IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^Mo ^ 4^ 1.0 I.I I^IM 125 ^ U£ 12.0 u IL25 m 1.4 M 1.6 V HiotogFaphic ^Sdmoes CorpcHHtion ^ V 23 WKT MAIN STRUT viflniTM,N.Y. usao (7l«)S7a-4S03 ..^^- iV CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CiHIVl/iCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian inatituta for Historical Microraproductiona / inctitut Canadian da microraproductions historlquas Technical and Bibliographic Notas/Notas tachniquaa at bibliographiquaa The Institiita has attamptad to obtain the bast original copy availabia for filming. Faaturas of this copy which may ba bibliographically u.niqua, which may altar any of tha imagas in tha raproduction, or which may significantly changa tha usual mathod of filming, ara chackad balow. n n n n Colourad covars/ Couvartura da coulaur I I Covars damaged/ Couvarture andommagte Covars restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur6e et/ou pelliculie I I Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque □ Coloured maps/ Cartes g^ographiques en couleur □ Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/o" illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relit avec d'autras documents Tight binding may caus9 shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La re liure serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intArieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear with'n the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouttas lors d'une restauration apparaissant dans le texte, male, lorsque cela itait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmies. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppltmentairos: L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exempiaire qu'il lui a At* possible de se procurer. Les details da cat exempiaire qui sont peut-ttre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent: exiger une modification dans la mithoda normale de filmaye aont indiqute ci-dassous. □ D D E D D D □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagAes Paftas restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaurAes et/ou pelliculAes Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages dtcoiortes, tachetAes ou piqutas Pages detached/ Pages dttachtes Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of print varies/ Qualitil intgaia de I'impresslon Includes supplementary material/ Con^prend du mat6riel supplAmentaire Only edition available/ Seule Mition disponibia Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc.. have been ref limed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalament ou partiellement obscurcies par un fauillet d'errata, une pelure, etc.. ont M filmAes A nouveau de fapon A obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film* au taux de rMuction indiqu* ci-dessous 10X 14X 18X 22X 2ex 30X y 12X 16X aox a4X 2IX 32X Th« copy film«d h«r« htm b««n rtproduead thank« to th« g«n«rositv of: Library Agriculture Canada L'oxomplairo film4 fut roproduit grico k la gAnirositA do: Bibiiothiqua Agriculture Canada Tho Imago* appoaring horo aro tho boot qu«i.ity posaibio conaidoring tho condition and loglblllty of tho original copy and in kooping with tho filming contract apocif icatlona. lM» Imagoa aulvantaa ont «tA roprodultoa avoc la plua grand aoin, compto tanu do la condition ot do la nottotA do I'oitomplairo film*, at on conformity avoc ioa condltlona du contrat do fiimago. Original copSoa in printad papor eovora aro fiimod boglnning with tho front covor and anding on tho laat paga with a printad or iiiuatratod improa- alon, or tho iMck covor whon appropriato. Ail othor original copioa aro fiimod boglnning on tho firat pago with a printed or Iiiuatratod improa- alon, and anding on tho laat pago with a printad or iliuatratad improaaion. Tho laat rocordod framo on oach microfieho ahail contain tho aymboi — ^> (moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tho aymboi V (moaning "END"), whichavar appllo*. Loa oxomplalroa orlginaux dont la couvorturo on papior atr ImprimAo aont fllm4a en commonpant par io promlor plat at on tormlnant tolt par la darnlAro paga qui comporto uno amprointa d'improaaion ou d'llluatratlon. aoit par la kocond plat, aolon io caa. Toua loa autroa axamplairea orlginaux aont fiimia an commonpant par la premlAra pago qui comporto uno amprointa d'ImproMion ou d'iiluatration ot an tormlnant par ia darnlAro pago qui comporto uno tollo omprointo. Un doa aymboioa aulvanta apparattra sur la darniiro Imago do chaqua microfiche, selon le caa: io aycnboio — »- aignifie "A SU9VRE", le aymboio ▼ aignifie "FIN". Mapa, piatea, chart*, etc., may tie filmed at different reduction retioa. Thoao too largo to be entirely included in one expoaure are filmed beginning In the upper left hand comer, le^ to right and top to bottom, aa many framee ..» required. The feilowing diegrama iiiuatrate the method: Lea cartea. planchoa. tabieecx, etc.. pouvent Atre filmte A dee taux do rMuctlon diff^renta. Loraquo le document eat trop grand pour Atre reprodult en un aoui clichA. il eet film* i partir do i'angie aupArieur gauche, do geuche A droite. ot do iMut en bee. en prenent le nombre d'Imagea nAcoaaairo. Lea diagrammea auivant* iiiu*trent le mithodo. