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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 4 6 6 ( 228 ) VII. — The North-Amei'ican Boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. By Captain S. Anderson, r.e., Chief Astronomer, North-American Boundary Commission. IBead, March 27th, 1876.] The international boundary-line between the British possessions in North America and the United States, in the central part of the Continent from the Lake of the Woods to the Bocky Moun- tains, was established by treaty in 1818 ; but more than half a century elapsed before the necessity arose for surveyinpf and marking the boundary-line on the ground. The Red River Valley was long ago known to be partly in British and partly in United States territory ; but in the early stages of the history of the Red River Colony, all its settlers had come from the British side, and no international question arose. 'Y\\e French fur-traders penetrating from Lake Superior to the westward, across a most difficult country of lakes, and swamps, and rocky ridges, had come upon the Red River Volley early in the eighteenth century, and m-ist have realised its grout capabilities for settlement. iMie Hudson's Bay Company, advancing south- wards from their headquarters at York Factory on Hudson's Bay, by an equally difficult route, had in the early part of this century also reached the prairio-lands of Red River. The solo object of these rival Companies was the fur-trade, and they had no interest or desire to open up the country for agricultural set- tlement, or U) press for a settlement of the question as to the precise position of the boundary-line. Lord Selkirk, a promi- nent partner of the Hudson's Bay Company, on his own account, made a treaty with the Indians, purchased some of their land, and in 1812 cstablisiicd on it a colony of Sutherland High- landers, whom ho imported by way of Hudsim's Bay, ami he left them on the banks of the Ited Kivor to endure great hard- ships, which were aggravated by the constant hostilities of tho rival Fur Companies, who, after carrying on a war of extermi- nation with each other for some years, eventimlly made peace in 1821, and joined in partnership. This union caused the canoe- route to Lake Superior pnietically to bo abandoned for trade in favour of the more nortlierly route direct to tho seaboard, Tho latter rente was available during the months of June and July only, and the ship that annually came from FiUgland with supplies took away tho furs. The Bed Riv(!r colonists were, therefore, almost cut off from communication with the outside world; while it was inipossihh^ for new settlers to eomi* into tho country unless they were imported by the Hudson's Buy Company. !i; Il(^ U2 UO 109 108 "''W*. 104 103 102 UK I'WVMTI, f 'N.. =?/ .«•'•■ •')t,; Slunff, /i^ ' ''*«» /»itf' fryAiiif "'",fl /. r ^ix -y '4- ■•■/n./' */V*A t.frt. 'VWM ' '^AluluiiicJ ^uUm^mHo. farip »ir.* /Ti?/. . f!?;^ tifut M,mt '^. J. ».> '"><*■. r '/ > fAtT ■1 I '■ * ■■« / .V Ui/-; ^/Ti// ^»^ /n.< ■( ^I'Aif/' /> «» ■f fl.fi' ' I iff'^'i ■■■' ^ E j;| ^ /■"■ j^ ".'i. .■;'„.... ./4^ ,W' '■ -< fii) •^ " '»,/• lllliUI. rinu \y W1«H*7 \>ktHtt I ""n*^ •f**'v^'' -t' 1/ y\ 'A. '^^t vHill I'. KJL rl/ H " Z' (iMi '» / l^./N. ',"' n JSjl^; ^ ^ 11,11, xW"iml^. .in,,, ^»y, i^^ o >• ;ii .S () ■Tji 1 \: I" r n ; t-MrtU / H I \U\\V III HI 111! Ill no ion KUt 1«»(1 /fu(k V 107 10(1 l«>,^ uvi _im iui| 101 i'nhliMini fill- thr.liuirmil itf The Hi[\oi tinijfmfhi.iii .Smtfh l\ .' W i/tid/ irf ThrKiifiiKinvllifliliill .Vi>ilW> /;i .' Wli/'tiv Alhenuitlr •■ili-rrl . IH'.'O KiU''W,.||,.. I'll (,S Anderson on the North-American Boundary^ Sfc. 229 In course of time some adventurous traders of the Eed River Colony explored southwards, following the course of the Red River to its source, and then crossing the plateau of swamps from which the tributaries of the IMississippi and Red River take their rise, came upon the head-waters of the Minnay Sotor, and thus prepared the way for developing the natural outlet for the com- merce of Red River to St. raul, at the head of the navigation on the Mississippi, and to the then projected terminus of the railroad system of the United States. The railroad was soon extended northwards across the marshy plateau to the head- waters of Red River ; and with these facilities, the emigrants coming to Minnesota, and finding the country to the westward a wild, dreary waste unfavourable for settlement, pushed forward down the Red River Valley and established themselves on the river-bank towards the frontier. Subsequently, in 1869, on the creation of the Dominion of Canada, the territory rights of the Hudson's Bay Company were sold to the new Dominion, and after the peaceful settlement of the rebellion in Red River, by the expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley, the Colony was made a Province of the new Dominion, and a route, available during the summer only, was opened out at enormous cost through British territory, following generally the old canoe-route of the French fur-traders, by which emigrants were encouraged by the Government to settle in the new Province. Thus new settlers came in from the south, and to some extent from the east by the new route, and established themselves in the valley in the neighbourhood of the boundary-line. Near this supposed locality, some twenty years ago, the Hudson's Bay Company had established a trading-post, where the Chippeway Indians, living and hunting near the lakes to the south and east, traded their furs. It was contended by the United States authorities that the Hudson's Bay Company's trading-post was on the American side of the line, and this contested pomt remained in abeyance till the British and United States Governments agreed to appoint a Joint Commission to settle the matter, and at the same time to complete the demarcation of the boundary-line across the continent, from the point at the north-west corner of the Lake of the Woods, estaolished in 1825 (the western- most point agreed to between the two Governments under the 7th Ar\'icle of the Treaty of Ghent), to the summit of the Rocky Mountains, the westernmost point agreed to and established fourteen years ago under the Oregon Treaty of the 15th of June, 1840. The interval of boundary thus re- maining undefined comprised about 900 miles of frontier line in the central portion of the Continent, and, in the words of the treaty, this portion of the boundary was to be "A line 230 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from I (Irawa from the most north-western point of the Lake of the Woods, along the 49th parallel of north latitude ; or, if the said point should not be on the 49th parallel of north latitude, then, that a line drawn from the said point, north or south as the case may be, until the said line shall intersect the said parallel of north latitude, and from the point of such intersection chie west, along and with tlie said parallel, shall be the line of demarcation between the territories of Her Britannic Majesty and those of the United States from the Lake of the Woods to the llocky Mountains." Li the month \oi June, 1872, the British Commission was appointed, consisting of Major Cameron, ' e.a.. Commissioner ; Captain Anderson, r.e.. Chief Astronomer ; Captain Eeatherston- haugh and Lieutenant Galwey, of the Royal Engineers, Assistant Astronomers ; Captain Ward, e.e., Secretary. Lieutenant Eowe, R.E., was subsequently appointed to the Commission as Sur- veying Officer. Forty-four of the Royal Engineers were spe- cially selected and detailed for duty with the Expedition; and a contingent of surveyors and assistants was appointed by the Dominion of Canada, as well as Dr. Burgess, Surgeon ; Mr. Boswell, Veterinary Surgeon ; and Mr. G. M. Dawson; Geolo- gist. As soon as the Commission was appointed, the Commis- sioner and Secretary started at once for Canada, where all ordinary stores and provisions were purchased and forwarded to Red River. In order to ascertain and mark this international boundary with the greatest possible accuracy, it was considered necessary to provide the best class of portable instruments that could be constructed ; and with the advice of the Astronomer Royal, under whom the ofiicers were instructed iu the special duties required of them, the specification for such instruments as were best adapted for the work was prepared, and the whole order was entrusted to Messrs. Troughton and Simms, who with the greatest skill and energy applied the whole of their staff to the execution of the order. As soon as the equipment and outfit were complete, the officers and detachment of the Royal Engineers left Liverpool on the 22nd of August, 1872, with the special stores and instruments required for the Expedition. Proceeding via Quebec and the Canadian Lakes, the party travelled by permission of the United States authorities from Duluth, on the western shore of Lake Superior, through the State of Minnesota by rail, to the head-waters of Red River ; thence, partly by marching and partly by river-transport, reached the frontier at Pembina on the 20th of September. Here the contingent of Canadian officers and employes reported for duty, and hero the Commission appointed by the United Status were also assembled in readiness to commence jointly astronomical the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 231 and surveying operations. The season was already well ad- vanced, and the first experience of the Joint Commission in camp on the Bed River Prairie was a violent snowstorm, from the north-west, which raged with great violence for three days, and greatly delayed field-operations. The settlers foretold that this was the harbinger of fine autumn weather, which proved to be the case ; for during the succeeding month bright and genial weather prevailed with a sultry, hazy, and motionless state of the atmosphere, popularly known throughout Canada as the Indian summer. The position of the boundary-line at Red River was carefully determined independently by astronomical observations taken by the two Commissions, and the results differed by 32 feet, or about one-third of a second of latitude.* This difference was halved, and the position of the boundary- line, as then agreed to confirmed the rough 'observations that had been previously taken by Captain Palliser and others. The principal point now settled was, that the Hudson's Bay Com- pany's trading-post, the territorial position of which had been disputed, was ascertained to be 250 yards within British ter- ritory. In order to take advantage of the open weather that might be expected during the month of October, three astrono- mical parties were organised by the British Commission, and two of them proceeded to the Lake of the Woods, to commence operations there in concert with the United States Commission ; and the third party commenced work at an intermediate point on the boundary between Red River and the Lake of the Woods. A diflSculty presented itself at the outset, as to the exact position of tlie north-west point of the Lake of the Woods, determined by a former Joint Commission in 182G, being the terminal point of the operations under that Commission, and the initial point of the worlc of the present Commission. The point was described as being in a swamp, and tliere being no firm ground in the neighbourhood a pyramid of logs was constructed about a mile south of the spot, at an exact specified distance from the point, which the Commissioners in 182G had agreed upon as the north-west corner of tlie Lake of tlie Woods. All traces of this wooden pyramid luid disappeared, but the tra- ditions of its construction were fresh in the memory of the Indians, and guided by the directions of an old man of the Chippewa tribe, some younger members of the tribe indicated a spot, then 18 inches under water in the swamp of the district, from which spot an oaken log was dug up, and the impression ^1 I i- * The method of working and marking the boundary-line is explained in tlio Appendix. 