing, 345,
340 ; serpents worn as ear-orna-
ments, 080; arch not known by,
605 ; milk not used by, 100 ; pa|»er
made by, 104 ; copper used by, 117;
iron unknown to. 117, 104; work-
ing of stone by. 151 ; fortifications
of, 108; ruins left by, thought to
be like those of Asia, 72 ; customs
and arts of. like those of Asia. 112,
142, 100, 200, 70(), 707; traditions
of. explained in different ways, 100,
201 ; religion of, 157; Christian in-
fluence thought to be found among,

100; languages of acommo-^ origin,
81 ; similarity to those of Asia, 150 ;
inscri|)tions might Ijc read by Chi-
nese, 150; introduction of ai>pella-
tion "Shaman," 0; cities of, with
Asiatic names. 111.

Anu'rican Oriental Society, article
read before. 230.

Anu'rican Philological Jlagazinc. quo-
tations from, 10. 101.

Amethysts fouiul in Alaska, 350.

Amoor River, exploration of valley of,
187; nature of country near,"24;
Buddhist monuments near, l;20 ;
tribes near, 82, 87, 187; Hyperbo-
reans lived near, 55, 03 ; ease of voy-
age frou), to America, 104 ; distance
from LiEi'-KiKf, 20. 87 ; on route
to Great Han, 120; which was near
mouth of. 137, 180, 188.

Anadir, gulf of. 82.

Anahuac, meaning of term. 00 ; arrival
of Aztecs in, 00; civilization of, in-
fluenced by Asia, 100 ; reign of
(^uetzalcoatl in, 541 ; languages of.
Ill; Aztec languages spoken in.
300.

Anaiula, garments made by, 553.

Auchif/ieriiiiii, an ei|uine genus. 482.

Anchors of Mexico and Cliina, lu5.

Anderson, Major, essay by, 7(».

Aiulrogyiui', descriptions of, 451.454.

Angara River. Chinese name of, 24,
45 ; Great Han near, 247.

Ax(i-K()-LA, Chinese name of the An-
gara, 24, 45.

Anian, strait of, 14, 28.

Aninuds, floated on cakes of ice. 30.
American. 115 ; different fi-om those
of Old World, 42(i ; figuns of, in
pairs, 120 ; noiu; used by Aztecs,
00; fantastic descriptions of, in
SiiAN JIai KiNd, 078; gods with
lK)dies of, 051, 0(i5.

Annals of Voyages, articles 'rom,
10.

Annual Registers of Cliina and .^apan,
84, 85, 80, 87. aSV^', also, Nax-sse,
LiAXO-ssE, and Aijn /i-h'i.

Antnravdmkn, a IJuddhist robe, 553.

Antelopes, gait of. 452; migrations
of. 512 ; possibly called '• horses,"
484.

Ax-T'o-iioEi, n Budd..ist robe, 553.

Ants larger than foxes. 45 1.

Anurddhnpurn, jjyrauuds of, 002.

Anusicnra, nasals resembling, 541.

Apaches, courtship of, 433 ; exi)edi-
tion against, 300.

744

INDEX.

vj I

Apes, mistaken for men, 516; worship
of, 405. <S'ee, also, Monkeys.

Apianus, map drawn by, 370.

Apollo, offerings to, by ilyperborenns,
55.

ApoUonius, life of, 59, 60.

Apples, sjiid to exist in Fu-sang, 213.

Ara, a tribe of Ainos, 85.

Arabia, pygmies in, 494.

Arabs, knowledge by, of Cape Verdo

Islands, 38 ; knowledge of eastern

lauds, 94 ; accounts by, of land of

Amazons, 94, 488 ; explorations of,

^ 37 ; voyages of, to China, 446.

Arawjaka, dofluition of, 441.

Aratus, refjronce to, 140.

Arawack, grammatical peculiarities
of. 111.

Arch, not known to Americans, 605 ;
a species of false, 605.

Archipelago on American coast, 448.

Architecture of Mexican monuments,
96 ; similarity to that of Asia, 136,

Arctic Ocean, entered by Pacific gulf-
stream, 9 ; visited by Tartarian
tribes, 25 ; Chinese knowledge of,
83.

Arctic region, Ilerodotus's descrip-
tion of, 451.

Ardahnari, group attribute>^ to, 129.

Argippcans, a j)eaccful tribe, 'y'J,

Arikaras, dwellings of, 354.

Ariki, kings of Oceanica, 61.

Arizona, vines in, 415; mirrors in,
522 ; not Fu-sang, 190.

Arms of Japanese, 164, 631, 640.

Arms not used in Great FIan, 216,
324 ; or in Fu-sang, 207, 270.

Armour of (piilted cotton, 420, 618.

Arrakan, candidates for priesthood in,
582.

Arrian, works of, 95 ; description of
Cophene River, 445.

Art, American, analogies of, 200.

Arts taught by Quetzalcoatl, 543.

Arts taught by Buddhist priests, 572,
620.

Arts, East Indian, existing in Fu-
sang, 76.

Artemisias, eaten by animals, 511 ;
aroma of, 510; varieties of. 510.
See, also, Absintlie.

Artemisia Laciniata, an Asiatic plant,
508.

Arfncarpus. See Bread-fruit tree,
105.

Aslwstos, or " Salamander's wool,"
225, 532.

Ascetics, fou.id in many lands, 198.

Asceti'*ism of Azt'^c monks, 575.

Ashes, criminals ^mothered in, 208,
276, 435, 437.

Asht's of the fu-sang used for lye,
224.

Ashes of dead collected in a vase,
159.

Asia, ease of vovage from, to America,
8, 121, 139. 155, 171, 183, 193, 194,
447, 685: Vielief in eommunicatio'i
with America, 351, 621 ; communi-
cation very remote, 100; connection
of civilization with tliat ot Amer-
ica, 700, 707; no r./.m in, for (ircat
Han, 210; or Fu-sang. 105; un-
known to Europeans, 454; llawaii-
ans said to have conu^ from. 102 ;
pyramids in, 601 ; veneration of the
cross in, 552 ; punishment of crime
in, 464.

Asiatics, common civilization of.C20;
use of arms by. 216; milk not used
by, 621 ; civilization of, similar to
that of Americans, 1 12, 142 : resem-
blance of, to Americans, 35, 30. 81,
87, 110, 111, 155, 158,172,184. 510;
civilization of, introduced into Fu-
sang, 450,470 ; names of their cities
applied to iinerican cities, 111.

Asiatic coast, Chinese knowledge of,
82.

Asiatic ecliptic, 144.

Asiatic Society, foundation of, 66,

Asiatic zodiac, its names repeated in
those of the Mexican months, 143.

Asoka, death of, 5.

Aspen Mountain, 644, and River, 003.

Assyrian n''t. analogies of, to that of
America, 200.

Astree, her place in tlie zodiac, 150.

Astronomer Hi-IIo, 250.

Astronomei-s of Hwano-ti, 221.

Astronomical globes, invention of,
221.

Astronomical ideas of Mexicans and
Asiatics, 148.

Astronomical observations — Chinese
never measured distances by. 330.

Ata-sil, eight Buddhist command-
ments, 567.

Ateles, a species of Mexican monkev,
490.

Atemoztli, a IMexiean month, 512.

Athenaeum, account published by,
202.

Atka, language of people of, 344.

AH, Aztec word for water, 150.

Atlantis, tales regariling, 50, 58.

t
1

. j':{ :

\A.l ^

a ■

■ ' «

«',••

■i {

INDEX.

745

in a vase,

;xicans and

Atlcahualco, a Mexican month, 512.
Atf)^! introduces writing into Japan,

mi.

Atnoirma, or

Atmma, tiio Japanese Country of
Women, 178, (>;]».

At ton Island, distance of, from other
islands, 9.

Atzarnalro, a ward of ^tcxioo, 309.

Aul)in. Mexican booits of, 1(17.

Aui<iand, Jjord, Director of Asiatic
Society, (iO.

Aureola," about liead of Buddha, 131,
13a.

Aurooin, origin of, 132.

Autlior's translations, reasons for, 259,
042.

Avatcha, a Kamtchatkan port, 23,
28.

Avcbury, monoliths of, GOl.

Avezac, de, con veisat ions with, 08.

Avocado-pear, a Mexican fruit, 587.

Axuni, idols at, 71.

Azores, wood from America thrown
on, 38.

Aztecs, resemblance of, to Japanese,
C2 ; said to have come from Asia,
84, 74; migrated from nortli, 32,
149 ; arrival at Analniac, 9(i ; at
Mexico, 302; migrations before
Toltec era. 300 ; flight at time of
conquest, 32 ; warlil<e nature, 190;
cruelty, 74, 90; dege, leration of,
574 ; not builders of Mexican pyra-
mids. 598 ; history of, does not nm
far back, 95 ; civilization derived
from Toltecs, 305 ; coincidences
with Asiatic civilization, 17, 700 ;
exiilana,tion of civilization of, 022 ;
religion, 157, 172; bloody nature
of, 77, 102 ; incongruity of, 574 ;
Noah called Coxcox, 140: mytholo-
gy, 154 ; resemblance of religion to
that of Asia, 170, 015; to Biul-
dhism, 97 ; to Roman Catholicism,
508 ; absence of Christian doctrines,
585 ; superstitions, 590 ; Hades of,
459, 590 ; religious onlers, 198 ;
duties of, 570 ; discipline, 577 ; as-
ceticism, 575 ; food, 577 ; garments,
580 ; marriage, 581 ; resemblance to
Buddhist priests, 582 ; a god of,
013 ; modesty of idols of, 013 ; be-
lief in return of (^uetznlcoatl, 547 ;
hieroglvphics or picture-writing, 34,
lOe, 421, 530 ; books, 107, 018 ; pa-
per, 98 ; astrononucal ideas like
those of Asia, 148 ; zodiac resem-
bling that of Asia, 149 ; not con-

fined to ^[exican animals, 149 ;
months same lus divisions of Asiatic
zodiac, 143 ; cycles, 143 ; divisions
of time, 475, 470; chronological sys-
tem of, 159; ci'.lendar, 144; new-
vear. 5(M) ; months of, used at Xiit-
ka. 108; week of live davs, 475,
571 ; day Afl, 145 ; laws, 99 ; pris-
ons, 459 : i)Uiiishnu'Mt of criminals,
437, 4<i4. 405 ; councils, |iower of,
430 ; monarchs, pomp of, 421, 423 ;
mantles worn by. 472 ; marriage
ceremonies, 479 ; slavery, 402 ; cot-
ton armour, 018; resembling that
of Tartars, 420; architecture resem-
bling that of Chinese, 155; monu-
ments near (Jila Itiver, 149; nu'tals
known, 431; iron unknown, 431;
art of casting metals, 572; working
gems, 410, 573; vases reseml)ling
those of .rapanes(>, 573; mirrors,
522; paints and dyes, 471 ; symbol-
ism of colours, OKi; dwellings,419;
garments, 017; cakes. 020, 70M ;
markets, 432 ; barter, 432; iis^s of
century-plant, 3H0 ; game of, 020;
toys given by, 020 ; music, 422 ;
mourning, 40(> ; dogs, 147; tamed
deer, 430 ; language, I'ules of. 540 ;
abbreviations in, 37(i; extension of,
3(i0, 307 ; language same as that of
Toltecs, 305 ; place-names, exten-
sion of. 300: words resen\l)ling Asi-
atic words. 150. term for milk, 397;
its meaning, 398. See, alao, Mexi-
cans.

Aztlan, civilization of, 149; meaning
of name. 500.

Azure Sea, Fu-sang in, 230.

Bacchacan, traditions regarding, 505.
Backgammon or p(trlii.si, ()2().
Bad Lands, beds of fossils in, 203.
Baikal, Lake, 24, 45, 120, 187, 215.
lidjiicos, Mexican trees, 018.
Jifilnnff-ko, Hindoo altars, 133.
Bald Mountain. 040.
Bamboos, shape of leaves of, 195.
Bamboo-sprouts, illustration of, 389;

edibility of, 390; mulberry-sprouts

do not resemble, 104.
Baml)oo books, 059, 005, 077.
Bamboo Mountain, 047.
Banana, leaves and fruit of, 082 ;

called pi-vtufl, 58. 405: identified

with the fu-sang tree, 042.
Bancroft, IL II., comments of, on

746

INDEX.

If ill

„:<r-:'N

?'' i;l

story of Fu-sang, 17; criticisms of,

Iliiplizo, Chinoso transcript ion of, 404.
JVinuli-re, opinion of M., 57;J.
IJarimriiins, C'liinosc nuniu for for-

eigni'j"s, 81. <SVr, rt/.so. Eastern anil

Northern I{iiri)arians.
Uarif, llhcr proiliKcd from, 891 ; used

for nialiiii;,' paper, 107; extract

used for niixinj; stucco, 005.
Barl<in^', by Ta'ii(;as, 100; ianguago

of Apaclies compared to, 517.
llarmauy, jmgodas of, 112.
liarter, by Aleuts, .550; by Mex* is,

4U2.
Basciues, visits of, to Xewfounuland,

ll;}.
Basque language 111. See,aIao,lius-

karian.
Biizin, M., article by, 070.
Beans, eaten in C!ountrv of Womei,

2VS, '314; raised by Aztecs, 517.
Bean Mountains, 048.
Bears, in Jesso, (181 ; cxterniinatod in

Aleutian Islands, ;J57.
Beards, diiTercnce of, among different

nati(ms, 35 ; iack of, by Chinese, 84.
Bearded men, traditions of, 490, 555.
Beasts of burden, none in America,

170, 190, 190, 481.
Beautiful Green Hills, 058.
Beavers, possibly described as sal)Ics,

534.
Begging, commanded to Buddhist

monks, 441.
Behring, discovery made by, 120.
Behring's Island, 9; tattooing on,

340.
Behring's Strait, prediction of its ex-
istence, 14; Mongolians near, 82 i'

Pacific gulf-strciim flows through,

9 ; easily crossed, 183.
Benares, C'hineso transcription o

404.
Bengal, nopal growing in. 70.
BhCtgavat PCirdnd, 152, 154.
Bhavani, wife of Siva, 546.
Bhikshu, title of Buddhist monks,

42, 540 ; meaning of term, 440.
Bhikshua, observances imposed on,

440.
Bibliography of discussion regarding

Fu-sang. 13, 205.
Big-bone Lick, bones found at, 428.
Biqnonia tnmentosa, said to bo the

T'UNG tree, 387.
Binapa, an Amazon town, 493.
Birch, i\Ir., Secretary of Royal So-
ciety, 29.

Binls, monkeys compared to, 535.

Birds which bear human bt-Migs, 22''
239, 534.

Birds with ^^air, 044: with rats' logs
054,080; with rats' tails, 051 ; witji
two heads, 001.

Birds, Valley of, 044.

Bisons found in Americ. . 59, 09. 115;
herds of, 109; descritiion of. 127,
in Montezuma's garden, 427; for-
nu-r range of. 4!:;7; not found on
Taciflc copst, 19(i; use as draught
animals, l09, 190; horn; of, 428;
weigh*^ of, 429; called vaccati, 115;
or " cattle," 420.

Bim7i Uitifrons, an extinct si)ccies,
428, 429.

Bitdia Gdnr, or Ganem, Oil, 012.

liitumen on iVI-jxican coast, 533.

Black dyi , bitumen used as, 533.

Black-haired race, Chinese so called,
498.

Black-IIip Country, COO, 0(i5.

Black-People's Kingdom. 4!)5.

Black Biver, or Black-dragon River,
the A moor, 87.

Black Stream. See Kurn-Siwo.

Black-Teeth Country, 182, 033, 044,
058, 004, G81.

Black Valley, 225, 532.

Blue and green confounded, 209, 471,
610.

Blumer. Rev. A., discovery of ele-
phant-pipe by, 610.

Boa-const"ic;:or, a symbol of the sun's
course, 73.

Boards used in constructing adobo
walls, 419.

Boats, of Alaskans, 29 ; with pelicans
at Ikdw, 108.

Bochica, the hero of the ISIuyscas,
543; teachings of, 500; came from
Asia, 143 ; a Buddhist priest, 102 ;
fabulous, 198; derivation of name,
501.

Bodhi-dharma, journey of. 440.

Bodhi-aaftwa, a class of Buddhists,
485 ; title of Kwan Yix, 4 ; defini-
tion of, 485.

Bodleian Library, Chinese maps in,
50 ; Mexican manuscript in, 404.

Bogota, people of, 60; possibly visited
by Buddhists, 62, 74 ; Japanese ori-
gui of, 03 ; civilization of, derived
from Asia, 15.

Bokhara, said to be Ki-pin, 123, 213.

Bonito, esfufos at, 4{J5.

Book of Changes. See Y Kixo.

Book of Exhortations. See 1 mn-yu.

INDEX.

747

Book of Filinl Piety. Sf IIiao Kino.

Hook of till' Flowers of tlu' Ijiiw, GIM.

Book of Moiuitains iiiul Seus. JSee
SiiAv Hai Kino.

Bnr)k of the VViiters. (574.

llooks burned in fliina, 220.

Books of Mexicans, 107, 018; of Tol-
tees, U(i; luado from ayiivo fiber,
31)1.

Border about seated flijure, 1152.

Borffian Museum, manuscript of, 145.

Borneo, voyages of j)e()j)lo of, Utf.

Born-iJudor, temple of, in Java, 01,
71, l;J5. (M)2.

Jios Ainericnnus, Sep Bison.

Jioa tuoHcfiafiin. See Musk-oxen.

Botany of Chinese, 2l;i.

b6tpvs, Jaj • lese transcription of, 42.

Jioi(n-zi)i. See WAn SiiXn.

Bows and arrows, in Kanitchatka, 90;
may have been used in Fu-saii}',
208.

Brahma, Chinese transcription of,
404.

Brahmanie hermit, Buddha a, 3.

Brahinanism, its persecution of Bud-
dhism, 5, 143, 440; mixture with
Buddhi m, 124, 120, 544 ; cruel rites
of, 102, 544; practices similar to
those of American tribes, 112, 198.

Brandies, divisions of time so culled,
082.

Brasseur do Bourbourg, references to,
10, 107, 500, 007.

Brazil visited by Scandinavians, 49,
03 ; road from, 503.

Brazos River, bones found near, 428.

Bread, of the Aztecs, 020.

Broad-fruit tree, 105, 100.

Breakers, about Aleutian Islands, 341.

Breasts, women destitute of, 300 ; fe-
male monkeys destitute of, 501, 502.

Bretschneider, Dr. E., letter from, 174.

Briciks, used in py ramids, 005.

Bridal processions in China, 478.

Bridges, suspension, in China and
IMexico, 018.

Bright Star Mountain, 004.

Britains, Civsar's account of, 335.

British Columbia. Chinese coins found
in, 184 ; carved posts of Indians of,
352.

British Islands, a possible route to
America, 37.

Bronze, used by the Aztecs. 98.

Broummetiaprtpyrifera, 177 ; identi-
fied as the fu-sang tree, 235 ; not
found in ]\Iexico, 230; used for
making paper, 638.

Brown, Uev. Natlian, Essay by, 101.

Buaclie, Philippe, map madt> by. li»|,

Buddha, Idrtii of, 1; liis father, 1 ;
education 2 ; abandonment of his
family, 3; his sujiposed discovery,
3 ; his universal charity, 2, 3. 4 ; his
command to teach his doctrine to
all the world. 4, 125; dress pre-
scribed by, 552, 553; his death,
580; meaning of the apnellation,
2; his names, 1, 2, 5H7; liis name
in Chinese, 123, 404, 595 ; wide dis-
tribution of images of, 171 ; images
in Japan, 028, (>29; image in Lon-
don, 5; supposed inuiges of in Yu-
catan. 01, 71, 72, 77, 127. 128. 134,
199,594; foot-prints of, 553 ; pyra-
mids devoted to worship of, 001 ;
symbolized by the elephant, OOH;
and l)y the cross, 552; anomaly in
teachings of, 585; his command a
sulllcient motive for journey to
America, 084; means for attaining
the rank of, 3; similarity of Quet-
zalcoatl to, 0, 112.

Buddhism, geiitle nature of. 74, 102;
its acceptance of dogmas of other
faiths, 97, 124; its respect of the
gods of India, 124; of caste. 124;
its proselyting sjiirit. 4. 80, 125; its
mixture with Brahinanism, 124,
120, 544; and with Sivaism. 72,
124; i)ei>ecution by Brahmans, 01,
03, 143, 440 ; expui.Mon from Cen-
tral India, 5; persecution in China,
447; spread in China. 440; its in-
troduction throughout Asia. 5, 80;
in Japan, 47, 110, 121. 104, (528.035,
041; in Corea, 02; in Eastern Si-
beria, 153 ; in Fu-suiig, 290 ; traces
of in Alaska, 0; in Europe, 5; in
Mexico, 90; its three jewels, 125;
morality jjivaclied ai)ove ritualism,
125; permitted only fruits and
flowei-s as olTeriiigs. 133; recom-
mended penance, 120; books of,
asked for by Coreans. 527; trans-
lated into Chinese, 440; brought to
Japan, 035; decalogue, 500 ; thought
to have been influenced by Chris-
tianity. 509 ; resemblance to Roman
Catholicism, 508, 585; attempt to
connect doctrines of Lao-tse with,
79; resemblance of Aztec religion
to. 172. 582.

Buddhists, failure of to comply with
their rules. 585; eat fiesh, 09, 580;
but no milk, 09, 021.

Buddhist monks, travels of, 7, 80, 193 ;

748

INDEX.

ti\i.. ■)
!■' 1,'r;'!

rwords of jouriii'vs of, 8, 10; visits
to Nortli('u>l»'rir Asia. VIH, IHH;
roiitt; nortli of CliiiKi, 1H(I; iKissibio
journeys to Aiiicricu, Wi, 14;J; ob-
ject of tlici'- triivels, 10, 11, 80, 125;
division iiitoeliisscs, 7; rc(|iiin'mi'nt
to tmvel in «'.>'MiMinica, 44(1; tlicir
character .lit due to their

accounts, pirrnents of, TiOT;

vows an«i duties of, 440, 582; pen-
ances of, .WJ ; jiunisiiinent of for in-
continence, 584 ; arts tau^riit by, 572,
020; councils of, 5; monasteries,
5(llj; nunneries, 58U.
Buddhist structures, tem]iles in Ja-
pan, 028; moiuisterios and convents,
125 ; nionunu'iits jieur Ainoor Ki ver,
120, 1!{8; resemblance to Mexican

{ivramids, 001-000 ; sanctuary at
'aleiKiue, 127; altars, \m, 134.

Buihlhn (hvjn, ruins of, 545.

HufTaioes. .SV« Hisons.

Buildiuf^'s upon pyramids. 001.

Hull, the bison so'called, 427.

Jiitrefa Teno, Kniperor of .Tapan, 104.

Burial of dead, by American trilK's,
159.

Burlingamc, ]Mr., Chinese embassador,
170.

Burmah received Buddhists, 5 ; dress
of priests of, 585; badge of rank
used in, 000.

Burning Mountain. 225. 28j*. 5n0.

Burning of books in China, 220.

Burning of dead in Asia and Amer-
ica, 159.

Buriiouf, Emile, 07. 678.

Butter, made from milk of hinds. 100;
in Fu-s)ing, 895; not used in China,
390 ; or many other Asiatic coun-
tries, 021.

Cabul, said to 1)e Cophcne, 440 ; nopal-

plant found in, 70.
Caoulistan, the country of Ki-pin, 77.
Cabul Iliver, said to be the Cophene,

445.
Cacao, used as a medium of exchange,

98. 432.
Cacique, title of Indian chiefs, CO.
Cactus, Mexico its native home, 394;

introduction of from America, 77.
Cacumatzin, visit to Cortez, 433 ; path

swept before, 017.
Ca'sar. his account of tlie Britnins,

335; repeated by Maundevile, 330 ;

mistakes of, 451.
Cakchicjuels, garments of, 391.

Cukes maile by the Mexicans, 020.

Calabiusli, carried liy priests, 5M().

Calcutta, ccK'hiiu'al insects in, 70.

Calendar of Mexicans, 143, 144, 501,
571; introduced by t^uelzalcnati,
547; introduction of Chinese in
.Tapan, (CiO.

California, route to from (,'hina, 22;
gidf-stream on coast of, 9; Chi-
neso and .Fapanes<' vessels on coa^t
of. 9,31, 101, KIH; Fu-sang situated
near, 20, 33,55, 103; but not Fu-
sjing, 1!>0; bisons in, 427; ileerof,
1(K); vines of, 415; Wi'llini/tonia
of, 219; climate of, 75; tales of
Anuizons in, 489; Indians of, 501;
their dwellings, 518,

Calli, Aztec word lor house, 150,

Calmucks, zodiac of, 149.

Camaxtli, name of lluitzilopochtli,
381 ; story regarding. 590.

CainlM)ge, received Muildhists, 5.

Campeachy, image found at, 571.

Camphor-plant, eaten bv animals, 511.

Camphor-wood trees, thrown on Un-
ulaska, 9.

Canada, moccasins used in, 75 ; monu-
ment with Tartarian characters in,
112; reindeer of, 70; resemblanco
of natives to Tungiises, 112.

Canadian voyageurs, their name for
s<ige-brush,510.

Canary Islands, visited l)y Arabs, 87;
voyages of natives of, 38.

Canassatego, an Onondaga chief, 349.

Canilahar, said to Ik" Ki-imx, 445, 440.

Cannibalism, in Asia and America,
158.

Canoes of the Aleuts, 122.

CaHon of the Colorado River. 532.

Cantico, Mexican story of, 014.

Canton, ico seldom foimd at, 354;
distance of from Pekin, 330.

Cape of the Women of Yucatan, 489,

Cape Verd Islands, visited by Aral's,
38.

Cappelen, M. van der, drawing of, 71.

Capricornus, a nuirino monster, 145.

Capuchin monkeys, 498; origin of
name, 500.

Caracorum, the Mongolian capital, 44,
187; on route to Great II.vx, 23;
Chinese transcription of, 404.

Carl«)nate of lime, use of by Aztecs,
005.

Caribs, defense of homes by women,
489.

Carnelians, found in Alaska, 350.

Carolinas, called Great Ireland, 92.

INDEX.

749

}s bv women,

CftrtlmKiniiiiiH nrfiuaiiitcil with At-
laiili-*, ■*»(!.

Cnrls ill Kii-Hiuiff, 24. 2S«I, 4S0; nrmo
ill •laptin, (t4<); or Aiiii'iica, IIH);
"tli(^ thri'c." II Muddliist tfiiii. \H{.

('iirviii;,'s of llaidiili liidiiiiis, ;t.VJ.

CaxHH (fnindi'M, const nut imi of. 411*.

( 'axil men', saiil to \h' Ki-imn. 445,

Casiiimi Soa, known to C'liinusc, 218,
240.

Cassiar. Cliiiioso coins foiintl at, 184.

Ca.Hlc, existing' ni India, 2.

C'astclnan, M. dc, oxen found by, 00.

