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SKE TCHES

OF THE

HISTORY OF MAN,

CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED IN

A THIRD EDITION.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

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CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED IN

A THIRD EDITION*

IN TWO VOLUMfeS.

VOLUME I.

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MUMMMM

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DUBLIN,
Printio by JAME S WILLI aMS, No, 2I3 Skinni:&=ro\y>

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CONTENTS

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OF THE

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FIRST VOLUME.

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t>; Page

i RELIMINA'RY Bifcourfe concerning
the origin of Men and ;of Languages. 2

:;: ..BO 6 K I. ; •

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Progrcfe of Men ihdcpcndcnt of Society.

Sketch

I. Progrefs of food and population^ 48

i. Frogrefs ^property, 65

3. Origin and progrefs of comnnce^ 71

4. Origin andprogrefs of arUy 92

Sed.

1. Ufeful arts^ ' ibid.

2. Progrefs of tafie and of the fine arts, 1 1 2

5. Frogrefs of manners, 181

6. Frogrefs of the female fsx, 287

Appendix,

Concerning propagation of animals , and
care of progeny, 343

7. Progrefs and effeds of luxury, 350

BOOK

CONTENTS.

BOOK II.

Progrefs of Men in Society.

Sketch. ~ Page

I . Appetite for fociety. — Origin of national fo-

cictieSf 277

3. General view of government, 413

3. Different forms of government compared, 417

4. Progrefs of Jiates from fmall to great ^ and

from great to fmall, 434

5. Great andfmaltflates compared, . 1 ^ '-44*
. 6. War and peace compared, 453
,.,7. Rife and fall of pat riot if m, 465
,;.8. Finances, , 485

' \ff^ r. General confiderations on taxes f 486

"**' 1. Power of impoJir\g Taxes, ; ^ : 49<^

» I i > Different forts of taxes, with their d4- ,
■ . / 'vantages and difadvantages, '* ' " 495

4. Mafiner of levying ta^^s, .. "" 502

5. Rules to be' 'obferved 'in Taxing, 504

6. ^.vrj examined with refpe£t to their :

' " 7. Taxes for advancing indu/iry and com'
mcrce.

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P ' R B F A C ' E.

H E following work is the fubftancc of vari-
ous fpcculations, which occafionally occupied the
author, and enhvened his Icifure-hours. It is not
intended for the learned ; they are above it : nor
for the vulgar ; they are below it. It is intended
for thofe who free from the corruption of opulence
and depreflion of bodily labour, are fond of ufeful
knowledge ; who, even in the delirium of youth,
feel the dawn of patriotifni, and who in riper
years enjoy its meridian warmth. To fuch men
this work is dedicated ; and that they may profit
by it, is the author's ardent wifh ; and probably
will be while he retains life fufficicnt to form a
"wifli.

May not he hope, that this work, child of his
grey hairs, will furvive, and bear teftimony for
nim to good men, that even a laborious calling,
which left him not many leifure-hours, never ba-
nifhed from his mind, that he would littk defervcto
be of *he human fpecies, were he indifferent about
his fellow- creatures:

Homo f urn : hwnani nihil a me alicnum pulo.

Moft of the fubjeds handled in the following
fheets, ;idmit but of probable reafoning ; and
with refpeft to fuch reafonings, it is often difficult
to fay, what degree of convidion they ought to
produce. It is eafy to form plaufible arguments j
but to form fuch as can ftand the tefl of time, is
not always eafy. I could amufe the reader with
numerous examples of conjectural arguments, which,
fair at a diftant view, vanifh like a cloud on a near
approach. Several exapiples, not to go l^rtber, are;

mentioned

via

PREFACE..

mentioned in the preliminary difcourfe of this book.
The hazard of being mifled by fuch arguments,
gave the author much anxiety ; and after his ut-
mod attention, he can but faintly hope, that he has
not often >vandered far from truth.

Above thirty years ago, he began to collect
materials for a natural hiftory of man ; and in the
vigour of youth, did not think the undertaking too
bold even for a Angle hand. He has difcovered
of late, that his utmoft abilities are Icarce fufficicne
for executing a few imperfe^ (ketches. !;

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Edinburgh J Feb, 23. 1774.

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To THE READER, c^ r .Vv.^

A S one great objeft of the Editor is to make
this a popular v;ork, he has chiefly with a view to
the female fex, fubjoined an Englilh tranflation of
the quotations from other languages, f'' 1 >. ffi

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HISTORY OF MAN.

V' ; ,-,

'■ ':

A H E Human Species is in every view an in-
tercfting fubjedt, and has been in every age the
chief enquiry of philofophers. The faculties of the
mind have been explored, and the affeflions of the
heart ; but there is ftiU wanting a Hiilory of the
Species, in its progrefs from the favage flate to its
highefl civilization and improvement. Above thirty
years ago, I beg^n to colled materials for that
niftory ; and in the vigour of youth, did not think
the undertaking too bold even for a fingle hand :
but in the progrefs of the work, I found my abilities
no more than Sufficient for executing a few Sketch-
es. Thefe are brought under the following heads.
I . Progrefs of Men independent of Society. 2. Pro-
grefs of Men in Society. 3. Progrefs of Sciences.
To explain thefe heads a preliminary difcourfe is ne-
ceflary j which is to examine. Whether all men be
of one lineage, defcended from a fmgle pair, or
whether there be different races originally dillliict.

Vol. I.

Preliminary

' ,\^>

Preliminary Discourse, concerning the Origin
-^ ' of Men and of Languages. ,'

HETHER there be different races of men, or
whether all men be .of one race, without any difference
but what proceeds from climate or other external
caufe, is a queftion that philofophcrs differ widely
about. As the queftion is of moment in tracing the
hiftory of man, I purpofe to contribute my mite.
And in order to admit all the light poffible, a view
of brute animals as divided into different races dr
kinds, will make a proper introduftion.

As many animals contribute to our well-being,
and as many are noxious ^ man would be a being
not a little impcrfeft, were he provided with no
nieans but experience for diftinguifhing the one fort
from the other. Did every animal make a fpcciea
by itfelf (indulging the cxpreffion) differing from all
others, a nian would finifh his courfe without acquir-
ing as much knowledge of animals as is neceffary
tvcn forfelf-prefervation : he would be abfolutely at
a lofs with refpeft to unknown individuals. The
Deity has left none of his works imperfeft. Ani-
mals arc formed of different kinds, each kind having
i figure >nd a temper peculiar to itfelf: great uni-
formity is difcovered among animals of the fame
kind ; great variety among animals of different kinds.
And to prevent confulion, kinds are diftinguifhed
externally by figure, air, manner fo clearly as not to
cfcape even a child *. Nor does divine wifdom ftop
here ; to complete the fyftem, we are endued with an
innate conviftion, that each kind has properties pe-
culiar to itfelf ; and that thefe properties belong to
every individual of the kind (a). Our road to the
•- ' -f ;, ; . . .. knowledge

* « And out of the ground the Lord God formed every bead of the field,
" and •very fowl of tlie air, and brought them unto Adam to fee what he would
" call them. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and the fowl of the air,
"•and'toeverybeaft of the field." Cm. il. 19,

(«) 8c« Elements of Criticifm, vol. a. p. 490. edit. 5.

Prcl. Difc.

of Lancuviges.

knowledge of animals is thus wonderfully fhortencd :
the experience we have of the difpofition and pro*
perties of any animal, is applied without hefitation to
every one of the kind. By that conviction, a child,
familiar with one dog, is fo^d of others that refemble
it ; an European, upon the firfl: fight of a cow in
Africa, ftrokes it as gentle and innocent ; and an
African avoids a tiger in Hindoflan as at home.

If the theory be well founded, neither experience
nor argument is required to prove that ahorfe is not
an afs, or that a monkey is not a man (a). Some
animals indeed are fo fimilar, as to render it uncer*
tain whether they be not radically of the fame kind.
But in fuch inilances we need not be folicitous ; for
I venture to affirm, that both will be found gentle or
fierce, wholefcai^ food or unwholefome. Such quef*
tions may be curious, but they are of little ufe.

Whether man be provided by nature with a faculty
to diflinguifh innocent animals h'om what are noxious,
feems not a clear point : fuch a faculty may be
thought unneceilary to man, being fupplied by reafon
and experience. But as reafon and experience have
little influence on brute animals, they undoubtedly
polTefs that faculty *. A bead of prey would be ill
fitted for its ftation, if nature did not teach it what
creatures to attack, what to avoid. A rabbit is the
prey of the ferret. Prefent a rabbit, even dead, to a
young ferret that never had feen a rabbit : it throws
itfelf upon the body and bites it with fury. Abound
ha$ the fame faculty with refpe6t to a hare ; and moft
dogs have it. Unlcfs directed by nature, innocent
animals would not know their enemy till they were

. S 2 Ul

{a) See M. Buffbn's natural hiftory.

* Brute animals have many inftinds that are denied to man j becaufe the
want of them can be fupplied by education. An infant muft be taught t9
walk ; and it is long before it acquires the art in perfeAion. Brutes have
no teacher but nature. A foal, the moment it fees the li^h^ walks no lef;
perfectly than its parents. And fo does a partridge, lapwing, &•, :

Dente lupus, cornu taurus petit \ unde nifi iatus MonAratum. I^oa a#&.

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc.

tn its clutches. A hare flies with precipitation from
the firfl dog it ever faw ; and a chicken, upon the firft
fight of a kite, cowers under its dam. Social animals,
without fcruple, connedt with their own kind, and as
readily avoid others *. Birds are not afraid of quad-
rupeds ; not even of a cat, till they are taught by ex-
perience that a cat is their enemy. They appear to
be as. little afraid of a man naturally ; and upon that
account are far from being (hy when left unmolefted.
In the uninhabited iiland of Vifia Grand6, one of the
Philippines, Kcmpfcr fays, that birds may be taken
vnth the hand. Hawks, in fome of the South-fea
iilands, are equally tame. At Port Egmont in the
Falkland Iflands, geefe, far from being Ihy, may be
knocked down with a IHck. The birds that inhabit
certain rocks hanging, over the fca in the iiland of
/\nnabon, take food readily out of a man's hand. In
Arabia Felix, foxes . and apes (hew no fear of man ;
the inliabitants of hot countries having no notion of
hunting. . In the uninhabited ifland Bering, adjacent
to ICauilkatka, foxes are fo little fliy that they fcarce
go out of a man's way. Doth not this obfervation
liiggeft a final caufe ? A partridge, a plover, a pheafant,
would be loft to man for food, were they naturally,
as much afraid of him as of a hawk or a kite.

The divifion of animals into different kinds, ferves
another purpofe, no lefs important than thofe menti-
oned ; which is, to fit them for different climates.
We learn from experience, that no animal nor vege-
table is fitted for every climate ; and from experience
we alfo learn, that there is no animal nor vegetable
but what is fitted for fome climate, where it grows to
perf.3:ion. Even in the torrid zone, plants of a cold

cHmate

♦ The populace about Smyrna have a cruel amufement. They lay the eggs
of a hen in a ftork's neii. Upon feeing the chickens, the male in amazement
calls his neighbouring ftorks together ; who to revenge the affront upon them,
cef^roy the pQor innocent female } while he bewails t:is misfortune in heavy
Jamfntation. • .

Pfcl. Difc.

of Languages.

Climate are found upon mountains where plants of a
hot cU' e will not grow ; and the height of a moun--
tain m., / be determined \vi;:h tolerable precifion from
the plants it produces. Wheat is not an indigenous
plant in Britain : no farmer is ignorant that foreign-
feed is requifitc to preferve the plant in vigour. To
prevent flax from degenerating in Scotland and Ire-
land, great quantities of foreign feed are annually-
imported. A camel is peculiarly fitted for the burn-
ing fands of Arabia ; and Lapland would be uninha-
bitable but for rein-deer, an animal fo entirely fitted
for piercing cold, that it cannot fubfift even in a tem-
perate climate. Arabian and Barbary horfes degene-
rate in Britain ; and to preferve the breed in forac
degree of perfedlion, frequent fuppiies from their
original climate are requifite. Spanifh horfes dege-
nerate in Mexico; but improve in Chili, having more
vigour and fwiftnefs there, than even the Andalufian
race, whofe offspring they are. Our dunghill-fowl,
imported originally from a warm country in Afia,
are not hardened, even after many centuries, to bear
the cold of this country like birds originally native :
the hen lays few or no eggs in winter, unlefs in a
houfe warmed with fire. The deferts of Zaara and
Biledulgerid in Africa, may be properly termed the
native country of lions ; there they are nine feet long
and five feet high. Lions in the fouth of Africa to-
ward the Cape of Good hope, are but five feet and a
half long, and three and a half high. A breed of
lions tranfplanted from the latter to the former, would,
rife to the full fize ; and fink to the fmaller fize. if
tranfplanted from the former to the latter *. . .

* ■■■ » ■ ft •

* That every fpecies of plants has a proper climate where it grows to per-
fcftion, is a faft uncontroverted. The fame holds in brute animals. Bile-
dulgerid, the kindly climate for lions, would be mortal to the bear, tlic wolf,
the deer, and other inhabitants of*a cold region. Providence has not only fitted
the produdtions of nature for different climates, but has guarded thefe produc-
tions againft the extremities of the weather in the fame climate, M^oy plants

tiofe

^ Of M£N, and

Prcl. Difc.

To prefcrvc the different kinds or fpccics of ani-
mals entire, as far as neceifary, Providence is careful
to prevent a mixed breed. Few animals of different
fpecies copulate together. Some may be brought to
copulate, but v^'ithout eSe& ; and fome produce a
mongrel, a mule for example, which feldom pro-
creates, if at all. In fome few inftances, where a
mixture of fpecies is harmlefs, procreation goes on
without limitation. All the different fpecies of the
dog-kind copulate together ; and the mongrels pro-
duced generate others without end. < '

M. BuiFon, in his natural hiftory, borrows from
Ray {a) a very artificial rule for afcertaining the dif-
ferent fpecies of animals : "Any two animals that can
*' procreate together, and whofe iffue can alfo procre-
*' ate, are of the fame fpecies {b)." A horfe and an
afs can procreate together ; but they are not, fays he, of
the fame fpecies, but their iffue, a mule, cannot procre-
ate. He applies that rule to man ; holding all men to
be of the fame fpecies, becaufe a man and a woman,
however different in fize, in ffiape, m complexion, can
procreate without end. And by the fame rule he
holds all dogs to be of the fame fpecies. With ref-
peft to other animals, the rule (hould pafs without op-
pofition from me ; but as it alfo refpeds man, the
fubjeft of the prefent enquiry, I will examine it with
attention. Providence, to prevent confufion, hath in
many inftances with-held from animals of different
fpecies a power of procreating together : but as our
author has not attempted to prove that fuch reftraint

■t]<ik their leaves during night ; and fome clofe them at mid-day agalnft the
burning rays of the fun. In cold climates, plants during winter are proteAed
againft cold by fnow. In thefe climates, the hair of fome animals grows long
in winter t feveral animals are covered with much fat which protects them
againft cold ; and many birds are fatter in winter than in fummer, though
probably their nouri(hment is lefs plentiful. Several animals deep during
winter in Sheltered places ; and birds of paflage are taught by nature, tp
change the climate, when too hot or too cold.

(a) Wifdom of God in the works of creation.

{») OAavoedir. vol 8. p. 104. and in many other parts,

Prel. Difc.

of Languages.

is univerfal without a fingle exception, his rule is evi-
dently a petitio prindpi'u Why may not two animals
different in fpecies produce a mixed breed ? M. Buffon
muft fay, that it is contrary to a law of nature. But
has he given any evidence of this fuppofcd law of
nature ? On the contrary, he proves it by various in-
ftances not to be a law of nature. He admits the
fheep and the goat to be of different fpecies j and yet
we have his authority for affirming, that a he-goat
and a ewe produce a mixed breed which generate for
ever {a). The camel and the dromedary, though
nearly related, are however no lefs diftinft than the
horfe and the afs. The dromedary is lefs than the
camel, more flender, and remarkably more fwift of
foot : it has but one bunch on its back, the camel has
two : the race is more numerous than that of the ca-
mel, and more widely fpread. One would not delire
diltinguilliing marks more fatisfying ; and yet thefc
two fpecies propagate together, no lefs freely than the
different races of men and of dogs. M. Buffon in-
deed, with refpeft to the camel and dromedary, en-
deavours to fave his credit by a diftindion without a
difference. " They are," fays he, " one fpecies ; but
" their races are different, and have been fo paft all
"memory (Z>)." Is not this the fame with faying
that the carnel and the dromedary are different fpe-
cies of the fame genus ? which alfo holds true of the
different fpecies of men and of dogs. If our author
will permit me to carry back to the creation the carnel
and the dromedary as two diftin£t races, 1 defire no
other conceflion. He admits no fewer than ten
kinds of goats, vifibly diftinguifliable, which alfo pro-
pagate together ; but fays, that thefe are varieties
only, though permanent and unchangeable. No dif-
ficulty is unfurmountable, if words be allowed to pafs
without meaning. Nor does he even iidhere to the

fame

(«) Vol. 10. p. 138.

(i) Vol. 10. p, 1,

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc

fame bpihion : though in diflinguifhing a horfe from
an afs, he affirms the mule they generate to be bar-
ren ; yet afterward, entirely forgetting his rule, he
admits the dircft contrary (a). At that rate a horfe
and an afs arc of the fame fpecies. Did it never once
enter into the mind of this author, that the human
race would be ftrangely imperfeft, if they were un-
able to diftinguifh a man from a monkey, or a hare
from a hedge-hog, till it were known whether they
can procreate together ?

But it feems unneceffary after all to urge any ar-
gument againft the foregoing rule, which M. BufFon
himfelf inadvertently abandons as to all animals, men
and dogs excepted. We are indebted to him for a
remark, That not a fingle animal of the torrid zone
is common to the old world and to the new. But
how does he verify his remark ? Does he ever think of
trying whether fuch animals can procreate together ?
" They are,'* fays he, " of diiferent kinds, having no
*' fuch refemblance as to make us pronounce them
*« to be of the fame kind. Linnseus and Briffon," he
adds, " have very improperly given the name of the
camel to the lama and the pacos of Peru. So ap^
parentis the difference,that other writers clafs thefe
animals with (heep. Wool however is the only
circumftance in which a pacos refembles a fheep :
nor doth the lama refemble a camel except in
length of neck." He diftinguifheth in the fame
manner, the true Afiatic tiger from feveral American
animals that bear the fame nam.e. He mentions its
fize, its force, its ferocity, the colour of its hair, the
ftripes black and white that like rings furround alter-
nately its trunk, and are continued to the tip of its
tail } " charaders," fays he, " that clearly diftin-
" guifli the true tiger from all animals of prey in the
** new world i the largeft of which fcarce equals one

«c

((f) Vol, 12, p. 223.

Prel. Difc^ i

of Languages.

" of our maftivcs." And he reafons in the fame
manner upon the other animals of the torrid zone (a).
Here truth obliges our author to acknowledge, that
we are taught by nature to diftinguifli animals into
different kinds by vifible marks, without regard to
his artificial rule. And if fo there muft be different
kinds of men ; for certain tribes differ vifibly from
each other, no lefs than the lama and pacos from the
camel or from the fheep, nor left than the true tiger
from the American animals of that name*. For
proving that dogs were created of different kinds,
what better evidence can be expefted than that the
kinds continue diflind to this day ? Our author prc^
tends to derive the maftiff, the bull-dog, the hound,
the grey-hound, the terrier, the water-dog, &c. all
of them from the prick-ear'd Ihepherd's cur. Now,
admitting the progeny of the original male and fe-
male cur to have fuffered every poffible alteration
from climate, food, domeftication ; the rbfult wpuld
be cndlefs varieties, fo that no one individual (hould
refemble another. Whence then are derived the
different fpecies of dogs above-mentioned, or the
different races or varieties, as M. Buffon is pleafed
to name them ? Uniformity invariable muft be a law
in their nature, for it never can be afcribed to chance.
There are mongrels, it is true, among dogs, froni
want of choice, or from a depraved appetite : but as
all animals prefer their own kind, mongrels are few
compared with animals of a true breed. There are
mongrels alfo among men : the feveral kinds how-
ever continue diftinft j and probably will fo continue
for ever.

There remains an argument againft the fyflem of

M. Buffon with refpeft to dogs, ftill more conclufive.

'•'.,/ . Allowing

(a) See vol. 8. feft. Gf animals common to the two continents.

* No perfon thinks that all trees can be traced back to one kind. Yet ths
figure, leaves, fruit, &c. of different kinds, are not more diftinft, than the
difference of figure, colour, &c. \n the different races of men,

Of ME?r, and

Prel. Difc.

Allowing to climate its utmofl influence, it may pof-
fibly have an cfTefl upon the fize and figure ; but
furcly M. Buffon cannot fcrioufly think, that the dif-
ferent inflinds c^dogs are owing to climate. A ter-
rier, whofe prey burrows under ground, is continu-
ally fcraping the earth, and thrufling its nofe into
it. A hound has always its nofe on the furface, In
order to trace a hare by fmell. The fame inftinft is
remarkable in fpaniels. It is by nature that thefe
creatures' are direfted to be continually going about,
to catch the fmell, and trace their prey. A greyhound,
which has not the fmelling-faculty, is constantly look-
ing about for its prey. A fliepherd's dog may be
improved by education, but nature prompts it to
guard the flock. A houfe-dog makes its round every
night to protect its mafter againft flrangers, without
ever being trained to it. Such dogs have a notion of
property, and are trufty guardians of their mafter's
goods : in his abfence, no perfon dares lay hold of
his hat or great coat. Waggoners employ dogs of
that kind to watch during night the goods they carry.
Is it conceivable, that fuch difl^erent inftinfts, con-
ftantly the fame in the fame fpecies, can proceed from
climate, from mixture of breed, or from other acci-
dental caufe f

The celebrated Linnaeus, inftead of defcribing
every animal according to its kind, as Adam our firfi
parent did, has wandered far from nature in clafling
animals. He dillributesthem into claflcs, viz. Mam-
malia, Aves, Amphibia^ Fifces^ Infs^a, Vermes, The
JVIflOTwa/zV? are diftributed into feven orders, chiefly
from their teeth, viz. Primates, Bruta, Fera, Glircsy
Pecora, Bellua, Cete. And the Primates are. Homo,
Simia, Lemur, Vefpertilio. What may have been his
purpofe in clafling animals fo contrary to nature,! can-
not guefs, if it be not to enable us, from the nipples
and teeth of any particular animal, to know where it
is to be found in his book. It reiembles the clafling
books in a library by fize, or by binding, without re-
gard

Prcl. Difc.

of Languages.

his

gard to the contents : it may ferve as a fort of di£ki-
onary ^ but to no other pucpofe. How whimiical is
it to clafs together animals that nature hath widely fc-
parated, a man for example and a bat ? What will a
plain man think of a manner of clafTrng, that denies
a whale to be a fi(h ? In clafling animals, why docs
he confine himfeif to the nipples and the teeth, when
there are many other diftinguifhing marks ? Animals
are no lefs diliinguifliable with refpeffc to tails ; long
tails, fhort tails : nor lefs diftinguiihable with refpeS
to hands ; fome having four, fome two, fome none,
&c. &c. Yet, after all, if any folid inftrudion can
be acquired from fuch claiTnig, I ihali Uften, not ogly
with attention, but with fatisfaftion. -y^ -^i .'.

Now more particularly of man, after difcufllng
other animals. If the only rule afforded by nature
for clafTmg animals can be depended upon, there are
different fpecies of men as well as of dogs : a mafliff
differs not more from a fpaniel, than a white man
from a negro, or a Laplander from a Dane. And
if we have any belief in Providence, it ought to be
fo. Plants were created of different climates, and fo
were brute animals. Certain it is, that all men are
not fitted equally for every climate. Is there not
then reafon to conclude, that as there are different
climates on the earth, fo there are different fpe-
cies of men fitted for thefe different climates? The
inhabitants of the frozen regions of the north, men,
birds, bealts, fifh, are all provided with a quantity
of fat which guards them againlt cold. Even the '
trees aro full of rofin. The ifland St. Thomas, under
the line, is extremely foggy ; and the natives are fit-
ted for that fort of weather, by the rigidity of their
fibres. The fog is difpelled in July and Auguft by
dry winds ; which give vigour to Europeans, whofc
fibres arc relaxed by a moift atmofphere as by a
warm bath. The natives, on the contrary, who arc
not fitted for a dry air, have more difeafes in July and
Auguft than during the other ten months. On the
other hand, inftances arc without number of men de-
generating

Of Mem, and

Prcl. Difc.

generating in a climate to which they arc not fitted
by nature ; and I know not of a fingle inftancc where
in fuch a climate people have retained their original
vigour. Several European colonics have fobfifted in
the torrid zone of America more than two centuries ;
and yet even that length of time has not familiarifed
them to the climate : they cannot bear heat like the
original inhabitants, nor like negroes tranfplanted
from a country equally hot : they are far from equal-
ling in vigour of mind or body the nations from
which they fprung. The Spanilh inhabitants of Car-
thagena in South America lofe their vigour and co-
lour in a few months. Their motions arc languid ;
and their words are pronounced in a low voice, and
with long and frequent intervals. The offspring of
Europeans born in Batavia, foon degenerate. Scarce
one of them has talents fufficient to bear a part in the
adminiftration. There is not an office of truft but
muft be filled with native Europeans. Some Portu-
guefe, who have been for ages fettled on the fea-coaii;
of Congo, retain fcarce the appearance of men. South
Carolina, efpecially about Charleftown, is extremely
hot, having no fea-breezc to cool the air : Europeans
there die fo faft that they have not time to degene-
rate. Even in Jamaica, tho' more temperate by a
regular fucceffion of land and fea breezes, recruits
from Britain are neceffary to keep up the numbers *.
The climate of the northern provinces refembles our
own, and population goes on rapidly, '

What means are employed by Providence to qua-
lify different races of men for different climates, is a
fubjedt to which little attention has been given. It
lies too far out of fight to expeft a complete difco-
vcry ; but fa£ls carefully colledted might afford fome
glimmering of light. In that view, 1 mention the

following

■ 1 -v

* As tlie Furopeans lofe vigour by the heat of the (;limate, the free ne-
groes, efi>ecially thofe in the mountains, are the fafec;uard of the ifland j and
it was by their means chiefly that a number of rebelious negro flaves were
fubducd in the year 1760.

Prcl. Dlfc.

of Languages.

our

|ua-
is a
It
|fco-
)me
the
nng

|e ne-

and
Iwere

following faft. The inhabitants of the kingdom of
Scnaar in Africa are true negroes, a jet'black com-
plexion, thick lips, flat-nofe, curled woolly hair. The
country itfelf is the hotted in the world. From the
report of a late traveller, they are admirally protedl-
ed by nature againft the violence of the heat. Their
flcin is to the touch remarkably cooler than that of
an European ; and is fo in reality, no Icfs than two
degrees on Farhcnheit's thermometer. The young
Women there are highly prized by the Turks for that
aualitv. ' "'^'''' '''' -•'■•■'■*''♦'• ' '• unm r.^iM vvki.
• Thus it appears tfiat there are different races of
men fitted by nature for different climates. Upon
examination another fad will perhaps alfo appear,
that the natural produftions of each climate make
the mod wholefomc food for the people who are fit-
ted to five in it. Between the tropics, the natives
live chiefly on fruits, feeds, and roots , and it is the
opinion of the moll knowing naturalifts, that fuch
food is of all the moft Wliblefome for the torrid zone;
comprehending the hot plants, which grow there to
perfeftion, ind tend greatly to fortify the ftomach.
In a tentperate climate, a mixture of animal and ve-
getable food is held to be the moft wholefome ; and
there both animals and vegetables abound. In a
cold climate, animals are in plenty, but few vegeta-
bles that can ferve for food to man. What phyfici-
ans pronounce upon that head, I know not; but if
we dare venture a conjefture from analogy, animal
food will be found the moft wholefome for fuch as
are fitted by nature to live in a cold climate.

M.Buffonvfroriithe rule. That animals which can
procreate together, and jvhofe progeny can alfo pro-
create, are of one fpecies, concludes, that all men are
of one race or fpecies, apd endeavours to fupport
that favourite opinion, by afcribing to the climate,
to food, or to other accidental caufes, all the varieties
that are found among men. But is he ferioufly of
opimon, that any operation of climate, or of other

accidental

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

»l

accidental caufe, can account for the copper colour
and fmooth chin univerfal among the Americans, the
prominence of the pudenda univerfal among Hotten-
tot women, or the black nipple no lefs univerfal
among female Samoidcs? The thick fogs of the
ifland St. Thomas may relax the fibres of the na-
tives, but cannot make them more rigid than they
are naturally. Whence then the difference with ref-
ped to rigidity of 6bre8 between them and Euro-
peans, but from original nature ? Can one hope for
belief in afcribing to climate the low flature of the
Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their feet, or the ovet -
grown fize of their head ; or in afcribing to cliniato
the low flature of the Laplanders *, and their r'y
vifage. Lapland is indeed piercingly cold ; but fo is
Finland, and the northern parts oi Norway, the in-
habitants of which are tall, comely, and well propor-
tioned. The black colour of negroes, thick lips, 6 at
nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell, diflinguifh
them from every otner race of men. The AbyfHnians,
on the contrary, are tall and well made, their com-
plexion a brown olive, features well proportioned,
eyes large and c^t a fparkling black, lipe thin, a nofe
rather high thm fit i. There is no fuch difference of
climate between Abyffinia and Negroland as to pro-
duce thefe ftriking differences. At any rate there
mull be a confiderable mixture both of foil and cli-
mate in thefe extenfive regions ; and yet not the lead
mixture is perceived in the people. -^w;, '-..,;: , ,.
If the ciimate have any commanding influence, it
muft be difplayed upon the complr- .on '^b'cfly j and

in that article accordingly our author cr

y}\i

(«

fays he, " white in Europe, bla( Ataca, yellow
in Afia, and red in America, is ftill the fame ani-
mal, tinged only with the colour of the climate.
Where the heat is exceifive, as in Guinea and Se-
• . . I . " negal,

.-. 1.... ... ,; >. '^ '. ^■■

*■ By late 2cccunts It appears that the Laplanders are originally Huns.
Pf re Hel, an Hun^iiian, made lately this difcoveryj Yrh«n f«At to LapliOid for
maK'/i{ astronomical obfervationt.

rel. D'lfc.

Of Lanouaoes.

»5

pc, It
and

am-

iate.
Sc

ral,

tuns.
Id for

" ncgal, the j'-opic arc pcrfcftly black ; where Icfs
" cxcelTivc, as in Abylfinia, the people arc Icfs black )
•* where it is n >''etempcfAtc, as in Barbary, and in
•* Arabia, thty arc brown; and where mild, as in
«* Europe aiiu Leffer Afia, fhey arc fair {a}.** But
here he triumphs without a vidory . he is forc'd to
acknowledge, that the Samoidrs, Laplanders, and
Greenlandcrs, are of a fallow complexion ; for which
he has the following falvo, that the cxt cmities of
heat and of cold produce nearly the fame t^ti^t on
the (kin. But he is totally fdcnt upon a tad that
alone overturns his whole fydiem of colour^ viz. that
all Americans without exception are of a copper co-
lour, tho* in that vaft continent there is every variety
of climate. The fouthern Chincfc arc white, tho* in
the neighbourhood of the torrid zone ; and women
of faihion in the ifland Otaheite, who cover them-
felves from the fun, have the European complexion.
Neither doth the black colour of fome A ricans, nor
the brown colour of others, correfpond tot le climate.
The people of the defert of Zaara, common ly termed
Lower Ethiopia, though expofed to the vertical rays
of the fun in a burning fand yielding not in heat even
to Guinea, arc of a tawny colour, far from being jet-
black like negroes. The natives of Monomotapa
are perfedly black, with criljaed woolly hair, tho* the
fouthern parts of that extenftve kingdom are in a
temperate climate. And the CafFres, even thofe
who live near the Cape of Good Hope, arc the fame
fort of people. The heat of Abyffinia approacheth
nearer to that of Guinea ; and yet, as mentioned
above, the inhabitants are not black. Nor wiJ our
author's ingenious obfervation concerning the extre-
mities of heat and cold account for the fallow com-
plexion of the Samoides, Laplanders, and Greenland-
ers. The Finlanders and northern Norwegians live
in a climate no lefs cold than that of the people
mentioned ; and yet are fair beyond other Europeans.

T I<ay

(«) Book 5.

1 1

HJJll I

3J I

§■

Of Men, and !•>

Prdi Difc.

I fay more, there are many inftances of races of peo-i
pie prcfcrving their original colour in climates very
differ<int from theit own j and not a fingle inilance
of the contrary as far as I can learn. There have
been four x:ompletc generations of negroes in Peint-*
fylvania without any vifible chinge ot colour : they
"ontipue jet-bl«fck as originally. The Moors in
Hindoftan retain their natural colour, tho' tranfplatit*
cd there above three centuries ago. And the Moi
gul family continue white, like their anceftors the
Tartars, tho* they have reigned in Hindbftan above
four centuries.^ Shaw, in his travels through Bar-
bary,. mentions a people inhabiting the mountains of
Aurefs bordering upon Algiers on the fouth, who
appeared to be of a diiferenit race froal the Moors.
Their complexion, far from fwarthy, is fair and rud-
dy 5 and their hair a deep yellow, inftead of being
Idarfc as among the neighbouring. Moors. He con-
je6]tures them to be a remnant of the Vandals, per^
haps the tribe mentioned by Procopiiis . in his firft
book of the Vandalic war. If the European com-
plexion be proof againft a hot cUmate for athoufand
years, I pronounce that it will never yield to climate^
Ifl the fuburbs of Cochin, a town in Malabar, there is
a colony of indullrious Jews of the laroc complexion
they have in Europe. They pretend that they were
cftabliihed there during the captivity of Babylon : it
is certain that they have been many ages in that
country. Thofe Avho afcribe all to the fun ought to
confider how little probable it is,, that the colour it
impreffcs on the parents (hould be communicated to
their infant children, who never fawthe fun : I fhould
be as foon induced to believe, with a German natu-
ralift whofe name has efcaped me, that the negro co-
lour is owing to ancient cuftom in Africa of dying
the Ikin black. Let a European for years expofe
himfclf to the fun in a hot climate, till he be quite
brown, his children will neverthelefs have the fame
complexion with thofc in Europe. The Hottentots

arc

>. :i

Prel. Difci of Languages. 17

are continually at work, and have been for ages, to
darken their complexion; but that operatioa has no
eticd: on their children. From the adion of the fun
is it polhble to explain, why a negro, hke a Euro-
pean, is born with a ruddy (kin, which turns jet-blacl^
the eighth or ninth day * ? H.-. v . -if ; ;|?jji.r/ifih.~'« uii,

Different tribes are diftinguifhable, no lefs by in-
ternal difpofition than by external figure. ]^ations
are for the moft part fo blended by war, by com-
merce, or by other means, that vain would be the at-
tempt to trace out an original character in any culti*
vated nation. But there are favage tribes, which as
far as can be difcovered, continue to this day pure
without mixture, which adt by inftind not art, which
have not learned to difguife their paffions : to fuch I
confine the inquiry. There is no propenfity in hu-
man nature more general than averfion from ftran-
gers, as will be made evident afterward (a). And
yet fome nations mufl be excepted, not indeed many
in number, who are remarkably kind to ftrangers ;
by which circumftance they appear to be of a fingu-
lar race. . In order to fet the exceptions in a clear
light, a few inftances ihall be premifed of the general
propenfity. The nations that may be the moft relied
on for an original character, are iflanders at a dif-
tance from the continent and from each other.
Among fuch, great variety of character is found.
Some iflands adjacent to New Guinea, are inhabited
by negroes, a bold, mifchievous, untracta^le race ;
always ready to attack ftrangers when they approach
the iliore. The people of New Zealand are of a
large fize and of a hoarfe voice. They appeared fliy
according to Tafman's account. Some of them how-
ever ventured on board in order to trade ; but find-
ing opportunity, they furprifed feven of his men in a

Vol. I. . G .„,.- ihallop,

* Difterent flowers derive their colour from nature, and rvefervc the fame
colour in evnry climate. \V!iat re;iK>n is there to believe, th.it climate HieuW
have greater influence upon tli«; colour of men than ot tiowcrs ?
■» |[<j) Book 2. fkctch I.

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc.

'I n

fhallop, and without the flighted provocation killed
three of them, the reft having efcapcd by fwimming.
The idsind cTiWcd Recreaihn, i6th degree fouthern
latitude and 148th of longitude weft from London,
was difdovered in Roggcwcin's voyage* Upon fight
of tlie fhips, the natives flocked to the fliore with long
pikes. The; crew made good their landing, having
by fire-arms beat back the natives ; who, returning
after a fliort interval, accepted prefents of beads,
ftnall looking-glafles, and other trinkets, without
fhewin^ the kaft fear : they even aflifted the crew in
gathering herbs for thofe who were afllided with the
fcurvy. Some of the crew traverfing tht ifland in
great fecurity, and trufting to fome natives who led
the* way, were carried into a deep valley furrounded
with racks ; where they wert inftantly attacked on
every fide with large ftones : with difliculty they
made their efcape, but not without leaving feveral
dead upon the field. In Commodore Byron's voyage
to the South fea, an ifland was difcovered, which he
named Dlfappohitment. The fliore was covered with
natives in arms to prevent landing. They were
black ; and without cloathing, except what covered
the parts that nature teaches to hide. But a fpeci-
men is fufficient here, as the fubject will be fully il-
luftrated in the flvctch referred to above.
• The kindnefs of fome tribes to ftrangers deferves
more attention, being not a little fmguiar. Gonne-
ville, commander of a French fliip in a voyage to
the Eaft Indies in the yc:ir 1503, was driven by a'
teinpeft into an unknown country, and continued
there fix months while his veflel was refitting. The
manners he defcribes were in all appearance origi-
nal. The natives had not made a greater pro^refs
in the arts of life, than the favage Canadians have
done ; ill cloathcd ; and worfe lodged, having no
light in their cabins but what came in through a hole
in the roof. ' They were divided into fmall tribes,
govcr\ied each by a king ; who, tho* neither better

- cloathed

Prcl. Difc.

of Languages.

fpeci-
llyil-

•J ■*

fervcs

onne-

■ '.if

igeto
by a*
inued

■ :l

I'he

origi-

)grel3

have

g no
L hole

ribes.

jcttcr

ithed

clbathcd nor lodged than others, had power of life
and death over his fubjeds. They were a fimple
and peaceable people ; and in a manner >yor(hipped
the French, providing them with neceflaries, and in
return thankfully receiving knives, hatchets, fmali
looking-glaiTes, and other fuch baubles- In apart
of California the men go naked ; and are fond of
feathers and fhells. They are governed by a king,
with great mildnefs ; and of all favages are the mufl
humane, even to ftrangers. An ifland difcovered in
the South fea by Tafman, 2.ifl: degree of fouthern la-
titude and 177th of longitude well from London,
was called by him Atnjierdam, The natives, who
had no arms oiFenfive or defenfive, treated the Dutch
with great civility, except in being given to pilfering.
At no great diflance another ifland was difcovered,
named Aunamocha by the natives, and Rotterdam by
Tafman ; poiTefled by a people refembling thofc lalt
mentioned, particularly in having no arms. The
Dutch, failing round the ifland, faw abundance of
cocoa-trees planted in rows, with many other fruit-
bearing trees, kept in excellent order. Commodore
Roggewein, commander of a Dutch fleet, difcovered,
anno 1721, a new ifland in the South fea; inhabited
by a people lively, active, and fwift of foot ; of a
fweet and modeft deportment : but timorous and
faint-hearted ; for having on their knees prefented
fome refrefliments to the Dutch, they retired with
precipitation. Numbers of idols cut in ftone were
placed along the coaft, in the figure of men with
large ears, and the head covered with a crown ; the
whole nicely proportioned and highly finiflied. They
fled for refuge to thefe idols : and they could do no
better ; for they had no weapons either offehfive
or defenfive. Neither was there any appearance of
government or fubordination ; for they all fpoke and
a<5^e(l with equal freedom. This ifland, fit ;ated
-28 degrees 30 minutes fouthern latitude, and about
1 15 decrees of longitude well from London, is by the

C ?. ' Dutch

i I'

. I

Of Mek, and

Prcl. Difc.

Dutch called Eq/ler or Pafch IJland * » The Com-
modore direfting his courfe north-weft, difcovered in
the fouthern latitude of 12 degrees, and in the lon-
gitude of 190, a clufter of iflands, planted with va-
riety of fruit trees, and bearing herbs, corn, and
roots, in plenty. When the fliips approached the
Ihorc, the inhabitants came in their canoes with filh,
cocoa-nuts, Indian figs, and other rcfrefhments ; for
which they received fmall looking-glafles, ft rings of
beads, and other toys. Thefe iflands were well peo-
pled : many thoufands thronged to the fliore to fee
the (hips, the men being armed with bows and arrows,
and appearing to be governed by a chieftain : they
had the complexion of Europeans, only a little more
fin-burnt. They were brifl^ and lively, treating one
another with civility ; and in their behaviour exprefs-
ing nothing wild or lavage. Their bodies were not
painted ; but handfomely cloathed, from the middle
downward, with filk fringes in neat folds. Large
hats fcreened the face from the fun, and collars of
odoriferous flowers furrounded the neck.. The view
of the country is charming, finely diverfified with
hills and vaiiies. Some of the iflands are ten miles
in circumference, fome fifteen, fome twenty. The
hiftorian adds, that thefe iflanders are in all refpeds
the mod civilized and the beft tempered people he
difcovered in the South fea. Far from being afraid,
they treated the Dutch with great kindncfs ; and
exprefl'ed much regret at their departure. Thefe
illands got the name of Bowman's i//ands, from the
captain of the Tienhoven, who difcovered them. In
Commodore Byron's voyage to the South fea, while
he was pafling through the ftreights of Magellan,
fome natives approached in their canoes ; and upon
invitation came on board without fear, or even ihy-
nefs. They at the fame time appeared grofsly ftupid;
-r":- 'r::t':r,- - :..... ,and

■ i\

* The women were very Ic^vlne;, enticing tlic Dutclimen Iiy every female
4r( to tlie nioft intimate familiarity.

Prcl. Difc.

of Languages,

ftl

and particularly could not comprehend the ufe of
knives, offered to them in a prefent. In another
part of the ftpeights, the natives were highly delight-
ed with the prefents made them. M. Bougainville,
in his voyage round the world, defcribes a people in
the ftrcights of Magellan, probably thofe laft menti-
oned, as of fmall (lature, tame and peaceable, having
fcarce any cloathing in a climate bitterly cold. Com-
modore Byron difcovered another ifland in the South
fea covered with trees, which was named Byron
ijland. The inhabitants were neither favage nor fhy,
trafficking freely with the crew, tho* they feemed ad-
didcd to thieving. One of them ventured into the
Ihip. After leaving Otaheite, Mr. Banks and Dr.
Solander, failing weflward, difcovered a duller of
iflands, termed by them Society ijlands : the natives
were extremely civil, and appeared to have no aver-
fion to ftrangers. The ifland of Oahena, north-weft
from that of Otaheite, is a delightful fpot ; the foil
fertile, and the ihores adorned with fruit-trees of va^
rious kinds. The inhabitants are well proportioned,
with regular engaging features j the women uncom-
monly beautiful and delicate. The inhabitants be-
haved with great hofpitality and probity to the crew
of the (hip in which thefe gentlemen lately made a
voyage round the world.

To find the inhabitants of thefe remote iflands dif-
fering fo widely from the reft of the world, as to have
no averfion to ftrangers, but on the contrary (liowing
great kindnefs to the firft they probably ever faw, is a
fingular phenomenon* It is vain here to talk of cli-
mate ; becaufe in all climates we fmd an averfion to
ftrangers. From the inftances given above, let us
feleft two iflands, or two clufters of iflands, fuppofe
for example Bowman's iflands inhabited by Whites,
and thofe adjacent to New Guinea inhabited by
Blacks. Kindnefs to ftrangers is the national charac-
ter of the former, and hatred to ftrangers is the nati-
onal character of the latter. Virtues and vices of in-
dividual

Of Men, and^

Prel.Difc.

dividuals, depend on caufcs fo various, and fo varia-
able, as to give an impreflion of chance more than of
defign; We are not always certain of uniformity in
the condud; even of the fame perfon •, far lefs of
different perfons however intimately related : how
fmall is the chance, that Tons will inherit their father's
virtues or vices ? In mod countries, a favagc who has
no averfion to flrangers, nor to neighbouring clans,
would be noted as Angular : to find the lame quaUty
in every one of his children, would be (till more fo,
were it dift'ufcd widely through a multitude of bis de-
fcendents. Yet a family is as nothing compared with
a whole nation ; and when we find kindnefs to
flrangers k national charadter in ccrtatn tribes, we
rejeft with difdain the notion of chance, and perceive
intuitively that effects fo regular and permanent mult
be owing to a conftant and invariable caufe. Such
effefts cannot be accidental, more than the unifor-
mity of male and female births in all countries and at
all times. They cannot be accounted for from edu-
cation nor from example ; which indeed may con-
tribute to fpread a certain faihion or certain manners,
but cannot be their fundamental caufe. Where the
greater part of a nation is of one character, educa-
tion and example may extend it over the whole ; but
the charafter of that greater part can have no foun-
dation but nature. What refource then have we for
explaining the oppofite manners of the iflandcrs
fibove mentioned, but that they are of different
races ? . .

The fame doftrine is ftrongly confirmed upon find-
ing courage or cowardice to be a national charatler.
Individuals differ widely as to thefc ; but national
character of courage and cowardice muft depend on
a permanent and invariable caufe. I therefore pro-
ceed to inftances of national courage and cowardice,
that the reader may judge for himfelf, whether he can
difcover any other caufe for inch Heady uniformity
but diverfity of race. ;,: .•

- ' The

PrclPifc.

Of Languages.

»3

The northern nations of Europe and Afia have at
all times been remarkable for courage. Lucan en«
deayours to account for the courage of the Scandina-
vians from a firm belief, univerfal among the tp^ that
they would be happy in another worjd. i

■ r

Vobis qu6lqribus^ umbra, [i,. vior-,-.'.'

Non tacitas Erebifedes, Ditifque profun4i
Pallida regna petunt ; regit idem fpiritus artus :.yj.,
Orbe alio : longa (catiitisji cognita) vita
Mors media eji, Certe populi, quos defpicit ArSlsSf,
Felices ^rr ore flip ; quos tile, iinioruni

.., Maximus, baud urg^t leti metus, hide ruendi .z >
:,.• Inferum mens prona yirht animaque capac£s if j.fj

:;; Mortis, *{a) ■{.,.. .\,im-'n ■'■■■ -^ •);ij|>'rliv/ bj;-'

Pretty well jreafoned for a poet! but among all na-
tions the ibul is believed to be immortal, tho' all n^<*
tions have not the courage of the Scandinavians.
The Caledonians y/ere eminent for that virtue ; 5^nd
yet had no fuch opinion of happinefs after death, as
to ma^e them fond of dying. Souls after death were
believed to have but a gloomy fort of exifleace, like
what is defcribed by Homer (^j. Their courage
therefore was a gift of nature^ ppt pf faith. The

* " Jf dying mortals dooms tliey fing ansfa^
** No ghoAs defcend to dwell in endlefs night ;

• ■ : « No parting fouls to grifly Pluto go,

" Nor feek the dreary filent [hades below ;

" But forth they fly, immortal in their kind,

! ** And other bodies in new worlds they find,

'* Thus life for ever runs its endlefs race,

" And, like a line, Death but divides the fpace ;
** A ftop which can but for a moment laft, 1

" A point between the future and the pall.

** Thrice happy they beneath the northern (kles,

" Who that worft fear, the fear of death, defpife ;

" Hence they no cares for this frail being feel,

** But rufh undaunted on the pointed fteel ;

** Provoke approaching fate, and bravely fcom '

" To fparetliat life which muftfofoon return."

[a) Lib. I.

{b) Odyfley, b. Ji.

T r 1 ■

M-<)i.

li:r;b-

■'ll.'ll'

.y\y ti.n

Rows.

■'W

i! M

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc.V

people of Malacca and of the neighbouring iilands,
who are all ot the fame race and fpeakthe lame Ian-'
guaj^e, are fierce, turbulent, and bold above any
other of the human fpecies ; tho' they inhabit the
torrid zone, held commonly to be the land of cow-
ardice. They never obferve a treaty of peace when
they have any temptation to break it j and are per-
petually at war with their neighbours, or with one
another^ Inftances there are, more than one, of
twenty-five or thirty of them in a boat, with no
©ther weapons but poniards, venturing to attack a
European (hip of war. Thefe men inhal")it a fertile
country, which Ihould naturally render them indo-
lent imd etfeminate ; a country abounding with va-
riety of cxquifite fruits and odoriferous flowers in
cndlefs fucceflion, fufficient to fink any other people
into voluptuoufnefs. They are a remarkable excep-
tion from the obfervation of Herodotus,' " "^Fhat it is
*' not given by the gods to any country to produce
** rich crops and warlike men.*' This inftance, with
what ar6 to tollow, Ihow paft contradiction, that a
hot climate is no enemy to courage. The inhabi-
tants of New Zealand are of all men the molt intre-
pid, and the lead apt to be alarmed at danger. The
Giagatj are a fierce and a bold people in'the midft of
tbe toifrid zone of Africa : and fo are the Anfieki,
bordering on Loango. The wild Arabs, who live
moftly within the torrid zone, are bold and refolutc,
holding war to be intended for them by Providence.
The African negroes, tho' living in the hotteft known
country, are yet (tout and vigorous, and the moll
healthy people in the univcrfe. 1 need fcarcely men-
tion again the negroes adjacent to New Guinea, who
have an uncommon degree of boldnefs and ferocity.
But I mentipn with pleafure the ifland Otaheite, dif-
covered in the South fea by Wallis, becaufe the inha-
bitants are not exccededby any other people in firm-
nefs of mind. Tho' the Dolphin was probably the
firft fliip they had ever feen, yet they refolutely

. marched

Prcl.Difc.

of Lancuacls.

marched to the fliore, and attacked her with ^ (hower
of Hones. Some volleys of ftnall Ihot m*. j them
give way : but returning with redoubled ardour,
they did not totally lofc heart till the great guns
thundered in their ears. Nor even then did they
run away in terror ; but advifmg together, they
aflumed looks of peace, and fignihed a wiUingnefs to
forbear hoftilities. Peace being fettled, they were
fingularly kind to our people, fupplying their wants,
and mixing with them in friendly intercourfe *,
When Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander were on the coaft
of New Holland, the natives, feeing fome pf our men
fifhing near the Ihore, finglcd out a number of their
own equal to thofe in the boat, who marching down
to the water-edge, challenged the ftrangers to fight
them ; an inftance of true heroic courage. The peo-
ple in that part of New Holland muft be of a race very
different from thofe whom Dampier faw.

A noted author (a) holds all favages to be bold,
impetuous, and proud ; aliigning for a caufe, their
equality and independence. As in that observation
he feems to lay no weight on climate, and as little on
original difpofition, it is with regret that my fubje^
leads me in this public manner to differ fronv him
with refpeft to the latter. The character he gives
in general to all favages, is indeed applicablje tcy
many favage tribes, our European forefathers in par-
ticular ; but not to all. It but faintly fuits even the
North-American favages, whom our author feems to
have had in his eye ; for in war they carefully avoid^
open force, relying chiefly on ftratagem and furprife.
They value themfelves, it is faid, upon faving men ;
but as that motive was no lefs weighty in Europe,
and indeed every where, the pronenefs of our fore-
fathers to open violence, demonftrates their fuperi-
ority in aclive courage. The following incidents

reported

.r« ■:i.

* It is remarkable tliat thcfe people roaft their meat with hot ftones, as
jthe Caledonians did in the days of OfTian.
' (a) Mr. Ftrsufon,

«w

Of Men, and

Prtl Difc;

reported by Charlevoix give no favourable idea of
Nottli-A'ncrican boldnefs. The fort de Vcrchcres
in Canada, belonging to the French, was in the year
1690 attacked by fome Iroquois. They approached
filcntly, preparing tofcale the palifade, ^yhcn a mwf-
kct-f])pt or two made them retire. Advancing a fep
cond time, they were again repulfed, wondering that
they could dilcover none but a woman, who was
fecn .eypry where. This was Maoanic tic Verchercs,
who appcaicij as rt.folutq a6 ii lupported by a nu-
merous garrilba. The hopes of (lorming a place
without men to defend it, cccafioned reiterated at^
iiizk"]. After two days fuge, they retired, fearing
to be inttrc( picd in tiieir rttreat. Two >: ars after,
a party of the fame naiion app^ arcd beloic the fort
fo unexpectedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter of
the proprietor, had^ut time to (hut tht; gate. With
the young woman there was not a, foul but one raw
foldier. She Ihowed herfelf with her alliflant, fome-
times in one place, fonictimes in another ; changing'
her drefs frequently in order to [ ive fome appearance
of a garrifon, and always firing opportunely. The
faint hearted Iroquois .decamped without fuccefs.

JJat if the, Americans abound not with adive
<'Ourage, their pallivc courage is beyond conception.
Every writer expatiates on the torments they endure,
not only patiently, but with fingular fortitude ; de-
riding their tormentors, and braving their utmoft
cruelty. North-American favages diifer indeed
fo widely from thofe formerly in Europe, as to ren-
der it highly improbable that they are of the fame
rr.ce. Paflive courage they have even to a wonder;
but abound not in adive courage : our European
forefathers, on the contrary, were much more re-
markable for the latter than for the former. The
Kamfkatkans in every article refemble the North-
Americans. In war they are full of ftratagem, but
never attack openly if they can avoid it. When vic-
toriousj they murder without mercy, burn their pri-

foners

Prcl. Diiiil

of Languages.

foncrs alive, or tear out their bowele. If they be
furrounded and cannot efcape, they turn defperate,
cut the throats of their wives and children, and throw
thcmfelvcs into the midft of their enemies. And yet
thefe people are abundantly free. Their "want of
active courage is the more furprifmg, becaufc they
make no difiiculty of fuicide when they fall into any
diftrefs. But their paflivc courage is equal to that
of the Americans : when tortured in order to ex-
tort a confellion, they Ihow the utmoft firmnefs; and
feldom difcover more than what they freely confefs
at their firft examination. »' 's...-; i . . . . -^

.. The favages of Guiana arc indolent, good-na-
tured, fubmifiive, qikI a little cowardly ; tho' they
arc on a footing with the North- Americans in equa-
lity and independence. -The inhabitants of the Ma.-
rian or Ladrone illands live in a ftate of i^rfeft equa-
lity : every man avenges the injury done: to him-
felf ; and even children are rcgardlefs of their pa-
rents. Yet thefe people are great cowards : in bat-
tle indeed they utter loud fhouts ; but it is more to
animate themfelves than to terrify the enemy. The
negroes on the flave-coaft of Guinea are good-na-
tured and obliging ; but not remarkable for cou-
rage *. The Laplanders are of all men the moft
timid: upon the (lighteft furprifc they fall down in
a fwoon like the feebleft female in England : thun-
der deprives them of their five fenfes. The face of
their country is nothing but rocks covered with mofs :
it would be fcarce habitable but for rein-deer, on
which the Laplanders chiefly depend for food. '

The Macaffars, inhabitants of the ifland Celebes
in the torrid zone, difl'er from all other people.
'J'hey have adive courage above even the ficrceft
European favages j and they equal the North-Ame-
rican

, ■.».■

V }„■

* The Cormantees, a tribe of negroes on tlie Gold coaft, aro indeed brave
and intivpid. When kindly treated in the Weft Indies, they make excellent
feivants. The negroes of Senegal art: remarkable in the Well Indies for fide-

!;tv and tjcod under/' niidine.

•zS

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

rican Rivages In palTive courage. During the reign
of Cba Naraya King of Siam, a fmall party of Ma-
cafiars wlio were in the king's pay having revolted,
it required a whole army of Siamites to fubdue thcin.
Four Macaifars, taken alive, were cruelly tortured.
They were beaten to mummy with cudgels, iron
pins were thruft under their nails, all their finger*
broken, the flelh burnt off their arms, and their
temples fqueezcd between boards ; yet they bore all
with unpaialleled firmnefs. They even refufed to be
converted to Chriftianity, tho' the Jefuits offered to
intercede for them. A tiger, let loofe, having faf-
ttned on the foot of one of them, the man never
once offered to draw it away. Another, without
uttering a word, bore the tiger breaking the bones
of his back. A third fuffered the animal to lick the
blood from his face, without fhrinking, or turning
away his eyes. During the whole of that horrid
fpcflacle, they never once bewailed thcmfelves, nor
were heard to utter a groan.

," The frigidity of the North-Americans, men and
women, differing in that particular from all other
favages, is to mc evidence of u feparate race. And
I am the more confirmed in that opinion, when I
find a celebrated writer, whofe abilities no perfon
calls in queftion, endeavouring in vain to afcribe that
circumftance to moral and phyfical caufes. Si Per-
^ama ciextra defemii pojfct.

In concluding from the foregoing fafts that there
arc different races of men, 1 reckon upon ftrenu-
ous oppofition ; not only from men biaffed againft
what is new or uncommon, but from numberlcfs i'edatc
writers, who hold every diflitigui filing mark, internal
as well as external, to be the effect of foil and climate.
Againfl: the former, patience is my only fliield j but
1 cannot hope for any converts to a new opinion, with-
out removing the arguments urged by the latter.

Among the endlcfs numbers of writers who afcribe
fuprcme efficacy to the clijiiate, Vitruviu* fliall take

the

Prcl. nifo.

of L-ANOUAfiEJ.

the lead. The firll chapter of his fixth book is en-
tirely employed in delcribing the inihicncc of cli-
mate on the conftitution and temper. The follow-
ing is the fubftancc. " For the fun, where he draws
* out a moderate degree of moillure, preferves the
body in a temperate ftate ; but where his rays arc
more fierce, he drains the body of moidure. In very
cold regions, where the nioilturc is not fucked up
by the heat, the body fucking in the dewy air, rifes
to a great fize, and has a deep tone of voice.
Northern nations accordingly from cold and moif-
ture, have large bodies, a white ikin, red hair,
grey eyes, and much blood. Nations, on the con-
trary, near the equator, are of fmall fixture,
tawny complexion, curled hair, black eyes, flen-
der legs, and little blood. From want of blood
they are cowardly: but they bear fevers well,
their conftitution being formed by heat. Nor-
thern nations, on the contrary, fink under a fever ;
but from the abundance of blood, they are bold
" in war." In another part of the chapter he adds.
From the thinnefs of the air and enlivening heat, ,
fouthern nations are quick in thought, and acute
in reafoning. Thofe in the north, on the contra-
ry, who breathe a thick and cold air, are dull and
flupid." And this he illuftrates from ferpents,
which in fummer-heat are active and vigorous j but
in winter, become torpid and immoveable. He
then proceeds as follows. " It is then not at all
" furprifing, that heat (liould fliarpen the under-
ftanding, and cold blunt it. Thus the fouthern
nations are ready in counfel and acute in thought;
but make no figure in war, their courage being
exhaufted by the heat of the fun. The inhabi-
tants of cold climates, prone to war, riifli on with
vehemence without the lead fear; but are flow of
underflanding." Then he proceeds to account,
upon the fame principle, for the fuperiority of the
Romans in arms, and for the extent of their em-
pire.

((
<(

<<
((
<c

It
It
<(

((

C(
C(

((
«(
((

((

{(

3<?

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc.

fei I

pire. " For as the planet Jupiter lies between the
" fervid heat of Mars and the bitter cold of Saturn ;
** fo Ttaly, in the middle of the temperate zone,
poflefles all that is favourable in dther climate.
Thus by conduct in war, the Romans overcome
the impetuous force of northern barbarians ; and
by vigour of arms confound the politic fchemes
of her fouthern neighbours. Divine providence
" appears to have placed the Romans in that happy
" fituation, in order that they might become maficrs
" of the world.*' 'Vegetius accounts for the dif-
ferent characters of men from the fame principle :
*' Omnes nationes quse vicinas funt foli,. ni-
** micidfcalore ficcatas, amplius quidem fapere, fed
" mirWs habere fanguinis dicunt : ac propterea con-
" flantiam ac fiduciam cominus non habere pug-
nandi, quia metuunt vulnera, qui fe ^xiguum
fanguinem habere noverunt. Contra, feptentrio-
** nalcs populi, remoti a folis ardoribus, inconfulti-
" ores quidem^ fed tamen largo fanguine redun-
*^ dantes, funt ad bclla promptiflimi* (a)." — Ser-
vius, in his commentary on the iEneid of Virgil (^),
fays, " Afri verfipelles, Graeci leves, Galli pigrioris
" ingcnii, quod natura climatum facitf." Mal-
let, in the introdutlion to his hiftory of Denmark,
copying Vitruvius and Vegetius, ftrains hard to de-
rive ferocity and courage in the Scandinavians from
the climate : " A great abundance of blood, fibres
ftrong and rigid, vigour inexhauftible, formed
•- the temperament of the Germans, the Scandina-
vians, and of a!l other ptople who live under

the.

<«

:!* ti i

• " Nations neir the fun, being exficcnted by exceflTivc heat, are faid to
*' fiavc I greater acuf^nefs of undcrftanding but lefi blood ; on which account,
" in hghtine; they are deficient in firmnefs and rcfoluticn; and dread the b->
*' ing wounded, as confcious of their want cf blood. The northern people,
" on the contrary, removed from tlie ardor of the fun, are lefs remarkable for
" the powers of tie mindj but abounding in bloodj they aieproneto war."

(ij) Lib. r. cap. 2. De re militari.

{i) Lib. 6. ver. 724. "

(t ) " The Africans arefubtleand full of ftratagem,thc Creclcs are fickle,
" the CauU flow of parts, all which diveilities are occafiyned by the climate,"

Prel. Difc.

of Languages.

•* the fame climate. Robuft by the climate, and
" hardened with exercife ; confidence in bodily
" flrength formed their charafter. A man who
" relics on his own force, cannot bear rcftraint,
" nor fubmillion to the arbitrary will of another.
*' As he has no occafion for artifice, he is altogether
" a ftranger to fraud or diflimulation. As he is al-
" ways ready to repel force by force, he is not fuf-
" picious nor diftruftful. His courage prompts him
** to be faithful in friendfliip, generous, and even
" magnanimous. He is averfe to occupations that
" require more afliduity than adlon ; becaufe mo-
" derate exercife affords not to his blood and fibres
" that degree of agitation which fuits them. Hence
*' his difgufl at arts and manufadlures ; and as paf-
*' fion labours to juftify itfelf, hence his opinion, that
" war only and hunting are honourable profeflions.'*
Before fubfcribing to this doftrine, I wifh to be fa-
tisfied of a few particulars. Is our author certain,
that inhabitants of cold countries have the greateft
quantity of blood? And is he certain, that courage
is in every man proportioned to the quantity of his
blood * ? Is he alfo certain, that ferocity and love of
war did univerfally obtain among the northern Eu-
ropeans ? Tacitus gives a very different charafter of
the Chauci, who inhabited the north of Germany :
" Tarn immcnfam terrarum fpatium non tencnt tan-
*' turn Chauci, fed et implent: populus inter Ger-
** manos nobilHTimus, quique magnitudinem fuam

", malit

* At that rate, the lofs of an ounce of blcod may turn the balance. Cou-
rage makes an Cirential ingredient in magnanimity and heroifm: are fuch
elevated virtues corporeal merely? is the mind admitted for no (hare ? This
indeed would be a mortifying circumftance in the human race. But even
fuppofnig courage to be corporeal merely, it is however lar from being pro-
portioned to the quantity of blood : a greater quantity than can be circulated
freely and eafily by the force of the heart and arteries, becomes adifeafe, termed
aj.icthora. Bodily courage is chiefly founded on t'.ie Iblids. When by tlie vi-
gour and elafticityjof the heart and arteries a brilk circulation of blood is
produced, a man is in good fpirits, lively and bold ; a greater quantity of
blood, inQead ot raifmg courage to a higher pitch, ncvu fails to produce
fluggiflinefs, and depreflion of mind. ,. ,

'if

1''

' 1 ' ',

4 ,

3»

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

«c

malit juftitia tueri. Sine cupiditate, fine impo*
tentia, quieti, fecretique, nulla provocant bella,
nuUis raptlbus aut latrociniis populantur. Idque
praecipuum virtutis ac virium argumentuin eft,
quod ut fuperiores agunt, non per injurias afle-
quuntur. Proinpta tainen omnibus arma, ac, fi
res pofcat, exercitus* fa)" Again, with refpecl
to the Arii,he bears witnefs, that befide ferocity, and
ftrcngth of body, they were full of fraud and artifice.
Neither do the Laplanders nor Samoides correspond
to his dcfcription, being remarkable for pufillanimi-
ty, though inhabitants of a bitter-cold country f.
Laftly, a cold climate doth not always make the in-
habitants averfc to occupations that require more af-
fiduity than adion : the people of Iceland formerly
were much addifted to ftudy and literature ; and for
many centuries were the chief hiftorians of the north.
They are to this day fond of chefs, and fpend much
of their time in that amufement : there is fcarce a
peafant but who has a chefs-board and men. Mr.
Banks and Dr. Solander report, that the peafants of
Iceland are addided to hiftory, not only of their own
country, but ofthat of Europe}.

The

• " So immenfe an extent of country Is not pofTefTed only, but filled by the
" Chauci ; a race of people the nobleft among the Germans, and who chufe
" to maintain their grandeur by juftice rather than by violence. Confident
" of their ftrength, without the thirft of incrcafing their pofTeffions, they live
" in quietnefs and fecurity : they kindle no wars j they are ftrangers to plun-
" der and tp rapine ; and what is the chief evidence both of their power and
" of their virtue; without oppreflln^ any, they have attained a fuperiority
" over ail. ^'et when occafion requires, they are prompt to take the field;
" and their troops are fpcedily raifed."

(a) Demoribus Gennanorum, cap. 3<;,

(f) Schcrter, in his hiftory of Lapland, differs widely from the author*
mentioned ; for lit allribes thepulilianimity of the Laplanders to the coldnefs
of their cliir.ate.

(J) A French author (jj upon this fubjeft obfcrves, that like plants we
are formed by the climate; and that as fruits deiive their tafte from the foil,
iiitii (leiive tht'Ir charaiflcr and difpofition from tlie air they breatlie, " The
" l'ni;lilh," fays he, " owe to the tci!:?rynefs of ttieir air, not only their rich
" pallure, but the )';loomincfs of their difpofition ; which makes them violent
•■' iii il:»ir ('uflioiii, becaufc they puifue with Aidor every objeil that relieves

" thtm
(0) Lettresd'un Francois.

Prel.Dirc.

of Languages.

The

The mofl formidable antagonifl: remains ftill on
hand, the celebrated Montefquieu, who is a great
champion for the climate ; obferving, that in hot
cUmates people are timid like old men, and in cold
climates bold like young men. This in eucd is to
maintain, that the torrid zone is an unfit habitation
for men ; that they degenerate in it, lofe their na-
tural vigour, and even in youth become like old
men. That author certa'rly intended not any impu-
tation on Providence ; and yet, doth it not look like an
imputation, to maintain, that lb large a portion of the
globe is fit for beads only, not for men ? He ought
to have explained, why fome men m£ly not be fitted
for a hot climate, as others are for a temperate, or
for a cold one. There does not appear any oppofi-
tidn between heat and courage, more than between
cold and courage : on the contrary, courage feems
mor^ contiefted with the former than with the lat-
ter. , The fierceft and botdeft animals, the Hon for
example, the tiger, the panther, thrive bell in the
hottefl climates. The great condor of Peru, in the
torrid zone, is a bird not a little rapacious. A lion

Vol. I. D vidbly

** them from melancholy. By that gloominefs, they are exhaufted, and ren-
** d«rad infenfible to the pleafures of life. Deprefl'ed in mind, they are unable
" to endure pain j as it requires Itrength of mind to fufFer without extreme
" impatience. They are never content with their lot, hating tranquillity as
" mucii as they love liberty.' Where a facl is known to be true, any thing
will pafs for a caufe; and fliallow writers deal in fuch caufes. I need no
h«ttei- inf^ancc than the prefent : for, if I mi^nke not, effects diredtly oppo«
fite may be drawn from the caufe aligned by this writer ; as plaufible at leaft,
I do not fay better founded on truth. I will make an attempt : it may amu{^
the reader. And to^void difputing about fafts, lihall fuppofe the foggynef.t
of tlie fens of Lincoln and Eflex to be general, which he erroneoufly feems to
helievf. From that fuppofition I reafon thus : " The foggynefs of the Eng-
'* lifh air, makes the people dull and languid. They fufFer under a conftant
" depreffion of fpirits j and fcarccknow what it is to joke, or even to laugh
" at a joi^e. Theyldter away their time without feeling either pleafure or
'• pain ; and yet have not refolution to put an end to an infipid exiftcnce.
" It cannot be faid that they are content with their lor, becaufe there is plea-
" fure. in content; but they never think of a change. Being reduced to
" a pafTive nature from the influence of climate, they are fitted for being
*' flaves*. nor would they have courage to rebel, were they even inclined,"
Were the ch.iradlcr here delineated that of tlie Engliih nnticn, i.^rtead of tlie
opposite, the argument would at leaii be plaufibl.;. But fuperficial reafoners
will plunge into the depth of phllofopliy, uithou: ever thinking it necefTary
to fenve an appventicerfiip.

,11;

ri: II

i ii:

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc.

vifibly degenerates in a temperate climate. The
lions of Mount Atlas, which is fometimes cl-owned
with fnow, have not the boldnefs, nor the force, nor
the ferocity of fuch as tread the burning fands of
Zaara and Biledulgerid. This refpedable author, it
is true, endeavours to fupport his opinion from na-
tural caufes. Thefe are ingenious and plaufible ; but
unluckily they are contradicted by ftubborn fafts ;
which will appear upon a very flight furvey of this
globe. The Samoides and Laplanders are living
inftances of uncommon pufiUanimity in the inhabi-
tants of a cold climate; and inftances, not few in
number, have been mentioned of warlike people in a
hot climate. To thefe I add the Hindows, whom
our author will not admit to have any degree of cou-
rage ; though he acknowledges, that, prompted by
religion, the men voluntarily fubmit to dreadful tor-
tures, and that even women are ambitious to burn
themfelves alive with their deceafed hufbands. In
vain does he endeavour to account for fuch extraor-
dinary exertions of fortitude, adive as well as paflive,
from the power of imagination ; as if imagination
could • operate more forcibly in a woman to burn
herfelf alive, than on a man to meet his enemy in
battle. The Malayans and Scandinavians live in op-
pofite climates, and yet are equally courageous.
Providence has placed thefe nations, each of them,
in its proper climate : cold would benumb a Malay-
an in Sweden, heat would enervate a Swede in Ma-
lacca ; and both would be rendered cowards. I ftop
here ; for to enter the lifts againft art antagonift of
fo great fame, gives me a feeling as if I were tread-
ing on forbidden ground.

It is my firm opinion, that neither temper nor ta-
lents have much dependence on climate. T cannot
difcover any probable exception, if it be not a tafte
for the fine arts. Where the influence of the fun
is great, people are enervated with heat : where
little, they are benumbed with cold. A cle^r fky

with

Prel. Difc.

of Languages.

with moderate heat exhibit a very difFcrcnt fccne :
the chearfulnefs they produce difpofes men to en*
joyment of every kind» Greece,) Italy, and the
Leffer Afia, are delicious countries, affording variety
of natural beauties to feaft every fenfe: and men ac«
cuftomed to enjoyment, fearch for it in art as well as
in nature; the pafTage from the one to the other
being eafy and inviting. Hence the origin and pro-
grefs of ftatuary and of painting, in the countries
mentioned. It has not efcaped obfervation, that the
rude manners of favages are partly owing to the
Toughnefs and barrennefs of uncultivated land. Eng-
land has few natural beauties to boaft of : even high
mountains, deep valleys, impetuous torrents, and
fuch other wild and awful beauties, are rare. But
of late years, that country has received manifold
embellifhments from its induftrious inhabitants ; and
in many of its fcenes may now compare with coun-
tries that arc more favoured by the fun or by na-
ture. Its foil has become fertile, its verdure enli-
vening, and its gardens the fineft in the world. The
confequence is what might have been forefeen : the
fine arts are gaining ground daily. May it not be
expefted, that the genius and fenfibility of the
inhabitants, will in time produce other works of art,
to rival their gardens ? How delightful to a true-
hearted Briton is the profpeft, that London inflead
of Rome, may become the centre of the fine arts !

Sir William Temple is of opinion, that courage
depends much on animal food. He remarks, that
the horfe and the cock are the only animals of cou-
rage that live on vegetables. Provided the body be
kept in good plight, I am apt to think, that the
difference of food can have little influence on the
mind. Nor is Sir William's remark fupported by
experience. Several fmall birds, whofc only food
is grain, have no lefs courage than the cock. The
wolf, the fox, the vuhure, on the other hand, arc

D 2 not

\i-

lii

\ml

I y

,!!

i';

■ ii'

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

not remarkable for courage, though their only food
is the fieili of animals.

The colour of the Negroes, as above obferved,
affords a ftrpng prcfumption of their being a diffe-
rent fpecics from the Whites ; and I once thought,
that the prefumption was fupported by inferiority of
underilanding in the former. But it appears to me
doubtful, upon fecond thoughts, whether that infe-
riority might not be occafioned by their conditi-
on. A »nan never ripens in judgement nor in pru-
dence but by exercifing theic powers. At home, the
negroes have little occafion to exercife either : they
live upon fruits and roots, which grow without cul-
ture : they need little cloathing: and they ere£t
houfes. without trouble or art*. Abroad, they arc
miferablc flaves, having no encouragement cither to
think or to aft. Who can fay how far they might
improve in a flate of freedom, were they obliged,
like Europeans, to procure bread with the fweat of
their brows ? Some nations in Negroland, particu-
larly that of Whidah, have made great improvements
in government, inpolicc,and in manners. Thenegroes
on the Gold coaft are naturally gay : they apprehend
readily what is faid to them, have a good judge-
ment, are equitable in their dealings, and accommo-
date themfelves readily to the manners of ftrangcrs.
And yet, after all, there feems to be fome original
difference between the Negroes and Hindows. In
no country are food ?nd raiment procured with lefs
labour than in the fouthern parts of Hindoftan, where
the heat is great : and yet no people are more induf-
trious than the Hindows.

I Ihall clofe the furvey with fome inflances that
feem to differ widely from the common nature of
man. The Giagas, a fierce and wandering, nation

• . • ,■ -^ • • . :•■ ■ ^ }^

• The Negro flaves in Jamaica, who have Sunday only at command for
raifingfcyjd to themfelves, live as well, if not batter, than the free Negroes who
commnnJ every day of the week. Such is the effc^ of indolence from w ant
•f occupation.

J 1

Prcl. Difc.

of Languages.

in the heart of Africa, are in cfFeft land-pirates, at
war with all the world. They indulge in polyga-
my ; but bury all their children the moment of birth,
and chufc in their (lead the moft promifing children
taken in war. There is no principle among animals
more prevalent than affeftion to offspring : fuppof-
ing the Giagas to be born without hands or without
feet, would they be more diftinguifhable from the
reft of mankind * ? The author of an account of Gui-
ana, mentioning a deadly poifon compofed by the
natives, fays, " I do not find that even in their wars
" they ever ufe poifoncd arrows. And yet it may
"be wondered, that a people living under no laws,
*' actuated with no religious principle, and unre*
" ftrained by the fear of prefent or future punifh-
" ment, fljould not fometimcs employ that fatal
" poifon for gratifying hatred, jcalqufy, or revenge.
" But in a ftate of nature, though there are few re*
" ftraintSj there are alfo fewer temptations to vice j
" and the different tribes are doubtlefs fenfible, that
" poifoned arrows in war would upon the whole da
" more mifchief than good." This writer it would
feem has forgot, that profpects of future good or
evil never have influence upon favages. Is it his
opinion, that fear of future mifchief to thiemfelves,
would make the negroes of New Guinea abftain
from employing poifoned arrows againft their ene-
mies? To accoupt for manners fo fmgular ^n the
favages of Guiana, there is nothing left but original
difpofition. The Japanefc refent mjuries in i^ man-

ner

* I have oftener than once doubted whether the authors deferve credit from
whom this account is taken ; and, after '■ all, I do not prefs it upon my read-
ers. There is only one confideration that can brin^ it within the verge o£
probability, viz. the little afTeAion that male favages nave for their new-bom
children, which appears fron> the ancient practice of expofing them. The
3tfc£lion of the motiier commences with the birth of the child ; and had 0x9
a vote, no infant would ever be deftroyed. But as the affedllon of the father
begins much later, the praAice of deftroying newrborn infants may be thought
not altogether incredib'e in a vMnderihg nation, who live by rapl.-ie, and who
can provide themfelves with children more eafily than by the tfidiout an4
precarious method of rearing the(n.

3«

Of Men, and

PreKDIfc.

. '

r)cr that has not a parallel in any other part of the
world ; it would be thought inconfiftent with human
nature were it not well vouched. Others wreak
their refentment on the perfon who affronts them ;
but an inhabitant of Japan wreaks it on himfelf;.
he rips up his own belly. Kempfer reports the fol-
lowing inftance, A gentleman going down the
great flair of the Emperor's palace, pafTed another
going up, and their fwords happened to clafli. The
perfon defcending took offence: the other cxcufed
himfelf, faying that it was accidental 9 adding, that
the fwords only were concerned, and that the one
was as good as the other. I'll fhow you the diffe-
rence, fays the perfon who began the quarrel : he
drew his fword and ripped up his own belly. The
other, piqued at being thus prevented in revenge,,
haftened Up with a plate he had in his hand for the
Emperor's table ; and returning with equal fpeed, he
in lil^e manner ripped up his belly in fight of his an^
tagonifl, faying, " If I had not been ferving my
prince, you fhould not have got the flart of me :
but I fnall die fatisfrea, having fhowed you that,
my fword is as good as yours." The fame author
gives an inftance of uncornmon fefbcity in the Japa-
nefe, blended with manriers highly polifhed. In the
midfl of a large company at dinner, a young wo--^
man, flraining to reach a plate, unwarily fuffered
wind to efcape. Afhamed and confounded, fhe
raifed her breafts to her mouth, tore them with her,
teeth, and expired on the fpot. The Japanefe are
equally fmgular in fome of their religious opini-
ons. They never fupplicate the gods in diflrefs ;
holding, that as the gods enjoy uninterrupted blifs,
fuch fupplications would be offenfive to them. Their
holidays accordingly are dedicated to feafls, wed-
dings, and all public and private rejoicings. It is
delightful to the gods, fay they, to fee men happy.
They are far from being fingular in thinking that a
benevolent deity is pleated to fee men happy ; but

nothing

Prel. Difc.

of Languages.

nothing can be more inconfiftent with the common
feelings of men, than to hold, that in diflrefs it is
wrong to fupplicate the Author of our being for re-
lief, and that he w" be difplcafed with fuch fuppli-
cation. In, deep affliction there is certainly no balm
equal to that of pouring out the heart to a benevo-
lent deity, and cxpreffing entire refignation to his
will.

In fupport of the foregoing dodlrine, many parti-
culars (till more extraordinary might have been
quoted from Greek and Roman writers : but truth has
no occafion for artifice ; an^d I would not take ad-
vantage of celebrated names to vouch fa£ls that ap-
pear incredible or doubtful. The Greeks and Ro-
mans madean illuflrious figure in poetry, rhetoric,
and all the fine arts ; but they were little better than
novices in natural hiftory. More than half of the
globe was to them the Terra Aujiralis incognita ; and
imagination operates without controul, when it is
not checked by knowledge : the ignorant at the fame
time are delighted with wonders ; and the moft
wonderful ftory is always the mod welcome. This
may ferve as an apology for ancient writers, even
when they relate and believe fafts to us incredible.
Men at that period were ignorant in a great meafure,
of nature, and of the limits of her operations. One
cpnceliion will chearfuUy be made to me, that the
writers mentioned, who report things at fecond*
hand, arc much more excufable than, the earlieft of
our modern travellers, who pretend to vouch end-
lefs wonders from their Qv.^n knowledge. J*?atural
hiftory, that of man efpecially, is of late years much
ripened : no improbable tale is futfercd to pafs with-
out a rtri(5V examination ; and 1 have been careful to
adopt no faCts, but what are vouched by late tra-
vellers and writers of credit. Were it true, what
Diodorus Siculus reports, on the authority of Aga-
tharchidcs of Cnidus, concerning the Ichthyophages
on the eall coail of Afric, it would be a more preg-

naa

Of Men, and

Prcl. Dilc

■I'

*::

n^^nt proof of a diflinft race of men, than any I have
difcovcrrd. I'hcy arc defcribcd to be fo flupid, that
even when their wives and children are killed in their
fight, they itand infenfible, and give nofigns cither of
a?iger or of compaliion. This 1 cannot believe upon
fo llight a teltimony ; efpecially as the Greeks and
Romans were at that time extremely credulous, being
lefs acquainted with neighbouring nations, than we
are with the Antipodes. Varro, in his treatife De re
rujika, reports it as an undo btcd truth, that in Lu-
fitania mares were impregnated by the weft wind ;
and both Pliny and Columella are equally pofitive.
The Balearic iflands, Majorca, Minorca, Yvica, are
at no great diftance from Sicily j and yet Diodorus
the Sicilian reports of the inhabitants, that at the fo-
Jemnization of marriage all the male friends, and
even the houfchold lervants, enjoyed the bride be-
fore the bridegroom was admitted. Crcdat Judaus
Appella, It would not not be much more difficult to
make me believe what is faid by Pliny of the Blem-
myans, that they had no head, and that the mouth
and eyes were in the bread ? or of the Arimafpi, who
had but one eye, placed in the middle of the fore-
head ; or of the Aftomi, who having no mouth,
could neither eat nor drink, but lived upon fmelling ;
or of a thoufand other abfurdities which Pliny re-
lates, with a grave face, in the 6th book of his na-
tural hiilory, cap. 30. and in the 7th book, cap. 2.

Thus upon an extenfivc furvey of the inhabited
parts of our globe, many nations are found differing
fo widely from each other, not only in complexion,
features, (hape, and other external circumftances,
but in temper and difpofition, particularly in two
capital articles, courage, and behaviour to ftrangers,
that even the certainty of different races could not
make one exped more ftriking varieties. Doth
M. Buffon think it fufficient to fay dryly, that fuch
varieties may poffibly be the effed of climate, or of
other accidental caufes ? The prcfumption is, that

the

Prcl. Difc.

of Lakguacc»«

the varieties fubfifting at prcfcnt have always fubfift»
cd ; which ought to be held as true, till pofitivc evi-
dence be brought of the contrary : inftead of which
we are put off with mcrefuppofitions and poflibilitics.

But not to reft entirely Upon prcfumptivc evidence,
to me it appears clear from the very frame of the
human body, that there muft be difierent races of
men fitted for different climates. Few animals arc
more affeded than men generally are, not only with
change of feafons in the hmt climate, but with
change of weather in the fame feafon. Can fuch a
being be fitted for all climates equally ? Impoflible.
A man muft at leaift be hardened by nature againft
the flightcr changes of feafons or weather : he ought
to be altogether infenfible of fuch changes. Yet
from Sir John Pringle's obfervations on the difcafes
of the army, to go no further, it appears, that even
military men, who ought of all to be the hardieft,
are greatly affected by them. Horfes and horned
cattle fleep on the bare ground, wet or dry, without
harm ; and yet are not made for every climate : can a
man be made for every climate, who is fo much more
delicate, that he cannot fleep on wet ground without
hazard of fomc mortal difeafe ? .

But the argument I chiefly rely on is, That were
all men of one fpecies, there never could have exift-
cd, without a miracle, different kinds, fuch as exift
at prefent. Giving allowance for every fuppofable
variation of cH mate or of other natural caufes, what
can follow, as obferved about the dog-kind, but
endlefs varieties among individuals, as among tulips
in a garden, fo as that no individual fliall refemble
another ? Inftead of which, we find men of different
kinds, the individuals of each kind remarkably uni-
form, and differing no lefs remarkably from the in-
dividuals of every other kind. Uniformity with-
out variation is the offspring of nature, never of
chance. . , . .

There

4»

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

).':

I I

It i

tfc <

There is another argument that appears alfo to
have weight. Horfes with refpeft to fizcr, Ihapc,
and fpirif, difffr widely in dillercnt cUmatcs. But
let a male and a female of whatever climate be
carried to a country where horics arc in pcrfeftion,
their progeny will improve gradually, and will ac-«
quire in time the perfedion of their kind. Is not
this a proof, that all horfes are of one kind ? If fo,
men are not all of one kind; for if a White mix with
a. black \n whatever climate, or a Hottentot with a
Samoide, the rcfult will not be either an improve-
ment of the kind, or the contrary ; but a mongrel
breed differing from both parents.

It is thus afcertained beyond any rational doubt,
that there are different races or kinds of men", and
that thefc races or kinds are naturally fitted for dif-
ferent climates : whence we have reafon to conclude,
that originally each kind was placed in its proper
climate, whatever change may have happened in
later times by war or commerce.

There is a remarkable fad that confirms the fore-
going conjpdures. As far back as hiftory goes, or
tradition kept alive by hiflory, the earth was inha-
bited by lavages divided into many fmall tribes, each
tribe having a language peculiar to itfelf. Is it not
natural to fuppofc, that thefe original tribes were dif-
ferent races of men, placed in proper climates, and
left tp form their own language ?

Uponfumming up the whole particulars mention-
ed above, would one hcfitate a n^oment to adopt the
following opinion, were there no counterbalancing
evidence, viz " That Go4 created many pairs of
*^ the human race, differing from each other both
**" externally and internally ; that he fitted thefe pairs
for different climj^tes, and placed each pair in its
proper climate ; that the peculiarities of the origi-
nal pairs were prefcrved entire in their defcend-
ents; who, having no affiftance but their natural
talents, were left to gather knowledge from ex-
perience,

Prcl. Difc.

of Lancuaoes^

((

** pericncc, and in particular were left (each tribe) to
** form a language for itfcif ; tliat figns were fufficicnt
" for thcorigiruii pairs, without any language but what
nature fuggells ; and that a language was formed gra-
dually,,as a tribe increafed in numbers and in differ-
ent occupations, to make fpcech ncccflary ?" But
this opinion, however plaufible, we are not permitted
to adopt i being taught a different Icffon by revela-
tion, viz. That God created but a finglc pair of the
human fpccies. Tho* we cannot doubt of the au-
thority of Mofes, yet his account of the creation of
man is not a little puzzling, as it fecms to contradidl
every one of the fadls mentioned above. According
to that account, different races of men were not
formed, nor were men framed originally for differ-
ent climates. A.11 men muff have fpokcn the fame,
language, viz. that of our firfl: parents^ And what
of all ieems the mofl contradictory to that account,
is the Hivage ftate ; Adam, as Mofes informs us, was
endued by his Maker with an eminent degree of
knowledge ; and he certainly muff have been an ex-
cellent preceptor to his children and their progeny,
among whom he lived many generations. Whence
then the degeneracy of all men unto the favage ftate ?
To account for that difmal cataftrophe, mankind,
muft have fuffered fome terrible convulfion.

That terrible convulfion is revealed to us in the
hiftory of the tower of Babel, contained in the
1 ith chapter of Genefis, which is, *' That for many
centuries after the deluge, the whole earth was of
one language, and of one fpeech ; that they united
to build a city on a plain in the land of Shinar,
with a tower whofe top might reach unto hea-
ven ; that the Lord behold mg the people to be
one, and to have all one language, and that no-
thing would be reftrumed from them which they
imagined to do, confounded their language that
they might not underftand one another ; and fcat-
tered them abroad upon the face of al! the earth."

Herp

t(
((

i •

I'!

Of Men, and

Prcl. Difc.

• I

Here light breaks forth in the midft of darknefs. By
confounding the language of men, and fcattering
them abroad upon the face of all the earth, they were
rendered favagcs. And to harden them for their
new habitations, it was neceflary that they fhould be
divided into different kinds, fitted for different cli-
mates. Without an immediate change of bodily
conltitution, the builders of Babel could not poflibly
have fubfifted in the burning region of Guinea, or
in the frozen region of Lapland ; cfpccially without
houfes, or any other convenience to proteft them
againft a dcftruftive climate. Againft this hiftory
it has indeed been urged, " That the circumftances
*' mentioned evince it to be purely an allegory ; that
*' men never were fo frantic as to think of building
*' a tower whofe top might reach to heaven ; and
*• that it is grdfsly abfurd, taking the matter litc-
** rally, that the Almighty was afraid of men, and
** reduced to the neceffity of faving h'mfelf by a mi-
** racle." But that this is a real hiftory, muft ne-
ceffarily be admitted, as the confufion of Babel is the
only known faft that can reconcile facred and pro-
fane hiftory.

And this leads us to confider the diverfity of lan-
guages *. If the common language of men had not

been

^fi ■«!'

I) < .\

* As the foclal ftate Is eiTential to man, and fpeech to the focial Aate, the
%>ifdom of providence in fitting men for acquiring that neceffary art, deferves
more attention than is commonly beftowed on it. The Or^n Outang has
the external organs of fpeech in perfeAion ; and many are puzzled to account
why it never fpeaks. But the extenial organs of fpeteh make but a fmall
part of the neceflary apparatus. The faculty of imitating founds is an ef-
fential part ; and wonderful would that faculty appear, were it not ren-
<iered familiar by daily pradtice : a child of two or three years, is able, by na-
ture alone without the lead inAruflion, to adapt its organs of fpeech to every
articulate found ; and a child of four or five years can pitch its wind]n]>e fo
as to emit a found of any elevation, which enables it with an ear to imitate
the fohgs it hears. But above all the other parts, fcnfe and underlVanding
are eflential to fpeech. A parrot can pronounce articulate founds, and it has
frequently an inclination to fpeak ; but, for want of underllanding, none of
the kind can form a fmgle fentence. Has an Oran Outang underAanding to
foi m a mental propofltion ? has he a faculty to exprefs that propofition in
founds * and fuppofmg him able to exprefs what he fees and hears, what
would lie m^ke of the conne£live and dii>iun£live particles ?

Prel. Difc.

of LaWOUAG£S*

been confounded upon their attempting the tower of
Babel, I affirm, that there never could have been bu(
one language. Antiquaries conftantly fuppoi'e a mi-
grating fpirit in the original inhabitants of this earth ;
not only without evidence, but contrary to all proba-
bility. Men never defert their connexions nor their
country without neceffity : fear of enemies and of
wild beafts, as well as the attraction of fociety, are
more than fufficient to reftrain them from wandering ;
not to mention that favages are peculiarly fond of
their natal foil*. The firft migrations were probably
occaHoned by fad^ions and civil warS' j the next by.
commerce. Greece affords inftances of the former,
Phoenicia of the latter. Unlefs upon fuch occafions^
members of a family or of a tribe will never retire
farther from their fellows than is ncceffary for food >
and by retiring gradually, they lofe neither their
connedions nor their manners, far kfs their lan-
guage, which is in conftant exercife. As far back
as hiftory carries us, tribes without number are dif-
covered, each having a language peculiar to itfclf.
Strabo (a) reports, that the Albanians were divided
into fcveral tribes, differing in external appearance
and in language. Csefar found in Gaul feveral fuch
tribes ; and Tacitus records the names of many tribes

in'

' ■ * .

* With refpeAto the fuppofed migrating fpirit, even Bochart muft yield to
Kempfer inboldnefs of conje^ure. After proving, from difference of lan-
guage and from other circumltances, that Japan was not peopled by tjie Chi-
nefe, Kempfer without the lead hefitation fettles a colony thereof thofe who
attempted the tower of Babel. Nay he traces mod minutely their route to
Japan ; and concludes, that they miift have travelled with great expedition,
hecaufe their language has no tinfture of any other. He did not think it
neceffary to t xplain, ' what temptation they had to wander fo far from home ;
nor why they fettled in an idand, not preferable either in (oil or climate to
many countries they muft have traverfed.

An ingenious French writer obferves, that plaufible reafons would lead
one to conjedlure, that men were more early polilhed in iflands than in conti-
nentij as people crowded together foon find theneceflity of laws toreftrain
them from mifchief. And yet, fays he, the manners of idanders and their
laws are commonly the lated formed. A very fimpie reflection would have
unfolded the myftery. Many, many centuries dd menexi^ without thinking
of navigation. That art was not invented till men, Araitened in their quar<
tcrs upon the continent, thought of. occupying adjacent iflands,
. (o) Book 2.

f
ill'

ill

' ■■, <

■■;'■■ s

$ •

I-

!■

'f.K 'I

•'jy

Of Men, and

Prel. Difc*

■^ s

I !

in Germany. There are a multitude of American
tribes that to this day continue diilindt from each
other, and each have a different language* The mo-
ther-tongues at prefent, tho' numerous, bear no pro-
portion to what formerly exifted. We find original
tribes gradually enlarging ; by conqueft frequently,
and more frequently by the union of weak tribes for
mutual defence. Such events leflen the number of
languages. The Coptic is not a living language any
where. The Celtic tongue, once extcnfive, is at pre-
fent confined to the highlands o*^ Scotland to Wales,
to Britany, and to a part of Ireland. In a few centu-
ries, it will fhare the fate of many other original
tongues : it will totally be forgotten.

If men had not been fcattercd every where by the
confufion of Babel, another particular muft have
occurred, differing no lefs from what has really hap-
pened than that now mentioned. As paradife is con-
jcftured to have been fituated in the heart of Afia,
the furrounding regions, for the reafon above given,
muft have been firft peopled ; and the civilization
and improvements of the mother-country were un-
doubtedly carried along to every new fettlement. In
particular, the colonies planted in America, and the
South-fea iflands, muft have been highly polilhed ;
becaufe, being at the greateft diftance, they proba-
bly were the lateft. And yet thefe and other remote
people, the Mexicans and Peruvians excepted, re-
main to this day in the original favage ftate of hunt-
ing and fifliing.

Thus, had not men wildly attempted to build a
tower whofe top might reach to heaven, all men
•would not only have had the fame language, but
would have made the fame progrefs toward maturity
of knowledge and civilization. That deplorable
event reverfed all nature : by fcattering men over the
face of ail the earth, it deprived them of fociety, and
rendered them favages. From that ftate of degene-
racy, they have been emerging gradually. Some

nations.

Prel. Difc.

of Lanouaoes.

nations, ftimukted by their own nature, or by their
climate, have made a rapid progrefs ; fome have
proceeded more flowly ; and fome continue favages.
To trace out that progrefs toward maturity in dif-
ferent nations, is the fubjed of the prefent under-
taking.

-'-- X',

:) J

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Jl.

■• /

n f I

*.. !*

SKETCHES

■) ' O ^0^ luiiJ

i il

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: S. K J& T C HE .s

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I t.«j

OF THE

HISTORY OF MAN.

BOOK I.

Progress of Mem independent of Society.

SKETCH I.

iiiii

■'ill;

i- t
, ■ »

IS : '

Progre/s cf Food and Population,

N temperate climes, men fed originally on fruits
that grow without culture, and on the fleih of land-
animals. As fucK, animals become Ihy when often
hunted, there is a contrivance of nature, no lefs
fimplc than efFeftual, which engages men to bear
with chearfulnefs the fatigues of hunting, and the
uncertainty of captire ; and that is, an appetite for
hunting. Hunger alone is not fufficient : favages,
who aS by fenfe, not by foreilght, move not when
the flomach is full ; and it would be too late when

the

$k. I.

Food and Population,

the ftomach Is empty, to form a hunting-party. As
that appetite is common to all favages whofe food
depends on hunting ; it is an illuftrious inllance of
providential care, to adapt the internal conftitutlon of
man to his external circumftances *. The appetite
for hunting, tho' among us little neceffary for food,
is to this day vifible in our young men, high and low,
rich and poor. Natural propenfities may be ren-
dered faint or obfcure, but never are totally eradi-
cated.

Vol. I. , , Z .. . - Fifh

* It would be an agreeable undertaking, tp collcA all the Indances where
the internal confcitution of man is adapted to his external Arudture, and to
other circumftances ; but it would be a bold undertaking, as the inftanccs
are extremely numerous ; and in the courfe of this work there will be occa-
fion to mark feveral of them. " How finel) are the external parts of ani-
" mals adjufted to their internal difpofitions ! That Arong and nervous leg
" armed with tearing fangs, how perfeftly does it corrcfpond to the fierce-
" nefs of the lion ! Had ic been adorned like the human arm with fingers
" inftead of fangs, the natural en rgies of a lion had been all of them de-
" feated. That more delicate flrudlure of an arm terminating in fingers fo
" nicely diverfified, how perfedUy does it correl'pond to the pregnant inventi-
" on of the human foul ! Had thefe fingers been fangs, what had become of
*" poor Art that procures us fo many elegancies and utilities ! 'Tis here we
** behold the harmony between the vifible world and the invifible (a)." The
following is another inftance of the fame kind, which I mention here becaufe
it falls not under common obfervation. How finely in the human fpecies are
the throat and the ear adjufted to each other, the one to emitmufical founds,
■:he other to enjoy them ! the one without the other would be an ufelefs ta-
lent. May it not be juftly thought, that to the power we have of emitting
mufical founds by the throat we owe the invention of muficat inflruments ?
A man would never think of inventing a mufical inftrument, but in order to
imitate founds that his ear had been delighted with. But there is a faculty in
man ftill more remarkable, which ferves to corredl ti— organs of external
fenfe, where they tend to miflead him I give two curious inftances. The
image of every vifible objcft is painted on theretwa tunicay and by that means
'he objedl maks an impreflion on the mmd. In what manner this is done,
cannot be explained ; becaufe we have no conception liow mind afts on body,
or oody on mi:;d. But as far as we can conceive or conjcfture, a vifible ob-
j;ft ought to appear to us inverted, becaufe the lma3;e pointed on the ret'wa.
tunica is inverted. But this is corrected by the faculty mentioned, which
makes us perceive the objefts as they really exifl. The other inflance fol-
lows. As a man has two eyes and feeiwith each of them, every objeft natu-
rally ought to appear double ; and yet vylth two eyes we fee every objedl fingle,
precifely as if we had but one. Many philofophers, Sir Ifaac Newton in par-
ticular, have endeavoured to account, for this phenomenon by mechanical
principles J but evidently without giving fatisfaftion. To explain this phe-
nomenon, i-: appears to me that we lirtuft havi; Tec jurfc to tlie ficulty menti-
©nedadlingagainft mechanical principles... ;'i.>, ..• :. h L. <.;:)-».. i! ,;:; :..
(<j) Harris.

tf'

Men independent of Society.

w I i ;

Fifli was not early the food of man. Water is not
our element ; and lavages probably did not attempt
to draw food from the fea or from rivers, till land-
animals turned fcarce. Plutarch in Jiis Sympofiacs
obferves, that the Syrians and Greeks of old ab-
ftci'ned from fifh. Menelaus (a) complains, that his
CO ^anions had been reduced by hunger to that
fo» .. ; and tho' thp Grecian camp at the liege of
Troy was on the fea-fliore, there is not in Homer a
fingle hint of their feeding on fifli. We learn from
Dion Cafiius, that the Caledonians did not eat fifh,
tho' they had them in plenty ; which is confirmed
by Adamannus, a Scotch hiftorian, in his life of St.
Columba. The ancient Caledonians depended al-
moft e" tirely on deer for food; becaufe in a cold
country the fruits that grow fpontaneoufly afford
little nourilhment ; and domeftic animals, which at
prefent fo much abound, were not early known in
the north of Britain.

Antiquaries talk of acorns, nuts and other fhell-
fruits, as the only vegetable food that men had ori-
ginally ; overlooking wheat, rice, barley, 8cc. which
mull from the creation have grown fpontaneoufly :
forfurely, when agriculture firil Gommenccd, it did
not require a miracle to procure the feeds of thefe
plants *, The Laplanders, pofl'efTmg a country

where

(a) Book 4. of the OdyfTey. ' '

* Writers upon natural hiilory have been folicJtoiis to difcover the origi-
nal climate of thefe ijlanta ; but without much fuccefs. The original climate
of plants left to nature, cannot be a fecret : but in countries well peopled,
tjje plarts mentioned arc not left to nature : the feeds are carefully gathered,
aYid ftored up for food. As this prndlke could not fail to make thefe feeds
fcarc«, agriculture was early thought of, which, by introducing plants into
new foils and climates, has rendered the original climate obfeure, it we can
trace that climate, it muft be in regions dd^itute of inhabitants, or but^
thinly peopled. Anfon found in the ifland Juan Fernandez many fpots of
ground covered with oa<s. The Sioux, a very fmall tribe in North America,
jxilfefs a vaft country, where oats grow fpontaneoufly in me.idows and on
the fides of rivers, which make part of tlieir food, without neceflTity of agri-
ci>'.ture. V/hilc the French poHefTed Port D.iuphin in the ifland of Madagaf-
c.;r, they raifed excellent wheat. That ftation was deferted many years ago j
ajid wheat l^ tl.is day grows naturally among the grafs in great vigour. In

the

Sk. I. ' Food and Population, 51

where corn will not grow, make bread of the inner
bark of trees ; and Linnaeus reports, that fwine there
fatten on that food, as well as in Sweden upon corn.

Plenty of food procured by hunting and fifliing,
promotes population : but as confumption of food in-
creafes with pop'.iation, wild aninials, forcly per-
fecuted, become not only more rare but more Hiy.
Ivlen, thus pinched for food, are excited to try
other means for fupplying their wants. A fawn, a
kid, or a lamb, taken alive and tamed for amufement.
fuggefted probably flocks and herds, and introduced
the Ihepherd-ftate. Changes are not perfeded but by
flow degrees : hunting and fifliing continue for a
long time favourite occupations ; and the few ani-
mals that are domeft^icated, ferve as a common fl:ock
to be dift:ributed among individuals, according to
their wants. But as the idle and indolent, tho' the
ieaft: deferving, ar^ as the greatefl: confumers of the
common fl:otk, an improvement crept in that every
family fliould rear a Itock for themfelves. Men by
that means being taught to rely on ib Mr own induf-
try, difplayed the hoarding-principl which multi-
plied flocks and herds exceedingly. And thus the
ihepherd-ftate was perfeded, plenty of food being
fupplied at home, without ranging the woods or the
waters. Hunting and fifliing, being no longer ne-
ceffary for food, became an amufenient merely, and
a gratification of the original appetite for hunting.

The finger of God may be clearly traced in the
provifion made of animal food for man. Grameni-
vorous animals, perhaps all, make palatable and
wholefome food. I except not the horfe : fome na-
tions feed on it ; others do not, becaufe it is more pro-
fitable by its labour. Carnivorous animals, gcne-

E 2 rally

■if HI
I/"

■\':^l:

the country about Mount Tabor in Paleftine, barley and oats grow fponta-
neoudy. In the kingdoin of Siam, there are many fpots where rice grows
year after year, without uuy culture. Diodorus Siculus is our authority for
laying, that in the territory of Leoiitinum, and in other parts of Sicily, wheat
grew wild without any culture, A::t! it dc;s fo at prefen: about Mount
Etna.

i i-

>l '!

^a Men independent of Society. B.I,

rally fpeaking, make not wholdbme food nor pala-
table. The firft-mentioncd animals arc gentle, and
■cafily tamed: the latter are fierce, not eafily tamed,
and uncertain in temper when tamed. Grafs grows
every where in temperate regions ; and men bcfide
can multiply animal food without end, by training
domeftic animals to live on turnip, carrot, potato,
and other roots. Herodotus adds the following ad-
mirable refle<5lion : '" We may rationally conjecture,
*' that divine providence has rendered extremely
" prolific fuch creatures as are naturally fearful, and
•' ferve for food ; leO-. they fhould be deflroyed by
" conftant confumption : whereas the rapacious
" and cruel are almofl barren. The hare, which is
" the prey of beafts, birds, and men, is a great
" breeder : a lioncfs, on the contrary, the ftrongeft
" and fierceft of beafts, brings forth but once."

The (hepherd-ftate is friendly to population. Men
by plenty of food multiply apace ; and in procefs of
time, neighbouring tribes, itraitened in their paf-
ture, go to war for cxtenfion of territory, or mi-
grate to land not yet occupied. Necellity, the
mother of invention, fuggefted agriculture. When
corn growing fpontancoafly was rendered fcarce by
confumption, it was an obvious thought to propa-
gate it by art : nature was the guide, which carries
on its work of propagation, with feeds that drop
from a plant in their maturity, and fpring up new
plants. As tlie land was poiVelfed in common, the
feed of courfe was ibwn in common ; and the pro-
ducl: was Rorcd in a common repofiiory, to be par- '
celled out among individuals in want, as the com-
mon (lock of animals had been formerly. Wc have
for our authority Diodoras Slci^lus, that the Ce!ti-
berians divided tlicir land annually among individu-
als, to be labourfd for the uie of the public; and
that the product was ftorcd up, and diflributed
from time to time among the neccffitoas. A lading
divilion of the land air.ong the members of the

ftate.

Sk. I.

Food and Population,

new

, the

: pro-

e par-

com-

c have

Ce!ti-

ivkUi-

antl

buted

adino;

r the

ilutc.

• >

ftate, fecuring to each man the product of l>is own
fkill and labour, was a great fpur to induftry, and
muhiplied food exceedingly. Population made a
rapid progrcfs, and government became an art ^
for agriculture and commerce cannot flourilh with-
out falutary laws.

Natural fruits ripen to greater perfedion in a
temperate than in a cold climate, and cultivation is
more eafyj which circumftances make it highly
probable, that agriculture became firft an art in
temperate climes. The culture of corn was fo early
m Greece, as to make a branch of it3 fabulous hif-
tory : in Egypt it mull have been coeval with the
inhabitants; for while the Nile overflows, they can-
not fabfift: without corn {a). Nor without corn
could the ancient monarchies of Aflyria and Baby-
lon have been fo populous and powerful as they are
faid to have been. In the northern parts of Eu-
rope, wheat, barley, peafe, and perhaps oats, are
foreign plants: as the climate is not friendly to
corn, agriculture muft have crept northward by
flow degrees ; and even at jTcfcnt, It requires no
fmall portion both of fkill and induftry to bring
corn to maturity in fuch a climate. Hence it
may be inferred with certainty, that the fhepherd-
ftate continued longer in northern climates than
in thofe nearer the fun. Cold countries however
are friendly to population ; and the northern people,
multiplying beyond the food that can be fupplied
by flocks and herds, were compelled to throw off
many fwarms in fearcb of new habitations. Their
frequent migration li were for many years a dreadful
fcourge to neighbouring nations. People amazed
at the multitude of the invaders, judged, that the
countries from whence they iffued muft have been
exceedingly populous; and hence the North was
termed ^cina gentium. But fcarcity of food in the

fliepherc^

(a) Hiftorical Law trafts, iraft i.

It,

PI!

'!|i

54 Men independent of Society. B. I.

fliepherj.ftate was the true caufe ; the north of Eu-
rope, in all probability, is as well peopled at j)re-
fent as ever it was, tho' its migrations have ceafed,
corn and commerce having put an end to that terri-
ble Icouige*. Denmark at prefent feeds 2,000,000
inhabitants ; iSweden, according to a lid made up
funo 1760, 2,383,113; and thcfe countries mult
be much more populous than of old, when over-
run with Immenfe woods, and when agriculture
was unknown. Had the Danes and Norwegians
been acquainted with agricuhure in the ninth and
tenth centuries when they poured out multitudes
upon their neighbours, they would not have ven-
tured their lives in frail veifels upon a tempefluous
ocean, in order to diilrefs nations who were not
their c^nemies. BL:t hunger is a cogent motive ;
and h.'nger gave to thcfe pirates fupcriority in
arms above evtry nation that enjoyed picmy at
Jiome. Luckily fuch depredations muft have inter-
vals ; for as they n'-ceflariiy occafion great havock
even among ihe vidors, ihe remainder finding fuf-
ficicLcy of food at home, reft there till an incrcaf-
ing population forces them again to action f.
Agriculture, which fixes people to a fpot, is an
invincible obftacle to migration j and happy it is

. - . . • r.= : •.. .for

* Aliquando bonus dormltat Ilomtrus. Montcfquleu accounts as follows for
tlie great fwarms of Barbarians that overwhelmed the Roman empire. " Ces
" elTaims de Barbaras qui foitirent autrefois du nord, nc paroillent plus au-
" jourd'hui. Lcs violences des Remains avoient fait retirerles peuples du
*' niidi aunord: tandis que U force qui les contenoit fubCfta, ils y refte-
" rent; quand elle fut affoiWie, ils fe repandirent de toutes parts " Gran-
" diur Jei Romains, c. id.— —In Englijh thus: " The fwarms of Barbarians
" who poured foimerly from the north, appear no more. The violence of
*' the Roman arms had driven thofc nations from the fouth towards ther
" north : there they remained during the fubfiftence of that force which rc-
*' lained them ; but that being once weakened, they fpread abroad to every
** quarter."] It has quite efcapcd him, that men cannot, like water, be
damm'd up without being fed.

f Joannes Magnus, in the 8th book of his hiftory of, the Goths,
mentions, "that a third part of the Swedes, being compelled by fa-
mine to leave their native country, founded the kingdom of the Longo-
bards in Italy.

6k, I. Food and Population. 55

for Europe, that this art, now unlverfally diflfufed,
has put an end for ever to that fcourge more de-
ftruftive than a peflilence: people find now occupa-
tion and fijbfiftence at home, without infefting
others. Agriculture is a great blclling : it not only
affords us lood in plenty, but fecures the fruits
of our induftry from hungry and rapacious in-
vaders*.

That the progrefs above traced mufl: have pro-
ceeded from fome vigorous impulfe, will be ad-
mitted, confidering the prevailing influence of euf-
tom : once hunters, men will always be hunters,
till they be forced out of that ftate by fome over-
powering caufe. Hunger, the caufe here afligned,
is of all the mod overpowering ; and the IJamc
caufe, overcoming indolence and idlenefs, has in-
troduced manufadures, commerce, and variety of
artsf.

The progrefs here delineated has, in all temperate
climates of the old world, been precifely uniform ;
but it has been different in thp extremes of cold

and

bllows for

* Mahomet Bey, King of Tunis, w.-u d*^hrcned by IiIs fubje^s ; but
having the reputation of tlie phiJofophei 's ftone, lie was reftored by the Dcy
of Algiers, upon promifing to communicate the fecrct to him. Mahomet
witli pomp and fol.emnity fent a plough j inti,mating, that agriculture is
the ftrengthof a kingdom, and that the only philofopher's ftone is a good crop,
which may be eafily converted into gold.

•f- M. Buffon difcourlmg of America, " U it not fmgular," fays he,
" that in a world ccmpofed almoft wholly of favages, tliere never Should
" have been any fociety or commerce between them and the animals about
" them ? There was not a domeftic animal in An eiica when difcovered by
" Columbus, except among the ploifhed people of Mexico and Peru. I«
" not this a proof, that man, in his favage ftate, is but a fort of brute ani-
" mal ; having no faculties but to provide for his fubfiftence, by attacking
" tiie weak and avoiding the ftrong ; and having no idea of his fuperiority
" over otlier animals, which he never once thinks of bringing under fubje(5li-
** on ? This is the more furprifing, as moft of the American animals are by
** nature docile and timid," Our author, without being fenfible of it, lays
a foundation for a fatisfaftcry anfwer to thefe queftions, by what he adds,
That in the whole compafs of America, when difcovered by the Spaniards,
there were not half the number of people tiiat are in Europe; and that fuch
fcarcity of men favoured greatly the propagation of wild animals, which had
fcw enemies and mucli food. Was it not obvious to conclude from theCe
premifes, that while men, who by nature are fond of h^pting, have game in
{.^lenty, they npver think of turning fhepherds.

56 Men iridc'pdtidcnt of Society. B.I.

and hot climates. In very cold regions, which pro-
duce littlf vegetable food for man, the hunter-ltatc
was originally cflential. In teaiperatc regions, as
obferved above, men fubfiftcd partly on vegetable
food, which is more or Icfs plentiful in proportion to
the heat of the climate. In the torrid zone, natural
fruits are produced in fuch plenty and perfeOion, as
to be more than fufficient for a moderate population :
and in cafe of extraordinary population, the tranfiti-
on to hulbandry is cafy. There are found according-
ly, in every populous country of the torrid zone,
crops of rice, maize, roots, and other vegetable
food, raifed by the hand of man. As hunting be-
comes thus iefs and lefs necefl'ary in the progrefs from
cold to hot countries, the appetite for hunting keeps
pace with that progrefs: it is vigoro.is in very cold
countries, where men depend on hunting for food :
it is Iefs vigorous in temperate countries, where they
are pardy fed with natural fruits ; and there is fcarcc
any veitige of it in hot countries, where vegetables
are the food of men, and where meat is an article of
lux -ry. The original occupation of favages both in
cold and temperate climates is hunting, altogether
eflential in the former as the only means of procuring
food, llie next flcp of the progrefs in both, is the
occupation of a fhepherd ; and there the progrefs
ftops (hort in very cold regions, unfit for corn. Lap-
land in particular produces no vegetable but mofs,
which is the food of no animal but the rain-deer.
This circumllance folely is what renders Lapland ha-
bitable by men. Without rain-deer, the fea-coafls
within the reach of fiih would admit fome inhabi-
tants; but the inland parts would be a dclert. As
the fwiftncfs of that animal makes it not an eaiy prey,
the taming it lor food muft have been early attempt-
ed; and Its natural docility made the attempt fuc-
ceed. It yields to no other animal in ufefulnefs : it
is equal to a horfc for draught : its flefh is excellent
food;' and the female gives milk more nourifliing

than

\ 11

rj.

Sk. I.

V •

Food and Population,

than that of a cow: its fur is fine; and the leather
made of its Ikin, is both foft and durable. In Tar-
tary, though a great part of it lies in a temperate
zone, there is little corn. As far back as tradition
reaches, the Tartars have had flocks and herds ;
and yet, in a great meafure, they not only conti-
nue hunters, but retain the ferocity of that ftate :
they arc not fond of being fhepherds, and have no
knowledge of huibandry. This in appearance t;
fingular; but nothing happens without a caui...
Tartary is one continued mountain from well to
eaft, nfmg high above the count ies to the fo ith j
and declining gradually to the northern ocean,
without a fmgle hill to intercept the titter blafls of
the north. A few fpots excepted, a tre< above *'ic
fize of a Ihrub cannot live in it*. In Europe, >e
mountains of Norway and Lapland are a con lort-
able fcreen againft the north wind ; w' v'^ce it is,
that the land about Stockhehn («) prt^duces both
trees and corn j and even about Abo {b) the cli-
mate is tolerable. Great Tartary abounds with paf-
ture ; but extreme cold renders it very little capa-
ble of corn. Through all Chinefe Tartary, even as
low as the 43d degree of latitude, the frofl: conti-
nues feven or eight months yearly ; and that coun-
try, though in the latitude of France, is as cold as
Iceland. The caufes are its nitrous foil, and its
height without any fhelter fr'^m the weft wind that
has pafTed through an immc: * continent extreme-
ly cold. A certain place near the Iburce of the ri-
ver Kavamhuran, and within 80 leagues of the
great wall, was found by Father Verbeift to be
3000 geometrical paces above the level of the
fca. Thus the Tartars, like the Laplanders, arc

chained

* May not a fimilar fituation In feme parts of North America, be partly
tlie occaiion of the cold.tliat is I'eU there, bt^yond what Europe feels In the
fame I.ttitude ?

{a) Latitude 59.

\b) Latitude 61,

!?-■

.^8 Men independent of Society. B. I#

chained to the Ihepherd-ftate, and can never ad-
vance to be hulbandmen. If population among
them ever become fo confidcrable as to require more
food than the Ihepherd-ftate can fupply, migration
will be their only refource.

In ev,„ry ftep of the progrefs, the torrid zone dif-
fers. We have no evidence that either the hunter
or fliepherdrftate ever exifted there : the inhabitants
at prefcnt fubfift on vegetable food ; and probably
did fo from the beginning. In Manila, one of the
Philippine iflands, the trees»bud, bloifom, and bear
fruit, all the year round. The natives, driven from
the fea-coaft to the inland parts, have no particular
place of abode, but live under the fhelter of trees,
which afford them food as well as habitation ; and
when the fruit is confumcd in one fpot, they remove
to another. The orange, lemon, and other Euro-
pean trees, bear fruit twice a year : a fprig planted
bears fruit within the year. And this pifture of
Manila anfvvers to numberlcfs places in the torrid
zone. The Marian or Ladrone iflands are extremely
populous ; and yet the inhabitants live entirely on
fiih, fruits, and roots. The inhabitants of the new
Philippine iflands live on cocoa-nuts, falads, roots, and
fifli. The inland negroes make but one meal a day,
which is in the evening. Their diet is plain, confift-
ing mortly of rice, fruits, and roots. The ifland of
Otaheite is healthy, the people tall and well made ;
and by temperance, vegetables and fifh being their
chief nourifhment, they live to a good old age, almoft
without any ailment. There is no fuch thing known
among them as rotten teeth : the very fmell of wine
or fpirits is difagreeable j and they never deal in to-
bacco nor fpiceries. In many places Indian corn is
the chief nourifliment, which everv man plants for
himfelf. The inhabitants of Biledulgerid and the
defert of Zaara have but two meals a day, one in the
morning, and one in the evening. Being temper-
ate, and ftrangcrs to difeafes arifing from luxury,

they

Sk. I.

Food and Population,

they generally live to a great age. Sixty with them
is the prime of life, as thirty is in Europe. An in-
habitant of Madagafcar >\'ll travel two or three days
without any food but a fugar-cane. There is indeed
little appetite for animal food in hot climates ; tho'
beef and fowl have in fmall quantities been intro-
duced to the tables of the great, as articles of luxury.
In America are obfervable fome variations from the
progrefs ; but thefe are refervcd for a feparate
iketch (a).

With refpe£l: to population, that plenty of food is
its chief caufe, may be illuftrated by the following
computation. The fouthern provinces of China pro-
duce two crops of rice in a year, fometimes three ;
and an acre well cultivated gives food to ten pcr-
fons. The peafants go almoft naked ; and the bet-
ter fort wear but a fmgle garment made of cotton,
of which as much is produced upon an acre as may
clothe four or five hundred. Hence the extreme
populoufnefs of China and other rice countries.
The Caifave root, which ferves the Americans for
bread, is produced in fuch plenty, that an acre of it
will feed more perfons than fix acres of wheat. It
is not then for want of food that America is ill peo-
pled. That Negroland is well peopled is paft
doubt, confidering the great annual draughts from
that country to America, without any apparent di-
minution of numbers. Inftances are not extremely
rare, of 200 children born to one man by his differ-
ent wives. Food mufl be in great plenty to enable
a man to maintain fo many children. It would re-
quire wonderful fkill and labour to make Europe fo
populous : an acre and a half of wheat is barely fuf-
iicicnt to maintain a fmgle family of peafants ; and
their cloathing requires many acres more. A coun-
try where the inhabitants live chiefly by hunting,
mufl be very thin of inhabitants ; as 10,000 acres,
or double that number, arc no more than fufficient

for

((?) Book 2, (ketch 12,

1 1:1

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

T ■»

i '!

1!;'!'

for maintaining a fingle family. If the multiplicati-
on of animals depend chiefly on fecundity, wolves
would be more numerous than flieep : a great pro-
portion of the latter are deprived of the procreating
power, and many more of them are killed than of the
former : yet we fee every where large flocks of fheep,
fcldom a wolfj for what reaibn, other than that the
former have plenty of food, the latter very little ? A
wolf refembles a favage who lives by hunting, and
confumcs the game of five or fix thoufand acres.

Waving the queilion, Whether the human race
be the ofl^':^pring of one pair or of many, it appears
the intention ot Providence, that the earth fiiould be
peopled, and population be kept up by the ordinary
means of procreation. By thefe means a tribe foon
becomes too populous for the primitive flate of
hunting and fifhing : it may even become too popu-
lous for the fhepherd-ftatc ; but it cannot eafily be-
come too populous for hufbandry. In the two for-
mer fl:ates, food mull decreafe in quantity as con-
fumers increafe in number : but agriculture has the
lignal property of producing, by mduflry, food in
proportion to t:he number of confumers. In fad:
thegreatcfl quantities of corn and of cattle are com-
monly produced in the mod populous diflricls, where
each family has its proportion of land. An ancient
Eoman, fober and induflrious, made a fliift to main-
tain his family on the produd; of a few acres *.

The bounty given in Britain for exporting corn
is friendly to population in two refpecls ; firft be caufc
liufbanc' y requires many hands; and, next, becaufe
the bounty lowers the price of corn iit home. To
give a bounty for exporting cattle would obftrudt
population ; becaufe paftur*^ requires few hands, and
exportation raifes the price of gattle at home. From

the

* Scotland mnft have been ver>' ill peopled in the days of its fifth James,
svhen at one hunting in the high country of Roxburghlhire, that prince killed
''tree hundreti and fixty red deer ; and in Atliol, at another time, (ix hundred,
befide roes, wolves, foxes, and wild cat'.,

Sk. I.

Food and Population,

the fingle port of Cork, an. 1735* were exported
107,161 barrels of beef, 7379 barrels of pork,
13,461 cafksof butter, and 85,727 firkins of the fame
commodity. Thus a large portion of Ireland is fct
apart for feeding other nations . What addition of
ftrength would it not be to Britain, if that large
quantity of food were confumed at home by ufeful
manufaflurers !

No manufacture contributes more to population
than that of filk. It employs as many hands as
wool ; and it withdraws np land from tillage or
pafture.

Lapland is but thinly inhabited even for the fhep-
herd-ftate, the country being capable of maintaining
a greater number of rain-deer, and confequently a
greater number of the human fpecies, than are found
in it. Yet the Laplanders are well acquainted with
private property : every family has tame rain-deer
of their own, to the extent fometimes of four or five
hundred : they indeed appear to have more rain-deer
than there is a demand for. Why then is Lapland
fo thinly peopled ? Either it muft have been but lately
planted, or the inhabitants are not prolific. I incline
to the latter, upon the authority of SchefFer. Tar-
tary is alfo but thinly peopled ; and as I find not
tliat the Tartars are lefs prolific than their neigh-
bours, it is probable that Tartary, being the moft
barren country in Afia, has not been early planted.
At the fame time, population has been much retard-
ed by the reftlefs and roaming fpirit of that people :
it is true, they have been forced into the ihepherd-
ftate by want of food ; but fo averfe are they to the
fedentary life of a lliepherd, that they truft their
cattle to flaves, and perfevcre in their favourite oc-
cupation of hunting. This difpolition has been a
dreadful pell to the human fpecies, the Tartars hav-
ing made more extcnlive conquefls, and deftroyed
more men, than any other nation known in hiftory :
more cruel than tigers, they feemed to have no de-
light

■iiif

Men independent of Society.

B. t

light but in blood and maflacre, without any regard
either to fex or age *. Luckily for the human fpe-
cies, rich fpoils dazzled theii eyes, and roufed an
appetite for wealth. Avarice is fomctimes produc-
tive of good : it moved thefe monfters to fell the
conquered people for Haves, which preferved the
lives of millions. Conquefts, however fuccefsfu!,.
cannot go ov, fo'" ever ; they are not accompliihed
without grcvt iofs of men ; and the conquefts of the
Tartars depopulated their country.

But as Ibme centuries have elapfed without any
confiderable eruption of that fiery people, their num-
bers mufl at prefent be confiderable by the ordinary
progrefs of population. Have we not reafon to dread
new eruptions, like what formerly happened ? Our
foreknowledge of future events extends not far ;-
but in all appearance we have nothing to fear from
that quarter. The Tartars fubdued a great part of
tne world by ferocity and undaunted courage, fup-
ported by liberty and independence. They acknow-
ledged Genhizkan as their leader in war ; but were
as far from being Haves, as the Franks were when
they conquered Gaul. Tamerlane again enjoyed
but a fubftjtuted power, and never had the boldnefs
to affume the title of Chan or Emperor. But the Tar-
tars have fubmitted to the fame yoke of defpotifni
that their ferocity impofed upon others ; and being
now governed by a number of petty tyrants, their
courage is broken by flavery, and they are no longer
formidable to the reit of mankind \.

Depopulation

♦ When the Tartars under Genhizlxan conquered China, It was feriourty
deliberated, whether they (hould not kiil all thsi inhabitants, and convL'it that
vaft country into pafture-fields for tlieir cattle.

f " Gallos inbellis flor\iiire accepimus," fays Tacitus in his life of Agri-
cola; " mox fegnities cum otio intravit, ainilfa vlrtute paritcr ac libertatc."
\ In En«;Up tliui : " We have heard that the Gauls fonntrly made a tisriire in
'• war ; but becoming a prey to indolence, the conlequence of pc.ice, they
" lolt at once their valour and their liberty."] Snain, whicii defended it-

felf with great bravery againft the Romans, became an eafy prey to tlie Van-
dals in the tifjh century. When attacked by the Romans, it was divided i;ta
many ficellates : when attacked by the Vandals, it was tneivated by (lavery
under Roman defpotifm,

Sk. I.

Food and Population,

Depopulation enters into the prefent fketch as
well as population. The latter follows not with
greater certainty from equality of property, than
the former from inequality. In every great ftate,
where the people by proiperity and opulence are
funk into voluptuoufnefs, we hear daily complaints
of depopulation. Cookery depopulates like a pef-
tilence ; becaufe when it becomes an art, it brings
within the compafs of one flomach what is fufficient
for ten in days of temperance ; and is fo far worfe
than a peftilence, that the people never recruit again.
The inhabitants of France devour at prefent more
food than the fame number did formerly. The like
is obfervable in Britain, and in every country where
luxury abounds. Remedies are propofcd and put in
practice, celibacy difgraced, marriage encouraged,
and rewards given for a numerous offspring. All in
vain! The only effectual remedies are to encourage
hufbandry, and to reprefs luxury. Olivares hoped
to repeople Spain by encouraging matrimony. Ab-
deram, a Mahometan king of Cordova, was a better
politician. By encouraging induftry and procuring
plenty of food, he repeopled his kingdom in lefs than
thirty years *.

Luxury is a deadly enemy to population, not only
by intercepting food from the induftrious, but by
weakening tlie power of procreation. Indolence ac-
companies voluptuoufnefs, or rather is a branch of it :
women of rank fcldom move, but employ others to
move them ; and a woman enervated by indolence
and intemperance, is ill qualified for the fevere labour
of child-bearing. Hence it is, that people of rank,
where luxury prevails, are not prolific. This infir-
mity

[
i

\:4

litM^

V|; 'ESI

■ ' 1 K'.

i'^ ^'l

* A fouiidlinj-hofpital is a greater enemy to population, than liberty to
efpofe infants, wliicli is permitted to parents in China and in Ibme other
countries. Hotli of tliem indeed encourage matrimony : but in fuch hofpi-
tuis, thoiifands pcrifli yearly beyond the ordinary proportion ; whereas few in-
fants ]ierifl» by the liliercy of expofini; thern, parental alfeflion prevailing; com-
incnly over the diitrefs of poverty. And, upon the ^holC; population gains
more by thu: liberty than it itfes.

1 1 ■'. a

|J!J

(j4 M N independent of Society. B. I.

mity not onl) prevents population, but increafes
luxury by accumulating wealth among a few blood-
relations. A barren woman among the labouring
poor J is a wonder. Could women of rank bt per-
fuadcd to malic trial, they would find niore felt en-
joyment in temperance and exercil", th:\n in the
mod refined luxury ; and would have no rauf(°; to
envy others the bleliing ol a numerous and hcaithy
offspring.

Luxury is not :\ greatt:r enemy to population by
enervating men in a women, than defpotifm is by re-
ducing them to flavery, and deft:fN>yii\^ induftry- Dcf-
potifm is a greater enemy to the humnn fpeci' ' than
au I Egyptian plague ; for by rei;dtring it'cn luifer-
at Ic;. it weakens both the appetite for procreation and
the power. Free Jflates, on the contrary, are always
populoj-; : a man who is happy, longs for children
to make them alfo happy ; and induflry enables him
to accomphfh his purpofe. This obicrvation is veri-
lied from the hiftory of Greece, and of the LelTer
Afia : the inhabitants anciently were free and nu-
rnerous : the prefent inhabitants are reduced by fla-
very toafmall number. A peftilence deftroys thofc
only who exift, and the lofs is foon repaired ; but
defpotifm, as above obferved, flrikcs at the very
root of population.

An overflowing quantity of money in circulation,
is another caufe of depopulation. In a nation that
grows rich by commerce, the price of labour in-
creafes with the quantity of circulating coin, which
of courfe raifes the price of manufadures ; and ma-
nufadlurcrfi who cannot find a vent for their high-
rated goods in foreign markets, muft give over hu-
finefs and commence beggars, or retire to another
country where they may liave a profpe^l of fuccefs.
But luckily, there is a remedy in that cafe to pre-
vent depopulation : land is cultivated to greater
perfedion by the fpadc than by the plough ; and the
more {plentiful corpa produced by the former, are
3 fuily

'ff

^k. II.

.jj..w>i

'Thpcrty,l ■'(^' ^- •^^■

fiilly fufficicnt to defray the additional cxpehcct
This is a rclburcc fot employing fhofe who canhot
make bread as manufadtilt'crs ; attd dclcrves \<^dl" thd
attention of the legiflature. The advantage of th(t
fpade is confpicuotis with rcfpeft to war ; it providev<?
a multitude of robuft men for Tceruiting the army;
the want or whom may be fupplied by the plough,
rill they return in' peace to thfcit former occupation;

; \- ' ' ' ' '' ■ " /-' '■ "•• : '1'i it)

^c.',j4'^/i - .v";'iy .(.[i! Lif..>urf rfuiii 7a:i: i;;f:%vf>ry;jxii

•U'J

iiAir

- :- 1 \

h I'M.:

,;.r'

">(>

.MONG the fenfcs inherent in man, the fenfe oi
property is eminent. ' Thatienl'e i& the fojundatiori
o'^ yours and w/>/^, a diftint^lionwhidiiiQ human bc^
ing is ignorant dL. By that iiccifc wild animah
caught with labour or ait, at^e perceived to belong to
the hunter or fiihev : they become his prsperty. In
the Ihephcrd-ftate, thci^ is the /fauie perception ot'
property with refpe^ to .wiid» animals tan\ed t^or uft\
and with reipc*!:^ ;to their pJrogeny. It takes, |^kcc
alfo with reipctil ^0 a held ieparatcd tVoiu the com-,
inon^ -and cultivated by a man for bix^ud to hin\f(cit
and fan\ily (a)^

,.,, Jhe feulc ^4' prvN^^erty is flower in its growth to-
ward' mjttui lv» than the external lenila, which are
perfect cwn lu childhood ; but it ripens more early
thasi the iculc of congruity, of ivwimetry, \^i dignity,
of grace, and ^he other retuK\\ fenfes, which fcurce
make an\ hgure before the age of manhood. Chil-
dren discover a <enfe of property in dillinguilhing
^Ifceir own. chair and their o\vn fpoon. In them
hov.cxTV v'^ is faint and obfcure, requiring time ta

Vpi,. t.

1 1*

• M

ripen,

(ii) See Ptinciples of Morality and Natural Religion, p, 77. edit, a.

€i

MiiN independent of Society.

B. I.

|li

Tipcn^ The gl-ddual progrefs of that fenl'e from its
infancy jimong favagcs to it? maturity among po-
lifhed nations, is one of the moll inftructive articles
that belong to the prciciit undertaking. But as that
article makes a part of Hiftorical Law-tra6ls (a), ijp-
thing remains j^re but a few gleanings.
, Man is by nature ^ lioardiug aiiima}, having an
appetite for itoring up things of ulc j ;iiid the Itnre
of property js beltoA^ed on tnciit for fccufing to
Ihrni wlint they thus (loie up. Hnice it appears,
that things delUncd by Vll)v)^^v\^ce for our fudc-
Iianrt; ;i|iil jirrniniiiodation, wtrc not hitirpdet) to
be polleUed in cointiiort. It Ih f vrn probablf, that
in the eariiefl: ages every man feparately hunltd lor
himfclf and his iamily. 13ul rliancc jirevails in tliat
occupation ; and it may frccpitntly happen, that
wliile fome get more tiian enough, otliers inufl. go
fupperlcfs to bed. Senliblc of that inconvenience,
it crept into prafticc, for hunting and fdhing to be
carried on in common *. We find accordingly the
pradice of hunting and filhing in common, tveii
among grofs favages. Ihofe of New Holland,
above mentioned, live upon imall iiili dug out of tl e
land v^hcn the fea retires. Sometimes they get
plenty, fometimes very little} and all is broiled and
eat in conimon. After eating they go to rclt : they

return

Ci I

. (. (fl) Traflj, .1; . ■

* Inequalities yf chance, which are great in a few trials, vaniHi almo/l

entirely wlien an rpcration is frequently reiterated during a tourfc of time.

Did every man's (vbi\l\et\ce depend on the fruits of his own field, many

would die of hunger, while others wallowed in plenty. Barter and coni-

merce among the inhabitants of a diftri£>, )effen tlie hazard of famine : thei

commerte of corn through a large kingdom, fuch as France or Britain,

lelftns it Itll iiune. Extend that commerce through Europe, through the

world, and th.ie will remain fcarce a veftige of the inequalities of chance :

the crop of corn may fail in one province or in one kingdom j but that it

fliould fail univtilally ii licyoiid iht vaiietiesof chance. The fame obferva-

tion holdi in every other matter of chance : one's gain or lofs at game for a

night, for a week, imy he confiderable ; but carry on the game for a year,

and fc little of cliance remains, that it is almoft the fame whether one play

for a guinta or for twenty. Hence a (kilful infurcr never ventures much uj)0t>

one bottom ; hut multipliui hi<> hai^ains as much as poiTible : the more bar-

gaini heiii engaged in, tlie {icatcr i:> the probability of gain.

kiife
g to
tears,

almoft
time,
many
d com-
i the
Britain,
ugh tlie
hance t
that it
obferva-
ne for a
a year,
ne play
ch upon
ore bar-

Sk. 11. . ^ Property, 67

return to their fidring next ebb of the ti Je, whether
it be day or night, foul or fair ; for go they mull, or
ftarve. In fmall tribes, where patriotifin is vigor-
ous, or in a country thinly peopled in proportion to
its fertility, the living in common is agreeable: but
in a large (late where felfilhnefs prevails, or in any
(late where population requires extraordinary cul
ture, the befl method is to permit every man to fhift
for himfelf and his family : men wifli to labour for
^jicitifelvcsj ; and they labour more ardently for
themfeltcs, than for the public. Private property
became more and more facred in the progrefs of arts
and m^nnfadures : to allow an artifl: of fupcrior
ikill no ptoht above others, would be a fad difcou-
rage(iife|}| tp induftry, and be fcarce confident with
jultice*

'ITie fenfc of property is not confined to the hu-
man fpccics. The beavers perceive the timber they
llore up for food, to be their property ; and the
bees fcem to have the fame perception with rcfpcdt
If) their winter's provifion of honey. Sheep know
when they are in a trefpafs, and run to their own
pafture on the firft glimpfe of a man. Monkics do
the fame when detefted in robbing an orchard.
Sheep and horned cattle have a fcnfe of property
with refpeft to their refting-place in a fold or inclo-
lure, which every one guards againft the incroach-
ment of others. He muft be a fceptic indeed who
denies that perception to rooks : thieves there are
among them as among men ; but if a rook purloin
a itick from another's neft, a council is held, much
chattering enfues, and the lex talionis is applied by
demoiilhing the nefl: of the criminal. To man are
furniflied rude materials only : to convert thefe into
food and cloathing requires induflry : and if he had
not a fenfe that the produft of his labour belongs to
jiimfelf, his induflry would be faint. In general, it
is pleafant to obferve, that the fenfe of property is

F 2 always

' ¥

ill

■ m

1 •; ' I

MiiN independent of Society.

B. t.

i«ii;

ii
a

always given where it is ufcful, and never but where
it is ufet'ul.

An ingenious writer, defcribing the inhabitants of,
Cuiana, who coritinue hunters and filhcrs, makes an,
eloquent harangue upon the happinefs they enjoy, in,
having iew wants iind delires, and little notion of
private property. " The manners of thefe Indians
*' exhibit an amiable pifture of primeval innocence;
*^. andhappiiiefs. The eafe with which their few,
*^ wahts aceTuppllcd, renders divifiou of, land unne-
ceil'ary ; nor dots it aftbrd any temptation to,
fraud or violence. That prpnenefs to vice» which-
among civilized nations is cfleemed a . propenfity^
of nature, has no cxiflence in a country where .
every man enjoys in perfeftion his native freedoir^
and indcpendJence, without hurting or being hurt
*' by others. A perfect equality of' rank, banifliing,
" ail fliflinclions but oTage and, pergonal werit,. pro-
" motes freedom in converlation, and firiurtefs In.
*^ aftipn ; and fug^efls no defircs but wHat may, bej;
" gratified with innocence. Envy an^ dijfcontent;,
" cannot fubfifl with perfeft cquaUty,; wq fcarce,
*' even hear of a difcontcnted lover,, as there is no
di&rence of rank and fortune, the common ob"-
lta(tles that prevent; fruition, Thofji who have
been unhappily accuftomcd to the refinements of
luxury, will fcarc be able to conceive, that an
Indian, with no covering but what modefty re-
*'" "quires, with no flicker that deferves the name of
*' a houfe, and with no food but of the coarleft
kin^d painfully procured by hnnting, can feel any
happinefs : and yet to judge from external ap-
pearance, the Iiappiiiefs of thefc people may be
envied by the ealthy of the mofl refined nati-
ons ; andjudly, becaufe their ignorance of ex-
travagant defires and endlefs puriuits that torment
the, great world, excludes very wifli beyond the
juefent. In a word, tlie inhabitants of Guiana
are an example of what Socrates jufUv obfcrves,

« that

i.i

i<
ii
((
(i
(<
ii
«

Sk. II.