232 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from of a frame in the marsh was noticed, such as would have been made by a pyramid of logs. We were further aided in our investigation by some additional particulars communicated by Mr. Barclay, the British Commissioner of 1826, who, I am happy to say, is still alive ; and, though at an advanced age of nearly 90 years, retained wonderful recollection of the circumstances connected with the questions now referred to him. An inde- pendent investigation from our own observations and measure- ments indicated the restored site of the old pyramid only 400' feet distant from the Indians' site. This extraordinary coinci- dence left no reasonable doubt that we had found the old site, and the Indians' spot was accordingly adopted, and served as the starting-point of the operations of the new Commission. The north-west comer of the Lake of the Woods was re- established and found to occur in a grassy marsh covered by 3 to 4 feet of water. The international boundary-line, starting from the north-west point of the Lake, follows by the terms of the treaty a due-south line for 26 miles to its intersection with the 49th parallel in the open water of the lake. For the first 16 miles the line outs off a promontory of the- western shore of the Bay, passing over a continuous swamp more or less weeded. In the northerly portion of the line the timber is dense, consisting of birch and tamnrac a species- of larch, and a great entanglement of fallen timber covera a treacherous swamp, having in bare places a mossy surface which gives way under foot, and underneath is mire and water of varying depth. The cutting and surveying of this line was attended with considerable hardship and difficulty, camp equipage and provisions being transported on men's backs, and lor this service, as well as for clearing the line, Indians were employed. The natives of the Lake of the Woods are most independent, and little inclined or physically able for continuous hard work. It became necessary to humour them a little to prevent them abandoning a work which necessitated their being knee-deep in mud all day. The great talker of the party, who is well known throughout the country, began by a great flourish, and very soon disabled himself with his own axe, and eventually settled down as the cook of the party. He was famous for the extraordinary load of miscellaneous baggage that he could collect into one bundle and carry on his back, with the portage straps across his forehead, and jump from log to log, when shifting camp down the cutting. The Indians would only work on the condition that I would take care of their wives and families during their absence. Twelve or fourteen families aC' cordingly arrived and set up their lodges close to the Observatory Camp, and an occasional issue to them of a little flour and bacon '1 n the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 233 •y wa3 equally divided among their number, and used with sur- prising economy. After living almost entirely on moose-meat and a few roots, they have an indescribable craving for flour. During the progress of the work the frost set in on the 8th of November, and travelling through the swamps became easier, though an early fall of snow prevented the swamps from freezing, and the ground continued to be treacherous till the snow along the travelled trail had become well consolidated by constant foot traffic. The due-south line passes almost invisibly from swamp into the open lake, the timber, becoming more and more stunted, merging into willow-bushes and coarse reedy grass. The actual lake-shore was indicated by a sandy beach, on which a few willows struggled for existence ; and the surf which had beaten violently on the beach during the prevalence of southerly winds had now become frozen into most fantastic forms, and the floating ice which had been drifted to land was packed and consolidated in a rugged and confused mass, which extended for some distance into the lake, and was merged at last into the regular icy covering which now held the surface of the lake fast. Inland from the beach, a belt of open marsh, fully a mile in width, had become coated with glare ice, 2 feet in thickness, and this ice, which had formed under more peaceful conditions than that in the open lake, was as dear as crystal and strangely beautiful. In striking contrast with the icy desolation of the scene, the Indians, on finding that their work was at an end, ran forward with wild joy, shouting, and enjoying the frequent falls that they met with in rushing thoughtlessly over the ice, till they arrived at the beach-line, where an imposing flagstafl' was set up. Just at this time a snowstorm, which had been threatening from the southward, came up with great fury, and, with a temperature below zero, everyone was compelled to cover his face ; and the retreat to the sheltered cutting in the woods was almost cut off by the severity of the storm. The true direction in which the men had to travel was only ensured by ranging the men in line, and prolonging the line of travel by looking back on those in rear, who were not allowed to move forward till the foremost ones were placed in line. The boundary-line continues southerly for 10 miles across the open lake, and intersects the 49th parallel at a spot in the lake where the soundings showed 30 feet of water. Pro- ceeding then due west for 6 miles, the boundary-line inter- sects the western shore of the lake, at which point a series of observations was taken by the Joint Commission on a little sandy ridge, where a few poplnrs vvere found, and a dry spot for the encampment. Close by, a small and independent band of Indians was established, who cultivated some small 234 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from .':- patches of land, and owned a few cows, the only remaining evidences of the civilising influence of the early French traders who settled at the Lake of the Woods a century before the conquest, and of whom some faint traditious were told to Sir Alexander McKenzie, on hi.^ first visit to the Lake of the Woods, in 1789. The thriving trade which appears to have existed at the Lake of the Woods in fu. ard fisheries, in the time of the French traders, 200 years ago, has now almost ceased, partly on account of the supply having been reduced, and partly by the diminution by war and smallpox in the number of Indians now residing on the lake-shore. Sir A. McKenzie alludes, in 1789, to the Lake of the Woods as being remarkable in consequence of the Americans having named it as the spot from which a line of boundary between them and British America was to run west until it struck the Mississippi, which, however, he says, never can happen, as proved by Mr. Thompson, Astronomer to the North- West Company, who was sent expressly in 1798 to examine the ground, and reported that the northernmost waters of the Mississippi and one of its tributaries, the Missouri, lie altogi^ther south of a line drawn duo west from the north-west corner of the Lake of the Woods. Although this gentleman reported that the north-west corner of tlio Lake of the Woods was in lat. 49° 35', and tiie northernmost bend of the Missouri in 47° 32' the actual boundary-line was directed by the Com- missioners on the 20tli of October, 1818, to follow a m lidian line due north or due south from the north-west corner ot the lake to tlio 49th parallel (although a duo-south course was indicated by ]\Ir. Thompson's observations), thence westward along that parallel to the Rocky Mountains ; and the same lino of latitude (49°) was adopted that the Hudson's IJay Company had sug- gested in 1714 to tho French (government as tiie boundary-lino between the territories of the liritish and French traders, who it was exnocted might come into collision with each other, when })U8ning forward tiieir trade into the interior of tho Contii.ent. The initial point of tho 49th parallel at tho liake of the Woods' western shore was marked on tho ground by tho Joint Commission of British and United States oiticors in Novemb(?r, 1872, whore after an elaborate series of observations by both Com- missions, tho independent results when staked out on tho ground showed an overlap of territory ol" 29 foot, and this was most amicably halved, and the intermediate point agreed to as tho initial point on hind of tho boundary-liiuj. Tho further survey and marking of tho lino weBtorly, over 90 miles of country intervening between tho Lake of tho Woods and tho Kinplot(>d before tho grtuit snow-storm, already alluded to, which swept down hundnnis of miles of posts and wires, and destroyed telograpiiic eoniniunieation for (wo months OS efiectuiilly as if it had been done by thoseouts of an invading army. The correct position of tho crossing of tho bonndiiry-line at lied River was now determined in absolute latitude and longitude, tho former by duplicated observations of tho Joint I 238 Andekson on the North-American Boundary, from Commission giving independent results differing by 32 feet only, as already stated ; and the longitude determined with a probable error of less than 100 yards with reference to the meridian of Chicago, which had previously been connected with Greenwich. This result will be of the greatest possible impor- tance in the future, as it will be the starting-point of all surveys in the central portion of the continent where the accurate geographical position of important j)oints had hitherto V jen so little known, that the old official maps showing the north-west point of the Lake of the Woods had an error of 4^ miles in longitude. This might have been expected from the means at the disposal of the surveyors when the survey was made fifty years ago. On the breaking up of the winter, there was an interval of about six weeks in whicli no field operations could be un- dertaken, in consequence of the whole country being flooded by tiie rapid melting of the snow ; and vegetat'-ou made littlo or no progress till the middle cf May, by which time night-frosts became less frequent. At that season one warm day and one warm night following were sufficient to make the whole surface of the prairie green with new vegetation springing into life, and at the same time mbi^quitoes began to swarm in myriads, and con- tinued to increase in numbers and ferocity as the spring ad- vanced. During the six weeks' cessation from, active work much preparation was needed for the operations of the ensuing season, ancl in order to make the most of the short summer season of about five months, arrangements were made to distribute the working parties 8imultaneo\isly over about 90 miles of boundary, and attack tho work at several points at once. To do this advan- tageously, it became of the utmost importance that the country should bo well explored and reconnoitred, in order that no delay siiould occur to tho several parties proceeding at once to take up the work at convem'ont points. This work was accomplished by a reconnuissance party, consisting of thirty scouts selected from tho Ked lliver half-breeds. They were mounted on their own f>oni('s, and armed with Spencer carbines. 