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 S 6 B Tab] I H A MANUAL OF DEAINAGE FOR ,«.'^'' FARMERS AND LAND-OWJSERS, By EDWARD WASELL, Civil Engineer, M. INST., C.K, INGERSOLL, ONTARIO, CANADA. CONDENSED INTO THREE CHAPTERS: CHAPTER I. f^ contains Tables of Average Temperature ; Rainfall ; Value of Farms IN every State and Pyovince of North America ; with a Series of Tables for ascertaining the number of Acres Drained by Tiles of different sizes ; CHAPTER II. Remarks upon Transportation by Rail, and General Remarks upon Railroads. CHAPTER III. House, Village, Town, and City Drainage in general. TORONTO: PRINTED BY HUNTER, ROSE & CO, 1888, Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight, by Edward Waskll, at the Depart- ment of Agriculture. Fl ;" I V Printrd A5D Bound bt HUNTER, ROSE & CO,, Toronto. If PREFACE. " A bold peasantry, their country'a pride, When once destroyed can never be supplied. Somebody has said "that he who is the means of making two blades of grass grow where only one grew before is a benefactor of his kind." With this end in view, this little book now sees the light. This Manual of Drainage is now submitted to the farm- ers and land-owners with a sincere wish that they may receive as much benefit from its perusal as the author has received from the study of so interesting a subject. The Tables are original, and they will enable anyone to answer the question, " What size of pipe do I require to drain my land ? " They are the result of extensive read- ing scattered among numerous papers, pamphlets and books, while actively engaged upon drainage works. The chapter on Drainage of villages, towns and cities comprises the essential knowledge most wanting, in our opinion, and without which no sewerage works can be satisfactory. In preparing this chapter, recourse has been had to the printed reports and papers read before the several learned societies, among them, the Minutes of Proceedings of the Inst. C.E., and many printed reports on sewerage by dif- ferent authors both in England and America, in order that, though brief, it may be reliable. While believing that agriculture is the foundation of all permanent prosperity, and that without prosperous farmers all other industries must eventually languish, this little book is respectfully inscribed to the farmers of North America. V 1 ' TItE AUTHOR. Q.7^5 ^ T4BLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGES. Estimatod value of farms in North America 6 and 7 Estimated earnings " ** " 8 Drainage of lands '. 8 to 15 Diagram No. I. , illustrating drainage 10 Table No. 1, velocity of water in drains 16 " 2, ciibicfeet " " 17 " 3, acres drained 18 " 4, " •* 19 " 5, '* *» 20 " 6, *' '* 21 Draining the prairies of the North-west 22 and 23 Diagram No. 2, illustrating drainage 24 Drainage of lands 25 to 35 Table No. 7, proportional rate of fall in 10 feet 36 Shewing how to lay out drains 36 to 38 CHAPTER 11.' Transportation an important element to be considered 39 to 42 ' CHAPTER III. Village, town and city drainage .42 to 45 '* " " water supply 46 to 47 Drainage a preventative of disease 47 to 48 Sewers should be self-cleansing 48 Sewer pipes .48 to 49 Bricks 49 Cement. » 50 Ventilation 50 to 54 The " separate system," sewage farms, etc 55 Sewers flushed with water a necessity 55 and 56 A MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. CHAPTER I. Those who may search herein for something of literary interest will be disappointed. This has been written for common men of common sense who have not time to study excellencies of style or diction. What a misnomer to say common sense, when it is the most uncommon sense. Though agriculture is of a common nature, it is not so un- important an industry as certain people think, or appear to think, it is. A moment's reflection will convince the most of us that all the people upon this earth must live of the productions of the soil. The earth is the great mother — the founda- tion and fountain of sustenance to every one who lives upon it. While the factories may flourish, wealth abound, and the protected professions and business-men flourish, the