Property,

" that tliofe wlu .vant the leaft, approach tlic
♦* neareft to the gods, who want nothing." It is
admitted, that the innocence of favagcs here p«!nt-
cd in fine colours, is in every refped more amiable,
than the luxury of the opulent. But is bur au-
thor unacquainted with a middle (late, more fuita-
ble than either extreme to the dignity of human
nature ? The appetite for property is not beflowed
upon us in vain : it has given birth to many arts :
it is highly beneficial by furnilhing opportunity for
gratifying the moft dignified natural aiyc(Skions ; for
without private property, what place would there
be for benevolence or charity (a) ? Without pri-
vate property, there would be no induflry j
and witliout induftry, men would remain favagcs
for ever.

The appetite for property, in its nature a great
blelling, degenerates, I acknowledge, into a great
curfe when it tranfgrefles the bounds of moderati-
on. Before money was introduced, the appetite
feldom was immoderate, becaufe plain neccffaries
were its only objedts. But money is a fpecies of
property, of fuch extenfive ufe as greatly to inflame
the appetite. Money prompts men to be induftri-
ous ; and the beautiful produftions of induftry and
art, roufing the imagination^ excite a violent de-
fire tor grand houfes, fi.ne gardens, and for every
thing gay and fplendid. Habitual wants multiply:
luxury and fenfuality gain ground : the appetite
for property becomes headftrong, anil mud be gra-
tified, even at the expence of juftice and honour.
Examples of this progrefs arc without number ; and
yet the following hiftory deferves to be kept in
memory, as a ftriking and lamentable illuftration.
Hifpanioia was that part of America which Co-
lumbus firft difcovered amio 1497. He landed
upon the territory of Guacanaric, one of the prin-
cipal

1 1

I I :

-1

■.'i ,1

(e) Hiftorical Law trafts, traO 3.

■) i

n:: I

I ^

7© Men independent of Society. 3. I.

cipal Caclcs of the ifland. Tliat prince, w'lo liad
nothing barbarous in liis uianncrs, received liis
gucfts with cordiality ; and encouraged his ^^coplc
to vie with one another in obliging them. I'o
cratify the Spanifii apjjctitc for gold, they p^irtcd
freely with their richelt ornaments; and in return,
were fatisfied with glals beads, and fuch baubles.
The Admiral's (liip having been dalhcd againll the
rocks in a hurricane, Guacanaric was not wanting
to his friend on thatoccahon: he convened a num-
ber of men to aflid in unloading the (liip; and at-
tended himftlf till the cargo was fafely lodged. The
Admiral having occalion to return to Spain, Iglt a
part of his crew behind •, who, forgetting the lellbns
of moderation he had taught them, turned licenti-
ous. The remonftrances of Guacanaric were fruit-
Icfs: they fcized upon the gold and wives of the In-
dians; and in general treated them with great cruel-
ty. Such enormities did not long pafs unrefented :
the rapacious Spaniards, after much bloodlhed, were
fluit up in their fort, and reduced to extremity. \Jn-
happily a reinforcement arrived from Spain : a long
and bloody war enfued, which did not end till the
iflanders were entirely fubdued. Of this ifland,
about 200 leagues in length and between fix-
ty and eighty in breadth, a Spanifii hiltorian bears
witncfs, that the inhabitants amounted to a million
when Columbus landed *. The Spaniards, relcnt-
lefs in their cruelty, forced thefe poor people to a-
bandon the culture of thcij fields, and to retire to
the woods and mountains. Hunted like wild beafts
even in thefe retreats, they fled from mountain to
mountain; till hunger and fatigue, whicli dellroyed
more than the fword, made them deliver them-
felves up to their implacable enemies. Ihere re-
mained at that time but 60,000, who were divided

among

* The numhers pofTibly are ex.icrperated. But wliethcr a million, or a iiall
of titat number, the moral is the fame.

Sk. III.

Commerce*

among the Spaniards as flavcs, ExcefTive fatigue
in the mines, and want even of neccflarics, reduced
them in five years to 14,000. Confidering them to
be only hearts of burden, they would have vielded
niprc profit had they been treated with leUs inhu-
manity. Avarice frequently counter;^£ts its own
end : by grafping too much, it lofes all. The Em-
peror Charles refolved to apply fomc remedy •, but
being prevented for fome time by various avoca-
tions, he got intelligence that the poor Indians
were totally extirpated. And they were fo in reali-
ty, a handful excepted, who lay hid in the moun-
tains, and fubfifted as by a miracle in the midft of
their enemies. That handful were difcovered
many years after by fome hunters *, who treated
them with humanity, regretting perhaps the' bar-
barity pf their forefathers. The pqpx Indians, do-
cile and fubmiflive, embraced the Chriilian religi-
on, and afl'umed by degrees the manners and cuf-
tomsof their mafters. They ftill cxift, and live by
hunting and fifliing.

Affedion for property! Janus double-faced, pro-
dudive of many bleflings, b^it degenerating often to
be a curfe. In thy right hand, Induftry, a cornuco-
pia of plenty : in thy left, Ayarice, a Pandora's box
of defidly poifon*

■\

;%f:

I (

■il

SKETCH

Origin and Progrefs of Commerce,

X H E few wants of men in the firft ftagc of fo-
ciety, arc fupplied by bfivter in its rudeft form. In
barter, the rational confideration is, what is wanted
by the qne, and what can be fparcd by the other-

Pt -iiM

yi Men independent of Society. B. I

But fayages arc not always fo clear-lighted : a fa-
vage who wants a knife, will give for it any thing
that is lefs ufefu|tohim at the time ; without con-
fidering either the preftnt wants of the perfon he is
dealing with, or liis own future wants. An inha-
bitant of Guiana will for a fifli-hook give more at
one time, than at another he will give for a hat-
chet, or for a gun. Kempfer reports, than an in-
habitant of Puli Timor, an ifland adjacent to Ma-
hcca, will, for a bit of coarfe linen not worth three
half pence, give provifions worth three or four (liil-
lings. But people improve by degrees, attending
to what is wantf^d on the one fide, and to what
can be fpared o I le other; and in that leflbn, the
American fava^e.s in our neighbourhood are not a
little expert.

Barter or permutation, in its original form, proved
miferably deficient when men and their wants mul-
ti})lied. That fort of commerce cannot be carried
on at a diftance ; and even among neighbours, it
does not always happen, that the one can fpare what
the other wants. Barter is fomcwhat enlarged by
covenants : a bulhel of wheat is delivered to mc,
npon my promifing an'equivalent at a future time.
But what if I have nothing that my neighbour may
have occafion for ? or what if my promifc be not
relied on ^ I'has barter, even without the aid of co-
venants, proves ftill defecVive. The n umber !cfs
wants of men cannot readily be fuppiicd, witliout
feme commodity in general eilimation, tliat will be
gladly accepted in exchange for every other. That
comuiodity ought not to be bulky, nor be expenfive
in keej)ing, nor be confumable by time. Gold and
fdver are metals that poflefs thefe properties in an
eminent degree. They are at tlie fame time per-
fc(^lly homogeneous in whatever country produced :
two maflt's of pure gold or of pure filver are al-
ways equal in value, provided tliey be of tlie fame
weight, Thefe metaL are alio diviiible into fmall

3 ' P''ii-t^>

Sk. III.

Conuncrce,

parts, convenient to be given for goods of finall
value*.

Gold and filver, when introduced into comrtierce,
were probably bartered, like other commodities, by
bulk merely. Rock-falt in Ethiopia, white as Ihovv
and hard as ftone, is to this day bartered in that
manner with other goods. It is dug out of the
mountain l/afta, formed into plates a foot long and
three inches broad and thick ; and a portion is bro-
ken off equivalent in value to the thing wanted.
But more accuracy came to be introduced into the
commerce of gold and filver : inftead of being
given loofely by bulk, every portion was weighed
in fcales : and ^his method of barter is pradtifed
in China, in Ethiopia, and in many other coun-
tries. Even weight was at firfl difcovered to be
an imperfect ftandard. Ethiopian fait may be proof
againft adulteration ; but weight is no fecurity
againft mixing gold and fiver with bafe metals. To
prevent that frvud, pieces of gold and filver are imprelT-
ed with a public flamp, vouching both the purity and
quantity ; and fuch pieces are termed coin. This
was a notable improvement in commerce ; and
was probably at firft thought complete. It was
not forefeen, that thefe metals wear by much hand-
ling in the courfe of circulation ; and confcquent-
ly, that in time the public ftamp is reduced to be a
voucher of the purity only, not of the quantity.
Hence proceed manifold inconvenirncies ; for which
no other remedy occurs, but to rellore the former
method of weighing, ■trufting to the flamp for the

. ,. . ' purity

* Orlgo cmen \\ vendendicjue a pcrmutationibus coepit. Oiim enim non
Ita erat nummus : nequc aliud mux, aliud pictium vocabatur : fed unufquil'-
que, fetundum nete/lHatem tetr.porum, ac rpmrn, utiliSus inutilia perrmita-
iiat, quando pleiurnque evenit, ut, auod ai;?ii fnperert, alteri defit. Sed
quia noil feinper, nee facile conc/.irrebat, ut, c '.i tu haberes quod ego defi-
dtraren, invicem haberem, quod tu accipeu 'dies, ehf^a materia eft, cujus
puhlica ac perjjerua xilimatio difRr ultatious permutationum, aequalitatc
quantitatis fubveniret : ea [que] matv,;ia forma publica pcrcufla, ufum do-
mlnmriique non tam ex fubftantia pf ••' ■?\ rjuain -.'x quantitate; nee ultra
nierx utrunKj.ie, fed alterum pittium vocvur. /. i. D'lgtji, De contrabeMaa

w^ a

r .

i ilii

i'M

;i;:if 'i

'■■'!' if-

Ijy-''

iiij

74 Men independent of Society. B. I.

purity only. This proves an embarraflVnent in
(tommerce, "which is remedied by the ufe of paper-
money. And paper-money is attended with ano-
ther advantage, that of preventing the lofs of much
gold and filver by wearing. Formerly in China, gold
and filver were coined as among us ; but the wearing
of coin by handling obliged them to recur to fcales ;
and now weight alone is relied on for determining
the CjUantity. Copper is the only metal that is circu-
lated among them without weighing; and it is with it
that fmall debts are paid, and fmall purchafes made.
When gold or filver in bullion is exchanged with
other commodities, fuch commerce pafles under
the common name of barter or permutation : when
current coin is exchanged, fuch commerce is termed
buying 2.nd/eIIing; and the money exchanged is term-
ed the price of the gooch.

As commerce cannot be carried on to any ex-
tent without a ftandard for comparing goods of dif-
ferent kinds, and as every commercial country is
poflcfled of fuch a ftandard, it feems difficult to fay
by what means the ftandard has been eftablifhed.
It IS plainly not founded on nature ; for the diffe-
rent kinds of goods have naturally no common
meafure by which they can be valued : two quar-
ters of wheat can be compared with twenty ; but
what rule have we for comparing gold with
broad cloth, or either of them with gold, or gold
with filver or copper ? Several ingenious writers
Jiave endeavoured to account for the comparative
value of commodities, by reducing them all to the
labour employed in raifing food ; which labour is
faid to be a ftandard for mcafuring the value of
all other labour, and cpnfeqpently of all things
produced by labour. ** If, for example, a bufliel
of wheat and an ounce of filver be produced by
the fame quantity of labour, will they not be
equal in value?" This ftandard is imperfeft in
many re/pe^^s. 1 obfcrvc, firft, thut to give it a plau-

fiblc

((

Sk. III.

Commerce,

fiblc appeaiance, there is a necelTity to maintain,
contrary to fad, that all materials on which labour
is employed are of equal value. It requires as
much labour to make a brafs candleftick as one of
filver, though far from being of the fame vahic.
A bufliel of wheat may fometimes equal in value an
ounce of fiver; but an ounce of gold docs not al-
ways require more labour than a bufliel of wheat ;
and yet they differ widely in value. The value ot
labour, it is true, enters into the value of every
thing produced by it ; but is far from making the
whole value. If an ounce of fdver were of no
greater value than the labour of procuring it, that
ounce would go for payment of the labour, and
nothing be left to the proprietor of the mine : fucli
a doctrine will not rclilh with the King of Spain ;
and as little with the Kings of Golconda and Portu-
gal, proprietors of diamond-mines. Secondly, The
Itandard under review fuppafes every fort of labour
to be of ecjual value, which however will not be
maintained. An ufeful art in great requefl:, may
not be generally known : the few who are Ikilful
will jullly demand more for their labour than the
common rate. An expert hufljandman beftows no
more labour in raifmg a huudre.;. jufhels of wheat,
than his ignorant neighbour in raifmg fifty : if
labour be the only ftandard, t.h(^ two crops ought
to afford the fame price. Was not Raphael intitled
to a higher price for one oi his fine pidlurcs, than
a dunce \& for a tavern-fign, fuppofing the labour to
have been equal i" Laftly, As this ftandard is appli-
cable to things. only that require labour, what rule
is to be followed with refpeft to natural fruits, and
other things that require no labour ?

Where a pound of one commodity gives the fame
price with a pound of another, thefe commodities
arc faid to be of equal value ; and therefore, what-
ever rule can be given for the price of commodities,
that rule determines alfo their comparative values.

Montcf-

^ -1

Men independent of Society. B. I.

Montcfquieu {a) attempts to account lor the price
as folIo^vs. He begins with fuppofing, that there
is but o*ie commodity in commerce, divifiblc Hke
gold and filver into parts, the parts like thofe of
gold and filver uniform and equally perfcft. Upon
that fiippofition, the prictf, fays he, of the whole
commodity colled'ed into a mafs, will he the whole
current gold and filver; and the price of any
particular quantity of the former, will be the cor-
refpondiiig quantity of the latter, the tenth or
twentieth part of the one correfponding to the
tenth or twentieth part of the other. He goes on
to apply the fame computation to all the variety
of goods in commerce ; and concludes in gene-
ral, that as the whole mafs of goods in com-
merce correfpor.Js to the whole mafs of gold and
filver in commerce as its price, fo the price of the
centh or twentieth part of the former will be
the tenth o" :wentieth part of the latter. According
to this computation, all different goods mud give
the fame price, or which is the fame, be of equal
value, provided their weight or meafure be the
fame. Our author certainly did not intend fuch
an abfurdity ; and yet I can draw .10 other infe-
rence from his reafoning. In the very next chap-
ter he admits the negroes on the coall of Africa to
be an exception from the general rule, who,
fays he, value commodities according to the ufe
they have for them. But do not all nations value
commodities in the fame manner ?

Rejefting then the foregoing attempts to ac-
count for the comparative value of commoditiej-, I
take a hint frojn what Vvus lafl laid to inaintain,
that it is the demand chiefly which fixe? the value
of every commodity. C^antity beyond the demand
renders even necefTaries of no value ; of which
\vater is an inflance. It may be held accordingly
as a general rule, That the value of goods in com-
•• ' inerce

fj) Liv. -,v. cl'. -.

I ^

Sk. III.

Commerce,

ac-

merce depends on a demand beyond what their,
quantity can fatiai'y J and riles in proportion to the'
excefs of the. demand above the quantity. Evea
water becomes valuable in countries where the de-
mand exceeds the quj\ntity : in arid regions,;
fjbrings of water are highly valued; and in old
times were frequently the occafion of broils and
blqod-flied. , Comparing next difi'erent commodities
with refpe£t to value, that commodity of which
the excefs of the demand above the quantity is the
greater, \yill be of the greater value. Were utility
or intrinfic value only to be conrideVed, a pound
of iron .v^uld be worth tea pounds of gold;
but as the excefs of the demand for gold above its
quantity is much greater thiin th*^t of iron, thi-
latter is of lefs -vahie in the market. A pound of
opium OP of Jcfuitsbark '.is, for its falu'taiy clFe^ls,
more valuabjc, thaUgoJd; and yet, for the reafon

mud?
of
quantity is tiie Itandarr" ih.qit,
chiefly fixes the mercantile value of commodities*.
Interefl is th^e pFioepr- premium, giycn for the loan
of iponey ; and the rate of intereit, like the prices
of other commodities, is regulated by the demand.
Many borrowers and few lenders produce high in-
terell : many lenders and few borrowers produce. low
interefl: +. , . '

The caufec that make a demand, feem not fo
eafily afcertained. One thing is evident, that the
demand for necelfiiries in any country, mud depend

•1 W

i 1

• l!1

* In a voyage to Arabia Fcelix, ann. 170S, the King of the territory where
t!ie crew landed, give thc^ni an ox weigliing a thoufand or twelve hundrfd
puund., for a fuffc, and three Icore pound- weiglit of rice for twenty-eight
ounces of gun-powder. The goods bartered were eftimated according to
thii wants of each party, 01,. in other words, according to the demand above
the cjiiantity,

f I-"rorn wliat is fa:d in the trcatife Des curpi p-j'Ulquei (liv. 6. ch. 8.) it
appears doubtful whether high ur law interefl be the inoft friendly to com-
Oiurce,

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

t, s

• 1 \'\m

1 "i

' 1

on the number of its inhabitants. This rule holds
ndl fo ftridly in articles of convenience ; becaufe
fome people are more greedy of conveniences than
others. As to articles of tafte and luxury, the
demand appears fo arbitrary as not to be reduci-
ble to any rule. A tafte for beauty is general ;
but fo different in different pciffons, as to make
the demand extremely variable : the faint repre-
fentation of any plant in an agate, is valued by fome
for its rarity ; but the demand is far from beinff
univerfal. Savages are defpifed for being fond or
glafs beads: but were fuch toys equally rare' among
us, they would be coveted by mary : a copper coin
of the Emperor Otho is of no intrinfic value j and
yet, for its rarity, would draw a great price.

The value of gold and filver in commerce, like
that of other commodities, was at firft, we may be-
lieve, both arbitrary and fludluating ; and, like other
commodities, they iound in time their value in the
market. With refpedt to value, however, there is a
great difference between money and other commo-
dities. Goods that are expennve in keeping, fuch
as cattle, or that are impaired by time, fuch as
corn, will always be firft offered in exchange for
what is wanted ; and when fuch goods are offered to '
falc, the vender muft be contented with the current
price : in making the bargain the purchafcr has the
advantage ; for he fuffers not by referving his mo-
ney to a better market. And thus commodities
are brought down by money to the loweft value
that can afford any profit. At the fame time, gold
and filver fooner find the" value than other com-
modities. 1 he value of the latter depends both on
the quantity and on the demand ; the value of the
former depends on the quantity only, the demand
being unbounded : and even with refpeft to quan-
tity, thefe precious metals are lefs variable than
other commodities.

Gold

in.

Commerce*

Gold and filvcr, being thus fooner fixed in their
value than other commodities, become a ftandard
for valuing every other commodity, and confequently
for comparative values. A bufhel of wheat, for ex-
amj)le, being valued at five /hillings, a yard of broad
cloth at fifteen, their comparative values are as one
to three.

A ftandard of values is eflential to commerce j
and therefore where gold and filver arc unknown,
other ftandards are eltabliflied in practice. The
only ftandard anaon^ the favages of North Ameri-
ca is the fkin of a beaver. Ten of thefe are given
for a gun, two for a pound of gun-powder, one
for four pounds of lead, one for fix knives, one for
a hatchet,, fix for a coat of woollen cloth, five for
a petticoat], and one for a pound of tobacco. Some
nations in Africa employ Ihells, termed courics, for
a ftandard.

As my chief view in this fketch is, to exa-
mine how far induftry and commerce are aifeded
by the quantity of circulating coin, I premife the
following plain propofitions. Suppofing, firft, the
quantity of money in circulation and the quantity
of goods in the market, to continue the fame, the
price will rife and fall with the demand. For
when more goods are demanded than the market
affords, thofe who offer the higheft price will be
preferred : as, on the other hand, when the goods
brought to market exceed the demand, the ven-
ders have no refourcc but to entice purchafers by
a low price. The price of filh, flefti, butter and
cheefe, is much higher than formerly ; for
thefe being now the daily food even of the
l0weft people, the demand for them is greatly in-
creafed.

Suppofing a Hu6tuation in the quantity of goods
only, the price falls as the quantity increafes, and
riles as the quantity dccreafes. The farmer whofe
quantity of corn is doubled by a favourable feafon,

muft

!! *!

So Men independent of Society. B. I.

rnuft feff at lialf the ufual price ; becaufe the ptr-
chafer, who lees a fupeffluity, will paj no mor6
for it. The contrary happens upon a fciwity crop :'
thofe who want corn muft ftarve or give the mar-
ket-price, however high. The manufidtures 'of
wool, flax, and metals, arc much cheaper than
formerly J for thpugh the demand h^s increal^cd,
yet fty /kill an^ induftry the quantities produced
Kave increafed in a greater proportion. More j)^-
heros are confiimed than formerly : and yet by fklW
ful culture the (|uantfty is fd mtich greater in pro-'

{portion, as to have lowered the price to lefs than orie^
i'alf of vvhat' it was eighty years' ago.

it IS e'afy to combine the qil.^ntity ahd* demand,'
funWfiri*^ a fluctuation in both. Where the qudn-'
ti/y' exceeds the ufual cjeinandi' more peopfe will be
tempted to purchafe' by t^Iie M 'pi\t'e ; a'nd wher^'
the demand rifes gonfiderably above the' quar^t'il'y,'
t]ie price will rife" in proportioh.' In maithem^ti-
caUanguage',thcfc prbpolitions may be thus exprelfef/;'
that the price is dir'cdly as the demand, and inverfelf
as t|ie quantity. ' . '

A variation in the quantity of circulating coin W
t^ie moft intricate circumftahce; becaufe it riei^er'
happens without making a variation in the demand
for goods, and frequently in the quantity. 1 take'
the liberty however to fuppofe, that there is no va-'
riati'on but in the quantity of circulating coin; for-
though that cannot happen in reality, yet the re-
fult of ^he fuppofition will throxv lieh' Upon what'
really hiippeiis : the fubje(fl is involved, and I wi'lh'
to make it plain. I put a llmple cafe, that the'
half of our current coin is at once fwcj^t away by'
ibme extraordinary accident. This at firft will' em-*
barrafs our internal commerce, as the vender will'
infill fen the ufua! price, which now cannot be af-
forded. ' But the error of fuch demand will foon be
difeQvercd ; and the pi Ice or CQmmodities, after

fome

Sk. III.

Commerce,

fome flu^luation, will fettle at the one half of
what it was formerly. At the fame time, there is
here no downfall in the value of commodities,
which cannot happen while the quantity and de-
mand continue unvaried. The purchafmg for a
fixpence what formerly coft a fliilling, makes no
alteration in the value of the thing purchafed ;
becaufe a fixpence is equal in value to what a fliil-
ling was formerly. In a word, when money is
fcarce, it muft bear a high value : it mufl in par-
ticular go far in the purchafe of goods ; which
we cxprefs by faying, that goods are cheap. Put
next the cafe, that by fome accident our coin is
inftantly doubled : the refult mud be, not inftan-
tancous indeed, to double the price of commodi-
ties, l/pon the former fuppofition, a fixpence is
in tfl*e£l advanced to be a fhilling : upon the pre-
fent fuppofition, a fliilling has in effed: funk down
to a fixpence. And here again it ought to be
obferved, that though the price is augmented,
there is no real alteration in the value of com-
modities. A bullock, that fome years ago, could
have been purchafed for ten pounds, will at prc-
fcnt yield fifteen. The vulgar ignorantly think,
that the value of horned cattle has arifen in that
J)roportion. The advanced price may, in fome de-
gree, be occafioned by a greater confumption ;
but it is chiefly occafioned by a greater quantity of
money in circulation. ' '

Combining all the circumfl:ances, the refult is,
that if the quantity of goods and of money con-
tinue the fame, the price will be in proportion
to the demand. If the demand and quantity of
goods continue the fame, the price will be in
proportion to the quantity of money. And if the
demand and quantity of money continue the fame,
the price will fall as the quantity incrcafes, and rife as
the r.uantiiy diminiflies.

Vol. I. G Thefe

11 • !►*

';M

'IP

^I'n;

i^i'i

82 Men inJcpcnacnt of Society. B.I.

Thcfc fpeculative notions will enable us with ac-
curacy to xaminc, how induftry and commerce arc
aftcfted bv variations in the quantity of circulating
coin. It IS evident, that arts and manMlucures can-
not be carried on to any extent without coin. Per-
fons totally employed in any art or manufacture re-
quire wages daily or weekly, bccaufc they mult go
to market for every necelliiry of life. The clothier,
the tailor, the flioemaker, the gardener, the farmer,
mufl: employ fervants to j)repare their goods for the
market ; to whom, for that reafon, wages ought to
be regularly paid. In a word, commerce among an
endlefs number of individuals, who depend upon
each other even for necelfaries, would be inextricable
without a quantity of circulating coin. Money may
be jufUy conceived to be thj oil, that lubricates all
the fprlngs and wheels of a great machine, and pre-
fetves it in motion *. Suppofmg us now to be pro-
vided with no more of that precious oil than is barely
fufiiciiii\!: for the eafy motion of our indullry and
maruiiiiures, a diminution of the neceflary quantity
jn:vi: ret ird them : our induflry and manufadures
muO decay ; and if we do not confine the expence
of livnig to our prefent circumitances, which feldom
happens, the balance of trade with foreign nations
will turn againfl us, and leave us no recourfe for
making the balance equal but to export our gold and
filver. And when we are drained of thefe metals,
farewell to arts and manufadlures : we fhall be re-
duced to the condition of favages, which is, that
each individual mull depend entirely on his own
labour for procuring every neceflary of life. The
confequences of the babnce turning for us, are at

firft

* Money cannot be juflly faid to be deficient where there Is fufiiciency to
purchafe every commodity and to pay for every kind of labour, that is wanted.
Any greater quantity is hurtful to commerce, as wiU be feen afterward. But
to be forced to contract debt even when one deals prudently and profitably,
and confequently to be fubjefted to legal execution, is a proof, by no means
ambiguous, of fcartity of money ; which till of late \vi»3 remarkably the cafe in
Scotland. *

^ther folid improvc-
\ hands and ma-
cd by the additi-
whofe wages arc

Sk. III. • Commerce, 83

firft diredly oppofite: but at the long-run come to
be the fame : they are fvvcet in the mouth, but bitter
in the (lomach. An influx of ri- hes by this balance,
roufes our adlivity. Plenty of money elevates our
Ipirits, and infpires an appetite for pleafure : we in-
dulge a talte for (how and embellifliment ; become
hofpitable, and refine upon the arts of luxury.
Plenty of money is a prevailing motive even with the
moft fedate, to exert themft^h' s in building, in huf-
bandry, in manufactures, ni
ments. Such articles r(
terials, the prices of vvhlc
onal dc.nand. The labour- 1

thus raifed, is not fatisfied with mere neceiTarics ;
but infilts for conveniencics, the price of which al-
fo is raifed by the new demand. In fliort, increafe
of money raifes the price of every commodity;
partly from the greater quantity of money, and
partly from the additional demand for fupplying ar-
tificial wants. Hitherto a delightful view of prof-
perous commerce : but behold the remote confequen-
ccs. High wages at firft promote induftry, and
double the quantity of labour : but the utmoft ex-
ertion of labour is limited within certain bounds ;
and a perpetual influx of gold and fdver will not for
ever be attended with a proportional quantity of
work: The price of labour will rife in proportion to
the quantity of money; but the produce will not
rife in the fame proportion ; and for that reafon our
manufaftures will be dearer than formerly. Hence
It difmal fcene. The high price at home of our ma-
nufaftures will exclude us from foreign markets j for
if the merchant cannot draw there for his goods
what he paid at home with fome profit, he mufl:
abandon foreign commerce altogether. And what
is flill more difmal, we Ihall be deprived even of our
own markets ; for in I'pite of the utmofl: vigilance,
foreign commodities, cheaper than our own, will
be poured in upon u>. The laft fcene is to be de-

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Men independent of Society*.

B. I.

privcd of our gold and filver, and reduced to the
fame mtferable Itate as if the balance had been againft
us from the beginning.

However certain it may be, that an addition to
the quantity of money mult raife the price of
labour and of manufaftures, yet there is a fa£t that
feems to contradid the propofition, which is, that in
no other country are labour and manufadures fo
cheap as in the two peninfulas on the right and left
of the Ganges, though in no other country is there
fuch plenty of money. To account for this Angu-
lar hd:, political writers fay, that money is there
amafled by the nabobs, and withdrawn from circu-
lation. This is not fatisfadory : the chief exporta-
tion from thefe peninfulas is their manufadures, the
price of which comes firft to the merchant and ma-
tt ufafturer ; and how can that happen without raifing
the price of labour ? Rice, it is true, is the food of
their labouring poor ; and an acre of rice yields
more food than five acres of wheat : but the cheap-
nefs of neceflaries, tho* it hath a confiderable influ-
ence in keeping down the price of labour, cannot
keep it conftantly down, in oppofition to an over-
flowingr current of money. The populoufnefs of
thefe two countries is a circumftance totally over-
looked. Every traveller is amazed how fuch fwarms
of people can find bread, however fertile the foil
may be. Let us examine that circumftance. One
thing is evident, that were the people fully employed,
there would not be a demand for the tenth part of
their manufafturcs. Here then is a country where
hand- labour is a drug for want of cmplbyment.
The people at the fame time, fober and inclining to
induftry, are glad to be employed at any rate ; and
whatever pittance is gained by labour makes always
fome addition. Hence it is, that in thefe peninfu-
las, fuperfluity of hands overbalancing both the
quantity of money and the demand for their manu-
fadurcs, fervcs to keep the price extremely low.

I What

Sk. III.

Commerce*

What is now faid difcovers an exception to the
proportion above laid down. It holds undoubtedly
in Europe, and in every country where there is
work for all the people, that an addition to the
circulating coin raifes the price of labour and of
manufadures : but fuch addition has no fenfible
efFcft in a country where there is a fuperfluity of
liands, who are always difpofed to wprk ^hen they
find employment.

From thefe premifes it is evident, that unlefs there
be a fuperfluity of hands, manufadures can never
flouriih in a country abounding with mines of gold
and filver. This in efFe£t is the cafe of Spain : a
conftant influx of thefe metals, raifrng t|ie price of
labour and manufactures, has deprived the Spaniards
pf foreign markets, and alfo of their own : they are
reduced to purchafe from flrangers even the necclfa-
ries of life. What a difmal condition will they be
reduced to, when their mines come to be e^haufled !
The Gold coaft in Guinea has its name from the
plenty of gold that is found there. As it is wafhed
from the hills with the foil in fmall quantities, every
one is on the watch for it ; and the people like
gameflers defpife every other occupation. They are
accordingly lazy and poor. The kingdQm of Fidah in
the neighbourhood, where there is no gold, is popu«>
lous : the people are indudrious, deal in many
branches of manufacture, and are all in eafy circum-
(tances.

To illuftrate this obfervation^ which is of great
importance, I enter more minutely into the condi-
tion of Spain. The rough materials of filk, wool,
and iron, are produced there more perfect than in
any other country ; and yet flouriihing manufactures
of thefe would be ruinous to it in its prefen^ ft^et
Let us only fuppofe, that Spain itfelf co\iId furnifh all
the commodities that are demanded in its American
territories ; what would be the confequence ? The
gpld and filver produced by that trade ^ould circu-
late

Men independent of Society.

B. I,

\m\U

late in Spain : money would become a drug : labour
and manufactures would rife to a high price ; and
every ncceifary of life, not excepting manufactures
of filk, wool, and iron, would be fmuggled into
Spain, the high price there being fufficient to over-
balance every rifc : Spain would be left without in-
duftry, and without people. Spain was adlually in
the flourifhing ftate here fuppofed when America
was difcovercd : the American gold and filver mines
enflamed the difeafe ; and confequently was the
greatcft misfortune that ever befcl that once potent
kingdom. The exportation of our filycr coin to the
Eaft Indies, fo loudly exclaim'd againft by fhallow
politicians, is to us, on the contrary, a molt fubltan-
tial bleffing : it keeps up the value of filver, and con-
fequently leiTens the value of labour and of goods,,
which enables us to maintain our place in foreign
markets. Were there no drain for our filver^ its
quantity in our continent would fink its value fo
much as to render the American mines unprofitable,
Notwithftanding the great flow of money to the Eaft
Indies, many mines in the Weft Indies are given up^
becaufe they afford not the expence of working 5
and were the value of filver in Europe brought
much lower, the whole filver rr* <j in the Weft
Indies would be abandoned. 1 our Eaft-India
commerce, which is thought ruinous by many, be-
caufe it is a drain to much of our filver, is for that
very reafon profitable to all. The Spaniards profit
by importing it into Europe ; and other nations pro-
fit, by receiving it for their manufactures.

Hpw ignorantly do people ftruggle againft the ne-
ceflary chain of caufes and effedts ! If money do not
overflow, a commerce in which the imports exceed
in value the exports, will foon drain a nation of mo-
ney, and put an end to its induftry. Commercial na-
tions for that reafon ftruggle hard for the balance pf
trade j and they fondly imagine, that it cannot be too
advantageous. If greatly advantageous to them, it

muft

Jlllj !f\

Sk. III.

Commerce,

muft in the fame proportion be difadvantageous to
thofc they deal with ; which proves equally ruinous
to both. They forefce indeed, but without concern,
immediate ruhi to thofe they deal with ; but they
have no inclination to forefce, that ultimately it
muft prove equally ruinous to thcmfelves. It ap-
pears the intention of Providence, that all nations
(hould benefit by commerce as by funfhine ; and it is
fo ordered, that an unequal balance is prejudicial to
the gainers as well as to the lofcrs : the latter are im-
mediate fuft'erers ; but no lefs fo ultimately are the
former. This is one remarkable inftance, among
many, of providential wifdom in conducing human
affairs, independent of the will of man, and fre-
quently againfl his will. An ambitious nation, pla-
ced advantagcoufly for trade, would willingly engrofs
all to themfdves, and reduce their neighbours to be
hewers of wood and dravirers of water. But an in-
vincible bar is oppofed to fuch ambition, making an
overgrown commerce the means of its own deftruc-
tion. The commercial balance held by the hand of
Providence, is never permitted to preponderate much
to one fade ; and every nation partakes, or may par-
take, of all the comforts of life. Engrolling is bad
policy : men are prompted, both by intereft and du-
ty, to fecond the plan of Providence; and to pre-
ferve, as near as poflible, equality in the balance of
trade. ,

Upon thcfe principles, a wife people, having ac-
quired a flock of money fufHcient for an cxtenfive
commerce, will tremble at a balance too advantage-
ous : they will reft fatisfied v^ ith an equal balance,
which is the golden mean. A hurtful balance may
be guarded againfl by induftry and frugality : but by
what means is a balance too favourable to be guarded
againfl ? With reipedt to that queftion, it is not the
quantity of gold and filver in a country that raifes
the price of labour and manufafturcs, but the quan-
tity \^ circulation : and may not that quantity be re-
gulated

>ti

i in

-•'H

Men independent of Society.

B. L

■W

gulatcd by the ftate, permitting coinage as far only
as is beneficial to its manufactures f Let the regif-
ters of foreign mints be carefully watched, in order
that our current coin may not exceed that of our in-
duftrious neighbours. There will always be a de-
mand for the furplus of our bullion, either to be ex-
ported as a commodity, or to be purchafed at home
tor plate : which cannot be too much encouraged,
being ready at every crifis to be coined for public
fervice. The fenate of Genoa has wifely burdened
porcelane with a heavy tax, being a foreign luxury ;
but it has no lefs wifely left gold and filver plate free }
which we moft unwifely have loaded with a duty *,
-niThe accumulating money in the public trcafury,
anciently the praftice of every prudent monaich,
prevents fuperfluity. Lies there any good objedion
againil that practice, in a trading nation where gold
and (liver flow in with impetuofity ? A great fum
locked up by a frugal king, Henry VIL of England
for example, lelTens the quantity of money in circu-
lation : profufion in a fucceffor, which was the cafe
with Henry VIIL is a fpur to induftry, fimilar to the
influx of gold and filver from the new world. The
canton of Bern, by locking up money in its treafury,
pofTefTes the miraculous art of reconciling immenfe
wealth with frugality and cheap labour. A climate
not kindly, and a foij not naturally fertile, enured
the inhabitants to temperance and to virtue. Pa-
triotifm is their ruling paffion ; they confider them-
felves as children of the republic ; arc fondoffcrv-
ing their mother ; and hold themfplves fufHciently re-
compenfcd by the privilege of ferving her. The pub-
lic revenue greatly exceeds the expence of govern-
ment : they carefully lock up the furplus for pur-
chafing land when a proper opportunity offers;
which is a fliining proof of their difintereftednefs
as well as of their wifdom. By that politic mea-
fure, much more than by war, the canton of Bern,

from

♦ That duty is wifely taken away by a late *ft.

Sk. III.

Commerce,

.(f »

from a very (lender origin, is now far fupcribr to any
of the other cantons in extent of territory. But in
what other part of the globe are there to be found
minifters of flate, moderate and difmterefted like
the citizens of Bern ! In the hands of a Britiih nii-
niftry, the greatefl: treafure would vaniOi in the
twinkling of an eye ; and do more mifchief by aug-
menting money in circulation above what is faiutary,
than formerly it did good by confining it within mo-
derate bounds. But againfl: fuch a meal'ure there
lies an objection ilill more weighty than its being an
ineffectual remedy : in the hands of an ambitious
prince it would prove dangerous to liberty.

If the foregoing meafures be not reiimcd, I can
difcover no other means for prefcrving our ftation
in foreign markets, but a bounty on exportation.
The fum would be great : but the prefcrving our
induftry and manufadures and the preventing an
influx of foreign manufactures, cannot be put-
chafed too dear. At the fame time, a boimty on
exportation would not bean unfupportable load : on
the contrary, fupcrfluity of wealth, procured by a
balance conftantly favourable, would make the load
abundantly eafy. A proper bounty would balance
the growing price of labour and materials at home,
and keep open the foreign market. By neglecting
that falutary meafure, the Dutch have loft all their
manufactures, a negleCt that has greatly benefited
both England and France. The Dutch indeed aCt
prudently in withholding that benefit as much as
poiTible from their powerful neighbours : to pre-
vent purchafing from them, they confume the ma-
nufactures of India. - ". '"■■"■ iuM>m .^

The manufactures of Spain, once extenfive, have
been extirpated by their gold and filver mines. Au-
thors afcribe to the fame caufe the decline of their
agriculture ; but crroneoufly : on the contrary, fu-
perfluity of gold and filver is favourable to agricul-
ture, by raifing the price of its productions. It

raifes

rK;

tjo Men independent of Society. B. I.

rail'es alfo, it is true, the price of labour ; but that
additional cxpencc is far from balancing the profit
made by high prices of whatever the ground produ>
ces. loo much wealth indeed is apt to make the
tenant prefs into a higher rank : but that is eafily
prevented by a proper heightening of the rent, fo as
always to confine the tenant within his own fphere.

As gold and Alver are eflential to commerce,
foreign and domeftic, feveral commercial nations
have endeavoured moft abfurdly to bar the exporta-
tion by penal laws ; forgetting that gold and filver
will never be exported while the balance of trade is
on their fide, and that they muft neceffarily be ex-
ported when the balance is againfl them. Neither
do they confider, that if a people continue induf-
triousy they cannot be long afflifted with an unfa-
vourable balance j for the value o£ money, rifmg in
proportion to its fcarcity, will lower the price of
their manufadures, ^nd promote exportation : the
balance will turn in their favour ; and money will
flow in, till by plenty its value be reduced to a par
with that of neighbouring nations.

It is an important queition. Whether a bank upon
the whole be friendly to commerce. It is undoubt-
edly a fpur to induftry, like a new influx of money :
but then, like fuch influx, it raifes the price of labour
and of manufactures. Weighing thefe two fafts in
a jud balance, the refult feems to be, that in a
country where money is fcarce, a bank properly con-
ftituted is a great bleifing, as it in effedt increases the
quantity of money, and promotes induftry and. ma-
nufadtures ; but that in a country that poifetles mo-
ney fufficient for extenfive commerce, the only bank
that will not injure foreign commerce, is what is
creeled for fupplying the merchant with ready mo-
ney by difcounting bills. At the fame time, much
caution and circumfpeftion is neceflary with refpe£t
to banks of both kinds. A bank erefled for difcount-
ing bills, ought to be confined to bills really granted

•Sk. III.

Commerce, "

in the courfe of commerce i rcjefting fi£titious bills
drawn merely for procuring a loan ot money. And
with refpc6^ to a bank pur pofely creded for lending
money, there is great danger of extending credit
too far ; not only with rcfpe£t to the bank itfclf, but
with reipcft to the nation in general, by raifmg the
price of labour and of manufaftures, which is the
never-failing rcfult of too great a plenty of money,
whether coin or paper.

The different effeds of plenty and fcarcity of mo-
ney, have not efcaped that penetrating genius, the
fovereign of Pruflia. Money is not fo plentiful in
liis dominions as to make it neceflary to withdraw a
quantity by heaping up treafure. He indeed always
retains in his treafury fix or feveu millions Sterling
for anfwering unforcleen demands : but beitig fen-
fible that the withdrawing from circulation any lar-
ger fum would be prejudicial to commerce, every
farthing faved from the neccffary cxpence of go-
vernment, 15 laid out upon buildings, upon operas,
upon any thing rather than cramp circulation. In
that kingdom, a bank eftablifhed for lending money
would promote ind^ftry and manufactures, ' ''\^_

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SKETCH

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

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'■J. ■■>!/:!Uv
1

SKETCH IV.

Origin and Progrcfs of Arts.

SECTION I.

V(j!;

•'1

.h,.lv

iy^«/ i^r/j,

\ri\in '..

OOME ufcful arts muft be nearly coeval with the
human race ; for food, cloathing, and habitation,
even in their original funplicity, require fome art.
Many other arts are of fuch antiquity as to place the
inventors beyond the reach of tradition. Several
have gradually crept into exiflence, without an in-
ventor. The bufy mind however, accuftomed to a
beginning in things, cannot reft till it find or imagine
a beginning to every art. Bacchus is faid to have
invented wine ; and Staphylus, the mixing water
with wine. The bow and arrow are afcribed by
tradition to Scythos, fon of Jupiter, though a wea-
pon all the world over. Spinning is fo ufeful, that it
muft be honoured with fome illuftrious inventor ; it
was afcribed by the Egyptians to their goddefs Ifis ;
by the Greeks to Minerva ; by the Peruvians to
Mama Ella, wife to their firft foverei^n Mango
Capac ; and by the Chinefe to the wife ot their Em-
peror Yao. Mark here by the way a connection of
ideas: fpinning is a female occupation, and it muft
have had a female inventor *,

r^ In

•'•' " '" : / '. ' ■

* The Ilinou are incIuAricuj above all their American neighbours. Tliely
women are neat-hainJtd : they fpin the wool of their horned cattle, whicn
isaii fine as that of th*; Englifli Hieep. The fluffs made of it arc dyed bbck,
yellow or red, and cut into {garments fewed v/ith ros-buck finews. After
drying thefe finews in the Uin, and beating them, they draw out tlireads as
wliitt" and fine as jiny tl.;it are made of flax, but much tougher.

Sk. IV. I.

Arts,

In the hunter-Aate, men are wholly employed
upon the procuring food, cloathing, habitation, and
other necelfaries ; and have no time nor zeal for (lu-
dying convcnicncics. The cafe of the (hepherd-
flate ad'ords both time and inclination for ufeful
arts ; which are greatly promoted by numbers who
are relieved by agriculture from bodily labour : the
foil, by gradual improvements in hufbandry, ailbrds
plenty with lefs labour than at firft ; and the furplus
hands are employed, firit, in ufeful arts, a^d, next,
in thofc of amufement. Arts accordingly make the
quicked progrefs in a fertile foil, which producer
plenty with little labour. Arts Houriihed early in
Egypt and Chaldea, countries extremely fertile.

When men, who originally lived in caves like
fome wild animals, began to think of a more com-
modious habitation, their firfl: houfes were extremely
fimple ; witnefs thofe of the Canadian favagcs, than
which none can be more fimple, even at prefcnt.
Their houfes, fays Charlevoix, are built with lefs art,
neatnefs, and folidity, than thofe of the beavers;
having neither chimneys nor windows : a hole only
is left in the roof, for admitting light and emitting
fmoke. That hole mufl be flopped when it rains
or fnows; and of courfe the fire is put out,
that the inhabitants may not be flifled with fmoke.
To have palTed fo many ages in that manner without
thinking of any improvement, (hows how greatly
men are influenced by cuftom. The blacks of Ja-
maica are itili more rude in their buildings : their
huts are erected without even a hole in the roof ; and
accordingly at home they breathe nothing but fmoke.

Revenge produced early hoflile weapons. The
club and the dart are obvious inventions : not fo the
bow and arrow ; and for that reafon it is not eafy to
fay how that weapon came to be univerfal. As iron
differs from other metals, being feldom found pure, it
was a late difcovery : at the fiege of Troy, fpears,
darts, and arrows, were headed witji brafs. Mc-

neflhcus,

"1.

,!'«.:

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

nefthcus, who fuccecdcd Thefcus in the kingdom of
Athens, and led fifty fliips to the fiege of Troy, was
reputed the fird who marfhailed an army in battlC"
array. Inllrumcnts of defence are made neccflary
by thofe of offence. Trunks of trees, interlaced
\yith branches, and fupported with earth, made the
firft fortifications; to which fuccceded a wall fiuilh-
cd with a parapet for (hooting arrows at bcfiegers.
As a parapet covers but half of the body, holes
were left in the wall from fpace to fpace, no larger
than to give paffage to an arrow. Beficgers had no
remedy but to beat down the wall : a battering ram
was firft ufed by Pericles the Athenian, and perfcft-
cd by the Carthaginians at the fiege of Gades. To
oppofe that formidable machine, the wail was
built with advanced parapets for throwing ftones
and fire upon the enemy, which kept him at a
diftance. A wooden booth upon wheels, and pufh-
ed clofe to the wall, fecured the men who wrought
the battering ram. This invention was rendered
ineftcttual, by furrounding the wall with a deep
and broad ditch. Befiegers were reduced to the
neceffity of inventing engines for throwing ftones
and javelins upon thofe who occupied the advanced
parapets, in order to give opportunity for filling
up the ditch ; and antient hiftories expatiate upon
the powerful operation of the catapulta and balifta.
Thefe engines fuggefted a new invention for de-
fence 5 inftead of a circular wall, it was built with
falient angles, like the teeth of a faw, in order that
one part might flank another. That form of a wall
was afterward improved, by raifing round towers
upon the fahent angle; and the towers were impro-
ved by making them fquare. The ancients had no
occafion for any form more complete, being fuffici-
ent for defending againft all the miflile weapons at
that time known. The invention of cannon re-
quired a variation in military archetefture. The
firft cannons were made of iron bafs, forming a con-
cave

Sk. IV.

Arts,

')$

cave cylinder, united by rings of copper. The
lirfl cannon-balls were of Hone, which required a
very large aperture. A cannon was reduced to a
fmallcr fizc, by ufing iron for balls inllead of
ftone ; and that deilrudivc engine was pcrfedcd
by making it of calt nnctal. To refift irs force
baflions were invented, horn-works, crown-works,
half-moons, &c. &c. ; and military architrtflure
became a fyftem governed by principles and ge-
neral rules. But all in vain : it has indued pro-
duced fortifications that have made lieges horridly
bloody; but artillery at the fame time has been
carried to fuch perfcdion, and the art of attack
fo improved, that no fortification, it is thought,
can be rendered impregnable. The only impreg-
nable defence, is good neighbourhood among weak
princes, ready to unite whenever one of t' 'rm ig
attacked by fupcrior force. And nothing tends
more effeftually to promote fuch union, than con-
ilant experience that fortifications cannot be relied
on.

With refpeft to naval architedure, the firft vef-
fels were beams joined together, and covered with
planks, pufhed along with poles in (hallow water,
and in deep water drawn by animals on the fhore.
To thefe fucceeded trunks of trees cut hollow,
termed by the Greeks monoxyles. The next were
planks joined together in form of a monoxyle.
The thought of imitating a fifli advanced naval
architedure. A prow was conftrucled in imita-
tion of the head, a ftern with a moveable helm in
imitation of the fins. Sails were at laft added,
which invention was fo early that the contriver is un-
known. Before the year 1545, fhips of war in
England had no port-holes for guns, as at pre-
fent ; they had only a few cannon placed on the
upper deck.

When Homer compofed his poems, at leafl:
during the Trojan war, the Greeks had not ac-
quired

■:&i

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

quired the art of gelding cattle ; they eat the flefh
of bulls and of rams, Kings and princes killed and
cooked their viduals : fpoons, forks, table-cloths,
napkins, were unknown. They fed fitting, the
cuftoni of reclining upon beds being afterward
copied from Afiaj and, like other favages, they
were great eaters. At the time mentioned, they
had not chimneys, nor candles, nor lamps. Torch-
es are frequently mentioned by Homer, but lamps
never : a vafe was placed upon a tripod, in which was
burnt dry wood for giving light. Locks and keys were
not common at that time. Bundles were fecured with
ropes intricately combined {a) ; and hence the fa-
mous Gordian knot. Shoes and ftockings were not
early known among them, nor buttons, nor fad-
dies, nor (tirrups. Plutarch reports, that Gracchus
caufed (tones to be erected along the high-ways lead-
ing from Rome, for the convenience of mounting a
horfe 5 for at that time ftirrups were unknown iu
Rome, though an obvious invention. Linen for
ihirts was not ufed in Rome for many years after
the government became defpotic. Even fo late as
the eighth century, it was not common in Eu-
rope. We are informed by Herodotus, that the Ly-
dians were reputed to be the firft who coined gold
and filver money. This was probably after the Tro-
jan war ; for during that war the Greeks and Tro-
jans trafficked by barter, as Homer relates: Priam
weighs out the ten talents of gold which were the
raniom of his fon's body.

Thales, one of the feven wife men of Greece,
about fix hundred years before Chrift, invented the
following method for meafuring the height of an
Egyptian pyramid. He watched the progrefs of the
fun, till his body and its Ihadow were of the fame
length J and at that inilant mcafured the fliadow of

the

\' ;•( J i ( ». i*

{a) Odyffejr, b. 8. 1, 483. Pope's tranflation.

Sk. IV. I.

Arts*

the pyramid, which confequently gave Its height.
Amafis King of Egypt, prefent at the operation,
thought it a wonderful effort of genius ; and the
Greeks admired it highly. Geometry mud have
been in its cradle at that cime. Anaximander,
fome ages before Chrift, made the firft map of the
earth, as far as then known. About the end of
the thirteenth century, fpeftacles for afliding the
fight were invented by Alexander Spina, a monk of
Pifa. So ufeful an invention cannot be too much
extolled. At a period of life when the judgement
is in maturity, and reading is of great benefit, the
eyes begin to grow dim. One cannot help pitying
the condition of bookifli men before that invention :
many of whom muft have had their fight greatly
impaired, while their appetite for reading was in
vigour.

The origin and progrefs of writing make a capital
article in the hiftory of arts. To write, or, in other
words, to exhibit thoughts to the eye, was early
attempted in Egypt by hieroglyphics. But thefe
were not confined to Egypt : figures compofcd of
painted feathers were ufed in Mexico to cxprels
ideas ; and by fuch figures Montezuma received
intelligence of the Spanifli intafion : in Peru, the
only arithmetical figures known were knots of va-
rious colours, which ferved to caft up accounts.
The fecond ftep naturally in the progrefs of the art
of writing, is, to represent each word by a mark,
termed a letter, which is the Chinefe way of writ-
ing : they have about 11,000 of thefe marks or
letters in comnion ufe; and in matters of fciencc,
they employ to the number of 60,000. Our way is
far more eafy and commodious : inftead of marks
or letters for words, which are infinite, we repre-
fent by marks or letters, the articulate founds that
compofe words : thefe founds exceed not thirty in
number, and confequently the fame number of marks
or letters are fufficient for writing. It was a lucky

Vol. I. H move-

\U'

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,i;

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H'l'

Men independent of Society. B. I.

movement to pafs at one ftep from hieroglyphics,
the mod imperfeft mode of writing, to letters re-
prcfenting founds, the moll perfect ; for there is no
appearance that the Chinefe mode was ever prac-
tifcd in this part of the world. With us, the learn-
ing to read is fo eafy as to be acquired in child-
hood ; and we are ready for the faiences as foon as
the mind is ripe for them : the Chinefe mode, on
the contrary, is an unfurmountable obftruftion to
knowledge ; becanfe, it being the work of a life-
time to read with eafe, no time remains for flu-
dying the fciences. Our cafe was in fome meafure
the fame at the reftoration of learning : it required
an age to be familiarized with Greek and Latin ;
and too little time remained for gathering know-
ledge from books compofed in thefe languages.
The Chinefe (land upon a more equal footing
with i.fped to arts ; for thefe may be ac-
quired by imitation or oral inflruflion, without
books.

The art of writing with letters reprefenting
founds, is of all inventions the moft important, and
the lead obvious. The way of writing in China
makes fo naturally the fccond ftep in the progrefs of
the art, that our good fortune in ftumbling upon a
way fo much more perfeft cannot be fufficiently ad-
mired, when to it we are indebted for our fuperiority
in literature above the Chinefe. Their way of wri-
ting will for ever continue an unfurmountable ob-
ftrudlion to fcience ; for it is fo rivetted by invete-
rate praftice, that the difficulty would not be great-
er to make them change their language than their
letters. Hieroglyphics were a fort of writing, fo
miferably imperied, as to make every improvement
welcome ; but as the Chinefe make a tolerable fhift
with their own letters, they never dream of any im-
provement. Hence it may be pronounced with
great certainty, that in China the fciences, though
Itill in infancy, will never arrive at maturity.

There

Sk. IV 1.

Arts.

Thv 1, is no appearance that writing \^s known
in Greece fo early as the time of Homer ; for in
none of his works is there any mention of it. This>
it is true, is but negative evidence j but negative
evidence muft always command our affent, where
no pofitive evidence Hands in oppofition. If it
was known, it muft have been newly introduced ;
and ufed probably to record laws, religious pre-
cepts, or other (hort compofitions. Ciphers, in-
vented in Hindoftan, were brought into France front
Arabia about the end of the tenth century. The
art of printing made a great revolutiori in learn-
ing. In the days of William the Conqueror books
were extremely fcarce. Grace Countefs of An-
jou paid for a colleflion of homilies two hun-
dred (lieep, a quarter of wheat, another of rye,
and a third of millet, befide a number of martre
{kins. ..■ ^ .1- • ' ^ ■■) ■- t'.<.i "'* ii'^i.~

Hufbandry made a progrefs from Egypt to Greece^
and from Afric to Italy. Mago, a Carthaginian
General, compofcd twenty-eight books upon huf-
bandry, which were tranflated into Latin by order
of the Roman fenate. From thefe fine and fertile
countries, it made its way to colder and lefs kindly
climates. According to that progrefs, agriculture
muft have been praftifed more early in France than
in Britain ; and yet the Englilh at prefent make a
greater figure in that art than the French, inferio-
rity in foil and climate notwithftanding. Before
Iiuft)andry became an art in the northern parts of
Europe, the French noblefle had deferred the coun-
try, fond of fociety in a town-life. Landed gen-
tlemen in England, more rough and delighting
more in hunting and other country-amufements,
found leifure to pradife agriculture. Skill in that
art proceeded from them to their tenants, who now
proiecute huft)andry with fuccefs, though their land-
lords have generally betaken themfclves to a town-
life.

H 2 When

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100

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

.'If;

vt:

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|;4':'|:

When Casfar invaded Britain, agriculture was un-
known in the inner parts ; the inhabitants fed upon
inilk and flcih, and were cloathed with ikins. Hol-
linfhed, who wrote in the period of Queen Ehza-
beth, dcfcribes the rudcnefs of the preceding gene-
ration in the arts of hfe : " There were very few
chimneys even in capital towns : the fire was
laid to the wall, and the fmoke iffued out at the
roof, or door, or window. The houfes were
wattled and plaiftered over with clay; and all
the furniture and utenfils were of wood. The
people llept on ftraw-pallets, with a log of wood
for a piilow.*' Henry II. of France at the mar-
riage of the Duchefs of Savoy, wore the firft filk
ilockings that were made in France. Queen Eli-
zabeth, the third year of her reign, received in a
prefent a pair of black filk knit (lockings ; and Dr.
Howel reports, that ihe never wore cloth hofe any
more. Before the conqueft there was a timber
bridge upon the Thames between London and South-
wark, which was repaired by King William Rufus,
and was burnt by accident in the reign of Henry
II. anno 1 176. -At that time aftonc bridge in place
of it was projefted, but not finiflied till the year
1 2 12. The bridge Notre-Dame ^vcr the Seine in
Paris, was firft of wood. It fell down anno 1499 ;
and as there was not in France a man who would
undertake to rebuild it of ftone, an Italian corde-
lier was employed, whofe name was Joconde, the
fame upon whom Sanizarius made the following
pun :

Jocundus ^eminum impofuit tibi, Sequana, poniem ;
. Hunc injure potes dicere pont'ifice?n.

Two Genoefc, Stephen Turquet and Bartholomew
Narres, laid in the 1536 the foundation of the
filk- manufacture at Lyons. The art of making
glafs was imported from France into England anno
■-■■ I 674,

y^Miii! i

Sk. IV. I.

Arts.

101

In
I-

674, for the ufe of monaftcries. Glafs windows in
private houfes were rare even in the twelfth
century, and held to be great luxury. King Ed-
ward III. invited three ciock-makers of Delft in
Holland to fettle in England. In the former part
of the reign of lienry Vlll. there did not grow
in England -cabbage, carrot, turnit, or other edible
root ; and it has been noted, that even Queen
Catharine herfelf could not command a falad for
dinner, till the King brought over a gardener
from the Netherlands. About the fame time, the
artichoke, the apricot, the damalk rofe, made their
firft appearance in England. Turkeys, carps, and
bops, were firft known there in the year 1524.
The currant-fhrub was brought from the ifland of
Zant anno 1533; and in the year 1540, cherry-
trees from Flanders were firft planted in Kent. It
was in the year 1563 that knives were firft made
in England. Pocket-watches were brought there
from Germany tf««o 1577* About the year 1580,
jQoaches were introduced ; before which time Queen
Elizabeth on public occafions rode behind her
chamberlain. A few-mill was cre£ted in London
anno 1533, but afterward demolifhed, that it
might not deprive the labouring poor of employ-
ment. How crude was the fcience of politics even
in that age ? Coffee-houfes were opened in London
no fooner than the year 1(652. ...

People who are igiwrant of weights and meafures
fell upon odd fhifts to fupply the defed. Howel
Dha Prince of Wales, who died in the year 948,
was their capital lawgiver. One of his laws is, '^ If
any one kill or fteal the cat that guards the
Prince's granary, he forfeits a milch ewe with
her lamb ; or as much wheat as will cover the
cat when fufpended by the taij, the head touch-
ing the ground." By the fame law-giver a fine
of twelve cows is ena^ed for a rape committed
lupon a maid, eighteen for a rape upon a ma-
tron.

'. '^

■ ' i if
i 'i i '

'A B

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102 Men independent of Society. B. I?

tron. If the faft be proved after being denied, the
criminal for his falfity pays as many ihillings as will
cover the woman's pofteriors. The ineafiire of
the mid ft ream for falmon among our fpre-fathers
is not lefs rifible. It is that the mid flream fhall
be fo wide as that a fwine may turn itfelf in it^
without touching either fide with its fnout. of
tail.

The negroes of the kingdom of Ardrah in Gui-»
nea have made great advances in arts. Their towns
for the moft part are fortified, and conneded by
great roads, kept in good repair. Deep canals
from rivjsr to river are commbply filled with ca-
noes, for plcafure fome, ind many for bufmefs.
The vallies are pleafant, producing wheat, millet,
yams, potatoes, lemons, oranges, cocoa-nuts, and
dates. The marftiy grounds near the fea are drain-
ed J and fait is made by evaporating the ftagnat-
ing water. Salt is carried tp the inland coun-
tries by the great canal of Ba, where numberlefs
canoes are daily feen going with fait, and returning
with gold duft or other commodities.

In all countries where the people are barbarous
and illiterate, the pirogrefs of arts is wofully flow.
It is vouched by an old French poem, that the vir-
tues of the loadftone were known in France be-
fore the yeai: 1180. The mariner's compafs was
exhibited at Venice ^«/2(? 1260 by Paulus Venetus,,
as his OTyn invention. John Goya of Amalphi was
the firft whoi'many years afterward, ufed it in
navigation ; and alfo pafled for being the inventor.
Though it was ufed in China for navigation long
before it was known in Europe, yet to this day
it is not fo perfeft as in Europe. Inltead of fufpend-
ing it in order to make it aft freely, it is placed
upon a bed of fand, by which every motion of the
fhip difturbs its operation. Hand-mills, termed
querns, were early ufed for grinding corn ; an4

when

Sk. IV. 1.

^rts.

W
11

103

when corn caine to be raifcd in greater quantity, horfe-
mills luccecded. Wattr-niills for grinding corn
are defcribcd by Vitruvius (a). Wind-mills were
known in Greece and in Arabia as early as the fe-
venth century ; and yet no mention is made of them
in Italy till the fourteenth century. That they were
not known in England in the reign of Henry VIII.
appears from a houfchold book of an Earl ot Nor-
thumberland, cotemporary with that King dating
an allowance for three miil-horfes, " two to draw
*' in the mill, and one to carry (luff to the mill and
" fro." Water-mills for corn muft in England
have been of a later date. The ancients had mir-
ror-glaifes, and employed glafs to imitate cryftal
vafes and goblets : yet they never thought of ufmg
it in windows. Jn the thirteenth century, the Ve-
netians were the only people who had the art of
making cryftal glafs for mirrors. A clock that
ftrikes the hours was unknown in Europe till the
end of the twelfth century. Apd hisnce the cuftom
of employing men to proclaim the hours during
night; >yhich to this day continues in Germany,
Flanders, and England. Galileo was the firft who
conceived an idea that a pendulum might he ufe-
ful for meafu ring time ; and Hughens was the firft:
who put the idea in execution, by making a pendu-
lum clock. Hook, in the year i66o, invented a
fpiral fpring for a watch, though a watch was far
from being a new invention. Paper was made ho
earlier than the fourteenth century ; and the in-
vention of printing was a century later. Silk ma-
nufaclures were long eftabliflied in Gfecce before
filk-worms were introduced there. T{ie manu-
facturers were provided with raw filk from Pprfia :
but that commerce being frequently interrupted by
war, two monks, in the reign of Juftinian, brought
eggs of the filk-worm from Hindpftan, and taught

their

^j) L. 10. cap. lo.

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104

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

lit

their countrymen the method of managing them.
The art of reading made a very flow progrefs. To
encourage that art in England, the capital punifh-
ment for murder was remitted if the criminal could
but read, which in law language is termed Oene/it of
clergy. One would imagine that the art muft have
made a very rapid progrefs whcQ fo greatly favour-
ed : but there is a fignal proof of the contrary ; for
fo fma-U an edition or the Bible as fix hundred co-
pies, tranflated into Englifli in the reign of Henry
Vlll. was not wholly fold off in three years. The
people of England muft have been profoundly igno-
rant in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged
claufe added to the twentieth article of the Englifli
creed pafled unnoticed till about forty years ago *.
The Emperor Rodolphus anno 1281 appointed all
public ads to be written in the German language,
inftead of Latin as formerly. This was imitated in
France, but not till the year 1539. In Scotland to
this day charters, feifins, precepts of C/arg con^at,
and fome other land-titles, continue to be in La-
tin, or rather a fort of jargon. Ignorance is the
mother of devotion, to the church and to lawyers.

The difcoveries of the Portuguefe in the weft
coaft of Africa, is a remarkable inftance of the
flow progrefs of arts. In the beginning of the fif-
teenth century, they were totally ignorant of that
coaft beyond Cape Non, 28 deg. north latitude.
In the year 141 o the celebrated Prince Henry of

For-

,f!

fill

* In the aft i^th Elizabeth, a^no 1571, confirming the thirty-nine arti-
cles of the church of England, thefe articles are not engroiTed, but referred to
as comjjrifed in a printed hook, intitled, Articles agreed to by the luhole clergy in
rr-KTocathn holfien tit Lontirn 1 562. The forged claufe is, " The church has
" power to decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in controversies of
*• faith." That claufe is not in the articles referred to ; nor the Highteft
hint of any authority with refpedl to matters of faith. In the fame year 157 1,
the articles were printed both in Latin and En^iHi, precifely as in the year
J 562. Hut foon after tame out fpurious editions, in which the faid claufe
was foifted into tl>c twentieth article, and continues fo to this day. A for-
gery fo impudent woulH not pafs at prcfent } find its fuccefs Ihows great ig-
norance in the people cf England at that period.

Sk. IV. 1.

Arts,

105

Portugal fitted out a fleet for difcovcrlcs, which
proceeded along the coafl to Cape Bojadore in 26
deg. ; but had not courage to double it. In 1418
Triflran Vaz difcovered the ifland Porto Santo ; and
the year after the illand Madeira was difcover-
ed. In 1439 a Portuguefe captain doubled Cape
Bojadore ; and the next year the Portuguefe reach-
ed Cape Blanco, lat. 20 deg. In 1446 Nuna Trif-
tan doubled Cape Verd, lat. 14°. 40'. In 1448 Don
Gonzallo Vallo took pofleflion of the Azores. In
the year 1449 the iflands of Cape Verd were difco-
verqji for Don Henry. In the year 1471 Pedro
d'Efcovar difcovered the ifland St. Thomas and
Prince's ifland. In 1484 Diego Cam difcovered the
kingdom of Congo. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz^
employed by John II. of Portugal doubled the
Cape of Good Hope, which he called Cabo Tor-
mentofo, from the tempefl:uous weather he found in
the paflage.

More arts have been invented by accident than
by inveftigation. The art of porcelain is more in-
tricate than that of glafs. The Chinefe however
have pofTefled the former many ages without know-
ing any thing of the latter till they were taught by
Europeans.

The exertion of natural fpirit upon any particu-
lar art, promotes adivity to profecute other arts.
The Romans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in
the art of war, which led them to improve upon
other arts. Having in the progrefs of fociety ac-
quired fome degree of tafte and polifh, a talent for
writing broke fprth. Nevius compofed in verfc
feven^ books of the Punic war ; belide comedies,
replete with bitter raillery againfl: the nobility (a).
Ennius wrote annals and an epic poem {b). Lu-
cius Andronicus was the father of dramatic poetry

(a) Titus Livius, lib. 7. c, a.
{b) Quintilian, lib, 10. c. i7»

■j

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106 Men independent of Society. B. I.

in Rome (c), Pacuvius wrote tragedies (^).
Plautus and Terence wrote comedies, l.ucilius
compofcd latircs, which Cicero elleems to be llight,
and void oi erudition (t;. Fabius Pi£lor, Cincius
Alimentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and C^to,
were rather annaiifts than hidorians, confining
themfelves to naked fa6ls, ranged in order oT
time. The genius of the Romans for the fine ?rts
was much inflamed by Greek learning, when free
intercourfc between the two nations was opened.
Many of thofe who made the greateft figure ip the
Roman ftate, commenced authors, Caefar, Cicero,
&c. Sylla compofcd memoirs of his own tranfacti-
ons, a work much eftc^med even in the days of
Plutarch.

The progrefs of art fcldom fails to be rapid,
when a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid
itate by fome fortunate change of circumftances :
profperity pontrafted with former abafement, gives
to the mind a fpring, which is vigoroufly exerted in
every new purfuit. The Athenians made no figure
under the tyranny of Pififtratus ; but upon re-
gaining freedom and independence, they became
heroes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being de-
itroyed by the King of Perfia, and tjie inhabitants
made (laves ; the Athenians, deeply affected with
the mifery of their brethren, boldly attacked that
King in his own dominions, and burnt the city of
Sardis, In jcfs than ten ytais after, they gained a
fignal viftory over him at Marathon ; and under
Ihemilkocles, made head againfl a prodigious army
with which Xerxes threatened utter ruin to Greece.
Such profperity produced its ufual tffed : arts flou-
riflied with arms, and Athens became the chief
theatre for fciences as well as fine arts. The reign
of Auguflus Csefar, which put an end to the rancour

(1) Cicero Dcoiatore, lih. a. No. 72.
(d) De oratore, lib. 2. No. 193,

(<•) De finibus, lib. i. No. 7.

cc
fc
((
«(
«

C(
(C
C(
(C

to t

ans,

gart

mer

defi

Sk. IV. u

Arts*

107

of civil war, and rcftorcd peace to Rome with the
comforts of focicty, proved an aufjVicious ajra for
literar.re ; ai»d produced "x cloud of Latin hiftori-
ans, potts, and philofophcrs, to whom the mo-
derns are indebted for their taflc and talents. One
who makes a figure roufes emulation in all : one
catches fire from another, and the national fpirit
llourifhcs ; clailical works are conipofed, and ufe-
ful difcoverics made in every art ^nd fciencc.
This i airly accounts for the following obfervation of
Velleius Paterculus («), that eminent incn gene-
rally appear in the fame period oi tinic, '• One
' age," fays he," produced Kfciiyhi:, Sophocles, and
' Euripides, who advanced tragedy to a great
height. In another age the old conudy flourifli-
ed under Egpolis, Cratitius, and Arillophanes ;
and the new w^s invented by Menandcr, and his
cotcmporaries J3iphilas and riiiicinon, whofe
compofitions are fo p<:rfect that ihty h<tvc left to
pofterity no hope of. rivallhip. The j^hiiofophic
iages of the Socratic fchool, aj>peared ail about
the time of Plato and Ariftotle. Aiid ys to rhe-
toric, few excelled in that art before Ifocrates, ■
and as fe\y after the fecond dcfccut of his fcho-
lars." The hiflorian applies the fame obfervation
to the Romans, and extends it even to grammari-
ans, painters, flatuaries, and fculptors. With re-
gard to Rome, it is true that the Roman govern-
ment under Auguilus was in ciTcd defpouc : but
defpotifm in that lingle inflance made no obilructi-
on to literature, it having been the ])oruic of that
reign to hide power as much as pofliblc. A hmi-
lar revolution happened in Tufcany about three
centuries ago. 'I'hat country was divided into
many fmall republics, which by mutual hatred, ufual
between nations in clofe neighbourhood, became fe-
rocious i^nd bloody. Thefe republics being united

under

"1
■■ 111

it, A..-

n-'

, ,f ' '. ' !

(<i) Hiftorla Romana, lib. i. in fine.

io3

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

under the Great Duke of Tufcany, enjoyed the
fwcets of peace in a mild government. That com-
fortable revolution, which made the deeper impref-
fion by a rctrofpeft to recent calamities, roufrd the
national fpirit, and produced ardent application to
«rts and literature. The rcftoration of the royal
family in England, which put an end to a cruel and
envenomed civil war, promoted improvements of
every kind : arts and induftry made a rapid pro-
grefs among the people, though left to themfdves
by a weak and flu^uating adminidration. Had the
nation, upon that favourable turn of fortune, been
blcfled with a fucccflion of able and virtuous pr'ncc;,
to what a height might not arts and fcieiices have
been carried ! In Scotland, a favourable period for
improvements was the reign of the firft Robert, af-
ter fhaking off the Englifh yoke : but the domineer-
ing Ipirit of the feudal fyftem rendered abortive eve-
ry attempt. The redoration of the royal family,
mentioned above, animated the Icgiflature of Scot-
land to promoi: manufactures of various kinds : but
in vain ; for the union of the two crowns had in-
troduced defpotilm into Scotland, which funk the
genius of the people, and rendered them heartlefs
and indolent. Liberty indeed and many other ad-
vantages, were procured to them by the union of
the two kingdoms ; but thcfe falutary effects were
long fufpended by mutual enmity, fuch as com-
monly fubfifts between neighbouring nations. En-
mity wore awav gradually, and the cy?s of the Scots
were opened to the advanf'gcs ':^ ^heir /''^nt
condition : the national fpirii vas toufed to emu-?
late and to excel ; talents were exerted, hitherto la-
tent ; and Scotland at prefent makes a figure in arts
and fcicnces, above what it ever made while aninde-
r. udent !Jngdom*.

Another

* In Scotland, an innocent bankrupt imprifoned for debt, obtains liberty
fcy a procefs termed Ceffio ionprum. From the year 1694. to 1744. there

vert

Sk. IV. I.

Ark,

109

Another caurr' of a£Hvity and animation, is the
being engagrd in Ibm'' important adlion of douhtiul
event, a ftrugj^Ic for liberty, the rcfifting a potent
invader, or the like. Greece, divided into imall
ftates frequently at uar, with <*ach othc r, advanced
literature and the fine arts to umivalled perfcdlion.
The Corficans, while engaged in a perilous war for
defence of their liberties, excrtrd a vi^;orous nati-
onal fpirit : they founded an univerfity for arts and
fcienccs, a public library, and a public bank. After
a long ftupor during the dark ages of Chriftianity,
arts and literature revived among the turbulent flates
of Italy. The royal fociety in London , and the aca-
demy of fciences in Paris, were both of them infti-
tuted after civil wars that had animate i the people,
and roufed their activity.

An ufeful art is feldom loft, becaufe t is in con-
ftant practice. And yet, tho* many ufef il arts were
in perfection during the reign of Auguftus Caefar, it
is amazing how ignorant and ftupid men became,
after the Roman empire was fhattered by northern
barbarians : they degenerated into favages. So ig-
norant were the Spanifh Chriftians during t e eighth
and ninth centuries, that Alphonfus the Great, King
of Leon, was neceffitated to employ Maliometan
preceptors for educating his eldeft fon. Even Char-
lemagne could not fign his name : nor was ht: Angu-
lar in that refpedt, being kept in countenance by fe-
veral neighbouring princes.

As the progrefs of arts and fciences toward perfec-
tion is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is
fatal to an art or fcience than to remove that

fpur, as wher^ fome extraordinary genius appears
who foars above rivalfhip. Mathematics feem to be

declined

were but twenty -four procefles of that kind; which (hows how languidly
trade was carried on while the people remained ignorant of their advantages
by the union. From that time to the year 1771 there have been thrice that
number every year, taking one year with another ; an evident proof of the
late rapid progrefs of commerce in Scotland, Every one ii roufed to venture
his fmall fiock, tho' every one cannot be fucccfsful.

h L. J 1^

no Men independent of Society.. B.I.

declined in Britain : the great Newton, having
furpaflbd all the ancients, has not left to the moderns
even the fainted hope of equalling him ; and what
man will enter the lifts who dcfpairs of viftory ?

In early times, the inventors of ufeful arts were
remembered with fervent gratitude. Their hiftory
became fabulous by the many incredible exploits at-
tributed to them. Diodorus Siculus mentions the
Egyptian tradition of Ofiris, that with a numerous
army he traverfed every inhabited part of the globe,
in order to teach men the culture of wheat and of
the vine. Befide the impradicability of fupporting
a numerous army where hufbandry is unknown, no
army could enable Ofiris to introduce wheat or wine
among ilupid favages who live by hunting and fifh-
ing ; which probably was the cafe, in that early
period, of all the nations he vifitcd.

In a country thinly peopled, where even ncceffary
arts want hands, it is common to fee one perfon
exercifmg more arts than one : in feveral parts of
Scotland, the fame man ferves as a phyfician, fur*
gedn, and apothecary. In a very populous coun*
try, even fimple arts are fplit into parts, and there ia
an artift for each part : in the populous towns of an*
cient Egppt, a phyfician was confined to a fingle
difeafe; In mechanic arts that mode is excellent.
As a hand confined to a fingle operation becomes
both expert and expeditious, a mechanic art is per-
fected by having its different operations diftributed
among the grcateft number of hands : many hands
are employed in making a watch ; and a ftill greater
number in manufacturing a web of woollen cloth.
Various arts or other preparations carried on by the
fame m.an, invigorate his mind, becaufe they exer-
cife different faculties : and as he cannot be equally
expert in every art or operation, he is frequently re-
duced to fupply a want of Ikill by thought and inven-
tion. Conftant application on the contrary, to a fin-
gle operation, confines the mind to a fingle objeft,

2 and

Sk. IV. I.

Arts,

III

and excludes all thought and invention : in fiich a
train of life, the operator becomes dull and ftuiytd,
like a beall of burden. The difference is vifible
in the manners of the people: in a country where,
from want of hands, feveral occupati^jns muft be car-
ried on by the fame perfon, the people are knowing
and converfable : in a populous country where ma-
nufadures flourifh, they are ignorant and unl'ociable.
The fanie effedt is vifible in countries where an art or
manufadlure is confined to a certain clafs of rnen. It
is vifible in Hindoftan, where the people are divided
into cdjis, which never mix even by marriage, and
where every man follows his father's trade. The
Dutch lint-boors are a fimilar inftance : the fanie fa-
milies carry on the trade from generation to genera-
tion ; and are accordingly ignorant and brutiih even
beyond other Dutch peafaiits. The inhabitants of
Buckhaven, a feaport in the county of Fife, were
originally a colony of foreigners, invited hither to
teach our people the art of fifhing. They continue
filhers to this day, marry among themfelves, have
little intercourfe with their neighbours, and are dull
and ftiipid to a proverb *.

A gentleman of a moderate fortune pafTed his timd
while hulbandry was alleep, like a Birmingham
workman who hammers a button from morning to
evening. A certain gentleman who lived on his
eftate, iflued forth to walk as the clock (truck ele-
ven. Every day he trod the fame path, leading to
an eminence which opened a view of the fea. A
rock on the fummit was his feat, where after
reding an hour he returned home at leifure. It is
not a little fingular that t^is exercife was repeated
day after day for forty-three years without inter-
ruption

* Popvilatlon has one advantage not commonly thought of, wliicli Is,
that it banifhes ghofts and apparitions. Such imaginary beings are never
feen but by foiitary perfons in foiitary places. In great towns they are un-
known : you never hear of fuch a thing in Holland, which in ctto^ is one
great town.

'■ «ii

' i

112 Men independent of Society. B.I,

ruption for the laft twenty years of the gentleman's
life. And though he has been long dead, the im-
preflion of his heels in the fod remains vifible to this
day. Men by inadion degenerate into oyfters.

SECT. II.

Hi:

Progrefs cf Tajie and other Fine Arts.

X H E fenfe by which we perceive right and
wrong in actions, is termed the moral fenfe : the fenfc
by which we perceive beauty and deformity in ob-
jedts, is termed tq^e. Perfeclion in the moral fenfe
confifts in perceiving the minutefl: differences of
tight and wrong : perfedtion in tafte confifts in per-
ceiving the minuteft differences of beauty and defor-
mity ; and fuch perfection is termed delicacy of
tafle {a).

The moral fenfe is born with us ; and fo is tafte:
yet both of them require much cultivation. Among
lavages, the moral fenfe is faint and obfcure ; and
tafte ftill morefo *. Even in the moft enlightened
ages, it requires in a judge both education and ex—
pericnce to perceive accurately the various modi-
fications of right and wrong : and to acquire delica-
cy of tafte, a man muft grow old in examining beau-
ties and deformities. In Rome, abounding with pro-
ductions of the fine arts, an illiterate (liopkeeper is a
more correct judge of ftatues, of pictures, and of
buildings, than the beft-educated citizen of Lon-
don {b). Thus tafte goes hand in hand with the

moral

(^j) EFements of Cilticifm, vol. i, p. 112. edit, 5.

♦ Some Iroc'uois, after feeing all the beauties of Paris, admired notliing
but the Ilrcet De la Houchctte^ where they found a conftanl fupply of cat-
allcs.

(i) Elementi of Cilticifm, chap. 25.

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

'13

moral fenfe in their progrefs towards maturity, and
they ripen equally by the fame fort of culture.
Want, a barren foil, cramps the growth of both :
fenfuality, a foil too fat, corrupts both : the middle
ftate, equally diftant from difpiriting poverty, and
luxurious fenfuality, is the foil in which both of
them flouriih.

As the fine arts are intimately conne£ted with
tafte, it is impradicable, in tracing their progrefs, to
feparate them by accurate limits. I join therefore
the progrefs of the fine arts to that of tafte, where
the former depends entirely on the latter j and I han-
dle feparately the progrefs of the fine arts, where
that progrefs is influenced by other circumilances
befide tafte.

During the infancy of tafte, imagination is fufFer-
ed to roam, as in lleep, without controul. Wonder
is the paflion of favages and of ruftics ; to raife
"which, nothing is neccffary but to invent giants and
magicians, fairy-land and inchantment. The earlieft
exlpoits recorded of warlike nations, are giants mow-
ing down whole armies, and little men overcoming
giants ; witnefs Joannes Magnus, Torfeus, and other
Scandinavian writers. Hence the abfurd romances
that delighted the world for ages ; which are now
funk into contempt every where. The more fu-
pernatural the fads related are, the more is wonder
raifed ; and in proportion to the degree of wonder is
the tendence to belief among the vulgar (^). Ma-
dame dc la Fayette led the way to novels in the
prefent mode. She was the firft who introduced
fentiments inftead of wonderful adventures, and
amiable men infteiad of bloody heroes. In fubfti-
tuting diftreffes to prodigies, flie made a difcovery,
that perfons of tafte and feeling are more attached
bv companion than by wonder.
'Vol. I. I . 5y

U) Elements of Criticifm, vol. i, p. 1C3. edit. 5, • -. .

%^H

,. I

114

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

By the improvement of our rational faculties,
truth and nature came to bear fway : incredible fic-
tions were baniflied : a remaining bias however for
wonder paved the way to bombafl language, turgid
fimiles, and forced metaphors. The Song of Solo-
mon, and many other Afiatic compofitions, afford
examples without end of fuch figures. Thefe are
commonly attributed to force of imagination in a
warm climate ; but a more extenfive view will fhow
this to be a miltake. In every climate, hot and
cold, the figurative flyle is carried to extravagance,
during a certain period in the progreis of writing ; a
ftyle that is rdifhcd by all at firfl:, and continues to
delight many till it yield to a tafte polifhed by long-
experience (ii). Kven in the bitter-cold country of
Iceland, we are at no lofs for examples. A rainbow
is termed Br'ulgeof the gods : gold. Tears of Fry a : the
earth is termed Daughter of Nig/jt, the veffel that
Jioats upon Ages ; and herbs and plants are her hair^
or her Jlccce. Ice is termed the great bridge : a fhip,
/jorfc of the floods. Many authors foolilhly con-
jecture, that the Hurons and fome other neighbour-
ing nations, are of Afiatic extradtion ; becaufe, like
the Afiatics, their difcourfe is highly figurative.

The national progrefs of morality is How : the na-
tional progrefs of tafle is ftill flower. In proportion
as a nation polUhes and improves in the arts of peace,
tafle ripens. The Chinefe had long enjoyed a regu-
lar fyfieni of government, while the Europeans
were comparatively in a chaos ; and accordingly li-
terary compofitions in China were brought to per-
feclion more early than in Europe. In their poetry
they indulge no incredible fables, like thofe of
Arioflo or the Arabian Tales ; but commonly felcct
fuch as afford a good moral. Their novels, like
. thofe of the moft: approved kind among us, treat ol"
misfortunes unforefeen, unexpected good luck, and

finding

{*) ElemenH of CritIcifm,vol, z, p. 184. 284. edit. 5,

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

>i5

finding out their real parents. The Orphan of
China, coinpofed in the fourteenth century, furpafles
far any European play of that early period. But
good writing has made a more rapid progrefs with
us ; not from fuperiority of talents, but from the
great labour the Chinefe mull undergo, in learning to
read and write their own language. The Chinefe
tragedy is indeed languid, and not fufficiently in-
terefting ; which M. Voltaire afcribes to want of ge-
nius. With better reafon he might have afcribed it
to the nature of their government, fo well contrived
for preferving peace and order, as to afford few ex-
amples of furprifing events, and little opportunity for
exerting manly talents.

A nation cannot acquire a tafte for ridicule till it
emerges out of the favage ftate. Ridicule however
is too rough for refined manners: Cicero difcovers
in Plautus a happy talent for ridicule, and peculiar
delicacy of wit ; but Horace, who figured in the
court of Auguftus, eminent for delicacy of tafte,
declares againfl: the low roughnefs of that author's
raillery (rt). The fame Cicero, in a letter to Papi-
rius Foetus, complains that by the influx of foreigners
the true Roman humour was loll:. It was not the
influx of foreigners, but the gradual progrefs of
manners from the rough to the poliflied. The high
burlefque ftylc prevails commonly in the period
between barbarity and politeneis, in which a tafte
fomewhat improved difcovers the ridicule of former
manners. Rabelais in France, and Butler in Eng-
land are illuftrious examples. Dr. Swift is our latelt
burlefque writer, and probably is the lait.

Emulation among a multitude of fmall ftates in
Greece, was enflamed by their public games : by
that means, tafte ripened, and the fine arts were pro-
moted. Tafte refines gradually ; and is advanced

1 2 toward

{a) Element? of Criticifin, chap. a. part z.

f,l^

ii6 Men independent of Society.

B.I.

toward pcrfcclion by a diligent fludy of beautiful
produdions. Kome was indebted to Greece, for
that delicacy of tafte which flione during the reign
of Auguftiis, efpecially in literary compofitions. But
tade could not long flourifh in a defpotic govern-
ment : fo low had the Roman tafte fallen in the reign
of the Emperor Hadrian, that nothing would pleafe
Iiim but to fupprefs Homer, and in his place to inftall
a filly Greek poet named Antimachus.

The northern barbarians who defolated the Ro-
man empire and revived in fome meafure the favagc
ftate, occafioned a woful decay of tafte. Pope Gre-
gory the Great ftruck with the beauty of fome
Saxon youths expofed to fale in Rome, alked to
what country they belonged. Being told they were
Angles, he laid that they ought more properly to be
denominated angels ; and that it was a pity fo beau-
tiful a countenance fliould cover a mind devoid of
grace. Hearing that the name of their province
was Deih, a divifion of Northumberland, " Deiri !"
replied he, " excellent : they are called to the mercy
*« of God from his anger \_de ira]." Being told,
alfo, that Alia was the king of that province,
" Alleluia," cried he, " we muft endeavour that
" the praifes of God be fung in their country."
Puns and conundrums pafled in ignorant times for
Sterling wit. Pope Gregory Y\\. anno 1080, pre-
iented to the Emperor Rodolph a crown of gold
with the following infcription : Petra dedii Petro,
Petrus d'uidcma Rodolpho. Miferably low muft tafte
have been in that period, when a childifli phy of
words was retiftied as a proper decoration for a fe-
rious folemnity.

Pope Innocent III. anno 1207. made a prefent of
jewels to John, King of England, accompanied with
the following letter, praifed by Pcrc Orleans as full
of fpirit and beauty. " Confider this prefent with

refped to form, number, matter, and colour.

The circular figure of the ring denotes eternity,

which

((

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts*

which has neither beginning nor end. And by
that figure your mind will be elevated from
things terreftrial to things celcftial. The num-
ber of four, making a fquare, denotes the
firmnefs of a heart, proof againfl both adverfity
and profperity ; efpecially when fupported by the
four cardinal virtues, judice, ftrength, prudence,
and temperance. By the gold, which is the
metal of the ring, is denoted wifdom, which ex-
cels among the gifts of Heaven as gold docs among
" metals. Thus it is faid of the MelTiah, that the
fpirit of wifdom (hall relt upon him : nor is there
any thing more neceflary to a king, which made
Solomon requeft it from (Jod preferably to all
other goods. As to the colour of the ftones, the
green of the emerald denotes faith ; the purity of
the faphire, hope j the red of the granite, cha-
rity ; the clearnefs of the topaz, good works,
** You have therefore in the emerald what will in-
*' creafe your faith ; in the faphire, what will en-
courage you to hope ; in the granite, what will
prompt you to love ; in the topaz, what wijl ex-
cite you to adt ; till having mounted by degree^
to the perfedion of all the virtuesi you (cqn^e ^t
lad to fee the God of gods in the celeftial Siqn."
The famous golden bull of Germany, digefted
anno 1356 by Bartolus, a celebrated lawyer, and in-
tended for a malter-piece of compofition, lai replete
with wild conceptions, without the leaft regard to
truth, propriety, or connection. It begins with an
apoftrophe to Pride, to Satan, to Choler, and to
Luxury : it afferts, that there muft be feven eledlors
for oppofmg the feven mortal fms : the fall of the
angels, terreftrial paradife, Pompey, and Caefar, are
introduced ; and it is faid, that Germany is founded
ori'the Trinity, and on the three theological virtues.
What can be more puerile ! A fermon preached by
the Bifhop of Bitonto, at the opening of the council
of Trent, excels in that mode of compofition. He

proves^

«(

((

■■1

'r-il

(

si.

I'J

] . . ; 17

''1

.1 ;

t .'*a

^;i

ii8 Men inJepcriUent of Society. B.I.

proves, that a council is neceflary ; becaufc fcveral
councils have extirpated herely, and depofed kings
and emperors ; becaufe the poets aflemble councils
of the gods ; becaufe Mofes writes, that at the cre-
ation ot man and at confounding the language of
the giants, God afted in^the manner of a council ;
becaufe religion has thi^e heads, doftrine, facra-
ments, and charity, and that thefe three are termed
a council. He exhorts the members of the council to
flritl: unity, like the heroes in the Trojan horfe.
He aflerts, that the gates of paradife and of the
council are the fame ; that the holy fathers iliould
fprinkle their dry hearts with the living water that
flowed from it ; and that otherwife the Holy Ghofl
would open their mouths like thofe of Balaam and
Caiaphas {a). James I. of Britain dedicates his De-
claration againft Vorftius to our Saviour in the fol-
lowing words. '^ To the honour of our Lord and
Saviour Jefus Chrift, the eternal Son of the e-
ternal Father, the only Theanthropos, mediator
and reconciler of mankind ; in fign of thankful-
nefs, his moft humble and obliged fervant, James,
by the grace of God, King of Great Britain,
•' France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, doth
*' dedicate and confecrate this his Declaration.'*
Funeral orations were fome time ago in falhion,
Regnard, who was in Stockholm about the year
1 680, heard a funeral oration at the burial of a fer-
vant-maid. The prieft, after mentioning her parents
and the place of her birth, praifed her as an excel-
lent cook, and enlarged upon every ragout that flie
made in perfection. She had but one fault, he faid,
w hich was the falting her difhes top much j but that
ihe iliewed thereby her prudence, of which fait is
the fymbol ; a ftroke of wit that probably was ad-
mired by the audience. Funeral orations are out ot
fafliion : the futility of a trite panegyric purchafed

with

J i

(.0 Fatlier Taul's liiftory of Trent, lib. i.

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

119

»>

with money, and indecent flattery in circumftanccs
that require fincerity and truth, could not long (land
againft improved tafte. The yearly feafl o^ the afs
that carried the mother of God into Eg)pi, was a
moft ridiculous farce, highly rcliflied in the dark
ages of Chriftianity. Sec the defcription of that
fcaft in Vohaire's General Hiftory {a).

The public amufements of our forefathers, fliow
the groflhcfs of their tafte after they were reduced
to barbarifm by the Goths and Vandals, The plays
termed Myjieries, becaufe they were borroAy'd from
the fcriptures, indicate grofs n>anners as well as
infantine tafte ; and yet in France, not farther back
than three or four centuries, thefe Myflteries were
fuch favourites as conftantly to make 4 parj: at every
public feftival. In a Spaniih play or myftery Jefus
Chrift and the devil, ridiculoufly dreffed, cntej: into
a difpute about fome point of controverfy, are in-
flamed, proceed to blows, and finifh the entertain-
ment with a faraband. The reformation of religion,
which roufed a fpirit of enquiry, banifhed that a-
mufement, not only as low but as indecent. A fort
of plays fucceeded, termed Moralities, lefs indecent
indeed, but little preferable in point of compofi-
tion. Thefe Moralities have alfo been long banifh-
ed, except in Spain, where they (till continue iri
vogue. The devil is commonly the hero : nor dp
the Spaniards make any difficulty, even in their
more regular plays, to introdiice fupernatural and
allegorical beings upon the fame ftage with men and
women. The Cardinal Colonna, carried into Spain
a beautiful buft of the Emperor Caligvjla. In the
war about the fucceflion of Spain, after the
death of its king Charles IL Lord Gallway, upon
a painful fearch, found that buft fervi^g as a weight
to a church-clock. ^

In the days of our unpolimed forefathers, wljo
fvere governed by pride as well as by hatred, prin-
ces

(*) Chap 78,

K i

W9fl .

i-V.

I20 Men independent of Society. B. f.

CCS and men of rank entertained a changeling, dif-
tinguiihed by the name o( fool ; who being the butt
of their fiily jokes, flattered their felf-conceit.
Such amufement, no lefs grofs than inhuman, could
not fhow its face even in the dawn of tade : it was
rendered lefs infipid and lefs inhuman, by entertain-
ing one of real wit ; who, under difguife of a fool,
was indulged in the mod fatirical truths. Upon a
further purification of tafte, it was difcovered, that
to draw amufement from folly, real or pretended,
is below the dignity of human nature. More re-
fined amufcments were invented, fuch as balls, pub-
lic fppclacles, gaming, and fociety with women.
ParaiiteSy defcribed by Plautus and Terence, were
of fuch a rank as to be permitted to dine with
gentlemen ; and yet were fo defpicable as to be the
butt of every man's joke. They were placed at
the lower end of the table ; and the gueiis diverted
themfclves with daubing their faces, and even kick-
ing and cufBng them ; all which was patiently borne
for the fake of a plentiful meal. They refembled
the fools and clowns of later times, being equally
intended to be laughed at : but the paralite profef-
fion Ihows grofler manners ; it being fhockingly in-
delicate in a company of gentlemen, to abufe one of
their own number,, however contemptible in point
of character.

Pride, which introduced fools, brought dwarfs
alfo into fafhion. In Italy, that tafte was carried to
extravagance, " Being at Rome in the year 1556,"
fays a French writer, " I was invited by Cardinal
*' Vitelli to a feaft, where we were ferved by no
*' fewer than thirty-four dwarfs, moft of them hor-
*' ribly diftorted.'' Was not the tafte of that Cardie
«al horribly diftorted ? The fame author adds, that
Francis I. and Henry II. Kings of Frapcc, had
many dwarfs : one named Great John was the leaft
ever had been fecn except a dwarf at Milan, who
was carried about in a cage.

Sk. IV. 1.

Arts,

12>

In the eighth and ninth centuries, no fort of coni-
tncrcc was carried on in Europe but in markets and
fairs. Artificers and manufadurcrs were difperfed
through the country, and fo were monafterics ; the
towns being inhabited by none but clergymen, and
thofe who immediately depended on them. The
nobility lived on their eltate, unlefs when they follow-
ed the court. The low people were not at liberty to
dcfert the place of their birth : the villain was an-
nexed to the eftate, and the J/ave, to the perfon, of
his lord. Slavery foftered rough manners ; and there
could be no improvement in manners, nor in tafle,
where there was no fociety. Of all the polite nations
in Europe, the Englifli were the lateft of taking to a
town-life ; and their progrefs in tafte and manners,
has been proportionably flow.

Our celebrated poet Ben Johnfon lived at a time
when turgid conceptions and bombaft language were
highly relifhed; and his compofitions are in the
perfedlion of that tafte, witnefs the quotations from
liim in Elements of Criticifm (a). He was but too
faithfully imitated by Beaumont and Fletcher and
other writers of that age. We owe to Dryden the
dawn of a better tafte. For tho' the mode of wri-
ting in his time led him to the bombaft, yet a
juft imitation of nature frequently breaks forth,
efpecially in his later compofitions. And as nature
will always at laft prevail, the copies of nature given
by that eminent writer were highly rehflied, produc-
ed many happy imitations, and in time brought about
a total revolution of tafte ; which kept pace with
that of government, both equally happy for this na-
tion. Here is a fair dedudion of the progrefs of
tafte in Britain. But according to that progrefs,
what ftiall be faid of the immortal Shakefpeare, in
whofe works is difplayed the perfedion of tafte.
"Was not his appearance at leaft a century too early ?

Such

!■

(a) Vol, 1. p. 244, edit. 5.

-1
1 /! I M

'■ I

|:, n

122 Men Independent of Society. B. I

Such events happen fomctlmcs contrary to the ordi-
nary progrcls. 'Jills was the cafe oF Roger Bacon
as well as ot Shakcfpeare : they were blazing ftars
that gave but a temporary iuftre, and left the world
as void of light as before. Ben Johnfon accordingly,
and even Beaumont and Fletcher, were greater na-
tional favourites than Shakefpcare ; and in the fame
manner, the age before, Lucan was ranked above
Virgil by every critic. By the fame bad ta(tc, the
true fublime of Milton was little relUhed for more
than half a century after Paradifc Loll was pub-
iiihed. Ill-fated Shakefpcare ! who appeared in an
age unworthy of him. That divine writer, who,
merely by force of genius, fo far furpafled his co-
temporaries, how far would he have furpafled even
vhimfelf, had he been animated with the praifcs fo
jullly bellowed on him in later times ? We have
Dryden's authority that taftc in his time wa^ cpnfif
dcrably refined ;

" They who have befl: fucccded on the ftagc,
** Have Itill conform'd their genius to their age,
*' Thus Johnfon did mechanic humour fliow,
** When men were dull, and converfation low.
'' Then comedy was faultlefs, but 'twas coarfe :
^* Cobb's Tankard was a jeft, and Otter's Horfe.
*' Fame then was cheap, and the firft comer fped ;
^' And they have kept it fmce by being dead.
*' But were they now to write, when critics weigh
Each line and cv'ry word throughout a play,
None of them, no not Johnfon in his height.
Could pafs without allowing grains for weight,
If love and honour now are higher rais'd,
It's not the poet, but the age is prais'd :
Wit's now arriv'd to a more high degree.
Our native language more refined and free.
Our ladies and our men now fpeak more wit
In converfation than tliofe poets writ.'*

The

C6
«f

n
cc

t i

Sk. IV. 2,

Arts.

The high option Dryclcn had of hlmfi*lf and of hi^
age, breaks out in every line. Johnlon probably
had the fame opinion of himfelf and of his a^c : the
prcfent age is not exempted from that bias ; nor will
the next age be, though probably maturity in tallo
will he (till later. We humble ourfelvcs before the
ancients who arc far removed from us ; but not to
foar above our immediate predecen<)rs, would be a
fad mortification. Many fcenes in Dryden's plays,
if not lower than Cobb*s Tankard, or Otter's Horfe,
•arc more out of place, In the Wild Gallant^ the
hero is a wretch conflantly employed, not only iii
cheating his creditors, but in cheating his miltrcfs, 2^
lady of high rank and fortune. And how abi'urd is
the fcene, where he convinces the father of his mif-
trefs, that the devil had got him with child ! Iha
character of Sir Martin Marall is below contempt.
The fcenes in the fame play, of a bawd inftrucling
one of her novices how to behave to her gallants,
and of the novice praftifing her leflbns, arc perhaps
not lower than Cobb's Tankard, or Otter's Uorfe,
but furely they are lefs innocent.

It is common to fee people fond of a new fafliioa,
vainly imagining that tafte is greatly improved. Dif-
guifed dilhes are a fort of baitard wit, like turrets jut?
ting out at the top of a building. Such difhes were
lately in high fafliion, without having even the flen-
der merit of being a new fafliion. They prevailed
in the days of Charles II. as we learn from one of
Dryden's plays. " Ay, it looked like variety, till
" we came to tafte it ; there were twenty feveral
dilhes to the eye, but in the palate nothing but
fpices. I had a mind to cat of a pheafant, and lb
foon as I got it into my mouth, I found I was
chewing a limb of cinnamon ; then I went to cut
a piece of kid, and no fooner had it touched my
lips, but it turned to red pepper : at lalt I began
to think myfelf another kind of Midas, that every
thing I touched fljould be turned to fpicc."

Portugal

«
((

((

,irijl

» jii

: '■ -jf

''i

-1 »

124 Men- independent of Society. B. I.

Portugal was rifing in power and fplendor when
Camoens wrote theLufiad ; and with refpcft to the
nuilic of verfe it has merit. The author however is
far from ihining in point of taile. He makes a
llrange jumble of Heathen and Chriftian Deities.
*' Gama," obferves Voltaire, '* in a florm addrelfes
" his prayers to Chrilt, but it is Venus who comes
" to his relief." Voltaire's obfervation is but too
well founded. In the firft book, Jove fummons a
council of the gods, which is defcribed at great
lengih, for no earthly purpofe but to (how that he
favoured the Portuguefe. Bacchus, on the other
hand, declares againft them upon the following ac-
count, that he himfelf had gained immortal glory as
conqueror of the Indies ; which would be eclipfed if
the Portuguefe fhould alfo conquer them. A Moor-
ifli commander having received Gama with fmiles,
but with hatred in his heart, the poet brings down
Bacchus from heaven to confirm the Moor in his
wicked purpofes; which would have been perpe-
trated, had not Venus interpofed in Gama's behalf.
In the fecond canto, Bacchus feigns himfelf to be a
Chriftian, in order to deceive the Portuguefe ; but
Venus implore s her father Jupiter to protcd: them.
And yet, alter all, I am loth to condemn an early
writer for introducing Heathen Deities as adors in a
real hiffory, when in the age of Lewi^ XIV. celebrated
for retinement of tafte, we find French writers, Boi-
leau in particular, guilty of the fame abfurdity (a).

At the meeting an. 1520 near Calais between
Francis I. of France and Henry VIII. of England, it
is obferved by feveral French writers, that the
French nobility difplayed more magnificence, the
Englifh more tafte. If fo, the alteration is great
fince that time : France at prcfent gives the iaw to
the reft of Europe in every matter of tafte, garden-
ing alone excepted. At the fame time, tho' tafte in

2 France

fjt) Elements of Criticifm. cliap.

«'

dieti
the
;r is
es a
ties.
eiFes
mes
too
ns a
reat
at he
her

Sk. IV. 2.

Arfj.

125

France is more correct than in any other country, it
will bear Hill foine purification. The fcene oF a
clyfler-pipe in Moliere is too low even for a farce ;
and yet to this day it is acted with a few foftenings,
before the moft polite audience in Europe *.

In Efements of Criticifm (A) feveral caufes arc
mentioned that may retard tade in its progrefs to-
ward maturity, and that may give it a retrograde
motion when it is in maturity. There are many
biaffes both natural and acquired that tend to mif-
lead perfons even of the belt talte. Of the latter,
inftances are without number. I fele^t one or two
to fliow what influence even the fiightell circumftan-
ces have on tafte. The only tree beautiful at all fea-
fons is the holly : in winter, its deep and ftiining
green intitles it to be the queen of the grove : in
fummer, this colour completes the harmonious mix-
ture of ihades, fo pleafing in that feafon ! Mrs. D —
is lively and fociable. She is eminent above moft
of her fex for a corrcdl tafte, diiplayed not only
within doors but in the garden and in the field.
Having become miftrefs of a great houfe by matri-
mony, the moft honourable of all titles, a group of
tall hollies, which had long obfcured one of the ca-
pital rooms, foon attracted her eye. She took an
averfion to a holly, and was not at eafe till the group
was extirpated. Such a bias is perfedly harmlefs.
What follows is not altogether fo. The Oxo-
nians difliked the great Newton becaufe he was edu-
cated at Cambridge ; and they favoured every book
writ againft him. That bias, I hope, has not come
down to the prefent time.

Refinement

-• Ko nation equals the Frei-u:h in drefs, houlhold furniture, watches, fnuff-
boxes, and in toys of every kind. The Italians have always exfellcd in
architefture and painting, the r.r;;ii(}i in gardenini?. How are fiicli national
differences to be explained ? A nation, like an individual, may be dllpofed
to grand objeds, which fvveil the mind. A nation, like an individual, m^y
reli(h things neat, pretty, and ekjant. And if a tafte of any kind happen
once to preyijl aniong men of figuie, it foon turns general. The verdure of
the fields inEngland invites a pohOiing hand,
(i) Elements of Criticifm, cliap. 25.

«1 -A !

126 IVIkn independent of Society. B. I.

Refinement of tafte in a nation, is always accom-
panied with refinement of manners: people accuftom-
cd to behold order and elegance in public buildings
and public gardens^ acquire urbanity in private.
But it is irkfome to trudge long in a beaten track,
familiar to all the world ; and therefore, leaving
what is faid above, like a ftatue curtail'd of legs
and arms, I haften to the hiftory of the fine arts.

Ufeful arts paved the way to fine arts. Men upon
whom the former had beftowed every convenience,
turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was ftu-
tlicd in objeds of fight ; and men of tafte attached
themfelves to the fine arts, which multiplied thei^
enjoyments and improved their benevolence. Sculp-
ture and painting made an early figiire in Greece ;
wliich afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be
copied in thefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more
fimple imitation than painting, was fooner brought
to perfe£lion : the ftatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and
of Juno by Polycletes, tho' the admiration of all the
world, were executed long before the art of light
and Ihade was known. AppoUodorus, and Zeuxis
his difciple, who flouriflied in the fifteenth Olym-
piad, were the firft who figured in that art. Ano-
ther caufe concurred to advance ftatuary before
painting in Greece, viz. a great demand for ftatues
of their gods. Architedure, as a fine art, made a
flower progrcfs. Proportions, upon which its ele-
gance chietly depends, cannot be accurately afcer-
tained but by an infinity of trials in great buildings :
a model cannot be relied on ; for a large and a
Jinall building even of the fame form, require differ-
ent proportions. Gardening made a ftill flower pro-
j>refs than architecture : the palace of Alcinous, in
the fcventh book of the Odyffey, is grand and
highly ornamented ; but his garden is no better than
what we term a kitchen-garden. Gardening has
made a great progrefs in England. In France, na-
ture is facriliced to conceit. The gardens of Ver-
i failles

If!*'?'

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

12*

failles deviate from nature no lefs than the hanging
gardens at Babylon. In Scotland, a tafte is happily
commenced for neat houfes and ornamented fields ;
and the circumftances of the people make it proba-
ble, that tafte there will improve gradually till it
arrive at perfeftion. Few gentlemen in Scotland
can afford the expence of London ; and fuppofmg
them to pafs the winter in a provincial town, they
return to the occupations of the country with re-
doubled ardor. As they are llife from the corrup-
ti6n of opulence, nature will be their guide in every
plan J and the very face of their country will oblige
them to follow nature ; being diverfified with hills
and plains, rocks and rivers, that require nothing
but polifliing. It is no unpleafmg profped, that
Scotland may in a century or fooner compare with
England ; not indeed in magnificence of country-
feats, but in fweetnefs and variety of concordant
parts.

The ancient churches in this ifland cannot be our
own invention, being unfit for a cold climate. The
vaft fpace they occupy, quantity of ftone, and
gloominefs by excluding the fun, afford a refrefhing
coolnefs, and fit them for a hot climate. It is highr
ly probable that they have been copied from the
mofques in the fouth of Spain, ereded there by the
Saracens. Spain, when poffeffed by that people,
was the centre of arts and fciences, and led the fafhi-
«>n in every thing beautiful and magnificent.

From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed to li-
terature. It is agreed among all antiquaries, that the
firft writings were in verfe, and that profe was of a
much later date. The firft Greek who wrote in
profe, was Pherecides Syrus : the firft Roman, was
Appius Cjecus, who compofed a declamation againft
Pyrrhus. The four books of Chatah Bhadc, the fa-
cred book of Hindoltan, are compofed in verfe ftan-
zas -, and the Arabian compofitions in profe followed
iong after thofe in verfe. To arcouut for that fm^

guiai;

!ii

m^ m..

I I !l

i,s

il8 Ml N independent of Society. B.I.

gular fact, many learned pens have been employed ;
but without fuccefs. By fome it has been urged,
that as memory is the record of events where writ-
ing is unknown, hillor^ originally was compofed in
verfc for the fake of memory. This is not fatisfac-
tory. To undertake the painful talk of compofmg
in verfe for the fake of memory, would require more
forefight than ever was exerted by a barbarian ;
not to mention that other means were ufed for pre-
ferving the memory of remarkable events, a heap of
Itones, a pillar, or other objed that catches the eye.
The account given by Longinus is more ingenious.
In a fragment of his treatife on verfe, the only part
that remains, he obferves, *' that meafure or verfe
belongs to poetry, becaufe poetry reprefents the
various pallions with their language j for which
reafon the ancients, in their ordinary difcourfe,
delivered their thoughts in verfe rather than in
profe." Longinus thought, that anciently men
were more expofed to accidents and dangers, than
when they were proteded by good government and
by fortified cities. But he feems not to have confi-
dered, that fear and grief, infpired by dangers and
misfortunes, are better fuited to humble profe than
to elevated verfe. I add, that however natural poe-
tical diftion may be when one is animated with any
vivid paflion, it is not fuppofable that the ancients
never wrote nor fpoke but when excited by paffion.
Their hiftory, their laws, their covenants, were cer-
tainly not compofed in that tone of mind.

An important article in the progrefs of the fine
arts that writers have not fufficiently attended to,
will, if I millake not, explain this myftery. The
article is the profeflion of a bard, which fprung up
in early times before writing was known, and died
away gradually as writing turned more and more
common. The curiofity of men is great with refpeft
to the tranfaclions of their forefathers ; and when
fuch tranfadipi^s are defcribed la verfe accompa-
nied

iSk. IV. 4.

Arfi,

.\'\

129

nicd with mufic^ the performance is enchanting* Aft
icar, a voice, (kill in inftrumental mufiC) and above
all a poetical genius, are reqiiifite to excel in that
complicated art* As fuch talents are rare, the few
that pofleffed them were highly efteemed ; and hence
the profeflion of a bard, which, belide natural ta-»
lents, Required more cultljre and cxercile than any
other known art. Bards were capital perfons at every
folemnity. Their fortgsj which, by recording the
atchievements of kings and heroes, animated, every
hearer) muft have been the entertainment of every
warlike nation. We have Hefiod's authority, that
in his time bards were as common as potters or
joiners, and as liable to envy. Demodocus is men*
tioned by Homer as a celebrated bard {a) \ and
Phemius, another bard, is introduced by him de-
precating the wrath of Ulyffcs, in the following
words*

«:

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1 1 ^

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,: .y

■ ,■■■"

cer-

<c
ic
cc
cc
it
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it
u
ic

O king ! to mercy be thy foul inclin'd^
And fpare the poet's ever-gentle kind.
A deed like this thy future fame would wrongs'
For dear to gods and men is facred fong.
Self-taught I fmg : by heav'n, and heav'n alonc^
The genuine feeds bf pbefy are fown J
And (what the gods beftow) the lofty lay.
To gods alone, and godlike worth, we pay.
Save then the poet, and thyfelf rewafd ^
'Tis thine to merit, mine is to record.'*

Cicero reports, that, at Rdmah feftitals anci-
ently, the virtues and exploits of their great men
were fiing (b). The fame ciiftom prevailed in Peril
and Mexico, as we learn from Garcilaffo, and gther
authors. Strabo (c) gives a very particular account
of the Gallic bards* The following quotation is
Vol. T. K froni^

(<j) Odyffey, b. 8. ,

(h) Tufculan Queftlons, lib. 4. No. 3,

{i) Lib. 4.

&4*

130 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

from Ammianus Marcelllnus (a). " Bardi quidem
*' fortia viroruin illuflriuin fada, heroicis compofi-
" ta verfibus, cum dulcibus lyr£C modulis, cantita-
*' runt." We have for our authority Father Go-
bien, that even the inhabitants of the Marian iflands
have bards, who are greatly admired, becaufe in
their fongs are celebrated the feats of their anceftors.
There are traces of the fame kind among the Apa-
lachites in North America *. And we fhall fee af-
terward (b)y that in no other part of the world
were bards more honoured than in Britain and Scan-
dinavia. ..

Bards were the only hiftorians before writing was
introduced. Tacitus (c) fays, that the fongs of the
German bards were the only annals. And Joannes
Magnus ArchbilTiop of Upfal acknowledges, that
iii compiling his hiftory of the ancient Goths, he
had no other records but the fongs of the bards.
As thefe fongs made an illuftrious figure at every
feftival, they were conveyed in every family by pa-
rents to their children ; and in that manner were
kept alive before writing was known.

The invention of writing made a change In the
bard-profeflion. It is now an agreed point, that no

poetry

(u) Lib, 15. cap. 9, '

{/') Sketch 6. Frogrefs of Manners.
* 'i he f\ri\ fealthat a young Greenlander c.ntches is made a feaft for the
family and neighboars. The young champion, during the repaft, dcfcants
upon his addrefs in catching the animal: the guerts admire his dexterity,
and extol the flavour of the mc.it. Their only mufic is a fort of drum, which
accompanies a fong in praife cf fe.il-catching, in prai-fe of their anceftors, or
in welcoming the fun's return to them. Here are the rudiments of the
bard-proiefTion. The fong is made for a chorus, as many of our ancient
fongs are, Take the following example. '

" The welcome fun returns again,
" Amna ajah, ajah, ah-liu !
** And brings us weather fine and fair,
" Amna ajah, ajah, ah-hu !

■i

■r '

' ; J. t

The bard fingsthe firfl and third lines, accompanying itwitli his drum and
with a fort of dance. The other lines, termed the burden of the fong are fung
by the guefts.

(i) De morjbus Cermanorun); cap, z.

Sk. IV. 2.

^rts.

>3i

poetry is fit to be accompanied with mufic, but
what is (imple : a complicated thought or defcrip-
tion requires the utmoft attention, and leaves none
for the mufic ; or if it divide the attention, it
makes but a faint impreffion (a). The fimple o*
peras of Quinault bear away the palm from every
thing of the kind compofed by Boileau or Racine.
But when a language, in its progrefs to maturity,
is enriched with variety of phrafcs fit to exprefs the
mod elevated thoughts, men of genius afpire to the
higher drains of poetry, leaving mufic and fong to
the bards: which diftinguifhes the profeflion of a
poet from that of a bard. Homer, in a lax fenfe,
may be termed a bard ; for in that character he
ftroUed from feaft tofeaft. But he was not a bard
in the original fenfe : he indeed recited his poems
to crowded audiences : but his poems are too com-
plex for mufic, and he probably did not fmg them,
nor accompany them with the lyre. The Trova-
dores of Provence were bards in the original fenfe;
and made a capital figure in days of ignorance,
when few could read and fewer write. In later
times the fongs of the bards were taken down in
writing, which gave every one accefs to them withi
out a bard ; and the profeflion funk by degrees into
oblivion. Among the highlanders of Scotland,
reading and writing in their own tongue is not
common even at prefent ; and that circumftance
fupported long the bard-profeflion among them, af-
ter being forgot among neighbouring nations. Of-
fian was the molt celebrated bard in Caledonia, as
Homer was In Greece*.

K 2 From

{a) See Elements of Criticifm, vol, 2. Appendix, article 33.
* The multitude are ftruck with what is new and fplendid, but feldom
continue long in a wrong tafte. Voltaire holds it be a llrong teftimony for
tii'i Gierufaleme Libirata, that even the gondoliers in Venice have it molUy
by heart ; and tiiat one no fooner pronounces a ftanza than another carrica
it on. Offian has tlie fame teftimony in his favour : there are not many
highlanders, even of the loweft rank, but cm repeal long palfages out of bis
works.

' 'it

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J3» Men independent of Society. B. L

From the foregoing hiftorical deduflion, the rea-
der will difcover without my afliflance why the firft
writings were in verfe. The ibngs of the bards,
being univerfal favourites, were certainly the firft
compofitions that writing was employed upon : they
would be carefully coUc^Ved by the moft ikrlful wri-
ters, in order to preferve them in perpetuad remem-
brance. The following part of the progrefs is e-
qually obvious. People acquainted with no written
compofitions but what were in verfe, co^mpoCed in
verfe their law», their religious ceremonies, and e-
very memorable tranfaftron.- But when fub]e£ts ok"*
writing multiplied and became more and moFC in-
volved, when people began to veafon-j to teach, anct
to harangue, tliey were obliged to defcend to hum-^
ble profe: foF to confine a writer or Speaker ta
verfe in handling fubjefts of that nature> would be
a burden unfupportable.

The profe compofitiems of early hiftoriaris are"
all of them dramatic* A writer deflitute af art is
naturally prompted to relate fafts as he faw them
performed : he introduces his perfonages as fpeak-
ing and conferring ; and rdates only what was aft-
cd and not fpoken *. The hiftorical books of the
Old Teftamcnt are compofed in that mode ; and fo
addicted to- the dramatic are the authors of thefe
books, that they frequently introduce God himfelf
into the dialogue. At the fame time, the fimplicity
of that mode i» happily fuited to the poverty of
every language in its early periods.; The drama-
tic mode has a dehcious effeft in exprefling fentr-
ments, and every thing that is timple and tender
{a). Take the following Inftance of a low incident
becoming by that means not a little interefting.;
.Naomi having loft her hufband and her two fons

• Low people to this day tell their ftory In dialogne as ancient writer*
did, and for the fame reafon. Th«y relate things is they faw and hear<i
t^em.

(«) See Element* of Critieifm, chap, jt.

' 1}

Sk. IV. 2.

Av/s*

^33

>Ti foreign parts, and purpofing to return to the land
of her forefathers^ faid to her two daughters in law,
*' Go return each to her mother's houfe : the
" Lord deal kindly with you, as ye havp dealt
** with the d,c:iu, and with me. The Lord grant
you that you may find reft, each of you in the
*^ houfe of Ijer hulband. Then flie kificd them :
*' and they lift up their voice and wept. And they
*' faid unto her, Surely we wil^ return with thee
** unto thy people. And Naomi faid. Turn again,
*' my daughters: why will you go with me ? are
** there yet any more hu{bands in my womb, that
*' they may be your hulbands ? Turn again, my
daughters, go your way, for I am too old to have
an hulband : if I jhould fay, I have hope, if I
" ftipuld have a hjlband alfo to nigl)t, and Ihpuld
** aifo bear fons j would ye tarry for them till
♦* they were grown ? would ye ftay for them from
" having hulbands ? nay, my daughters t for it
** grieveth me much for your fakes, that the hand
" of the Lord is gone out againll me. A'^d they
lift up their voice and wept aeain : and Orpah
kiffed her mother in law, but Jluth clave unto
her. And fliC faid, Behpld, thy fifter in law is
** gone back unto her people, and to her gods-:
** return thou after thy fifter in law. And Ruth
*' faid, ifltreat me not to leave thee, or to return
•* from following after thee : ' for whither thou
*' goeft, I will go ; and where thou lodgeft I will
♦* locjge J thy people fhall be my people, and thy
" God my God : where thou dieft, will I die, ana
" there will I be buried : the Lord do fo to me,
^ and more alfa„ if ought but death part thee
*^ and me. When fhc faw that flie was ftedfaft-
^* ly luiwded tq go with her, then Ihe left fpeaking
"' unto her.

*' So they went until they came to Bethlehem.
** And it came to pafs when they were come to
^ l^ethlehcm, that all the <jity was moved about

them.

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«<

them, and they faid, Is this Naomi ? and fhc faid
** unto them. Call me not Naomi, call mc Mara :
for the AlmiglUy hath dealt very bitterly with
me. I went out full, and the Lc>rd hath brought
me home again empty : why then call yc me
Naomi, feeing the Lord hath teftified againfl
** me, and the Almighty hath alHicled me ? So Na-s
•' omi returned, and Ruth theMoabitefs her daugh-
*' ter in law with her, which returned out of the
*' country of Moab : and they came to Bethlehem
" in the beginning of barley harveft.

*' And Naomi had a kinfman of her huroand's, a
" mighty man of wealth, of the family of Elime-
" lech ; and his name was Boaz. And Ruth the
" Moabitefs faid unto Naomi, Let me now go to
** the field and glean ears of corn after him in
** whofe figh.. I fliall fmd grace. And (lie faid unto
*' her. Go, my daughter. And flie went, and came,
*' and gleaned in the field after the reapers : and her
" hap was to light on a part of the field belonging
*' unto Boaz, who was of the kindred of Elimelech.
" And behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and
^* faid unto the reapers. The Lord be with you :
" and they anfwered him. The Lord bltfs thee.
^* Then faid Boa7!^nto his fervant that was fet over
*' the reapers, Whofc damfel is this ? And the fer-
" vant that w^as fet over the reapers anfwered and
" faid. It is the Moabitilh damfel that came back
"with Naomi, out of the country of Moab : and
" fhe faid, I pray you, let me glean, and gather
after the reapers, amongft the fli eaves : fo flie
came, and hath continued even from the morning
until now, that (lie tarried a little in the houfe.
Then faid Boaz unto Ruth, Heareft thou not, my
daughter ? Go not to glean in another field,
neither go from hence, but abide here fall by my
maidens. Let thine eyes be on the field that they
do reap, and go thou after them: have I not
charged the young men, that they fhall not touch

" thee?

((

t£

k. IV. 2.

Arts,

'3.T

** thee ? and wlicn thou art athirft, go unto the
•' veflels, and drink of that which the young men
*' have drawn. Then (he fell on her face, and
** bowed herfelf to the ground, and faid unto him,
** Why have I found grace in thine eyes, that thou
fliouldfl take knowledge of me, feeing I am a
ftranger ? And Boaz anfwered and faid unto her.
It hath fully been fliewed me all that thou hall
done unto thy mother in law fmce the death of
*' thine huiband : and how thou haft left thy father
** and thy mother, and the land of thy nativity, and
** art come unto a people which thou knewcft not
** heretofore. The Lord recompenfe thy work,
'* and a full reward be given thee of the Lord God
" of Ifrael, under whofe wings thou art come to
•* truft. Then (lie faid. Let me find favour in thy
fight, my lord, for thou haft comforted me, and
for that thou haft fpoken friendly unto thine
handmaid^ though I be not like unto one of thine
*' handmaidens. And Boaz faid unto her, At meal-
" time come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and
dip thy morfel in the vinegar. And flie fat befide
the reapers : and he reached her parched corn,
*' and (lie did eat and was fufficed, and left. And
*' when file was rifen up to glean, Boaz commanded
" his young men, faying, Let her glean even among
" the flieaves, and reproach her not. And let fall
** alfo fome of the handfuls on purpofe for her, and
*' leave them, that (lie may glean them, and rebuke
** her not. So fhe gleaned in the field until even,
" and beat out that (he had gleaned : and it was
*' about an ephah of barley.

" And (lie took it up, and went into the city : and
her mother in law faw what (lie had gleaned : and
(he brought forth, and gave to her that (lie had re-
" ferved, after (he was fufficed. And her mother in
** law faid unto her, Where haft thou gleaned to
day ? and where wroughteft thou ? blefTed b© he
that did take knowledge of thee. And (he fhew-

" cd

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MEti mdependent of Society.

B. f,

** cd her mother in law with whom fhe had wrought,
** and faid, The man's name with whom I wrought
** to day, is Boaz* And Naomi faid unto her daugh-
** ter in layr, Blcffcd be he of the Lord, who hath
not left off his kindnefs to the living ^nd to the
dead. And Naomi faid unto her, The man i^
near of kin unto us, one of our next kinfmen^
•• And Ruth the Moabitefs faid, He faid unto mc
alfo, Thou (halt keep faft by my young men,
until they have ended all my harveft. And
Naomi faid unto Ruth her daughter in law, It i?
good, my daughter, that thou go out with his
maidens, that they meet thee not in any other
field. 80 fhe kept faft by the maidens of Baoz tq
glean, unto the end of barley-harveft, and of
*' wheat-harveft j and dwelt with her mother ir^
f law.

** Then Naomi her mother in law faid unto her,
f* My daughter, fhall I not feek rtft for thee, that
•* it may be well with thee ? And now is not Boaz
*' of our kindred, with whofc maidens thou waft ?
♦' Behold, he winnoweth barley to night in the
•*• threfhing-floor. Wafti thyfelf therefore, an4
*' anoint thee, and put thy raiment upon thee, and
♦' get thee down to the floor : but make not thyfelf
*' known unto the man, until he fhall have done
^' eating and drinking. And it fliall be when he;
^' lieth down, that thou fhalt mark the place where
<* he fhall lie, and thou fhalt go in, and uncover his
f* feet, and lay thee down, and he will tell thee what
** thou fhalt do. And fhe faid unto her. All that
f* thou fayeft unto mc, 1 will do.

*' And fhe went down unto the floor, and did
<' according to all that her rnother in law bade her.
f« And when Boaz had eaten apd drunk, and his.
♦« heart was merry, he went to lie down at the end
•' of the heap of corn : and fhe came foftly, and un-
it covered his feet, and laid her down.

■■'■■. f

Sk. IV. 2.

ArU.

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((

♦<

•* And it came to pafs at midnight, that the man
•* was afraid, and turned himfclt' : and behold, a wo-
•* man lay at his feet. And he faid, Who art thou ?
*♦ And Ihe anfvvered, I am Ruth thine handmaid :
** fpread therefore thy fkirt over thine handmaid,
" for thou art a near kinfman, 4nd he faid, Bkfied
" be thou of the I^ord, my daughter; for thou
" haft fliewcd niore kindnefs in the latter end, than
at the beginning, inafmuch as thou foUowedft
not young men, whether j^oor or rich. And
DOW, my daughter, fear not, I will do to thee all
that thou requireft : for all the city of my people
doth know, that thou art a virtuous woman. And
now it is true, that 1 am thy ncareft kinfman :
♦* howbeit there is a kinfman nearer than I« Tarry
this night, and it fhall be in the morning, that if
he will perform unto thee the part of a kinfman,
well, let him do the kinfman's part ; but if he
will not do the part of a kinfman to thee, then
^i will 1 do the part of a kinfman tq thee, as the
" Lord liveth : lie down until the morning.

" And flic lay at his feet until the morning ; and
♦' flie rofe up before one could know another. And
♦* he faid, Let it not be known that a woman came
" into the floor. Alfo he faid. Bring the vail that
•* thou haft upon thee, and hold it. And when Ihe
<' held it, he meafured fix meafures of barley, and
•* laid it on her ; and flie went into the city. And
*' when fhe came to her mother in law, ihe faid,
'* who art thou, my daughter ? And flie told her all
♦* that the man had done to her. And ihe faid,
** Thefe iix, meafurcs of barley ^avc he me ; for he
•* faid to me. Go not empty unto thy mother in law.
" Then faid fhe, Sit ftill, my daughter, until thou
*^ knpw how the matter will fall : for the man will not
be in reft, until he aave liniihed ^he thing this
day.

" Then went Boaz up to the gate, and fat him
" dovn there : and behold, the kinfman of whom

a " Boa25

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Men independent of Society.

B. I.

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Boaz fpake, came by ; unto whom he faid, Ho,
fuch a one, turn afide, fit down here. And he
turned afide and fat down. And he took ten
men of the elders of the city, and faid, Sit ye
down here. And they fat down. And lie faid
unto the kinfman, Naomi that is come again out
of the country of Moab, felleth a parcel of land,
which was our brother Elimelech's. And I
thought to advertife thee, faying, Buy it before
the inhabitants, and before the elders of my
people. If thou wilt redf^em it, redeem it ; but if
thou wilt not redeem it, then tell me, that I may
know : for there is none to redeem it befide thee,
and I am after thee. And he faid, I will redeem
it. Then faid Boaz, What day thou buyeft the
field of the hand of Naomi, thou mud buy it alfo
of Ruth the Moabitefs, the wife of the dead, to
raife up the name of the dead upon his inheri-
tance. And the kinfman faid, I cannot redeem
it for myfelf, left I mar mine own inheritance : re-
deem thou my right to thyfelf, for I cannot re-
deem it. Now this was the manner in former
time in Ifrael, concerning redeeming and con-
cerning changing, for to confirm all things : A
man plucked off his fhoe, and gave it to his
neighbour : and this was a teftimony in Ifrael.
Therefore the kinfman faid unto Boaz, Buy it for
thee : fo he drew off his Ihoe.. And Boaz faid
unto the elders, and unto all the people, Ye are
witneffes this day, that I have bought all that was
Chilion's, and Mahlon's, of the hand of Naomi.
Moreover. Ruth the Moabitefs, the wife of
Mahlon, have I purchafed to be my wife, to raife
up the name of the dead upon his inheritance,
that the name of the dead be not cut off from
among his brethren, and from the gate of his
place : ye are witneffes this day. And all the
people that were in the gate, and the elders faid,
We are witneffes : The Lord make the woman

" that

5k. IV. 2.

Arts,

139

((

" that is come into thine houfc like Rachel, and
" like Leah, which two did build the houfe of
" Ifraei : and do thou worthily in Ephratah, and be
" famous in Bethlehem. And let thy houfe be
** like the houfe of Pharaz (whom Tamar bare unto
*' Judah) of the feed which the Lord fhall give thee
" of this young woman.

" So Boaz took Ruth, and flie was his wife:
•* and when he went in unto her, the Lord gave
her conception, and fiie bare a fon. And the
women faid unto Naomi, Blefled be the Lord,
which hath not left thee this day without a kinf-
man, that his name may be famous in Ifraei.
And he Ihall be unto thee a reftorer of thy life,
and a nourifher of thine old age: for thy daugh-
ter in law which loveth thee, which is better to
thee than feven fons, hath born him. And Na-
omi took the child, and laid it in her bofom, and
became nurfe unto it (a),*'
The dramatic mode is far from being fo agreeable
in relating bare hiftorical fafls. Take the follow-
ing example.

" Wherefore Nathan fpake unto Bathflieba the
*' mother of Solomon, faying. Haft thou not heard
" that Adonijah the fon of Haggith doth reign,
" and David our lord knoweth it not? Now there-
fore come, let me, I pray thee, give thee coun-
fel, that thou mayeft fave thine own life, and the
life of thy fon Solomon. Go, and get thee in
unto king David, and fay unto him, Didft not
thou, my lord O king, fwear unto thine hand-
maid, faying, Affuredly Solomon thy fon Ihall
reign after me, and he ihall fit upon my throne?
why ihen doth Adonijah reign? Behold, while
thou yet talkeft there with the king, I will alfo
come in after thee, and confirm thy words.
" And Bath-ftieba went in unto the king, into
the chamber : and the king was very old; and

" Abiftiag

(«) Ruthi. 8,— Iv. 16.

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140 Men independent of Society,

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Ablfl^ag the Shunammite miniftcrcd unto the
king. And Bath-(heba bowed, and did obeifance
unto the king : and the king faid, What wouldft
thou? And ihe faid unto him. My lord, thou
fwareft by the Lord thy God unto thine hand-
maid, faymg, Affuredly Solomon thy fon fliall
reign after mc^ and he fhall f^t upon my throne :
and now behold, Adonijah reigneth j and now
my lord the king, thou knoweft it not. And he
hath (lain oxen, and l^at cattle, and (heep in a-
bundance, and hath called all the fons of the
king, and Abiathar the nrieft^ and Joab the cap-
tain of the hoft : but Solomon thy fcrvant hatli
he not called. And thou, my lord O king, the
eyes of ?il| Ifrael are upon thee, that thou fhouldft
tell tlicm who Ihall fit on the throne of my lord
the king after him, Othcrwift^ it ihall come to
pais, when my lord the king Ihall fleep with his
fathers, that I and my fou Solomon ihall be
counted offenders,

" And lo, while ihe yet talked with the king,
Nathan the prophet alfo came in. And they
told the king, fj^ying, Behold, Nat}ian the pro-
phet. And when he was come in before the
king, he bowed himielf before the king with his
face to the ground. And Nathan faid, My lord
O king, haft thou faid Adonijah ihall reign af-
ter me, and he iliall fit upon myAthrone ? For he
is gone down this day, and hath Hain oxen and
fat cattle, and iheep in abundance, and hath
called all the king's fons, and the captains of the
hoft, j\nd Abiathar the prieft ; and behold they
eat and drink before him, aficl fay, God fave
king Adpnijah. But me, even me thy fervant,
and 7adok the priell, and Benaiah the fon of
Jchoiada, and thy fervant Solomon hath he not
called. Is this thing done by my lord the king,
and thou haft not ihewcd it unto thy fervant
who iliould fii on the throne of my lord the king
after him ? " Then

Sk. IV. 2.

Alls.

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It

" Then king David anfwered and faid, Call me
Bath-iheba i and Ihe cimc into the king's pre-
fence, and ftood before the king. And the kin<^
fware, and faid, As the Lord liveth, that hath
redeemed my foul out of all diftrefs, even as I
fware unto thee by the Lord God of Ifrael,
faying, Alfuredly Solomon thy fon fl^all reign
after me, and he (hall fit upon my throne in my
ftead ; even fo will I certainly do this day* Then
Bath-fheba bowed with her face to the eartti, and
did reverence to the king, and faid, Let my lord
king David live for ever.

** And king David faid, call me Zadok the
prieft, and Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the
fon of Jehoiada. And they came before th«
king. The king alfo faid unto them, Take with
you the fervants of your lord, and caufe Solo-
mon my fon to ride upon mine own mule, and
bring him down to Gihon. And let Zadok the
prieft, and Nathan the prophet, anoint him there
king over tfrael j and blow ye with the trumpet,
and fay, God favc king Solomon. Then ye mall
come up after him, that he may come and fit
upon my throne ; for he (hall be king in my
ftead : and I have appointed him to be ruler
over Ifraeli and over Judah. And Benaiah the
fon of Jehoiada anfwered the king, and faid,
Amen : the Lord God of* my lord the king
fay fo too. As the Lord hatn been with my
Lord the king, even fo be be with Solomon, and
make his throne greater than the throne of
my lord king David. So Zadok the prieft, and
Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the fon of Je-
hoiada, and the Cherethitcs and the Pelethites,
went down, and caufed Solomon to ride upon king
David's mule, and brought him to Gihon. And
Zadok the prieft took an horn of oyl out of the
tabernacle, and anointed Solomon : and they
blew the trumpet, and all the people faid, God

" favc

; 1

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142

Men Independent of Society. • B. I.

fave king Solomon. And all the people came up
after him, and the people piped with pipes, and
rejoiced with great joy, fo that the earth rent with
the found of them.

" And Adonijah, and all the guefts that were with
him, heard it, as they had made an end of eat-
ing : and when Joab heard the found of the
trumpet, he faid, Wher'-lbre is this noife of the
city, being in an uproar ? And while he yet
fpake, behold, Jonathan the fon of Abiathar the
prieft came, and Adonijah faid unto him. Come in
for thou art a valiant man, and bringeft good tid-
ings. And J mathan anfwered and faid to Adoni-
jah, Verily our lord king David hath made Solomon
king. And the king has fent with him Zadok the
prieft, and Nathan the prophet, and Bcnai ah the
fon of Jehoiada, and the Cherithites, and the Pcle-
thites and they have caufed him to ride upon the
King's mule. And Zadok the prieft and Nathan
the prophet have anointed him king in Gihon ;
and they are come up from thence rejoicing, fo
that the city rang again : this is the noife that
ye have heard. And alfo Solomon fitteth on
the throne of the kingdom. And moreover the
king's %vants came to blefs our lord king Da-
vid, faying, God make the name of Solomon bet-
ter than thy name, and make his throne greater
than thy throne: and the king bowed himfelf
upon the b^d. And alfo thus faid the king,
Blcffed be the Lord God of Ifrael, which hath
given one to fit on my throne this day, mine eyes
even feeing it. And all the guefts that were with
Adonijah were afraid, and rofe up, and went eve-
ry man his way (a).
In the example here given are found frequent re-
petitions ; not however by the fame perfon, but by
different perfons who have occafion in the courfe of
the incidents to fay the fame things j which is natu-
ral

(«) I Kings, 1, 1 1.— —49.

i€

Sk. IV. 1.