'I'he scouts wero ightly eqiiippod, and were accompanied by an officer by whom the necessary astroviomical observations were made for latitude and longitu(l<% and by whom a reconnaissance map of the country was prejiared showing all important featun^s. Tho bent route for travel was also marked out, tho most snitablo spots noted for halts and encampment, and depot sites selected for storing and distributing; supplies. The approximate position of the boundary-line at pomts wliero more accurate observations were to be taken was also marked, so that the astronomical par- ties were able at once to proceed to their destination and set up f the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 239 their fixed observatory instruments within one hundred yards of the boundary-line, and subsequently measure north or south to the exact position of the 49th parallel when the final result of the observations and calculations was known. The work of the reconnaissance party was thus important, as it greatly facili- tated and expedited the subsequent operations. Of the country to the westward of Red River little or nothing was known. The fine alluvial prairie of the Red River Valley was found to extend for 35 miles to the westward, and then to be bounded by the first Prairie Steppe called Pembina Mountain, an ancient shore-line which was conspicuous for many miles before reaching it from the eastward, as an un- broken blue ridge with elevated table-land beyond. This proved to be wooded with a small though dense growth of poplar, and the boundary-line passing through 8 miles of rough ground, came upon the gorge of the Pembina River, which flows in a deep ravine 350 feet below the table-land, and 3 miles in width from summit to summit. In this dis- trict during the month of Juno 1873 the locusts were being hatched in swarms, and in sunny situations, especially on the logs of fallen trees, they were most abundant. These insects were only in the crawling stage at that time, but later on they took flight and completely devastated the crops in the Red River Vallev. In consequence of tiio ground being very much broken at the boundary-lino in Ponibina Mountain, the line of travel for heavy waggons was diverted 8 miles to the north, where the river was found to be fordable when the waters were at their ordinary oummer-level. On passing this ravine an ascent is made to the upper plateau and to the commencement of the great plains which extend in one vast expanse, more or less broken, to the base of the Rocky Mountains, 700 miles distant. The great plains resemble a land sea, sometimes perfectly level, at other times abounding in hillocks and undulating ground, and occasional prominences rising 30 or 40 feet above the general level of the plain are met with, from which a panoramic view can be obtained to the liorizon 10 or 12 miles distant. From these elevations the vastnoss and solitude of the phiins can bo seen and realised. A clayey soil, with some admixture of sand, supports a stunted growth of nrairio-grass growing in bunches, and in every direction across the plain buflalo-t rucks or old pathways are distiiu-tly marked, and in numy ])luc(\s the bleached skulls and boiu^s of the bulfalo are scattercil about, in evidence of the vast numbers that must formerly have gra/,(>d over the ground, and of the wholesale plaughtor that has practi- cally exterminated them in this section of country. The only signs of life that attract the traveller's attention are the innu- 240 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from merable badger-holes by which the plain is honeycombed, and the soil is frequently found to be newly disturbed by these in- defatigable animals, as if they were attempting to bar the pro- gress of the rider by countless and treacherous pitfalls. In proceeding to the westward on the boundary-line, the first sec- tion of the Great Plains is found to be 70 miles in width ; over this area there is, in common with the whole tract of plain in the central part of the continent, no rainfall during the summer months except from passing thunderstorms, and the growth of the scant prairie-grass during the months of May and June is altogether dependent on the moisture derived from the melting of the winter snow ; the snow-water collecting in hollows forms pools which supply moisture for some weeks during the early summer to the adjoining soil. But for this circumstance the excessive heat of the sun during tlie month of June, and the want of rain would convert the prairie surface into a sterile waste. Patches of good grazing-ground can be found in all directions ; but, in consequence of the want of rain and the ex- posure of this area of plain to the cutting winds from the north- west, and the frequency of night-frosts during the summer over the country here elevated 2000 feet above the level of the sea, the soil is not suited for the growth of cereals, but there will always be good pasture, the value of which has been proved by the presence of the buflfalo in former times. The short grass that comes to maturity in the moist hollows and undulations of the plain is most nutritious, and grazing animals would fatten on it rapidly, were it not for the incessant mosquito plague which drives even the domesticated animals almost wild, and keeps the strong ones poor, while the weaker ones fall away and die if they are put to any kind of work. During the heat of the day the mosquitoes become torpid, and there is a lull for a few hours, when the horses and oxen can graze und rest i'l peace. After crossing the 70 miles of plain levelled jy the great drift in fcnner ages, whicli has left great boulders of granite and lime- stone stranded in all directions, a curious elevated and thickly woodud district occurs, extending for 34 miles along the boun- dary, and this feature, known as Turtle Mountain, from its shape PS seen in the distance against the sky-lino resembling in ajv pearanco tlio head and body of a turtle, commencing in United States territory, protrudes for 8 miles across tho lino into liritish territory, whore tho principal portion of tho wood occurs in consequence of having a northern exposure. Tiio wood is chiefly poplar, but oak and white birch with ash-loavod maple are also found, and some of tlio poplar-trees in slieltcred places are 2 foot in diameter. The interior of the mountain abounds in lakes und swamps, so large and numerous that the Indians wore of the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 241 opinion that we should fail in our attempt to survey and mark the boundary in a continuous line across the mountain. The difficulties pointed out by the Indians were not exaggerated ; for it turned out that the boundary, in its course of 35 miles in Turtle Mountain, crossed sixtv-five pieces of water, of which twenty-five are true lakes with gravelly shores, necessitating a survey by triangulation instead of the ordinary method by direct chainmg. The marshes supported a permanent crop of wild vetches on which the horses fattene/"! rapidly, and the water, though stagnant, was generally good. A party of British sur- veyors and axemen was occupied during the whole summer season of 1873 in tracing the boundary through the mountain for 24 miles from the eastward, when a junction was effected with a working party of the United States who had entered the mountain from the west, and marked the boundary-line east- ward for 10 miles, when further progress from that side was barred at the time by a large lake more than a mile across, and extending for some miles into British and United States terri- tory. The vivid greenness of the woods and the solitude of these well-sheltered lakes made many parts of the mountain singularly beautiful, and the melancholy cries of the loon, or northern diver, alone disturbed the peacefulness of the scene. Many red deer and bears are found in the mountain, and are hunted by a few families of the Sioux Indians, who, though belonging properly to the United States side, have taken refuge on the Britisli side since 1861, when they declared war >n A\i the United States by massacring nearly all the American settlers in the upper portion of the Red River Valley. These Indians now carry on a good trade in furs, which are exchanged at the Fort Garry Settlement for ammunition, guns, or articles of clothing. This district of Turtle Mountain will be invaluable to settlers in the future, furnishing, as it does, an ample supply of wood for building and fuel purposes, and wintering ground for stock, while the adjacent plains will serve as grazing ground during the summer. During the operations of the Boundary Commission a depot was kept up here for storing supplies, and a large store-house constructed of poplar logs, in which the care-takers lived during the winter months. Communication with the headquarters at Red River was somewhat precarious at that season except by dog-trains, but the more northorly settle- ments on Rod River are of easier access in consequence of intei"- vcning strips of timber, where travelling in winter would be less dangerous than crossing the 70 miles of open prairie imme- diately to tho eastward. The effect of the wooded area of Turtle Mountain was very marked in attracting rainfall from the clouds, while the surrounding plain suffered from continued drought. VOL. XLVI. a 242 Anderson on the North-American Boundary , from . The thunderstorms, especially, seemed to discharge themselves here with terrible violence, and the L'ghtning appeared in balls of fire flying into the ground, and in such quick succession of flashes that at night the air seemed to be continuously illu- minated. On the hottest days there would be occasional nail- storms, with hail-stones as large as the eggs of a bantam fowl, causing at once a consternation and stampede among the horses. When encamped in the open plain, the hurricane that accom- panies the thunderstorm frequently lays low eveiy tent in the camp, while the plain for the time is converted into a vast lake. In the course of half-an-hour every symptom of the storm will have disappeared, and the mosquitoes will have renewed their attacks fiercer than before. The great plains continue beyond Turtle Mountain for 138 miles, at an average elevation of 2000 feet above the sea ; the only breaks that occur in the monotony of the scene are occa- sioned by the Souris River, which, in its meandering across the plain, has cut out a valley of varying width from 1 to 2 miles, and a depth of 150 feet below the plain. In the shelter thus afforded some timber grows on the bank of the stream, and there is an abundance of good pasture at all seasons. The operations of the Joint Commission in this portion of the work were greatly assisted by this valley, which crossed and recrossed the boundary several times, and always