Castiiij; metals, art of, r)72.

('ataidino, Fatlicf, removal of. .WJ.

C'atliav, lK)ats from, 1(U); meclianism
maile in, Ti?:! ; luiinu t-ontained in
(^iiafu-zaca. 74.

Cattle, of America, IJU, !!"), 114; intro-
duced into Mexico, 427; not raised
in .lapaii, (Cil, (140; term a|)pli(>d to
other animals, 42(1; striped liku
tip'i-s, (!44, (171); with a seriient's
tail, (JoO; with a horse's tail, (riU;
with ono foot, 007; probably pho-
caeeans, 071).

Cattle-carts of Fii-sanp, 280. 480; of
India, 04; mctaphorie use of term,
485.

Cattle-horns of Fu-sang, 210, 284,
424.

Catualcans, oommerco of, 31.

Cavotes, a tribe of the Apaches, 517.

Celestial Mountains, visits to. 8.

Celibacy of Hudilhist priests, 582;
not universal, 585.

Cempoa/fepec, a Mexican mountain,
5:J8, 5;}1).

Centaurs, description of, 454.

Centenarians in Japan, 024. 031.

Cenfi'otl, goddess of maize, 578.

Centli, Aztec term for maize, 315.

Central America, belief of people of,
401 ; colours distinguished in, 471 ;
volcanoes of, 531 ; mirrors used in,
524; false arch in ruins of, 005;
monuments, 71 ; ityrainids, 598 ;
niuilogies to those of Asia. 001, (i03,
003 ; analogies of arts, 700 ; ex-
planation of civilisation, 022.

Central Flower, China so called, 80.

Century-plant. Set Agave.

Ceres, place of, in z.idiac, 150.

Cervus JlexicaJins, 09. 75.

Cfitii, an imaginary planet, 72.

Ceylon, origin of, 488; conquest of,
405 ; visited by Buddha, 553 : re-
ceived Buddhists. 5 ; religion of,
125; caste in, 585; pyramids of,

002 ; married priests in, 5H5 ; om-

bassv from, 440; Adam's I'eak, 72.
CiiA Hill, 050.

ChiKinnol, an Americaf figure, 000.
Chacahua, 70, 77.
CliHcamarca, journev of Tonapa along,

505.
Chain, arguments not like links of,

709.
Cha-kiu country, 057.
Chalcas, expedition against, 409.
i'hdliliiluutl, a Mexican gem, 410;

and a title, 417.
Clialdea, radiation of civilization

from. 131.
ChamlMTs in jtyramids, 500, 001.
Cliametla, (iii/man's army at, 491.
Chan, an American tribe. 111.
CnA.N, a poisonous bird, 050.
Chan', a wind, 0(i5,
Cii'AN River, 049.
Chinu'cs, api)lication of doctrine of,

359.
CnAS()-noA. a Chinese author, 074.
CiiAX(i-jix, Kingdom of (Jiaiits, 30.
CiiAXd-K'iAN, a Chinese general, 42.
Chao-uao, spirits of, reign of, 071.
CnAo-noA, commentary by, 073.
CiiAo-siii, commentary by, 073.
CiiAo-siE.v, or Corea, 178, 030, 035,

081.
CiiAo-vANo, or Corea, 057, 081.
Chao-vao, mountain, 005.
C/Kipati, cakes made in India, 020.
C/ifijmpodi, description of. 533.
Charlemagne, fables r( garding, 95.
Ch>«"'"s IV, Duke, globe of, 370.
Ch». .'voix. Father, 504.
Chan ly, M. do, photographs by, 133,
Chattering of monkeys, 498.
Chaves, Gabriel de, 017.
Chk, Chinese characters for, 405.
Cn'E, character for " cart," 481.
Chedshen, members of Aleutian fam-
ily, 90.
Cheese, of Fu-sang, 305 ; not made in

America, 59, 190; not used in

China, 390.
CiiEH-TAX, a god, 005.
Chen Kiver, 054.

Chepewyans, an American tribe, 346.
Chettro" Kettle, estufas at, 435.
CiiEU dynasty, 8.3.
CnEiT-pu-ciiANo, arrow found bv,

002.
CnEU-Li, n Chinese book, 647.
Cheu-paxo-vex, a Chinese poet, 675.
Chi Kivcr, (545.
Chiapas, or Zacatlan, 200, 501, 587.

760

INDEX.

m<'^

li-,:!l

CliiliclinH, a South Aiiioricaii trilH>,

riiiciifn, (Miific.'s of, n()2, (m.

(.'Iiiiht'ii-It/H, Ims-ri'lu'f at, V<M; tlirco

brotliiTH of, r»r»7.
Chichilticiilo, aiiiinitls found nciir,

Cliicliimi'cns. history of. ;}2, (I'i, UOM ;

(Ifcr Ui'pt l>y, 4;M).
CfiironiihiKipdn, ii river in HiwIoh,

f'liiK-KKi', II species of bird, (lol.

('mil, or foot, len^'lh of, ICJl.

Cliiliuiiliua, liisons in, 4'iH.

C/n/nn Hula in, TmI, r).*))*.

C'iiiiilreii, iimnner of ciirryinpr, 020;
toys j,'iven to, (120 ; school ii^je, 4(K\ ;
sold as slaves, 4(i;J; treatment of
illeffiliinate, 4(i:{.

Chili, tradition in, r»(t4.

I'himnltizntl, a species of stono, 471.

('himiziipH;jiia. «SV(' Hochiciu

Chiinsean Iiulians, WTyi.

Cm IX, Ku-sang treo said to resemble,
210.

Cm'i.v, a Chinese dynasty, 40,

China, called the Land of Han, :i:]8;
the "Central Flower," r>7; capital
of, 82 ; introduction of Buchlhisin,
5, 7, (12; history of Kuddhisin in,
440; marriage of priests in, .'58.');
travels of monks from, 80 ; condi-
tiim in days of Ilwui Shiln, 440;
einigratiim from, 8:) ; pyramids in,
001; ice in, 854; adolm 'walls, 410;
vines in, 110; contpiest of, by Mon-
gols, 84 ; Fu-sang east of, 820 ; dis-
tance to, 228; route from, to (}reat
Han, 120; relations with Kain-
tchatka, 128, 188; with Corea,r)27;
^vith Japan, 080; with Pacific isl-
ands, 101 ; journeys from, to India,
10, 118, 44(1; voyages to America,
100.

China, Oreat Annals of, 200.

Chinese, mystery of origin of, 220;
not credulous, 220; lii)eral with
numbers, 175; precepts, 78, 70;
vanity, 78, 80; insults to foreign
nations, 80, 88; travels of, 18, 10,
70 ; knowledge of foreign lands, 10 ;
may have visited America. 80, 104,
l(t8, 241; no proof, 122; traces in
British Columbia, 184; fragments
of ship, 101 ; acquaintance with
Japan. 178. 180, 229; with Ainos,
84: with LiEU-KrKr, 87; with Ha-
waii. 100; knowledge of Fu-sang,
12, 254, 042; of Kamtchatka, 180:

of Asiatic coast, 82; of Pacific isl-
ands, 88, (188; mistakes as to for-
eign nations, 81 ; iiupiiries reganl-
ing foreign nations, 420, .MK; de-
mand for trilaite, 520; cii>^tciiii of
giving toys, 020 : noii-u>e of dairy
produits,' l(K), 800, (121 ; marriage
ceremonies, 470; nuiurniiig - gar-
ments, 408; method of arranging
hair, 408; salt, 508; koumiss, ;«•(!;
visits of foreigners, 70 ; hoi><es. \H\ ;
roads, 880; suspension - i)ridgi's,
OIK; knowledge of compass, 1 1;) ;
notaciiuainted with glass, 524; em-
iteror's garments, 471 ; laws punish-
ing family of criminals, (14 ; nuns,
588 ; persecution of Huddhisin,
447; cycles, 221 ; zodiac, 145; eal-
endar,'08(); new-year, 400; stand-
ards of measure, 820; li not used
in Japan, 881 ; customs in Fu-sang,
05, 212, 284; architecture similar
to that of Mexicans, 155; resem-
blance to American tribes, 112, isi,
510; maps show Fu-sang, 50. )»4 ;
account of pyemies, 405 ; of fairies,
401; of monkeys, 514; of fiying-
men, 585; botanical classillcatioiis,
218; accounts of Amazons, 4hs,
480; of kingdoms of women, 218;
of fu-sang tree, 809 ; engraving of
native of Fu-sang, 75; burning of
books. 220 ; Geography of tiie
\V(.rld, 242.
Chinese language, peculiarities of. 250,
408 ; characters, how composed,
887 ; meaning of i)hrases, 25(1 ;
deficiencies of dictionaries, 257;
transcriptions of foreign words,
258, 257, 404, 414; inability to ex-
press certain sounds, 284, 408, 418;
changes in, 700 ; changes in sound
of characters, 404 ; method of writ-
ing Sanskrit words, 440; love of
brevity, 855; lack of punctuation,
858; difficulty of translating, 255;
etymologies, 889 ; substantive verbs,
444; signs of jjlural, 481 ; transla-
tions of names, 880 ; grammar, 17 ;
use in Japan, 029 ; not connected
with American languages, 14;
names in America, 111; term for
Gautama, 558 ; for Buddha. 128,
404,495; names of constellations,
528; authorities for account of Fu-
sang, 200 ; account of Fu-sang. 2(»2 ;
of Country of Women. 802 ; of laii(l
of " IMarked Bodies." 810 ; of Great
Han, 324 ; differences between dif-

INDEX.

751

forcnf v('r»irn\ Sflt ; nnrolialtility
of ti'XtM, 1M(I; llwui Slirti\ im|M'r-
fi'clly tu(|Uuinlcil with, T(rt).

ClliNd, iiCliiiit'M- Hinldhist tcriii. 4H4.

('/liiif/i/iH Cliukan, rffciviico to, y2,

t'lllNd-MlT clusHic, (ir)l>.

CiiiN-NoNd. Iloi'lial of. (174.

Cliinodk Imliiins. (I.'xriiitioii of, 7.*).

l'lii|i|)c\v(i lun^'iuip-, 'M)H\ Iniilitiuiis,
(ill.

Chiiinito laiif;iia>ro. 111.

(.'Iiirii{uaiu>s, ruHciiihlaiicu to Asiatics,
U'i.

('iii-siit'Al. (liitii's of the, G;13.

Cii'i-Yir, H wildicr, <1(J7.

Cirii'-Yf. a HiM'cics of aiiiinal, (140.

C'hirim, laiiil from wliich Volaii tamo,
541».

riii-\vi-Mix(i-siii-Tt'-K'.\o, 170. 177.

Ciio-LoNu, till) Luminous Dragon,

riiocolato, used by Aztecs, 433.

Cliolollan. monuments of. ',W,\.

Cliolula. ri'ijcn of t^uftzalcoatl at, 107,
541, 543; monuments of, 142, 3(>3,
(UH, (i()5 ; entranoo of C'ortez, 154,
423.

Cfittrlinii. See Ko-M-HAN.

L'liristianity, spread of. 570; influ-
ence of Huddliism upon, 570; al)-
.'icnce of its doctrines in Mexico,
5H5; influences on Auu'rican trilx's,
100 ; its slight elleot upon the Az-
tecs, 457.

Clironich' of the kingdoms of Wu and
YiK. (i73.

Chronological systems of Asia and
America, 150.

Cii'u or Ciiu-sAXO, the pnpnr-mull)er-
ry, 038 ; not the fu-sang tree, (i4().

CuiKX-Hio, dehige in time of, 145;
sj)irits of reign of. 071.

Ciiu-JiT, or Pygmy Ctmntry, 405, 033.

('ni:-j(\ a species of animal, 040.

Cnu-KKU M(mntain, 052.

Cliulotecas. a tribe of Xicarngua, 4^0.

Cliumur, Akab, Maya term for mid-
night. 470.

Ciu'xo. a species of locust. 040.

Chi'xq Nam Shan, account given by,
254.

Ciu'XG-siiEu-KiANG-cu'iNo, a clty, 23,
44.

CiiUN-TsiEU. See " Spring and Au-
tumn."

Chl'xo-Yuxo's Country, 003.

CiUM'iKH fish, or cuttle-fish, 048.

Chusan Ishmders, 033.

Chu-shing lliver, 045.

('u!'-stii', nr " nambno Hiniks." flml-
ing of, 077.

("iit-sni'. Land of. Ml

('nwA\(i-cni;i', an auliinr. <>51>.

CuwAXti-rsz', an authnr. 050. OlW,

CiiWKX-srn. a Cliine-e emperor, 001.

CilKila. description of. 170; meaning
of name. 4')7; l>i-.ons of. 115. 100;
sheep of. 430; vines of, 11(1; prick-
ly-pears preserved in, 305; Palen(iue
liot situated in, 2INI.

Cicuye, welcome of Alvanido at, 424.

Cii/iittfini. Sfit Ci/iinif/du.

Ciiiiiacatzin. an A/.tec gi-neral, 401.

('i/nt(n<)<tfl,nu Aztec ollhiid. 407, 548.

Cihufit/, Aztec word lor woman, 51 1.

C'i/iuatlamj)a thecall, the west wind,
400.

CihiKiflan, the Mexican " Place of
Women," 400. 401,402.

Ci/iHdt/diK/Hi', Aztec marriage bro-
kers. 470.

Cinaloa, distance of, from Mexico, 427.

("inteotl, the Mexican Ceres, 150.

Cintli. Aztec term for maize, 517.

('iparf/i, descrii>tion of, 145.

Circular pyramids, (MM*, 001 ; and
temples, (»04.

Cities in Asia and America witii the
sanu' names. 111.

Civilization, radiation of, from Chal-
dea, 131; on banks of Anioor. 13H.
187; of AnuM-ican tribes, l(i8; of
New Mexico, 123; of Toltecs. 100;
of America on Pacific coast. 31,
173, 708; connection of American
and Asiatic. 14, 17. 11!». 142, 150,
100 ; of Mexico, ex|)lanat ion of, 022,

Clams, with jiearly shells, (»48.

Classic of tlu! Eastern Mountains, 044.

Chissic of Mountains ami Seas. See
SiiAX IIai Kixo.

Clavigero, reliability of, 00; reply to
criticisms, 022.

Clear River, 054.

Clement of Alexandria. 570.

Climate, of Kamtchat ka, 80 ; of Aleu-
tian Islands, 121 ; ami Alaska, 122;
of northwest coast of America, 0.

Cloth made by Aztecs, 302 ; from
fiber of century-plant, 384.

Clothing, of p<'"o|)le of Country of
Women. 314. Si-e, aim, (Jarments.

Co, meaning of Aztec termination,
373. 400. '

Coahuila. Itisons in, 428.

rVf//. definition of. 54M.

Coatlicue, mother of Iluitzilopochtli,
014.

(If'

•II

752

INDEX.

Coatzacoalcos River, 367, 308,

Coaxai/ncayo tilmutli, nu Aztec man-
tle, 473.

Coehin-China, embassy from, 114.

Cochineal, 70, 77, 471.

Cocoa-nut water, use of, 005.

Coco-Marie()i)a courtship, 434.

Vocomes, reign of, 558.

Cocoons, not made by silk-worms of
Fu-s)uig. 524.

Code of Competitive Examinations,
070.

Codex Jiorf/iamts, 153.

Codex Troano, 108.

Coins, Chinese, found in British Co-
lumbia, 184.

Colimonte, a ilexiear. provinct?, 401.

Collars, an indication of slavery, 405.

Colon, Fernando, map drawn by, 370.

Colopeus, king of Amazonia, 488.

Colorado, Village Indians of, 501.

Colorado River, country near, 74 ;
defensive works near, 198.

Colorado liiver Cailon, 533.

Colours, in Asia, 470; in Central
America, 471 ; in jMexico, 473 ; blue
and green confounded, 471 ; con-
nection with divisions of time, !)9,
470; used to designate years, 209,
234 ; coimected with days of week,
475; with points of compass, 475,
015; coloiH's of garments of king
of Fu-sang, 283, 470 ; of priests of
Salvador, 473 ; placed upon corpses,
475 ; of courier's dress, 475 ; of
walls of temples, 615; of inhab-
itants of Country of Women, 505 ;
of Mexican monkeys, 500.

Columbia River, Fu-sang near, 55,
68; Lewis & Clark's journey to,
75 ; bar at mouth of, 09 ; villages
near. 00; customs in valley of, 501.

Columbus, i)receded in America, 49;
reasons for expecting to find land,
38 ; called American tribes " In-
dians," 230 ; brought cattle to
America, 437.

Comitl, a Mexican hero, 5G0.

Comitlan, nuisic at, 424.

Companions of the jMoon, zodiacal
divisions, 144.

Compass, knowledge of, by Chinese,
101, 113; introducti(m into Japan,
037 ; colours connected with points
of. 475. 015, 010; leading point of,
615 ; described as a crow with eight
feet, 078.

Con, a I'eruvinn tradition about, 560.

"Concerning Fu-sang," 181.

Conclusions to which Ilwui Shiln's
story should lead, 341.

Confession, practiced by Buddhists,
126, 509; in Mexico, 198; and in
Nicaragua, 579.

Confinement, places of, 270. See,
aim. Prisons.

Confucius, dilliculty of understand-
ing, 356; Cm'N-TsiEU, or "Spring
and Autunm" of, 043, 049, 003,
074; KiA-vr, or "Familiar Dis-
courses" of, 073; demolition of
house of. ()73.

Conifers, called Chin, 319 ; their
resemblance to the century-i)lant,
319.

"Considerations (leographiriues," 14.

"Consideration of the Western and
Southern Kingdoms," 074,

Consistency, need of, in interpreta-
tion, 343'.

Constantinople, Chinese transcription
of, 404.

Constellations, designation of, 523.

Contice, a Peruvian tradition about,
500.

Continence of Mexican priests, 575,
581.

Continental Magazine, an article from,
15.

Convents established by Buddhists,
125.

Cook's Voyages, vocabularies in. 14.

Copan. a colony of Toltees, 305 ; ]ivra-
mids at, 000; bas-relief at. 200."

Cophene, description of, 133, 233 ;
identification of, 445, 446; called
Ki-riN bv Chinese, 43; Buddhism
in, 440 ; Ilwui Shiln, a native of, 709.

Copper, found in Japan. 47 ; first use
of, ()39, 036 ; imperfect purification
of. 030; in America, 58. 117. 433;
used by Aztecs, 98, 431 ; in Fu-
sang, 288, 4;$! ; leaves of fu-sang
tree said to resemble, 387.

Copper Iwlls made in America. 74.

Cojipor Islands, near Kanitchatka, 9.

Coppermine River, 58.

Coral-tree, a mythical tree. 410.

Corea, names of. (i81 ; named Ciiao-
siEX, 178, 030. 635.657, 681 ; Chao-
VAxa, 657, 681 ; Valley of Sunrise,
243; origin of name, 54!), 620; in-
tercourse with Ja])an, 332, 625. 630,
630 ; route to Japan. 634 ; and dis-
tance, 65; conquered by Chinese,
178. 630; intercourse with China,
527; Ma Twan-lin's account of,
209; Hyperboreans situated near,

INDEX.

753

mi Shilu's

Buddhists,
)8; uud in

270. See,

ndprstnnd-
jr "Spriiif?
, C4!), ()(•;{,
iiiliar Dis-
nolilion of

219 ; their
itury-i)laiit,

liqnes," 14.
ri'storn and
574.
interpreta-

ransci'iption

,n of. 023.
lition about,

priests, 570,

article from,

r Buddhists,

[\ries in, 14.
;s, iU).-); ]iYra-
f at. 200."
f, 123, 233;
44(5; called
; Buddhism
ativeo{,709.
47 ; first use
purification
W, 117, 432;
[431 ; in Fu-
(if fu-sang
1587.

lerica, 74.
Initehatka, 9.

t^e. 4ir».
lamed Chao-
f, 081 ; CiiAO-
Iv of Sunrise,
|r)49, ()2G ; in-
1332, «2r*, (130,
1)34 ; and dis-
l)V Chinese,
with t'liina.
account of,
buatod near,

55 ; Mongolians near, 82, 87 ; writ-
ing used l)v, 527; old records, 172;
their small value, 527; tigers once
found in, (!81 ; Ilwui Shiln journey-
ed through, 527; silk-worm eggs
from Fu-sang taken to, 224, 238,
525; introduction of Buddhism, 5,
02 ; dresses of Buddhist priests,
507; journeys from, 80; liorses in-
troduced. 100; route to Great Hax,
58; same title found in, as in Fu-
sang, 20!*; knowledge of Fu-sang
in, 12; i, stoiy told in, 250; not
Fu-sang, 402 ; length of li or ri used
in, 332; (.irean lishing-lwats, 515.

Coi'nice, upon iei:u)le at Mictlan, 000.

Corpse, wrappings of, in Mexico, 475.

Cortez, expedition of, 109; entrance
into Cholul.i, 154; welcomed by
nuisic, 423 ; visited by Cacumatzin,
433, 017; use of name "Mexico"
bv, 372 ; presents sent by, to (Juirles
V, 572 ; title bestowed on, 417 ;
army of, fed on prickly-pears, 395.

Cosmogonal traditions of Mexico, 158.

Cosmogonies of America and Asia,
143.

Costa Rica, light-coloured inhabitants
of, 500.

Cotton, description of plant, 450;
Chinese name of flower-bud, 415;
cloth made by Aztecs, 517; armour
made of quilted, 420, 018.

Councils, for judging criminals, 435 ;
of American Indians, 430.

Courier, symbolism of dress of, 475.

Courteous Vassals, country of, 004.

Courtship, customs of, in Fu-sang,
00, 290, 432; in America, 00; in
Mexico, 99 ; among Apaches, 433 ;
among Coco-JIaricopas, 434.

Cousin, Jean, of Dieppe, discovery of
America by, 193.

CowmuU, or Cophes River, 445.

Coxcox, tlie A/tec Noah, 140.

Cozumel, cross at, 550.

Crabs, of Fu-sang, 225 ; of Japan, 84 ;
of NU-C'HEU, 000.

Crab- Barbarians. See Ainos.

Creamy dishes of Fu-sang, 395.

Creeping Plants, mountain of, 044.

Cremation in Mexico, 407.

Criminals, punishment of, in Fu-sang,
208, 274, 4:54, 457, 404 ; in Japan,
032 ; in land of " ^Marked Bodies,"
357; by Aztecs, 405; families iu-
cluded in, 04.

Critien, a zodiacal sign, 150'.

Criticisms of Jlexican historians, 621.

Crocodile, resemblance of CipactU to,
145.

Crook, General, statement of. 532.

Crosier, carried by Buddhist lamas,
509.

Cross, veneration of, in Asia, 552; a
sign of peace, 552 ; on robe of
Quetzalcoatl, 542 ; in America, 549 ;
as an ornament, 551 ; emblem of
god of rain, 551 ; theory regarding
existence of, 550.

Cross-legged figure at Palenque, 127,
199 ; and at Copan, 200.

Crow with eight feet, 078.

Cuaxolotl, Mexican story of, 014.

Cuba, occupation of, 550.

Cuepopan, a ward of Mexico, 370.

Cucrnavaca, liorns found at, 09.

Cukulcan, culture-hero of Yucatan,
550, 557, 558.

Culba, or

Culhua, name of a gold-producing
region, 370.

Culiac^m, worship of serpents in, 530.

Cundinamarca, visited by Buddhists,
03.

Currant-bush sprouts, eaten by monk-
eys, 511.

Curtains, hung before doors, 518.

Curved swords, in Mexico, 00(5.

Cuttle-fish, Chinese, description of,
054, 079.

Cuzco, monuments of, 143.

Cycles, cliaractors used for, 209 ;
names of vears of, 41, 470: colours
used to (\esignate, 209; ten-year,
00, 194; sixty-year, 04, 234; begin-
ning of, 221; of Mexicans and
Asiatics, 143; of Aztecs, 99.

Cynocephali, 244, 451, 517.

Cyprus, sculpture from, 129.

Ddgobas, of Ceylon, 002.

JJairi, a Japanese ruler, 038; gar-
ments worn by. only once, 017.

Damitsi, expedition of, against Jesso,
027.

Dancing, of Alaskans, etc., 347,

Daourian region, tribes of, 187.

Darien, punishment of criminals in,
4:J7.

Darkness, explorers stopped by, 37.

Davenport Academy of National Sci-
ences, 009, 010.

D)ivs, divisions of, by Mexicans, 475,
470.

Day's journey, lenylh of, 329^,334.

754

INDEX.

Dead, a 8tono interred with the, G17 ;
feast of tile, 5!>1.

Death, ceremonies at, among Aztecs,
406.

Decadence of art, in America, 132.

Decalogue of th« Buddhists, 500.

Decipiierers, triclis of, 100.

Deer, of Fu-sang, 280, 424 ; thought
to have been milked, 395 ; suj)posed
to be reindeer, 190; used as draught
animals, 109 ; not reared by Japa-
nese, 104; possessed by Americans,
109 ; said to have been milked, 59 ,
description of, 09 ; kept in Florida,
4^1 ; tamed by jMexicans,430; range
of, 100 ; gait of, 452 ; horses so called,
483 ; metaphoric use of the tt'rm,
485 ; Island of, 75. iSee, also. Hinds.

Deer-carts, said to be used in Fu-sang,
480.

Delos, Temple of, 129.

Deluge, traditions regarding, 131 ; in
time of Chuen-Hiu, 145; draining
the waters of, 071.

Demons, Chinese term for foreigners,
81.

Ih'tu'b Kaifns, a star, 145.

Dene-dindjies, nui"sing of children by,
501.

Denmark, scholars of, 49.

Details, necessity for examination of,
343.

Deuca lions, celebrated among Scyth-
ians, 140.

Dera, introduction of the word into
Mexico, 589.

Devils, Chinese term for foreigners,
88.

Dhamma-pada, the Pali scriptures,
458.

Dharma, the Buddhist " Law," 458.

Dictionaries, deficiencies of Chinese,
257.

Diftlcnltiesof translating Chinese, 257.

Difflculties, to be expected, 12, 342,
454 ; which theory lias least? 358.

Dignmlxtraii, or gymnosophists, 443.

Diniinishiiig River, 045.

" Dissipation of Sorrows," G59, 661.
*SV(', aim, Fii-SAO.

Distances, not measured accurately,
103, 180, 189, 243, 334; but given
with ai)proximate accuracy, 334.

Distressed People's Country, 000.

Ditches, in land of " Marked Bodies,"
322 ; about dwellings of Arikaras,
354.

"Divine Book," a possession of the
Toltccs, 90.

DJourdje, the Mantchoos, 187 ; or
their ancestors, 45.

Doctrine of Chances, application of
359.

Dogs, in Fu-sang, 225, 239. 534: in
Kamtchatka, 89 ; in America, 109,
170 ; in Mexico, 147 ; ust'd as
draught animals, 32; and boasts of
burden, 179, 481 ; a Chinese term
for foreigners, 81 ; kingdom of, 220;
guides to Hades, 590; chaiigo of
Cantico into, 014 ; six-legged, 044 ;
possibly seals, 079 ; sacritico of,
047.