Arts,

ral in the dramatic mode, where things are reprc-
fented precif'ely as they were tranfafted. In that
view, Homer's repetitions are a beauty, not a ble-
mifli ; for they are confined to the dramatic part,
and never occur in the narrative. In the 24th
chapter of Genefis, there is a repetition precifely in
the manner of H6mer.^-"9v' '•^••''

But the dramatic mode of compofition, however
pleafing, is tedious and intolerable in a long hifto-
ry. In the progrefs of fociety new appetites and
r»ew paflions arife ; men come to be involved with
each other in various connections ; incidents and e-
vents multiply, and hiftory becomes intricate by an
endlefs variety of circumftances. Dialogue accord-
ingly is more fparingl) ufed, and in hiftory plain
narration is mixed with it. Narration is as it were
the ground-work, and dialogue is raifed upon it,
like flowers in embtoidery. Homer is admitted by
all to be thie greateft mafttr in that mode of com-
pofition. Nothing can be more perfeft in that ref-
pe£t than the Iliad. The Odyffey is far in-
ferior; and to guard myfelf againft the cenfure of
the undiftinguifhing admirers of Homer, a tribe
extremely formidable, I call to my aid a celebrated
critic, whofe fuperior tafte and judgment never was
difputed. " The Odyfley," fays Longinus, " Ihows
how natural it is for a writer of a great genius, in
his declining age, to fmk down to fabulous nar-
ration ; for that Homer compoicd the OdyfTey
after the Iliad, is evidci^t from many circumftan-
ces. As the Iliad was compofed while his genius
was in its greateft vigour, the ftru6ture of that
work is dramatic and full of adion ; the Oydffey
on the contrary, is moftly employed in narrati-
on, proceeding from the coldnefs of old age. In
that later compofition, Homer may be compared
to the fetting fun, which has ftill the fame great-
nefs, but not the fame ardor or force. We fee
not in the Odyffey that fublime of the Iliad which
3 " conftantly

ii:''^

+5 , I i\

1 ii

144 Men independent of Society* B. f;

ii L

i '1

«c

iCC
«

conftantly proceeds in the fame animated tonc^
that flrong tide of motions and paflions flowing
fuGcefllvely like waves in a ilorm. But Horner^
like the ocean, is great, even when he ebbs, and
" lofes himfelf in narration and incredible fidions }
witnefs his defcrlption of tempefts, the adventures
of UlylTes with Polyphemus the Cyclops, and
' many others*." r;t^';n;r1. r .? -i

I'hc narrative mode caifte in time fo to prevail,
that in a long chain of hiftory, the writer common-
ly leaves off dialogue altogether. Early writers of
that kind appear to have had very little judgment
in diflinguilhing capital fa£ts from minute circum-
itances, fuch as can be fupply'd by the reader
without being mentioned. The hiftory of the Tro-
jar war by Dares Phrygius is a curious inftancc of
that cold and creepmg manner of compofitionii
Take the following paffage. Hercules having made
a defcent upon Troy, flew King Laomedon, and
made a prefent of Hefione, the King's daughter, to
Telamon his companion. Priamus, who fucceeded
to the kingdom of Troy uport the death of his fa-
ther Laomedon, fent Antenor to demand his fif-
ter Hefione. Our author proceeds in the follow-
ing manner. " Antenor, as commanded by Pri-
** amus, took fhipping, and failed to Magnefia^
" where Peleus refided. Peleus entertained him
** hofpitably three days, and the fourth day de-
" manded whence he came. Antenor faid, that
*^* he was ordered by Priamus to demand from the
*' Greeks, that they Ihould reftore Hefione. When
*' Peleus heard this he was angry, becaufe it con-
** cerned his family, Telamon being his brother j
** and ordered the ambaflador to depart. Antenor^
** without delay, retired to his ihip, and failed to

^« Salamis,

• The PUgr'm^t Pragreft and Rah'wfon Crufee, gTtit favourites of the vulgar,
are compofed in a ftyle enlivened like that of Homer by a proper mixturs
of the dramatic and narrative ; and upon that accouat chiefly have beeoi
tranflated into feveral European languages,

c«

(C
(C

((

((
u
((

((
((

(C
(C

Th
chi
con

Jug

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

145

C£

'^ Salamis, where Telamon rcfided, and demand-
ed of him, that he Ihould rcftore Hcfionc
to her brother Priamus; as it was unjuft to
detain fo long in fervitude a young woman of
royal birth. Telamon anfwered, that he had
" done nothing to Priamus; and that he would
" not reftore what he had received as a reward
" for his valour, and ordered Antenor to leave the
" ifland. Antenor wnt to Achaia; and failing
" from thence to Caftor and Pollux, demanded of
** them to fatisfy Priamus, by reiloring to him his
" fifter Hefione. Caftor and Pollux denied that
" they had done any injury to Priamus, but that
" Laomedon had firft injured them ; ordering Ante-
nor to depart. From thence he failed t > Neftor
in Pylus, telling him the caufe of his coming ;
which when Neftor heard, he begun to exclaim,
how Antenor durft fet his foot in Greece, feeing
the Greeks were firft injured by the Phrygians.
" When Anten*. jund that he had obtained no-
" thing, and that Priamus was contumelioufly treat-
" ed, he went on ftiipboard, and returned home.'*
The Roman hiftories before the tir '^ of Cicero are
chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius i<Stor, and Pifo,
confined themfelves to naked fafts (^7). In the
Augujia Hi/ioria fcriptores we find nothing but a
jejune narrative of fafts, commonly very little in-
terefting, concerning a degenerate people, without
a fingle incident that can roufe the imagination, or
cxercife the judgement. The monkifh hiftories arc
all of them compofedin the fame manner *.

Vol. I. L The

«(

(<7) Cicero De oratore, lib, 2. No. 5,

♦ Euripides, in liis Phoenicians, introduces Oedipus, under fen«ence of
banifhment and blind, calling for his ftaff, his daughter Antigone putting it
in his hand, and direding every ftep, to keep him from tumbling. Such
minute circumftances, like what are frequent in Richardfon's novels, tend
indeed to make tiu' reader conceive himfclf to be a fpeiftator [b) : hut whe-
ther that advantage be not more than overbalanced by the languor of a creep-
ing narrative, may btjufily doubted.

{b) See Elements ol' Criiicirm, tii. i. part 1. i<t<>, 7,

.'S

|i!.

¥i<

;>]w^tl'

146 Men independent of Society. B. 1,

The dry narrative manner bein-g very little in-
terefling or agreeable, a tafte for embellifhment
prompted foine writers to be copious and vcrbofe.
Saxo Grammaticus, who in the 12th century com-
pofed in Latin a hiftory of Denmark, furprifmgly
pure for that early period, is extremely verbofe and
full of tautologies. Such a ftyle, at any rate unplea-
fant, is intolerable in a modern tongue, before it is
enriched with a ilock of phrafes, for exprellmg apt-
ly the great variety of incidents that enter into hif-
tory. Take the following example out of an endlefs
number. Henry VII. of England, having the
young Queen of Naples in view for a wife, deputed
three men in character of ambalTadors, to vifit her,
and to anfiver certain quejiions contained in curious and
exqiiifite tnji ructions for taking afurvey of her perfon,
complexion^ ^c. as cxprelfcd by Bacon in his life of
that pri-nce. One of the inftrudions was, to pro-
cure a pifture of the Queen 5 which one would
think could not require many words ; yet behold the
inftrodion itfclf. " The King's faid fcrvants fhall
alfo^ at their comyng to the parties of Spayne, di-
ligently enquerc for fome conynge paynter having
good expevier;ce in making and paynting of vi*
lages and portretures, and fuche oon they fhall
take with them to the place where the faid
Quuins make their abode, to the intent that the
faid paynter maye draw a pidure of the vifage
and femblance of the faid young Quine, as like
unto her as it can or may be conveniently doon,
which pidure and image they fhall fubftantially
note, and marke in every pounte .and circum-
flance, foo that it agree in fimihtude and like-
neffc as near as it may pofTible to the veray vi-
fage, countenance, and femblance of the faid
Qjine ; and in cafe they may perceyve that the
paynter, at the furll or fecond making thereof,
hath not made the fame perfaite to her fimily-
tude and likeneffe, or that he hath omitted any

" fcture

€i

((

«c

«e

«(

ct
ft
cc

cc
(t

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

I- '

" feture or circumftancc, cither in colburs, .pr o*
'* ther proporcions of the faid vifage, then they
** fhall cauie the fame paynter, or feme other the
" moft conyng paynter that they can gete, foo
" oftentimes to renewe and reforme the fame
" pi£ture, till it be made perfaite, and agrce-
" able in eveiy behalfe, with the very image
** and vifage of the faid Quine*". After this fpe-*
cimcn fo much approved by his Lordfhip, one will
not be furprifed at the flatnefs of the hiftorical
flyle during that period. By that flatnefs of ftyle
Lord Bacon's hiftory of Henry VII. finks below
the gravity and dignity of hiftory ; particularly in
his fimiles, metaphors, and allufions, no lefs diftant
than flat. Of Perkin Warbeck and his followers
he fays, " that they were now like fand without
" lime, ill bound together.." " Again, " But
" Perkin, advifed to keep his fire, which hitherto
** burned as it were upon green wood, alive with
" continual blowing, failed again into Ireland."
Again, " As in the tides of people once up, there
" want not commonly ftirring winds to make them.
*' more rough, fo this ptopic did light upon two
" ringleaders or captains. Again, fpeaking of the
Coniifh infurgents, and of the caufes . that in-
flamed them, " But now thefe bubbles by much
" fl:irring brgan to meet, as they ufed to do on the
** top of water.'* Again, fpeaking of Perkin,
*' And as it fareth with fmoak, that never lofeth
** itfelf till it be at the higheft, he did now before
** his end raife his flile, intytling himfelf no more

L 2 « Richard

;' l,ff

I'tS^M'' ill'j

* The following paffage, copied from an Edinburgh news-paper, may al-
moft rival this eloquent piece. After obferving tiiat the frcft was intenfe,
which, fays the writer, renders travelling very dangerous either in town or
country, lie proceeds tiuis. " We would therefore recommend it to fhopkccp-
" ers, and thofe whofe houfes are clofe upon the Ibccts or lanes, tofcatter
" aflies oppofite to their doors, as it may be a means of preventing paifen-
" gersfrom falling, which they are in great danger of doing at prefcnt, from
" the flippinefs of the ftrcets, whersthat practice is not followed,"

lis

'■ :i

yujK' >V

i [

r'ii'

lit

148

Mew independent of Society* 'B. I,

{«

" Richard Duke of York, but Richard the Fourthj
** King of England." He dcfcends fometimes fo
low as to play upon words : witnefs the following
fpeech made for Perkin to the king of Scotland.
High and mighty king ! your Grace may be
picafed benignly to bow your cars to hear the
tragedy of a young nun that by right ought to
hold in his hand the ball of a kingdom, but by
fortune is made himfclf a ball, tofled from mifery
to mifery, and from place to place." The foi-
lowing is a ftrangely forced allufion. Talking of
Margaret Duchefs of Burgundy, who had patro-
nized Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, he
fays, *' It is the.llrangefl: thing in the world, that
the Lady Margaret Ihou Id now, wheti other wo«
men give over child-bearing, bring forth two
fuch monders, being, at birth, not oi nine or ten
month, but of many years. And whereas other
natural mothers bring furth children weak, and not
able to help themfelves, fhe bringeth furth tall
ftriplings, able, foqn after their coming into the
world, to bid battle to mighty kings." I fhould
not have given To many inftances of puerilities in
compofition, were they not the performance of a
great philofopher. Low indeed mufl have been
the tafie of that age, when it infeded its greatefl
genius. '- - .- -• ' ■ . • i . ■

The perfeftion of hiftorical compofition, which
writers at lad attain to after wandering through
various imperfect modes, is a relation of interefting
fads conncfted with their motives and confequences.
A hiflory of that kind is truly a chain of caufcs and
etfeds. The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more
that of Tacitus, are fhining initances of that mode.
There was not a book written in France correct in
its llyle before the year 1654 when the Letires
Provincia/cs appeared ; nor a book in a good hiftofi-
cal ftyle before the hiilory of the confpiracy againft
A^enice by the Abbe St. Heal,

1 A Ian-

«(

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts*

149

€t

A language in its original poverty, being defici-
ent in ftren^th and variety^ has nothing at com-
mand for enforcing a thought but to redouble the
expreHion. Inftances are without number in the
Old Teftament. " And they fay, how doth God
know, and is there knowledge in the Mod
High?" Again, " Thus flialt thou fay to tlie
houfe of Jacob, and tell to the children of If-
rael.*' Again, " I will be an enemy unto thine
cnemiea, and an adverfary unto thine adverfa-
ries." Again, " To know wifdoni and inftruc-
tion, to perceive the words of underftanding,
to receive the inftruftion of wifdom." <' She
laycth her hands to the fpindle, and her hands
hold the diftafF." " Put away from thee a fro-
ward mouth, and perverfe lips put far from
thee. Let thine eyes look right on, and let thine
eye-lids look ftraight before thee."
Eloquence was of a later date than the art of li-
terary compofition ; for till the latter was impro-
ved, there were no models for ftudying the for-
mer. Cicero's oration for Rofcius is compofed in
^ ftyle diffufe and highly ornamfcnted ; which, fays
Plutarch, was univerfally approved, becaufe at that
time the ftyle of Afia, introduced into Rome with
its luxury, was in high vogue. But Cicero, in ^.
journey to Greece, where he leifurely ftudied
Greek authors, was taught to prune off fuperflui-
ties, and to purify his ftyle, which he did to a high
degree of refinement. He introduced into his na-
tive tongue a fweetnefs, a grace, a majefty, that
furprized the world, and even the Romans them-
(elves. Cicero obferves with great regret, that if
ambition for power had not drawn Julius Caefar
from the bar to command legions, he would have
become the moft complete orator in the world. So
partial are men to the profelTion in which they ex-
cel. Eloquence triumphs in a popular affembly,
makes fome figure in a court of law compofed of

many

i'l

■ a

150 Men independent of Society. B.I

many judges ; very little where there is hut a finglc
judge^ and none at all in a defpotic government. E-
loqucnce flouriflicd in the republics of Athens and of
HotDc; and makes fonic figure at prcfcnt in a Britiih
houfc of Commons. ' i • •

In Athens eloquence could not but flourifli. In
an aflcinbly of the jieople, confiding of 5000
and uf)ward, where every individual was intitlcd to
give his opinion, the certainty of employing the ta-
lent of eloquence, was a flrong motive with every
young man of ambition to ftudy that art. In Bri-
tain, very few are certain of obtaining a feat in the
houfc of Commons ; and that man mud have great
pcrfevcrancc who can bcdovv years in acquiring an
art that he may never have occalion to exercife.
The elded fons of peers have indeed a nearer prof-
pe6l of a feat in the upper houfe : but young men
of quality arc commonly too much addided to plca-
fure ; and many of them come not to be peers till
the fire of youth is fpent. I am forry to add '.mo-
ther reaibn. Eloquence can never make a capital
figure, but where patriotihn is the ruling paflion ;
for what can it avail among men who arc deaf to
every motive but what contributes to the intered or
ambition of their party ? When Demodhene*,. com-
menced his career of eloquence, patriotifm made a
figure in Athens, though it was on the decline.
Had that great orator appeared more early, his au-
thority in Athens would have been fupremc *.

The Greek dage has been judly admired among
all polite nations. The tragedies of Sophocles and
Kuripides in particular are by all critics held to be
perfed in their kind, excellent models for imitation,

but

"it

* Eloquence is neccfTary to thofe only who renucft, not to thofe who com-,
mand. The Spartans, a bold and firm people, weredecifive in their refclu-,
tions and of few words 5 whence the laconic ftyle. Take a modern inftance
of that ftylc. In the yea: T4S7, caufes of difcontent arifing between O'Neal,
and Tirconncl, two Iri.'h chieftains, the former wrote to tlie latter, " Si?nd me
tribute, orelfe," The latttr anfwcred, " J owe }ou none, and if."

/r-

Sk. IV. 1.

Arts,

'5*

but far above rlvalihip. If the Greek ftage was lb
early brought to maturity, it is a phenomenon not
a little fingular in the progrcl« of arts. The Greek
tragedy made a rapid progrefs from J'hcfpis to So-
phocles and Euripides, whofc compofuions are in-
deed the mod complete that ever were exhibited in
Greece : but whether they be really fuch mafter-
pieces as is generally thought will admit fome doubt.
The fubjed is curious : and the candid reader will
give attention.

No human voice could fill the Greek theatre,
which was £0 fpaciousas to contain fevcral thoufands
without crowding. A brafs p!',»e was invented to
Arcngthen the voice ; but that invention deftroyed
the melody of pronunciation, by rouunin^ the voice
to a harlh monotony. The pipe was not the ..nly
unpleafant circumitance : every a£tor wore a n :uk ;
^'or what en4 or purpofe is not explained. It inay be
true, jthat the expreflions of the coun'a; nee could
not bexliftinfltly feen by thofe who occupied the ';ack
rows J a;id 9 malk pollibly was thought neceffary in
order to put all the citizens upon a level. But
without prying into the caufe, let us only figure an
aftor with a malk and a pipe. He nay reprefent
tolerably a fimple incident or plain thought, fuch a$
are the materials of an Italian opera ; but the voice,
countenance, and geftures, are indifpenfable in ex-
preffmg refined fcntimems, and the more delicate
tones of paflion.

Where then lies the chai a in ancient tragedies
that captivated all ranks of men ? Greek tragedies
are more adive than fenti mental : they contain many
judicious reflections on morals, manners, and upon
life in general ; but no fentiments except what are
plain and obvious. The fubjeds are of the fimplefl;
kind, fuch as give rife to the paflions of hope, fear,
love, hatred, envy, and revenge, in their mod ordi-
nary exertions : no intricate nor delicate fituation to
occafioii any fingular emotion j no gradual fwelling

and

152

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

and fubfiding of paflion ; and feldom any confli6l
between difterent pallions. 1 would not however be
underllood as meaning to depreciate Greek trage-
dies. They are indeed wonderful produdlions of
genius, confidering that the Greeks at that period
were but beginning to emerge fromroughnefs and
barbarity into a tafte for literature. The compofiti-
ons of Efchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, muft
have been highly relilhed among a people who had
no idea of any thing more perfcd: we judge by
comparifon, and every work is held to be perfeft
that has no rival. It ought at the fame time to be
kept in view, that it was not the dialogue which
chiefly enchanted the Athenians, nor variety in the
paflion s reprefented, nor perfection in the adors,
but machinery and pompous decoration, accompani-
ed with exquifite mufic. That thcfe particulars
"were carried to the greatefl: height, we may with
certainty conclude from the extravagant funis be-
llowed on them : the exhibiting a fingle tragedy
was more expenfive to the Athenians than their fleet
or their army in any fmgle campaign.

One would imagine, however, thatthefe compo-
fitions are too fimplp to enchant for ever ; as with-
out variety in adion, fentiment, and paflion, the fl:age
will not continue long a favourite entertainment :
and yet vye find not a fingle improvement attempted
after the days of Sophocles and Euripides. This
may appear a matter of wonder at firfl view. But
the wonder vanifhcs upon confidering, that the man-
ner of performance prevented abfolutely any im-
provement. A flucl\iation of paflion and refined fen-
timcnts would have made no figure on the Greek
ftage. Imagine thedifcordingfcene between Brutus
and Cafiius in Julius Caefar to be there exhibited, or
the handkerchief in the Moor of Venice : how flight
would be their efieft, when pronounced in a mafk,
and through a pipe ? The workings of nature upon
the countenance and the fleclions of voice expreflive
' ' of

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

'S3

of various feelings, fo deeply affe£Hng in modern ye,
prefentation, would have been entirely loft. If a
great genius had arifen with talents for compofmg a
pathetic tragedy in perfedion, he would have made
no figure in Greece. An edifice muft have been
ercdled of a moderate fize ; new players muft have
been trained to a6t without a ma{k, and to pronounce
in their own voice. And after all, there remained
a greater miracle ftill to be wrought, viz. a total re-
formation of tafte in the people of Athens. In one
word, the fimplicityof the Greek tragedy was fuited
to the manner of afting ; and that manner excluded
all improvements.

In compofing a tragedy, the Grecian writers feent
to have had no aim but to exhibit on the ftagc fome
known event as it was fuppofed to have happened.
To give a diftinft notion of the event before-hand,
a perfon was introduced on the ftage to relate every
incident to the audience ; and that pCrfon fometimes
gave a particular account of all that was to happen
during the adion, which feems to me a very idle
thing. This fpeech was termed the prologue. There
was no notion of an invented fable, by which the
audience might be kept in fufpenfe during the adi-
on. In a word, a Greek tragedy refembles in every
refpeft a hiftory-pidure in which is reprefented fome
event known to all the world. Thus we fee the
fame fubjed handled by different tragic writers,
each fhowing his genius in the manner of reprefent-
ing it. Shakefpear's hiftorical plays are all of the
fame kind. But the entertainment afforded by fuch
a conipofition is far inferior to what arifes from an
unknown ftory, where every incident is new, where
the hopes and fears of the audience are kept in
conftant agitation, and where all is fufpended till
the final conclufion.

From thefe premifes an inference may with cer-
tainty be drawn, that delicacy of tafte and feeling
were but faintly known among the Greeks, even

when

' «;,l

mmi:'

154 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

,11 ;■*!'■

■^ !

I'M

when they made the greateft figure. Mufic indeed
may be fucccfsfully employ'd in a fentimental trage-
dy ; but pomp and fplcndor avail nothing. A fpec-
tator deeply aiFeded is regardlefs of decoration. I
appeal to the reproving fcene between Hamlet ancj
the Queen his mother : does any man of tafte give
the flighted attention to the beauty of the fcenery?
It would however be rafli to involve in the fame
cenfure every Athenian. Do not pantomime-fhow,
rope-dancing, and other fuch fafliionable fpeftacles,
draw multitudes from the deepefl: t'-agedies? And
yet among us there are perfons of tafte, not a few,
who defpife fuch fpcdacles as fit only for the mob,
perfons who never bbw'd the knee to Baal. And
if there were fuch perfons in Athens, of which
we have no reafon to doubt, it evinces the fuperio-
rity of their tafte : they had no example of more
refined compofitions than were exhibited on their
flage ; we have many.

With refpe^ to comedy, it doe§ not appear, that
the Greek comedy furpaffed the tragedy, in its
progrefs toward perfe^ion. Horace mentions three
Aages of Greek comedy, f he firfl was well fuit-
cd to the rough and coarfe manners of the Greeks,
when Eupolis, Cratinus, and Ariftophanes wrote,
Thefe authors were not afhamed to reprefent on the
ftage real perfons, not even djfguifing their names j
of which we have a ftriking inftance in a come-
dy of Ariftophanes, called T/je Clouds, where So-
crates is introduced, and moft contemptuoully treat-
ed. This fort of comedy, fparing neither gods nor
men, was reftraincd by the magiilrates of Athens,
forbidding perfons to be named on the ftage. This
led writers to do what is imitated by us : the cha-
racters and manners of known perfons were painted
fo much to the life, that there could be no miftake.
The fatire was indeed heightened by this regulation ;
as every one contributed to the fatjre by detefting
the perfons who were meant in the reprefcntation.

This

Sk. IV. 2.

Aris»

^55

This was termed the middle comedy. But as there
ftill remained too great fcopc for obloquy and licen-
tioufnefs ; a law was made, prohibiting real events
or incidents to be introduced upon the ftage. This
law happily banifhcd fatire againfl individuals, and
confined it to manners and cuftoms in general. Obe-
dient to this law are the comedies of Menander,, Phile-
mon, and Diphilus, who flourifhed about 300 years
before the Chriftian era. And this is termed the third
y?<?^^ of Greek comedy. The comediesof Ariftophanes,
which ftill remain, err no lefs againft tafte than againft
decency. But we have good ground to believe, that
the Greek comedy was confiderably refined by Me >
nander and his cotemporaries ; though we muft re-
ly upon collateral evidence, having very few remains
of them. Their works however were far from f;er*
fedion, if we can draw any conje6:ure from their
imitator Plautus, who wrote about a century later.
Plautus was a writer of genius ; and it may rcafonably
be fuppofed that his copies did not fall greatly ihort
of the originals, in matters at leaft that can be faith-
fully copied. At that rate, they muft have been
extremely defedive in their fubjcds, as well as in the
conduct of their pic^^s ; for he fliews very little art
in either. With refpeft to the former, his plots are
wondrous fimple, very little varied, and very little
interefting. The fubjed of almoft every piece is a
young man in love with a mufic-[^irl, defiring to pur -
chafe her from the procurer, and employing a fa-
vourite flave to cheat his father out of the price ;
and the different ways of accomplifhing the cheat, is
all the variety we find. In fome few of his comedies
the ftory rifes to a higher tone, the mufic-girl being
difcovered to be the daughter of a free man, which
removes every obftruction to a marriage between
her and her lover. With refped to the conduft of
his pieces, there is a miferable defeft of art. Inftead
of unfolding the fubjed in the progrefs of the adion,
as is done by Terence, and every modern writer,

3 Plautus

f I

IS6

Men independent of Society. B. I.

Plautus introduces an ador, for tie other purpofe but
to explain the ftory to the audience. In one of his
comedies, a houihold-god is fo obliging, as not only
to unfold the fubjed, but to relate beforehand every
particular that is to be reprcfented, not excepting the
cataftrophe. Did not Plautus know, that it is plea-
fant to have our curiofity raifcd about what will hap-
pen next '' III the courfe of the a6tion, perfons arc
frequemb' iatroduced who are heard talking to
themfelves on the open ftrcet. One would imagine
the Greeks to have been great babblers, when they
could not refrain foliloquies even in public. Could
Plautus have been fo artlefs in the conduft of his
pieces, had a more perfed model been exhibited to
him by Menander, or the other authors mentioned ?
It is obferved in Elements of Criticifm (<?), that
when a language has received fome polifh, and the
meaning of words is tolerably afcertained, then it is
that a play of words comes to be reliflied. At that
period of the Roman language, Plautus wrote. His
ivit confifts almoft entirely in a play of words, an
eternal jingle, words brought together that have
nearly the fame found, with different meanings, and
words pf different founds that have the fame mean-
ing. As the Greek language had arrived to itsper-
fedtion many years before, fuch fjflfe wit may be
jufUy afcribed to Plautus himfelf, not to the Greeks
from whom he copied. What was the period of
that baflard wit in Greece, I know not ; but it ap-
pears not to have been antiquated in Homer's days,
witnefs the joke in the Odyfl'ey, where UlyfTes im-
pofed upon Polyphemus by calling h'lmicli Hoiitisj or
No-man. Nor Icems it to have been antiquated in
the days of Euripides, who in his Cyclops repeats
the fame lilly joke. The Roman genius foon purg-
ed their compoiitions of fuch infantine beauties ;
for in Terence, who wrote about fifty years later

than

(*) Chap. 13.

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

'57

than Plautus, there is fcarce a veftige of them. The
dialogue befide of Terence is more natural and cor-
red, not a word but to the purpofe : Plautus is full f f
tautologies, and digr^fiions very little to the purpofe.
In a word, confidermg the flowprogrefs of arts, the
Roman theatre, from the time of Plautus to that of
Terence, made as rapid a progrefs as perhaps ever
happened in any country. Ariftotle defines comedy
to be an imitation of light and trivial fubjeds pro-
voking laughter. The comedies of Plautus corref-
pond accurately to that definition : thofe of Terence
rife to a higher tone.

' Befide the difad vantages of the mafk and pipe
mentioned above, there arc two caufes that tended
to keep back the Greek and Roman comedy from
the perfeftion of its kind. The firil is the flow pro-
grefs of fociety among thefe nations^ occafioned by
Separating from the female fex. Where women are
excluded from fociety, it never can arrive at any de-
gree of refinement, not to talk of perfedion. In a
fociety of men and women, every one endeavours to
fliine : every latent talent and every variety of cha-
rader, are brought to light. To judge from ancient
writers, man was a very plain being. Tacitus wrote
when fociety between the fexes was abundantly free ;
and in no author before him is to be found any
thing beyond the outlines of charafter. In ancient
comedies there are mifers, lovers, parafites, pro-
curers ; but the individuals of each clafs are call in
the fame mould. In the Rudens of Plautus, it is
true, a mifer is painted with much anxiety about his
hidden treafure, every trifling incident being con-
verted by him into a caufe of fufpicion ; but he is
ftill the fame mifer that is painted by others, without
any fliade or Angularity in the charader. Homer is
the only ancient that deferves to be excepted : his
heroes have all courage ; but courage in each is
clearly of a diflinft kind. Knowledge of an endlefs
variety of charader in the human fpecies, acquired

from

, <.L

'if

; I j|

% I;

I j

jM^mmmm

If!*.

M . i ^

158 Men independent of Society. B. L

from unrefhained fociety, has enabled the moderns to
enrich the theatre with new characters M'ithout end.
What elfe is it but defe£t of knowledge in the dif-*
pofitions of men, that has confined the comedies of
Phutus and Terence, like thofe of Italy, to a very
few charactv°rs ? " t •. "

Nothing j.s more evident, than the ibperiority oV
TereiTice above Piautus in the art ofwrU'ngj azm
confidcring that Teiencc is ?.. later writer, nothing
would appear more natural, if ihey did not copy the
fame originals. It may ,>e owing to genius that Te-
rence excels in purity of language., and prc}>riety oi
dialogue ; but hr w account ior liis iuperiority over
Piautus In the conftrudtion and c )ndu6 of a .; ly. It
\*'ill not certainly be thought, that Piuatus would
copy the w<:>rft models, leaving the beft to future
wvkcrs. This difficulty has not occurred to any of
the cs)mmentators, as far as I can recoiled. If it
be fair to judge of Menander and of his cotempo-
raries from Piautus their imitator, the talents of Te-
xence muft have been great, to excel all of them fo
much both in the conftrudlion and conduft of his
plays.

Homer for more than two thoufand years has
been held the prince of poets. Such perfection in
an author who flourilhed when arts were far fhort of
maturity, would be furprifing, would be miraculous.
An author of genius (a) has endeavoured to account
for this extraordinary phenomenon j and I willingly
acknowledge, that he has exerted much indultry, as
well as invention ; but in my apprehcnfion without
giving much fatisfadion. The new light that is
thrown above upon the Greek theatre, has em-
boldened me to attempt a criticifm on the Iliad, in
order to judge whether Homer has io i^r anticipated
the ordinary progrefs of nature, as in a very early
period to have arrived at the perfedion of his art.

4A- i

(«) Eflay on the life and writings of HorRer,

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

>59

li .'

To form a good writer, genius and judgement
mufl concur. Nature fupplies the former ; but to
the latter inilrudion and imitation are eifential.
Shakefpeare lived in an age that afforded him lit-
tle or no opportunity to cuhivate or improve his
judgement ; and though inimitable in every article
that depends on genius, there are found many de-
feds in the condud of his plays, and in other parti-
culars that require judgement ripened by experi-
ence. Homer lived in a rude age, iittle advanced in
ufeful arts, and ftill lefs in civilization and enlarg-
ed benevolence. The nations engaged in the Tro-
jan war, are defcribed by him as in a progrefs from
the fliepherd-ftate to that of agriculture. In the
Iliad, many eminent men are faid to be ihcpherds.
Andromache in particular (a) mentions feven of her
brethren, who were flain by Achilles as they tend-
ed their father's flocks and herds. In that flate,
garments of woollen cloth were ufed j but the
ikins of beads, the original cloathing, were ftill
worn as an upper garment : every chief in the Iliad
appears in that drefs. Such indeed was the fimpli-
city of this early period, that a black ewe was pro-
mifed by each chief to the man who would under-
take to be a fpy. In fuch times literature could not
be far advance^! ; and it is a great doubt, whether'
there was at that time a lingle jx>em of the ^ic
kind, for llouKr to imitate or improve upon-. Ho-
mer is undiH^btcdlv a wonderful genius, perhaps the
grcatci\ thxit c\\ r exifted : his fire and the boktnefs
of his c\MKX\>tions» are inimitable. But in that ear-
ly age, it would fal' little (hort of a real miracle, to
find fuch ripcnefs of juilgement and corrednefs of
execution, as in modern wviters are the fruits of long
experience and progreilive improvements, during the
couri'e of many centuries. Homer is far from being
fo ripe, or fo corred. 1 Ihall mention but two or

three

(«) Book 6.

^'.1

i *-■■

■i

\'l u

I Co Men independent of Society. B. I»

three particulars ; for to dwell upon the imperfefli-
ons of fo illudrious an author, is not pleafant. The
firll is, that he reduces his heroes to be little bet-
ter than puppets. Not one of them performs an
adion or eclat, but with the afliftanee of fome
deity : even Achilles himfelf is every where aided
by fuperior powers. It is Jupiter who infpires Hec-
tor with boldnels to perform the heroic aftioiis i'o
finely dcfcribtd in the 15th book ; and it is Jupiter
who, ( liiiiipin^ fides, fills his heart with dilinay.
(ilauciis, dtfperately woundeij, fupplicates Apolloi
is iT]tr;^culoufly healed, ana returns to the battle per-
fedly itiiiihl. Ih'^fcnr firurk fo the ground and ik
the point of giving up the gholt. Is eured by Apollo,
and feptback to the battle with redoubled vigour.
Homer rffflnibles a fed ot Chridiaiis, who linid,
that a man can do nothing of himlelf, and that he is
merely an inflrument which God employs, as we
do a fpade or a hatchet. Can Homer's admirers be
fo blinded as not to perceive, that this fort of ma-
chinery dtJtrads from the dignity of his heroes,
renders them lefs interelling, and lefs worthy of ad-*
miration? Homer however is delfivf*dly liith a fa-
vourite, that we are prone to admit any eKculr. In
days of ignorance, people are much addided to
the marvellous. Homer himfelf, it may be jnflly
fuppofed, M'as infefted with that wer/v-ntls ; and ho
certainly knew, that his hearers would be en-
chanted with every thing wonderful and out of the
common courfe of nature. Another particular is
his digreflions without end, which draw our at-
tention from the principal fubjeft. I wifli fome
apology could be made for them. Diomedes («),
for inltnncr, meeting with Glaucu.s in the field of
battle, and doubting from his majeftic air whe-
ther he might not be an immortal, enquires who
he was, declaring that he would not fight with a

god.

(a) Book 6.

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

i6i

()

o
a

god. Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opjior-
tunity, in the heat of action, to give a long hiftory
of his family. In the mean time the reader's pati-
ence is put to a trial, and his ardor cools. Aga-
memnon {a) defiring advice how to refill the Tro-
jans, Diomedes fprings forward ; but before he of-
fers advice, gives the hiftory of all his progenitors,
and of their characters, in a long train. And ahcr
all, what was the fage advice that required fuch a
preface ? It was, that Agamemnon jhould exhort
the Greeks to fight bravely. At any rate was Dio-
medes fo little known, as to make it proper to fuf-
f)end the adion at fo critical a juncture for a genca-
ogitd) hilinry? A third particular is an endlefs num-
ber of minute circumltances ; efpecially in the de*
fcrlptlUU of battles, wliere they are the leaft tolera-
ble. One capital beauty of an epic poem, is the
felection of fuch incidents and circumfiances j
U8 make a deep impreflion, keeping out of \ievf
every thing low or familiar (^b). An account
of a fmgle battle employs the whole fifth book
of the Iliad, and a great part of the fixth ;
yet in the whole there is no general adion ; but
warriors, whom we never heard of before, killed at
a diftance with an arrow or a javelin ; and every
wound defcribcd with anatomical accuracy. The
whole feventeenth book is employed in the conteit
about the dead body of Patroclus, fluffed with mi-
nute circumftances below the dignity of an epic
poem : the reader fatigued has nothing to relieve
him but the melody of Homer's verfification. Gra-
titude would prompt an apology for an author who
affords fo much pleafufe : Homer had no good mo-
dels to copy after ; and without good models wc
cannot exped maturity of judgement. In a word.
Homer was a blazing liar, and the more to be ad-
VoL. I. M raired.

{a) Book 14,

'yi) Elements of CritUiftn, vol. 1. p. 232. edit. 5

wmv

162 Men independent of Society. B. 1.

mired, becaufc he blazed in a obfcure age. But
that he Ihould in no degree be tainted with the irn-
perfeftions of fuch an age, is a wild thought: it is
fcarcc pofTible, but by luppofing him to be more
than man.

Particular caufcs that advance the progrefs of
fine arts, as well as of uftful arts, arc mentioned
in the iirlt part of this Sketch, and to thefe I
refer.

Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts to-*
ward maturity in a fuinmary way, the decline of
thcfc arts comes next in order. A ufeful art fel-
dom turns retrograde, becaufe every one has an in-
terefl to preferve it in perfedion. Fine arts de-
pend on more flender principles than thofe of uti-
lity ; and theretorc the judgement formed of them is
more fludluating. The variety of form that is ad-
mitted into the iine arts by fuch fludluation of judgc-i
ment, excites artifls to indulge their love of novel-
ty. Rclllefs man knows no golden mean, but will
be attempting innovations without end. Such in-
novations do well in an art diltant from perfeft'on ;
but they are commonly the caufe of degeneracy in
arts that are in perfection ; for an artift ambitious to
excel, aims always to be an original, and cannot
fubmitto be an imitator. This is the plain meaning
of a florid pall'age of Velleius Patercuius (Roman
hiftory lib. 1,) "■ Naturaque, quod fummo ftudio
*' petitum eft, afcendit in fummum ; difticilifquein
*' perledo mora eft ; naturaliterque, quodprocedere
*' non poteft, recedit." Which may pafs in a learn-
ed language^ but will never do in fimple Englifh.
The idea," lavs Winchit man, " of beauty could
not be made more perftd ; and thofe arts that
cannot advance fardier, become retrograde, by a
fjitaiity attfiiding ail human things, that if they
cannot UiOunt, tiu^y muft fall down, becaufe fta-
bility is not a quality olany created thing." 1 fhall

*' endeavour

«t

(.t

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

163

ey
a-
all
!ur

endeavour to iliuitrate the caufe aftigned by me a-
bove lx)r decline of the fine arts ; beginning with ar-
chitecture. The Ionic was the lavouritc order
when architecture was in its height of glory. The
Corinthian order came next ; which, in attempting
greater perfedion, has deviated from the true limpii-
city of nature : and the deviation is ftill greater in
the Compofitc order {a).

With refpeCl to literary productions, the firfl: cf-
fays of the Romans were very im per feCt. We may
judge of this from Piautus, whofe compofitions are
abundantly rude; though much admired by his co-
temporaries, being the beft that exifted at that
time in Rome. The exalted fpirit of the Romans
hurried them on to the grand and beautiful ; and
literary productions of all kinds were in perfection
when Auguftus reigned. In attempting Hill great-
er perfection, the Roman compofitions became a
itrange jumble of inconfiftent parts: they were tu-
mid and pompous, and at the fame time full of
antithefes, conceit, and tinfel wit. Every thing new
in a fine art pleafes ; and for that reafon fuch
compofitions were relifhcd. We fee not by what
gradual fteps writers after the time of Auguftus
deviated from the patterns that were before them j
for no book of any moment from the death of
that Emperor is preferved till we come down to
Seneca, in whofe works nature and fimplicity give
place to quaint thought and baftard wit. He was a
great corrupter of the Roman tafte 1, and after him
nothing was reiiflied, but brilliant ftrok.L? of fancy,
with very little regard to fentimcnt ; even Virgiland
Cicero made no figure in comparifon. Lucan has
a Itrained elevation of thought and ftyle, very diffi-
cult to be fupported : he finks often into puerile re-
flections ; witnefs his encomium on the river Po,

M 2 which

(.1) Elements of Criticifm, vol. i. p. 206. edit, 5. '.

■^\

,i '.

164

Men inJepemlent ot" Sociciy*

B. I.

'■ill . ■

which, fays he, would equal the Dan;. ,c, had it the
lUme number of tributary (beams. QuinrHian, a
writer of true claflical tallc, who was protc£ked and
encouraged by Vefpafian, attcin| ted to ftem the tide
of falfc writing. His rhetoric is compofcd in an
elegant (lyle ; and his obfcrvations contain every de-
licacy of the critical art. At the fame time flouriflied
Tacitus, po lie flit g a more cxtfinfivc knowledge of
human nature than any other ancient or modern, if
Shakcfpcarc be not excepted. His (tyle is original,
concife, compad, and comprehenfive ; and in wiiat
is properly called his hiftory, perfcdiy correcl and
beautiful. He has been imitated by fcveral, but
never equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft
of the Romans for love of liberty : Qiiintilian and
Tacitus may be faid to be the lafl: of the Romans for
literary genius. Pliny the younger is no exception ;
liis llyle is atlecled, turgid, and full of childilh bril-
liancy. Seneca and Pliny are proper examples oC
writers who fludy Ihow more than fubilance, and
who make fenfe yield to found.

Whether mulic be or be not on the dechne, fecms
a doubtful point, as the virtuofi are divided about it*^
In Greece, celebrated for tafle, mufic was a theatri-
cal entertainment ; and had a dignified office, that
of enlivening or enforcing the impreflions made on
the audience by the action. In that office, harmony
being of little ufe, was little cultivated : nor did the
mufical inftruments at that time known, afford great
fcope for harmony. Among us, harmony is brought
to perfedion ; and in modern compofitions, it com-
monly is the chief part. To have melody and har-
mony both in perfeclion, they can never be united in
the fame piece. The heart fwoln by a melancholy
drain, is averfe to the pleafure of harmony ; and when
fubdued by a delightful ilrain of whatever kind,
it has no leifure for comlpicatcd harmony. Rich har-
mony, on the other hand, ingrolling the whole attenti-

^ OP,

III

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts*

>6j

on, leaves tlie heart in a meafure vacant*. The Greeks
excelled in melody : the moderns excel in harmony.
Ajufl comparifon between thcfe with refpcd to their
cfteds on the hearer, will give inftriK5tio\i ; and per-
haps may enable us to determine whether mufic be
or be not on the decline.

Nature, kindly to its favourite man, has furniflieJ
him with five external fenfes, not only for fupporting
animal life, but for procuring to him variety of en-
joyments. A towering hill as an objet^ of light, a
blufliing rofe as an objed of fmell, a pine-appk as an
objeft of tafte, a fine fur as an objed of touch, do,
all of them, produce a pleafant feeling. With rcf-
pcd to the fenfe of hearing in particular, a pleafant
feeling is raifed by concordant founds, and a feeling
of the fame kind, by certain founds in fucceflion ; the
former termed harmony^ the latter melody. The plca-
fure of harmony, like that of tafte or of fmell, va-
nilhes with its objeft ; but melody, piercing to the
heart, raifes an emotion of gaiety, of melancholy, of
pity, of courage, of benevolence, or fuch like, which
iubfifts after the mufic ceafes, and even fwells into a
paflion where it meets with a proper object {a). An
air, fweet and melting, raifes an emotion in the tone
of love ; and readily is elevated to the paflion of love
on the fight of a beautiful object* An air (low and
plaintive, produces an emotion in the tone of pity or
grief; which on the appearance of a perfon in dif-
trefs, becomes a paflion. A lively and animating
llrain produces an emotion of courage : the hearer
exalted to a hero, longs for an opportunity to exert
bis prowcfs.

Spumantcmquc ciari, perora inter in£rtia, voils
Optat apru?n, aut fuhum defcendere monte konem.

, . Can

* Corelli excels In combining harmony with melody. HI* melody could
rot be richer without impoverifliing lu« harmony} nor his harmony jlcher
without impovcrirtjing his melody,

(<;) Elements of Critisifm, chap, i, part j. feft. 4,

■!

Il •

i66 Men independent of Society. B. I.

Can harmony produce an efteft in any degree fi-
milar ? The greateft admirer of harmony will not
affirm that it can. The emotion raifed by harmony
has no affinity to paffion or fentiment more than the
fmell of a tuberofe or the tafle of an ortolan ; and it
vanilhes inftantaneoufly with the concordant founds
that produced it.

Hence it may fairly be concluded, that as far as
melody is fupcrior to harmony, as tar was Greek
mufic fupcrior to the generality of what is now in
pra6lice. Exceptions there are undoubtedly that
rival whatever could be performed by the ancients :
but they arc not many in number : the talent of com-
pofmg mufic ir '''e tone of a j^affion, feems in a great
meafure to .'•" « Drmanr. The Italian opera refem-
blcs in form the Greek tragedy, from which evi-
dently it is copied ; but very little in fubftance. In
the latter the dialogue maintains its fupcrior fhition;
and mufic, confined to its proper place, has the
(Irongefl: effed that mufic can produce. In the for-
mer, mufic ufurjnng the fu])reme ftation, commands
attention by a llorm of found, leaving the dialogue
languid and unintercfting. This unnatural disjunc-
tion of found from fcnfe, has introduced a fort of
baftard mufic, termed recitative. Suffering the
words to pafs, though abundantly flat and languid *, I
objecl to the exec'ition, an unnatural movement be-
tween pronouncing and fmging, thit cannot be
agreeable but to thofe who have been long ac-
cuflomed to it. Of one thing I am certain, that
graceful pronunciation, whether in the calm narra-
tive tone or in the warm tone of pallion, is far more
pleafant. "What puts the preference of the Greek
model far beyond a doubt, is, that the tragedies of
Sophocles and Euripides were for a long courfe of
time the delight of the molt refined nation that ever
cxifled : an Italian opera, on the contrary, never

runs

* No perfon will fiifpcil thai i!ndi;r tliii ceofure is comprehended tiie te-
!e!>rated Mttaftal'io.

IJ Sk. IV. -2. Arts, 167

runs above a feafon ; and after being once laid afide,
is never revived. But this flight and fuperficial tafte
for harmony againft melody, cannot be lading : na-
ture may be wrcfted, but always foon or late refumesi
its empire. Sentimental mufic will be ferioufly cul-
tivated, and reflored to the place in the theatre it
anciently poflefled with dignity and propriety. Then
it is that we may hope to rival the Greeks in mufic as
in other arts. Upon the whole, mufic undoubtedly
is much improved with rcfpeft to its theory, but with
refpeft to the pradical part there appears as little
doubt of a woeful degeneracy.

I lay hold of this oj)portunity to add a fmall article
concerning the hiftory of mufic, which regard to my
pative country will not fuft'er me to omit. We have
in Scotland a multitude of fongs tender and pathetic,
expreffive of love in its varieties of hope, fear, fuc-
cefs, defpondence, and defpair. The ftyle of the
mufic is wild and irregular, extremely pleafing to the
natives, but little relilhed by the bulk of thbfe who
are aceuftomed to the regularity of the Italian flyle.
None but men of genius, who follow nature and
break Iqofe from the thraldom of cullom, elteemthat
mufic. It was a favourite of the late Geminiani,
whofe compofiiions fliow delicacy of tafte equal to the
fuperiority of his genius ; and it is v/armly praifed
by Aleflandro Talfoni, the celebrated author of Sec-
chia Rapita. Dicourfing of ancient and modern
mufic, and quoting from various autliors the won-
derful effeds produced by fomc modern compofiti-
ons, he fubjoins the following pafiage. " Noi an-
cora pafliamo connumerar tra noftri, lacopo Re
dc Scozia, che non puv cofe facre cpoipofe in
tanto, uia trovo da felleffo una nuova rnufica la-
mentevole e mefta, differente da tutte I'atre. Nel
che poi e ftato imitato de Carlo Gefualdo Principe
di Venofa, che in qucfta noftra eta lia illuftrata
anch' egli la mufica con nuova mirabili invenzio-

111

:i*

111

"ni."

f '

h' **.

168 Men independent of Society. B. I.

*' ni («)*.** The king mentioned muft be James I.
of Scotland, the only one of our kings who feems to
have had any remarkable tafte in the fine arts ; and
the mufic can be no other than the fongs mentioned
above. Thefe are commonly attributed to David
Rizzio, becaufe he was an Italian and a mufician ;
but erroneoufly, as wc now difcover from Taffoni.
Our James I. was eminent for poetry no lefs than for
mufic. lie is praifcd for the former by Bifliop Leflie,
one of our hiitorians, in the following words : " Pa-
*' trii carminis gloria nulli fecundus." We have many
poems afcribed by tradition to that king ; one in
particular, Chrijrs kirk on ibe grecn^ is a ludicrous
poem, defcribing low manners with no lefs propriety
than fprightlinefs.

Another caufe that precipitates the downfal of
every tine art, is defpotifm. The rcafon is obvious ;
and there was a difmal example of it in Rome, parti-
cularly with regard to eloquence. We learn from a
dialogue accounting for the corruption of the Roman
eloquence, that in the decline of the art it became
faliiionable to ftuff harangues with impertinent poeti-
cal quotations, without any view but ornament
merely ; and this alfo was long falhionable in France.
It happened unluckily for the Romans, and for the
world, that the fine arts were at their height in Rome,
and not much upon the decline in Greece, when def-
potifm put an end to the republic. Auguflus, it is
true, retarded their fall, particularly that of literature;
it being the policy of his reign to hide defpotifm, and
to give his government an air ot freedom. His
court was a fchool of urbanity, where people of
genius acquired that delicacy of talle, that elevation

(«) Penfieri cliverfi, lib. i.j .ap. 3^.

■» •' We may reckon aniing the conipofers of the moderns James King of
" Scotland, who not only (oriipoted facied fongs, but was liinikh" tlie in-
" ventor ct" a new i\yle of mufic, plaintive and j)aihetic, ditVeient from all
" others. In this manner of (-ompolition, he ha', hecn imitated in our times
'* by Carlo Oelunldo Prince of Vcnofa, who has ilhutratcd that tlyle of mu^-
'* fc witi* Bew and wonderful invctttion."

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

169

of fentiinent, and that purity of exprefllon, which
charaderize the writers of his time. He honoured
men of learning, admitted them to his table, and
was bountiful to them. It would be painful to
follow the decline of the fine arts in Rome to their
total extirpation. The tyranny of Tiberius and of
fubfequent emperors, broke at laft the elevated and
independent fpirit of the brave Romans, reduced
them to abjeft flavery, and left not a fpark of genius *.
The fcience of law is the only exception, as it flou-
riflied even in the word of times : the Roman law-
yers were a refpedlable body, and lefs the objed of
jealoufy than men of power and extenfive land-pro-
perty. Among the Greeks alfo, a conquered peo-
ple, the fine arts decayed, but not fo rapidly as at
Rome : the Greeks, farther removed from the feat of
government, were lefs witliin the reach of a Roman
tyrant. During their deprelTion, they were guilty of
the moft puerile conceits ; wdtnefs verfes compofed
in the form of an axe, an egg, wings, and fuch like.
The ftyleof Greek writers in the reign of the Em-
peror Hadrian, is unequal, obfcure, ftift', and af-
feded. Lucian is the only exception I am acquaint-
ed with.

We need fcarce look fo»* r«nother caufe but def-
potifm, to account for the .ccline of ftatuary and
painting in Greece. The'.t; arts had arrived at
tiie utmoll perfection about the time of Alexander

the

jiiS

* A fingular perfecutlon v/as carried on by Pope Gregory, moft impro-
perly furnamed me Great, agaisiil the works of Cicero, Titus Llvius, and
Cornelius Tacitus, which in ev-Ty corner of Chriftendom were publicly
burnt ; and from that time there has not been leen a complete copy of any of
thefe authors. This happened in the frxth century : fo foon had the Romans
fallen, from the perfedion of talte and IcnowJedge to the moft humbling bar.
barity. Nor was that tiie only perfecutlon of books on the fcore of religion.
Many centuries before, a fimilar inilance happened in China, directed by a
tuolilh emperor. The Alexandrian library was twice confumed hy fire, one*
in the time of Julius C.ifar, and once in the time of the Calif Omar. What a
profufion of knowledge was loft pafl redemption ! And yet, upon the whole^
it feenis doubtful, whetlier the moderns have fuffered by thefe events. At
what (.orner of a library (hall a man begin where he fees an infinity of books,
choice ones too.' IW will turn his back to the library and begin at no
^^'rjier,

170

^-A^: t

" '' fA

Men independent of Society. B. I.

the Great : from that time they declined gradually
along with the vigour of a free people ; for Greece
was now enHaved by the Macedonian power. It
may in general be bbferved, that when a nation
becomes Itationary in that degree of power and e-
minence which it acquires from its conftitution and
fituation, the national fpirit fubfides, and men pf ta-
lents become rare. It is ftill worfe with a nation
that is funk below its former power and eminence ;
and word of all when it is reduced to flavery.
Other caufes concurred to accelerate the downfal
of the arts mentioned. Greece in the days of A-
lexander was filled with ftatues of excellent work-
manfhip ; and there being little demand for more,
the later ftatuaries were reduced to heads and bulls.
At lad the Romans put a total end both to ftatuary
and painting in Greece, by plundering it of its fineit
pieces ; and the Greeks, expofed to the avarice of
the conqu ..ors, bellowed no longer any money on
the fine arts.

The decline of the fine arts in Rome, is by a
writer of tafte and elegance afcribed to a caufe dif-
ferent from any above mentioned, a caufe equally
deflru6live to manhood and to the fine uts ; and
that is opulence, joined with its conflant attendants
avarice and luxury. It would be doing injudice to
that author to quote him in any words but his own.
** Prifcis temporibus, quum adhuc nuda virtus pla-
ceret, vigebant artes ingenua^ ; fummumque cer-
tamen inter homines erat, ne quid profuturum
feculis diu lateret. Itaque, Hercules! omnium
herbarum fuccos Democritus expreflit : et ne la-
pidum virgultorumque vis lateret, getatem inter
experimenta confumpfit. Eudoxus quidcm in
cacumine cxcelfiflimi niontis confenuit, ut adro-
rum ccelique motus deprehenderet : et Chryfip-
pus, ut ad inventionem fufliciret, ter heUeboro
animum deterfit. Verum ut ad pladas conver-
tar, Lyiippum datuic unius lineamentis inh^rtn-

tcin

4(
<C

((
ii

a
((
((

cc
it

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

'7'

tern inopia extinxit : et Myron, qui pcne homi-
nuin animas fcrarutnque a:re comprehenderat,
lion invenit heredem. At nos, vino fcortifque
demerfi, ne paratas quldem artes audemus cog-
npfcere ; fed accufatores antiqjiratis, vitia tan-
tum docemus, et difcimus. Ubi eft dia!e£tica ?
ubi aftrononiia ? ubi fapientia; confultiffima via ?
Quis unquain venit in templum, et votum
fecit fi ad eloquentiam pervenifiet ? quis, fi phi-
lofophise fontem inveniflet ? Ac ne bonam qui-
dem mentem, aut bonam valetudinem, petunt :
fed ftatim, antequam limcn capitolii tangunt,
alius donuni promittit fi propinquuin diviteni
extulerit ; alius, fi thefaurum effoderit ; alius, fi

ad trecenties H S. falvus pervenerit. Ipl^

fenatus, rcdi bonique preeceptor, millepondo auii
capitolio promittere folet : et ne quis mibitet pe-
cuniam concupifcere, Jovem quoque peculio ex-
orat. Nolito ergo mirari, fi pitluradefecit, quum
omnibus diis iioniinibufque formofior videatur
maifa auri, quam quidquid Apellcs Phidiaf. r fe-
cerunt* (a)** In England, the fine arts are far

from

{a) Petro'iius Arbiter,

* " In ancient times, when naked virtue had her admirers, the liberal
" arts were in their higheft vigour ; and there was a generous conteft among
" men, that nothing of real and permanent advantage (hould long remain un-
" difcovereu. Democritus extracted the juice of every herb and plant, and
" left the virtue ot a fingle ftone or twig fliould cfcape him, he confumed n
" lifetime in experiments. Eudoxus, immened in the ftudy of aflrono-
" my, fpcnt his age upon the top of a mountain. Chry(;ppus to ftimuiat*
" his inventive faculty, thrice purified his genius with lielleboic. To turn
to the Imitative aits ; Lylippus, wliile labouring on the forms of a fingle
ftatuj, perifhfd from want. Myron, whole powerful hand gave to tlie
brafs almoft the foul of man, and animals, — at his death found not an
heir! Of us of modern times wiiat (hall we fay ? Immerfed in drunkennefs
and debaucliery, we want the fpirit to cultivate thole arts which we poflefs.
We invc'gh ai^alnft the manners of antiquity j we ftudy vice alone j and
" vice is all we teach. Wliere now is the art of reafoning ? where aftro-
" nomy ' where is tiie riglit patii of wifdom ? What man now a-days is heard
" ¥n our temples to make a vow for thf attainment of eloquence, or for tha
" difcovery of the fountain of true philofophy ? Nor do ws even pray for
" health of body, or a found underftandin;;. One, while he has fcaiceen-
" tered the porch of the tem[)le, devotes a ijift in the event of tiie death of a
" v\ch relation ; another prays for the difcovery of a tieafurc ; a third for a
" minifleriai Jort ;ne. The fenate itfcli, the exempisry preveptor of what is

** good:

1 1,

IB'''

■Ih\

'I -I .

•r.-^.-* rf*_mii'imN:m» wn

172 Men independent of Society. B. I.

from fuch perfedion as to fufl'cr by opulence. They
are in a progrefs, it is true, toward maturity ; but,
gardening alone excepted, they proceed with a ve-
ry flow pace.-

There is a particular caufe that never fails to un-
dermine a fine art in a country where it is brought
to perfection, abfl:ra6ted from every one of the
caufcs above mentioned. In the firll part of the
prefent fketch it is remarked, that nothing is more
fatal to an art or to a fciencc, than a perform-
ance fo much fuperior to all of the kind, as to extin-
guifli emulation. This remark is exemplified in the
great Newton, who, having furpaffed all the anci-
ents, has not left to his countrymen even the faint-
ed hope of rivalling him ; and to that caufe is attri-
buted the vifible decline of mathematu il knowledge
in Great Britain. The fame caufe would have been
fatal to the arts of ftatuary and painting among the
Greeks, even t^hough they had continued a free
people. The decay of painting in modern Italy, is
probably owing to the fame caufe : Michael Ange-
lo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are lofty oaks that keep
down young plants in their neighbourhood, and in-
tercept from them the funfhine of emulation. Had
the art of painting made a flower progrefs in Italy,
it might have there continued in vigour to this
day. Velleius Paterculusfays judicioufly, "Utpri-
** mo ad confequendos quos priores ducimus ac-
*' cendimur ; ita, ubi aut prseteriri aut aequari eos
pofle defperavimus, fl:udium cum fpe fenefcit ; et
quod adfequi non potefl, fequi defmit : pra^teri-
" toque eo in quo eni'nere non poflimus, aliquid in
" quo nitamur conquirimus. *.

The

ill i

good and laudable, has promifed a thoufand pounds of gold to the capjtol ;
and, to remove all reproach from the crime of avarice, has oftered a bribe to
Jupiter himfelt. (low rtiould we wonder that the art of painting has de-
timed, when, in the eyes both of the gods and men, there is more beauty
in amafs of gold, than in all the works of Phidias and Apelles ?"
* " As at firft we are excited t<> emulate thofe fcjperior models, fo when

" once

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts,

J73

The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from
the foregoing caufe, is the mofl rapid where a flricl
compariTon can be inftituted between the works oF
different maflers. The fuperiority of Newton above
every other mathematician can be afcertained with
precifion ; and hence the fudden decUne of that
fcience in Gfeat Britain. In Italy, a talent for
painting continued many years in vigour ; becaufc
no painter appeared with fuch fuperiority of genius,
as to carry perfection into every branch of the
art. As one furpalfed in defign, one in colours,
one in graceful attitudes, there was ftill fcope for c-
mulation. But when in theprogrefs of the art there
was not a fingle perfedtion but had been feized by
one or other mafler ; from that period the art be-
gan to languifh. Architecture continued longer in
vigour than painting, becaufe the principles of com-
parifon in the former are lefs precife th..n in the
latter. The artifl who could not rival his predecef-
fors in an eflabliflied mode, fought out a new
mode for himfelf ; which though perhaps lefs ele-
gant or perfect, was for a time fupportcd by no-
velty.

Corruption of the Latin tongue makes a proper
appendix to the decline of the fine arts in Rome.
That the Latin tongue did not long continue in pu-
rity after the Emperor Auguftus, is certain ; and
all writers agree, that the caufe of its early cor-
ruption, was a continual influx into Rome of men,
to whom the Latin was a foreign language. The
reafon is plaufible ; but whether folid may be doubt-
ed. In all countries, there are provincial dialects ;
which however tend not to corrupt the language of
the capital, becaufe they are carefully avoided by all
who pretend to fpeak properiy j and accordingly

the

\m'*

" once w€ have loft tl>e hope of excelling, or even of equalling them, our

" anihition fails tii with our hopes : we ceafe to pu^-fue what we cannot

" ariiin, and neglefting that ftudy in which w*.- ar;; (i;;barred from anivinj

"* ai '.'xcellence, we fcarch fcr a different fteid ot emulation*"

;PJ

174 Mln indcj)endent of Society. B. I.

the multitude of provinrhils M'ho flock to Paris and
to London produce no ci\'c<:i on the language, fhe
fame probably was the cafe in old Ronir, efpeclaily
with rcfpcdt to Itrangers whofc native tongue wa-s
totally different from that of Home : their impcrfc^tt
manner of fpcaking Latin might be excufed, but cer-
tainly \\ as not imitated. Slaves in Rome had little
converfation with their mafters, except in receiving
orders or reproof ; which had no tendency to viti-
ate the Latin tongue. I'hc corruption of that
tongue, and at lafl its death and burial as a living
language, were the refult of two combined caufes f
of which the early prevalence of the Greek lan-
guage in Rome is the firft. Latin was native to the
Romans only, and to the inhabitants of Latium.
The languages of the rtfl: of Italy were numerous :
the Meifapian was the mother-tongue in Apulia,
the Hcrrufcan in Tufcany and Umbria, the Greek
in Magna Grsecia, the Celtic in Lombardy and Li-
guria, &c. &c. Latin had arrived at its purity not
many years before the reign of Auguftus ; and had
not taken deep root in tliofe parts of Italy where it
was not the mother-tongue when Greek came to
be the fafhionablc language among people of rank,
as French is in Europe at piefent. Greek, the ftore-
houfe of learning, prevailed in Rome even in Cice-
ro's time ; of which he himiclf bears teftimony in
his oration for the poet Archias : " Grceca Icguntur
" in omnibus fere gentibus : Latina fuis finibus,
*' exiguis fane continentur." And ^br that reafon
Atticus is warmly folicited by hini to write the hif-
tory of his confulate in Greek. Thus Latin, juftlcd
by Greek out of its place, was left to inferiors ; and
probably would have funk to utter oblivion, even
though the republic had continued in vigour. But
the chief caufe was the defpotifm of the Roman go-
vernment, which proved the deftruftion of the fine
arts, and of literature in particular. In a country

Sk. IV. 2.

Arts.

^75

,, r

of fo many difierent languages, the Latin tongue
could not be prefcrvcd in purity, but by condant
perufal of Roman claflics : but thefe were Jcft to rot
in libraries, a dark cloud of ignorance having over-
fpread the whole empire. Kvery perfon carclefsly
fpoke the language acquired in the nurfcry ; and
people of different tongues being mixed under one
government, without a common ftandard, fell gra-
dually into a fort of mixed language, which every
one made a fliift to underftand. The irruption of
many barbarous nations into Italy, feveral of whom
fettled there, added to the jargon. And that jargon,
compofed of many heterogeneous parts, was in pro-
cefs of time purified to the tongue that is now native
to all the inhabitants of Italy.

In a hiftory of the Latin tongue, it ought not to
be overlooked, that it continued long in purity
among the Roman lawyers. The fcience of law was
in Rome more cultivated than in any other country.
The books written upon that fcience in Latin were
numerous; and, being highly regarded, were the
conltant ftudy of every man who afpired to be an
eminent lawyer. Neither could fuch men have any
bias to the Greek tongue, as law was little cultivated
in Greece. Thus it happened, that the Latin tongue,
as far as concerns law, was preferved in purity, even
to the time of the Emperor Juftinian.

Greek was preferved in purity much longer than
Latin. The fame language was fpoken through all
Greece, with fomc flight varieties in dialed. It was
brought to great perfedion and firmly rooted during
the profperoiis days of Greece. Its clalTics were nu-
merous, and were ftudied by every perfon who pre-
tended to literature *. Nowtho' the free and manly
fpitit of the Greeks yielded to Roman defpotifm,
yet while any appetite for literature remained, their

invaluable

I 'if

i^i I-

* Tlice ftill rBmain about three thoufand Greek books ;
not above Tixty.

of Latin books

(;;;-■■

ill:

r.;

176 Men independent of Society. B. I.

invaluable claflics "were a flandard, which prefcrv .-d
the language in purity. But ignorance at Icn^vb
because univcrfal ; and the Greek dailies ccn^'il to
be a iuiiidard, being buried ifUibrarii J, as the Ro-
man claflics had been tor centur«ef^. In that flate,
the Greek tongue could not fail to degenerate among
an ignorant and fcrvile people, who had no longer
any ambition to aft well, write well, or fpeak well.
And yet after all, that beautiful tongue, far beyond
a rival, hasfuffered lefs alteration than any other ever
did in fimilar circumltances ; one caufc of which is,
that to this day the Greeks live feparate from their
mailers the Turks, and have little commerce with
them. . . ! - ''-■ I- ?

From the fate of the Latin tongue, an obfcrvatlon
i? drawn by many writers, that all languages are in a
continual flux, changing from age to age without end.
And fuch as are fond of fame, deplore it as a heavy
misfortune, that the language in which they write
will foon become obfolete and unintelligible. But it
is 1^- common error in reafoning, to found a general
conciufion upon a fmgle facl. In its progrefs to-
'vauU perfeftion, a language is continually improv-
ivig. and therefore continually changing. But fup-
poi.ng A language to have acquired its iitmofl per-
fedion, I fee nothing that fliould necefiarily occafion
any change : on the contrary, the claihcal books in
that language become a ilandard for writing and
[peaking, to which every man of talte and figure
conforms himfelf. Such was the cafe of the Greek
tongue, till the Greeks were brutified by defpotifm.
The Italian has continued in perfeftion more than
three centuries, and the French moic than one. The
Arabic has continued without change more than a
^houfand years : there is no book in that language
held to be in a ftyle more pure or perfed than the
Koran §. The Englifti language has not yet acquired

all

§ 1 am far from thinkiog, tbat the lansuajs cf the Arabians, an IJliterate

*k. IV. a.

Artu

all the purity it is fufceptible of ; but >vhen 'there
is no place ior further impiToveinents, there feems
little d6ubt of its becoming (Ittionary, like the
languages now mentioned. I bar always fuch a
revolution as eradicates knowledge^ and reduces
a people to a ftate of barbarity. In an event fo
dlfnial, the dedruclion of clailical books and of
a pure language, is not the grcatcft calamity:
tjicy will be liitle regretted in the univerfal
wreck. In the mean tin e, to a writer of genius in a
jx)lilhed nation, it c' '^ut be a charming profpc^^
that his works will \ fall with his country.

To make fuch a wi i his talents for purifyinjr

his mother-tongue, aiiU ta adding to the number
and reputation of its dailies, what nobler incite-
ment, than the certainty of being tranfmitted to
poderity, and welcomed by every perfon of taftc
through all ages !

As before the invention of printing, writers could
have nothing in view but reputation and praife, they
endeavoured to give the utmoll perfection to their
compiifitions. They at the fame time ftudied bre-
viryj in order that their works might be difiufed
through many hands ; for the expence of tranfcrib-
ing great volumes, could not be afforded by every
reader. The art of printing has made a great
revolution c the opportunity it furniflies to mul-
tiply copies has degraded writing to be a lucra-
tive employment. Authors now ftudy to fwdH
their works, in order to raife the price ; ami
being in a hurry for money, they negleft the
precept of Horace, Nonum prc?natur in annum.
Take for example the natural hiftory of Aldro-
vandus, in many folio volumes. After filling hii

Vol. I. N - -> common

(

m'.

; .J

': '■■

*^/r

people in the days of their prophet Mahomet, was at shat time carried ^.fuck
purity and perfedHon as not to be fufceptible of impio/ement. The fixiof
that language was undoubtedly owing to the Koran, which was held the
word ot God delivered to Mai)omet by the anyel Gabriel, and confiBquentl/
was inoufly judged to be the Itandard of perfoftion,

i.1^ "w^a

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1.25 1.4 1.6

Photographic

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^<b

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, NY. 14580

(716) 872-4503

<^^
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178 Men independent of Society. . , jBu.il.

■common-place ibodk ^itb^paffagefe ftfotw "every author
ancidnt add jnodcrn, to, the purp'plti and. not to. the
piiTpofe!; he iitsdo^n to compdfe^ :bent tOMttansfufe
into his boxyk cyctfy iarticle. thus.painiuUy colledtid:.
,'Eor example, .when Uc, introduce* tlie qx^ thj^COtk,
<ar any otlier animal 5. iar from cp.p-lininj^ himfclf to
its natural hiiloir.y,. he, omits rioli^ing, that. Ji^3. beep
faid of it- ill books where it .has been occ^fionally inr
irodm:cd, not even' excepting talcs for "anmrmg
.children : hemctjtions all the {wperftitious notiofts
xfDntttmin|5 it, «:vfei 5? poctidal, co^^^p^fifgniidxHTyn :fro;n
.jt; ' the Mm' it " -has derived'in, ibitiriogly i)hvct) , and iij
Mqoats-arfiorlal*; in a word, all the jiiilo.riqb avid <ii'' the
•toles in .wiich it • has-been Iname^.;'; ''Ji'*i-i*«|)>imtli&r
jnftanice from a:; Gc^roan lor .P'^tch -tfh jpiit*;N^|j<f n,
"wliDfoihainc.has. dcapcd ,me^;Rnd ..wh.^li:;!; ^j^i>;^Jn
af 'trniiftatioii fi^onri the l^atin^ to prcv^f jit IjIac M'^. that
one has for a learned language. " ga^miW wa^ ,t,he
M -.fame with thc"Tlieb']Mi Herciiles j • whiich tipptars
fronl the!a<i^ijon5':atti^bvitjed.to each ^ili' thj^my.ef:
j;eokilly . ftoih- :thejfoHowingi That Herc:v.k% MAr
>«!irined,isi'aidtOfhave ftjfibcated the N^niean lion,
f:S''"ait1b a- ftjiicfezjeicf. hi-Sjar ms- : : Samfon unaf mf'cl did
•"i^rtherJfem'e; by:teiinng!a liontof pieces.;; and. joje^
■^Sophu-s fays; thatjicdidi«)tjte;ir t|;^.liQrJy but pwt out
f^ bis breiitli wuha fquee^e ; whi-qb CQiCtM be done,
-*F! atidoAvasi'donct by ScUtiJius tlie wi^fticrr, •a^.-reT
^fc poirted by S-ui^asrj David allcx', unarmed, tor.^.to
R*3 .pieces aflioii, i Samud; «l]ftip. 1.7.,; ajid.Benaiah
t<ii.the fonof Jehoiada aifo flev^ alion, f'^ain* chap.
^^1.(13; «er 20. Moi:eover .we readitl-i.at Samfon havr
fi ing /Caught thrce\ hundred fpxpjsi.'.Hed" l^htcd fire-
M.ibralnda.tO' their tails, and :dr^ve: them into the
ff;(ftandlng:cotn of- the Philiftinef,'.:byi which both
•i^o.the :fliocks and Handling corn, with the. vineyards
" and olives, were burnt up. Many think it in-
" ^(?f edible./ tha't three huild red foxes fhould be
.*,<rcaught by, one man ; as the fox, being the moft
V cunning of all animals, vould not fufter itfelf to

Sk. IV. 2.

ju -•;

Arts.

..-, 1

^79

in-

loft

" be eafily taken. Accord^gly rOppian, a Gxeek
" poet, who writes upon hunting, ailerts that ^o fox
" will fuffer itfelf to be taken, in a gin or a net^ tho*
"we are taught the contrary by Mart*i?J, Uj?. iq^

** In India, eagles, liawks, and ravejis, are" taught
to hunt foxes, as we are informed by Olianus,
Var. iiift. lib. 9. qap. 26., They arjC alfo caught
by traps and fi^ares, an4 in covered pits, as
wolves are, and oth.er larg^ animals. Nqr is it
f* wonderful that fuch a multitude of fpixe? were
" caught by Samfon, confidering that Paleflinc a-
*' bounded with foxes. He had hunters ^vithput
" number at command ; and he was not coijifihed
*' in. time. The fame of that exploit was fprcad faV
" and near. Even among the Romans there were
" veftiges of it, as appears from Ovid, Faft. lib, 9,
*' ver. 681. In one Roman feftival, armed Ifoxeg
** were let loofe in the circus j; which Ovid, in the
"place quoted, fays, was done in memory of
the Carfiolan fox, which, heaving deftroyed in^py
hens belonging to a country-woman, was caijght
by her, and punifhed as foll'pws. She wrapped up
" the fox in hay, which fhe fet fire to j and the fo^c
" being let go, fled through the ftanding corn, ?ind
" fet.it on fire. There can be no doubt but that
** this feftival was a veflige of Samfon's Ifoxes, hot
" only from congruity of circumftances, biit rrom
" the time of celebration, which was the month of
" April, the time of harveft in Paleftine. See more
" about foxes in Burman's work^" Not to men*
tion the ridiculous arguments of this writer to prove
Samfon to be the fame with the Theban Hercutes,
nor the childifn wanderings from that fubje£t ; he
has totally overlooked the chief difficulties. Howe-
ver well fixed the fire-brands might be, it is not ea-

N 2 fily

((

cc
cc
cc
cc

tl 1:

,ff^i

ti^b Men independent of Society. B.I.

fily conceivable, that the foxes, who would natu-
rally fiy to their lurking-holes, could much injure
the com, or the olive-trees. And it is as little con-
teivable, what fhoiild have moved Samfon to cm-
ploy foxes, when, by our author's fuppofition, he
had men at command, much better qualified than
foxes for committing wafte. This author would
have faved himfelf much idle labour had he em-
braced a Very probable opinion, that if the tranila-
tion be not erroneous, the original text mud be
corrupted. But enough, and more than enough of
tbefe writers. MatuHty of taftc has bani/hed
i\)ch abfurdities ; and at prefent, happily, bookg
are Ith bulky, and more to the purpofe, than for-
meriy-

; It Is obferved above (^), that in a country thin-
ly p^bpled, where the fame perlbn n^uft for bread
undertake different einployments, the people are
knowing, a^id coAverfable ^ but flupid and igno-
rant Jn a populous country where indviftry and
ttianafa£tures abound. That obfervation holds not
(\Vi'Ai^tefpeft to the flfne arts. It requires fo much
g^niUs.to copy cvtn ^ fn^gl^ figure, whether in
paihring or in fculpt'ufe, as to prevent the o»>era.tor
'from ' degenerating imi> a brute. The gn exer-
iiii^i or giiniusj as wfeU ^s of invention, »^,quired
\ii grouping Tig^r^s, and in, imitating htimari ac-
tion$r, tend?} to invigorate thefe fi^cnlties with ref-
\>e&. to cv^ry fiibjcft, and of coutfe t0 forp, a man

ef parts. n,'^r . -1 '• . 1

i...

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'■• '-#!: KETCH V. ,^<^t.r^^.

...;./*'.>' •]r;UJ'iMi(i:'>.) toi <?'JJtuf

OME pcrfons have a peculiar air, a peculiar
mode of fpcaking or of a<^ing, which, in oppofitr-
on to the manners of titc generality, arc termed
theirmannen. Such peculiarities in a "whofe nati-
on, by which it differs from other nations or fironi
itfelf at diiFercnt periods, are termed the manners
of that nation. Manners therefore fignify a mode
of behaviour peculiar to a certain perfon, ot to a
certain nation. ITic term is not applied to man-
kind in general ; except perhaps in contradi(lin£kion
to other beings. ;: lurw,/,,

Manners are dilcinguiflied from morals; but in
what refped has not been clearly ftated. Do not the
fame anions come under both? Certainly j but in
different refpcds : an a6^ion confidered as right
or wrong, belongs to morals ; confidered as cha-
raderiftkal of a perfon or of a people, it belongs
CO manners.

Manners peculiar to certain tribes and to cer-
tain governments, fall under other branches of this
work. The intention of the prefent Ikctch is, to
trace out the manners of nations, in the diffe-
rent ilagcs of their progrefs, from infancy to ma-
turity. I am lar from regretting, that manners
produced by climate, by foil, and by other perma-
nent caufes, fall not under my plan : I fliould in-
deed make a forry figure upon a i'ubjeft, that has

been

Is ill

,',":(

jj: \

1 1

1 I'

i ll

fir

i82 Men independent of Society. B. I,

been acutely difcufled by the greateft genius of the
prefent age (a).

I begin with external appearance, being the firft
thing that draws attention. Th;^ human counte-
nance and gefturcs have a greater variety of expref-
fions than thofe of any other animal : and fome per-
fons differ widely from the generality in thefe cx-
prefTions, fo as to be known by their manner of
walking, or even by fo flight an atbion as that of
putting on or takin?^ off a hat : fonic men are known
^ even by the found of tlieir feet in walking. Whole
nations are diftingui{ha)[)le by fuch peculiarities. ^And
yet there is lei's variety io looks and geftures, than
the different tones of mind would produce, were
men left to the impulfes of pure nature : man, an
imitative animal, is prone to copy others ; and by
imitation, external behaviour is nearly uniform a-
mong thofe who fludy to be agreeable ; witncfs'peo-
ple of falhion in France. I reft upon thefe out-
lines : to enter fully into the fubject would be an
cndlefs work ; difproportioned at any rate to the
rarrownefs of my plan. • . .1 ^-.:,s^., .,,•,; i^-

Drefs muft not be omitted, becaufe it enters alfo
into external appearance. Providence hath clothed
.all animals that are unable to clothe thmfelvcs.
Man can clothe himfelf ; and he is endowed ,be-
fide with an appetite for drefs, no lefs natural
than an appetite for food. That appetite. is pro-
portioned in degree to its ufe : in cold cUmates it
is vigorous j in hot climates, faint. Savages muft
go naked till they learn to cover themfelves j and
they foon learn where covering is necelfary. The
Patagonians, who go naked in a bitter cold cli-
mate, muft be woefully ftupid. And the Pifts,
a Scotch tribe, who, it is faid continued naked
down to the time of Severus, did not probably

much

(«} Montefquieu,

Ski- V. ••''^'^'*'o- i^f^ww^Hf.'-r'^ "'' '-' ■''■ 183

' : * * '

nitjch furpafs th<^ Pata^6rtiahs in the titlcrrt of in-
vention.

Modefty'is anotber caiife for clntliin^ : few ft-
vagcs expofe the whole of thie body. It givi
no high idea oF GVeciari modcfty that at the G-

lympic games "people \v re ftlcd a rtd ran rkces ftark
naked ' ■ ■i^■»^vy .jiji-ftiti'ii* ■».• <i'i.">« iti't* '-.ii- '^.Vtiii >

There is a thi'rd caule for crothlh'^', which isi
the pleafiirc it affords. A fine w6m:in feen naked
once in her life, is made a defirable obi f ft by nb*
velty. But let her go naked for a mohth ; how
much more charming will fhe appear j when dreflcd
with propriety and elegance ! Cloathing isfo cflcn-
tial to health, that to be lefs agreeable than naked-
nefs would argue an incongruity in our nature.
Savages probably at firft thought of cloathing As
a |)rotc£i:ion only againft the weather ; but they
foon difcovered a' beauty in drcfs : men led the
way, and women follo\yed. Such favages as go
naked, paint their bodies ; excited by the fame
fbndncfs for ornament, that our women fhew in
their party-coloured garments. Among the Jews,
the men wore ear-rin^s iis well as the women
{a). When M^di'ci was governed by its own kiri^s,
the men 'were fbmptuous in drefs : ihey wore loofe
robes, floating in the air ; had loiig hair covered
with a rich bonnet, bracelet??, chains of gold, and
precious flo^es : they painted their face, and mik-
ed artificial hair with that of nature. As authors^
are Alert about the womenj they probably made*
no figure in that kingdom, being fh'ut iip, as *at
prefept in ftraglios. Very difi'ercnt was the cafe of'
Athenian lAdies, after polygamy was bahilhed frbirt;
Greece, 'ihey ponfUmed th^ whole morn'ing at th'e^
toilette t eittploying' paint, iind every drug fbr'
cleafung -and whitening" -the fkih : they laid red
even upon their lips, a^id took great care of their

.... , . teeth.;.

L .-.-■■ . 'i; a i< '• . i ■■■■' , ■ .,..•-. -v.

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iS4 Men independent of Society.

B. 1.

teeth : their hair, made up in buckles with a hot
iron, was perfumed and fpread upon the ihoul-
ders: their drcfs was elegant, and artfully con-
trived to fet off a hne ihape. Such is the influ-
ence of appetite for drefs : vanity could not be the
fo)e motive, as married ladies were never feen in
public *. We learn from St. Gregory, that wo^
men in his time drelfed the head extremely high ;
environing it with many trefles of falfe hair dif*
pofed in Knots and buckles, fo as to refemble a
regular fortification. Jofephus reports, that the
Jewi{h ladies powdered their hair with gold duil }
a falhion tlut was carried from Afia to Romct
The fir ft writer who mentions white powder for
the hair, the fame we ufc at prefent, is L'Etoile,
in his journal for the year 1593. He relates^
that nuns walked the ftreets of Paris curled anci
powdered. That falhion fpread by degrees through
Europe. F(W many years after the civil wars in
France, it was a faihion in Paris to wear boots
and fpurs with a long fword : a gentleman was
not in full drefs without the(£ accoutrements.
The fword continues an article of drefs, though,
it diftinguiihes not a g[entleman from his valet.
To fhow that a tafte for drefs and ornament is
deeply rooted in human nature, favages difplay •
that tafte upon the body having no covering to dif-
play it upon. Seldom is a child left to nature ; it is
deprived of a tefticle, a finger, a tooth ; or its {kin
•is engraved with figures.

Cloathing hath no flight influence, even with ref-
pe£^ to morals. I venture to aflirm, at th<; hazard
of bcihg thought paradoxical, that nakednefs is more
friendly to chaftity than covering. Adultery is un»\
known among favages, even in hot climates where>
they have licarce any covering. Breis gives play to;
. ' the

♦ Yoang women in Athens appeared frequently in public, but always by
themfelves. In feftivals, facriAces, Sec. they made part of the fliovv, crowned
with flowers^ chanting hymns, and danaing in knots.

':IM

Sk. V.

Manners.

•irr

■85

the hnagtnatioa ; 'which pictures to itfelf man^ fccrct •
beauties, that vaniih whea rendered famtlbir by •
fight : if a lady accidentally difcovcr half a leg, ima-
gination is inftantly inilamed ; though an . a£brefs, •
appearing in breeches, is beheld with indifference:
a naked Venus makes not fuoh an imprejriony ai;
Kvhen a garter only is difcovered.- • **' s'at : t* '!)kh\v.
Cleannefs is an article in external) appearances
Whether cleanlineft be inherent in the natpre e£
man, or only a refinement of polifhed nations, tnay
at iird fight appear doubtful. What pleads for' the
former is, that cleannefs is remarkable in feveral na«
tions, that have made little progrefsinthearttof life.
The favagQS of the Caribbee iflands, once a numerous-
tribe, were remarked by wrrters as neat and cleanly.
In the ifland of Otaheite, or King Georgc'si iiland,
both fcxcs arc cleanly : they bathe frequently, never
eat nor drink without wafliing before and after, and
their garments as well as their perfons are kept free
of fpo^ or blemiih. Ammianus Marcellinus defcribN
ing the Gauls, fays, that they were cleanly ; and that
even the poorcft women were never feen with dirty
garments. The negroes, particularly thofe of Ardrali
in the ilarvc-coaft^ have a fcrupulous regard -ta clean-
nefs. They wafti morning and evening, and per-
fume themfelv^s with aromatic herbs. In tlic city of
Jknin^ women arc employed to keep the freotd
clean ; and in that refped they are not outdone by
the XKitch. In Corea, people mourn three years ,
for tlic death of their parents *, during whidi time •
they never wafh. Dirtinefs niui^ appear idifmsl to
that people, as to us *. But inftances are no lefs
numerous that, favour the other fide of the queftion. ;
Ammianus Marcellinus reports of the Huns, that they ^
wore a coat till it fell to pieces with dirft and rot-^
tenefs» Flan Carpin, who vifited the Tartar? anno

' < ^ 1246,

,,___. ...,.■. . ' ■ .

* Many animals are- remarkable for ckantMfs. Baavers are (o, imi fo are
rats. Thismuftbe natural. Tho' a taAe for cleanneAi is not remarkablo.
lu ^logs, yet like men they learn to be cleanly; . , -, .

1,1

,1'

!f:-

>:;

*k'

! I I?

1 I

'ty-

j86 Men independent of Society. B. 1.

1246, fays, " That they never wafli face nor hands ;
*' that they never clean a dilli, a pot, nor a gar-
♦♦ mem i that like fwinc, they make food of every
** thing, not excepting the vermin that crawl on
** them." The prcfcnt people of Kamikatka anfwcr
to that defeription in every article. The naftinefs
of North-American favages, in their food, in their
cabin?, and in their g{\rn>ent8paffes all conception.
As they never change their garments till they fall to
rags, nor cvcf think of walhing them, they arc cat
up with vermin. .The Kfquimaux an^l many other
tribes are equally nafty. • » "?':.«:•>'•• m- '

As cic" cfs requires attention and induftry, the
cleanncls of fomc favages muli be the work of na-
ture ; and the dirtinefs of others mud proceed from
indolence counterading nature. In faft, cleannefs
is agreeable to all ; and naftinefs difagreeable : no
pcrfon prefers dirt ; and even thofe who are the
moft accuflomed to it, are pleafed with a cleanly
appearance in others. It is true, that a taftc for
cleanneC , like that for order, for fymmetry, for con-
gruity, is extremely faint during its infancy among
favages. Its ftrongeif antagoniit is indolence, which
favages indulge to cxcefs: the great fatigue they
undergo in hunting, makes them fond of cafe at
home ; and dirtinefs when once habitual, is not cafi-
ly conquered. But ckannefs improves gradually
with manners, and makes a figure in every induftrious
nation. Nor is a taiie for cleannefs bcftowed on
man in vain : its final caufc is confpicuous, cleannefs
being extremely wholefomc, and naltinefs no icfs

unwhoielome

'■■ f

i< •

->.

• >

Thus

-f The plagu«, peftilantial fevers, and other putrid difeafes, were more
frequent in Europe formerly, than at prefent ; efiiuvjally in great cities,
wh-jre multitudes were crowded U)«;ether in fraall hdufes, fcparated by narrow
ftreets. Paris in the days of Henry IV, occupied not tlie third part of its
prefent fpace, andyer contained nearly the fame number of inhahitants j and
in London the hoiiils are much larger, and fhe itreets wider, than before the
great fire, j666. Theic i.i iMo a remarkable alteration in point oTdiet.
.. . :...,.;. . •-. y ' •. . •• •■ •'■!.'•.• - Formerly,

Sk; V.

Manners,

187

Thus it appears, that a tnftc frtr cleanncfs is in-
herent in our nature. I lay more : cleanntls is rvi-
dcntly a branch of propri<^i:y, and confequcntlya felF-
<luty. The performance is rewarded with apf)roba-
tion ; and the negled is punilhcd with contempt (a),
I, A' talte for cleanncfs is not equally diftrlbuted
aiiiong ail men ; nm- indeeJ is any branch of th'c .
moral fcnfe qually diftributed : and if by haturc one
pcrfon be more cleanly than artothcr, a whole nation
may be fo. I judge that to be the cafe of the Japancfc,
fo hnicaiiy clean as to find fault even with tht Dutch
forclirtinefs. Their inns are not an exception ; nor
their little-houfes, in which water is always at hand
for wafhing afttr the dperation. I judged it alfo to be
the cafe of the Engliih, who, high and low, rich and
poor, are remarkable for cleanncfs all the world
over; and I liavc often amufed inyfelf with fo An-
gular a refcmblance between iilahders, removed at
the greateft diflance from each other. But I was
forced to abandon the refemblance, upon a difcovery
that the Englifh have not always been fo clean as at
prefent. Many centuries ago, aS' recorded in
monkilh hiftory, one caufe of thb averfion the
^T>;ff ..*■.. 'i» ;•. • '-uu '•" , a..).' ■> ■••■.'t: iio .a. Enplirn

rormcrljr, peoplp of rank lived on ftlt njeat the greater part of the year ; at
prefent, fiefh meat is common all the year roynd, l'ot-i.eil)S ant! rcof are
rtow a confiHcrable article of food : about London in particiilar, the ton-
fumptjon at liie Revolution was not tlie f-xth part of v/liar it is now. Add
the great confumption ot tea and fugar, which 1 .i:.; told by phy!';ci;in3 to bo
iio inconfiderablc antifeptics. B'jr ihc chief cauft; cf all is clfunr.cf;, \vl;icl»
is groxying more and more gcueral, efpecially in the city of Lomlon. lu
Conttantinople, putrid difeafcs reign as much as ever j'ot from uiiheaithi-
hcl3 in the climate, hut from the narrow:Tjf3 and na!\lnefs of the rtrccts.
How it comes that Turkilh camps differ io muc!i from the metropfclls, I
cannot fay. Pufbcquius viiUed a Turkifli camp in the clays of S-v^lypian tha
Mapihincent. The ordure was carefully buried ur.>!i.r giound ; nor any nui-
lome fmcU .- in every corner it was clean and neat. Tlie extrcuierts, which
;+ppcar every where in our camps when rtationary, create a fort of plague a-
mong the men, Captain Cook lately made a voyage roui.d rhe world, and
.\ci(i but a fmgle manby difeafe, who at the fame time was Hckly when he en-
tered the ihip. One main article that prefrrved the hsakh of the crswwas
cleanncfs. The Captain regularly one morning eve'-y week reviewed \\h (hij'fs
company, to fee that every one of them had clean linen j ar.d hebsftowcd the
lame care with refpe«ft to their cloaths and bedding.
[ti) Sec rkments of Critivifm, c4^!a;.-, jo,

1 1

,1 '■

h\.

a. I

■■va J" *!^ UsJ

1 88 Men iuUcpcndcnt of Socitty. B. L

lingiifli had to the Danes, was tiicir cicanncfs j
they combed their hair, and put on a clean fhirt
once a week. It was reputed an extraordinary
ellurt in Tiionias a Becket, that he had his par*
lour iliewed every day with clean Itraw. The ce-
lebrated Erafmus, who vifited England in the reign
of Henry VIII. complains of the naUincfs and flo-
venly habits of its {leople ; afcribing to that caufe,
the trequent plagues which infe(\ed tliem. ** Their
lloors," fays he, " arc commonly of clay ftrewed
** with ruflies, under which lies unmolclted a col-
" leftion of beer, grcafe, frrtgmcnts, bones, fpit-
** tie, excrements of dogs and cats, and of every
^ thing that is naufcous (ay* And the ftrcwing a
floor with Araw or ruHies was common in Queen
Elifabeth's time, not excepting even her prefcnce-
chamber. A change fo extraordinary in the talle
and manners of the fjiglifli, roufes our curiofity ;
and I flatter mylelf that the following caufe will be
latisfadtory. A favage, remarkably indolent at
home, tho' not ini'enlible of his dirtincfs, cannot
roufe up adivity fufficient to attempt a fcrious pur-
gation ; and would he at a lofs where to begin. The
induftrious, on the contrary, are improved in neat-
flcls and propriety, by the art or manufacture that
conftantly employs them: they are never reduced
to purge the (table of Augeas ; for being prone to
adion, they fufFer not dirt to rell unmolefted. In-
dullrious nations accordingly, all the world over,
are the mod cleanly. Arts and induflry had long
flourilhed in Holland, where Erafmus was born and
educated: the people were clean above all their
neighbours, becaufe they were induflrious above all
their neighbours; and upon that account, the dir-
tinefs of pLiigland could not fiiil to ftrike a Hollan-
der. At the period mentioned, induflry was as
great a ftranger to England as cleannefs: from

which

(«) ipift. 4i«..

Sk. V.

Manners*

189

which confidcration, may it not fairly be inferred,
that the Engiifh arc indebted for their cleanlinefs to
the great progrcfs of induftry among them in later
times ? If this inference hold, it places induftry ia
an amiable light. The Spaniards, who tire indo-
lent to a degree, arc to this day as dirty as the
Englirti were three centuries ago. Madrid, thrir
capital, is naofeoufly na'fty: heaps of uninolefted
dirt in every ftrcet, raife ni that warm climate a
peftifcrous llrcam, which threatens to knock down
every ftranger. A purgation was lately fet on foot
by royal authority. But the people habituated to
dirt arc not eafily reclaimed: to promote induftry
is the only cftcaual reihedV*. llie naftincfs of
the ftreets of Lift)on before the late earthquake ^yas
intolerable ; and fo is at prcfent the naftincfs of the
ftreets of Cadiz. "' • ''■•'•^•" ^'V ,•...;* n.,

The' Induftry be the chief promoter of clean -
nefs, yet it is Icidom left to operate alone : other
caufes mix, fome to accelerate the progrcfs, fome
to retard it. The moifture of the Dutch climate
has a confiderablc influence in promoting cleannefs*>
and, joined with induftry, produces a furprifing
neatnefs and cieannefs among people of bu'finefb':
men of. figure and faftiion, vvho generally refort to
the Hague, the feat of government, are not fo clean-
ly. On the other hand, the French arc lefs cleanly
than the Englifli, tho* not lefs ind\iftrious. B-it the
lower clalTes of people, being in England more at
their cafe than in France, have a greater tafte for
living well, and in particular for keeping themfdves
Clean. ' .n-...

• Till the ye«r 1760, the« was not a privy in Madrid, though it is plen-
tifully fupplied with water. The ordure, during night, was throM^n from
the Miindowf into theftreet, where ,it wn^ sather«d into heaps. By a t<^yal

{>rocl3ination, priVies wore ordered to be built. The inhabitants, though
tin}? :;cciiftomed to an arbitrary gotcrnmetit, refentcd this prodamaitldn ai
an infringement of the common rights of rw.^nkincl, and flrugglcd vigoroufty
againft it. The phyficiuns were the moil violent oppofcrs : they remcnftrat-
«d, tli^t if tlie hlth was noc thrown into the Itrecti, a fatal iicknsfs would
enfue; hccaufe the putrefccnt paiticks of Air, which thf Alth attra^ed, woul.i
fccimbibed by th<j human body.

f i:

I ' 3

J!j

4--; I

fSSSSSr} I

IQO

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

" t, 1

^ A beard gives to the countenance ^a lough and
fierce air, fujted to the manners 9if a rpugh an(^
fierce people. The fame face without a beard ap-
pears ; milder ;. for which _ reafon, a be^d^d becomes^
unfafhionable in a poliflicd nation.^ rijemofthcnes.
the orator lived in the fame period 'with Aiexaii-f
der the frreat, at whjch time tHe JSreeks began
to leave piF beards. A t)uft hovyeyer of that ora-
tor, found in Herculaneumj has. a beard; \yhich
mull either have been done for him/y^hen he -was
young, or from rcliijdance in an old man to a jicvr
fafhipn. Barbers werfc brought to Roriie from Sh
cily the 454th yea^ after the building of Rome*;
And it muft relate to a time after that period
what Aulus Gellius JiELys (a), that people accufqd,
of any crime, were, prohibited to fliave their beari^s?
till they were abfolved. ' From Hadrian do wrvj
ward, the Roman Emperors wore beards* Julius
Capitolinus reprpaches the Emperor V<?rus forj
cutting his beard^ at the inftigatiph of a coriq^u-
bine. All the Roman generals wore' bprds' iii
Juftinians time {b),. The Pope fhaved his, beard 5'
which was held a manifeft apoftafy by ,th^; QreeK;
church ; becaufe Mofes, Jefus Cbriit* and evei^
God the Father, were always drawn with beards
by the Greek and Latin painters, tjppn the dawii
ot fmooth , manners in France, the beaus cut the
beard into ihapes, and curled the whiikers. That
fafhion produced a whimfical effect : menibf |gra-^
vity left off beards altogether. A beard ip its na-
tural fhape was too fierce, even for them ; and
they could not for fliame copy after the beaus.
This accounts for a regulation anno 1534 of the
univerfuy of Paris, forbidding theprofelTors to wear

• Language,' when brought to any perfcdlion a-
mong a polifhed people, may juftly be confidered

{a) Lib. 3, cap. 4.

(*) Pracopii Hjftoria Vindalica, Kb. 2,

Sk, V.

'^Manner.

:19I

as ^one of. the fine arts,; and in that view is hand-
led < above. But confidered as a branch of ; external
behaviour, it belongs to the prefcnt :(ketch. Jlyery
part of external bejiaYiour is influenced by temper
and . .dirppfi.t>QO,; nnd,. fpecch piofQ , jth^n . ; any > o^
ther part. In Elements of CrlticifiT? ia) it is Obt
ferved, that an emotion in many, indance^ bears a
refi^ipablanice tgU^ Caufe. The like holds, univer-
iaUy in: all: th?' natural; fpunds prompted, by paflion.
-li^iet a paflion36.boid, rough,, checrfiul, tender, , or
-humble, ftill it holds, /that, i the rnatural founds
prompted by it, arc in thie fame , tone ;'.aojd; hence
th^ reafort why thejc founds ,^r€. tihefa'me in all
il^P^ages, SoHfid-ilight i?^t)nblapce of the ikme
Kind, is difcOveri^bie .in. many artificial ; founds,
ffhe I'languagfJ !t)f;,a fava'^e, is h^rfh J of polite
people, fn^odib ;; and of; «'omen,, foft, and muficah
This Jtongues jQf ijava^e J nations abpAind in guttu-
ral^^j : pr ia I nafj^ls *, yietj on^ wp\*M ,*'it?igine th at fuch
.Y(0jcds> rb^ng,prj9nounc?d .witl\/c][j)ffi^vj]tyj Ihpuld be
i voided by lavages, as they are by children. But
.temper iipfrev^iU, ahd fuggefts .t» favages harfli
founds^ conforr/vablt tP th<pir r^ughnefs and crueU
ty. Tfec Efquim^ux' have//a ilaagyage compofed^df
the.hMfl^eft gJi«H;t«rjal§i; and tl>e; languages of the
ftorlhern. European, nations, ar? not rcmarka-bly
fmopth^r, ; Thq ; .Scotch peafants , j^re a frank , and
plain people ; and their, dialect, .is iu the tone ol"
theif ; chara^cr. The; Huron . tongue , ,hath ftateli-
R^aild energy above moft kno,vKiv languages;
9;hjch is more Qon^itiable to the elevation of their
lenttments than tOj l;l>eir, iprefept - . Jp\Y . condition^
Thus the manners of a people, may in fome mea-
fure be gathered from their language. Nay man-
ners may freqiuently he gathered !: from fuigle
words. The Hebrew word lbchqm, 'Unifies both
/W and f^htingi and TtREPiil Jigjfiifti^s \io\^\ foo;i

,o; ^.. .and

(<») Chap. 1. part 6:.,

I'i

: vHi

1 ( ■

i '

i ,;'-

J-

1-
,1, - ,

19a MiiN independent of Society. 'B. I.

amd plunder, Karab fignifies to draio hear fd oM,
and fignifies alfo ufighu The Greek word lei a ,
>^ich fignified originally ^^/ /rMittnf^ hy war er
piracy, came to Signify wealth* And the great variety
of Greek ^words fignifylng pod^^d^hetur^ fignii^d

originally ^re«^ and-v/o/cw/. -Mv^.x^. fi^ „r:u; r>ii:

Government, actording to itis difidftetit kinds,
hath confiderable influence in forming the tone of
a iangtiage. Language In a 4eaiocriacy is com-
monly rough and coarfe ; in an ariAiocracy, «nanly
and plain ; in a monarchy, courte^ius and itifitiu-
ating ; in derpbtifm, impeHous withte^^t to ifife^
riors, atid humble with xt^Qi to fuperiors. The
government of the Greek ctiipi« i« well ttept«-
icntcd in Juftinian'a cdifts, teiwed i^w//x &«-
fiituf tones ; the ftylc of -tt^iitb isftift^ femal, <lnd
affe6feed!!y ftate)^^ but <tefti«ute 6f :o#de#y of fqft^^
and of ligaments About three ^denturiefi ago^ Tiif-
cany was fillttd wkW fmatl te^licis^ whofe disde^:
was maniy aiid plain. Its rough Mnes werepw^g-
ed off by %\itkt ttnion under thie Great Di^ke or iTtif*
cany ; and t^eTuftaft4iale£t'has<amved neare^r to
perfe£bem than any other' in Italy. The tone of
the Freiich laingua^ i» \vdl ruited t4y the ftaittire of
its government 2 etery man k poUoely j(«bm4^ve't6
thofe -abore him; >and this to«e form^ the >ttia-^
tader of the Iangtiage 4n gene^l, fo as ev^en 16
reg4ila(e the f One of ^hd few who han'e oooa|fi(Ht t<>
fpeak with authoi^ity. The freedom of the £ng^KAi
government itAmt the mannvrre of the people : t^
Englifli language is accordingly move manly an4
nervous than the French, and sCbounds more witH
rough fouf>ds. The Laeedemonians of oid« ^
proud . and audete people, affeffced to talk with
brevity, in the tone of conman4 more than of
advice ; and hence the Laconic l^te, dry but maf-
culine. The Attic ftyle is more dUficult to be ac-
counted for : it is fweet and copious ; and had a
remarkable delicacy above the ftyle of any other

2 nation*

sk.ir.

> t*^. t.

MAfifiltrs^^

.' » r 1 1 1

195

natiort/ And'^ct the democracy of AfhcnJ pro-
duced rough .mncri ; wftttefs the comedies of
Ariftophartcs, . yd the oratiotls 6f Efchincs and De*
mofthcnes. We are not fo' intimately acquainted
with the Athenians, as to accbiint for the difference
between their language and 'their manners. We
are equally at- a lofs about the Ruffian tongue,
which, notwithftandirig*^ the barbarity of the people,
is fmooth^atidfonorous r and though the Malayans
are the fisrteft people in the univerfe, their lan-
guage is the fofteft of all that are fpokeh m Afia*
AH that tan-tjc faid is, that' the- operation of a ge-
neral caufeJ may be difturbed by particular drcum-
ftafrtces, tianguagcs refcmblt tides : the influence
of the moon, which is the general caufe of tides,
is in feveral inftances overbalanced by particular
caufes afting in oppofition. ' -^ •'*-* /; *. ; rv .,.

Th<re may be obferved in fome favage tribes, a
certain refinement of language that might do ho-
nour to a poliflied people. The Canadians never
give a mran his proper name, in fpeaking to him.
If he be a relation, he is addrefled to in that qua-
lity : if a ftranger, the fpeaker gives himfome ap-
pellation that marks affeftion 5 fuch as, brother,
cbufin, friend; '•'' 1 ■ *.«' r> . if. r. 0/ ^
^In' eiriy times, people lived in a very fimple
manner, ignorant of fuch habitual wants as are
ccimmon-ly termed luxury. Rebecca, Rachel, and
th?: - daitghters of Jethro, tended their fathers
flocks : they were really fliepherdeffes. Young wo-
men "of fafhion- drew water .from the weH' with
tfeir own hands. The joiner who made the bridal
bed of Ulyflcs, was Ulylfes himfelf (^). The Erin-
cfefs Nailficaa waflies the family cloaths ; and the
Princes her brothers, upon her return, unyoke the
car and carry in the cloaths (b). X^eens, and even
Vol. L -^ ' • Q. - - - female

{a) Odyfley, b. aj,
\b) Bouilc 6. an4 7-

>|1

M^^

1 94 Mem independent of Society. , B. L

female deities, are employed in fpinhing (c}. Is
it from this fafhion that young women in England
are denominated fpinjiers f Telemachus goes to
council with no attendants but two dogs; , .....

•:i^

«* Soon as in folemn form th* affembly fat, •
" From his high dome himfclf defeends in ftate;
•* Bright in his hand a pond'rous jav'lin ihin'd j
♦' Two dogs, a faithful guard, attend behind."

; ! .. .... Odyssey, book 2.

Priam's ear Is yoked by his own fons, when he
goes to redeem from Achilles the bo4y of his fon
Heflor. Telemachus yokes his own car {a),- Ho-
mer's heroes kill and drefs their own victuals (^),
Achilles entertaining Priam, flew a fnow-white
flieep ; and his two friends flea'd and drefled it^
Achilles himfelf divided the roafted m^eat among
his gueils *.- The flory of Ruth is a pleafing in-
stance of fimplicity in anticnt times ; and her lay-
ing herfelf down to flecp at the feet of Boaz, a
no lefs pleafing inftancc of innocence in thefe
times. No people lived more innocently than the
antient Germans, though men and women lived
together without referve. They flept promifcuouf-
ly round the walls of their houfes j and yet we
never read of adultery among ihem. The Scotch
Highlanders to this day Jive in the fame manner*
In Sparta, men and women lived familiarly toge-
ther : public baths were common to both ; and
in certain games, they danced and combated to-
gether naked as when born. In a later period, the
Spartan dames were much corrupted ; occafioned,

Jt':

(f) Odyfley, book lo.

\a) Book 15. • . • I . . /

\b) Book 19. and 20.
* Pope judging it below the dignity of Achilles to a(5l the butcher, fup-
preflTes that article, impofing the tafk upon his two friends. Pope did not
confider, that from a lively pifture of ancient manners, proceeds one of th«
capital pleafures we have in perulin^ Homer.

Sk,V.

Manners,

«9S

as authors fay, by a fhameful freedom of ititcri
courfe between the fexes. But remark, that cor-
ruption was not confined to the female fex, men
having degenerated as much from their original
manhood as women from their original chaftity ;
and I have no difficulty to maintain, that gold and
filvcr admitted contrary to the laws of Lycurgus,
were what corrupted both fexes. Opulence could
not fail to have the fame efFe£t there that it has
every where ; which is to excite luxury and fenfua-
lity. The Spartans accordingly, fliaking off aufte-
rity of manners, abandoned themfelves to pleafure :
the moft expenfive furniture, the fofteft beds, fu-
pcrb tapeftry, precious vafes, exquifite wines, deli-
cious viands were not now too delicate for an ef-
feminate Spartan, once illuftrious for every manly
virtue. Lycurgus underftood human nature better
than the writers do who carp at him. It was his
intention, to make his countrymen foldiers, not
whining lovers : and he juftly thought, that fami-
liar intercourfe between the fexes, would confine
their appetites within the bounds of nature *, an
ufeful leffon to women of falhion in our days, who
cxpofe their nakednefs in order to attraft and en-
flame lovers. What juftifies this reafoning is, the
afcendant that Spartan dames had over their huf-
bands while the laws of Lycurgus were in vi-
gour : they in effe£l ruled the ftate as well as their
own families. Such afcendant cannot be obtained
nor preferved but by ftri6t virtue : a woman of
loofe manners may be the object of loofe defire •
but feldom will (he gain an afcendant over any man
and never over her hulband.

Not to talk of gold, filver was fcarce in Eng-
land during the reign of the third Edward. Rentj
were paid in kind ; and what money they had, was
locked up in the coffers of the great barons. Pie-
ces of plate were bequeathed even by kings of

O 2 England

i :

fi '■[■ •?'■

ii; '";1

196

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

England, fo trifling in our cftimation, that a gentle-
man of a moderate fortune would be aihamed to
mention fuch in his will.

Next of aftion. Man is naturally prone to mo-
tion; witnefs children, who are never at reft but
when alleep. Where rcafon governs, a man re-
drains that reftlcfs diijpofition, and never a6:s with-
out a motive. Savages have few motives to aftiort
when the belly is full: their huts require little workj
and their covering of Ikins, ft ill lefs. Hunting, and
fifhing employ all their aftiVity. After mucn fa-
tigue in hunting, reft is fweet ; which the favage
prolongs, having no motive to a^ion till the time
of hunting returns. Savages accordingly, like dogs,
are extremely ad;ive in the field, and extremely in-
dolent at home*. Savages in the torrid zone are in-
dolent above all others: they go naked; their huts
coft them no trouble ; and vegetables, that grow
fpontaneoufly, are their only food. The Spaniards
who lirft landed in Hifpaniola, were furprifed at
the manners of the inhabitants. They are defcribed
as lazy,» and without ambition ; palling part of their
time in eating and dancing, and the reft in deep;
having no great ftiare of memory, and ftill lefs of
underftandin^. The charadcr given of thefe fava-
ges belongs to all, efpecially to favages in hot cli-
mates. The imperledion of their memory and
judgment is occafioned by want of exercife. The
fame imperfection was remarkable in the people of

Paraguay,

* Quotiens bella non ineunt, non moltum venatibus; plus per otium
tranfigunt, liediti fomno, ciboque. Fortiirjmus quifque ac bellicofiflimiis
nihil agens, delegata domus et penatiutn etagrorum cura feminis fenibufque,
et infirmiflimo cuiqiie ex familia, ipfi hebcnt; mira diverfitate natura, cum
iidem homines fic ament inertiam, et odeiint quicreni. Tacitus, De morilus,

Cerntanoum, cap. !<;, [In En^Ii/Jj thus : " While not engaged in war, they

" do not often fpend their time in hunting, but chiefly in indolence, minding
*' nothing but their fleep and food. The bravefl and moft warjikc among
" them having nothir? to do, pafs the time in a lluggifh ftupidity, conimit-
" ting the care of the houfe, the family, and the culture of the lands, to
•' 'vomen, old men, and to the moJt weakly. Such is the wonderful diver-
" lity of human nature, tlut tlie/ are at once the moft indolent of beings,
*' aiiJ the moft impatient of reft,'"j

Sk.V.

Manners,

197

Paraguay, wheft under Jcfuit government ; of which
afterward (a).

We now take under confideration, the progrcft
of fuch manners as are more peculiarly influenced
by internal difpofition ; preparing the reader by a
general view, before entering into particulars. Man
is by nature a timid animal, having little ability to
fecure himfelf agairift harm : but he becomes bold in
fbciety, arid gives vent to paflion againft his enemies.
In the hunter-flate, the daily pradice of flaughtering
innocent animals for food, hardens men in cruelty:
more favage than bears or wolves, they are cruel
even to their own kind. * The calm and fedentary

life

111

(ii)Booka, iketch i.

• Though it is beyond the reach of conception, that blood, flefh, fibres,
or bones, can be a Jubjlratum for thought, for will, for paflioni or for any
mental quality j yet certain philofophers boldly undertake to derive even the
nobleft principles from external circumftances relative to tlie body only.
Thus courage and cowardice are held to depend on the climate by the cele-
brated Montefquieu and feverai others. Sir William Temple afcribes thefe
qualities to food, maintaining, that no animal which lives on vegetables is
endued with courage, the horfe and cock alone excepted. I relifti not doc-
trines that tend to degrade the mod refined mental principles into bodily
properties. With refpefl to the point under confideration, a very acute phi-
iofopher, taking a hint from Sir William Temple, derives from the difference
of food the menul qualities of cruelty and humanity, {a) " Certain it is,
" (fays that author,) that the people who fubfift moilly on animal food are
" cruel and fierce above others. The barbarity of the Englifh is well
** known : the Gaures, who live wholly on vegetables, are the fweetefl-
" tempered of all men. V/lckcd men harden themfelvcs to murder by
*' drinking blood." Even the moft acute thinkers are not always on their
guard againft trivial analogies. Blood and flaughter are the fruits of cruelty j
and hence it is raftily inferred, that the drinking blood and eating flefh tend
to infpire cruelty. The Carribees, in the fame way of thinking, abftain from
fwines flefh j " which, (fay they), would make our eyes fmall like thofe of
" fwine." Before venturing on a general rule, one ought to be prepared by
an extenfive induftion of particulars. What will M. RoufTeau fay as to
the MacafTars, who never tafle animal food, and yet are acknowledged to be
the fierceft of mortals ? And what will he fay as to the negroes of New Gui-
nea, remarkably brutal and cruel ? A favourite dog, companion to his mafter,
lives commonly on the refufe of his table, and yet is remarkably gentle. The
Englifh are noted for love of liberty : they cannot bear opprefTion ; and they
know no bounds to refentment againft opprefTors. He may call this cruelty
if he be fodifpofed : others more candid will efteem it a laudable property;
But to charge a nation in general with cruelty and ferocity, can admit no ex-
cufe but ftubborn truth. Ignorance cannot be admitted ; and yet he fhows
f rofs ignorance, as no people are more noted for humatlity : in no other na-

tioA
(«) Emile liv. i.

i f

u •

my^\

198

Men independent of Society. B. !•

life of a fhepherd, tends to foften the harfh manners
of hunters ; and agricuhure, requiring the union of
many hands in one operation, improves benevolence.
But here the hoarding appetite ftarts up to difturb
that aufpicious commencement of civilization. Skil«>
ful hulbandry, producing the neceffaries of life in
plenty, paves the way to arts and manufactures.,
Fine houfes, fplendid gardens, and rich' apparel, arc
defireable objects : the appetite for property becomes
headftrong, and to obtain gratification tramples down
every obftacle of jullice or honour (a). Difl'erences
arife, fomenting difcord and refentment : war fprings
up, even among thofe of the fame tribe ; and while it
was lawful for a man to take revenge at his own
hand (^), that fierce pafTion fwallowed up all others.
Inequality of rank and fortune foflered diifocial
paflions : witnefs pride in particular ; which pro-
duced acuflom, once univerfal among barbarians, of
killing men, women, dogs, and horfes, for the ufe of
a chieftain in the other world. Such complication
of hateful and violent pafTions, rendering fociety un-
comfortable, cannot be ftemmed by any human
means, other than wholefome laws : a momen-
tary obflacle inflames defire ; but perpetual re-
llraint deadens even the molt fervid paflion.
-iM •;••''.■ .>' -• • ' ■ . • * 1 ' ,• '„: "^ ,„' ^,; , .The

tion do fympathetic afte£lions prevail more : none are more ready In cafes
of diflrefs to Aretch out a relieving hand. Did not the Englifli, in abolish-
ing the horrid barbarity of torture, give an illuftrious example of humanity
to all other nations ? Nay his inftance of butchers being excluded from be-
ing put upon a jury, the only particular inAance he gives of their cruelty, is
on the contrary a proof of their humanity. For why are butchers excluded
from being judges in criminal trials ? for no other reafon than that being
inured to the blood of animals, they may have too little regard to the lives of
their fellow-fubjefts.

Flefh is conapofed of particles of different kinds, In the Aomach as in a
Aill, it is rufolved into its component particles, and ceafes to be flefh before it
enters the la£leals. Will M. RoufTeau venture to fay, which of thefe com-
ponent particles it is that generates a cruel difpofition ? Man, from the form
of bis teeth and from other circumAances, is evidently fitted by his maker
for animal as well as vegetable food j and it would be an imputation on pro-
vidence, that either of them fhould have any bad effeA on his mind niore than
on his body.

{a) See Iketch 3.

{i) See HiAorical Law-traOs, traft 1. '

SV V.

Monners,

199

The authority of good government gave vi-
gour to kindly allcdions ; and appetite for fo-
cietyi which adts inceflantly, though not violently,
gave a currency to mutual good omccs. A circum-
llance concurred to blunt the edge of diifocial pafli-
ons ; the firft focieties were fmall ; and fmall dates
in clofe neighbourhood, engender difcord and re-
fentment without end : the jundion of many fuch
ItatexS into a great kingdom, removes people farther
from their enemies, and renders them more gerftlc(a)#
In that fituation, men have leifure and fedatenefs to
relifli the comforts of fecial life : they find that ftlfifli
and turbulent paflions are fubverfive of fociety j
and through fondncfs for focial intercourfe, they
patiently undergo the fevere difcipline, of rcftrain-
ing paiTion and fmoothing manners. Violent pafli-^
ons that difturb the peace of fociety have fubfided,
and are now feldom heard of : humanity is in
fafhion, and focial aifedions prevail. Men improve
in urbanity by converfing with women ; and how*
ever felfifli at heart, they conciliate favour by aifum*
ing an air of difmterellednefs. Selfiihnefs, thu^ re-
fined, becomes an eSedual caufe of civilization.
But what follows ? Turbulent and violent paflions
are buried, never again to revive ; leaving the mind
totally ingroflfed by felf-interefl. In the original
ftate of hunters and fifhers, there being little connec-
tion among individuals, every man minds his own
concerns, and felfifhnefs governs. The difcovery
that hunting and fifhing are beft carried on in com-
pany, promotes fome degree of fociety in that
flate : it gains ground in the fhepherd-llate, and
makes a capital figure where hufbandry and com-
merce flourifh. Private concord is promoted by fo-
cial affeOion ; and a nation is profperous in propor-
tion as the amorpatria prevails. But wealth, ac-
quired whether by conqueft or commerce, is pro-

du^ivc

(a) See this more fully handled, book a. flcetch r.

aoo Men independent of Society. B.l;

du£livc of luxury and fenfuality. As thcfc increafc,
fecial aff'cdlions decline, and at lafl vaniih. This is
vifiblc in every opulent city that has long flouriihcd
in cxtcnfivc commerce. Selfilhncl's becomes the
ruling paflion : friendfliip is no more; and even
blood-relation is little regarded. Every man fludies
his own intereft: opulence and fenfual pleafurc are
idols worfhipped by all. And thus in the progrets
of manners, men end as they began : felfilhncfb is no
lefs eminent in the lafl: and moft polifhed flate of fo»
cie^y, than in the firft and moft favage ft ate.

Fi' .in a (general view of the progrefs cA' manners,
we dcfccnd to particulars. And the firft fccne that
preicnts i(!tlf is, cruelty to ftrangers, extended in
procefs of time againlL members of the fame tribe.
Anger and refent merit are predominant in favages,
who never think ot rt-ilraining paflion. But this
character is not lit.iverlal : fome tribes are remarka-
ble for humanity, as mentioned in the firft fkctch.
Anger and refentmii it formed the charafter of our
European anceftors, and rendered them fierce and
cruel. The Goths were fo prone to blood, that, in
their firft inroads into the Roman territories, they
maflacred man, woman, and child. Procopius re-
portsj that iH one of thefe inroads, they left Italy
thin of inhabitants. They were however an honeit
people ; -end by the polifti they received in the ci*
vilized parts of Europe, they became no lefs re-
markable for humanity, than formerly for cruelty.
Totila, their king, having maftered Rome after a
long and bloody ficgc, permitted not a fingle perfon
to be killed in cold blood, nor the chaftity of any
woman to be attempted. One cannot without hor-
ror think of the wanton cruelties cxercifed by the
Tartars againft the nations invaded by them under
Gcngizcan and Timor Bee.

A Scythian, favs Herodotus, prefents the king
with the heads of ttie enemies he has killed in bat-
tle ; and the man wlio briugs i^ot a head, gets no
3 iharc

Sk. V.

Manners,

•t,.'t,

I/.

20I

fhare of the plunder. He adds, that many Scy-
thians clothe thcmfclvcs with the Ikins of men, and
make ufc ot the fculls of their enemies to drink out
of. Diodorus Sicuhis reports of the Gauis, that
they caary home the heads of their enemies llain in
battle : and after fembalming them, depofit them ibr
cherts as their chief trophy ; bragging of the fums
ofFcrcd for thefc heads by the friends of thedcccafed,
and refufed. In fimilar circumftanccs men 'arc tlw
fame all the world over. Tlie fcalping of enemies,'
in daily ufe among the North-American favages, is-
equally cruel and barbarous.

No favages are more cruel than the Greeks and
Trojans were, as defcribed by Homer ; men butch-,
ered in cold blood, towns reduced to afhes, fo-
vercigr>8 expofed to the moft humbling indignities,
no refpeft paid to age nor to fex. The young Adraf-
tus (rt), thrown from his car, and lying in the duft,
obtained quarter from Menelaus. Agamemnon up-
braided his brother for lenity : " Let none from de-
" ftrudion efcapc, not even the lifping infant in the
" mother's arms : all her fons muft with Ilium fall,
" and on her ruins unburied remain.** He pierced
the fupplicant with his fpear ; and fetting his foot
on the body, pulled it out. He£fcor, having ftript
Patroclus of his arms, drags the flain along, vowing
to lop the head from the trunk, and to give the
mangled corfe a prey to the dogs of Troy. And the
feventeenth book or the Iliad, is wholly employed in
defcribing the conteft about the body between the
Greeks and Trojans. Befidc the brutality of pre-
venting the laft duties from being performed to a
deceafed friend, it is a low fcenc, unworthy of
heroes. It was equally brutal in Achilles, to drag
the corfe of He£tor to the fliips tied to his car. In a
fccne between Hedtor and Andromache (^), the
treatment of vanquilhed enemies is pathetically def-
cribed;

Pill

t .;;.'

{a) Book 6. of the Iliad.

{b) Iliad, book 6.

^01

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

■1^ *

cribcd ; fovercigns mafTacrcd, and their bodies left
a prey to dogs and vultures ; fucking infants dalhed
againii the pavement ; ladies of the tirft rank forced
tp perform the lowed ads of flavery. Heftor doth
not diflcmble, that if Troy fliould be conquered,
bis poor wife would be condemned to draw water
like the vilcft flavc. Hecuba, in Euripides, la-
ments, that fhe was chained like a dog at Aga-
memnon's gate ) and the fame favage manners are
dcfcribed in many other Greek tragedies. Prome-
theus makes free with the heavenly fire, in order to
give Hfe to man. As a puniihment for bringing
rational creatures into exiflence, the gods decree,
that he be chained to a rock, and abandoned to
birds of prey. Vulcan is introduced by Efchylus
rattling the chain, nailing one end to a rock, and
the other to the bread bone of the criminal. "Who
but an Anterican favage can at prefent behold fuch
a fpeftacle, and not be fhocked ? A fccne reprc-
fenting a woman murdered by her children, would
be hiffed by every modern audience ; and yet that
horrid fcene was rcprefen^vl with applaufe, in the
Ele£tra of Sophocles, Stobceus reports a faying of
Menander, that even the gods cannot infpire a
foldier with civility: no wonder that the Greek fol-
dicrs were brutes and barbarians, when war was
waged, not only againft the ftatc, but againft every
individual. At prefent, humanity prevails among
ibldiers as among others j becaufe we make war on-
ly againft a itate, not againft individuals. The
Greeks are the lefs excufable for their ^ **'»/» as
they appear to have been ienfible that hiira- /'^,'^v is
a cardinal virtue. Barbarians are alw. ..aii.ted
by Homer as cruel ; poliihed nations a§ tender and
compaflionate:

" Ye ^:):hl ^he crif^d) upon what barren coaft,
lij whJit uew rerrion is Ulyffes toft?

« PoflefsM

((

»sj-.

Sk. V.

Manners,

103

" Poflcfs'd by wild h irbarians fierce in arms,
** Or men wnol'c boluri tender pity warms? ' * "

Odyssiy^ bo(fk 13. 241.

Cruelty is inconridcnt wif^ true hcroifm; and
accordingly very litnc of the Kittcr is difcovcrable
in any of Homer's warriors. So much did they
retain of the favage character, as, even without
bluOiing, to fly from an enemy fupcrior in bodily
iircngth. DiomcJrs, who makes an illuilrtuus fi^ ^rc
ir. the fifth book of the Iliad, retires when Hector
appears : " Diomcdcs beheld the chief, and Ihud-
•' dcred to his inmoft foul." Antilochus, fon of
Neftor, having flain Mclanippus (a), rufhcd for-
ward eager to feizc his bright arms. But feeing
Hedtor, he fled like a beafl of prey who fhuns the
gathering hinds. And the great Heftor b'mfelf,
ihamefuUy turns his back upon the near ap|)roach
of Achilles: " Periphetes endowed with every
" virtue, renowned in the race, great in war, in
** prudence excelling his fellows, gave glory to
" He£tor, covering the chief with renown." One
would expedt a fierce combat between thcfe f wo
bold warriors. Not fo, Periphetes ftumbling, fell
to the ground ; and He£tor was not afliamed to
transfix with his fpear the unrefiding hero.

In the fame tone of character, nothing is more
common among Homer's warriors, than to infult a
vanquifhed foe. Patroclus, having beat Cebriones
to the ground with a huge flqiie, derides his tall in
the following words. . ^.: «.

Good heav'ns ! what a6\ive feats yon artift (hows,
What Ikilful divers are our Phrygian foes 1
Mark with what eafe they fink into the fand*
Pity \ that all their pradice is by land."

The

{a) Book 15.

^'^

ao4 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

The Greeks arc reprefented (^) one after another
llabbing the dead body of Hedor : " Nor flood an
*' Argive near the chief who inflicted not a wound.
*' Surely now, faid they, more cafy ot accefs is
** Hedor, than when he launched on the ihips
•* brand.s of devouring fire.*'

When fuch were the manners of warriors at the
fiege of Troy, it is no furprife to find the heroes on
both lides no "ijsfs intent on flripping the flain than
on vidory. They are every where reprefented as
greedy of fpcTii. : -'. ;

The Jews did not yield to the Greeks in cruelty.
It is unneceffary to give inflancesj as the hiflorical
books of the Old Teftament are in the hands of
every one. I fhall fcled one inltance for a fpecimen,
dreadfully cruel without anyjufl provocation : " And
" David gathered all the people together, and went
to Rabbah, and fought againft it. And he
brought forth the people that were therein, and
put them under- faws, and under harrows of iron,
" and made them pafs through the brick-kiln : and
^' thus did he unto all the cities of the children of
*♦ Ammon (b)."

That cruelty was predominant among the Ro-
mans, is evident among every one of their hillorians.
If a Roman citizen was found murdered in his own
houfe, his whole houfhold flaves, perhaps two or
three hundred, were put to death without mercy,
unlefs they could detedl the murderer. Such a law,
cruel and unjuft, could never have been enaded
among a people of any humanity. BrutaHty to their
offspring was glaring. Children were held like
cattle, to be the father's property : and fo tenacious
was the patria poiejlas^ that if a fon or daughter fold
to be a llave was fet free, he or flie fell again under
the father's power, to be fold a fecond time, and
«ven a third time. The power of hfe and death

over

!a) Book 22.

{v) 2 Samuel, xil. 29,

Sk. V.

Manners,

205

over children was much lefs unnatural, while no
public tribunal exifted for punifliing crimes. A
ion, being a flave, could have no property of his
own. Julius Csefar was the firft who privileged a
fon to retain for his own ufe fpoils acquir'!d in war.
When law became a lucrative profeffion, what a fon
gained in that way was declared to be his property.
In Athens, a man had power of life and death over
his children ; but as they were not flaves, what
they acquired belonged to themfelves. So late as the
days of Dioclefian, a fon's marriage did not diflblve
the Roman patria potejlas (a). But the power of
felling children wore out of ufe (b). When powers
fo unnatural were given to men over their children,
and exercifed fo tyrannically, can there be any doubt
of their cruelty to others * ? During the fecond tri-
umvirate, horrid cruelties were every day perpe-
trated without pity or remorfe. Antony, having or-
dered Cicero to be beheaded and the head to be
brought to him, viewed it with favage pleafure. His
wife Fulvia laid hold of it and ftruck it on the face,
uttered many bitter execrations, and having placed
it between her knees, drew out the tongue, and
pierced it with a bodkin. The delight it gave the
Romans to fee wild beafts fet loofe againft one
another in their circus, is a proof not at all am-
biguous of their tafte for blood, even at the time of

their

^1'

■i :,.

■ 'fiij

(fl) 1. 1. Cod* cap. De patria poteftate.

(t) 1. lo. eod.
* The effeft of fuch unnatural powers, was to eradicate natural affeftion
between a man and his children. And indeed, fo little of nature was left
in this connedion^ that a law was found neceflfary j>rohibiting a man to difin-
herit his children, except for certain caufes fpetifiec, importing grofs ingrati-
tude in the latter ; which was done by Juitinian tire Emperor in one of his
rorels. But behold what follows. A prohibition to exheredate children
renders them independent ; and fuch independence produces an effeft ftill
more pernicious than defpotic power in a father. Awe and reverence to
parents make the only effectual ch«?ck againft the h«ad-ftrong paflions of
youth : remove that check, and young men of fortune will give the rein to
every vice. It defcrves to be ferioufly pondered, whether the fame encou-
ragement be not given to vice, by a pradice general in England among men
of fortune in their marriage-articles j which is, to veft the eftate in truf-
tees, for beiicof of the heir of t!ie marriage.

ao6 Men Independent of Society.

B. I.

m '

their higheft civilization. The Edile Scaurus fent
at one time to Rome 150 panthers, Pompey 410,
and Auguftus i:j2o, for the pubhc fpedacles. Their
^ladiatorian combats are a lefs evident proof of their
ferocity : the courage and addrefs exerted in thefe
combats gave a manly pleafure, that balanced in
fome meafure the pain of feeing thefe poor fellows
cut and flafli one another. And that the Romans
were never cured of their third for blood, appears
from Caligula, Nero, and many other monfters, who
governed the Romans after Auguftus. There is no
example in modern times ot fuch monfters in
France, though an abfolute monarchy, nor even
in Turkey.

Ferocity was, in the Roman empire, confidera-
bly mollified by literature and other fine arts ; but
it acquired new force upon the irruption of the
barbarous nations who cruflied that empire. In
the year 559, Clotaire, King of the Franks, burnt
alive his fon, with all his friends, becaufe they had
rebelled againft him. Queen Brunehaud, being by
Clotaire II. condemned to die, was dragged thro*
the camp at a horfe's tail till flie gave up the ghoft.
The ferocity of European nations, became bound-
lefs during the anarchy of the feudal fyftem. Many
peafants in the northern provinces of France, be-
ing forely opprefled in civil wars carried on by the
nobles againft each other, turned defperate, ga-
thered together in bodies, refolving to extirpate all
the nobles. A party of them an?io 1358, forced
open the cafile of a knight, hung him upon a gal-
lows, violated in his prcfence his wife and daugh-
ters, roafted him upon a fpit, compelled his wife
and children to eat of his flefli, and terminated
that horrid fcene with maflacring the whole family,
and burning the caftle. When they were afked,
fays Froiflard, why they committed fuch abomina-
ble adions, their anfwer was, " That they did as

" thev faw others do ; and

that all the nobles in
" the

Sk.V.

' Manners,

r n

207

" the world ought to be deftroyed." The nobles,
when they got the upper hand, were equally cru-
el. They put all to fire and fword ; and mafl'a-
cred every peafant who came in the way, without
troubling themfeives to feparate the innocent from
the guilty. The Count de Ligny encouraged his
nephew, a boy of fifteen, to kill with his own
hand fome prifoners who were his countrymen ;
in which, fays Monftrelet, the young man took
great delight. How much worfe than brutal mult
have been the manners of that age ! for even a
beaft of prey kills not but when inftigated by hun-
ger. The third a£t of dealing from the lead-mines
in Derby, was, by a law of Edward I. puniflied in
the following manner. A hand of the criminal was
nailed to a ,table ; and in that condition he was left
without meat or drink, having no means for free-
dom but to employ the one hand to cut oiF the o-
ther. The barbarity of the Englifh at that period
made fevere puniihments neceflary : but the pu-
nifhment mentioned goes beyond feverity ; it is
brutal cruelty. The barbarous treatment of the
Jews during the dark ages of Chriftianity, gives
pregnant evidence, that Chriftians were not ihort of
Pagans in cruelty. Poifoning and aflaflination were
molt licentioufly perpetrated, no farther back than
the lafl: century. Some pious men made vigorous
eftbrts in more than one general council to have af-
faflination condemned, as repugnant to the law of
God : but in vain *.

I wilh to foften the foregoing fcene : it may be
foftened a little. Among barbarians, puniihments

muft

* It required tlie ferocity and cruelty of a barbarous age to give currency
to a Mahometan dodlrine, That the fword is the mod efFedual means of con-
verting men to a dominant religion. The eftablifhment of the Inquifition
will not permit me to fay, that Ciiriftians never put in pradfice a doftrine
fo detertable : on the contrary, tliey furpaflTed the Mahometans, giving no
quarter to heretics, either in this life or in that to come. The eternity of
hell-torments, is a dodrineno lefs inconfiftent with the juftice of the Deity,
than with his benevolence.

I' u

fl-

If ):

«o8 Men independent of Society. Br h

mufli be languinary; as their bodies only are fenfible
of pain, not their minds*.

The reftorationof art&and fciences in Europe, and
a reformation in religion, had a wonderful eifcft in
fweetening manners, and promoting the intercfts Of
focicty. Of all crimes high treafon is the moft in-
volved in circumftances ; and the moft difficult to ht
defined or circumfcribed. And yet, for that crime
are referved the moft exquifite torments. In Eng-
land, the punifliment is, to cut up the criminal a-
live, to tear out his heart, to dafti it about his ears,
and to throw it into the flames. The fame punifh-
ment continues in form, not in reality: the heart
indeed is torn out, but not till the criminal is
ftrangldd. Even the virulence of religious zeal is
confidcrably abated. Savotiarola was condemned
to the flames as an impious impoftor ; but he was
firft privately ftranglcd. The fine arts, which hu-
manize manners, were in Italy at that time acce-
lerating toward perfection. The famous Laitimer
was in England condemned to be burnt for herefy :
but bags of gunpowder were put under his arms,
that he might be burnt with the leaft pain. E-
ven Knox, a violent Scotch reformer, acknow-
ledges, that "U ifhart was ftrangled before he was
thrown into the fllames for herefy. So bitter was
the late perfecution againft the Jeiuits, that not
only wtre' their perfons profcribed, but in many
places their books, not e^'cn excepting books upon
mathematics, and other abdraft fubjed^s. Ihat
perlecution refembled in many particulars the per-
fecution agaiprt the knights-templars : fifty -nine of
the latter were burnt alive : the former were reallv '

Icfs innocent j and yet fuch humanity prevails at

*• prefent.

«-'

* The RofT'tms are far from I'efinem^rt ci«^ber in irianriers '6r {tkUn^i.
The Baron de Manftein talking of the fcverity of Count Mi'nich's milita-
ry difcipline, obfervcs, tiiat it is indifpanfa'ole in RufTia, v. 'ifre mi!d-
nefa makes no impreflion j and the Kufiians are eoverned by fear not
by love.

Sk»V.

Makers*

i®9

prefent, that not a drop of Jefuit^blood has been
ihed. A bankrupt in Scotland, if he have not
fufFered by unavoidable misfortune, is by law con-
demned to wear a party-coloured garment. That
law is not now put in execution, unlefs where a
bankrupt deferves to be ftigmatifed for his culpable
mifcondud.

Whether the following late inflance of barbarity
do not equal any of thofe above mentioned, I
leave to the reader. No traveller who vifited Pe-
tcrlburg during the reign of the Emprefs Eliza-
beth can be ignorant of Madam Lapouchin, the
great ornament of that court. Her intimacy with
a foreign ambaflador having brought her under
fufpicion of plotting with him againft the govern*
ment, fhe was condemned to undergo the punifh-
ment of the knout. At the place of execution,
(he appeared in a genteel undrefs, which heighten-
ed her beauty. Of whatever indifcretion (he might
have been guilty, the fweetnefs of her countenance
and her compofure, left not in the fpe^ators the
ilighteft fufpicion of guilt. Her youth alfo, her
beauty, her life and fpirit pleaded for her. — But
all in vain : (lie was deferted by all, and abandoned
to furly executioners ; whom flie beheld with a-
ftonilhment, feeming to doubt whether fuch prepa-
rations were intended for her. The cloak that
covered her bofom being pulled off", modeftytook
the alarm, and made her ftart back : flie turned
pale, and burfl; into tears. One of the executi-
oners {tripped her naked to the waift, feized her
with both hands, and threw her on his back, raif-
ing her fome inches from the ground. The other
executioner laying hold oF her delicate limbs with
his rough fids, put her in a pofture for receiving the
punifli'.nent. Then laying hold of the knout, a fort
of whip made of a leathern Itrap, he with a fingle
ftroke tore otf a flip of Ikin from the neck down-
ward, repealing his ftrokcs till all the ikin of her

Vol. I. P back

M -f

if 1

l^i' :■

•■I

'i^ilA

V I'iii

; mi

110 Men independent of Society, • B. I.

back was cut off in fmall flips. The executioner fi-
nifhed his tafk with cutting out her tongue j after
which (lie was baniflied to Siberia*.

The native inhabitants of the ifland Amboyna arc
Malayans. Thofe on the fca-coaft are fubjeft to
the Dutch : tliofe in the inland parts are their de-
clared enemies, and never give quarter. A Dutch
captive, after being confined five days without
food, is ripped up, his heart cut out, and the head
fevered from the body, is preferved in fpice for a
trophy. Thofe who can Ihow the greatcfl number
of Dutch heads are the mod honourable.

In early times, when revenge and cruelty trampled
on law, people formed affociations for fecuring
their lives and their poffeffions. Thefe were com-
mon in Scandinavia and in Scotland. They were
alfo common in England during the Anglo-Saxon
government, and for fome ages after the Con-
queft. But inftead of fupportingjullicc, they con-
tributed more than any other caufe to confufion and
anarchy, the members protecting each other, even
in robbery and murder. They were fupprefled in
England, by a (latute of Richard II. j and in Scotland
by reiterated ftatutes.

Roughnefs and harfhnefs of manners are gene-
rally connedled with cruelty ; and the manners of
the Grcelcs and Trojans, are accordingly repre-
fented in the Iliad as remarkably rough and liarlh.
"When the armies were feady to engage (a), Me-
nedheus King of Athens, and UlyiTcs of Ithaca, are

bitterly

* The prefenf Emprefs lias laid an excellent foundation for civilizing her
people; which is a Code of laws founded on principles ot civil lihcrt;; bani/h-
ingflavery and torture, and expreflmg the utmoft regard for the life, proper-
ty, and liberty, ot all her fubjeds, high and low. Peter I. reformed many
bad cuftoms : but being rough in his ov^n manners, he left the manners of
his people as hcfcjnd them. If this Emprcfs happen to enjoy a long and
profperous reign. (]\e may pofTibly accompli Hi the moll diflicult of all un-
dertakings, tha: ' ' ;jolilhing a barbarous people. No talk is too arduous for
!a woman ot fuch fpirit.