afforded good camping- ground. At one point in the Sourit, Valley, near the boundary- line, occur some remarkable rocks, known as Les Eoches Percees, which have long been objects of superstition and veneration by the Indians. A soft sandstone, which underlies a capping of harder stone, has weathered into most curious figures, some, castellated, and the whole series presents the 4ippearance of ruined dwellings, which the ludans believe them to be. The soft rock bears in many places rude Indian carvings with birds and otlier animals. No difficulty was experienced in tracing the boundary-line continuously across the Great Plains, but tlie constant mirage greatly delayed surveying operations during the day ; for over the whole prairie surface the air was in continual agitation, and in looking through the telescope at a distant flagstaff it was seen to dance with persistent contortions, and no observations to terrestrial objects could be made from point to point with accuracy^, except in the early morning or late in the evening. Unhappily, when the flagstaves were at rest the mosquitoes were most active, and altogether the observers had not au easy task. The general level of the plain is not disturbed for 140 miles west of Turtle Mountain, but u warning of some change in the character of thi )untry was given by -lying ridge the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 243 bounding the distant horizon o the westward, forming a coast-line to the land-sea beneath it ; and this feature, which becomes less and less defined as one approaches it, is the Great Ooteau of the Missouri, and is one of the most important fea- tures of the western plains. It is the second prairie steppe of the North- American Continent, and crosses the country from north-west to south-east. This coteau or prairie steppe leads to a very remarkable plateau, of an average elevation of 2250 feet above the sea, which is broken up in a succession of ridges, valleys, and basins, presenting in section a very broken and irregular profile. The boundary-line for 50 miles crosses the Great Coteau district, and over the whole of this distance there is no well-defined ridge or water-course, but the same confused monotony of ridges and hollows. Those are succeeded, as one travels westerly, by a more undulating country, in which large alkaline lakes occur ; and as the waters evaporate during the summer, a white saline deposit remains on the shore-line, which contrasts strikingly with the Salicornia, a crimson plant which fringes the soH lakes, and at once marks their brackish cha- racter. The chain of salt-lakes extends in almost an east and west direction for 15 miles, and over the whole of this district, including the Great Coteau, the waters have no outlet to the ocean. We are thus in the central water-parting of the continent ; for the waters we have left behind us find their way by the Eed River into the Hudson's Bay, while the ravines that are now opening out to view towards the west drain south- wards to the Missouri, and find their way to the Gulf of Mexico. A great change is now observable in the topographical features ; owing to the nature of the soil, which is of clay and very friable, denudation proceeds very rapidly during tho short period that the soil is saturated wi he snow-water, and the valleys are often scarped by deep and almost vertical sides, which in many places become balsed by the heat of the sun and resemble retaining walls. The peaks and ridges of the clay-hills are weathered into most varied forms, some turret- shaped, others conical, and in many instances the peaks and ridges are capped by a natural brick material, burnt to a red colour by the comlinstion of the beds of lignite or tertiary coal which are scattered through this clay formation. The soil is unable to support vegetation, and this rugged and desolate country, which somewliat resembles the wilderness of Judasa, is called by the half-breed hunters " Les mauvaises Torres." Though the principal portion of this semi-desert occurs on the United States side of the boundary, a wedged-shaped area protrudes into British territory, measuring at its base on the boundary of longitude, or about 320 miles, and tapering off north- R 2 T 244 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from ivards to a point near the Great Elbow of the Saskatchewan 125 north of the Line. In the central portion of this triangular district the plateau has on its north side a few sheltered ravines containing small groves of poplar, and in the country falling towards the north, being less broken, some good pasture is. found. This locality, which is of very limited area, probably 36 square miles in all, was for a few years the winter residence of about 80 families of half-breed hunters, who, though originally belonging to the Ked Kiver Settlement, 25 days' journey to eastward, were forced by the migration of the buffalo to travel so far westerly in pursuit, that they were unable to return to Eed Eiver, and have consequently abandoned their old home, and have established their winter-quarters nearer the buffalo- country. This site, known as Woody Mountain, had been visited by many of the old half-breeds of Ked River, and though it was suspected to be in British territory, it does not appear to have been visited by any travellers competent to determine its geo- graphical position. It was consequently a matter of the greatest value and importance that the reconnaissance party of the British Commission during the summer season of 1873 were able to push so far to the westward as to discover the position of this oasis in the middle of the semi-desert, and but for the happy accident of meeting a party of Sioux Indians who said that they had just come from a hunters* encampment a long day's journey to the northward, this site would not have been discovered that season, for it lay 25 miles north of the boundary-line, concealed among the ravines on the reverse or north side of the plateau, of which the southern escarpment only had been explored,, further progress northward having been arrested at the time by the equinoctial snow-storms, which left 18 inches of snow on the high ground, and completely filled up the valleys by drifts. The back track of the Sioux Indians was followed through the snow for 25 miles northward across the plateau, where the reflected glare of the snow was so great as to cause all the reconnaisance party to be more or less affected with snow-blindness. The rude and desolate huts of the half-breed hunters were found in some sheltered ravines, and, with one or two exceptions, all the families were absent in the direction of the Rocky Mountains for the autumn buffalo-hunt. A few hours' detention at this place, and the good fortune of a bright, sunny morning, sufficed to determine the latitude and longitude of this favourable spot, which was found to be 22 miles north of the boundary and 416 miles due west of the Red River. It wa» found from its position and natural advantages of wood, water, and good pasture, to be admirably suited for a dejpot site from which the Boundary Commission could complete the marking of the tlie Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 245 boundary-line to the Rocky Mountains in another season. The autumn being well advanced — for it was now the 8th of October— by previous agreement surveying operations were suspended for the year, and a general retreat towards Red River was ordered ; 408 miles of Doundary having been continuously surveyed and marked by the Joint Commission during the four and a half months of the summer season, and at the same time a map was made by the British Commission of a belt of country through- out, for an average distance of 6 miles north of the boundary. The latter part of the autumn season had not passed without one or two incidents worthy of record. The heat of the sun iind the excessive drought during the summer had completely parched the prairie-grass, and the soil was fissured in all di- rections. Although the greatest vigilance was practised, the occurrence of prairie-fires seemed inevitable, and towards the end of August a pillar of smoke visible to the north, a great distance off, gave warning that before many days were past, the whole of the Great Plains would be swept by fire. The course of the fire was most capricious, and often turned by a ravine, or by a slight change in the wind, into a new course. The onward progress o* the fire was noticed for many days by the gradually-increasing temperature of the air, and soon by the smell of the burning grass. The various parties of the Boundary Commission being scattered over 400 miles of longi- tude at the same time, experienced very varied fortune in their •encounter with the fire. A surveying party working in one of the ravines 5 or 6 miles from their camp, found that the fire had swept round behind them and threatened their camp with •destruction. They had just time to reach their camp, and to tear down their tents, and to plunge everything into an adjoin- ing pool to save their campequipage, and much was partially destroyed. A commissariat Avaggon-train, drawn by oxen, was «lso overtaken by the fire, and though a burnt paten of ground was prepared, and the oxen released from the waggons and •driven to it, the unfortunate animals were too much alarmed to remain quiet, but rushed about wildly in the flames and were badly singed about the legs. One of the men had the hair on his face burnt, and in the rush of wind accompanying the passage of the fire, his hat went away, adding fuel to the flames. At one of the astronomical camps one of the officers, seeing the •onward progress of the fire, employed all the men in the camp -to meet the fire and save as much grass as possible by burning a strip ; this was so far successful that about 400 acres of grass were saved, which were of incalculable value to the transport- Animals on the final retreat ; but the fire that had been started with this object at last got beyond control, and swept back 246 Anderson on the North-American Boundary^ from upon their own camp and nearly destroyed it. On one occa- sion one of the labourers thoughtlessly struck a match on his boot in a patch of long grass, and in an instant the fire flew, and though the camp was saved, the effect of that fire was afterwards ascertained to have destroyed the grass for 150 miles of longitude, and then to have turned southwards, when it is. probable its progress in that direction was not arrested till it reached the Missouri River. The result of all these prairie- fires, which raged in different localities between the middle of August and middle of September, was that the general appear- ance of the country was novv hanged from the universal yellow tint to a dismal black, and the whole surface of the plains was as bare of herbage as the sand on the sea-shore. The home- ward march was consequently rendered doubly anxious by the want of fodder for the horses and oxen ; but by diligent search patches of grass in marshy places were found, where the fire could not reach, and to such places mowers would be sent with light waggons to cut as much grass as they could find during the day's march, and bring it to the main body later on in the day, at the camping-ground. From the experience of the previous year at Red River, the period of the autumnal equinox was looked to with some anxiety; and the equinoctial snow-storm of the autumn of 1873 was unusually severe. The operations of the Commis- sion had at that time advanced so far westward into the plain as to be beyond the reach of fuel of any kind, and the line of travel as well as the camping-grounds were necessarily in a shelterless country. The great snow-storm commenced sud- denly with little or no warning, on the 23rd of September ; and the various working parties, as well as the commissariat trains that happened to be on the march at the time, made such shelter for themselves as circumstances would permit.