Dog's lieads, men and monkeys with,
312, 517. See, aim, Cyno(!ephuli.

Dog-rib Indians, tattooing of, 340.

I)ome-shaj)ed edifices, 002, 004.

Don, the River, 487.

Doors, none used by American tribes,
518.

Doorways of California dwellings,
518.

Dragon, descriptions of, 450, 455 ;
varieties of, 070 ; the Luminous,
225, 239, 532; the cause of eclipses,
72, 73, 157; figure of, at Uxinal.
73 ; worship of, in Mexico, 157 ;
gods with heads of, ()47.

Dragon-horses, description of, 450.

Draught animals, none in America,
170, 190, 190, 481.

Dresden Manuscript, 167.

Dress, of people of Fu-sang, 75 ; of
Indians near Columbia River. 75 ;
of Buddhist monks, 442, See, also,
Garments.

Driftwood, said to float to TIax, 341.

I)rinkal)lc water. See Smiii River.

Drought, omen of, 045, (540. 650, 055.

Drums, of Mexicans, 421, 422.

Drunkenness, punishment of, 437.

Dnianda cordata, or cordijolia, 170,
195, 387.

Ducks, in Fu-sang, 225, 534 ; in Mexi-
co, 440.

Duinont d'Urville, opinion of, 53.

Durango, vines in, 415 ; bisons in,
428.

Durga, cruel rites of, 162.

Dwarf, Vishnu as a, 152.

Dwarfs, Land of. *SVe Cnr-.Ti'.

Dwellings, of Fu-sang, 207. 208, 418 ;
of land of " Marked Bodies," 320,
327; of Country of Women, 314,
315; of the Chmese. 419; of the
Aiuos, 80; of the Ko-li-han, 83;
of the Kamtchatkans, 88; of the
Aleuts, 353; of thellaidah Indians,

INDEX.

755

s, 187; or

)lic'ation of,

39, 534: in
inerica, 10!),
; usi'd as
lul boasts of
liinesc term
lorn of,22();
; chango ot
lojjiroil, 044 ;
<aeritic'0 of,

)nkoys with,
iiow'piiali.
iX of, 340.
i, 0U4.

n'ican tribes,

I ilwellings,

f, 450. 455;
Luminous,
id of eclii)scs,
f, at Uxiual,
Mexico, 157 ;

rt
:4.

on of. 450.
in America,

sanp:, 75; of

la Hivcr, 75 ;

3. iSee, also,

to TTan, 341.
HiH Hiver.
1)40. 050, 055.

422.
it of, 437.
dijolia, 176,

)34 ; in Mexi-

M\ of. 53.
; bisons in,

'iir-.ir.

07,208.418;
bodies," 320,
VonuMi, 314,

1410; of tlio

lo-li-han, 83;
88; of the

Idah Indians,

351 ; of Indians of Orop:on and
VVashinfjton Territory, 420 ; of Cali-
fornians, 518; of Arikaras, ;{54 ; of
New Mexicans, l(i8, 100 ; of Mexi-
cans, 410; of newly married pail's
in Yucatan, 434.

Dyes, used bv Mexicans, 471.

Dyeing purple, a Phuinician art, 70.

Eagles said to produce dogs, 450.

Eartluiuakes, destruction by, 015.

l^ase of voyage from Asia to America,
171, 183.'

I^ast, symbolized by the lotus, 58; and
the banana, 58; "the hieroglyph for,
50 ; Fu-sang means the extrenu\
57; Quetzalcoatl said to liavc come
front, 540 ; Tuino said to have coino
from, 5()2.

East and West, distance between,
058.

East India. See India.

East Indians, garments of, 018.

Ea.stern Barbarians, 82, 038. 058.

Eastern Classic — first section, 044;
second section, 047; third section,
051 ; fourth section, 053.

Eastern Mountains, Classic of, 044.

Eastern Ocean, a term for the Pacific,
82.

Eastern Pass, ^lountalu of the, 003,
080.

Eastern Sea, 20. 001 ; fish of, G45 ; ex-
pedition in, 057.

Eastern Sni Mountain, 054.

Eastern Yoii Mountain, 040.

IJcdcozraff, a Mexican flower, 474.

Ecapafli, the Jjnurus Indica, 500.

Eclipses, caused by a dragon, 72, 157.

Ecli{)tic, divisions of, 144, 153.

Eggs of silk-worms of Fu-sang, 224,
238, 525.

Egypt, symbolized by the lotus, 57 ;
veneration of cross in. 552 ; idols
of, 71 ; divisions of zodiac in. 144 ;
communication with Hindostan.
144 ; analogies of art of, to that of
America, 200 ; winged globes of,
found in Anun-ica, 100 ; resem-
blance of pyramids of, to those of
America, 00; differences. 000.

d'Eichthal, " Study " of, 110 ; followed
de Paravcy, 07.

Eight vessels, used to liold Buddha's
ashes. 00.

Eight-foot(>d crow, 078.

Eight-heuded serpent, 078.

Eitel's identification of tlie fu-sang
tree, 401.

Eka })d)iikn, definiti(m of. 441.

Eldest Child Mountain, 052.

Elements, the five, of the Chinese,
234.

Elejihant, a symbol of Buddha. 008 ;
pictured on a tablet, (!10; tradition
of, Oil ; luissible recent existence in
America, OOH. Oil.

Elephant's head, at Palcnque, 007,
008.

Elephant-mound of Wisconsin. 010.

Elephant -pipes, discovery of, 010,

Elephant's trunk, in \ucatan, 200,
007.

Ellen's Meropide. 55.

Elks. Ca>sar's accimnt of, 452; called
cattle, 420, 483; used as draught
animals, 100 ; animals resembling,
051.

Ef-Kurud, stai-s so called, 147.

Ellora, figui-e of Buddha at, 135.

Elwococca remicnsd, 170, 387.

Eloquent Nation, Chinese account of,
405.

Embassies to China, from Japan, 84,
85, 178, 024, 025, 020. 027, 0;{2, (i35;
from Corea, 527, 030; from Ceylon,
440; from Kolilian, 82; from Co-
chin-China, 114; from Pacific isl-
ands, 83; from Kao-li, 038; from
LiKu-KL-Ki, 20,00; from Great IIan
of the North, 215, 240; from Fu-
sang, 170, 221, 222, 223, 510,

Endogenous plants, sprouts of, 380.

England, Chinese name for, 400 ;
shipwrecked .Iai)anese sent to, 102.

Epiccriniims, neighbours of the llu-
rons, 31.

Eqiiiin fraternns, 482.

Erect attitude of inhabitants of Coun-
try of Women, 505.

Erigone, her place in the zodiac, 150.

Erikson, Leif, discovery of America
by, 103.

Errors, in translating from Chinese,
257; origin of, in account of Fu-
sang, 440.

E-spadfirfc, or narwlial, 145.

Es((uimaux, in Aleutian Islands, 344;
in Alaska, 30; allied to Ainos, 84;
and Tartars, 81; said to )i'ive lived
in Vinland, 453; meaning, f name,
88; characteristics of, 183: religion
of, 0; peaceful nature of, 357; Tios-
l)itality of, 350; tattooing of, 340;
dancing of, 347; doorways of, 518;
practice of nursing children, 501 ;

756

TNDEX.

!'!

;if

crossing between Asia and America,

1H8.
Estajlate, or Mexican absinthe, 508.
Ji's^w/as, description, 435 ; and uses of,

436.
Eternity, the Land of, 025.
Ethiopia, conunuiiication of, with

Effypt, 144.
Etiino'j;rai)hy of Foreign Nations, IG.
Ethnology, Ciiinese system of, 80.
Etruria and Mexico, same fables in,

155.
Europe, visited by Buddhists, 5 ; Chi-
nese not acquainted with, 180;

Quetzalcoatl not from, 143.
Europeans, ignorant of Asia and

Africa, 454.
Euskarian hmguage, 300.
Explorations by the Arabs, 37.
Explorers, errors of, 450, 483, 708.

Fables, told only of unknown lands,
121, 103 ; truth contained in, 105,
830; related by Tacitus, 50; by
early explorers, 94, 450, 708 ; same
in Asia and America, 155 ; destruc-
tion of luiiverse, 615 ; regarding
Vishnu, 152; Alexander and Char-
lemagne, 95 ; flying-men, 535 ; sala-
manders, 532 ; in Mexico, 490 ; in
SiiAN Hai Kino, 181 ; regarding
tree of stone, 410 ; regarding IIan,
341 ; regarding Fu-sano, 48, 50,
103, 174, 224, 243; and the fu-
SANG tree, 219; origin of, 218;
none in IIwui ShXn's account, 224.

Fabulous Encyclopanlia, 074.

Fa IIiax, journey of, to India, 10;
mistakes made by, 450 ; companions
of, 444.

Faii, meaning of, 457.

Fah Hill, 050.

Fairies of the Chinese, 401.

Fairy Hills, the Three, 241.

Fairy-land, in the Kwun-lun Mount-
ains, 253; a tree of stone in. 254.
See, also, P'Ano-lai and Lang

YUKX.

Fa-kheu Kino, a Chinese translation,

458.
Fa-kiai-xga\-li-tu, a Chinese book,

94.
" Familiar Discourses " of Confucius,

672.
Family of criminals punished, 64,

404.
Fan River, 653.

Fan-us, the way of, 000.

Fan-t'iao Mountain, 045.

F'AXG-CUANO, an island of the genii,
251.

Fasting, in Fu-sang, 292 ; and Mexi-
co, 400, 581 ; by Buddhist monks,
441 ; punishment for not, 014.

Feathers, snow described as, 450.

Feather-work, temple adorned with,
010.

Fei, a poisonous insect, 656.

Females, Island of, 488.

Fenuiles, excess of, born in Jaimn,
632.

Festivals, at Norton Sound, 347 ; of
Peruvians, 210.

Fiak-sai, See Pe-tsi.

Fiber of agave, value of, 98, 521 ;
woven into brocade, 230.

Fig, Chinese name for, 415. See, also,
Bread-fruit tree and Prickly-pear.

Finns, influenced by Buddhism, 5.

Fir-tree, Aztec name for, 219.

Fira-kana, invention of, 037.

Fire, destruction of mankind by, G15 ;
Island, trees and rats, 225, 530.

Fire-drills, representations of, 551.

Fish with ten Ixidies, 079,

Fish-eaters, or Escjuimaux. 08.

Fish-skins, tribes clothed in, 90.

Fishing-boats, Corean, 515.

Fifaka no ki.n, mission of, 627.

P'ive ages, accounts of, 154, 158.

Flora, of Asia and America connect-
ed. 97.

Florida, called " Great Ireland," 92 ;
woman from, met in Tartary, 35 ;
deer kept in, 431.

Flowers offered to Buddha, 133; to
the gods, 598; the Place of the
House of, 598.

Flowing-stream, Islands of the, 608.

Flutes of Mexicans, 422.

Flying-people, traditions of, 535 ;
origin of stones of, 514.

Fo, Chinese name of Buddha, 28, 77,
123. 595.

Fo-Kio-st, the Temple of the Recep-
tion of the Law, 029.

Fomahaud . name of a star, 145.

Foxo-uoAivO, varieties of, 670.

F(>od, derived from century-plants,
98, 384 ; prepared by Alaskans for
travelers, 348, 350.

Foot-prints, worship of, 72, 553, 560,
503.

P^orehead. lines tattooed upon, 340.

Foreign Range, 645.

Forest of agaves, 384.

Jii.

INDEX.

757

ilha, 133 ; to
L'lace of the

Formosa, Chinese colonics in, 84.

Fort Simpson, Chimsean Indians at,
352.

Fortifications, in Amorien, 198; none
in Aliisi<a or the Aleutian Islands,
351 ; in Mexico or Central Ameri-
ca, 420.

Foucanx, M., note l)y, 183.

Fountain of wine, 225, 239.

Four ajres, Hindoo account of, 154,
158, 015 ; Aztec account of, 151, 158.

Fourth day, consummation of mar-
riage postponed to, G19.

FoH-su, Japanese pronunciation of
Fu-SAXO, which see.

Foxes with nine tails, 051, 057, 058,
004.

Fox Islanders, tattooing of, 340 ; hos-

■ pitality of, 350.

Frnnce, Chinese transcription of, 404.

Franck, M., drawings of, 573.

Frontispiece, reference to, 301.

Fruits offered to Buddha, 133; and
to the gods, 598.

Fu, its pronunciation and meaning,
408.

Fu fountain, 052.

Fu-tree, or fu-sano tree, 182, 053,
GOO.

Fu-m, spirits of, reign of, 071.

Fu-Li Alountain, 050.

Fu-Lix, Chinese term for the west, 57.

Fu-NAN, Chinese term for the south.
57.

Fu-SAKG, Chinese characters for, 399 ;
Fu-su sometimes used for, 400;
original sound, 405 ; possibly a
transcription oi pisnng, 405, 042;
and used for " Jlexico," 400 : mean-
ing of term, 40, 50, 57, 219. 399 ;
used for tiie extreme east, 57, 70 ;
derived its name from a plant or
tree, f,4. 173; description of, 20,
40, 200, 202. 204 ; its situation, 203,
300. 053, 058 ; its distance and di-
rection from China, 105, 103, 192,
228, 329, 039 ; route to. 300, 447 ;
distance from Great IIan, 19 ; clew
to location of, 300, 081 ; in same
direction as IIia-i, 233 ; in Eastern
Asia, 235, 359 ; on western side of
the Pacific, 242 ; one of the Kurile
Islands, 243; Saghalien, 179, 242;
in Philippine Islands, 082; in Ja-
pan, 40, 174, 191 ; not in Japan, 58,
108, 104, 178, 333. 402, 039, 041.
685; tcr-n applied to Japan, 40,
242, 249 ; never applied to Japan,

• 109; east of Japan, 227, 242, 039;

place in Chinese maps, 50, 94 ; in
America, lit', 140. 330; not in
America, 189, 19' : inchuled South
America, 59 ; not in Soutli Anu>ri-
ca, 194; in Ahuska, 189; in Ore-
gon, 55, 103 ; or California, 20, 103 ;
near San Francisco, 08, 177 ; not
New Mexico, Arizona, or Califor-
nia, 190; in Mexico, 12, 05. 309;
not in Mexico, 189 ; the place of
sunrise, 252, 342 ; not a sun-m3rth,
220, 341 ; used as name of Fairy-
land, 240; compared to Laputa,
243 ; its great size, 52. 03, 220, 534,
040 ; a small island, 243 ; position
can not Im determine<l, 242; two
countries so called, 400, 409 ; early
knowledge of, by Chinese, 12, 207,
218,221,^042; and by Oreeks, 50;
ToNO Fanq-so's account of, 219 ;
Kiu-yuen's reference to, 218 ; Yu
Kie's account of, 224, 519 ; visited
only once, 94; how the account
reached us, 448 ; no further infor-
mati(m regarding, 233, 240 : i, na-
tions in texts regarding, 709 uors
made in copying, 709: knowledge
of, preserved in China, 254 ; ac-
cotmts of, have a common origin,
107; analogy between, and Great
IIax, 210; called the Vinland of
Asiatic explorers, 1(>8 ; figure of a
native of, 58, 09, 75 ; statue of a
native of, 254; stanza regarding
him, 254 ; peculiarities of, 418 ;
marvels contained in, 48 ; dwell-
ings in, 418; prisons of, 457; pun-
ishment of crime in, 435, 404 ; slave-
children, 457, 402 ; animals, 239,
534 ; deer, 424 ; horse-carts, 480 ;
oxen, 425 ; horns, 424 ; silk-worms,
223, 524 ; metals and markets, 431 ;
mirrors, 522; liquor, 397; mourn-
ing, 4()0 ; fasting, 400 ; courtship,
432 ; titles of noblemen, 411, 413;
and of king, 409 ; delay after coro-
nation, 400 ; colour of >;is garments,
99, 470 ; music attending him, 421 ;
his palace, 224, 528 ; former igno-
rance of people of, 450 ; introduc-
tion of Buddhism, 120; Asiatic civ-
ilization, 450, 470 ; East Indian
arts, 70 ; Chinese customs. 05, 212,
234; an envoy from, 179, 221, 519;
fables regarding, 50, 103 ; not wor-
thy of credit, 194 ; account should
be consistently explained, 342 : re-
capitulation of arguments regard-
ing, 084.

758

INDEX.

I'll' ■;

If:

Fu-sang, Notices of, by Professor S.
Wells Willinnis, 200.

Fu-sang, or, Who Discovered Amcri-
CH? 174.

Fusiing, Where was? Ifll.

Fu-sANO tree, meaniiiji: of the name,
2m; descriiitioiis of, 2()4, ;{H3 ; in
tiie SiiAN llAi Kix(;. 182, 24!»: in
the SiiiH CiiAU Ki, 2'M ; by Toxa
Fano-so, 21!) ; reference to it by
SO Ki-Y(\24y; Cliinese traditions,
899; called Joh-muh, 40() ; Nui,
400 ; or " a jjreat cloud of blos-
soms," 401 ; leaves of, variations in
texts regarding, 380, 389 ; its red
pears, 211, SO.'), 449 ; its silk and
silk-worms, 223, 224, 238, 520; in
island of Ki-siiu, 182 ; east of the
Kwux-LUN IMountains, 252; itsnet-
rif jd wood, 249 ; connection of its
name with that of the country,
383; attempts to identify it, C3;
inability to do so, 117, 194. 195 ; its
possible extinction, 97; identified
as the Hibiscus rosa Si7ietms, 40,
57, 175, 249; not the hibiscus, 117,
195; identified as the mulberry, or
Jlorus papi/rifcra, 190 ; not the
mulberry, 104 ; the Brottssonetia
pnpyrifera, 177, 235 ; not the lirous-
sonetia, 117; tlie prickly-poppy,
04 ; no such tree in America, 187 ;
tlie pisang, banana, or plantain, 58,
C82 ; the agave, aloe, maguey, or
century-plant, 383 ; or possibly in-
tended to include the cacti and
agaves, 394 ; not tlie agave, 174,
175, x94, 195; Eitel's definition, 401.

Fu-su, a variant of Fu-sang, 400.

Fu-YU, Chinese term for the north, 57.

FuH-KiEN, marriage festivities in, 477.

Fun River, 653.

FuNO-KAo, mountain in, 046.

FuNG-SHWix, the source of the, 253.

Fylfot, a species of cross, 552.

Gage, welcomed by music, 424.
Gallatin, researches of, 81.
Galoches. See Koljushes.
Gania, Don Jean de. Island discovered

by, 22.
Games played in Mexico and India,

020.
Gammadion, a species of cross, 552.
Ganesa, head-dress of, 135 ; figure of,

012.
Ganges, Chinese transcription of, 414.

Gaxg-ko-la, Chinese name of tho
Angara, 24.

Gaps in Japanese history. 623.

Garments, i)reseribe(l by Huddlia, 554 ;
of IJuddhist priests, 507; priests
of Burniah, 585; Up'isakas, 501;
Mexican priests. 580 ; priests of
Salvador, 472 ; of Chinese emperor,
471 ; of king of Fu-sang, 282, 470 ;
of Montezuma, 472 ; not worn twice,
617; placed on images of the dead,
407; on cor])se'- 475; worn by
QuetzalcoatI, 542; of Aztecs, 617;
of East Indians, 017; of Jaimnese,
031; made of paper, 638; those of
bride and groom tied together, 480,
619.

Garnets, found in Alaska, 356.

Gass, Rev. J., explorations of, 610.

Gaubil, Pere, letter by, 14, 51, 99,
180; identification of Lieit-kuei
by, 52 ; denies that Fu-sang was in
America, 63.

Gautama, family name of Buddha, 2 ;
corruptions of, 558, 501.

Geese, worshiped in China, 478 ; kept
by Mexicans, 430.

Gelius, his account of Pygmies, 494.

Gems used as standard of value, 322,
350 ; worked by Aztecs, 573.

Genealogy of Asiatic nations, 82.

Generations, tho seven, definition of,
464.

Genii, who nded the earth, 680 ; Isl-
ands of, 251 ; country inhabited by,
488 ; mentioned in Chinese account,
42.

Geographical Annual, article from, 10.

Geographical relations between Asia
and America, 119.

Geography, importance of study of,
191 ; Chinese svsteni of, 80, 242 ; of
Tu-vu, 674.

Geoutam, Thibetan terra for Gau-
tama, 558.

German races, relationship between,
82.

Gerniania. See Tacitus.

Gestation, length of, in Country of
Women, 304; in monkeys, 498, 499.

Ghiliaks, on Asiatic coast, 187 ; their
Village of the Tower, 138.

Ghi-wa, a virgin, 163, 250.

Ci'hi-wa-kohf, an eastern land, 103,250.

Ghizneh, said to be Ki-pin, 445.

Ghosts, the feast of the, 591,

Giants, Chinese accounts of, 602 ; in
Patagonia, 455 ; Vishnu's visit to,
152 ; among Japanese rulers, 624.

INDEX.

759

Gibraltar, food of monkeys of, 510.

Gifts, Cliiiu'se eustoiii ropmliiifj, 80.

Giiii liiver, 428; country near, (52;
bisons not found near, 427 ; t'iviliza-
tion of tribes near, 108; Buddhist
monks near, 14;J ; Aztec monu-
ments near, 14!); defunsivo works
near, 1!>8.

Glass, ('iiinese term for, 355; f'hineso
ionfj; unac(iuainted with, 524.

Gloomy Sea, a name of the Atlantic,
37.

Go-betweens, or marriage - brokers,
470, 47!).

Gobi, desert of, 44, 048.

Godam, the Mongolian term for Gau-
tama, 558.

Godron, Dr. A., article by, 10, 113. 104.

Gods, mirrors held by, 014 ; of East-
ern Monntiiins, 047; with birds'
bodies, 001, 005; with lieasts' bod-
ies, 000 ; with tiger's body — we
T'iKN-wi; ; with sheep's horns, 053 ;
of Thunder, 008.

Gold, in Fu-sang, Chinese text regard-
ing, 288 ; not valued, 172, 431 ; used
merely as an ornament, 351 ; valued
by Japanese, 104; not separated
from sand, 037; discovery of, in
Japan, 030, 040 ; its first use, 02!) ;
used by Aztecs, 431 ; but not as
money, 98 ; weight of a load of, 417.

Golden Age, merely a popular fancy,
198.

Goldsmiths of Mexico, 572.

Gomal River, 445.

Gongalves, his definition of the fu-
sjing tree, 04.

Gorgons, description of, by Lily, 454.

Got ama. ^'ee Gautama, and Buddha.

Grammar of the Chinese Language,17.

Grammatical peculiarities of several
languages, 111.

Grand Khan, court of, 159.

Grand View, Iowa, elephant - pipes
found near, 010.

Grapes, characters used by Chinese
for, 211; found in America, 110;
in Mexico, 415 ; but little used, 415.
See, also. Vines.

Grasshoppers, damage done by, 040.

Graves, pyramids used for, 599, 001.

Gray, Professor Asa, statements of,
401, 508.

Great, the word prefixed to titles, 412.

Great Annals of China, 39. 193, 260.

Great Britain, Chinese name for, 406.

Great Cailon beyond the Eastern Sea,
661.

Great Eastern Waste, Classic of the,
001.

Crreat l\\s. See IIan, Great.

Great Island, a portion of America,
92 ; colonists of, 19i).

Great Men's Country, 657. <!62.

Great Men's Market, and Mansion, 063.

Great S|)irit, worshiped l)y American
tribes, 157.

Grecian art, analogies to American
art, 200.

Greece, should not be sought in
America, 201.

Greeks, thought to have colonized
Asia, 55; their knowledge of Fu-
sang, 50; four ages of. 158.

Green and blue confounded, 209, 471,
010.

Green Hills Country, 057, 004.

( I reen- jade-stone Mountain, (>50.

Green ^lounds, Kegion of. 644.

Green Siiepherds' Plains, (543.

Greenland, reached from Iceland, 37.

Greenlanders, connected with Alas-
kans, 344.

Grellon, Pere, travels of, 35.

Grijalva, named Yucatan " New
Spain," 97; ex|)edition of, 550.

Ground, Buddhist priests sit upon,
443.

Gualle, Francois, prediction by, 29.

Guanaci found in Florida, 431.

Guarani language, peculiarities of,
111.

Guaranis, traditions of, 502, 503.

Guatemala, deriv.;tion of tiie name,
588; Aztec place-names in, 307;
Aztec language spoken, in, COO ;
traditions of, 558, 608; calendar,
501 ; tame deer kept in, 431 ; kmg
of, accompanied by nnisic, 423;
monuments of, 50 ; analogy of civil-
ization with that of Mexico, 3()2.

Ouatimofin, a Mexican high-priest,
588.

Guatusos, a tribe of Costa Rica, 500.

GuHxaca, pearl-fishing near, 7(5 ; name
contains name " Sakya," 77.

Guayra, road <^o, from Brazil, 503.

(iuetzlaff. Carl, attempts to visit Ja-
pan, 102.

Guignes, M. Jos. dc, references to,
50. 105 ; his studies. 120 ; his " His-
tory of the Huns," 13; maj) fur-
nished Vjv, 121 ; article by, 18;
translation of account of Fu-sang,
2(5, 203; of Country of Women,
303 ; of the land of " Marked Bod-
ies," 317 ; of Great Han, 325 ; title

760

INDEX.

f'- '■

h'..' ■

of his article incorrect, 80, 111);
gave first information of the Chi-
nese account, 13, 204 ; quoted from,
by lluache and others, 14; justice
renderetl to, (i4 ; merit of his wo' ks,
137, 185; hud beat of the argument,
192.

Gulf-stream of the Pacific, •would
carry Chinese to Mexico, 107. Hee,
aim, Kuro-m'iro,

Gnllive", threads by which bound,
701),

Gulls, eaten, fiOO,

Guzman, Nuflo de, expedition of, 491,
530.

Gynmosophists, or dif/nmhnrns, 44.3.

Gypsum, used for v/indow-glass, 529.

Haas, P„ elephant-pipes found on
farm of, GlO.

Hades, the >[exican, 400, 590.

Hai, king, adventures of, 005.

Haidah Indians. 345. 351.

Hair, of Aztec i)riests, 580 ; of Bud-
dhist priests, 507; of inliabiiants
of the CJountry of Women, 100,
804; ot Hnpalea, 602 ; ofCamaxtli,
590.

Hairy People, or Ainos, 31, 84, 180,
6(J6, 081.

Ilakas, ancestors of the Kirghia, 240.

Hall, Prof. Asaph, discovery of, 243.

Hammocks, made from agave fiber,
380.

Han, meaning of the character, 337,
838; the river, 339; the duke, .339 ;
the dynasty, 20, 51, 072 ; the state,
104, 105; China so called, 3,38;
description of the three, 105; fable
regarding, 341 ; dialect, fi }9.