{a) Book 4.

Sk. V.

Manners*

^li

bitterly reproached by Agamemnon for lingering,
while others were more forward. " Son of Pcleus^
*' he faid, and thou verfed in artful deceit, in niif-
•' chief only wife, why trembling fhrinlc ye back
** from the field j why wait till others engage in
*' fight ? You it became as firfl in rank, the firft
" to meet the flame of war. Ye firfl to the ban-
*' quet are called, when we fpread the feaft.
'* Your delight is to eat, to regale, to quaff un-
*' (tinted the generous wine." In the fifth book,
Sarpedon upbraids Hedor for cowardice. And
Tlepolemus, ready to engage with Sarpedon, attacks
him firft with reviling and fcurrilous words. Be-
caufe Heftor was not able to refcue the dead
body of Sarpedon from the Greeks, he is up-
braided by Glaucus, Sarpedon's friend, in the fol-
lowing words : " Hedor, though fpecious in
" form, diflant art thou from valour in arms.
" Undeferved haft thou fame acquired, when
'* thus thou fhrinkefl from the field. Thou fuf-
** taineft not the dreadful arm, not even the fight
" of god-like Ajax. Thou hafl fliunned his
*' face in the fight : thou dareft not approach
*' his fpear.'*

Rough and harfh manners produced flavery ;
and flavery foftered rough and harfh manners, by
giving them conflant exercife. The brutality of
the Spartans to the Helots, their flaves, is a re-
proach to the human fpecies. Befide the harflieft
ufage, they were prevented from multiplying by
downright murder and maffacre. Why did not
fuch barbarity render the Spartans deteftable, in-
ftead of being refpe^lcd by their neighbours as
the mofl virtuous people in Greece ? There can be
but one rcafon, that the Greeks were all of them
cruel, the Spartans a little more perhaps than the
refl. In Rome, a Have, chained at the gate of
every great lioufe, gave admittance to the guefts in-

P 2 vitedE

\' w

'y< ['

-ill

212

Mkn independent of Society*

B.I.

vitcd to a feafl : could any but barbarians behold
fuch a fpeclacle without pain ?

Whence the rough and harfli manners of our
Weft-Indian plaiuers, but from the unrcftrained
licence of venting ill humour upon their negro
Haves* ? Why arc carters a rugged fet of men?
Plainly bccaut'e horfcs, tlicir Haves, fubmit without
refiftance. An ingenious writer, defcribing Guiaua
hi the fouthcrn continent of America, obferves,
that the negroes, who are more numerous than
the whites, mud be kept in awe by fcverity of dif-
ciplinc. And he endeavours to juftify the pradice ;
urging, that bcfide contributing to the fafety of the
white inhabitants, it makes the flaves themfelves
Icfs unhappy. ** ImpoHibility of attainment, fays
" he, never fails to annihilate dehre of enjoyment ;
'* and rigid treatment, iui)prefiing every hope of

ry hope
•' liberty.

* te'ft ci« cet efclavagc cics negres, qu« les Cieofcs tirent pcut-etre en
par»i« i^n certain caraftere, qui les fart paroitre bizarrcs, faniafques, et
H'line fc«;ietc peu goiitee en Europe. A peine pciivent-ils marciier dans
I'enfAnce, qirih voitiit autour d'cux des iionimvs grands ct robuites, dellines
a devinfr, a prevcnir Iciir volontc. Cc premier coup d'a-il doit leur donner
d'eux-mdmes I'opinion la plus cxtravagantc Rarcnient exposes a trouver
de la rcfiilaiice dans leiirs (antaifics niCme iiijurtes, ils prcnnent uii cfprlt de
prefonijjiion. de tyrannic, et d-; inepiiii exucnie, pour une pr indeprcporticn
ti» genie huniain, Kien n'eil jikis infolent que I'liomme qui v,r prdque tou-
jours avec I'es ir.ferieurs ; mais qviand ceux-ci font des cfclaves, accoutumesa
fcrvir des cnfans, a tVaindrc jufqu' a des cris qui doivtnt leur attirer des <;'ia-
liniens, que pcuvent dcvenir ties maitrcs qui n'ont janiaii jbei, des medians
qui n'unt. jamais cte p^nis, des f(/jx qui niettcnt des homines .a la chai'ne >
UiJioUe Plii.foph'tqiic it I'c'Uir.ic tic: t!abHjf,ii.^ni Jis F.ui.pc'n.i 'a/ts ta Deux
Indcif I, 4. /\ 201. — [/•; F^yiijh thus:'] " It is from tliis i',.:-iv^ of tlie nc-
" groes, that the Creoles derive in a great meafuie that cluratter v'iiicht
" makes tlccm apjjear capricious and lanraltita!, and of a rtjie of maniicrs
" wliicii i-, nut leliilifcd in Kuiope. Sitarcely Ir.ve the cliu^rn learned to
" walk, when they fee aruund tlieni ralJ and loburtmen, whofc province it is
*' to gueO their inchnaiions, and to pi event their wilhes. Tiiic fiift obferva-
" tion mull give theni tlie molt extravai^snt ojMnian of themfelves, From
" beinf feklom aci-ullomw-d to nieet witli any oj)i:ofit:on, even in their moll
*' unreufonahle whiinS; tiiey acquire a p-ef mipruous ari 1 tyrannical difpoli-
" tion, and entertain an extreme curtempi lor a great j)art of the human
'* race. None is fo infolent as the man wlio Jives almoll always with his
" inleriors ; but when tlitfe inferiors are fla/cs acci'.domed to ferve inf;»nts,
" and to fear even liieir crying, for which tliey melt futfci prniihment, wliat
" can be expttied of thofe inaAers who have never uiityed, profligates who
• h4ve never met with ch:il\ifement, and madmen who load tticir fdlow-crc*-
•' ruref with chains '"

Iff'

■:<!.!

1' i:

Sk. V.

Lhinncn*

213

" liberty, makes llicni peaceably fubmit to flavcry."
Sad indeed mufl be tlic condition ot llavcs, if h? "^^
treatment contribute to make them lei's unhappy.
Such reiifoning may Ix relilhcd by rough European
jDlanters, intent upon gain : I am inclined however
to believe', that the Iiarlh treatment ot" thefe poor
people is more owing to tlic avarice of their mafters,
than to their own pervcrienefs *. That flaves in all
ages have been harlhly treated is a melancholy
truth. One exception I know, and but one, which
I gladly mention in honour of the Mandingo ne-
groes. Their flaves, who are numerous, receive
very gentle treatment ; the women efpecially, >vho
are generally fo well drefled as not t,o be diftinguifli-
able fix)m thofe who are frce^

Many political writers are of opinion, that for
crimes inftigated by avarice only, Ilavery for life and
hard work, would be a more adequate }>uniflinient
than death. J[ v.'ould fubfcribe to that opinion but
for the following coniideration, that the having fuch
criminals perpetually in view, would harden our
hearjts, and eradicate pity, a capitai moral paflion.
Behold the behaviour of the Dutch in the illand of
Amboyna. A native who is found guilty of theft,
is deprived of his ears and nofe, and made a flave
for life, William Funnel, who was there aimo
1705, reports, that 500 of thefe wretches were fe-
cured in prifon, and never fuffered to go abroad
but in order to faw timber, to cut Hone, or to carry
heavy burdens. Their food is a pittance of coarfe
rice boiled in water, and their bed the hard ground.
Whiit is Hill worfe, poor people who happen to run
in debt, arc turned over to the fervants of the Eaft-
India com])any, who fend them to work among

their

* In England flavery fubfifted fo lare as the lixceentli qentury. A com-
niiliionwas iifued by <iucen Eli<ribcth,an"o 1 574, lor enquiring into the land?
and ^oods of ail her bontlmcn and Ijondwomcn in the cciuniies of CornwvU,
Devon, Somen'et, and ("lio'ilei, in order to oompound with them for tlieir
manumifnon or frtedo'ii^ tli if ilifv nii^^'i" '.'nHv '.licir owft l.inJu and «;oods
:<-( !:ef men.

t-': ' '

SI4 Men Independent of Society. B. I.

their flaves, with a daily allowance of two pence,
which goes to the creditor. A nation mud be de-
void of bowels, who can eftablifh fuch inhumanity
by law. But time has rendered that pradice fo fa-
miliar to the Dutch, that they behold with abfolute
indifterence the multiplied mifcrics of their fellow-
icreaturcs. It appt-ais indeed, that fuch a punifli-
ment would be more effeclual than death tp rcprefs
theft ; but can any one doubt, that fociety would
fuft'cr more by eradicating pity and humanity, than
it would gain by punifliing capitally every one vyho
is guilty of theft ? At the fame time, the Dutch,
bowevcr cruel to the natives, are extremely coni-
plaii'ant to one another : fcldom is any of them pu-
nifhtd but for murder : a fmall fum will procui:,
pardon for any other crime.

A degree of coarfenefs and indelicacy is connede J
with rough manners. The manners of the Greeks,
as copied by Plautus and Terence from Menandcr
and other Greek writers, were extremely coarfe ;
fuch as may be expelled from a people living among
their flaves, without any fociety with ' inuous wo-
men. The behaviour of Demoflhcnes and Efchines
to each other in their public harangues, is wofuHy
coarfe. But Athens was a democracy ; and a de-
mocracy, above all other governments, is rough
and licentious. In the Athenian comedy, neither
gods nor men are fpared. The moft refpedable
})erfons of the republic are ridiculed by name in the
comedies of Ariltophanes, which wallow in loofcnefs
and detraction. In the tliird aft of Andromache, a
tragedy of Kurlpides, Peleus and Menelaus, Kings
of ThelVuly and Sparta, fall into downright ribaldry ;
Menelaus fwearing that he will not give up his
vidim, and Peleus threatening to knock him down
with his (iatf. The manners or Jafon, in the tragedy
of Medea by Euripides, are wofully indelicate. With
nuparalleled ingratitude to his wife Medea, he, even
in her prefence, makes love to the King of Corinth's
... . daughter,

fell

I ■

Sk.V.

Manners*

.1?

daughter, and obtains her in marriage. Inftcad of
bluming to fee a perfon he had fo deeply injured,
he coolly endeavours to cxcufe himfelf, " that he
was an exile like herfelf, without fupport; and
that his marriage would acquire powerful friends
to them and to their children." Could he ima-
gine, that fuch frigid reafons would touch a woman
of any fpirit ? A mod ftriking pidlure of indelicate
manners, is exhibited in the tragedy of Alceftes.
Admetus prevails upon Alceltes, his loving and be-
loved wife, to die in his ftead. What a barbarian
mud the man be, who grafps at life upon fuch a
condition ? How ridiculous is the bombaft flourilh
of Admetus, that, if he were Orpheus, he would
pierce to hell, brave the three-htaded Cerberus, and
bring his wife to earth again ! and how indecently
does he fcold his father, for refufing to die for him!
What pretext could the monfter have to complain
of his father, when he himfelf was fo difgracefuUy
fond of life, as even to folicit his beloved fpoufe to
die in his ftead! What ftronger inftance, after all,
would one require of indelicacy in the manners of
the Greeks, than that they held all the world ex-
cept themfelves to be barbarians? In that particular,
however, they are not altogether fingular. Tho'
the Tartars, as mentioned above, were foul feeders,
and hoggifhly nafty, yet they were extremely proud,
defpifmg, like the Greeks, every other nation.
The people of Congo think the world to be. the
work of angels j except their own country, which
they hold to be the handiwork of the fupreme ar-
chitcd. The Greenlanders have a high conceit of
themfelves; and in private make a mock of the
Europeans, or Kablunets, as they call them. De-
fpifmg arts and fciences, they value themfelves on
their ikill in catching feals, conceiving it to be the
only ufcful art. They hold themfelves to be the
only civilized and well-bred people; and when they
fee a modefl: ftrangcr, they fay, " he begins to be a

" man

r
t jji

ii6 Men independent of Society.

B. 1.

" man /' that is, to be like one of themfelvcs.
Sometimes however fparks of light arc perceived
breaking through the deepeft gloom. When the
Athenians were at war with Philip King of Mace-
don, they intercepted fome letters addreifcd by him
to his minifters. Thefe they opened for intelli-
gence. But one to his Queen Olympias, they left
with the meflenger untouched. This was done
not by a fingle perfon, but by authority of the
whole i^eople.

So coarfe and indelicate were Roman manners,
that whipping was a punifliment infli^ed on the of-
ficers ot the army, not even excepting centurions
(rt). Doth it not fhow extreme groffnefs of man-
ners, to exprefs in plain words the parts that mo-
dedy bids us conceal ? and yet this is common in
Greek and Roman writers. In the Cyclops of Eu-
ripides, there is reprefented a fcene of the vice
againlt nature, grofsly obfcene, without the leaft
difguife. How wofully indelicate muft the man
have been, who could fit down gravely to compofe
iuch a piece ! and how diflblutc muft the fpecta-
tors have been, who could behold fuch a fcene
without hifling ! Next to the indecency of expoftng
one's nudities in good company, is the talking of
them without refcrve. Horace is extremely ob-
fcene, and Martial no lefs. But 1 cenfurc neither
of them, and as little the Queen of Navarre for
her tales j for they wrote according to the man-
ners of the times : it is the manners I cenfure, not
the writers. In Rome a woman taken in adultery
was proftituted in the public ftrcet to all comers,
a bell ringing the whole time. This abomina-
ble pradice was aboliflied by the Emperor The-
odofius (b).

The

(a) Julius Capitolinus, in tlw llfeof Alhintu.
[i) Socrates, Hift^ Eccl. liv. 5. cap. 18.

8k. V.

Manners.

di;

' The manners ot Kurope, before the revival of
letters, wciT no lefs coarfe than cruel. In the Car-
tularies ot Charlemagne, judges are forbidden to
hold courts but in the morning, with an empty
itornach. It would appear, that men in thofe days
were not afliamed to be fcen drunk, even in a
court of juftice. It was cuftomary, both in France
and Italy, to colie^l for fjmrt all the Itrumpets in
the neighbourhood, and to make them run races.
Several feudal tenures give evidence of manners
both low and coarfe. Struvius mentions a tenure,
binding the vafl'al, on the birth-day of his lord, to
dance and fart before him. The cod-piece, which,
a few centuries ago, made part of a man's drefs,
and which fwelled by degrees to a monflrous fize,
tcflifies Ihamefully-coarfe manners ; and yet it was
a modeft ornament, compared with one ufed in
France during the reign of Lewis XI. which was
the figure of a man's privy parts fixed to the coat
or breeches. In the fame period, the judgement of
Paris was a favourite theatrical entertainment : three
women ftark-naked reprefented the three goddeflcs,
Juno, Venus, and Minerva. Nick-names, fo com-
mon not long ago, are an inftance of the fame
coarfcnefs of manners ; for to fix a nick-name on <^
man, is to ufe him with contemptuous familiari-
ty. In the thirteenth century, many clergymen re-
fufed to adminill-cr the facrament of the Lord's fuD-
per, unlefs they were paid for it*. In the tenth
century, Edniond King of England, at a feltival in
the county of Gloucclter, obferved Leolf, a noto-
rious robber under fc^ntence of banifhmcnt, fitting
at table with the King's attendants. Enraged at
tiiiii infolence, he ordered Lcolf to leave the room.
On his refuling to obey, the King leaped on liim
•' • and

■* Corpu ; Chiifti tencntcs in manibus, (fays the canon), ac fl di.;crent, Quid
niilii vultij d.iic, ct ego cum vobij tradam ?—[//; £«W^2) thui: " Holding th.,
" body of C!'.rii> in tiitiii- lMn'l>, .1. if tliey faid, W'iiat will you give mu for-

'■ '.''i? '"I

I r

K-s

! !■ I

^i8

Men independent of Society. B. 1,

ill

and fcized him by the hair. The ruffian drew his
dagger, and gave the King a wound, of which he
immediately expired. How lamentable would be
our condition, were we as much perfecuted as our
forefathers were with omens, dreams, prophecies,
aftrologers, witches, and apparitions ? Our forefa-
thers were robuft both in mind and body ; and
could bear without much pain what would totally
overwhelm us.

Even after the revival of letters the European
manners were z long time coarfe and indelicate.
In the year 1480 the Cardinal Bibiena exhibited
the Calendra, a comedy of intrigue upon a good
model, but extremely licentious, as all compofitions
of that age were. The Mandragora of Machi-
avel is equztlly licentious ; and confidering the
author, the Queen of Navarre's tales worll of all.
Swearing as an expletive of fpeech, is a violent
fymptom of rough and coarfe manners. It pre-
vails among all barbarous nations. Even women
in Plautus ufe it fluently. It prevailed in Spain and
in France, till it was baniflied by polite manners.
Our Queen Elizabeth was a bold fwearer * ; and
the Englifh populace, who are rough beyond their
neighbours, are noted by ftrangers for that vice.
John King of England fwore commonly '* by the
*' teeth of God." Charles VIII. of France " by
God*s day." Francis I. " upon the faith of a
gentleman." And the oath of Lewis XII. was
may the devil take me.** Though fwearing, in
order to enforce an exprelfion, is net in itfelf im-
moral ; it is however hurtful in its confequences,
rendering facred names too familiar. God's beard,

the

* Writing to lier fifter tlie Queen, begging that flie miglit not btiimprifun-
ed in the tower, (lie concludes her letter thus. " As tor that traitor Wyat, he
" might peradventure write me a letter : but on my faith I never received
" any from him. And as for the copy of my letter fent to the French King,
" I pray God confound me eternally if ever 1 fcnt him word, nieffage, token,
*♦ or letter.' W

Sk. V.

Manners,

219

the common
image of

oath of William Rufus, fuggefls an
our maker as an old man with a long
beard. In vain have acts of parliament been made
againll fwearing : it is eafy ^o evade the penalty, by
coining new oaths ; and as that vice proceeds from
an overflow of fpirits, people in that condition
brave penalties. Folifhed manners arc the only
eiledual cure for that malady. ><: h ^- _

When a people begin to emerge out of barbari-
ty, loud mirth and rough jokes come in place of
rancour and refentment. About a century ago, it
was ufual fqr the fervants and ret?iiners of the court
of feiTions in Scotland, to break out into riotous
mirth and i^proar the laft day of every term, throw-
ing bags, dud, fand, or ftones, ?ill around. Wc
have undoubted evidence of tha^ difprderly pradice
from an a£l of court, prohibiting it under a fevere
penalty, as diflionourable to the court, and unbe»
coming the civility requifite in fuch a place {a)»

And this leads me to the lownefs of ancient man-
ners ; plainly diflinguifliablc from fimplicity of man-
ners : the latter is agreeable, not the former. A-
mong the ancient Egyptians, to cram a man was
an ad: of high refped. Jofeph, the King's firfl: mi-
nifter, in order to honour Benjamin above his bre-
thren, gave him a five-fold mefs (b). The Greeks
in their feafts diftinguiflied their heroes by a
double portion (c). Ulyfl'es cut a fat piece out of
the chine of a wild boar for ncmodocus the bard
(J). The fame refpedful politcncl's is praclifed a-
niong the American favagcs ; ib much arc all
men alike in fimilar circumllances. Telcmachus
complains bitterly of Penelope's fuitors, that they
were gluttons, and confumcd his beef and mut-
ton.

i:1

{a) Aftof Sederunt, 2 ift February 1663.

[b) Gen. xliii. 34.

(f) OdyflTey, b. 8. v. 513. b. 15. v. 156.
(rt') Odyflcy, b. 8. v, 519.

[c) OdylTey, b. 2.

f.20

Men independent of Society, B. I.

ton. The whole fourteenth book of the Odyfley,
(Containing the reception of Ulyfles by Eumaeus the
i\vine-hcrd, is miferably low. Manners mull be
both grofs and low, "v^-hcre common beggars are
admitted to the feafts of princes, and receive fcraps
from their hands (a). In Rome every gucft brought
liis own napkin to a feaft. A flavc carried it home,
(illed with what was left from the entertainment.
Sophocles, in his tragedy of Iphigenja in AuHs,
reprefcnts Clytemneftra, ileppirig down from her
car ; and exhorting her fervants to look after her
baggage, with the anxiety and minutenefs of a
lady's waiting woman. In the tragedy of Jon, this
man, a fervant in the temple of Delphos, is repre-
i'entcd cleaning the temple, and calling out to u
ilock of birds, each by name, threatening to pierce
them with his arrows if they dunged upon the
offerings. Homer paints in lively colours the rich-
es of the Phoeacians, their fkill in navigation,
the magnificence of the king's court, of his palace,
and of the public buildings. But, with the fame
breath, he defcribes Nauficaa, the king's daughter,
travelling to the river on a waggon of greafy
c.'oiitlis, to be wallied by her and her maids.
]^o1Ilbly it may be urged, that fuch circumftances,
however low in our opinion, did not appear low
ii! Greece, as they were introduced by their chief
!;xK^t ; and the greateft that ever cxifted. I ac-
knowledge the force of this argument : but what
<!ocs it prove more, but that the Greeks were not
il-nfible of the lownefs of their manners ? Is any
iwition fenfiblc of the lownefs of tluir own man-
5iers ? The manners of the Greeks did not corref-
^)ond to the delicacy of their tafte in the fine arts :
nm' can it be expected, when they were ftrangers
to that polite fociety with wonien, which refines

a ' behaviour

(«) See the 17th & iStli booki of tlie Oc'yfrcy.

Sk. V.

Panners',

211

behaviotit and elevates manners. The firft kings
in Greece, as Thucydides oblerves, were elective,
having no power but to command their armies in
time of war ; which refcmblcs the government
that obtains at prelent in the ifthmus of Uarien.
The Greeks had no written laws, being governed
by cuftom merely. To live by plunder was held
honourable ; for it was their opinion, that the rules
of juftice are not intended for reftraining the pow-
erful. All ftrangers were accounted enemies, as
among the Romans ; and inns were unknown,
becaufe people lived at home, having very little
intercourfe even with thofe of their own nation.
Inns were unknown in Germany, and to this day
are unknown in the remote parts of the highlands,
of Scotland ; but for an oppo fue rcafon, that hof-
pitality prevailed greatly among the ancient Ger-
mans, and continues to prevail fo much among
our highlanders, that a gentleman takes it for an
affront if a ftranger pals his door. At a con-
grefs between Francis I. of France and Henry
VIII. of England, among other fpeftacles for
public entertainment, the two kings had a wrell-
ling match. Had they forgot that they were fo-
vereign princes ? . , , .

One would imagine war to be a foil too rough
for the growth of civilization; and yet it is not al-
ways an unkindly foil. War between two fmall
tribes ir, fierce and cruel : but a large (late miti-
gates refentment, by direding it, not againfl indi-
viduals, but againft the (tate in general. We know
no enemies but thofe who are in arms : we have
no refentment againft others, but rather find a plea-
fure in treating them with humanity *. Cruelty,

having

"■ Hi

I. '11
I .■■

! ' J-

I f j<

;

:ir

* The conftabledu Guefclin, the grcateft warrior of Iils time, hting on \nx
«1enth-bcd anno 1380, and bidding adieu to his veteran otticers who had
ferved under him fcrty ye;:rs, entreated them not to forget what he iia'l
faid to them a thouduid time, " that in wliatcver country they made
" war, cliiirch-men, women, infants, and the poor jJiople, ucre npt tUeir
" enemies."

^i!

222 Men independent of Society. B. I,

having thus in war few individuals for its objeft, na-
turally fubfides ; and magnanimity in its ftead trans-
forms foldicrs from brutes to heroes. Some time
ago, it was ufual in France to demand battle; and
it was held diflionourable to decline it, however
unequal the match. Before the battle of Pavia,
Francis I. wrote to the Marquis Pefcara, the Im-
perial General, " You will find me before Pavia,
and you ought to be here in fix days : I give you
twenty. Let not the fuperiority of my forces
ferve for an excufe, I will fight you with equal
" numbers.'* Here was heroifm without prudence ;
but in all reformations, it is natural to go from one
extreme to the other. While the King of England held
any poflcflions in France, war was perpetual between
the two nations ; which was commonly carried on
^ith more magnanimity than is ufual between inve-
terate enemies. It became cuftomaryj to give pri-
foners their freedom, upon a fimple parole to return
■with their ranfom at a day named. The fame was
the cuftom in the border-wars between the Englifh
and Scots, before their union under one monarch.
Both parties found their account equally in fuch ho-
nourable behaviour. Edward Prince of Wales, in
a pitched battle againft the French, took the illuflri-
ous Bertrand du Guelclin prifoner. He long de-
clined to accept a ranfom ; but finding it whifpered
that he was afraid of that hero, he inllantly fet him at
liberty without a ranfom. This may be deemed im-
politic or whimfical : but is love of glory lefs praife-
worthy than love of conqueft ? The Duke of Guile,
vidtor in the battle of Drcux, refted all night in the
field of battle ; and gave the Prince of Conde, his
prifoner, a (hare of his bed, where they lay like bro-
thers. The Chevalier Bayard, commander of a
French army anno 1524, being mortally wounded in
retreating from the Imperialilts, placed himfclf un-
der a tree, his face however to the enemy. The
Marquis de Pefcara, General of the Iinj?crialifis,
^ finding

!!■'•

Sk. V.

Manners,

223

6nding him dead in that pofture, behaved with the
generofity of a gallant adverfary : he directed his
body to be embalmed, and to be fcnt to his relations
in the moft honourable manner. Magnanimity and
heroifm, in which benevolence is an effential ingre-
dientj are inconfiftent with cruelty, perfidy, or any
grovelling paflion. Never was gallantry in war car-
ried to a greater height, than between the Englifli
and Scotch borderers before the crowns were united.
The night after the battle of Otterburn, the vidors
and vanquifhed lay promifcuoufly in the fame camp,
without apprehending the lead danger one from the
other. The manners of ancient warriors were very
different. Homer's hero, tho' fupcrior to all in bo-
dily ftrength, takes every advantage of his enemy ;
and never feels either compaflion or remorfe. The
policy of the Greeks and Romans in war, was to
weaken a ftate by plundering its territory, and de-
flroying its people. Humanity with us prevails even
in war. Individuals not in arms are fecure, which
faves much innocent blood. Prifoners were fet at
liberty upon paying aranfom; and by later.improve-
ments in manners, even that practice is left off as
too mercantile; a more honourable practice being
fubftituted, viz. a cartel for exchange of prifoners.
Humanity was (till carried to a greater height, in
our late war with France, by an agreement between
the Duke de Noailles and the Earl of Stair, That
the hofpitals for the fick and wounded foldiersfliould
be fecure from all hoflilities. The humanity of the
Duke de Randan in the fame war, makes an illuftri-
ous figure even in the prefent age, remarkable for
humanity to enemies. When the French troops
were compelled to abandon their conquefts in the e-
ledorate of Hanover, theii Generals every where
burnt their magazines, and plundered the people.
The Duke de Randan, who commanded in the city
of Hanover, put the magiftrates in poffeffion of his
magazines, requefting them to diftribute the con-
tents

H tV

111

224 MiiN independent of Society*

B. L

tents among the poor ; and he was befide extremely
vigilant to prevent his foldiers from committing afts
of violence *. 1 relifh not the brutality exercifed
in the prefent war between the Turks and Ruffians.
The latter, to fecurc their winter quarters on the
left hand of the Danube, laid walte a large territory
on the right. To reduce fo many people to mifery
merely to prevent a furj^rife, which can be more
eft'edually done by flrid difcipline, is a barbarous
remedy. But the peace concluded between thefe
great powers, has given an opening to manners very
different from what were to be expected from the
fadl now mentioned. This peace has been attend-
ed, with fignal marks not only of candour but of
courtefy. The Grand Signior, of his own accord,
has difmiffed from chains every Chriftian taken
prifoner during the war j and the Emprefs of Ruf-

fia

* Such kindncfs In an enemy from wliom notliing Is expected but mlfchipf,
is an illuftiious inftance of humanity. And a fimilar inftance will not maka
the lefs figure that it was done by a man of inferior rank. When Monf,
Thurot, during our late war with France, appeared on the coaft of Scotland
with three armed veflTels ; the terror he at ftrft fpread, foon yielded to admU
riition of his humanity. He paid a full pries for every thing ; and in general
behaved with fo much affability, that a countryman ventured to complain to
iiim of an officer who had robbed him of fifty or f:xty guifteas. The officer
acknowledged the faft ; but faid, that he liad divided the money among his
men. Thurot ordered the officer to give his bill for the money 5 which, lie
faid, flioiild be Hopped out of his pay, if they were fo fortunate as to return to
France. Compare this incident with that of the great Scipio, celebrated in
jRoman ftory, who reflored a beautiful young woman to her bridegroom, and
it will not fufter by the comparifon. Another inftance is no lefs remarkable*
One of liis officers gave a bill upon a merchant in France, for the price of
provifions purchafed b}' him. Thurot having accidenully feen the bill, in-
formed the coijntryman that it was of no value, reprimanded the officer bit-
ttfly for the cheat, and compelled him to give a bill upon a merchant who he
knew would pay the money. At that very time, Thurot's men were in bad
humour, and difpofed to mutiny. In fuch circuniftances, would not Thurot
have bcenexcufed for winlcing at a fraud to which he was net acCeflbry ? But
he adleJ all alongwlth ftrid honour, even at the hazard of his life. Common
honerty to an enemy is not a commonpradlice in war. Thurot was flriflly
honeft in circumftances that made the exertion of common honefly an a(ft of
the highcfl magnanimity. Tlicic iniidents ought to be held up to princes as
examples of true heioifm. War carried en in that manner, would, from dc-
folation and horror, be convei ted into a fair field for acquiring true military
jjlory, and fofcxercifing every manly virtue. I feel the grcateft fatisfatTion,
in paying tins tribute of piaife to the memory of that great man. He will be
k;;pt in remembrance by every true-hearted Briton, though he died fighting
i^ainil ui, Du: he died in tli; fu-ld of honour, fighting tor his country.

ill

Sk. V.

Manners,

225

fia has fet at liberty 3000 Turks, with an order to
fet at liberty every Turk within her dominions.
The neceflity of fortifying towns, to guard from de-
flrudion the innocent and defencelefs, affords con-
vincing evidence of the favage cruelty that prevailed
in former times. By the growth of humanity, fuch
fortifications have become lefs frequent : and they
ferve no purpofe at prefent, but to defend againft
invafion ; in which view a fmall fortification, if but
fufficient for the garrifon, is greatly preferable ; be-
ing conftruded at a much lefs expence, and having
the garrifon only to provide for.

In the progrefs of fociety, there is commonly a
remarkable period, when focial and diffocial paf-
fions feem to bear equal fway, prevailing alternately.

In the hiftory of Alexander's fucceffors, there are
frequent inftances of cruelty, equalling that of
American favages ; and inftances no lefs frequent
of gratitude, of gcnerofity, and even of clemency,
that betoken manners highly polifhed. Ptolemy of
Egypt, having gained a complete vi6lory over De-
metrius fon of Antigonus, reftored to him his equi-
page, his friends, and his domeftics, faying, that
" they ought not to make war for plunder, but for
" glory." Demetrius having defeated one of Ptole-
my's Generals, was lefs delighted with the vi£lory,
than with the opportunity of rivalling his antagonift
in humanity. The fame Demetrius having reftored
liberty to the Athenians, was treated by them as a
demi-god ; and yet afterward, in his adverfity, found
their gates fhut againft him. Upon a change of
fortune he laid fiege to Athens, refolving to chaftife
that rebellious and ungrateful people. He affembled
the inhabitants in the theatre, furrounding them
with his army, as preparing for a total maflacre.
Their terror was great, but Ihort : he pronounced
their pardon, and beftowed on them 100,000 mea-
fures of wheat. Ptolemy, the fame who is men-
tioned above, having at the fiege of Tyre fummoned

Vol. I. Q^ Andronicus

'; 11;'

f'l

11 :

< ii8

ni6

iMi

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

Andronicus the governor to furrender, received a
provoking and contemptuous anfvver. The town
being taken, Andronicus gave himfelf up to defpair :
but the King, thinking it beiow his dignity to relent
an injury againll an inferior, now his prifoner, not
only overlooked the affront, but courted Androni-
cus to be his friend. Edward the Black Prince, is
an infiance of rclined manners, breaking, like a
fpark of fire, through the gloom of barbarity. The
iimpcTor (luirks V. after {ofing 30,000 men at the
fiege of Metz, made an ignominious retreat, leaving
his camp filled with fick and wounded, dead and
dying. Though the war between him and the King
of Fiance was carried on with unufual rancour, yet
the Duke of Guife, governor of the town, exerted
in thofe barbarous times, a degree of humanity that
would make a fplendid figure even at prefent. He
ordered plenty of food for thofe who were dying of
hunger, appointed furgeons to attend the fick and
wounded, removed to the adjacent villages thofe
who could bear motion, and admitted the remainder
into the hofpitals that he had fitted up for his own
foldiers : thofe who recovered their health were
fcnt home, with money to defray the expence of
the journey.

In the period that intervenes between barbarity
and humanity, there are not wanting inftances of
oppofite paflions in the fame perfon, governing al-
ternatclv ; as if a man could this moment be mild
and gentle, and next moment harfh and brutal. To
vouch the truth of this obfervation, I beg leave to
introduce two rival monarchs, who for many years
diltrcfied their own people, and difturbed Europe,
the Emperor Charles, and the French King Francis.
The Emperor, driven by contrary winds on the
coall of France, v/as invited by Francis, who hap-
pened to be in the neighbourhood, to take Jhelter
in his dominions, propofing an interview at Aigues-
Mortes, a fea-port town. The Emperor inltantly
I repaired

i..

S<. V.

Manners.

227

fP-
er

:s-

tlv

repaired there in his galley ; and Francis, rely in cj
on the Emperor's honour, vifited hin\ on (hip.hoard,
and was received witli every cxprclhon ol' alltftion.
Next day, the Emperor - paid the confidence rc-
pofcd in him : he landed at Aigues-Mortes with as
little precaution and found a reception equally cor-
dial. After twenty years of open holtilities or of
fecret enmity, after having formally given the lie
and challenged each other to Angle combat, after
the Emperor had publicly inveighed againd Fran-
cis as void o# honour, and Francis had accufcd the
Emperor as murderer of his own fon ; a behaviour
fo open and IVank will fcarce be thojght confiflent
•with human nature. But thefe monarchs lived in a
period verging from cruelty to humanity ; and fuch
periods abound with furprizing changes of temper
and behaviour. In the prefent times, changes fo vi-
olent are unknown.

Conqueil has not always the fame efTecl upon
the manners of the conquered. The Tartars v/ho
fubdued China in the thirteenth centurv, adopted
immediately the Chinefe manners : the government,
laws, cuftoms, continued without variation. And
the fame happened, upon their fecond conqucil of
China in the Seventeenth century. The barbarous
nations alfo who crulhed the Roman empire, a-
dopted the laws cufloms and manners, of the con-
quered. Very different was the fate of the Greek
emj)ire, when conquered by the Turks. That war-
like nation introduced every where their own laws
and manners : even at this day they continue a
diftincl people, as much us ever. The Tartars, a:;
well as the barbarians who overthrew the Roman
empire,' were al) of them ruc'e and illiterate, deici-
tute of laws, and ignorant of govt^rnment. Such
nations readily adopt the laws and manners of a
civilized people, whom they admire. The Turks
had lavi'S, and a regular government ; pnd the
Greeks, when fubdued by them, w^ere reduced bv

Q 2 luxuiv

• St

'Ill'

I' )

:ii 1

228 Men independent of Society. B. I.

luxury and fenfuality to be objefts oF contempt, not
of imitation.

Manners arc dee];ly aflcded by perfecution.
The forms of procedure in the Inquifition, enable
the inquifitors to ruin whom they pleafe. A per-
fon accufed is not confronted with the accufer :
every fort of accufation is welcome and from every
perfon : a child, a common proflitute, one branded
with infamy, are reputable witnefles : a man is
compelled to give evidence againfl: his father, and
a woman againft her hulband. Ni^ the perfons
accufed are compelled to inform againft them-
felves, by guelhng what fm they may have been
guilty of. Such odious, cruel, and tyrannical
proceedings, made all Spain tremble : every man
diftrufted his neighbour, and even his own family":
a total end was put to friendlhip, and to focial
freedom. Hence the gravity and referve of a
people, who have naturally all the vivacity arifing
from a temperate clime and bountiful foil *.
Hence the profound ignorance of that people,
while other European nations are daily improving
in every art and in every fcience. Human nature is
reduced to its loweft ftate, when governed by fu-
periVition cloathed with power.

We proceed to another capital article in the hifto-
ry of manners, viz. the felfifli and focial branches
of our nature, by which manners are greatly in-
fluenced. Selfiihnefs prevails among favages ; be-
caufe corporeal plcafures are its chief objects,
and of thefe every favage is pcrfeftly fenfible.
Benevolence and kindly afleftion are too refined
for a favage, unlefs of the fimplefl: kind, fuch as
the ties of blood. While artificial wants were

unknown,

* The Populace of Spain, too low game for the inquifition, are abundant-
ly chearful, perhaps more fo than thofe of France, And I am credibly in-
formed, that the Spanidi women are perpetually dancing, finging, laughing,
nr talking.

Sk. V.

Manners,

229

unknown, felfiflinefs made no figure : the means
of gratifying the calls of nature were in plenty ;
and wen wlio are not afraid of ever being in
want, never think of providing againft it ; and far
lefs do they think of coveting what belongs to
another. Ihe Caribbeans, who know no wants
!)ut what nature infpires, are amazed at the induftry
of the Ki:iopeans in amalling wealth. Liflcii to
one of them expoflulating with a Frenchman in the
following terms : " How mifcrable art thou to ex-
pofe thy perfon to tedious and dangerous voy-
ages, and to fufler thyfcif to be oppreifcd with
anxiety about futurity ! An inordinate appetite
for wealth is thy bane ; and yet thou art no
lefs tormented in preferving the goods thou haft
acquired, than in acquiring more : fear of rob-
bery or iliipwreck fuffers thee not to enjoy a
quiet moment. Thus thou groweft old in thy
*' youth, thy hair turns grey, thy forehead is
wriiikled, a thoufand ailments aftlift thy body, a
thoufand diftreffes furround thy heart, and thou
moveft with painful hurry to the grave. Why
art thou not content with what thy own coun-
try produceth ? Why not contemn fuperflu-
ities, as we do ?" But men are not long content-
ed with fimple neceflaries : an unwearied appetite
to be more and more comfortably provided, leads
them from neceflaries to conveniencies, and from
thefe to every fort of luxury. Avarice turns liead-
ftrong ; and locks and bars, formerly unknown,
becouie neceflary to prote(^ individuals from the ra-
pacity of their neighbours. When the goods cf
fortune, money in particular, come to be priztd,
fellilhncfs foon difplays itfelf. In Madagafcar, a
man who makes a prefent of an ox or a calf^ ex-
peels the value in return : and fcruple& not io fay,
" You my friend, I your friend ; you no my
" friend, 1 no your friend j I falamanca )0u, you

<' lalamanca

cc
a

((
cc

' iSf

: il

fl!

•\t.

[

230 Ml N iiulcpciKlcnt of Society. 15. !•

" falanianca me (a)." Admiral WaifcMi being in-
troilucecl to the King ol" Baba, in Madagafear, was
alketl by liis Majclly, what prel'ents he hail brouglu.
Hence the cuftom, univerfal among barbarians, of
always aecofting a king, or any man of higli rank,
witli prefents. Sir John Chardin fays, that tliis
cullom goes througli all iVfia. It is reckoned ati
lionour to receive prefents ; they are received in
public ; and a time is chofen when the croud is
greatcft. It is a maxini too refined for the poten-
tates of Afia, that there is more honour in bellow-
ing than in receiving.

The peculiar excellence of man above all other
animal), is the capacity he has of improving by
education and example. In proportion as his fa-
culties refine, he acquires a re lilh for fociety ; and
finds a pleafure in benevolence, generofity, and in
every other kindly aft'cdion, far above what felfilli-
iH'fs can afTord. How agreeable is this fcene ! Alas,
too agreeable to lafl for ever. Opulence and
luxury inflame the hoarding appetite j and felfifh-
iieis at laft prevails as it did originally. The fellifh-
nefs however of favagcs diflers from that of pam-
pered people. Luxury, confining a man's whole
views to himfelf, admits not of friendfhip, and fcarce
of any other focial pad.on. But where a favage
takes a liking to a particular perfon, the whole
force of his focial aiie(^ion being directed to a
fingle object, becomes extremely fervid. Hence
the unexampled friendfhip betwcs^n Achilles and Pa-
troclus in the Iliad; and hence many fuch iricnd-
ihips among favages.

But there is much more to be faid cf the influ-
cnc£ of o})ulence on manners. Rude and illiterate
nations are tenacious of their laws and miiimers ;
lor ti^ey are governed bv cuflom, which i^ more
and more rivctted by length of time. A people, on
the contrary, who are polifhed by having palled

through

(a) Galairanca means the making a prefent.

II I

Sk. V.

Manners,

231

through various fccncs, arc full of Invention, and
conltantly thinking of new modes. Miinncrs iu
particular can never be (lationary in a nation re-
iincd by profpcrity and the arts of peace. Good
government will advance men to a higli degree of
civilization; but the very bell government will not
prefervt: them from corruption, after becoming
rich by profperity. Opulence begets luxury, and
invigorates the aj)petitc for fenfual pkalure. 'i'hc
appetite, when inflamed, is never confined within
moderate bounds, but clings to every objecl of grati-
iication, without regard to propriety or decency.
When Septimius Severus was elected Emperor, he
found on the roll of caufcs depending befoic the
judges in Home no fewer than three thoufand ac-
cufations of adultery. From that moment he a-
bandoned all thoughts of a reformation. Love of
pleafure is funilar to love of money : the more it
is indulged, the more it is inflamed. Polygamy is
an incentive to the vice againlt nature ; one ad;
of incontinence leading to others, without end-
When the Suhan Achmet was depofed at Conftan-
tinople, the people, breaking into the houfe of one
of his favourites, tound not a finele woman. It is
reported of the Algerines, that in many of their
feraglios there are no women. For the fame rea-
fon, polygamv is far from preventing adultery, a
truth finely illuftrated in Nathan's parable to Da-
vid. What judgement then are we to form of the
opulent cities London and Pavis, where pleafure is
the ruling pafTion, and where riches are coveted
as inftruments of fenfuality ? What is to be expect-
ed but a pefliferous corruption of manners ? Sclf-
ifhnefs, ingrofling the whole foul, eiadicatco patri-
otifm, anc leaves not a cranny lor focial virtue.
If, in that condition men abilain from robbery or
from murder, it is not love of juflice that reftrains
them, but dread of punifliment. Babylon is ar-
raigned by Greek writers for luxury, fcnfual'ty,

3nd

'!'!:'!!]

iHi

' f

ffirrj!

- p

(1 . Vli

232

Men independent of Society. B. I.

ill

and profligacy. But Babylon reprefents the capi-
tal of every opulent kingdom, ancient and modern :
the manners of all are the fame ; for power and
riches never fail to prosjuce luxury, fenfuality, and
profligacy *. Canghi Emperor of China, who died
in the year 172a, deferves to be recorded in the
annals of fame, for refifting the foftnefs and effe-
minacy of an Afiatic court. Far from abandon-
ing himfelf to fenfual pleafure, he pafled feveral
months yearly in the mountains of Tartary, mofl:-
ly on horfeback, and declining no fatigue. Nor
in that fituation were affairs of ftate neglefted :
many hours he borrowed from fleep, to hear his
minifliers, and to iflTue orders. - How few mo-
narchs, bred up like Canghi in the downy indolence
of a feraglio, have refolution to withfl:and the temp-
tations of fenfual pleafure !

In no other hift:ory is the influence of profperity
and opulence on manners fo confpicuous, ?s in that
of old Rome. During the fecond Punic war, when
the Romans were reduced by Hannibal to fight pro
at is etfocls, Hiero King of Syracufe fent to Rome
a large quantity of corn, with a golden ftatue of
viclory weighing three hundred and twenty pounds,
which the fenate accepted. But though their fi-
nances were at the loweft ebb, they accepted but
the lighteft of forty golden vafes prefented to them
by the city of Naples ; and politely returned, with
many thanks fome golden vafes fent by the city of
Paifl:um, in Lucania : a rare inftance of magnani-
mity. But no degree of virtue is proof againft
the corruption of conquefl and opulence. Upon
the influx of Afiatic riches and luxury, the Romans
abandoned themfelves to every vice ; they became

• In Paris 'and London, people of fafhion are incertantly running after
pleafure, without ever attaining it. DifTatisfied with the prcfent, they fondly
imagine that a new purfuit will relieve them. Life tlius pafTes like a dreaoi,
witlino enjoyment but whatarifes from expeftation.

-*ir,»-

Sk. V.

Manners,

233

in particular wonderfully avaricious, breaking
through every reftraint of juftice and humanity *.
Spain in particular, which abounded with gold and
filver, was for many years a fccne, not only of op-
preflion and cruelty, but of the bafeil treachery,
pradifed againfl the natives by fucceirive Roman
generals, in order to accumulate wealth. Lucullus,
who afterward made a capital figure in the Mithrida-
tic war attacked Cauca, a Ceitiberian city, without
the flighted provocation. Some of the principal
citizens repaired to his camp with olive-branches,
defiring to be informed upon what conditions they
could purchafe his fricndlhip. It was agreed, that
they fhould give hollages, with a hundred talents
of filver. They alfo confented to admit a garrifon
of 2000 men, in order, faid Lucullus, to proted
them againft their enemies. But how were they
protected ? The gates were opened by the garri-
fon to the whole army ; and the inhabitants were
butchered, without diftindion of fex or age. What
other remedy had they, but to invoke the gods
prefiding over oaths and covenants, and to pour
out execrations againft the Romans for their per-
fidy ? Lucullus, enriched with the fpoils of the
town, felt no remorfe for leaving 20,000 perfons
dead upon the fpot. Shortly after, having laid
fiege to Intercatia, he folicited a treaty of peace.
The citizens, reproaching him with the daughter
of the Cauceans, afked, ''.^'hether, in making peace,
he was not to employ the fame right hand, and
the fame faith, he had already pledged to their

a countrymen.

1' ..f

* Poftquam divitix honorl efle cceperunt, et eas gloria, imperium, po-
teiitia fequebatur ; hebefcere virtus, paupertas probro haberi, innoctntia pro
nialevolentia duci, coepit. Igitur exdivitiis juventutem luxuria, atque ava-

ritia, cum fupctbia invafcre. ISalluJl. Bell. Cat. c. 12. [In Englijh thus :

'' After it had become arj honour to be rich, and glory, empire, antf power,
** became tlie attiindants of riches, virtue declined apace, poverty was rec-
" koiied difgraceful, and innocence v. as held fecrct malice. Thus to the
" introduction of lijhes our vouth owe their luxury, their avarice and
•* pride. "J

■(.HI'

I".

i>l

^34

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

countrymen. Seroclius Galba, another Roman ge-
neral, perfuaded the Lufitanians to lay down their
arms, prcmiling them a fruitful territory inftead of
their own mountains ; and having thus got them
into his power, he ordered all of them to be mur-
dered. Of the few that efcaped Viriatus was one,
who, in a long and bloody war againit the Romans,
amply avenged the mailacre of his countrymen.
Our author Appian reports, that Galba, furpafling
even Lucullus in covetoufnefs, diftributed but a
fmall ihare of the plunder among the foldiers, con-
verting the bulk of it to his own uie. He adds,
that though Galba was one of the richeft men in
Rome, yet he never fcrupled at lies nor perjury to
procure money. But the corruption was general :
Galba being acculed of many mifdemeanors, was
acquitted by the fenate through the force of bribes.
A tribe of the Celtiberians, who had long ferved
<he Romans againfl the Luhtanians, had an offer
made them by Titus Didius of a territory in their
neighbourhood, lately conquered by him. He ap-
pointed them a day to receive poffeflion ; and
having inclofed them in his camp under (hew of
friendihip, he put them all to the fword ; for which
mighty deed he obtained the honour of a triumph.
The double-dealing and treachery of the Romans,
in their laft war agamft Carthage, is beyond exam-
ple. The Carthaginians, fufpefting that a ftorm
was gathering againit them, fent deputies to Rome
for fecuring peace at any rate. The fenate, in ap-
pearance, were difpofed to amicable mealures, de-
manding only hoftages j and yet, though three
hundred hollages were delivered without lofs of
time, the Roman army landed at Utica. The Car-
thaginian deputies attended the confuls there, de-
firing to know what more was to be done
on their part. They were required to deliver
up their anus 5 which they chearlully did, ima-
gining

i.:i I

Sk. V.

Manners,

^35

gining that they were now certain of peace. In-
ftead of which, they received peremptory orders to
evacucate the city, with their wives and children ;
and to make no fettlement within eighty furlongs
of the fea. In perufing Appian's hiftory of that
memorable event, compaihon for the diftreffed Car-
thaginians is ftifled by indignation at their treacher-
ous oppreflbrs. Could the monfters after fuch
treachery have the impudence to talk of Punka fe-
dcs f The profligacy of the Roman people, during
the triumvirate of Caefar, Pompey, and Crailus, is
painted in lively colours by the fame author. *' For
" a long time, diforder and confufion overfpread
" the commonwealth : no office was obtained but
by fadion, bribery, or criminal fervice : no man
was afliamed to buy votes, which were fold in
open market. One man there was, who, to ob-
f lin a lucrative office, expended eight hundred
Lnts (^?) : ill men enriched themfelves with
public money, or with bribes : no honed man
" would {land candidate for an office j and into a,
** fituation fo miferable was the commonwealth
" reduced, that once for eight months it had not a
*' fmgle magiftate." Cicero, writing to Atticus
that Clodius was acquitted by the influence of Craf-
fus, expreifes himfelf in the following words.
*' Biduo, per unum fervum, et eum ex giadiatorio
ludoj confecit totum negotium. Accerfivit ad
fe, promifit, interceffit, dedit. Jam vero, O dii
boni, rem perditam ! etiani nodes certarum mu-
lierum, atque udolefcentulorum nobilium, intro-
dudiones nonnullisjudicibus proniercedis cumulo
fuerunt* (/>;." Ptolomy King of Egypt was de-
throned

cc
cc

* " In two days after he compleatcd the afFalr, by the means of one flave,
" a gladiator. He fent for.him, and by promifes, wheedling, and large
" git'to, he gained his point. Good God, to what an infamous height has
" corruption at lengtli arrived ! Some judges were rewarded with a night's
" ludging of certain ladies j and others, for an iliuflricus bribe, had fome
" young boys of Noble family introduced to thjjm,"
' (<?) About M. 1 i;c,ooo Sterling.

(<i) Lib. 1. tpiil, 13.

1^6 Mkn independent of Society.

B. I.

throned by his fubjcds for tyranny. Having repair-
ed to Rome for proteftion, he found means to poi-
fon the greater part of a hundred Egyptians, his ac-
cufers, and to aflaffinate Dion, their chief. And yet
thefc crimes, perpetrated in the heart of Rome, were
fuifered '^'> pafs with impunity. But he had fecured
the lead ig men by money, and was proteded by
Pompey. The following inftance is, if poflible,
ftill more grofs. Ptolomy, King of Cyprus, had al-
ways been a faithful ally to the Romans. But his
gold, jewels, and precious moveables, were a tempt-
ing bait : and all was confifcated by a decree of the
people, without even a pictext. Money procured
by profligacy is not commonly hoarded up j and
the Remans were no lefs voluptuous than avaricious.
Alexander ab Alexandro mentions the Fanian, Or-
chian, Didian, Oppian, Cornelian, Ancian, and Ju-
lian laws, for reprelling luxury of drefs and of eat-
ing, all of which proved ineffectual. He adds,
that Tiberius had it long at heart to contrive fome
cfFeclual law againfl luxury, which now had fur-
palTed all bounds ; but that he found it impradica-
ble to ftem tho tide. He concludes, that by tacit
agreement among a corrupted people, all fumptuary
laws were in efl'e£t abrogated ; and that the Roman
people, abandoning themfelves to vice, broke
through every reftraint of morality and religion (u).
Tremble, O Britain, on the brink of a precipice !
how little diftant in rapacity from Roman fenators
are the leaders of thy people * !

Riches

(a) Lib. 5. cap. II.
* Down on ymir knees, n'y countrymen, down on your knees, and render
God thanks from the bottom of your hearts for a minifter very different from
his immediate predecetTors. i;ntaint>^d with luxury or avarice, his talents
arc dedicated to his King and his cou itry. Nor was ever a period in Rritain
wlien prudence and dil'cernment in a ininifter were more necelTary than in the
prefvnt year 1775. Our colonics, pampered ^ith profperity, aim at no lefs
than independence, and have broken out into evei7 extravagance. The cafe
is extremely delicate, it appearing equally dangerous to pardon or to punifh.
Hitherto the iTioft falutary mcafures have been profecuted } and we have
great reafon to hope a happy iifue, equally fatislaftory to both parties. But

tremble

Sk.V.

Manners.

237

Riches produce another lamentable effeft : they
enervate the poiTeflbr, and degrade him into a cow-
ard. He who commands the labour of others, who
eats without hunger, and refts without fatigue, be-
comes feeble in mind as well as in body ; has no
confidence in his own abilities, and is reduced to
flatter his enemies, becaufe he hath not courage to
brave them.

Selfifhnefs among the rude and illiterate is rough,
blunt, and uiidifguifed. Selfiflinefs, which in an
opulent kingdom ufurps the place of patriotifm, is
fmooth, refined, and covered with a veil. Pecuniary
intereft, a low object, muft be covered with
the thickeft veil: ambition, lefs diflionourable, is
lefs covered : but delicacy as to charader and love
of fame, are fo honourable, that e-^^n the thinned
veil is held unneceffary. Hiftory juftifies thefe ob-
fervations. During the profperity of Greece and
Rome, when patriotifm wa; the ruling paflion, no
man ever thought of employing a holtile weapon
but againft the enemies of his country : fwords were
not worn during peace, nor was there an inllance of
a private duel. The frequency of duels in modern
times is no flight fymptom of degeneracy : regardlefs
of country, felfiflinefs is exerted without difguife
when reputation or character is in queilion ; and a
nice fenfe of honour prompts revenge for every ima-
gined affront, without regard to juftice. How much
more manly and patriotic was the behaviour of The-
miftocles, when infulted by the Lacedemonian ge-
neral in deliberating about the concerns of Greece!
" Strike,'* fays he, " but firft hear me *."

When

tfc ^ ■>

4.;; ?i

■■;J\

tremble ftill, O Britain, on the brink of a precipice ! Our bold of that emi-
nent minifter is fadly precarious ; and in a nation as deeply funk in felfiflinefs
as formerly it was exalted by patriotifm, how fmall is our chance of a fuc-
ceflbr equal to him !

* Is duelling s crime by the law of nature? A dirtinflion is neccfiary. If
two men, bent to deftroy each of them the other, meet armed, and one or
both be (lain, the aft is highly criminal ; it is murder in ilic (Irifteft fcnfe of
the word. If they appoint time and place to execute their niurdaoui pur-

poiti^

lit i: ■!,

I" :

238 Mi:n independent of Society. B. I.

When a nation, formerly in profperity, is deprefled
by luxury and felfifimcfs, what follows next ? Let

the

h:- ■

for civil fociety.
Jionour, wlic.
<]i(Tereiit. I <
jf the perfon

poTe, fuc'i agreement will not be more innocent than an agreement among a
band of lobbcrs to attack every pairenger : tliey will be abliorred as unfit
A Juel which an affront forces a man upon vindicating his
^ fatisfadlion is offered, or no proper fatisfa£lion, is very
ot fee tliat the perfon affronted is guilty of any crime ; and
> z.'. e the affront have offered what he thini<s full fatis-
faftion, I fv'c r.o crime on citl'cr fide. The parties have agreed to decide
their quarrel in ilie honourable way ; and no other perfon is liurt. If it be
■urged, thnt duelling is a clime againft the Hate, which is interertcd in tlie lives
rf)f its fubjecls 5 I anfwer, that individuals are intitled to be protefled by the
:l>ate ; but tliat if two men, waving that pretention, agiee to end the dlfpute
3by fmgie combat tiie flate lias no concern. There is nothing inconfiftcnt
nvith the laws of foclcty, that men in an affair of honour Ihould rcferve the
privilege of a duel ; and for that reafon, the privilege may be jurtly under-
rflood as refei-ved by every man when lie enters into fociety. I admit that
the ufmg the privileee on every flight occafion, cannot be too mujh difcou-
xaged ; but Oich d,.couragement, if duelling be not criminal, belongs to a
court of police not to a court cf law. What tlien fliall be faid of our fta-
tutes, which punilh with death and confifcation of moveables thofe who
iiglit a fingle combat without the King's licence ; and which punifli even the
giving or accepting a challenge with banifhment and confifcation of move-
ables ? Where a man thinks his honour at ftake, fear of death will not deter
3iim from fecking redrefs : nor is an alternative left him, as the bearing a
^rofs affront is highly diflionourable in the opinion of all the world. Have
we not inltances without number of men adhering to the fuppofed ortho-
doxy of their religious tenets, unawed by flames and gibbets ? How abfurd
ther. is it in our legiflatu'-e, to punifli a man for doing what is indifpenfable
if he wifli to avoid cotitcnipt ? Laws that contradift honeft principles or even
hcnclt prejudices, never are effedlual. ; nature revolts againft them. And it is
believed that tiitfe Hatutes have never been effeftual in any one inftance, un-
lefs perhaps to furniiTi an excufe for declining a fingle combat.

As duelling falls under cenforian powers, the proper cenfure for raflinefs or
intcmpcance in duelling, is difgrace, not death or confifcation of moveables.
In that view the following or (ome fuch plan ought to be adopted by parlia-
ment. Wj-.cre a man fuffiTS an affront fo profs as in his opinion require a
duel, I take r. hint fiorn the Aatutc firft mentioned j which is an application
to his MaJEi'ly to authorife a duel- In Britain formerly and through all Eu-
rope, fmHlc combat was a legal method of determining controverfies even in
matters of i.f:iit and wrong; and there is great reafon for continuing that
law, with rerpeifl to matters of honour. If the King have any doubt whe-
ther otlier reparation may not be fufiicient, he is to name three military offi-
cers who have fcrved witii honour for twenty years ; granting to them full
powers as a ciurt of honour to ji;dgc of the application ; and upon calling tiie
I'arties before t!;t!n to pronounce fcntence. If a duel be judged neceffary, it
niift be done in prefcnce of the court, wilii projier foltmnities. Obedience
vill of ccuifc Ic given to this judgment ; becaufc to dcchn^ it would be at-
tended with iujIIIc infainy. If other reparation be enjoined, the party wlio
f^ands out fl': 11 be declared infaiiious, unwcrtliy for ever the privilege of a
oiiei; wliicli oi:y,ht to fatisfy t!ie oihcr party, as he comes off with honour.
if, notwithltanc'ir.p tlie pichiijilion cf the c(>\irt, they afttrward proceed to a
duel and both Lc IJlkd, tl'C public g-iins by hnvin^ two quariflfome nxnrc-
jiiC»tJ cut cf the v.av, 11 one of tt'.iin be killed, the lui vivor fliall be inca-

pabh-

:i'.xa2insft»ii'«is- f "

Sk. V.

Manners.

*j9

«c

the Egyptians anfwer the qucflion. That unhappy
people, having tor many ages been a prey to every
barbarous invader, arc now become effeminate,
treacherous, cruel, and corrupts -d \vith every vice
that debates humanity. A natitn in its infancy,
however favage, is fufceptible of every improvement ;
but a nation worn out with age and dii'eafe, is fuf-
ceptible of no improvement. There is no remedy,
but to let the natives die ou' and to repeopic the
country with better men. Egypt has for many ages
been in the fame languid and fervile Hate. An Ara-
bia. i author, who wrote the hiltory of the great Sa-
ladin, obferves, that the Egyptians never thought of
fupportingthe monarch in poffeflion, but tamely fub-
mitted to every conqueror. " It was, fays he, t!.e
cuflom in Egypt at that time to deliver the vidtor
the enfigns of royalty, without ever thinking of
enquiring into his title." What better than a
flock of fheep, obedient ^o the call of the prefent
Ibepherd !

I fly from a fcene fo difmal to one that will give
no pain. Light is intended by our Maker for acti-
on, and darknefs for refl:. In the fourt' nth cen-
tury, the fliops in Paris were opened at . jur in the
morning: at prefent, a fhopkeeper is fcarce awake at
feven. The King of France dined at eight in the
morning, and retired to his bedchamber at the fame
hour in the evening ; an early hour at prefent for

public

pable of any public office, civil or mllltnry, fliall be incapable of elefting cr
being eiefted a member of parliament, fhall be prohibited to wear a fword,
Ihall forfeit his title of honour, and have his arms erazed out of tiie herald's
rcRiftcr. If boi.'i furvlve, this cenfurc ihall reach both. Degruiding ccnfures
which difgracc a man, are liie only proper punilhment in an affair of honour.
Tiie IranfgrefTion of t!\e ad of parliament by figlitini; privately without li-
cence from the King, Ihnll be attended with the fame degrading punifhments.
1 lay great weigiit upon the court of honour having power to authorife a
duel. A man grofsly alFronted will net be eaiily perfuadcd to fubmit his
ciufe to a court that cannot decree him adequate reparation; and this pro-
bably is the caufe, why tlie couit of honour in France has fallen into con-
tempt. But they mull be perverie incited cr horribly obflinate, who decline
a court which can decree tiiem ample repar.?tion. At the fame timej the ne-
celTity of applyinii for a court of honour, affords time for pallicn to fubfidc,
and for friends to bring about a reconciliation.

^ n

II :

V ■

140 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

public amufcments *. The Spaniards adhere to an-
cient cuftoms f . Their King to this day dines pre-
cifcly at noon, and fups no lefs precifely at nine in
the evening. During the reign of Henry VIII.
fafliionable people in England breakfafted at fcven
in the morning, and dined at ten in the forenoon.
In Elizabeth's time, the nobility, gentry, and Itu-
dents, dined at eleven forenoon, and flipped be-
tween five and fix afternoon. In the reign of Char-
les II. four in the afternoon was the appointed hour
for a£ling plays. At prefent even dinner is at a
later hour. The King of Yeman, the greateft prince
in Arabia Foclix, dines at nine in the morning,
fups at five afternoon, and goes to reft at eleven.
From this fliort fpecimen it appears, that the occu-
pations of day-light commence gradually later and
later j as if there were a tendency in polite nations,
of converting night into day, and day into night.
Nothing happens without a caufe. Light difpofes
to adion, darknefs to reft : the diver fions of day
are tournaments, tennis, hunting, racing, and other
aftive exercifes : the diverfions of night are feden-
tary j plays, cards, converfation. Balls are of a
mixed nature, partly adive in dancing, partly fe-
dentary in converfing. Formerly adive exercifes
prevailed among a robuft and plain people | : the
milder pleafures of fociety prevail as manners re-
fine. Hence it is, that candle-light amufements are
now fafliionable in France, and other polifhed coun-
tries ; and when fuch amufements are much rehfh-
ed, they banifli the robuft exercifes of the field.

Balls,

* Louis XII. of France after taking for his fecond wife Mary fifter to
Henry VIII. of Eneland, much under him in years, totally changed his man-
nerof living. Inftead of dining at eight in tlie morning, he now dined at
mid-day: inftead of going to bed at fix in t'.ie evening, he now frequently
fat up till midnight.

f Manners and fafhions feldom change where women are locked up.

j The exercifes that our forefathers delighted in were fo violent as that In
the d«ys of Henry II. of England cock-fighting and horfs-racing weredefpifed
as unmanly and ciiiluiili amufements,

Sk. V.

Manners,

241

Balls, I conjefturc, were formerly more frequent In
day-light : at prcfent candle-light is their favourite
time : the aflive part ia at that time equally agreea-
ble ; and the fcdentary part, more fo.

Gaming is the vice of idle people. Savages are
addided to gaming ; and thofe of North America
in particular are fond to diftradion of a game
termed t/je platter. A lofmg gamefter will ftrip
himfelf to the Ikin ; and fome have been known
to flake their liberty, though by them valued above
all other bleflings. Negroes in the flave-coaft of
Guinea, will ftake their wives, their children,^ and
even themfelves. Tacitus (a), talking of gaming
among the Germans, fays, " Extremo ac noviflimo
" jadu, de libertate et de corpore contendant *.'*
The Greeks were an aftive and fprightly people,
conftantly engaged in war, or in cultivating the fine
arts. They had no leifure for gaming, nor any
knowledge of it. Happy for them was their igno-
rance J for no other vice tends more to render men
fclfifh, dilhoneft, and, in the modifh ftyle, difho-
nourable. A gamefter, a friend to no man, is a bit-
ter enemy to himfelf. The luxurious of the prefent
age, pafs every hour in gaming thai can be fpared
from fenfual pleafure. Idlenefs is their excufe, as it
is among favages ; and they would in fomc degree
be excufable, were they never actuated by a more
difgraceful motive.

Writers do not carefully diftinguifli particular cuf*
toms from general manners. Formerly, womea
were not admitted upon the ftage in France, Italy,
or Englan i : at that very time, none but women
were admitted in Spain. From that fafhion it
would be rafli to infer, that women have more li-
berty in Spain than in the other countries menti-
oned ; for the contrary is trur. In Hindoftan, efta-

\ ':!

i '.S

. 1

4 \

Vol. I.

blilhcd

(a) De moribus Germanorum c, 24.

» " For their hft tlirow they Aake their liberty and life."

i'l

a42

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

l! )|

blilbed cuftom prompts women to burn themfclvcs
alive with the bodies of their deceafed hufbands j
but from that fmgular cudom, it would be a falfe
inference, that the Hindow women are either
more bold, or more affedlionate to their hufbands,
than in other countries. The Polanders, even af-
ter they became Chriftians, in the thirteenth centu-
ry, adhered to the cuftoms of their forefathers, the
Sarmatians, in killing infants born deformed, and
men debilitated by age ; which would betoken hor-
rid barbarity, if it were not a fmgular cuftom.
Roman Catholics imagine, that there is no religion
in England nor in Holland ; becaufe, from a fpirit
of civil liberty, all fe6ts are there tolerated. The
encouragement given to aifalFmation in Italy, where
every church is a fan£tuary, makes ftrangers rafh-
ly infer, that the Italians are all aflaffins. Writers
fometimes fall into an oppofite miftake, attribut-
ing to a particular nation, certain manners and cuf-
toms common to all nations in one or other pe-
riod of their progrefs. It is remarked by Hera-
elides Ponticus as peculiar to the Athamanes, that
the men fed the flocks, and the women cultivated
the ground. This has been the practice of all na-
tions, in the progrefs from the fhepherd-ftate to
that of hulbandry ; and is at prefent the praftice a-
mong American favages. The fame author ob-
ferves as peculiar to the CeltcC and Aphitaei, that
they leave their doors open without hazard of
theft. But that praftice is common among all fa-
vages in the firft ilage of fociety, before the ufc of
money is known.

Hitherto there appears as great uniformity in
the progrefs of manners, as can reafonabiy be ex-
pected among fo many diilerent nations. There is
one exception, extraordinary indeed if true, which
is, the manners of the Caledonians defcribed by
Oflian, manners fo pure and refined as fcarce to be

paralleled

•.'^gt"r'Bg3Egi gff-y.'T?'TWL>gn -i

Sk. V.

Manners,

paralleled in the mofl cultivated nations. Such
manners among a people in the firfl: llagc of focie-
ty, acquainted with no arts but hunting and making
war, would, I acknowledge, be miraculous. And
yet to fuppofe thefc manners to be the invention of
an illiterate favage, is really not lefs miraculous : I
ihould as foon expert from a favage a performance
equal to the elements of Euclid, or even to the
Frincipia of Newton. One, at firft view, will bold-
ly declare the whole a modern fiction ; for how is
it credible, that a people, rude at prefent and illite-
rate, were, in the infancy of their fociety, highly refined
in fentiment and manners ? And yet upon a more ac-
curate infpe£lion, many weighty confiderations oc-
cur to balance that opinion.

From a thoufand cirrumftances it appears, that the
works of Ollian are not a late produ£lion. They
are compofed in an old dialeft of the Celtic
tongue ; and as, till lately, they were known only in
the highlands of Scotland, the author mufl have
been a Caledonian. The tranflator {a) faw in. the
Ifle of Sky, the firft four books of the poem Fin-
gal, written in a fair hand on vellum, and bearing
date in the year 1403. The natives believe that
poem to be very ancient : every pcrfon has palfagcs
of it by heart, tranfmitted by memory from their
forefathers. Their dogs bear commonly the name
of Luat/jj Bmn, &c. mentioned in thefe poems,
as our dogs do of Po?npcy and Cafar ** Many
ether particulars might be mentioned : but thele
are fuflicicnt to prove, that the work mud have ex-
ited at leafl: three or four centuries. Taking that
for granted, I proceed to certain confiderations

R 2 tending

ill

' ''^1

n '1

Jlfil

I r

m
1

(fl) Mr. MacpIiPi for).

* In tlie llle ol Sky, tlie ruins of the caAle of Dunfcaich upon an abrupt
rotk haop!i\g over tlie ft.i, arc fllll vllible. That caitle, as vouched by tra-
dition, btioiiged to CuohuUin Lord of that Iflc, whofe hirtory is recordcu
in the Poem cf Fingal. Upon the gieen before the cafHe tliere is a
great rtonc, to v'hith, according to the f'a^)U' truditiort, his doj I.uathwas
chained,

:i, m

244 Men iiiclepcnJcnt of Society. B. I.

tending to evince, that tlic manners clifcribcd in
Oilian were Caledonian manners, and not a pure
fidion. And after p^Tufing with attention tliefc
confiderations, I am not afraid that even the mofl
incredulous will continue altogetlicr unlhakcn.

It is a noted and wcll-foumled ohfcrvation, Tiiat
manners arc never pnintcd to the fife by any one to
whom thcv are not familiar. It is not diilicult to
draw the ouilines of imnginLu y manners ; but to fill
np the picture with all the variety of tint:; that man-
ners all'umc in dilRrent circnmfhinccs, unilitig all
eoncordantly in one whole, — /vV hfhi\ hoc ofais cjl.
Yet the nianncrs here fuppofed to be invented, are
delineated in a variety of incidents, rd fentiments,
of imagei:, and of allufions, making <M]e f ntire pic-
ture, without once deviating into the lliglitcff incon-
gruity. Kvery fcene in Oilian relates to hunting, to
lighting, or to love, the fole occj^pations of men in
the original flate of fociety : there is not a fmgle
image, funile, or allufion, but what is borrowed
from that (late, without a jarring circuralbnce.
Suppofmg all to be mere invcniion, is it not amaz-
ing to find no mention of highland clans, or of any
name now in \\k^. ? Is it not Hill more amazing, that
there is not the iliolitfll hint of the Chriflian religi-
on, not even in a metaphor or rillufion ? Is it not
tfqually ania/ing, that in a work where deer's flefh is
irequently nuMitioned, and a curious method of
roaflinof it, there Hiould not be a word of fifli as
food, lb common in later times ? Very few high-
landers knovv that their forefathers did not eat
fin.i ; and fuppofmg it to be knoun, it would re-
quire fingular attention, never to let a hint of it
enter tlie poem. Can it be lup])ofed that a mo-
dern writer could be ^k^ cor.ltaiuiy on his guard, as
never to mention corn nc;r eattie? In a ilcry fo
fcanty of poetical images, tlie fedentary liTe of a

liulbandman^ would

(hcplierd, and liic indu.'tr\ of

Sk. V.

Milliners,

«45

make a capital figure : the cloven foot would foinc-
wherc peep out. And yet in all the works of ()f-
fian, there is no mention of agriculture ; and but
a llight hint of a herd of cattle in one or two al-
lulions. I willingly give all advantages to the un-
believer : Suppofmg the author of Olllan to be a
late writer, adorned with every refmenient of mo-
dern education ; yet even upon that fupjiofition he is
a miracle, far from being equalled by any other au-
tnor ancient or modern.

But dirticulties multiply when it is taken into the
account, that the poems of Oilian have exifled
three or lour centuries at leaft. On hiMilanders
at prefent are rude and illiterate ; and were in frict
little better than lavages at the period mcTjiioncd.
Now, to hold the manners defcribed i.' that -vork
to be imaginary, is in effect to hold, that they
were invented by a highland lavage, acquainted
with the rude manners of his country, but Mttcr-
ly unacquainted with every other fydem ei nan-
ner.s. The manners oF different countries are now
fo well known as to mnke it an eafy talk to in-
vent manners by blending manners of one coun-
try with thofe ot another; but to invent manners of
which the author has no example, and yet neither
whinifical nor abfurd, but congruous to human
nature in its mofl polilhcd Hate, I pronounce to
be far above the powers of man. Is it fo much as
fuppofable, that I'uch a work ccVl be the produc-
tion of a Tartar, or of a Ilott*. > .t ? From what
fourre then did Ollian draw the refined manners
fo delicioully painted by him r Suppofmg him to
have been a traveller, of vhich we have not the
Highted hint, tlie manners at that period of France,
of Italy, and of other neighbouring nations, were
little lefs barbarous than thofe of his own coun-
try. I can difcover no fource but infpiration. In
a woril, wiioever ferioufly believes the manners
of Oilian to be fictitious, may well fay, with the

% religious

246 Men indcpcndGnt of Society.

B.I.

i: r

1 '

i' ^^^

1 1

i I

religious enthufiaft, " Credo quia impojjibilc ejl : I be-
" lieve it becaule it is impomble."

But further : The uncommon talents of the au-
thor of this work will chearfully be acknowledged
by every reader of tafte : he certainly was a great
mafler in his way. Now, whether the work be
late, or compofed four centuries ago, a man of
fuch talents inventing a hiftorical fable, and lay-
ing the fcene of adion among favages in the hun-
ter-ftate, would naturally frame a fyftem of man-
jiers the beft fuited in his opinion to that Hate,
Wh?.t then could tempt him to adopt a fyftem of
manners, fo oppqfite to any notion he could form
of favage manners ? The abfurdity is fo grofs, that
we are forced, however reluctantly, to believe, that
tliefe manners are not fiditious, but in reality the
manners of his country, coloured perhaps, or a
little heightened, according to the privilege of an
epic poet. Aid once admitting that faft, there
can be no hefitation in afcribing the work to Of-
iian, fon of Fingal, whofe name it bears : we
have no better evidence for the authors of feveral
Greek and Roman books. Upon the -fame evi-
dence we muft believe, that Offian lived in the
reign of the Emperor Caracal la, of whom fre-
quent mention is made under the defignation of
Caracul the Great King\ at which period, the fliep-
lierd-ftate was fcarce known in Caledonia, and huf-
bandry not at all. Had he lived fo Ir^te as the
twelfth century, when there were flocks and
herds in that country, and fome fort of agricul-
ture, a poet of genius, fuch as Offian undoubt-
edly was, would have drawn from thefe his fineil
images.

The foregoing confiderations, I am perfuaded,
would not tuil to convert the moft incredulous ;
were it not f6r a confequence extremely improba-
]ble, that a people, little better at prefent than fa-
vages, were in their primitive hunter-ftate highly
3 refined j

■>**:

Sk.V.

Manners*

247

refined ; for fuch Offian dcfcribes them. And yet
it is PD lefs improbable, that fuch manners fhould be
invented by an illiterate highland bard» Let a man
chufc either fide, the difficulty cannot be folved but
by a fort of miracle. What fliall we conclude upon
the whole T for the mind cannot for ever remain in
fufpenfe. As dry reafoning has left us in a dilemma,
tafte perhaps and feeling may extricate us. May
not the cafe be here as in real painting ? A portrait
drawn from fancy, may refemble the human vifage ;
but fuch peculiarity of countenance and expreflion as
ferves to diftinguifh a certain perfon from every
other, is always wanting. Prefent a portrait to a
man of tafte, and he will be at no lofs to fay,
whether it be copied from life, or be the produft
of fancy. If Oflian paint from fancy, the cloven
foot will appear : but if his portraits be complete,
fo as to exprefs every peculiarity of character, why
fhould we doubt of their being copied from life ?
Ill that view, the reader, I am hopeful, will not
think his time thrown away in examining fome pf
OfHan's ilriking pictures. { fee not another re*
jource.

Love of fame is painted by Offian as the ruling
paffion of his countrymen the Caledonians. War-
riors are every where defcribed, as efteeming it their
chief happinefs to be recorded in the fongs of the
bards : that feature is never wanting in any of
Offian's heroes. Take the following inftances,

" Kingof the roaring Strumon, fait! the rKing joy of Flngal, do I behold
thee in arms after thy ftrength has failed ? Often hath Momi (hone in
battles, like the beam of the rifmg fun, when he difperfcs the ftorms
of the hill, and brings peace to the glittering fields. But why didft thou
not reft in thine age ? Thy renown is in the fong : the people behold thee,
and blefs the departure of mighty Momi {a)," " Son of Fingal, he faid,
why burns the foul of Gaul ? My heart beats high : my fteps are difo)
dered ; and my hand trembles on my fword. When I look toward the
foe, my foul lightens before me, and I fee their fleeping hoft. Trennble
thus the fouls of the valiant, in battles of the fpear ? How would the foul

(a) Lathmon.

Pi!

•'

, ■

iif

! i ! ' '(' si

14^

Men independent of Society. B. I.

..K

** of Morni rlfu, if we (liould lufli on the foe ! Our renown would grow in
** the fong, and our Heps be ftately in the eye of the brave * [a)."

That a warrior has acquired his fame is a confola-
tion in every diftrcfs :

** Carrll, fald tlie King in fecret, the ftrength of CuchuUin fails. My days
" are with the years that are part j and no morning of mine Ihall arife. They
" fhall feek me at Temora, but I fliall not be found. Cormac will weep in
" h»s hall, and fay, Wher« is Tura's chief ? But my name is renowned, my
*' fame in the fong of bards. The youth will fay, let me die as Cuchul/in
" died : renown cloathed him like a role } and the light of biifame is great. Draw
" the arrow from my fide j and lay CuchuUin below the oak. Place the
*' fhield of Caithbat near, that thsy may behold me amid the arms of my
•* fathers (^)."

Fingal fpeaks :

*' Ullin, my aged bard, take the /hip of the King. Carry Ofcar to Selm.i,
** and let the daughters of Morven weep. We fhall fight in Erin for the
" race of fallen Connac. Tlie days of my years begin to fail: I feel the
" weaknefsofmy arm. My fathers bend from tlieir clouds to receive their
" grey-haired fon. But, Trenmore ! before I go hence, one beam of my
** fame fhall rife : in fame (hall my days end, as my years bpgun : my lif?

Ihall be one ftream of light to other times (f)." '

Offian fpeaks :

** Did thy beauty laft, O Ryno ! ftood the ftrength of car-borne Ofcar f f
*' Fingal himfelf paffed away, and the halls of his fathers forgot his fteps.
" And flialt thou remain, aged bard, when the mighty have failed ? But my
" fame /hall remain j and grow like the oak of Morven, which lifts its broad
** head to the ftorm, and rcjoiceth in the courfe of the wind (</)•"

The chief caufe of aflll6lion when a young man is
cut off in battle, is his not having received his fame :

« And

* Love of tame is a laudable pafllon, which every man values himfelf
upon. Fame in war is acquired by courage and candour, which are efteem-
ed by all. It is not "-quired by fighting for fpoil, becaufe avarice is defpifed
by all. The fpoils oi m enemy were difplayed at a Roman triumph, not for
their own fake, but as a mark of vidory. When nations at war degenerate
from love of fame to love of gain, ftratagem, deceit, breach of faith, and every
iort of immorality, are never-failing confequences.

(j) Lathmon.

(6) The death of CuchuUin,

(t) Temora.
, •\- Several of Oflian's heroes arc defcribed as fighting In cars. The Bri-
tons in general fouijht in that manner. Britanni dimicant non equitatu mo-
do, aut pedite, vjrum et bigis er. curribus. Potnponius Mela, I. ■^.-—[InEng-
lijh thus : '* The Britons fight, not only with cavalry, or foot, but alfo with
" car.) and chariots."]

(^d) Bcrrathon,

Sk.V.

Manners.

" And fell the fwlftcft in the race, faid '•he King, the firft to bend the
bow ? Thou fcarce haft been known to nie , why did young Ryno tall >
But flqep thou I'oftly on Lena, Fingal (hall foon behold r!-i««. Scon
fliall my voice be heard no more and my footfteps ccafe to be fecn. The
bards will tell of Fingal's name ; the Hones will talk of me. Bur, Ryno !
thou art low indeed, thou haft not received thy fame. UUin, itrike the
harp for Ryno ; tell what the chief would have been. Farewell th'')U firft
in every field. No more Ihall 1 dircdt thy dart. Thou that halt been fo

fair; 1 behold thee not. — -Farewell .(<j)." Calthon rulhed into the

ftream : I bounded forward on my fpcar : Teutha's race fdl before us :
night came rolling down. Dunthalmo reftcd on a rock, amidft an aged
wood : the rage of his bofom bui.^ed againft the car-borne Caltlion. But
Calthon ftood in his grief; he mourned the fallen Colmar; Colmar ilain
inyouth, before his fame ajofe (J>)."

Lamentation for lofs of fame. Cuchullin fpeaks :

** But, O ye ghofts of the lonely Cromla ! ye fouls of chiefs that are no
" more! be ye the companions of Cuchullin, and talk to him in ti.e cave of
" his forrow. For never more fliall I be renowr.ed among the miglity in the
" land. I am like a beam that has flione; like a mift that ficd away v/hen
*' the blaft of the morning came, and brightened the flKiggy fide of the iiili,
." Connal, talk of arms no more; departed is my fanif, Aly figlis /h;iU be
" on Cromla's wind, till my footfteps ceafe to be feen. And thou wliite bo-
" fom'd Bragela, mourn over the fall of my fame; for, vanquiflicd, never
** will I return to thee, thou fun-beam of Dunfcaich (<:)."

Love of fame begets heroic actions, which go
hand in hand with elevated fentiments : of the for-
mer there are examples in every page j of the lat-
ter take the following examples. '

" And let him come, replied the King. I love a fee like Catlimor : M',
" foul is great j his arm ftrong; and his battles full of fame. But toe little
** foul is like a vapour that hovers round tlie niarlhy lake, which never lifes
•* on the green hill, left the winds meet it there (<i}."

OfTian fpeaks : '

" But let us fly, fon of Morn!, Lathmon defcends tlie hill. Then let our
" fteps be ftov/, replied the fair-hairtd Caul, leil the foe fay witli a fmile,
" Behold the warriors of night : they are like ghofts, terrible in darknefs ;
" but they melt a-.v.iy before the beam of tlie Eaft (t)," " Son of the feeble
" hand, f.iid Lathmon, fliall my hoft defccnd I Tlicy are but two, and fliall a
" thoufund lift their fttel ! Nuah would mourn in his hall for the departure
" of Lathmon's fu^p; Ms eyes would turn from Lathmon, when the tread
" of his feet approached. Go thou to the heroes, fon of Dutha, for I behold
" the ftately fteps of Olfian. His fame is worthy of my fteel ; let him fighc
" with Lathmon (/)," " Fingal docs not delight in battle, though his
" arm is ftrong. My renown grows on the fall ot the haughty -. the iight-
*' ning of my fteel pours on the proud in arms. The battle comes ; and the

" toiiibs

(.-) Fingal.
{f) Lathmon,

(t) Calthon and Colmar.

(/) Lathmon.

(f) Fingal.. [d] Lathmon.

111

2^0

Men independent of Society. B. I.

41 n;

I' ; ij,i»-

((

tombs of the valiant rife ; the tombs of my people rife, O my fathers ! and
*' I at lad muA remain alone. But I will remain renowned, and the depar-
" ture of my foul fliall be one ftream of light (a)." '' J raifed my voice
" for Fovar-gormo, when they laid the chief in earth. The aged Crothar
*' was there, but his figh was not heard. He fearc'^ed for the wound of his
** fan, and found it in his bread : joy rofe in the face of the aged : he came
" and fpoke to Oflian s King of fpears, my fon hath not fallen without his
«* fame : the young warrior did not fly, but met death as he went forward in
*' his ftrength. Happy are they who die in youth, when their renown is
** heard : their memory Ihsl be honoured in the fong ; the young tear of the
" virgin falls (*)." " CucauUin kindled at the fight, and darkncfs gathered
" on his brow. His han-^ wau on the fword of his fathers ; his red-rolling
*' eye on the foe. He th.»ce ?' empted to rufli to battle, and thrice did Con-
** nal ftop him. Chief c- the ifle of mift, he faid, Fingal fubdues the foe :
*' feeknot a part of the fame of the King (c)."

The pi£lures that Offian draws of his countrymen,
are no lefs remarkable for tender fentiments, than
for elevation. Parental affedion is finely touched in
the following paflage.

" Son of Comhal, replied the chief, the ftrength of Morni's arm has failed.
♦' I attempt to draw the fword of my youth, but it remains in its place : I
" throw the fpear, but it falls Ihort of the mark ; and I feel thj weight of
" my fhield. We decay like the grafs of the mountain, and our ftrength re-
" turns ro more. I have a fon, O Fingal ! his foul has delighted in the afti-
" ons of Morni's youth ; but his fword has not been lifted againft the foe,
*' neitlier has his fame begun. I come with him to battle, to diredl his arm.
•* His renown will be a fun to my foul, in the dark hour of my departure.
" O that tlie name of Morr.i were forgot among the people, that the heroe$
«* would only fay, Behold the father of Gaul (</) !"

And no lefs finely touched is grief for the lofs of
children:

u
u
." I

*' ^
l< .

" 1

« ^

" i
<(

<(
((
<(
(c

I '-i'

: i '

" We faw Ofcar leaning on his fliield '. we faw his blood around. Silence
darkened on the face of every hero : each turned his back and wept, Tlie
King ftrove to hide his tears. He bends his liead over his fon j and his
words are mixed with fighs. And art thou fallen, Ofcar, in the midft of
thy courfe ! The heart of the aged beats over thee. I fee thy coming bat-
*< ties ; I behold the battles that ought to come, but they are cut off from
*' thy fame. When fliall joy dwell at Selma ? when fliall the fong of grief
** ceafe on Morvcn f My foiis fall by degrees, Fingal will be the laft of his
«' race. The fame 1 have received fliall pafs awy: my age fliall be without
«* friends. I fliall fit like a grey cloud in my hall : nor fliall I expert the re-
** turn of a fon with his founding arms. Weep, ye heroes of Morven j nct
« ver more will Ofcar rife (<?)."

Crothar fpeaks.

«' Son of Fingal ! doft thou not behold the darknefs of Crothar's hall of
" fhells ? My foul was not dark at the feaft, when my people lived. I re-

" joiced

[a) L.r.hmon. {f>) Croma. (i) Fingal, {d) Latlimon. (?) Temora.

Sk. V.

Manners,

251

V joiced in tlie prcfence oi' ftrangers, when my fon flione in the hall. But,
** Oflian, he is a beam that is departed, and left no ftreak of light behind.
" He is fallen, fon of Fingal, in tlie battles of his father.— ——Rothmar,
" the chief of graflTy Tromlo, heard that my eyes had failed ; he heard that
" my arms were fixed in the hall, and the pride of his foul arofe. He came
*' toward Croma ; my people fell before him. I took my arms in the hall ;
.** but what could fightlefs Crothar do ? My fteps were unequal ; my grief
*' was great. I wiftied for the days that were part, days wherein I fougljt
♦* and won in the field of blood. My fon returned from the chaw, the fair-
** haired Fovar-gormo. fi9 had not lifted his fword in battle, for his arm
" was young. But the foul of the youth was great ; the fire of valour burnt
" in his eyes. He faw the difordered fteps of his father, and his figh arofe.
" King of Croma, he faid, is it becaufe thou haft no fon ; is it for the weak*
** nefs of Foyar-gormo's arm that thy fighs arife ? I begin, my father, to feel
** the ftrf ngth of my arm ; I liave drawn the fword of my youth ; and I hav»
" bent the bow. Let me meet this Rothmar with the youths of Croma :
" let me meet him, O my father ; for I feel my burning foul. And thou
'* /halt meet him, I laid, fon of the fightlefs Crothar ! But let others advance
" before thee, that I may hear the tread of thy fept at thy return ; for my
*' eyes behold thee not, fair-haired Fovar-gormo ! He went, he met

the foe ; he fell. The foe advances toward Croma. He who flew my

(on is near, with all his pointed fpears («).'*

The following fentiments about the fliortnefs gf
human life are pathetic,

*' Defolate is the dwelling of Moina, filence In the houfe of her fathers.
** Raife the fong of mourning over the ftrangers. One day we muft fall j

** and they have only fallen before us. ^Wliy doft thou build the hall,

" fon of the winged days ! Thou loqkeft from thy towers to day : foon v/ill
*• the blaft of the defert come. It howls in thy empty court and whiftles
*' over thy half-worn (hield {h)," " How long fliall we weep on Lena, or
" pour our tears in UUin ! The mighty will not return ; nor Ofcar rife in his
** ftrength : the valiant muft fall one day, and be no more known. Where
« are our fathers, O warriors, the chiefs of the times of old ! They are fet,
*' like ftars that have ihone s we only hear the found of their praife. But
" they were renowned in their day, and the terror of other times. Thus
" fliall we pafs, O warriors, in the day of our fall. Then let us be renowned
" while we may ; and leave our fame behind us, like the laft beams of the
" fun, when he hides his red head in the weft (f)."

In Homer's time, heroes were greedy of plun»
der; and, like robbers, were much difpofed to in-
fult a vanquiflied foe. According to Oflian, the
ancient Caledonians had no idea of plunder : and
as they fought for fame only, their humanity over-
flow'd to the vanquiflied. American favages, it is
true,* are not addided to plunder, and are ready to
Dcftow on the firft comer what trifles they force from

the

'i^

1;.

tji ■■';r

■ i'i

''ik \

I.
I

{■

' ml

ii pi fir

■iil

{(t) Croma. {h) Carthon. (r) T^mora,

;

I '1

252 Men independent of Society. B. I.

the enemy. But iliey have no notion of a pitched
battle, nor of ftii;;!'* combat : on the contrary, they
value tiicmfelvcs upon flaughtering their enemies by
furprize, without rifking their own fweet perfons.
A: reeabli' to the magnanimous character given by
Oilian of his couii'-rymen, we find humausty bltud"
cd with courage in iill their actions.

" Fingal pitied the white-r.i-med maid • he ftayed tite uplifteci fwoid, Tiie
** tear was in the eye of tlie King, as ben 'lag forw..rd he fpc".*' : King ot
" ill camy Sora, fear not the ^vord of Fing.ii ; it was never rtained with the
" blood of the vanquiftied j ir iiever pierce '. a fallen foe. Let thy people
*' rejoice along the blue water? o> Tora : kt the maids of thy luv< be glad.
" Wliy Ihould'tt thou fall in thy youth, King 01 rtrea.uy Sora U) ! "

Fingal fpeaks :

«
«

■

((

{■

■

i "f

. [?:!

.:jl

'* Son f f my (Ircngtb, he faid, t,\ke the fpear of Fingai: go to loutha's
*' mighty Oictm, ami fave tl;^, car-borne Colmar. Let thy fame return be-
** fore thee li^^ca >..);'i>fnnr g*!?, that my foul may rejoice over my fon, who
" lenews vh^ rtru-wn jf our fathers. OflTian ! be thou a florm in battle,
<• but mild wt'jf 'he foe^i arc lew. It was thus my fame arofe, O my fon ;
" and by thou )il-:c Selma"> chief. When the haughty come to my hall, my
** eyes !<t!(iold ihf;m not ; my arm is ftretched forth to the. unhappy, my
" fwoid dtfendii the weak {l>)," " O Ofcar ! bend the ftimg in arm, but
" Ipare the feeble hand. Be thou a Aream of many tides again A the foes of
" thy people, but like the gale that moves the grafs to thofe wlko a(k thy aid.
" Never fearch for the battle, nor (hun it when it comes. So Trenmor lived j
" Suc.f Trathal wasj and fucli has Fingal been. My arm was the fupport
" of tli;^ injured j, and the weak refted behind the lightning of my fteel (c ).'*

. Humanity to the vanquifhed is difplay'd in the fol-
lowing paffages. After defeating in battle Swaran
King of Lochlin, Fingal fays,

" Rjiife, Ullin, raife the fong of pcce, and foothe my foul after battle,
" that my ear rnay forget the noife of arms. And let a hundred harps be
." near to gladden tlie King of Lochlin : he muft depart from us with joy :
" non« ever went fad from Fingal. Ofcar, the lightning of my fword is

agaipd the llrongj but peaceful it hangs by my fide when warriors yield in

battle (d)" " Uthal t'cli bcncatli my fword, and the fon of Berrathon fled.

It was then I faw him in liii beauty, and the tear hung in my eye. Tliou

art fallen, young tree, I faid, with all thy budding beauties round thee.

The winds come from the defert, and there is no found in thy leaves.

Lovely art thou in death, fon of car- borne Lathmor (e),"

After perufing thefe quotations, it will not be
thought that Oliian deviates from the manners re-

prefented

<(
((

((

a
t(
«

(,j1 Cnrric-thura.
[d) Fiuaal, hooU 6,

(/.) Calthon and Colmal.
(f) Berrathon.

Sk. V.

Manners.

^53

prefented by him, In defcribing the hofpitality of his
chieftains :

" We heard the voice of joy on the coaft, and we thought that the mighty
" Cathmor came ; Cathmor, the friend of ftrangeis, tlie brother of red-haired
" Cairbar. But their fouls were not the fame ; for the light of heaven was
*' in the bofom of Cathmor. His towers rofc on tlie banks of Atlia : feven
" paths led to his liall : feven chiefs ftood on thefe paths, and called the
" ftranger to the feaft. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood, to avoid the voice
•' of praife («)." " Rathnior was a chief of CUitha. Tlie feeble dwelt in
" his hall. The gates of Katiunor were never clofed : his feaft was always
** fpread. The fons of the ftranger came, and blelTed the generous chief of
" Clutlia. Bards raifed the fong, and touched the harp: joy bi.ghtened on
" the face of the mournful. Dunthalmo came in his pride, and ruftied into
" combat with Rathmor. The chief of Clutlia overcame. The rage of
" Dunthalmo rofe : he came by night with his warriors j and the mighty
" Ratiimor fell; he fell in his hall, where his feaft had been often fpread fey
" fti angers (/!.)."

It feems not to exceed the magnanimity of his
chieftains, intent upon glory only, to feaft even their
enemies before a battle. Cuchullin, after the firlt
day's engagement with Swaran, Kingof Lochlin or
Scandinavia, fays to Carril, one of his bards,

" Is this feaft fpared for me alone, and the King of Lochlin on UHin's
" fhore ; far from the deer of his hills, and founding halls of his feafts ? Rife,
" Carril of other times, and carry my words to Swaran; tell him from the
" roaring of waters, that Cuchullin gives his feaft. Here let him liftsn to
" the found of my groves amid the clouds of night : for cold and bleak the
" blurttiing winds ru(h over the foam of his feas. Here let him praife the
" trembling harp, and hear the fongs of heroes (r )."

The Scandinavian King, lefs poli(hed, refuft d the
invitation. Cairbar f^^eaks ;

" Spread the feaft on l.ct>a, s!^1 M iift^' hundred bards attend. And thovv
" rtd-haited OUa, take the h^v^Cf tKe King, (io toOfcar, King oJ'twof.i\,
" and bid him to o*»; tea<^, 1\>-<^y we feaft and hear the fong; to moru^w
" break the fpean- ^,i\" '*^ <.HUv«me with his fongs. Ofcai went to C.iir.
" bar's feaft. Three Wnrfrt«d heroes attended tlie chief, and the dane v f
" their arms is terri-^te. Th^gray dogsbvjund on the ht;,Hthj and theii ^\V\\i-
*• in^ is frecjueut. Finj;al (aw the departure of the h^xo ; the K>vil of the
" King was fad. He Uivads the gloomy CairbOi^ ; Wt who of \\\t race uf
•' Ti cnmor fears the ft?« (t) ?"

Cruelty iv< every whore condemned ^s z\\ ^\famous
vice. Speaking of the bards.

[a) Temora.
(,</} 'femora.

{h) Calthon and Colmal.
{e) Temora»

(f) Flngal^ bo. k I.

:.ii

"i '

Pf'

h '

254

Men independent of Society. B. I.

" Cairbar feared to ftretch his fword to the barJs, though his foul waa
" dark j but he clofed us in the mid(l of darknefs. Three days wc pined
*' alone : on the fourth the noble Cathmor came. He heard our voice from
•' the cave, and turned the eye of his wrath on Cairbar, Chief of Atlia, he
*' faid, how loni; wilt thou pain my foul ? Thy heart is liketlie rock of the
" defert, and thy thcuglits are dark. But tliou art jhe brotiier of Cathmor,
** and he will tii;iit t!iy battles. Cathmor's foul is not like thine, thou feeble
*' hand of war. The light of my bofom is ftained with thy deeds. The
*' bards will not (ing of my renown : they may f.iy, Cathmor was brave, but
" he fouglit loi gloomy Cairbar: they will pnfs over my tomb in filence, and
" my fame (hall not be liuarcd. Cairbar, loofe the baids j tliey are the fons
♦' of other times : their voice fliall be heard in other agfcs when the K ings of
*' Temora have failed (,j)." " lljlin raifed his white fails; the winduf tjia
** foutli came forth. He bounded on the waves tovvanl Seiiii^'s walls. The
♦' fe;iOj:i Ijiread on Lena 1 an hundred heroes rt;(ted ijlli fo)|||) tit Cairbilj" j
" but no fong Is railed (jver the chief, for his fnu) had been dark and bloody.
" We remembered the fall of CorniaC) ana what could we fay in C;iirbar'9
« praife(A)."

Genuine manners never were repicleiitcil more iu
the life by a Tacitus nor a Sli;ik(Tpcare. Such
painting is above the reacii of pure invention : it
nuifl be the work of knowledge and feeling.

One may difcover the manners of a nation from
the figure their women make. Among favages women
are treated like flaves ? and they acquire not the dig-
nity that belongs to the fcx, till manners be con-
fiderabiy refined (r). According to the manners
above defcribed, women ought to have niildi u noii-
lidernble figure among the ancient Caledonians. JiCt
us examine Oflian upon that fulijecl, in order to
judge whether he carries on the fame tone of man-
Jicrs through every particular. That women were
highly regarded appears from the following paffages.

" Daugliter of the hand of fnow ! I was not i'o mournful and blind, I was
" not fo dark and forlorn, whenEverallin loved me, Everallinwith thedark-
" bruwtf hair, the white boloined love of Cormac. A tlioufand heroes
" fought the maid, fhe denied her love to a thoufand : the fons ot the fword
" weredefpifed ; for graceful in her eyes WiS OITian. I svont in fuit of the
" maid to Lego's fable (urge; twelve of my people were there, fons of the
«' ibeamy Morven. We came to Branno friend of Arangers, Branno of tlie
** loundint; mail. — From whence, he laid, are the arms of fteel ? Not e.ify to
•' win is tFie maid that has denied the blue-eyed fons of Etin. But blcll be
«• ihou, O fon of Fingal, happy is the maid that waits thee. Though twelve
" daugliters of beauty were mine, thine were the choice, thou fon of fame !
" Then hs opened the hall of the maid, the dark-haiied Everallin. Joy
•' kiwdled in our brealls of Ikel, and bleft the maid of Branno (</)." "Now

" Connal,

{a) Temora. (/■) Tcmcra. (<■) See the Sketch Immediately following.

(<i" Fingal, Book 4.

Sk. V.

Manners.

Connal, on Cromla's windy fide, fpoke to tlie cliief of rlne noMe car.
Why that gloom, fon of Semo ? Our friends are the mighty in battie.
And renowned art thou, O warrior ! many were the dcatlis of thy i\ev\.
Often has Bragela met thee with blue-rolling eyes of joy ; often has (he
met her hero returning in the midft of the valiant, when his fword was
red with flaughter, and his foes fiknt in the field of the tomb. Flcafant
to her cars were thy bards, when thine ai>ions rofe in the fong(fl),"
But, King of Morvcn, if I (hall fall, as one time the warrior mull fall, laife
my tomb in tlie midfl, and let it be the greateft on Lena. And fend over
the dark'blue wave the fword of Orla, to the fpoufe of his love ; that (he
may (how it to her fon, with tears, to kindle his foul to war (i)." " I lifted
my eyes to Cromla, and I faw the fon of generous Semo. — Sad and (low
he retired from his hill toward the lonely cave of Tura. He faw Fingal
** viflorious, and mixed his joy with grief. The fun is bright on his armour,
W ijir)d Cnnnal (lowly followed. They funk behind the hill, like two pillars
•' btihe ^rnof night, when winds purfue them over the mountain, and the
" flaming lieatli refotinds. Befide a (^ream of roaring foam, his cave is in a
♦• rock. One tree bends above it j and the rufliing winds echo againft its
f/ fides. There refts the chief of Dunfcaich, the fon of generous Semo. His
" tliniiglits are on tlie battles he lo(\ ; and the tear is on his check. He
♦' mourned the dejjarture of liis fame, that fled like the mift of Cona. O
II Bragsla, thou art too far remote to cliter the foul of the hero. But let
liini fee ll/y l)»|g|(> form in his foul j that his thoughts may return to the
lonely fun-hearfi of limi/( aich (f)." " 0(rian King of fwords, replied the
bard, thou heft raifeft tlie foiig, Long liaft thou been known to Carril,
thou ruler of battles. Often have I touched the harp to the lovely Everal-
lin. Thou, too haft often .iccompanied my voice in Branno's hall of (hells.
And often amidft our voices was heard the mildeft Everallin. One day (lie
fung of Cormac's fall, the youth that died for her love. I (aw the tears on
her cheek, and on thine, thou chief of men. Her foul was touched for
the unhappy, though (lie loved him not. How fair among a thoufand
rtiaids, was the daughter of the generous Branno(rf)." " It was in the
aays of peace, replied the great ClelTammor, I came in my bounding (hip to
riiilciutha's walls of towers. The winds had roarqd behind my fails, and
" Clutha's (Ireanis received my dark bofomed ve(rel. Three days I remained
" In Reuthamir's halls, and faw that beam of light, his daughter. The joy
" of the (hell went round, and the aged hero gave the fair. Her breafts were
** like foam on the wave, and her eyes like ftars of liglit ; her h.iir was dark
" as the raven's wing : her foul was generous and mild. My love for
" Moina was great : and my heart poured forth in joy (e)." " The fame of
** 0(rian (hall rife : his deeds fliall be like his father's. Let us rufli in our
*' arms, fon of Morni, let us rufh to battle. Gaul, if thou (halt return, go to
" Selma's lofty hall. Tell Everallin that I fell with fame ; carry the fword
" to Branno's daughter: let her give it to Ofcar when the years of his voutli
" (hallarlfe(/)."

Next to war, love makes the principal figure:
and well it may; for in Oflian's poems it breathes
every thing fweet, tender and elevated.

" On Lubar's gralTy banks they fought ; and Grudar fell. Fierce Cairbar
" came to the vale of the echoing Tura, where Bra(rolis, falreft of his fifters.

all alone raifed the fong of grief. She fung the actions of

Grudar, the
" youth

■'%•

(a) Fingal, book 5,

{J) fingal, book 5,

(t) Fingal, book ^.

(e) Carthon, (fj Lathmon,

(.) Fingal, book 5.

?■*

iJi'

•256 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

*' youth of her fccrct foul : (he mourned him in the field ofhtood j but ftill
** fhc hoped his return. Her white hofom is fecn from her robe, as the moon
" from the clouds of night 5 her voice was fofter than the harp, to raifc the
" fong of grief : her foul was fixed on Grudar, the fee ret look of her eye was
" his ; — when wilt thou come in thine arms, thou mighty in war ? Take,
*' BralFolis, Cairbar (.lid, take ti i» rtiield of blood ; fix it on Iii^h within my
*' hall, the armour of my foe. Her foft heart beat againd her fuie 1 diAra£l>
" ed, pale, fhe flew, and found her youth in blood. — She died on Cromla's
•' heath. Here refts their duO, Cuchullin ; and thcfe two lonely yews, fpiung
*' from their tombs, wifh to meet on high. F;iir was Bralfoiis on tlic plain,
" and Grudar on the hill. The bard (hall prclervc their names, and repeat
*• them to future times (a)." " Pleafant is thy voice, O Cairil, faid th«
" blue-eyed chief of Erin ; and lovely are the words of other times s they are
*' like the calm fhower of fpring, when the fun looks on the field, and the
•' light cloud flies over the hill. O ftrike the harp in praife of my love, the
*' lonely fun-beam of Dunfcaich : Arike the harp in praife of Bragela, whom
" I Uft in the ifle of mifi, the fpoufe of Semo's fon.— Doft thou raife
" thy fair face from the reck to find the falls of Cuchullin > the fca is rolling
*' far dillant, and if. white foam will deceive thee for my fails. Retire, my
" love, for it is night, and the dark winds figh in thy hair ; retire to the hall
" of my feafts, and think of times that are pad ; for I will not return till the
" florm of war ceafe.— () Connal, fpeak of war and arms, and fend her from
*' my mind ; for lovely with her raven hair is the white-bofomed daughter of
" Sorglan (i)."

Malvina fpeaks.

** But thou dwellcfl In the foul of Malvina, fon of mighty Ofllan. My
*' fighs arife with the beam of the eaft, my tears defcend with the drops of
" tile night. I was a lovely tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my
" branches round me; but thy death came lil;e a blaft from the dcfert, and
" laid my green head low : the fpring returned with irs (howers, but of me
" not a leaf fprung. The virgins law me filent in the hall, and they touched
'■' t!is harp of joy, Tiie tear wa-i on the cheek of Malvina, and the virgins
•' beheld my grief. Why art thou fad, they faid, thou firft of the maids of
" Lutha .' Was he lovely as tiie beam of the morning, and ftately in thy
" fight (0?" "Fingalcame in his mildnefs, rejoicing in fecret over the
" ailions of his fon. Momi's face brightened with gladnefs, and his aged
*• eyes looked faintly through tears of joy. We came to the halls of Selma,
" and fat round the feall of fhells. The maids of the fong came into our
" prefence, and the mildly blufliing Evcrallin. Her dark hair fpre.ids on
" her neck of fnow, her eye rolls in fecret on Oflisn. She touches the harp
'■' cfniulic, and we bid's the daughter of Branno (rf)."

Had the Caledonians made flaves of their wo-
men, and thought as meanly of them as favages
commonly do, Oflian could never have thought,
even in a dream, of befluwing on them thofe num-
berltfs graces that exalt i. c female fex, and render
many of them objects ot pure and elevated afTcdli-

on.

(it) Flngal, bock t,
(JJ i-athniun.

[h] Finsal, book J.

(r) Crcma,

Sk:.V.

Manners,

257

on. I fay more : Supj .ing a favagc to liave
been divinely infpircd, manners fo inconfiflent witli
their own, would not have been relilhcd, nor even
comprehended, by his countrymen. And yet that
they were highly rcliflied, is certain, having been
dillufed among all ranks, and prcfervcd for many
;\ges by memory alone, without writing. Here the
i\rgument mentioned above ftrikes with double
force, to evince, that the manners of the Ca-
ledonians muft have been really fuch as Ofliaii
defcribes.

Catharina Alexowna, Emprefs of Ruflia, pro-
moted aflemblies of men and women, as a means
to polifli the manners of her fubjeds. And in or-
der to preferve decency in fuch affemblies, flic
publifhed a body of regulations, of which the fol-
lowing are a fpecimen. " Ladies who play at for-
feitures, queftions and commands, &c. lliall not
be noify nor riotous. No gentleman mufl: attempt
to force a kifs, nor ftrike a woman in the aflcni-
*' bly, under pain of exclufion. Ladies are not to
** get drunk upon any pretext whatever ; nor gen-
" tlemen before nine." Compare the manners that
required fuch regulations with thofe defcribed above.
Can we fuppofe, that the ladies and gentlemen of Of-
fian's poems ever amufed themfelves, after the age of
twelve, with hide and fcek, queftions and commands,
or fuch childifh play ? Can it enter into our thoughts,
that Bragcla or Malvina were fo often drunk, as to
require the reprimand of a j^ublic regulatior- ? or that
any hero of Oflian ever ftruck a woman of Vu^hion
in ire ?

The immortality of tlie foul was a capital article in
the Celtic creed, inculcated by the Druids (<?). And
in Valerius Maximus we find the following paflage.
Gallos, memoriae proditum eft, pecuiiias mutuas,
qua; fibi apud inferos redderentur, dare ; quia
Vol. I. S " perfuafuni

((

h'ill

■'/•

I
!

! 1^1

■i:

I '!;!

(4) Poinponius Mela. Ammianus MarccUinus,

; a-1

'I'

1 M

258 Men indcperi^cnt of Society. iu 'L

** pcrfuiifuni habucrint, aniinas liominum imino;i,iIe»
*' cH'c. Diccrcm ftultos, nifi idem braccati fciilin'cut
*' quod palliatus Pythagoras fcnfit • («)." All lava-
ges have an iinpicilion of immortahty ; but few,
even of the mofl enlightened before Clniflianity
pr<:vailed, liad the leaft notion of any occupations
in another life, but what they Were accuflomcd to
in this. Even Virgil, with afl his poetical invention,
finds no amufements for his departed heroes, but
what they were fond of when alive ; the lame love
for war, the fame talle for hunting, and the fame
afTedlion to their friends. As we have no rcafon to
CKpedl more invention in Oflian, the obfervation may
fcrve as a key to the ghofts introduced by him, and
to his whole machinery, as termed by critics. His
defcription of thefe ghofls is copied plainly from the
creed of his country.

In a hillorical account of the progrefs of manners,
it would argue grofs infenfibility to overlook thofe
above mentioned. The fubjeft, it is true, lias fwell-
ed- upon* my hands beyond expeftation ; but it is
not a little interefling. If thefe manners be ge-
nuine, they are a fingular phenomenon in the Hif-
tory of Man : if they be the invention of an illite-
rate bard, among favages utterly ignorant of fuch
manners, the phenomenon is no lefs fmgular. Let
either fide be taken, and a fort of miracle muO be
admitted. In the inftances above given, fuch a
beautiful mixture there is of fimplicity and digni-
ty, and fo much life given to the manners de-
fer ibed, that real manners were never reprefented
with a more ftriking appearance of truth. If
thtie manners be fidtitious, I lay again, that the
author mufl have been infpired : they plainly ex-
ceed

(.0 Lib. 2, •

♦ " It is reported that the Gauls frequently lent money to be paid back
** in the infcrn.ii regions, from a firm perfuaCion that the ioiils of men were
** immortal. I would have called them fools, if thofe wearers of breeches had
" net thought the fame at Pythagoras who wore a cloak."

Sk. V.

Manners,

»59

cccd the invention of a favagc ; nay, they exceed
the invention of any known writer. Every nun
will judge tor himfclf : it is perhaps fondncls for
fuch refined manners, that makes me ineline to re-
ality aguinft fidion.

I am aware at the fame time, that nunners fo
pure and elevated, in the firfl flagc of fociety, arc
diflicult to be accounted for. The Caledonians
were not an orif.>,inal tribe, who may be fuppoled
to have had maimers peculiar to themfelvcs : they
were a branch of the Celtae, and had a languaj^c
common to them with the inhabitants of Guu!,
and of England. The manners probably of all werv:
the fame, or nearly fo ; and if we exped any light
for explaining Caledoniri^ manners, it mud be from
that quarter : we have indeed no other refourcc.
Diodorus Siculus (a) reports of the Celtaj, that
though warlike, they were upright in their deal-
ings, and far removed from deceit and duplici-
ty. Csefar (Z>), *« Galli homines aperti minimeque
*' infidiofi, qui per virtutem, non per dolum, dimi-
*' care confueverunt *." And though cruel to their
enemies, yet Pomponius Mela (c) obferves, that
they were kind and companionate to the fupplicant
and unfortunate. Strabo (d) dtfcribes the Gauls,
as ftudious of war, and of great alacrity in fight-
ing ; otherwife an innocent people, altogether void
of malignity. He fays, that they had three orders
of men, bards, prielts, and druids ; that the pro-
vince of the bards was to lludy poetry, and to
compofe fongs in praife of their deceafed heroes ;
that the pricfts prefided over divine worfliip ; and
that the druids, befide fludying moral and natural
pliilofophy, determined all controverfies, and had

S 2 fome

!^r'i:

(a) Lib. 5. {h) Dc bello Africo.

* " The Gauls arc of an open temper, not at all ififidious 5 and in fielt
f' tlit-y rtly on valour, not on liratJgein."

(<) Lib. 3.

(.1) Lib. 4.

1 *..•

26o Men independent of Society. B. I.

fomc dire£lion even 'u\ war. Csefar lefs attentive
to civil matters, comprehends thefc three orders
under the name of di'uids ; and obferves, that the
druids teach their difciples a vafl number of verfes,
which they mull get by heart. Diodorus Siculus
fays, that the Gauls had poets termed bards^ who
fung airs accompanied with the harp, in praife ol'
fome, and difpraife of others. Lucan, fpeaking of
the rfiree orders, fays,

** Vos quoquc, qui fortes animas, belloque peremp-

tas,
** Laudibus in longum- vates, dimittitis aevum,
" P'urima fecuri fudi' , carmina bardi *."

With refpeft to the Celtic women in particular,
it is agreed by all writers, that they were extreme-
ly beautiful {a) j and no lefs remarkable for fpirit
than for beauty. If we can rely on Diodorus Si-
culus, the women in Gaul equalled the men in cou-
rage. Tacitus, in his life of Agricola, fays, that
the Britifli women frequently joined with the men,
when attacked by an enemy. And fo much were
they regarded, as to be thought capable of tiie high-
eft command. " Neque enim fexum in imperiis
" difcernunt *,*' fays the fame author {b). And
accordingly, during the war carried on by Carac-
tacus, a gallant Britifh King, againft the Romans,
Cartifmandua was Q^ieen of the Brigantes. Boa-
dicea is recorded in Roman annals as a Queen
of a warlike fpirit. She led on a great army a-

gainft

* " Yoii too, ye bards ! whom facred raptures fire,

" To cliaunt your heroes to your country's lyrej

" Wlio confecrate in your immortal llrain,

*' Brave patriot fouls, in riehteous battle flain.

" Securely now the tuneful tafk renew,

" Ajid noblert themes in cieathlefs fongs purfue."— — — Rowf,
(tf) Diodorus Siculus. lib. 5. Atlien<eus, lib. 13.
* " They n;adc no diftinftion of fcx in conferring authority,"
^i) Vila Agricola;, cap, i5,

Sk. V.

Manners.

a6i

re
rs
le
s,

IS
lO

)1*

gainfl: the Romans ; and in exhorting her people to
behave with courage, Ihe obfcrved, that it was not
unufual to fee a Britifli army led on to battle by
a woman ; to which Tacitus adds his teftimony ;
" Solitum quidcm Britannis fceminarum duclu bel-
** lare * («)." No wonder that Celtic women,
fo amply provided with fpirit, as well as beau-
ty, made a capital figure in every public entertain.,
ment (b).

The Gallic Celtae undoubtedly carried with themi
their manners and cuftoms to Britain, and fpread
them gradually from fouth to north. And as the
Caledonians, inhabiting a mountainous country in
the northern parts of the illand, had little com-
merce with other nations, they prefervcd long in
purity many Celtic cuftoms, particularly that of re-
taining bards. Arthur the lad Celtic King of Eng-
land, who was a hero in the defence of his coun-
try againft the Saxons, proteded the bards, and
was immortalized by them. A'l the chieftains had
bards in their pay, whofe province it was to com-
pofe fongs in praife of their anceftors, and to ac-
company thefe fongs with the harp. This enter-
tainment cnflamed their love for war, and at the
fame time foftened t?ifeir manners, which, as Stra-
bo reports, were naturally innocent and void of
malignity. It had befide a wonderful mfluence in
forming virtuous manners : the bards, in praifmg
deceafed heroes, would naturally feleft virtuous ac-
tions, which make the beft figure in heroic poe-
try, and tend the moft to illuftrate the hero of
their fong : vice may be flattered ; but praife is ne-
ver wilUngly nor fuccefsfuliy beftowed upon any
atchicvement but what is virtuous and heroic. It

^ is

* " The B-itons even followed wom^ as leaders in the field.'
{a) Annalium, lib. 14.
[/j) Athenwus, lib. 10,

II;' HI

1i I'l^

i ^':\

262 Men Independent of Society. B, f.

is accordingly obferved by AmmianusMarcel]inus(rt:)»
that the bards inculcated in their fongs virtue and
actions wortliy of praife. The bards, who were in
high eftimation, became great proficients in poetry ;
of which we have a confpicuous inftance in the
works of Offian. Their capital compofitions were
dihgently ftudied by thofe of their own order, and
admired by all. The fongs of the bards, accom-
panied with the harp, made a deep impreilion on
the young warrior, elevated fome into heroes, and
promoted virtue in every hearer*. Another cir-
cumftance common to the Caledonians with eve-
ry other nation in the firfl flage of fociety, con-
curred to form their manners ; which is, that ava-
rice was unknown among them. People in that
ftage, ignorant of habitual wants, and having a
ready fupply of all that nature requires, have little
notion of property, and not the flightefl; dcfire of
accumulating the goods of fortune ; and for that
rcafon are always found honcft and difmterefted.
With rcfpecl to the female fex, who make an il-
luflrious figure in Ollian's poems, if they were
fo eminent both for courage and beauty as they
are reprefented by the b^fl authors, it is no won-
der to find them painted by OfTian as objeds of
love the moft pure and refined. Nor ought it to
be overlooked, that the foft and delicate notes of
the harp have a tendency to purify manners, and
to refme love.

Whether the caufcs here aflicrned of Celtic man-
ners be fully adequate, may well admit of a doubt ;

but

(a) Uh. li;.

* Polyclore Virgil fays, HJvernifunl Kt-Jica feniij/imi, \In Erglijl} thus:

*' Tlic liifli aie ii'.ort llultul in miilic." | — irtland was peopk-d (ton) Britain ;
nnH the niufic of tiiat country imi(t have li u derivetl from BritKh bards.—
The Wellh bards were thejjreat champions of independence j and in parti-
cular promoted an cbdinate relillance to Edwaid I. when he carried l)is
arms intfi V/ales. Andiiencc the tradition, that the Welfh baids were all
flaufjiitcred by that Kin^;,

Sk. V.

Manners,

^63

but if authentic hiftory be relied on, we can en-
tertain no doubl, that the manners of the Gallic
and Britiih Celtae, including the Caledonians, were
fuch as are above defcribed. And as the manners
afcribed by Ollian to his countrymen the Caledo-
nians, are in every particular conformable to thofe
now mentioned, it clearly follows, that Offiaa
was no inventor, but drew his piftures of man-
ners from real life. This is made highly probable
from intrinfic evidence, the fame that is fo copi-
ouily urged above : and now by authentic hiflory,
that probability is fo much heightened, as fcarcc to
leave room for a doubt.

Our prefent highlanders are but a fmall part
of the inhabitants of Britain ; and they have been
fmking in their importance, from the time that
arts and fciences made a figure, and peaceable
planners prevailed. And yet in that people are dif-
cernible many remaining features of their forefa-
thers th£ Caledonians. They have to this day a
difpofition to war, and when difciplined make ex-
cellent foldiers, fober, active, and obedient. They
;are eminently hofpitable ; and the character given by
Strabo of the Gallic Celtac, that they were innocent
and devoid of malignity, is to them perfectly appli-
cable. That they have not the m _,aanimity and
heroifm of the Caledonians is eafily accounted for.
The Caledonians were a free and independent
people, unawed by any fuperir- power, and living
under the mild government of their own chieftains :
compared with their forefathers, the prefent high-
landers make a very inconfidcrabie figure : their
country is barren, and at any rate is but a fmali
part of a potent kingdom ; and their language de-
prives them of intercourfe with their poliflied neigh-
bours.

Tlitre certainly never happened in literature, a
difcovery more extraordinary than the works of
pilian. To lay the fcene of adion among hunters

!ii

1?^

264

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

in the firft ftage of fociety, and to beftow upon
fuch a people a fyftem of manners that would do
honour to the nioft polilhed ftate, feemcd at firft
an ill-contrived forgery. But if j forgery, why fo
bold and improbable ? why not invent manners more
congruous to the favage Itate ? And as at any rate
the work has great merit, why did the author con-
ceal himfelf? Thefe confiderations routed my at-
tention, and produced the foregoing difquifition ;
which I finilhed, without imagining that any more
light could be obtained. But after a long interval,
a thought ftruck me, that as the Caledonians for-
merly were much connefted with the Scandinavi-
ans, the manners of the latter might probably give
light in the prefent enquiry. I chearfully fpread
my fails in a wide ocean, not without hopes of im-
porting precious merchandife. Many volumes did
I turn over of Scandinavian hiftory ; attentive to
thofe paflages. wh . the manners of the inhabi-
tantS'in the firfl ftage of fociety are delineated.
And now I proceed to prefent my reader with the
goods imported.

The Danes, fays Adam of Bremen, are remark-
able for elevation of mind: the punilhment of deatk
is lefs dreaded by them than that of whipping.
** The philofcphy of the Cimbri," fays Valerius
Maximus, " is gay and refolute : they leap for joy
*' in a battle, hoping for a glorious end : in
*' ficknefs they lament, for fear of the contrary."
What fortified their courage, was a perfuafion,
that thofe who die in battle fighting bravely are
inftantly tranflated to the hall of Odin, to drink
beer out o" the fkuU of an enemy. " Happy in
" their millake," fays Lucan, *' are the people
*' who live near tlie pole : perfuaded that death
*' is only a paflagc to long life, they are undif-
•■' turbed by the moft grievous of all fears, that of
" dying : they eagerly run to arms, and efteeni
*' it cowardice to fpare a life they Ihall foon reco-

ver

'-.«^ito-»-^.

Sk. V.

Manners,

26$

" ver in another world." Such was their niagna-
nimity, that they fcorned to fnatch a viiStory by fur-
prife. Even in their piratical expeditions, inllances
are recorded of fetting ahde aU the fhips that ex-
ceeded thofe of the enemy, led the victory fnould
be attributed to fuperiority of numbers, it was
held unmanly to decline a combat, however une-
qual ; for courage it was thought, rendered all
men equal. The fliedding tears was unmanly, even
for the death of friends.

The Scandinavians were fcnfible in a high de-
gree to praife and reproach ; for love of fame
was their darling palfion. Olave, King of Norway,
placing three of his fcalds or bards around him in
a battle, " You fliall not relate," faid he, " what
" you have only heard, but what you are cyc-wit-
*' ncfi'es of.' Upon every occahon we find them
infilling upon glory, honour, and ^-ontempt of
death, as leading principles. The bare fufpicion of
cowardice, was attended with univerfal contempt : a
man who loft his buckler, or received a wound be-
hind, durft never again appear in public. Frotho
King of Denmark, made captive in a battle, ob-
ftinately rcfufed either liberty or life. " To what
** end," fays he, " lliould I furvive the difgrace
" of being made a captive? Should you even re-
*' (lore to me m/ filler, my treafure, and myking-
"= dom, would thefe benefits reflore me to my ho-
" nour ? Future ages will always have it to fay, that
" Frotho was taken by his enemy (n).'*

Much efficacy is above afcribed to the fongs of
Caledonian bards ; and with fatisfaftion I find my
obfervations juflified in every Scandinavian hiftory.
The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, are
reprefcnted in ancient chronicles as conflantly at-
tended with fcalds or bards ; who were treated
with great rcfpecl, efpecially by princes diflinguifli-

I v I

-'':'\\'i

\i\

{a) S.;:-vO Grammatku*,

liiM

i&ii

i II

266 Men independent of Society. B. I,

ed in war. Harold Hartager at his feafls placed
them above all his other officers ; and employed
them in negotiations of the greateft importance.
The poetic art, held in great ellimation, was cul-
tivated by men of the firfl: rank. Rogvaid, ]£arl of
Orkney, palTed for an able poet. J^ing Regnar was
diftinguifhed in poetry no lefs than in war. It was
the proper province of bards in Scandinavia, as ii)
other countries, to celebrate in odes the atchieve-
ments of deceafed heroes. They were frequently
employed in animating the troops before a battle.
Hacon, Earl of Norway, in his famous engagemen|:
againft the warriors of lomlburgh, iiad hve cele-
brated poets, each of whom fung an ode to the fol-
diers ready to engage. Saxo Grammatici.i •, de-
fcribing a battle between Waldemar and. Sueno,
mentions a fcald belonging to the former, who,
;advancing to the front of the army, rep:oachec|
the latter in a pathetic ode as the murderer of
his own father.

The odes of the Scandinavian bards have a pe-
jculiar energy ; which is not difficult to be account-
ed for. The propenfity of the Scandinavians to
war, their love of glory, their undaunted courage,
and their warlike exploits, naturally produced ele-
vated fentiments, and an elevated tone of language ;
both of which were difplayed in celebrating heroic
deeds. T^ke the following inftances. The firfl is
from the Edda, which contains the birth and ge-
nealogy of their gods. " The giant Rymcr arrives
from the eaR, carried in a chariot : the great
ferpent, rolling himfelf fur" mfly in the waters,
lifteth up the fea. The eagle fcreams, and with
his horrid beak tears the dead. The velfel of
the gods i§ fet afloat. The black prince of
*' fire illues from the fouth, furroundcd with
" flames : the fwords of the gods beam like the
" fun : flvciken are the rocks, and fall to pieces. —
?' The female giants wander about wctping : men

111

'•I

wiMfeK.,,

Sk. V.

Manners,

2^7

In crouds tread tlie paths of death, llcavcn is
fplit afunder, the fun darkened, and the earth
funk in the ocean. Tlie fhining ftars vanifh ;
the fire rages : the world draws to an end ; and
the flame afcending licks the vault of heaven.
From the bofom of the waves an earth emerges,
cloathed with lovely green : the floods retire :
the fields produce without culture : misfortunes
are baniihed from the world. Balder and his
brother, gods of war, return to inhabit the ru-
ined palace of Odin. A palace more refplend-
ent than the fun, rifes now to view ; adorned
with a roof of gold : there good men (liall in-
habit ; and live in joy and pleafure through all
ages." In a colledion of ancient hiflorical mo-
numents of the north, publifhed by Biorner, a
learned Swede, there is the following paflage.
' Grunder, perceiving Grymer rufiiing furioufly
' through oppofing battalions, cries aloud, T>W^
' alone remaincji to engage with ?nc in Jingle coiiibat.
It is 71010 thy turn' to feci the kecnnefs of my /word.
Their fabres, like dark and threatening clouds,
hang dreadful in the air. Grymer's weapon
darts down like a thunderbolt : their fwords fu-
rioufly fl;rike : they are bathed in gore. Gry-
mer cleaves the cafque of his enemy, hews his
armour in pieces, and pours the light into his
bofom. Grunder fmks to the ground ; and
Grymer gives a dreadful fliout of triumph." —
This picture is done with a mafterly hand. The
capital circumftances are judicioiifly felecled ; and
the narration is compact and rapid. Indulge mc
with a moment's paufc to compare this picture with
one or two in Oflian's manner. " As autumn's
dark llorms pour from two echoing hills ; fo to
each other approach the heroe?. As from high
rocks two dark flreams meet, and mix and
roar on the plain ; fo meet Lochlin and Innis-
fail, loud, rough, and dark in battle. Chief

!'«Sl

i68 IVTtn Independent of Society. B. I.

mixc3 his ftrokeswith chief, and man with man;

((

fteel founds on fteel, helmets are clef*^ on high.
Blood burils, and fmoaks around. Strings mur-
mur on tlie poliflied yew. Darts rulli along the
iky. Spears fall like fparks of Hamc that gild tlie
ilormy face of night. As the noifc of the trou-
'* bled ocean when roll the waves on high, as the laft
** peal of thundering heaven, fuch is the noifeof
*' battle. Though Cormac*s hundred bards were
" there, feeble were the voice of an hundred bards
** to fend the deaths to future times j for many
" were the heroes wlio fell, and wide poured the
" blood of the valiant." Again, " As roll a thou-
*^ fand waves to the rorks, fo came on Swaran's
*' hod : as meets a rock a thoufand waves, fo Innis-
*' fail met Swaran. The voice of death is heard all
" around, and mixes with the found of fhields.
'* Each hero is a pillar of darkncfs, and the fword
a beam of fire in his hand. From wing to wing
echoes the field, like a hundred hammers that
rife by turns on the red fun of the furnace.
Who are thofe on Lena's heath, fo gloomy and
dark? thev are like two clouds, and their fwords
lighten abos^e. Who is it but 01Ii^n*s fon, and
the car-borne chief of Erin ?" Thefe two defcrfp-
tions make a deeper impreflion, and fwcll the heart
more than tlic former : they are more poetical by
Ihort fi miles finely interwoven ; and the images arc
far more lofty. And yet Offian's chief taient is
fentiment, in which Scandinavian bards re far
inferior : in the gencrofity, tendernefs, and huma-
nity of his fentiments, he has not a rival.

The ancient Scandinavians were undoubtedly a
barbarouf) people, compared with the fouthern na-
tions of Europe ; but that they were far from be-
ing grofs favages, may be gathered from a poem
ftill extant, named Havaviaal ; or, The fublime dif-
ccurfe cf Odin. Though that poem is of great
amiquity, it is replete with good leflbns and ju-
dicious

c«

JIN I 'IJ^

aj-iLi ' ii V

11.

e
e

Sk. V. Manner^, 269

dicious reflexions ; of which the following are a
fpecimcn.

Happy he who gains the applaufe and good will
of men.

Love your friends, and love alfo their friends.

Be not the firfl to break with your friend ; fur-
row gnaws the heart of him who has not a fingle
friend to advife with.

Where is the virtuous man that hath not a fail-
ing ? Where is the wicked man that hath not fome
good quality ?

Riches take wing : relations die : you ) mrfelf
fhall die. One thing only is out of the reiu:h
of fate J which is, the judgement thjit pafTes on the
dead.

There is no malady more fevere than the being
dlfcontented with one's lot. .,

Let not a man be over-wife nor over-curious :
if he would lleep in quiet, let him not feek to know
his deftiny.

While we live, let us live well : a man lights
his fire, but before it be burnt out death may
enter.

A coward dreams that he may live for ever : if
Sit fliould efcape every other weapon, he cannot ef-
cape old age. , ,

The flocks know wlien to retire from pafture :
the glutton knows not when to retire from the
fcaft.

The lewd and diffblute make a mock of every
thing, not coiifidering how much they deferve to
be mocked.

The bed provifion for a journey, is ftrength of
underftanding : more ufeful than treafure, it wel-
comes one to the table of the flranger.

Hitherto the manners of the Scandinavians refem-
ble in many capital circumftances thofe delineated
in the works of Oilian. I lay not however great

itrefs

i'M

!;i' ii

\r I

,■*■<];

lyo Mi,N independent of Society. B. f.

ftrcfs upon that refembhince, becaufe luch man-
ners are found among feveral other warlike nations
in the firfl fla e of fociety. The circumftanre that
has occafioneil the greateft doubt about ("'Hian's
fydcm of manners, is the figure his wom.u make.
Among other favage nations, they arc held to be
beings of an inferior rank ; and as fuch arc treated
vvitii very little rcfpecl : in Oflian they piake an iU
luftrious figure, and are highly regarded by the
men. I have not words to exprefs my fatisfadion,
vhen I difcovered, that anciently among the bar-
barous Scandinavians, the female fex made a fi-
gure no lefs illuftrious. A refemblancc fo com-
plete with refpcdl to a matter extremely fmgular
among barbarians, cannot fail to convert the moft
obftinate infidel, leaving no doubt of Oflian's vera-
city. — But I ought not to anticipate. One cannot
I)afs a verdidt till the evidence be fummed up ;
and to that talk I now proceed, with fanguine hopes
of fuccefs.

It is a fid afcertained by many writers, That
women in the north of Europe were eminent for
refoluti'jr- an?) courage. Csefar, in the firft book
of his Conjusentaries, defcribing a battle he fought
with the Helvetii, fays, that the women with a
warlike fpirit exhorted their hufbands to perfift,
and placed the waggons in a line to prevent their
flight. Florus and Tacitus mention that feveral
battles of thofe barbarous nations were renewed
by their women, piefenting their naked bofbms,
and declaring their abhorrence of captivity. Fla-
vius Vopiitus, writing of Proculus Caefar, fays,
that a hundred Sarmatian virgins were taken in
battle. The Longobard women, when many of
their hufbands were cut oft' in a battle, took up
arms and obtained the vidlory {^a). The females
of the Gala6lonhagi, a Scythian tribe, were as

warlike

(a) Paiilus Diaconus.

wfrmamm

Sk. V.

Manners,

271

warlike as the males, and went often with tlicin to
war (b). In former times, many women in Den-
mark applied themfelves to arms (c). Jornandcs
defcribcs the women of the Goths as full of cou-
rage, and trained to arms like the men. Joan-
nes Magnus, Archbifliop of Upial, fays the fame ;
and mentions in particular an expedition of the
Goths to invade a neighbouring country, in which
more women went along with the men than were
left at home (t/). Several dinavian women

cxercifed piracy {e). Th< ^'■*' were always

attended with their wives their diilant

expedition , and were more .n^n. of their re-
proaches than of the blows of the enemy. The
Goths, compelled by famine to furrender to Beli-
farius the city of Ravenna, were bitterly reproach-
ed by their wives for cowardice (/). In a battle be-
tween Regner King of Denmark and Fro King of
Sweden, many wqmen took part with the former,
Langertha in particular, who fought with her hair
flowing about her (houldcrs. Regner, being vic-
torious, demanded who that woman was who had
behaved fo gallantly ; and finding her to be a vir-
gin of noble birth, he took her to wife. He
afterward divorced her, in order to make way for
a daughter of the King of Sweden. Regner being
unhappily engaged in a civil war with Harald, who
afpired to the throne of Denmark ; Langertha, o-
verlooking her wrongs, brought from Norway a
body of men to affiil her hulband ; and behaved
fo gallantly, that, in the opinion of all, Regner was
indebted to her for the viftory.

To find women in no inconfiderable portion of
the globe, rivalling men in their capital property

'j"i'' t-l'.i' ' '-. ii

(b) NicoIaiH Damafcenus. '

[e) Olaus Magnus.

(/) Procopius, Hiftoria Gcthlca^ lib. 2.

!ft,.\

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Photographic

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33 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80

(716) 873-4S03

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Me n independent of Society. B. I,

of courage, is a fingular phenomenon. That this
phenomenon mufl have nad an adequate caufe,
is certain j but of that caufe, it is better to ac-
knowledge our utter ignorance, however mortify-
ihg, than to fqueezc out conjeftures that will not
bear examination. ', ,, . . ,. «^ .■^^. .. ,.■ »i., ■,

In rude nations, prophets and foothfaycrs are
held to be a fuperior clafs of men ; what a figure
then irfufl. the Vandal women have made, when
in that nation, as Procopius fays, all the prophets and
foothfayeis were of the female fex ? In Scandinavia
women are faid to have been Ikilful in magic arts, as
well as men. Tacitus informs us, that the Germans
had no other phyficians but their women. They
followed the armies, to ftaunch the blood, and
fuck the wounds of their hufbands *. He men-;
tlons a fad that lets the German women in a con-
spicuous light. That female hoftages bound the
Germans morel flridly to their engagements than
male hoftages. He adds, ** InelTe quin etiam
•' fanfltum aliquid et providum putant : nee aut con-

filia earum afpcrnantur, aut refponfa negligun-

turf.** The hiftories and romances of the north
reprefent women, and even princefTes, afting as
phyficians in war. . |,,^.v. -,.,. ^.-^.^m^a ^^^m-

Polygamy fprung up m countries where women
are treated as inferior beings : it can never take
place where the two fexcs are held to be of e»
qual rank. For that reafon, polygamy never was
known among the northern nations of Europe.
Saxo Grammaticus, who wrote the hiflory of Den-

, ., v i, mark

?L^

1.1

ivl 4'

• Tliee>fjJre(Ii6^'W Tacitus*? oeautiful ; " Ai matres, ad conjuges,
" ^niliter^ ferUnt t nee iUie nutnerare (tut cxfugere plagas pavent : cibofque

" et hortamina pugnantibus geftant." [In Eng/i/h thus: " When wound-

" ed, they find phyficians in their mothers ana wives, who are not afiaid
*' fo count and fu«k their wounds. They carry providons for their fons and
" hui]>and$, and animate them in battle by their exhortations."] .

f " Tliey believe that there is foniething facred in their charaflcr, and that
'• they have a forefightof futurity : for this reafon their ccunfels arc always
•* rs'pe^tjsd; norarethnp<4.inionsevc«idilic2ardcd.".

Sk. V.