farmer, though he had the start of them all, languishes in the race ; and it is no uncommon thing to hear said, " farm- ing does not pay," while the active brains of the coming generation of farmers are thinking of entering the "hives of industry" in order to study law, medicine, and other pro- tected professions, trades and businesses. Whj'' farmers should be interested in the legislation of the country, will appear from the following statement of values : The value of each state has been arrived at by capitalizing the average annual value of farm products for the last three years, less operating expenses, at current rates of interest. This is the true way of estimating the value of a farm or a state, because property is worth what it will fetch in open market. The amount capitalized for which a farmer sells his produce, after deducting working expenses, is the value of his farm. Suppose a farmer re- alizes $1,000 per year from his farm, then, having regard for the value of money, his farm is worth about $20,000, for money is worth about 5%. . li 6 MANUAL OP DRAINAGE. «0 ■» iH W ^ g< •^ CC ^ iO^ "^ -i< n 9^ Ki ^ rt «0»O^W^^CCW'^«OM'»»CO«^»R^S MANUAL OF DHAINAOE. CO s s I I I I I I I I I I M I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I 1 I I I I I 8 «5 88 w«5 8$ rH 00 I '^ iH CO » CO CO »?5 'tf'c^^ • » • 00 b-'^ 1^88 CD COO) odk5 C?5 TT i-lt«b«O^<0COiO^OiiAOCi 'RS! hao<:0( §8 aid (0( ^_* •« •» » ^ ^ f^ ^ •» •* _•* « * •* « ." -. ^ C0*»««»5t>.C*^t-r-l'^0» CO © P iH CO ^ C r-i uw L^ Ui <^ » i-i u^ ro .o S o «£ ^ w S ^ A eS mt o. 111 ^•a.9> s a a o ?0 u .9 S»-tS.-tS«S^ eo^JftOpQP© CO rH ^ ^ CO CO ^ i ! J I I i I Si lO <© W5 © p © < ;0 uf © lA (>• «0 t» < O I I I « Ift p IQ p >« '* >5 u5ao©x©oo©cio ©r-l©©'^©Q60i 9s w* 9^ 0* mt ^ •» ___^ ©C<«(MO0'*©SPP iO lO >Ci ^ 94 >0 ©I ^Sr-l|5 ^ !>• tj £2 £$ ^ t^ |sw © CO CO c t-r-lC »-teot-»Q^'-'*'Qg «D3^S) v))>)fa <-H «.Ji J Hri ■H-i I t< irH'H A Oatfot ff4 .Llj. H K?« MANUAL OP DRAINAGE. 11 I J K, F G H and C D E, at coiiimon junctions. Now, allowing the fall to be uniformly 1 in 400, and the rain- fall 30 inches, we have to provide as follows : (See table No. 4.) Portion A J— 440 lineal feet of 9-inch pipe @ $0.08 $35.20 J G-880 " " 7 ** " 0.05A... 48.40 " G D-880 " " 6 " " 0.04.... 35.20 " D B— 400 " '* 2 " " 0.01.... 4.00 * Sub-raaina— 3840 " " 3 ** " 1.25 48.00 i Sub-maina— 3840 " " 2 " ♦' 0.01 38.40 Minora 76,800 " ** 2 ** " 0.01 768.00 • — — — Eatimated coat of pipea 977.20 87080 feet trenching; and aundriea 4,354.00 Total coat.... |6,331.20 or total cost about $33.32 per acre. We could hardly get a case exactly like this, except on the prairies, but this example serves to illustrate the use of iihe tables. We take A J, a 9-inch pipe, because at a fall of 1 in 400 the table gives 200 acres ; and the whole quarter -section must drain through the pipe here ; and we take this, as it is always best for the pipes to be on the safe side, a little too large. The next portion, J G takes the water through it that comes into the main-pipe at the junction G, this is evidently, | of 160 acres, or nearly 107 acres rainfall. The table gives this nearly exactly. The next portion of the main-pipe is G D. This has to take the remaining third, or a little over 53 acres rainfall, which the table gives — taking the next higher figure — 75 acres, which takes a 6-inch pipe. Now, the last portion of the main-pipe has but to carry off the rainfall of a few acres, so we make it two inches in diameter. The portions of the sub-mains, next the main-drain, have to carry more water that those portions next the limits, consequently we make them 3 inches in diameter, and the balance the same as the minor- drains, 2 inches in diameter. The prices of labor and material, of course, will vary. > Wetness of soil is often produced by water confined fur- ther down below the surface than the usual depth of drains. An impervious subsoil will often demand drains closer together than 80 feet, and, consequently, more of \^. MANUAL OF DRAINAGH. them than where the soil is porous. The texture of the subsoils must be consulted, and the depths of the drains, if below the frost line, proportioned accordingly. To form an approximation of how deep to dig trenches for drains, begin by putting down one *^ dun five feet deep, then dig a hole at a point 40 feet on one side, and if the water stands in it 12 hours after a rain-storm at less than one foot from the surface, then 80 feet will be too wide apart for the drains. Try again in another place by dig- ging a hole 20 feet from one side, and if the water is there at 2 feet below the surface, its inclination on flowing into the drain, is about 1 in 7, and the drains must