Han, Great, meaning of tht name, 25,
92, 214, 215. 240, 337, 338, 840; ac-
count of, 301, 324 ; Hwui Slutn its
author, 301 ; route to, 25, 44, 53. 05.
137, 300; its distance from WAN
ShXn, or the land of " Marked
Bodies," 19, 328, 330; from Japan,
039; its location, 22, 103; interest
therein, 185; nearer to Japan than
to Fu-sang, 333; no such country
between Japan and China, 109; no
country mentioned between it and
Fu-sang, 188; situated on north-
eastern coast of Asia, 137; in Sibe-
ria, 22, 178; near mouth of Amoor
River, 137, 180, 188; in Saghalien,
44, 45, 180 ; in Japan, 105 ; in Kam-

tchatka, 20, 25, 52; not in Kam-
tchtttka, 45, 207, 228 ; in Aliuska. 92,
330; a continent, 207 ; fxannnafi(m
of its customs, 343; their analogy
with those of Fu-sang, 210; two
countries Itcaring this name, 215,
240. 359.

Ha\, of the Xorth, Great, account of,
215.

Han, of the East, Great, account of,
215; not in Asia, 210; peaceful
character of its neople, 210.

Han-hai, a sea and island nearCorea,
034.

Han-lin, the Imperial Academy. 070.

Hands, prints of, 014; of idols! 014.

Han-kow, custom of shopkeepers of,
240.

Hanuman, worship of in India, 135,
147. 495.

Hao Mountain, 653.

Ilapnle, a species of monkey, 497,
502, 500.

Hardy, unprejudiced opinion of, 003.

Hares, of Fu-sang, 239 ; of Slexico,
430 ; in the disk of the moon, 147.

Hats, made by Aleuts, 353 ; not worn
by American trilx's, 508.

Hawaii, Chinese and Japanese in, 100;
resemblance of natives to Asiatics,
102.

Hawaiian Spectator, quotations from,
101.

Hawks's translation of Riviero, 102.

Head-dresses, of Chinese and Mexi-
cans, 150; of East Indian idols, 135;
of Buddhist priests, 507 ; of an ele-
phant's head, 007.

Hedges, of century-plants, 380, 400.

Hellwald, M. F. de, remarks of, 202.

Hens, turkeys so called, 115.

Herbal of Chin-nono, 074.

Herb-eaters, or Quaquaciiilfin, 575.

Herodotus, reference to, 55 ; account
of the Argij)peans, 59; marvelous
talcs of, 450.

d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, j\I. le Mar-
(]\u», notes of, 204; his translation
literal, 205; appendix by. 217; cor-
rection of error by, 222 ; his trans-
lation of the account of Fu-sang,
203; of the Country of Women,
303 ; of the land of " Marked Bod-
ies," 317; of Great Han, 325.

Heu-tsi, said to be Chinese name of
Shem, 72.

Hi, a Chinese prince, 600.

HiA-cHEU Island, 004.

HiA-i, Fu-sang near, 233. See, also,

INDEX.

761

Ainos, Cnil)-Bivri)arian.^, ami llniry

People.
IIiANo, confusion of, with TiNO, r)03.
Iliang-hiuumj, language of the Oto-

inis, 111.
IIiANO-YrAN-sziJ, Temple of, 028.
IIiAo Kiso, or IJook of Filial Piety,

072.
IIiAo LiNci-Ti, a Chinese emperor,

o;{2.

IIiAo Wu-Ti, a Chinese emperor, 42,
108, 072.

IIin(fui, a Mexican river, 427.

Hibiscus, lirought from Persia, 57 ;
confounded with mullwrry, 40, 110;
not the fu-sang tree, 117.

Hibiscus rusa Sinetma, 4(), 170, 105;
thought to be the fu-sang tree, 57,
175, 100, 240.

Hibiscus Syriacus, 175, 105.

Hic-sos, the Egyptian Shepherd Kings,
GO.

ITiEii-TsC, a species of animal, 054.

llieroglvphic writing, of Asia. 1415 ;
and America, 143, 150; of the Az-
tecs, 144, 145, 303. 530 : derived from
the Toltecs, 305 ; nearly all <le-
stroved, 304; on image of Quetzal-
coatl, 500.

Ili-no, an astronomer, 250 ; a virgin,
250; land of, 250.

Rills, islands so called, 044.

Ilindoos, zodiac of, 144; Kakehatrns
or Lunar Houses of, 144, 140, 150;
divisions of the dav, 475 ; four ages
of, 158, 015; legend of, 152; arts,
analogies in to those of America,
200; altars. 1.33; marriage ceremo-
nies, 010 ; backgammon, 020,

Hindostan, communication with En-
rope, 144; cornices upon temples
of, 000; prints of the hand in, 014.

Hinds, of Fu-sang, 58, 00 ; of Ameri-
ca, 50, 70. See, also, Deer.

Hipparion, an equine genus, 482.

Historiographers, Chinese, 11.

History of the Eastern Barbarians,
058.

History of the Gods and of Prodigies,
071.

History of the South, 39, 46, 182, 200,
357. i^ee, also, Nan-sse.

HiUEN-cHONo, aBuddhist devotee, 035.

HiUEN-Ts'ANo, travels of, 10, 125, 12G,
257, 340, 488.

Ho, a measure of capacity, 210.

Ho, or Ho-KOUE, a name of Japan,
250.

Ho-Mou, or trees of fire, 530.

IIo-i'oii. adventures of, 005.

llo-siiA.vci, Chinese Buddhist priests,
501.

Ho-T*Ao, the Country of the Ordos,
44.

Ho-TciiKoi', the Island of Fire, 530.

Ilo-T«'HiN, a Lord of the Liang dy-
nasty, 222.

Ho-Ti's " Album of Gems," 002.

HoANO-iio, cities ui>on, 44.

HoKi-KE, Tartarian tribes. 23, 44.

HoKi-SMlN. See Hwfi SiiA\.

Hoffman, translation by, 80.

IIoii-iiu Mountain, 003.'

Hoh-mix()-tsCn-tsiii Jlountain. 007.

HoH-vl\ a species of animal. 055.

HoK-KEEN, adolx> walls in, 410.

Hollanders, the dil^coverers of Jesso,
21.

Hondius, map in account of, 370.

Honey, extracted from (('nlurv-nlant,
380"; not to be eaten after miu-day,
442.

Honolulu, shipwrecked Japanese in,
101.

Horary cvde of the Chinese, 523.

Horns, iii Fu-sang. 210, 284, 424; in
Mexico, 00. 100.210; of American
animals, 100; of Uocky Mountain
sheej), 450 ; of bison, 428 ; of extinct
bison, 428; as instruments of mu-
sic, 421, 422; as vessels, 430 ; gods
with, 053.

Horn-bill, described as bird with two
lieads, 080.

Horses, of Fu-sang, 32, 225, 230. 534;
possibly sonie other animal, 33, 59,
100, 102, 483; of China, 484; of
Tartary, 32; of Great Han of the
North, 215, 240; limits of native
country of. 100; not found in sonic
parts of Siberia, 32; method of tam-
ing, 054; not raised in Japan, 178;
031, 040; introduced into Japan,
100, 027; used as post-horses, 020;
myth 01 creation of, 47 ; none in
Ainerica, 47, 09. 175; bones of in
America, 203, 482; may have sur-
vived in America. 59, 70. 102, 482;
especially in South America, 483 ;
said to have existed in Newfound-
land, 483; brought to America from
Europe, 43, 115, 100. 481; called
"tapirs" and "deer," 483; use of
in Apache courtship, 433.

Horse-carts of Fu-sang, 280, 480.

Horse-deer, elks so called by Spaniards,
110.

Horus, an Egyptian god, 58, 72.

702

INDEX.

'r t'l-

losnitiilitv, of ponpio of land of

"Miirk.'il U<i(lirs." }«(); of Alcu-

tiims, ;{."■)(); of Aiiu'riciiii trilit's, !}4S.

lol-spriiiu'x. ill Ninmigiui, 5J4 ; Vul-

h'V of. *SV(' Tanu-ku.
luMiush. ((.">1.
Iir l{iv(«r. 044.

lii-KUAN(i, a Cliinose district. 200.
lii-i'K, a Cliiiiesn province, 40.
li;-HiiK Moiiiitaiii. (152.
Iiiainaiif,'a, pyramids in, 50,").
Iiialaiiio, a town in Miciioacan, 5H8.
luatiiico, appcuraiico of Wixipcco-
cha at, rM),
Inazainala, a town in Jalisco, 588.
I'lazontlan, a Mexican town, 541.
ludson's Hay, cattle found near, 33 ;

customs of" tribes near, 34, 75.
ludson's Hay Company, 102.
luematzin, a Toltec astronomer, 559.
luKN People, 007.

luetlapan, home of tlio Toltecs, 304.
luey-L'omitl. a Mexican hero, 500.
Jlueyn, an Aztec verb, 508.
li;ii, a measure of capacity, 210, 425.
luiK.v-uiAO, a Chinese zodiacal sign,

145.
luileas. a Peruvian tril)e, 505.
J lain, the termination dropped, 378.
'luitzillan, temple at, 380.
luitzilopochtli, meaning of the name,
370; conception of, !)7, 014 ; the god
of war, 373, 374; bloody rites of,
575 ; feast in honor of, 520 ; a drag-
on on his escutcheon, 533 ; son of
the god of plants, 380; the god of
vegetation, 380; worshiped in green
garments, 472 ; a deification of tho
century-plant, 370 ; names given to,
381.
IltiitztJi, or uitztli, fresh pulque, 380.
Human sacrifices in Mexico, 32.
Humboldt, Alex, von, believed Ameri-
can tribes came from Asia, 49 ; in-
fluenced by Pere Gaubil, 51, 181 ;
views as to connection of Asiatic
and American civilizations, 03 ; quo-
tations from, 142.
Humming-birds, said to die and re-
vive, 454.
IIuxa-nuNo, land of, 657.
HuN()-Li-Ti Hill, 607.
Hungarian verbs, conjugation of, 111.
Huns, History of the. 13.
llurakan, worship of, 551.
Hurons, reference to. by Horno, 31;

a woman of,, found in Tar tar y, 35.
Husbands, of women of the Country
of Women, 308; of the so-called

Amazons, 504; serpents taken as,
521).

Huttman, Mr., sec'y of Asiatic Soc,
51, 07.

y//v7m//ia««a/rtmi,White Men's Land,
199.

IIWA-KIAIT, or marriage sedan, 477.

ilwAM-Hsh, 055.

HwAi-NAN-Tsz', a Chinese philosopher,
47, 220, 053, 059.

HwAi Skno, journey of, to India, 10,

I! WAN itiver, 040.

llWAXii-Ti, a Chinese emperor, 221,
250, 005, 071.

Hwon-SMi, or

lIwoii-TUNd, tadi)oles, 044.

HwL'i, meaning of, 443; its common
occurrence, 443.

Hwui SnAx (IIoKi Shin, or Hwui-
snix), meaning of name, 205; na-
tionality of, 444; our imperfect
knowledge (»f, 710; one of a party
of five, 233, 237; not a native of
Fu-sang, 223; not a native of China,
200; but a native of Conhene, 709 ;
r)roi)ably understood Chinese but
unperfectlv, 448, 709 ; Yu Kie's mis-
iniderstanding of, 52 1, 525 ; journey
through Corea, 527; preservation
of his story, 222 ; the Chinese text,
202; variations in different texts,
201 ; circumstances under which tho
account was given, 221, 439; ques-
tioned by rei)resentative of the em-
peror, 420; author of the account
of the Country of Women, 244 ; as
well as that of "Marked Bodies,"
and Great Han, 301 ; nroof that ho
had visited some unKiiown land,
641, 685; evidence of honesty of,
685; interest excited by his story,
11 ; convinced Chinese emperor and
scholars, 13 ; truths told b^, 12, 358,
680 ; difference between his account
and other tales of Fn-sang, 217; no
fables told by, 224 ; courage of, 334 ;
lack of care in examining his story,
493 ; should not be assumed to bo
dishonest, 335; allowances to bo
made for, 450, 455, 708 ; principle
adopted in translating his story,
255, 355 ; used li in its usual mean-
ing, 333; reasonably accurate in his
estimates, 334 ; did not describe
countries on the nmte, 234; may
not have visited Fu-sang, 140 ; did
not visit Country of Women, 213;
ref)eated stories of Chinese sailors,
202 ; rejection of his story, 175, 194,

INDEX.

763

9 common

203, 2.13. nOO; piii.lod by old Iraili-
tioiis, 2^*0; not Mrsf (lisfovi-icr of
Fii-fymj,'. 204, 207 ; t he envoy from
Fu-siuiK, 22:J, 2:»7, 520; trmlilions
in Mexico of Ills visit, 70U; liin
name and title |iii'served us VV'ixi-
l)e('i)clia, r)tO; Ins storv slioidd lead
to one of three eonelnsions, !{41 ;
wliicli is attended with fewest <lilll-
(•idtiesnt2.
Ilyaeinth, Father, verdict of, MH,
Ilyperlioreans, country of, 55, (;;{,
Hypochlorite, found in Aliwka, UoO.

I, the prince named, 059.

1-iiA.N, a Chinese astronomer, 80.

1-tikn-su-.mA\ Mountain, (i(i7.

Ice. peoi)le and animals floated upon,
80; Imt little forme<l in China, !{54;
wonder of the clianj,'e of water into,
854 ; described us " water-silver,"
327.

Iceland, wood and animals floated to,
80 ; a possible route to America, 87.

Icelandic saj^as, credibility of, 100.

Icelanders, America discovered by,
li)8 ; and named Viidand, 452.

Icy (;ai)e, tattooing of people neur,
840.

*' Icv-silvor," ice possibly so called,
855.

Idols, of Efjvpt, 71 ; of Java, 012; of
3h'xico. 5i)7, 018.

I^'iwians, New-Year's day of, 409.

Iliad, described as a sun-myth, 841.

Illej,Mtimate children, treatment of,
408.

Images, of Buddha, in Fu-sang, 298 ;
in Ijondon. 5; resembling Buddha,
in America, 200, 591, 592, 594. 595;
in Buddhist temples, 000 ; of sj)irits,
exposed in Fu-sang, 212, 294; in
Asia, 285 ; of dead, made in Mexi-
co, 407; and Yucatan, 408.

Imperial Library of Paris, 018.

Imj)regnablc, Chinese transcription
of, 404.

Iname, a Japanese minister, 628.

Incius, ritual of, 210.

Incense, offered to the gods, 508.

Incense-burner of Chinese emperor,
520.

Incombustible fabric, 225.

Incontinence, punishment of, 584.

India, intercourse between, and China,
10, 118, 440. 440; traces of, should
not be sought in America, 201 ;

veneration of cross in, 552; i)yra-
miils of, 001 ; marriage ceremonies,
019; divisions of zodiac in, 144;
architecture of, 90; inhaliited l)y
pvgmies, 494; garments of people
of, 017; manner of carrying chil-
dren in, (i'.'O; cakes made in, 020;
iii)/)ii/-\iliii\\ in, 70.

Indians, name given to American
trilics by Culumiius, 280.

Indian Bulletin, arli<'le from, 10.

Indian corn. Sec Maize.

Indian lig. <!)Ve I'rickly-pearand AV
p(il.

Indigo, ])reparation of, 471.

Indra-Salia, temple of. 185.

Inferno, described by Lily, 454.

In()-( iiKi', an island of the genii. 251.

lidiabitantsof the Country of Women,
498.

Ininiit. Set! Es(iuimaux.

Inscriptions at Palenciue, 421.

liiiem|>erance, view of, by Buddhists,
")47; of lanuis of Mongolia, 585.

Interment, practiced by Toltecs, 407.

International Congress of American-
ists, 10.

Iiitlucath defmition of, 410.

Jowa, elephant-pipes found in, 010.

Iris-pIant, said to be found in Fu-
sang, 41, 211.

Irish, discovery of America by. 02.

Iron, lack of, 'in Fu-sang, 2H8. 481;
not known to Mexicans, 98, 481 ; or
other American tribes, 117. 159, 172,
194; or in some Asiati(r countries,
177; or in Loo Choo Islands, 194;
its introduction into ,lapan, ((27,
080; its use in Japan, 117, 104,040;
rare in Japan, 47.

Iro(|uois, hosiiilality of, 840 ; ccmncils
of, 480.

Isis, place of, in the zodiac. 150.

Islands, of the Pacific. ;{(i. 101 ; of
Fire. 225 : of Females, 488 ; of the
Flowing Stream, 079; described as
mountains, 044.

I'Isle, M. de, letter to, 14, 180 ; map
by, 20.

Istayattt, a ^Icxican town, 509.

Itillmen. Svf Kamtchatkans.

Itineraries, references to, 10, 137.

Iton, definition of, 413.

Itzas, traditions of, 557; length of
records of. 559.

Itzamna, or Zamnti, 550.

JtzcaUi, a Mexican month. 512.

Jtzcoai/o tihnatli, a mantle, 473.

Itzcuintli, or dog, 147.

764

INDEX.

Itzehecnya, or " Wind of Knives,"
niK).

Ivory, foiinil nciir Kulyinn Uivcr, 83;
unit ill Aiiiskii, >Vii\.

J.rnvztl<trinlolli, h iiiiiiitio, 474.

Jxfi-ne.rt/, a iiioiiml lit t'liolulii, 003,

Jrtli, iiu'imiiij; of, (Mt.'S,

Ixllilxocliill. (|iiotiitioiis from, 02, 420.

Jj/o, a .lapaiii'si' provinci;, 241>.

Izd-iKiki-no-mikutff a Japaiiesu divin-
ity. 47.

Iztacciliuati, or " tlin Wliito Woman,"
a Mexican mountain, 500, 507.

Izfaf/, Aztec word for salt, 50H.

Jzlitufiyxpatli, a Mexican iilant, 500.

Jztaiihi/<i/l, a t*i)ecius of Arlcniiiiia,
508, rKMt.

Jztli, or obsidian (q. v.), 151, 520.

Jnck-trco, of India, 100.

Jacl<a»s rai»l)its, nizo of, 534.

Jacob, history of, a sun-myth, .^41.

Jade-stone, idaced in tombs, 017; treo
of, 410.

Jnitdivnnarumn, a pyramid, 002.

Jan, meaninij of, 503.

JAN-tiees, 040.

Japan, meaninpof the name, 174, 178,
541); situation of, 030: route to,
from Ciiina, 034, 035; distance
from China, 030; from Liao-tono,
10 ; from Corea, (15 ; direction from,
of "Marked Bodies," 310, 828; of
Great IIa.v, 039; of Pu-sanp, 227,
242, 328; of Chu-ju, 405; on route
from China to Fii-sanp. 03; and
from Ciiina to America, 22; nearer
Great IIax tlian Fu-sang is. 333;
no country like Great IIan Ix't ween
it and Clii'na, 100; tlie Pacific Kulf-
stream flowing fr(Mn, 9 ; its nconlo
acciuainted with iiuids north, 20;
and other foreign countries, 033 ;
connected with Kamtchatka liy the
Kurile Islands, 8 ; journey from, to
Aleutian Islands, 335; map drawn
in, 20 ; communicnt'on with Pacific
islands, 101 ; ship of, wrecked on
Oahu, 101 ; one wrecked near Queen
Charlotte's Island, 102; discovery
of a great continent, 101 ; its sailors
may have drifted to America, 108,
241 ; no proof of such voyages, 122;
a " Country of Women " in, 178, 038,
040 ; no place east of, for " Country
of Women," 110, 120; called Fu-
snng, 242, 249; reason for name,

57; denial that it was ever called
Fu-sang, 100, 120: identified as Fu-
sang, 40, 174, 101 ; said not to lie
Fu-,saiig, 58, 05. 108. 100, l(J4, i7m,
402, 030; no fu-sang tree in, 1140;
customs not same as thos4> of Ku-
sang, 041 ; points of reseiniilaiice to
Fu-sang, At\ well known to Chi-
nese, 178,229; too well known for
failles, 103, 030; thought to Im< the
easteni limit of the world. 04 ; called
Wa or IIo, 250; history of, lU. 178,
023 ; Ma Twan-lin's account of, 247 ;
lii Ykn-hhai's di'scriiitioii of, ;j;}2;
how founded, 105; colonized by
Chinese, 84, 180. 251 ; settlement of
HiN-fi; in, ftl3 ; expedition men-
tioned by Japunese historians, 253;
first sovereigns of, 024; early rec-
ords. 023 ; mythical stories, 2o2 ; of
genii, 081 ; inhabited by Ainos, 84;
non-intercourse with foreign na-
tions, 103; attacks upon Sin-ka
and PE-Tsr, 020, 027; comiuest of
Kao-li, 028; of .lesso, 85; colonies
from, 03; intercourse with Corea,
.332, 030, 030; with Wu, (J27; with
Continent of Asia, 025-<l20; embas-
sies to and from, 84, 025, 020 ; par-
ticularly io China, 024, 02(5, 032,
035; introduction of Huddliism, 5,
02, 110, 121, 104, 174, 028, 029, (W."),
041 ; arts introduced by Huddhist
priests, 572; religion, 125; worship,
157; married [inests in, 585; cross-
es useil as sign of peace, 552; be-
lief regarding the judge of the
dead, 014; altars, 133; journeys of
Buddhist monks from, 80; visit of
architects to, 027; |K'trificd wood
in, 240; great age of sovereigns,
024; length of the U or ri, 331;
sea-crabs in, 84 ; no stags reared in,
104; its capital, 21: outbreak of a
contagion, 028; iioisonous insects,
081; excess of females, 032; the
Ciii-SHUAi, 032; use of knotted
cords as records, 035; introduction
of ttic compass, 027; the iiomegran-
ate, 025; titles of nobility, 029,
040; music, 029; iron, 027; use of
iron, 117, 104; and other metals,
OJiO, 037, 040; of gold, silver, and
copper, 104, 020 ; vine indigenous
to, m ; its names, 42 ; arms used in,
104, 031 ; custom of wearing swords,
081 ; civil war in, ()32 ; walled cities
of, 031,040; no horses in early days,
178; introduction of horses, 100,

INDEX.

765

027; uxt' of |)osf-lioi'sos, rtOrt; no
<;iirl>* in, 'UO; or wii^^nn rouiU, 4H();
Hiiiiniil-4 (if, (CM ; priHliicts of, (i:il ;
tlio I'ciK'ii iif uM cnipivss, H'ii); vh\Uh\
Xin-ijii h'u'o-i/iiJV'i'i; tiitlt>(>iii>y, ((ill,
(m ;■ .■yclcs. U:\\ /odia.'. 144; Clii-
ncso ciili'iuliir, <l;t(>: Cliincst! litcni-
t mt'. (('i!*. (l;{(>; iiilriMluclidii of art
of willing', mi, <i:J7. (140; and of
writihK'-p'ip*''''"''^! cuslonisof, (l;n ;
polypiiny in, ii'-Vi; piinisluniMit of
c'i'inu! in, iV-Vi; ^arnu'nts of Dairi
worn only oiui', (H7; fjanncntH of
piMipli', (i:M ; niourninK'-K<ii'<>»'»t^
4flN, (!;{.'), (141); niournini,' cnstonis,
mi (i:!.*); hoint- nf {\w Toltccs, (I'i;
ami of tlu> nntivfs of Ito^ita, (C);
n'siMnl)lan('(' of people to Anii'ricaii
tril)es, (12, I*)."); tlieir kno\vK'tl);e of
Aineriia, 104; words in Ainerioaa
lanjfuaj^ert, l.')7; its peo|)li< niij^ht
decipher American inscriptions,
ITilt; reseinlilanciM)f their vas»!S to
tiiDse of tile .Mexicans, 57;$; embas-
sy from, to the U.S., 10:{; its iieoplo
in Hawaii, KM); their resen»l)hinco
to llawaiians, lO'j.

Japan, Ainmal Register of. See Ni-
pon Ki.

Japan, Sea of, IHO.

Japanese Kncyclopa'ditt, 107. See,
also, \Va-k(tn-mn-sni-dzon-ije,

Japanese junks. .SV*^ Junks.

Java, roiiifion of, 124, 545; Huddhists
of, 5; temple of Horo-Hndor in, (51,
i:}."), 003 ; week of Ave days in, 475,
571 ; symi)olism of colours in, UlU.

Jebis, account of, 8;{, 84.

Jefferson, Thomas, a letter to, 113.

Jei Kwan, a Kud(lhist priest, 021).

Jenies, entufa at, 4;J5.

Jenghis Khan. Set Chinggin Chakan.

Jesso, its discovery by Hollanders, 21 ;
account of, 21; customs, 44; bold-
ness of its people, 103 ; its north-
ern coast, 40; tiger-skins exported
from, 081 ; Chinese voyages to, 10,
180; attacks upon people of, 86;
their conquest by Japanese, 85;
their revolt, 027; they drive out
the Japanese, 80 ; said to be WAN
SiiXx, or the land of " Marked Bod-
ies," 20, 31, 44, 180; this statement
denied, 93, 335.

Jesso, Sea of, on route to California,
23.

Jesso, Upper, name of Kamtehatka,
25.

Jesuits, remembrance of, by Japanese,

102; their change of the length of
the/j, 330.

Jesus, Chinese charaiters used for,
400.

Jk-tsciiav, meaning of name, 88;
distance from Kamtehatka, 88.

JKir-i'i.ii country, 004.

Jewels, the tliree, of Huddhism, 125.

Jiy-cMiN-NUAN, a Chinese ant In )r, 070.

Jiv Tsi:n(i, a Chinese emiKTor, 231.

Joii-Mtii, a term for the fu-sang tree,
400.

Joly, Professor, remarks of, 203.

JoMiard, M., refutation of his opinion,
70.

Jones, Uev, N. W., argument by, 10.

Journal Asialique, article from, 0(iU.

JoHHchanu, name for absinthe, 511.

JiT-( iiK, or Djounlie, 45, 137.

Ju-i-i, or "Fish-Skins," »0.

Juitemal, king of (Juatemala, 588.

Julien, M.Stanislas, reference to trans-
lation by, 188; his preparation for
translating, 357; his translation of
account of Ku-sang, 2(i3; of land
of " Marked liodies," 317 ; of Great
Ham, 335.

Junks, Jai>anese, wrecked upon the
Kurile Islands, 10; on the Aleutian
Islands, 10; drifted to California,
9; picked vip at sea, 150.

Juvaka, robes presented by, to Bud-
dha, 552.

Ka, interchanged with Sua, 414.

Ka fukano wonnoko, 028.

Ka-siii-mik, or Cashmere, 440.

Kabah, elephant's trunk at, 007.

Ka<Uak, near the American coast,
340 ; amlM^r found in, 350 ; popula-
tion of, 341 ; Esquimaux, 344;
dwellings, 353; tattooing, 340; its
people can not understand Unalas-
kans, 344.

Kai-vC Country, 005.

Kali, wife of Siva, 540.

Kalidasa, works of, 144.

Kalmucks, food of herds of, 511.

Kaloshes. See Koljushes.