Manners*

a73

mark in the twelfth century, gives not the flight*
eft hint of polygamy, even among kingg and
princes. Crantz, in his hiftory of the Saxons {a)^
affirms, that polygamy was never known among
the northern nations of Europe j which is con-
firmed by every other writer who gives the hiftory
of any of thefe nations. SchefFer in particular,
who writes the hiftory of Lapland, obfcrves,
that neither polygamy nor divorce were ever
heard of in that country, not even during Pa-
ganifm.

We have the authority of Procopius (^), that the
women in thofe countries were remarkable for
beauty, and that thofe the of Goths and Vandals were
the fineft that ever had been feen in Italy ; and we
have the authority of Crantz, that chaftitywasin
high eftimation among the Danes, Swedes, and
other Scandinavians. When thefe fads are added
to thofe above-mentioned, it will not be thought
ftrange that love between the fexes, even among that
rude people, was a pure and elevated paffion. That
it was in fa£t fuch, is certain, if hiftory can be credit-
ed, or the fentiments of a people expreffed in their
poetical compofitions. I begin with the latter, as
evidence the moft to be relied on. The ancient
poems of Scandinavia contain the warmeft expref-
fions of love and regard for the female fex. In an
ode of King Regner Lodbrog, a very ancient ,boem,
we find the following fentiments. ** We fought
" with fwords upon a promontory of England,
" when I faw ten thoufand of my foes rolling in the
** duft. A dew of blood diftillcd from our fwords :
" the arrows, that flew in fearch of the helmets,
" hifled through the air. The pleafure of that day
" was like the clafping a fair virgin in my arms."
Again, ** A young man ihould march early to the

Vol. I. ■• ' : T . .'^ " conflia

; f!

(i>) Lib. t. up, 2.

{%) HIAorIa CAtkica, lib. 3.

^74

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

II cQ

** conflift of arms ; in which confifts the glory of
" the warrior. He who afpires to the love of a
" miftrefs, ought to be dauntlefs in the clafli of
•' fwords.*' Thefc Hyperboreans, it would appear,
had early learned to combine the idea^ of love and
of military prowefs ; which is ftill more confpicuous
in an ode of Harald the Valiant, of a later date*
That prince, who figured in the middle of the ele-
venth century, traverfed all the feas of the north,
and made piratical incurfions even upon the coafts of
the Mediterranean. In this ode he complains, that
the glory he had acquired made no impreffion on
Elillir, daughter to Jariflas, King of Ruflia. "I hive
" made the tour of Sitily. My brown veffel, full
" of mariners, made a fwift progrefs. My courfc I
" thought would never flacken— and yet a Ruilian
** maiden fcorns me. The troops of Drontheim>
« which I attacked in my youth, exceeded ours in
" number. Terrible wag the conflift. I left their
*' young king dead on the field — and yet a Ruffian
<f maiden fcorns me. Six exercifcs I ca;i perform :
•* I fight ^valiantly : firm is my feat on horfe-back :
" inured I am to fwimming : fwift is my motion on
" fcates : I dart the l^^ce : 1 am Ikilful at the oar —
and yet a Ruffiai aidcn fcorns me. Gan Ihe
deny, this young ana lovely maiden, that near a
city in the fouth I joined battle, and left behind
" me laftinj: monuments of my exploits ? — and yet
** a Ruflian maiden fcorns me. My birth was in the
*f higlv country of Norway, famous for archers :
•*' but ibips were my delight ; and, far from the
*^ habitations of men, I have traverfed the feas from
*V^ north to ' fouth— and yet a Ruffian maiden fcorns
" meV* in the very ancient poem of Havamaal,
mentioned above, there are many cxpreffions of love
to the fair fe:?. ^' He who would gain the love of a
*^ maWtn mull addrefs her with fmooth fpeeches,
" and ffiowy gifts. It requires good fcnfe to be a
" {kilful lover." Again, " If I afmre to the love of the

*' chafteft

((

mmmmsstm

Sk. V.

Manners.

475

*' cliaflcft virgin, I can bend her mind, and make
^' her yield to my dtfires." The ancient Scandi-
navian chronicles prefent often to our view young
warriors endeavouring to acquire the favour of their
miftrefles, by boailing of their accomplifhments,
fuch as their dexterity in fwimming and fcating,
their talent in poetry, their (kill in chefs, and their
knowing all the ftars by name. Mallet, in the in-
troduclion to his hiftory of Denmark, mentions many
ancient Scandinavian novels that turn upon love and
heroifm. Thefe may be juftly held as authentic
evidence of the manners of the people : it is com-
mon to invent fads ; but it is not common to at-
tempt the inventing manners.

It is an additional proof of the great regard paid
to women in Scandinavia, that in the Edda, the
Scandinavian Bible, female deities make as great a
figure as male deities. •• : f .f-ii"^ '

Agreeable to the manners defcribed, wc find it
univerfally admitted among the ancient Scandinavi-
ans, that beauty ought to be the reward of courage
and military fkill. A warrior was thought* intitled
to demand in marriage any young woman, even of
the higheft rank, if he overcame his rivals in fmgle
combat : nor was it thought any hardfliip on the
young lady, to be yielded to the viQor. The ladies
were not always of that opinion ; for the floutefl:
fighter is not always the handfomeft man, nor the
moft engaging. And in the hiftories of Denmark,
Sweden, and Norway, many inftances are related,
of men generoufly interpofing to refcue young beau-
ties from brutes, deftitute of every acconripliihment
but ftrength and boldnefs. Such ftories have a fa-
bulous air J. and many of them probably are mere
fables. Some of them however have a ftrong ap-
pearance of truth: men are introduced who make
a figure in the real hiftory of the country ; and many
circumftances are related that make links in the
chain of that hiftory. Take the following fpecimen.

T 2 The

Itv

Hl^i

iy6

Mbn independent of Society, B. I.

II: ;,

The ambaffadors of Frotho, King of Denmark,
commiflioncd to demand in marriage the daughter
of a King of the Huns, were feafted for three days,
as the cuftom was in ancient times, and being ad-
mitted to the young Princefs, flie rejeded the offer ;
** Ilecaufe," fays Ine, " your King has acquired no
*' deputation in war, but paffes his time effeminately
** at home." InBiorner's coiledion of ancient hiftori-
cal monuments, mentioned above, there is the fol-
lowing hiftory. Charles King of Sweden kept on foot
an army of* chofen men. He had a daughter nam-
ed In^ucgerda, whofe lively and graceful accomplifh-
ments were admired ffill mote than her birth and for-
tune. The breaft of the King overflow'd with felicity,
Grymer, a youth of noble birth, knew to dye his
fword in thje blood of his enemies, to run over crag-
gy mountains, to wreftle, to play at chefs, and to
trace the motions of the ftars. He ftudicd to fliow
his fkill in the apartment of the damfels, before the
lovely Inguegerda. At length he ventured to open
his mind. " Wilt thou, O fair Princefs! accept of
me for a hulband, if I obtain the King's confent?"
Go," (ays flic, " and fupplicate my father.*' The
courtly youth, refpeftfully addreihng the King, faid,
*' O King ! give me in marriage thy beautiful daugh-
" ter." He anfwered fternly, Thou haft acquired
** fome honourable diflinclions: but haft thou, ever
gained a viftory, or given a banquet to favage
beafts that rejoice in blood ?" " Where ihalll
go, O King ! that I may dye my fword in crimfon,
and render myfelf worthy of being thy fon-in-
law?" Hilmar, fon of Harec," faid the King,
who governs Biarmland, has become terrible by
a keen fword : the firmcft (hields he hews in pie-
cs, and loads his followers with booty. Go, and
prove thy valour by attacking that hero : caufe
him to bitt the duft, and Ipguegerda Ihall be thy
" reward.'* Grymer, returning to his fair miftrefs,
falutcd her with ardent looks of love. */ What an-

3 " fwer

€i

rk.
Iter
lys,
ad-

Sk. V.

Manners.

*' fwcr haft thou received from the King ?" «* To
" obtain thee I muft deprive the fierce ftialmar of
" life." Inguegerda exclaimed with grief,: " Alas !
" my father hath devoted thee to death." Gry-
mer feleded a troop of brave warriors, eager to
follow him* They launch their veflels into the
wide ocean : they unfurl the fails, which catch
the fpringing gale: the fhrowds rattle: the waves
foam, and dalh againft the prows: they fteer their
numerous vefTels to the fhore of Gothland; bent to
glut the hungry raven, and to gorge the wolf with
prey. Thus landed Grymer on Gothland ; and
thus did a beauteous maiden occafion the death of
many heroes. Hialmar demanded who the ftran-
gers were. Grymer told his name ; adding, that
he had fpent the fummer in queft of him. " May
your arrival, reply'd Hialmar, be fortunate ; and
may health and honour attend you. You (hall
partake of my gold, with the unmixed juice of
the grape. Thy offers, faid Grymer, I dare not
accept. Prepare for battle ; and let us haften to
give a banquet to beafts of prey. Hialmar laid
" hold on his white cuirafs, his fword, and his
*' buckler. Grymer, with a violent blow of his
fabre, transfixes Hialmar*s (hield, and cuts oft'
his left. hand. Hialmar enraged, brandiflies his
" fword, and ftriking off Grymer's helmet and
" cuirafs, pierces his breaft and fides: an effufion
" of blood follows. Grymer raifing his fabre with
both hands, lays Hialmar proftrate on the
ground; and he himfelf finks down upon the:
dead body of his adverfary. He was put on
Ihipbpard, and when landed feemed to be at the
laft period of life. The diftreffed Princefs un-
" dertook his cure; and reftored him to health.
They were married with great folemnity: and
the beauteous bride of Grymer filled the heart
*' of her hero with unfading joy." , ,, ,
::.;•■> ,.,-... : , According

«c

ce
cc
((

((

I '\r\

h i\ '

278 Men independent of Society. B. 1.

According to the rude manners of thofe times, a
lover did not always wait lor the confcnt of his mif-
trefs. Joannes Magnus, Archbifhop of Upfal, ob-
fervcs in his hiflory of the Goths, that raviihing of
women was of old no Icfs frequent amonjT the Scan-
dinavians, than among the Greeks, lie relates,
that Gram, fon to the King of Denmark, carried
oft' the King of Sweden's daughter, whole beauty
was celebrated in vcrfes remembered even in his
time. Another inltance he gives, of Nicolaus King
of Denmark (a\ who courted Uluilda, a noble and
beautiful Norvegian lady, and obtained her confent.
Nothing remained but the celebration of the nuptials,
when me was carried otf by Suercher King of Swe-
den. We have the authority of Saxo Grammaticus,
that Skiold, one of the hrft Kings of Denmark,
fought a duel for a beautiful young woman, and ob-
tained her for a wife. The author relates many
duels of the fame kind. It was indeed common
among the Scandinavians, before they became Chrif-
tians, to fight for a wife, and to carry off the defired
objed by force of arms. No caufe of war between
neighbouring kings was more frequent. Fridlcvus,
King of Denmark, fent a folemn embaffy to Haf-
mundus, King of Norway, to demand in marriage
his daughter. Hafmundus had a rooted avcrfion to
the Danes, who had done much mifchief in his coun-
try. " Go," fays he to the ambafladors, " and dc
mand a wife where you are lefs hated than in Nor-
way." The young lady, who had no avtrfioi^to
the match, intreated leave to fpcak. " You fcem,'*
faid ihe, " not to confultthe good of your kingdom
in rejecting fo potent a fon-in-law, who can carry
by force what he is now applying for by intrca-
ties." The father continuing obltinate, difmiiled
the ambafladors. Fridlevus fent other ambaifadors,
redoubling his intreaties for a favourable anfwct.

. '"■;■'■ ' ' llalinundub

C£

«C

(fl) Book 18.

mmmsssm

xmnu

Sk.V.

Manners*

•i»i

^79

Hafmundus faid, that one refufal might be thought
fufficientj and in a fit of paiTion put the ambaifadors
to death. Fridlevus invaded Norway with a potent
army ; and, after a defperate battle, carried oH the
lady in triumph. . ■ .ij ./,. ,>, i ;., ..,.// »r)u,>

The figure that women made in the north of Eu-
rope, by their courage, their beauty, and their chaf-
tity, could not fail to produce mutual elleem and
love between the fexes : nor could that love fail to
be purified into the mod tender affedion, when their
rough manners were fmoothed in the progrefs of fo-
ciety. If love between the fexes prevail in Lapland
as much as any where, which is vouched by ScheiFer
in his hiftory of that country, it muft be for a
reafon very different from that now mentioned. The
males in Lapland, who arc great cowards, have no
reafon to defpife the females for their timidity ; and
in every nation where the women equal the men,
mutual efteem and aifedion naturally take place.
Two Lapland odes, communicated to us by the au-
thor mentioned, leave no doubt of this faft, being
full of the tendereft fentiments that love can infpire.
The following is a literal tranflation. ,..(..

.' t

FIRST ODE.

Kulnafatz ir/ ;dn-deer,
We have a k;ij; journey to go j
The moors are /aft.
And we muft hafte ;
Oiir ftrength, I fear,
WiJl fail if we are flowj
And fo f • .

Our fongs will do.

<T.> '

f i|: :i

! '-S-'t y)<

■ ', I

Kaig^, the watery mOor,

Is pleafant unto me.

Though long it be;

Since it doth to my miflrefs Icid,

Whom I adore :

The Kilwamoor

I nt'er again wili tread.

.•MM'

III 'Thcuf^h:'.

2^0

Men independent of Society. B. I.

■.> m .1 m, ■

Thoughts All'd my mind
Whilft I thro' Kaigc pall
Swift as the wind, • -
And my defire,
Wint'd with impatient Are,
My rein-deer, let us iiafle.

IV.

C !

•■"'• ■ 'A

So (hall we quickly end the pleafing pain :

Behold my miftreft there,

With decent motion walking o'er the plain.

Kulnafatz my rein-deer,

I^ok yonder, wlierc

She wa(hes in the lake : - ;,, u

See while Hie fwims,

The waters from her purer limbs , i

New cleamefs take. ■ - i , ,.,< y. • ^'

SECOND O D E.

" Wttii brightcft beams let tlie fun (hine '

On Orra moor :
Could I be fure

That from the top o' th' lofty pine,
I Orra moor might fee, ,

I to its higheft bow would climb,
And with induftrious labour try
Thence to dcfcry
My miftrefs, If that there (he b«.

II.

.►.•*''!• ■' Could r but know, amid what flowers,
... 'Jr-:;l-^ Or in what (hade (he ftajrs, ■ " ''

. ., >, .„. The gaudy bowers, . '.,.'•, ,-^;

'*■ ' ■ " With all their verdant pride,
y,[t. /' , /7v, Their blonbms and their fprays, ' t'. '. .-,

..• y f -, .'^^. Which make my nu(lrefs difappear, ij.;. :'.'. - •,

'^ '' And her in envious dacknefs hide,

•( ' ' /•. :i iTJI I from the roots and bed of earth would tear,

; Upon the raft of clouds I'd ride, ..n *J* .'

\- Which unto Orra fly :
U :.. ^i.«J G' th* ravens I wouh

■ tjiub

would borrow wings,

u(,-

And all the feathcf'd inmates of the Iky {."^ -.

But wings, alas, are me deny'd,

i he flork and fwan their pinions will not lend,

There's

Sk. V. .i^su>r' : Manneri.""^' ''^'

There'l none wl»o unto Orra brings,
Or will by titat kind conduct me befriend.

2S1

IV.

Enough, enough ! thoa hift delny'd '
So many fummers days,
The beft of days that crown the year,
Which light upon the eye-lidi dart,
And melting joy upon the heart :
But Hnce that thou fo long halt Aay'd,
They in unwelcome darknefs dlfappear
»' Vet vainly doft thou me forfalte ^
I will purfue and overtake.

y ... ,'. t ;..i,.» >

What Aroi\ger is than bolts of fleel f , ,
What can more furely bind f
Love Is ftronger far than it ;
Upon the head in triumph (he doth fit ;
Fetters the mind.
And doth control ■ f'^

' The thought and foul.

VI.

A youth's defire is the defire of wlnd.^.

All liiseflays .r

Are long delays i

No ilTue can they find. . T

Away, fond counfellors, away, ', ,

No more advice obtrude s - . : j

I'll rather prove . »

The guidance of blind love ;

To follow you is certainly to ftray :

One Angle counfel, tho' unwife, is good.

In the Scandinavian manners here defcribed, is
difcovered a ftriking refemblance to thofe defcribed
by Oflian. And as fuch were the manners of the
Scandinavians in the Hrd ftage of fociety, it no
longer remains a wonder that the manners of Ca-
ledonia fhpuld be equally pure in the fame early
period. And now every argument above urged
for Oflian as a genuine hiftorian has its full weight,
without the lead counterpoife. It is true, that Ca*
ledonian manners appear from Oflian to have been
iliil more poliflied and refined than thofe of Scan*
dinavia \ but that diiTerence may have proceed-
ed

■<>

• fi

i f

! I'

;. . I'ilk

'I I

J .1

•I'

r \i

282 Men independent of Society. B. I.

rd from accidents which time hus buried in ob-
livion.

I make no apology for infifling fo largely on Scan-
dinavian manners ; for they tend remarkably to fup-
port the credit of Oflian ; and conlcqucntly to af-
certain a fa^ not a little interefting, that our fore-
fathers were not fuch barbarians as they are common-
ly held to be. All the inhabitants of Britain were
of Celtic cxtradion ; and there is rcalon to believe,
that the manners of Caledonia were the manners of
every part of the ifland, before the inhabitants of
the plains were inflavcd by the Romans. The only
circumftance peculiar to the Caledonians, is their
mountainous fituation : being lefs expofed to the op-
prcflion of foreigners, and farther removed from
commerce, they did longer than their fouthern
neighbours prtferve their manners pure and untaint-
ed.

I have all along confidered the poems of Ofllan
in a hillorical view merely, in the view of criticifni
they have been examined by a writer of diftinguifli-
cd tafte («); and however bold to enter a field
where he hath reaped laurels, I imagine that there
ftill remain fome trifles for me to glean. Two of
thcfe poems, Fingal and Tcmora, are regular epic
poems ; and perhaps the fmgle inftances of epic
poetry moulded into the form of an opera. We have
in thefe two poems both the Recitativo and Aria of
an Italian opera ; dropped indeed in the tranflation,
from difficulty of imitation. Oflian's poems were
all of them compofed with a view to mufic ; tho' in
the long poems mentioned, it is probable that the
airs only were accompanied with the harp, the reci-
tative being left to the voice. The poems of Oflian
are fmgular in another refpeft, being probably the
only regular work now remaining that was com-
pofed in the hunter-ftate. Some fongs of that early
'r. '.', "i ■ - .i)-^:^. -••,. •. ^> ■■' ■ period

(a) Doftor Blair, profeflbr of Rhetoric in the college of Edinburgh.

Sk. V.

Manners*

^83

period may poflibly have cfcapcd oblivion ; jiit no
other poem of the epic kin J. One may advance a
Itcp farther, and pronounce, with a high degree of
probability, that Fingal and Tcmora arc the only
epic poems that ever were compofcd in that ftatc.
How great mull have been the talents of the author,
bcfct with every obdrutVjon to genius, the manners
of his country alone excepted j a cold unhofpitablc
climate ; the face of the country fo deformed as
fcarcc to afford a pleafing objed ; and he himfelf
abfolutely illiterate ! One may venture boldly to
aifirm, that fuch a poem as Fingal or Tcmora never
was compofcd in any other part of the world, under
fuch difadvantageous circumdances.

Though permanent manners enter not regularly
into the prefent Ocetch, 1 am however tempted to add
a few words concerning theinflu ,ccof thcfoil ujjon
the manners of men. The ftupidity of the inhabi-
tants of New Holland, mentioned above, is occa-
fioned by the barrcnnefs of their foil, yielding nothing
that can be food for man or bead. Day and night
they watch the ebb of the tide, in order to dig fmall
filh out of the fand ; and fleep in the intervals, with-
out an hour to fpare for any other occupation. Peo-
ple in that condition, mud for ever remain ignorant
and brutifli. Were all the earth barren like New-
Holland, all men would be i^jjnorant and brutifh, like
the inhabitants of New Holland. On the other
hand, were every portion of this earth fo fertile as
fpontaneoufly to feed all its inhabitants, which is the
golden age figured by poets, what would follow ?
Upon the former fuppofition, man would be a
meagre, patient, and timid animal : upon the latter
fuppofition, he would be pampered, lazy, and effe-
minate. In both cafes, he would be ftupidly igno-
rant, and incapable of any manly exertion, whether
of mind or body. But the foil of our earth is in ge-
neral more wifely accommodated to man, its chief
inhabitant. It is neither fo fertile as to fuperfcde

labour.

I ^ '';

! ff 11

; i '!

i !

, . 1 n;,
• I nil

a84

MfiN independent of Society. B. 1,

labour, nor fo barren as to require the utniofl: la-
bour. The laborious occupation of hunting for
food, produced originally fonie degree of induftry :
and though all the induftry of man was at firft
neceffary for procuring food, cloathing, and ha-
bitation J yet the foil, by (kill in agriculture,
came to produce pjcnty with lefs labour ; which
to fpnie afforded time for thinking of convenien-
cics. A habit of induftry thus acquired, excited
many to beftovv their leifure hours upon the arts,
proceeding from ufeful arts to fine arts, and froRi
thefe to fciences. Wealth, ac<;umulated by in-
duftry, has a wonderful influence upon manners :
feuds and war, the offspring of wealth, call forth
into action friendlhip, courage, heroifm, and every
focial virtue, as well as many felfiffi vices. How
like brutes do we pafs our time, without once re-
ffecling on the wifdom of providence vifible even in
the foil we tread upon 1

Diverfity of manners, at the fame time, enters
into the plan of Providence, as well as diverfity of
talents, of feelings, and of opinion?. Our Maker
hath given us a tafte for variety j and he hath pro-
vided objects in plenty for its gratification. Some
foils, naturally fertile, require little labour: fome
foils, naturally barren, require much labour. But
the advantages of the latter are more than fuiHcient
to counterbalance its barrennefs : the inhabitants arc
fober, induftrious, vigorous ; and confequently cou-
rageous, as far as courage depends on bodily
ftrcngth*. The difadvantages of a fertile foil, on
the contrary, are more than fufficient to counter-
balance

• That a barren country is a great finirto induftry, appears from Venice
and Genoa in Italy, Kurembergjn Germany, and Limojes in France. The
fterilicy o£ Holland lequired all the indullry ot its inhabitants for procuring
the neceflVtries, of life ; and by that means chiefly thsy became remarkably
induftrious. Cambdcn afcribes the fucccfs of the town of Halifax in tha.
cloth nianufa^urc, to its barren foil. A feft of pampered F,ngli(hnn?n, it
-U to be hoped rot many in number, who centre oil their devotion in a lu^tu-
riiiui board, defplfc Scotland for its plain f^re ; and in bit'.-T contymcly, cJu-
raftcrize it as a poor country,

5. 1.

Ja.
for

fry:
Ifirfl
ha-
ire,
pich
jien-
fited
irts,

I'OBl

in-

Sk. V.

Manners,

balance its advantages : the inliabitaiits arc render-
ed indolent, weak, and cowardly. Hindoftan niay
feem to be an exception ; for though it be ex-
tremely fertile, the people are induftrious, and ex-
port manufaftures in great abundance at a ver}'- low
price. But Hindoftan properly is not an exception.
The Hindows, who are prohibited by their religion
to kill any living creature, muft abandon to animals
for food a large proportion of land ; which obliges
them to cultivate what remains with double industry,
in order to procure food for themfelves. The popu-
loufnefs of their country contributes alfo to make
them induftrious. Aragon Was once the mod limited
monarchy in Europe, England not excepted : the
barrennefs of the foil was the caufe, which render-
ed the people hardy and courageous. In a pream-
ble to one of their laws, the ftates declare, that were
they not more free than other nations, the barren-
nefs of their country would tempt them to abandon
it. Oppofed to Aragon ftands Egypt, the fertility
of which renders the inhabitants foft and effeminate,
and confequently an eafy prey to every invader *.
The fruitfulnefs of the province of Quito in Peru,
and the low price of every neceffary, occafioned by
its diftance from the fea, have plunged the inhabi-
tants into fupine indolence, and exceflive luxury.
The people of the town of Quito in particular, have
abandoned themfelves to every fort of debauchery :
the time they have to fpare from wine and women,

♦ Fear imprefled by ftran^e and unforefeen accidents, is the moft potent
caufe of fuperftltion. No otlier country is Icfs li:ible to Itrange and unfore>
fecn accidents than Egypt : no thunder, fcarce any rain, pcrfeift regularity
in the feafons, and in the rife and fall of tlic river. So little notion had ths
Fpyptians of variable weather, as to be furpiifed that the rivers in Greece
< ul not overflow like the Nile. They could not comprehend how their fields
were watered: rain, they laid, was very irregular; and what if Jupiter
(hould take a conceit to fend them no rain ? What then made the antient
Egyptians fo fuperftitious ? The fertility of the foil, and the inaftion of the
inhabitants during the inundation of the river, enervated both mind and bo*
^y, and lemlci'jd them timid and pufillanimou^. Superftition was theoff-
1; ring of this chararter in Erypt, as it is of Arange and unforafecn accidents
i:i',;:hcr ccuntfiri. " '" ^' •

5!i|f

'"4;

> i

i%6 Men independent of Society. B. I.

is employed in cxceflive gaming. In other refpeds
alfo the manners of a people are influenced by the
country they inhabit. A great part of Calabria,
formerly populous and fertile, is at prefent covered
with trees and ihrubs, like the wilds of America ;
and the ferocity of its inhabitants qorrefponds to the
rudenefs of the fields. The fame is vifible in the
inhabitants of Mount Etna in Sicily: the country
and itj inhabitants arc equally rugged. •

•\ -•

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HISTORY OF MAN.

BOOK I.

Progress of Men independent of Society.

SKETCH VL

Progrefs of the Female Sex,

HE progrefs of the female fcx, a capital branch
of the hiftory of man, comprehends great variety of
matter, curious and interefting. But (ketches are
my province, not complete hiftories ; and I propofc
in the prefent Iketch to trace the gradual progrefs of
women, from their low ftate in favage tribes, to
their elevated ftate in civilized nation.

With regard to the outlines, whether of internal
difpofition or of external figure, men and women

arc

'Mr

'■'.tViv

288 Men independent of Society. B. I.

are the fame. Nature, however, intending them
for mates, has given them difpofitions different but
concordant, fo as to produce together delicious har-
mony. The man, more robuft, is fitted for feverc
labour and for field-exercifes : the woman, more
delicate, is fitted for fedentary occupations ; and
particularly for nurfing children. That difference
is remarkable in the mind, no lefs than in the body.
A boy is always running about ; delights in a top or a
ball, and rides upon a fi:ick as a horfe. A girl has
lefs inclination to move : her firft amufement is a
baby ; which Ihe delights to drefs and undrefs. I
have feen oftener than once a female child under fix
getting an infant in its arms, careffing it, finging,
and walking about ftaggering under the weight.
A boy never thinks of fuch a paflime. The man,
bold and vigorous, is qualified for being a protedor :
the woman, delicate and timid, requires protedli-
on *. The man, as a protestor, is direded by nature
to govern ; the v/oman, confcious of inferiority, is
difpcr#3 to obey. Their intellectual powers corref-
pond to the dcftination of nature : men have pene-
tration and folid judgement to fit them for govern-
ing : women have fufficient underftanding to make
a decent figure under good government ; a greater
proportion would excite dangerous rivalfliip. Wo-
men have more imagination and more fenfibility
than men ; and yet none of them have made an
eminent figure in any of the fine arts. We hear of
no fculptor nor fi:atuary among them ; and none of
them have rifen above a mediocrity in poetry or
painting. Nature has avoided rivalfliip between the
fcxes, by giving them different talents. Add
another capital difference of difpofition : the gentle
and infmuating manners of the female fcx, tend to
foften the roughnefs of the other fex ; and whcre-
. . • ' • . ■ ever

» Frc~v which it appears to proceed, that women naturally are more care-
itl of :.'f".r reputatlcn fan .r^en, arrf more hurt by obloquy.

Sk. VI.

Fejnale Sex*

189

ever women are indulged with any freedom, they
polilh fooner than men *.

Thefe are not the only particulars that diftinguifli
the fexes. With refpcd to matrimony, it is the
privilege of the male, as fuperior and proteftor to
make a choice : the female preferred has no privi-
lege but barely to confent or to refufe. Nature fits
them for thefe different parts : the male is bold, the
female bafhful. Hence among all nations it is the
pra£tice for men to court and for women to be
courted : which holds alfo among many other ani-
mals, probably among all that pair.

Another didinftion is equally vifiblc : The maf-
ter of a family is immediately conneded with his
country : his wife, his children, his fervants, are im-
mediately connefted with him, and with their coun-
try through him only. Women accordingly have
lefs patriotifm than men ■, and lefs bitternefs againfl
the enemies of their country.

The peculiar modefty of the female fex, is alfo a
diftinguilhing circumflance. Nature hath provided
them with it as a defence againft the artful folicitati-
ons of the other fex before marriage, and alfo as a
fupport of conjugal fidelity.

A fundamental article in the prefent (ketch is ma-
trimony ; and it has been much controverted, whe-
ther it be an appointment of nature, or only of mu-
nicipal law. ' Many writers have excrcifed their ta-
lents in that controverfy, but without giving fatisfac-
tion to a judicious enquirer. If 1 miftake not, it may
be determined upon folid principles ; and as it is of
importance in the hiftory of man, the reader, I am

Vol. L .. ,',..U...... /. hopeful,

• The chief quality of women, i^iys RoufTeau, Is fweetnefs of temper.
Made by nature for fubmiflion in the mairieil rtate, they ought to learn to
fuffer wrong even without complainin!^. Souriicfs and ftuhbornnefs fcrve
but to increafe the hulband's unkindnef s and their own diftrelles. It was not
to indulge bad humour, that heaven beitowed on them mannert infmuating
and perfuafive : they were not^madeweak in order to be imperious : a fwcet
voice fuiti ill with fcolding; delicate fcature!> oue;ht not to be disfigured with
palFion. They frequently may liave reafon for complaints i but never to
utter them publicly.

i n

r ''iW i'

;l -

I', i

190 Men independent of Society. B. I.

hopeful, vf'xW not be difgufted at the length of the
argument.

. Many writers hold that women were originally com-
mon ; that animal love was gratified as among horfes
and horned cattle ; and that matrimony was not
known, till nations grew in fome degree to be order-
ly and refined, 1 feled Cicero as an authority :
*' Nam fuit quoddam tempus, cum in agris homi-
" nes pafiim, beftiarum more, vagabantur, et fibi
" viftu ferino vitam propagabant : ncc ratione ani-
** mi quicquam fed pleraque viribus corporis admi-
" niftrabant. Nondum divinse religionis non human!
" officii ratio coUebatur. Nemo legitimas viderat
*' nuptias, non certos quifquam infpexerat liberos *
*^ («).*' Pliny, in fupport of that doftrine, informs
us, that the Garamantes, an African nation, male
and female lived promifcuoufly together, without
any notion of matrimony. Among the Aufes, a
people of Libya, as Hercdotus fays, matrimony was
not known, and men cohabited with women indif-
ferently, like other animals. A boy educated by
his mother, was at a certain age admitted to an affem-
bly of men, and the man he clung to was reputed
his father. Juflin and other authors report, that
before Cccrops, who reigned in Attica about 1600
years before Chrift, marriage was not known in
Greece ; and that the burden of children lay upon
the mother.

Before entering diredly into the matter, it is pro-
per to remove, if poflible, the bias of thefe great
names. The praftice of the Garamantes and of the
Aufes is mentioned by Pliny and Herodotus as fin-
gular ; and were it even well vouched, it would avail
very little againft the pradice of all other natibns.
Little weight can be laid npon Pliny's evidence in

particular,

• *• For there wns a time, when men, like the bnites, roamed abroad
'* over the earth, and fed like wild hearts upon other animals. Then reafon
" bore no fway, but all was ruled by fuperior ftrength. The ties of religion,
" and the obligations of morality, were then unfelt. Lawful marriage was
" unknown, and no father was certain of his offspring,"

(/i) De Ijivcntione, lib, i.

Sk. VI.

Female Sen,

agt

particular, confidering what he reports In the fame
chapter of the Blemmyans, that they had no head^
and that the mouth and eyes were in the breaft.
Pliny at the fame time, as well as Herodotus, being
very deficient in natural knowledge, were grofsly
credulous ; and cannot be relied on with refped to
any thing ftrangc or uncommon. As to what is re-
ported of ancient Greece, Cecrops poflibly prohi-
bited polygamy, or introduced fome other matri-
monial regulation, which by writers might be mif-
taken for a law appointing matrimony. However
that be, one part of the report is undoubtedly er-
roneous ; for it will be made evident afterward, that
in the hunter-ftate, or even in that of Ihepherds, it
is impracticable for any woman, by her own induftry
alone, to rear a numerous ifl'ue. If this be at all
poflible, it can only be in the torrid zone, where
people live on the fruits and roots, which are pro-
duced in plenty with very little labour. Upon that
account, Diodorus Siculus is lefs blameable for
liftening to a report, that the inhabitants of Tapro-
bana, fuppofed to be the ifland of Ceylon, never
marry, but that v/omen are ufed promifcuoufly. At
the fame time, as there is no fuch cuftom at prefent
in the Eaft-Indics, there is no good ground to be-
lieve, that it ever was cuftomary ; and the Eaft-In-
dies were fo little known to the ancient Greeks^
that their authors cannot be much relied on, in the
accounts they give of that diftant region. The au-
thority of Cicero, however rcfpcftable in other
matters, will not be much regarded upon the pre-
fent queftion, when the paflage above quoted is dif-
feCled. How crude mufl his notions be of the pri-
mitive ftate of man, when he denies to favages any
fenfe religion or of moral duty I Ought we to rely
more on him, when he denies that they have any
notion of matrimony ? Cscfar's account of the ancient
Briton's approaches the n^^reft to a loofe commerce
with women, though in the main it is good evidence

U i againft

iii I

IfiM

111

292 Men inilcpendent of Society. B. 1.

againfl Cicero. It was common, he fays, for a num-
ber of brothers or the other near relations, to ufc
tlieir wives promifcuouily. The offspring however
were ilot common ; for each man maintained the
cliildren tliat Were produced by his own wife. He-
rodotus reports the fame of the Maffagetac.

Laying thus afidci the great names of Cicero, He-
rodotus, and Phny, the field lies open to a fair and
impartial invcftigation. And as the means provided
by nature for continuing the race of other animals,
(nay probably throw light upon the oeconomy of na-
ture with relped to man ; I begin with that article
which has not engaged the attention of naturalifts fo
much as it ought to have done. With refpedt to
animals whole nouriHiment is grafs, pairing would
be of no ufe 1 the female feeds herfelf and her young
at the fame inftant ; and nothing is left for the male
to do. On the other btmd, all brute animals whofe
young require the nurfmg care of both parents, are
dircded by nature to pair ; nor is that connexion dif-
folved till the young can provide for themfelves.
Pairing is indifpenfable to wild birds that build on
trees ; becaufe the male mult provide food for his
mate while flie is hatching the eggs. And as they
have commonly a numerous iffue, it requires the la-
bour of both to pick up food for themfelves and for
their young. Upon that account, it is fo ordered,
that the yOung are fufficiently vigorous to provide for
themfelves, before anew brood is produced.

What I have now opened fuggelts the following
queilion, Whether, according to the ceconomy
above difplayed, are we to prefume, or not, that
inan is diredcd by nature, to harmony ? Tf analogy
Can be relied on, the affirmative mud be held, as
there is no other creature in the known world to
which [)airiu;.'_ is fo neceflluy. Man is an animal of
iong life, aiul is proportionally How in growing to
ni.'iturity: he is a hclplefs being before the ngc of
{it'iecn or fixiecnj and there may be in a fauiily ten
i- or

Sk. VI.

Female Sex*

»93

or twelve children of different births, before the
eldeft can ihift for itfelf. Now, in the original ftatc
of hunting and hlhing, which are laborious occupa-
tions and not always fuccefsful, a woman, fuckling
her infant, is not able to provide even for herfclf, far
lefs for ten or twelve voracious children. Matrimony
therefore, or pairing, is fo neceffary to the human
race, that it muft be natural and inftin^ive. When
fuch ample means are provided for continuing every
other animal race, is it fuppofable that the chief race
is negledled? Providential care dcfcends even to ve-
getable life : every plant bears a profufion of feed ;
and in order to cover the earth with vegetables,
fome feeds have wings, fome arc fcattered by means
of a fpring, and fome arc fo light as to be carri-
ed about by the wind. Brute animals which do
jiot pair, have grafs and other food in plenty,
enabling the female to feed her young without
needing any affiftancc from the male. But where
the young require the nurfing care of both pa-
rents, pairing is a law of nature. When other
races are fo amply provided for, can it be feriouf-
ly thought, that Providence is lefs attentive to the
human race ? If men and women were not im-
pelled by nature to matrimony, they would be
lefs fitted for continuing the fpccies, than even the
humblell plant. Have we not then reafon fairly
to conclude, that matrimony in the human race is an
appointment of nature ? Can that conclufion be re-
filled by any one who believes in Providence, and
in final caufes *.

To confirm this dodrine, let the confequences of

a loofe commerce between the fexcs be examined.

. . , , ;, The

* It appears a wife appolntniept of Providence, tliat women give over
child-bearing at fifty, while they are Aill in vigour of mind and body to
take care of their offspring. Did the power of procreation continue in wo-
men to old age as in men, ciiildren would often be Uit in the wide world
without a mortal to look after tliem.

.,/i

494 Men independent ot Society. B. I*

The carnal appetite, vfhcn confined to one objeft,
feldoin tranlgrcffts the bounds of temperance. But
itcrc it encouraged to roam, like a bee fucking ho,
ncy froni every flower, every new objed would in-
flame the imagination ; and fatiety with rcfpeft to
one, would give new vigour with rtlpedl to
others: a generic habit would be formed of intem-
temperance in fruition (a) ; and animal love would
become the ruling paflion. Men, like the hart in
rutting-time, would all the year round fly with im-
pctuolity from objed to objcft, giving no quarter to
women even fuckling their infants: and women, a-
bandoning thepifclvcs to the fame appetite, would
become altogether regardlefs of their offspring. In
that ftate, the continuance of the human race would
be a miracle. In the favage ftate, as mentioned
above, it is beyond the jower of any woman to
provide food for a family of children ; and now it
appears, that intemperance in animal love would
render a woman carelefs of her family, however eafy
it might be to provide for it*.

I fay more. The promifcuous ufe of women
would unqualify them in a great meafure to pro-
create. The carnal appetite in man refembles his
appetite for food : each of them demands grati-
fication, after fhort intervals. Where the carnal
appetite is felt but a (hort fpace annually, as
among animals who feed on grafs, the promif-

5 cuous

{a) F.lements of Criticifm, chap. 15.

♦ I have often been tempted to blame Providence for bri nglnj; to per-
(<e£licn in early youth the carnal appetite, long before people have acquired
any prudence or felf-command. It rages the mod when young men Hiould
be employed in acquiring knowledge, and in fitting themfdves for living
comfortably in the world, I have fet this thought in various lights ; but I
now perceive that the cenfure is without foundation. The early ripcnefs of
th!» appetite proves it to be the intention of Providence that people Ihould
early ivttle in matrimony. In that Aace the appetite is abundantly moderate,
and gives no obllrudion to education. It never becomes unruly, till a
man, forgetting the matrimonial tye, wanders from objeft to objeft. Pride
and luxury are what dictate late marriages : induAry never fails to afford
tUe means of living comfortably, providtd men confine themfchcs to the de-
Tnands of uaiurc.

| »iM»m' w>u ' i » u ifii g

Sk. VI.

Female Sex*

295

cuous ufc of females is according to the order of
nature : but fuch a law in man, where the carnal
appetite is always awake, would be an effectual
bar to procreation; it being an undoubted truth,
that women who indulge that appetite to exccfs, fel-
dom have children ; and if all women were com-
mon, all women would in effe^ be common pro-
(litutes.

If undifguifed nature (how itfelf any where,
it is in children. So truly is matrimony an appoint-
ment of nature, as to be underftood even by chil-
dren. They often hear, it is true, people talk-
ing of matrimony ; but they alfo hear of logical,
metaphyfical, and commercial matters, without un-
derftanding a fyllable. Whence then their no-
tion of marriage but from nature ? Marriage is a
compound idea, which no inflrudion could bring
within the comprehenfion of a child, did not na-
ture co-operate.

That the arguments urged above againft a pro-
mifcuous ufe of women, do not neceffarily con-
clude againft polygamy, or the union of one
man with a plurality of women, will not efcape
an attentive reader. St. Auguflin and other fa-
thers admit, that polygamy is not prohibited by
the law of nature ; and the learned Grotius pro-
feifes the fame opinion (a). But great names ter-
rify mc not ; and I venture to maintain, that pair-
ing in the ftri£left fenfe is a law of nature among
men as among wild birds ; and that polygamy
is a grofs infringement of that law. My reafons
follow.

I urge, in the firft place, the equal number of
males and females, as a clear indication that
Providence intends every man to be confined to
one wife, and every woman to one hufband. That
equality, which has fubfiiled in all countries and

{a) De juro bell! ac pads, lib. a. cap. 5, §. 9.

riHr

':X'\^\

:fi y.

296

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

w/j

at all times, is a fignal inftance of over-ruling Pro-
vidence ; for the chances againft it are infinite.
All men are by nature equal in rank : no man is
privileged above another to have a wife ; and thcrc-
lorc polygamy is contradiftory to the plan of
Providence. Were ten women born for one man,
as is erroneoufly reported to be the cafe in Bantam,
polygamy might be the intention of Providence j
but from the equality of males and females it is
clearly the voice of nature, as well as of fli' ' 1. rf (
fcripture, " That a man (hall leave hi'; lather anil
** mother, and cleave to his wife j .md :hty fhall
« be one flefh.'V.

Confider, in the next place, thai however nlau-
fible polygamy may appear in the prefent Itatc of
things, where inequality of rank and of fortune
have produced^ luxury and fenfuality ; yet that the
Taws of nature were not contrived by our Maker
for a forced ftate, where numberlefs individuals arc
degraded below their natural rank, for the benefit
of a f<^w who are elevated above it. To form a juft
notion of polygamy, we muft look back to the bri-
;^inal llate of man, where all are equal. In that
flatc, every man cannot have two wives ; and con-
fequently no man is intitlcd to more than one,
till every other be upon an equal footing with
him. At the fame time, the union of one man
with one woman is much better calculated for con-
tinuing the race, than the union of one man with
many women. Tliirk rf a favage wlio may have
fifty or fixty children bv 'JivFc^-ent v'*""% al! uepend-
ing for food upon i- .iUi .iry : chance mull turn
out indeed in his favour^ iP the half of them perifli
not by hunger. How much a better chance for life
have mfants who are diftributed more equally in dif-
ferent families ?

Polygamy has an effecl ftill more pernicious,

with rcrpeft to children even of the mod opulent

iamilies. Unlcfs aft'cQion be reciprocal and equal,

■ ' there

Bg3Jg!3B3E?age

1. 1.

*ro-
lite.

is
:re-

of
|an,

in.!
)all

Sic. VI.

Female Sex.

297

thpre can be no proper focicty in the niatrimoniil
Hate, no cordiality, nor due care of offspring.
But fuch afttdt )n is inconfiltcnt with polygamy: a
woman in that ftatc, far from being a oompanion
"' . to her hulband, is degraded to the rank of a
fervant, a mere inllrumcnt of ple;ifure and propa-
gation. Among many wives there will aluays he
a favourhc : the rell turn peevilh j and if t v
rcfcnt not the injury againfl: their hufband, . d
againft their children as belonging to hirr;. ilu /
will at lead be difheartened, and turnnegligrnt of
them. At the fame time, fondnefs for the fa ou^
rite wife and her children, makes the holband n-
diffcrcnt about the reft; and woeful is t' c coi Ti-
tion of children who arr neglected by noth pa-
rents (a). To produce fuch an cffcdt, is certainly
not the purpofe of nature.

It merits peculiar attention, that Providence h;
provided for an agreeable inion, among all crea-
tures who are taught by n.ture to pair. Aniir»al
love among creatures who pair not, is confined
within a narrow fpace of time : while the dam is
occupied about her young, animal love Les dor-
••mant, that Ihe may not be abftrafted from her
"duty. In pairing animals, on the contrary, ani-
mal love is always awake : frequent enjoyment en-
dears a pair to each other, and makes conftancy a
pleafure. Such is the cafe or the human race ;
and fuch is the cafe of wild jirds (b). Among
the wild birds that build on trees, the male, after
feeding his mate, in the neft, plants himfelf upon
the next ipray, and chears her vith a fong*. There
is ftill greater enjoyment provided for the hanian
race in the matrimonial ftatc, and ftronger incite -

ments

.if

(a) L'efprit des loix. Hv. 16. chap, 6,

(b) 'Buffon, liv. 5, p. 359. odlavo edition.

* A male canary bird, Tinging to bis mate on her ne(l in a breeding cage,
fell down dead. The female alarmed left her ncA and pecked at him : find-
ing him immoveable, (he refufed nouriHiment and died at his fide.

i' M i I

i^.

293

Men independent of Society.

B. 1.

mcnts to conftancy. Sweet is the fotety of a pair
fitted for each other, in whom arc colleded the
aft'edlions of hufband, wife, lover, friend, the ten-
dered affc£lions of human nature. Public govern^
ment is in perfedion, when the fovcreign com-
mands with humanity, and the fubjeds are cordial
m their obedience. Private government in conju-
gal focicty arrives at ftill greater perfe£lion, where
hulfband and wife govern and are governed reci-
proc^ly, with entire fatisfadlion to both. The man
bears rule over his wife's perfon and conduft ; {he
bears rule over his inclinations : he governs by law j
ihe by perfuafion. Nor can her authority ever fail,
where it is fupported by fweetnels of temper, and
zeal to make him happy *.

The God of nature has enforced conjugal fo-
ciety, not only by making it agreeable, but by
the principle of chaftity inherent in our nature.
To animals that have no inflind for pairing, chafi.

tity

* L^emplre de la femme eft un empire de douceur, d'addrefle, et de com-
plaifance 3 fes ordres font des carefres, fes menaces font des pleurs. £lle dolt
regner dans la maifon comme un m'niAre dans I'etat, en fe faifant commander
ce qu'elle veut faire. £n ce (ens il eft conftant que les meilleurs menaget
font ceux ou la femme a le plus d'autorite. Ma!s quand elle meconnoit la
vojx du chef, qu'elle veut ufurperfes droits et commander elle-meme j il ne
refulte jamais de ce defordre, que mifere, fcandale, et deftionneur. Bcuffeau
F.milc, li-u, 5, />. 96.— [/« Efglijh thus: " Tiie empire of the woman is an
" empire of foftncfs, of addrefs, of complacency j her commands are carefles,
" her menaces are tears. She ouG;ht to reign in the family like a minifter
•• in the ftate, by making that which is her inclination be enjoined to her
" as her duty. Thus it is evident, that the beft domeftic teconomy is that
" where the wife has moft authority. But when (he is infenfible to tlie voice
" of her chief, when (he tries toufurp his prerogative, and to command alone,
" what can rcfult from fuch diforder, but mifery, fcandal, and di(honour ?"]
——The Emprcfs Livia being que(iioned by a married lady, how (he had
obtained fuch afctndant over her hu(band i<Vuguftus, anfwered, " By being
" obedient to his commands, by not wi(hing to know his fecrets, and by
" hiding my knowledge of his late amours," The late Queen of Spain was
4 woman of fmgular prudence, and of folid judgement. A charafler of her,
publi/hed after her death, contains tlie following pa(rage. " Siie had a great
'* afcendancy over the King, founded on his perfuafion of her fuperior fenfc,
" which (he (howed in a perfeft fubminion to his commands ; the more
" eafily obeyed, as they were commonly, though to him imperceptibly dic-
** tated by hcrfelf. She cured him of many foibles, and in a word was hii
" Minerva, under tUeappeaiancc of Mentor."

fi
tl

! .Jii-'i'

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

299

tity is utterly unknown j and to them it would be
ufelcfs. The marc, the cow, the ewe, the Ihe-goat,
receive the male without ceremony, and admit the
firft that comes in the way without dillinftion. Nei-
ther have tame fowl any notion of chaftity : they
pair not ; and the female gets no food from the
male, even during incubation. But challity and
mutual fidelity are effential to all pairing animals ;
for wandejring inclinations would render them neg»
ligent in nurfing their young. Wild birds pair ;
and they are by inftina faithful to each other,
while their yoi^ng require nurture. Chaftity is ef-
fential to the human race ; enforced by the prin-
ciple of chaftity, a branch of the moral fenfe. Chaf*
tity is effential to the continuation of the human
race. As the carnal appetite is always alive, the
fexes would wallow in pleafure and be foon render^
cd unfit for procreation, were it not for reftraint
of chaftity.

Nor is chaftity confined to the matrimonial ftate.
Matrimony is inftituted by nature for continuing
the fpecics ; and it is the duty of man to abftain
from animal enjoyment, except in that ftate. The
ceremonies of marriage and the caufes of feparation
and divorce, are fubjeded to municipal law : but
if a man beget children, it is his duty to unite with
the mother in taking care of them ; and fuch union
is matrimony according to the law of nature. Hence
it is, that the firft ads of incontinence, whefe en-
joyment only is in view, are- always attended with
ihame, and with a degree of remorfe*. At the
fame time as chaftity in perfons who are finglc
is only a felf-duty, it is not fo ftrongly enforced by
{tie moral fenfe as chaftity is in married perfons,
who owe fidelity to each other. Deviations ac-
cordingly

11;

i t

'f.S)\

'■■':)i.

i i

iim

* Quand enfin cette aimable jenneflTee vient a fe marier, les deux epoux
fe donnant mutuellement les premices de leur perfonne, en font plus chers
Tun a I'autrej des multitudes d'enfans fains et lobuftes deviennent le gage
d'une union que rien n'altere. Roujcau Emile.

Iti-

300

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

f' ii

I ?i

cordtngly from the former make a lefs figure than
from the latter: we fcarce ever hear or adultery
among favages ; though among them incontinence
before marriage, is not uncommon. In Wales,
even at prefent, and in the highlands of Scotland,
it is fcarce a difgrace for a young woman to have a
baftard. In the country lad mentioned, the firfl
inftancc known of a baftard-child being deftroyed by
its mother through (hame, is a late one. The vir-
tue of chaftity appears to be there gaining ground ;
as the only temptation a woman can have to def-
troy her child, is, to conceal her frailty. The prin-
ciple of chaftity like that of propriety or of decency,
is faint among favages ; and has little of that influ-
ence which prevails among polifhed nations before
they are corrupted by luxury. We (hall have oc-
cafion to fee afterward, that even the great duty of
juftice is faint among barbarians ; and that it yields
readily to every irregular impulfe, before the moral
fenfe has arrived to maturity.

Chaftity is a reftraint upon nature ; and there-
fore if fliame be removed by making it lawful to
obey the appetite, nature will prevail. In the year
1707, a contagious diftemper having carried off a
large proportion of the inhabitants of Iceland, the
King of Denmark fell on a device to repeople the
country, which fucceeded to a wifti. A law was
made, authorifing young women in that ifland to
have baftards, even to the number of fix, without
wounding their reputation*. The young women
were fo zealous to re-people their country, that
after a few years it was found proper to abrogate
the law,

Modeft'y

* Don Juan de ITIloa, in his voyage to Peru, mentions a very fingular
tafic prevalent in that country, that a man never takes a virgin to wife;
iuid thinks himii-lf diftiononied if his wife have not, before niairiaee, enjoyed
rn.my lovers. If we can trurt Paulus Venetus, a young woman of Thibet, in
Atin, is net reckoned fit to bt luarried till fhe be d'.tlowcrtd.

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

ioi

Modefty is by nature intended togiiard cliaftity, as
chaftity is to guard matrimony. And modefty, like
chaftity, is one of thofe delicate principles that make
no great figure among favages. In the land of Jelfo,
young women fometimes go naked in fummef : if
however they meet a ftranger, they hang the head,
and turn away through (liame. Nature here is their
only inftrudor *. Some favage tribes have fo little
notion of modefty, as to go naked, without even
covering their privy parts. Regnar reports upon his
own knowledge, that in Lapland, man, woman, and
child, take the hot bath promifcuoufly, and are not
afliamed to be feen in that condition even by a ftran-
ger. As this appeared Angular, I took opportunity
to mention it to Dr. Solander, who had made more
than one vifit to that country. He faid, that Reg-
nard's report might be true ; but without any im-
putation on the modefty of the Laplanders, for that
their place of bathing is always fo dark that nothing
can be feen. He added, that the females in Lap-
land, both married and unmarried, are extremely
chafte. The inhabitants of Otaheite, if Bougain-
ville can be trufted, feem to have as as little notion
of modefty as of chaftity. But many of that au-
thor's fa^ls ftand contradi£ted by later voyagers. The
women of New Zealand are both chafte and modeft.
Captain Cook, in his voyage round the world,
ftumbled upon fome of them naked, diving for lob-
fters ; and they were in great confufion for being
feen in that condition by ftrangers.

But now, if pairing in the ftrifteft fenfe be a law
of nature among men, as among fome other ani-
mals, how IS poly^rjamy to be accounted for, which
formerly was univerial, and to this day obtains
among many nations ? Polygamy, I anfwer, is de-

rived from two fouices

iiril, from favage manners,

once

' r

■ h

':; I"

* Dofh not nvHli-'ftv j)rcva'l .i.ti-'I-.j "I'.ny apl:n:ib ? Tl"ph.inrs. are never
•'■en ill cop'il.ition, nc» tit.;, noi' LcaUs at t">;y.

'!'lt

302 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

. y

'■■' A,]

!■

once univerfal j and next, from voluptuoufnefs in
warm climates, which inftigates men of wealth to
tranfgrcfs every rule of temperance. Thefe two
fources I purpofe to handle with care, becaufe they
make a large branch in the hiftory of the female fea.
With refpcft to the firft, fweetnefs of temper, a
capital article in the female charafter, difplays itfclf
externally by mild looks and gentle manners. But
filch graces are fcarce difcernible in a female favage ;
and even in the moft polilhed women, would not be
perceived by a male favage. Among favages,
itrength and boldnefs are the only valued qualities :
in thefe females are miferably deficient j and for that
reafon, are contemned by the males, as beings of an
inferior order. The North American tribes glory
in idlenefs: the drudgery of labour degrades a man
in their opinion, and is proper for women only. To
join young perfons in marriage is accordingly the bui»
linefs of parents; and it would be unpardonable
meannefs in the bridegroom, to ihew any fondnefs
for the bride. Young men among the Hottentots,
are admitted into fociety with their feniors at the
age of eighteen ; after which it is difgraceful to
keep company with women. In Guiana, a woman
never eats with her hufband ; but after every meal
attends him with water for wafliing. In the Ca-
ribbee iflands, llie is not permitted to eat even in the
prefence of her hulband ; and yet we are affured (a)^
that women there obev with fuch fweetnefs and re-
fpeft, as never to give their hufbands occafion to re-
minds them of their duty ; " an example," adds our
fage author, " worthy the imitation of Chriflian
wives, who are daily inftruQed from the pulpit
in the duties of obedience and conjugal fidehty>
hut io icj-y little piu'pofe.'' Dampicr obfcrves in
general, that among all the wild nations he was ac-
quainted with, the women carry the burdens, while
the men walk bclbre, and carry nothing but their

arm*;.

{a) Labjt's vcyaije; to the American Iflar.ds.

ai
b

IV.4

■rsjafssasjaHK^sssBir!!?!

Sk. VI.

Female Sex*

arms. Women even of the higheft rank are not
better treated. The fovereign of Giaga, in Afri-
ca, has many wives, who are literally his flaves:
one carries his bow, one his arrows, and one gives
him drink; and while he is drinking, they all fall
on their knees clap their hands, and fing. Not many
centuries ago, a law was made in England, prohi-
biting the New Teftament in Englifli to be read by
women, 'prentices, journeymen, or ferving men (a).
What a pitiful figure muft the poor females have
made in that age ! In Siberia, and even in Ruflia,
the capital excepted, men treat their wives in every
rcfped as flaves. The regulations of Peter I. put
marriage upon a more refpe£table footing among
people of rank ; and yet fuch are the brutal man-
ners of the Ruffians, that tyrannical treatment oF
wives is far from being eradicated. . .

The low condition of the female fcx among fava-
ges and barbarians, paved the way to polygamy.,
Savages, excited by a talle for variety, and ftill more
by pride which is gratified by many fervants, de-
light in- a multiplicity of wives. The pairing prin-
ciplCj though rooted in human nature, makes little
figure among favages, yielding to every irregular ap-
petite ; and this fairly accounts why polygamy was
" once univcrfa!. It might indeed be thought that
animal love, were there nothing elfe, fliould have
raifed women to feme degree of eftimation among
the men. But male favages, utter ftrangers to de-
cency or refinement, gratify animal love with as
little ceremony as they do hunger or third:.

Hence appears the reafon of a pradice that will
furprife thofe who are unacquainted with ancient
cultoms ; which is, that a man purchafes a woman
to be his wife, as one purchafes an ox or a fheep to
be food. Women bv marriage became flaves ; and
no man will give his daughter to be a flavc, but for
a valuable confideration. The pradice was univer-

fal.

(a) 34th and 35th Henry VIII, cap. 1.

) l':

'' I

JiiiiS

^r \ fir

r "la

f . I-;

3<54

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

fal. I begin with the Jews. Abraham bought, Re-
bekah, and gave her to his fon Ifaac for a wife (ay
Jacob having nothing elfe to give, ferved Laban
fourteen years for two wives (b), Scchem demand-
ing in marriage Dinah, Jacob's daughter, faid, " Afk
*' me never fo much dowry and gift, and 1 will give
" according as ye fliall fay unto me : but give me
the damfel to wife (c)." To David demanding Saul's
daughter in marriage, Saul faid, " The king de-
fireth not any dowry, but an hundred foreikins of
the Philiftines (^j." In the Iliad, Agamemnon offers
his daughter to Achilles for a wife ; and fays, that
he would not demand for her any price. Paufanias
reports of Danaus, that no fuitors appearing to de-
mand any of his daughters, he publifhed, that he
would give them without dowry. In Homer, there
is frequent mention of nuptial gifts from a bride-
groom to his bride's father. From terming them
gifts, it is probable that the former method of pur-
chafe was beginning to wear out. It wore out before
the time of Ariftotle ; who infers, that their fore-
fathers muft have been a very rude people. The
ancient Spaniards purchafed their wives. We have
the authority of Herodotus and of Heraclides Ponti-
cus, that the Thracians followed the fame practice.
The latter adds, that if a wife was ill treated, her re-
lations could demand her back, upon repaying the
price they got for her. In the Roman law men-
tion is mTidt o( n\2itYimony per as et iibra?n, which
was folemnized by laying down a quantity of brafs
with a balance for weighing it, underftood to be the
price paid for the bride. This muft have been once
reality ; though it funk down to be a mere cere-
mony, after it became cuftomary for a Roman bride
to bring a dowry with her. The Babylonians and
the AiTyrians, at dated times, colleded all the mar-
riageable

(.-jI Cfiicfis, xxiv. 53. (b) G<?nefis, chap. xxix. (c) Ccnefis,

rx)»iv. ji. {(J) I San-iUel, xviii. 25.

Sk. VI.

female Sex,

305

riagcablc young women, and difpofed of them by
audion. Rubruguis, in his voyage to Tartary ann.
1253, reports, that there every man bought his wife.
" They believe, he adds, that their wives fervq
<* them in another world as they do in this j for
" which reafon, a widow has no chance for a fc-
*' cond hufband, whom flie cannot ferve in thp
** other world." Olaus Magnus, remarking that
among the ancient Goths no dower was provided on
the bride's part, gives a reafon, better fuited per-
haps to the time he lived in, than to what he dcf-
cribes. *' Apud Oothos, non mulier viro fed' vir
♦' mulieri dotem aflignat j ne conjux, ob magnitudi-
*' ncm dotis infolefcens, aliquando ex placida con-
^' forte protcrva evadet, atque in maritum dominari
*' contendat * ;" as if the hazard of petulance in a
wife would hinder a man to accept a dower with
her : — a fad doftrine for an heirefs. There is pre-
ferved in the abbey of St. Peter a charter, judged to
be 700 years old, in which the Countefs of Amiens
givea to the faid abbey land fhe received from her
hufband at their marriage, " according to the Salic
" law," fays fhe, ** obliging the hufband to give a[
" dowry to his wife." By the laws oi King £thel-
bert, fe£t. 32. a man who committed adultery with
his neighbour's wife, was obliged to pay him a
fine, and to buy him another wife. Giraldus Cam-
brenfis, in his defcription of Wales, fays, that for-
merly they hardly ever married without a prior co-
habitation ; it having been cuftomary for parents
to let out their daughters to young men upon
trial, for a fum of money told down, and under a
penalty if the girls were returned. This I beheve
to be a miftake. It is more probable, that in Wales
men purchafed their wives, as was done all the
Vol. I. X world

; •. ^i-

• " Among the Goths, a man gave a dowry for his bride, inAead of re-
*' reiving one with her j to prevent pride and infolencc, that commonly »«•
^* company riches on the woman's part."^

'Hi;

'I-

306

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

>vorld over, "with liberty to return them if they
proved not agreeable. The bride's parents retained
the dowry, and her chance for a huH^and was as
good as ever.

The fame cuftom continues among barbarous
nations. It continues among the Tartars, among
the Mingrclians, among the Samoides, among the
Oftiacs, among the people of Pegu, and of the Mo-
lucca iflands. In Timor, an Eaft-Indian ifland, men
fell even tlieir children to purchafe more wives.
The Prince of Circaflia demanded from the Princa
of Mingrelia, who was in fuit of his daughter, a
hundred ilaves loaded with tapeftry and other houfe-
hold furniture, a hundred cows, as many oxen,
and as many horfes. We have evidence of the
fame cuftom in Africa, particularly in Biledulge-
rid, among the negroes on the fea-coaft, and in
Monomotapa. Among the Carribbees there is
one inflance where a man gets a wife without
paying for her. After a fuccefsful war, the viftors
are entertained at a feaft, where the General ha-
rangues on the valour of the young men who made
the beft ligure. Every man who has marriageable
daughters, is fond to offer them to fuch young
men without any price. The purchafing of wives
is univerfal among the wild Arabs. When the bar-
gain is concluded, the bridegroom is permitted to
vifit the bride : if flie anfwer not his expedations,
he may turn her off; but has no claim for the price
he paid. In Arabia, fays Niebuhr, a young marri-
ed woman fufpefted of not being a virgin, is fent
back to her father, who muft reftore the price that
was paid for her. The inland negroes are more
polifhed than thofe on the coaft ; and there are fcarcc
any remains among them of purchafmg wives : the
bridegroom makes prefents to his bride, and her fa-
ther makes prefents to him. Tliere are remaining
traces in Ruflia of purchafing wives, 'Even fo late

Sk. VI. Fcnwle Sex. ' • 307

as the time of Peter I. Ruflians married without
feeing each otlier ; and bci : folemnization, the
bride received from the bridegroom a prcfent of
fvveetmeats, foap, and other little things.

The purchafing of wives made it a lawful prafticc,
to lend a wife as one does a flave. The Spartans
lent their wives to their friends ; and Cato the elder
is faid to have done the fame. The Indians of Cali-
cut frequently exchange wives.

If brutiih manners alone be fufficient to degrade
the female fex, they may reckon upon harfli treat-
ment when purchafcd to be flaves. The Giagas, a
fierce and wandering nation in the central parts of
Africa, being fupihely idle at home, fubjedt their
wives and their Haves to every fort of drudgery,
fuch as digging, fowing, reaping, cutting wood,
grinding corn, fetching water, &c. Thefe poor
creatures are fuftered to toil in the fields and woods,
ready to faint with excefllve labour ; while the
monfters of men, will not give themfelves the trou-
ble even of training animals for work, though they
have the example of the Portuguefe before their
eyes. It is the bufinefs of the women among the
wandering Arabo of Africa, to card, fpin, and
weave, and to manage other houfehold affairs.
They milk the cattle, grind, bake, brew, drefs the
viduals, and bring home wood and water. They
even take care of their hufband's horfcs, feed, cur-
ry, comb, bridle, and faddle them, They would
alfo be obliged, like Moorifli wives, to dig, fow,
and reap thtir corn ; but luckily for them the A-
rabs live entirely upon plunder. Father Jofeph Gu-
milla, in his account of a coantry in South Ame-
rica, bordering upon the great river Oroonoko, de-
fcribes pathetically the miferable flavery of marri-
ed women there ; and mentions a practice, that
would appear incredible to one unacquainted with
that country, which is, that inapried women fre-

X 2 (juenly

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•

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t :

ill

■ I!

I' 1:1

iSl'' 111'

, , ■! 'J

' km

ll'

308 MtN iiulcpcndcnt of Socictj'. B. !♦

qucntly dcftroy their female ii)fants. A married
woman, of a virtuous character and good under-
fl-anding, having been guilty of that crime, was
rcproacded by our author in bitter terms. She
heard him patiently with eyes fixed on the ground ;
^nd anfwered as follows. " I wifli to God, Fa-
" ther, I wilh to God, that my mother had by
** my death prevented the manifold diftrcflbs J
" have endured, and have yet to endure as long as
" I live. Had Ihe kindly ftifled me at birth, I had
" not felt the pain of death, nor numberiefs other
*' pains that life hath fubjefted to me. Confider,
*' Father, our deplorable condition. Our hufbands
go to hunt with their hows and arrows, and
trouble themfelves no frinher. We are dragged
along, with one infant ac the breaft, and ano-
ther in a baiket. They return in the evening
^* without any burden : we return with the burden
" of our children ; and, though tired with a long
*' march, are not permitted to lleep, but muft la-
" bour the whole night, in grinding maize to make
" chica for them. They get drunk, and in their
*' drunkennefs beat us, draw us by the hair of the
" head, and tread us under foot. And what have
** we to comfort us for flavery that has no end ?
*' A young wife is brought in upon us, who is
^« permitted to abufe us and our children, bccaufc
" we are no longer regarded. Can human na-
" ture endure fuch tyranny ! \Vlr4t kindnefs can
wp Ihow to our female children equal to that of
reUeving them from fuch oppreilion, mo.e bit-
ter a thoufand times than dtath ? I fay again,
** would to God that my mother had put me under
" ground the moment I was born." One would
readily imagine, that the women of that country
should have the greatefl abhorrence at matrimony :
but all prevailing nature determines the contrary ;
and the appetite for matrimony oveibatances every,
rational confideration.

Nations

((

«c

(.6

l?w.

Sk. VI.

FemaL "/'>f.

305

►he

Nations polifli by degrees j and, from thv l^wefi
ftate to which a human creature can be duccd,
women were reftored to their native dip, At-

tention to drcfs is the firll; lyniptom ol tin pro-
grefs. Male favages, even of the grolled kind, arc
fond of drcfs. Charlevoix mentions a young Ame-
rican hired as a rower, who adjulled his drcls
witli care before he entered the boat, and at in-
tervals infpecled his looking-glafs, to fee whether
violence of motion had not difcompofcd the red
upon his cheeks. We read not of paffion for drefs
in females of fuch favage nations : they arc too
much difpiritcd to think of being agreeable. A-
mong nations in any degree humanized, a diiferent
fcene opens. In the ifthmus of Darien govern-
ment has made fome progrefs, and a chieftain h
clefted for life : a glimmering of civility appears
among the inhabitants ; and as fome regard i«
paid to women, they rival the men in drcfs.
Both fexes wear rings in their ears and notes ;
and are adorned with many rows of (hells hanging
from the neck. A female in a fultry climate
fubmits to fry all day long, under a load of
twenty or thirty pounds of (liells ; and a male
under double that load. Well may they exclaim
with Alexander, " Oh Athenians ; what do I not
" endure to gain your approbation ?" The fcmalci
Caribbeans and Brafilians, are no lefs fond of or-
nament than the males. Hottentot ladies drive to
outdo each other in adorning their kroffes, and
the bag that holds their pipe and tobacco : I'Ji-
ropcan ladies are not more vain of their filks
and embroideries. Women in L/apland arc much
addidted to fmery. They wear broad girdles,
upon which hang chains and rings without end,
commonly made of tin, fomelimes of lilver, weigh-
ing perhaps twenty pounds. The Greenlanders are
nady and llovcnly, cat widi their dogs, make
I tood

) i

■ t

'\¥

liJ

I-.-

; I

■I r

I 'i

f;i

!:l :

! 1

'! ' ■

nil

3!0

ML^J indcpciuicnt ct Society. B. I,

food of the vermin tlmt make food of them, fcl-
doiii or never wafli tlicmrdvcs ; and yet the wo-
men, who make fome figure among the men, are
j;audy in their drefs. Iheir chief ornaments are
pendants at their ears, with glafs beads of various
eolourii ; and tliey draw lines with a needle
and black thread between their eyes, crofs tlic
lorehe.id, ui)on the chin, hand;, and leg.^. The
negroes of the kingdom of Ardrah in eiuinea,
liave made a confiderablc progrefs in police, and
in the art of living. Iheir women carry drefs
and fmery to an extravagance. They arc cloath-
ed with loads of the fmelt fatins and chintzes,
and are adorned with a jirofufion of gold. In a
lultry climate, they gratify vanity at the expence
of eafe. Among the inland negroes, who are
more polilhcd tlian thofe on the fea-coall:, the
women, befide domeitic concerns, fow, [)lant and
reap. A man however fuffers in the elteem of his
neighbours, if he permit his wives to toil like flaves,
while he is indulging in cafe.

From that aufpicious commencement, the female
fex have rifen in a ilow but Heady progrefs, to higher
and higher degrees of eltimation. Converfation is
their talent, and a difplay of delicate fentiments :
the gentlcnefs of their manners and winning behavi-
our, captivate every fenlible heart. Of fuch rehne-
nients, lavages have little conception : but when the
more delicate fenfes are unfolded, the peculiar beau-
ties of the female fex, internal as well as external,
are brought into full light ; and women, formerly
confidered as objc^t.soi animal love merelVj are now
valued as faithful friends and agreeable conijranions.
Pvlatrimony afVumes a more decent lorm, being the
union, not of a mailer and Have, but of two perfons
equal in rank uniting to form a family. And it con-
tributes greatly to this delicious refinement, that in
temperate climes animal love \i moderate, and wo-
men

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

men long retain good looks, and power of procrea-
tion, 'riuis marriage became honourable ariionjj
polifticd nations : which baniflied the barbarous cul-
tom of purchafing wives ; for a man who wilhcs to
have his daughter advantageoufly matched, will gladly
give a dowry with her.

Polygamy is intimately conneded with the cuftom
of purchaling wives. There is no limitation in pur-
chahng Haves : nor has a woman purchafed as a wife
or a Have, any jufl: caufe for complaining that others
are purchafed as (he was : on the contrary, addition
of hands for performing the fervile offices of the fa-
mily, is fome relief to her. Polygamy accordingly
has always been permitted, where men pay for thei-
wives. The Jews purchafed their wives, and w .
indulged in polygamy (a). Diodorus Siculus fays,
that polygamy was permitted in I'gypt, except to
priefts (/;). This probably was the cafe originally j
but when the Egyptian manners came to be polifhed,
a man gave a dowry with his daughter, inftead of
receiving a price for her ; witnefs Solomon, who
got the city of Gazer in dowry with the King of
Egypt's daughter. When that cuftom became uni-
verfal, we may be certain that it put an end to poly-
gamy. And accordingly Herodotus affirms, that
polygamy was prohibited in Egypt (c). Polygamy
undoubtedly prevailed in Greece and Rome, while
it was cuftomary to purchafe wives ; but improved
manners put an end to the latter, and confequently
to the former. Polygamy to this day obtains in the
cold country of Kamlkatka ; and in the ftill colder
country round Hudfon's bay. In the land of Jeffi^,
near Japan, a man may have two wives, who per-
form every fort of domcftic drudgery. The negroes
in general purchafe their wives, and indulge in po-
lygamy: and this is alio law in Monomotapa. Poly-
gamy and the purchafmg wives were cuftomary

among

■I

{41) Le\it!cu<;, xvUi. 18.

(i) Lib. I.

(t) Lib. 2. § 9:

:i ■

31* Men independent of Society. B. I.

among the original inhabitants of the Canary iflands,
and among the people of Chili.

The low condition of women among barbarians
introduced the purchafing of them for wives, and
confequently polygamy* The juft refpeft paid to
them among civilized nations, reftored the law of
nature, and confined a man to one wife* Their
eq^uality as to rank and dignity, bars the man from
taking another wife, as it bars the woman from taking
another hulband. We find traces in ancient hiltory
of polygamy wearing out gradually. It wore out in
Greece, as manners refined ; but fuch was the inidu^
cnce of long habit, that tho' a man was confined to
one wife, he wacj indulged in concubines without
limitation. In Germany, when Tacitus wrote, very
few traces remained of polygamy, " Sevcraillicmatri-
monia,nec uUam morum partem magis laudaveris i
nam prope foli barbarorum fmgulis uxoribus con-
tenti funt, exceptis admodumpaucis, qui non libi-
*' dine, fed ob nobilitatem, plurimis nuptiis ambiun-^
tur*." As polygamy was in that country little pradifedj
we may be certain the purchafing wives did not remain
in vigour. Tacitus accordingly, mentioning the ge-
neral rule, ** dotem non uxor marito, fed uxori ma*-
" ritus oifert *," explains it away by obferving, that
the only dos given by the bridegroom were marri-
age-prefents, and tha,t he at the fame time received
'iiarriage-prefents on the bride's part (a). The equa-
lity of the matrimonial engagement for the mutual-
benefit of hufband ai\d wife, was well undcrltood
among the Gauls. Casfar (b) fays, " Viri quantas
*•* pecunias ab uxoribus dotis nomine acccperunt^

" tantas

((

* " Marriage is tlicre rigidly refpeiflcd ; nor Is tliere any pa.t of tlieif
" morality more laudable ! for tliey are almod tiie only race of barbarians
" wlio are contented with a fini^lewile; a very few excepted, wlio, not from
" incontlriency, but from an ambition of nobility, take more wives than
" one."

• " The hurtiand gives a dowry to the wife, but the vvifc brings none to
" thehufljand."

(<j) De moribus Geiinanorum, cap, i8»

(/>) Lib. 6. cap. If). iX- bcllo Gallito, -

i*J,

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

313

((

«t

" tantaS ex fuis bonis, scftimationc facia, cuntdo-
tis nomine acceperunt, tantas ex fuis bonis, rcfti-
matione fafta, cum dotibus communicant. Hujus
omnis pecuniae conjundim ratio habetur, fruftuf-
que fervantur. Uter eoruin vita fuperarit, ad
eum pars utriufque cum fruttibus fupcriorumtem-
porum pervenit f .*' In Japan, and in Nicaragua,
man can have but one wife ; but he may have
many concubines. In Siam, polygamy is ftill per-
mitted, though the bride brings a dowry with her :
but that abfurdity is corrected by refined manners ;
it being held improper, and even difgraceful, to have
more than one wife. 'I'he purchafmg wives wore
out of fafhion among the ancient Tufcans ; for it
was held infamous, that marriage (hould be the re-
fult of any motive but mutual love. This at the
fame time put an end to polygamy. Polygamy was
probably early eradicated among the ancient Pcrfi-
ans ; for the bride's dowry was fettled in marriage-
articles, as among us. And there is the fame reafon
for prefuming, that it was not long permitted in
Mexico ; marriage there being folemnized by the
prieft, and the bride's dower fpecificd, which was
reftored in caie of feparation. In the countries where
the Chriftian religion was firft propagated, women
were faft advancing to an equality with the men,
and polygamy was wearing out of faihion. The
pure fpirit of the gofpel haftened its extinftion ; and
tho' not prohibited exprefsly, it was however held,
that Chriliianity is a religion too pure for polyga-
my.

But, as hinted above, it was by flow degrees that
the female fex emerged out of flavery, to poflefs the
elevated ftation they are entitled to by nature. The
pra*^icc of expofing infants among the Greeks and

many

( i:i:

\t:

III

-fv " Whatever fum the hnfltand has received as his wife's portion, he
' \r.\\vi a*; much c>t his own cficd^i. An aci.-ount is kept of tliis joint rtock,
'• .'inJ tiie tniits of it are prcftrvcd. Upon the death of uirher, the fiirviving
" fpouff !iJ- '.hcpioptrty of both tlie (h..i(-,s, with the fiuiu or profits.'' .

3«4

Men Independent of Society. B. I,

i'.^^

many other nations, is an invincible proof of their
depreflion, even after the cuftom ceafed of purchaf-
ing them. It is wifely ordered by Providence, that
the aft'e£lion of a woman to her children commences
with their birth ; becaufe during infancy all depends
on her care. As during that period, the father is of
little ufe to his child, his affection is but flight, till
the child begin to prattle and fhew fome fondnefs for
him. The expofing an infant therefore Ihows, that
the mother was little regarded : if (lie had been al-
lowed a vote, the pradice never would have obtained
in any country. In the firft book of the Iliad, Achilles
fays to Agamemnon, who threatened to force from
him his miilrefs Brifeis, " Another thing I will tell
thee : record it in thy foul. For a woman thefe
hands fliall never fight, with thee nor with thy
foes. Come, feize Brifeis : ye Argives, take the
prize ye gave. But beware of other fpoil, which
lies flowed in my fliips on the fhore. I will not
be plundered farther. If other be thy thoughts,
Atrides, come in arms, a trial make : thefe very
flaves of thine fliall behold thy blood pouring
around my fpear *." The comedies of Menander,
Philemon, and Diphilus, are lofl; but manners
mufl have been little poliflied in their time, as far as
can be conjeftured from their tranflators or imitators,
Plautus and Terence. Married women in their
comedies are fometimes introduced, and treated

with

* • Pope cilfguires that fentlment as follows.

Seize on Biifeis, wliom tlie Grecians doom'd
My prize of war, yet tamely fee refum'd ; '

Anc! feize fecure ; ro more Achilles draws •
His conqu'ring fword in any woman's caufe.
Tlie gods command iiic to forgive the part;
" But let this firft invafion be the laft :
'■' For know, thy blood, when next thou dar*ft invade,
*' Shall rticnm in vengeance on my reeling blade."
Such contempt of tlic female fcx as exprelled by Achilles was perhaps thought
too giofi for a modern car. But did not Pcpe difcover, that one capital
beauty in Homer, is the delineation of ancient manners i* At that rate, had it
fallen to his fliareto dcfcribe Julius Cfefar, he would have drelfed him like a
modern beau. And why not ? for in a genttel airemhly, wliat a favagc
Would he appear, without breeches, and without linen !

...la

B. I.

J their
(chaf-
that

•nces
|»ends

is of
,, till
\s for

that
aJ-
[ined
lilies

Sk. VI.

Fejiiale Sex*

315

with very little refpect. A man commonly vents his
wrath on his wife ; and fcolds her as the caufe of the
mifconduft of their children. A lady, perhaps too
inquifitive about her hufband's amours, is addrcfied
by him in the following words.

" Ni mala, ni ftulta, fis, ni indomita impofque a-

mini.

((

Quod viro efle odio videas, tute tibi odio habeas.
" Prseter hiic fi mihi tale poll hunc diem
*' Faxis, faxo foris vidua vilas patrem *."

So little formerly were women regarded in Eng-
land, that the benefit of clergy was noi extend-
ed to them, till the days of William and Mary,
when an a£t of parhament was made beftowing
that privilege on them.

One will not be furprized, that women in
Greece were treated with no great refped by
their hufbands. A woman cannot have much
attraftion who paiTes all her time in folitude : to
be admired, {he mufl: receive the polifli of focie-
ty. At the fame time, men of fafliion were fo
much improved in manners, as to relifti fociety
with agreeable women, where fuch could be
found. And hence the figure that courtezans
riiade at that period, cfpecially in Athens. They
ftudied the temper and tafte of the men, and
endeavoured to gain their aft'eclion, by every win-
ning art. The daily converfations they liftcned to
on philofophy, politics, poetry, enlightened their
underftanding and improved their tafte. Their

houfes

" Would you be iitld a wife and virtuous fpcufe,
" An tof difcrcrion due, obfervethiscounfd:
" Wlutcver I, your lord, blame or approve,
'' Still let your praift orcenfure be the fame.

" But hearkce, be this reprimand the laft :

" Jf you again offend, no more a wife

" Within thefc walls; — your father has you back."

■. '^i

,!' t

■m

!•, i

» '

)' i

i'M

3i6 Men independent of Society.

B. I.

houfes became agreeable fchools, where every one
might be inftrufted in his own art. Socrates
and P.?ricles met frequently at the houfe of Afpa-
fia ; from her they acquired delicacy of tafte, and
in return procured to her public refped and re-
putation. Greece at that time was governed by
orators, over whom fome celebrated courtezans
had great influence : and by that means entered
deep into the government. It was faid of the fa-,
mous Demofthenes, " The meafure he hath medi-
" tated on for a year, will be overturned in a day by
*' a woman." It appears accordingly from Plautus
and Terence, that Athenian courtezans lived in great
fplendor. See in particular Heautontimorpumenos,
aft 3. fcene2.

I proceed to the other caufe of polygamy, viz.
opulence in a hot climate. Men there have a burn-
ing appetite for animal enjoyment j and women
become old and lofe the prolific quality, at an age
which carries them little beyond the prime of life
in a temperate climate. Thefe circumftances dif-
pofe men of opulence to purchafe their wives, that
they may not be confined to one ; and purchafe
they muft, for no man without a valuable con-
fideratiottj will furrender his daughter, to be one of
many who are deftined to gratify the carnal appe--!
titc of a fingie man. The numerous wives and
concubines in Afiatic harems, are all of them pur-
chafed with money. In the hot climate of Hin-
doltan, polygamy is univerfal, and men buy their
wives. The fame obtains in China : after the
price is adjufted and paid, the bride is conduct-
ed to the bridegroom's houfe, locked in a fedan,
and the key delivered to him: if he be not fatisfied
with his bargain, he fends her back at the ex-
pcnce of lofing the fum he paid for her : if fatisfi-
ed, he feafts his male friends in one room, and fhe
hrr female friends in another. A man who has

little

B. I.

Sk. VL

Female Sex.

317

re-
Id by

izans
tered
fa.
^icdi-
lyby
lutus

VIZ.

little fubftance, takes a wife for his fon from a hof-
pital, which faves him a dowry. -■: ; ..i u'mi\

It has been pleaded for polygamy in warm cli-
mates, that women are fit for being married
at or before the age of ten ; that they arc paft
child-bearing at twenty-five, while men are yet in
the prime of life ; and therefore that a fecond wife
ought to be permitted who can bear children.
Are women then created for no other purpofe but
procreation merely, to be laid afide as ufelcfs
animals when they ceafe to bear children ? In the
hotteft climates, a woman may be the mother of
ten or twelve children ; and arc not both parents
ufefuUy employed, in rearing fuch a number and
fitting them to do for themfelves ? After this impor-
tant tafk is performed, is not the woman well in-
titled, for the remainder of life, to enjoy the con-
jugal fociety of a man, to whom fhe dedicated the
flower of her youth ? But even attending to the
male fex only without paying any regard to the
other fex, it ought to be confidered, that a man,
by taking a fecond wife, prevents fome other
man from having any. The argument for poly-
gamy would indeed be conclufive, were ten females
born for one male, as is faid to be the cafe in
Bantam : but as an equality of males and females
is the invariable rule of nature, the argument has
no force. All men are born equal by nature ; and
to permit polygamy in any degree, is to authorife
fome to ufurp the privilege of others.

Thus in hot climates women remain in the fame
humble and dependent ftate, in which all women
were origirially, when all men were lavages. Wo-
men by the law of Hindoftan are not admitted to be
witnefles, even in a civil caufe; and I blulh to ac-
knowledge, that in Scotland the fame law has not
been long in difufe. • -^ >

In contradidion to the climate, Chriftianity has
banifhed polygamy from Etliiopia, though the

\^1%

!'■ t"

H i!

S (■'

■ II, ' :'

318 Men independent of Society. B.I.

judges are far from being fevere upon that
crime. The heat of the climate makes them wifh
to indulge in a phirality of wives, even at the ex-
pence of purchafing each of them. Among the
Chriitians of Congo polygamy is in ufe, as for-
merly when they were Pagans. To be confined
to one wife during life, is held by the moll zea-
lous Chriitians there, to be altogether irrational :
rather than to be fo confined, they would renounce
Chriftianity.

Bcfide polygamy, many other cuftoms depend
on the nature of the matrimonial engagement,
and vary according to its different kinds. Mar-
riage-ceremonies, for that realbn, vary in different
countries, and at different times. Where the prac-
tice is to purchafe a wife, whether among fa-
vages pr among pampered people in hot cli-
mates, payment of the price completes the marriage
without any other ceremony. Other ceremonies
however are fometimes praftifed. In old Rome,
the bride was attended to the bridegroom's houfe
with a female Have carrying a diftaff and a fpindle,
importing that fhc ought to fpin for the family.
Among the favages of Canada and of the neigh-
bouring countries, a ftrap, a kettle, and a fag-
got, are put in the bride's cabbin, as fymbols of
her duty, viz. to carry burdens, to drefs victu-
als, and to provide wood. On the other hand,
the bride, in token of her flavery, takes her
axe, cuts wood, bundles it up, and lays it before
the door of the bridegroom's hut. All the falu-
tation ihe receives is, " It is time to go to reft.]'
■"llie inhabitants of Sierra Leona, a negro coun-
try, have in all their towns a boarding-fchool,
where young ladies are educated for a year, un-
der the care of a venerable old gentleman. —
When their education is completed, they are car-
ried in their beft attire to a public aflcmbly ;

which

B.I.

that

wifh

W cx-

the

for-

fined

zea-

)nal:

uncc

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

319

which may be termed a matrimonial market, be-
caufe there young men convene to make a choice.
Thofe who fit themfelves to their fancy, pay
the dowry ; and over and above, gratify the old
fuperintendant for his extraordinary care in edu-
cating the bride. In the ifland of Java, the bride
in token of fubjedlion, waflies the bridegroom's
feet ; and this is a capita' ceremony. In Rulfia,
the bride prefents to the bridegroom a bundle
of rods to be ufed againft her when flie de-
ferves to be chaftifed ; and at the fame time flic
pulls off his boots. The prefent Emprefs, intent
upon reforming the rude manners of her fub-
jeds, has difcountenanced that ceremony among
people of fafhion. Very different were the man-
ners of Peru, before the Spanifh conquefl. The
bridegroom carried fhoes to the bride, and put
them on with his own hands. But there, pur-
chafing of wives was unknown. Marriage-cere-
monies in Lapland are dirc6ted by the fame
principle. It is the cuftom there for a man to
make prefents to his children of rein-deer ; and
young women, fuch as have a large flock of thefe
animals have lovers in plenty. A young man
looks for fuch a wife, at a fair, or at a meeting
for paying taxes. He carries to the houfe of the
young woman's parents, fome of his relations ;
being folicitous in particular to have an eloquent
fpeaker. They are all admitted except thd lo-
ver, who muft wait till he be called in. After
drinking fome fpirits, brought along for the pur-
pofe, the fpokefman addreifes the father in humble
terms, bowing the knee as if he were introduced to
a prince. He flyles him, the worfliipful fiuher, the
high and mighty father, the bcfl and moft iUulhi-
Gus father, &c. fire.

In viewing the chain of caufes and efl'eds, in-
.fiances fometiines occur of bizarre facts, flaniniT:

1 froiM

I;.,

I- i V'i '•

J»

20 Mi-.N independent of Society.

B.I.

h\. .i'

:: > i

from the chain without any caufc that can be difco-
vercd.. The marriage-ceremonies among the Hot-
tentots are of that nature. After all matters are ad-
jufted among the old people, the young couple arc
^hut up by themfelvcs j and pafs the night in (Irug-
gling for fuperiority, which proves a very ferious
work where the bride is reludant. If fhe perfeverc
to the lalt without yielding, the young man is dif-
cardcd ; but if he prevail, which commonly happens,
the marriage is compleated by another ceremony, no
lefs fmgular. The men and women fquat on the
ground in different circles, the bridegroom in the
centre of one, and the bride in the centre of ano-
ther. The Suri, or mafter of religious ceremonies,
pifl'es on the bridegroom ; who receives the ftreain
with eagernefs, and rubs it into the furrows of the
fat with which he is covered. He performs the fame
ceremony on the bride, who is equally refpedfuj.
The ceremonies of marriage among the prefent
Greeks are no iefs bizarre. Among other particu-
lars the bridegroom and bride walk three rounds ;
during which time they are kicked and cuffed hear-
tily. Our author Tournefort adds, that he only and
his companions forbore to join in the ceremony ;
which was afcribed to their rufticity and ignorance
of polite manners. Marriage ceremonies among the
Kamlkatkans are extremely whimfical. A young
man, atifer niaking his propofals, enters into the fer-
vice of his mtended father-in-law. If he prove a-
grceable, he is admitted to the trial of the Jouc/j,
The young woman is fwaddled up in leathern thongs ;
and in that condition is put under the guard of fomc
old women. Watching every opportunity of a flack
guard, he endeavours to uncafe her, in order to
touch what is always the moft concealed. The bride
muft rcliit, in appearance at lead ; and therefore
cries out for her guards ; who fall with fury on the
j^ridegroom, tear his hair, fcratfh his face, and ^tt
in violent oppohtion. The attempts of the lover

prove

Sk. vt*

Femak Sex*

321

prove fometlnies unfuccefsful for months j but the
moment the iouch is atchieved, the bride teflifics her
fatisfaflion, by pronouncing the words A7, Ni, with
a fo^*^ and loving voice. The next night they bed
together without any oppofition. One marriage-
ceremony among the inland negroes, is fmgular. As
foon as the preliminaries are adjufled, the bride-
groom with a number of his companions fct out at
night ; and furround the houfe of the bride, as
if intending to carry her oflf by force. She and her
female attendants, pretending to make all poiTible
refinance, cry aloud for help, but no perfon ap-
pears. This refembles ftrongly a marriage-ceremony
that is or wascuftomary in Wales. On the morning
of the wedding-day, the bridegroom, accompanied
with his friends on horfeback, demand the bride.
Her friends, who are likewife on horfeback, give a
pofitive refufal, upon which a mock fcuffle enfues.
The bride, mounted behind her nearefl kinfman, Ik
carried off, and is purfued by the bridegroom and his
friends, with loud fhouts. It is not uncommon on
fuch an occafion to fee two or three hundred fturdy
Cambro-Britons riding at full fpeed, crofling and
joftling, to the no fmall amufement of the fpedators.
When they have fatigued themfelves and their horfes^
the bridegroom is fuffcred to overtake his bride. He
leads her away in triumph, ajnd the fcene Is conclud-
ed with feafting and feftivity. The fame marriage-
ceremony was ufual in Mufcovy, Lithuania, and Li-
vonia, as reported by Olaus Magnus (^?) .-,-■■. ,-.
Divorce alio depends on the nature of the matri-
monial engagement. Where the law is, that a man
mud purchafe his wife as one does a Have ; it follows
naturally, that he may purchafe as many as he can
pay for, and that he may turn them off at his plea-
fure. This law is univerfal, without a fingle excep-
tion. The Jews, who purcliafed their wives, were
. Vol. L ,. \;. .,..,, X^ ; , privileged

r^'

'hv.

■'ii

(11) Lil', 14. cliap. 9.

't;

It'M,

32a Men independent of Society. B. t.

privileged to divorce them, without being obliged to
allign a caufe {b). The negroes purchafe their vrivcsy
and turn them off when they think, proper. The
fame law obtains in China, in Monomotapa, in the
idhmus of Darien, in Caribeana, and even in
the cold country round Hudfon's bay. All ^he fa-
vagea of South America who live near the Oroonoko,
purchafe as many wives as they can maintain ; and
divorce them without ceremony.

Very different is a matrimonial engagement be-
tween equals, where a dowry is contracted with the
bride. The nature of the engagement implies, that
neither of them (hould difmifs the other, without a
juit caufe. In Mexico, where the bride brought a
dowry, there could be no divorce but by mutual con-
fent. In Lapland, the women who have a flock of
rain<deer, as above mentioned, make a confiderable
figure. This lays a foundation for a matrimonial
covenant as among us, which bars polygamy, and
confequently divorce without a juft caufe. And when
thefe are barred in feveral inflances, the prohibition
in time becomes gtneral.

I proceed to adultery, the criminality of which
depends alfo in fome meafure on the nature of ther
mattimonial engagement. "Where wive* are puf-
chafed and polygamy is indulged, adultery can fcarce
be reckoned a crime in the hufband ; and where
there are k plurality of wives, found fenfe makes it
but a Venial crime in any of them. But as men are the
lawgivers^ the punifhmcnt of female adyltery, where
polygamy takes place, is generally too feverc. It is
however more or lefs fevere in different countries, in
proportion as the men are more or lefs prone to re-
venge. The Chinefe are a mild people, and depend
more on locks and bafs for preventing adultery,
than on feverity j the punifliment being only to fell
an adulterefs for" a flavc. The fame law obtains in
the kingdom of Laos, bordering upon/ China* An

adulterefs

(i) Deuteronomy, chap* 24,

Sk. VL

Female Sex,

3^i

adultcrcfs among the ancient Egyptians was punifh-
ed with the lofs of her nofe. In ancient Greece, a
pecuniary penalty was inflidlcd on an adulterer (a).
An adulterefs was probably punifhed more feverely.
Among the negroes, who nave very little delicacy,
adultery is but flightly puniihed ; except in the
kingdom of Benin. There an adulterefs, after a fc-
vere whipping, is banilhcd ; and the adulterer for-
feits his goods, which are beftowed on the injured
hufband. Among the ancient Germans, a grave
and virtuous people, adultery was rare. An adulter-
efs was deprived of her hair, expelled from her huf-
band's houfe, and whipped through the village (b).
In Japan, where the people are remarkably fierce,
female adultery is always punifhed with death. In
Tonquin, a woman guilty of adultery, is thrown to
an elephant to be deftroyed. By the law of Mofes,
an adulterefs is punifhed with death, as alfo the adul-
terer (c). Margaret of Burgundy, Queen to Lewis
Hutin King of France, was hanged for adultery ; and
her lovers were fleaed alive. Such were the favage
manners of thofe time. There is an old law in
Wales, that for defiling the prince's bed, the offender
muft pay a rod of pure gold, of the thicknefs of the
finger of a ploughman who has ploughed nine years,
and in length from the ground to the Prince's mouth
when fitting.

Matrimony between a fingle pair, for mutual com-
fort, and for procreating children, implies the ftrift-
efl mutual fidelity. Adultery however is a deeper
crime in the wife than in the hufband : in him it may
happen occafionally, with little or no alienation of
affection ; but the fuj^rior niodefty of the female
fex i« fuch, that a wife-dops not yield, till unlawful
love prevails, not only over modefty, but over duty
to her hufband. Adultery therefore in the wife, is a

Y a breach

\'.'

., («0 OdylTey, b. 8.K 384.
■ {6) Tacitus, De morihus Gertnanorum, cap. 19.
(f^ Le\-iticus, xx. 10.

T'f^ffl

' ''^ ^^m

i ^fm

■•■■■:«■

': '•■m

i'li

mI'h^I

rt*i

Men indcnendcnt of Society.

B.I.

breach of the matrimonial engagement in a double
refpedl : it is an alienation of affe£lion from
the hufband, which unqualifies her to be his friend
and companion ; and it tends to bring a fpurious ifl'uc
into the family, betraying the hutband to maintain
and educate children who are not his own.

The gradual advance of the female fcx to an
equality with the male fex, is vifible in the lawsof
female fucceflion, that have been cflabliflicd at differ-
ent tiities, and in dilTercnt countries. It is not pro-
bable, that in any country women were early admit-
ted to inherit land : they are too much defpifed
among favagcs, for fo valuable a privilege. The
fiercenefs and brutality of the ancient Romans in par-
ticular, unqualified the women to be their compani-
ons: it never entered their thoughts, that women
(hould inherit land, which they cannot defend by the
fword. But women came to be regarded, in pro-
portion as the national manners refined. The law
prohibiting female fucceflion in land, cftablifhed
in days of ruflicity, was held to be rigorous, and
unjuft when the Romans were more poliflied. Pro-
prietors of land, fuch of them as had no fons,
were difpofed to evade the law, by ample provi-
lions to their daughters, which rendered the land
of little value to the collateral heir-male. To re-
form that abufe, as termed by thofe who adhered
to ancient cultoms, the lex Voconia was made, con-
fining fuch provifions within moderate bounds :
and this regulation continued in force, til! re-
gard for the female fex broke through every le-
•>al reftraint, and cftablifhed female fucceflion in
land, as formerly in moveables *. The barba-
rous

• JuAInian, or more properly the lawyers employed by him upon that
abfurd compilation the Panciedts, is guilty of a profs error, in teachintj
that by the Twelve Tables males ?vs\ ftiiiales of the fane <!tgree futccedcH
equally to land. The lex I'uirh (explained in j^le.totidri ah Alexur.dro gcriala
ilies,/il>, 6, M/. 15.} vouches the Ccntrary. And one cannot fee without

pain,

Sk. VI.

Fetnah Sex*

3'^S

rous nations who cruflicd the Uoman power, wtn-
not late in adopting the mild manners of the con-
quered : they aidmittcd women to inherit land, and
they exadcd a double compofition for injuries
done to them. By the Salic law among the
Franks, women were exprefsly prohibited to in-
herit land ; but we learn from the forms of Mar-
culfus, that this prohibition was in time eluded by
the following folemnity. The man who wanted to
put his daughter upon a footing with his fons,
carried her before the commiflary, faying, " My
*' dear child, an ancient and impious cultom bars
" a young woman from fucceeding to her father :
** but as all my children equally are given me by
" God, I ought to love them equally v therefore,
*' my dear child, my will is, that my effects fliall
*' divide equally between you and your brc-
** thren,** Jn polilhed, dates, women are not ex-
cluded from fucceeding even to the crown. Ruf-
fia and Britain afford examples of women capa-
ble to govern, in an abfolute as well as in a limited
monarchy *.

What

pain, Juftjmaii''s error, not only adopted by an Illurtilous modern, but a caufe
ifTigned for it fo refined and fubtile »:> to go quite out of fight, L'ei'prit de
/oiv, /ki. %'r. chnp. i. I venture to affirm, that fubtile reafoning never h:id
any influence upon a rougli and illiterate people ; and therefore, at the
time of the Decemvirs, who compofcd tlic twdve tables of the law,
the fubtile caule affigned by our author could not have been the motive,
had the Decemvirs introduced female fuccefTion in land, wliiclj they certain-
ly did not.

* Tlw kingdom of Cuiralj in Hindoftan wa^ governed by Queen Dar-
goutte, eminent for (! irit and beauty. Small as that kingdom is, it contain-
td about -0,000 towns and villages, the tffedl of long peace and prof-
periry. Being inv^^f^ed by Afaph Can, not many years ago, the Queen,
mounted en an ek )i\ant, led her troops to battle. Her fon Rajali Eicr
Shaw, being wounded in the heat of a^ion, was by her orders carried from
tiie field That accident having occafioned a general panic, the (|ueen was
left with but 3C0 horfemen. Adhar, who conduced her elepliant, exhorted
her to retire while it could be done with fafety. The heroine rejected the
advice. " It is true," faid flie, " we are overcome in battle; but not in
" honour. Shall I, for a lingering ignominious life, lofc a reputation that
*' has been my chief ftudy ! Let your gratitude repay now the obligations you
" owe me; pull out your dagger, ind five me from flavery, by putting an
" end to my life." The kingdom of .'lijoina in Guinea was governed by t
queer, wlicn Sofman wrote.

^■11

I I

f ;.

y'i

t R

S t

m' iii:

!"l»!3i '''11

t liil

326

Men independent of Society. B. X

What I have faid, regards thofe nations only
where polygamy is prohibited. I take it for
granted, that women are not admitted to inherit
land where polygamy is lawfwl : they are not in
fuch eftimation as to be intitled to a privilege fp
illuftrious.

Among the Hurons in North America, where
the regal dignity is hereditary, and great regard
paid to th^ royal family, the fucccllion is continued
through females, in order to preferve the royal
blood pntainted. When the chief 'dies, his fon fuc-
cceds not, but his fifter's fon ; who certainly is of
the royal blood, whoever be the father : and
when the royal family is at an end, a chief is cled-
ed by the nobleft mairon of the tribe. The fame
rule of fucccifion obtains among the Natches, a
JDeople bordering on the Miflifippi ; it being an ar-
ticle in their creed, Th^* their royal family are
children of the fun. On the fame belief was
foundeid a law in Peru, appointing the heir of the
crown to marry his filler ; which, equally with the
law mentioned, preferved the blood of the fun in the
royal family, and did not encroach fo much upon the
natural order of fucceltion.

Female fucccflion depends ip fome degree on the
nature of the government. In Holland, all the chil-
idren, male and female^ fucceed equally. Hol-
landers live by commierce, which women arc ca-
pable of as well as men. Land at the fame time
is fo fcanty in that country,' as to render it im-
pradicablc to raife a family by engroffing a great
eftate in land; and there is hotting but the am-
bition of railing a family, tjiat can move a man tp
prefer one of his children before the reft. The
lame law obtains in Hamburgh, for the fame rea-
Ibris. Extehfivc eftates in land fuppojrt great fa-
milies in Britain, a circumftance unfavourable to
younger children. But probably in London, and

other great trading towns,

mercantile men
provide

nly

for

srit

Ifo

Sk. VI.

Female Sex*

i^7

ill,

provide againft the law, by making a more e^
qual diflr'ibution of their eficcls among their chil-
dren. '^ ■

After traverfmg a great part of thp globe with
painful induftry, would not one be apt to conclude,
that originally females wtrc every where defpifed,
as they are at prefent among the favages of Ame-
rica ; that wives, like ilaves were procured by bar?*
jter ; that polygamy was univerfal ; and that di-
vorce depended on the whim of the huiband ? But
no fort of rcafoning is more fallible, than the
drawing general concluftons from particular fads^
The northern nations of Europe, as appears from
the foregoing iketch, muft be excepted from thefe
conclufions. Among them, women were from the
beginning courted and honoured, nor was polygamy
ever known among them.

We proceed now to a capital article in the
progrefs of the female fex ; which is, to trace the
different degrees of reftraint impofed upon married
women in different countries, and ^t different times
in the fame country ; and to ^ffi^ the caufes of
thefe differences. Where luxury is unknown, and
where people have no wants but whajt are fuggeft-
ed by uncorrupted nature ; nien and women live to-
gether with great freedom, and with great inno-
cence. In Greece antijcntly, even young women of
rank mipiileredto men in bathing.

" While thcfo officious tend the rites divine,
*' The laft fair branch of the Neftorian line,
" Sweet Polycaft^, took the pleafant toil
♦* To bathe the Prince, and pour the fragrant
oil (ay*

Men and women among the Spartans, bathed pro-
mifcuoufly, $in4 vrellied together (lark naked.

Tacitus

(«) 04j(Cef, bo0k }. See alfo bof k 8. line 491^

•i -il.

318 Men independent of Society. B. I.

Tacitus reports, that the Germans had not even fe-
parate beds, but lay promifcuoufly upon reeds or
heath along the walls of the houfe. T'uc fame
cuftom prevails even at prefent among the tenm-
perate Highlanders of Scotland ; and is not quite
worn out in New-England. A married woman is
under no confinement, becaufc no man thinks of
an a6t fo irregular as to attempt her chaftity. In
the Caribbee iflands adultery was unknown till
European Chriftians made fettlements there. At
the fame time, there fcarce can be any fewel for
jcaloufy, where men purchafe their wives, put
ihem away at pleafure, and even lend them to a
friend. But when by ripening fenfibiU^y a man
feels pleafure in his wife's attachment to him, jea-
Joufy commences ; jealoufy of a rival in her affec-
tions. Jealoufy accordingly is a fymptom of
creafmg efteem for the female fex ; and that o?/-
fion is vifibly creeping irt among the natives of Vir-
ginia. It begins to have a real foundation, when
inequality of ra^k and of riches takes place. Men
of opulence ftudy pleafure : married women be-
come objedts of a corrupted tafte ; and often fall
a facrifice, where morals are imperfect, and the
climate an incentive to animal love. Greece is a
delicious country, the people handfome ; and when
the ancient Greeks made the greateft figure they
were miferably defective in morals. They became
jealous of rivals j which prompted them, according
to the rough manners of thofe times, to exclude
women from fociety with men. Their women ac-
cordingly were never feen in public ; and if my
memory ferve me, an accidental interview of a man
and a woman on the public ftreet, brings on the
cataftrophe in a Greek tragedy. In Hecuba, a tra-
gedy of Euripides, the Queen cxcufes hcrfelf for
declining to , vifit Polymcftor, faying, *« that it Is
^* indecent for a woman to look a man in the face."
In thp Elcdlra of Sophocles, Antigone is permitted

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

3^9

by her mother Jocafta to take a view of the Argian
army from a high tower ; an old man who accom-
panies her, being alarmed at feeing fome females
pafs that way and afraid of cenfure, prays Anti-
gone to retire ; " for," fays he, " women are
'* prone to detraction ; and to them the mereft
** trifle is a fruitful fubjeft of converfation *." —
Spain is a country that fcarce yields to Greece in
finencfs of climate ; and the morals of its people
in the dark ages of Chriftianity, were not more
pure than thofe of Greece. By a law of the Vifigoths
in Spain, a furgeon was prohibited to take blood
from a free woman, except in prefcnce of her
hufband or neareft relations. By the Salic law (a),
he who fqueezes the hand of a free woman, fhall
pay a fine of 15 golden fhillings. In the fourteenth
century, it was a rule in France, that no married
woman ought to admit a man to vifit her in ab-
fence of her hufband. Female chaflity mufl at
that time have been extremely feeble, when fo little
truft was repofed in the fair fex. « • ,

To treat women in that manner, may polTibly be
neceffary, where they are in requeft for no end but
to gratify animal love. But where they are intended
for the more elevated purpofes, of being friends and
companions, as well as affedionate mothers, a very
different treatment is proper. Locks and fpies will
never anfwer ; for thefe tend to debafe their minds,
to corrupt their morals, and to render them con-
temptiblofc By gradual openings in the more deli-
cate fenfes, particularly in all the brc iches of the
moral fenfe, chaflity, one of thefe branches, ac-
quires a commanding influence over females ; and

. . . , becomes

• Women ^re not prone to dctraftlon, unlefs when .denied the comforts of
foclety. The cenfure of Sophocles is pnobably juftwith refpeft to his coun-
trywomen, becaufe they were locked up. Old maids have the charadter
with uj of being prone to detraftion J but that holds not unlefs iliey retire
from fociety.

(«) Tit. 22.

!;(•

i 1

1 i.'ii

'Jim

' i

Hi.

i: :l

'i-

-Hi

330 MeN" independent of Society. B* I.

becomes their ruling principle. In that refined ftate,
women arc trufted with their own conduct, and
may fafely be truded . they make delicious compa-
nions, and uncorruptible friends ; and that fuch
at prefent is generally their cafe in Britain, I am
bold to affirm. Anne of Britanny, wife to Char-
les VIII. and to Lewis XII. Kings of France, in-
troduced the falhion of ladies appearing publicly
at Court. This falhion was introduced much later
in England : even down to the Revolution, wo-
men of rank never appeared in the ftre^'ts without
a. maik. In Scotland the veil, or plaid, continued
long in falhion, with which every woman of rank
was covered when flie went abroad. That fa-
ihion has not been laid aftde above forty years.
In Italy, women were much longer confined than
in France ; and in Spain the indulging them with
fome liberty is but creeping into falhion. In A-
byilinia polygamy is prohibited ; and married wo-
men of falhion have by cuftom obtained the privilege
of vifiting their friends, though not much with the
good-will of many hufbands.

It ^ere to be wilhed, that a veil could be drawp
over the following part of their hiftory. The
growth of luxury and fenfuality, undermining eve-
ry moral principle, renders both fcxes equally dif-
folute : wivjss in that cafe deferve to be again
locked up ; but the time of fuch fe verity is paft.
In that cafe indeed* it becomes indecent for the
two fexes to bathe promifcuoufly. Men in Rome,
copying the Greeks, plupged together into the fame
bath ; and in time rnen and women did the fame {a),
Hadrian prohibited that indecent cuftom. Marcus
i^.ntoninus renewed the prohi]bitis)n ; and Alexander
Severus, a fecond time: but to fo little purpofe,
that even the primitive Chriftians made no difficulty
to follow the cuftom : fuch appetite there is for be-

U) Plutarch, Life of Cat*.

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

xyt

bate,
and

ant
Ihar-

ing nudus cum nuda, when jullificd by fafhionf
This cuflom withftood even the thunder of general
councils ; and was not dropt, till people fiecaitia
more decent. ' '

In days of innocence, when chaftity is the ruling
paifion of the female fex, we find great franknefs iri
external behaviour ; for women above fufpicion,
are little folicitous about appearances. At the fame
period, and for the fame reafon, we find great loofe-
nefs in writing : witnefs the Queen of Navarre's
tales. In the capital of France at prefent, chaftity,
far from being pradifed, is fcarce admitted to be a
female virtue. But people who take much freedom
in private, are extremely circumfped in public : no
indecent exprefl»on nor infinuation is admitted, even
into their plays, or other writings. In England the
women are Icfs corrupted than in France j and for
that realon arc not fo fcrupulous with refpeft to de-
cency in writing.

Hitherto of the female fex in temperate climes,
where polygamy is prohibited. Very different is
their condition in hot climes, which inflame animal
love in both fexes equally. In the hot regions of
Afia, where polygamy is indulged, and wives are
purchafed for gratifying the carnal appetite merely,
it is in vain to think of rcftraining them otherwife
than by locks and bar , after having once tafted en-
joyment. 'Vhere polygamy is indulged, the body is
the only objeft of jealoufy ; not the mind, as there
can be |io mutual afFedion between a man and his
inftruments of fenfual pleafure. And if women be
fo little virtuous as not to be fafely truftcd with their
own conduft, they ought to be locked up j for there
is no juft medium between abfolute confinement and
abfolute freedom. The Chinefe are fo jealous of
their wives, as even to lock them up from their relati-
ons ; and fo great is their diffidence of tlie female
fex in general, that brothers and fifters are not per-
mitted to converfe together. When women go

abroad,

:• 1

,:■ !

if
Jli.'

I -f,

■<*.

33*

Men independent of Society.

B. I.

^■

it:.

abroad, they arc fliut up in a clofe fedan, into which
no eye can penetrate. The intrigues carried on by
the wives of the Chincfc Emperor, and the jealoufy
that reigns among them, render them unhappy.
But luckily, as wonnen arc little regarded where po-
lygamy is indulged, their ambition and intrigues
give lefs disturbance to the government, than in the
cqurts of European princes. The ladies of Hin
doflan cover their heads with a gauze veil, even at
home, which they lay not afide except *n company
of their ncareft relations. A Hindoo buys his v*lfe;
and the firft time he is permitted to fee her without a
veil, is after marriage in his own houfe. In feveral
hot countries, women are put under the guard of
eunuchs, as an additional fecurity ; and black
eunuchs are commonly preferred for their uglinefs.
But as a woman, deprived of the fociety of men, is
apt to be inflamed even with the appearance of a
man ; fome jealous nations, refining upon that cir-
cumftance, employ old maids, termed duennas, for
guarding their women. In the city of Moka, in
Arabia felix, women of fafliion never appear on the
llreet in day-light ; but it is a proof of manners re-
tincd above thofe in neighbouring countries, that
they are permitted to vifit one another in the even-
ing. If they find men in their way, they draw afide
to let them pafs. A French furgecn being called by
one of the King of Yeman's chief officers, to cure a
rheuniatifm which had feized two of his wivt , was
permitted to handle the parrs afi'ccled ; but he could
not get a fight of their faces.

I proceed to examine more minutely the manners
of women, as refulting from the degree of reflraint
they are under in different countries. In the warm
regions of Afia, where polygamy is indulged, the
education of young women is extremely loole, being
intended folely for animal pleafure. They are ac-
compliihed in fuch graces and ailurements as tend to
inflame the icnrual appetite : they are taught vocal
; and

I :> n

J. I.

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

335

iin

and inftrumcntal niufic, with various dances that
cannot (land the tefl: of decency : but no culture is
beftowed on the mind, no moral inftruftion, no im-
provement of the rational faculties j becaufc fuch
education^ which qualifies them for being virtuous
companions to men of fenfe, would infpire them with
abhorrence at the being made proftitutcs. In a word,
fo corru''*ed are they by vicious education, as to be
unfit objefts of any defire but what is merely fenfual.
Afiatic wives are not truded even with the manage-
ment of houftihold affairs, which would afford op-
portunities for infidelity. In Pcrfia, fa)s Cbardin,
the ladies are not permitted, more than children, to
chufe a gown for thcrafelves ; no lady knows in the
morning what fhe is to wear chat day. The educa-
tion of young won»en in liindoftan, is lefs indecent.
They are not taught mufic nor dancing, which are
reckoned fit only for ladies of pleafure : they are
tc*. qIU all the graces of external behaviour, particu-
larly to converfe with fpirit and elegance ; they are
taught alfo to few, to embroider, and to drefs with
tafte. Writing is rcgletted ; but they are taught
to read, that they n have the confolation of ftudy-
ing the Alcoran ; which they never open, nor could
underftand if they did. Notwithftanding fuch care
in educating Hindoltan females, their confinement in
a feraglio renders their manners extremely loofe :
the moft refined luxury of fenfe, with idlenefs or
with reading love-tales ftill worfc than idlenefs, can-
not fail to vitiate the minds of perfons deprived of li-
berty, and to prepare them for every fort of intem-
perance. The wives and concubines of grandees in
Conftantihople, are permitted fometinies to walk
abroad for air and cxercifc. A foreigner ftumbling
accidentally on a knot of them, about forty in num-
ber, attended with black eunuchs, was in the twink-
ling of an eye feized by a brifl; girl, with the reft at
her heels : ihe accofted him wkh loofe amorous ex-
prcffioRs, attempting at the fame time to expofe his

nakedncfs.

/».)

ir4i •

334 Men independent of Society. B. I,

nakednefs. Neither threats nor intrcaties availed
him againd fuch vigorous aflailants ; nor could the
Ychemencc of their curiofity be moderated, byrc-
prefcnting the fliame of a behaviour fo grofely immo-
deil. An old. Janizary, ftanding at a little diflancc,
\i'as amazed: his Mahometan bafhfulnefs would not
fufFcr him to lay hands upon women ; but with a
Stentorian voice he roared to the black eunuchs,
that they were guardians of proftitutes, not of mo-
deft women; urging them to free the man from
fuch harpies. — All in vain (a).

Very different are female manners in temperate
climes, where polygamy is prohibited, and women
are treated as rational beings. Thefe manners how-
ever depend infome meafurebn the nature of the go-
vernment. As many hands are at once employed in
the different branches of republican government, and
a ftill greater number by rotation ; the males, who
have httlc time to fpare from public bufmcfs, feel
nothing of that languor and wearinefs which to the
idle make the moft frivolous amufcments- welcome.
Married women live retired at home, managing fa-
mily affairs, as their hufbands do thofc of the ftate:
whence it is, that fimplicity of manners is more the
tone of a republic, than of any other government.
Such were the manners of the female fex during
the fiourifhing periods of the Greek and Roman
commonwealths; and fuch are their manners in
Switzerland and in Holland.

There will be occafion afterward, to difplay an
important revolution in manners, refulting from chi-
valry (/;). One branch of it muft be handled at
prefent, that which concerns the intercourfe be-
tween the fexes. The Crufades were what firft
gave a turn to the fierce manners of our ancef-
tors. The combatants, fighting more for glory

. ^,. ;» ;:^; ■ ' ' /:» thaH '

Sk.
than

(«') Obrervatinns on therdigion, laws, SiC. of the Turks
{i>) Book 2. litctc!\ 6.

Sk. VI.

Female Sea*

335

than for revenge or intcrcft, became eminent for
magnanimity and heroifm. After fo aftivc a life
abroad, they could not bear idlcnefs at home, ef-
pccially when there was fuch demand for their
prowefs. Europe had never been worfe governed
than at that period: diifenfion and difcord were u-
niverfal ; and every chieftain bore deadly feud a*
gainft his neighbours. Revenge was the ruling
paffion, which was licentioufly indulged, without
the leaft regard to juftice. The heroes who had fig-
naliz'd themfelves abroad, endeavoured to acquire
fame at home: they entered into bonds of chival-
ry, for redreffing wrongs and protecting widows
and orphans. An objea fo noble. and humane^
tempered courage with mildnef^ and magnanimity
with courtefy. The proteftion given to widows and
orphans improved benevolence ; and female beau-
ty, which makes the deepeft impreflion on the be-
nevolent, came to be the capital objeft of proteftion.
Each knight took under his peculiar care, the beauty
that inflamed him the moft ; and each knight was
difpofed to elevate the goddefs of his heart above all
rival beauties. In his heated imagination, ihe was
perfeftion without frailty, a paragon of nature.
Emulation for the fame of a beloved objeft, has no
bounds, becaufe there is nothing feififh in it : (he is
exalted into a fort of divinity: the lover defcends to
be a humble votary. And mark, that devotion to a
vifible deity, always flames the higheft. This con-
nexion, which reverfes the order of nature by eleva-
ting women far above men, produced an artificial
fort of gallantry, that was carried to extravagance:
the language of devotion became that of love, and
all was bombafl and unnatural. Chaftity however
was a gainer by this mode of love: it became necef-
farily the ruling principle, to be preferved in purity
without fpot or blemilh; pofleflion diflblves the
charm; for aftci furrer\.dering all to a lover, a female
cannot hope to maintain her angel", character a mo-
ment.

If ^.

33^ Men independent of Society.

B. U

t "I

mcnt. Duke John de Bourbonnois, anno 1414,
caufed it to be proclaimed, that he intended an ex-
pedition to England with fixteen knights, in order
to combat the like number of Englifli knights, for
glorifying the beautiful angel he worlliipped. In-
fiances of this kind without number, ftand upon re-
cord. Rene, ftyied King of Sicily and Jerufalem,
obferves in writing upon tournaments, that they are
highly ufeful in furnifhing opportunities to young
knights and efquires to difplay their prowefs before
their miftrcfles. He adds, " that every ceremony
regarding tournaments, is contrived to honour
the ladies. It belongs to them to infped the arms
of the combatants, and to diftribute the rewards.
A knight or efquire who defames any of them, is
beat and bruifed till th<^ injured lady condefcend
to intercede for him." Remove a female out of
her proper fphere, and it is eafy to convert her into
a male. James IV". of Scotland, in all tournaments,
profefled himfelf knight to Anne Queen of France.
She fummoncd him to prove himfelrher true and va-
lorous champion, by taking the field in her defence
againfl Henry VIII. of England. And according to
the romantic gallantry of that age, the Queen's fum-
i^ons was thought to have been James's chief motive
for declaring war againfl: his brother-in-law. The
famous Gafton de Foix, general of the French at
the battle of Ravenna, rode from rank to rank, call-
ing by name feveral officers and even private men,
recommending to them their country and their ho-
nour ; adding, " that he would fee what they would
•' perform for love of their miflirefles." During the
civil wars in France, when love and gallantry were
carried to a high pitch, Monficur de Chatillon, rea-
dy to engage in a battle, tied round his arm a gar-
ttrr of Mademoifclle de Guerchi his mift:refs. De
Liques and d'Etrees were both fuitors to Mademoi-
felle de Fouquerolles for marriage. De Liques
prevailed, and the marriage day was fixed. But
that very day, he was taken prifoner by his rival in a
a battle

Sk. VL

Female Sex.

337

battle anno 1525. The lady wrote a letter to d'Etrecs
demanding her hufband ; and d'Etrces inftantly fent
him to herwithout even demanding a ranlbm *.

In peaceable times, the lovereign power having
acquired more authority, the neceflity of private
protection ceafed. But the accuftomcd fpirit of gal-
lantry did not ceafe. It could not however fubfift
for ever againft nature and common fenfe : it fubfi-
ded by degrees into mutual affability and politenefs,
fuch as ought always to obtain between the fexcs.
But obferve, that after a moft intimate connexion,
matters could not fall back to the former decency
and referve. The intimate connection remained ;
and a more fubflantial gallantry took place, not al-
ways innocent. This change of manner was firft
vifible in monarchy. Monarchy employs but a few
hands; and thofe who are not occupied in public af-
fairs, find leifure for gallantry and for defires that are
eafily gratified. Women of rank, on the other
hand, laid open to corruption by opulence and fu-
perficial education, are more ambitious to captivate
the eye than the judgement; and are fonder of lo-
vers than of friends. Where a man and a woman
thus prepared meet together, they foon grow particu-
lar : the man is idle, the woman frank ; and both
equally additted to pleafure. Unlawful commerce
between the fexes becoming thus common, hi;^h
gallantry vaniflies of courTe : the bombaft ftyle
appears ridiculous, and the fenfual appetite is gra-
tified with very little ceremony. Nothing of love
remains but the name ; and as animal enjoyment
without love is a very low pleafure, it foon finks
into difgufl: when confined to one objed. What
is not found in one, is fondly expcded in ano-

VoL. I. Z ther ;

• We are indebted to Brantom for what follows. In the time of Francis T.
of France, a young woman having a talk.iiive lover, orJeicd him to be dumb.
His obedjiince for two long years, made all the world believe that he was
funk in melancholy. One day in a numerous affembly, the young woman,
who was not known to be his miltrefs, undertcoh to cure him ; and did it
with alinu'!e word, S^tji,

I r B

. If

Jii

"li'

■} mil.

I" 1

,.^i;!l

■ ■ pi

t'HfM

hi!'! ;i|

'^H

Iv ' ''-

lip
■ -I

Ir'i

'k\ 1

I* •

. !

"ll'i

338 Men independent of Society.

B. L

thcr ; and the imagination, roving from objeft to
objcft, finds no gratification but in variety. An
attachment to a woman of virtue or of talents,
appears abfurd : true love is laughed out of coun-
tenance ; and men degenerate into brutes. Wo-
men, on the other hand, regarding nothing but
fcnfual enjoyment, become fo care'cfs of their in-
fants, as even, without blufliing, to employ mer-
cenary nurfes *. In Perfia, it is a common prac-
tice among women of fafhion to ufe drugs that
caufe abortion ; becaufe after pregnancy is advanc-
ed, the huiband attaches himfelf to other women,
it being held indecent to touch a woman who is
pregnant. Such a courfe of life cannot fail to
fink them into contempt : marriages are diflblved
as foon as contraded ; and the ilate is fruflrated
of that improvement in morals and manners which
is the never-failing produft of virtuous love. A
ftate enriched by conqueft or commerce, declines
gradually into luxury and fenfual pleafure : man-
ners are corrupted, decency banifhed, and chafli-
ty becomes a mere name. What a fcene of rank
and difTolutc pleafure is exhibited in the courts of
Alexander's fucccflbrs, and in thofe of the Roman
emperors !

Gratitude

• Les femmes d'un certain ctat en France trouvent qu'elles perdent trop
a faire des enfans, et a caufe de cela mSme, la plOpart vivent celibataires,
dans le fein mcme du mariage. Mais fi I'envie'de fe voir perpetuer dans
une branche de defcendans, les porte a fe conformer aux voeux del'hymen, la
population, dans cette clafTe, n'en eft pas plus avancee, pars que leur deli-
catefle rend inutile leur propagation } car, parmi les femmes du premier et
fecond rang en France, combien y en a-t-il qui nouriflent leurs enfans f II
fMoit facile de les compter. Ce devoir indifpenfable de mere, a cefTe chez
nous d'en etre un. Les intents de la France, vol. i. p. 134.— [7« Englijh
thus : " The women of a certain rank in France find they lofe too much
" by child-bearing ; and fcr that reafon live in a ftate of celibacy. But po-
" puRtion is not advanced, even by thofe who, from adefire of feeing them-
" fclvcs perpetuated in their defcendants, conform to the purpofe of mar-
*' riage ; for their delicacy counterbalances their fertility. How few of the
'* tirii and fecond rank of women in France fuckle their children ? It would
" be eafy to count the number. This indifpenfable duty of a mother has
" now ceafed to be one with us."] ' As fuch woful negleft of education

is the fniitof voluptuoufnefs, we may take it for granted, that the fameobtains
in every opulent and luxurious capital.

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

Gratitude to my female readers, if I fliall be ho-
noured with any, prompts me to conclude this
(ketch with a fccne, that may aflbrd them inftruc-
tion, and cannot fail of being agreeable ; which
is, the figure a woman is fitted for making in the
matrimonial (late, where polygamy is excluded.
Matrimony among favages, having no objcd but
propagation and (lavery, is a vf : humbling ftatc
for the female fex : but dclic. *; organization,
great fenfibility, lively imagination, with fwcctnefs
of temper ibove ill, qualify xvomcn for a more
dignified r)ciety with men ; which is, to be their
companions and bofom-fricnds. Jn the common
courfe of Europea \ eduction, voung women are
trained to make an agreeable •<5ure, and to be-
have with decency and proprijiy : very little cul-
ture is bellowed on the Vead ; and fti'' lefs on the
heart, if it be not the at cf hiding paifion. Such
education is far from feconding the purpofe of na-
ture, that of making women fit companions for men
of fenfe. Due cultivation of the female mind
would add greatly to the happinefs of the males,
and flill more to that of the females. Time runs
on ; and when youth and beauty vani(h, a fine
lady, who never entertained a thought into which
an admirer did not enter, furrenders herfelf now to
difcontcnt ar»d peevi(hnefs. A woman on the con-
trary, who I-' merit, improved by virtuous and
refined education, retains in her decline an influence
over the men, more flattering than even that of
beauty : (he is the delight of her friends, as former-
ly or her' admirers.

Admirable would be the efiects of fuch refined
education, contributing no lefs to public good than
to private happinels. A man who at prelent muit
degrade himfclf into a fop or a coxcomb in order
to pieafc tlie women, would foon dlfcover, that
their favour is not to be gained but by exerting eve-

Z 2 ry

f.; I

340

Men independent of Society.

B.I.

ry manly talent in public and in private life ; and
the two fexes, indead of corrupting each other,
would be rivals in the race of virtue. Mutual
efteem would he to cach^a fchool of urbanity; and
mutual defire of pleafmg, would give fmoothnefs to
their behaviour, delicacy to their fcntiments, and
tcndernefs to their pafficns.

Married women in particular, deftined by na-
ture to take the lead in educating children, would
no longer be the greateft obllruftion to good edu-
cation, by their ignorance, frivolity, and diforder-
ly manners. Even upon the breail, infants are
fufceptible of impreflions * ; and the mother hath
opportunities without end of infilling into them
good principles, before they are fit for a male tu-
tor. Coriolanus, who made a capital figure in the
Roman republic, never returned from war with-
out meriting marks of diftinftion. Others behaved
valiantly, in order to acquire glory : he behaved
valiantly, in order to give pleafure to his mo-
ther. The delight (he took in hearing him praifed,
and her weeping for joy in his embraces, made
him in his own opinion the happiefl: perfon in
the univerfe. Epaminondas accounted it his great-
cll felicity, that his father and motler were ftill
alive to behold his conduft, and enjoy his viftory
at Leuftra. In a Latin dialogue about the caufes
that corrupted the Roman eloquence, injudicioufly
afcribed to Tacitus, becaufe obvioufly it is not his
ftyle, the method of education in Rome while it
flouriflied as a commonwealth, is defcribed in a

lively

• May not a hahit of chcarfulners be produced in an infant, l>y being
trained up antonv; chearful people ? An agieeable temper is held to be a prime
qualitication in a nurfe. Such in the connedVion between the mind and
bouy, at tliat the features of the face are commonly moulded into an expref-
iion of the internal difpofition ; and is it not natural to think, that an infant
in the womb may be afte^ed by the temper of its mother ? Its tender parts
nukes it fufceptible of the flighted impreflions. When a woman is breed-
ing, <he ought to be doubly careful of her temper ; and in particular to
iniiulge no loeas but w!i«t are chearful, and no fentiments but what arc
kindly.

ii j i]

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

341

«c

lively manner. I {hall endeavour to give the fame
in Englilh, becaufe it chiefly concerns the fair fex.
*' In that age, children were fuckled, not in the
" hut of a mercenary nurfe, but by the chafte
" mother who bore them. Their education du-
" ring nonage was in her hands ; and it was her
" chief care to inftil into them every virtuous prin-
ciple. In her prefencc, a loofe word or an im-
proper adion, were ftridly prohibited. She fu-
perintended, not only their ferious ftudies, but
** even their amufements ; which were conduced
** with decency and moderation. In that manner
*' the Gracchi, educated by Cornelia their mother,
and Auguftus, by Attia his mother, appeared in
public with untainted minds ; fond of glory, and
prepared to make a figure in the world.'* In
the expedition of the illuftrious Bertrand du
Guefclin againft Peter the Cruel, King of Caftile,
the Governor of a town, fumnioned to give it up,
made the following anfwer, " That they might be
" conquered, but would never tamely yield ; that
' thdc fathers had taught them to prefer a glo-
** rioas death before a diflionourable life ; and that
" their mothers had not only educated them in
** thefe fentiments, but were ready to put in prac-
" tice the leflbns they had inculcated." Durin^^
the civil wars in France between the Catholics and
Proteftants, Bari, governor of Leucate, having
fallen by furprife into the hands of the Catholics,
wrote from prifon to his fpoufe Conftance Cezelli
not to furrender, even though they fliould threat-
en to put him to death. The befiegers brought
him within her fight ; and threatened to maflacrc
him if (he did not inftantly open the gates. She
offered for his ranfom her children and all flie
had in the world — -but that the town belonged to
the King, and was not at her difpofal. Would
one think it poflible, that any man ever did exift:

t?S'..

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342 Men independent of Society. B. I.

fo brutal as to put her hufband to death ? Yet this
was done in cold blood. Let the mofl; profound
politician fay, what more efficacious incentive there
can be to virtue and manhood, than the behavi-
our of the Spartan matrons, flocking to the tem-
ples, and thanking the gods that their hufbands
and fons had died glorioufly, fighting for their
country. In the war between Lacedemon and
Thebes, the Lacedemonians having behaved ill, the
married men, as Plutarch reports, were fo afhamed
of themfelves, that they durft not look their
wives in the face. What a glorious prize is
here exhibited, to be contended for by the fe-
male fex !

By fuch refm'd education, love would take on a
new form, that which nature infpires, for making
us happy, and for foftening the diftreflfes of chance :
it would fill delicioufly the whole foul with tender

amity.

and mutual confidence. The union of a wor-

thy man with a frivolous woman, can never, with all
the advantages of fortune, be made comfortable:
how different the union of a virtuous pair, who have
no aim but to make each other happy ! Between
fuch a pair emulation is reverfed, by an ardent defire
in each to be furpafled by the other.

Rouflfeau, in his treatife of Education, affirms,
that convents are no better than fchools of coquet-
tery ; and that among Protellants, women make
better wives and more tender mothers than among
Roman Catholics ; for which, fays he, no reafon
cm be given but convent-education, which is uni-
verfal among the latter. He then goes on in the
following vvordtj : " Pour aimer la vie paifible et
'* domeiUquc il faut la connoitre; il faut en avoir
" fenti les douceurs des I'enfance. Ce n'efl: que
«* dans la maifon paternelle qu'on prend du gout
*' pour fa propre maifon, ct tout femme que fa
*' mere n'a point tlcvee n'aimera point Olever fes
" eutans. Malheureufement il n'y a plus d'educa-

" tion

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

343

** tion priv6c dans ks grandes villes. La foci6t6 y
eft fi gdn6ralc ct fi m6lee qu'il ne reftc plus
d'afile pour la rctraitc, ct qu'on eft en public
jufques chcz foi. A force dc vivre avcc tout Ic
** monde en n'a plus de famille, a peine connoit-
** on fes parens J on Ics voit en Strangers, et la
*' fimplicit6 des mceurs domcftiqucs s'eteint avec
** la douce familiarit6 qui en faifoit la charrne.
** C'eft ainfi qu'on fuce avec le lait le gout des
" plaifirs du fiecle et des maximcs qu'on y voit
*' regner." Roujfeau, Emile.

Cultivation of the female mind, is not of great
importance in a republic, where men pafs little of
their time with women. Such cultivation where
polygamy is indulged, would to them be a deep
misfortune, by opening their eyes to their mifeia-
ble condition. But in an opulent monarchy where
polygamy is prohibited, female education is of high
importance ; not fingly with rcfpeft to private* hap-
pinefs, but with refpe^ to the fgcicty in general.

^i i. I

APPENDIX.

Concerning Propagation of Animals, and Care of Progeny.

JL HE natural hiftory of animals with refpeft to
pairing and care of progeny, is fufceptible of
more elucidation than could regularly be introduced
into the Iketch itfclf, where it makes but a fuiglc
argument. Loth to quit a fubjeft that eminently
dilplays the wifdom and benevolence of Providence,
I embrace the prefent opportunity, however flight,
to add what further occurs upon it. M. BufFon, in
many large volumes, beftows fcarce a thought on
that favourite fubjcdt ; and the ncgleft of our coun-
trymen Ray and Derham is ftill lefs excufable, con-

fidcring

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344 Men independent of Society. B. I.

fidering that to difplay the conduct of Providence
vas their fole purpofe in writing natural hiflory.

The inflinft of j)airing is beftowed on every fpe-
cies of animals to which it is neceflary for rearing
their young ; and on no other fpecies. All wild
birds pair : but with a remarkable difference be-
tween fuch as place their nefts on trees, and fuch
as place them on the ground. The young of the
former, being hatched blind and without feathers,
require the nurfing care of both parents till they be
able to fly. The male feeds his mate on the neft,
and cheers her with a fong. As foon as the young
are hatched, fmging yields to a more neceflary occu-
pation, that of providing for a numerous ifl'uc, a
tafk that requires both parents.

Eagles and other birds of prey build on trees, or
on other places difficult of accefs. They not only
pair, but continue in pairs all the year ; and the
fame pair procreate together, year after year. This
at lealt is the cafe of eagles : the male and female
hunt together ; and during incubation the female is
fed by the male. A greater number than a fmgle
pair never are fecn in company.

Gregarious birds pair, in order probably to pre-
vent difcord, in a fociety confined to a narrow fpace.
This is the cafe particularly of pigeons and rooks.
The male and female fit on the eggs alternately, and
divide the care of feeding their young.

Partridges, plovers, pheafants, peafowl, groufe,
and other kinds that place their nefts on the ground,
have the inftind of pairing ; but differ from fuch as
build on trees in the following particular, that after
the female is impregnated, fhe completes her talk
without needing any help from the male. Retiring
from him, fhe chufes a fafe place for her neft, where
ihe can find plenty of worms and grafs-feed at hand.
And her young, as foon as hatched, take foot and
feekfood forthemfelves. The only remaining duty in-
cumbent on the dam is, to lead them to proper pla-
ces

tic
fin
th

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

345

ces for food, and to call them together ivhen dan-
ger impends. Some males, provoked at the dcfcr-
tion of their mates, break the eggs if they happen to
find them. If a Turkey hen die during hatching,
the cock takes her place in the neft ; and after the
young are hatched, he tends them as a hen does.
Not only fo, but when a female is engaged with a
new brood, the cock takes care of the former brood,
leads them about for food, and ads in every refped
as the female did before. Eider ducks pair like
other birds that place their nefts on the ground ; and
the female finiflies her neft with down plucked from
her own breaft. If the neft be deftroyed for the
down, "Which is remarkably warm and claftic, (he
makes another neft as before. If fhe be robbed a
fecond time, ftie makes a third neft ; but the male
furnilhes the down. A lady of fpirit obferved, that
the Eider duck may give a leflTon to many a married
woman, who is more difpofed to pluck her hufband
than herfelf. The black game never pair : in fpring
the cock on an eminence crows, and claps his wings ;
and all the females within hearing inftantiy refort to
him*.

Pairing birds, excepting f.hofe of prey, flock to-
gether in February, in order to chufe their mates.
They foon difperfe j and are not feen afterward but
in pairs.

Pairing is unknown to quadrupeds that feed on
grafs. To fuch it would be ufelcfs ; as the female
gives fuck to her young while (lie herfelf is feeding.
If M. Buffon deferve credit, the roe-deer arc an ex-
ception. They pair, though they feed on grafs, and
have but one litter in a year.

Beafts of prey, fuch as lions, tigers, wolves, pair
not. The female is left to fhift for herfelf and for
her voung j which is a laborious talk, and frequently

f-n

Will

* A hen that had hatched feveral broods of ducklings, carried her own
chickens to the water, thruft them in by force, and refted not till they were
all drowned. Such is the force of cuftom, even againft natui f,

1,^

346

Men independent of Society. B. I.

ill

fi' '^'

{o unfuccefsful as to fliortcn life. Pairing is cffential
to birds of prey, bccaufe incubation leaves the fe-
male no fufficient time to feyrch for food. Pairing
is not necelTary to boalls of pu^y, b«?caufc their young
can bear a long hii. Add another reafon, that they
would multiply fo fail: bjr pairings ;t to prove trou-
blcfomc neighbou y to the buv-aan r;..:e.