be about 50 feet apart to leave over a foot of dry land between drains. Stiff clay-soil may require to be drained, where the frost admits of it, at shorter distances between the drains — say at 40 feet apart and four feet deep ; thus ad- mitting the soil to become aerated and pulverized by the weather. The use of an auger, in some cases, will facili- tate the operation of determining how deep it may be necessary to lay drains in order that they may do their work effectively. But tiiere can be no doubt that deep under-draining promotes the aeration and disintegration of the soil to a greatar extent, generally, than shallower drains. Any depth less than three feet will gene:ally prove unsatisfactory. It is to be expected that the general drainage of the land will lead to floods, as the water will be brought off" the ?^oil much moro rapidly than before. The rivers and streams will be swollen proportionately, so that a good outlet is almost a sine qua non in every system of drainage. v ' v^ < ^ > > EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES. Table No. 1 shows the velocity per secoiid of water flowing through ordinary underdrains open at each joiat for the admission of water percolating through the soil, and is calculated from a formula \/f'x D x 2, where F is the fall per thousand, D is the diameter of the drain, and 2 is a constant, all in feet. Repeated experiments, con- ducted under different conditions, show that this formula is as nearly correct as it is possible to be for drains about \ MANUAL OF DRAINACE. 13 4000 diameters in length. There may be people who will tell you that more water will flow through a pipe than is given hare by this formula, but, if there be such, it is questionable whether such persons know what they are talking about. A drain is not for the conveyance of water under a " head" such as water-pipes closed at the lower end and at each joint ; but a drain is, necessarily, open at the outlec and at each joint — at about every foot in its length — to admit the rainfall which percolates through the soil. Hence, friction plays an important part in re- tarding the velocity of water flowing through farm-drains. This table will serve in nearly all circumst 50 inches rainfall — Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, New Jersey, parts of Washington Territory, British Col- umbia, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and parts of Quebec. In districts where the rainfall is confined to a portion of the year called the " Rainy Season," provision may be made to carry it off by larger drains. Say, in districts where most of the rain falls in three months, table No. 6 may be used. We consider provision for fifty inches of rainfall ample for any district ; for if the drains did not carry it off in 24 hours, they would in 36 hours after the . rain stopped. Junctions of drains should always be made by junction- pipes, made thus : , which are easily obtainable from any drain-pipe factory — and joined by a curve in the direction of the current to facilitate the flow of water. •. Pipes of less diameter than two inches are not recom- mended for under-drains. Such pipes may be of sufficient capacity, but the saving made by their adoption would not compensate the farmer for the risk of obstructions which sometimes occur in them. •\ MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 15 A drain which has been well made will last 50 years, and will pay for itself in from 3 to 5 years. Be sure to usei wooden outlet pieces protected by an iron grating ; and lay the tiles from the lowest point, upwards. In sandy, or other very porous soil, put straw in the bottom of the drain-trench. In quicksand, use rough hemlock or other boards, at the bottom of the drain-trench, in addition. Pages 6 and 7 contain information referring to temper- ature, rainfall, etc., which is approximately correct. It must be borne in mind that in states and territories of such magnitude the average temperature and rainfall only are given in these estimates. The exact temperature and rainfall may be more nearly obtained by persons living in the particular district. Intending settlers in any of these states or territories are cautioned against the rose-colored representations of paid agents of land, state or territorial officials, because they will be but doing their duty to their superiors, their paymasters, by aoing all they can to get settlers. A certain proi'sssor was recently very enthusi- astic about obtaining settlers for a north-western district ; but the enthusiasm was accounted for when the public accounts were published, and his name was mentioned as the recipient of large sums of money to induce farmers to settle there. If you value your health, and are bound on changing your place of abode, select a section of country in which to settle that is not subject to sudden changes, and one that is free from malaria. Move v^ith caution and with all the information obtainable from disinterested sources. If such information cannot be got, rely upon your own judgment rather than upon any other man's judgment. The numerous agents of land and railroad companies, and the officials of the various governments, have in their power to make a man, looking for a location, very comfor- table, by free rides, free lunches and numerous hospitali- ties, which induce a man to be satisfied with his sur^ roundings. 