- By placing the waggons in a horse-shoe form, and stretching canvas-sheets on the interior side, shelter was afforded to the horses from the driving sleet, which now set in with great violence from the north-west. The light canvas-tents formed but a poor protection for the men, and, in the absence of fuel, there was no help for it but to huddle together and get under their blankets. The storm continued, with scarcely any intermediate lulls, for seven days, during which period it was impossible to get the horses to graze, for as soon as they were turned out they would all come back again to the shelter of the waggons. During these seven days of forced inactivity, the horses lost flesh sadly, and many were incapacitated from work for the remainder of the season. Although this storm, as we well knew, was the forerunner of some weeks of fine autumn the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 247 weather, it bequeathed to us a substantial legacy of 8 inches of snow, which caused great difficulty and discomfort in executing the concluding operations of the season ; and though the snow in course of time disappeared on the lower levels, the higher f round was still covered with snow a fortnight after the storm, heard afterwards that the half-breed hunters, who were in temporary camps hunting buffalo to the west of us, were also caught by the storm, and some of them were unable to find' their way back to the camp, and were afterwards found frozen under the cover of some buffalo-hides, which they had stripped from the animals they had just killed. The melting snow for- tunately filled up the low lying pools, and supplied water in places where it was greatly needed. The whole of the British Commission made good their retreat to Ked River in indepen- dent detachments, as originally organised for the work of the season, the reartnost party arriving on the 31st of October ; and three days previously the Red River was completely frozen over, having remained open for navigation for about six months. The sudden closing of the river, a fortnight earlier than usual, caused great inconvenience, and both steamers and small boats found tiieinselves suddenly frozen in and compelled to pass the winter at places where they had made no preparation for winter- quarters, and where they were in great danger of being crushed by ice on the breaking-up of the winter. The horses and oxen of the Commission were housed in wintering stables, which were specially built half sunk in the ground. During the winter of 1873-4, the permanent staff of the Commission were fully occu- pied in revising astronomical calculations and preparing fair plans of the country surveyed during the previous summer and winter seasons, and special arrangements were made for the field operations of the ensuing season. ' The operations of 1874 were arranged to be carried out in a similar manner to those of 1873; supply dep6ts were to be established at intervals of about 100 miles on the main line of communications, by which the working parties would procure supplies. As the work would, however, commence at a point 430 miles distant from Red River, and from there would gradu- ally lengthen out in a direction generally due west, it was necessary to establish a new base from which the Commission would actually commence work, and in which they could fall back to winter, in case the worli could not be completed to the Rocky Mountains during the summer of 1874. Woody Moun- tain was selected as the new base, and a contract was made with an enterprising American merchant of the Upper Missouri country, to deliver at Woody Mountain enough forage to meet the wants of the Commission for the first half of the working 248 Anderson on the North-American Boundary/, from season, while the same gentleman contracted to deliver at an intermediate point on the boundary, and nearer the Rocky Mountains, a further supply of forage to complete the require- ments for the remainder of the season. It need only be added here that this contractor, with no previous knowledge of the country, except that it was occupied by Indians unfriendly to United States citizens, faithfully {performed his contract with extraordinary risk to himself and his waggon-trains. In conse- quence of this element of uncertainty, the principal supplies of food and forage were freighted by our own Commission trains, direct from Red River ; and for this purpose 125 waggons were employed by the British Commission, of which 100 were drawn by pairs of oxen, and 25 by pairs of horses. As it would have been inconvenient to have moved this large waggon-train in one body, an advanced party of 20 waggons, drawn by oxen, was despatched westward from Red River early in May, with orders to advance by easy stages in company with a road-making party, under Lieutenant Rowe, for the purpose of improving the road and building bridges over rivers and marshy plains. At the same time a reconnaissance party, under Mr. Crompton, with the light wooden carts of the country and native ponies, was directed to push forward to Woody Mountain, to commence the construction of depot buildings there, and to proceed 100 miles further to the westward to explore a site for a more advanced depot. These arrangements were carried out so efficiently that the main body of the Commission, starting a fortnight later with the bulk of the jctersonnel and commissariat supplies, com- prising IGO officers and men, and 70 waggons, advanced for the first 200 miles without a check to the first crossing of the Souris River. This river was not fordablo, being in flood at the time, and flowing in a strong stream 55 yards wide. Three days were occupied in bridging the river, which was done by sluking at suitable intervals loaded cribs which Kiipported the roadway. The materials for the bridge wore collected at intervals, several miles distant, from the scant growth of timber on the river- bank. On the fourth day the whole train of heavy waggons crossed the temporary bridge without a casualty. Shortly afterwards a gloom was thrown over the whole of the Com- mission by the t(?mporary disablement of Lieuttmant Rowe, from fracture of the skull occasioned by a violent fall from his horse. As the procurious condition of this ofilccr did not admit of his being movod, a honpital-canii) w«i8 erttablishnd on tho spot, and, under I'roviilonco, Lieutenant Kowo's life fas sjivod by tho skill and unremitting devotion of Dr. Burgess, the Sur- geon of tho Expedition, and tho companionship of Captain Ward, K.E., tho Secretary, during six weeks of iueessant watch- the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 249 ing and anxiety. The astronomical and surveying parties, under their respective oflScers, were detached from the main body at the foot of the Great Coteau, and proceeded by the boundary- line track to their several destinations, where they were to com- mence operations, while the heavy commissariat-train proceeded westward by an easier though more circuitous road to Woody Mountain. We arrived at this site on the 22nd of June, the oxen with loaded waggons having accomplished the journey of 450 miles in 32 days, inclusive of six days' halts or detention. The reconnaissance party, under Mr. Crompton, had arrived at the same place three weeks previously ; and had already returned from a successful exploration of the country, for 100 miles to the westward ; while all cause for anxiety respecting the delivery of the first instalment of forage from the distant settlements of South-West Montana was removed by the punctual arrival at Woody Mountain of 60 tons of oats on the 1st of June. Tiie method of freighting adopted by the Americans in the Western plains may be considered worthy of passing notice. Each vehicle is mounted on four broad-rimmed wheels of unusally broad gauge, and the body has nearly vertical sides, the whole height being 12 or 14 feet. Into this huge car 4 tons of grain are packed in bags ; two of these waggons are linked closely together as in a railway-train, and to the foremost van are yoked nine pairs of oxen, the pair at the pole and the leading pair being thoroughly broken animals, while the intermediate pairs of oxen are more or less wild and untaught. One teamster manages this formidable charge. The waggon-train is made up of pairs of vans in the same fashion, and the whole makes its way slowly across the unbroken plain at the rate of about 1^ inilo per hour. The drivers do not follow immediately behind oacli other, in order to avoid the ruts, which are cut to a depth of G or 8 inches in the dry ground, and the waggons frequently fiink to the axletrees in soft soil. On coming to marshy places or to steep lulls, the waggons are detached and taken one at a time over the bad places ; an extra string of nine pairs of oxen, making eighteen pairs in all, being frequently employed to extri- cate a single waggon from a swamp-hole, or to take it up a steep hill. In this way oxen are found to work to the greatest advan- tage, as in a long string they pull at difiereut times, and thus in turn obtain relief from the fatigue of continuous draught. The oxen are specially suited for marshy ground, as they do not «ink in it, nor wtrain thoinselves by plunging when in dillloulties, us a horse would do. The oxen are not mm. in the first instance, us they travel better barefooted across the plains ; but as soon ral as well as spiritual matters. HusineHs was transacted by a council who met daily, and decided where they should hunt. On tho htniting-days, the women and children driving the pony- carts would follow in rear of tho hunters to carry home the meat Bach hunter would probably kill six or eight animals early in the day, and for the remainder of the day his whole I- 252 Anderson on the North-American Boundary^ from family would be employed cutting off the meat, the best pieces only being taken, the hide and forequarters being left. For many miles the air was soon poisoned, and in every direction could be seen evidence of the reckless slaughter and wanton waste of the hunters. The half-breeds are in constant collision with the Indians, and no quarter is either given or received. The 50 miles of arid cactus-plain, already alluded to, is bounded on the west by the remarkable gorge of the Milk River, and for 12 miles the boundary-line is engulfed in the main valley and its tributary ravines. This gorge was explored for 40 miles of its course betore a crossing-place for waggons could be found, and the only favourable passage proved to be 10 miles south of the line. The country on both sides of the main valley is much broken with tributary ravines and gorges, the banks of which are in most places