Kamtehatka, description of, 80 ; dis-
tance from China, 87, 183 ; Chinese
knowledge of, 19, 180; suzerainty
exercised over, by China, 123 ; called
Upper Jesso, 25 ; distance from J E-
TsciiAY, 88; Ainos near, 84; isl-
ands near coast, 9; islands con-
necting it with Japan, 8, 22 ; ship-

766

INDEX.

wrecked Japanese in, 101 ; said to
be GreaL 11 an, 20, 52; not Great
Han, 45 ; identified with Lieu-kuei,
52, 54, 87 ; wliich was confounded
with Loo Choo Islands, 248; its sea
receives the Ouda River, 25; dis-
tance from, to Alasita, 1G4 ; visited
by Alaskans, 183 ; winds blow from,
to America, 62 ; climate, 28, 33, 89 ;
aniniaisof, 89, 90; reindeer of, 59, (i4.

Kanitchatkans, 26, 33; their dwell-
ings, 88, 353; their merry nature,
347 ; their songs, 91 ; their mar-
riage ceremonies, 99 ; their punish-
ment of thieves, 358.

KAN-flsl), 645.

Kan-mei Mountain, 644.

Kan-shui, or " Sweet Waters," 163.

Kan-tsz' fish, 646.

Kan-y(;'s Body, 657.

KXno Motmtain, 649.

K'ano, definition of, 435.

Kano-hi, Encyclopaedia of, 86, 246.

Kang-wiia, Admiral Roze's visit to,
528.

Kaniagmioutes, religion of the, 6.

Kao Marsh, 655.

Kao lliver, 654.

Kao-kiu-li. See Corea.

Kao-li, conquered by Japan, 628
intercourse with Japan, 626-629
paper carried from, to Japan, 638
Corea (q. v.) a transcription of, 47.

Kao-shi Mountain, 645.

Kapilapura, Buddha, son of king of,
80.

Kapilavastu, Buddha's birthplace, 1.

Kaptchak, said to be Ki-pin, 445.

Kargaules, at a fair in Asia, 8.

Karlsefne's adventures, 453.

Karok squaws, tattooing of, 347.

Kata-kana, invention of, 637.

Kntuns of Yucatan, length of, 559.

Kazwini, references to, 146, 147.

Ke-kia-sse, an Asiatic tribe, 215.

Ki'du, temple in, 602.

Kei-ko, a Japanese prince. 624.

Kentucky, bones found in, 428.

Kerkis, or Kergis, 24.

Kesinacoran, Island of Females near,
488.

Keu, a character resembling that for
copper, 388.

Keu River, 656.

Keu-chwano Mountain, 644.

K'eu-wano, description of, 661.

Keu-yao, the " l)arbed exotic," 388.

Kev West, preparation of agave fiber
at, 526.

Khalkhas, visited by Bnduhists, 7.

Khalupaswaddhaktinka, definition
of, 442.

Khi, king of a province of Corea, 251.

Khi-tan, an Asiatic tribe, 24, 45.

K'l, meaning of, 410, 444.

K'l Mountain, 651, 667.

K'l-trees, 654.

K'i-chuno Mountain, 652.

K'l-KiN, a Chinese book, 656.

Ki-lin, varieties of, 670.

Ki-pin, Chinese text regarding, 296 ;
identification of, 123 ; identified as
Cabalistan, 77; as Samarcand, 108,
212, 213 ; as Kaptchak, 445 ; as Co-
phene (q. v.), 42, 233.

Ki-SHU, fu-sang tree in, 182.

KiA-cHiNG-SHi, a Chinese author, 675.

KiA-SHA, definition of, 442.

KiA-siiE-Mi-LO. or Cashmere, 446.

KiA-Y Island, 31.

KiA-YU, a book of Confucius, 672.

KiAH-sHi Mountain, 650.

KiANG River, 40.

KiANG Tribe, 664.

Kiano-chano's Great Caiton, 661.

KiANG-JONo, a race of barbarians, 226.

KiANG-TUNG River, 645.

KiANG-YEN, a Chinese scholar, 677.

KiAO People's Country, 661.

KiEH-KiAH-sz' Country, 246.

KiEN River, 645.

KiEN-KANO, capital of China, 206.

Km River, 647.

Kih-kiOn's " Bamboo Book," 657, 659,
665.

Kih-nO River, 648.

KiH-YUNG Country, 667.

Kijofiko, presents ma<le by, 625.

Kiki-zin, title of ruler of Fu-sang, 108.

Kin, description of, 236, 391.

K'lN Mountain, 655.

Kin-seh Forest, 647.

King, definition of, 499, 072.

Kino River, 646.

K'lNo-ciiANG, a province of Cov'^a,
625.

KiNo-cHEU, capital of China, 40, 206,
222.

Kino Hang, a Japanese prince. 624.

King of Fu-sang, title of. 280, 409 ;
musicians of, 282, 421 ; changes of
garments, 282 ; mourning oif, 296,
406 ; his palace, 224, 528.

King of Mexico, title of, 410 ; musi-
cians of, 423 ; pomp of, 421, 423 ;
ceremonies at death of, 467 ; delay
before crowning his successor, 469 ;
palace of, 529.

INDEX.

767.

Kinjj of Chichimecas, deer kept by,

Kiiij,' of the country of " Marked
Bodies," 320.

Kinjjs of Japan, age of, 624.

Kinjifs of Asia, paths swept before,
017.

KilijjslKjrough, Lord, 71, 77.

Kinri, a Japanese title, 638.

Kio or KiAi, an Asiatic country, 215,
216.

Kirkis, Kirj^his or Kirguis, 45, 246, 511.

K'l-Tsu, the first Cliinese prince in
Corea, 43.

Kilsuno (S'fiA-Mne, expedition of, against
Pe-tsi, 037.

Kituy, a junk wrecked upon, 10.

Kiu-NU, a Japanese province, 033,
634.

Kiu-six, visit of, to Japan, 627.

Kiu-TAX, Chinese transcription of
Gautama, 558.

Kiu-YE-HAN, a place between China
and Japan, 630, 031, 634.

KiL'-YUEN, a Chinese poet, 47, 207,
218, 240.

KiCn, definition of, 481.

KiCn rushes. 052.

KiCno, a poisonous insect, 656.

Klaproth, J., article by, 39 ; refer-
ences to, 51, 100, 182, 024 ; his at-
tack upon de Gui^nes's theory, 14 ;
motive for, 100 ; its weakness, 120,
228 ; alone in his views, 229 ; pos-
sibly communicated with, by Mr.
Huttman, 51 ; informed as to Chi-
nese knowledge of compass, 113,
114 ; his suppression of a clause,
408 ; account of petrified wood,
249 ; of a Corcan story, 250 ; an at-
tempt to claim Titsingh's transla-
tion, 85 ; works from which he
translated, 182 ; his translation of
the account of Fu-sang, 203.

Knapp, Mr., superintendent of a Min-
ing Co., 117.

Knickerbocker Magazine, an article
in, 15.

Knistonaux, tattooing of women, 340;
hospitality of, 350.

Knotted cords used as records, 635.

Ko-ciiANO-TiAO-Li, the Code of Com-
petitive Public Examinations, 670.

Ko Don J)zu lioku, a Japan- ^e mem-
oir, 636.

Ko-Li-nAX, a Tartarian tribe, 23, 24,
44, 45, 82.

Kodom, the Siamese name for Gau-
tama, 558.

KoH or KOH-Kon fish, 651, 053.

KoH Mountains, (i48.

Koliman, resembles a Chinese name,
111.

Koljushcs, belief of, 6 ; cu.stoms of,
83.

Kolyma River, 8, 35.

Koxd-xoAX-KUE, a description of Con-
fucius. 072.

Komi (or Corea, q. v), 47, 626.

Ko-rei-teti-o, a Japanese Dairi. 251.

Kotzebue Sound, peoi)le near. .MO.

Koukounoor, visited by Bud(lhists, 7.

Koumiss, made in China, 390 ; from
milk, 395; a similar liquor made in
Mexico, 396 ; Chinese text ivgard-
ing it, 286.

Koumj, a native of Corea, 251.

Krishna, the Hindoo Aj)ollo, 152.

Ku-Fuxo Mountain, 650.

Ku-Kix-TU-SHU-Tsi-CHiXG. an Enev-
clopa,>dia, 208, 211, 212, 221, 220,
395.

Ku-KUNO, king of Ciinu. 105.

Ku-MAo I\Iountain and lliver, 645.

Ku-SHE Mountain, 050.

Ku-TU-MOEi, an Asiatic tribe, 70.

Ku-YANG-TSA-Tsu, a Chinese book,
075.

KuAX-MEi, quotation from, 221.

Kubo, a Japanese title, 038.

Kuchin Iiulians, 245.

Kudic races, influenced bv Buddhism,
5.

KCeh Mountain, 663.

KuEi-Ki, intercourse between, aiul
Tan-cheu, 033.

KuEi-YEU-KUAXG-siii, a book, 090.

Kuu, an Asiatic country, 240.

KuH-LiANG History. (i62.

KCh-lino-yD-t'iex Mountain, 005.

Kulgun, a Mongolian term, 484.

Kume-tvasi, defeat of. ()2(i.

KuxG, meaning of 523, 595 ; length
of, 331.

KuxG Man-waxo, visit of, to Japan,
620.

K'uxo-SAXO ^Mountain, 647.

Kl-xg-yaxg's " Chronicles," 647.

Kuo-p'o, a Chinese author, 076.

Kro-YEX-xiEN-ssE, a Cliinese book,
673.

Kurilc Islands, between Japan and
Kamtchatka, 8 ; tiie Pacific gulf-
stream flowing past, 9 ; junk
wrecked on, 10; Ainos in, 84; route
to Pu-sang passed near, 447; Fu-
sang one of, 243; Country of Wom-
en in, 245.

768

INDEX.

;i 1,1

mil

if
m

Kiiro-siwo, the Pacific gulf-stream, 9,

10, 121.
Kuskotiiiim women, tattooing of,

Kw'A-Kir, 64(5 ; death of, GG7.

KWAN-YI.V, VOW of, 4.

KwANu-WL', a Chinese emperor, 025,
082.

KwKi, a species of bird, 054.

Kw'Et, or cattle with one foot, 008.

KwEi-Kr, sea of, (W8.

Kwo, definition of, ;J94.

Kwoii, definition of, 400.

Kw'uN People, ()(j5.

KwuN-LUN, a range of mountains,
252 ; countries near, 062 ; a tree of
stone in, 254 ; a possible transcrip-
tion of quauhda, 254 ; an island so
called, 253 ; meaning of the charac-
ters, 25;j.

Kyska, one of the Aleutian Islands, 9.

L and X interchanged, 413, GOO.

Labna, elepiiant's trunk at, 201.

Lac insect, used in Cabul, 77.

Lanoro, ?io/«t/-i)lant found in, 76.

Lakcluni, statuette of, 130.

Lake Suiicrior, copper mined near,
117.

Laiviii, title of Buddhist priests, 05,
58!) ; its foruj in Aztec, 589 ; as art-
ists, GOl). See, also, Buddhist
priests.

Lang-vuex, Cliinose account of, 252.

Languages, of Asia, differences be-
tween, 153; of Aleutian Islands and
Alaska, 344 ; Esquimaux, 81 ; re-
semblance of Asiatic and American,
111, 150, 150, 171, 172; American,
of common origin, 51 ; Mexican, all
connected, 96 ; unintelligible, 510.

I*ancet fish, 645.

Land in Pacific; Ocfean, 330,

Land and Sea Classic. See Shan IIai
Kino.

Lankn, or Ceylon, 554.

Lao Country," GIU ; River, 650.

Lao-tsk, his journey to tJie west, 79.

Lapps, influenced by Buddhism, 5.

Lajjuta, Fu-sang compared to, 24)3.

Lnquenons, signs of zodiac, 146.

Laitrus Indira, Aztec name for, 509.

Lead known by Aztecs, 4iil.

Lkao-tong, port of embarkation, 19,
20, 43.

Leaver of fu-sang tree, 380, 388, 389.

Ledyiird, letter to Jefferson, 111.

Legumes, Chinese classification of,
213.

Lei Mountain, 644.

Leiand, C. (i,, early article by, 1.5,
231; his book ""Fusang," 13, 15,
170, 229 ; his criticism of Dr. Bret-
schneider, 179.

Lemon, Chinese name for, 415.

Leopard-headed couch. See Lion-
headed.

Lew-chew. See Loo Choo.

Li. length of, 30, 44, 54, 65, 80, 163,
328, 329. iiSO, 332 ; variable, 180,
330; uncertain, 227; Klaproth's
estimatt-, 228 ; about one third of a
mile, 332 ; error in number between
China and Japan, 030; Chinese and
Japanese, not sjime length, 331,
332.

Li River, 048 ; Mountain, 005 ; peli-
cans, 650.

Li-ling's Body, a god, 003.

Li-sao, or " 'fho Dissipation of Sor-
rows," 47, 50, 207, 218. 220, 240.

Li-siii, n Chinese autlior, 677.

hi T'ai-pi, a Chinese poet, 47, 226.

Li-VEN, or Li Yen-siiau, a Ciiineso
historian, 19, 40, 45, 163, 192, 231,
226, 260, 333.

Lianw dynasty, establishment of, 40,
232, 440; Great Han first known in
time of, 5)2; llwui ShXn's story
contained in books of, 322 ; length
of LI in time of, 20.

Lianh-shu, or Itecords of tho Liang
Dynasty, 5)3, 5)3, 300.

LiANG-ssE-KONO-Ki, or Mcmoirs of
Four Ijords of the Liang Dynasty,
175), 331, 323.

Liang Wu-ti, founder of the Liang
dynasty, 222.

Libations, offered images, 212.

L116-TSEU, a Chinese philosopher, 670.

LiEu-FONo-TSA-Tsu, a book, 676.

LiEL'-Ki'Ei, meaning of name, 88 ; de-
scription of, 26, 80, 87, 306 ; a pen-
insula, 54, 388; its distance from
China, 54; identified as Kamtchat-
ka, 36, 52, 54. 87 ; with Taraikai,
45; not Great IIan, 207, 338; Chi-
nese co'lonies sent to, 84; Loo Choo
Islands confounded with, 248.

LiH River, 654.

LiK-PiT, pygmies of, 495,

Lime used in Jlexico, ()05.

LiN-T'Ao, a giant in, 66:3,

Lines. tatt(H)ed on face, 346, 347.

LiNO-ooEi. See Liel'-kuei.

LiNO-Ki, or spirits of the earth, 071.

INDEX.

709

LiNo-Lixo, or striped cattle, G48.

Lions, j^roiips of, 129.

Lioii-lioudod couc'hi's of Buddha, 129;

ill Yucatiin, 127, 593.
Liquor, drunk in Fu-sanff, 270, 397 ;

made from aj,'ave sap, 98, 19(i, 5;j;{ ;

not nicnlioned in account of Fu-

sang, 2!J5 ; use proiiibited by Hud-

dha, 547; not drunk by Quetzal-

coatl, 547; drunk by laman, 585;

drunk at Ciiinese weddinys, 479.

See, aho. Pulque.
Lisbon, voyage from, by Arabs, 87.
Literary ciiaracters of Aztecs, 421.
Lizard, Ciiinese description of, 080.
Llamas, use of, 170; called "sheep,"

115; possibly called " cattle," 203 ;

or " horses," 59.
Lo, or koumiss, 211, 390.
Lo, kingdom of, 033.
L()-L.v\u, a district of Corea, 43, C30,

035.
Lo-iM, a Ciiinese author, 074.
Lobsciieid, llev. W., Ciiinese Gram-
mar, 155.
Locks. dSVe Hair.

Locusts, eaten in Pu-sang, 225; dam-
age by, 049 ; poisonous, in Japan,

081.
Lou River, 040.

Lok, Miciiael, map drawn by, 370.
London, Buddhist image found in, 5.
London Illustrated News, 134.
Jjoiie Mountain, 040.
Long-armed People, 495.
LoN(}-WKi-Pi-sHU, a Ciiinese book,

200, 213, 221, 228.
Loo Choo Islands, various names for,

248; iron not known in, 177, 194;

confounded with Lieu-kuki, 248.
Lotus, an emblem of the East, 58 ; of

Egypt. 57; offered to Buddha, 128.
Louisa County, Iowa, elephant-pipes

in, 010.
Louisiana, account of, bv do Tonti,

31, 34.
Lu, sounds of the character, 411.
Lu-Ki Mountain, 049.
LD-Ki, the (Miinese Book of Rites, 00.
Lu-LUN, Buddhist books, 035.
LC-sni, a Chinese author, 043, 049,

003.
Lu-ssE-TAO, a Buddhist devotee, 035.
Lucky and unlucky days, 590.
LuN-YU, a book by Confucius, 637,

072.
Lunar Houses, 144, 149, 150. See,

aim, Nakchatras.
LuNQ-CHiH, or nine-tailed foxes, 051.
49

Luxo-POH Country, 002.

Lutes and lyres, 047, 001.

Luzon Islands. See I'hilippino Isl-
ands.

Lve, from ashes of the f u-sang, 224,
"525.

M and V interchanged, 408.

Ma Twan-lin, a (Miinese historian, 28,
04, 193,231,440; source of his ac-
count, 80, 223, 200; merit of his
work, 217; changes in text, 200;
omissions, 357; account of Corea,
209; of Cnu-.m, 495; embassies
mentioned by, 024 ; statement that
Fu-sang is eiust of Japan, 242 ; first
studied by de Guignes, 204.

MacaiM, u weapon, 437.

Macassar, Chinese transcription of,
404, 407.

Ma(!eta, Father, removal of, 502.

Macgowan, Mr. , j)aper by, 183.

Madura. See Bread-fruit tr(!e.

Jlagazine of American History, 181.

Magdalena, statute at, 537.

Miigellan, strait of, Ciiano-jin near,

JIagic, lielief in, 590.

Magnetic chariots and fish, 114.

Maijuexj, described as a product of
tiie agave (q. v.), 2:J5.

Maha, Chinese translation of, 340.

Mahara, a fabulous fish, 14(5.

Mahavanm, accounts preserved in, 5.

Maiden, Mountain of the, 045.

Maidosegee, a Chippewa chief. Oil.

Mailla, Pere, translations by, 39.

Maize, called "wheat," li7; Aztec
term for, 517; said to be indige-
nous to both continents, 97; possi-
bly described as "little beans," 31,
213, 315.

Mahicwi, Chinese transcription of, 407.

Malay, language, 08 ; name of bana-
na, 5H, 405, 042; garments, 018;
custom of blackening the teeth,
081.

Males, Ishmd of, 488.

Mammoth, or miuxtodon. ev.rly exist-
ence of, in America, 203, 008 ; ivory
from, 35; its head as an ornament,
007.

Max-hu Mountain, 007.

Mailacicas, tradition of, 504.

Managua Lake, springs ni'ar, 534.

Manco-Capac, 14Ji, 102, 198.

Mandans, belief of, 123, 127 ; tortures
of, 198; doorways of, 518.

770

INDEX.

JIXxci-Tsz' Jlouiitain, 052.

Mani, hiyli-prk-st of, 557.

Mantchoos, ancestors of, 45, 187; lan-
guage of, 111; garments of, 00;
term for Gautama, 588 ; cyclic
years distinguished l)y colours) SiS);
their aodiac, 144, 149.

Mantchooria, visited hy Buddhist
priests. 7 ; Great Han m, 180.

Mantles, worn by Aztec. kings, 472;
from superstitious ideas, 474.

Manuscripts, liability of error in copy-
ing. 44!>.

Mao Mountain, 054.

Mao-jix, or Hairy Jlen ((i, v.), 21. See,
also, Ainos and Crab-Barbarians,

Mao-tsz' aborigines, 5;}5,

Maps, furnished by de Guignes, 121 ;
unreliability of those made by Chi-
nese, 242 ; use of name " Mexico "
upon, 370; exhibited to (.'ongress
of Americanists, 371 ; errors in old,
490.

Maponos, tradition of. 504.

Marble, found in Alaska, 350.

Mare, Peter, elephant-pipe found bv,
610.

"Marked Bodies," land of (WXx
ShXx), description of, 21, 301, 310:
meaning of term, 245; its distance
fioni Japan, 19, 21, 328; and from
Great Han, 324, 336; identified as
Jesso, 20, 21, 22, 44, 180; denial,
92, 335; as the Aleutian Islands,
01, 335; as a land of Ainos, 84,
186 ; difficulty in identifying, 214 ;
a further account of, 357; Hwui
Shitn the author, 301 ; examination
of customs of, 343.

Markets of Fu-sang, 288, 431; of
Mexico, 432; of land of "Marked
Bodies," 322.

Marriages, among Hindoos, 619; in
Ciiina, 476; among the Siie-goei,
25 ; in Mexico, 99, 479, 018 ; in Fu-
sang, 292 ; of i)risoners, 190, 272 ;
consummation of, postponed, 019;
of Buddhist priests, 585 ; of Mexi-
can priests, 578, 581 ; celebrated by
tying garments, 157.

IMasaya, volcano of, 531.

Massachusetts, as described by North-
men, 452.

Masto(lon. See ^lanimoth.

Mafl((I.ri/iui.fl, a 3Iexican plant, 471.

MntKumni, a name of Jesso, 21, 186.

Maundevile, his account of Amazons,
244 ; his repetition of CiEsar's story,
836.

Vlix^iuii, thought to be American
tribes. 50.

Jilaxtli, a .Mexican garment, 018.

Mayas, mourning customs of, 400;
divisions of day by, 470 ; symbolism
of colours among, 610; books of,
018.

Mazapili. spoke Aztec langiiage, 3G0.

I\Iazatecas, kept tame deer, 431.

MazatI, Aztec word for "deer," 481.

J/c, meaning of the syllable in Aztec.
370.

Meals, hour at which eaten, 441, 581,
584.

Mecatl, definition of, 508.

Media, definition of, 147.

^lecitl, an early Aztec chief, 373.

Medicine-men, called l)y same title as
Buddhist lamas, 65 ; trials of, 357.

Mediums of exchange, used by Az-
tecs, 98.

Mei fish, 653.

Mei-jin, or "go-betweens," 476.

]MEi-Yt Mountain, 653,

IMelendez, Pierre, statement of, 31.

]Men with tails, account of, 451.

IMendoza, Father de, journey of, 503.

Meno-kien, a Chinese author, 070.

Menu, traditions of, 140.

Mercator's atlas, name " Mexico " up-
on, 370.

Merhamhir, the Cophes River, 445.

Merida, city founded near, 557.

Meropide of Elien, 55.

Merry nature, of jieople of " IMarkcd
Bodies," 318; of Alaskans and
Aleuts, 347.

Merychippua, an equine genus. 482.

jVctical, a name for the agave, 377.

Mescalero Apaches, expedition
against, 390.

Messigo, a variant of " jMexico," 371.

Metals, in Japan, 640; in Fu-sang,
431; m Mexico, 98, 4o' ; art of
casting, 572.

Metamorphosis, of Xolotl, 237; of
Cantico, 614; of NC-ciieu's Body,
666.

Metempsychosis, belief in, in India, 2 ;
and among Alaskan tribes, 6.

Metl. See Agave.

Meu Mountain, 665.

Mexico, meaning of the name, 373-
381 ; its pronunciation. 372 ; region
to which applied, 309-373 ; the first
hearing oi the name, 370; xmeer-
tainty as to its application, 370;
reason for misunderstanding, 381 ;
other placc-nauies from same root,

INDEX.

771

Ami'rican

I, 018.
s of. 460.;
synilMilisin
books (if,

[imw, <JCG.
, 4:U.
leer," 481.
Ic in Aztec.

n, 441, 581,

pf, 373.
aiiie title as
ials of, 357.
ised by Az-

i," 476.

?nt of, 31.
if, 451.
rney of. 5G3.
thor, 070.

Mexico " up-

{iver, 445.
ir, 557.

|of "Marked
iuskans and

;enus. 483.
Lave, 377.
expedition

texico," 371. .
[in Fu-sang,
|4J.^ ; art of

jitl, 237; of
[uKu's Body,

in India, ? ;
tbes, 0.

name, 373-
,373; refiion
172; the first

370 ; uncer-
Ication, 370;
landing, 381 ;
same root,

373; possibly transcribed by Chi-
nese as Fl'-saxo-kwoh, 400; the
country called "New Spain," 370;
the city called " Tenoehtitlan," 308 ;
it agrees with tiie description of
Fu-sang, 399 ; and is in region in-
dicated, ;{()! ; identified lus Fu-sang,
13, 95; distance from Alaska, 183;
as much east as south. 301 ; :;aid to
be too distant for Fu-sang, 189;
its early inhabitants, 90 ; iidiabited
successively by different tril)es, 303 ;
inhabited by the Toltecs, 304 ; liis-
tnry of, 13 ; criticisms upon its
historians, 631 ; means of inves-
tigating its early history, 3(i3 ;
our imperfect knowledge, 709 ;
changes in, 709; traditions of, 530,
615, 700; analogies between arts
and customs of, and those of A- i,
154, 155, 700 ; non-inter:,'ourse with
South America, 550; intercourse
with Central America, 303; its peo-

file of same race as other American
ribes, 033 ; its people of to-day the
descendants of the lower classes,
150; civilization of other tribes
same as that of the Aztecs, 368 ; its
languages all connected, 90; its
place-names nearly all Aztec, 300 ;
its rainy season, 511; the days of
its months, 148 ; its priests named
Amanam, 74; monastery and nun-
nery of, 576; its pyramids, 597;
analogy of its religion with that of
Peru, 506; date of foundation of
the empire, 19, 33 ; its limits, 367 ;
titles of its nobility, 411, 413; of
its ruler, 410 ; music played before
him, 423 ; ceremony of marriage m,
619; suspension - bridges of, 018;
false arch used in, 605 ; salt, 508 ;
copper, 433 ; obsidian mirrors, 533 ;
the only country in which such
mirrors were made, 706 ; its char-
acteristic vegetation, 510 ; cacti and
agaves, 394 ; nothing like the T'uxo
tree in, 176; Broussonefia not found
in, 236 ; monkeys of, 490, 506 ; deer
of, 69; buffaloes of, 427; law of,
393; manuscript of, No. 2, 167. See,
olfio, Aztecs.

Mexitli (or lluitzilopochtli, q. v.). the
Aztec god of war, 373 ; possil)ly a
deification of the century-plant,
370 ; temple of, 599.

Mice, migrations of, 8.

Michoacan, inhabited by Toltecs, 305 ;
included iii Mexico, 371 ; Aztec

nlaee-names in, 307; its resem-
blance to Chinese names, 111 ; mu-
sic plaved before king of, 423;
dress ot its priests, 581 ; its mar-
riage laws, 479; its mourning cus-
toms, 4(i0 ; springs of, 534.
Miros, Spanisli name for monkej-s,

497.
Mictlampa ehecall, the north wind,

401.
Mictinn, the Mexican TIades, 400,

537; sitiuiLed in the north, 4(il.
Mictlan, or Mitla, ruins or, 95, 606;
arrival of \Vixii)ec(nha at, 539;
analogy of its civilization with that
of ]\Iexico, 362 ; dress of the pon-
tiff, 581.