16 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. t ^ ^ S ao I H I H .1 I - t» r-lfHiH« ff« • ••• • *_• • * ^ * M * J • * • • • • • • • • — * J J 00 ?iO u I "9 iHO)ecc4aoeoxecaootnQt«>QQ;oeoiae9»0)toot7aocpaOr^ C«l.-«aOrHia«0«>000»^e4tna(NC0U5r»C^9OQMt>'tnO^ «0b-«©'*>O«5t-30Oi-HC.O'V30WOr-IOiH • • • a • • • • •_•_• •_• •^•-•J 'f • • 'J •_• — * _.• rHfH • • • • • • • • • • •_•_• •^•—•^ • • • • • • • • .«.• _ • Oi >«t-lr-*t*COt*^b-«O>O »0«Ot»OOCO>O«>t^a0N oo 94t^«pe9>A94AQoaoeo©<-Heo«pQaotatncpQO©9co^>A«od ao^94«oaoeci©© AM©©e9b>©t«^© -o«toiQr»oOpi^eM^>au3b.ao©c>ioiHeoif3cx)iH^©b.©© \l^rH l©««cC350©»o©»o*»5»©©'^»H>^Qoe^t>.©»Hc.t>. ^C4c<5T»^»c«o«e^-^-aooooi©l-t1-t^ci5ao3s©1-(^^«5oo■^©t>. h3 >SSSSSS<^S©©©©0©©© I © o», t- w ^ t>^ 00 ci o> co( o*. • OOOOO' d r^ ei "^ id ai^^yi>6 to r-iCb©»OC^( ipo©o i©i-t'^«9»or>.ao©N^i-i^ iHrH»H»HrHrHi-'55c.»-l© ©o©o©©< 8»i ^ 55 cb eo »« < © «<1 iO«-^0000CO99«S^ >nco«dt<^oic>^r4e4 , o'o © I >94©
    Ot«i-l© iHiHiHrHr-liHiH©. 00 © W Tf 00 »n b- 01 _j _j _J ^ J^' • c^ c^ Oil c»00©_'-.J«.". • ^ ^ N?i«occoiS©«5©S.oooo©©_j"--''*'©^c^c^weo»o • •••••••••• •••?HrH rH ^ ^ ^i 00 09P9©99S©99©© iH©5ii!5«©o©©©©©© oo©29ao©a^ioa09^t«©9t« 1H iH C^ ©« CO ■^ t« ■* »0 »0 C( t«e4©( ©t-t-< .©©< >©94( >©( >eo( >©9©Oi iiH©55«5< >oo©e4oO( .r-liHrHi-'THiHiHiH©flC. CO SrHrHWC0«^^^'^>OlO»0< ©©©©©©©©c>©o©< >©SS( >©rHC.«'^©© © 5.S ©rHi-irH^rHi-H^«JqCSIS5«e02^;2'»OW»2«Pt;-50 ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©rH n9 !S©©»t>.©STt> op >db«0 t»t>. oooo© oj © ^ ^ "4 © 94 ^ ie4( i^; CO CO ^ §§g 00 *o ©©©©©©©©©©©©©© UJ»C o© m ©t^C>rHC!*e3©»fS'«}'©*t-?togec9©5>rHt-©tot>.t,©i£5C©tot.to©u5c4 itoAsoS)©>A?4ccao©^e4'^)Qto© ieocO'^'«i'^«5©iooooo©©i-HC£5^©ff^eoc>^^^olOloto^- 00©rHCOO5©t-^e0'^t-0b©»<»OrOCO©rH^00^©©«PrH«O5J rHrHrH*5v»NNCrfrHo5^©i»-HWiO©^t-©^t-l2i«e0©©©©©©0©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© i-iic©©©>ooo^©ooiACOM©iniAioeco»i© CoSi9^tototo^OO©©rHrHM'VU3to^eO;S!Sfi»<-0©© rHCO-^odeOt>lod^rH(OQO'C>COt<^(Ht^e4©'cpQd^^U»OQ©t.©©©©94'^©e4©©ooio©o©o©©tot«©© io<^t^'od©4eo-^»o©t<^©©cH5J'*oo5Jo»r4cot«l©t>i^c5Nlsoto©elodo»c>rH^»o«oo6©©5450'^«5 rHrHiHiHiHiHiH(NCS5o^o^©uS©SSco©35<«<^^fH io^ece<«-» *•«••*■•*• MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 19 I •9 8 I < Si •a >.COCOCOr-IOt»t>-<0000000^00000000000 4) a I o 13 X CCeOT».'««T»«©000©0000»0 0000000 «t-.co«ei«ooo«e'«e5e5©©^Ob-t-.Qb-e<5»5iO«ceO'^b-Q ■^^ioOos©orHc4c<5't«if5«>t-^i-i'^©i-ic<5©oseot-e<5.M^«C©t>.iOJ>.OI>.t^;Or-l© ©©©©©©©© e5eQ-^»5ot^t-oOQO©©©iH(Mcciot>.fHM»o3i^©-r©©tH ^ ^. ©sot«-^t^©o©oaoo)©ccoo©o©©©©©©©©©© THM«0!*5«o^c4«5©«ood»rfQd»6e9irf cS'ci uit>lt^eic>i:6tZ-^t^ C<.(»0»©W«OM5i«t>.*i-lCO;0'?0<0 iA C<8©t-t>.©t-C«5t»C0'*©«ft©O©ts.t>. r-4©)Or>-b>©UO© © c»5«a<«*i-H©i-iM»rfo6o^^t^©»2©^«d«5©QdiHiHe<5ot«lt>^ rHTHr-t(Neoeoeoeoco'^-*'n»o»««B©»^©©©r-)C^ecic©.-i© rHrHfHr-lr-liHfHC^IM t^t»0000t^<-.^C^-«?000000©l>i9(3 ^ -^'^-^ Sl>.GO©i-t© I © QO OS Oi © I . -. - - . . ;^ . . C0©t^CCC000t>»©l>-©i-HC^OOl>-'^'^^O©t*t«©©©©© i-O I C5 -^ •* »0 00 00 OS © © »H M fC -* »0 © Ol 1-H © t» pj »H e<3 00 © t» ^^ iH iH rH »H »-< iH rH 1-1 »H *« N W ©< eO CO eO •^ If 00 I e<5»OOOTH©(NCO»OOOC^>0 t^©O©»0r-JQ0i0©©©© gsi iTHi-irHe4MeoeocoeO'ii^i'irf«5© © t«l ©©©c^c4«5»rfo6rH© I iHr-Hi— IfHfHiHiH^ieo i4 5S©§0>ft©§©S»t^©§^^lMrH •ft ^ W «^ iH a^ .. - .. - . «« «• \a 4 ' 20 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. i I '2. as" 10" I • ^ 3ji nil in ^"§ s J. ^ o .a a I § ■■3 •a d »i CO *^SS"^SSS§®*"^''****'®®®®®®®®®®®®®® ®. ^ 9 ® ® 9 ® ® ®.® ® o ©oooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 9» ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo <#^lJ5«OWO©rHC^eo^»OOt>.0».-f^O(M^ts.a>WOOiftQO«0 »HfHiH»-(.-ti-liHiHiHr-ICw ^a«r ^«pf 1^ ^^ ^«^ ^^ >ap^ ^piF ^«pr ^pr ^m^ Sw' Vw' ^w' ^w^ Vm' ^■p' ^m^ ^^ «^ ««pf «^ *.«' i»AO»-J^«5r4rf(H24^'»»'o*gjc4i4«p'.ONi«« «-r«d »c* irf