nearly perpendicular, and rising 300 feet above the river-level. The river itself is very insignificant, and at the fording-place, where the current was running rapidly on the 10th July, the stream had completely disappearea in the sand a fortnight later, and the water was found m pools only, and in most places brackish. In the arid plateau, stretching for 25 miles westward beyond the Milk River, some sage-bushes occur; both rattlesnakes and tlie large prairie-fowl, or wild turkeys, were found in this district, which is of similar character to the great plain of the Columbia, west of the Rocky Mountains. We were now approaching the three Buttes or Sweet Grass Hills, the most prominent and important feature of the western plains. The first view of the Buttes was obtained when standing on the high ground overlooking the sandy cactus-plain. From tliis point of view the nearest Butte is 100 miles distant to the west, and its conical peaks, which stand out mistily against the sky-line when viewed in the early morning, are quite lost in the haze of the afternoon sun. Thus, to a traveller approaching the three Buttes from the eastward, they seem to recede during the day's travel, and though invisible at sundown, at sunrise the next morning thc^y appear to have advanced close to the camp. At the foot of these hills their influence is very noticeable in the growth of more luxuriant herbage on the soil, by reason of the rainfall which occurred daily among the hills, while no rain fell on the surrounding plain. On passing around the northern slopo of the eastern but to, the summit of which is (i miles south of the Line, the plain was much broken and interstfcted by valh^ys and ridges, and for 25 miles the recoiuuiissance party had sonio diiliculty in finding a practicable route to the westward for the heavy wag- gon-train. Afti^r crossing much undulating ground, an excellent site for a principal depot was found a little north of the boun- dary-line, on a small stream running southwards from the weg- the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 253 tern butte, and the indomitable oxen 'arrived here with full supplies, in charge of the commissary, Mr. Herchmer, and his indefatigable waggon-master, Mr. O'Donnell, on the 24th July, on which date the second astronomical party under Lieutenant Galway, marching independently, arrived at the same point to commence operations. The British Commission had thus, in seven- teen days, made a further stride of 108 miles to the westward. A few days' detention at this depot site afforded opportunities for an examination being made of the three Buttes, and Mr. Daw- son, the geologist, reported that they are of igneous origin. They form a liltle mountain region of themselves, the highest peaks being 6800 feet above the sea, and from the heart of the Buttes precipitous valleys open out, well wooded, and in which there is an abundance of springs, which issue for some distance out on the plain and are there rapidly absorbed. In the recesses of the mountain region, horned sheep were found, and the buffalo in vast numbers are attracted to the luxuriant pasture-grounds that abound on the hill-sides. Tho deadly combuts that have occurred between the Blackfoot and Crow Indians, when meeting in this region in pursuit of the buffalo, have in some degree made it a neutral ground, but u recent battle must have been fought, as the bodies of twenty Crow Indians were found on the plain a few miles from the depot camp. They were all scalped, and in consequence of the intense dryness of the atmosphere, the bodies were completely sun-dried and well preserved. From the hill-sides of tho western butte, the Rocky Mountains, 115 miles distant, are in full view, and the mountain-peaks, in a rugged and snowy outline, stand out in full relief against the western sky-line. Anyone ascending the northern slopes of the western butte comes to the boundary-line at the same spot where the first view is obtained of the Rocky Mountain pealcs. The intermediate country consists of undulating and gravelly plain, over which one passes iniporcoptibly from tne basin of the Missouri to tho Saskatchewan Waters at St. Mary's River. This river rises in the mountains, and tiows northwaid boisterously in a chainiel full of boulders and shingle. No sight could be more welcome tlinn the clear and sparkling waters from the mountains^ after the stagnant pools and muddy rivers of the Great Plains. Many granite bouhlors were found on the plateau near St. Mary's River. The bod rock, from which these blocks must have travelled, is 700 miles distant. Some bituminous ('oal was found exposed in Ww river-banks. On crossing St. Mary's River the boundary-lino enters tho f(»rtilo bolt which extends for 25 miles to the base of tho Rocky Mountains. A great cliange for tho bettor is now observable in tho soil, wliii'ii is very undulating and even hilly before arriving at tho actual base of tho moun- > 254 Anderson on the North-American Boundary^ from tains. A thick vegetable soil supports a luxuriant growth of grass, and groves of poplar are found, the growth of which is checked by the fires which occasionally sweep through the coun- try. Although we are now 4000 feet above the sea at the foot of the mountains, the same plants that were noticeable in the Bed River Valley reappear here, having been wanting in the intermediate country, while birch and coniferous trees are found in sheltered localities. The evidence points to the conclusion that the climate is much milder here than in the Eed River Valley, and the actual experience of the settlers in Montana at the foot of the mountains, 300 miles further south, is that this fertile strip of country is well suited for the growth of cereals, and cattle can winter out. The mountain-streams abound in fish, and it was no uncommon thing for a man, during an after- noon's fishing with a rod and line and grasshopper-bait, to bring home a sackful of 3 lb. trout by the evening. The boundary- line passes through 20 miles of out-lying mountainous country, which can be avoided by a detour of a few miles to the north, to the foot of the great mountain barrier. The mountain ranges rise at once into precipitous peaks 4500 feet above the plain, and the mountain masses retreat north-westerly in successive ranges. The horizontal strata of the plains are suddenly broken by the crumpled rocks of the mountains, elevated by a great convulsion of nature. The limestone beds on the peaks and mountain ridges, are weathered into the most bold and rugged outline, while underneath are the sandstone beds of variegated colours. In a cleft lying due south, Waterton or Chief Mountain Lake is enclosed, and by rafting on this lake access is obtained to the boundary-line in the heart of the mountains. The lake opens out northwards to the plain, and at its extremity is the western limit to which wheeled vehicles can be taken. A re- markable collection of mounds on the plains at the outlet of the lake was found by Mr. Dawson to be composed of moraine- matter, deposited by a groat glacier, which must at one time have pushed northward down the valley of the lake and de- bouched on the plain. For the concluding operation of the Commission in the moun- tain ravines, a tn in of pack-animalu was organised, and the old trail of the Kootenay Indians was I'ollowod through the mountains over the dividing ridge at an altitude of G700 feet above the sea ; thonco descending on the western sidd the sur- veying operations were continued into British Columbia and finally connected with the terminal point erected by the former Boundary (Commission on the summit of the Rocky Mountains in 18GI, being the eastern limit to which the boundary opera- the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 255 tions from the Pacific side had been carried at that time. The old trail was completely blocked up by fallen timber, and had to be cut out afresh ; the original axemen's marks were almost grown oyer, and had become covered with thirteen rings during that number of years that had elapsed. The old boundary-cairn was found to be in perfect preserva- tion, the remains of an old flagstaff, around which the stones were built, being still in position and standing out conspicuously above the top. There was no appearance of any Indian or white man having visited the spot since the boundary parties were there, 1 3 years ago. The beavers had, however, been very busy during this p' 'iod; for at one place on the old trail they had formea a lake by constructing a dam across a narrow part of the valley, which caused the water coming from the moun- tains to be kept back till they overflowed the obstruction. From the mountain-summit the view embraces a sea of peaks and ridges of the boldest outline, and between these knife-edged ridges occur amphitheatres of horse-shoe form with precipitous sides 3000 to 4000 feet deep, enclosing at their bottom a placid lake, in which the waters, from their i,^reat depth, appear of deep blue colour. A great difierence is observable in the physical appearance of the country on the east and west of the dividing range of mountains. To the east may be seen glimpses of the treeless plain, which extends for 800 miles to the eastward, and to the west of the mountain-range is a confused mass of rugged peaks and ridges and pine-clad valleys, which extend in almost an unbroken series for 400 miles to the Pacific coast. During the 10 weeks of magnificent summer weather, the Joint Commission had completed the surveying operations com- prising 350 miles of boundary, to the terminal point on the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and the British Commission commenced their retreat eastward from the mountains on 29th August. Official information had been received from the Canadian Government at Ottawa that the Indians intended to attack us on the march homewards. They were known to be in great force in the neighbourhood — the Blackfoot tribe alone numbering 6000 warriors — and their scouts were seen to be watching our movements. The fact was rather ominoup Jiat none of their chiefs had visited our camp, so nothing was known of thoij* intentions or of the light in wnich they regarded the proceedings of the Commission. We commenced our re- treat at a mucli earlier date probably than tliey had expected, and as wo were then coilocteu into suflieiontly largo parties to protect ourselves no molestation was oflered. The camp was always formed by the waggons being arranged in a circle, and into the ouclosuro so formed the horses were driven at night. 