Among animals hat pair not, males fight dcf-
peratfly about a female. Such a battle among
horned cattle is finely defcribed by Lucretius. Nor
is it unuCuai^ that feven or eighc lions wage bloody
war for a nnjjle female.

The fame reidon that m.H.es pairing neccffary for
gregarious birds, obtains with refpeft to gregarious
quadrupeds ; ihofe efpecially who ftore up food for
winter, and during that feafon live in common. Dif-
cord among fuch, would be attended with wcrfe
confequences tbuii even among lions or bulls, who
are not confined to one place. The beavers, with
lefpedt to pairing, refemblc birds that place their
ncrts on the ground. As foon as the young are
produced, the males abandon their ftock of food to
their mates, and live at large ; but return frequently
to vifit them, while they are fuckling their young.

Hedge-hogs pair, and feveral of the monkey kind.
We are not well acquainted with the natural hiftory
of thcfc animals ; but it may be prefumed that the
young require the nurfing care of both parents.

Seals have a fingular economy. Polygamy fcems
to be a law of nature among them, as a male aflbci-
ates with feveral females. The fea-turtle has no oc-
cafion to pair, as the female concludes her tafk with
laying her eggs in the fand. The young are hatched
by the fun ; and immediately crawl to the fea.

In every other branch of animal oconomy con-
cerning the continuance of the fpecics, the hand of
Providence is equally confpicuous. The young of
pairing birds tire produced inthefpring,whcn the wea-
ther begins to be comfortable j and their early pro-

dudiion

Sk. VI.

Female Sex,

347

du£bion makes them firm and vigorous before winter,
to endure the hardfhips of that rigorous feafon.
Such early produftion is in particular favourable to
eagles, and other birds of prey ; for in the fpring
they have plenty of food, by the return of birds of
paffage.

Though tke time of geftation varies confiderably in
the different quadrupeds that feed on grafs, yet the
female is regularly delivered early in fummer, when
grafs is in plenty. The mare admits the ftallion in
fummer, carries eleven months, and is delivered the
beginning of May. The cow differs little. A Ihcep
and a goat take the male in November, carry five
months, and produce when grafs begins to fpring. ^
Thefe animals love fhort grafs, upon which a mare
or a cow would ftarve. The obfervation holds in
chmates fo temperate as to encourage grafs in the
fpring, and to preferve it in verdure all the fummer.
I am informed that in Italy, fheep copulate from June
to July: the female goes twenty weeks, and is de-
livered in November or December, precifcly at the
time when grafs there is in the greatefl plenty. In
April the grafs is burnt up ; ana ihecp have nothing
but llirubs to browfe on. This appears to me a fig-
nal inftance of providential care *. The rutting-
feafou of the red deer is the end of September, and
beginning of (>^\ober : it continw\>s for three weeks ;
dutiwg which time, the male runs from female to fe-
male without intermiflion. Fhe female brings forth
m May, or beginning of June ; and the female of
the fallow-deer brings forth at the fame time. The
jhe-afs takes t^ male the beginning of fummer ; but
ihe bears twelve months, which fixes her delivery to
fummer. Wolves and foxes copulate in December :
the female carries five months, and brings forth in

April,

* I have It upon good authority, that ewes pafturing in a hilly country
chufe early fome fnug fpot, where they may (".rop their young with latety.
And hence the rifle of removing a flock to a nev/ field immediately before de-
livery ; many lambs perifh by being dropped in improper places.

' 1'

348

Men independent of Society. B. 1.

April, when animal food is as plentiful as at any
other feafon ; and the (he-lion brings forth about
the fame time. Of this early birth there is one evi-
dent advantage, hinted above : the young have time
to grow lb firm as eafily to bear the inclemencies of
winter.

Were one to guef what probably *would be the
time of rutting, fummer would be named, efpecially
in a cold < JiiiiHle. And yet to quadruprrjg whq
carry but four or five pionths, that economy would
throw the time of deljvety th an improper feafon,
lor vvaMuih, an well as for food. Wifely is it order-
ed, that the delivery Ihould conllaiilly be m( the beft
feafon for both.

Gregarious quadrupeds that ftore up food for
winter, differ from all other quadrupeds with refpcd
to the time of delivery. Beavers copulate about the
end of autumn, and bring forth in January, when
their granary is full. The fame economy probably
obtain}) among nil other quadruptdH of the fame kind.

One rule ta^rs plnro among all brute animals,
without a fingle excepHon, Thv<t the female never
is burdened with two litters at the fame time. The
time of gellation is In unerringly calculated by na-
ture, that the yoi.Mg brood caw provide for them-
felves before another brood comes on. J^ven a hare
is not an exception, though many litters are pro-
duced in a year. The female carries thirty or thirty-
one days ; but fhe fuckles her young only twenty
day.", after which they provide for thcmfelves, and
leave her free to a new Htter.

'i he care of animals to preferve their young from
liarni is a beautiful inftance of Providence. When
a hind hears the hounds, flie puts herfelf in the way
of being hunted, and leads them from her fawn.
The lapwing is no lefs ingenious: ifaperfon approach,
fhe flics about, retiring always from her neft. A
partridge is extremely artful: (he hops away, hang-
ing a wing as if broken : Ungers till the perfon ap-
proach,

'■••vtl.

B. 1.

t any
about
e evi-
time
icsof

tc the
cially

would
''ifon,
inler -
ebe/t

Sk. VI.

Female Sex.

349

proach, and hops again *. A hen, timid by nature,
is bold as a lion in defence of her young : Uu- iarta

creature that threatens

s its young with reiolution and cou
a ram ; and lb do many other quad

upon every
roc-buck defend
rage. So doth
rupeds.

It is obfcrved by an ingenious writer (a)^ that na-
ture fports in the colour of domeftic animals, in or-
der that men may the more readily diflinguifh their
own. It is not eafy to fay, why colour is more vari-
ed in fuch animals, than in thofe which remain in
the (late of nature : I can only fay, that thecaufe af-
fjgned is not fatisfaftory. One is fcldom at a lofs to
diftinguifli one animal from another ; and Providence
fjf'Vf r interpofes to vary the ordinary courfe of na-
ture, for an end fo little neceflary as to make the
diftinftion ftill more obvious. I add, that it does
not appear in any inftance the intention of Provi-
dence, to encourage inattention and indolence.

The foregoing particulars are offered to the public
as hints merely : may it not be hoped, that they will
excite curiofity in thofe who relilh natural hiftory ?
The field is rich, tho* little cultivated ; and 1 know
no other branch of natural hiftory that opens finer
views into the conduct of Providence.

* The following incident hardly deferves to be mentioned it is fo common,
but that the tear is fcarce dry which the fi^'ht wrung from me. A man mowing
a field for hay, paHed over a partridge fitting on her neft. Turning about to
cut down a tuft that had been le.% he unhappily brought up the partridge on
the point of his fcythe. Such affedticn there is even for a brood, not yet
brought to light.

(d) Pennant.

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SKETCH

ill

SKETCH VII.

Progrefs and Effcds of Luxury.

X HE wifdom of Providence is in no inftance
more confpicuous than in adjufling the conftitution
of man to his external circumftances. Food is ex-
tremely precarious in the hunter-Itate; fometimes
fuperabounding with little fiUigue, fometimes failing
after great fatigue. A favage, like other animals of
prey, has a flomach adjufted to that variety : he can
bear a long fall ; and gorges voracioufly when he has
plenty, without being the worfe for it. Whence it
is, that barbarians, who have fcarce any fenfe of de-
cency, arc great and grofs feeders *. The Kam-
Ikatkans love fat ; and a man entertains his gucfts by
cramming into their mouths fat fliccs of a feal, or a
whale, cutting off with his knife what hangs out.
Barbarians are equally addided to drunkennefs;
and peculiarly fond of fpirituous liquors. Drinking
was a fafliionable vice in Greece, when Menander,
Philemon, and Diphilus, wrote, if we can rely on
thr tranflations or imitations of their plays by Plau-
tus and Terence. Cyrus preparing to attack his bro-
ther Artaxerxes, King of Perfia, publifhed a mani-
fefto, that he was more worthy of the throne than
his brother, becaufe he could fwallow more wine.
Diodorus Siculus reports, that in his time the Gauls,
like other liarbarians, were much addi£led to drink-
I'lg, The ancient Scandinavians, who, like other
lavages, were intemperate in eating and drinking,

fwallowcd

• In the Iliad of Homer, book 9. Agamemnon calls a council at ni8,iit in
!iis tent. Bture entering on buftnefs, they go to fupper^ (/;'« 12;.) An
eln^lafi'y to AcM.lcs i> refolved on. The .iinbafllidors ag tin fup with Achiller.
on pork-grifkins, (/,« 271.) Achilles rejed>s A?ameninon's oifc tnd th(r
f:ime ni!;hr L ly!!es and Diomcd fet out on their txi edition to . • Trojan
camp : leturiiing b.-fore day, they had a third fupper.

sk. v'^

Luxury*

351

fwallowcd large cups to their gods, and to fuch of
their countrymen as had fallen bravely in battle.
Wc learn from the 25th fable of the Edda, which
was their facred book, that to hold much liquor was
reputed a heroic virtue. Contarini the Venetian
ambafl'ador, who wrote ann. 1473, fays, that the
Ruflians were abandoned to drunkenncfs; and that
the whole race would have been extirpated, had not
ilrong liquors been difcharged by the fovereign.

A habit of falling long, acquired as above in the
hunter-ftate, made meals in the (hepherd-ftate jefs
frequent than at prefent, though food was at hand.
Antiently people fed but once a-day, a falhion that
continued even after luxury was indulged in other
refpeds. In the war of Xerxes againft Greece, it
was pleafantly faid of the Abderites, who were bur-
dened with providing for the King's table, that they
ought to thank the gods for not inclining Xerxes to
cat twice a-day. Plato held the Sicilians to be glut-
tons, for having two meals every day. Arrian (a)
obfervcs, that the Tyrrhenians had the fame bad
habit. In the reign of Henry VI. the people of Eng-
land fed but twice a-day. Hedor Boyes, in his hif-
tory of Scotland, exclaiming againft the growing
luxury of his cotemporarics, fays, that fome perfons
were fo gluttonous, as to have three meals every
day.

Luxury, undoubtedly, and love of fociety, tended
to increafe thenumbd of meals beyond what nature
requires. On the other I and, there is a caufe that
kept down the num'v.!r (or fome time, which is, the
introdudion of machines. Bodily ftrength is elTen-
tial to a favage, being his only inftrument j and with
it he performs wonders. Machines have rendered
bodily ftrength of little importance ; and as men la-
bour lefs than originally, they eat lefs in proportion *.

Liftcn

{a) Lib. 4. cap. i6,
* Before fire-arms were known, people gloried in addrefs and bodily
ftrength, and ccmmcnly fought hand to hand. But violent cxercifes Ls-
coming lefs and lefs n«"ceflary, went jnfcnfibly oiit cf fafhion.

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352 Men incici n kr.; dF Society.

B, I.

((

cc
<c
cc

, Lidcn to Iloiinflicd the Englifli hiftorian upon thnt
-" article : " Heretofore, tlu re hath been much more
time fpent in eating and drinking, than commonly
in thdfc days ; Tor whereas oF old we had
brcakfads in tiie forenoon, beverages or nuntions
after dinner, and thereto rear fuppers when it was
time to go to red ; nowthefcodd repalLs^ thanked
*' be God, are very well left, and each one con-
" tcnteth himfclf with dinner and fuppcr only."
'V\\U!, before cookery and luxury crept in, a mo-
derate ilomach, occafioned by the abridging bodily
labour, made eating iefs frequent than formerly.
But the motion did not long continue retrograde :
good cookery, and the pleafure of eating in com-
pany, turned the tide ; and people now eat Icfs at a
time, but more frequently. : :. ..... .•., .

Fealls in former times were carried beyond all
bounds. William of Malmfbury, who wrote in the
days of Henry II. fays, " That the Engliih were
*' univerfally addided to drunkennefs, continuing
*' over their cups day and night, keeping open
" houfe, and fpending the income of their eflates
" in riotous tealls, where eating and drinking
" were carried to excefs, without any elegance."
. People who live in a corner, imagine that every
thing is peculiar to themfelves : what Malmfbury
fuy3 of the Englilli, is common to all nations, in
advancing from the feififhncfs of favages to a
rclifh for fociety, but who have not yet learned to
bridle their appetites. Giraldus Cambrenfis, fpeak-
ing of the Monks of Saint Swithen, fays, that they
threw themfelves proilrate at the feet of King
Henry II. and with many tears complained, that
the Bifhop, who was their abbot, had with-
drawn from thcin three of their ufual number
of difhes. Henry having made them acltnowledge
• that theie iliil remained ten dillies, faid, that he
buT'felf was cortcnt$id..with three, and .rcjCom-
mcudcd to the Biihop to reduce them to tliat

-:-i'^ ;. - number.

Sk. VII.

Luxury*

number. Leland {a) mentions a feaft g» n \;/
the Archbiihop of York, at his indallation, in the
reign of Edward IV. Tlic follotving is a fpcci-
men : ^oo quarters of wheat, 300 tons of ale, 100
tons of >»inc, 1000 ftieep, 104 oxen, 304 calves,
304 fwine, 2000 geefe, 1000 capons, 2000 l)igs,-
400 fwans, 104 peacocks, 1^00 hot venifon paf-
ties, 4000 coldj 5000 cuitards hot and cold.
Such entertainments are a picture of manners.
At that early period, there was not difcovered im
fociety any plcafure but that of crouding toge-
ther in hunting and feafting. The delicate plea-
sures of convcrfation, in communicating opinions,
fcntiments, and defires, were to them unknown.
There appeared liowevcr, even at that early period,
a faint dawn of the fine arts. In fuch tcails as
are mentioned above^ a curious dcflert was fome-
times exhibited, termed /«//«•///>, viz* paflc mould-
ed into the fhape of animals^ On a faint's day,
angels, prophets, and patriarchs, were fet upon the
table in plenty. A feaft given by Trivultius to
Lewis XII. of France, in the city of Milan, makes
a figure in Italian hillory. No fewer than 1206
ladies were invited ; and the Cardinals of Narbon
and St. Severin, with many other prelates, were
among the dancers. After dancing, followed the
feall, to regulate which there were no fewer em-
ployed than 160 mafter-houfeholds. Twelve hun-
dred officers, in an uniform of velvet, or fatin^
carried the viduals, and ferved at the fide-board.
Every table, without diftindlion, was ferved with
filver-plate, engraved with the arms of the land-
lord ; and befide a prodigious number of Italian
lords, the whole court, and all the houfehold of
the King, were feafted. The bill of fare of an
entertainment given by Sir Watkin Williams Wynn
to a company of 1 500 perfons, on his coming of
Vol. I. A a age»

:i'

(») Collai'tansa,

''Mi ^

354 1\Iln uidcpeiulent oi Society.

B. I.

age, is a faniple of ancient Englifli hofpitality,
which appears to have nothing in viijw but crowd-
ing and cramming merely. The following paffage
is from Hollinflicd : " That the length and fump-
" tuoufncfs of fealU formerly in ufe, are not to-
" tally left oiT in England, notwithftanding that
" it proveth very beneficial to the phylkians, who
" moft abound where moft excefs and mifgovern-
** ment of our bodies do appear." He adds, that
•claret, and other French wines, were defpifed, and
ftrong wines only in requell. The belf, he fays,
were to be found in monafteries : for " that the
merchant would have thought his foul would go
**■ ftraightway to the devil, if he fliould ferve
" monks with other than the bell." Our forefa-
thers relifhed ftrong wine for the fame reafon that
their forefathers relilhed brandy. In Scotland,
"fumptuous entertainments were common at mar-
riages, baptifms, and burials. In the reign of
Charles II. a ftatute was thought neceflary to con-
fine them within moderate bounds.

Of old, there was much eating, with little vari-
ety : at prefent, there is great variety, with more
moderation. From a houfeliold-book of the Earl of
Northumberland, in the reign of Henry VIII. it
appears, that his family during winter, fed moftly
on fait meat, and fait filh , and with that view
there was an appointment of i6o gallons of muf-
'tard. On flefli days through the year, breakfafl
for my Lord and Lady was a loaf of bread, two
manchcts, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, half
a chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled.
On meagre days, a loaf of bread, two manchets,
a quart of beer, a quart of wine, a dilh of but-
ter, a piece of fait filh, or a difh of buttered
eggs. During lent, a loaf of breads two man-
cl'.ets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, two
pieces of fait fiih, fix baconed herring, four

-2 white

I'd.

?vhkc' herring; ;X)F $ difh of fproife. There wa? att
iittie variety in ijbei oth^r ntcals, cxecpC oh fcUVval*
4»ly», That way,bf liviiig /was at: the time hi^jii
Ujxury ,: a lady's . waiting^woman. at prden^, would
never have dime with grurablitoa? at fuch a table.
We jcatn from the fairic book, that the Earl had
b«1^ two cooks for dreflingp victuals to more thaa
two hundred domeftics*. In thofc days, .hen» iChick-
co, capiQn, pigeon, ployet, partridge, were reckoned
fuch delicacies^ >a^ to be prohibited except at my
I^ord-fi table. (4). . ' .

•But luxury is^ always creeping 'on, And dcHcacica
become more (familiar, HolHnflied obferveg, thafc
white meats, jnilky butter^ iahd: checfe, foi'-
incrlfythe chief fcbodiof his countrymen, were in
^is tir^Cy degraded to he the fbfod of the Iqw^x
fort;- and' that 'the iwcahhy fed Upon flcfli and
fifli. By a roll of the King of Scotland's houfe-
hold expence^^wno 1378, w^e findi that the art of
gelding cattlie was knk)»m.; The roll is in Latin,
and the gelt hogs arie termed porcelli eunuchi.
Mention is a)A)r m:ade of chickens, which were not
common on EngUfli tables at that time. Olive oil
is alfo mention^di ' . rv ii'.

. In this progrefs, cooks, ve may believe, came to
make a figure. HolHnflied obferves, that the no-
bility, rejcfting their own cookery, employee^ as
cooks mufica' -headed Frenchmen and ftrangers, as
he terms them. He fays, tha.t c\';n merchants,
when they gave a feaft, rejeded butcher's meat
as unworthy cf their tabic ; havmg jellies of all
colourb, and in all figures, reprefenting flowers,
trees, beafts, fifh, fowl, and fruit. Henry Ward-
law Archbifhop of Si. Andrew's, obferving the re-
finements in cookery introduced by James I. of
Scotland, who had been eighteen years a prifoner
in England, exclaimed againft the abufe in a par-

A a 2 liamcnc

{a) Houfehuld -bowk alovo mentioned.

i «

■1 1

.1.,

1i;M

't ';*

*».-

1 i

M«'' ■'■I

i '

*•!

,1. ' m

'!^^ Men independent of Society. "^lB.¥«

liaineftt' held at Pcttli 1433 * ^^ obtained a law,
teftratning fuperflu^iis diet ; and prohibiting the life
of baked meat to any under the degree or gentle-
men, and permitting it to gentlemen on feftival-
days only ; which baked meat, fays the biftiop, was
Aever before feen in Scotland. The peafants in
Sicily regale themfclves with ice during fummer.
They fay, that fcarcity of fnow would be mote
grievoQs to them than fcarcity of corn or of win«.
Such progrefs has Iiixury made, even among the
populace. People of fafhion in London and iii Pa-
ris, ^vho enfjploy' their whole thoughts on luxuri-
oas living, wiuld be furpriawd . to be told, that
they are iUll deficient in that art. In order ro
advance luxury of the table to the ^rw^ of perfec-
tion, there ought to be a cook for every diih,
as'in ancient Egypt there was a'phyficiah for ev©*
ry ■difeafe. '' '! -': V> i: : ; -■ [ .M^
Barbarous nations, being great eaters; are fond
of large joints of iridat ;. and Ibve «f flibw retains
great joints in falhion, > even after meals become
more moderate : a wild boar was roaffted whole for
a fupper-dilh to Antony and Cleopatra ; and ftuffed
with poultry and wild tow!, it was a favourite difti
at Rome, termed the Trojan boar, in allufion to
the Trojan horfe. The holpitality of the Anglo-
Saxons was Ibmetimes exerted in roafting an ox
whole. Great joints are left oft' gradually, as people
become more and more delicate- in eating.' In
France, great joints are lefs in ufe than formerly ;
and in England, the enormous furloin, formerly
the pride of the nation, is now in polite families
baniHied to the fide-board. In China, where
manners are carried to a high degree of refine-
ment, diihcj are compofed entirely of minced
meatj..

.'•! ■■^e; v:- 1>:(. eiJ. ;. jti^rxi-.-dh ,•*!,. ,.i . ; ,• .i..is x^t •, v**;^ ' . t'j '3" l.^- •»rf' (Cm

■T ■: I , . • r. I. -' : •' . ,., ^ '■ : • ^■- '.ifr

"t The Cite of an animal may he abridged by fpare tJict ; feut its firength

\n<i vigour art not abridged in proportion. Our highlander* lit very poorly :

and

Sk,yiL _;^,^^ ,. Luxury. A.:[ , -^ 357

Jn early tlmes^ people were - no lefs plain in
tljieir houfes than in their fpod, ," Toward the end
of the fixteenth century, when HoUinflied wrote,
the peopip of England wete beginning to build
with briofe. and ftone. FGrni.erly houfes were made
of jimbcr polls, wattled together and plaftered
with clay to keep out the cold : the roof was
ftraw, fedge, or reed. It was an obiervation of
a Spaniard in Q^een Mary's days, " Tb'^fe EngJifh.
" have their houfes of ftiqks and dirt, but they
^■' fare as well as the King.'* JiEolUnfhed mcAti-
oning njultitudes of cUimheys lately ere^ed, ob-
ferves, upon the authority of fome old men, that
in their younger days there were not above two
or three, \i fo many, in mo/l uplandifh towns of
the realm, religious houfes and manor-places <3i'
their lords excepted ; but that each made his fire
againfl: a rere-dofle in the hall, where he dipiied,
and drefled his meat. From Lord Northumber-
land's houfehojd-book, it would jfcem, tha:t grates
were unknown at that time, and that they burnt
their coal upon the he,?Lrth : a certain fum is al-
lotted for purchafi.i)g wood; becaufe, fays the
book, coals v '1 not burn without it. Tl^pre is
alio a certain fum allotted for purchafing char-
coal, that the fmoke of tl^e fea-coal might not
hurt the arras, lu the fourteenth century, the
houfes or private perfons ir) Paris, as well as in
London, were of wood. Morrifon who wrote in
the beginning of the lad century, fays, that at.
London the houfes of the citizens were very nar-
row in the ftreet-front, five or fix ftories high.,
ijommonly of wood and clay with plainer. The

and yftt are'?i tiafdy ricfe," The borfes bred In that mountainous country are
of a oliminutive Tue ; but no other hor(es can bear fo much fatigue. Camels
in the defa^-ts of Arabia are trained to long abftinence. They are loaded more
and more aS ihey grow up ; and their food is dimini/hed in proportion.
Flsntjr 9f,ruccaleat £aod cal&s an aninaal to its gre^Lteft fize j but its folids
aqi^^ftand,0«xiWr in proportion to its fize. ,,,,. ,- ;• ■

i I

. '^1

35^ Men indcpcndcntx)f Society. B. li'

ftrects of Paris hot being p'aViid, wcrd COvei'e'4 ^,^h .
mud 5 and yet for a woman to travel thefe Utttis in i
cart, was held an article of ipxaty, and as fuch jpVor '
hibited by Philip the Paif. Paris is enlarge^' ' twb;
thirds fmce the death of Henry IV. though at.thi^"
time it was perhaps no lefs populdu;s than at bre-'
fent, ' -* - ' •.'"■•■ - y ;'^ . ,

People were equally plain iri their lloufe hold fur-'
niturc. While money was fcarce, fcrvahts got land ,
inftead df wages. An old tenure in England, binds,
the vaflal to find ftraw for the King*s bed, and hay
for his horfe. From Lord Northumberland's houfe-
hold-book, mentioned above, it appears, that tlie
I'nen allowed for a whole year amounted to no morp^
but feventy elJs ; of which there were to be eight
table-cloths (no napkins) for his Lordfhip's table, and!
two towels for warning his face and hands. F'ewter'
veflels were prohibited to be' hifed, except on Chrift-'
mas, Eafter, St, George's day, arid Whitfunday,
Hollinflicd mentions his converfmg with old men.
who remarked many alterations in England within
their remembrance j that tl.eir fathers, and they
themfelves formerly, had nothing to fleeponbuta
llraw pallat, with a log of wood for a pillow; apil-'.
low, faid they, being thought nieet only for a woman
in childbed j and that if a m^.n in feven years after
marriage could purchafe a flock-bed, and a fack of
chaff to reft his head upon, he thought himfelf as
well lodged as the lord of the town ; who perad*
venture lay feldom on a bed entirely of feathers.
Another thing they remarked, was change of houfe-
hold-veflel from timber plates into pewter, and from
wooden fpoons into tin or filver. . ' s <

Nor were they lefs plain in their drefs. By an a6t
of parliament in Scotlaud, ^iniw 1429, none were_
permitted to wear ftlk or coftly furs, but knights and
lords of 200 merka yearly rfent. Butluxpry ip dref^*
advanced fo faft, thatby another a£ly anno 1457, the-
fame drefs was permitted to ^\dttmen, bailies, and"

other

re-'

ur-
ind
ids
lay
1^'

Sk. VII.

Luxury,

359

other good worthy men within burgh. And by a
third ad, anno 1471, it was permitted to gentlemen
of L. 100 yearly rent. By a fumptuary law in Scot-
land, afino 162 1, clolh of gold and filver, gold and
filvcr lace, velvet, fatin, and other filk fluffs, were
prohibited except to noblemen, their wives and
children, to lords of parliament, prelates, privy
counfellors, lords of manors, judges, magiftrates of
towns, and to thofe who have 6000 mcrks of year-
ly rent. Such diftin6lions, with rcfpedl to land ef-
pecially, are invidious ; nor can they ever be kept
^p James, the firft Britifli monarch, was, during
infancy, committed to the care of the Dowager-
Countefs of Mar, who had been educated in France.
The King being feized with a cholic in the
night-time, his houfehold fri vants flew to his bed-
chamber, men and women, naked as they were born ;
the Countefs only had a fmock.

During the reign of Edward HI. the imports into
England were not the feventh pari of the exports.
Our exports at that time were not the feventh part of
our prefent exports; and yet our luxury is fuch,
that with all our political regulations, it is with diffi-
culty that the balance of trade is prefcrved in our
favour.

Men in different ages differ widely in their notions
of luxury : every new objecl of fenfual gratification
and every indulgence beyond what is ufual, are com-
monly termed luxury ; and ceafe to be luxury when
they turn habitual. Thus, every hiftorian, ancient
and modern, while he inveighs againflthe luxury of
his own times, wonders at the former hiftorians for
characterifmg as luxury what he confiders as conve-
niencies merely, or rational improvements. Her.r
the Roman hiilorian, talking of the war that his coun-
trymen carritd on fucccflully againft Antiochus

* Luxurite enimpcreerinse

ria

" cxercitu Afiatico ihvc6la urbetn e

{\. li

origo
primum

((

led^os a'ratos, vrftem flrnguhm pretiofam, plagu-

■ «««

^11

\i\

;it:

Mr'

' 1 '.

^^*P-^i

^':

■1

360

Mi:N independent of Society. iJCpf. U'

*' las et alia textilia, ct quae turn magnificac (upcU.'.
" Jcdilis h^beb^ntur, monopodia et abacos Ro. ,
'* mam advexerunt. Tunc pfaltriae, fambufiftrise-
*' que, et convivalia Ipdionym oblcdamenta addita
** epulis : epulje quoque ipfa; ct cura et fumptu ^
*' majore adparari cceptae : turn coquus, viliflimum
** antiquis mancipi^ni eftimationc et ufu, in pretip
** effc ; ct, quod minillerium fuerat, ars haberi
*5 coepta. Vix tamen ilia, qua^ turn conl'picicban-
" tur, femina erant futura; luxurice * (a).*' Houfe-
hold furniture at Rome mull at that period have
been \vonderfri":iy plain, when a carpet and a one-
footed table were reckoned articles of luxury.
When the gelding of bulls and rams were firlt
pra£tifed, it was prxobably confidered as abominable
luxury. Galvanus Fiapima, who in the fourteenth
century wrote a hiftovy of Milan, his native coun-
try, complains, that in his tijne plain Jiving had
given way to luxury and extravagance. He regrets
the times pf Frederic Barbarofla and Frederic II.
when the iphabitants of Milan, a great capital, had
but three flefh meals in a \yeek, when wine was a
rarity, when the better fort made ufe of dried wood
for candles, and \yhcn their ihirts were of ferge,
linen being confined to perfons of the highefl: rank.
" Matters," fays he, ".are wonderfully changed :
" linen is a cpmpion wear : the women drefs in
*« filk, orpamented frequently with gold and filver ;
" and they wear gold pendants at their ears." A
hiflorian of the preient times woi^ld lauigh at Fiam-
. ' ^i-i r . • ;•;.', ^ i". . •, naaj

* For the Afiatlc foldiers firft introduced into RoniC tlie foreign luxiirj.
They firft brought with them beds ornanicnted with hiazen fculptun-., paint-
ed coverings, curtains and tape!t-y, and whatv/cre fhenettcemed niai;nificent
furniture, fide-boards, and tabJui with one loot, 'nien to the luxury i>f our
icalt.> were added linging girl ■, le male player-, on the lut*', and morris, dancers >
greater care and expentu wtrc hctl'owed upon our entertainments . the cook,
whom our tprcfatherb rtckoned the meaptlt llavt, b'*tame now m high
efteem. and requeft ; and what was Jormtrly a fervilc empli.yment, was now
exahed into a fcitnce. AW thefe ho\v*ver ft'au tly diJerve to be reckoned the
i;edb (jr buds of thu luxury of afttctinyss." , . ,.; . .

^^4} Tit. Liv, hb, '^(), cap. 6. ^^

Sk. VII. ryy..-'^ ' Luxurppi.,.. If! 361;

ma, for dating as articles of luxury what are |io
more but decent for a tradefnnan and his wife. John
Muffo, a native of Lombardy, who alfo wrote in the
fourteenth century, declaims againfl: the luxuiy of
his cotemporaries, particularly againfl that of the
citizens of Placentia his countrymen. " Luxury of
the table," fays he, *^ of drefs, of houfes an»i
houfhold furniture, in Placentia, began to creep
in after the year 1300. Houfes have at prcfcnt
halls, rooms with chimneys, portico's, wells, gar-
*5. dens, and many other ccnveniencies, unknown to
our anceftors. A houfe that has now many chim-

((

cc
cc

<(
cc

neys, had none in the lafi: age. The fire was
placed in the middle of the houfe, without any
vent for the fmoke but the tiles : all the family
fat round it, and the victuals were drcffcd there.
*5 The expence of hpuihold-furniture is ten times
greater than it was fixty years ago. The tafte for
fuch expence comes to us from Flanders, and
f^ from Spain. Eating-tables, formerly but twelve
f inches long, arp now grown to eighteen. They
f' have table-cloths, with cups, fpoqns, and forks,
*' of filyer, and large knives. Beds haye filk co-
" verings and curtains. They have got candies of
** tallow or wax in candlefticks of iron or copper.
" Almoft every where there are two fires, one for
*' the chamber and one for the kitchen. Confcdi-
ons have come greatly in ufe, and fenfuality re-
gards no expence." Hollinllied exclaims againll
the luxury and effeminacy that prevailed in his time.
In times pad,'* fays he, " men were contented
to dwell in houfes buildcd of fallow, willow,
plumtrce, or elm ; fo that the ufe of oak was de-
" dicated to churches, religious houfes, princes pa-
** laces, noblemens lodgings, and navigation. But
" Jiow, thefc are rejected, and nothing but oak any
whit regarded. And yet fee the change ; for
when our houfes were builJed of willow, then
had we oaken men j but now that our houfes
3 " arc

•Ji'

I '■

ii'i

,:. (

I'i!

•» ;,'!

I ;'

?! ;i

If J

362 Mkn independent of Sodewy.

B. I.

** arc made of oak, our men arfi not only become
♦' villow, but many, through PerOan d<;!kacy crept
'* iti among us, altogether oi (traw, which is a fore
" alteration. In tnofe days, the courage of the
" owner was a fufficicnt defence to keep the houfe
** in fafcty ; but now, the afltirafice of the timber,
" double doors, locks and bolts, muft defend the
min from robbing. Now, have we many chim-
neys, and our tenderlings complain of rheums,
catarrhs, and pofes. Then, had we none but
" r'erc-doffes, and our heads did never ake. For aij
" the fnioke in thofe days was fuppofed to be a fuf-
" ficient hardening for the timber of the houfe j fo
" it was reputed a far better medicine to keep the
" good man and his family from the quack or pofe,
** whertjwith very few were then acquainted." Not
many more than fifty years ago, French wine in
Edinburgh taverns, was prcfcntcd to the guefts in a
fmall tin veffel, meafuring about an Englifli pint. A
Tingle drinking-glafs ferved a company the whole
evening ; and the firft perfons who infiOed for a
clean glafs with every new pint, were accuff d of lux-
ury. A knot of highlanders benighted, wrsppetl
themfelves up in their plaids, and lay down in the
inow to fleep. A young gentleman making up a
ball of fnow, ufed it for a pillow. His father (a),
ftrrking away the ball with his foot, " What, Sir,"
fays he, " are you turning effeminate?" Crantz, def-
cribing the kingdo*^. of Norway and the manners of
the people, has the following reflection, llobulliili-
" mos educat viros, qui, nulla frugum luxuria mo-
" lit!, ftcpius impugnant ahos quam impugnantur *."
In the mountainous ifland of Rum, one of the
wcflcrn iflands of Scotland, the corn produced ferves
the inhabitants but a few months in winter. The

reft

{aj Sir Evan Cameron. . v/ . ' ■ • "

• *' It pxpduces a^moft rohuft race of men, who are enervated hy no
*• luxury ot fotrd," strtd' are more prone to attach and hurafs their ncighbouis
'• th*n luHjeited to ihrir attacks."

1 1.

oine
Tcpt
fore

the
oufc
ber,

the
im-

Sk.VlI. - •'" • Luxury. •"' ' 363

reft of the year thty live on flcfh, fifh, and milk ;
and yet are healthy and long-lived. In the year
i'^6Bf a man died there aged 103, who was 50 years
old before he ever tafted bread. This old man fre-'
qu'^itly harangued upon the plain fare of former
tinges*; finding fault with his neighbours for indulg-
ing in bread, and upbraiding them for toiling like
flavcs to produce fuch an unneceflary article of lux-
ury. The tnhabitantK of Canada before they were
known to Europeans, wcr ■ but thinly cloathed in a
bitter coid climate. They had no covering but a
fmgle fkin, girded about them with a belt of leather.
The coarfe woollen cloaths which they were taught
to wear by the French, raifed bitter lamentations in
their old men for increafe of luxury and decline of
manners. -' ■■ '' •'*'''■*- " :■• • • "'a

Thus, every one exclaims againft the luxury of
the prefent times, judging more favourably of the
paft ; as if what is luxury at prefent, would ceafe to
belu3?ury when it becomes cuftomary. What is the
foundation of a fentiment fo univerfal? In point of
dignity, corporeal pleaH'vcb arc the lowed of all that
belong to our nature ; and for rhat reafon perfons
of delicacy diflemble the pleafure they have in eating
and drinking (a). When corporeal pleafure is in-
dulged to excefs, it is not only low, but mean. But
as in judging of things that admit of degrees, com-
parifon is the ordinary ftandard ; every refinement in
corporeal pleafure beyond what i^ cullomary, is held
to be a blameable extefs, below the dignity of human
nature. For that reafon, every Improvement in Ir-
ving is pronounced to be' luxiry while recent, and
drops that character when it comes into common
ufe; For the fame reafon, what is moderation in
the capital, is efteemed luxury in a country-town.
Doth luxury then' depend entirely on cotriparifon ?
is there no other founaation £ot diflinguifliing mo-

. ;.. . . derition

(*) Element* of Critlclfm, • ol. i. p. 356. edi'.. 1;.

iLij

\m\

564 Men independent of i'MKicty. . p. I^.

deration from txccfs ? This wiil hardly be rj>ain..

This fubjccl is Veneered obfcurftt>y giving different
meanings to the :cr.u luxury. A French wiiter holds
every fort ol food to be luxury but raw flcfli and
acorns, -vjhich were the original food of favagesj
and every fort of covering to be luxury but (kins,
•which were their original cloathing. According to
that definition, the plough, the fpadc, the loom, are
^11 of tjiem inftrumtnts of luxury ; in which vie\y,
jde juflly extols luxury to the ilucs. We are jjorn
naked, becaufe we can clothe ourlclves ; and artlft-'
cial cloathing is to man as much in the order of nar
ture, as hair or fcatliers arc to other animals. But
whatever accords to the common^ nature of man, is
right ; and for that rcafon cannot in a proper fenfc
be termed luxury. Shoes are a refinenjent frpiii
walking barefoot ; and Voltaire, taking this rcfinc-
jnent to be luxury, laughs at thofe who declaim a-
gainfl: luxury. Let every man enjoy the privilege of
giving his own meaning to words : hut when a man
deviates fo far from their ufual meaning, the negled
to define them is inexcufablc, In common language
and in common apprehenfion, luxury always implies
a faulty cxcefs ; and upon that accoijnt, is condemn-
Cjd by all writers, fuch pply excepted a:; afTccl to bj;
fingular. .,„ .,),,.,.• ..,,,,!♦ ir> »,,.- ■

Faulty excefs is clearly one brancl^jpf the defini-
tion of luxury. Another is, that;tlieexce(s mufl be
l^abitual : a fingle a«^ of int^emperar^ce, Ijowevpr faul-
ty, is not denominated .luxury; rpii^era^ion mull
be ip frequent, as tp, becpmi? a confirmed habit.

Nor are thefe p^^;^i(cular^ all tbat enter into the dc-
, §jiition of luxury. Tl)ere are many pleafurcSy how-
eyer, intemperate or habitual,. that ^ar^^not. bfandrd
with .that odi^.yq, na.me. JVIeiital pj|cafnr^ fuch^as
, arifes.from fentimcnt or rcafoninc, falls not witnin
, th,^ verge or luxury, to whatever excels indulged. It
'to relieve merit in diflrefsbe luxury, it is only fo in

a mctapliorjca!

>j '

I r

s^.vii.

...'.y

Luxury,

36s

rem

loldb

and

a metaphorical fcnfe : nor is it deemed luxury in a
damlcl ot fiftcc 11 to perufc love novels from morning
till 'Evening. Luxury is confined to the external
fenfes: nor does it belong to every one oft hcfe : the
tine arts have no relation to luxury. Amr.nisnot
even laid to be luxurious, merely for indulging in
drcfs, or in fine furniture. Hollinlhed inveighs
againft drin^-ing-gialfes as an article of luxury. .1
that raf' '>ufe adorned with fine pi£\ures o fh* -
tties, u "^.n imputation on the prop wior.

Thus, p tevicw every pleafurc of extern;*!

fenfe, we uuu that in proper language the term
luxury is not applicable to any pleafurc of the eye or
ear. That term is confined to the pleafures of tafte,
touch, and fmell,. which appear • as exiiling at the
organ of fenfe and upon that account are held to be
merely corporeal {a). •

Having thus circumfcribed our fubjedt within its
proper bounds, the important point that remains to
be' afcertained isi Whether we have any rule
for: determining , what excefs incorporeal pleafure
may juftly be denominated faulty. About that point
ive are at no lofs* Tho* our prefent life be a ftate
of trial, yet our Maker has kindly indulged us in
every pleafure that is not hurtful to the mind nor to
the body ; and therefore no excefs but what is hurt-
ful falls under the cenfure of being luxurious : it is
faulty as a tranfgreffion of fclf-duty ; and as fuch is
condemned by the moral fenfe. The moft violent
declaimer againlt luxury will not affirm, that bread
is luxury, or a fnow-ball ufed for a pillow : thefe are
innocent, becaufe they do no harm. As little will it
be affirmed, that dwelling-houfes more capacious
than thole originally built, ought to be condemned
as luxury; feeing they contribute to chearfulncfs as
well as to health. The plague, fome centuries ago,
made frequent vifits to London, promoted by lir
; •■ ^ . ftagnathig

(a) See Elements of Crlticifin, liuroduilion.

,1,1

;:i;

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

C/j

1.0

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1.25

■ii Ki |2.2
S us 110

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PhotDgraphic

Sciences
Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80

(716) 872-4503

4|06

Men independent of Society. VtYB* J.

ft ogn^ting in narrowitreetd ami fmall -boufeSr . , {¥in>m
the greal: fire uano 1 666, \r hen the liou£r& afkd lObeotb
iw^re enlarged, the plague has not once becii iftLoirii-'

Man confifts of foul' and hodfi fo intitaaitedyjiCoiiH
neded that the one cannot be 2ut/eatfe while thet other
fuflfers. In order to have mensfAna. in arpore [0^94'^
ianeceflary t6 Hudy the health of hotht c ' boilily lleaii^
{upports the' mind;; and ktotbiikg tends motier thati
cheerfulnefs to Cuppoct the bodyi^ einen iitader z^-^-k
eaiib. To pre&rve this complicated machirie in ordetl^
certain exercifes are proper for the body, andcerjUain
for ihe mind$ wbich.ought never jto encroach theijone
on the other. Much motion andbodijy e^eercife tend
to make us robuft; but in the. mean' time ithe. mind
is ftarved: muchi^reading and Deflection fordfyrthe
mind, but in the mean time thd llaiody-j is ftanvedi
Nor is.' this jdln'i cxcefs fin ckheffalsidefWuifitJird to
both.; for : exercifQ too ^lolent^ :i«hether of; mind
orbody^ wears the roachitie; ItiddleQce^T on thd
other hand, relaxes the machihe, and 1 renders , it
iveak or u&lefs. . Bodily indoleaceibreeds the gont^
the gravel, and many tsther dlifeafesc inor is mental
indolence lef& pernicious, for it breeds: peeyiilmc&
and pufiUanimity.^ Thus, heah^ both of mind-snrd
body is bcfb pceferved by imoderato exercifei And
hence a general priipofition ^i That every indulgenod
in corporeal plcaiUre^ nvhich favours either too viq*
lent or too: languid exercife, Avhether of mind or
body, is^hurtfuU and confequently isi luxury in its
proper fcnfe.. It Jj fcarce nece&ry ta be added,
that every fuch .indulgence is condemned by the
moral feni'c; of whichi every man: can bear teftimo-*-
ay frora.what he himfelf feels.

Too great indulgence in corporeal pleafurc feldom
prompts violent exercife ; but inftances are without
number, of its relaxing even that moderate degree
of -exercife which is healthful both to mind and
body. This in particular is the cafe of too great in*

dulgcnce

Bvl.

SkllVlI. :''no2 i Luxuryi,

.M'

dulgence in eaicmg or drinking: fifch induligefkco,
cccating a habitual appetite for more than nature re-
quiretf, loads- the (lomach, depre(&s the fpiri€s$<and
brinigs QO a habit of U(lle{rAe& and ina6tivity^ which
renders men cowardly and effeminate \ And what
do^s the epicure gain by iiich excefs ? In a; gtand
palace, the mailer occupies not a greater fpace thaa
hist meaneft domeftic } and brings to his moll fump-
tuous feaft, perhaps lefs appetite than any of h«6
guefts. Satiety withal makes him lofe the relilh
even of rarities, whith afford to others a poignant
pieafore. Lillen to a fprightly writer handiina this
ftibjefl. *^ Le peuple tie s'ennuic guerre, fa vie eft
*^ a^ivc; fi fes amufemens ne font pas varies, lis
^ font rares ; beaucoup de jours de £uigue lui^ font
** goOt^r avec d^tices quelques jourside f^es«' Une
*' alternative de longs travaux^ et de courts loiiivs
'^ ttent lieu d'adkifonement aux plaifirs de fon dtat^
H Pour les riches, leur grand fl6au c'ell fenmii :
** au fein de tatit d'amufemens vaffenibles k grands;
'* fraix, au milieu de tant de gens, concourans a leur
" plaire, Uennui les conftime iet les tue ; ils pafTent .
" leur vie i te fair et^ en fetre attetnts-; iis font ac-
^* cabl6s de fon poids infupportable : les femmes,
fur-tout, qui ne favent plus s'occuper, ni s'amu-
fer, en font d6vor6es fous le nom de vapeure/'
Rottjfeau, Emile, What enjoyment then have the
opulent above others ? Let them bellow their riches
in making others happy : benevolence will double
their own happinefs ; firft, in the direft aft of
doing good ; and next, in refleftin? upon the good
they have done, the moft delicate of all feafts.

Had the Englilh continued Pagans, they would
have invented a new deity to prendc over cookery.
.tfit-'j-.'l:.'.': .■ .;ut'fj>t lii'yw'.- '..'...' ^ \ lay

^joii;

u .ry.i

:}hii

..'.Jfi'

* Luxury and f^UiAiners render men covywds. People who are attached
to riches or to fenfital ^leafure, cannot think without horror of abandonln;
them. A virtuous man considers himfelf as placed here in order to obey the
will of liis Maker .: ; he j>er(y}riP' his duty, . and .is ready to quit his poft. upon
tI]ie.|ir(^(ummons.

v. .

ojfis

Men independent of Society. ''^ B»'4,

1 ftrjr it with regrfet, but muft fey it, tfiat a luxurlbts
table, corered with every dainty, feems to be their
favottrite idol. A minifter of ftate never withftands
irfeaft ; and the link that. unites thofe iiioppofiti6n»
M. the cramming one another*. I (hall not befur-
pAM to hear, that the cramming a miftrefs has be-
come the moft faihionable mode of courtihip. Lux-
Airy in eating is not unknown in then: univerfitiesi;
the only branch of education that fieldom proves
tiibbttive.' It has not, efcaped obfervation, that be-
tweech the 1740 and 1770 no fewer than (ix mayors
of London died in office, ^ greater number thin in
the preceding 500 years : fuch havock doth luxury
in eating make among the fons of Albion f. How
differisnt the manners of their forefiathers ! Bonduda
their Queen,:. ready to engage the Romans in a
|>itched battle^ encouraged her amw with a padietk
fpeech, urging iir particular the follbwing coniidera-
tion : ** The' great advantage we have over them
isj that they cannoti like us, bear hunger, thirft,
heat, nor cold. They muft have fine bread,
•'-wine, and warnfi houTcs: every hc*b and root
fatisfies our hunger; water fupplies^^ the want of
wine y and every tree is; to us a warm houfe (»,
^.The indulging in down-beds, foft pillows, .;. a
eafy feats is a fpe|ies;of luxury ; becaufe it tends to
enervate the body^ and: to render it unfit for fatigue.
Some London ladi^ employ an operator for pairiiig
their naiis. Two young women of high quality,

k ;^-.:- ..,^. ..,:.. >;■..:.. , ^, ■■ yf]x0

•^ f» This was compofed In th« year 1770.- X /-UI U: 3 ^iln^-^ JC*^ -^^
f Suicide is not influenced by a foggy air; for I^ is not more frequ«nt rh
the fens of Lincoln or Eflex, than in other parts of England. A habif of
daily exccfs in eating and drifiking, with intervals of downy eafe, rebx every
fitental fpring. The man flags in his fpirits, becomes latriguid and low : nor
thing moves him : every connexion with the world is dilTolyed : a tadium 'vhfF
enfit.es; and then— ——•• ■''■*^' ■• -'--^^U^ -.; "^- ' • -•-

«(

-T»

(a) Dion Caflius. ' , ;

I PrdyidenCe Has provided tliegout as a beacon on the rock of luxury tp
4»'aHt againll it. But in vain: during diftreis, Vo^s of tertkperance ith
Ifiade : .during the intervals, thefe sovn are forgot. Luxoty has gained too
{nach ground in iHis ifland; to be refrained by admonition. «: ,..y

§\a VII. v:^i::^c: ^ ^i^ .. .Jmmyhtxx .. ^^v^:fi W^9

j^lio .were fiil^,. employed a feryant with fpf$.^4s
to ralfe them.gently out of ^ed in a morning. Nor
tj^ipjS lei3 than all-powerful vanity, can n^ike fuch
perlons £ubinit to the fatigues of a toilet: hoiy can
they ever think of fubmitting to the horrid pangs of
^child-bearing ) In the hot climates of Afia, pcsople
qi, rank are rubbed and chaffed twice a day ; which^
.being pleafant, is neceiiary for health, by moving the
.ijlpod in a hot country, where floth and indolence
prfvail. The -Greeks and Romans wcrr curried^
.bathed, and oil^d, daily ; though they had not the
.fai^e excufe for that pra£lice: it was luxury in
,pietn» thoAigh not in the Afiatics.
.^ Nations where luxury is unknorwn, are troubled
.with fcF dif^es,; and have few phyficians by pro-
fepion^ |j> the early ages of lipmcy women ilaves
were the oftjy phyfici;^ns, beeaufe vegetables were
tl^e ipUef foo^^f the, people ;, who befide were con-
.ftajuly employed in war or in huibandry* When
luxury pri;yai|pd among the lloiTians, their difeafes
niultiplied^ and phyfic beca.me a liberal profeflion.
* "^ith, refpeA to exercifiw, the various machines
that h^ve been .invented for executit.g every fort of
wprk, render bodily ftrcngth of lefs importance than
formerly*; llus .change is favourable to mental ope-
rations, ^k'ithout.hurting bodily health. The travel-
ling on horieback, though a lefs vigorous exertion o£
flrength than walking, is not luxury, becaufe it is a
'hea|thful^xercife. I dare not fay fo nFHich for
wh^el-carrlages : a fpring- coach rolling along a
finooth road, gives no exercife ; or fo little, as to
be preventive of no difeafe : it tends to enervate the
body, and in fome meafure alfo the mind. The in**
creafc of wheel carriages witliin a century, is a preg-
nant proof of the growth of luxurious indolence.
During the rcigh i&f James I. the £ngli(h judges rode
to Weftminfter on horfeback, and probably did fo
for rnaiiy years after his, death, Charles!. ilTued a
proclamation,' - prohibiting haekncy-coaches to be
Vol. I. Bb ufei

i\l

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:i' V-

. )l

M.:

111

! i:

i !>

: :! 1

■i.

'370

M£N independent of Society. >•> B. I.

vfied in London, except by thofe who travel at Icaft
three miles out of town. At the Reftoration,
Charles 11. niade hts public entry into London on
horieback, between his two brothers, Dukes of York
andGloucefter. We have Rufli worth for our vo^icher,
that in London, not above a hundred years ago,
there were but twenty hackney-coaches j which did
not ply on the ftreets*, but were kept at home till
called for. He adds, that the King and council pub-
lifhed a proclamation againil them ; becaufe they
raifed the price of provender upon the King, no-
bility, and gentry. At prefcnt, looo hackney-
coaches ply on the flreets of London ; befide a
great number of ftage- coaches for travelling from
-London to all parts of the kingdom. The firft
coach with glaffes in France was brought from
Bruffels to Paris, anno 1660, by the Prince of
Cond6. ' Sedan-chairs were not known in Eng-
land before the year 1634. Cookery and coach-
es have reduced the military fpirit of the Engliih
nobility and gentry,, to a languid ftate : the former,
by overloading the body, has infe£ted them with
difpiriting ailments ; the latter, by foftering eafe
and indojence, have banifhed labour, the only an-
tidote to fuch ailments *. Too great indulgence
in the fine arts, confumes part of the time that
ought to be employed on the important duties
of life ; but the fine arts, even when too much
indulged, produce one good effcd, which is, to
foften and humanize our manners : nor do they
harm the body, if they relax not that degree of
cxercife which is ncceifary for fupporting it in health
and vigour. i .. . ^ .,1.,,.

♦ J'ai toujours va ce»x qui vojrageoient dans de bonnes voitures \?im
douc^s, reveurs, triA«s, grondahs ou fouftrans ; et les pietons toujours gais,
16gers, et contcns de tout. ^ Combien le coeur rit quand on. approche du
gtte I Combien an repas groffier paroit favou^eux ! avec quel plaifir on fe.
repofe ir table ! Qtisl bon ibmmeJl on fait dans un niauvais Vn ! Honj/ean
Bmiit.

ago,

hdid

he till

pub-

thcy

no-

The

Sk;VlI.

. ^.x.". , 1 1

LuHury,

' The enervating cffe&s of' luxury upon the bo-
•^jt are above all remarkable in war. The officers
of Alexander's army, were foon tainted with Atia-
tic manners. Moil of them, aft«r bathing hadfcr-
vants for rubbing them,^hd inftead of plain oil, ufed
precious ointments. Leonatus in particular com*
miflioned from Egypt the powder he ufed when
he wreftlcd, whicn loaded feveral camels. Alex^
andcr reproved them mildly: •* I wonder that
*' men who have undergone fuch fatigues in war,
" are not taught by experience, that labour pro*
" duces fwccter and founder fleep than indolence.
*' To be voluptuous, is an abjed and flavilh flate.
*^ How can a man take care of his horfe, or keep
*^ his armour bright, who difdains to employ his
*' own hands upon what is deareft to him, his own
« body (fl)?"

With reiped to the mind in particular, mani-
fold are the pernicious effects of luxury. Corpo-
real pleafures are all of them felfifli ; and when
much indulged tend to make felfifhnefs the leading
principle. Voluptuoufncfs accordingly, relaxing
every fympathetic affeftion, brings on a beaitly
felfiinnefs, which leaves nothing of a man but
the external figure. Luxury bcfide renders the
mind fo effeminate, as to be fubdued by every
diftrefs : the flightcft pain, whether of mind or
body, is a real evil : and any higher degree be-
comes a torture. The French are far gone in that
difeafe. Pictures of deep diftrefs, which attract
Englifli fpeftators, are to the French unfupporta-
ble : their averfion to pain overcomes the attractive
power of fympathy, and debars from the ftage eve-
ry diftrefs that makes a deep imprefllon. The Bri -
tilh are gradually finking into the fame weaknefs :
Venice preferved collcfts not fuch numbers as it did
originally ; and would fcarce be endured, were not
V''^ "'■ ' '■ ""■ B b ^. ••^•'■•'•' •^' • ^••■^'- our

i. m

1.'

■"C..'

(a) Plutarch.

372

MiM independent of Society. '"B, I.

ill

J f!,stl;

our fympathy blunted by familiarity : a new play
in a fimilar tone v/oM not take. The gradual
decay of manhood in Britain, appears from their
funeral rites^ Fovmerly the deceafed were attend-
ed to the grave, by relations and friends of both
fexes ; and the day of their death was preferved
in remembrancej with folemn lamentation, as the
day of th^ir birth was with exhilarating cups. In
England^ a man wa3 iirft relieved from attending
his deceafed wife to the grave; and afterward from
attending his deceafed children ; and now fuch ef-
feminacy of mind prevails therc^ that upon the
laft groan^ the deceafe^i abandoned by every, re-
lation, is delivered to an undertaker by profeili-^
on, who is left at leifure td ,mimick the funieral
rites. In Scotland, fuch refinement has not yet
taken place : a man is indeed exciifed from attend-
ing his wife to the grave ; but he performs that
duty in perfon to every other relation, his children
not excepted J I am,. told, that people of high
fafliion in England^ begin to leave the care of
their fickTclations to hired nucfes; and think they
do their duty in making, {haftvifits from ^ime to

time. '.V n .■ ;,., Ti,r'»!' .-•■r, :•►.:•-.:,, pf, , .^ \_ 't... -.;■• ;'.

■:>r. Hitherto I have confidered luxury with refpefl
to thofe. only who ar^ infc^ed with it ; and did
its poifon fpread no wi^ef* the cafe would be the
lefs deplorable. But imhappily, where luxury pre-
vails, the innocent fufl'er with the guilty. A man
of oeconomy, whether a merchant or a manufac-
turer, lays up a (lock for his children, and adds
ufcful members to the ftate* A man, on the con-
trary,, who lives above his fortune, or his ptofitSyac-
cuiloms his children to luxury^ itnd abandons them
to poverty when he dies. Luxury at the fame time
is a great enemy to population: it enhances the
ex^pencc of living, and, confmcs many to tlie bat-
rhclor-ftate. Luxury of the table in particular is
Ti^mirkable for that eife^k ; ** L'homihe riche met

" touts

isk; viL

lv>. ,•'

Luxufyfinu'i *}/

373

** toute fa gtoire h. confommer, toute fa grandeur
*' i pcrdrCi en un jour k fa table, plus de bicns
*' qiill n'ltn faudroit pour fajrc fubfiilcr plufieur?
" families. II abufe 6galement et des animaux et
*' dds hqmme^ ; dont le refte demeure affame, lanr
** guit dans la mifere, et ne travaille que pourfatif-
** faire i I'appdtit immod6r6, et a la vanite encore
*' plus infatiable, de cet homme ; qui detruifant les
*^ auCres par la difette, fe detruit l^i•metne par Ics

** execs (;«) ^.*' ^rv:^.-^ ■^""Vw.y.w^n^ ■k.ih.jTiO Ztfi'^

To confider luxury in a politiqal view, no re-
finement of drefs, of the table, of equipage, of ha-
bitation, is luxury in thofe who can afford the ex-
pence ; and the public gains by the cncouragcr
ment that is giiren to arts, manu£ii^ures, and com-
merce. But a mode of living abovp a man's an*
nual income, weakens the (late, by reducing to po-
verty, not only the fquanderers themfelves, but
many innocent and induflrious perfons connected
itrith them. Luxury is above all pernicious in a
commercial flate. A perfon of moderation is fa^
tisfied with fmall profits : npt io the luxurious,
who defpife every branch of trade but what rer
turns great profits; other branches are engroffed
by foreigners who arc more frugal. The mer-
chants of Amflerdam, and even of London, with-
in a century, lived with more oeconomy than their
clerks do at prefent. Their country-houfes and
gardens, make not the greatefl articles of their ex-
pence. At firfl^ a merchant retires to his coun-
try-houfc on , Sundays only and holydays : but be^
ginning to relifh indolent retirement, bufmefs grows
3 irkfome.

•f ■»

' jy-

T-"

(a) Buffbh.

• ** The Ible glory of the rich man i$, to. confumc and deftroy ; and hi'«
*' grandeur confifts, in lavishing in one day upon the expence of His table
** what would procure fubfi<Vencc for many families. He abufes equally
** animals ^d his fellow-creatures ; a great part of whom, a prey to famine,
** and langiiifliing in mifery, labour and toil to fatlsfy his immoderate defires,
** and iftfatiable tanity; wh© dcftroying 6thefs by want, deftroyshimfelf by
« ftxcefs."

, I

374 ^£N independent of Society. B. I.

irkfome, he trulls all to hh clerks, lofes the thread
of his affanrs, fees no longer with his own eyes,
and is now in the h7gh way to perdition. Every
crofs accident makes him totter ; and in labouring
circumflances, he is tempted to venture all in hopes
of re-eftabliihment. He fall; at Jaft to downright
gaming ; which, fetting confcience afide, is a pru-
dent meafure ; he rifks only the money of his cre-
ditors, for he himfelf has nothing to lofe : it is how
with him, Cafar aut nihil*. Such a man never fails
without involving many in his ruin. l*- -i"* "f r •'

The bad eF > of luxury above difplayed, are
not the whole, nor indeed the moil deflrudtive. In
all times luxury has been the ruin of every ftate
where it prevailed* But that more important branch
of the fubjed, is referved to particular (ketches,
where it will make a better figure.

In the favage ilate, man is almoft all body, with
a very fmall proportion of mind. In the ma-
turity of civil fociety, he is complete both in mind
and body. In a itage of degeneracy by luxury
and voluptuoufnefs, he has neither mind nor
body *. . -J - i- >...•' ...

• " Ccfaror nothing."

* In ancient Bgypt, execution againft the perfon of t debtor was proht.
bited. Such a law could not obtain but atnong a temperate people, where
^okrupKy happens by mitfortun^s, and leldom by luxury or cxtravajitQce.

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SKETCHES

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HISTORY OF MAN.

.1 ■ « .

I.I. 41

^ -'-t ■ -.■<••

BOOK II.

V ti ••:/••

Progrem of Men in Society.

' JU -"''i '■ I* .

. P R E F A C E. *' ,

'I'

jr ^ /i&tf cottrfe of explaining this fubje fly no opportU'
nity is omitted of fuggefting an important doilriney That
patriotifm is the corner -fione of civil focieiy ; that no
nation ever became great and powerful withou* it ;
and when extinguijhedy that the mojl powerful nation
will totter and become a ruin* But I profefs only to
flate fails, Frm thefe the reader will not fail to draw
the obfervation : and what he himfelf obferves will fink
deeper, than what is inculcated by an author, however
pathetically*

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SKETCH

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, Appetite for Socicty,-^Origin of National Sociciia*\^u

,. ■■ ^' ■ ■ ill"

T "«-'"•■ " ■■ ' ' 'V ";:;; .. ......»...,,
HAT tlicre is in man an appetite for fociety,
never was galled in qucftion *. But to what end
the appetite ferves, whether it* erfibracc tbc wholf:
fpccies or be in any manner limited, whether men
be naturally qualified for being ufeful members of
civil fociety, and whether they are fitted for being
happy in it, are quedions that open extenfive views
into human nature, and yet have (teen little attend-
ed to by writers. I grieve at the neglcd, becaufc
in the prefent enquiry, thefe queftions, however ab-
llrufc, muft be difculTcd. . .^/ /Viooi ru' i:::^'1(m.-

• This appetite is not denied by Vitruvlus j bnt it fi-eirt* fo have beert '
overlooked in the account he gives (hook 2. cU. i.) ot the cotnini-ncenient ot° ■
fociety, which is as follows. ♦' In ancient times, men, like wild bewfts, lived
*' in cavos and wood;, feeding on wild fond, In a certain place it happened,
" that the trees, put in motion by tempeAuoiis winds, and rubbing their .'
" branches one againll another, took Are. Thofe in the neighbourhood
" Hed for fear t but as the flame abated, they approaciied i and (inding the
" heat comfortable, they threw wood into the Are, :ind preferred it from b«* ^
" ing extingui/hed. Thiy then invited others to take benefit of th« Art;.
'' Men, thns alfombled^ endoavo6red to exprefs' their thoughts by alYicu-
'' late founds ; and by daily practice, certain founds lignifying things in fre- '
*' quent ufe, cametobeeA'ablinied. From that caAial event, language arofe.
*' And thus, Are having attraAtd many to ope place, they foon difcovered
*' that they were by nature fuperior to other animals, diil'ering from them
" not only in an ercdl poAure, which gave them oppprtunity to behold tite
'* beauties of the heavens as well as of the earth } but alf6. ifi their hands
" and Angers, Atted fof executing whatever they could invent. They there- '
*' fore began to cover their habitations with the bous;hs of trees : fqme dug
" caves in the mountains ; and, in imitation of a fwalluw's nelt, fome (hel-
" teredthemfeives with fprigs and loam . Thus, by observing each other's
" work and turning their thoughts to Invention, they by duj^rees improved
*' their habitations, and became daily more and more ikilfuk" Uiudorus Si-
cuius (lib. I.) fays, that men originally led a favage life, without any focie^
ty j that fear made them join tor mutual dc tenee againfl beafls of prey ;
thdt cultoci by degrees made thcin focial ^ and that each fociety formed a
language Kk itldf. Has nut the celebrated Ruuireau been guilty of the fame ,
overligiH in his clfay on the inequaijty of nwn ? Thefe authors fuggeft to me
the butcher, who nude diligent fearch tor his knife,, svhich he he!d In hii
trcth.

i M

Sk. I.

Origin of Nations*

377

focial,

As many animals, bcfidc man, are lociai, it ap«
peared to me probable, that the focial laws by which
I'uch animals are governed, might open views into
the focial nature of man. But here I met with a
fecond difappointment; for after perufing books
without end, I found very little fatisfadtion ; tho'
the laws of animal fociety make the moft inftru£live
and mod entertaining part of natural hiftory. A few
dry fads, collected occafionally, enabled me to
form the embryo of a plan, which I here prefent to
the reader : if nis curiofity be excited, 'tis well ; for
I am far from expefting that it will be gratified.

Animals of prey have no appetite for fociety, if
the momentary adt of copulation be not excepted.
Wolves make not an exception, even where hunger
makes them join to attack a village : as fear prevents
them fingly from an attempt fo hazardous, their ca-
fual union is prompted by appetite for food, not by
appetite for fociety. So little of the focial is there
in wolves, that if one happen to be wounded, he is
put to death and devoured by thofe of his own kind,
Vultures have the fame difpofition. Their ordinary
food is a dead carcafe ; and they never venture, but in
a body, to attack any living creature that appears
formidable. Upon fociety happinefs fo much de-
pends, that we do not willmgly admit a lion, a tir^T,
a bear, or a wolf, to have any appetite for fociety.
And in with-holding it from fuch animals, the good-
nefs of Providence to its favourite man, is conipicu*
ous : their ftrength, agility, and voracity, make them
fingly not a little formidable : I fhould tremble for
the human race, were they difpofed to make war in
company*. , .,,, „.,.,,.::,.

'<':

-, J

'<^j

■ m

* The care of Providente In prote(A!nK the human race from animals of
prey, is equally vilibie in other particulars. I can difcover no fa^s to make
tne believe, that a lion or a tigrr is afraid of a man ; but whatever fecret
niean$ areetnploy'd by Providence to keep fuch fierce and voracious animals at
adiHance, cuiain it is, that they Hiun the habitations of men. At pretbnt
there is not a wild l^m in Europe, Even in Homer's time there were none

f: f

T If

378

Civit Society.

B. U.

-Such hacnilcfs animals as arc unable to defend
themfelves ftnglyj arc provided with an appetite for
fociety, that they may defend themfelves in a body,
bheep ave remarkable in that refpeft, when left to
nature : a ram feldom attacks ; but the rams of a
tlock exert great vigour in defending their females
and their young *. Two of Bakewell's rams,
brought to Langholm in the Duke of Buccleugh's
cilate, kept clofe together. The one was taken ilU
and died, the other gave clofe attendance, ftood be-
Tide the dead body, and abllained from food for fome
days : nor did it recover its fpirits for a long time.

: ;. .■/'.■. ;, ,;tv';^:, ' ;-,' The

■If

f! ;

in Peloponnefus, though they were frequent in Thrace, Macedon, and
Thcflaly, down to the time of Ariftotle : whence it is probable, that thefe
countries were not at that time well peopled. And the fame' probability
holdswithrefpe^ to feveral mountainous parts in China, which even ||it pre>>
A nt are inf«<led with tigers. When men and cattle are together, a lion always
attacks a beaft, and never a ftfian. If we can rely on Bbifman, a tiger in Gui.
nea will not touch a man if there be a four-footed beaft in fight. M> Buffon
obfervcs, that the bear, though far from being cowardly, never is at cafe Ibut
in wild and dcfart plaees. The great condor of Peru, a bird of pr?iy of an
inimenre fize, bold and rapacious^ is never feen but In <tefarts apd high
mountains. Every river in the coaft of Guinea abounds with crocodiles,
which lieliaiking in the ftm during the heat of day. If they perceive a man
approaching, they plunge into the river, though they feldom fly from any
other animal. A fox, on the contrary, a pole-cat, a kite, though afraid of
man, draw near to inhabited places where they find prey in plenty. Such
animals do little mifchief ; and the little they do, promotes care and vigi>
lance. But if men, like Iheep, were the natural prey of a lioti or a tigerj,
rlieir utmofl vigour and fagacity would fcarce be fufflcient for felf-defence.
Perpetual war would be their fate, without having a Hngle moment for any
other occupation ; and they mu,^ for ever have continued in a brutifh ftate.
It is poflible that a few cattle might be proteAed by armed men, continually
on the watch; but to defend flocks and herds covering a hundred hills,
would he impra^icable. Agriculture could never have exiAed in any Aiap^.
* M. Buft'on !ia& bedewed lefs pains than becomes an author pf his cha-
Ira^er, upon the nature and inOin£ts of animals. He fcarce once flumbl^
upon truth in his natural hiAory of the fheep. He holds it to be Aupid, and
Incapable to defend Itfelf againd any beall of prey ; maintaining, that tht
race could not have fubfiilcd but under the care and protection of men. Han
tliat autiior forgot, that (Tieep had no enemy more formidable than men in
tlieir original hunter-date ? Far from being negledlcd by nature, there are
liuw animals better provided for defence. They have a fort of military in-
(HnA, forming a line of battle, Ukefoldiers, when threatened with an attack.
The rams, who, in a natural (late, make half of the flock, join together j
and no lion or tiger is able to relift their united impetuofity, A ram, edu-
cated by a foldier, accompanied his njafter to the battle of CuUoden. When
a cannon was fired, it njoiced and ran up to it. It adlually began the
bat'tlc, advancing before the troops, and attacking fomq|logs of the highland
ariiiy, . .

t'V^

\. VL

Sk. I.

Orl^n of Nations,

i79

The whole focicty of rooks join in attacking a kite,
when it hovers about them. A family of wild fwine
never feparate, till the young be fufficicmly ftrong
to defend themfelves againft the wolf ; and when the
wolf threatens, they all join in a body. The pccary
is a fort of wild hog in the ifthmus of Darien : if one
of them be attacked, the reft run to allift it. There
being a natural antipathy between that animal and
the American tiger, it is not uncommon tb find a
tiger (lain with a number of dead pecaries round
him. ;. ;

The focial appetite is to fome animals ufeful, not
only for defence, but for procuring the neceffarie's
of life. Society among beavers is a notable inftance
of both. As water is the only refoje of that inno-
cent fpecies againft an enemy, ihw'y inftinftivcly
make their fettlcment on the brink of a lake or of a
running ftream. In the latter cj^fe, they keep up
the water to a proper height by a dam-dike, con-
flruded with fo much art as to withftand the greateft
floods : in the former, they fave themfelves the la-
bour of a dam-dike, becaufe a lake generally keeps
at the fame height. Having thus provided for de-
fence, their next care is to provide food and habita-
tion. The whole fociety join in ereding the dam-
dike ; and they alfo join m erecting houfes. Each
houfe has two apartments : in the upper th^^re is
fpace for lodging from fix to ten beavers : the under
holds their provifions, which are trees cut down by
united labour, and divided into fmall portable
parts (a). Bees are a fimilar inftance. Ariftotlc (b)
fays, " that bees are the only animals which labour
in common, have a houfe in common, eat in
common, and have their offspring in common."
A fmglc bee would be ftill lefs able than a fingle
beaver, to build a houfe for itfclf and for its winter-
food.

(a) Sev the works of the beaver defcrlbed mod accurately by M. Buffon,
vol. 8.
(i) Hiftory of animals, b, 6. c, 40,

((
cc

r ^ i

4 'I

1 k

: y; p

I.f ^

380 Civii, Society. ' B. it

food. The Alpine rat or marmoui nas"rib be-
cafton to ftore up food for winter, bccailfe it
lies benumbed without motion all the cold mottths.
But thcfe animals live in tribes j and each tribe
digs a habitation underground with great art, fuf-
ficiently capacious for lodging the whole .tribe ;
covering the bpttom with withered grafs, whlcjh
fome cut, and others carry. The wild dogs of
Congo and Angpla hunt in packs, waging per-
petual war againft other wild beafts. They bring
to the place of rendezvous wh?itever is caught in
hunting; and each receives its fliare*. The ba-
boons are fociai apimals, and avail tliemfelves of
that quality in procuring food ; witnefs their ad-
drefs in robbijjg an orchard, defcribed by Kolben
in his account of the Cape of Good Hope. Some
go into the orchard, fome place themfelves on the
wall, the reft form a line on the outfide, and thp
fruit is thrown from hand to hand till it reach the
place of rendezvous. Extending the enquiry to
all known animals, we find that the appetite for fo-

, ciety is with-held from no ipecies to which it is ne-
ccffary, whether for defence or for food. It ap-
pears to be diftributed by weight and meafure, in
order to accommodate the internal frame of animals
to their external circumftances. ' ,f " . ,

On fome animals an appetite for fociety is be-
ftowcd, though in appearance not neceffary either
for defence or for food. With regard to fuch, the
only final caufe we can difcover is the pleafure of
Jiving in fociety. That kind of fociety is found a-
niong horfes. Outhier, one of the French acade-
micians employed to meafure a degree of the uie-
ridian toward the north pole, reports, that at Tor-

. iieo all bulky goods are carried in boats during

fummer j

■> ''hj (.11 .f>i)') V \t :h

.^/■■»firf*( t f7<".f * •

■" r* firf'.oi

♦ Holivevet fierce with refpeft to other animalj , ya fo fuhmlrtive are thefe
«io(;s to men, as to fuffer their prey.to betalicn troni them.\^'lthput ieUll44tci^<
rrr<.>fw'^i s flit for their flavfs what they thus procure, ^

I *ii

oc-

c it

mhs.
tribe
,ruf.
ibe ;
vhlcjh
gs of
pcr-
Dring
htin
e ba-
df

Sk..:I.

Origin of Nationr.

.38'

fujnmcr ; but in win^c hen the rivers arc frozen
and ^hc ground coverc v;ith fnow, that ■ they ufe
fledges drawn by horfcs j that when the fnow
melts and the rivers are open, thehorfes, fct loofe,
^'endezvous at a certain part of the forcft, where
they feparate iiito troops, and occupy different
paftu re-fields ; that wlien thefe fields become bare,
they occupy new ground in the fame order as at
ifirft ; that they return home in troops when the
bad weather begins ; and that every horfc knows
its own ftall. No creature ftands lefs in need of
• fociety than a hare, whether for food or for de-
fence. Of food, it has plenty under its feet ; and
for defence, it is provided both with cunning and
fv^iftnefs. Nothing however is more common in a
moorulight night, than to fee hares fporting toge-
ther in the. moft focial manner. But fociety for
pleafure pnly is an imperfect kind of fociety ; and
far from being fo intimate, as where it is pro-
vided by nature for defence, or for procuring
food *

With refpe^k to the extent of the appetite, no
facial animal, as far as can be difcovered, has an
appetite for aifociating with the whole fpecies.
Every fpecies is divided into many fmall tribes ; and
thefe tribes have no appetite for affociating with each
other : on the contrary, a ftray fliecp is thruft out

■ _,. ; .- ^, ..,.-. '.■ ' »''-■• ■— *--* • ■•• ■•-"_-■ oi

* Pigeons nwft be ejccepted, if their ibciety be not oecefTary either for food
' or habitation, of which I am uncertain. Society among that fpecies Is ex-
tremely intimate ; and it is obfervable, that the place they inhabit contributes
ta the intimacy. A crazy dove-cot moved the proprietor to transfer the
inhabitants to a new hpufe built tor tiiem; and to accuftom them to it, they
^^^^e kept a fortnight within doots, with plenty of food. When they ob-
tained liberty, they flew dir«£lly to their old houfe ; and feeing It laid flat,
walked round and round, lamenting. They then took wing and difappeared,
. without once catling an eye on their new habitation. Some brute animals
■ ite fufceptlble of affe^ion even t6 thofeof a different fpecies. Of the aflTe^i-
, oil a dog has for his martcr, no perfon is ignorant, A canary bird, fo tame
as to be let out of its cage, perched frequently on another c»ge in the fame
. room by a linnet ; and the birds became good friendt. The linnet died : the
c«nary bird was inconfolable, and fof bore linging above a year: It recove/ed
its fpirits, and now chants as much as ever.

•il

i !l i

■' Jl ■■■

382

Civil Society*

B. IT;

v?ll

of the flock, and a ftray bee muft mflantly retire, or
be flung to death. The dogs of a family never fail
to attack a flranger dog, bent to deflroy him. If
the flranger fubmit, they do him no harm \ Every
work of Providence contributes to fome good end :
a finall tribe is fufficient for mutual defence ; and a
very large tribe would find difficulty in fubfiflence; ^'
• How far brute animals are by nature qualified for
being. ufeful members of civil fociety, or for being
happy in it, are queflions that have been totally
overlooked by writers. And yet, as that branch oif
natural hiflory is alfo neceffary to my plan, I mufl
proceed; though I have nothing to lay before the
reader but a few fcattered obfervations, which oc-^
curred when I had no view of turning them to ac-*
count. I begin with the inflindive Conduct of
animals, in providing againfl dangerw When a flock
of fheep in the flate of nature goes to rcfl, centineU
are appointed ; who, on appearance of an enemy,
flamp with the foot, and make a hifling found ;
upon which all take the alarm : if no enemy appear^
they watch their time, return to the flock, and fend
out others in their ftead. In flocks that have an ex-
tenfive range in hilly countries, the fame difcipline
obtains, even after domeflication. Though mon*^
keys fleep upon trees, yet a centinel is always ap'
pointed ; who mufl not fleep under pain of being
torn to pieces. They preferve the fame difcipline
when they rob an orchard : a centinel on a high tree
is watchful to announce the very firft appearance of
an enemy. M. BufFon, in talking of a fort of mon-
key, which he terms Malbroucky fays, that they are .
fond of fruit, and of fugar-canes ; and that while
they arc loading themfelves, one is placed centinel
on a tree, who, upon the approach of a^man, cries,
' ■ ■■■"*■ :^- .?'. ■ -^' ' Houp!

* Cclumella, trpating of goats, obfcrves that it is better to purchafe an
entire Hock, than Koats out of different flocks, that they may not divide into '
different parties, but feed cordially together.

. 11;

Sk. I.

Origin of Nations,

Hottp / Houp / Houp / loudly and diftlnftly. Tliat
moment they throw away the fugar- canes that they
hold in their left hand, and rim otF upon that hand
with their two feet. When marmouts are at work
in the field, one us appointed to watch on a high
rock ; which advertifes them by a loud whlflie,
when it fees a man, an eagle, or a dog. Among
beavers, notice is given of the approach of an ene-
my, by lafliing the water with the tail, which is
heard in every habitation. Seals always Jleep on
the beach ; and to prevent furprife, centinels are
placed round- at a confiderable diftance from the
nu^in body. Wild elephants, who always travel
in company, are lefs on their guard in places un-
frequented : but when they invade cultivated
fieldSf they march in order the eldeft in the
firont, and the next in age clofmg the rear. The
weak are placed in the centre, and the females
carry their young on their trunks. They attack
in a body ; and upon a repulfe, retire in a body.
Tame elephants retain fo much of their original
nature, that if one, upon being wounded, turn its
back, the reft inftantly follow. Bell of Antrimo-
liy, in his journey through Siberia to Pekin, men-
tions wild horfes that live in fociety, and are pe-
cuUarly watchful againft danger. One is always
ftationed on an eminence, to give notice of an
approaching enemy; and upon notice given, they
all fly. Next in order is the government of a
tribe, and the conduct of its members to each
other. It is not unlikely, that fociety among fome
animals, and their mutual affection, may be fo
entire as to prevent all difcord among them ;
which feems to be the cafe of beavers. Such a
fociety, if there be foch, requires no government,
nor any laws. A flock of fliecp occupies the fame
fpot every night, and each hath its own refting-
place. The fame is obfervable in horned cattle
when folded. And as we fiud not, that any one

ever

I? \

Si£l:

i\L-

i: "■

384

Civil Society.

B. II.

ever attempts to diflodge another, it is probable
that fuch redraint makes a branch of their na-
ture. But foclety among brute animals is not al-
ways fo perfect. Pervcrfe inclinations, tefiding to
dillurb fociety, are vifible among fome brute a-
nimals, as well as among rational men. It is not
uncommon for a rook to pilfer (licks from ano-
ther's neft ; and the pilferer's neft is demolifhed
by the lex talionis* Herdns have the fame fort of
government with rooks, in preferving their nefts.
They are Angular in one particular, that there
is no fociety among them but in hatching their
young. They live together during that time,
and do not feparate till their young can provide
for themfelves. Perverfe inclinations require go-
vernment, and government requires laws. As in
the cafes now mentioned, the whole fociety join
in infliding the punifliment, government, among
rooks and herons appears to be republican. Apes,
on the contrary, are under monarchical 'govern-
ment. Apes in Siam go in troops, each under
a leader, who preferves lirict difcipline. A female,
carnally inclined, retired from the troop, and was
followed by a male. The male efcaped from the
leader who purfued them ; but the female was
brought back, and in prefence of the whole troop
received fifty blows on the cheek, as a chaflife-
ment for its incontinence (a). But probably,
there are not many inftances among brutes, of
government approaching fo near to that of men.
Government among horned cattle, appears to have
no other end but to preferve order. Their go-
vernment is monarchical ; and the eledion is
founded upon perfonal valour, the mofl folid of
all qualifications in fuch a fociety. The bull who
afpires to be lord of the herd, mufl fight his
way to preferment j and after all his rivals arc

beat

U), Mcmoifc cf Count ForWn,

•s?.

Sk. 1. Ortj^ln of fTathfis, 3S5

'beat off the field, the herd tamely iubinit. At the
ikme time, he is not fecured in the throne for life ;
but muft again enter the lifts \vith any bull that
ventures to. challenge him. The fame fpirit is ob-
fervable among oxen, in a lower degree. The
mafter-ox leads the reft into the ftable, or into the
fold, and becomes unruly if he be not let firfl out :
tiay, he muft be firft yoked in the plough or wag-
gon. ' Sheep are not employed in work } but in
every other refpeft the fame economy obtains
among them. Where the rams happen to be few
in proportion to dther (hecp, they fometimes divide
the flock among them, inftcad of fighting for pre-
cedence. ' Five or fix feore of fheep, two of thent
rams, were purchafed a few years ago by the author
of this work. The two rams divided the flock be-
tween them. The two flocks paftured in common ;
being fliut up in one inclofure : but they had differ-
ent fpots for reft during night} nor was it known,
that a ftieep ever defertcd its party, or even changed
its refting-place. In the two fpecies laft mentioned,
I find not that there is any notion of punifliment ;
nor does it appear to be necelTary : the leader pre-
tends to nothing but prudence, which is never dif-
puted. Every fpecies of animals have a few notes
by which the individuals communicate their defires
and wants to each other. If a cow or a calf give
the voice of diftrefs, every beaft of the kind runs
to give help. If a ftranger utter the voice of defi-
ance, many advance for battle. If he yield, he ob*
tains a certain rank in the herd. If a colony of rooks
be fiiffered to msike a fettlement in a grove of trees,
it is difficult to diflodge them. But if once diflodg-
cdi they never return, at leaft for many years ; and*
yet numbers muft have beeti procreated after banifli-
niettt. How is thi^ otherways to be accounted for,
but that rdoks havie fome faculty of conveying in-
ftrU^on to their young ?
Voi,. I. C c In

- u

ii Si

1 ■-.

111

fir

386

Civil Society.

B. II.

In fomc animals love of liberty is the ruling pafli-
on : fome are eafily trained, and fubmit readily Vfxth-
out oppofition. Examples of the latter are com-
mon : of the former take the following inftance. A
brood of ftonechatters taken from the neft, were in-
clofed in a cage. The door was left open to give
admiffion to the mother, and then was fhut upon her.
After many attempts, finding it impoffible to get
free, fhe firft put her young to death ; and then
daihed out her own brains on the fide of the cage.
I blufh to prefent thefe imperfed hints, the fruit of
cafual obfervation, not of intentional enquiry : but
I am fond to blow the trumpet, in order to raife cu-
riofity in others : if the fubjed be profecuted by
men of tafte and enquiry, many final caufes, I am
perfuaded, will be difcovered, tending more and more
to difplay the wifdom and goodnefs of Providence.
But what at prefent I have chiefly in view, is to ob-
ferve, that government among brute animals, how-
ever fimple, appears to be perfect in its kind ; and
adapted with great propriety to their nature. Fac-
tions in the irate are unknown : no enmity between
individuals, no treachery, no deceit, nor any other
of thofe horrid vices that torment the human race.
In a word, they appear to be perfedly well qualified
for that kind of fociety to which they are prompted
by their nature j and well fitted for being happy in
it.

Storing up the foregoing obfervations till there
be occafion for them, we proceed to the focial nature
of man. That men are endued with an appetite for
fociety, will be vouched by the concurring tefti-
mony of all men, each vouching for himfelf. There
is accordingly no inftance of people living in a fo-
litary ftate, where the appetite is not obftruftcd by
fome potent obftacle. The inhabitants of that part
of New Holland which Dampier faw, live in fociety,
though lefs advanced above brutes than any other
known favages -, and fo intimate is their fociety, that

they

Sk. I.

in-

Origin of Kations,

387

they gather their food, and eat, in common. The
inhabitants of the Canary iflands lived in the fame
manner, when firfl feen by Europeans, which was
in the fourteenth century j and the favages men-
tioned by Condamine, drawn by a Jefuit from the
woods to fettle on the banks of the Oroonoko, muft
originally have been united in fome kind of fociety,
as they had a common language. In a word, that
man hath an appetite for food, is not more certain,
than that he hath an appetite for fociety. And here
I have occafion to apply one of the obfervations made
above. Abftrading altogether from the pleafurc
we have in fociety, fimilar to what we have in eat-
ing ; evident it is, that to no animal is fociety more
neceffary than to man, whether for food or for de-
fence. In fociety, he is chief qf the terrcftrial crea-
tion ; in a folitary flate, the mofl helplefs and for-
lorn. Thus the firft queftion fuggefted above, viz.
To what end was a focial appetite bellowed on man,
has received an anfwer, which I flatter myfelf will
be fatisfaftory.

The next queftion is. Whether the appetite em-
brace the whole fpecics, or be limited, as among
other animals, to a fociety of moderate extent. That
the appetite is limited, will be evident from hiftory.
Man, as far back as they can be traced, have been
divided into fmall tribes or focieties. Moft of thefe,
it is true, have in later times been united into large
ftates : fuch revolutions however have been brought
about, not by any appetite for a more extenfive fo-
ciety, but by conqueft, or by the jundion of fmall
tribes for defence againft the more powerful. A fo-
ciety may indeed be too fmall for complete gratifica-
tion of the appetite ; and the appetite thus cramped
welcomes every perfon into the fociety till it have
fufficient fcope : the Romans, a diminutive tribe ori-
ginally, were fond to aflbciate even with their ene-
mies after a victory. But, on the other hand a fo-
ciety may be too large for perfed gratification. An

C c 2 extenfive

r41

<i'

lit

: ; K(

'til

388

Civil Society.

B. II.

cxtcnfivc empire is an objcft too bulky : national af-
fe^ion is too much diffufed ; and the mind is not at
cafe till it find a more contradcd focicty, corrcfpond-
ing to the moderation of its appetite. Hencd' the
numerous orders, aflbciations, fraternities, and di-
vifions, that fpring up in every great ftate. The
ever-during Blues and Greens in the Roman em-
pire, and Guelphs and GibeUnes in Italy, could not
have long fubfifted after the caufe of their enmity
was at an end, but for a tendency in the members
of a great ftate to contract their focial connexions •.
Initiations among the ancients were probably owing
to the fame caufe ; as alfo alTociations of artifans
among the moderns, pretending myftery and fecrecy,
and excluding all ftrangers. Of fuch aflbciations or
brotherhoods, the free-mafons excepted, there is
fcarce now a veflige remaining.

We find now, after an accurate fcrutiny, that the
focial appetite in man comprehends not the whole
fpecies, but a part only ; and commonly a fmall
part, precifely as among other animals. Here an-
other final caufe ftarts up, no lefs remarkable than
that explained above. An appetite to affociate with
the whole fpecies, would form ftates fo unwieldy by
numbers, as to be incapable of any government.
Our appetite is wifely confined within fuch limits as
form flates of moderate extent, which of all are the
beft fitted for good government i and, as we fhall fee
afterward, are alfo the befl fitted for improving the
human powers, and for invigorating every manly vir-
tue. Hence an inftruftive Teflon, That a great em-
pire is ill fuited to human nature ; and that a great
conqueror is in more refpe£ks than one an enemy to
mankind.

The limiting our focial appetite within moderate
bounds, fuggefls another final caufe. An appetite

* The never-ceafin{; factions in Britain proceed, not from a fociety too
much extended, but from love of power or of wealth, or to reftrain which
titers is no fufiicient authority in a free government.

MI.

Sk. I. Origin of Nations* 389

to alTociate Mrith the whole fpccies, would collect into
one fociety all who arc not I'cparated from each other
by wide Teas and inacceifible mountains ; and confe-^
quently would didribute mankind into a very few'
iocieties, confiding of fuch multitudes as to reduce
national affedion to a mere fhadow. Nature hath
wifely limited the appetite in proportion to our men-
tal capacity, Our relations, our friends, and our
other connexions, open an extenfive field for the
cxercifc of affcftion : nay, our country in general, if
not too extenfive, would alone be fufficicnt to eri-
p^rofs our affection. But that beautiful fpeculation
falls more properly under the principles of morality j
and there it ihall not be overlooked.

What comes next in order, is to examine how we
(land affedted to thofe who are not of our tribe or
fociety. I pave the way to this examination, by
taking up man naked at his entrance into life. An
infant at firii has no feeling but bodily pain ; and it
is familiarized with its nurfe, its parents, and perhaps
with others, before it is fufceptible of any pailion.
All weak animals are endowed with a principle of
fear, which prompts them to Ihun danger ; and fear,
the firft pailion difcovercd in an infant, is raifed by
every new face : the infant fhrinks and hides itfelf
in the bofom of its nurfe * (a). Thus every ftran-
ger is an objeft of fear to an infant j and confe-
quently of averfion, which is generated by fear. Fear
leffens gradually as our circle of acquaintance en-
larges, efpecially in thofe who rely on bodily
ftrength. Nothing tends more cfFedually to diffi-
pate fear, than confcioufnefs of fecurity in the focial
ftate : in folitude, no animal is more timid than
man ; in fociety, none more bold. But remark,
that averfion may fubfift after fear is gone : it is

propagated

* In this refpefl the human race differs widely from that of dogs : a
puppy, the firft time it fees a man, runs to him, licks his hand^ and play<;
about his feet.

(a) Elements of CriticiCm, vol. j. p. 44.1, edit. 5.

I^i

' ¥

f i.:'

I: \i'

■ :■ I

fi:i

39©

CifiL Society.

B. II.

propagated from people to their children through an
endlcis fucccfTion ; and is infcdious like a difeafe.
Thus enmity is kept up between tribes without any
particular caufe. A neighbouring tribe, conftantly
in our fight, and able to hurt us, is the object of our
ftrongeft averfion : avcrfion leflcns in proportion to
diflancc ; and terminates in abfolutc indifference
with rcfpcd to very diftant tribes.

One would naturally imagine, that, after fear has
vaniflied, averfion to ftrangers cannot long fubfift.
But it is fupported by a principle, that we arc not at
liberty to deny, bccaufe it frequently breaks forth
even in childhood, without any provocation ; and
that is a principle of malevolence, diftributed indeed
in very unequal portions. Obferve the harfh ufage
that tame birds receive from children, without any
apparent caufe ; the neck twiiled about, feathers
plucked off, the eye thruft out with a bodkin ; a
baby thrown out at a window, or torn in pieces.
There is nothing more common, than flat ftoncs
that cover the parapets of a bridge thrown do^vn,
the head of a young tree cu<. off, or an old tree
barked. This odious principle is carefully difguifed
after the firft dawn of reafon ; and is indulged only
againft enemies, becaufe there it appears innocent.
I am utterly at a lofs to account for the following
faft, but from the principle now mentioned. The
Count dc Lauzun was fhut up by Louis XIV. in the
caftle of Pigncrol, and was confined there from the
year 1672 to the year 1681, deprived of every com-
fort of life, and even of paper, pen, and ink. At
a diftance from every friend and relation; w'.ho'ii
light except a glimmering through a flit in the roof;
without books, occupation, or exercife ; a prey to
hope defcn ed and conltant horror ; he, to avoid in-
fanity, had r'scourfe to tame a fpider. The fpider
received ^ir: horv his h:',id with feeming gratitude,
carried on bh web with vdacrity, and engaged the
whole atteritioi! of the prtfoner. This moll: innocent

2 of

Sk<I.

Origin of Nations,

391

h an
feafe.
t any
ant]y
)f our
on to
fcrcnce

of all amufements was difcovcrtL by the jailer, who,
in the wantonncfsof power, deft roved the fpidcr and
its work. The Count defer ib« 1 hib agony to be
little inferior to that of a fond i .oJier at the lofs of
a darling child. Cuftom may r ndcr a ^ rfon infen-
lible to fcenes of mifcry ; but cannot provoke cf uflty
without a motive. A jailer diflcrs only from other
men, in freedom to indulge malignity againit his pri-
foners vith our fear of retaliation. . . ,. ,

A^ T Hi it \er hope nor wifti, that the nature of man,
a*-, j^buvc J( ..ueatcd, be taken upon my authority, 1
propcfr^ to verify it jy clear and fubdantial fads.
But t( avoid the multiplying inltances unneceffarily,
i fhall confine myfelf to fuch as concern the averfioii
that rcighbouring tribes have to each other ; taking
it for granted, that private afFedion and love to our
country are what no perfon doubts of. I begin with
examples of rude nations, where nature is left to it-
felf, without culture. The inhabitants of Green-
land, good-natured and inoffenfive, have not even
words for exprefling anger or envy : Healing from
one another is abhorred ; and a young woman guilty
of that crime, has no chance for a hulband. At the
fame time they are faithlefs and cruel to thofe who
come among them : they confider the reft of man-
kind as a different race, with whom they rejeft all
fociety. The morality of the inhabitants of New-
Zealand is not more refinecl. Writers differ about
the inhabitants of the Marian or Ladrone iflands :
Magellan, and other voyagers fay, that they arc ad-
dled to thieving ; and their teftimony occafioned
thefe iflands to be called Ladrones, Pere le Gobien,
on the contrary, fays, that, far from being addided
to thieving, they leave every thing open, having no
diftruft one of another. Thefe accounts differ in
appearance, not in reality. Magellan was a flran-
ger ; and he talks only of their ftealing from him
and from his compunions. Father Gobien lived
long among them, and talks of their fidelity to each

other.

■n

> I'

392

Civil Society.

B.1I.

J; 1 1

1:3.1^

other. Plan Carpin, who vifited Tartary in the
year 1 246, obferves of the Tartars, that, though full
of veracity to their neighbours, they thought thcm-
J'elves not bound to fpcak truth to ftrangers. The
Greeks anciently were held to be pirates : but not
properly ; for they committed depredations upon
ftrangers only* Caefar, fpeaking of the Germans («),
fays, *' Latrocinia nullum habent infamiam quae
** extra fines cujufque civitatis fiunt *." This was
precifely the cafe of our highlandcrs, till they were
brought under due fubjeftion after the rebellion
1 745. Bougainville obferves, that the inhabitants of
Otaheite, named by the Englifh King George's ijland^
made no difficulty of ftealing from his people ; and
yet never fteal from one another, having neither locks
nor bars in their houfes. The people of Benin in
Negroland are good-natured, gentle, and civilized ;
and fo generous, that if they receive a prefent. they
are not at eafe till they return it double^ They have
unbounded confidence in their own people ; but are
jealous of ftrangers, though they politely hide their
jealoufy. The different tribes of Negroes, fpeaking
each a different language, have a rooted averfion at
each other. This averfion is carried along with
them to Jamaica ; and they will rather fuffer death
from the Englifti, than join with thofe of a different
tribe in a plot for liberty. Ruffian peafants think it
a greater fm to eat meat in Lent than to murder one
of another country. Among the Koriacs, bordering
on Kamfkatka, murder within the tribe is fevcrely
punilhed : but to murder a ftranger is not minded.
While Rome continued a fmall ftate, neighbour and
enemy were expreffed by the fame word {b). In
England of old, a foreigner was not admitted to be
a witnefs. Hence it is, that in ancient hiftory, wc

read

(a) Lib. 6. c. 23, debcllo Galileo.

* " They hold it net infamous to 10b without the hounds of their
" canton."
(h) Hoilis.

Sk.T.

Origin of Nafions.

393

reudof wars without intcrmiffion among fmall ftates
in clofe neighbourhood. It was fo in Greece ; it
was fo in Italy during the infancy of the Roman re-
public ; it was fo in Gaul, when Csefar commenced
hoftilities againft that country (b) ; and it was fo all
the world over. Many iflands in the South fea, and
in other remote parts, have been difcovered by Eu-
ropeans ; who commonly found the natives with
arms in their hands, refolute to prevent the ftrangers
from landing. Orellana, lieutenant to Gonzales
Pifarro, was the firft European who failed down the
river Amazon to the fea. In his paflage, he was
continually aflaulted by the natives with arrows from
the banks of the river : and fome even ventured to
attack him in their canoes.

Nor does fuch averfion wear away even among po-
lifhed people,. An ingenious writer (a) remarks,
that aliTioft every nation hate their neighbours, with-
out knowing why. I once heard a Frenchman
fwear, fays that writer, that he hated the Englilb,
parce qWils verfent du beurefondufur leur veau roti *.
The populace ofPortugalhaveto this day an uncom-
mon averfion to ftrangers : even thofe of Lifbon,
though a trading town frequented by many different
tiations, muft not be excepted. Travellers report,
that the people of the duchy of Milan, remarkable
for good-nature, are the only Italians who are not
hated by their neighbours. The Piedmontefe and
Genoefe have an averfion to each other, and agree
only in their antipathy to the Tufcans. The Tuf-
cans diflike the Venetians ; and the Romans abound
not with good-will to the Tufcans, Venetians, or
Neapolitans. Very different is the cafe with refpe6l
to diftant nations : inllead of being objefts of aver-
fion,

{b) Lib. 6. c. 15. debello Gallico.

{a) Baretti.

* *' Becaufe they pour melted butter upon their roaft veal,"

■• !i-i

H !, j

I.,;!

. It.!

1; i|lii

;: y

394

Civil Society.

B. II.

'1^. .

1 m >

.V* h\

fion, their manner, cufiioms, and Angularities,
amufe us greatly*.

Infants differ from ^ach other in averfion to
ftrangers ; fome being extremely fhy, others lefs
fo ; and the like difference is obfervable in whole
tribes. The people of Milan cannot have any a-
verfion to their neighbours, when they are fuch
favourites of all around them. The inhabitants of
fome South-fea iflands, mentioned above («), ap-
pear to have little or no averfion to ftrangers.
But that is a rare inftance, and has fcarce a pa-
rallel in any other part of the globe. It holds
alfo true, that nations the moft remarkable for
patriotifm, are equally remarkable for averfion
to ftrangers. The Jews, the Greeks, the Ro-
mans, were equally remarkable for both. Pa-
triotifm, a vigorous principle among the Englifh,
makes them extremely avcrfe to naturalize fo-
reigners. The inhabitants of New-Zealand, both
men and women, appear to be of a mild and gen-
tle difpofition : they treat one another with affecti-
on i but are implacable to their enemies, and never
give quarter. It is even cuftomary among them to
cat the flefh of their enemies.

To a perfon of humanity, the fcene here exhi-
bited is far from being agreeable. Man, it may
be thought, is of all animals the moft barbarous ;
for even animals of prey are innoxious with ref-
peft to their own kind *. Averfion to ftrangers

makes

IF'*

* Voltaire, (Unlveifal Hiftory, ch. 40.) obfervlng, rightly, thatjealoufy
among petty princes is produftive of more crimes than among great mo-
narchs, gives a very unfatisfa£tory reafon, " That having little force, they
" mull employ fraud, poifon, and other lecret crimes ;" not adverting, that
power may be squally diftributed among fmall princes as well as among
V;rcat. It is antipathy that inftigates fuch crimes, which is always the moft
violent among the neareft neighbours.

(a) Preliminary Difcourfe.

* " Denique ca;tera animantia in fuo gencre probe degunt : congregari
" videmus et ftate contra diffimilia ; leonum feritas inter fe non dimicat :
" ferpentum morfus non petit ferpentes j ne maris quidem bellua: ac pifces,
•' nili in diverfa genera, fsviunt. At, Hcrculc, homini plurlma ex homine
" funt mala." Plhy, lib. 7. Vnamium, [In EngliJ}} thus ; '* For other a-

" nimals

liilf

Sk. I;

Origin of Nations*:

395

to
lefs
hole
ly a-
fuch
ts of

that

makes a branch of our nature: it exifts among in-*
dividuals in private life : it flames high between
neighbouring tribes ; and is vifiblc even in in-
fancy. ' Can fuch pcrverfity of difpofition promote
any good end ? This queftion, which pierces deep
into human nature, is referved toclofe the prefent
Iketch.

From the foregoing deduction, univerfal bene-
volence, inculcated- by feveral writers as a moral
duty, is difcovered to have no foundation in the
nature of man. Our appetite for foeiety is li-
mited, and our duty rauft be limited in proportion*
But of this more diredly when the principles of mo-
rality are, taken under cqnfideration.' ;

We are taught by the great Newton, that at-
traftion and repulfion in matter, arcj bya,lteTati-
on of circumftanecsi' converted one into the ^ther-
This holds alfo in afFedion and averfion, which may
be • termed, not improperly, mental attrailion and
repulfion^' Two nations, originally ftrangers to each
other, may, by commerce or other favourable cir-
cunfiftarice, become fo well acquainted, as to change
from averfion to affeftion. The oppofite manners
of a capital and of a cpuntry-town, afford a good
illuflration-. In the latter, people, occupied with
their .'domeftic concerns, are in. a manner ftran-
gers to each other: a degree of averfion pre-
vails, which gives birth to envy and detraftion.
In the former, a court and public amufements, pro-
mote general acquaintance : repulfion yields to at-
traftion, and people become fond to aflbciate with
their equals. The union of two tribes into one,
is another circumftance that converts repulfion
into attrat^tion. Such converfion, hovitvcr, is far

from

:■ ■ r ■ ; i

" nimals live at peace with thofe of their fpecies. They gather themfelves

" in troops, and unite againft the common enemy. The ferocious lion fights

" not ai;ainft his fpecies : the poifonous ferpent is harmlefs to hi^ kind : the

" monfters of the fea prey but on thofe fiflics that differ from them in nature*.

" man alone of animals is foe to man !"]

396

Civil Society.

B. IL

from being inftantaneous ; witnefs the difFcrent
fmall dates of Spain, which were not united in
afFedion for many years after they were united
under one monarch ; and this was alfo the cafe
of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland.
In fome circumflances the ccnyerfion is inftanta-
neous ; as where a flranger becomes an objed of
pity or of gratitude. Many low perfons in Bri-
tain contributed cheerfully for maintaining fome
French feamen riiade prifoners at the commence-
ment of the late war. It is no lefs inftantaneousy
when ftrangers, relying on our humanity, truft
themfelves in our hands. Among the ancients^
it was hofpitality to ftrangers only that produced
mutual affection and gratitude : Glaucus and Dio-
mede were of different countries. Hofpitality to
ftrangers, is a pregnant fymptom of improving
manners. Cxfar, fpeaking of the Germans (a),
fays, *' Hofpites violare, fas non putant : qui,
quaqua de caufa, ad eos venerunt, ab injuria
prohibent, fanftofque habent; iis omnium do-
mus patent, viftufque communicatur *." The
ancient Spaniards were fond of war, and cruel
to their enemies ; but in peace, they palTed their
time in fmging and dancing, and were remarkably
hofpitable to the ftrangers who came among theim.
It (hews great refinement in the Celtse, that the
killing a ft ranger was capital, when the killing a
citizen was banifliment only (^). The Circaffi-
ans, defcribed by Bell of Antrimony as barbari-
ans, are hofpitable. If even an enemy put him-
felf under the protedion of any of them he is fe-
cure. The Swedes and Goths were eminently
hofpitable to ftrangers; as indeed were all the

northera

<6
CC

€6

• " They hold it facrllege to Injure a Aranger. They prot-jfl from ouN
" rage, and venerate thofe who come among them : their houfes are open to
" them, and they are welcome to their tables."

(o) Lib. 6. c. 23.de bello Callico,

[i) Nicolaus Damafcenus. ^

Sk. I.

Origin of Nations,

397

northern nations of Europe (^). The negroes of
Fouli, are celebrated by travellers for the fame
quality. The native Brazilians are Angularly hof-
pitable : a ftranger no fooner arrives among them,
than he is furrounded by women, who waih his
feet, and fet before him to eat the beft things
they have : if he have occafion to go more than
once to the fame village, the perfon whofe gueft
he was, takes it much amifs if he think of change
ing his lodging.

There are caufes that for a time fufpend enmity
between neighbouring dates. The fmall dates of
Greece, among whom war never ceafed, frequently
fmothered their enmity to join againfl the formida-
ble monarch of Perfia. There are alfo caufes that
fufpend for a time all animodty between fadions in
the fame ftate. The fadions in Britain about
power and pre-eminence, not a little difagreeable
during peace, are laid alleep during 3^ foreign
war.

On the other hand, attraftion is converted into
repulfion by various caufes. One is, the fplitting
a great monarchy into many fmall ftates ; of whicn
the Aflyrian, the Perfian, the Roman, and the Sa-
racen empires, are inftances. The amor pairia^
faint in an extenfive monarchy, readily yields to
averfion, operating between two neighbouring
ftates, lefs extenfive. This is obfervable between
neighbouring colonies even of the fame nation :
the Englifh colonies in North America, though
they retain fome affedion for their mother-coun-
try, have, contra^ed an averfion to each other.
And happy for them is fuch averfion, if it pre-
vent their uniting in order to acquire indepen-
dence : wars without end would be the inevitable
confequence, as among fmall ftates in clofe neigh-
bourhood.

3 Hitherto

(}) Saxo GrammadciM. Crantz.

ix r^

ft ■!(

'•■1

IL- 'i

398

Civil Society.

B. II.

?ih

Hitherto the road has been fmooth, without ob-
ftrudtion. But we have not yet linifhed our jour-
ney J and the remaining quellions, whether men
be qualified by their nature tor being ufeful mem-
bers of civil fociety, and whether they be fitted
for being happy in it, will, I fufpeft, lead into a
road neither fuiooth nor free from obftrudion.
The focial branch of human nature would be wo-
fully imperfeft, if man had an appetite for fociety
without being qualified for that ftate : the appetite,
inflead of tending to a good end, would be his
bane. And yet, whether he be or be not qualified
for fociety, feems doubtful. On the one hand,
there are fads, many and various, from which it
is natural to conclude, that man is qualified by
nature for being an ufeful member of a focial (late,
and for being happy in it. I inftance firft, feveral
correfponding principles or propenfities, that cannot
be exerted nor gratified but in fociety, viz. the
propenfities of veracity, and of relying on human
teftimony j appetite for knowledge, and defire to
communicate knowledge ; anxiety to be pitied in
diftrefs, and fympathy with the diftreffed ; appetite
for praife, and inclination to praife the deferving *,
Such correfponding propenfities, not only qualify
men for the focial ftate as far as their influence
reaches, but attract them fwcetly into fociety for
the fake of gratification, and make them happy in
it. But this is not all, nor indeed the greater part.
Do not benevolence, compaflion, magnanimity,
heroifm, and the whole train of focial affedions,
demonftrate our fitnefs for fociety, and our happi-
nefs in it? And juftice, above all other virtues,
promotes peace and concord in that ftate. Nor
ought the faculty of fpeech to be overlooked, which

♦ Appetite for praife is inherent even in favages : witnefs tliofe of
North America, wlio upon that account are fond of drel's, I mean the
men ; for the women nre fuch mifenble flaves as to have no fjiirit foi or-
nament, f

Sk. I.

Origin of Nations,

399

in an eminent degree qualifies man for fociety, and
is a plentiful fource of enjoyment in it.

1 have referred one other particular to be the
concluding fcene ; being a ftriking inftance of pro-
vidential care to fit men for fociety. In reading a
play or in feeing it afted, a young man of tafte is at
no lofs to judge of fcenes he never was engaged in,
or of paflions he never felt. What is it that direds
his judgement ? Men are apt to judge of others by
what they have experienced in themfelves : but here,
by the fuppofition, there has been no antecedent
experience. The fa£t is fo familiar, that no one
thinks of accounting for it. As young perfons,
without inftruftion or experience, can judge with to-
lerable accuracy of the conduft of men, of their va-
rious paflions, of the difference of charafter, and of
the efficacy of motives ; the principle by which they
judge muft be internal : nature mufl be their guide,
or, in other words, an internal fenfe. Nor is this
fenfe confined to fo low a purpofe as criticifm : it is
a fenfe indifpenfable in the conduct of life. Every
perfon is connected with many others, by various ties :
if inftrudion and experience were neceflary to regu-
late their condud, what would become of them in
the interim ? Their ignorance would betray them
into endlefs inconveniencies. This fenfe has man
for its objedt, not this or that man : by it wc per-
ceive what is common to all, not what diftinguilhes
one individual from another. We have an intuitive
convidion, not only that all men have paflions and
appetites which dired their actions ; but that each
palfion and appetite produceth uniformly effedls
proper to itfclf. This natural knowledge is our only
guide, till we learn by experience to enter more mi-
nutely into particular chara^ers. Of thefe we ac-
quire knowledge from looks, gefl:ures, fpeech, and
behaviour, which difcover to us what pafles internal-
ly. Then it is, and no fooner, that we are fully

qualified

; !

II?:.

400

Civil Society.

B. II.

T ? s * ,

■I'

1 i

qualified to a£l a proper part in fociety. Wonderful
is the frame of man, both external and internal !

On the other hand, there are fa^ls, not fewer in
number nor lefs various, from which it is equally na-
tural to conclude, that man is ill qualified for fociety,
and that there is little happinefs in it. What can be
more averfe to concord in fociety than diiTocial paf-
fions ? and yet thefe prevail among men ; among
whom there is no end to envy, malice, revenge, trea-
chery, deceit, avarice, ambition, &c. &c. We
meet every where perfons bent on the deftrudion of
others, evincing that man has no enemies more for-
midable than of his own kind, and of his own tribe.
Are not difcord and feuds the chief articles in the
hiftory of every ftate, fadions violently bent againft
each other, and frequently breaking out into civil
wars ? Appian's hiftory of the civil wars of Rome
exhibits a horrid fcene of maffacres, profcriptions,
and forfeitures ; the leaders facrificing their firmeft
friends, for liberty to fuck the blood of their ene-
mies ; as if to flied human blood were the ruling
paflion of man. But thf^ Romans were far from be-
ing fingular : the polite Greeks, commonly fo cha-
rafterized were ftill more brutal and bloody. The
following paflage is copied from a celebrated au.-
thor (rt). " Not to mention Dionyfius the elder,
'* who is computed to have butchered in cold blood
*' above 10,000 of his fellow-citizens j nor Agatho-
*' cles, Nabis, and others, ftill more bloody than
** he; the tranfadions even in free governments
** were extremely violent and deftruftive. At
" Athens, the thirty tyrants, and the nobles, in a
** twelvemonth, murdered without trial about
1200 of the people, and baniftied above the half
of the citizens that remained. In Argos, near
the fame time, the people killed 1 200 of the no-
bles, and afterward their own demagogues, be-

" caufe

(«) Effay ofthepopuloufnefs of ancient nations, by David Hume, Efq;

Sk. I.

Origin of Niitiom,

40 i

na.

caufd they had rcfufed to carry their profecutions
" farther. The ptople alfo in Corcyra killed 1500
** of the nobles, and banilhed 1000. Thefe num-
" bers will appear the more furprifing if we confidcr
" the extreme fmallnefs of thole ftates. But all an-
" cient hiftory is full of fuch inftances." Upon a
revolution in the Saracen empire, a?ino 750, where
the Ommiyan family was expelled by that of the
Amballians, Abdolah, chief of the latter, publiflied
an a£t of oblivion to the former, on condition of
their taking an oath of allegiance to him. The
Ommiyans, eml)racing the condition, were in ap-
pearance cordially received. But in preparing to take
the oath, they were knocked down, every one of
them, by the Emperor's guards. And fully to glut
the monlter's cruelty, thefe princes, ilill alive, were
laid clofe together, and covered with boards and
carpets ; upon which Abdolah feafted his officers,
" in order," laid he, " that we may be exhilarated
" with the dying groans of the Ommiyans.'* Dur-
ing the vigour of the feudal fyftem, when every
gentleman was a foldier, juftice was no defence a-
gainft power, nor humanity againfl: bloody refent-
ment. Stormy paflions raged every where with un-
relenting fury ; every place a chaos of confufion and
diftrefs. No man was fecure but in his caftle ; and
to venture abroad unlefs well armed and well attend-
ed, would have been an ad of high temerity. So
little intercourl'e was there among the French in the
tenth century, that an abbot of Clugni, invited by
the Count of Paris to bring fome monks to the abbey
of St. Maur, near that city, excufed himfelf for de-
clining a journey through a llrange raid unknown
country. In the hiftory of Scotland, during the
minority of James II. we find nothing but barbarous
.and cruel manners, depredat'ons, burning of houfes,
bloodflied and maftacre without end. Pitfcottic
fays, that opprellion, theft, facrilege, ravifliing of
women, were but a dalliance. How fimilar to

Vol. I. D d beafts

I ;i"l

M> .

i' i

i^*J

402

GivlL Society^

B.IL

beads of prey let loofe againft each other in the
Roman circus !

Men are prone to fplit into parties upon the flight-
eft occafions ; and lomctimes parties fubfiit upon
words merely. Whig and Tory fubfifted long in
England, upon no better foundation : the Tories
profefled pallive obedience ; but declared, that they
■would not be flaves : the Whigs profeiTed rcfiftancc ;
but declared it unlawful to refift unlefs to prevent
the being made flaves. Had thefe parties been dif-
pofed to unite, they foon would have difcovered^
that they differed in words only. The fame obfer-
vation is applicable to many religious difputes. One
fcft maintains, that we are faved by faith alone ;
another, that good works arc neceflary. The dif-
ference lies merely in words : the firft acknowledges,)
that if a man commit hn, he cannot have faith $ and
confequently under faith are comprehended good
works : the other acknowledges, that good works
imply good intention, or, in other words, faith 5
confequently, under good works faith is compre-
hended (.a). The following inilance, folemi 1/ lu-
dicrous, is of parties formed merely from an inclina-
tion to differ, "Without any caufe real or verbal. No
people were lefs interefted in the late war between
the Queen of Hungary and the King of Pruffia,
tl^an the citizens of Ravenna. They however fplit
ii.to two parties, which abjured all fociety with each
other. After the battle of Roflaach, a leading par-
tyman withdrew for a month, without once fliowing
his face in public. But our catalogue is hot yet com-
plete* Differences concerning civil matters, make
no figure compared with what concern religion. It
is lamentable to obferve, that religious fedls rcfem-^
ble neighbouring fl:ates ; the nearer they are to one
another, the greater is their mutual rancour and ani-
mofity. But as all hiftories are full of cruelty and

defolation

let) Se< Knox's EcclefiafticalHiftory of Scotland, p. 13,

Sk. t.

Origin of Nations,

403

dcfolation occafioned by differences in religious te-
nets, I cannot bear to dwell longer upon I'uch hor-
rid I'cenes.

What conclufions arc wc to draw from the fore-
going fads, fo inconfiftent in appearance with each
other ? I am utterly at a lofs to reconcile them,
otherwife than by holding man to be a compound
of principles and paflions, fome focial, fome dillocial.
Oppolitc principles or paflions, cannot at the fame
inftant be exerted upon the fame objeft (a) ;
but they may be exerted at the fame inftant
upon diflerent objedls, and at different times upon
the fame objed. This obfervation ferves indeed
to explain a feeming inconfiftency in our nature,
as being at one time highly focial, and at ano-
ther time no lefs diffocial : but it affords not a folu-
tion to the queftion, Whether, upon the whole,
men be qualified for fociety, and be fitted fbr being
happy in it. In order to a folution, we find it ne-
ceflary to take a fecond view of the natural hiftory
of man.

In a nafcent fociety, where men hunt aild fifh in
common, where there is plenty of game, and Avherft
the fenfe of property is faint, mutual affeftion pre-
vails, becaufe there is no caufe of difcord ; and dif-
focial paffions find fufficient vent againft neighbout**
ing tribes. Such is the condition of the North-
American favages, who continue hunters and fifhers
to this day ; and fuch is the condition of all brutc
animals that live in fociety, as mentioned above.
The iliand Otahcite is divided into many fmall can-
tons, having each a chief of its own. Thefe can-
tons never make war on each other, though they
are frequently at war ivith the inhabitants of neigh-
bouring iflands. The inhabitants of the new ~'

Philip.
pine iflands, if Father Gobien be credited, are bet-
nation.
Sweetnefs

tcr fitted for fociety than any other knbwn

{a) Elements of Ciitlcifm, vcl. i.p. 143. edit, 5.

,1 i

•4

404

Civil Societv,

B. II.

lilt *

Swcctncls of temper and love to do good, form their
tliaradcr. They never commit adts of violence : war
they have no notion of; and it is a proverb among
them, '1 hat a man never puts a man to death. Plato
places the feat of jufliee and of happinefs among
the fird men ; and among them exifled the golden
age, if it ever did exi(t. But when a nation, be-
coming populous, begins with rearing flocks and
herds, proceeds to ajjpropriate land, and Is not
Satisfied without matters of luxury over and
above ; felhlhncfs and pride gain ground, and
become ruling and unruly paflions. Caufes of dif-
cord multiply, vent is given to avarice and refent-
ment ; and among a people not yet perfedly fub-
milFive to government, didbcial paiTions rage, and
threaten a total dilTolution of fociety : nothing indeed
fufpends the impending blow, but the unwearied,
though filent, operation of the focial appetite. Such
was tlie condition of the Greeks at a certain period
of tlieir progrefs, as mentioned above ; and fuch
was the condition of Europe, and of France in par-
ticular, during the anarchy of the feudal fyftem,
when all was difcord, blood, and rapine. In general,
where-ever avarice and diforderly paflions bear rule,
I boldly pronounce, that men are ill qualified for
fociety.

Providence extradls order out of confufion. Men,
in a focitty fo uncomfortable, are taught by dire ex-
perience, that they mud either renounce fociety, or
(jualify themfclvcs for it — the choice is eafy, but
how difficult the performance ! After infinite ftrug-
^ilc>-., appetite for fociety prevailed ; and time, that
'.i/'iverfal conqueror, perfeded men in the art of
fubduing their paflions, or of dilTembling them.
Finding no enjoyment but in fociety, they are folici-
tous about tlic good-will of others ; and adhere to
jufl:ice and good manners : diforderly paflions are
AipprclTed, kindly aflV:dions encouraged; and men
now arc better qualiiicd for fociety than formerly,
though far from bcin^^- pcrfcCilv qualified.

But

II.

5k. I. Origin of Nations, 405

But is our progrcfs toward the pcrfctflion of fo-
cicty to (lop here t arc luit of power anJ of projjcrty
to continue for ever leading princijiles, revenge,
treachery, deceit, never to have an end ? " IIow de-
** voutly to be wilhcd, (it will be faid,) that all men
" were upright and honed ; and that all of the
•** fame nation were united like brethren in con-
** cord and mutual afleclion ! Here indeed would
be perpetual funlhine, a golden age, a flatc ap-
proaching to that of good men made perfed in
*' heavenly manfions." Beware of indulging fuch
pleafing dreams. The fyllein of Providence differs
widely from our wiihes ; and ihall ignorant man
venture to arraign Providence ? Are we qualified
to judge of the whole, when but a fmall part is vifi-
ble ? From what is known of that fyftem, we have
reafon to believe, that were the whole vifible it would
appear beautiful. We are not however reduced to
an a£l: of pure faith : a glimmering light, breaking in,
makes it at lead doubtful, whether upon the whole it
be not really better for us to be as we are. Let us
follow that glimmering of light : it may perhaps
lead us to fome difcovery.

I begin with obferving, that though in our pre-
fent condition we faffer much diftrefs from felfifli
and diffocial pallions, yet cuftom renders diflreffes
familiar, and hardens us not only to bear but to
brave them. Strict adherence to the rules of juftice
would indeed fecure our perfons and our property :
robbery and murder would vanifli, and locks and
guns be heard of no more. So far excellent, were
jio new evils to come in their ftead : but the void
mud be filled ; and mental diflreffes would break in
of various kinds, fuch particularly as proceed from
refined delicacy and nice fenfibility of honour, little
regarded while we are expofed to dangers more
alarming. And whether the change would be much
for our advantage, appears doubtful : pain as well
as pleafure is meafured by comparifon ; and the
3 flighteft

:i r,

'1 (

'•■ k

J '

I'l

H-

' I! ■ n

■!'

'. :f

IJI f

VJmi

U i !

• a\

1:;

406

Civil Society.

B. II.

flighteft pain, fuch for example as arlfes from a
tranfgreflion of civility or good-breeding, will over-
whelm a perfon who has never felt any pain more
fevere. At any rate, natural evils would remain ;
and extreme delicacy and foftnefs of temper, pro-
duced by eternal peace and concord, would render
fuch evils unfupportable ; the flight inconveniencics
of a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, would
become feriops evils, and afflid the traveller paft
enduring. The French, among whom fociety has
obtained a more refined polilh than any other nation,
have become fo foft and delicate as to lofe all forti-
tude in diftrefs. They cannot bear even a reprc-
fentation of fevere afflidion in a tragedy : an Englifh
audience would fall afleep at the flight diftrefles that
inake a deep imprefllon in the French theatre.

But now fuppofmg that a fociety would be im-
proved by a fcrupulous adherence to the rules of
morality ; yet to me it appears evident, that men
ijvould fuffer more as individuals, than they would
gain as members of fociety. In order to prefervc
juflice untainted, and to maintain concord and affec-
tion, diffocial and felfifh palHons muft neceffarily be
extirpated, or brought ijnder abfolute fubjedion.
Attend to the confequences ; they deferve our moft
fober attention. Agitation is requifite tp the mind
as well ais the body : a man engaged in a briflc pur-
fuit, whether of bufmefs or of pleafure, is in his
element, and in high fpirits : but when no objedt is
in view to be attained or to be avoided, his fpirits
flag, and he fmks into, languor and defpondence.
To prevent a condition fo baneful, he is provided
with many pailions, that impel him to adion with-
out intermiirion, and invigorate both mind and
body. But upon the prefcnt fuppofitjon, fcarce any
motive to a£lion would remain ; and man, reduced
to a lethargic ftate would rival no being above an
oyfter or a fenfitivc plant.

Pateif

■*■

Sk.I.

Origin of Nations.
-Pater ipfe colcndi

407

Haud facilem effc viam voluit, primufquc pcj* artem
Movit agros, curis acuens mortalia corda.
Nee torpere gravi paffus fua rcgna vcterno. ,

Virgil. Georg, i.

Nor ought it to be overlooked, that an uniform
life of peace, tranquillity, and fecurity, would not
be long relilhed. Conftant repetition of the fame
pleafurcs, would render even a golden age taftelefs,
like an Italian fky during a long fummer. Nature
has for wife purpofes impreffed upon us a tafte for
variety (a) : without it, life would be altogether in-
fipid. Paraguai, when governed by the Jefuits, af-
fords a ftriking illuftration. It was divided into
pari flies, in each of which a Jefuit prefided as king,
prieft, and prophet. The natives were not fuffered
to have any property, but laboured inceifantly for
their daily bread, which was delivered to them out
of a public magazine. The men were employed in
agriculture, the women in fpinning; and certain
precife hours were allotted for labour, for food, for
prayer, and for Jlcep *. They funk into fijch a lift-
lefs ftatc pf mind, as to have no regrpt at dying
when attacked by difeafe or by old age. Such was
their indifference about what might bcfal them, that
tho' they adored the Jefuits, yet they made no op-
pofition, when the fathers were, ann. 1767, attack-
ed by the Spaniards, and their famous republic de^
molifiied. The monkilh life is contradidory to the
nature of man : the languor of that ftate is what in
all probability tempts many a monk and nun, to find

occupation

(«») Elements of Critlcifm, vol. i, P32«. edit. 5.

* Befide Paraguai tea, for which there is great demand In Peru, cotton, to-
bacco, and fugar-canes, were cultivated in Par.iguai, and the product was
fiored up in magazines. No Indian durft keep in his houfe fo much as an
ounce of any of thefc comnriodities, under pain of receiving twelve lafhes in
konaur of tlie twelve apoAles, befides falling tiiree days in the houfc of correc-
tion. The fathers feldom infli^ed a capital punifhnjent, becaufe it deprived
then) of a profitable flave.

'.■< \

i ! ? ;

I; I

i .1

H
■ 5 if

■iii'P i

^i' I

40 8

Civil Society.

B. II.

I'l' |i ill

occupation even at the expcncc of virtue. The
life of the Maltefe knights is far from being a-
greeable, now that their knight-errantry againfl
the Turks has fubfided. While they refide in the
ifland, a ftricl uniformity in their manner of Hving
is painfully irkfome. Abfcnce is their only relief,
when they can obtain long permiifion. There will
not remain long a knight in the ifland, except fuch
as by office are tied to attendance.

I proceed to another confideration. Familiari-
ty with danger is neceflary to eradicate our natu-
ral timidity ; and fo deeply rooted is that prin-
ciple, that familiarity with danger of one fort, does
not harden us with relpect to any other fort. A
foldier, bold as a lion in the field, is faint-hearted
at fea, like a child ; and a feaman, who braves
the winds and waves, trembles when mounted on
a horfe of fpirit. Courage does no«- fuperabounu
at prefent, even in the midfl of dangers and un-
forefeen accidents : fedcntary mannfaclurers, who
feldom are in the w:iy of harm, are remarkably
pufillanimous. What would men be in the fup-
pofed condition of univerlal [)eace, concord, and
fccurity ? they would rival a hare or a moufe in
timidity. Farewell, upon that fuppofition, to cou-
rage, magnanimity, heroifm, and to every pnifion
that ennobles human nature ! There may perhaps
be men, who, hugging theinfelves in fecurity a-
gainlt harm, would not be altogether averfe to
I'uch degeneracy. But if fuch men tiiere be, I
pray them only to refiecl:, that in the progrefs from
infancy to maturity, all nations do not ripen e-
qually. One nation may have arrived at the fup-
pofcd perfection of fociety, before another has ad-
'V'anced much beyond tlie lavage Itate. What fe-
curity hath the former againd the latter ? Precife-
!y the lauie that timid llieep have againil hungry
woivc);.

I fliall

■ ''^\

Sk. I.

Origin of Nations.

409

I fliall finifli with one other effeft of the fup-
pofed perfeftion of fociety, more degrading, if
poffible, than any mentioned. Exercife, as obferv-
ed above, is no lefs efiential to the mind than to
the body. The reafoning faculty for example,
without conftant and varied exercife, will remain
weak and undiftinguifhing to the end of life. —
By what means doth a man acquire prudence and
forefight, but by experience ? It is precifely here as
in the body : deprive a child of motion, and it
will never acquire any ftrength of limbs. The
many difficulties that men encounter, and their
various objedls of purfuit, roufe the underftand-
ing, and fet the reafoning faculty at work for
means to accomplifli defire. The mind, by con-
tinual exercife, ripens to its perfection ; and by the
fame means, is preferved in vigour. It would
have no fuch exercife in the fuppofed perfedion
of fociety 5 where there would be little to be de-
fired, and lefs to be dreaded : our mental facul-
ties would for ever lie dormant ; and we fhould
for ever remain ignorant that we have fuch fa-
culties. The people of Paraguay are defcribed as
mere children in underftanding. What wonder,
confidering their condition under Jefuit govern-
ment, without ambition, without property, with-
out fear of want, and without defires? The wants
of thofe who inhabit the torrid zone are eafily
fupplied : they need no cloathing, fcarce any ha-
bitation ; and fruits, which ripen there to perfec-
tion, give them food without labour. Need we
any other caufe for their inferiority of under-
ftanding, compared with the inhabitants of other
climates, where the mind, as well as body, are con-
llantly at work for procuring necefiarics * ?

This

1: li

S.<i

■ i-i

f: M ll

* The bleflings of eafe and inaftion are moft poetically difplay'd in the
following delcription. " O felix Lapo, qui in ultimo angulo mundi fie bene
" Jates, tontentus et Inhoccns. Tu nee times annons cliaritatem, nee Mat-.

« rf.~e

4IO

Civil Society.

B. II.

This fuggefls a thought. Confidering that in-
ftind is a guide much Icfs fallible than rcafon,
why fliould it be more fparingly bellowed on man,
the chief of the terreltrial creation, than on other a-
nimals ? Whatever appearance this may have at
lirft fight againft the human race, it will be found
on confideration greatly in their favour. Inftinct
in man is confined within the narroweft bounds,
and given only where reafon would be incffedual.
Inftind, it is true, is infallible, and fo are the
laws of matter and motion : but how low is blind
inflinft compared with the faculty of reafoning,
deliberating, and chufing? Man governs himfelf,
and chufes invariably what appears the befl: : Brute
animals have no felf-government, but are led blind-
ly by natural impulfe, without having any end in
view, Inftind differs only from the laws of mat-
ter, by comprehending a greater variety of circum-
i.tances ; and is far inferior in dignity to the faculty
of reafon.

That curious writer Mandevil, who is always
entertaining if he does ijot always inftrud, exults

«
«

Us praelia, quae ad tuas oras pervcnire nequeunt, fed florentiffimas Europa
provincias et urbes, unico momento, (xpc dejiciunt et delsnt. Tu dor-
mis hie Tub tua pelle, ab omnibus curis, contentionibus, rixis, liber, ig.
norans, <]u;d lit jnvidia. Tu nulla noiVi difcrimina, nifi tonantis Jovis
fulmina. Tu duels ini.ocentifllmos tuos annos ultra centenarium nume-
rum, cum faeili feneftute et fumma I'aniute. Te latent myriades morbo-
rum nob^s Europxis communes. Tu vivis in fylvis, avis inllar, nee fementem
facis, nee metis ; tamen alit te Deus optimus optime." Linna-us, Flora Lappa-
rira. [In Eng/i/h thus : " O happy Laplander, who, on the utmoft verge of ha-
*' bitable earth, thus lived obfcure, in rpA, content and innocence. Thou
" fearefl not the fcanty crop, nur ravajjeti of war j and thofe calamities
*' which waAe whole provinces and towns, can n«ver attain thy peaceful
*f fliores. Wrapt io .thy covering of fur, thou canft fecurely deep; a
" ftranger to each ^uipultuous carej unenvying and uncnvied. Thou
*' feareft no danger, but from tiie thunder of heaven. Thy harmlefs days
" flide on in innocence, beyond the period of a century. Thy health is
'; firm; and thy declining age is tranquil. Millions of difeafes which ra-
*' vage the reft of the wcrld, have never reached thy happy climate. Thou
*' livell as the birds of the wood, thou careft not to fow nor reap, for bounte-

" ous Providence has fuppjied ti^ve ir^ ^11 thy want?." So eloquent a

pancgyrirt upon t!ie Lapland life, would make a capital figure upon arj
oyAcr. No creature is freer from want, no creature ftee'r from war, and
j)r<..bably no creature is freer from fear ; which, alas ! is not iht cafe of t!;e
Laplander,

Sk.I.

Origin of Nations,

4x1

in maintaining a propofition feemingly paradoxical.
That private vices are public benefits. He proves
indeed moft triumphantly, that theft produced
locks and bars, and that war produced fwords and
guns. But what would have been his triumph ,
had he difcovered, that felfilh and diiTocial vices
promote the moft elevated virtues ; and that if fuch
vices were eradicated, man would be a grovelling
and contemptible being ?

How ralhly do men judge of the conduct of
Providence ! So flattering to the imagination is a
golden age, a life of perpetual funlhine, as to have
enchanted poets, ancient and modern. Imprefled
with the felicity of fuch a ftate, can we be fatisfied
with our condition in this life? Such a jumble of
good and ill, malice mixed with benevolence,
friendfliip alloy'd with fraud, peace with alarms of
and fometimes bloody wars, — is it not natu-

war

ral to think, that in this unhappy world chance
prevails more than wifdom ? Can freethinkers wifli
a better theme for declaiming againft Providence,
while good men figh inwardly, and muft be fi-
Jent * ? But behold the blindnefs of men with ref-

pc6b

i )

!■

It .

* L'homme qui ne peut que par le nombre, qui n'cft fort que par fa re-
union, qui n'efl heureux que par ia paix, a la fureur de s'armer pour (on
malheur et de combattre pour fa ruine. Excite par I'infatiable avidite, a-
veuglc par Tambition encore plus infatiable, il renonce aux fentimens d'hu-
manite, cherche a s'entre detruire, fe detruit en eflfet : et apres ces jours
de lang et de carnage, lorfque la fumee de la gloire s'eft diflipee, il voit d'un
cell trifte la terre devaftee, les arts enfevelies, les nations difperfees, les peu-
ples affoiblis, fon propre bonheur ruine, et fa puiflance reelle aneante.
" Grand Dieu ! dont la feule prefence foutient la nature et maintient I'har-
" monie des loik de I'univcrs; Vous, qui du trone immobile de Tempiree,
V voyez rouler fous vos pied^^ toutes les fpheres celeftes fans choc et fans con<
" fulion ; qui du fein du repos, reproduifez a chaque inftant leurs mouvc-
*' mens immenfes, et feul regiflez dans une paix profonde ce nombre inAnt
" de cieux et de mondes ; rendez, rendez enfin le calme a la terre agitee 1
*' Qu'elle foit dans le filcnce ! Qu'a votre voix la dHcorde et la guerre celfent
" de faire retenter leurs clameurs orgueilleufes ! Dieu de bonte, auteur de
" tous les etres, vos regards patemels embrairent tous les objets de ia crea-
" tion : mais l'homme efl votre etre de choix ; vous avez eclaire fon ame
,^' d'une rayon de votre lumiere immortelle j comblez vos bienfaits en pe-

" nttrant

f i

' P

'iX

4t2

Civil Society.

B. If.

pe£l to the difpenfations of Providence ! A golden
age would to man be more poifonous than Pan-
dora's box ; a gilt, fvveet in the mouth, but bitter,
bitter, in the ftoiTjach. Let us then forbear re-
pining J

'•' netrant fon coeur d'un trait de votre amour : ce fentiment divin fe repen-
"' dant par-tout, reunira les natures ennemies ; rhomme nc craindra plus
" I'afpeft de I'homme, le fer homicide n'armera plus fa mainj le feu devo-
" rant de la guerre ne fcra plus tarir la fourcc des generations; I'ffpece liu-
" maine maintenant afFoiblie, mutilee, moiifonnee dans fa fleur, gcrmera de
*' nouveau etfe multiplieta fans nombre; la nature accablee fous le poids de
** fleaux, iKrile, abandonnee, reprcndra bientot av^n unenouvelle viefon an-
" cienne fccondite ; et nous, Dieu Bienfaiteur, nous la feconderons, nous la
" culti\erons, nous robfervtrons fans cctfe pourvous ofFrir a chaque inflant
*•' un nouveiiU tribut de reconnojlTance et d'adn^iration," Buffon Hijlohs
Katuid'c, i<r,l, 9, Zvo. etiit,

\In Engli/h tb'.s : " Man who is powerful only by numbers, whofe ftrength
confifls in the unioi. of forces, and whofe happinefs is to be found alone in a
Itate of peace, has yet the madnefs to take arms for bis own mifery, and
fight to the ruin of his fp:cics. Urged on by infatiable avarice, ard blinded
by ambition ftill more infatiable, he banifhes from his brcaft every fenti-
ment of humanity, and, eager for the dc/lrudion of liis fellow creature::, in
ftfed c!ertroy.i liimfelf. When the dayo of blood and carnage are part,
when the vapour of glory |s diffipated, he looks around with a forrowful
cyi' upon the dcfolated e;irth, he fees the arts extin(f>, the nations difperfed,
an'l population dead : his happinefs is ruined, and his powtr is reduced to
notiiina;. " (Jreat Cto<1 ! whofe fole prefence furtains the creative power,
" and rules the harmony of nature's laws ! who from thy permanent celeftl-
" al tlirone belioldeft the motion of the nether fpheres, all-perfe£l in their
** courfe, vvliich knows no change ; who broiigiueft from out the womb of
" reft by endlefs reprodu<ftion thofe never-ceafing movements ; who ruleft
*' in peace the infinity of worlds : Ltemal God ! vouchfafe at lengtli to
" fend a portion of that heavenly i)eace to cahn the agitated earth. I-ct
" every tumult ceafe : at thy cclertial voice, no more be heard around tin"
" proud and clamorous fliouts of war and difcord. All-bounteous Crea-
•* tor! Author of being! each objeft of thy works partakes of thy paternal
" care ; but chief of all^ thy chofen creature man. Thou haft beftowed on
" him a ray of thine immortal light : O deign to crown that gift, by pene-
*' trating his heart with a portion of thy love. Toon will that heavenly
" fentiment pervading hli nature, reconcile each warring and contradidlory
'* principle: man will no longer dread the fight of man : tlie murdering
•' blade will fleep within its rtieath : the fire of war will ceafe to dry up the
" fprings of generation : the human race, now lan^^uifhing and withr.-ring in
"^ the bloom, will bud ai'r«(h, and multii-'ly : nature, which now (inks be ■
" neath the fcourge of mifery, fterile and nefolated, will foon renew her
" wafted ftrength, and regain her firft fertility. We, O God of benevolence,
" we thy creatures wi!I fccond tlie bltlFing. It will be ours to beftow on
" tlic earth that culture which beft can aid her fruitfnlnefs; and we will
' pay to the? the moft acceptable of facrificcs, in endlefs gratitude and ado-
*' rijtion,"

How natural is this prayer ; how unnatural the ftate thus anxloufly ic-
qucfted ! M. BufTon's dev(Klonal fits ate fervent: pity it is, that theyaie
r.ot better diredcd. ^

S.k. II.