    .Q0^050©»-IPiN^«0005^eO»0^05(N»COTO— 4 pooopoooppooooooooooooooooo eo MJ o* «o' iH ^ bi ©4 «5 '^^ »ri ,J 00 »o oi ^ c^ (N .J c4 >« m oj t>I ©* ^ Tj' ©5©5C0C0>«»ft»0«0Ot>.t*00Q0©Oi-l?0i«l>.00©©iMl«P«O^ © ooopppoopoppcooiftooooooopooe «et>IcJ«5«riodc5«3io^-Ju5 0S'tc5oopN«0'^e4(riQO"0>©©©©>A©0©©©©©©©©©©©© © rJ ©4 O M tjJ id «o' 05 (N* CO* »0 t>I 1-J rfJ p t^ ©* •«? OJ •^* -4 © iH r^ t>I .H iHiHiHiH*«e!|M'?l(.NCOeOeOW<««-*«OM5t>.t*b-0O©©i-»©eoc'S^»o»ooo©p»-i'*ic: oo'M©iM»c©i^t>.^?c©© leoco^iOioooo© iHT-4iH»Hr-lT-lrHN ?0 OrH»0'«»"0©C^«0©©«H©«5C.l>-©©©©0© ccMW'^©t>It-lt>lQdo50»©©'iHe4"*«ooior*S?""5?l©*jrf^*,H iC^c4«^C''4«r5cOeO'^'^«rfft©»O©»O©©Q0l--©»O'^eC-«0»0'^'^CO«'5C<|iNr-trH »0 "* CC -• ,,*>' MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. SI as :! ft; I I as CD I ^ 2 s •S « HI k s I. Si ^ I < i s CO M K o V 3 »< 30 in oooooooooooooo-^oeooooooooooo •:0 O © OJ O O O .DOlsro^O © ©^ O © O O O"© © © © © © © QO©'S'5;2»Q0 2'i»-it-Hg>iH»Ht*©t-«ww©rcost>«p«c©.t»«ooa5©»-<« ©"© © © © © -^ »-J W © © © © © ©^© © © ©©~©^© © © © © © O ©"©© © •^cc>fi'^t>^9idt^(0 -H »i5 Qo OS "H? «

    ir^©'*t^©os (MM?C©t-.©i-l(M-*«OJ.-t?O©©lO'M«>t^Csio5©»«^0O^««O f-t*5i-tr'Wf<»Heccceo'*«it«^»«»o©;OQOOJ©Ot-: -;M^©t: rH iH iH rH iH iH Cv| "<0«9 -^"(b ©~© cT©^^ C>os^-Jr-a5^>i^^^«p■^<-3c>oico^.I^^51-J^'•->©'«£o©«p^-i^ t».t>.OJi-Hio©t«w©5^^io«bo5i-U9©©©©©©pp©©©©C©©©©0©©©©©©© •*o^«i^c5^>l©^^'^^©o»^5<^e^''*»?c>o^©^^^'Xl>«5«p^>I-J COM'^»Oi>»0000OS©©»-teio»rf©"4'iJ©»H«©eo^©osi-5©*'>iJasr^©'^t>ItN;os ^(Nrt'*»o©©r^t»woo©©©»-icc"o^^£5(^^.-H'-o©©«5^pr>Io5l«o-J^-J i-l^lNM'*<'^^l««iO;OOOOt~OOOS©!*5'!t<^>ftCOOOO-^b-.-l «0©©©©©10©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©t-©©©© «^a • ^» •• •• • •#••■• • • •••••■••• Cq^©©00©i-l^;OOSi-l'^t>--^«OMi-HO'r^OS«P'*«00»Ht>.0 r-liHiHe^We<5cCW«'5c«3'^'^'<»«»OiO«Ob-OSOiOS©»H(N'^'^©QQ rH iH iH pH «H iH d I ©©i-<©©©©lf< • • ■ • • • _• • • ,C5 looos©-^'^"^'"' — ©© l_?0(M©i-H©©>O0S^«0r-JpeC©©©©©©©C5 ©©©©©© ■^lfSirft>ic5©r^iH»rfTflrf«Ct^OSC5MlCCI CC ecTt* © © © © © o © c4coc4eo)d>o»rf'^«Ob^i>^t^o6cios-^«»0'^i>losc5w5^od«>os r-»iHiHr-lr-lrH.rH©«Or^© ©' © rH rH iH iH (N C4 c4 C^* «*i «^ eC «■ CO ■«l' ■^ »C5 © © t~ t^ 0C> CO O" C4 00 8©SSQC>©©©<->©©o©©ooc©©o©© ©0©'3©K5©»ft©»0©i5©^QOb-'»IOrt*CCC^l()() spent in proper drainage there is a return in increased and better conditioned crops of fully 25% proat." " Experiments recently conducted at the experimental station, Uniontown, show that the average yield of corn off drained land was 36.84 bushels per acre, whereas the average yield without drainage off the same land was only 24.02 bushels per acre. Drainage, therefore, must be credited with the increase of 12.82 bushels to the acre, or 54.4 per cent., because the conditions were the same, and there was neither excessive rainfall nor drought during the season." A farmer in Ontario, who won the sweepstakes gold medal for the best farm in Ontario, says, — " Good drain- age will add ac least one-third to the product of the soil. You can work your farm much earlier in spring, and it removes all stagnant water from your land." But why quote authorities ? Does not every farmer know how great the benefit derived from drainage ? Perhaps the wherewithal to do the work is not forthcom- ing ? If it is good policy to borrow money at all, it is for drainage purposes. There is plenty of money can be got for about 6% on farm security; and if by draining, his land the farmer can increase the value of his products onc'third, he might easily afford 6% for borrowed capital wherewith to increase his annual income. 36 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. TABLE No. 7.— Proportional Bate of Fall in inchet every 10 feet. 11' I 1' i'; • KattiufFall. in 5,000 " 4,000 " 3,000 2,000 1,000 900 It (( {( (( <( (( <( (( 800 700 600 500 450 400 350 300 Decimal. Nearest Fraction inches. 0.024 0.030 0.040 0.060 0.120 0.134 0.150 0.172 0.200 0.240 0.267 0.300 0.343 0.400 1 1 •i5 1 17 J !i 16 1 I i 4 T5 :\ Rate of Fall. ^*°»"»'- Nearest Ft action incheH. 1 in 250 1 ** 200 1 " 150 1 ** 100 1 '' 90 1 " 80 1 " 70 1 " 60 1 " 50 1 " 40 1 " 30 1 *' 20 1 " 10 0.480 0.600 0.800 1.200 1.334 1.500 1.714 2.000 2.400 3.000 4.000 6.000 12.000 « 4 S iiV. 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 12,0 b£ MA ]H Figl. Fig 2. When it is difficult to get a leveler or land surveyor — as it often ii^ in places where farmers are situated — a good enough method for obtaining the falls of drains can be extemporized thus : Obtain a pine scantling a little over 10 feet in length and about 4"x4" in size, and plane it down to an even thickness, and make it exactly 10 ft. in length, as shewn in Fig. 1. Now procure two reots, like the one illustrated in Fig. 2, much like two " sawhorses," and rest the scantling (illustrated in Fig. 1) upon them at some place in the field or land requiring to be drained. Then, with an ordinary mason's level, set the scantling, by means of pushing the rests down firmly, level. By screwing in small nickel-headed screws, or driving bright tacks into the top of the scantling at A and B, the top of the scantling being level, you can sight between the two tacks or screws, the same as you would between the back MANUAL OP DRAINAGE. 