256 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from The tents were pitched around and outside the waggons, while sentries patrolled the outskirts of the camp. The depots were necessarily kept in charge of a few men only, and the commissariat-trains travelling from point to point with no escort would have been an easy prey to the attacks of hostile Indians, and some anxiety for the safety of the smaller parties was occasioned by large bands of Indians, numbering 200 and 300, coming at different times to the supply depots and demanding food. All the Indians of the plains were well mounted and armed with breech-loading rifles, which they pro- cure from the Missouri Eiver traders. Although they paid their visits with friendly assurances, it was evident, from their being in great force and well armed, that they were prepared for any emergencies. It was owing to the firmness and tact of the members of the Commission, and the discipline infused by the small detachment of Royal Engineers, that the most friendly relations with the Indians were maintained. The transport-animals had greatly recruited during the fort- night's detention at the mountains, where the pasture was most luxuriant, and they were in excellent condition for the long march to the east. By the 19th September the whole of the British Commission were collected at Woody Mountain, having accomplished 410 miles of the march homewards in 22 days. From this point to Red River hay had been made and stacked at 20 miles' intervals, in c-l 'icipation of the equinoctial snow- storms and the destruction of the natural grass by prairie- fires. The autumn season of 1874 was, fortunately, most favour- able, and the homeward march to Red River was accomplished without casualty, 861 miles in 43 days. The trains of oxen had been despatched from tlie Rocky Mountains three weeks earlier, and they reached Red River a week before the horse- trains and the main body of the Commission. Special mention must be made of the extraordinary power and endurance of the oxen. They commenced their march from Moorhead in Minne- sota early m May, and from that time till their return to Red River on 5th October, they marched 2400 miles with loaded waggons out and back, at 'in average rate of travel of 16 miles a day. During the whole of this period they had no othtT food except such pa.si are as the country afforded on the march. The horses, on the other hnnd, received a daily ration of 10 lbs. of oats per diem, and wore able to average 22 miles a day with loaded waggons, while on emergencies tiiey were able to make much longer marches, when the want of water or some special occasion required it. The general arrangements of tho sea- son just described necessitated tiie supplies being transported by our transport-train over a lino lengthening out at last to the Lake of the Woods to the Rochj Mountains. 257 1)00 milos, and the establishment of supply-depots at seven intermediate points, averaging 120 miles apart. Two-thirds of the 2^ersonnd of the expedition were employed in administering to the wants of the remaining third, who were actually em- ployed in the operations in front. The 900 miles of boundary-line between the Lake of the "Woods and the Kooky Mountains may be divided geographi- cally into three distinct steppe'^ or prairie-levels. The first ■extends from the Lake of the Woods to the Pembina Moun- tains, and has an average altitude of 800 feet above the sea, with a width in longitude of about 130 miles. It consists principally of rich fertile land, with a considerable amount of timber in the Lake of the Woods district. The second prairie-steppe extends from Pembina Mountain to the Great Ooteau of the Missouri, 250 miles of longitude, and has an average altitude of 1600 feet above the sea, with good pas- tui'e, and a small supply of wood in the valleys. The third Srai lie-steppe extends from the (ireat Coteau to the foot of the lioc'ky Mountains, 4G0 miles in longitude, and has an average altitude of 3000 feet above the sea. Much of this district is semi-desert, thongh pasture, in more or less quantity, is found everywhere. These three ])rairie-steppes have a marked dividing line at the Great Coteau and Pembina Mountain, but they have also a regular ascent to the westward of about 4^ feet in a mile, while, looking noitUward from the boundary, there is also a gradual descent to the Arctic Ocean. The lowest point along the whole boundary now described is at Red River, 750 feet above the sea. The Luke of the Woods in the east is 1000 feet, and Waterton Lake, in the Rocky Mountains, 4200 feet above the sea. The whole boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains is now marked by stone '^airns or earthen mounds at 3-mile intervals acro-js the great plains, and by iron pillars at 1-mile intervals, for 135 miles throughout the southern boundary of Manitoba. As this juairie is destined before many years have passed to be the great gianary of the Dominion, and from its enormous agricultural cajiabiiities much of its produce will, in course time, come to Great Britain, it may be permitted to add a few concluding remarks concerning the present con- dition of Manitoba. The soil of Manitoba is mostly prairie covered with grass, and is a deip alluvial deposit of unsur- juissed richness. It produces bountiful crops of cereals, grasses, roots, and vegetables. The soil is so inexhaustible, that in some J laces the old settlers have raised a crop of wheat off the same plot of ground for forty successive years. The wild grasses of the country are particularly favourable for stock-raising of all VOL. XLVI. 8 258 Anderson on the North-American Bmndary, from sorts, as the grass of the prairie is very nutritious, and the supply inexhaustible. It is more profitable to cut the grass for the winter season and to shelter the stock, than, to allow them to run. The grass can be cut by machines, and roughly stacked around the stock-yard. Wool-growing would be most profitable, as it is easily exported, and would command the same price where land is dear, and where hay has to be raised on cultivated farms. Moreover, the winter food of sheep and oxen — such as turnips and carrots — can be raised with great advantage on prairie soil. The climate of Manitoba is one of great extremes. The situation of Manitoba is peculiar, being in the middle of the continent, near.y equidistant between the Pole and the Equator, and the Atlantic an Pacific Oceans. The snow goes away and ploughing begins at the end of April. Crops are often har- vested in ninety days from the time of sowing. This is due to the long sunny days of summer, which bring vegetation of all sorts to maturity. Snow on the prairies does not fall to a greater average depth than 18 inches, and horses can graze out all winter, scraping the snow. Cattle in the spring are quite fat after the winter's feeding. The drawbacks to the C( untry are : — 1st. The want of markets. 2nd. Eavages of the grasshoppers. 3rd. Occasional summer frosts. The first great drawback is already in course of removal, as it is expected that in tlie course of a few months railway communication will be completed northwards from Minnesota to Winnipeg, the capital of Mani- toba. This will bring the new province within fifteen days of Liverpool, by a route available all the year round. Already the Canadian Pacific Eailroad is in active progress, the work being carried on from Fort Garry eastward, while some sections of the railroad north of Lake Superior are staked out on the ground. Thus the Eed Eiver settlers will soon have two outlets to the ocean for their produce, and the competitions between these two railroads will doubtless keep the railway rates and fares at a minimum. In the mean time the Govern- ment route from Lake Superior to Fort Garry is very greatly improved every year, and steamers are already p^ing on many portions of the route where the water-communication is con- tinuous. By this route emigrants are conveyed to the now Province at a nominal charge. The plague of locusts is undoubtedly a most serious draw- back. The ravages of this insect have been widespread over the Colony for the past four years. We read, however, that there was no invasion of this pest in the colony for 36 the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 259 years — from 1820 to 1857 — and the settlers are not dis- heartened, for I have recent information that a greatly-in- creased area of land is to be put under cultivation this spring. The summer frosts occur rarely, and then confine their injuries to fruit-trees and delicate plants ; and sometimes the wheat-crops suffer. The oat-crop is rarely injured, and the root- crops are certain to succeed. The wave of emigration has set in steadily during the past four years. The Mennonites, from Odessa, are pouring into the Colony, and have already established themselves on the Prairie along the boundary. They found water readily by digging from 18 to 25 feet, and the scarcity of wood is thought nothing of, as they are accustomed to use bundles of straw for fuel. A colony of Icelanders has also settled in the Province, and are well satisfied with their new home. The settlements to the west are increasing rapidly along the projected line of railroad. A steamer has recently ascended the Saskatchewan Kiver to Fort Edmonton ; the line of tele- graph will be completed to that point in the course of a few months. The surveying parties from opposite sides are working towards each other in the Rocky Mountains for the railroad- route in that section. The Government have recently paved the way for settlers by appointing magistrates to dift'erent points throughout the new territory to the Rocky Mountains ; and the civil authority is maintained by a force of 300 mounted police, under Captain French, of the Royal Artillery, who has already established the most friendly relations with the Indians throughout the country. The Canadian Pacific Railroad will pass through a fertile belt of country, the greater part of which will, in course of tinie, be occupied by an industrious though scattered population. The snowfall along the line of route is less than at Red River, and much less tha i in the eastern parts of Canada: and one great disadvantage to this part of the country, namely, the want of wood for fuel, will be met by developnig the great coal-fields of the Saskatchewan, where bituminous coal abounds. APPENDIX. Ill order to define tlio boundary-line or 49th parallel of latitude on tlio ground, successive pointH alonp; tlie boundary were determined by astro- nomical observations on thnt jiarallel of latitude, and the intervening spaces of boundary would naturally bo defined by east and west lines, with the proper allowance made lor the curve of the parallel to the north, connecting the auccessivo astronomical stations. It was found, however, that at all these stations there was more or less local attraction, due to irregularities in the s 2 260 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, from density and fi<;ure of the earth, deflecting the plumb-line from a truly vertical direction, and the successive astronomical stations, altlioujcth accurately deter- mined to be in latitude 49° N., were found to be on different parallels of latitude, when connected by actual surveyed lines. Discrepancies of this kind were always found to occur, so that the parallel passing through one station would not, if traced with the proper allowance for curvature, be iden- tical with the parallel passing through the next station, and so on. It thus became necessary to decide whether the points determined astronomically to be in lat. 49° n. should be simply joined, or whether a mean line parallel to the Equator should be adopted. The opinion of the Astronomer Royal was taken on this point, which was to the effect that there should be no depar- ture in the smallest degree from the points determined by the actual use of astronomical instruments. It was thereupon agreed between the British and United States Commissioners that the astronomical determinations of each station should be adopted, and the intervening boundary-marks between the stations should be set up on lines connecting tlic adjacent astronomical stations having the same curvature as the 49th parallel of latitude, but not necessarily parallel to the Equator. Thus the work of marking the actual boundary-line proceeded pari passu with the establishment of the astro- nomical stations. The method of determining the latitude wl 'ch was agreed upon by the Joint Commission, was by observing the difiFe :nces of the zenith distances of north and south stars with the zenith teiv-jcope. The local time for the reduction of the zenith telescope observations was obtained by the use of the sextant, by the transits of zenith stars observed with the zenith telescope, or by transits observed with the portable transit. These instruments were mounted on massive tripod stands specially made by Mr. Simms for the Exi)edition. The stands were packed quite flat when they were taken to pieces, and were transiwrted very easily. The method of working generally practised Ijy the astronomical ]iartips was as follows: — On approachii the site selected for an astronomical station, usually at about 3 p.m., thou;.'