Govermnent,

piniii^ ; for the fubje6l before us muft afford con-
vidtion, if any thing can, that our beft courfe is
to fubmit humbly to whatever befals, and to reft
fatisfied, that the world is governed by wifdom,
not by chance. What can be expected of barbari-
ans, but utter ignorance of Providence, and of di-
vine government ? but as men ripen in the know-
ledge of caufes and cfFr(Sl:s, the benevolence as
well as wiidoni of a luperintending Being be-
come more and more apparent. How pleafing is
that obfervation ! Beautiful final caufes without
number have been difcovered in the material as
well as moral world, with refpeft to many parti-
culars that once appeared dark and gloomy. Many
continue to have that appearance : but with refpedt
to fuch, is it too bold to maintain, that an argu-
ment from ignorance, a flender argument at any
rate, is altogether infufficient in judging of divine
government ? How falutary is it for man, and how
comfortable, to reft on the faith, that whatever is,
is the beft !

J I

h I

SKETCH II.

General Vieiu of Government.

X HE progrefs of government, accurately deli-
neated, would produce a great volume : in the pre-
fent work there is room but for a few hints. What
are the qualities that fit men for fociety, is explained
above ; but writers are far from being unanimous
about what fits them for government. All agree,
that fubmifhon to our governors is a duty : but they
appear to be at a lofs upon what foundation to reft
that duty ; as if it were not evident, that by our
r.aiure we are fitted for goverrment as well as for

fociety.

■J:
■J.

t jl i:

1 =? I

il ;

414

Civil Society.

B. If.

fociety (a). If juftice or veracity be effemial to foj
eiety, fubmiflion to government is no lefs fo j and
each of thefe equally is declared by the moral fcnfe
to be our duty. But to qualify man for govern-
ment, the duty of fubmilfion is not alone fufficient ;
diverfity of temper and of talents is alfo neceflfary ;
and accordingly it is fo ordered by Providence, that
there arc never -wanting in any fociety, men who
are qualified to lead, as well as men who are difpof*
cd to follow. Where a number of people convene
for any purpofe, fomc will naturally affume autho-
rity without the formality of eleftion, and the rell
will as naturally fubmit. A regular government
founded on laws, was probably not thought of, till
people had frequently Cuffered by vicious gover-
nors *.

During the infancy of national focieties, govern-
ment is extremely fimple ; and no lefs mild than
fimple. No individual is by nature intitled to exer-
cife magifterial authority over his fellows ; for no
individual is born with any mark of pre-eminence
to vouch that he has fuch a privilege. But nature
teaches refpedt for men of age and experience : who
accordingly take the lead in deliberating and adrif-
ing, leaving execution to the young and vigorous f .
War indeed cannot be carried on without a com-
mander ;

(a) Principles of Equity, p. 177. edit. 2.

* At firft when a certain regimen wis once approved, it may be that all
was permitted to the wifdom and difcretion of thofe who were to rule ; till
by experience this was found very inconvenient, fo as the thing devifed for a
remedy did increafe the fore which it fliould have cured. They faw, " that
" to live by one man's will, became the caufe of all mens mifery." This
conArained them to come into laws, wherein all men might fee their duty
beforehand, and know the penalties of tranfgrefling them. Hooker'' t Eccl.
Pol. 1. 1. § 10.

f Such as arc acquainted with no manners but what are modern, will be
puzzled to account for the great veneration paid to old age in early times. Be-
fore writing was invented, old men were the repofitories of knowledge,
which they acquired by experience ; and youn^ men had noaccefsto know-
ledge but from them. At the fiege of Trey, Nertor, who had feen three
venerations, was the chief advifer and diredlor of the Greeks. But as books
;ue now the' moft patent road to knowledge, to which the old and young have
accpfs, it may juftly be faid, tiiat by the invention of writing and printing,
tjd :wn have loll niuch of their priftinc importance.

Sk. II.

Government*

415

mander ; but originally his authority ^vas limited to
actual war ; and he returned home a private perfon,
even when crowned with vidory. The wants ot*
men were originally fo few and lb eafily fatisiied, as
feldom to occafion a controverfy ai.iung members of
the fame tribe. And men, finding vent for their
diffocial paflions againft other tribes, were fond to
live peaceably at home. Introduction of mcfney
made an amazing change. Wealth bellowed by
fortune or procured by rapine, made an impreflion
on the vulgar : different ranks were recognifed :
the rich became imperious, and the poor mutinous.
Selfifhnefs, prevailing over focial affection, ftirred up
every man againft his neighbour ; and men, over-
looking their natural enemies, gave vent to diffocial
paffions within their own tribe. It became neceffary
to ftrengthen the hands of the fovcreign, for repref-
fing paflions inflamed by opulence, which tend to
diflolution of fociety. This flight view fairly ac-
counts for the gradual progrefs of government from
the mil deft form to the moft defpotic. The fecond
part of the progrefs is more pleafing. Men long
enured to the .authority of government, acquire a
habit of reprefling their turbulent paffions ; and be-
coming by degrees regular and orderly, they are
eafily reftrained from doing wrong.

In every nation originally democracy was the firft
form of government. Before ranks were diftin-
guiftied, every fingle man was intitled to vote in mat-
ters of common concern. When a tribe becomes
too numerous for making one body or for being con-
vened in one place, the management falls naturally
to the elders of the people ; who after acquiring au-
thority by cuftom, arc termed the fenate. At firft,
little more was thought of, but that to govern great
numbers a fenate is neceffary : time unfolded the
conftitution of that body and its powers. With ref-
pe6t to the fenate of old Rome in particular, even
the mode of eleftion was long ambulatory j and it is
I natural

. V

■ f

;

,1" . :

: I

iili

nim

ila

■' li.-

!"■ .

Kmunn^

^iG

Civil. SoCIETV.

B. II.

i: .

natural to believe that its powers were no lefs fo ;
till length of time introduced regularity and order.
From this form of government, the transition is eafy
to a limited monarchy. Abfoiute monarchy, con-
traditlory to the liberty that all men fhould enjoy in
every government, can never be eftabliflied but by
force. Government among all nations has made
the progrefs above delineated. There are excepti-
ons ; bjt thefe have arifen from fingular events.

To a nation accuflomed to liberty and indepen-
dence, arbitrary government is a fore difeafe. But
awe and fubmillion are alfo natural ; and a life of de-
pendance probably fits eafy on thofe who are accuf-
tomed to it. Were it not fo, providence would be
unkind, as the far greater part of men are depen-
dent.

During the infancy of a focicty, punilhments muft
be mild ; becaufc government has no fufficient au-
thority over the minds of men to enforce what are
fevere. But government in time acquires authority ;
and when its authority is firmly rooted in the minds
of the people, punilhments more rigorous can be
made eiFedual ; and fuch punifliments are neceflary
among a people not yet well difciplined. When men
at lafl become regular and orderly under a fleady
adminiftration, punifliments become lefs and lefs
necelfary, and the mikleft are fufficient (a). The
Chinefe government is extremely mild, and its pu-
nifliments are in the fame tone. A capital punifli-
ment is never inflicted till the fentencc be examined
by a fovereign court, and approved by the Emperor.
Thus government, after palling through all the in-
termediate degrees from extreme mildnefs to ex-
treme fevcrity, runs at lafl: to its original temper of
mildnefs and humanity *.

SKETCH

(<r) Hirtoilcal Law-tra(f>s. trail r,

* An ingenious writei obfervcs, that as our American fettlements are
ncwfo profptious, banifhnient to tlieft. fcttkmentj is fcarcc a punilhinenr.

' H 1

SKETCH III.

Different Forms of Government compared.

T all governments, democracy is the mofl: tur-
bulent : defpotifm, which benumbs the mental facul-
ties and relaxes dvery fpring of action, is in the op-
polite extreme. Mixed governments, whether mo-
narchical or republican, ftand in the middle : they
promote aftivity, but feldom any dangerous cxcefs.
Pure democracy, like that of Athens, Argos, and
Carthage, is the very word form of government, if
we make not defpotifm an exception. The people,
in whom refides the fovereign power, are infolent in
profperity and timid in adverfity, cruel in anger,
blind and prodigal in afFedtion, and incapable of em-
bracing fteadily a prudent meafure. Thucydides
relates {a), that Agis with a gallant army of Spartans
furrounded the army of Argos ; and, though fecurc
of victory, fufFered them to retreat, upon folemn af-
furances from Thrafyllus, the Argian general, of
terminating all differences in an amicable treaty.
Agis, perhaps juflly, was bitterly cenfured for fuflfer-
ing viftory to flip out of his hands : but the Argians,
dreaming of viftory when the danger was over,
brought their general to trial, confifcated his effefts,
and would have floned him to death, had he not
taken refuge in a temple. Two Athenian generals,
after one naval viftory being intent on a fecond, de-
puted Theramenes to perform the laft duty to the

Vol. I. E e dead.

He therefore propofes, that criminals be tranfported to Hudfon's Bay, or to
fome other uncultivated country. My doubt is, that in proportion as man*
ners improve, the feverity of punifliment ought to be mitigated. Perhaps,
the tranfportation to any of our American colonies, though lefs dreadful ckan
formerly, may however be now a fuffici^nt punifhment for.theft, or other
crime of no deeper dye.
(«) Lib. 5.

'.. I'

K I 1

*■ \ '

4iS

Civil Societv.

B. II.

V r

dead. A violent florm prevented Thcramcncs from
executing the triifl repofcd in him ; but it did not
prevent tne people of Athens from putting their two
generals to death, as if they had neglcded their duty.
The fate of Socrates is a fad indance of the change-
able, as well as violtnt difpofition of a democratical
ilate. He was condemned to death, for attempting
innovations in the eftabliihed religion : the fentence
was grofsly unjuft : he attempted no innovation ; but
only among his friends, exprcfled purer notions of the
Deity than were common in Greece at that time.
But his funeral obfequics were fcarce over, when
bitter rcmorfc feized the people. His accufers were
put to death without trial, every perfon banidied who
had contributed to the fentence pronounced againil
him, and his flatue was ereded in the mod pub'
lie part of the city. The great Scipio, in his camp
near Utica, was furrounded with three Carthagi-
nian armies, which waited only for day-light tt>
fall upon him. He prevented the innpending blow,
by furprifmg them in the dead of the night ;
which gave him a complete vidory. This mif-
fortune, for it could fcarce be called bad con-
dud, provoked the democracy of Carthage, to
pronounce fentence of death againft Afdrubal
their general. Great trading towns cannot flou-
rilli, it they be not faithful to their engagements,
and honeft in their dealings : whence then the
^cics Punka f A democracy is in its nature rafli,
violent, and fluduating ; and the Carthaginians
merited the reproach, not as individuals, but as a
democratical (late.

A commonwealth governed by chofen citizens, is
very different from a democracv, where the mob
rules. The folid foundation of fuch a common-
wealth, is equality among the citizens. Inequality
of riches cannot be j^revented in a commercial
ftate ; but inequality of privileges may be pre-
vented, by excluding no citizen from the opportu-

nity

Sk. III. Different Forms of Covernmenf, 4/9

ftity of commanding as well as of obeying. The
invidious diftindion of Patrician and Plebeian was a
grofs malady in the Roman republic, a perpetual
iburcc of difTcnfion between two bodies of men,
equally well born, equally rich, and equally fit for
war. This ill-pgifed government would have put an
end to the republic, had not the Plebeians prevailed,
who were the more numerous. That reformation
produced to Home plenty of able men, qualified to
govern both in peace and in war.

A commonwealth is the beft form of government
for a fmall ftate : there is little room for inequality
of rank or of property ; and the people can ail in a
body. Monarchy is preferable for a large ftate,
where the people, widely fpread, cannot be cafily
colleiled into a body. Attica was a kingdom, while
its twelve cantons were remote from each other, and
but llenderly connefted. Thefeus, by coUefting
the people of figure into the city of Athens, and by
a general aflembly of all the cantons held there,
fitted Attica to be a commonwealth.

When a nation becomes great and populous, it is
ill fitted for being a commonwealth : ambition is apt
to trample upon jufticc, lelfifhnefs upon patriotifm,
aud the public is facririccd to private views. To
prevent corruption from turning incurable, the only
remedy is a (bid rotation in office, which ought ne-
ver to be difpenfed with on any pretext *. By fuch
rotation, every citizen in his turn governs and is
governed : the highefl ofTice is hmtted as to time,
and the grcateft men in the Itate muft fubmit to mc
facred law of obeying as well as of cointnanding.
A man long accullomed to power, is not happy .n a
private Ihition : that corrupting habit is prevented
by an alternate rucceilion of public and private life ;

K e 2 which

• A commoinvealrh with fuch a rotation m <y be aptly compaiefl to a
group of j^ia d'cau, rilintorie above another in beuutil'ui order, and piefcrvirij;;
the lame order in dcfccnding : tlic form of the grouj!* conunues irvaiiahle,
but tlie lorming parts are always ch jngiiivj.

I '

!■ '

420

Civil Society.

B. ir.

which is more agreeable by variety, and contributes
no lefs to virtue than to happinefs. It was that form
of government in ancient Rome, which produced
citizens without number, illuflrious for virtue and
talents. Reflect upon Cincinnatus, eminent among
heroes for difmterefted love to his country. Had he
been a Briton, a feat in parliament would have gra-
tified his ambition,, as affording the beft opportunity
of ferving his country. In parliament he joins the
party that appears the mofl zealous for the public.
Being deceived in his friends, patriots in name only,
he goes over to the court j and after fighting the
battles of the mlniflry for years, he is compelled by
a (battered fortune to accept a pofl or a penfion.
Fortunate Cincinnatus ! born at a time and in a
country where virtue was the paflport to power and
glory. Cincinnatus, after ferving with honour and
reputation as chief magiflrate, cheerfully retired to a
private ftation, in obedience to the laws of his coun-
try : ror was that change a hardfhip on a man who
was not corrupted by a long habit of power. But
wonderful was the change, when the republic by
fucccfsful wars comprehended great kingdoms.
Luxurious and fenfual men, who compofed the fe-
natc, could not maintain their authority over ge-
nerals who commanded great armies, and were il-
luflrious by conqueft. In the civil wars accordingly
that were carried on after the death of Julius Caefar,
the legions called from Spain and other diflant pro-
vinces to defend the fenatc, deferted all to Antony,
or to Lepidus, or to OdaviusCxfar.

Political writers define a free ftate to be, where
the people arc governed by laws of their own mak-
infi^. This definition is lame ; for laws made by the
people are not always jufl. There were many un-
juft laws enacted in Athens during the democratical
government; and in Britain inflances are not want-
ing of laws, not only unjufl, but opprefTive. The
true dt'finition of a free flate, iy, where the laws of

nature

and

Sk. III. Different Forms of Government. 42 1

nature arc ftriftly adhered" to, and where every mu-
nicipal regulation is contrived to improve fociety,
and to promote honefty and induftry. If that defi-
nition be juft, dcfpotifni is the worlt fpecies of go-
vernment ; being contrived to fupport arbitrary
will in the fovereign, without regarding the laws of
nature, or the good of fociety. The lavvlefs cruelty
of a King of Perfia, is painted to the life by a fm-
gle exprcffion of a Perfian grandee, " That every
" time he left the King's apartment, he was in-
" dined to feel with his hand whether his head was
*' on his flioulders." In the Ruffian empire, men
approach the throne with terror : the flighteft poli-
tical intrigue is a fufficient foundation for banifhing
the greateft nobleman to Siberia, and for confifcat-
ing his eftate. The laws of that empire fmell no
lefs rank of 11a very and oppreffion. No perfon
dares game with money that bears the imprelTion of
the prefent fovereign : a man going along the ftreet
that fronts the Emperor's apartment, muft pull off
his hat ; and it is a henious trefpafs, to write a letter
with the Emperor's name in fmall charafters. Def-
potifm is every where the fame : it was high treafon
to fell a ftatue of a Roman Emperor ; and it was
doubted, whether it was not high treafon, to hit an
Emperor's ftatue with a ftone thrown at random (a).
When Elifabeth Emprefs of Ruflia was on deathbed,
no perfon durft enquire about her : and even after
her death, it was not at firft fafe to fpeak of ii*. The
deep filence of the Ruflians upon matters of govern-
ment, arifes from the encouragement given to accu-
fations of treafon. The byftanders muft lay hold
of the perfon accufed : a father arrefts his fon, a fon
his father, and nature fuffers in filence. .The ac-
cufed with the accufer are hurried to prifpn, there
to remain till they be tried in the fecret court of
chancery. That court, compofed of a few minif-

ters

(«) !. 5. ad legem Juliam Majeft.itis.

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42%

Civil Society.

B. II.

ters named by the Emperor, have the lives and for-
tunes of all at their mercy. The nobles, (laves to'
the crov'n, are prone to retaliate upon their inferiors.
They impofe taxes at pleafure upon their vaffals, and
frequently feize all at ftiort hand *.

Servility and depreflion of mind in the fubjcfts of
a defpotic government, cannot be better marked
than in the funeral rites of a Roman Emperor, def-
cribed by Herodian {a). The body being bumf
privately, a waxen image reprefenting the Emperor
is laid in a bed of ftate. On the one fide fit the fe-
ilators feveral hours daily, clothed in black ; and on
the other, the mpft rcfpedable matrons, clothed
in white. The ceremony lafts feven days, during
which the phyficians from time to time appproach
the bed, aind declare the Emperor to be worfe
and worfe. When the day comes of declaring him
dead, the moft dignified of the nobility carry the
bed upon their Ihoulders, and place it in the old
forum, where the Roman magiftrates formerly laid
down their office. Then begin doleful ditties,
fung to his memory by boys and women. Thefe
being ended, the bed is carried to the Campus Mar-
fius.j and there burnt upon ^ high ftage with great
fblemnity. When the flames afcend, an eagle is
kt loofe, which is fuppofed to carry the foul of the
Emperor to heaven. Is that farce lefs ridiculous
than a puppet-fhew ? Is it not much more ridiculous ?
Dull muft have been the fpedator who could behold

the

* The following incideht is a ftriking example of the violence of pafTion,
indulged in a defpotic government, where men in power are under no con-
trol. Thomas Pereyra, a Portuguefe general, having aflifted the King of
Fegu in a dangerous war with his neighbour of Siam, was a prime favourite
at court, having elephants of ftate, and a guard of his own countrymen. One
day coming from court mounted on an elephant and hearing mufic in a houfc
where a marriage was celebrating between a daughter of the family and her
lover, he Went into the houfe, and defired to fee the bride. The parents
took the vifit for a great honour, and cheerfully prcfented Iicr. He was in-
ftanrly fmit with her beauty, ordered his guards to fei/e hti, and to carry
her to his palace. The bridegroom, as little able to beai Uiu afTiont a.;
to revenge it, cut his own throat, . ' .

{i«) Lib, 4.

MI.

for-
is to'
fiors,

and

ts of

Irked

def.

►urnr

Sk. III. Different Form of GevcrnmenU 42^

the folemnlty without fmiling at leaft, if not laugh-
ing outright J but the Romans were crufhed by def-
potifnn, and nothing could provoke them to laugh.
That ridiculous farce continued to be a£ted till the
time of Conftantine : how much later, I know not.
The finefl; countries have been depopulated by
defpotifm ; witnefs Greece, Egypt, and the Leffer
Afia. The river Menam, in the kingdom of Siam,
overflows annually like the Nile, depofiting a quan-
tity of flime, which proves a rich manure. The
river feems to rife gradually is the rice grows ;
and retires to its channel when the rice, approach-
ing to maturity, needs no longer to be watered.
Nature befide has beftowed on that rich country
variety of delicious fruits, requiring fcarce any cul-
ture. In fuch a paradife, would one imagine that
the Siamites are a miferable people ? The govern-
ment is dc^-""'c, and the fubje&s are flaves: they
muft work 01 their monarch fix months every
year, without wages, and even without receiving
any food from him. What renders them dill more
miferable, is, that they have no protedion either
for their perfons or their goods : the grandees are
expofed to the rapacity of the King and his cour-
tiers J and the lower ranks are cxpofed to the rapa-
city of the grandees. When a man has the mif-
fortune to poflefs a tree remarkable for good fruit,
he is required in the name of the King, or of a
courtier, to preferve the fruit for their iife. Every
proprietor of a garden in the neighbourhood of the
capital, muft pay a yearly fum to the keeper of the
elephants ; otherwife it will be laid wafte by theie
animals, whoni it is high treafon to moieft. From
the fea-port of Mergui to the capital, one travels
ten or twelve days, through immcnfe plains of a
rich foil, finely watered. That country appears to
have been formerly cultivated, but is now quite de-
populated, and left to tigers and elephants. For-
merly, an impiienfe comniercc was carried on in

that

>':i-l

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■ 1 ■-

• I 'i

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i 3

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1 I.'

if^ -I?

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424

Civil Society.

B. II.

if 'in

il:

that fertile country : hiftorians /itteft, that in the
middle of the fixteenth century, above a thoufand
foreign fliips frequented its port annually. But the
King, tempted by fuch riches, endeavoured to en-
grofs all the commerce of his country j by which
means he anr* 'dilated fucceffively mines, manufac-
tures, and e.cn agriculture Tlw kingdom is de-
populated, and few remain there but beggars. In
the ifland Ceylon, the King is fole proprietor of the
land ; and the people are fupinely indolent : their
huts are mean, without any thing like furniture :
their food is fruit that grows fpOntaneoufly ; and
their covering is a piece of coarfe cloath, wrapped
round the middle. The fettlement of the Dutch
Eaft-India company at the Cape of Good Hope, is
profitable to them in their commerce with the Eafl
Indies ; and it would be much more profitable, if
they gave proper encouragement to the tenants and
poflfeflors of their lands. But thefe poor people are
ruled with a rod of iron : the produd of their land
is extorted from them by the company at fo low a
price, as fcarce to afford them common neceffaries.
Avarice, like m«ny other irregular pafTions, ob-
llruds its own gratification : were induftry duly en-
couraged, the product of the ground would be
in greater plenty, and goods be afforded volunta-
rily at a lower price than are at prefent obtain-
ed by violence. The Peruvians are a fad example
of the effefts of tyranny; being reduced to a ilaie
of flupid infenfibility. No motive to a£lion in-
fluences them ; neither riches, nor luxury, nor am-
bition: they are even indifferent about life. The
fmgle pleafure they feel, is to get drunk, in order
to forget their mifery. The provinces of Molda-
via, Walachia, and BefTarabia, fituated between
the 43d and 48th degrees cf North latitude, are
defended on three fides by the Neifler, the Black
fea, and the Danube. The climate of that region,
and the fertility of its foil, render it not inferior

11.

Sk. III. Different Forms of Government*

425

to any other country in Europe. Its paftures
in particular are excellent, producing admirable
horfes, with an incredible number of fheep and
horned cattle; and corn, wine, oil, honey, and
wax, were formerly produced there in great plenty.
So populous was Walachia in particular a few cen-
turies ago., that iti- Prince was able to raifc an army
of fevcnty thoufand men. Yet, notwithf landing all
thefe advantages, the wretched policy of the Turk-
ifh government has reduced thefe provinces to be
almoft a defert. A defpotic government ftifles in
the b\rth all the bounties of nature, and renders
the fincft fpots of the globe equally fterile with
its barren mountains. When 9 patriotic king tra-
vels about to vifit his dorpinions, he is received
with acclamations of joy. A defpotic prince -iares
not hope for fuch reception ; he is locked up in
his feraglio, ignorant of what paffes ; and indolent-
ly fuffers his people to be pillaged, \ 'ithout even
hearing of their diftreffes. A defpotic prince ac-
cordingly, whofs >vants are all fupplied with pro-
fufion, and who has nothing left him to wifh for or
defire, carries on a moft languid exiftence. Rouf-
feau fays well, " Tout Prince qui afpire au defpo-
" tifme, afpire a I'honneur de mourir d'ennui.
Dans tous les royaumes du mpnde cherchez vous
rhomme le plus ennuy6 du pays ? AUcz tou-
jours diredlement au fouverain ; furtout s'il eft
" tres abfolu. C'eft, bien la peine de faire tant de
'* miferables ! ne faudroit-il s*ennuyer a moindres
« fraix."

At ♦he fame time, defpotifrq, tho' calculated to
elevate the fovereign above the rules of juftice,
and to make him the only free perfon in his domi-
nions, tends above all other governments to ren-
der him infecure. He becomes odious by opprefii-
on ; and every hand would be raifed againft him,
but for the rcftraint of fear. A fituation fotickliih,
lays him open to every bold fpirit, prompted by

2 revenge

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CtviL Society.

B, II.

".?•:

if'

revenge to feek his ruin, or ambition to ufurp his
throne. In that refpcft, Ruflia and Turky are pre-
cifely fimilar : confpiracics againft the fovereign
are equally frequent, and equally fuccefsful. The
moment an ufurper feizes the palace, all proflrate
themlielves before him, without enquiring about
his title. In f t manner was the prefent Em-
prefs of RuHia itibliihed, notwithftanding a ve^y
unfavourable circumftanee, that of dethroning her
own hu/band Peter III. No free fpirit regrets fuch
events m a defpotic government : the only thing
to be regretted is, that they concern the monarcn
only; not the people, who remain abjefl: flaves
as formerly. The preftnt Emprefs, fewfiblc of her
precarious fvtuatit i, is intent to humanize her
people, anid to ftioderate the dcfpotifm. In that
view, fhe has publiftied a code of laws fit for
a limited monarchy ; and expreffing great re-
gard to the lives, liberties, and property, of her
iubjccls.

But a monarchy with all the moderation that
defpotifm can admit, is inconfiftcnt with the liberty
of the prefs. Political pamphlets, and even news-
papers, are no lefs ufefui for inflruding the King,
than for fecuring his fubjefts. In France, the mr-
niftry arc deprived of that means of acquiring
knowledge ; and are reduced to the neceflity of
trufting to infmuating men, who cunningly creep
into favour, with a view to their own intereft»
After the late peace 1763, a plan was concerted
for efiablifhing a colony in Guiana ; and no fewer
than twelve thoufarid perfons were landed there all
at one fime. But fo grofsly ignorant were that mi-
riftry of the preparations neceffary for planting a
colony ii) the torrid zone, that contagious difeales,
occalioned by unwholefome food and want of ac-
comniodation, left not a fingle perfon alive. This
could not have happened in England : every arti-
cle of management would have been canvaffed,

and

M ■ 'I

II.

Sk. III. Different Forms cf Government. 427

atid light would have broken in froirx every
garter.

Government is eflential to a focicty of any ex-
tent ; and both are equally the work of nature.
With a view to government, nature has fitted a;
fmall proportion for being leaders, and a grea^
proportion for being led. The form cf govem-
ment accordingly that is the moll confonant to na-
ture, is that wLich allots to each the' . proper ftar
tion. Democracy is contradictory to nature, bc-
cauft. the whole people govern : defpotifm is not
lefs fo, becaxife government rcfts in a fmgle per-
fon. A republic or a limited monarchy is the beft
form ; becaufc in thefc every man has an opportu-
nity to aft the part that nature deftipcd him for.

I have infilled upon the deplorable efFefts of
defpotifm, longer perhaps than is neceflary ; but f
was fond of the opportunity to juftify, or rather
applaud, the fpirit of liberty fo er^' \ent in the inha-
bitants of Britain. I new proceed to compare
different fo^rms of government, with refpe£l to va-
rious particulars; beginning with patriotifm. E-
very form of government muft be good that ir
fpiri^s patriotifm : and the beft form to invigorai^
that noble paflion, is a commonwealth founded on.
rotation of power; where it is the ftudy ofthofc
in office, to do good, and to merit approbation
from their fellow citizens. In the Swifs Cantons,
the falaries of magiftrates and public officers, are
fcarce fuiiicient to defray their expences and thofe
worthy perfons defire no other recompfenfe, but to
be efteemed and honoured *. A republic fo mo-
delled.

■ k

•iU,

A*'

ii I

If!

• No human work can be everla(Wng. Tlie feventy two ba'^'iages of the
Axtenfivc canton of Bern, threaten ruin to the republic. Thefe lucrative of-
fices, which the great council appropriates to its own members, occafion .t
conftant influx of riches into the capital. Patriotifm is obferved of late
years to be on the decline among the citizens of Bern; and no wonder, con-
fideting that luxury and felfiflinefs are the never-failing offspring of opu-
lence. When felfilhnefs becomes the ruling pafTion of that people, thofe in

pover

' i

•1'

a ' I

428

Civil Society.

B. II.

ill'

delled, infpircs virtues of every fort. The people
of Switzerland feldom think of a writing to confirm
a bargain : a law-fuit is fcarce known among them ;
and many there are who have never heard of an
advocate nor of an attorney. Their doors are ne-
ver fhut but in wincer, It is patriotifm that Mon-
tefquieu has in view, when he pronounces virtue
to be the leading principle in a republic. He has
reafon to term it fo, becaufe patriotifm is conned-
ed with every fecial virtue ; and when it vanifhes,
every virtue vanifhes with it *. Democracy will
never be recommended by any enlightened politi-
cian, as a good form of governmer.t ; were it for
no other reafon but that patriotifm cannot long
fubfifl where the mob governs. In monarchy,
the King is exalted fo high above his fubjecls,
that his miniflers are ftill fervants, however much
raifed above other fubjeds. Wealth being the only
remaining purfuit, promotes avarice to be their
ruling paffion. Now if patriotifm be not found in
minifters, who have power, far lefs in men who have
no power ; and thus in monarchy, riches are pre-
ferred before virtue, and every vitious oiTspring of
avarice has free growth. The worfl fort of mo-
narchy is that which is ele£live ; becaufe patriot-
ifm can have no flable footing in fuch a flate. The
degeneracy of the Poles is owing to an eledlive mo-
narchy. Every neighbouring ftate being intereflcd

power will pilfer the public treafure, which is immenfe and enrich thcm-
felves with the fpoils of the republic. Confufion and anarchy muft en-
fue, and the ftatc will fettle in ? monarchy, or piore probably in an odious
democracy.

• Induftry and frugality may in fome meafure have the fame efFeft with
patriotifm, where riches are gained by labour, not by inheritance^ Man-
chefter is one of the greateft manufafturing villages in England. Induftry
there flourilhes, and with it frugality and hcnefty. It is remarkable, tl)at
its numerous inhabitants, amounting to above 40,000, are governed by a
magiArate of no higher rank than a juAice of peace conAable : and by his au-
thority, fmall as it is, peace and good order are preferved. The beA citizens
are not unwilling to be conAabies ; and fome are ambitious of the office.
There are in England many other great manufadluring villages that are go-
verned pictty mucii in t!-e r:imc ir.anncr.

Sk. III. Different Forms of Government, 429

in the cledion, money is the great engine that in-
fluences the choice. The eledors being tempted
by every motive of intereft, lofc fight of the pub-
lic, and endeavour each of them to make the beft
bargain he can for his own advantage. This rea-
foning is verified by the late war of the Ruffians
in Poland. Baron de Manftein, in his memoirs
of Ruffia, fays, that though the Poles were a
match for the Saxons, yet that feldom did three
hundred Ruffians go a ftep out of their way to a-
void three thoufand Poles.

Without piercing to the foundation, one can
have no juft notion of the various forms that go-
vernment aflumes in different (tates. Monarchy
is of many different kinds, and fo is a republic.
Rome and Carthage, the two great rival republics
of ancient times, differed widely in their original
conftitution. Much has been laid of thefe repub-
lics by hiftorians and political writers. There is
one point of comparifon, that will fet in a clear
light the difference of their conflitutions with ref-
pe6t to peace and war. Carthage, advantageoufly
fituated for commerce, became a great and tiouriih-
ing trading town. The Carthaginians having no
obje^ but riches, admitted none into a participa-
tion o^ their privileges. War was agiiinft their
genius : but they made war in order to load their
new fubjects with taxes. Rome, on the contrary,
was ill fituated for commerce: its inhabitants
were from the beginning employed in war, either
defenfive or offenf-ve. Their great object accord-
ingly was power ; to which end, they were al-
ways difpofed to adopt as citizens the bed of thofe
they conquered. Thus Rome became a city of
warriors, Carthage of merchants. The fubjects of
the latter were always ripe for a revolt, while the
fubjedVs of the former were always faithtul. Be-
tween two fuch dates, there could be no equality in
war; and had the Carthaginians been as iliilfnl in

politic)*

"11 it

43-^

Civil Society.

B. ir.

SUfl'iJ

f)olitics as they were in commerce, they would
lave avoided^ with the ftriftefl: circuml'peftion,
every occafion of difference with the Romans*
Rome employed its own citizens in war : Car-
thage had none to employ but mercenaries* In an
ofFcnfivc war, the objeft of the latter was riches ;
that of the former was power and glory, motives
much fuperior, and more animating. In a defen-
five war, the difference is infinite between mer-
cenaries, who have no intereft but to receive
pay, and citizens, who fight for their country, and
for their wives and children. What then are we
to think of Hannibal, who carried on war againft:
the Romans with an army of mercenaries, was
fuccefsful in every engagement, and puflied them
to the very brink of ruin ? He certainly was the
grcatell General the world ever faw. If any
one is to be excepted, it is the prefent King of
Pruffia *.

I next compare different forms of government,
with rcfpeft to the influence of opulence. Rich-
cs, which joined with ambition produce bold at-
' tempts for power, are however not dangerous in
monarchy, where the fovereign is fo far fuperior,
as to humble to the duft the moft afpiring of his
fubjefts. But riches joined with ambition are dan-
gerous in a republic : ambition will fuggeli: the
poflibility of fowing diflenfion among the leaders :
riches will make the attempt fuccefsful ; and then
adieu to the republic. Wealth accumulated by
commerce in Carthage and in Athens, extingu.ff)-
cd patriotifm, and rendered their democracies un-
juft, violent, and tyrannical. It had another bad

eff'ea ;

« I

«< (
«

((

• The following clianf^er of Hannibal is drawn by Titus Livius, " Has
" tautas viri virtiites ingentia vitia irqiiabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia
" plufquam Piinica, nihil veri, nil'.il fanftl, niillus Deum metiis, nullum juf-
" jurandum, nulla religio." This bttiays the cloven foot of grofs pre-
judice. A man of fucli a chiradcrcould never for fo many years, without
a fingle mutiny, have ke])C on ioot a mercenary army eonipoied of ditterent
nations.

«
((

Sk. III. Different Forms of Gov3rn?nent. 43 1

effeft; which was, to make them ambitious of
conqucft. The fagc Plutarch charges Theaiifto-
<;lcs with the ruin of Athens. *' That great
man," fays he, " infpircd his countrymen with
defirc of naval power. That po>vcr produced
extcnfivc commerce, and confequently riches :
riches again, beftde luxury, infpired the Athe-
nians with a high opinion of their power, and
made them ralhiy engage in every quarrel a-
mong their neighbours.*' Supprefs the names,
and one will believe it to be a cenfurt* on the con-
dud of Britain. Succefsful commerce prornpted
the Carthaginians, againfl their natur&l interell;,
to make war for gain. Had they been fuccefsful
againft the Romans, both nations muft have fallen
a facrlfice to the ambition of Hannibal : what Car-^
thaginian durft have oppofed that glorious con-
queror, returning with a vidorious army, devoted
to his will ? That event was long dreaded by Han-
no and the wifer part of the Carthaginian fenate ;
and hence their fcanty fuppUcs to Hannibal. But
what is only a fuppofition with refpeft to Carthage,
proved to be the fate of Rome. Inequality of rank,
opulence, and luxury, relaxed every principle of
the common-wealth, particularly rotation of power,
which ought to have been their palladium. Con-
queft at a diftance led them unwarily, in fome in-
Itances, to fufpend that fundamental law ; of which
Csefar availed hiinftlf in his Gallic war, by de-
bauching from their duty the befl difcipUncd ar-
my of the republic : and it was that army, under
a leader little inferior to Hannibal, which deter*
mined the fate of Rome.

A itatc with a fmall territory, fuch as Hamburgh
or Holland, mry fubfift long as a commonwealth,
without much hazard trom the opulence of indi-
viduals. But an extenfive territory in the hands of
a few opulent proprietors, is dangerous in a com-
monwealth ', becauic of their inilucnce over num.

bers

!■ I; i I

■t

I'll

i "(.►

!ti;

43*

Civil Society.

B. II.

T \H ft Jt ;

■I

bers urho depend on them for bread. The ifland
of Britain is too large for a commonwealth. This
did not cfcape a profound political writer {a), who
is an honour to his country ; and to remedy the
evil, he propofes an Agrarian law. But fondnefs
for a fyftem of his own invention, mado him o-
verlook a defeft in it, that would not have ef-
caped him had it been the invention of another ;
which is, that accumulation of land can never be
prevented by an Agrarian law : a trud-deed is a
ready fcrecn for covering accumulation beyond
law : and dark tranfa£fcions are carried on without
end ; fimilar to what is pradifed, mod diiho-
neftly, by thofe who eleft and are eleftcd mem-
bers of parliament. V7hen fuch comes to be the
condition of land-property, an Agrarian law will be
ripe for diiTolution.

In early times, greater variety of charafter is
feen than at prefent ; among fovereigns efpecially,
who are not taught to govern their paffions. Pe-
rufing the hiftory of Spain in particular, one is
ftruck with an amazing variety of character in the
Moorilh Kings. In fome of them, outrageous
cruelty ; in others, mildnefs and afFeftion for their
people : in fome unbounded ambition furmount-
ing every obftacle of juftice and humanity ; in o-
thers, ftridk attention to commerce and to every mo-
ral virtue ; fome heaping up treafure ; fome fquan-
dering all upon voluptuoufnefs ; fome cultivating
peace ; fome fond of war. During the nonage of
iociety, men exert their natural bias without re-
ferve : in the progrefs of focicty, they are taught to
moderate their turbulent paflions : at laft mild and
courtly behaviour, produced by education and imi-
tation, give an air to men of figure as if they
were all copies from one original ; which is peculi-
arly the cafe in France. The mildnefs of exter-
nal

[a] Harrington.

^^g'

11.

Sk. in. DiffiTcnt Forms of Govcnwieht, 433

nal behaviour, iiiufl have a confiJerablc influence
on the internal part ; for nothing tends more to
foftcn or to lupprcls a pafiion, than never to give
it vent : for which rcalon, abfolutc monarchy in
France is far from being fo dreadful as it was for-
nurly : it is at prefent far from being violent or
fanguinary ; the manners of the people having the
fame influence there, that laws have in a free coun-
try. The King, delicate with refped: to his con-
du61-, and dreading the cenfure of the world, is
guilty of few exccflfes ; and the people, tame and
fubmifTive, are eafily kept in order. To be d f-
charged the court tor any mifdcmeanoilr, or to be
relegated to his country-feat, is to a gentleman of
rank more terrible than a capital punifliment.

We finifli this fliort effay with a comparifon of
different governments as to the execution of
laws. Laws relative to property and pecuniary
intereflt, are every where preferved in vigour,
bccaufe the violation of them hurts many.—
Laws refpefting the public, are kept alive in a
monarchical government ; becaufe the King, to
whom execution of law is intruded, feldom bene-
fits by their tranfgreflion. I'or a (leady execution
of fuch laws, a democracy has nothing to rely on
but patriotifm ; and when that fubfides, fuch
laws fall afleep. The reafon is, that the pow-
ers both of legiflation and execution center *?"> the
people ; and a multitude, frequently no bettc* Ikiu
a mob, will never with condancy dired execution
againll thcmftlves.

Vol. I.

F f

S K E T C H

■

•I

(•

I If;:

'> '41

I .1

5 ; ,'

SKETCH

IV.

Trogrefs of States from f mall to great, and from great

to fmalL

HEN tribes originally fmall, fpread wider
and wider by population till they become neigh-
bours, the llighteft differences enflame mutual a-
verfion, and infligate hoftilities that never end.
Weak tribes unite for defence againft the power-
ful, and become infenfibly one people : other tribes
are fwallowed up by conqueft. And thus ftates
became more and more extenfive, till they be con-
lined by natural boundaries of fcas or mountains.
Spain originally contained many fmall ftates, which
were all brought under the Roman yoke. In later
times, it was again poffeffed by many ftates, Chrif-
tian and Mahometan, continually at war, till by
conqueft they were united in one great kingdom.
Portugal ftill maintains its independency, a bleffmg
it owes to the weaknefs of Spain, not to advantage
of fituation. The fmall ftates of Italy were fub-
dued by the Romans ; and thofe of Greece by
Philip of Macedon, and bis fon Alexander.
Scotland efcaped narrow'y the fangs of Edward
1. of England ; and would at laft have been con-
quered by its more potent neighbour, had not con-
queft been prevented by a federal union.

But at that rate, have we not reafon to dread
the union of all nations under one univerfal mo-
narch ? There arc feveral caufes that for ever will
prevent a calamity fo dreadful. The local fitu-
ation of fome countries, defended by ftrong na-
tural barriers, is one of thefe. Britain is defend-
ed

Sk. IV.

Ptogrefs of States,

435

ed by the fea ; and fo is Spain, except where di-
vided from France by the Pyrencan mountains.
Europe in general, by many barriers of feas, ri-
vers, and mountains, is fitted for dates of mo-
derate extent : not fo Afia, which being divided
by nature into very large portions, is prepared for
extenfive monarchies *. Ruflia is the only excep-
tion in Europe ; a weak kingdom by fituation, tho*
rendered formidable by the extraordinary talents of
one man, and of more women than one.

A fecond caufe is the weaknefs of a great
ftate. The ftrength of a ftate doth not increafe
with its bulk, more than that of a man. Ai o-
vergrown empire, far from being formidable to
its neighbours, falls to pieces by its weight and
unwieldinefs. Its frontiers are not eafily guard-
ed : witnefs France, which is much weakened by
that circumftance, though its greater part is
bounded by the fea. Patriotifm vanifhes in a
great monarchy : the provinces have no mutual
connexion : and the diftant provinces, which
mu(t be governed by baihaws, are always ripe for
a revolt. To fecure Nicomedia, which had fre-
quently fuffered by fire, Pliny fuggefted to the
Emperor Trajan, a fire company of one hundred
and fifty men. So infirm at that period was the
Roman empire, that Trajan diirft not put the pro-
je£t in execution, fearing dillurbances even from
that fmall body.

F f 2 , The

* En Afie on a toujours vu de grands empires ; en Europe ils n'ont ja-
mais pu fubliftcr. Cell que I'Afie que nous connoiflons a de plus grandea
plaines : die elt coupte en plus frands niorceaux par les montagnes et les
mers ; etcomme elle ert plus au midi, les fources y font plus aifement taries,
lt;s niontaf pes y font moins couvertes des nfeges, et les fleuves, moins grof-
fis, y forinent des moindres harriers. VEfprit dfs Loix, liv. 17. c, 6. ■ ■
[/•; Er.yJ-jb thus : " In Afia there have always been great empires : fuch
•* could XKvvx fubfiR in Europe. The reafon is, that in Afia there are
" larger plains, and it is cut by mountains and feas into more extenfive di-
" viiions : as it lies more to tiie fouth, its fprings arc more eafily dried up,
" the nioiirtains are lefs covered with fnow, and the rivers proportionally
" fmailer form lefs confidcrable banier»."J

ijn:;

»u

!l \

43^

Civil Society.

B. 11

The chief caufe is the luxury and effeminacy
of a great monarchy, which leave no appetite for
war, either in the fovereign or in his fubjeds. —
Great inequality of rank in an extenfive kingdom,
occalioncd by a conflant flow of riches into the
capital, introduces fliow, expcnfive living, luxury,
and ienfuality. Riches, by affording gratification
to every fcniual appetite, become an idol to which
all men bow the knee ; and when riches are
M'or(h!pped as a paffj^ort to power as well as to
plcafure, they corrupt the heart, eradicate every
virtue, and foller every vice. In fuch diffolution
of manners, contradidions are reconciled : avarice
and meannefs unite with vanity ; diffimulation and
cunning, with fplendor. Where fubjeds are fo
corrupted, what will the prince be, who is not
taught to moderate his pallions, who mcafures
juftice by appetite, and who is debilitated by cor-
poreal pleafures ? Such a prince never thinks of
heading his own troops, nor of extending his do-
minions. Moflazen, the laft Califf of Bagdat, is
a conlpicuous inftance of the degeneracy de-
fcribed. His kingdom being invaded by the Tar-
tars in the year 1258, he fhut himfelf up in his
leraglio with his debauched companions, as in
profound peace ; and ftupified with floth and vo-
luptuoufnefs, was the only perfon who appeared
carelefs about the fate of his empire. A King of
Perfia, being inf( ^med that the Turks had made
themfelves maflers of hi^ befl provinces, anfwer-
ed, that he was indifferent about their fuccefs,
provided they did not difturb him in his city of
Ifpahan. Hoatfang, the lafl: Chinefe Emperor of
the Chinefe race, hid himfelf in his northern pro-
vinces, and Liltching, a rebel mandarine, was
wreftling from him the remainder. The EmpreiV
(Irangled herfelf in her apartment ; and the Empe-
ror, making a lafl effort, followed her example.
The ninth Chinefe Emperor of the blood of Gen-

hizcan,

Sk. IV.

Progrefs tf States »

437

hizcan, addidcd to women and priefls, was dcf-
pifed by his people. A perfon without a name, who
had been a fervant in a convent of Bonzes, put-
ting himfelf at the head of fome robbers, de-
throned the monarch, and extinguifhed the royal
family.

The Tonquinefe, after a long fubje£lion to the
Emperor of China, regained their independence,
and were governed by kings of their own nation.
Thefc princes having by long peace become indo-
lent, luxurious and effeminate, abandoned the go-
vernment to their minifters. The governor of Co-
chinchina, being at a great diftance from the ca-
pital, ;revoIted firft, and that country became a
feparate kingdom. The governor of Tonquin, in
which province the King refided, ufurped the fo-
vereignty : but refpe^ing the royal family, he only
locked up the King in his palace ; leaving to the
King's defcendents the name of RGva, or King,
with fome Ihadow of royalty. The ufurper and
his fucccflbrs content thcmfelves with the title
of Chova, or Generaliflimo ) which fatisfies the
people, who pierce no deeper than what eye-
iight difcovers. A revolution of the fame kind
happened in Japan. Similar caufes produce fimi-
lar effefts. The luxurious and indolent fucceflbrs
of Charlemagne in the kingdom of France, truit-
ing their power and authority with the mairs of
their palace, were never feen in public, and were
feldom heard of. The great power of thefe offi-
cers, inflamed them with an appetite for more.
Pepin and his fucceffors w^re for a long time
kings dc faBo^ leaving to the rightful fovcreign
nothing but the empty name. Charles Martel
reigned for fome time without even naming a king.
And at lail Pepin the younger, anno 751, throwing
oft' the mafk, ordered himfelf to be proclaimed King
pf France.

BuibequiuSj

■If

^.H

Irli

'1
fVm

f^fffl'

^1 .

438

Civil Society.

B. II.

C6
<C

Bufbequius, who wrote in the days of Philip
II. of Spain, has the following obltrvation.— —
Comparing the Turkiih foldiers with ours, I
can prognofticate nothing good to Chriflen-
dom. On their fide, a mighty empire, great
armies, experience in war, a long feries of
** victories, a veteran foldiery, concord, order,
" difcipline, frugahty, vig'lance, and patience of
*' labour. On our fide, public want, private lux-
" ury, contempt of difcipline, impatic^ice of la-
" bour, drunkenncfs and gluttony. Can any one
" doubt what the event will be ? For preventing
*' ruin, we have nothing to depend on but the
'^ Perfians." How plaufible is this reafoning ; and
yet how falfe the prognoftic ! At that early time,
the fcience of politics was but in its infancy in
Europe. Bufbequius did not difcovcr, nor did
any other man difcover, a feed of corruption in
the Turkifli government that in time ripened to
its ruin ; and that is wealth and luxury in 9 dcf-
potic monarchy. The monarch is funk in vo-
luptuoufnefs : licentioufncfs cvetps in among the
foldiery, and the government becomes entirely mi-
litary. This progrefs is far advanced among the
Turks ; and their troops at prefent make no fi-
gure but by numbers. Our troops on the con-
trary, from perpetual wars among Chriflian Princes,
have acquired the pcrfcdion of difcipline.

Montefquieu, difcourling of luxury in great em-
pires, and effeminacy in the monarchs, defcribcs
the danger of revolutions, from ambitious men
bred to war, in the following words. " Kn efjct
" il ctoit naturcl que des Empereurs nourri.s dans
'^ les fatigues de la guerre, qui parvenoicnt a
*' a faire defcendre du trone une famille noyce
*' dans les delices, co.nfervafTcnt la vtrtu qu'il-s a-
*' voient eprouves fi utile, et craignilfent les vo-
"* luptc's qu'ils avoitnt vae ii funcites. Mais a-

pres

k.IV.

Frogrefs of States,

439
la

'^!

((

((
«(
(C

pr^s ces trois ou quatre premiers princes,
corruption, le luxe, I'oifivcte, les delices, s'em-
parent dcs fucceffeurs ; ils s'erjferment dans le
palais, leur efprit s'affoiblit, leur vie s'accour-
cit, la famille decline ; les grands s'tlevent, les
eunuques s'acreditcnt, on ne met fur le tronc
que des enfans ; le palais devient ennemi de
I'empire, un peuplc oifif qui I'habite ruine ce-
lui qui travaille j I'Empereur eft tnt ou deftruit
par un ufurpateur, qui fonde une famille, dont le
troificme ou quatriemc fuccefleur va dans le meme
** palais fe renfermer encore * {a)"

Little reafon then have we to apprehend the coa-
lition of all nations into an univerfal monarchy. We
fee indeed in the hiftory of mankind, frequent in-
ftance&of the progrefs of nations from fmall to great ;
but we fee alfo inftanccs} no lefs frequent, of extenfive
monarchies being fplit into many fmall ftates. Such
is the courfe of human affairs : ftates are feldom fta-
tionary ; but, like the fun, are either advancing to
their meridian, or falling down gradually till they
fmk into obfcurity. An empire fubjefted to effemi-
nate princes, and devoid of patriotifm, cannot long
fubfift entire. The fate of all, with very few ex-
ceptions, has been the fame. The governors of
provinces, lofmg all regard for a voluptuous and ef-
feminate monarch, take courage, fet up for them-

felvcs,

{a) I/efprit des Loix, llv. 7. chap, 7. ' •• r

* " It was indeed natural, %\\^t emperors, trained up to all the fatigues of

" war, who had eftefted the dethronement of a family Immerfed in fenfual

" pleafures, fliould adhere to that virtue of which they had experienced the

" utility, and dread that voluptuoufnefs whofc fatal effedts they had feen.

" But after a fucceflion of three or four fuch princes, corruption, luxury, and

" indolence, Appear again in their fucceffors : they fliut themfelves up in

" their palace, their foul is enervated, their life is (hortened, and their fa-

" mily dechnes : the grandees acquire power, the eunuchs gain credit, and

" children are fet on the throne; the palace is ^t variance with the empire,

" the indolent rtatefmen ruin the indullrious people. The Emperor is alfaf-

" finated, or depofed by an ufurper, who founds a new race of monarchs,

" of which the third or fourth in fucceflion, finking again into indo-

'' lence, purfues the fame courfe of ruin, and lays tho foundation of a new

" change.''

440

Civil Society.

B. II.

1 : 1 "'t

!-i^'Mii* -f

■I'.- I -i

felves, and affiime regal authority, each in his pwn
province. The puifl'ant Aflyrian monarchy, pnp of
the earlieft we read of in hiftory, after having been
long a ten r to its neighbours, was difa)cinbcred
by the governors of Meuia and of Babylon, y l)o
detached thefe extenfive provinces from the n'O-
narchy. Mahomet and his immedijU.e fi'cceifo..^
ereded a great empire, ol which Bairdat becaiiit:
the capital. The later Calii's of that rxcs'y po.fonea
with fenfual pleafure, loll all 'vigour c i mind, and
funk down into lloth and eifeminacy, The gover-
nors o{ the dillant provinces, were the f\d\ who vtn-
turfd to declare thcmfelves independent. Their
iuccefs invited other governors, who dripped the
Galiff of his ' cmaitintg prc/inces, leaving him no-
thing but the city oi' Bagdat ; and of that he wai> de-
prived by the Tarru^'S, wi)o put an end to thatoncp
illuflrious nricuiarchy. Ihe fame would have been
the fate of the Perhan empire, had it not been fub-
ducd by Alexander of Macedon. But after his death
k fubmiticd to the ordinary fate : his generals af-
fumed regal power, each of them in the province be
governed. Had not the Roman empire been dif-
membered by the barbarians, it would have been dif*
mciiibered by the governors pf its provinces. The
weaknefs of Charlemagne's luccerfbrs, hatched in
France and in Germany an endlefs n.umber of petty
fovereigns. About the time that a palfage to the
Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope was difcover-
ed, the great peninfula beyond tjie Ganges was
comprehended under the powerful empire of Bif-
nagar. Its firfl monarchs had eltabliflied themfelves
by valour and military knowledge. In war, they
headed their troops: in peace, they direded thciv
minifters, vifited their dominions, and were punc-
tual in rendering jufticeto high and low. The peo-
ple carried on an extenfive and lucrative commerce,
which brought a revenue to the Emperor that ena-
bled, him to maintain a Handing army of 100,000
foot, 30,009 horfe, and 700 elephants. But prof-
I perity

Sk. IV. Prognfs of States, 441:

perity and opulence ruined all. The Emperors,
poifoned with pride and voluptuoufncfs, were npw
contented with fwelling titles, inltead of lolid fame.
King of kings, and Hufhand of a thou fund wives, were
at the head of a long catalogue of fuch pompous,
Init empty epithets. Corrupted by flattery, they
-.u'-'efted divine honours, and appeared rarely in
public ; leaving the care of their dominions to their
juiniftcrs, and to the governors of their provinces.
At tlie beginning of the fixteenth century, neigh-
» ;:)uring princes encroached on all fides. In the
1565, Bifnagar the capital was taken and facked by
four Moorilh kings. The governors of the pro-
vinces declared themfelves independent -, and out of
that great empire, fprung the kingdoms of Golcondii,
Vifapour, and feveral others. The empire of liin-
doflan, once widely extended, is now reduced to a
very fmall kingdom, under a prince wljo no longer
is intitled to be defigned the Great Mogul ; the go-
vernors of his provinces having as ulual, declared
themfelves independent.

Our North- American colonics are in a profpcrous
condition, increafing rapidly in population, and in
opulence. The colonifts have the fpirit of a free
people, and are enflamcd with patriotifm. Their
population will equal that of Britain and Ireland in
lefs than a century ; and thev will then be a match
for the mother-country, if thev chufc to be indepen-
dent : every advantage will bv' v\n their lide, ab tlie
attack mult be by ica h\>m a very great diitance.
Being thus deliverevi fiwm v\ foreign yoke, their firfl:
care will be the choice of a proper government ; and
it is notdillicult to forefe« what governm(.^>t will be
chofen. A people animated with the new blellmgi
of liberty and indcix^ndence, will not incline to a
kingly gover«mem» The Swifs cantons joined in a
federal union, fov proteftion again It the potent
houfe of Auftria ; and the Dutch embraced the like
pnion, tor protedioii againft the more i-otent king

'. v J

!l"

-h

■ s

ill'

442

Civil Soch-tv.

B. II.

of Spain. But our colonies will never join in fuch
a union j bccaufe they have no potent neighbour,
and bccaufe they have an avcrfion to each other.
We may pronounce with aifurance, that each colony
will chulc for itfcif a republican government. And
their prefent conllitution prcjiares them for it : they
have a fcnate ; and they Jiave an afl'embly reprefent-
ing the people. No change will be necedary, but
to drop the governor who reprtfents the King of
Britain. And thus u part of a great (late will be
converted iijto many hnall Hates*

SKETCH V,

i.y.

J.-

Great and Small States compared*

ElGHDOUllS, flCcofdliig to the coinmon fay-
ing, mull be fweet friends or bitttr enemies ; pa-
triotifm is vigorous in fmall Hates ; and hatred to
neighbouring Hates, no Ifefs fo : both vanifli in a
great monarchy.

Like a maximum in mathematics, emulation hri<!
the Hnell play within certain bounds : it languilheth
where Its objefts are too many, or too few. Hence
it is, that the molt heroic ai^lions are j)crfornk:d in
a (late of moderate extent : appetite for applaufe, or
fame, may fublift in a great monarchy ; but by that
appetite, without the fupport of emulation, heroic
adions are feldom atchieved.

Small Hates, however corrupted, are not liable to
defpotifm : the people being clofe to the feat of go-
vernment, and accuHomed to fee their governors
daily, talk familiarly of their errors, and publilh
them every where. On Sjiain, which formerly

•• . conOrted

Sk, V.

Greai and Small States,

443

confided of many fmall dates, a profound writer {a)
makes the following obfervaticm. " The petty
" monarch was but little elevated above his nobles :
" having little power, he could not command much
" refpett \ nor could his nobles look up to him with
" that reverence which is felt in approaching great
" monarchs," Another thing is equally weighty
againd defpotifm in a fmall date : the army cannot
eafily be fcparated from the people ; and for that
reafon, is very little dangerous. The Roman pre-
torian bands wrre billeted in the towns near Rome ;
and three cohorts only were employed in guarding
fnat cjty. Scjanus, prefeft of tliefe bands under
'I'lDcrius. lodged the fhree cohorts in a fpacious bar-
rack williiri the city, in order to gain more autho-
rity over thei/i, uiin tn wean them from familiarity
with the people. Tacitus, in the 4th book of his
Annals, relates the dory in the following words.
" Vim praefefturae modicam antea, intendit, dif-
" perfas par urbcm cohortes una in cadra condu-
*' cendoj ut fnnul imperia acciperent, numeroque
** et robore, et vifu, inter fe, fiducia ipfis, in cai^teros
" metii8| crearetur *."

What is faid above, fuggeds the caufe of a curious
faft recorded in ancient hidory, " That of many at-
'* tempts to ufurp the fovereignty of different Greek
" republics, very few fucceeded ; and that no ufur-
" pation of that kind was lading." Every circum-
dance differs in an extenfive date : the people, at a
didance from the throne and having profound vene-
ration for the fovereign, confider themfelves, not as
members of a boly-politic, but as fubjeds merely,
bound implicitly to obey : by which impredion they

are

. '

(rt^ Dr. Robeitfon,
* " He extended the power of the prefei^ure, by collefting into one camp
*' tliofe'pretorian coliorts \vlucli were formerly difperfed all over the city ;
'" tliat thus, being united, they might be more influenced by his orders, and
" while their confidence in their power was increafed by the conflant view
" of their own numbers and ftrenrth, chey n»ight at the fame time flrlke a
'' frreat terrcr in othei-;."

it- .

444

Civil Society.

B. II.

arc prepared beforehand for dcfiJOtifm. Other rea-
foTiF concur : tlic fubjc6ts of u great (late are dazzled
with the l'j)lendor of their monarch ; and as their
union is prevented by diftarcc, the monarch can
I'afely employ a part of his fubjedts againfl the red,
or a itanding army againft a!'.

A great itate poflefles one eminent advantage, viz.
ability to execute magnificent works. The hanging
gardens of Babylon, the pyramids of Egypt, and its
lake Mcris, arc ilkiftrious examples. The city of
Heliopolis in Syria, named Balbck by the Turks, is a
pregnant inftance of the power and opulence of the
Roman empire. Even in the ruins of that city,
there are remains of great magnificence and exqui-
litc tafle. If the imperial palace, or the temple of
the Sun, to mention no other building, were the
work of any European prince exifting at prefent, it
would make a capital figure in the annals of his
reign. And yet fo little was the eclat of thefe works
even at the time of execution, that there is not a
hint of them in any hiftorian. The beneficence of
fome great monarchs is worthy of flill greater praife.
In the principal roads of Japan, hot batns are eredted
at proper diltances with other conveniencies, for the
ufe of travellers. The beneficence of the Chinefe
government to thofe who fufter fhipwrecl<!, gives a
more advantageous impreflion of that monarchy,
than all that is painfully collefted by DuHalde. To
verify the obfervation, I gladly lay hold of the fol-
lowing incident. In the year 1728, the ihip Prince
Geor;;e took her departure from Calcutta in Ben-
gal for Canton in China, with a cargo L. 60,000
value. A violent il'orm drove iier afliore at a place
iramed ^Timpau^ a great way I rem Canton. Not
above half the crew could m;i c the fliorc, worn
out with fatigue and hunger, and not doubting of
being mafTacred by the natives. How amazed
were they to be treated with remarkable humanity !
A mandarin appc.ued, who not only provided for

them

II.

|ea-

llcd

leir

lean

|ca,

nz.
tinor

Sk. V.

CrCiJt ami Small Slates.

445

them vi£luals in plenty, but alfo nn ikillcd in
diving to allilt them in filhing the wreck. What fol-
lows is in the words ot my author, Alexander Wcd-
derburn of St. Germains, a gentleman of known
worth and veracity, who bore ollice in the Ihip.
** In a few days we recovered L. 5000 in bullion,
*' and alterward L. 10,000 more. Before we fet
forward to Canton, the mandarin our btnefador
took an exadl account of our money, with the
" names of the men, furniflied us with an efcort
to conduft us through his diflrift, and configned
us dead or alive to one Suqua at Canton, a Chi-
nefe merchant well known to the Englifh there*
In every one of our refting-places, victuals were
•* brought to us by the villagers in plenty, and
with great cordiality. In this manner we pafled
from one diftrift to another, without having oc-
cafion to lay out a fmgle farthing, till we reached
Canton, which we did in nine days, travelling
fometimes by land, and fometimcs by water.
Our cafe had been reprefented to the court at
" Pekin, from whence orders came to diftribute
among us a fum of money ; which was done by
the Chuntuck, Hoppo, and other officers, civil
and military, aflcmbled in great ftatc. After a
fliort fpeech, exprefling regret for our calamity,
with an eu login m on the humane and generous
difpofition of their mafter; to each of us was
prefented the Plmperor's bounty, in a yellow
bag on which was infcribed the nature of the
gift. The firft fupercargo received 450 tales in
lilvcr, the fecond 350, myfelf 250, the nv.uc
75, and each common feaman 15; the whole
amounting to about 2000 tales, or L.800. This
i'. an example worthy imitation, even where
Cbrilliatiity is p^rordled ; tho* its tenets are of-
ten, on like occiifions, fcandaloufly perverted."
So far my author: and 1 add, that this bounty
was undoubtedly eflnMilhed by lawj for it has not

the

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446

Civil Society.

B. II.

the appearance of an occafional or fingular ad of
benevolence. If fo, China is the only country in
the world, where charity to ftrangcrs in diftrefs is
a branch of public police.

Another advantage of a great llatc I mention
with peculiar plcafurc, becaufc all vvbo afpire to be
eminent in literature, arc intcreftcd in it. A fmall
kingdom, like Denmark, like Sweden, like Portu-
gal, cannot naturally be produdive of good wri-
ters; becaufe where there are few readers, there
is no fufflcient incitement to exert literary talents:
a claflical work produced at prcfent in the Cel-
tic tongue, would fall little fliort of a miracle.
France is eminent above all other nations for the
encouragement it affords to good writers: it is a
populous country : it is the chief feat of tafte,
arts, and fciences ; and its language has become
univerfal in Europe, being the court-language every
where : why then fhould not French writers carry
the palm? But let not the Britifli dcfpond; for
doth not a glorious profpedt lie before them? The
demand for Englilh books in America is confider-
able ; and is increafmg daily. Population goes on
vigoroufly: the number of Britifli already fettled
upon the river Ohio approach to 10,000; and the
delicious country from that river down to the mouth
of the Miflifiippi, will be filled with people whofe
native tongue is Englifli. So fine a climate and fo
rich a foil will be produ6live of readers in plen-
ty. Such a profpecl ought to roufc our ambi-
tion ; and our ambition will be highly laudable,
if rejeding local diftinftions, we afpire to rival the
French writers in real merit.

But the foregoing advantages of a great ftate,
however illuftrious, are fadly over-balanced by ma-
nifold difadvantages. The hrfl is, the corruption of
its kings, which, in a different view, is mentioned
in the fketch immediately preceding. A fecond
IS, that great monarch;, being highly elevated above

their

II.

;k. V.

Great and Small States.

447

their fubjc^ls, arc acquainted with none but their
minifters. And minillers, who in a dcfpotic go-
vernment are fubjed to no controul but tliat of their
maftcr, commonly prefer their own intcrcft, with-
out regard to his honour. Solyman Kmpcror of
the Turks, tho' accompUlhed above any of his
predeccflors, could not cfcape the artifices of his
wife Roxalana, and of his Vifir Rullan. Thev
poifoncd his ears with repeated calumnies againft
his eldeft fon Muftapha, a young prince of great
hopes. They were not in hazard of dcteftion, be-
caufe no perlbn had acctfs to the Emperor but by
their means. And the concluding fcene, was an
order from the Emperor to put his fon to death (a)
If a great monarch lie thus open in his own palace
to the artifices of his miniftcrs, his authority, wc
may be certain, will be very flight over the gover-
nors of his diftant provinces. Iheir power is pre-
carious i and they opprefs the people without in-
termilTion, in order to amafs wealth: the complaints
of the people arc difregarded ; for they never reach
the throne. The • Spanilh governors of the Philip-
pine iflands, afford a deplorable inftance of thi«
obfervation. The heat of the climate promotes
luxury; and luxury prompts avarice, which rages
without controul, the diftance of the capital re-
moving all fear of detection. Arbitrary taxes are
impofcd on the people, and excelfive duties on
goods imported ; which are rigoroufly exadled, be-
caufe they are converted by the governor to his own
ufe. An arbitrary eftimate is made of what every
field may produce ; and the hufbandman is fevere-
ly puniflied if he fail to deliver the appointed quan-
tity, whether his land has produced it or not. Ma-
ny thoufar.ds have abandoned their native country ;

and

{a) See Dr. Robertfon's hiftory of Charles V. where this incident is related
with uncommon fpirit,

44^ Civil Society. B. IL

and tlie few mifcrable wrctcIiCs who remain, have
taken refuge among inacceflible mountains. , ;,

Tliird, The corruption of a court fpreads through
every member of the (late. In an extehfive king-
dom that has no rival, the fubjeds, having no occa-
lion to exert themfclves in defence of their Country,
lofe their manhood, and turn coward's. , ^t the
fame time, great inequality of rank and fortune
engender luxury, felfiflinefs, and fenfuality *. The
fine arts, it is true, gain ground, manufadures are
perfected, and courtly manners prevail : but every
manly virtue is gone ; and not a foul to be found,'
who will venture his life to fave his country. That
difeafe is fpreading in Britain ; 'd the only circumi-
Itance that guards France h i. equal pufiUanimity^
is an elfabliflied mode, that every gentleman muft
ferve fome campaigns in the army.

Fourth, An extenfive monarchy is liable to in-
ternal convulfions or revolutions, occafioned com-
monly either by a (landing army, or by the gover-
nors of diftant provinces. With refpeft to the
former, the government of a great kingdom ener-
vated by luxury, muft be military, and confequently
defpotic. A numerous army will foon learn to con-
temn a pufillanimous leader, and break loofe from
every tie of fubjedion : the fovereign Is often chan-
ged at the caprice of the army ; but defjiotifm coq-
tmues to triumph. In Turky, Janifaries dethrone
the Sultan, without fcruple , but being fuperftiti-
oufly attached to the royal family, they confine
tlicmfelvcs to it in eleding a new Sultan. The pre-

torian

• The follovvint^ paflaye is from a late RulTian writer. " Ir is a truth
" founded on experience, that commerce polilhes manners : but it is alfo a
" truth, that commerce, by exciting luxmy, corrupts manners. With the
" increafe of foreign faliiloiis atul foreign eommeice in RuHia, foreign luxury
*• lias incieafcd there iti iMojiortion, univerfal dilfipation has taken the lead,
" and protliivicy nf manticis has followed, Cjrcat landlords fqueeze and
" e/ind their peopli;, to fupjly the incelfant deman»ls of luxury : the mifera-
" hlepCafant, difahic-i by a load of taxes, is frequently compelled to abandon
'' his habitation, and ti> leave iiis land unculrivated. And thus agriculturg
" and population diminish daily : t!i-n which notliinj worfe can b«fal a
" flite."

'• ^_m

,3k. .V.

Great and Small States,

449

torian baods were the Janifaries of the Roman em-
pirii, who never fcrMpipd to dethrone the Emperor
on tjje ilighteft dif-obUgation. But as there was no
royal family, they commonly carried the crown to
ni^rket, .and beftowed it on the highell bidder.
With refped to the latter, the governors of diftant
provinces, accuftomed to aft without controul, be-
come greedy of power, and put no bounds to ambi-
tion. Let them but gam the affeftion of the people
they govern, and boldnefs will do the reft. 'Ihe
monarch is dethroned before he is prepared for de*
fence ; and the ufurper takes his place without op-
pofition, Succefs commonly attends fuch under-
takings ; ,^Qr thefovcrcign has no foul, and the peo-
ple have Jio patriotilm. In Hindoftan formerly,
iome /difcontented favourite or fouba took up arms
to avqjfige fancied, or; perhaps afFeded wrongs : ven-
.turing inot. however , upon independence, he fcrcened
himfi^lf.with fetting up .fome perfon of the royal
bipod, ^whom he proclaimed fovereign. ^ The volup-
tuo.ufnefs. and effeminacy of the late kings of Per-
fja, has rptldercd tl^at kingdom a prey to every bold
invader. Np great , (late ever lay fo open toad-
venturers, as Perfia has done of late years.

In the fifth place, a nation corrupted with Iu:c-»
ury and.fenfuality is a ready morfel for every inva*
der: to attpmpt the cdnqueft, and to fucceed, are
almoft the fame. The potent Aflyrian monarchy,
having long fubrift4;d in peace without a fmgle ene-
my, funk into floth and effeminacy, and became an
eafy prey to the kings of Media and Babylon.
Thefe two nations, in like circumftances of lloth
and eifeminacy, were in their turn iwailow'd up by
Cyrus King of Perfia. And the great empire of
Perfia, running the fame courfe, was fubt'.ned by
Alexander of Macedon with a fmall an.^.y of thn-
ty-five thoufand mm*.
' Vol. I. • ^*g . . . ■' ' And

* In Europe, nelghboiirine; nations- differ little in manncis, oi in torti-

t».iu-:.

■:ii

?:i'

45^

Civil Society.

B. ir.

^^:

* J

And this leads to a fixth difad /antage of a' great
empire, which is, the difficulty of guarding its fron-
tiers. A kingdom, like an animal, becomes weak
in proportion to its cxcefs above a certain fize,.
France and Spain would be Itfs fitted for defence,
were they enlarged beyond their prcfent extent:
Spain in particular was a very weak kingdom,
while it comprehended the Netherlands and the halt
of Italy. In their prefent extent, forces are foon
colleded to guard the moft diflant frontiers. Months
are required to aflfemble troops in an overgrown
kingdom like Perfia : if an army be defeated at the
frontier, it mufl: difperfc,' fortified places being fel-
dom within reach. The viOor, advancing with
celerity, lays fiege to the capital before the provin-
cial troops can be formed into a regular army : the
capital is taken, the empire diffoired ; andthecorv-
queror at leifure difputes the provmces with their go-
vernors. I'lie Philippine iflands made formerly a
part of the extenfive empire of China ; but as they
were too diflant to be protefted or well governed, it
fhowed confummatc wifdom in the Chinefc govern-
ment to abandon them, with feveral other diflant
provinces. ■> i^ .. . , ;; ■ ?:- .

A fmall (late, on the other hand, is cafily
guarded. The Greek republics thought them-
fclves fufficiently fortified againfl the Great King,
by their courage, union, and their patriotifm. The
Spanifh Chriftians, abandoning the open coun-
trv to the Saracens, retired to the mountains of
Auftria, and elefted Don Pelayo to be their King.
That warlike prince walled none of his towns, nor
did he fortify a fingle pafs ; knowing, that while his
people were brave they would be invincible ; and
that walls a«d flrong-holds ferve but to abate cou-
rage.

luffc. In Afia, we rtep Jnftantly from the fierce Tartars, '►nhaliiting a colrf
and barrtn country, to th" efteminate people of countries warin and fertile.
Hence in Afia perpetua.' « onqiieds from north to foutli, to which even llf
l(;u*i wail ul Cliind maivca fcarcf any obAack.

■I

Sk. V.

Great and Small States,

45'

rage. The Romans, while circumfcribed within
Italy, never thought of any defence againfl: an ene-
my but good troops. When they had acquired a
vaft empire, even the Rhine appeared a barrier too
weak : the numbcrlefs forts and legions that co-
vered their frontiers could not defend them from a
panic upon every motion of the barbarians *. A
nation, in which the reciprocal duties of fovereign
and fubjed arc confcientioufly fulfilled, and in
which the people love their country and their go-
vernors, may be deemed invincible ; provided due
care be taken of the military branch. Every par-
ticular is reverfed in a great ennpire : individuals
grafp at money, per fas aut nefas^ to lavifh it upoa
pleafure : the governors of diltant provinces tyran-
nize without control ; and, during the fhort period
of their power, negle£i: no means, however oppref-
five, to amafs wealth. Thus were the Roman pro-
vinces governed ; and the people, who could not
figure a greater tyrant than a Roman proconful,
were ready to embrace every change. The Romans
accordingly were fenfible, that to force their barrier,
and to difmember their empire, were in effe£t the
fame. In our times, the nations whofe frontiers he
open, would make the moll refolute oppofition to an
invader ; witnefs the German ftates, and the ^^wifs
cantons. Italy enjoys the ftrongeft natural barrier
of any country that is not an ifland ; and yet for
centuries has been a prey to every invadev.

Three plans at different times have been put In
execution for fecuring the frontiers of an extenfive
empire, building walls, laying the frontiers wafle,
and eflablifhing feudatory princes. The firft was
the ancient practice, proper only for an idle people
without commerce. The Egyptians built a very ex-
tenfive wall for protedling themfelves againft the

G g 2 wandering

♦ The ufe of cannon, which place the weak and ftrons: "pon a level, U
tUg only relbuite of the luxurious and opulent againft the poor and hardy.

I, V i

\ ■ : f

f-ur

I -I'

452

Civil Society.

B. 11.

■ f B ■

wandering Arabs. The famous wall of China to pro-
tect its effeminate inhabitants againil the Tartars is
known all the world over ; and the walls built in
the north of England againft the Scots and Pi£ls,
are known to every Briton. To protect the Roman
territory from German invaders, the Emperor Pro-
bus conftrucled a ftone wall ftrengthened with tow-
ers. It ftretched from Ratifbon on the Danube to
Wimpfen on the Necker ; and terminated on the
bunk of the Rhine, after a winding courfe of two
hundred miles. To a low ftate indeed muft the
Gi^ek empire have been reduced in the reign of
the Emperor Anafhafius, when to reprefs the Bul-
garians., it was neceffary to build a wall, at no great-
er diftance from Conftantincple than ten leagues,
abandoning all without to the barbarians. Such
walls, thougb ereded with ftupendous labour,
prove a very weak bulw .\; for a wall of any ex-
tent is never fo carefully guarded, as at all times to
prevent furprife. And accordingly, experience has
taught that walls cannot be relied on. This in mo-
dern times has introduced the two other methods
mentioned. Sha Abbas, King of Perfia, in order
to prevent the inroads of the Turks, laid wafte part
of Armenia, carrying the inhabitants to Ifpahan,
and treating them with great humanity. Land is
not much valued by the great monarchs of Afia : it
is precious in the fmaller kingdoms of Europe, and
the frontiers are commonly guarded by fortified
towns. The other iTontiers of Perfia are guarded
by fciidatory princes ; and the fame method is prac-
tifed in China, -n Ilindoflan, iind in the Turkifh
empire. The princes of Little I'artary, Moldavia,
and Wallacliia, have been long a fecurity to the
Grand Signior againfl his powerful neighbours in
Europe.

S K E T C II

SKETCH VI.

War and. Peace Compared,

O complaints are more frequent than againft
the weather, when it fuits not our purpofe : " A
" difmal feafon ! we fhall be drowned, or we fhall
" be burnt up." And yet wife men think, that
there might be more occafion to complain, were
the weather left to our own diredion. The wea-
ther is not the only inftance of diftruft in Provi-
dence : it is a common topic to declaim againft
war ; " Scourge of nations, Deftroyer of the hu-
" man race, Bane of arts and indullry ! Will the
" world never become wife ! Will war never have
" an end !" Manifold indeed are the bleflings of
peace ; but doth war never produce any good ? A
fair romparifon may poflibly make it doubtful,
whether war, like the weather, ought not to be
refigned to the condud of Providence : feldom
are we in the right, when we repine at its dif-
penfations.

The bleffings of peace arc too well known to need
illuftration : induftiy, commerce, the fine arts, pow-
er, opulence, kc. &c. depend on peace. What has
war in ftore for balancing bleflings fo fubftantial ?
Let us not abandon the field without making at Icaft
one effort.

Humanity, it mufl be acknowledged, gains no-
thing from the wars of fmail flates in ciofe neigh-
bourhood : fuch wars are brutal and bloody; be-
caufe they are carried on with bitter enmity a-
gainfl individuals. Thanks to Providence, that war at
prcfent bears a lefs favage afped : we fpare individu-
als,

'" \

'■' 'i,|'!>:

V:^

■ilrliillli'Wtt

454

Civil Society.

B. II.

als, and make war upon the nation only: barba-
rity and cruelty give place to magnanimity j and
foldiers are converted from brutes into heroes. —
Such wars give exercife to the elevated virtues of
courage, generofity, and difintereftednefs, which
are always attended with confcioufnefs of merit and
of dignity *. Friendfliip is in peace cool and lan-
guid ;

* In the war carried on by Louis XII. of France againfl the Venetians,
the town of Brefcia, being taken by ftorm and abandoned to the foldiers,
lutfticl for feven days all the dirtreifes of cruelty and avarice. No houfe ef-
caped but that where Chevalier Bayard was lodged. At his entrance, the
miftrcfs, a woman of rank, fell at his feet, and deeply fobbing, " Ch ' my
" L.'id, fave my life, fave the honour of my daughters." Take courage,
Madcm, faid the Chevalier, your life and their honour fliall be fecure while I
have life. Tlie two daughters, brought from their hiding-place, were pre-
lented to him } and the family reunited bertow'd their whole attention on
their deliverer. A dangerous wound he had received gave them opportunity
lo , , efs their zeal j they employ 'd a notable furgeon ; they attended hin»
'>y lurn day and night ; and when he could bear to be amufed, they entertain-
ed him with concerts of mufic. Upontheday fixed for his dejiartu re, the
mother faid to him, " To your goodnefs, my Lord, we owe our lives ; and
" to you all we have belongs by right of war: but we hope from youriignal
" benevolence, that this flight tribute will content you ;" placing upon the
table an iron cort'er full of money. " What is the fum," faid the Cheva-
lier. " My Lord," anfwcred (he trembling, no more but 2500 ducats, all
" that wehave,-~but if more be necelVary, we will try our friends." — " Ma-
" dam," faid he, " your kindnefs is more precious in my eyes than a han-
" dred thoufand ducats. Take back your money, and depend always on
" me."————" My good Lord, you kill me in refufmg this fniall fum:
" tr.ke it only as a mark of your friendship to my family."———" Well,"
" f.iid he, " fince it will oblige you, 1 take the money 5 but give me the fa-
" tiifadion of bidding adieu to your amiable daughters." They came to him
with looks of- regard and affedtion. " Ladies,' faid he, " theimpreflion
" you have made on my heart, will never wear out. What return to make
•• I know not ; for men of my proieflion are feldom opulent : but here ai-e
" two thoufand hve hundred ducats, of wiiich the gcnerofity of your nio-
" ther has given me the dilpofal. Accept them as a marriagc-prefent ; and
" may your happinefs in marriage equal your merit." '• Flower of chival-
" ry," cried the mother, " may theCod who fuffered deatli for us reward
" you here and hereafter." Can psace afford fo fwec^ fcene ?

The foUowmg incident is ftill more interefting : it is of a late date amon^
onr countrymen; and will, for that reafon, make the deeper impreflion.
The fcene of adion was in Admiral Watfon's fliip at the (lege of Chanderna-
pore, where Ciptain Spcke, and his fon a youth of fixtetn, were both of
them wounded by the fame fl'iot, Th« hiftory is related by Mr. Ives furgeon
oftliefliip; which tollows in liis own words, only a little abridged. Tiie
Captain, whofe leg was hanging by thcfkin, faid to the Admiral, " Indeed,
*' Sir, this was a cruel fliot, to knockdown both father and fon." Mr.
Watfon's heart was too full fc-ra reply ; he only ordered both to be carried
clown to ihcfuigeon. The Captain, whov\r»s fitft brought down, told me

how

Sk. VL

War and Peace.

455

^uid ; but in a war for glory, exerts the whole
iire of its enthufiafm. The long and bloo(;ly war
fuftained by the Nethcrlanders againfl: ,the tyrant
•of Spain, made even Dutchnaen heroes : they
•forced their way to the Indies during the hotteft
period of thd war j and gained by commerce what

fupporte^

how dangeroufly his Billy had been wounded. Piefently after the bravt
youth himfelf appeared, witii his eyes overflowing with tears, not for hi m-
felf but for his lather. Upon my alfurance that his father's woiinl was not
•dangerous, he became calm; but refufed to be touched till his fatlier's
wound (hould be fit ft drefTed. Then pointing to « fellow-fufferer, '* Pray,
" Sir, drofs alfo that poor man who is groaning fo fadly hcfids rne." I toid
him that tlie man had already been taken care of; and bessed, that I now
might have liberty to examine h« wound. He fubmiited ; and calmly faid,
" Sir, I fear you muft amputate above the joint," I replied, " My dear, I
" muft," He clafped his hands together ; and lifting his eyes toward hea-
ven, he ofljeied up the following fliot^ hut earneft petition : " Good -God '
" do thou enable me to behave in my prefent circumftanccs wortl^j' of my
" father." He then toldjne hewas allfubmifficn, I performed the opera-
tion above tlie joint of the knee; and during tiiev^-holetime'the intrepid
youth never fpoke a word, nor uttered a groan that could be heard at the dif-
tance of a yaid. It is eafier to imagine than to cxprefs the feelings of the fa-
rther at this time ; but whatever he felt, tears were the only expreflion. Both
-of them were carried to Calcutta : the father was lodged in the houfeof his
brother-in-law j and the fon was placed with me in the hofpital. For the
firft week I gave comfort to both, carrying good tidings to them of one ano-
ther. But, alas! all the good fymptoms that had attended tlic yowng man,
■began to difappear. The Captain perceived all in my countenance ; and fo
vnwiliing was he to add to my diftrefs, as feldom to fpeak about his fon.
One time he faid, " How long, my friend, do you think my Billy may re-
" main inaflate of uncertainty ?" I replied, that if he furvived the fifteenth
■day after the operation, there would be ftrong hopes of his lecovery. On
•tlie thirteenth he died; and on the fixtecnth, the Captain, looking me fted-
faftly in the face, " Well, Ives, how fares it with my boy ?" Difcoverint^
the truth from my filcnce, t;.; cried bitterly, fqueezed my band, and begged
me to leave him for one half hour. When I returned, he appeared, as ht;
ever after di<!, i)erfe<Sly calm and fercnc. The cxcellentyouth had been de-
Tirious the evening before his death ; and at two o'clock in the momitig, he
fent me a note written with a pencil, of wliich the following is Atopy,
" Mr. Ives will conlider the difordcr a fon muft be in when he is dying, and
" is yet in doubt about his father,— -If Mr. Ives is not too bufy to honour this
,** note, which nothing hut the greateft tmcafinefs could draw from mc— The
" boy waits' an anfwer." limmtdiateJy repaired to him; and he had ftjll

fenfe enough to know rie. He then faid, " And is he dead V -— .

■** Who, my dear ?"- " My father. Sir." " No, my love

•' is he in any danger ; he is almoft well."-

-« I thank God

i nor
lam
" now fatisfied, and ani ready to die." He had a locked jaw, and was in
great pain, bur I underftopd every word he utlered. He begged my pardon
i'or having dlftorbed mc at fo early ^nhctur; aod before the day was ended,
he furrcndered a life that dcfervec! to be immortal. So far my author ;

and I only add, Does peace afford ;w>y fcene that can compare witl:i tliis ia
taoving our fympathetic fvtlings i"

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45<^''

Civil Societv.

B. If.

p*f

fupportcd thcni againfl: their ferocious enemy.—
Wliiit have they gained fincc by peace ? Their im-
inciifc coinineree has eradicated patriotifm, and
every appetite but for wealth. Had tlieir violated
rights been rellored witliout a flrugpje, they Would
liave continued a nation of frogs and filhennen.
The Swifs, by continual iirugglcG for liberty a-
gainft the potent lioul'e of Aufiria, became a brave
and active people, feared and courted by neigh-
bouring princes. Their federal union has fecured
to them peace and tranquii'ity j which, notwith-
ilanding their mouniainous fituation, would have
funk, them ifito etfeminacy, but for a commerce
they carry on of hiring out their men for fol-
diers. Monks are commonly pufillanimous : their
way of liic, which removes them from danger,
enervates the mind, and renders them fpiritlefs and
covvr.rdly.

Indudry, manufactures, and wealth, are the
fruits of peace ; but advert to what follows. Lux-
ury, a never-failing concomitant of wealth, is a
How poifon, that debilitates men, and renders them
incapable of any great effort : courage, magnani-
mity, hetoifm, come to be ranked among the
miracles that are fuppofed never to have exifted
but in fable ; and the falhionable properties of
fenfuality, avarice, cunning, and diffimulation, en-
grofs the mind. In a vVord, man by conftant
prosperity and peace degenerates into a mean,
impotent, and felfiih aninval'. An American fa-
rage, who treafures up ttu fcalps of lii-. enemies
as trophies of his prowels, is a bt'n^ far rjperior.
Such arc the fruits of perpetual peace with refpett
to individuals.

Nor is the (fate itfelf lefs debilitated by it than its
members. Figure a man wallowing in riches and
immerfed in fenfual pleafure, but dreading the in-
fedion of a plague raging at liis gate : or figure him

Sk. Vi.

War and Peace.

AS1

in tontiiiual dread of an enemy, watching every
opportunity to burn and dellroy. This man repre-
knts a commercial ftate that has long enjoyed peace
withoiK difturbance. A ftate tliat is a temptincj
obje^ft to an invader, without means of defence, is
in a ^A^oful fituation. The republic of Venice was
once famous for the wifdom of its conftitution, and
for being the Chriflian bulwark againft the Turks ;
but by long peace it has become altogether effemi-
nate. Its principles of government are conformable
to its charader : every caufe of quarrel with a
neighbour, is anxioufly avoided ; and dirturbances at
home prevented by watchful fpies. Holland, fmce
the days of King William, has not produced a man
fit to command a rr jnmcnt : and the Dutch have
nothing to rely on for indcpeiidence, but mutual
jealoufy among their neighbours. Hannibal ap»
peared upon the fUge too early : had the Romans,
after their conqucfi of Italy, been fuffered to ex-
change their martial fj/irit for luxury and voluptu-
oufnefs, they would have been no match for that
great general. It was equally lucky for the Ro-
mans, that they came late upon Macedon. Had
Alexander finiihed his conqueft of Greece and the
Romans thci^ii of Italy, at the fame period, they
would probably have been confined, each of them
within their own limits. But Afiatic luxury and ef-
feminacy, which had got hold of the Greeks and
Macedonians before the Roman invafion, rendered
them an eafy prey to the invaders. It was the con-
It ant cry of Cato the Cenfor, '* Dclcnda eft Carthu'
" go.^''- Scipio Nafica was a more fubtile politician :
his opinion was, to give peace to Carthage, that the
dread of that once powerful republic, might pre-
ferve in vic^our the military fpirit of his country.
What happened afterward, fets the wifdom of that
advice in a confpicuous light. The battle of Acli-
um, after a long train of cruel and civil wars, gave
peace to Rome under the Emperor Auguftus. Peace

had

(i>

j!^i

458

Civil, Society,

B U.

tli'l

had not fubfiftcd much above thirty years, whcu a
Roman army, under Quintilius Varus, was cut to
pieces in Germany, The confternation at Rome
was unfpeakable, as there was not a fortified town ^o
prevent the Germans from pouring down upon Itaiy.
Inflant orders were given loi levying men j but i"o
effeminate had the Romans already become, that not
a frnglic man would enlill voluntarily. And Au-
guftus was forced to ufe fevere meafures, before he
could coUeft a fmall army. How different the mi-
litary fpirit of the Romans during the fecond Punic
war, when feveral Roman armies were cut off, great-
er than that of Varus. The citizens who could
bear arms were reduced to 137,000 ; and yet in the
later years of that war, the Romans kept the field
with no fewer than twenty-three legions (a). The
Vandals, having exj^elled the Romans from Afric,
enjoyed a peace for a century without feeing the
f^ice of an enemy. Procopius (/>) gives the follow-
ing account of them. Charmed with the fertility of
the foil and benig?)i-y of the climate, they abandon-
ed thcmfclves 10 iir.ury, fumptuous drcfs, high liv-
ing, and frequent laths. They dwelt in the theatre
and circus, amufistg themfclvcs with dancers, panto-
mimes, and every gay entertainment : their villas
were fplcndid ; and their gardens were adorned
with water-works, beautiful trees, odoriferous flow-
ers : no regard to chaftity, nor to any manly virtue.
In that effeminate ftate, they made fcarce any refifl-
ance to Belifarius with an army far inferior in num-
ber to their own. The Saracens of Afia, corrupted
by profperity and opulence, \vere able to make no
head agninft the Turks. About that time, the Spa-
niar*ls, equally corrupted, were ovv^^rpowered by the
i5aracens of Afric j who, remote from the diffolute
manners of Afia, retained their military fpirit. The
wealth of the kingdom .of Whidah in Guinea, from

fertility

(a) Titus Livlus, lib. c6. cap. |,
{''I Hiltoija Vandalica, lib. 2.

Sk. VI.

IVar and Peace.

45$

if rtil'ity of foil, great induftry, and cxtcnfivc com-
merce, produced luxury and cireminacy. The king
gave himfelf up to fenfual pleafures, leaving govern-
ment to his miniftcrs. In tliat ftatc: was Whidah
in the year 1727, when the king of Dahomay re-
qucfted accefs to the fea for trade, offering to pur-
chafe the privilege with a yearly tribute. A haughty
denial furnifhed a pretext for war. The king of
Dahomay invaded the territories of his enemy with
a difciplined army, and pierced to the car'* I with-
out rtfillance. The king of Whidah '^ wo-
men had fled to an ifland, and his peo all
difperfcJ. It amazed the conqueror, tL olc
nation, without ftriking a blow, had thus del rted
their wives, their children, their gods, their pofl'elh-
ons, and all that was dear to them. The Japanefc
became warlike during long and bloody civil wars,
which terminated about the end of the fixteenth cen-
tury in rendering their Emperor defpotic. From
that period, no opportunity has occurred for exer-
cifmg their military fpirit, except in the education
of their youth : heroifm with contempt of death arc
inculcated ; and the hiftories of their illufl:rious he-
roes, are the only books tHat boys at fchool are taught
to read. But the profound tranquillity that the em-
pire now enjoys in a ftrid and regular government,
will in time render that warlike people effeminate
and cowardly : human nature cannot refift the poi-
fon of perpetual peace and fecurity. In the war be-
tween the Turks and Venetians anno lyi^y the latter
put great confidence in Napoli di Romania, a city in
the Morea ftrongly fortified, and provided with
every necClTary for an obftinate defence. They had
not the jeaft doubt of being able to draw their whole
force together, before the Turks could make any
progrefs in the fiege. But, to their great aflonifh-
ment, the taking of that city, and of every other
fortified place in the Morea, was the work of but
a lingle campaign. So nnuch had the Venetians de-
generated

■' '

' ■ '

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Corporation

33 WEST MAIN STREET

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Ciya SOCIEITY.

B. II.

generated by long peace, from the courage and
pati'iotijfni of their forefathers who conquered that
country from the Turks. In fomc late accounts
froniGhina, we arc told, tjhiat the King of Bengala or
Bracma, having invaded Yunnan, an opulent pro-
vince of China, obtained a complete victory over the
Emperor's army, commanded by his fon-in-law :
the inhabitants of that province wereftruck with fuch
a panic, that multitudes, for fear of the conqueror,
hanged and drowned themfelves. To what a torpid
ftate by this time would Europe have been reduced,
had the plan for a perpettial peace, proje^ed by
Henry IV. of France, been carried into execution r
Conqueft, in a retrograde motion, would have di-
reded its progrefs from the eaft to the weft. Our fi-
tuation in an ifland, among feveral advantages, is fo
far unlucky, that it puts us oflf our guard, and ren-
ders us negligent in providing for defence : we ne-
ver were invaded without beinc^ fubdued *.

Montefquieu, in a warm panegyric on the Englifh
conftitution, has overlooked one particular, *.n which
it is fuperior to every other monarchy ; and that is,
the frequent opportunities it affords to exert mental
powers and talents. What agitation among the
candidates and their electors, on the approach of a
new parliament : what freedom of fpeech and elo-
quence in parliament ; minifters and their meafures
laid open to the world, the nation kept alive, and in-
fpired with a vigour of mind that tends to heroifm !
This government, it is true, generates factions,
which fometimes generate revolutions: but the
golden ftf^e, fo lufcioufly defcribed by poets, would
to man be worfe than an iron age. At any rate,

better

•, / : '!

i'.- •;!

>i-^-v,

:.ij:v,

* The 'ituation of rhe King of Sardinia, environed on all fides with power •
fill monarchs, obliges him to aft with the greateft ch-cumfpeftion j which
circumflance feems to have foriried the charafter of the princes of that
houfe. The/e princes have exerted more fagacity in rtcering their political
veifel, and more dexterity in availing themfelves of every wind, than any
other race of fovereigns that figure in iiiftory, Robertfuns lififry of tlic £»;-
ferer Ctur/es V,

Sk. VI.

better t(
feekTor
'.."Law-i
cnt* flat
vent toe
free go\
people,
their lib(
fovereig
manner:
Britifli
people j
every ei
, f her
not to I:
to dtain
nocient,
years ,i
'ftance,
dem^ec

tiie en
^undi;e

♦ On
Rome)
avbient tc
li'grandd
les tumud
ces.guerr|
itre bier
dis dans j
et pour
dans unl
libertenl
" Many!
** RomeT
«* ceflTar
" thegj
« civil ■
" faftic
« all b^
" inpe
" arei^
*' impc
" profJ
" peaci

Sk. VI.

War and Peace.

better to'hav^ a government liable to ftprn^s^, tha^ tp
feek'for quiet in thp dead calm of defpotifrp *f
■? Xaw-fmts" within a^ftate, Iikc war betwieen 4»ff^r-
ent' ilates, , accuftom people to bppofition, ap^^prq-
vent too ,gr«at foftncfs and facility ^ pf manner^* li;^ ^
free government, a degree of Jtubborphqfs .ip 'i]j[^
people, is requifitei for refiftlng encroachment^' qh
their liberties. The fondnefs of the French for their
fovercign, an^ the eafinefs and politeness of thdr
manners, hjfve corrupted a good conllitution. Ifhle
firitifli coriiditution has beenjpreferved entire, by,';
people jealous of their prince, and refolution a^alj^
every encroachment pf regal power,^ '^^^ :,,,;^' ^^^ V^^
There i? another advantage of war, that pugl[t
riot to be overlooked, though rot capital. It ferves
to dtain ihe country QjF idlers, few otf whom are, in-
nocent, aivd niany'liot a! JittiiC raifcfeiet^^us. In ' t^
years ,17 <j^, and 17^(6, wh^ we v^xc tat war >yit|i
*Firance,' t^i^fP ^exe;;fewf ^en^jr-ninejcrinainajs^^^^^^^
"demneal at" the ' OM /fiaily. In the ycai?s "i'770'^nd
1 77 ? > VliQn we ^werie at peace with all the wortq,
the criminals, condemned there amounted to one
1^undri€;i!^nd fifty one.', ^j^^^, .,a.dq^n b,r. ,« .^.

'*" On !it*fehtfend parier dans lei> aut^uirs qlie ^es dt^4i(k>ns qui per^lrMit
Rome} maisoQ^ne voitpi^squecesdiYiAons y etdtent neceflaires^-qu'el^y
avbienttoujotirsete, et qii'elles y devoient toujours etre. C« fut unlquement
U'granddbride'latlvpubliqae'q'ui 'fit'le maly et qui changea ^n gtie^A clviles
les tum]alte& pppulaires. II falleit bien qu'it y «ut a R^edes divifionsj «t
cesguerriets fi 'fiers, fl audacleux,- fi terriGles au dehors,, ne pouvoicri? pas
2tre bleri mod^s aa 'd^ans. t>eit)ander dans un ebt^Db^e des grn'.s tiar-
dis dans )a guerre, .et timides danslapaix, c'0vouloirdesk:hofeS:impoOibles \
et pour regie generale, toutes les fois qu'onvtira tout le monde tranquiHe
dans un stat qui fe donne 1^ nom de republique, *on peiit etre afTurc que )a
liberte n'y eft p^s. MontthuitUi grattHeur des Romains, c£»,.9.— [/« Englijh thus :
*' Many writers have uid a great deal of thofe fadions which deftroyed
**■ Rome ; but they want the penetration to fee, that thofe faAions were ne-
" ceflary, that they had always ftthfiAed, andever mu(l have fubfifted. It was
" the grandeur of the ftate which alone occafioned the evil, and changed into
"civil wars the tumults of the people. There muft of necefflty have been
" factions in iRome ; for how was it poflible, that thofe who abroad fubdued
all by their undaunted bravery and by the terror of tlieir arms, (hould live
in peace and moderation at home? To look for a people in a free ftate who
are intrepid in war, and, at the fame time, timid in peace, is to look for an
impoffibility ; and we may hold it as a general rule, that in a ftate which
profeffes a republican form of government, if the people are quiet and
peaceable, there is no real liberty,"]

I ■ !■

shi ]

.4(62

Civil Society.

B. II.

But though I declare againft perpetual pcac?., per-
petual ^ar is ftill more my avcrfipn. The conditio))
of Eiirope ivas deplorable in the dark ages, when
valTals aifumed the privilege of waging wa): without
confent of the fovercign. Deadly fciidS prevailed
ujiivetfally, and threatened diflblution of all govern-
ment : the human race never were in a taorc wofiil
condition. But anarchy never fails foon or late to
rcdify itfclf, which effeminacy produced by long
peace never does. Revenge and cruelty, it is true,
are the fruits of war : but fo are likewife firmnefs of
iTiind'and undaunted courage : which are exerted
with better will in behalf of virtue than of revenge.
The crufades were what firft gave a turn to the
fierce maCnners of our anceftors. A religious en-
terprife, uniting niimbers formerly at variance, en-
larged the fphere of focial affe6lion, and fweetened
the mariners of Chriftians to one another. Thefe
crufades filled Europe with heroes, who, at home,
'Mftrc ready for any new ehterprife that promifed
laurels. Moved with the horror of deadly feuds,
they joined in bonds of chivalry for fuccouriilg the
diftreffed, for redreff)ng wrongs, arid for protefting
widows and orphans. Such heroifm enflamed every
one who was fond of glory and warlike -"■'^hieve-
ments : chivalry was relifhed by men of I ; and
even kings were proud to be or the order. An in-
ftitution, blending together valour, religion, and
gallantry, was wonderfully agreeable to a martial
people : and humanity and gentlenefs could not but
prevail in a fociety, whofe profcffion it was to fuc-
cour every perfon in diflrefs. As glory and honour
were the only wifhed-for recompence, chivalry was
efteemed the fchool of honour, of truth, -and of fi-
delity. Thus, truth without difguife, and a fcru-
pulous adherence to promifes, became the diftin-
guifliing virtues of a gentleman. It is true, that
the enthufiafm of protcding widows and orphans,
degenerated fomctimcs into extravagance j witncfs
I ; ^ ' ' knights

Sk. VI. War and Peace, 463

knights who wandered about in qucft of adventures.
But it would be unl'air to condemn thj^ whole prder^
becaufe a few of their number were extravagant*
The true fpirit of chivalry, produced a fignal refor-
mation in tiie manners of Europe. , To what other
caufe can we fo juftly afcijibe the point of honour,
and > that humanity inwary which Azharafterize mo*
dcm manners (d) ? Ate peace, luxury, and felfifhneCi,
capable of produciog.fuchcffeas.?,:, .^rr ft ;;••/!*>
. That man fhouldi beihe only animal that make?
war upon his own kind) may appear llrange and
unaccountable.. Didmen liften to cool re^fon, th(?y
never would make war. Hear the celebrated
Houfieao on that fubjed. " Un prince, qui poux
reculer fes frontiers, perd autant de fes anciens
fujets qu* il en acquiert de nouveaux,^s' afibiblit
en s* aggrandilTant ; parce qu'ayec un plus grand
efpace a defendre, il n'a pa|' plus ddfenicurs. Or
on ne: pcut ijgnorer, que par la n^aniere dpnt 1^
guerre fe iiiw aujourd'hi^i, 1^ moindre depopulati-
M on qu'elle produit eftcell^ qui {e- fait dans jes
armies : c'eft bien-la la perte apparente e^ fcfj-
fible : mais il s'en fait en m6me terns dans tbut
l*6tat une plus grave ct plus irreparable que cclle
** des hommes qui meurent, par ccux qui nc naif-
fent pas, par I'augmentation des impots, par I'in-
terruption du commerce, par la d6fertion^ des
campagnes, par I'abandon de I'agriculture ; ce
mal qu'on n'appef9oit ^oint d'abord* fe fait fcfttir
" cruellement dans la fulte : et c'ertalors qu'on eft
*' 6tonn6 d'etre fi foible, pour s'6tre rendu fi puif-
" fant. Ce qui rend encore les conqu6tes moins in-
•* t6reffantes, c'eft qu'on fait maintenant par quels
** moyens on pent doubler et tripler fa puiffance,
** non fculement fans 6tendre fon territoirc, mais
quelquefois en le refferrant, confime fit tres fage-
ment TEmpereur Adricn. On fait que ce font

les

ft
<c

«c

.'^' T • ; :

i'}-

-V:' :-.

'■

(it) Dr. Robertfon's hiftory of the Emperor Charles V.

■;■»

4^4

Civil Society.

B. II.

11 M

it
it

«(

•* les hommes feuls qui font la force dcs Rois; et

c*6ft tine propofition qui' d6GiM»ie dc ce que je vi..

ens dc dife,"quc dc diux 6tat8 qui mOuffriffent Ic

m6me non^bre d'habitans> eeloi qui o^cupe une

*' moindre fitcndu deterre, eft'tcefllenleiit le plus

•* puiflant. C-'eft done par dc 'bonnes Joixj.paTi une

(age police,' par dc grandes ^wcs^dconomiqties,

qu'un fouvcrain judicieux <fflfvsfir d'augmentcrtdcfi

forces, /ans rien donnei* aurh^iaa^d^i"" But^ar

js ncceffary for every nian^'lMing » . ichocJl for

Tmproving every martly - virtue v ^nd' Proyidence

^rctiders kings blind 'to* ttheir true interefl; in order

thkt >var may forhetimes take place. To- rely upon

Provrdcneje in the govprpmeAjt of- this ^orid, is -the

Ififdqm.^of man'i^-' *V" ■«-■-•-.• tfi-s':." j-fi •rii.-?vi;,-'.n..".

^'-'" Upon the - whole, perpetuiji^ar is baj^, b^cftufe

if 'Converts''; 'ineh' 'iff([o he^^ -lof pr«y : ^^perpwull

•peace. is- "^orfe, bcciiife, it converts men -into^^afts

W,l^tt<'dt;ii To jsrefent^ych'-w^u^ degeneracy oh

*^bpth ihari^s, "mr atid pe^<fe alt^^riiateiy are-th^/^niy

idffeftual ^^tatiis v and thele-moans ane adiopted by

'Prbvideilcft. ' '^T' '■■' .J:lil..~ld ^a-^'.- .,;.;cvu.j. , ■,

fl . ■

t. li »: *OA 4irrflce;j>jW»^'Ii».«itend5j^ bb tenrUnrips ^fJ^sikKlpfingfji&iminy
'*f;pfhi«rp^'f^^je|Sis•as..he acquires. .ne\v, yv'paK^ns in fadlbis power vr^^e
** !)♦ aims at ftrengtKenlrig it I'ihe.lncreiafeS the territoiy to be defenrfcd, while
*^ the irarnlief ^f'ffefendert/i»not.lncr«aied. ..'Who dtn^s i)Ot'.JI(no(W, :diat in
^ Hf jhe/w'rts")^ W*P"*f pf «>*Wng war, the |;reateft dppopulatiQn is not fro/ti
** the havocic itiade m. the armies ? Tha^ Indeed is tWe obVfciuSiiftd apparent
'" dcfb-uAion ; but,th#reJs, at'the &nie xime, inthe/latealoismuch more
'.' '^. ifev^re and j^ep^})^; dot •'that |houfand$.Are cut off, but tliat .ti)oufandi
>" are not bom •• pop^lat7on is wounded by .the irtcreife of t^Xe$,'by'thein-
' •♦ terroptk>n of comrtfcrte; by the defertioh of the couptry,. and by tlie ftag^
^filiation of agriculture;- the misfortune v^lu6h is overl<)oked at iirft, is fe-
" ,verely felt in the event ; and.it is then t^it we are aftohi/hed to fijid we
*' have been growing weak, ^hile tncreafmg our po\ver. What renders
" every new conqueft ftill the lefs vali|abie, is the confideratioti of the pofli-
.'f^bility of doubling and tripling a iia\ioit's power, v^ithout extendiag its
'' *' territory, nay, even by diminilhing it.' Th<9 Binperor Adriart knew this,
aod vvifely praftifed it. The numbers of the fubjedls a'ry tlie ftrength of
the prince : and u confequence of what I have faid is this propoTition, That
of two Aatet equal in the number <if fnhabitants, that is ^^ realty the
more povverftil which occupies the imaller territory, ft "ts bj; good laws,
by a falutary police, and great economical fchemes, that a wi(e Sovereign
gains a fure augmentation of ftrength, without truAing any thing to the
fortune of hi« arms." -. . . i^. . • , : :., '

'I SKETCH-

« fai
" unj
« mc

In
ciety,
have
firous
theml

" frier
■''our

M.^i

•-»'<' -^^n^ .i!?!'>- \^f)^

7">.'<8ioH

•ih -V imI . '^\:n) hip^ihs'^- Vimmoff asl "

s K E T ,p,.,n . vu. ",";„;::

ioa y;.'v

.r... , ♦ ;,' ■y';-''i:r*:?f--.-,w^\ rjrn^/fr' **

''!'l-.'i-

y„ .i^ -** ;

H E members of a tribe in their original
ftate of hunting and fifhing, being little united
but by a common language, have no notion of a
patria ; and fcarce any notion of fociety, unlefs
when they join in an expedition againft an enemy,
or againft wild beafts. The fliepherd-ftate, where
flocks and herds are poffeffed in common, gives a
clear notion of a common intcreft ; but ftill none
of a patria* The fenfe of 2i patria begins to unfold
itfelf, when a people leave off wandering, to fettle
upon a territory that they call their own. Agricul-
ture connefts them together ; and government ftill
more ; they become fellow-cittzens ; and the ter-
ritory is termed tht patria of every perfon born in it.
It is fo ordered by Providence, that a man's country
and his countrymen, are to him in conjunftion an
objeft of a peculiar affedion, termed amor patri(^,
or patriotipn ; an affeftion that rifes high among a
people intimately connedled by regular government,
by hufbandry, by commerce, and by a common in-
tcreft. Cari funt parentes, cari liberi, propinqui,
" familiares ; fed omnes omnium caritates patria
*• una complexa eft : pro qua quis bonus dubitet
" mortem oppeter^ *?"

In a man of a folitary difpofition who avoids fo-
ciety, patriotifm cannot abound. He may poflibly
have no hatred to his countrymen ; but were he de-
firous to fee them happy, he Would live among
them, and put himfelf in the way of doing good.
: Vol. I. Hh The

• " Our parents are dear to us j fo are our children, our relations, and our
" friends : all thefe our countr/ c«inpT«^«nd» ; and <hall we fear to die Icr
■*' eur councrf ?

I i

iU.1

Hi^ll'

i!' i'

466

Civil Society.

B. II

The affeftion a man has for the place where he
was bred, ought to be diftinguiflied from patriot-
ifm, bcuig a paiTion far inferior, and chiefly vifible
in the low people. A ruftic has few ideas but of
external fenfe : his hut, his wife, his children, the
hills, trees, and rivulets around him, compol'e the
train of his ideas. Remove him from thefe objects,
and he finds a difmal vacuity in his mind. Hiftory,
poetry and other fubjedls of literature, have no re-
lation to time nor place. Horace is relifhed in a
foreign country as at home : the pleafures of con-
verfation depend Cn perfons, not on place.

Social pallions and afl^eftions, befide being much
more agreeable than felfifli, are thofc only which
command our efteem («). Patriotifm flands at the
head of focial affedions ; and flands fo high in our
efteem, that no adions but what proceed from it are
ternicd grand or heroic. When that afl^eftion ap-
pears fo agreeable in contemplation, how glowing,
how elevating, muft it be to thofe whom it infpires !
ViJS^c vigorous health, it beats conftantly with an
equal pulfe : like the veftal fire it never is extinguifli-
ed. No fource of enjoyment is more plentiful than
patriotifm, where it is the ruling pafTion ; it triumphs
over every fclfifh motive, and is a firm fupport to
every virtue. In fad, where-ever it prevails, the
morals of the people are found to be pure and cor-
reft*.

Thefe are illuftrious efFe£ls of patriotifm with ref-
peQ to private happinefs and virtue ; and yet its
cffeds witli refpeft to the public are flill more il-

•n: ^ i."i v'-' • i luftrious.

•Mi

! ! * t •

;.t^

!!ii.it^■i >'>!

',U\i'

.c-iJi/..^

(<i) Elements of Critldfm, vol. T. p. 113. edit. 5»

* I know of but one bad eft'eft of patriotifm, that it is apt to infplrc'too
great partiality for our countrymen, Excufahle in the vult^ar, but unbe-
coining in men of rank and fir;ure. The Duke de Montmorenci, after a
vjdpry, treated his prifoners with gitat humanity. He yielded his bed to
Don Martin of Armgon, fent a furgeon todrefs his wounds, and vifiteJ
him daily. That Lord, amazed at fo great humanity, faid one day to tlie
Duke,. " Sir, were you a Spaniard, you would ba the greatell; man in the
«' univerft." It grieves me to hear it objeftcd to the Englilh, thait they have
too much 9f the Spaniard in their fentimentii.

I ' .■

Sk. VII.

Patriotifm.

467

luftrlous. A nation in no other period of its
progrel's is fo flouriOiing, as when patriotifm is
the ruling paflion of every member : during that
period, it is invincible. Athenseus remarks, that
the Athenians were the only people in the world,
who, though clothed in purple, put formidable
armies to flight at Marathon, Salamine, and Pla-
tea. But at that period patriotifm was their ru-
ling , paflion ; and fuccefs attended them in every
undertaking. Where patriotifm rules, men per-
form wonders, whatever garb they wear. The
fall of Saguntum is a grand fccne ; a people ex-
erting the utmofl: powers of nature, in defence of
their country. Thp city was indeed deftroyed ;
but the citizens were not fubducd. The laft ef-
fort of the remaining heroes was to burn thcm-
felves with their wives and children in one great
funeral pile. Numantia affords a fcene no lefs
grand. The citizens,, fu eh as were able to bear
arms, did not exceea^oo ; and yet braved a]X
the efforts of 60,000 difciplined foldiers, com-
manded by Scipio Nafica. So high was their
charader for intrepidity, that even when but a
few of them were left alive, the Romans durft not
attempt to florm the town. And they flood firm,
till fubdued by famine they were no longer able
to crawl. While the Portuguefe were eminent for
-patriotifm, Lopez Carafco, one of their fea-ca-
tains, in a fmgle fhip with but forty men, fell iu
among the King of Achin's fleet of twenty gal-
lies, as many junks, and a multitude of fmall
veffels. Rcfolute to perilli rather than yield, he
maintained the fight for three days, till his fhip
was pierced through and through with cannon-
fliot, and not a fmgle man left unwounded. And
yet, after all, the King's fleet found it convenient
to fheer oiF.

Patriotifm at the fame time is the great bulwark
of civil liberty ; equally abhorrent of defpotifm on

H h 2 the

"^^^^

'468

Civil Sochtv.

B.ii.

the one hand, and of licentioufncfs on the other.
While the dcfpotic government of the Tudor fa-
mily fubfiftcd, the Englifli were too much depreflfed
to have any affcd:ion for their country. But when
manufa^ures and commerce began to Hourifh in
the latter end of Elizabeth's reign, a national fpirit
broke forth, and patriotifm made fome figure.
That change of difpofition was perhaps the chief
caufc, though not the moll vifible, of the nati-
onal ftrugglcs for liberty, which were frequent
during the government of the Stewart family,
and which ended in a free government at the Re-
volution !.,<,*

Patriotifm is too much cramped in a very fmall
(late, and too much relaxed in an extenfive mo-
narchy. But that topic has already been difcufifed in
the firil (ketch of this book.

Patriotifm is cnflamed by a flruggle for liberty^ by
a civil war, by refifting a potent invader, or by
any incident that forcibly draws the members of a
Rate into flri6l union for the common intereft.
The refolute oppofition of the Dutch to Philip
JI. of Spain, in the caufe of liberty, is ^n illuilri*
pus inltance of the patriotic fpirit rifing to a de-
gree of enthufiafm. Patriotifm, roufed among the
Corficans by the opprelfion of the Genocfe, ex-
erted, itfelf upon every proper objefl. Even during
the heat of the war, they erefted an univerfity for
(irts and iciences, a national bank, and a national
library; improvements that would not have been
thought of in their torpid (late. Alas ! they have
fallep a viftim to third of power, not to fuperior
valour. Had Providence favoured them with fuc-
cefs, their figure would have been confiderable in
peace a« in war V

,.'<..

nil! i5.J .iUiTiil Ui.jfijii

* The elevation of fentiment that a draggle for liberty infptres, U con-
fpicuoui in the following incident. A Corfican being condemned to die for
an atrocious vrime, hi« nephew with deep concern addreflTed Paoli in the fol-

8k. vii:

Patrlotljhu

469

But violent commotions cannot be perpetual :
one party prevails, and profpcrity follows. What
eflfcft may this have on patriotifm ? I anfwer, that
nothing is more animating than fucccfs after a vi-
olent druggie : a nation in that ftatc rcfcmblcs a
comet, which in pafling near the fun, has been
much heated, and continues full of motion. Pa-
triotifm made a capital figure among the Atheni-
ans, when they became a free people, after expel-
ling the tyrant Pififtratus. Every man exerted him-
felf for his country : every man endeavoured fo
excel thofc who went before him : and hence a
Miltiades, an Ariflides, a Themiftocles, names
that for ever will figure in the annals of time.
While the R6man republic was confine'd within
narrow bounds, aufterity of manners, and difin-
tcrefted love to their country, formed the nati-
onal character. The elevation of the Patricians
above the Plebeians, a fource of endlefs difcord,
was at laft remedied by placing all the citizens on
a level. This fignal revolution excited an ani-
mating emulation between the Patricians and Ple-
beians ; the former, by heroic aftions, labouring
to maintain their fuperiority ; the latter drain-
ing every nerve to equal them : the republic never
at any other period produced fo great men in the
art of war. .,..;' *'

■;} It has been often 'remarked, that a nation is
never fo great as after tx civil war. The good of
the ftate is commonly the objeft ; and patriotifm is
the ruling pafllon of both fides, though not al-
ways well directed. The good of th^ ftate was
not tlie objed in jhp civil wars of Rome j and in-

.;t ?Idi:;'niil"bj05 flo-jd ^wfia Wif-jv^ ^'-.

,'T

■li!;:

ftead

leaving terms. ** Sir, If you pardon my uncle, his relations will give to
"the ftate a thoufand zechins, befides furnifliing fifty foldiers during the
" fiege of Furiali. Let him be banifhed, and he fliali never return." Paoli,
knowing the virtue of the young man, faid, " You are acquainted with the
" drciimftances of that cafe ; I will conl^nt to a pardon, if you can fay as
■ " an honeft man, that it will be juft or honourable for Corfica." The young

. rnan, hiding his face biirft into tears, f^yinj;, ** I v.'ould not hnve t!)e honour

* **" bl our country fold for a thoufand zecliiri?,"

^111

ii-.fl ■ '

:v:.

ii;.^sm»^

47°.

Civil Society.

B.II.

(lead of advancing patriotifm, they annihilated the
fmall portion that remained of it. Power and
riches were the objcds, which tiic grandees were
violently bent to acquire per fas aut ncfasy wit^jout
the lead regard to the public. Every joint of the
commonwealth was relaxed, when the powerful
became greedy of more power ; and it was Ihaken
to pieces by continual urugglcs among the pow-
erful. Patriotifm vaniflicd with the common-
wealth : power and riches became the folc objeds
of purfuit ; and with thcfc every man tempted and
was tempted : corruption of every fort fprcad wide,
and venality above all. How depraved mufl the
morals of Rome have been, when Cicero, eflccm-
cd its greatefl: patriot, rcqucftcd Lucceius to write
his hidory, and to fet his conduct in the moll
advantageous light, without regard to truth. " I
" will venture, fays he, to entreat you, not to con-
*' fine yourftlf to the flri£l laws of hiftory ; but
" to give a latitude to your encomiums, greater
«* pollibly than my adions defcrvc. Let me hope
*' you will not rcjeft the generous partiality of
** friendlhip ; but give fomewhat more to affefti-
*' on than to rigorous truth (j)." Yet this was
the fame Cicero who wrote an excellent book of
morals. So little connexion is there in fome
men between the heart and the head.

There is a great intricacy in human actions :
though men arc indebted to emulation for their
heroic adions, yet fuch adions never fail to fup-
prefs emulation in thofc who follow. An ob-
servation is made above (/>), that a perfon of
fuperior genius who damps emulation in others,
is a fatiil ob{lrii<5tion to the progrcfs of an art :
witnefs the cc.'tbrated Newton, to whom the decay
of mathematical knowledge in Britain is juftly

f ■ >•

{a) Cicero's letters, b. i. letter 30.
'^b) Book I. flcttch 5. § I.

attri-

■ ti'K

Sk. VII.

Patrtotifin,

■4?'

attributed, llic obfcrvation holds equally with
icfpctt to action. Thofc anions only that ilow
trom patriotifm arc deemed grand and heroic ;
and fuch adions, above all others, roufe a nati-
onal i'j)irit. But beware of a Newton in hero-
ifm : indead of exciting emulation, he will damp
it : defpair to equal the great men who arc the
admiration of all men, puts an end to emulati-
on. Alter the illuftrious atchievcments of Milti,
ades, and after the eminent patriotifm of Arillides,
we hear no more in Greece of emulation or of
patriotifm. Pericles was a man ot pjirts, but he
i'acrificed Athens to his ambition. The Atheni-
ans funk lower and lower under the Archons, who
had neither parts nor patriotifm ; and were re-
duced at laft to llavery, firll by the Macedonians,
and next by the Romans. The Romans ran the
fame courfc, from the higheft exertions of patrio-
tic emulation, down to the moll abject folfiihnefs and
effeminacy.

And this leads to other caufes that cxtinguifh
patriotifm, or relax it. FaOious diforders in a
ftatc never fail to relax it ; for there the citizen
is loft, and every perfon is beheld in the narrow
view of a friend or an enemy. In the contcflj
between the Patricians and Plebeians of Rome, the
public was totally difregarded : the Plebeians could
have no heart-affedion for a country where they
were opprefled ; and the Patricians might be fond
of their own order, but they could not fincerely
love their country, while they were enemies to the
bulk of their countrymen. Patriotifm did not
Ihine forth in Rome, till all equally became citi-
zens. Between the union of the two crowns of
England and Scotland and that of the kingdoms,
Scotland was greatly deprefled : it was governed
by a foreign king ; the nobility, tyrants, and the
low people, poor and difpirited. There was no

patriotifm

» • i

».

47*

Civil Sdciett.

B. IL

patriotifm among the former j and as little among
the latter. Hence it appears, that the oppofition
in Scotland to the union of the two kingdoms,
"was abfurdly impolitic. The oppofition ought to
have been againft the union of the two crowns^
in order to prevent the government of a foreign
prince. After being reduced to dependence on ano-
ther nation, the only remedy was to become one
people by an union of the kingdoms.

To fupport patriotifm, it is ncceffary that a peo-*
pie be in a train of profperity : when a nation be-
comes ftationary, patriotifm fubfides. The ancient
Romans upon a fmall foundation eredted a great
empire ; fo great indeed that it fell to pieces by
its unwieldinefs. But the plurality of nations, whe-
ther from their fituation, from the temper of their
people, or from the nature of their government,
are confined within narrower limits j beyond which
their utmoft exertions avail little, unlefs they hap-
pen to be extraordinary favourites of fortune*
When a nation becomes thus ftationary, its pufh-
ing genius is at an end : its plan is to preferve,
not to acquire: the members, even without any
example of heroifm to damp emulation, are in-
fected with the languid tone of the ftate : patri-
otifm fubfides ; and we hear no more of bold or
heroic anions. The Venetians are a pregnant
inftance of the obfervation. Their trade with A-
leppo and Alexandria did for centuries introduce
into Europe the commodities of Syria, Egypt, A-
rabia, Perfia, and India. The cities of Nurem-
berg and Augftjurg in particular, were fuppUed
from Venice with thefe commodities ; and by that
traffick became populous and opulent. Venice, in
a word, was for centuries the capital trading
town of Europe, and powerful above all its neigh-
bours, both at fea and land. A paffage to the
Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope was indeed

V !

Sk. VII.

Patriotifm,

473

an animating difcovery to the Portuguefc; but it
did not entitle them to exclude the Venetians*
The greater diftance of Venice from the Cape,
a trifle in itfelf, is more than balanced by its
proximity to Greece, Germany, Hungary, Po-
land> and to the reft of Italy. But the Portu-
guefe at that period were in the fpring of prof-
perity ; and patriotifm invigorated them to make
durable eftabliihments on the Indian coaft, over-
powering every nation in oppofition. The Ve-
netians, on the contrary, being a nation of mer-
chants, and having been long fuccefsful in com-
merce, were become ftationary, and unqualified
for bold adventures. Being cut out of their
wonted commerce to India, and not having refo-
lution to carry on commerce in a new channel,
they funk under the good fortMne of their rivals,
and abandoned the trade altogether. The Ruffi-
ans became a new people under Peter the Great,
and are growing daily more and more powerful.
The Turks on the contrary have been long in
a declining ftate, and arc at prefcnt a very de-
generate people. Is it wonderful, that during
the late war the Turks were no match for the
Ruffians f

No caufc hitherto mentioned hath fuch influ-
ence in deprefling patriotifm, as inequality of
rank and of riches in an opulent monrrchy. A
continual influx of wealth into the capital gene-
rates fhow, luxury, avarice, which are all felfifli
vices J and felfiflincfs, enflaving the mind, eradi-
cates every fibre of patriotifm *. Afiatic luxury,
flowing int6 Rome in a plentiful ftream, produced
an univerfal corruption of manners, and meta-
morphofcd into voluptuoufnefs the warlike genius

• France Is not an exception. The French arc vain of their country,
becaufe they are vain of themfelves. But fuch vanity muft he diftinguifh-
ed from patriotifm, which conflfts in levins ^^^ country independent of
ourfelves.

f' -

'1^1 i I

474

Civil Society.

B. ir.

of that great city. The dominions of Rome were
now too extenfive for a republican government,
and its generals too powerful to be difmtereft-
cd. Pailion for glory wore out of faihion, as auf-
terity of . manners had done formerly: power and
riches were now the only objects of ambition :
virtue fcemcd a farce j honour, a chimera ; and
fame, mere vanity : every Roman, abandoning
liimfeif to fenfuality, flattered himfelf, that he,
more wife than his forefatliers, was purfuing the
cunning road to happincfs. Corruption and ve-
nality became general, and maintained their ufur-
pation in the provinces as well as in the capi-
tal, without ever lofing a foot of ground. Pyr-
rhus attempted by piefents to corrupt the Ro-
man fenators, but made not the llightell imprcf-
jlon. Deplorable was the change of manners in

the days of Jugurtha : " Pity it is," faid

he, " that there fliould not be a man fo opu-
*' lent as to purchafe a people fo willing to be
♦' fold." Cicero, mentioning an oracle of Apol-
lo that Sparta would never be deftroyed but by
avarice, juftly obferves, that the prcdi£tion holds
in every nation as well as in Sparta. The Greek
empire, funk in voluptuoufnefs without a re-
maining fpark of patriotifm, was no match for
the Turks, enflamcd with a new religion, that
promifed paradife to thofc who fhould die fight-
ing for their prophet. How many nations, like
thofe mentioned, illuftrious formerly for vigour
of mind and love to their country, are now funk
by contemptible vices as much below brutes as
they ought to be elevated above them : brutes fel-
tiom deviate from the perfection of their nature,
men frequently.

Succcisful commerce is not more advantageous

by the wealth and power it immediately bellows,

than it is hurtful ultimately by introducing luxury

and voiuptuoufiiels, vyhich [eradicate patiiotifni. In

1 the

Sk. VH.

the capital

Patrioiifm,

475

I'eat

:hy, the poifon of

feldoni

monarcl
fudden • caufe
acquired by repu* ole means : the poilbii of com-
mercial opulence is ilow, bccaufe commerce feldom
enriches without induftry, fagacity, and fair dealing.
But by whatever means -acquired, opulence never
fails foon or late to fmother patriotiim under fcn-
fuality and felfiflmefs. We learn from Plutarch and
other writers, that the Athenians, who had long en-
joyed the funfliine of commerce, were extremely
corrupt in the days of PhiUp, and of his fon Alex-
ander. Even their chief patriot and orator, a pro-
feffcd champion for independence, was not proof
againll bribes. While Alexander was profecuting
his conquefts in India, Harpalus, to whom his im-
menfe treafure was intruded, fled with the whole to
Athens. Demofthenes advifed his fellow-citizens to
expel him, that they might not incur Alexander's
difpleafure. Among other things of value, there
was the King's cup of mafl'y gold, curioufly engrav-
ed. Demolthenes, furveying it with a greedy eye,
alked Harpalus what it weighed. To you, faid Har-
palus fmiling, it jfhall weigh twenty talents ; and
that very night he fent privately to Demofthenes
twenty talents with the cup. Demofthenes next day
came into the aflembly with a cloth rolled about his
neck ; and his opinion being demanded about Har-
palus, he made figns that he had loft his voice. The
Capuans, the Tarentines, and other Greek colonies
in the lower parts of Italy, when invaded by the
Romans, were no lefs degenerate than their brethren
in Greece when invaded by Philip of Macedon ; the
fame depravation of manners, the fame luxury, the
fame paflion for feafts and fpedacles, the fame in-
teftine faQions, the fame indiiference about their
country, and the fame contempt of its laws. The
Portuguefe, enflamed with love to their country,
having difcovered a pailage to the Indies by the Cape
of Good Hopej made great and important fettlements

1 -i* '

Mil ^ '

:J"S:i

t ,

'. i' '

Alp

CiviL Society.

B. XL

in that very dlilant part of the globe ; and of their
iuimcnfe commerce there is no parallel in any age
Or country. Prodigious riches in gold, precious
flones, fpices/ perfumes, drugs, and manufacture^,
were annually imported into Lifbon from their
fettlcments on the coafls of Malabar and Ck)ro-
mandel, from the kingdoms of Camboya, Decan,
Malacca, Patana, Slam, China, &c. from the iflands
of Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Moluccas, and
Japan : and to Lilbon all the nations in Europe rc-
forted for thcfe valuable commodities. But the
downfall of the Portuguefe was no lefs rapid than
their exaltation ; unbounded power and immenfe
wealth having produced a total corruption of man-
ners. If fmcere piety, cxtaltcd courage, and in-
defatigable induflry, made the original adven-
turers more than men; indolence, fcnfuality, and
effeminacy, rendered their fuccelTors lefs than wo-
men. Unhappy it was for them to be attacked ^t
that critical time by the Dutch, who, in defence of
liberty againft the tyranny of Spain, were enflamed
with love to their country, as the Portuguefe had
been formerly *. The Dutch, originally from their
fituation a temperate and induftrious people, became
heroes in the caufe of liberty ; and patriotifm was
their ruling paflion. Profperous commerce diffufed
wealth through every corner ; and yet fuch was the
inherent virtue of that people, that their patriotifm
refided very long the contagion of wealth* But as
appetite for riches increafes with their quantity, pa-
triotifm funk in proportion, till it was totally ex-
tinjjuifhedj and now the Dutch never think of
t :{t»v-t ■i^^fi!i'':)f;fj«i •*'! r H'lcJh^^i^H i-their

=fii

7i'?^;

:;f?( -iHondt^T- , dtfirj^ io\ 1'J'S H'^s, :nn :nft ,t-:

* While patrlotifiii was the ruling paHion of the Portuguefe, thetr lUuftri-
«us ecnefral Don Alplionfo d'Albuqtitrque c;4n led all before liim in the In-
Hies.' He adhered to the ancient frugality of his countrymen, and notwith-
rtanding his great power and wealth, reinained uncQrrupted. Though li-
beral in praifing his officers, lie never preferred any who attempted to gain
hit favour by ftaittty. ' 1ft pfivatt life lie was of the flridclt honour ; but a*
jufticv is little regaid(^d k)etwrti) nations, it was no obflruAioi} to hi* tnibi-
tiouk views oi extending thv* dominions of rcitugal.

Sk. VII.

Fatriotifm,

477

their country, uiilcfs as fubfcrvient to private in-
tereft. With refpeft to the Dutch Eaft-India com-
pany in particular, it was indebted for its profpe-
rity to the fidelity and frugality of its fervants,
and to the patriotifm of all. But thefe virtues
were undermined and at laft eradicated by lux-
ury, which Europeans fcldom refift in a hot climate.
People go from Europe in the fervice of the com-
pany, bent beforehand to make their fortune per
fas aut nefas'f and their diftance from their maf-
ters renders every check abortive. The company,
eaten up by its fervants, is rendered fo feeble, as
to be incapable of maintaining its ground againft
any extraordinary (hock. A war of any continu-
ance with the Indian potentates or with the Eng-
lifh company^ would reduce it to bankruptcy. Is
the Englilh Eaft-India company in a much better
condition? Such is the rife and fall of patriotifm
among the nations mentioned; and fuch will be
its rife and fajl among all nations in like circum-
ftances.' 'j^^ .j^^--i-f. -cv^nnriV? o^ -;:.:-.?• y^'V'

' It grieves me, that the epidemic diftempcrs of
luxury and fclfifhnefs arc fpreading wide in Bri-
tain. It is fruitlefs to diflfemble, that profligate
manners mud in Britain be a confequence of great
opulence, as they have been in every other parr of
the globe. Our late diftradtions leave no room
for a doubt. Liftcn to a man of figure, thoroughly,
acquainted with every machination for court-prefer-
ment. " Very little attachment is difcoverable in
" the: body of our excellent conftitution : no re-
** verence for the euftoms nor for the opinion of
'' our anceftors ; no attachment but to private in-
" tereft, nor any zeal but for felfifh gratifications.
** While party-diftindions of Whig and Tory, high
** church and low church, court and country, fub-
** fiftcd, the . nation was indeed divided, but each
" fide held an opinion, for which they would have
" hazarded every thing ; for both aO:ed from

2 , . « principle :

!'j

478

Civil Society.

B. II.

«(

cr
«

((

principle : if there were fome who fought to alter
the conftitution, there were many who would havc^.
fpilt their blood to preferve it from violation ; if,
divine hereditary right had its partifans, there
were multitudes to ftand up for the fuperior
fanftity of a title, founded on an aft of parliji- ^
men t and the confent of a free people. But the
abolition of party-names hath deftoyed all public
principles. The power of the crown was indeed
never more vifibly extenfive over the great men
of the nation ; but then thefe men have loft their
" influence over the lower orders : even parliament
*' has loft much of its authority ; and the voice of
the multitude is fet up againft the fenfe of the
legiflature : an impoveriihed and heavily-bur-
dened publicj a people luxurious and licentious,
impatient of rule, and defpifmg all authority, go-
vernment relaxed in every fmew, and a corrupt
fclfifli fpirit pervading the whole (a) *. It is a
common obfcrvation, that when the belly is full, the

. .!^ ; mind

■ ' . I . . ■

I ■ ." V<.J' ' *' '-ij ■ ' '' - -

(fl) The honourable George Greenville.

* Philiix of Macedon, a prince of great an bition, had unhappily for his
neighbours great power and great talents to put his defigns in execution. Du-
ring the whole courfe of his reign, it was his favourite objeA to bring the
Greek ftates under fubje£lion, particalarly that of Athens, which he the mofk
dreaded. Athens was in a perilous iituation, ftanding on the very brink of
ruin ; and yet at that very time, a number of its citizens, men of rank, were
foinfenfibletothediArelTes of their country, as to form themfelves into a
club, for feaAing, drinking, gaming, and for every fort of fenfual pleafujre. It
was made a rule that nothing ought to diAurb the mirth or jollity of the.fo^
ciety. They faw with indifference their countrymen arming for battle j and
with the fame indifference, they heard every day of tlie death or captivity of
their fellow-citizens. Did there ever exiA fuch wretches in human fhape f
Reader, fpare tliy indignation to vent it on wretches (till more detcAable.
They are at hand : they arc in fight. Behold men who, term themfelves
Britons, fomenting a dangerous rebellion in our colonies, and facriiicing their
native country to a feverilh defirc of power and opulence. How virtuous in
comparifon tiie Athenian club ! But reader, baniih fuch wretches trom thy
thoughts : they will four thy temper. Deliver them over to felf-condemna-
tion ; if they have any confcieiice left, the punifhment will he fevere. Wifh
them repentence. Extend that wilh to the .arch traitor, now on deathhed,
torn to pieces with bodily difcafes, and ftill more with thcle ot the mind.
Lord C——, if thou think It on heaven's bills.
Hold up thy hand, make fignal of thy hof <;.
He dies, and makes no fign ! ..r • : J.

[Tin "Jvui (uK^ii'iJ j^ugup 1 7 '» s ]

Sk. VII

mind is
holds nc
did riot ;
out a CI

It is
triotifm
on -the
what yo
boys le
Eton ;
l^fteft
way ot
dirty pr
to man
which
fcholarj
gers. 1
weak,
flio6s
and de
who is
vated,
would
fay, an
are inc
fovry 1
red tl
Wh
fpiritei
nature
ftate ?
free p
anima
tine U
Greel
to tht
tugue
mere

# T!

Sk. VII.

Patriotifrn,

479

mind is at cafe. That obfervation, it would appear,
holds not in London ; for never in any other place
did riot and licentioufnefs rife to fuch a height, with-
out a caufe, and without even a plaufible pretext *.

It is deplorable, that in Englifli public fchools, pa-
triotifrn makes no branch of education : young men,
on-the contrary, are trained up to felfiflinefs. Keep
what pu gety and get what you can^ is a leflbn that
boys learn early at Weftminfter, Winchefter, and
Eton ; and it is the leflbn that perhaps takes the
faftell hold of them. Students put themfelves in the
way of receiving vails from ftrangers ; and that
dirty practice continues, though far more poifonous
to manners than the giving vails to menial fervants,
which the nation is now afhamcd of. The Eton
fcholars are at times feht to the highway to rob paflen-
gers. The ftrong without controul tyrannize over the
weak, fubjefting them to every fervile office, wiping
flio^s not excepted. They are permitted to trick
and deceive one another j and the finefl fellow is he
who is the mod artful. Friendfliip indeed is culti-
vated, but fuch as we find among robbers : a boy
would be run down, if he had no aflbciate. I do not
fay, and am far from thinking, that fuch manners
are inculcated by the mafters ; but I fay, and am
forry to fay, that nothing is done to prevent or cor-
re£t them. i ." ; * ' ' 7^ . ''^

When a nation, formerly warlike and public-
fpirited, is deprefled by luxury and felfifhnefs, doth
nature aiFord no means for reftoring it to its former
ftate ? The Emperor Hadrian declared the Greeks a
free people ; not doubting, but that a change fo
animating, would reftore the fine arts to their prif-
tine luftre. — A vain attempt : for the genius of the
Greeks vaniflied with their patriotifrn ; and liberty
to them was no bleffing. With refpe£l to the Por-
tuguefe, the decay of their power and of their com-
merce, hath reduced them to a much lower ftate,

■,. • •.; : '■■ •. ' ^•"" ■;.,/ than

• This was compofed in the year 1770. .

y. i !