87 and foresight of a rifle, and this line produced is practical- ly a level line. We say, practically a level line, because there is an allowance must be made for the earth's curva- ture when tho sight extends to a distance. This allow- ance for curvature is always added to the fall, and amounts to about 8 inches in a mile, and only 2 inches in a half mile ; and it is always proportional to the square of the distance. Let C D represent the surface of a field. If our scant- ling (see Figs. 1 and 2) be set up level in the neighbor- hood of C, and a ten-foot pole be held at D, the height of the scantling being 5 feet, and the sight, through the two tacks or screws in the scantling, striking the pole just 1 foot below the top, the point D is 4 feet lower than the scantling near C. Upon measuring between the two points we find that from C to D is 1,000 feet : wherefore the fall is 1 in 250. Now, to lay out the drain, we take about a score of sticks or palings about 5 or 6 feet long, with a cross-piece nailed on each (as illustrated in S S, Fig. 3). Then we stick into the side of the scantling (illustrated in Fig. 1) at B, at right angles, a common pin just so far .below the level top as is given in table No. 7, applicable to the fall ; and us this has been found to be 1 in 250, the distance below the top of the scantling at the end B is J an inch. Now, when we bring the foresight at A, which should be moved to the top corner — in line with the pin at B, we sight the line X X, Fig. 3. If the sticks or palings, S S, Fig. 3, be driven in at a number of points between C and D, until the tops of the cross-pieces be all in the line XX ; then X X is parallel to the drain to be built. The reason I 38 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 'K ■'' pi I of this is because we have marked out a similar triangle on the scantling to that which a level line would form with the proposed drain. If the proposed drain is to be 5 feet deep, said number of feet is added to the distance i'rom fhe surface of the ground to the top of each cross- piece on the line X X shown in Fig. 2, less 5 feet, the depths should be marked on a peg driven into the ground on either side of the sticks or palings, to prevent the drainers in their work from disturbing them. These sticks with cross-pieces on them are called ** boning rods " by drainers. On account of the inequalities of the surface of the ground it is seldom that the " cuts " will be all 5 feet deep for a 5 feet drain. Some will be 4' x6", some 5"x6", and others 4"xll". "What is required is that the drain shall be exactly parallel to the line X X, illustratec^ in Fig. 3. Every drain, or section of a drain, must be laid on a true gradient downward to the outlet. A prac- tical drainer, or one of the farmer's own family, can very readily lay out any oi'dinary drain as well as an engineer. In most parts of tne country a leveler, or surveyor, can be got to lay out drains. There is hardly any necessity for a civil engineer to be employed for so simple a job, unless the drain or drains are intended to form a part of an ex- tensive schome, and then a practical civil engineer should be consulted. Be sure and get a practical one. An im- practical professor won't do. For the sake of brevity, in keeping with the idea at the rstart, this chapter now draws to a close. It is well known that the centre of population of the United States has been gradually moving westward since 1790, until now it has reached close to Cincinnati, Ohio. The population follows the virgin soils. Many districts in the older settlements have become ex- hausted bj' over cropping. We need but keep our eyes open as we pass through the country to see thousands of acres in the older settlements lying waste. If we can do a little towards inducing people to properly drain and cultivate these extensive tracts of worn-out land we shall have accomplished a "*roat work, and we think it can be done with great protit. MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. CHAPTER II. It were waste labor to tell the farmar how to increase the products of his farm, unless facilities for transporta- tion were provided. '. , As agriculture lies at the foundation, so does cheap transportation form no inconsiderable item in the farmers* prosperity. r? The matter of building railroads is no longer