- sometimes much later, the first step was to select, for the observatory tent, au elevated spot from which an uninterrupted sight-line could be obtained to a distance of about three-fourths of a mile, either due north or due south. T!te camp was then pitched at a short distance off, so that neither the north or south, nor the east or west lines from the observatory tent came within 100 yau^s of it. The true time of the last astronomical stat a having been brought forward on a pocket mean-time chronometer, or sometimes on an ordinary watch, the sidereal chronometer was started by it, allowance being made for the difierenco of longitude obtained from the reconnaissance sketches ; and observations for time on the sun in the west were taken with a sextant for combination with equal altitudes the next morning. The zenith telescope was next mounted and adjusted, the direction of the meridian being obtained. by observation of the transit, according to the time by account, of a circumpolar star as soon after sunset as practicable. When darkness had set in, the latitude observations were commenced, a correction to the approximate time being soon obtained by taking transits of two zenith stars, and were continued throughout the night until dawn bi'gan to ap|)car, the meridian being also altered if necessary during the course of the observations. The next morning equal altitudes were taken on the sextant corresponding to those obtained the previous evening, and the true chronometer error during the night being now known, the computers could set to work at once to reduce the latitude observations. A first vtdiie of the latitude of the zenith telescope was obtained before the afternoon, and a spot was selected the proper distance north or south of it, so as to be nearly on the 49th parallel, and, if possible, on the meridian of the instrument, from which the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 261 S- point the sight-line, tangent to the parallel, should be commenced ; a view of nearly a mile due east or west, and also north or south being essential. 'J'he 7-in. theodolite was mounted here, and as soon as Polaris could be found in the evening, an approximate meridian was established and a mark set up. The theodolite was then replaced by the portable transit-instrument which was directed on this mark. All this could generally be done without inter- fering with the zenith telescope observations for latitude, which it was im- portant to complete as soon as possible. These were continued on the second night without interruption ; but in the early part of the evening, and from time to time during the night, opportunities would occur for observing the transits of stars across the meridian of the transit instrument. The azimuth of this meridian was thus obtained within one or two seconds, or less, of arc. On the second day the computations were continued, rmd preparations were made for commencing the sight-line to connect with the station to the west. For this pur|X)se the 7-in. theodolite was placed over the spot where the portable transit had stood, and an angle of 90° was turned off to the west, giving a line approximately tangent to the parallel. A mark was set up on this line at a distance of about three-quarters of a mile, or more, if possible. The angle between this mark and that in the north was then read off on different parts of the arc, and in reversed positions of the face of the instru- ment, and the mean of these angular readings, combined with the azimuth of the meridian, gave that of the sight-line, which was generally a few seconds north or south of west. The sight-line was now ready for prolonging west- ward ; its deviation being left uncorrected, but being taken into account in computing the offsets to the parallel. On the third night the zenith telescope observations were continued and completed, subsidiary observations for cor- recting the constants of the instrument being taken if required. On the third and fourth days the computations were finished and checked, and as soon as the final value of the latitude of the zenith telescope was obtained, the required measurement to the parallel was made, and the mound marking the station erected. During the fourth and fifth nights additional obser- vations for azimuth were taken, as well as any additional ones required for the latitude. The sidereal time was obtained from day to day by equal altitudes of the sun, and also by observations of the transits of zenith stars at night. The time of completing a station, which, according to the above description, would be four days and five nights, was actually always more than this. Sometimes the first night could not be used for latitude observations, owing to the party having arrived too late at the station to make the necessary pre- parations ; and one night out of three was generally cloudy or unfavourable to observation owing to thunderstorms or gales of wind. The average time necessary to complete one station was seven days during the summer months. In order to provide against delays from cloudy weather, it was always the object of the officer in charge of the astronomical work to obtain, as early as possible, an approximate value of the latitude, within 20 or 30 feet, and an approximately tme meridian ; having obtained these, the tangent-line could be commenced, and, in the event of cloudy weather setting in, could be pro- longed for 9 or 10 miles, while, if the sky remained clear, the astronomical observations were cirried on to completion. When the astronomical station was completed, and the monument marking the parallel erected, the camp was shifted to some spot where water was to be had, about half-way to the next astronomical station. During the march, the line was run with the 7-in. transit theodolite from the initial point, or from wherever it had been already taken to, while the party was encamped at the station. From the new camping-ground the line was continued as far as the next astronomical station, if possible ; but if it was not within working distance, the camp was again shifted to an intermediate point. The pro- rjs 262 Anderson on the North-American Boundary, 8fc. longing of the tangent line was done with the 7-in. transit theodolite, each point in advance being determined by two observations with different faces of the instrument, to eliminate the residual collimation and errors of level adjustment. The time occupied in running an average distance of 20 miles of line was about four days, to which three more must be added for laying down the offsets from the tangent to the parallel, where the monuments or mounds were to be erected. Azimuth observations were taken at or near the end of the line to verify its direction, and any small error vhioii had accumulated in the process of laying it down was distributed over its whole length. When this work was finished, the party started for their next station, about 80 miles further west, on arriving at which the same process was re- commenced. Working parties under an officer were employed to construct the permanent boundary marks, at the points indicated by the surveyors at about 3-mile intervals. These marks were either earthen mounds, substantially built, 7 feet high and 14 feet diameter, surrounded by a circular ditch, or were com- posed of boulder stones, whenever they could be procured in the neighbour- hood, compactly arranged and forming a conical cairn. Throughout the province of Manitoba, for 135 miles, the boundary was marked by iron pillars set up at mile intervals. In connection with the marking of the actual boundary-line, an instru- mental survey was made, by the Joint-Commission, of the country 6 miles on both sides of the line, and an exact map prepared of the rivers and well- marked features of the ground. The system pursued by the British parties was to traverse, with the 5-in. theodolite and chain, the watercourses and ridges from their intersection with the boundary up to the 6-mile limit. The' traverse line was then carried due east or west, as the case might l>e, and check lines chained at intervals of G or 9 miles down to the 49th parallel. The topoi);raplicrr., following the chained lines as a base, were able to sketch the features occurring in the intervals not actually surveyed. The sketch-sheets were plotted on tlic scale of 4 inches to one mile, and (.ach sheet re[)re.sentL'd a block of 3 miles square. All these sheets fitted togttlier like the squares of a chess-board, and were reduced afterwards to the scale of 1 inch to a mile. The observations for latitude and longitudy, taken on the reconnaissance for fixing the ai)proximato jwsition of the astronomical stations, and for making a R".,(,',oh-niai» of the comitry, were taken with an d-inch sextant, the sun and iH" -tars both being used. The sextants made by Messrs. Troughton and Simms for this exiwdition were jHsrlect instruments of their class. A set of ten observations on a north and on a south object conid always bo depended on for determining the latitude within 100 yards. In cases where combined observations of objects on both sides of the zenitli could no be obtaiiitMl, the instrumental error of the sextant which had been invest i;;ated was ajiplied. On the march the instruments were carried in a light spring waggon, and wore always at hand lor taking observations on the sun during the day, at the hours best suited f(ir finding the time and latitude. For the longituiles, the local times calculated from live observations on an east and west star, moving rapidly in altitude, wore comjMired with that brought forward on lour mean- time pocket chionomoters, whoso travelling lates were nscertained by taking them hack to the starting-point, and observing for time there after each recon- naissanco ; the resulting dilVerencos of longitude so obtained over disUuKos of 100 miles and ujjwards, served as a chock on tho survey. The reconnais- sance sketches wore based uiion tho sucoessivo jxiints fixwti Rgtrononucally in latitude and longitude, and (he natural fealuros along tho lino of travel woro skotohed in with tho aid of a prismatic comiHws. ■)■ >< \ / i„„fS£. 7