Mictlan -cihuatl, resemblance of, to
Kali, 546.

Mictlan teuctli. Lord of Hades, 411.

Jlidnight, Aztec name for, 476.

Migrations of monkeys, 498.

Mijes, spiritual rulers of. 540; arrival
of Wixipecocha among, 538; writ-
ten account of, 539.

Mikado, a .Japanese title. 638.

IMilitary qualities, Chinese interest in,
420.

Military weapons, used by all Asiatics,
357.

Milk, in Fu-sang, 58,286; not used
by many nations. (>21 ; not used by
American tribes. 159. 169, 190; who
have no term for it, 398 ; said to bo
used by American tribes, 59; not
used in many parts of Asia. 159;
rarely used in China. 100. 169; or
Sumatra. 396 ; koumiss made from,
395; the Aztec term for, 397; the
term used figuratively, 398; and
applied to the milky juice of a
plant. 398; particularly to that of
the century-plant, 397, 398; reason
why its nature was not exi)lained,
449; u sea the colour of, 225, 239,
533.

Milky Way. compared to a foaming
stream. 339 ; drift-wood said to
float to. 341.

Mimana. intercourse of. Avith Japan,
625. 637.

]\riN Marsh. 648.

IMiN-TSz' IMountain. 053.

Mines, of ancient iiiii.t'.iitants of
America, 117; near Lake Sui)crior,
118.

Mineral springs in Mexico, 534.

!MiXG-sixo Mountain. 004.

Minnesota Mining Co., 117.

772

INDEX.

Mints csta!)Iishc(I in Japan, G29.

Mirnge, on American phuns, 483.

Mirrors, none but metallic made by
Chinese, 534; brouylit to Japan,
635; hold by gods, (514; concave
and convex, 525; miule by Aztecs,
533 ; Mexican liouse of, 539 ;
brought from Fu-sang, 223, 238,
532, 085 ; must have come from
Mexico, 705.

Missionaries, Buddhist, countries vis-
ited by, 5,

Mississippi River, cattle near, 33;
customs of trii)es near, 34 ; fortifi-
cations near, 1!)8.

Missouri River, Buddhists near, 143.

Miters, worn by Buddhist lamas, 507,
509 ; and by Mexican Wiyatao,
580.

Mithridntes, references to, 88, 99.

Mitla. See Mictlan.

Mixcohuatl, a name of Mexitli, 381.

Mixtcca, colonized by f(jllowers of
Quetzalcoatl, 543; liigh-priest of,
579, 587; vines in, 410.

Mixtecapan, preservation of Toltcc
culture in, 575; feast of dead in,
591.

Mixt - of nations, effects of, 153.

]\Io-i , or Mo-KO, country of, 45, 87.

Mo-LU, a place near Japan, 034.

IMo-sixV. See Ainos.

]\Ioccasins not used in Oregon, 75.

Modesty of Buddhist idols. 584.

Mog, a name of the Mongolians, 82.

MoH-TSz', a Chinese author, 001.

MoH-T'u River, 040.

Moluccas, voyages of their people, 36.

Monapostiac, an island, 538.

Monasteries, of Buddhists, 42, 125,
569, 570; of Mexico, 143, 157, 575,
570 ; founded by Quetzalcoatl, 575 ;
at Uxinal, 594 ;" of Totonacas, 578 ;
education of children at, 583.

Money, not used by Aztecs, 98, 432 ;
or Alaskans, 350.

Mongolians, genealogy of. 82; coun-
try of, 87; their zodiac, 149; years
of their cycles, 99, 470 ; their name
in Chinese, 45; visited by Bud-
dhist priests, 7 ; their lamas, 585 ;
their name for Gautama, 558 ; inva-
sion of Corea, 243; conquest of
China, 34; history, 14; connected
with the Esqui".aux, 81 ; resem-
blance of, to American tribes, 87,
184.

Monkeys, considered as a fallen form
of mankind, 494; the inhabitants

of the Country of Women, 493;
their peculiarities, 498; their timid-
ity, 503 ; devotion to their mates,
504; young carried on back, 501;
food of, 510, 513; of Jlexico, 490;
their colour, 506; said to exist in
Virginia, 483; a Ciiinese account
of, 514; compared to birds, 535;
found in zodiacs, 147, 149. See,
also, Quadrumana.

Monoliths, about Buddhist tumuli,
001.

Monono beno ogosi, a Japanese, 628.

Monmi, a king of Pe-tsi, 627.

Montejo, Don Francisco, expedition
of, 550.

Monterey, bisons near, 428.

Montezuma, title of, 410 ; expedition
by, 469 ; belief in return of Quetzal-
coatl, 547 ; which caused his ruin,
197; pomp of, 423; like that of
the Grand Khan, 159; reverence
shown toward him, 413 ; path swept
before his nephew, 617; palace of,
03, 589; his garments, 472; said
not to use same article twice, OIT;
a buffalo kept in his gardens, 437 ;
immense horns shown to Spaniards,
210; his interview with Cortcz,
422 ; presents to the ruler of Spain,
410.

Months, not mentioned in early Japa-
nese records, 024; Mexican names
for, 513 ; same as those of an Asiatic
zodiac, 143 ; transposition of names
of, 571 ; irst, of Mexican year, 501.

Montoya. I^'ather de. join-ney of, 503.

Monuments, with Buddhist inscrip-
tions, 187; of Asia and America,
143.

Moon, "Companions" of the, 144;
temple of the, 599; figured as a
disk containing a hare, 147.

Moose, termed " cattle," 420.

Morambecs, do la Hontan's account
of, 33.

]\Iorgan, L. IT., discovery by, 023.

Mormons, at Salt Lake City, 177.

Morus papyrifera, confounded with
hibiscus, 40; identified as the fu-
sang tree, 190. See, oho. Paper-
mulberry, and Bread-fruit tree.

Moska language, 111.

Motive for visiting America, 084.

Mounds, in Mexico, 598 ; in Iowa,
610 ; in Wisconsin, 610.

Mound-builders, 171.

Mountains and Seas, Classic of, See
Shan IIai Kixo.

INDEX.

773

Mountain •which Touches Heaven,
044.

Mountain of the Gods, 79.

Mountains, groups of, niontioued in
the Shan IIai ivino, 070.

Mountains, term ai)i)lieil to islands,
(544.

Mountain-goat, found in America,
110.

Mourning, customs of Fu-sang, 235,
292, 4(50 ; garments not worn, 294 ;
customs of Mexico, 99, 4G((; cus-
toms of Japanese, 632, 635; gar-
ments of the Japanese, 468, 040;
garments of the Chinese, 408.

Iloyotlan, a ward of Mexico, 369.

Mud-walls, boards used in making,
419.

Muddy Marsh, 648.

Muddy River, 646.

MuH-KUNO, renowned for virtue, 661.

Mulberry-trees, illustration of, 387;
of Fusang, 48, 56; not fu-sang
trees, 164; Mountain of, 647. See,
also, Paper-mulberry, and Bread-
fruit tree.

Ilumajadono miko, a prince, 629.

Mumdko. See Soyano Mitmnko.

Murder, councils held regarding, 436.

Murex, purple dye of, 76.

Musa paradisiaca, the fu-sang tree.
682.

Musano anv, an embassador, 627.

Musnsi, a Japanese province, 629.

Music, attending knig of Fu-sang,
283, 421 ; and kings of Mexico,
423 ; Spaniards welcomed with, 423,
424; priests welcomed with, 424;
accomi)anying bridal processions,
478 ; used in courtship, 434 ; of
Mexicans, 99, 422.

Musimon montanus, found in Ameri-
ca, 116.

Musk-oxen, found in America, 114;
horns of, 69.

Mussel-shells, prized in Alaska, 356.

Mussulman, Ciiinese transcription of,
404.

Jlustard, the leaves of the fu-sansr
said to resemble, 387, 666.

Mutsn, a Japanese province, 629.

Muyseas (Muscas or Moskas, q. v.),
article regarding, 63 ; ten-year cycle
of, 60 ; tradition of, 560.

Mi/reten, a species of monkey, 497.

Myths, analogy of Mexi-rvn and Asi-
atic, 615 ; ' regarding the fu-sang
tree. 236; of birth of ITuitzilopoch-
tli, 97 ; of the sun, 341 ; tales of

Fu-sang not. 226 ; of the Mexicans,
154. See, a I no. Fables.
Mythriac monuments of Asia, 50.

N and L interchanged, 413, 606.
Na, Sanskrit syllables transcribed by,

413.
Naas Indians, carved posts of, 352.
Nacapan, prickly-pears preserved in,

Nachan, City of the Serpents, 111.

Nagas, tribes so called. 111.

Nau-to-sha, title of nobles of Fu-
sang, 27, 41,280; trar. .'ription of
a Mexican title, 413.

Naluuitalcas, early inhabitanti of
Mexico, 32.

Nahuatl language. See Aztecs.

Naishadika, definition of, 44^1.

Nakchatras, or " Lunar Houses," 144,
146.

Naked People's Country, 495, 033,
058.

Nakhorchan, the City of Serpents, 111.

Names, how bestowed by discoverers,
94 ; old names applied to new ob-
ject:, 97, 100, 111, 115,426; prac-
tice of changing, 443; of Asiatic
cities found in America, 111.

Nancy, globe in library of, 371.

Nax-kino, capital of China, 206 ; why
Hwui ShXn did not stop at, 221.

Nax-sse, or History of the South, 92,
193, 260; its account of Fu-sang,
260 ; of Kingdom of Women, 93 ;
of " Marked Bodies," 214; de Guig-
nes's translation of, 65 ; not written
until after Liang dynasty, 24(5.

Nan-ss£-waxo-vun-chuen,' a book,
676.

Napoleon, life of, described as a myth,
341.

Narwhal, called espadarte. 145.

Nasals, introduced by Ciunese. 253,
407; in Aztec langmige, 541,

Navigation, bv people of Jesso, 102 ;
by Aleuts, 122, 139.

Negative argument, refutation of,
589.

Negritos, account of, 83.

Nemtereqiieteba. See Bochica.

Nepal, visited by Buddhists, 5 ; re-
ligion of, 97, 545; title of its
priests, 548 ; their marriages, 585 ;
an insect found in, 77.

Nequen, definition of, 391 ; mantles
made from, 392.

774

INDEX.

il4 '

I'
p I

Noumntjn, Karl Friedricli, preoodod
by de Ptiravcy, 07 ; inonogranli of,
78; refi'iviu'c' to, W>] ; a Cliiru'so
ode mistranslatf'd by, 858; accoimt
of Fu - siiij,', 2():{ ; of land ol
"Marked JJudies," ai7; of (ircat

Han, ;wr).

Now Annals of Voyages, 14.

New Biscay, vines in, 410; bisons in,
428.

Newfoundland, liorsos found in, 48:}.

New Galieia, or Norlliern Jlexico,
807.

New Orenada, traditions of, 500.

New Guinea, visits to, ;j(5 ; its people,
84.

New Holland, visits to. 30.

Ne'.v jjeon, bisons in, 437.

New Mexico, civilization of, 123, 108;
customs of its i)eople, 31; copper
found in, 4;J2 ; gypsum useil as win-
dow-glass in, 529; mirrors found
in. 522; vines in, 415; bisons in,
1!)0 ; not Fu-sang, 196.

New objects given old names, 97, 100,
111, 115,420.

New Records of the Tang Dynasty,
240.

New Spain, Yucatan first so called,
97 ; term afterwiiril applied to Mex-
ico, 371.

New Zealand, visits to, 38.

Nezahualcovotl, laws of, 437, 438.

Nezahualpilli, reforms of, 403.

NoAo-po, ducks in, 003.

Ni, a Mexican sulTix, 414.

Ni, a species of sacrifice, 047.

Nicaragua, hot springs of, 534 ; Ama-
zons in, 489 ; confession in, 579 ;
calendar of, 501 ; mirrors of, 522 ;
Aztec language in, 3G0, 307 ; Mexi-
can empire extended to, 367 ; Span-
ish invasion of, 434.

Niches, with images of Buddha, 01,
71 ; of temple at Uxmal, 134.

NiE-VAo-Kiux-Ti Mountain, 249.

NiEX-'RH-snr, the Great Annals of
China, or the " Twenty-two Histori-
ans," 200.

Nin, a fabulous tree, 400.

Nik-a-jnk cave, 587.

Niki, a tribe of Ainos, 83.

Nineveh, pyramid at, 001.

Nipple, Chinese character for, 503.

Nipon-kt, or Annual Registers of
Japan, 80. 100.

Nirvana, 3, 485.

Nishney Kolyinsk, Americans at, 8.

Nisiki, description of, 230.

Niskah Indians, carved posts of,
3.V,».

Niter, used as a mordaunt, 471.

Niu-ciiK, a Tartarian tribe, 24.

Niu-Jix-Kwoii, or Country of Wom-
en, 213.

Nlu-.MOf-vo, or Land of Amazons,
489.

Noah, accounts of, 140.

Noblemen, titles of those of Fu-sang,
208, 280, 411, 413; among the Az-
tecs, 99, 411, 413; of Japan, 029,
040; deer kept by those of Chichi-
mecas, 430; punishment of crimi-
nals among, in Fu-sang, 274, 435 ;
in Mexico, 437 ; in Darien, 437.

NochiztU, or cochineal, 471.

Noct/i, or JVochtli, the prickly-pear,
394,

Noon, Aztec name for, 476.

Nopal, or Nopalll, the prickly-pear,
394 ; found in Asia, 70.

Nopal de la tierra, 531.

Nopaltzin, a Jlexican chief, 430.

North, Mexican Hades situated at,
401.

North C'arolina, bisons in, 430.

Northern Barbarians, 82.

Northern Hao Mountain, 053.

Northmen, Norsemen, Normans, or
Norwegians, discoverers of Ameri-
ca, 94, 113, 110, 103, 452.

Northmen, named Es(iuimaux Skrael-
ings, 81.

Norton Sound, festivals at. 347.

Norway, visited by Buddhists, 5; a
possible route to" America, 37.

Notes and Queries for China and
Japan, 16.

Notices of Fu-sang, by Professor Will-
iams, 230.

Nou River, a branch of the Amoor,
45.

Nu, a place near Japan, 634.

NC-niEf's Body, metamorphoses of,
600.

NO-cHiXG Mountain, 054.

Nu-HWo-vi'EH-Mir Country, 107.

NC-Tsz'-Kwoii, or Ni'-WAxo-Kwoii, the
Chinese Country of Women, 178,
488.

Nudity, partial, of people of Fu-sang,
75.

Nuevo Leon, bisons in, 428.

Nuns, Chinese, duties of, 583 ; House
of, at Uxmal, 134.

Nunneries, Buddhist, 583 ; founded
bv Quetzalcoatl, 544; of Mexico,
570.

INDEX.

775

Nursing chililren over shoulder, 100,

501.
Nutku, Mexican month used at, 108.

Oiihu, junk wrecked upon, 101.

UaxiicH, a repetition of (Jliosuka, 111 ;
Aztec place-names in, ;J(I7 ; calen-
dar of, Ml ; tradition of VVixipe-
cocha in, M!).

Obi Hiver, called 0-i'U, 24, 45.

01)iect of this work, 11, 12,

Oblations offered to images, 212.

Obscure points, how cleared up, 218.

Obsidian, description of, 522; its glit-
ter, 52!); its use for ornamenting
buildings, 528; its Aztec name,
151; mirrors made by Aztecs, 522;
ring procured by numlK)ldt. 151.

Ocelotcntlupidli, a Mexican mantle,
474.

Ocher, used by Mexicans, 471.

• -chotsk, distance to America, 87.

Oc na kin, name of sunset, 470,

Ocosingo, an ornament at, l;}0.

Ocotnchtli, the Mexican marten, 533.

OcoU, the Mexican pine, 471, 532.

OclH. See Agave.

(Ehococca, or the TUXG-tree, 235.

Offerings presented to Chinese em-
peror by envoy from Fu-sang, 223,
238.

Ohio, fortifications near, 198; bones
of bison found in, 420.

Ohodomoiio Hadejiko, expedition of,
028.

Ohosaka, name repeated in Oaxaca,
111.

Ojibeway language, term for milk in,
398.

Oku-Jesso, or Kamtchatka. 25.

Old names given to new objects, 97,
100, 111,115,420.

Old Stories Revived, 141.

Ollin, a zodiacal sign, 151 ; and a
mantle, 474.

Olmecs, vegetables raised by. 517.

Ome teteromayo, a mantle, 473.

Ometochtli, a Mexican god, 411.

Ommiades. an Arabic dynasty, 37.

One-legged men, account of, 453,

Onondaga chief, Canassatego, 349.

Opium, Chinese name for, 414.

Opochtli, a Mexican god, 380.

0-pu, or Obi River, 24, 45.

Orang-utnn, accounts of the, 405.

Orange, ('hinese name of the, 415.

Orat, a Mongolian tribe, 44.

Ordos, country of, 44.

Oregon, in the region named Fu-sang,
103; I'acitic giilf-strcum near,'.*; its
climate, 75; its distance from Alas-
ka, 104; route to, from Alaska, 447;
planks used in dwellings of, 420;
ijoiies of horses dis(()vere<l in, 483;
work on by Dullot de Mofras. 08,

Orkhon, an Asiatic river, 44. 1.S7,

Orlando di Lasso, referi'iice to, 01,

Ornaments, fimdnessof Alaskans and
Aleuts for, 352 ; upon lireast, (100;
not worn by Buddhist monks, 442;
resembling elephants' trunks. 007.

Orocomay, an Amazon town, 403.

Orphans reduced to slavery, 403.

Ostphalians, and other triliL's, H2.

Ostrich, said to eat fire, 450.

Ostrogoths, and other tribes, 82.

Otomi language. 111, 150.

Otosis, instances of, 587.

Otter, cries of the, 070,

Otund)a, battle of, 491.

Ou-cnAXO, foot-prints in, 554.

Ouda River, 25.

Ouke-motai-no-knmi, a god. 47.

Oiiranghui, visited by IJuddhists, 7.

Oussori, a l)ranch of the Amoor, 138.

Oxen, of Fu-sang, 425; of America,
100; metaphoric use of term. 4H5.

Oxiones, said to have Ijeasts' bodies,
078,

Oxyrinqne, an astronomical sign, 145.

Oyametl, or fir-tree, 210,

Oysters, eaten by monkeys, 512,

Ozomafli, or Mexican monkeys, 147,
497, 514.

P ye-kt:, an Asiatic tribe, 210.

Pachchtko, a Buddhist saint. 501.

Pachitsi, or Hindoo backgammon, 020.

Pacific coiust of America, [u'culiarities
of, 447; trends to east. 301 ; Ameri-
can civilization confined to, 173,
708; colonies of Toltecs upon, 305,

Pacific gulf-stream, 121., See, also,
Knro-siwo.

Pacific islands, how peoi)led, 36;
bread-fruit trees on, 105; fhineso
vessels wrecked upon, 100.

Pacific Ocean, Mongolians upon coast
of, 87; tradition of trade across,
109; Palenque not situated near,
200; land in. 330.

Pagodas, like Mexican temples, G03.

P'ai-shue, a Corean river, 43.

Paicume, Stv Tumc.

Paints used by Mexicans, 471 ;

77G

INDEX.

Painted Men or Painted Bodies, trans-
lation of name WXn ShAn, 21, 1H(I.
Paintitiprt on walls of temples, CO.') ;

(^rote.sciue, COO.
Palaee, of kin;; of Fu-san^', 224, 2;}H,
528; of t^uetzaleoatl, CIS; of rulers
of Mexico, 521); of Toltecs, 1<.»0; of
the sun — mi'aninp of, 522, 52.'{.

Palafox, account of Indian courtsliins,
CO.

Palanquin, only conveyance in Japan,
480.

Paleiuiuo, meaninp of name, 598 ; its
situation, 2(K); tril)o in its neip;h-
l)ourlioo(i, 111; ruins at, 5((, 95 ; tlieir
Kuddliistic character, 127, 184, C02 ;
Buddhist painting's at, 199, C06; in-
scriptions at, 421; tablet at, 591,
592 ; date of construction, 199, 598 ;
winded plobe at, 180; analogy of
civilization at, with that of Mexico,
8(i2; the elephant's head ut, 201,
607, 008.

Pali, its jieculiarities, 0.

Palil)othni. foot-prints at, 554.

Pax, definiticm of, 419.

Panama, pearl-flshery near, 76 ; route
to, from San Francisco, 361 ; Albi-
nos near, 506.

Pancha pra patha, five divine feet,
554.

Paiicha-ail, Buddhist commandments,
507.

P'Xxa-Kiu, a small island, 24.3.

P'Xn(i-i.ai, its situation, 252 ; an ex-
pedition to, 251, 638 ; a place where
treasure is kept, 252; a place in
SiiAN-TL'NO, 341 ; a name for fairy-
land, 240.

Panuco, Quetzalcoatl at, 542.

Papas, or sacrificing priests, 581.

Papaloyo tilmatli, a mantle, 474.

Papantla, monuments of, 868.

Paper, of Fu-sang, 268 ; invention of,
624, 088 ; description of Aztec, 898 ;
made from agave filx>r, 98, 884, 892 ;
or from baric of a tree, 167, 194;
how made in China, 241 ; used to
adorn temples, 590 ; and idols, 886.

Paper-mulberry, confounded with hi-
biscus, 46, 110; used for making
paper, 47 ; not the fu-sang tree, 117.
See, also. Broussonetia.

Papuans, called Chu-shu, 84.

Papula rornuda, said to be the fu-
sang, 64.

Papyrus, paper made from, 893.

Paradise, described by Lily, 454; of
the Mexicans, 459.

ParciqnJm juice, used for mixing stuc-
co," 005.

Paraguay, tales of Amazons in, 480;
tradition in, 502.

I'aravey, Chevalier de, America named
Fu-sang, 4i>; references to articles
by, (iO, (i8; his troubles, 64; New
I'roofs, 66; his researches fireceded
those of others, 67; An|H.'ndix A,
Buddhism in America, < 1 ; Appen-
dix IJ, 78 : Appendix C, 75 ; Refu-
tation of M. .lomard's Opinion, 76,

Paris, Corean records taken to, 528 ;
Ft hnograi)hical Museum at, 548,
595.

Parras, grapes at, 415, 416.

Parvati, figure of, 186.

Patagonians, always on horseback, 70;
giants, 455.

Patched garments of Buddhist priests,
558.

Palolli, a Mexican game, 620.

PavJowuia imperial is, the T'uxo-troe,
176, 285, 387.

Pausanias, reference to, 55.

J'ay, definition of, 562.

Pa yes. South American sorcerers, 502.

Pay Zume. See Tume.

Pe-iiai, the North Sea, 87.

Pe-ti. See Northern Barbarians.

Pe-tsi (or Fiak-saC), a kingdom of
Coroa, 47, 62 ; intercourse with Ja-
pan, 626-629, 685.

Pe-v, author of the Shan Hai Kino,
670, 677; minister of Shun, 671.

Peaceable nature of Tolt*cs, 420.

Peaches, of Fu-sang, 41, 211 ; fruits
so called by Chinese, 415.

Pears, red, said to be fruit of the fu-
sang, 211, 266, 288, 398; doubt on
subject, 395 ; reason for statement,
440; identified as prickly-peai-s,
894; none borne by mulberry-trees,
1()4; pei-simmons nuiy be meant,
285.

Pearls, art of fishing for, 70 ; found
in pigs, 040,

Peccaries, called hogs, 115; said to
have navel on back, 454.

Pegu, temples of, 02.

P'ei, meaning of, 4(i2.

Pei, a sign of the plural, 481.

Pei-wXn Yin Fu, a lexicon. 280.

Pelicans, description of, 050; borne
on bows of boats, 109,

Pen-ts'ao, the Herbal of Ciiin-nono,
074.

Pen-tsao-kano-mouh, a liook, 110.

Penances of Buddhists, 120, 583.

INDEX.

777

Pt'flasca Blanon, est ii fas at, 430.

IViishiiiish IJay, M((, HU.

IVroz, M. .I(>st''| lut'inoir by, 104.

IVrousc, sfriiit of, 4(1.

J'tTni'd f/riifism'ind, 587.

IVrsei'iitioii of IJiiddliism. 5, 440,447.

Pcrscpolis, ('olumiis at, 12i).

Persia, visiti'tl by HuddhistH, 5; its
dislaiK'o from China, 54 ; the homo
of tlici hibincm, 51 ; tho four aj,'fs
of, 158.

Persimmons, descrilxid aa red pears,
2;{5.

Peruvians, civilized Ly Asiatic visit-
ors, !H{; possibly by Buddhists, (J'J,
74; Vishnuism in reli^'ion of, 54(i ;
analo(^y of their civilization to that
of Ku-santr, 20!); and that of Mexi-
co, 50(1 ; pyramids of, 505 ; olFerinjjs
to their gods, 5!)8; did not distiii-
f;uisii years by colours, 234 ; tradi-
tions of, .")({;$, 504; eyclo used by,
11)4; beasts of burden of, 170; sus-
pension-bridges, 018; copimr, 58;
skulls of, m.^

Peruvian language, resemblance of, to
Malay, 08.

Peter uiid Paul's Ilaven, 87.

Petroleum in Mexico, 533.

Petty, a word alHxed to titles, 412.

Philippine Islan<ls, voyages of their
people, 30; Country of Women
situated near, 244; Chinese knowl-
edge of, 405, 083 ; Fu-sang situated
in, 042, 082 ; custom of blackening
teeth in, 082.

Philostratus, fiuotations from, 58, 09.

Phocaceans, Cniueso descriptions of,
079.

Phoenicians, acquainted with Atlan-
tis, 50 ; their purple dye, 70.

Phonetics, portions of Chinese char-
acters, 337 ; can not bo inter-
changed, 338; characters possibly
used us, 481.

Pr-K'iu (or B/ukshu, q. v.), 440.

Pi JIi 11 u, a Japanese empress, 020,
032.

Pi-MU-Ti Hill, 001.

Pi-pi, a species of animal, 050.

Fiaches, South American sorcerers,
502.

PiAX-v-TiEV, or Chinese Geography
of Foreign Nations, 52, 58, 04, 09,
75.

Picietl, a species of tobacco, 509.

Picture-writing of the Mexicans, 421.

Pictured People. See " Marked
Bodies."

I'iK\-Ti:i', or l)ainbo>i va-<es. 031.

Pigs, animals iTseml)liiig, OK!; hav-
ing tusks, 055.

1*mi-Yan<) River, 052.

Pillars, carved, in front of houses, 351,

Pilpatoe. a Mexican gi'iieral, 412.

I'indd/xltika, detlnition of. 441.

PiN(i-i, the god of rain, (100.

PiN'd-MiAN, a Corean province, 43.

PiNd-VANti, a Cori'iin city, 43, 05.