' i

48o

Civil Society.

B. II.

than when they rofc as it were out of nothing. At
that time they were poor, but innocent : at prefent
they arc poor, but corrupted with many vices. Their
pride in particular fwells as high as when mailers of
the Indies. The following ridiculous inflancc is a
pregnant proof : (hoes and ftockings are prohibited
to their Indian fubjefts ; though many of them
would pay handfomcly for the privilege. There is
one obvious meafure for reviving the Portuguefe
trade in India ; but they have not fo much vigour
of mind remaining, as even to think of it. They
ftill poffefs in that country, the town and territory of
Goa, the town and territory of Diu, with fomc
other ports, all admirably fituated fer trade. What
Hands in the way but indolence merely, againfl: de-
claring the places mentioned free ports, with liberty
of confcience to traders of whatever religion ? Free
traders flocking there, under protection of the Por-
tuguefe, would undermine the Dutch and Englifli
companies, which cannot trade upon an equal foot-
ing with private merchants ; and by that means, the
Portuguefe trade might again flourifh. But that
people are not yet brought fo low as to be compelled
to change their manners, though reduced to de-
pend on their neighbours even for common necef-
faries : the gold and diamonds of Brafil, are a plague
that corrupts all. Spain and Portugal afford inflruc-
tive political leflbns : the latter has been ruined by
opulence ; the former, as will be feen afterward, by
taxes no lefs impolitic than oppreflive. To enable
thefe nations to re-commence their former courfe,
or any nation in the fame condition, I can difcovcr
no means but pinching poverty. Commerce and
manufaftures taking wing, may leave a country in a
very diftrefl!ed condition : but a people may be very
diftrefled, and yet very vitious ; for vices generated
by opulence are not foon eradicated. And tho' other
vices fliould at lad vanifti with the temptations that
promoted them, indolence and pufillanimity will re-
main

Sk.'ViI. Patrhtifm. ' .481

iriJiiYi'fbr evei', triUik fcy fome powerful cauretli-c op-
pblU'e virtues be introduced. A very poor man, how-
ever indolent, will be tempted for bread to exert
fome>^ivity j and he may be trained gradually from
left tb trtore by the fame means. Aftivity at the
fam^ tin^e produces bodily ftiength ; which will ref-
tore courage and boldnefs. By fuch means a na-
tion rhay be put in motion with the fame advan-
tages it had originally j and its fecond progrefs
may prove as fuccefsful as the fir ft. Thus naH-
orts go round in a circle : the firft part of the pro-
grefs is verified in a thoufand inftances ; bqt the
world has not fubfifted long enough to afford any
clear inftance of the other*.

Vol. I. -^^'^ ^'

i;i

if'->U U'l

■■' I dofc

* T^e followihg letter I had {torn a gentleman, who, though atLUboA
for the fake of health, neglect no opportunity to increafe his (lock of know-
ledge^ ** Nothing but ocuhr demonflration could have convinced me that
" the human fpecie«m|»ji('b« depraved to the degree that is exemplified In
*• this country. Whcifier with regard to politics, morals, arts, or fecial in-
" tefcourfe, it ive^^ially defefVive. In fhort, excepting the mere elementa-
*' ry benefit»^f earth and air, this country is in the loweft Aate. Will you
*' believe that I found i^ot a fmgle man who could inform me of the price of
"'land, very few who had any notion to what value the produdt of their
" country extends, or of its colonies. No one able to point out the means
*' of reviving Portugal from its prcfent defponding condition. With refpeft
" to a general plan of legiflation, there is nonej unlefs the caprices ox an
" Ignorant defpot maybe called fuch, or the projects of a defigning mi-
" nifter, conftantly endeavouring to deprefs the nobility arnd to beggar the
" other orders of the ftate. This the Marquis Pombal has at length corn*
*' pleted. He has left the crown poflTefTed of a third part of the iMid-pro-
" perty, the church enjoying another third, the remainder left to an indi-
" gent nobility and their vafTals. He has fubje61ed every branch of com-
" merceto minlAerial emoluments; and fixed judicial procQ^dingt, both
" civil and criminal, on the fiu£luating bafis of his own intereft or incllna<>
*' tion. I'ake an indance of their law. A fmall proprietor having land
" adjoining to or intermixed with the land of a greater proprietor, is obliged
"to fell his ppflefTion, if the other wiflies to have it. In the cafe of feveral
" 'competitors to the fucceflion of land, it is the endeavour of each to feizt
*' -the poiTefTion, well knowing that poflelFion is commonly held the beft tl-
" tie ', and at 9ny rate, that there is no claim for rents during the time
" of litigation. ^ All the corn growing in Etlremadura muft be fold at Lif-
« ton. A tenth of ail fales, rents, wages, &c. goes to the King. Thefc
*' inftances are 1 think fudicient to give a notion of the prefent ftate of the
** kingdom, and of the merits of Pombal, who has long had the reins in
" his hands as firft minifter, who may. juftly boaft of bavjng f^eed his
" countrymen from thf dread «f kec^min| more wretched |j^fA they are at

• *' prefent.

"tv|»

'fV

I ')

tilt^

■'{■4 J

,r■^^•'

-M

^11

^ f

liiif

J :

4t«

CfviL Society*

B. 11.

I clofe this ikctch with two ill aftrious exam-
ples of patriotifm ; one ancient, one modern ; one
among the whitfcs, one among the blacks- Arif^-
tidcs the Athenian is . famed above all the anci-
ents foir love to his country. Its fafety and honour
were the only objeds of his ambition ; and his fig-
nal diQntcreifeduers made it the fame to him, whe-
ther tfficlc ends were accomplifhed by Hmfclf or
by othjers, by his friends or his focs» One, con-
fpicaqiis ir>ftanc« occurred before tl>e battle of Ma-.
raOionr Of the ten generals clK^fen to command
the Athenian army, he was one : but fenfible that
a divided cotT^mand is fubje£^ed to manifold incon-
veliiencies, he excTted all his influence for Milti-
ades to- meet the Perfians in the field. His dif~
rntcrefledncfs was ftill more confpicuous with re-
gard to- Thcmiftoclcs, his bitter enemy. Sufpend-
ing all enmity, he cordially agreed with him in
every operatiou of the war ; aihfting him with his
Gounfd and credit, aftd yet fuffering him to en-
grof«$ all the honour. In peace lie wa,s the far^ie,
yielding to Thcmiftocles in the adminiltration of
government, and contenting hrmfelf with a fubor-
diViate i^a<:e.^ In the fcnate and m the aflcmbly
©f the people,, he made many propofals in a bor-
rowed name, to^ prevent emry and oppofitioiiv He
retired from public bufmefs at the latter part of
his liJfc ; pafling his time. in trainmg young men
for fcrving the ftate,, inftilling into them princi-
ples of honour and virtnCy and infpiring them
with love to their country. His death unfolded
a fignal proof of the contempt he had for rich-
es : he, who had' been treafurer of Greece during '
the hiviihment of war, did not leave money fuf-
fieicHt 10' defray the cxpence of his funerals : a
^vr /;■;>;':',.:.:,,, '.vr'".-' ....-.'' .:;-',.. Britifl>

if .Oi^i^ ;.

i*t^ t'j i\ t a

" p'f feht. tt gave me fatisfaiftron to find the dcEh-Ines of the Sketches finely
«'i;iuftrif«ljtt the hiftorybf-thiifinfular kingdom. I am," &c, •.

S,^ Y\l'

]?aiiti9lifin. ,,:)

4^5.

BritHb c^«nmi(raFy, iiv TiHq circuinft»nc«, acquires

tji|?ricb<s qf Cwfu^, ;;-jr i'i;cib'): y):'.\\ In;f.-i.Tu..>>

,,Thq liqcnc ©rthc other ^«inpl# i« Foi»lia ?v.
n^grp kinf^dom in Africa. Sucli regard ii pa^
tl^fQ ta royal Ul)qod,.th»t nq !i>an< v^i) ;.fr>f;tcfl4.
tp ^hc prpwr), l>ut wb^ is conne^eU wj^h thfl;
firft nwwarcU, by an nwntcryp^fd dmin gf Ct?-«
n^aWs ;, q <;oninc^iow,by inale* WoyW giTft.nt^.ftp-f

curity, as the wonn^n of that wvin^ry.ftrci pJ9n«?

to gallantry. In the <iaft .ccatwry. $1ks l?fincC;o£
Sambaboa, the King's nephew by his fiftcr, was
inverted with the dignity of Kamalingo, a digni-
ty appropriated to the prefumptive heir. A libe-
ral and cencrous mind with undaunted courage,
rivetted nim in the affeftion of the nobility and
people. They rejoiced in the expectation ot hav-
ing him for their King. But their cxpedatioii
was blafled. The King, fond of his children,
ventured a bold meafure, which was, to inveft
his eldeft fon with the dignity of Kamalingo, and
to declare him heir to the crown. Though the
Prince of Sambaboa, had for him the laws of the
kingdom and the hearts of the people, yet he re-
tired in filence to avoid a civil war. He could
not however prevent men of rank from flocking
to him ; which being interpreted a rebellion, the
King raifed an army, vowing to put them all to
the fword. As the King adYanced, the Prince
retired, refolving not to draw his fword againft an
uncle, whom he was accuftomed to call father.
But finding that the command of the army was
bellowed on his rival, he made ready for bat-
tle. The Prince obtained a complete viftory :
but his heart was not elated. The horrors of a
civil war ftared him in the face : he bid farewell
to his friends, difmiflfed his army, and retired into
a neighbouring kingdom ; relying on the affedi-
ons of the people, to be placed on the throne

1 i 2 after

484

Civil S6ciety.

B. n.

after his unc)d*s de^th. Duritig baniniment, whictr
continued thirty tedious years, ireqtient attempts
Upon his life put his temper to a fevere trial ; for
while he exiftcd, the King had no hopes that his
fon would reign in peace. He had the forti<*
tudfc to furmount every trial ; whert, in the year
170 2, beginning to yield to age and misfortunes, his
uncle died. His coufin was depdfed ; and he was
called by the unanimous voice of the nobles, to rieign
over a people who adored him.

.•<J»1.;. .\** •» -.)n',.|/r-fH,)-] Miff or '< '"' ■jjSff |i! 'v
//i^.;».;u:i L -J.fu:.' ' ;:/ ;^'!'/ b.iifn '-^r.ii- ,,- . U .\ 1,.,
\i:x\\ 'i'iiklun :>ib

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SKETCH

v>n.

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'i'l >'f M" ji

!';l ;.|"r ' ■^ll

■^1 ''-

'^'^ f' finames,

R E

,^; *

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4fir««<«<#*

i, ' i / * •'•'•♦

C g. ".'" \ .;.v

•* ./.v^ lIv' following Jlight ejfay^ intendtd for novices
^ff'y, ii fatisfies my ambit ion, ta rival certain pains -
taktng authors, who teach hijiory in the perfpicuous
mode of queftion (ind anfwen Among novices it would
ce unpardonable to ra?ik fuch of my fellow -citizens, as
are ambitious of a feat in parliament ; many of whom
facrifice the inl^^ritance of their anceftprs, for an op-
portunity to exert their patriotifm in that auguji affem-
bly» Can fuch a facrifice permit me to doubt, of their
being adepts in the myflerles of government, and of
taxes in particular f they ought^at leaji tg be initiated
in thefe my fl cries. n

// is of importaiue, that taxes and their fffe3s he
underjlood, not only by the members of our . pariiamentp
but by their eledors : a reprefentative will not readi-
ly vote for a dejiru6iive tax, when he cannot hope to
difguife his condu6l, The intention ofthfiprefentfketch^
is, to unfold the principles upon which taxes ought to
be founded, and to point out what are beneficial, what
noxious. I iMve endeavoured to introduce fome light
into afubje^ involved in E^tian darknefs ; and if
that end be attained.

JJhall

^faith

hav^

not been an unprofitable fervant td my country »

• I III '

Finances,

I i;

^^i'1

1' I'l

Firmnce:.

A HIS fubjeft confifts of many parts, not a littltj
intricate, A proper diftribution will tend to perfpi-
cuity ; and I think it may be fitly divided into the fol-
lowing ieftions. ift, General confiderations on taxes,
ad, Power of^ impofing taxes. 3d, Different forts
of taxes, with their advantages and difadvantages.
4th, Manner pf levying taxes. 5th, Rules to be obr
fervcd in taxing. ' pth. Taxes examined with refpeft
to their effefts. 7th, Taxes for jidvancing indulhy
and co«imerce. . ' < ' >

. i

S E C T I O N I:

General Confidcratms on faxes.

opulence is not friendly to ftudy and know-
ledge, the men beft qualified for being generals, ad-
miral?, judges, or miniders of ftate, are feldom opu-
lent ; and to make fuch men ferve without pay,
■would be in effe^ to cafe tlie rich at the expence of
the poor. With refpedt to the military branch in
particular, the bulk of thofe who compofe an army,
if withdrawn from daily labour, muft ftarve, unlefs
the public which they ferve afford them mainte-
nance. A republican government, during peace,
may indeed be fupported at a very fmall charge,
among a temperate and patriotic people. In a mo-
narchy, a public fund is indifpenfable, even during
peace : and in war it is indifpenfable, whatever be
the government. The Spartans carried all before

them

Sk.VIII. I. Jlf»an£es. ''' 487

them in Greece, but were forced to quit their hold,
having no fund for a ftanding arrny ; and :the other
Greek ftatcs were obliged to oonfedci-:4±e with the
Athenians, who had a public fund, and who after
the Perfian war became m:afters at fca. A defe£t fo
obvious in th? Spartan government, did alTuredly not
efcape Lycurgus, the mofi: profound of all . legifla-
tors. forjefecing that conquefl: would be deflruftivc
ty his jcountrvmen, his fole purpofe was to guard
them from being con<|uered ; which in Sparta re-
quired no public fund, as all the citizens were equals
and equally bound to defend themfelves and their
country. A ftate, it is true, without a public fuiid,
is ill qualified to oppofe a ftanding army, regularly
difcipliiied, and regularly paid. But in political mat-
ters, experience is our only fyre guide j and the
hiftory pf nations, at that early period, was too bar-
ren to aifof4 inftrudion. Lyrurgus may well be
excufed,- confidc^ipg ho^ little progrcfs political
knowledge had luade in a much later period,
Charles VII. of France, wa« the lirft in moderi^
times who eftabliflied a fund for a ftanding army.
Againft that dangerous ipnovatipn, the crown-vaflals
had no refourcc but to imitaj:e their fovereign ; and
yet, without even dreapning of a reCpurcp, they fuf-
icred themfelves to be undermined, and at laft over-
turned, by the King their fuperior, Thus, Qi) the
one hand, a nation however warlike that has not 4
public fund, is no match for a ftanding army enured
to war : exteniive commerce, on the other hand,
enables a nation to fiipport a ftanding army ; but by
introducing luxury it eradicates pianhood, and ren-
ders that army an unfit match for any poor and war-
like invader. Hard may feem the fate of nations,
laid thus open to deftrudion from every quarter.
All that can be faid is, that fuch viciffitudes feem to
enter into the fcheme of providence.

The ftability of land fits it, above all other

fubjefts, for a public patrimony. But as crown-

3 lands

!.(?;!

488

CiviL Society.

B. IL

lands lie open to the rapacity of favourites, it be-
comes neceffary, when thcfe are diflipatcd, to intro-
duce taxes ; which have the following proper-
ties, that they unite in one common intercft the
fovereign and his fubje£ts, and that they can
be augmented or diminiflied according to exi-
gencies. * '

The art of levying money by taxes was To .lit-
tle underftood.in the fixteenth century, that after
the famous battle of Pavia, in which the Prench
King was made prifoner, Charles V. was obliged
to dilband his vidorious army, though confiding
but of 24,000 men, becaufe he had not the art
to levy, in his extenfive doiniuiofis, a fum necef-
fary to keep it on foot. So little knowledge was
there in England of political arithmetic in the
days of Edward III. that L. i : 2 : 4 on each pa-
rifh was computed to be fufficient for raifing a
fubfidy of L. 50.000. It being found, that there
were but 8700 parilhes, exclufive of Wales, the par-
liament, in order to raife the faid fubfidy, affefled
on each parilh L. 5, 16 s.

In inipolVng taxes, ought not the expence of
living to be deduced, and to confider the remain-
der as the only taxable fubjed: ? This mode was
adopted in the flate of Athens. A rent of 500
meafurcs of corn, burdened the landlord with the
yearly contribution of a talent : a rent of 300, bur-
dened him with half a talent ; a rent of 200, bur-
dened him with the fixth part of a talent ; and
land under that rent paid no tax. Here tlie tax
was not in proportion to the eftate, but to what
fould be fpared out ot it ; or, in otlier words, in pro-
portion to the ability of the proprietor. At the lame
time, ability muft not be eflimated by what a mau:
actually favcs, which would exempt the profufe and
profligate from paying taxes, but by what a man can<
pay whb lives with economy according to his rank.
This rule is founded on tlie very nature of govern-;

mcnt :

Sk.VIII. I.

Finances,

489

mcnt : to tax a man's food, or the fubjeft that af-
fords him bare ncccflarics, is worfc than the denying
himproteftion : it ftarvcs him. Hence the follow-
ing propofition may be laid down as the corner-ftone
of taxation-building, " That every man ought to
contribute to the public revenue, not in propor-
tion to his fubftance, but to his ability.'* I am
forry to obferve, that this rule is little regarded in.
Britilh taxes ;. though nothing would contribute
more to fweeten the minds of the people and to
make them fond of their government, than a regu-
lation fraught with fo much equity.

Taxes were long in ufe before it was difcovered,
that they could be made fubfcrvient tq other pur-
pofes, befide that of fupporting government. In
the fifteenth century, theftatesof Burgundy rejeded
with indignation a demand made by the Duke, of a
duty on fait; though they found no other objefti-
on, but that it would opprefs the poor people, who
lived moftly on fait meat and fait fifli. It did not
occur to them, that fuch a tax might hurt their ma-
nufaftures, by raifmg the price of labour. A tax of
two (hillings on every hearth, known by the name of
hcavth -money y was granted to Charles II, his heirs
and fucceffors, for ever. It was abrogated by an a6k
of William and Maty, ann. 1 688, on the following
preamble, " That it is not only a great opprefliou
upon the poorer-fort, but a badge of flavery upon
the whole people, expofing every man's houfe to
be entered into and fearched at pleafure, by per-
fons unknown to him." Had the harm done by
fuch a tax to our manufadures been at that time un-
derllood, it would have been urged as the capital
reafon againfl it. Our late improvements in com-
mercial politics have unfolded an important doftrine,
That taxes arc feldom indifferent to the public good %
that frequently tlicy are more opprcflive to the peo-
ple, than beneficial to the fovereign ; and, on the
other hand, that thn' niav be fo contrived, as to ri-
val

((

490

Civit. Society.

B. II.

val bounties in promoting induftry, manufactures,
and commerce, Thefe different cfFc£l:s of ta;i^es,
have rendered the fiibjed not a little intricate, f t ; • < '
' It is an article of importance in government, to
have it afccrtained, what proportion of th^e annual in-
come of a nation may be drawn from the people by
taxes, ivjthout impoveri(hing them. An eighth part
is held to biS too much ; hjuibandvy, commerce, and
population, would fuffer, Pavenant fays, that the
Dutch pay to the public annually, the fourth part pf
the income of tneir country ; and he adds, that
their ftrift economy enable^ them to bear that im-
nicnfe load, without raifmg the price of labour lb
high as to cut them out of the foreign mar)cet. It
was probably fp in the day$ of Davenant ; but of
late, matters are much altered j the dearnefs of liv-
ing and of labour, has e?:cl]uded all the Dutch ma-
nufactures from the foreign market. Till the French
war in King William's reign, England paid in taxes
bu^ about a twentieth part pf its annual incpme^

SECT. II.

f.,.

Pozver of impoftngTaxe^, ■ ■

X HAT to Impofe taxes belongs to the fovcreigna
and to him only, is undoubted. But it has been
doubted, whether even King and parliament,
who poflefs the fovereign authority in Britain,
can legally impofe a tax without confent of the
people. The celebrated Locke, . in his eflay on
government (<?), lays downthe following propo-
rtion as fundamental. " *Tis. true, governments
'V cannot -be fupported without great charge: and
** 'tis fit every one who enjoys hisfliarexafprotcftion

, ' .'^1:1. " fhould.

i k i J t t v^ V

:l/

(.:) C;v.p. IX. % 14c.

^k, VIII. a.

Finances f

491

*' fliould pay out of his eftatc his prpportion foi? the
*♦ maintenance of it. But ftill it muft be with his
*'' own confcnt, e, i. the confent of the majority,
*' giving it either by themfelves, or tfieir repreren-
'^ tatives chofen by them ; for if any one fliall
*' claim a power to lay and levy taxes on the people
** by his owfw authority, and without fuch confent
^ of the people, he thereby invades the fijndamerital
" law of property, and fubverts the end of govern-
** ment. For what property have I in that which ano-
♦' ther may by right take when he pleafes to himfelf ?"
No authqr has reflected ipore honour on his native
country, and on mankind, than Mr. Locke. Yet
no name is above truth ; and I aui obliged to ob-
ferve, though with regret, that in the foregoing
reafoning the right of ii^ipofing taxes is laid upon a
very crazy foundation, It n^ay indeed be faid with
fome colour, that the freeholders virtually impower
their reprefentatives to tax them. But their' vaflals
and tenants, who have no vote ii> eledling members
of parliament, empower none to tax them : yet they
are taxed like others ; and fo are the vaflals and
tenants of peers, Add to thefe an immenfe num.
ber of artifans, manufadlurers, day-labourers, do-
,meftic8) &c. &c. with the whole female fex ; and
it will appear, that thofe who are reprefented in par-
liament make not the hundredth part of the taxable
people. But further, it is acknowledged by our au-
thor, that the majority of the Lords and Commons
muft bind the minority. This circumftance might
have opened his eyes : for furely the minority in this
cafe are bound without their confent ; nay, againft
their confent. That a Hate cannot tax its fubjefts
without their confent, is a rafli proportion, totally
fubverfive of government. Locke himfelf has fug-
gefted the folid foundation of taxes, though inad-
vertently hfc lays no weight on it. I borrow his own
words : *^ That every one who enjoys his (hare of
" proteftion, (hould pav but of his cftate his propor-

«'• tion

!!(

iiii
m

49?

Civil Societv.

p. n.

" tioB for tjnc maintenance of tlie government.**
The duties of fovcrei^n and of fubjoEk are recipro-
-cal ; and commpn pftice requires, that a fubjedt^ or
any perfon who is pr,otc£t^d by a government, pught
%o pay for that protcdion. Similar jnftances without
jnumber of fucb rciciprAcal duties, occur in the l^wg
of every civilized nation^. A man calls for meat and
drink in a tavern j is he not bound to pay, though he
ma^e no agreement before hand ? A man wafted pver
a river in a fer,ry-boat, muft pay the common fare,
jhoughhemade nopromife. Nay, it is every man's
interred to pay for protection ; government cannot
fubfift without a public fund ; and what will become
of individuals, when left open to every rapacious
invader ? Thus tAxes are implied in the very nature
pf government ; and the interpofition of fovereign
-authority, is only neceflary for determining the
expediency of a tax ; and the quota, if found e^«
pedient. ^

Many writers, unified by the refpeclable authority
of Locke, boldly maintain, that a Britifh parliament
cannot legally tax the American colonies, who are
not represented in parliament. This propofition,
which ha? drawn the attention of the public of late
ye^rs has )ed me to be n)ore explicit on the power
of imppfing taxes, than otherwife would be pe-
ceflary. Thofe who favour the independence of
our colonies urge, " That a man ought to have the
difpolal of what he acqyires by honeft induftry,
fubje£l to no control : whence the neceflity of a
parliament for impofmg taxes^ where every in-
dividual is either perfonally prcfent, or by a re-
prefentative of his own eledion. The aid accord-
ingly given to a Britifli fovereign, is not a tribute,
but a free and voluntary gift." What is faid
above will bring the difpute within a very narrow
compafs. If our colonifls be Britifli fubje^s, which
hitherto has not been controverted, they arc fub^
jedcd to the Britifh legiflature in every article ot"
.. government ;

Sk. VIII. 2.

Finances*

4^3

government j and as from the beginning they have
been protefted by Britain, they ought like Other
fubjcds topay for that prpteftion. There never was
a time lefs favourable to their claim of freedom from;
tax^s, than the clofe of the late war with France.
Had not Britain feafonably interpofed, they would
have been fwallowed up by France, and become
flaves to dcfpotifm. . = . . . ,

If it be queftioned, by what a£ls rs a man nnder-
flobd to claim proteftion of a government ? 1 an-
fwer. By fetting his foot within the territory, if,
upon landing at Dover a foreigner be robbed, the
law intcrpofes for him as for a native. And as he
is thus protedted, he pays for proteftion when he
purchafesa pair of fhoes, or a bottle of beer. The
cafe is dear, with refpeft to a man who can chufe
the place of his refidence. But what fhall be faid
of childten, who are not capable of choice, nor of
confent ? They are protefted j and protedion im-
plies the reciprocal duty of paying taxes. As foon
as a young man is capable of acting for himfelf, he
is at liberty to chufe other protedtors, if thofe who
have hitherto protected him be not to his tafte.

If a legal power to impofe taxes without confent
of the people, did necelTarily imply a legal power to
impofe taxes at pleafure, without limitation, Locke's
argument would be invincible, in a country of free-
dom at leaft. A power to impofe taxes at pleafure,
would indeed be an invafion of the fundamental law
of property ; becaufe, under pretext of taxing, it
would fubjefl: every man's property to the arbitrary
will of the fovereign. But the argument has no
weight, where the fovereign's power is limited. The
reciprocal duties between fovereign and fubjcd im-
ply, tha!t the people ought to contribute what fumsi
are neceffary for the fupport of government, and that
the fovereign ought not to demand more. It is
true, that there is no regular check againft him,
when he tranfgrclTes his duty in tliis particular: but

there

494

Civil Society,

B. 11.

there is an efTcdual check in the nature of every
g^bvemmcnt that, is not legally defjDotic, viz. a ge-.
neral concert among all ranks, to vindicate their li-
berty againft a courfe of rjolcncc and oppreflion ;
and multiplied ai^s of that k)nd have more than once
brought about fuch a concert. .;

As every member of the body- politic is under prp-n
teHion of the government, every one of them, a^^
obfervcd above, ought to pay for being proteftcd ;
ind yet this propofition has been controverted by an
author of fome note {a) ; who maintains, "- That
the food and raiment furniihcd to the focicty by
hufbandmen, and manufadurers, are all that
thefc good people are bound to contribute ; apd
fuppofnig th?m bound to contribute morCy it |&
not till others have done as much for the public.'*
At that rate, lawyers and phyficians ought alfo
to be exempted from contributing ; cfpeciafly thpfc
who draw the greateft funis, becaufe they are fup^
pofed to do the moft: good. That argument, the
fuggeftion of a benevolent heart, is no proof of an
enlightened underftanding. The labours of the
farmer, of the lawyer, of the phyfician, contribute
not a mite to the public fund, nor tend to defray the
cxpence of government. The luxurious proprietor
of a great efiate has a ftiil better title to be exempted
than the hufbandman ) becaufe he is a great bene-,
faftor to the public, by giving bread to a vaWety of
induflrious people. In a word, every man ought to
contribute for being protected ; and if a hufbandman
be protected in working for hinifcif one-and-fifty
weeks yearly, he ought thankiuUy to work one
week more, for defraying the cxpence of that pro^
tcdion.

111';

(u) L'ami dcs iic«nn:e5.

S E C T,

\n-

•^-i'-^'. ?*. /

■;,;■,?•

.■•J

1$ K E T C H nf.

*" '-■ '■'■ i" •" •■ ':' ", '-J .\\-.'U ■■■■■1 i,-;jq:'"j5J

Different Sorts of Taxes^ with their Advantages <tn4 ■

• »j*.\ii\i As i t

r:>i

Difadvantagei,

r ' ' **

■ * ... I /•

J ■ .> ■■ V

LL tax6s are laid upon pferfons ; but' in dif-
ferent refpc€ts : a tax laid on a man pcrfonally,
for' himfelT and family, is termed 2l capitation-tax ;
a tax laid on him for his property, is termed a
tax on goods. The latter is the only rational tax,
becaufe it" may bis proportioned to the ability of
the proprietor. It has only one inconvenience, that
his debts mull be overlooked ; becaufe to take
thefc into the account, would lead to endlefs in-
tficacics. But there is an obvious remedy for that
inconvenience : let the man who comp ains free
hlmfclf of debt, by felling latid or moveables ;
which will fo far relieve him of the tax; Nor
ought this mcafurc to be confidered as a hard-
fhip : it is feldom the intereft of a landholder to
be in debt ; and with rcfpeft to the public, the
meafare not only promotes the circulation of pro-
perty, but is favourable to procuring them pay*
ment. A capitation-tax goes upon an erroneous
principle, as if all men were of equal ability.—
What prompts it is, that many men, rich in
bonds and other moveables that can eafily be hid
from public infpedion, cannot be reached other-
wife than by a capitation-tax. But as, by the very
fiippofition fuch men cannot be diftinguifhed from
the mafs of the people, that mode of taxing, mife*
rably unequal, is rarely pradifcd among enlightened
nations, Ruflia labours under a capitation-tax. Some

years

iin

lilt

49<5

Civil.. SocItTY.

B. If.

' 1

years ago, a capitation-tax was Impofed in Den-
mark, obliging even day-labourers to pay for their
wives and ckildren. ' Upon the tmi^^abl'urd plan, a
tax was impoicd on marriage. One would be
tempted to think, that population was intended to
be difcouraged. The Danilh minillry have been
fenfible of the impropriety of fuch. taxes; for a
tax impofed on thofc who obtain titles of honour
from the crown, is applied for relieving hufband-
men of their capitation-tax. But a tax of this kind
lies open to many otljer objeftions. It cannot fail
to raifc tlie price of labour, a poifonous etfefl: in
a country of induftry j . for the laboure]: will re-
lieve himfelf of the tax, by heightening his
wages : more pruden; it would be to lay the tax
diredly ,on the employer, which would remove the
pretext for heightening wages. The taxing of day
labourers, whether, by capitation or in any other
rnanner, has befidc an efteft contrary to what
is intended: inftead of increafmg the public reve-
nue, it virtually leflens it, by raifing the pay of fol-
diers, failors, and of every workman emp)<</yed by
government.

Taxes, upon goods are of two kinds, viz. upon
things cpnfumable, and upon things not confuma-
ble. I begin with the latter. The land-tax in
Britain, paid by the proprietor according to an inva-
riable rule, and levied with very little expence, is
of all taxes the mo/l ju ft, and the moil efFe£tual.
The proprietor, knowing beforehand the fum he
is fubjeded to prepares accordingly: and as each
proprietor .contrib|utes in proportion to his eftate,
the tax makes no variation in their relative opu-
lence. The only improvement it is fufceptible of,
is the Athenian regulation, of exempting fmall ef-
tates that are no more than fufHcient to alio rd
bread to the frugal proprietor. . In France, the
land-tax feems to have, been eilablifhcd on a very
falfe foundation^ viz.. That the clergy perform their

'. d«ty

«^^r

'1 I

Sk. VIII. 3. finances, if/f

duty to the (late by praying and inflrufling, that
the nobleiTc fight for the Itate ; and confequently,
that the only duty left to the farmer, is to defray the
charges of government. This argument would hold»
if the clergy were not paid for praying, nor the
nobleflc for fighting. Such a load upon the poorcft
members of the (tate, is an abfurdity in politics.
And to render it ftill more abfurd, the tax on the
farmer is not impofed by an invariable rule i c-
very one is taxed in proportion to his apparent
circumftanccs, which in effcdt is to tax induflry.
Nor is this a!I. Under pretext of preventing fa-
mine, the exporting of corn, even horn province
to province, is frequently interrupted ; by which it
happens, that the corn of a plentiful year is dcftroy-
ed by infers, and in a year of fcarcity is engrolfed
by merchants. Suppofe a plan were defiderated
for difcouraging agriculture, here is one actually
put in execution, the fucccfs of which is infalli-
ble. " Were it related," obferves a French writer,
'• in fome foreign hiftory, that there is a country
" extremely fertile, in a fine climate, enjoying na-
*' vigable rivers, with every advantage for the
*' commerce of corn ; and yet that tnc produft
" is not fufficicnt for the inhabitants : would not
" one conclude the people to be ftupid and barba-
" reus ? And yet this is the cafe of France." He
adds the true reafon, which is, the difcouragement
hufbandry lies under by opprelhve taxes. We have
Diodoruo Siculus for our authority, that the huf-
b indman was greatly refpe£ted in Hindoflan. A-
mong other nations, fays he, the land during war
lies untilled; but in Hindoftan, hufbandmen are fa-
cred, and no foidier ventures to lay a hand on them.
They are confidered as fervants of the public, who
cannot be difpenfed with.

It is a grofs error to maintain, that a tax on

land is the fame with a tax on the produft of

land. The former, which is the Engliui mode, is

Vol. I, . Kk fto

\«

49^

Civil Societv.

S. IL

no difc«^uragcmcnt to induftry and improvements :
tn the contrary, the higher the value ot" land is

raifed, the lefs will the tax be in proportion.

The latter, which is the French mode, is a great
difcouragcment to iftduftry and improvements j bc-
caufe the niorc a man improves, the deeper he h
taxed. The icnth part ot* the produft of land, is
the dnly tax that is paid in China. Thi* tax, of
the fame nattirc with the tythe paid among us
to the tkY^y, yields to the Britifh mode of tax-
ing the land itfelf, and not its produtt ; but is lefs
exceptionable than the land-tax in France, beeaufc
it is not arbitrary. The Chinefe tax, paid in kind,
is ftored in magazines, and fold from time to time
tor maintaining the magiftrates and the army, the
furplus being remitted to the trcafury. In cafe
of famine, it ts fold to the poor people at a mo-
derate pried'. In Tonquin, there is a land-tax,
ti'hich, like thait in France, is laid upon the pea^
fant^, exempting people of condition, and the lite-
jfati in particular. Many grounds that bear not
corn, c'ontributc hay for the king's elephants and
cavalry ; whicih the poor peafants are obliged
to carry to the capital, even from the great-
eft didance j a regulation no lefs injudicious than
ilavKli.

The window- tax, the coach-tax, and the plate-
tax, come under the prcfcnt head, being taxes
upon things not confumable. In Holland horfes
are taxed ; ' and there rs a tax on dDmeftic fer-
vaiits, which deferves well to be imitated. Va-
liity in Britain, and love of fhow, have multiplied
dnintdics, far beyond neceflity, and even beyond
convenience. A number of idlers colleftcd in a
luxurious family, become vicious and debauched;
ai'id many ufeful hands are withdrawn from huf-
bandry and manufadures. In order that the tax
may reach none but the vain and fplendid, thofe
*a1io h)tve but one fcrvant pay nothing : two do-
'■' •' ^ • ■*' mellics'

Sk. VIII. 3.

Vihanea*

499

meftics fubjecl the maflcr to five (lilllings for each,
three to ten fhillings for each, four to twenty (hil-
lings, five to forty fhillings, and fo on in a geometri-
cal progreflion. In Denmark, a farmer is taxed foi
every plough he ufes. If the tax be intended for
difcouraging ex cnfivc farms, it is a happy con-
trivance, agreeable to found policy ; for fmall farms
increafe the number of temperate and robuft people,
fit for every fort of labour.

Next ot taxes upon things confumable. The
taxes that appear the lead opprcflivc, becaufe dif-
guifcd, are what are laid on our manufadures : the
tax is advanced by the manula^ilrcr, and dtawn
from the purchafer as part of the price. In Romej
a tax was laid upon every man who purchafcd a
Have. It is reported by fome authors, that the taJc
was remitted by the Emperor Nero ; and yet no al-
teration was made, but to oblige the vender to ad-
vance the tax. Hear Tacitus on that fubjecl(^).
** Vefligal quintse ct viccfimac venalium mancipi-
** orum remiiTum, fpccie magis quam vi ; quia cum
" venditor penderc juberetur, in partem pretii cmp-
'* toribus aocrefcebat *." Thus, with refpeft to
our taxes on foap, fliocs, candles, and other things
confumable, the purchafer thinks he is only paying
the price, and never dreams that he is paying a tax.
To fupport the illufion, the duty ought to be mode-
rate : to impofe a tax twenty times the value of the
commodity, as is done in France with refpeft to fait,
raifes more difguft in the people as an attempt to de-
ceive them, than when laid on without difguife. Such
exorbitant taxes, which are paid with the utmoft
reluctance, cannot be made effeftual but by fevere
penalties, equal to what are inflided on the moil
atrocious criminals j which at the fame time has a

Kk 2 ' bad

(«) Annal. Ifb. 13.

* " The tax of a twenty-fifth upon flaves to be fold, was remitted more
'* in appearance then in reility j bctaufe when the feller wu6 ordered to pay
*' it, he laid it upon the price to the buyer."

.t,

■n

■j \
■ ■ \

I \

500

Civil Society.

B.H.

bad cffed with rcfpedt to morals, as it blends great
and fmall crimes together, and tends to kflen th<:
horror one naturally conceives at the former.

Such taxes are attended with another fignal ad-
vantage : they bear a proportion to the ability of the
contributors^ the opulent being commonly the great-
eft confu-mers. The taxes on coaches and on plate
are paid by men of fortune^ without loading the
induftrious poor y and on that account are excel-
lent : being impofed however without difguife, they
are paid with more reludlance by the rich, than taxes
on confuraption are by the poor.'

I add one ocher advantage of taxes on confumpti-
©n. They are finely contrived to conneft the in-
tercft of tilt: fovercign with that of his fubjefts ', for
his profit arifes from their profperity.

Such are the advantages of a tax on confumption ;
but it muft not be praifed,. as attended with no in-
convenience. The retailer, under pretext of the tax,
raifes the price higher than barely to indemnify him-
felf ; by which means, the tax is commonly doubled
on the confumer. The inconvenience however is
but temporary. " Such extortion," fays Davenant,
" cannot laft lohg ; for every commodity in com-
•* mon ufe finds in the market its true value and
•* price

There is another inconvenience much more dif-
trefiing, becaufe it admits not a remedy, and be-
caufe it alfeds the ftate itfelf. Taxes on confumpti-
on, being commonly laid on things of the greateft
ufe, raife a great fum to the public, without much
burdening individuals ; the duty on coal,, for exam-
ple, on candle, on leather, on foap, on fait, on
malt, and on malt -liquor. Thefe duties howgi'er
carry in their bofom a flow poifon, by raifing thc^
price of labour and of manulaftures. De Wit ob-
i'crvfs, that the Dutch taxes upon confumption havo
raifed the price of their broad cloth forty ^er cent ;
and our manufa^tlures by the fame means arc raifcd at

Icaft

Sk. VIII. 3.

Finances,

SOI

lead thirty per cent, Britain has long laboured
under this chronical difteraper ; which, by exclud-
ing her from foreign markets, will not only put an
end to her own manufaftures, but will open a wide
door to the foreign, as fmuggling canjiot be pre-
vented where commodities imported are much
cheaper than our own. Tlie Dutch tajsts on con-
fumption are exceedingly high ; and yet neceflary,
not only for defraying the cxpencc of government,
but for guarding their frontier, and above all ixx
keeping out the fea I The induflry however and
frugality of the people, enable them to bear that
heavy burden without nrjurmuring. But other Eu-
ropean nations have now acquired a fliare of the im-
menfe ppmmejrx^e formerly carried on by the Dutch
alone. Their trade accordingly is on the decline ;
and when it finks a little lower, the heavy taxes will
undoubtedly depopjalate their country. .. :; . ;

Nor ought it to be oyerlaoked, that taxes on con-
fumption are not equally proper in every cafe. They
are proper in a populous country, like JiolJand ; be-
cause the cxpencc of collefting is but a trifle, com*
pared with the fums cplle^ecj.. But in a cojintrv
thinly peopled, fuch itaxes are improper ; becaufe
the cxpence of collecting, majves too great a pro-
portion of the fums .coUeded ; in tlie highlands of
Scotland, the excife on ale and fpirits defrays not
the expence of levying ; the people are burdened,
and the government is not fupportcd. I fufpe^
that the window tax in Scotland lies open ig the fam^;
objeftion.

A lottery is a fort of tax different from any tl)at
have been mentioned. It is a tax, of all the mod
agreeable, being entirely voluntary, An appetite
for gaming, inherent even in favages, prompts mul-
titudes to venture their money in hopes of a higl^
prize i though they cannot altogether hide from
themfelves, the inequality of the play. But it is
well, that the fclfiib paiTions of men, can be made

fubfervieiit

502

Civil Society.

B, II.

fubfervient to the public good. Lotteries however
produce one unhappy efFe£l : they blunt the edge of
induftry, by diredtinor the attention to a more com-
pendious mode of gam. At the fame time, the mo-
ney acquired by a lottery, feldom turns to account ;
for what comes without trouble, goes commonly
without thought. .

the

SECT, IV.

Manner of levying Taxet,

f" I " \

A O avoid the rapacity of farmers, a mild gpvern-
ment will, in moft cafes, prefer management; i. e. it
vill levy taxes by officers appointed for that purpofe.
Montefquieu (a) has handled that point with his ufu-
al fpriglitly elegance.

Importation-duties are commonly laid upon the
"importer before the cargo is landed, leaving him to
add the duty to the price of the goods ; and the
facility of levyirig is the motive for preferring that
fiiode. But is ?t not hard, that the importer fliould
be obliged to advance a great fum in name of
duty, before drawing a Ihilling by the fale of his
goods ? It is not only hard, but grofsly unjuft ; for
if the goods perifli without being fold, the duty is
joft to the importer : he has no claim againft the
public for reftitution. This has more the air of
dcfpotifm, than of a free government. Would it
not be more equitable, that the goods lliould be
lodged in a public warehoufe, under cuftody of
revenue-officers, the importer paying the duty as
goods are fold ? According to the prefent mode,
■■' ■• ■ '" ^ '.'■-- ^-^ :---■ > ' ' ^ ■■ V the

.»->(

iji.

(a) L'Efprit dffs loix. liv. i^. ch, to,

Sk. VIII. 4.

Finances,

l<^3

the duty remains with the collcftor ifhree y6ars,
in order to be repaid to the importer, if the
good* be exported within that time ; but by the
mode propofed, the duty would be paid to the
treafury as goods are fold, which might 'be with-'
in a month from the time of importation, perhaps
a \veek ; and the treafury would profit, as well: as
the fair trader. There are public warehoufes ad-
joining to the cuftom-houfe of Bourdeaux, where
the fugars of the French colonies are depofited^
till the importer finds a market ; and he pays the
duty gradually as fales are made. It rejoices me,
that the fame mode is adopted in ttiis ifland with
refpeft to fome foreign articles necelfarv in our
trade with Africa : the duty is not demanded, tilt
the goods be fhipped for that continent. It is
alfo adopted with rcfpeft to foreign fait, and
with refped to rum imported from our fugatr-
colonies.

Befide the equity of what is here propofed, which
relieves the importer from advance of money and
from rilk, many other advantages would be derived
from it. In the firft place, the merchant, having
no occafion to refei've any portion of his capital for
anfwering tlie duty, would be enabled to com-
mence trade with a fmall ftock, or to encreafe
his trade if his ftock be large : trade would flojij\j.
rifli, and the pubEc revenue would encreafe in pro-
portion. Secondly, It would leflen fmuggUng :
many who commence trade with upright intenti-
on, arc tempted to fmuggle for want of ready mo-
ney to pay the duty. Thirdly, TUis manner of
levying the duty, would not only leflen the num-
ber of officers, but remove every reason for claim-
ing difcount on pretext of leakage, famples, and
the drying or lhrink,ing of goods. In the prefent
manner of levying, that difcount muft be left to
the difcretion of the officer : a private underftand-
ing is thus opened between him and the mer-
1 chur.t.

.■I' ■'

5<^4

Civil Societv.

B. II

Sk.

chant, hurtful to the revenue, and dcllruftive to
morals. Fourthly, The ..merchant would be ena-
bled to lower his prices, and be forced to lower
them by having many rivals ; which at the fame
time would give accefs to heighten importation -
duties, without raifing the price of foreign com-
modities, above what it is at prefent. But the
capital advantage of all would be, to render in ef-
ieh every port in Britain a free port, enabling
Englifli merchants, many of whom have great ca-
pitals, to outftrip foreigners in what is termed a
commerce of /peculation. This ifland is well fituated
for fuch commerce ; and were our ports free, th^
produdions of all climates would be (lored up in
them, ready for exportation when a mar}iet offers j.
an excellent plan for encreafing qui: fliipping, and
for producing boundl^fs wealth, ■. ■ .

S E C T. V.

I ' 1

*■ Rules to be ohflrved in Taxing, '....,. I.. '\

X H £ diftercnt objefls of taxes' and the intri-
cacy thereby occafioned, require general rules, not
only for directing the legifiature in impofing them,
but for enabling others to Judge what are benefici-
al, and what hurtful.

The firft rule I Ihall fuggeft is, That where-
cver there is an opportunity of fmuggling, taxes
ought to be moderate ; for fmuggling can never
be cfFe^ally rcftraincd, where the cheapnefs of
imported goods is in effedt an infurance againfl
the rilk; in which view. Swift humoroully ob-
fcrves, that tv;o and two do not always make
3 " four

Sk. Vlll. 5.

Finances,

505

four. A duty of 15 per cent, upon printed linen
imported into France, encourages funuggling : a
lower duty would produce a greater fum to the
public, and be more beneficial to the French ma-
nufa6lurer> Bone-lace imported into France is
charged with a duty of 20 per cent, in order to
favour that n^anufadure at home, but in vain ;
for bone-lace is eafily fmuggled, and the price is
little higher than before. The high duty on y^^ftfj
Uquoritia imported into Britain, being L. 7 : 2 ; 6
per hundred weight, was a great encouragement to
fmuggling ; for which, reafon it is reduced to 30s.
per hundred weight (a).

Smuggling ofti^a, which draws great fums from
Britain, is much encouraged by its high price at
home. As far as I can judgCj it would be pro-
fitable, both to the public and to individuals, to
lay afide the importation-duty, and to fubftitute in
its ftead a duty on the confumer. Freedom of
importation would enable the Eaft-i"dia company
to fell fo cheap, as efFedually to banifli fmuggling ;
and the low price of tea would enable the con-
fumer to pay a pretty fmart duty, without being
much out of pocket. The folloviring mode is pro-
pofed as a hint merely that may lead to improve-
ments. Let every man who ufes tea be fubjefted
to a moderate tax, proportioned to his mode of
living. Abfolute precifion cannot be expefted in
proportioning the tax on families ; but grofs ine-
quality may eafily be prevented. For inftance, let
the mode of living be determined by the. equi-
page that is kept. A coach or chaife with two
horfes, fliall fubjeft a family to a yearly tax of
L. 10 ; heightening the t'ax in proportion to the
number, of horfes and carriages; two fervants in
livery, without a carriage, to a tax of 40s. j tvc-
ry other family paying 20s. Every family where

tea

:': 1--S:

U t

WW,

ilH

[a) 7 Cpc. Ill cap. 47.

5o6

Civil Society.

B. II.

tea is ufcd mull be entered in the collcftor's
books, with its mode of living, under a heavy-
penalty ; which would regulate the coach-tax, as
well a« that on tea. Such a tax, little expei)five
in levying, would undoubtedly be efFc€lual : a
mafter of a family is impnidetit indeed, if he put
it in tlK: power of the vender, of a malicious
neighbour, or of a difguilcd fervant, to fubjeft
him to a heavy penalty. This tax, at the fame
time, would be the lealt difa^eeablc df any that
is levied without difguife ; being in effe£t a vo-
luntary tax, as the mode of living is volunta-
ry. Nor would it be difficult to temper the taXj
fo as to afford a greater fum to the public than
it receives at prefent from the importation-duty,
and yet to cofb our people no more for tea than
they pay at prefent, confidcring the high price of
that commodity.

To favour our own cambrick manufacture, the
importation of it is prohibited. The unhappy cir-
cumftance is, that fine cambrick is eafily fmuggled :
the price is great and the bulk fmall. Would it
not be more politic, to admit importation under
a duty fo moderate as not to encourage fmug-
gling ? The duty applied for promoting our own
cambric-manufadure, would in time fo improve
it, as to put us above the hazard of rivalfliip, with
refpeft at leaft to our own confumption. It is
pleafant to trace the progrelfive effetts of fuch a
plan. The importation-duties would at firft be
confiderable ; and yet no higher than neceflary
for nur4ing an infant manufafture. As the manu-
facture improves, more and more of it would be
oonfumed at home ; and the duty would fall in pro-
portion. But then, this fmall duty would be fulfi-
cient to encourage a manufacture, now approach-
ing to pexfe^ion..

High duties on importation are imtuoral, as well
as impolitic 3 for is i: not unjuflifiable in a legifla-

turc.

" ,.1

Sk. VIII. 5.

Finances*

507

ture, firft to tempt, and then to punifh for yielding
to the temptation ?

A fecond rule is. That taxes expenfive in the
levying ought to be avoided j being heavy on
the people, without a proportional benefit to the
revenue. Our land-tax is admirable: it affords a
great fum, levied with very little expence. The
duties on coaches, and on gold and filver plate,
are fimilar ; and fo would be the tax on tea
above propofed. The taxes that are the moft
hurtful to trade, and manufactures, fuch as the
duties on foap, candle, leather, are expenfive in
levying.

A third rule is. To avoid arbitrary taxes. They
are difguftful to all, not excepting thofe who arc
favourably treated ; becaufe felf-partiality feldom
permits a man to think, that juflice is done him.
A tax laid on perfons in proportion to their trade,
or their opulence, muft be arbitrary, even where
ftri£l juflice is intended ; becaufe it depends on
vague opinion or conjecture : every man thinks
himfelf injured ; and the fum levied does not ba-
lance the difcontent it occafions. The tax laid
on the French farmer in proportion to his fub-
ftance, is an intolerable grievance, and a great
engine of oppreffion : if the farmer exert any ac-
tivity in meliorating his land, he is fure to be
doubly taxed. Hamburgh affords the only inftancc
of a tax on trade and riches, that is willingly
paid, and that confequendy is levied without op-
preffion. Every merchant puts privately into the
public cheft, the fum that in his own opinion he
ought to contribute ; a fmgular example of in-
tegrity in a great trading town, for there is no fufpi-
cion of wrong in that tacit contribution. But this
Hate is not yet corrupted by luxury.

Becaufe many vices that poifon a nation, arife
from inequality of fortune j I propofe it as a fourth

rule

5o8

Civil Society.

B. II.

rule, to remedy that inequality as much as pofli-
ble, by relieving the poor, and burdening the
rich. Heavy taxes arc lightly borne by men of
overgrown cflates. Thole proprietors cfpecially,
who wound the public by converting much land
from profit to pleafure, ought not to be fpared.
Would it not contribute greatly to the public
good/ that a tax of L. 50 Ihould be laid on eve-
ry houfe thdt has 50 windows ; L. 1 50 on houfes
of 1 00 windows; and L. 400 on houfes of aoo
windows ? By the fame principle, every deer-park
of 200 acres ought to pay L. 50 ; of 500 acres
L. 200; and of 1000 acres L. 600. Fifty acres of
pleafure ground to pay L. 30 ; 100 fuch acres
L. 80 ; 150 acres L. 200 ; and 200 acres L, 300.
Such a tax would have a collateral good effeft :
it would probably move high-minded men to
leave out more ground for maintaining the poor,
than they are commonly inclined to do.

A fifth rule of capital importance, as it regards
the intereft of the ftate in general, is. That eve-
ry tax which tends to impoverifh the nation ought
to be rcjeded with indignation. Such taxes con-
tradi£fc the very nature of government, which is
to protect, not to opprefs. And fuppofmg the in-
tereft <)f the governing power to be only re-
garded, a ftate is not meafured by the extent of
its territory, but by what the fubjefts are able to
pay annually without end. A fovereign, however
rcgardlefs of his duty as father of his people, will
regard that rule for his own fake : a nation im-
poveriftied by oppreflive taxes, will reduce the fo-
vereign at Jaft to the fame poverty j for he cannot
levy what they cannot pay.

Whether taxes impofcd on common nccefla-
ries, which fall heavy upon the labouring poor, be
of the kind now mentioned, deferves the moft
fcrious deliberation. Where they tend to pro;-

. M

n^otc

Sk. VIII. 5.

Finances,

509

mote induftry, they are highly falutary : -where
they deprive us of foreign markets, by raifing the
price of labour and of manufactures, they arc
highly noxious. In fomc cafe's, induftry may be
promoted by taxes, with( uc raifing the price of
labour and of manufadlures* l^obollki in Siberia
is a populous town, the price of provifions is ex-
tremely low, and the people on that account are
extremely idle. While they are matlers of a far-
thing, they work none : when they are pinched
with hunger, they gain in a day what maintains
them a week : they never think of to-morrow, nor
of providing againft want. A tax there upon ne-
ceffaries \fDuld probably excite fome degree of
induftry. Such a tax renewed from time to time,
and augmented gradually, would promote induf-
try more and more, fo as to fqueeze out of that
lazy people three, four, or even five days labour
weekly, without raifing their wages or the price
of their work. But beware of a general rule.
The cffcd would be very different in Britain,
where moderate labour without much relaxation
is requifite for living comfortably : in every fuch
cafe, a . permanent tax upon neceffarics fails not
in time to raife the price of labour. It is true,
that in a fingie year of fcarcity, there is com-
monly more labour than in plentiful years. But
fuppofe fcarcity to continue many years fueccf-
fively, or fuppofe a permanent tax on neceifaries,
wages muft rife till the labourer find conrforta-
ble living: if the employer obftinately ftand out,
the labourer will in defpair abandon work altoge-
ther, and commence beggar ; or will retire to a
country lefs burdened with taxes. Hence a falu-
tary doftrine. That where cxpencc of living e-
quals, or nearly equals, what is gained by bodi-
ly labour, moderate taxes renewed from time to
time after confiderable intervals, will promote in-
duftry, without raifing the price of labour ; but

that

i;to

CjvIL SoCIEtY.

B. IF.

Sk.

that permanent taxes will unavoidably raife the
price of labour, and of manufadtures. In Hol-
land, the high price of provifions and of labour,
occafioned by permanent taxes, have excluded
from the foreign market every one of their ma-
nufadurcs that can be fupplicd from other nati-
Heavy taxes have annihilated their once

ons.

flourifhing manufactures of wool, of filk, of gold
and filver, and many others. The prices of labour
and of manufadures have in England been immo-
derately raifcd by the fame means.

To prevent a total downfall of our manufafturcs,
feveral political writers hold, that the labouring poor
ought to be difburdened of all taxes. The royal
tithe propofed for France, indead of all other taxes,
publifhed in the nanne of Marefchal Vauban, or
fuch a tax laid upon land in England, early impofed,
might have produced wonders. But the expedient
would now come too late, at lead in England : fuch
profligacy have the poor-rates produced among the
lower ranks, that to relieve them from taxes would
probably make them work lefs, but affuredly would
not make them work cheaper. It is vain therefore
to think of a remedy againft idlenefs and high wages,
while the poor-rates fubfift in their prefent form,
Davenant pronounces, that the Englifli poor-rates
will in time be the bane of their manufactures.
He computes, that the perfons receiving alms in
England amounted to one million and two hundred
thoufand ; the half of whom at lead would have
continued to work, had they not relied on parifli-
charity. But of this more at large in a feparate
Iketch.

Were the poor-rates aboliflied, a general a£t
of naturalization would not only augment the
ftrength of Britain by adding to the number of its
people, but would compel the natives to work
cheaper, and confequently to be more induftrious.
'.■'••■.■•■ If

Sk. VIII.

Fi/inncef,

5*'

If thefe expedients be not reliflicd, the only one
that remains lor prefcrving our manut'aftures, is,
to encourage their cxportatioii by a bounty, fuch as
may enable us to cope with our rivals in foreign
markets. But where is the fund for a bounty fo
extenfive ? It may be raifed out of land, like the
At! enian tax above mentioned, burdening great
proprietors in a geometrical proportion, and freeing
thofe who have not above L. loo of land-rent. That
tax would raife a great fum to the public, without
any real lofs to thofe who are burdened ; for com-
parative riches would remain the fame as formerly.
Nay fuch a tax would in time prove highly beneficial
to land proprietors ; for by promoting induftry and
commerce, it weutd raife the rent of land much
above the contribution. , The fums contributed,
laid out upon intereft at five per cent, would not
produce fo great profit. To make land-holders cm-
brace the tax, may it not be thought fufficient, that
unlefs for fome bounty, our foreign commerce mull
vaniih, and the land be reduced to its original low
value ? Can any man hefitatc about paying a (hil-
ling, when it prevents the lofs of a pound ?

I (hall clofe with a rule of deeper concern than
all that have been mentioned, which is. To avoid
taxes that require the oath of party. They arc
deftruftive to morals, as being a temptation to per-
jury. Few there are fo wicked as to hurt others
by perjury : at the fame time, not many of the
lower ranks fcruple much at perjury, when it pre-
vents hurt to themfelves. Confider the duty on
candle : thofe only who brew for fale, pay the
duty on malt liqupr; and to avoid the brewer's
oath, the quantity is afcertained by ofHcers who
attend the procefs : but the duty on candle is op-
preflivc, as comprehending poor people who make
no candle for fale ; and is fubverfive of morals^
by requiring their oath upon the quantity they
mjake for their own ufc. Figure a poor widow,

burdened

1 1-

5'2

Civil Society.

B. ir.

burdened with five or fix children : fhe is not
perniiued to make ready a little food for her in-
fants by the light of a rag dipped in greafe, without
payir ,; what (he has not to pay, or being guilty of
perjury. However upright originally, poverty and
arxicry about her infants, will tempt her to con-
ceal liic truih, and to, deny upon oath — a fad
Icflbn to her poor children : ought they to be
punidj.td for copying after their mother, whom they
loved and severed ? whatever fhc did appears right
in their eyes. The manner of levying the falt-
tax in France is indeed arbitrary ; but it nas not an
immoral tendency : an oath is avoided ; and every
mafter of a family pays for the quantity he is pre-
fumed to confume. French wine is often import-
ed into Britain as Spanifh, which pays lefs duty.
To check that fraud, the importer's oath is re-
quired ; and if perjury be fufpefted, a jury is fet
upon him in exchequer. This is horrid : the im-
porter is tempted by a high duty on French wine
to commit perjury ; for which he is profecuted
in a fovereign court, open to all the world : he
turns defperate and lofes all fenfe of honour. Thus
cuftom-houfe oaths have become a proverb, as
meriting no regard ; and corruption creeping on,
will become univerfal. Some goods imported pay
a duty ad valorem ; and to afcertain the value, the
importer's oath is required. In China, the books
of the merchant are trufted, without an oath.
Why not imitate fo laudable a practice ? If our
people be more corrupted, perjury may he avoid-
ed, by ordaining the merchant to deliver his
^oods to any who will demand them, at the rate
ftated in his books ; with the addition of ten per
cent, as a fufficient profit to himfelf. Oaths have
been greatly multiplied in Britain fince the Revo-
lution, without rcferve, and contrary to found po-
licy. New oaths have been invented againft thofe
who are difaifefted to the government ; againft

fictitious

Sk. VIII. 6.

Finances,

5^3

fiditious titles in clcding parliament members ;
again ft defrauding the revenue, &c. &c. They
have been To hackneyed, and have become fo fa-
miliar, as to be held a matter of form merely. Per-
jury has dwindled into a venial tranfgrciTion, and
is fcarcc held an imputation on any man's cha-
rader. Lamentable indeed has been the condud
of our Icgiflature : inflead of laws for reforming
or improving morals, the imprudent multiplica-
tion of oaths has not only fpread corruption through
every rank, but, by annihilating the authority of
an oath over conicience, has rendered it entirely
ineti'cdual.

ir a

SECT. VI.

Taxes examined with refped to their effe^s.

O other political fubjed is of greater impor-
tance to Britain, than the prefent : a whole life
might be profitably beftowed on it, and a large
volume : but hints only are my tafk. Confider-
ing taxes with regard to their efFeds, they may
be commodioufly diflinguifhed into five kinds. Firft,
Taxes that encreafe the public revenue, without
producing any other efFed, good or bad. Second,
Taxes that encreafe the public revenue ; and are
alfo beneficial to manufadures and co imerce.
Third, Taxes that encreafe the public revenue ;
but are hurtful to manufadures and commerce.
Fourth, Taxes that are hurtful to manufadures
and commerce, without encreafing the public re-
venue. Fifth, Taxes that are hurtful to manufac-
tures and commerce ; and alfo \<:[\cxi the public
Vol. I. ,-.,., LI revenue.

5^4

Civil Society,

B. IL

revenue. I proceed to inftances of each kind,
drawn chiefly from Britifh taxes.

Our land-tax h an riliiflrious inftance of the firft
kind ; it produces a revenue to the public, le-
vied with very little cxpence : and it hurts no
mortal; for a landholder who pays for having^
himfelf and his cilate prote^ed, cannot be faid ta
be hurt. The duty on coaches is of the fame
kind. Both taxes at the fame time are agreeable
to found principles. Men ought to contribute to the
jDubUc revenue, as far as they are benefited by be-
ing protcfted : a rich man requi-res protedion for
his pofleflions, as well as for his perfon, and there-
fore oi.ght to contribute largely ^ a poor roan re-
quires protection for his perfon only, and therefore
ought to con'^ribute little.

A tax on foreign luxuries is an inftance of the fe-
cond kind. It encreafes the public revenue : and it
greatly benefits individuals ; not only by rcftrain-
ing the confumption of foreign luxuries, but by
encouraging our own manufaftures. Britain en-
joys a monopoly of coal exported to Holland ; and
the duty on exportation is agreeable to found policy,
being paid by the Dutch. This duty is another in-
ftance of the fecond kind r it ratf^s a confiderable
revenue to the public ? and it enables us to cope
with the Dutch in every raantifafture that employs
coal, fuph as dyeing, diftilling, works of glafs and of
iron. And thefc manufa£kutes in Britain, by the
dcarncfs of labour, are entitled to fome aid. A tax
on horfes, to prevent their increafe, would be a
tax of the fame kind. The incredible number of
horfes ufed in coaches and other wheel- carriages,
has raifed the price of labour, by doubling the price
of oat-meal, the food of the labouring poor in
many parts of Britain. The price of wheat is alfo
raifed by the fame means; becaufc the vaft quan-
tity of land employed in producing oats, leflens

■ the

Sk. Vlll. 6.

Finances,

sis

the quantity for wheat. I would not exempt tvfen
plough-horfes from the tax ; bccaufe in every view
it is more advantageous to ufe oxen *. So little
regard is paid to thefe confiderations, that a coach,
whether drawn by two horfes or by fix, pays the
fame duty.

As to the third kind, I am grieved to ob-
ferve, that we have many taxes detrimental to the
(late, as being more oppreflive upon the people
than gainful to the public revenue. Multiplied
taxes on the neceifaries of life, candle, foap, leatherj
ale, fait, &c. raife the price of labour, and confe-
quently of manufactures. If they fliall have the
effed to deprive us of foreign markets, which we
have reafon to dread, depopulation and poverty mufl
enfue. The fah-tax in particular is eminently de-
trimental With refpeft to the other taxes mention-
ed, the rich bear the greateft burden, being the great-
eft confumers ; but the fhare they pay of the fait -tax
is very little, becaufe they rejeft fait provifions. The
falt-tax is ftill more abfurd in another rcfpeft, fait be-
ing a choice manure for land. One would be amaz-
ed to hear of a law prohibiting the ufe of lime as a

L I 2 manure :

* They are preferable" for hiifbandry in feveral refpefts. They are cheapi
er than horfes : their food, their harnefs, their ftioes, the attendance on
Them, much lefs expenfive : and their dung much better for land. Horfes
arc more fubjeft to difeafes ; and when difeafed or old are totally ufelefs : *
Hock for a farm, muft be renewed at leaft every ten years } whereas a
ilock of oxen may be kept entire for ever without any new expence, ai
ttiey will always draw a full price when fatted for food. Noi is a horfe
more docile than an ox ; a couple of oxen in a plough, require not a dri-
\r!r more than a couple of horfes. The Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope
plough with oxen ; and exercife them early to a quick pace, fo as to e-
qual horfes both in the plough and in the waggon. The people of Malabar
ufe no other animal for the plough nor for burdens. About Poridicherry no
bcafts of burden are lo be feen but oxen. The Creeks and Romans anci-
ently ufed no hearts in the plough but oxen. Tlie vaft increafe ol horfes of
late years for luxury as well as for draught, makes a great confumption
of oats. If in hufljandry oxen only Vvere ufed, which require no oats, ma-
siy thoufand acres would be faved for wheat and barley. But thcadvan-
i.igcs of oxtn would not be confined to the farmer. Beef would be much
cheaper to the manufadlurer, by the valt addition of fat oxen fentto market;
and the price of leather and tallow woulJ fall ; a national benefit, ai evsiy
vne ufes (hoe; iind candle?.

31 i'^

.i!

v^n

;i6

Civil Society.

i;,

B. IL

manure : he would be ftill more amazed to hear
of the prohibition being extended to fait, which is
a manure much fuperior : and yet a heavy tax
on fah, which renders it too dear for a manure,
furprifes no man. But the mental eye refembles
that of the body : it feldom perceives but what is
directly belbre it : confequences lie far out of
fight. Many thoufand quarters of good wheat,
have been annually with-held from Britain by the
falt-tax. What the treafury has gained, will not
compenfate the fiftieth part of that lofsc The ab-
furdity of with-holding from us a manure fo pro-
fitable, has at lalt been difcovtred ; and reme-
died in part, by permitting Englifli foul fait to
be ufed for manure, on paying four-pence of duty
per bufliel {a). Why was not Scotland permitted
to taflc of that bounty ? Our candidates, it would
appear, are more felicitous of a feat in parliament,
than of ferving their country when they have ob-
tained that honour. What pretext would there have
been even for murmuring, had every one of them
been rcjeded with indignation, in the choice of
rcprefentatives for a new parliament ?

The window-tax is more detrimental to the peo-
ple, than advantageous to the revenue. In the firft
place, it promotes large farms in order to fave
houfes and windows ; whereas fmall farms tend
to multiply a hardy ' and frugal race, ufeful for
every purpofe. In the next place, it is a difcou-
ragement to manufadures, by taxing the houfes
in which they are carried on. Manufacturers, in
order to relieve thcmfelves as much as poflible
from the tax, make a fide of their houfe but one
window ; and there are inftances, where in three
ftories there are hut three windows. But what
chiefly raifcs my averfion to that tax, is that it
burdens the poor more than the rich : a houfe in
a paultry village that affords not five pounds of

yearly

{a) i" Geo, III. cap. 15,

Sk. VIII. 6.

Finances.

5»7

yearly rent, may have a greater number of win-
dows than one in London rented at fifty. The
plate-tax is not indeed hurtful to manufactures and
commerce: but it is hurtful to the common in-
terfjft ; becaufe plate converted into money may be
the means of faving the nation at a crifis, and
therefore ought to be encouraged, inftead of be-
ing loaded with a tax. On pictures imported into
Britain, a duty is laid in proportion to the fize.
Was there no intelligent perfon at hand, to in-
form our legiflature, that the only means to roufe
a genius for painting, is to give our youth ready
accefs to good pidures ? Till thefe be multiplied
in Britain, we never fhall have the reputation of
producing a good painter. So far indeed it is
liicky, that the mod valuable pi£l:ures are not
loaded with a greater duty than the moll paultry,
Fifh, ^^'^th fait and frefli, brought to Paris, pay
a di -^ f 48 per cent, by an arbitrary eftimati-
on 01 aie value. This tax is an irreparable in-
jury to France, by difcouraging the multiplication
of feamcii. It is beneficial indeed in one view, as
it tends to check the growing population of that
gi*cat city.

Without waiting to rummage the Biitifli taxes
for inllances of the fourth kind, I Ihall prefent
my reader with a foreign inllance. In the Auf-
trian Netherlands, there are inexhauftible mines of
coal, the exportation of which would make a con-
fiderable article of commerce, were it not abfo-
lutely barred by an exorbitant duty. This ab-
furd duty is a great injury to proprietors of coal,
without yielding a farthing to the revenue. The
Dutch, many years ago, offered to confine them-
felves to that country for coal, on condition of
being relieved from tlie duty ; which would have
brought down the price below that of Britiih coal.
Is it not wonderful, that the propofal was rejcd-
ed ? But minifters feldom regard what is beneficial

'!«'

I i'''' ii

£18

Civil Society.

B. II.

to the nation, unlcfs it produce an immediate bc^
ncfit to their fovereign or to themfelves. The
coal-mines in the Auftrian Netherlands being thus
fliut up, and the art of working them loft, the
Britifli enjoy the monopoly of exporting coal to
Holland. . \d it is likely to be a very bene-
ficial monopoly. The Dutch turf hi wearing
out. The woods arc cut down every where near
the fea ; and t\\e expence of carrying wood for
fuel from a difiance, turns greater and greater
cyery day.

The duty on coal water-t^rne is an inftance of
the fifth kind. A great obflruclion it is to many
ufeful manufactures that require qoal ; and indeed
to manufatlures in general, by increafing the ex-
pence of coal, an effential article in 4 cold coun-
try. Nay, one would imagine, that it has been
intended to check population ; as poor wretches
benummed with cold, have little of the Carnal ap-
petite, it has not even the merit of adding much
to the public revenue ; for, laying afide London,
it produces but a ipere trifle. But the peculia-
rity of this tax, which intitles it to a confpicu-
ous place in the fifth clafs, is, that it is not lefs
delrimental to the public revenue, than to indi-
viduals. No fedentary art nor occupation, can
fucceed in a cold climate without plenty of fuel.
One may at the firft glance diftinguifli the coal-
countries from the reTl of England, by the ip-
duflry of the inhabitants, and by plenty of ma-
nufaftqring towns and villages. Where there is
fcarcity of fuel, fome hours are loft every morn-
ing ; becaufe people cannot work till the place be
fufficiently warmed, which is efpecially the cafe in
manufadures that require a foft and delicate
finger. Now, in many parts of Britain that might
be provided with coal by water, the labouring
poor are deprived of that comfort by the tax.

Had

"Sk. VIII. 7. Finances^ 519

Had cheap firing cncoiuraged thefc people to prxa-
fecute arts and inanufaflures ; it is more than
probable, that at this day they would be Qontri-
biuing to the public revenue by other .duties,
much greater fuins than are dra>yn from them
by the duty <in coal. At the fame time, if coal
muft pay a duty, why not At the pit, where it is
cheapeft ? Is it not an egregious blunder, to lay
^ great duty on thofe who pay a high price for
coal, and no duty on thofc who have it clicap ?
If there muft be a coal-duty^ let water-borne coal
at any rate be exempted ; not only became even
without duty it comes dear to the confumer, but
alfo for the encouragement of feamen. Eor the
honour of Britain tliis .duty ought to be ex-
punged from our ilatute-book, neyer again to
ihow its face. Great reafon indeed there is for
continuing the duty on coal confumed in Lop-
don ; becaufe ev^ry ariince fbojald be praftifed^
to prevent the increafe of a xcapital, that is alrea-
dy too large for this or for any other kingdom. -

Towns are unhealthy in proportion to their fize ; and-
a great town like London is a greater enemy to por
©ulatioB than war or famine. -_

* '-f;

•»[.:0'.; /.

>;.,

^. •

.( .

/ SEC T. MI.

t .-■■ .' .

^< V

^axes fir advanc'mi hidujiry and Corimcrce.

KJ F all fcienccs, that qf politics is ):he moll
•intricate; and its progrefs toward maturity is flow
m proportion. In the prefent feftion, taxes pn
exportation of native commodities take the lead ;

5^^

Civil Society.

B. II.

Sk.

and nothing can fet in a ftronger light the grofs
ignorance of former ages, than a ma^iini univcr-
fally adopted. That to tax exportation or to pro-
hibit it altogether, is the belt means for having
plenty at home. In Scotland we were not fatisfi-
ed with prohibiting the exportation of corn, offifli,
and of horfes 'le prohibition was extended to ma-
nufaftures, 11' .1 Hoth, caijdie, butter, chc^fc, bark-
ed hides, fhoes * (ia).

Duties on exportation are in great favour, from
a notion tha,t they are paid by foreigners. This
holds ibrnetimes, as in the above-mentioned qafe
of coal exported to Holland : but it fails in every
cafe where" the foreign market can. be fupplied' by
others ; for what'^ver b6 the duty, the merchant
mufl: regulate his price by the market. And e-
ven ..fupporirig the market-price at prefcnt to be
fufiicicnt for the duty, with a rcafonable profit to
the exporter ; fhofe who pay no duty will Itrain
every riei^ve of rivallhip, ' till they cut us out by
low prices. The duty on French wine exported,
from' France, "is in eneft a .bounty to'thewiiles of
neighbouring' countries. The duty is unllvilfulTy
impofed, being the fame upon all wrnes export-
ed, without regard to flavour or ftrtngth ; which
bars the commerce of fmall wines, though they
far exceed the flrong in quantity. A moderate
duty on exportation, fuch a§ fmall wines can bear,
would add a greater fum to the revenue, and alfo
be more beneficial to commerce. To improve the
commerce of wine in France, the exportation
ought to be "free, or 'at jnoft charged with a

u ■ ii^ode-

* Oil was the orly connnodity tliat by the law^ , jof Solon was permitted
to l6 expbrte(J from Attica, The fi^s of that country, which are delicious,
came tot:be yttOducU in fuch plenty, that there wa* not cbn&mption for
thftni at liome ; &n4 yet the law prohibiting ejqportation was not abro-
gated. " Sycbj)haht' denotes a perfon who informs againrt tiie exporter
oflftgct httcJtlia^ prohibition appearing abfurd, fycophant became a term
o|k, reproach.

{a) Adt 59. pari. 1573.

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances,

521

moderate duty ad valorem. In Spain an cxccfiivc
duty is laid upon the plant barrile when exported ;
from an opinion that it will not grow in any o-
thet country. It is not confidered, that this tax,
by >lclVening the demand, is a diicouragement to
its culture. A moderate duty would rail'e more
money to the public, would employ more tends,
and would make that plant a permanent article of
commerce. The excelfive dut^ has let invention
at work, for fome material in place of that plant.
If fuch a material lliould be difcovered, the Spa-
iiifli miniftry will be convinced of a falutary max-
im, That it is not always fafe to interrupt by high
duties the free coiirfe of comnierce* Formerly in
Britain^ the exportation of manufadured. copper
was prohibited; That blunder in commercial po-
litics, was corrected' by a ftatute in the reign of
King William^ permitting fuch copper to be ex-
ported, on paying a duf" of four Shillings the
hundred weigjit. - The ex^jortation ought to have
been declared free ; which was done by a ftatute
of Queen Anne. But as the heat of improve-
ment tends naturally to excefs, this ftatv =i per-
mits even unwrought copper, a raw matei. a to be
exported. This probably was done to favour
copper-mines: but- did it not alfo favour foreign
copper-manufaftures ? Goods and merchandife of
the produft or manufafturc of Great Britain, may
be exported duty free (rt).' A few years ago, the
Eait India Company procured an a£t of parlia-
ment, prohibiting the exportation of cannon to the
Eaft Indies; which was very Ihort fighted : the
Dutch and Danes purchafc cannon here, of which
they make a profitable trade by exporting them
to the Eaft Indies. A cannon is purchafed in
Scotland for about L. 14 per ton, and fold to the
Nabobs of Hindoftan for between L. 50 and

; (

(<i) George I, cap, 14, a<fi S,

111

)\ I

521

Civil Society.

B. II.

L. 70 per ton. And the only cfl'c<5t of the a£t
of parliament, is to cut the Britifh out of that
profitable branch of commerce. Allum, lead, and
fome other commodities fj)ecified in the ftatutc,
Mc excepted ; and a duty formerly paid on ex-
portation is continued for encouraginc fuch of our
own manufactures as employ any 01 the articles
fpecified. In Ireland to this day, goods exported
are loaded with a high duty, without even dif-
tinguilhing made work from raw materials ;
corn, for example, fifh, hops, butter, horned cat^
tie, wrought iron, leather, and every thine j; lade
of it, &c. And that nothing may efcapc, all goods
exported that are not contained in the book of
rates, pay 5 per cent, ad valorem*

When Sully entered on the adminiftration of
the French finances, corn in France was at an exr-
orbitant price, occafioned by neglcft of hufbaPr
dry during the civil war. That fagacious miniiler
difcovered the fccret of re-eftablifhing agriculture,
and of reducing the price of corn, which is, to
allow a free exportation. So rapid was the fuc-
cefs of that bold but politic meafure, that in a few
years France became the granary of Europe ; and
what at prefent may appear wonderful, we find in
the Englifli records, anno 1621, bitter complaints
of the French undcrfellin^ them in their own
markets. Colbert, who, fortunately for us, had
imbibed the common error, renewed the prohibir
tion of exporting corn, hoping to have it cheap
at home for hio manufa^urers. But he was in
a grofs miftakc ; for that prohibition has been
the chief caufc of many famines in France fmce
that time. The corn-trade in France by that
means, lay long under great difcouragements ; and
the French miniflry continued long blind to the
intereft of their country. At laft, edi£ls were if-
fued, authorifing the commerce of corn to be ab-
folutely free, whether fold within the kingdom or

exported.

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances,

52J

! If

exported. The generality however continued blind.
In the year 1768, the badnefs of the harvefl having
occafioncd a famine, the diftreflcs of the people were
cxcefllve, and their complaints univcrfal. Over-
looking altogether the bad harveft, they attribut-
ed their mifery to the new law. It was in vain
urged, that freedom in the corn-trade encourages
agriculture : the popular opinion was adopted even
by mofl of the parliaments ; fo difficult it is to
eradicate eftabliflied prejudices. In Turky, about
thirty years ago, a grand vizir permitted corn to
be exported more freely than had been done for-
merly, a bufliel of wheat being fold at that time
under feventeen pence. Every nation flocked to
Turky for corn ; and in particular no fewer than
three hundred French veflels, from twenty to two
hundred tons, entered Smyrna bay in one day.
The Janiflaries and populace took the alarm, fear-
ing that all the corn would be exported, and that
a famine would enfue. In Conftantinople they
grew mutinous, and were not appeafed till the
vizir was ftrangled, and his body thrown out to
them. His fucceflbr, cautious of fplltting on the
fame rock, prohibited exportation abfolutely. In
that country, rent is paid in proportion to the
produdl ; and the farmers, who faw no demand,
negletlcd tillage. In lefs than three years the
bufhel of wheat rofe to fix fliillings ; and the dif-
trefles of the people became intolerable. To this
day, the fate of the good vizir is lamented.

We have improved upon Sully's difcovery, by
a bounty on corn exported, which has anfwered
our mod fanguine expectations. A great increafe
of gold and filver fubfequent to the faid bounty,
which has raifed the price of many other commodi-
ties, muft have alfo raifed that of corn, had not a
ftill greater increafe of corn, occafioncd by the
bounty, reduced its price even below what it was
formerly ; and by that means, our manufaftures

have

■^ii

If!

5^-4

Civil Society.

B. II.

have profited by the bounty, no lefs than our huT-
bandry. The bounty is ftill more important in ano-
tlier rcfpecl : f^ur wheat can be aflordcd in the
French markets cheaper than their own ; by which
agriculture in France is in a languifliing Rate. And
it is in our power, during a war, to dafli all the
French fchenies for conqueft, by depriving them
ol bread *. This bounty therefore is our pal-
ladium, which wc ought religioufly to guard, if
we would avoid being a province of France. Some
i'age politicians have begun of late to mutter againft
it, as feeding our rival manufadturers cheaper
than our own ; which is doubtful, as the cxpence
of exportation commonly equals the bounty. But
fuppofmg it true, will the evil be remedied by with-
drawing the bounty ? On the contrary, it will dif-
courage manufadures, by raifing the price of wheat
at home. It will befide encourage French hufban-
dry, fo as in all pirobability to reduce the price
of their wheat, below what we afford it to them.
In France, labour is cheaper than in England, the
people arc more frugal, they poflefs a better foil
and climate : what have we to balance thefe fig-
nal advantages but our bounty ? and were that
bounty withdrawn, I (liould not be furprifed to fee
French corn poured in upon us, at a lower price
than it can be furnifhed at home ; the very evil
tiiat was felt during Sully's adminiflration.

The exportation of Britilli manufaftures to our
American colonies, ought to meet with fuch en-
couragement as to prevent them from rivalling us :
it would be a grofs blunder to encourage their
manufactures, by impofmg a duty on what we ex-
port to them. We ought rather to give a bounty

. i ;

* Between the years 1715 and 17^5 there was of wheat exported from
England to France twenty one millions oi f if tiers, eAiinated at two hun-
dred millions of livres. The bounty for exporting corn has fometimes
amounted to L, 150,000 for a fingle year. But this fuiri is not all loft
to the revenue; fcr frequently our com is exchanged with goods that
|jay a high duty on importation.

Sk. VIII. 7. Tinan:.es, ' 525

on exportation ; which, by underfelling them in their
own markets, would qiuifli every attempt to rivallhip.

As the duty on Foreign linen imported into Bri-
tain, is drawn back w1icn exported to America,
our legiflature gave a bounty on our coarfc linen
exported to that country, which enables us to
cope with the Germans in the American mar-
kets. The ftaining or printing of linen cloth, has
of late become a confiderable article in the manu-
fafturcs of Britain ; and there is no fort of linen
more proper for that manufacture than our own.
The duty of foreign linen is drawn back when ex-
ported to America, whether plain or itamped : and
as we lofe the bounty on our coarfe linen when (lamp-
ed, none but foreign hnen is employed in the
ftamping manufacture. This is an overfight, fuch
as our legiflature is guilty of fomctimes *.

It is not always true policy, to difcourage the
exportation of our own rude materials : liberty of
exportation, gives encouragement to produce them
in greater plenty at home ; which confequently
lowers the price to our manufa^l:urcrs. Upon
that principle, the exporting corn is permit-
ted, and in Britain even encouraged with a
bounty. But where exportation of a rude mate-
rial will not encreafe its quantity, the prohibition
is good policy. For example, the exporting rags
for paper may be prohibited ; becaufe liberty of ex-
porting will not occafion one yard more of linen
cloth to be conlumcd.

Lyons

* Early in the year 1774 an applicntion was made to parliament forfnp-
porting tRe linen manufadure, at that time in a declining l\atej praying in
particular that ftamped linen (hould be comprehended under the bounty for
coarfe linen exported to America ; in order that his Majefty's loyal fubjefts

»mi^ht have the fame favour that Is beftowed on foreij;ners. From an ill-ground-
ed jealflufy that this application might beof fome prejudice to the Englilh wool-
len manufnftures, the bill in a pcevilh fit Was rejefted by the hodfe of com-

' mons. With refpeft at leaft to the prayer concerning ftamped linen, I may
boldly affirm, t!)at it was doing wrong, without even a pretext. There is
nothing perfcd of human invention. Where the legiflature confifts of
a fingle perfon, arliitrary and oppreffive meafiires always prevail : where
it confifts of a great number, padion and prejudice cannot always be pre
vented.

526

Civil Society".

B. If.

Lyons is the city of Europe where the great-
efl quantity of filk fluffs is made : it is at the
fame time the grcatcft ftaple of raw filk ; the filk
of Italy, of Spain, of the Levant, and of the
fouth of France, being there colleded. The ex-
portation of raw filk is prohibited in France, with
a view to leflen its price at home, and to ob-
ftrud the filk manufafture among foreigners. —
The firft is a grofs error j the prohibition of ex-
portation producing fcarcity, not plenty : and with
refpcfl to the other view, it feems to have been
overlooked, that the commerce of the filks of Ita-
ly, of Spain, and of the Levant, is open to all trad-
ing nations. This prohibition is indeed fo inju-
dicious, that without any benefit to France, it has
done irreparable niifchicf to the city of Lyons :
while the commerce of raw filk, both buying and
felling was monopolized by the merchants of that
city, they had it in their power to regulate the
price; but to compel foreigners to go to the foun-
tain-head, not only raifes the price by concurrence
of purchafers, but deprives Lyons of a lucrative mo-
nopoly. The fame blunder is repeated with refpeft
to raw filk fpun and dyed. In Lyons, filk is pre-
pared for the loom with more ait than any where
clfe ; and to fecure the filk-manufaclure, the expor-
tation of fpun filk is prohibited ; which muft roufc
foreigners, to bellow their utmofl attention upon
improving the fpinning and drefling of filk : and
who knows whether reiterated trials by perfons of
genius, may not, in England for example, bring
thefe branches of the manufadlure to greater
perfection, than they are even in Lyons ?

Whether we have not committed a blunder of
the fame kind in prohibiting exportation of our
wool, is a very ferious queftion, which I proceed
to examine. A fpirit for hulbandry and for eve-
ry fort of improvement, is in France turning more
3 and

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances,

S'i?

and more general. In fcveral provinces there arc
focieties, who have command of public money tor
promoting agriculture ; and about no other arti-
cle are thcfc focicties more folicitous, than about
improving their wool. A book lately publiihed
in Sweden and translated into French, has in-
fpired them with i'anguine hopes of fucccfs ; as it
contains an account of the Swediih wool being
greatly improved in quality, as well as in quanti-
ty, by importing Spanim and Englifli Ihecp for
breed. Now as France is an cxtenfivc country, fi-
tuated between Spain and England, two excellent
wool-countries, it would be ftrangc, if t' ere fliould
not be found a fmgle corner in all France that
can produce good wool. Britain may be jiifl'y
apprehenfive of thefe attempts ; for if France ''an
cope with us under the difadvantage of procunng
our wool by fmuggling, how far will they exceed
us with good wool of their own ? The wc^Men
cloth of England has always been cfteemed ics ca-
pital manufafture ; and patriotifin calls on every
one to prevent if pollible the lofs of that valuable
branch. Till fomething better be difcovered, I
venture to propofe what at firfl may be thought
a ftrange meafure j and that is, to permit tlie
exportation of our wool upon a moderate duty,
fuch as will raife the price to the French, but not
fuch as to encourage fmuggling. The opportu-
nity of procuring wool in the rrighbourhood at
a moderate price, joined with f " ;ral unfucceft-
ful attempts to improve their own wool, would
foon make the French abandon thoughts of that
improvement.

Experience has unfolded the advantages of li-
berty to export corn : that liberty has greatly en^
couraged agriculture, and, by increafmg the quan-
tity of corn, has made it even cheaper at home
than formerly. Have we not reafon to expeft a
similar confequence, from the fame meafure with

refpeit

■■'i

5.i3

Civil Society.

IB. m

refpeft to wool? A new vent for that commodity^'
.would improve the ' breed of our flieep, cncreafe
their number, meliorate the land by their dung,
and probably bring down the price of our wool
at home. It would be proper indeed to prohibit
the exportation of wool, as of corn, when the
price rifcs above a certain fum. This meafurc
w^uld give us the command of that valuable com-
modity : it would fecure plenty to ourfelves, and
diltrers our rivals, at critical times when the com-
modity is fcarce. '- .;■•':»•

There is one reafon that fliould influence our
legillature to permit the exportation of wool, even
luppofmg the foregoing arguments to be incon-
clufive : very long experience may teach us, if
we can be taught by experience, that vain are our
endeavours to prevent wool from being export-
ed : it holds true with refpeft to all prohibiti-
ons, that fmuggling will always prevail, where the
profit rifes above the rifk. Why not then make
a virtue of neceflity, by permitting exportation
under a duty ? One other meafure would reftore
the Englifh woollen manufadure to its priftine
height, which is to apply the fum arifmg from
the tax, as a premium for exporting woollen
goods. Were that meafure adopted, the liberty
of exporting wool woiild prove a fingular blef-
fmg to England.

I clofe this branch with a commercial lelTon,
to which every other confideration ought to yield.
The trade of a nation depends for the mofl part
on very delicate circumflances, and requires to
be carefully nurfed. Foreigners, in particular,
ought to be flattered and encouraged, that they
may prefer us before others. Nor ought we ever
to rely entirely on our natural advantages ; for
it is not eafy to forcfce what may occur to over-
balance them. As this rctledlion is no lefs obvi-
ous than weighty, facb will be more eile'clual
tlian argument for making a d'^ep impreir^on. —

Ik fore

Sk. VIII. 7.

Fitiances*

5^9 \

Before the time of the famous Colbert, Holland
was the chief market for French manufafturcs.
That minifter in order to monopoUze every arti-
cle of commerce, laid a high duty on Dutch
goods brought into France. The Dutch refent-
ing this meafure, prohibited totally fo me French
rnan'ufa£turesi, and laid a high duty on others ;
which had the effed to encourage thefe manu*
fadures at home. The revocation of the edid of
Nantz, drove a vaft number of French manu-
faclurers into Holland ; and perfeded various ma-
nufadures formerly brought from France. In a
word, this meafure intended by Colbert to turn the
balance of trade entirely on the fide of his coun-
try, had the effeft of turning it more for the
Dutch than formerly. The Swifs fome years ago
imported all their wines from the King of Sar-
dinia's dominions. The King laid a high duty on
thefe wines, knowing that the Swifs had not ready
accefs to any other winc'-country. He did not
forefee, that this high duty was equal to a pre-
mium for cultivating the vine at home. They
fucceeded ; and now are provided with wine of
their own growth. The city of Lyons, by mak-
ing filver-thread in perfcftion, had maintained a
monopoly of that article againft foreigners, as well
as natives. But a high duty on its exportation,
in order to monopolize alfo the manufadure of
•filver-lace, will probably excite foreigners to im-
prove their own filver-thread and filver-lace j and
France will be deprived of both monopolies, by
the very means employed for fecuring both.—
Englifli goods purchafed by Spaniards for the A-
merican market pay to the King of Spain on ex-
portation a duty equal to their value. This im-
politic meafure opens a wide door to fmuggiing ;
as EngUdi goods can be furnilhed 50 per cent,
cheaper from Jamaica. The Spanilh governor
Mexico joins underhand in the fmuggiing ;
Vol. I. M m which

53^

Civil Society.

B. II.

Hvhieh is commonly carried on in the following
manner. The governor, to vhom early notice is
-given, gives notice to others by a proclamation,
that a foreign Ihip, with Englifli goods on board,
-every article being Ipecified, is hovering on the
'coall ; and prohibiting, under fevere penalties, any
perlbn to be a purchafer. That public proclama-
tion has the defired efFedt : all flock to the fliorc, and
purcharcin perfeft tranquillity.

Befide heavy duties, commerce with foreigners
has been diftrefl'ed by many unwary regulations.
The herring filhery, which is now an article of
imraenfe commerce, was engrofled originally by
the Scots. But grafping at all advantages, the
royal boroughs of Scotland, in the reign of the
fecond James, prohibited their fiihermen to fell
herrings at fea to foreigners; ordering that they
ihould be firfl: landed, in order that they themfelves
might be firft provided. Such was the policy of
thole times. But behold the confequence. The
Netherlanders and people of the Hanfe towns, being
prohibited to purchafe as formerly, became fifliers
themfelves, and cut the Scots out of that profitable
branch of trade. The tar company of Sweden,
taking it for granted that the Englifli could not
be othcrwil'e fupplied, refufed to let them have
any pitch or tar, even for ready money, unlefs
permitted to be imported into England in Swc-
difli bottoms ; and confequently in fuch quanti-
ties only as the company fliould be plealed to
furniili. This hardfiiip moved the parliament to
give a bounty ior pitch and tar made in our own
colonics. And if we be not already, we fliall
foon be altogether independent of Sweden. The
Dutch, excited by the profitable trade of Portu-
gal with the Eaft-lndies, attempted a North-eaft
paffage to China ; and that proving abortive, they
fet on foot a trade with Liibon for Eail-India
commodities- Portugal was at that time fubjcd

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances.

S3^

to the King of Spain ; and the Dutch, though at
"war with Spain, did not doubt of their being
well received in Portugal, with which kingdom
they had no caufe of quarrel. But the King r,f
Spain overlooking not only the law of nation-,
but even his own intereft as' King of Portugal,,
confifcated at iliort-hand the, Dutch fliips and
their cargoes,' in the harbour of Lifbon. Ihat
unjiiit and unpolitic treatment, provoked ,the
Dutch to attempt an Eaft-India trade, which
probably they would not otherwife have thought of;
and they were fo fuccefsful, as to fupplant the
Portuguefe in eyery quarter. Thus the King of
Spain, by a grots error in policy, exalted his e-
nemies to be a powerful maritime ftate. Had he
encouraged the Dutch to trade with Lifbon, (ythei
nations muft have reforted to the fame market.
Portugal would have been raifed to fuch a height
qf maritime power, as to be afraid of no rival : the
Dutch would not have thought of coping with it>
nor would any other nation.

We proceed to foreign cornmodities. The nriea-
fures laid down for regulating their importation,
have different views. One is, to keep down a rival
power ; in which view it is prudent to prohibit im-
portation from one country^ and to encourage \%
froni another. It is judicious in the Britifli legi^fiS-
ture, to load French wines with a higher duty than
t))ofe of Portugal; and in France, it would b^ a
proper meaiure, to prefer the beef of Holftein, or
of Kuflia, before that ol' Ireland; and the tobacco
of the Ukraine, or of the Palatinate, before that of
Virginia! But fuch meafures of government ought
to be fparin^iy excrciled, for fear of retaliation.

There is no caufe more cogent for regulating im-
portation, than an unfavourable balance. By per-
mitting French goods to be imported free of duty,
the balance againft England was computed to be a

M m 2 million

iii'li

lii<

i ill

53-

Civil Societv.

B. IK

million ftcrling yearly. In the year 1678, that im-
portation was regulated; which, with a prohibition
of wearing Eaft-lndia m-tnufadures, did -n twenty
years turn the balance of trade in favour of Eng-
land.

Mofl of the Britifli rer ulations concerning goods
imported, arc contrived tor promoting our own mii-
nufaftures, or thofe oF our colonies. A ftatute, 3°
Edward IV. cap. 4. inti^led, " Certain merchandifes
** Tiot lawful to be brought ready wrought into the
** kingdom," contains a large lill of fuch merchan-
difes ; indicating the good' fenfe of the Englilh in an
early period, intent on promoting their own manu-
fa^urcs. To favour a new manufacture of- their
own, it is proper to lay a duty on the fame manu-'
failure imported. To cn<fourage; the a^t of throw-
ing filk, the duty on raw filk imported is rcductd,
and- that on thrown filk is heightened'. ' But fuch ii
meafure bught to be taken with pfeclautioh, left it
recoil againft burfelves. The Swedish; Ibriie yeai's
ago, intent on raifing manufaftures at home, pro-
hibited at once foreign mdnufadures, without due
preparation. Smuggling enfued, for people mufl:
import what they cannot find at home ;.and the
home manufadurcs were not benefited'. But the
confequcnccs were ftill more fcvere. Foreign ina-
iiufa£lures were fornierly purchafcd with their coj

per, iron, timber, pitch, tar, tkc. : but now as fo-
reigiKrs cannot procure thefe commodities but with
ready money, they refort to RulTia and Norway,
where commodities of the fame kind 'dre'procur-
cd by barter. The Swedifh government, percciv-*
ing-^ their error, permit feveral foreign manufac-
tures to be imported as formerly. But it'is now
too late ; for the trade flows into another chan-
nel : and at prefent, the Swedifh copper and iron'
worlvS arc far from flourifhing as they once did.
In the year 1768, an ordinancewas ilTucd by the
court of Spain, prohibiting priiucd or painted linen

and

^.lm^>

Sk. Vlll. 7. Finances, ' -^ 533

and cotton to be imported ; intended for encou-
raging a manufa<5lure of printed cottons projected
in Catalonia and Aragon. The Spanifli miniftry
have been ever fingularly unlucky in their com-
mercial regulations. It is eafy to forefee, that fuch
a prohibition will have no eftedV, but ' to raife the
price on the fubjeds of Spain ; for the prohibit-
ed goods will be fmuggled, difcouraging as much
as ever the intended manufacture. The prudent
meafure would have been, to lay a duty upon
printed cottons and linens imported, fo fmall as not
to encourage fmuggling ; and to apply that duty foe
nurfing the infant manufadure. A foreign manufac-
ture ought never to be totally prohibited, tilljthat at
home be in fuch plenty, as nearly to fupply the wants
of the natives. During ignorance of political priu;-
ciples, a rtew manufadlture was commonly encou-
raged with an exclufive privilege for a certain num-
ber of years. Thus in Scotland, an exclufive pri-
vilege of exporting woollen and linen manufac-
tures, was given to fome private focicties («). Such
a monopoiy is ruinous to a nation ; and frequently
to the manufacture itfelf (^). I know no mono-
poly can be juftified, except that given to authors
of, books for fourteen years by an aft of Queen
Anne*. Exemption from duty, premiums to the
. „ .^ . ,. ■■'.■■ belt

(tf) Aft 42. pari, 1661.

(/-) Sec Elements du Commerce, \o.t\. i. p. 334.

* That aft is judicioufly contrive^i,' not only tor tlic benefit of authors,
but for that of learning in geneial. It encourages men of genius to write,
and multiplies books both of inftruftion and amufunient ; which, by
concurrence of many editors after tlie monopoly is at an end, are fold
at the clieapefY r^ite. Many well-difpofcd perfons compjain, that the ex-
clufive priveieje beftowed by the flatute upon authors, js too jhqrt ;
and that it ought to be perpetual. Nay it is afferted, that authors havs
a perpetual privilege at common law ; and it was fo determined lately
in tlie court of king's benchi Nothing more frequently happens, than
by grafping at tlie fliadow, to lofe the fiibftance ; for I have no diffi-
culty to maintain, that ^ perpetual monopoly of books, would prove-
more deUruftive to learning, and cven'fo auiiiors, than a fecon<;l irrupti-
on of Goths and Vandals. 'It is tlie natiirc of a monopoly to raife the price
of comttiodities ; and by a perpetual monopoly in the commerce of books, tlie
•prk* of coed Aooks woitld bo ralfed far beyoutl tlic".n;ai.h of moit readers :..

•■•ir'i..

5.H

Civil 'Society.

B. II.

bcft workmen, a bounry on exportation, joined
with a duty on goods of the fame kind import-
ed, and at laft a total prohibition, are the proper
encouragements to a new ivianufadure. '^ ••' »•
ru The i.iportation of raw materials ought to be
encouraged in every m-nufaduring country, per-
mitting only a moderate duty for encouraging our
own rude materials of the fame kind. By a Fre:i( h
cdidl 1654 for encouraging: fhip-buiidmg, fhip-tin.
ber imported pays no duty. But jv rhapj; a mo-
derate duty would have been better, in order to
^rncourage fuch timber of the growth of Fravjce.
Deal limber accordingly and other timber, import-
ed into Britain from any part of Europe, Ittland
excepted, pcy; a moderatf^ duty. And oak-bark
imported pays .1 cluvy, which is an encouragement
to pro}>agate or]: at home. The importation of
Iran cattle froii^. ireiand, which in effect are raw
materials, is, by a ftaiute of Charles II. declared
a public nuifance. What grofs ignorance ! Is it
not evident, that to feed cattle, is more profita-
ble than to breed them ? The chief promoter of
that notable ftai^'Ute, was Sir John Knight, famous,
or rather infamous, for an infolent fpeech in King
WiUiam's reign agi>inft naturalizing foreign Pro-
teftants, and propofii>g to kick out of the king-
dom thofe already fettipd. Experience hath made

evident

they would be fold like piauies of t.*»e great marters. The works of
Shakefpeare, for example, or of Milton, would be ften in very few li-
braries. In (hort the only purchafersofgopd books would be a few learn-
ed men fuch as have money to fpare, and a few rich men, who buy
out of vanity, as they buy a diamond, or a line coat. Fafhionj at the
fame time are variable j and books, even the 'Jioft fplendid, would wear
out of fafhion with men of opulence, and be dcfpifcd as antiquated furniture.
And with refpt"^ to men of tafte, their number is fv fmall, as not to afibrd
encouragement even for the moft frugal edition. Thu« bookfellers, by grafp-
ing too much would put an end to their trade altogvther. At the lame
time, our prefent authors and bookfellers would not be Jtiuch benefited by
fuch a monopoly. Not many books have fo long a run a"S fourteen years j
and the fucccfs of a book on the firft publication, is fo uncertain, that
a book-feller will give little more for a perpetuity, tiian frT the tempo-
rary privilege of the ftatute. This vas forefeen by the leginat'i'rei «nd'thc
privilege was wifely confined to fourteen ye^s, equally beneficial fo the pub-
lic and to authors.

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances,

S^S

evident the advantage of importing lean cattle into
England ; witnefs the vaft quantities iniported yearly
from Scotland. Diamonds, pearls, and jewels of
every kind, paid formerly upon importation a duty
of ten per cent, ad valorem ; which by aft 6®
George II. cap. 7. was taken off, upon the fal-
lowing preamble, " That London is now become
*' a great mart for diamonds and other precious
*' (tones, from whence mod foreign countries are
" fupplied ; that great numbers of rough diamonds
*' are fent here to be cut and polifhed ; and that
** a free importation would encreafe the trade."
Sorry I am to obferve, that feveral of our duties
on importation, are far from being conformable
to the foregoing rule ; many raw materials ne-
ccflary for our manufactures being loaded with a
duty on importation, and fome with a heavy du-
ty. Sarilla, for example, is a raw material ufed
in the glafs-manufafture : the exportation from
Spain is loaded with a very high duty : and to
raife the price ftill higher, we add a duty on im-
portation ; without having the pretext of encou-r
raging a raw material of our own growth, for
barilla grows not in this iiland. Hair is a raw
material employed in feveral manufadures ; and
yet every kind of it, human hair, horfe hair, goat's
hair, &c. pavs a duty on importation; which con-
fequently raifes the jviicc of our own hair, as well
as of what is imj\H"tC\U Nor l\is this duty, mor^
than the forma> tho |M>etext of being an encou-
ragement to vvui' own pvodud ; for furtly there
will not on that account be reared one child moi>e,
or foal, or kki. The fame ohjcvtion lies agamft
the duty on foreign kelp, wHich is very high.
Rancid oil of olives, fit for foap and woollen ma-
nutadurcs, pays upon importation a high duty :
were it free of duty, we Ihould be able to fervc
ourfclves with Caftile foap of home mannfadure ;
and likevvife our colonies, which are partly iUpplied

3 ^y

■ t

Si^

Civil SocirrY.

E. Hi

by the French. Each of the following raw ma-
terials ought in found policy to be free of duty
on importation; and yet they are loaded with a
duty, fonie with a high duty ; pot-afhes, clc|)hant'3
teeth, raw filk from the Eail Indies, lamp-black,
bridles drcfled or undrefled, horns of beeves. Un-
drefl'ed Ikins, though a rude uiaterial, pay a duty
on importation ; and French kid ikins are ho-
noured above others with a high duty : to rejcft
i\ great lifiii lit tn ourlelves ratjier than Al^nl A
fmall benefit to a rival natioUi fsyopf^ \\\Lfjp qf
peeviflinefs than of puidenrpt ' < *•

■ For encouraging our colonies, uulftft' h jjenillt-
ted to be iniported from the plantations free of
duty, while other cofl'ee pays fix pence pfi poiuid.
The heavy duty on whalebone and whale oil iui-
ported, which was laid on for encouraging our own
whale filhing, is taken ojf with refpc<l:t to the im-
portation froin our American colonics (a). This
may put an end to our own wliale-hihery : but
\t will enable the Americans to cope with the
Dutch ; and who kno\ys whether they may not
ut laft prevail ? For encouraging the culture of
hemp and ilax in America, there is a bounty given
upon what is imported into Britain. (Jne would
imagine, that onr legilhiture intended to cnabh
the colonies to rival us in a (taple naanufaclure,
contrary to the fundamental principle of colonic
•nation. But we did not fee fo far : we only fore-
iaw a benefit to Britain, in beipg fupplied with
hemp and flax from our colonies, rather than from
Ruflia and the Low Countries. But even abftradt-
ing from rivalfliip, was it not obvious, that a bounty
for encouraging the culture of hemp and flax at
home, would be more fuccefsful, than for encou-
raging the the culture in America, where the price^
of labour is cxceflively high, not to talk of the
freight*?
■'■'■^■' " ' ■'. - : . ■: -.iThe

(a) 4 Geo. Ill, cap. 29.

• Between the mother-country and her colonics tlie following rule ought

"~l^i

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances,

iS7

- The encouragement given to foreign linerf-yarn,
by taking off the duty on importation, is a mea-
lure that greatly concerns Britain ; and how far fa-
lutary, (hall be ftridly examined, after dating fomc
preliminary obfervations. The firfl is, That our
iiwn commodities will never draw a greater price
in a market, than imported commodities of the
fame goodnefs. Therefore, the price of imported
linen mu(t regulate the price of home-made linen.
The next is, i'hat though the duty on importation
is jjaiJ by the merchant at the firft inftance, he
relieves himfelf of it, by raifing the price on the
pKrthafer ; which of courfe raifes the price of the
filine fort of goods made at home ; and accord-
ingly n duty on importation is in effcft a bounty
to our ow/1 IHanufiifturers. A third obfervation
is, That the market-price of our linen-cloth ought
to be divided between' the fpinner and the weaver,
in fucli projiortion as to afford bread to both. If
the yarn be too high, the weaver is undone : if too
)ow, the fpinner is undone. This was not attended
to, when, lor encouraging our fpinners, a duty
of ^l^rep-pcnce was laid on every pound of im-
ported
• ■ ( i., , /

to be facrc'd. That witli refpeft to commodities wanted, each of them (hould
prefer the other before all other nations, Britain rtiould take from her co-
lonies whatever they can furnifh for her ufe j and they Ihould take from Bri-
tain whatever flie can furnifli for their ufe. In a word, every thing regarding
commerce ouglit to be reciprocal, and equal between them. To bar a colo-
ny from actefs to the fountain-head for commodities that cannot befurnifhed
by themotlier-country but at fecond-hand, is opprefllon : it isfofar degrad-
ing the colonifts from beint; free-fubjefts to be (laves. It js equally opp.'?f-
five, to bar them from refortinB; to the befl markets with their own product.
What riglit, foi xainple, has Britain to prohibit her colonies from purchafing,
tea or porcelain at Canton, if they can procure it cheaper ther« than in Lon-
don } No connedtjon between vwo nations can hq fo intimate, fo as to make
fuch reftraint an adl of juftice. Ourlegidature however have adtcd like a l\ep-
mothcr to our American colonies, by prohibiting them to have any com-
merce but with Britain only, Tlikjy muft land ftrft in Britain'all their com-
motlities, even what are not intended to be fold there; and they muft take
from Britain, not ofily its own prcduft but every foreign commodity that is
wanted. Tliis regulation is not only unjuftbut impolitic ; as by it the ini
terell of a whole nation, is facrificed to that of a few London merchants.
Our legiflature have of late fo far opened their eyes, as to give a partial
relief. Some articles arc permitted to be carried dircftly to the place
oi deltinatlon, without being firft entered in Britain, wheat for example,
rice, Lc,

it 1 f

f.l

ilii

.1- 1'

I (

n ill

538

Civil Societv. "

B. II.

ported linen-yarn ; which had tlic ti'tcB: to raife
the price of our own yarn beyond what the weaver
could afford. This myftcry being unvailcd, the
duty was firft lowered to t vo pence, and then to
a penny : our fpinncrs hod tolerable bread, and
our weavers were not rpprefl'ed with paying too
high a price for yarn.

Some patriotic gentlemen, who had more zeal
than knowledge, finding the linen- manufadture be-
jicBted by the feveral rcduftions of the duty, raflily
concluded, that it would be ftill more benefited by
a total abilition of the duty. The penny accord-
ingly was taken off(^), and linen-yarn was per-
j-nitted to be imported duty-free. Had matters
continued as at the date of the aft, this impoli-
tic meafure would have left us not a fingle fpin-
ner by profeflion ; becaufc it would have reduced
the price of our yarn below what could aftbrd
bread to them. Lucky it has been for our linen-
manufadlure, that the German war, which foon
followed, fufpended all their manufadures, and fpin-
ning in particular ; which proved to us a favour-
able opportunity for difFufing widely the art of
fpinning, and for making our fpinners more and
more dexterous. And yet, now that the war is
at an end, it is far from being certain, that our
yarn can be afforded as cheap as what is imported
from Silefia. We have good authority for aiTert-
ing, that the Englifli fpinners have fuffered by that
ftatute : from the books of many pariihes it ap-
pears, that foon after the ftatute, a number of wo-
men, who had lived by fpinning, became a bur-
den upon the parifli. One thing is evident, that
as fpinning is the occupatioi of iemales who can-
not otherwife be fo ufefully euiplo) ':d, and as more
hands are required for fpinning than for weaving,
the former is the more valuable branch of the

manufadure.

(a) 29- George II.

Sk. VIII. 7.

Financer*

539

nianufadurc. Very little 3 "iition however fccms
to have been given to that branch, in pa/Ting the
aft under conlideration. Why was it not enquired
into whether the intended rcduftion of the price
of yarn, would leave bread to the BritiiV- fpinncr ?
The refult of that enquiry would have been tatal
to the intended aft ; for it would have been clearly
fcen, that the Scotch fpinner could not make bread
by her work, far Icfs the Englifli. Other parti-
culars ought alfo to have been fuggefted to the
Icgiflature ; that flax-fpinning is ot all occupati-
ons the fitteft for women of a certain clafs, con-
fined within fmall houfcs; that a flax- wheel re-
quires lefs fpace than a wheel for wool ; and that
the toughnefs of Britifli flax makes it excel for
fail-cloth, dowlas, ticking, and flieeting. The Britifli
fpinner might, in a Britifli ftatute, have expefted
the cafl: of the fcale, had it been but a half-
penny per pound on importation.

At the fame time it is a national reproach that
there fliould be any inconfiftency in our com-
mercial regulations, when the wifefl: heads of the
nation arc employed about them. Flax rough
or undrefled, being a rude material, is imported
duty-free, but drefled flax pays a high duty ; both
of them calculated for encouraging our own ma-
nufafturers. Behold now a glaring inconfiftency:
though drefled flax, for the reafon given, pays a
high duty ; yet when by additional labour it is con-
verted into yarn, it pays no duty. Further, fo-
Twign yarn is not only made welcome duty-free,
but even receives a bounty when convertctl into
linen, and exported to our plantations. What ab-
furdities are here ! Have we no reafon to be afraid,
that fuch indulgence to foi'eign yarn will deprive
us of foreign rough flax ? The difference of bulk
and freight will determine the Germans to fend
us nothing but their yarn, and equally deter-
mine our importers to commiflion that commodi-
ty only.

Goods

I if

540

Civil. SOCII.TY.

B. II.

Goods imported, if . fubjedcd to a duty, arc
generally ot the bell kind ; becaufc tiic duty bears
a Ids proportion to fuch. tban to meaner forts.
The bed Freneh wines arc imported into Bri-
tain, where the duty is higher than in any other coun-
try. For that rcalon, the belt iincn-yarn was im-
ported while the du^y fubfifted ; but now the
German yarn is lorted into diflcrent kinds, of
xvhjch the worft is referved for the Engiiiii market.

Regulations concerning the ex[)ortation of com-
modities formerly imported, come next in order.
And for encouraging fuch exportation, one nic-
ihod practifcd ivith fuccefs, is to reitore to the
merchant the wliole or part of the duty paid at
importation ; which is termed a draiv-back. This
in particular is done with refped to tobacco the
produd of our own colonies ; which by that
jneans can be aflbrded to foreigners at two pence
halfpenny per pound, when the price at home is
eight pence hallpcnny. By this regulation, luxu-
ry is reprefl'ed at' home, and at the fame time
our colonies are encouraged. But by an omiHion
in the ad of parliament, a draw-back is only
given for raw tobacco, as foreigners can underfell
us five-and-thirt.y per cent. Tobacco being an arti-
cle of luxury, it was well judged to lay a heavier
duty on what is confumed at home, tlian on what
is exported. Upon the fame principle, the duty
that is paid on the importation of colVec and co-
coa from our American plantations, is wholly drawn
back when exported {a). But as China earthen
ware is not intitled tq any encouragement from
us, and as it is an article of luxury, it gets no
draw-back even when exported to America (^).
The exporter of rice from Britain, firfl: imported
from America, is intitled to draw back but half*
the duty paid on importation. Rice imported,
duty-free might rival our wheat-crop. ; But the
whole duty ought to be drawn back on expor-
tation :

(rf) 7 George III. cap. 46. {b) Ibid.

Sk. Vlll. 7.

Ftnnncet, ' • ^

54i

tatigr) : it ought to be afforded to ouf neiglibonrs^
at the lowcft rate, partly to rival their wheat-
crop, and partly to encourage our ricc'-colonies.

Tobacco is an article of kixury ; and it is well
ordered that it fhould cotuc dearer tft us than
to foreigners. But every wife admirTiftration will
take the oppofite fide, with rcfncdl to articlcis that
concern our nianufadtures. Quick-filvCT pays uport
importation a duty of about 8d. /<?r pound > 7 d^
of which is. drawn back iipoi\ exportation. The
intention of the draw -back was to encourage the
comjTiercc of quick.filvcr ; without adverting, that
to afford quick-filvcr to foreign manufa^urcrs
cheaper than to our own, is a grofs blander in
comnnerqial poVitics. . A^'aiti, when qifick-filver is
manufadured into vcr million or fabtiiVjate, na
drawback is allowed ; wliich effedlually bars their
exportation ^, we ought' to be aihamed of" fuch ii
regulation. In the reign of CJue<-ii Elizabeth,
dyers were prohibited to ufe logwoodj which was
ordered to be openly burn^. But the Englifli
dyers having acquired the art of fixing colours
made of logwood, it was permitted to be import-
ed (^), every ton paying on importation L. 5 j
L. 4 of which was to be drawn br\ck upon ex-
portation. That law, made in the days of igno-
rance, was intended to encourage the commerce
of logwood i and had- that cffed : but the blunder
of dllcouraging our ./own manufa(51ures, by furnifh-
ing logwood cheapef to our rivals, was overlpok-
cd. Both articles were put upon a better footing
(^},. giving a greater encouragement to the com-
merce of logwood, by allowing it to be imported
duty-free ; ajid by giving an advantage to our
own manufadures by laying a duty of 40s, upon
every hiindrcd weight exported. Lallly, Still
more to,, encourage: thi; cpinm^rce pf logwood \^c .^
the duty upon exportation is difcontinucd. It

will

{u) Aif\ 1.3. and 14. Charleii II. pap. »i. ^ 26. 27, -

(>) .\^ 8 Gtorjje I, cip. 14, (t) 7 Geo, 111. cap. 47.

; ■

i '

542 Civil Society. B. II.

will have the efFeft propofeH : but will not that
benefit be more than balanced by the encourag'e-
ment it gives to foreign manufadures ? By {he
It^te peace, we have obtained the monopoly , of
gum-fenega J and proper meafures have been taken
lor turning it to the beft account : the exportati-
on from Africa is confined to Great Britain; and
the duty on importation is only fix-pence per
hundred weight : but the diity on exportation from
Britain is thirty fhillings per hundred weight (t) ;
which with f'-eight, commiffion, and infurince,
makes it come, dear to foreigners. Fojrmerlyj eve-
ry beaver's Ikin paid upon importation Iteven-
pence of duty j and the exp-^-ter received a draw-
back of four -pence j as '^ v. had htin the pur-
pofe of the legiliature, to make our ov^n people
pay more for that ulcful commodity than fo-
reigners. Upon obtaining a .monopoly of beaver-
fkins by the late peace, that abfurd regulation
was altered : a penny per fkin of duty is laid on
importation, and ieven-pence on exportation {d).
By that nieans beaver-ikins are cheaper here
than in any other country of Europe. A fimi-
lar regulation is eftablilhed with refpeft to gum-
r^rabic. A hundred weight pays on importation
fix-pence, and on exportation L. i, los. (e). As
the foregoing articles are ufed in various manu-
factures, their cheapnefs in Britain, by means of
thefe regulations, will probably balance the high
price of labour, fo as to keep open to us the fo-
reign market.

James I. of England iffued a proclamation, pro-
hibiting the exportation of gold and filver whether
in coin or plate, of goldfmith's work, or of bul-
lion. Not to mention the unconftitutional (lep of
an Englifh King ufurping the Icgiflative power, it
was a glaring abfurdity to prohibit manufafturrd
work froni being exported. Gold and lilver, coin-
ed

^<- ; 5 Ceorgelll, cap. 37.— (^0 4 George III, cap. 9,— -(0 % George III. cap. y.

Sk. VIII. 7.

Finances* 543

cd or uncoined, are to this day prohibited t© be
exported from France ; a ridiculous prbhibition :
a merchant will never willingly export gold and
filver ; but if the balance be againft him, the ex-
portation 'm unavoidable. The only effeft of the
prohibition is, to fwell the merchant's debt ; for he
muft bribe a fmuggler to undertake the exportation.

A French author remarks, that in no country
are commercial regulations better contrived than
in Britain: and inftances the following particulars.
1 ft, Foreign commodities, fuch as may rival their
own, are prohibited, or burdened with duties.
ad. Their manufadures are encouraged by a free
exportation. 3d, Raw materials which cannot be
produced at home, cochineal, for example, indi-
go, &c. are imported free of duty. 4th, Raw ma-
terials of their own growth, fuch as wool, fuller's
earth, &c. are prohibited to be exported. 5th,
Every commodity has a free courfe through the
kingdom, without duty. And laftly. Duties paid
on importation, are repaid on exportation. This
remark is for the moft part well founded : and yet
the fafts above fet forth will not permit us to
fay, that the Englifli commercial laws have as yet
arrived at perfedion.

Having thu?. gone through the fe\e''al articles
that enter into the prefent Iketch, I Ihall clofe with
fome general reflections. The management of the
finances is a moft important branch of govern*
ment ; and no lefs delicate than imncrtantc Taxes
may be fo contrived as to promote in a high de-
gree the profperity of a ftate ; and unlefs well con-
trived, they n.ay do much mifchief. The latter,
by rendering the fovereign odious and the peo-
ple miferable, efFeClually eradicate patriotifm : no
other caufe is more fruitful of rebellion ; and no
other caufe reduces a country to be 1 more eafy
prey to aa invader. To that caufe were the
Mahometans chiefly indebted, for their conqueft of
the Greek empire. The people were glad to change

their

'!i

i I

544

Civil Society.

B.II.

their mailer j becaufe, irtftead of multiplied, intri-
cate, and vexatious duties, they found thcnvfelves
fubjefted to a fimple tribute, eafily colleded, and
eafily paid* Had the art of oppreiJive taxes been
known to the Romans, when the utmod perfidy
and cruelty were pradifcd againftthe Carthagini-
ans to make them abandon their city, the fobcr
method of high duties on exportation and iinpo r-
tation. would have been chofen. This method, be-
fide gratifying Roman avarice, would infallibly have
ruined. Carthage* '

From the union of the different Spanifh king^
doms under one monarch, there was reafon to ex-
pe£t an exertion of fpirrt, fimilar to that of the
Romans when peace was reftored under Auguftus.
Spain was at that period the mofl: potent king-
dom in Europe, or perhaps in the world ; and yet,
inftead' of flourifhiing in that advantageous condi-
tion, it wab by opprelTive taxes reduced to poverty
and depopulation. The political hiftory of that
kingdom with refpeit to its finances, ought to be
kept in perpetual remembrance ; that kings, and their
miniiters, may fnun the deftru(Slive rock upon which
Spain hath been wrecked. The cortes of Spain had
once as extenlive powers as ever were enjoyed by an
Englifh parliament ; but at the time of the union their
power being funk to a ihadow, the King and his
miniftcrs governed without much control. Britain
cannot be too thankful to Providence for her par-
liament. From the hiftory of every modern Eu-
ropean niition, an inftructive leffon may be gather-
ed, that the three eftates, or in our language a
parliament, are the only proper check to the ig-
norance and rapacity of minifters. The fertility
of the Spanilh foil, is well known. Notwithftand-
ing frcfjuent droughts to which it is liable, it would
produce greatly with diligent culture ; and in fad,
during the time of the Roman domination, pro-
duced corn fuflicient ior its numerous inhabitants,
and a great furplus, which was annually exported

Sk. VIII.

Finances.

545

to Italy. During the domination of the Moors,
Arabian authors agice, that Spain was extremely
populous. An author of that nation, who wrote
in the tenth century, reports, that in his time there
were in Spain 80 capital cities, 300 of the fecond
and third orders, befide villages fo frequent that
one could not go a mile without meeting one
or more of them. In Cordova alone, the capital
of the Moorifh empire, he reckons 200,000
houfes *, 600 mofques, and 900 public baths. In
the eleventh century, another author mentions no
fewer than 12,000 villages in the plain of Seville.
High mufl tiave been the ptirfection of agriculture
in Spain, when it could feed fuch multitudes.
"What was the extent of their internal commerce,
is not recorded ; but all authors agree, that their
foreign commerce was immenfe. Befide many ar-
ticles of fmalier value, they exported raw filk, oil,
fugar, a fort of cochineal, quickfilver, iron wrought
and unwrought, manufadures of filk, of wool,
&c. The annual revenue of Abdoulrahman III.
one of the SpaniHi califs, was in money 12,045,000
dinares, above five millions Sterling, befide large
quantities of corn, wine, oil, and other fruits.
That prince's revenue mull indeed have been im-
menfe, to fupply the fums expended •"' him. Be-
fide the annual charges of government, fleets, and
armies, he laid out great fums on his private amuic-
ments. Though engaged continually in war, he
had money to fpare for building a new town three
miles from Cordova, named Zebra after his favourite
miftrefs. in that town he ereded a magnificent
palace, fufficiently capacious for his whole feraglio
of 6300 pcrfons. There were in it 1400 columns
of African and Spanifh marble, 19 of Italian marble,
and 140 of the finefl kind, a preient from the
GiVixk Emperor. In the middle of the great faloon.
Vol. 1. N n were

t ■

• Dwdlin»-liiji fc'j at that tini^ weic not fo hrje nor fo expcnfivc, as tliqr
v^iue iu hi, in l;«ifi iiiii(?>

546

Civil Societv.

B. n.

were many images of birds and beads in pure
gold adorned with precious ftones, pouring water
into a large marble bafon. That prinee muft have
had immenfe (tables lor horfcs, when he entertained
for his conilant guard, no fewer than i ?.,ooo horfc-
mcn, having fabres and belts enriched with goid.
Upon the city of Zehra alone, including the pa-
lace and gardens, were expended annually 300,000
dinares, which make above L. 100,000 Sterling;
?; d it required twenty-five years to complete thefc
works *.

The great fertility of the foil, tht induilry of
the Moors, and their advantageous fituation for
trade, carried on the profperity of Spain down to
the time that they were fubdued by Ferdinand of
Aragon. Of this we have undoubted evidence,
from the condition of Spain in the days of Charles V.
and of his fon Philip, " *ng efteemed at that pe-
riod the richeft country in the univerfc. We have
the authority of Uftariz, that the town of Seville,
in the period mentioned, contained 60,000 filk
looms. During the fixttenth century, the woollen
cloth of Segovia was efteemed the fmcft in Eu-
rope ; and that of Catalonia long maintained its
preference in the Levant, in Italy, and in the ad-
jacent iflands. In a memorial addrefled to the
fccond PhiHp, Louis Valle de la Cerda reports,
that in the fair of Medina he had negotiated bills

* A prefent made to ^bdculrahrwan hy Abdoulmelil*, when chofen prime
vizir, is a fpccimen of tlu' riches of Spain at that period, ift, /<o% pounds of
virijin gold. 2d, The v; iue of 420,00c fequins in filver ingots. 3d, .\oo
pound'} ot the wood of aloes, one piece of which weighed 180 pounds. 4th,
500 ounces of ambergreafe, of which tliere v. as one piece that sveighed 100
ounces. 5th. 500 ounces of the fineft camphirc, 6th, y-o pieces of gold
rtuff, fuch 5s were prohibited to be worn but by the Caliph himfelf. 7th, A
quan'ity of tine fur. 8th, Horfe-furniture of gold and filk, Bagdad fabric,
for48 liorfe.s, 9th, 4000 pounds of raw filk. 10th, 50 pieces Perfian ta-
peftry of furprifiiig beauty, nth. Compleat armour for 800 war-horf?^.--—
iath, 1000 bucklers, and 100,000 arrows. i^'S Fifteen Aiabjan horfes,
vvicii mort fun^ptuou'; furniture ; and a hundred other Arabinn hoiies for
the Kin^ 5 attciidinto. 14th, Twenty mules, with fiiirable furniture. 15th,
iotty youue; nitn and twenty young women, compleat bea'iti?"», all of tlieni
^TciTcC In f.-i.f lb habit*

Sk. VIII.

Finances.

547

of exchange to the extent of one hundred and fifty-
five millions of crowns ; and in Spain, at that time
there were feveral other fairs, no lefs frequented.

The expulfion of the Moors, deprived Spain of
fix or feven hundred thoufand frugal and induf-
trious inhabitants ; a wound that touched its vi-
tals, but not mortal : tender care, with proper re-
medies, would have reftorcd Spain to its former
vigour. But unhappily for that kingdom, its po-
litical phyficians were not (killed m the method
of cure : inftead of applying healing medicines,
they enflamed the difeafe, and rendered it in-
curable. The miniftry inltigated by the clergy
had prevailed on the King to banifh the Moors.
Dreading the lofs of favour if the King's revenues
fliould fall, they were forced in felf-defencc to
heighten the taxes upon the remaining inhabi-
tants. And what could be expedei from thnt
fatal meafure, but utter ruin ; v/hen the poor Chrif-
tians, who were too proud to be induftrious, had
fcarce been able to crawl under the load of former
taxes ?

But a matter that affords a leffon fo inftruftive,
merits a more particular detail. The extenlive plan-
tations of fugar in the kingdom of Granada, were
upon the occafion m.entioned deeply taxed, fo as
that the duty amounted to 36 per ceni. of the
value. This branch of hufbandrv, which could
not fail to languifli under fuch opprelhon, was in
a deep confumpiion v^^hen the firil American fu-
gars were imported into Europe, and was totally
extinguiflied by the lower price of thefe fugars.
Spain once enjoyed a moil extenfive commerce of
fpirits manufa<5lured at home, perhaps more ex-
tenfive than France does at prefent. But two
caufcs concurred to ruin that manufadure ; firft,
oppreflive taxes ; and next, a prohibition to the
manufacturer, of vending his fpirits to any but to
the farmers of the revenue. Could more effectu-
al iieans be invented to deftroy the manufafture,

N a 2 root

548

Civil SocietV.

B. II.

root and branch ? Spanifli fait is fupcrior in qua-
lity to that of Portugal, and ftill more to that
of France : when refined in Holland, it produces
lo per cent, more than the former, and 20 per
cent, more than the latter ; and the making of
fait, requires in Spain Icfs labour than in Portu-
gal or in France. Thus Spanifh fait may be af-
forded the cheapeft, as requiring lefs labour ;
and yet may draw the higheft price, as fuperi-
or in quality : notwithftandlng which fhining ad-;
r3»it3ges, fcarcc any fait is exported from Spain ;
and no wonder, for an exorbitant duty makes
it (ome dearer to the purchafer than any other
iait. A more moderate duty would bring more
profit to the public ; befide eafing the labouring
poor, and employing them in the manufadurc,
T-it fuperior quality of Spanifh raw fiik, makes
it in great requefl: ; but as the duty upon it ex-
ceeds 60 per cent, it can find no vent in a fo-
reign market : nor is there almoft any demand
for it at home, as its high price has reduced the
filk-manufafture in Spain to the lowed ebb. —
But the greateft oppreflion of all, as it aftefts
every fort of manufacture, is the famous tax
known by the name of alcavaUi, upon every
thing bought and fold, which was laid on in the
fifteenth century by a cortes or parliament. It
was limited cxprefdy to eight years ; and yet was
kept up contrary to law, merely by the King's
authority. This monftrous tax, originally 10 per
cent, ad valorem^ was by the two Philips, III. and
IV. augmented to 14 per cent, fuhicient of iifv^lf
to annihilate every branch of internal commerce,
bv the encouragement it gives to fmuggling*.— •

The

* The following paflagc is from Urtarir, ch. 96. " After mature con-
" fideration of the dunes impofed upon commodincs, I have not difcovertd
" in France, England, or Holland, any duty laid vipon the homc-falc of their
" own manufadhires, whether the firi^ or any fubfequent fale. As Spain a-
*' lone groan: untlci the burden ct \a per cert, impofed not only on the firft

" faie

Sk. VIII.

Finances,

549

The difficulty of recovering payment of fuch op-
preffive taxes, heightened the brutality of the far-
mers ; which haftened the downfall of the manu-
failures : poverty and diftrefs banifhed workmen
that could find bread elfewhcre ; and reduced the
reft to beggary. I'he poor huibandmen funk un-
der the weight of taxes : and as if this had not
been fufficient to ruin agriculture totally, the S})a-
nifh miniftry fuperadded an abfolute prohibition
of exporting corn. The moft amazing article of
all, is a practice that has fubfifted more than
three centuries, of fetting a price on corn ; which
ruins the farmer when the price is low, and yet
refufes him the relief of a high price. That agri-
culture in Spain fhould be in a deep confumpti-
on, is far from being a wonder : it is rather a
wonder that it has not long ago died of that difeafe.
Formerly there was plenty of corn for twenty milli-
ons of inhabitants, with a furpius for the great city
of Rome ; and yet at prefent, and for many yr-ars
back, there has not been corn for feven miilons,
its prefent inhabitants. Their only refource for
procuring even the neceffaries of life, were the
treafures of the new world, which could not la(t
for ever ; and Spain became fo miferably poor, that
Philip IV. was neceflitated to give a currency to
his copper coin, almofl: equal to that of filver.
Thus in Spain the downfall of hufbandry, arts,
and commerce, was not occafioned by expulfion
of the Moors, and far Icfs by difcovery of a new
world *, of which the gold and fiiver were fa-
■ 2 vourable

" fale of every parcel, but on each fale, I am jealous that this ftrangc tax is
" the chief caufe of the ruin of our manufaftures." As to the ruinous con-
fequences of this tax, fee Bernardo de L'lloa upon the manufadlures and
commerce of Spain, Part i. ch. 3, ch. 13. And yet fo Hlind was Philip II,
of Spain, as to impofe the alcavala upon the Netherlands, a country flourlrti-
ing in commerce both internal and external. It muit have given a violent
<hock to their manufadures.

* Urtariz, in his Theory and Praftice of Commerce, proves from evident
fails, that the depopulation of Spain is not occafiont.1 by the Wtll Indies.

Fl>MU

55^

Civil SocieTv.

B. 11.

vouvable to hulbiindry at lead ; but by exorbi-
tant taxes, a voracious monfter, which, after fwal-
lowing up the whole riches of the kingdom, has
kft nothing for itfclf to feed on. The following
pidture is drawn by a writer of that nation, who
may be depended on for veracity as well as know-
ledge (a)^ " Poverty and diflrcfe dif- people a
" country, by banifhin^ ail thoughts of marriager
*' They even dellroy facking children ; for what
" nourifliment can a woman affard to her infant,
'• who herfclf is reduced to bread and water, and
*'■ is overwhelmed with labour and defpair ? A
greater proportion accordingly die here in in-
fancy, than- where the labouring poor are
" inorfe at eafe ; and of thole who cfcape by
If rength of conilitution^ the fcarcity of cloathing
and of nourifhrnent makes them couunonly fhort
** lived."

So blind however arc the Spp.niards in the ad-
miniitrati-on of their finances, that the prefent
mtniftry are following out the fame meafures in
Amerrea, that have brought their native country
to the brink of ruin. Cochineal, cocoa, fugar,
&c. imported mto Spain d-uty-free, would be a
vail fund of commerce with other nations : but a
heavy duty on importation is an abfolute bar ta
that commerce, by forcing the other European
nations to provide themfelves elfewhere. Spanifh
oil exported to i^merica would be a great arti-
cle of commerce, were it not barred by a htit^vy
duty on exportation, eqvial almofl: to a prohibiti-
on : and the Spanilh Americans, tor want of oily
: '-'' are

From Cafiik few gn to America-, a^nd >Tt Caflllcis the worft peopled coun-
tivmSpam. The northern provinces, Gallici a, Atturia, Bifcay, &c. fend
jiiore people to Mexico and Peru than all the other provinces ; and yet
t.f ill are the moft populous. He afcrihes the depopulation of Spain to tha
ruin of tire ntawufarturCT by cppreilive taxes ; and aiferts that the Weft-
Indieo tend rather to people Spain -. many return home laden with riches ;
and of thofe who do not return, many remit money to their relations, which-
-nablcs them to marry, andtoreax children.
(.■:) Don Gicrviirmurie Uliariz,

6k. VIII.

"Finances*

SS^

are reduced to ufe fat and butter, very improper
for a hot climate. The prohibition oF planting
vines in Mexico, and i\\^ excellive duty on the
importation of Spanilh wines into that country,
have introduced a fpirit drawn from the fugar-
canc ; which being more deftrudive thaui a pefti-
Icnce, is prohibited under feverc penahies. The
prohibition however has no cffeft, but to give the
governors of the provinces a monopoly of thefe
Ipirits, which, under their j>rotedion, are fold pub-
licly *.

But this fubjed feems to be inexhauftible. The
filver and gold mines in the Spanifli Wefl: Indies
are by improper taxes, rendered lefs profitable, both
to ihit King and to the proprietors, than they
ought to be. The King's fliare is the fifth part
of the filver that the mines produce, and the
♦ tenth part of the gold. There is, befide, a duty
of eighty piaftres upon every quintal of mercury
employed in the mines. Thefe heavy exactions,
have occafioned all mines to be given up but of
the riehcft fort. The inhabitants pay 33 per
cent, on the goods imported to them from Spain,
and they are fubjefted befide to the alcavala,
w';',ch is 14 per cent, of everything bought and
fold within the country. The mofl: provoking
tax of all is what is termed Im cruciade^ being a
fum paid for indulgence to eat eggs, butter, and
cheefe, during Lent, which is yielded by the Pope
to the King of Spain. The government it is
true, obliges no perfon to take out fuch an indul-
gence : but the priefts rcfufe every religious con- '
folation to thofe who do not purchafe j auddiere

• It gives me pleafure to find for the fake of my fellow creatures, that the
Spanish miniftry begin to perceive the fatal confeqi^encep of thefe impolitic
ineafuies, in the year 1765, the trade to the iflands of Cuba, HJfpaniola,
PoiioRico, Margarita and Trinidad, was laid open to merchants in every
province in Spain ; who were rcleafed from the oppreffive duties on good*
exported to America, by paying; only C\xpcr cert, on commodities fent from
Spain. It is probable that the beneficial efted^s of this meafure may open
the eyes of the Spanifli minillry to further improvemeiits. The power of the
Spinilhinquilitorj i-^ reduced wit!iin moderate bounds. Maywe not indulge the
^ope,. that Spain will agr.in become both a learned and ccmnictcial country ?

55^

Civil Societv.

a n.

is not perhaps a fingle pcrfon in Spanifli America
who is bold enough to Hand out againfl fuch
conipulfion.

There is recorded in hiftory, another example
of dcfb unlive taxes fnnilar to that now mcntioTxd.
Aui^ultur, on his tonquefl ol £gypt, having brought
to Konic the trcaiurc of its kings, gold and filver
overHowed in Italy ; the bulk of which found its
way to Conliantinople, when it became the feat
of empire. By thefe means, Italy was fadly impo-
verilhed : the whole ground had been covered
with gardens and villas, now deferted ; and there?
was neither corn nor manufadures to exchange
for money. Gold and fdver became as larc in
Italy as they had been of old ; and yet the fame
taxes that had been paid with eafe during plenty
of money, were rigidly exaded, which ruined all.
The duchy of Ferrara, in a narrower compafs, af-
fords a later example of the fame kind. It was
one of the richeft and rnoft po])ulou8 diftrids in
Italy, when gcvcrsied by its own princes -, but at
prefent, under uic Papal defpotifm, it is reduced
to poviTty unu depopulation. There may be
feen extenfuc in-adows whhout a hand to cut
down the graiV, or a bcall to cat it. The wa-
ter-palfages are not kept open : the flagnating wa-
ters are putrid, and infecl the air with a j)oifon-
ous fleam. In a word, that duchy is approaching
to the unwholefome ilate of the Campagna di Ro-
ma, and foon like it, will become uninhabitable.
Well may it be faid, that cpprellive taxation is a
monfler, which after devouring every other thing,
devours itfelf at laft. Bologna furrendered to the
Pop° upon terms, referving mar.y of its mod va-
luable privileges. Bologna continues a rich and
populous city ; and by moderate taxes the Pope
draws from it ten times the fum that can be
fqueezed out of Ferrara by all the engines of op-
preflion.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.