Pintado, iHtiil'ds at, 430.

Pipcscarvedinshapeof cleplmnts.OOO.

Pii)iles, language of, 3(m; mourning
customs of, 4(1(S.

Pimnt/y the Malay name of the banana,
58, 405, 082.

Pila, cloth woven from fibcir of, 392.

Place-names, proof airorilcd by, 300.

I'lan of this work, 13.

Plan Carpin, errors made by, .33.

I'lanks, used in making mud walls,
419; houses built of. 420.

Plants, Country of, 0(53.

Plantain, the fu-sang tree, 042, 082.
jSV'p, uLv), Hauaiia.

Plaster used on pyramids and walls,
005.

Platforms upon pyramiils, 000.

Plato, his account of Atlantis, .58.

Pliny, marvelous tales of, 450, 494.

Plums, in America, 110.

Plumes, an American ornament, 199.

Plumed-serpent, (^nctzalcuatl, 548.

Plural, Chinese signs of, 481.

Po-ssK, or Persia, 54.

Po-WE-nii, or Fabulous Encyclopav
dia, 074, 077.

Po-VANO, home of ^Ia Twav-t,in, 232.

Po-VAN(i, a disciple of Confucius, 072.

Poem regarding native of Fu-sang,
254.

Poii-siir-Tsz', expedition of, 057.

Point Barrow. 245. 340, 347.

Poisonous insects in Japan, 081.

Po-Lo, temple of, near Canton, 254.

Polo, Marco, a contemporary of Ma
TwAK-LiN, 231 ; incredulity regard-
ing, 451 ; errors in liis accounts, 33,
105; his account of Anwizons, 244.

Polygamy, 020, 032.

Polytheistic worship of Jlexico, 157.

Pralnyns of the Hindoos, 154.

Prnfyeka Buddhas, 485.

Prayers, not addressed to images, 212 ;
of Mexican pinests, 581.

Presents from Fu-sang, 223, 237, 238,
520.

Preserves made from prickly-pears,
395.

778

INDEX.

Prcsiiliiig SpiritH, Coimtry of, (l(i;l,
OHO.

I'lX'.slcr .Inlm, fiihlt's rcpinliiijj, Ot.

l'rickly-|H'iirs, iiativt! to America, 77;
(Icscript ii)ii of, ;))(.") ; idciit ificd iis t ho
ivil prars of l''ii-,s(in>,', ;{1) I ; I'liiiicso
t.ini for, 401.

I'lickly-jiopiJV, siiiil to ho tlio fu-saujf,
M.

PriostH of Mexico, 108; called '• lla-
mas," (1.*); welcomed 1)V music, 4:i4.

Primitives. .SVc I'hoiietlcs.

Print iiif,', invention (»!', in Cliinn, 44!).

Prisons, of Fn-san;,', 270, 4")7; of
Mexico, 4."))); of .Japan, 104 ; futuro
punishment, l!)l(.

Proboscis, representations of, 014.

I'rocyon, a star, 147.

I'roper names, in Chinese, 257.

Prophecies of coniing of Spaniards,
TmI.

Ptolemy, aitsurd stories of, 140, 487.

Pf-Mi, a place near .Japan, 0;{4.

I'u-t'ao, dellnition of, 414.

Puelila, dress of priests of, r)Hl.

J*lll-Nli', adventuies of. 00.").

I'lii-ts'an .Mountain, 04.*).

Pulo Condor Island, '2'hl.

I*id(iue. Si'f Agiivo.

Pix-Ts'Ao, a Chinese book, H-'i, 170.

Punctuation, not used by Chinese,
2.J7, -.m.

P'lx()-i.ai. See P'Xno-lai.

Punishment of crime, 357, 4-37, 404,
40.").

Purpitory, Cliincso term for, 4.59.

PvKU'i'^s'accoinit of, 4!)4, 400, (i(i3.

Pyramids of Asia, 001, 005; of Mexi-
co, 5!)7, 005; resemblance between
them, 01, 00, 005; of Peru, 505.

Quadrumana, described as pygmies,

4!)4. See, (dso. Monkeys,
Quails, kejjt by Mexicans, 430.
Quaking Mountain, 00.5.
Quaquaqniltin, or " llerb-euters," 575,

580.
Qunqui Tonatiuh, sunset, 470.
Quartz crystals, 355, 040, 049, 050.
Quatu-zaca, a ncrson so called, 74.
Quauhcalli.ii Mexican prison, 459.
Quauhtemotzin, high-priest, 588.
QnauhtJd, or mountains. 2.54.
Qnaiihfleprt/li, a plant, 532.
(^uauhxieuko, a temple, 407.
Quauhi/etl, a species of tobacco, .'509.
Queen Charlotte's Islands, 102, 344.

(^iiepopan, a ward of >rexico, 370.
Qiu'rechos, vines found in coiuitry of,

no.

Quetzal feathers on cap of Qui'tziil-
coatl, 543.

Quetzalcoull, derivation of name. .548;
title Iteslowed upon, 417; said to
liavocome from llie east, 197; must
have come from Asia, 143 ; a Mud-
dhist priest, 102, 543, .544 ; resem-
blance to Huddha, 112; doctrines
of, .547; peiuiiices taught by, 544;
temperance taught bv, .547; arts
taught 1)V, 547; gentle nature of
his religion, 575; d 'script ion of,

(I 'scri|)tion or,
,'e of, .543, .595;

19H, .542 ; an image
monasteries founded by, 575 ; edi-
fices attributed to, 537; circular
temples of, 004 ; palace of, .529. 015 ;
contention witli Tezcatlipoca. 575;
the cause of a war. .542; confu>i(m
V)etwee!i. and VVixipecocha. .541 ;
promise to return, 197; iielief there-
ui, .547; traditions regarding. 197;
late additions thereto. .549; survival
of his doctrines, 575; tribes I'alled
Jiis children, 575; disciples in Peru,
500; foot-jirintsof, .5.53; represent-
ed as a bird, 198 ; thought to bo
mytliical, 198; not mythical, 541;
a god, 197.

QiietznlichUi, a species of ngave,
392.

Quefzaiti, definition of, 548.

Queues, introduction of, in China,
498.

Quiches, sacred book of, ,540; belief
of, 494 ; music i)layed before king
of, 423.

Quichua language, 08, 111.

Quicksilver, called " water-silver,"
3.54; absurdities involved in this
translation, 350 ; Chinese character
for, 3.55; a friable earth niistakeii
for, 22 ; in a tomb, 245.

Quila, a town in C ihuatlan, 492.

Quilted-cotton armour, 018.

Quivera, said to luive been founded
by I^Iexicans, 32; vessels wrecked
near, 31 ; vines foimd in, 1 10 ; bisons
found in, 33, 115; horns used us
vessels in, 430.

R, suppressed in Pali, : in languages

of American tribes, 157.
Rabbits, 225, 430, 534.
Raccoon, food of, 512.

INDEX.

77U

'fill,

agave,

China,

RadicaU. n part of rhiiicso chanic-

Ii(ii/u, an iina<,'iriary iihuict, T'-J.
Uain, ill Kanil<'liatka, IM); in Alaska,

;).■)» ; oincns of. tiHl, (i-H, »i."»rt.
Ilaiiilxtw, as an cscutcln'on, ^M((.
Il<iiny season in Mexico, Till; tlui

tinic (if inigratiun:j of nionkfys,

4!)H.
Uaiiia, Ills ('(>n(|U('st of Ceylon, 41).").
Uainiisio, tiia|) drawn liy, UTO.
Kank, imlieated liy tallooiiig, 24.1,

!J1H, ;(47, (i;{l ; tiv carved posts,

•.ir>i; liy liadgcs, m\.
Hats. Iiiidd ivseiiililing, 044, (J.jI, O.Tt,

(JHO.
Ravine of Manifestation of Dawn,

GHl.
Roca]iitiilatioii of arguments, f)H4.
Records of .lapanese History, 4^.'J.
Ik'cords of liiaiig Dvnasty, 2(10.
Records of the Ten Islands. 24;{.
Red-skins, or American trilK's, Hi.
Reeds or rushes in Mexico, 415.
Refined (ientlemon, Country of, Cj?,

«(»;{, 080.
Reindeer, in both Asia and America,

!}."), 17.") ; in America, .')!(, ll»(i; in

Siberia, ;}2; in Kamlchatka, 04, 8:1,

8!); in Canada. 70.
Relatives of criminals punished, 378,

404.
Religion, in America and Asia, 700;

in Alaska. 0; in Mexico, l.')8, lSi8,

.'574.
Remedies used by Aztecs, .100.
Remusat, translated account of Fu-

sang, 07.
'Rn-YA, or " Readv Guide," a Chinese

book, ;w;{, ;{87. ;}s!». (m, 072.

Rhode Island, described by North-
men, 4."»2.
Hi, .Tai)aneso pronunciation of Li,

Q'JO
*3.)w.

Rilx'ra, travels of, in Paraquay, 4.S0.

Ribero, Diego de. ma]) drawn by, 370.

Jtir, title of Gothic kings, 00.

Rio Janeiro, cochineal insects from,
7(5.

Tfishii^, hermits of the Ganges. .144.

Jioc, Marco Polo's account of the. 4.11.

Rocky Jlountain shee)). horns of, 4:50.

Roman Catholicism, affected by Bud-
dhism. .170; its resemblances there-
to, .108: and to Aztec religion. .18.1.

Roman Empire, Chinese knowledge
of, .17. (i(i2.

Rosaries, used by P>uihlhists, .109.

Rose of Ciiina. »S'c'e Hibiscus.

Rosnv, M. de, 107. ISH, 20.1, 0:J0.
Ross«'l, Admiral de. OH, 71.
h'ltiiriiit, ii^ed bv .Mexicans, 471.
Uoyal Aeadenn, memoirs of. i;{.
Ro/e, Admiral, visit lo Kangwha,

.128.
Rualo. lake, .1:18.
Itubrmpiis, errors of, 'V-\.
Itushes ill Ku-san^'. 212.
Russia. Chinese transcription of, 404;

iiiiddliism in, .1.
Russians, explorations by, of Ainoor

valley, 187; ami coast of America,

22.
Rutting-seuson, of monkeys, 408.

Sables of Fu-sang. 22.1, 2:J0, .1:34.

tSdctid, or priests. .171>.

Sacapnias, a Mexican town, .188.

Sacatecoluca, a Mexican town, .188.

iSarnt/, meaning of. -187.

Saco. a Mexican town. .188.

Sacrifices. 047, O.ll, <i.i:i; prohibited
liy Hu(hlhism, 120.

Sdi" kino iimnizi, images brought by,
(t28.

Sagas, accounts of America, 02.

Sage-brush, .110. .111. .li:{.

Saghalien, identified as Fu-sang, 170,
242; as (Jreat Man, 44, 180; not
(Jieat II AN, .12.

.SV(/, or capuchin monkey. 4!)8.

Saint IJarlholomcw, in Ameiica, 100,
.101.

Saint Christoplier, music at, 424.

Saint Thomas, in America, 100, .1.10,
.101, .10:{, .104, .KW.

Sakya. or Sakya Muni, an ajipellatiou
of Hiiddlia"((|. v.). 2; its meaning,
ijition o
ily disci_
interment. 00; name contained m
various Mexican place-names, 77,
.187; in (^iiatuz. ii, 74; and Chaac-
mol, 00(i.

Salamander, mytli regarding, .l:)2.

Salt, of China and Jb'xico, ,10H ; Chi-
nese character for. .107.

Salt Lake City, Country of Women,

Salt-p'lant, 30, .'308. .107.

Salt-weed, of Arizona. .100.

Salvad<ir, Aztec language in, J507;
dress of priests fif, 472.

Samarcand, said to be Ki-imx, 108,
12:{. 212, 2i:J, 44.1. 44(i : situation
of, 124; a center of Buddhism, 10:3;

2; Chinese transcript ion of, 77; his
concept ion, 07 ; early disciples, .182 ;

780

INDEX.

missionnrics from, 28, 120; com-
merce with China, 446,
Samoyedes, customs of, 34.
Sax-ka.v, pays tribute to Japan, 627.
San-ma-(ELL-han. i>ee Samarcand.
Sax-sai-dzol'-ve, an encyclopaedia,
212.

Sax-siex-suan, tlie Three Fairy Hills,
241.

San Andreas Chaehicomula, 605,

San Biati, Fu-sang near, 95.

San Domingo, estiifa at, 436.

San Felipe, bones of bisons at, 428.

San Franci.^'o, Fu-sang near, 08, 177;
east of center of United States,
301 ; century-plant in, 386.

San Juan Teotihuacan, 598.

San Lorenzo, river of, 492,

Sand River, 649; and Marsh, 650.

Sand, shifting, meaning of, 648.

Sandwich Islands, 68, 101, 156, 167.

Saxo, pronunciation of, 400, 407.

Sanga, the Buddhist priesthood, 458,
485,

Sanga Pala, a Buddhist priest, 440.

Sanger, strait of, 85.

ii(in//hati, a Buddhist robe, 553,

Sanskrit, Chinese transcriptions from,
253, 404, 413, 440; its use in sun-
myths, 342.

Santa Kita del Cobre, 432.

Santarem, Viscount of, 07.

iSu-to-wats, or horses, 482,

Satyrs, description of, 454.

fScaiidinavians, discoverers of Vinland,
49, 58, 03, 211.

Sch( ter, Nicholas, man of, 371.

Scii'.'hed Pygmy People, 002.

Scythia, the Imme of Amazons, 487.

Sea, of ViMiish, 225, 239; of Milk,
fi25.

Sea-.'alves, cries of, 079,

Sea-o; ttle, or sea-ottei-s, 079,

Sea-lions, 353, 079,

Sea-serpent, story of Fu-sang com-
pared to, 202,

Sea-sliells, as musical instruments,
422.

Seals, given by Chinese emperor, 026,
632.

Seals, Cliineso description of, 90, 679.

Seated figui'e at Uxmal, 594.

Sex Six, a Buddiiist nun, 029.

Senegal, people of, 38.

Sexg-kia-li, a Buddhist robe, 553.

Seiiy-fi, the lion-headed couch, 593.

Sepulchers, pvramids used as, 599,
001.

Serpents, worshiped in Mexico, 157,

530; of Fu-sang. 225, 239, 530, 531 ;
of Coimtry of Women, 529 ; taken
as hu>banils, 224; alK)ut idols, 012;
as ear-ornaments, 657, 000, 005,
080; triljes so called, HI ; Quetzal-
coatl called the plumed, 548;
winged, 451, 454 ; two-headed, 455 ;
eight-headed, 078.

Sha, interchanged with Ka, 414.

iShajrat ul Atrak, or Genealogical
Tree, 82.

Sra-mo (Desert of Gobi, q. v.), 23.

Shaman, derivation of wonl, 5, 74;
belief that it is an American word,
6; may have given rise to title
"Anianam," 74; arts of, in Kani-
tchatka, 91 ; in Central Asia, 186,

Shax, meaning of, 044,

ShAn, meaning of, 444,

Shan-ciiixo, capital of Japan, 21.

Shax IIai Kixg, or Chinese " Classic
of Mountains and Seas," references
to, 17, 47, 56, 218; its references
to Fu-sang, 182 ; descrijition of the
leaves, 387; description of Ainos,
84; quotations from, 249, 250; its
fabulous accounts, 181 ; rcjusons for
translating, 642 ; translation of
parts of, 643 ; preface, 643 ; fourth
book, 044; ninth book, 050; four-
teenth book, 001; comments upon
it, 669 ; its divisions, 609, 077 ; in-
terpolations, 077; gaps in, 077: ago
of, 072; its authorship, 071-(i;3; a
coin})ilation, 080; not thought wor-
thy of credit, 071-070; opinion
rapidly changing, 078.

SnXx-i*AX, a species of mussel, 648,

Shan-tseh, or the Deep JIarsh, 653.

Shax-tuxo, wild tribes in, 241.

Shao-hai, the Little Sea, 87.

Shao-IIao, the em;ieror, 001.

Shano dynasty, reign of, 072,

Shaving, by Buddhist priests, 507.

SHE-(K)Er, Tartarian triljcs, 24, 25,
210.

She-I'i's Body, a god. 050, 657.

Siieep, in Great IIax, 215, 246; not
raised in Japan, 178; gods with
horns of, 653 ; American animals
so called, 33, 115; llanms, 115;
liocky Mountain sheep, 430; vege-
table, 450 ; nietaphoric use of term,
485,

Shem, references to, 72, 74,

Sheu, or cul)it length, 331,

Shi River, 055 ; and Mountain, 654.

Sill, definition of, 444.

Shi-cueu-ki, a book, 227.

INDEX.

781

Shi-eul-t'eu-to Kino, a book, 441.

Siii-nu Mountain, G*)!.

Sni IIwANu-Ti, a Chinese emperor,
251, 620.

Shi-kia, or Suk-yn, 77.

Shi Tao-an, travels of, 10.

Sni-WE. See She-goei.

Shifting Sand, meaning of, 048.

Sum, meaninc: of, i}27. ;5i)4.

Shiii Kiver, (M4. 047, 054.

Shih Ciiau Ki, 2:50.

Shin I Kixo, 240. 250.

Shin Yi Tien, 071.

Shing ^lountain, 007.

Shinjf, tiie Lord of the Dead, 014.

Shipwreelvs, of Ciiinese vessels on a
Country of Women, 30,' 100, 213,
251, 515; of Chinese emperor Ti-
PUN, 34; of an expedition to Japan,
252; of TsiN-NGAN men, 310; at
Wu-KiEN, 000; on American coast,
122, 233; on coast of British Co-
lumbia, 184; of California, 101; of
Quivera, 31 ; of Japanese junks,
150; on Queen Charlotte's Islands,
102; onOahu, 101.

Shi)i Shing, a Japanese emperor, 624,
632.

Sno-Ti'AN, a Chinese lord, 222.

ShruimkdK, a class of Buddhists, 485.

Snu, a division of China, 627.

Shu-hai, journev of, 058.

Shl- Kino, references to, 83, 212.

Shui Kino, or Book of the Waters, 674.

Shun, an emperor, 060 ; ministers of,
670, 671.

Shv-wei, country of, 45, 137. See,
also, She-goei."

Si-KOKF, an island of Japan, 240.

Si-noan, Ciiinese capital, 54, 82, 87,
446.

Siam, Buddhism in. 5; pagodas of,
62; similar to Jlexican temples,
112 ; altars of, 133 ; manuscripts of.
618; disbelief in ici; by king of,
354; term for Gnutama in, 558.

SiANO Mountain, 651.

SiAo-CHiNO, the less translation, 484.

SiAO-TEU. or "little beans," 314, 517.

Siberia, Chinese transcription of, 404;
inhabitants of, 210; Buddhism in,
5 ; sea gradually filling up, 70 ; Led-
vard's researches in, 112; animals
of, 32 ; Great IIan situated in, 22,
178.

Sibylline books, ages named in, 155.

Siddharfa, name of Buddha, 1.

Sie-iiao, or Chinese absinthe, 30, 308,
507.

Siebold. translation of, 025.

Sierra N\'vada Mountains, 532.

Silk, use of, bv American tribes, 241 ;

of Fu-s»ing,'223, 2: 1, 238, 520, 085;

could have come from Mexico, 705;

vegetable fi)>er so called. 521.
Silk-worms of Fu-sang, 48, 50. 223,

224, 238. 250, 524; of Japan, 031.
Silver, in Fu-sang, 288, 431 ; in ^lex-

ico, 431 ; in Japan, 020, 63(5, 640.
Simson, Theos., letter from, 173.
SiN-FU, expedition of, to 1"Ano-lai,

633. Si'i', also, Siu-ku.
SiN-LO, or Sinra, a province of Corea,

625-628.
Sinapis, fu-sang leaves resemble, 387.
Siogoun, a Japanese title, ()38.
Sipangu, Marco Polo's name for Ja-
pan, 549.
Sisal hemp, the silk of Fu-sang, 521.
Sitka, climate of, 122; carved posts

in, 352.
Siu-KU. a physician, 251 ; deified by

the Japanese. 252.
Siva, representations of, 61, 71 ; the

cross a monogiam cf, 552 ; wives of,

546.
Sivaism, in Thibet and Java, 545;

cruel rites of, 102; mixed with

Buddhism, 72, 124, 126.
Skrellings, or Esc^uimaux, 81, 453.
Skulls of American races, 81; in

mounds, 598 ; on idols, 012.
Slave-children of Fu-s<ing, 274, 457,

462.
Slave Indians, tattooing of, 340.
Slavery, among the Mexicans, 462;

relatives of criminals reduced to,

465, 632.
Sloan. Hans, collection of, 20.
Smumnika, definition of, 442.
Smoking Mountain, 225, .531.
Snails, eaten by monkeys, 512.
Snow, described as feathers, 450.
Snowy Range. 532.
So-TiEN, a Ibiddhist priest. 035.
Sogamozo, monuments of, 143.
Soqnno Mumako, temple of, 628,

629.
Snmnna, an epithet of Buddha, 558.
Sonora, vines in, 415; no bisons in,

427; metals in, 432.
Sounds of Chinese characters, 234.
Soitra, a fabulous fish, 14(5.
South, the leading point of the com-

pa.ss, 615 ; Mexican paradise in, 461.
South America, traditions of, 560;

non-intercourse with Mexico. 556.
Soy, derivation of the word, 508.

782

INDEX.

J 1

Spaiibcrg, Cnpt., on coast of Japan,

23.
Spain, conqnorcd by Arabs, 37; place-
names of, !Ui(J.

Spaniards welcomed by music, 433,
434.

Spinel, in Alaska, 350.

Sjiirits, worshiped in Country of Wom-
en, 335; images of, worshiped, 213;
of the earth, and sun, (571.

"Spring and Autumn," a book by
Confucius, «43, 049, 003, 074.

Springs, inimerous in Mexico, 534.

Sprouts, of endogenous plants, 380;
of currant-bushes, 511. iSee, aluo,
Haiulioo-sprouts.

Squirrels, quadnunana compared to,
495.

Sramnna, an epithet of Buddha, 558;
aiul his i)riests, 5 ; from which word
"shaman" has come, 74.

Sraraua, or fuot-priiits of Vishnu,
153.

Sri^x'ida, or foot-prints of Buddha, 553.

SsK-Ki, a Chinese book, 073.

SsK-MA-cHixo, book of, G73.

SsK-MA-Ki'ANO, a Cliincse author, 071.

Ssi':-MA-Ts-'iEN, a Chinese author, 113,
073.

Stairs, Chinese transcription of, 404.

Stanton, Sir George, nuqi of, 50.

Statuary of Buddhists. 000.

Statui; of a man from Fu-sang, 254.

Statues upon pyramids, 000.

"Stems," the ten Chinese, 334.

Stennis, monoliths of, 001.

Stercnlin phnitnnifolia, 176.

Stone, worked by Americans, 151 ; in-
terred with t'he dead, 159, 017; a
tree of, 354, 410.

Stonehenge, monoliths of, 001.

Stucco, on ])yramids, 599, 005; and
teii\[)les,, 000.

Sr, inclining of, 400.

S(^ Fill, expedition of, 343.

Si' Ki-y(\ governor of Fuii-KIEN, 242.

Sua. Sec Hochica.

Substantive v(>rbs in Chinese, 444.

Suddhodaua, father of Buddha, 1.

Suetoi-noss, a Kamtchatkan cape, 20.

Sugar extracted from century-plant,
38(5.

Sugar-cane, called P'i'-t'ao, 415.

SiH-cuu Mountain, 044.

Suma. *SV^ Tuma.

Sumatra, 3(!, 345, 390. 081.

Sun. temple of the, 590 ; spirits of the,
071 ; children named after, 350.

Suns, the ten, 059.

Sun-bird, the shooting of, 059.

Sun-house, the Aztec paradise, 459.

Siniless Mountain, 044.

Sun-myth, Fu-simg not ii, 320, 341.

Sunrise, place of, 350, 353. (!43, 001,
003,004, 007; valley of, 243 ; com-
mencement of day with, 470.

Sunset, Mexican name for, 470.

Sim's Palace, meaning of, 533.

SuNo. a (,'hinese dynasty, 40.

SuNO-vu\, his journey' to India, 10,
444.

Snrujjn, a Japanese province, 030, 030.

Survival of primitive customs, 303.

Surya, a god of India, 152.

Suspension-]>ridges, (!18,

Swan, Chinese description of, 080.

/Swastika, a species of cross, 553.

Sweat-house. <SVe Estufa,

Sweden, Buddhism in, .5.

Sweeping the paths of monarchs, 433,
017.

Sweet-herb, a species of sage, 513.

Swine, in Kamtchatka, 89, 90; pec-
caries so called, 115; name be-
stowed on foreigners, 81.

Swords, worn by Japanese, 081 ; rep-
resentation of curved, in Mexico,
000.

Sz* I Kao, or Researches into the
Four Frontiers, 332.

Sz'-MA Tsien's description of a tomb,
245.

Ta, definition of, 340.
Ta-ciiing, the great translation, 484.
Ta-p'U, a Japaiu'se embassador, 032.
Ta-han. aSVc Han, Great.
Ta-mo, a Siberian tril)e, 210.
Ta-mo, a Buddhist. 440.
Ta-o ]\Iountain, (i04.
Ta-t'uno-kiaxo, a river, 43.
Ta-tsin, the Boinan cmiiire. 57, 002.
Taber, photograph by ^Ir., 38(i.
Table or altar at Paleiupie, 133.
Tacitus, fables related by, 50. (i78.
Tadpoles, Chinese names of. 044.
Taen(;as of Louisiana, 31, 100.
Tagala langmvge, 111.
Tagul, Chinese transcription of, 404.
Tahuas, worship of serpents liy, 530.
Tai. a Chinese oflicer, 000.
T'ai Mountain, (i4(i, 050, 007.
Tai-chin-toxo-waxo-i r, a god, 219.
Tai-faxo, route from, to China, 030,

034, 035.
Tni-kan. See ITan, Great.
T'ai-tsung Mountain, 040.

INDEX.

783

T'ai-wav, Sep, Porinosii.

Tails, iiu'ii with, 451, 4"J3; of monk-
eys, 4!W.

Tiu'noi, Tamu, Tiinio, or Zume, 563.

T'an, lucaniuK of, GUI.

Tan-cuku, a place near Japan, 633.

Tano, dynasty, 85, 91.

T'ASU liavine, ()5H.

T*AN(i-KU, or Warm Springs Valley,
56, 250.

Tang-k'ano, a sneeies of wild pij;:, 655.

Tangaxoan, a Jlexiean chief, 423, 41)1.

Tanner, a nia[) by Mr., 429.

Tanzy, used to sweeten meat, 513.

Tag, definition of, 516.

Tao-szu, expedition of, 253.

Taoists, authors of the Shan IIai
Kino, 670, 677.

Taos, entufan at, 436.

Tapia, or adol)e, 419.

Tapir, references to, 201, 483, 608.

Taraikai. Sve Saghalien.

Tarapaca, tradition regarding, 5()5.

Tartars, Ciiinese accounts of, 23, 8iJ ;
liistory of, 14 ; relationship be-
tween, 82 ; resemblance to Ameri-
can tribes, 81; in customs, 143;
and armour, 420, 618; zodiac of,
144, 148, 149; years of cycles, 99,
470; commenceincnit of year, 499;
dialects of. 111 ; lack of beard, 35.

Tartary, hares of, 147; horses of, 32;
American women met in, 35 ; dress
of priests in, 567 ; characters of, in
Canada, 112.

Tatsima Mori, travels of, 635.

Tattooing, in P^astern Asia, 245 ; by
Ainos, 84, 186; in .Japan, 631 ; by

{ieoj)le of the land of " Marked
Jodies," 245, 318; of Aleuts, Alas-
kans, and American tril)es, 92, 345,
346 ; as a mark of rank, 245, 347.

Tau, definition of, 644.

Taxco, metals from, 432.

Taxes, none in Fu-sang, 431.

Taij, delinition of, 579, 587.

Tni/saraa, a higli-])riest, 519, 540, 587.

Tcluiktclii, 83, 86, 87.

Tc'Ho-Loxo, tile " Luminous Dragon,"
532.

Ti'ca, or fcratl, definition of, 410.

2'rca/i, or gypsum, 529.

Teccizijo tilinatli, a mantle, 473.

Tech>c/n\ an animal, 430.

Ti'cpritl, a Mexican sign, 150, 151.

Tecii/it/i, a Mexican title, 411.

Tehuantepec, 538. 605.

Ti'Upilojnn, a ^texican prison, 459.

Temples, of llindostan, 606; of Ja-

pan, 629; of tlie Sun and Moon, 599 ;
on pyramids, 601 ; at I'alcnciue,
598, (i06; of Quetzalcoatl. ()15 : ilec-
orations of, 590, 605, 615; age at
which chilciren are brought to, 463.

Ten suns, accounts of, l(i3, 182, 250,
659, 682.

Tvncxfli, or ^Mexican lime, fi05.

Tenochtithin, or Mexico, 36H, 375.

Teoamn.rf/i, the " divine l)ook,"' 550.

Teocallis, or temples. 112, 566, 599.

Teo-cipactii, the Mexican Noah, 146.

Teo-Culhuacan, a city, 491.

Tcapau, a ward of Mexico, 3(i9.

Tto-pixqiii, or Aztec priests, 578.

Teotihuacan, a town, 3fi3, 599.

Trn/I, reseml)lance of, to " /A-^/.s," 589.

Teoyaomi(iui, an Aztec god, 45!(, 546,
613.

Tctzontli, a species of stone, 605.

Tc.uan, or tctuan, definition of, 410.

Tmle, Ti'Mli, or TeiMli, 412.

Teutile, a Mexican general, 411.

Te.xas, fossils in, 428; vini's in, 415.

Teyas, vines in country of. 116.

Tezcacalli, or House of Mirrors. .')29.

Tezcatli[)oca, a god, 52ti. 575, 614.

Tezcuco, punishment of criminals in,
437; path swept before kings of,
617.

Tharic, leader of the Arabs, 37.

Thatches of agave leaves. 384.

Theft, punishment of, 437.

The mint ilan, the City of Mexico,
370.

Then-halnng, or Siamese altars, 133.

Theory, explaining IMexican civiliza-
tion, 622 ; l)y which account of Fu-
sang must be explained, ()4 ; which
has fewest diflicnlties, 342, 358;
facts peryerted for, 104.

Thevenot, collections of. 60.

Thiljct, visited by Muddliists, 8 ; re-
ligion of. 97, 545; term for (Jau-
tama in, .558 ; priests of. 5K3 ; tiieir
dress. 567, 569 ; marriages, 585 ;
use of crosses in, 5.52 ; walls of tem-
ples of, ()15; god Shinje of, (n4;
zodiac of, 144,' 149; cycles of, 143,
470; fouragi'sof, 1.5K ; reseml)lance
of institutions of, to thost; of Mexi-
co, 143, 154, 155.

Thistle, century-plant so called, .398.

Thlinkeets, carved jiosts of, 352.

Thorns of agave, 19.5.

Thread from fu-sang, 266 ; from fiber
of agave, 384.

Three Fairy Hills, 211. 2^3.

Three foot-prints of Vishnu, 153.

784

INDEX.

' '■

I' '

" Three vehicles," u Buddhist term,
484.

Thunder, the god of, G08.

Ti-HUNO, ancestor of the Wliite Peo-
ple, (j()4.

Ti-Ko, spirits of rei<?n of, G71.

Ti-i'UN, a Chinese emperor, 34.

Ti-TsiUN, who espoused lli-no, 250.

Ti-TSiN, an emperor, 003, GOG.

Ti-YUH, or Ilados, 459.

T'lAo People. 0G3.

T'lAO-YUxo, description of, 040.

Tides, among the Aleutian Islands,
340.

Tir.> KIEN, period so called, 515. "19.

TiEX-wu, god of the water, 05", 05,
079.

Tigers, in zodiacs, 149 ; of Corea and
Jesso, 081 ; gentle, 057, G03.

Tilantengo, high-priest of, 579.

Tiles, in Mexico and China, 155.

Time, divisions of, 470, 475, 476;
changes occasioned by, 335.

Tin, known to Aztecs, 431 ; used as
medium of exchange, 98.

Tixo. confused with Hiang, 502.

Tingry, Lake, 218.

Tititl, the month of "hard times,"
512

Titles', of Fu-sang, 208, 234, 280. 409,
411, 413 ; of Mexico, 411, 413 ; of
Japan, 040 ; of several nations, 00.

Tizathtln, a species of stone, 471.

Tla, definition of, 413.

Tlaca-iecu/ttli, Montezuma's title,
410.

Thiliac, a mineral, 471. .

Tlalocan, the Aztec paradise, 400.

Tlalxicco, ]\Iictlanteeutli's temple, 461.

Tlama, priests or " medicine-men,"
05, 589.

Tlammdzqiii, or deacons, 575; du-
ties of, 577, 581 ; dress of, 580.

Tlanamiqiii, definition of, 403.

Tlascala, punishment of a thief at,
437 ; entrance of Cortez, 423 ; dress
of prie:?ts of, 581 ; names for Ilui-
tzilopochtli at, 381.

Tlascaliins, emigrants from north,
149 ; called " women," 489.

TInfeluIco part of Mexico, 309.

Tlatoniii, or

Tlatocn, a ^Mexican title, 413.

71epafli, a Mexican plant, 532.

To, definition of, 414.

To-p'u-t'ao. 41, 211, 288: said to be
grapes, 58, 05 ; or tomatoes, 414.

Tobacco, 97, 509.

Tollantzinco, the prophet of, 538.

Toltecs, meaning of name, 90; emi-
grants from north, 143, 149 ; said
to have come from Japan, 02 ; date
of their arrival, 90, 303, 3(»4 ; no
earlier inhabitants known, 303 ; in
Mexico in davs of llwui Shiln, 304 ;
spoke the Azteo language, 3(i5;
colonized the Pacific coast, 305 ;
their civilization, 190, 303, 305,
574 ; its preservation, 575 ; their
peaceable nature, 420 ; offerings to
their gods, 598 ; writing of, 421 ;
their " divine book," 90 ; priests,
581 ; resemblance of religion to
that of Peru, 500 ; religious wai-s
of, 575 ; caused by QuetzidcoatI,
542 ; capital of, 599 ; jialaces of
kings of, 529 ; taught agriculture,
430.

Tomatoes, used by Mexicans, 415.

Tombs, pyramids used as, 599, 001 ;
homes of Driests among, 442.

Tonapa, tri !tion regarding, 505.

Tonutiuh, tjmple of, 599.

ToNG-FANG-so, a Chinese author, 219.

Tono-hai, tlie Eastern Sea, 033.

ToNG-HOEN-HEU, an emperor, 223.

Tono-king, embassy from, 114.

ToNG-KiNO-Fu, a poem, 220.

Tontli, definition of, 412.

Topes of Buddhists, 001.

Topiltzin Ceacatl, See Quetzalcoatl.

Tortures of Mandan Indians. 198.

Total abstinence, taught by Quetzal-
coatl, 547.

Totepeuh Nonohualcatl, a chief, 542.

Totonacas, monastery of, 578.

Tourmalines, in Alaska, 35(i,

Towers, upon pyramids, 000, 002.

Toys, as symbols, 020.

Toy on, or chief, 351.

Traditions, of Aztecs, 302, 530; of
Guatemala, 008 ; of erection of

Siyramids, 598 ; of trade across the
'acific, 109 ; regarding Deluge, 131 ;

regarding elephant, Oil ; regarding

Quetzalcoatl, 015; interpreted in

different ways, 201.
Tmlchivarikn, definition of, 442.
Transcriptipns of foreign words by

Chinese, 404, 414.
Translations, a Buddhist term, 484,

480.
Translations from Chinese, reasons

for, 255 ; principle followed in, 201.
Transmigration, belief in, 157, 590.
Travelers provided with food, 348,

350.
Trees, plants so called, 383, 884 ; of

INDEX.

7S5

6 ; emi-
li) ; said
a; (Into
j()4; no
3G;J : in
iiin,3()4;

.st, 305;
G;3, 805,
5; their
■rings to
of, 421;
priests,
i<;rioii to
)ns wara
tziUcoati,
tlaces of
riculture,

. 415.
599, GOl ;
42.
, 505.

thnr, 219.
0!}3.
r, 222.
14.

itzalcoatl.
;, 198.
Quetzal-

uef, 542.
i, 603.

530; of
action of
icross the
hige, 131 ;

egarding
ireted in

442.

Iworils by

|erm, 484,

reasons
l.(lin.201.
i7, 590.
3od, 348,

k, 384; of

stone, 254, 410 ; Buddhist priests to
sit under, 442 ; Land of Numerous,
044,

Tremblers, a tribe so called, 517.

Tricks of decij^herers, 100.

Tri yann, the " three cars," 485.

Trumpets, 421, 422, 470.

Truths, told by liwui Shiln,358. G80;
found even in wonderful tales, 330.

Tsah-yC Kiver, 049.

TsAi, meaning of, 425, 444.

Ts'ai-kixo-cul'xu, inventor of paper,
038.

Tsan-Yai, Country of Women near,
220.

TsAxo Mountain, 007.

Ts'ang-shAx-\ •, a poem, 658, 661,
063.

Ts'axo-ti River, 054.

Ts'ao, definition of, 440. 507.

Ts'ao-chi Mountain, 048.

TsEU-cni-T'oxti-KiKx, a book, 071.

Tseu-hia, a disciple of Coniucius,
072.

Tsi dvnastv, 40, 200, 222, 440.

TsiN dynasty, 40.

Tsix-xoAN. "situation of, 244; ship-
wreck of men of, 310, 515.

Ti'iN Hni IIwAxo Ti, an emperor,
241, 243, 245. 033.

Tsixo People, 003.

TsiXG-Tsixo, a species of animal, 653.

Tso-ssK, a Chinese poet, 074.

Tsu, a Chinese state, 047.

Tsu-sima, 43, 030, ((34, 030.

Tft'i-su gc, .". noisonous insect, 681.

Ts'O-TAx River, 047.

Tsu-TSE-YU, a book, 675.

Ts't'NG-Ts'L-xo, or six-legged dogs,
044.

Tsz' rats, 644.

Tsz'-T'uxo Mountain and River, 655.

Tu Sea, 182.

Tu-FU Mountain, 049.

Tu-p'o tribe, 23, 44, 45.

Tu-YEU. an encyclopa'dia by, 075.

Tu-YiT, Geography of, 074.

Tui-IIai, a place near Japan, 034.

Tri-LU, a title of Fu-sang, 27, 41,
280, 411 ; found in Corea. 528.

Tri-MA-TAo, an island, 20, 43.

Tuli--, Tnlla, or Tulan, 415, 599, 014.

Tule, or reeds, 415.

Tuma. tradition regarding, 503.

Tumuli, of Buddhists, 601 ; assem-
blies held in, 270, 434.

Tuna, or {)ricklv-pear, 394.

Tung, a son of 'Turk, 82.

T'UNG tree, 27, 170, 235, 387.

Tuxo Faxg-soii, an author, 240.
TuxG-TL'Xo, a species of pig, 040.
Tungnses, 23, 34, 45, 81, 82, 112, 187.
Tupi-Guaranays, tradition of, 562.
Turks, 81, 82, 111, 414.
Turkestan, visited by Buddliists, 8.
Turkeys, called "hens," 115; kept by

IMexicans, 430.
Turtle, varieties of, 070.
Tusks, elephants lacking, 201, 610.
Tykoon, a Japanese title, 038.
Typhon, coupled witli Horns, 72.
Ts'iNG-WANO, an emperor, 113.
Tzequil, the attendants of Votan, 558.
Tzin, meaning of, 588.

Ubaque, foot-prints in, 500.

Udonge, a great cloud of blossoms,
401.

Uixtocihuatl, a goddess, 508.

Ulugh Beig, work of, 490.

Unalaska, 9; meaning of the name,
34.

I nalaskans, Esquimaux. 344 ; can not
understand Aleuts, 344; their na-
ture, 347; tattooing, 345; dwellings
of, 353.

Unicorn, 145, 451.

Cnipeds, Northmen's account of, 453.

United States, Chinese name for, 400.

Unreliability of early Japanese rec-
ords, 624, 625.

UpCisakas, duties of, 501.

Urcos, statue of Viracocha at, 505.

Uries, strait of, 22.

Urtuezez, a tribe in Paragmiy, 489.

Ihu-fi-toghe, a Japanese mountain,
638.

Uttarasanghafi, a Buddhist robe, 553.

Uxmal, traditions of Indians at,
598; pyramids at. 000; "House of
Monks " at, 594 ; seated figures re-
sembling Buddlia at, 71, 77. 129,
134, 200, 594 ; liguie of dragon at,
73 ; elephant's trunk at, 200, 007 ;
paintings at, 199.

V and M intcrclmnged, 408.
Vaccns, or cows, bisons so called, 115.
Vadjra atcharya, or " diamond teach-
er " 548
Valleyof Birds, 644.
Valley of Jlanifestation of Dawn, 657.
Va'Vy of Sunrise, 243.
Variations in texts, 260.

786

INDEX.

Varnish, Sea of, 225, 239, 533.

Vases of Mexico and Japan, 573.

Vdthdpantari, definition of, 441.

Vatican, manuscripts of, 152.

Vegetable-siieep, tiescription of, 450.

Ve^jetation ciiaracteristic of Mexico,
510.

Vehicles, none used Vjy American
tribes, 481; "the Tliree," a Bud-
dhist term, 484.

Velasquez, occupation of Cuba by,
550.

Vera Cruz, Gage welcomed at, 424.

Verbs, Chinese use of substantive,
444.

Vermilion fish, G49.

Victoria Weekly Colonist, 184.

Vicunas, used as draught animals,
170.

Viharas, religious establishments,
589.

Village of the Tower, of the Ghiliaks,
187.

Vine, Chinese name for, 41, 414 ; its
introduction into China, 43, 58, 110 ;
its Japanese name, 43 ; myth of its
creation, 47 : indigenous to Ameri-
ca, 49, 58, 94, 110, 110, 162, 109,
211, 312; and found in Mexico,
415; but not cultivated, 65; said
not to exist in America, 471 ; but
to have been brought from Europe,
416.

Vinegar, extracted from century-
plant, 386.

Vinland, reason for its name, 58, 94,
110, 116; discovered by Scandina-
vians, 63, 162; marvelous details,
452 ; Fu-sang compared to, 108.

Vira-Bailhra, head-dress of, 135.

Viracocha, tradition regarding, 565.

Virginia, animals of, 483.

Vishnu, a legend regarding, 152;
head-dress of, 135; the cross a
monogram of, 553 ; worship mixed
with that of Buddha, 545 ; in the
religion of Peru. 540.

Vitim River, Great Han near, 247

Vivien de Saint-Martin, M., article
by, 185 ; reply thereto, 136.

Volcanoes of Central America, 531.

Volcanic glass. See 01)sidian.

Votan, a culture-hero, 558 ; land from
which he came, 549 ; date of visit
of, 559; brought the tapir, 608;
his name a possible corruption of
" Gautama," 558.

Vows of Aztec priests, 575.

Vrikshamulika, definition of, 443.

Wa-kan-san-sai-dzoH-j/fi, a Japanese

encyclopa'dia, 107, 108.
Wa-kokk (or Wa), Japan, 250.
Wai-chwen, a bonk, 662.
Wak'knaer, M., reference to, 67,
Waldcck, drawings of M. de, 50, 61,

07, 71-73, 17.
Walls about pyramids, 600.
Walied cities of Japan, 631, 640.
Wan-hu, or elks, 6ol.
WAN ShXn. 6Ve " ^Marked Bodies."
Wang-chong, a Chinese author, 673.
Wang-sh'N, a Chinese philosopher,

037, 6;^7.
Wang Yung, remarks of, 226.
War, waged by Mexicans, 190.
Warm-Snrings Valley, 250, 658, 660.

See, also, T'ano-ku.
Washington Territory, dwellings of,

420.
Water, destniction of mankind by,

615; its transformation into ice,

354.
Water - crystal, quartz - crystals so

called, 355.
Water-gems, quartz-crystals and glass

so called, 355, 646, 649.
Water-silver, Chinese text regarding,

322; quicksilver so called, 354;

absurdity involved in this transla-
tion, 356 ; possibly meant for " icy-
silver." 355; a descriptive term for

ice, 327, 354; reason for its use,

449.
Weaving, by Mexican women, 474.
Weeks, of 'five days, 433. 434, 571 ;

Colours connected with davs of, 475.
Wei, definitions of, 444, 504, 073 ; a

division of China, 637 ; a dynasty,

634; Mountain, 663.
Wei-shi Mountain, 650.
Wei-vi, definition of, 441.
Weiser, Conrad, conversation with,

349.
Wellingtonia, of California, 219.
Wen-hien-tong-kao, a book by Ma

TwAN-LiN, 64, 213. 228, 231.
Wen-shin. See "i^Iarked Bodies."
West and East, distance between, 658.
Whales, feast held over, 347.
Wheat, in Vinland, 452; maize, so

called, 116.
Whistles of IMexicans, 422.
White, indicating a superior nature,

198.
White Land, the home of the Nahuas,

506.

INDEX.

787

White men, in Now Mexico, 123 ; tra-
ditions rejjnrding, 41)0, 555.

Wliite People's Country, 604.

White Woman, a Mexican Mountain,
507.

White inhabitants of Country of
Women, 802.

White-tiiroated ilexican monkey, 500.

Wild beasts, eriminals left to, 'Mil,

Williams, lit. Kev. C. M., letter from,
ISl.

Williams, Prof. S, Wells, "Notices of
Fu-sanj;," by, 230; translation of
account of I u-sanj?, 203 ; of Coun-
try of Women, 303 ; of the land of
"Marked Bodies," 317; of Great,
Hax, 325; his knowledge of Chi-
nese, 350.

Wind, destruction of mankind by,
015; blowing toward America, 02,
09 ; of knives, 500.

Wine, use of, in Japan, 031 ; a fount-
ain resend)ling, 225, 533.

Wine-jar, the tree of the large, 400.

Winged-globe, found in America, 130.

Winged-men, myth of, 495.

Wintun squaws, tattooing of, 347.

Wisconsin, elephant-mound of, 010.

W^itches, abandoned to wild beasts,
357.

Wixipecocha, tradition regarding,
507; variation thereof, 539; de-

Sarture of, 538; survival of his
octrine, 538, 575; foot-prints of,
553; confusion between, and Quet-
zalcoatl, 541 ; resenddance of name
to '• Hwni Shin, bhik»hu," 540.

Wii/ana, title of Zapotec priests, 589.

Wiyntao, a Zapotec high-priest, 538,
: 40, 580, 589.

Wo, or Janan, 105, 178, 030.

Woq, the Mongolians, 82.

Wolf Mountain, 040.

Woman, position of, in India, 2; in
Fu-sang, 433.

Women, Cape of, 489 ; River of, 492 ;
Buddlia's command regarding, 507 :
conduct of Aztec priests toward,
578; tattooing of, 345-347; sent to
propitiate strangers, 490, 510 ; nn-
warlike tribes so-called. 213, 489;
the Mexican Celestial, 400.

Women. Country of, 30, 93, 100, 301,
302, 312, 700 ; Chinese tales regard-
ing, 213, 224. 238. 514, 529; tales
of other nations, 93; its situation,
487; in Japan, 178, 038, 040; in
Kurile Islands, 245 ; near the Phil-
ippines, 244; in the extreme east,

105, 488; an island, 213, 488; oast
of Coroa, 251 ; east of San Fran-
cisco, 177; no room east of Japan,
for, 110, 120; its iidiabitants, 493,
505; supposed absurdities in ac-
count of, 300; explanitions, 94,
239,489.490,514.

Wood, pctritiod, in Japan, 182, 249.

Wormwood, the Mexican, 508.

Wrangling People, Chinese account
of. 495.

Writing, in Mexico, 34, 108, 421 ; in
Japan, 024, 037, 040; not known by
American tribes, 190; or by Kam-
tchatkans, 34.

Wf, a division of China, 105, 027,
037, 047.

Wi'-KAo Mountain, 05.3.

Wl'-ko Mountain, 182.

Wi-Ti, emperors so named, 440, 519,
030.

Wu-WANo, an emperor, 105.

Wylie, Mr,, his opinion, 240.

X, sound of, 540,

A7, ))rontuiciation of, 407; moaning,

370, 378 ; abbreviations of, 377,

378.
XicnUi, a kind of fringe, 580.
Xicoteneatl, meeting with Cortez, 423.
Xi/nii'tl, meanings of, 370, 377, 417;

abbreviations of, 377.
Xincas, of Guatemala, 300.
XiuhtoMl, a Jlexican bird, 010.
Xochicalco, 598, C0(i.
Xochitl, Aztec word for flowers, 508.
Xolotl, a Mexican god, 237.
Xue-Chimzapariue, a name of Bochica,

501.

Y, the author of the Shan Hai Kino,
073, 074.

Y-CHi, or Y-Ki, title of king of Fu-
sang, 27, 41.

Y Kino, or Book of Changes, 072.

Yakut hxnguage, 0.

Yano-kiano, a Chinese author. 220.

Yano-ko, the Luminous Valley, 48,
220.

Yano-tsz' River, 200. 045. 040.

Yao, an emperor, 059; his burial-
place. 057.

Yao Mountain, 007; people, 002,006.

Yaqui or Yacjuimi, a river, 427.

Ychcafefh or "Cotton-stone," 532.

Y'ear, beginning of, in Mexico, 500 ; in

788

INDEX.

China, 400; Icnpth of, 143, 434,

475; (k'sifjimtions of, 470.
Yebi-kddzoiira, name of tlie vine, 43.
Ykh-vao-kiOx-ti Mountain, OUO.
Yellow Emperor, the, (JOS.
Yellow-iawed fish, (i45.
Yellow Kiver, arrival at, 220.
Ykn Mountain, OoH.
Ykn-koukn, or liurning Mountain,

530.
Ykn-lun(i, ancestor of .Japanese, 663.
Yenisei Kiver, Great Han, near, 247.
YeHO, tSce Jesso.
Y^iii, meaning; of, 410.
Yin-KAo Jlountain and River, C48.
YiH-TAo, definition of, 516.
Yi.v Mountain and liiver, 051.
YiN-KiAH, an emperor, 059.
Y'iNo Country, 004.
YiNO Drafjon', 007.
YiNG-uwAN-ciii-i.ion, a book, 243.
YiT-K'i, title of kinj; of Fu-sang, 41.
Yiu, definition of, 444, 447.
Yiu Sea, 053.
Yiu, or gulls, 000.
Yiu-i, adventures of, 005.
Yiu-Yiu, a species of animal, 650.
Yiu-T'AX-iiWA, " a cloud of blossoms,"

401.
Yoi: Mountain, 045, 046.
Yolmal JVepantla, or midnight, 476.
Yopaa, edifices at, 537; pontiff of,

538.
Young, Dr.. approval of, 67.
Yu, Shan IIai Kino, attributed to,

670-676.
YO, an emperor, 643, 658.
YO Marsh, 648, 655.
Yu-cuE, a Tartarian tribe, 25, 187,

188.
Yu KiE, 223. interrogated IIwui

SiiXn. 223, 237, 510; his stories to

the court, 224, 520. 524; failed to

understand llwui ShXn, 448, 531,

525, 700.
Yu Kill Chun, of Coroan embassy,

401.
Yu-KiNG and Yu-kwoh, gods, 005.
Y(J-Noo Mountain, 640.
Yu Pen-ki, " The History of Yu,"

075.
YC-sm's Concubine, 000.
Yu-TO-Lo-SKX(!, a Buddhist rojjc, 553.
Yucatan, civilization of, 07, 033;

monumenti of, 56, 01, 598, 005;

figures of Puddha in, 72; ele-
phant's trunk, 607; crosses, 550;
traditions in, 541, 550, 558; wor-
ship of dead, 468; calendar, 501;
mirrors, 523; peaceable nature of
its people, 420; «letails of civiliza-
tion, 434, 463, 616, 620,

Yuen, an astronomer, 607; River,
650.

YuEN-KiEN-i,ui-iiAN, an encyclopa;dia,
04, 80, 215, 240.

YuEN-VANo, a bird, 055.

YuNO Kiver, 005.

YuNo-vuNo, description of, 044.

Yztacchyatl, u plant, 509.

Zncnpa, a town, 77, 588.

Zacatecas, a town, 366, 588.

Zacatepcc, meaning of, 587.

Zacatlan, meaning of, 587.

Zacatula, a province, 432, 401, 588.

Zachillft, explorations at, 72.

Zachita, contains name Sakya, 77^

Zacoalco, a town, 588.

Znmbos, or monkeys, 497.

Zamnii, a culture-hero, 556, 558, 559.

Zajjotecapan, disciples of Quetzalcoatl,
in, 530, 543 ; arrival of Wixipecocha
at, 538; Toltee civilization of, 575;
feast of dead in, 501 ; priests of,
540, 580, 581.

Zajr-i, elephant's trunk at, 201, 607.

Zeltschrift f lir Allgemeine Erdkunde,
15.

Zeno Brothers, errors of, 454.

Zeolites, in Alaska, 356.

Zeus, explanation by, 678.

Zig-zag folding of manuscripts, 618.

Zin-qu Kwo yu, a Japanese empress,
620, 632

Zin-mu, expedition of, 679.

Zodiac, Cainese, 145, 523 ; of Tartars,
144, 148 ; of Aztecs, 140 ; names of
signs repeated in those of Mexican
months, 143 ; signs represented by
heatls, 146 ; of animals not confined
to te'nperate regions, 149; lunar
charged into solar, 152.

Zumo. See Tume.

Zuhe. See Bochica.

Zamarraga de, use of name Mexico
by, 371.

Zudis, albinos among, 506.

:he end.

I; elc-