a question that engages the attention of the few, but there is not a country between California and Nova Scotia ; between the frozen North and Southern States, but men can be found who understand building them economically and scientifically. No railroad, through any ordinary tract of country, ought to cost, for building and equipping, more than $20,- 000 per mile. : . " .j : -, - The farmers of one or two States, or Territories, could, without much difficulty, organize themselves into a com- pany, subscribe for the stock, and build and own their own railroad. There are very few railroads built through a reasonably fertile country but pay a good dividend on their actual cost, if constructed with a view of serving the interests of the people. We will illustrate what we mean by supposing the line to be built 100 miles long between the two ends. The line at $20,000 per mile would cost, incIisdiDg every- thing, about $2,000,000. Say, the shares were fixed at $20 each, and each farmer could take as many or few shares, up to 1000, as he pleased, which shares, with ^p% paid up, would put us in possession of $200,000; ftn ample sum to pay for all legitimate prelhniwkTy work, lo- cation, legislation, etc. If required, the whole of the re- maining 90 per cent, would be subject to "call" as the work progressed. For one share the farmer would pay not more than $20, and 100,000 shares sold, would realize ample funds to build and equip the line. Thus, a line could be had, and independent facilities oould be had, by the farmers occupying a State or Territory, which could be operated mmummmmim^mmm u 40 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. m 1} m by themselves in their own interests. The Board of Dir- ectors might be annually nominated by the " Grange," or body of farmers occupying the District or Territory. Some years ago a section of country in Canada was without railroad facilities. It contained a large number of farmers whose only means of reaching the nearest mar- ket was by team. The council of one of the counties met and voted a bonus of $250,000 to a company for building them a railroad. This was equal to the sum of $5,555 per mile. The Government subsidized the line to the extent of $6,000 per mile, so that there was available $11,555 per mile. The line but cost $16,- 000 per mile to build, so that the sum of $4,445 per mile was all the company spent in construction. Now why did not the farmers receive the Gove: nment subsidy and build the line themselves ? To-day they would have had a good piece of paying property, and could have con- trolled it in their own way, most conducive to their own interests. Instead oi which a large, powerful monopoly controls it and manages it in the company's interest. The remedy is in che hands of the farmers. Your interests are greater than those of any other class. You hold the majority, not only of wealth, but of votes. It seems hardly necessary to name the remedy. This chapter will end, for the sake of brevity, with a summary of the remarks of an intelligent writer in the Chicago Tribune of January last entitled " Corporation Wrecking." He says corporations are wrecked : — * 1 — By an official interest in the profits of railroad construction companies and by making contracts with them which are to the disadvantage of the corporation. " 2 — By directorial interest in other railroads or cor- porations with running arrangements, consolidations and other agreements are made to the detriment of the com- mon stockholders. .,.,,-... " 3 — By complicated systems of book-keeping, which, though not technically fraudulent, are misleading and de- ceptive. MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 41 " 4— By the withholding of regular reports, statements and information for unfair advantages, and of which, in the absence of special legislation, common law does not take cognizance. " 5 — By false reports put forth in an unofficial manner for individual advantage. " 6 — By commissions and presents received by auditors and purchasing agents from parties of whom purchases are made. " 7 — By manipulation in the stock market by means of combination or conspiracy among the managers, to the un- fair disadvantage of other proprietors. " The direct sufferers from official misconduct are pri- vate stockholders and investors, and from these classes untold millions have been extorted to swell the coffers of the few who are * inside,' especially in mining enterprises. The most necessary and honorable business of building and operating a railroad has come to be properly looked upon as a * scheme,' or even a * game,' in which the man- agement play with loaded dice. Those who win in these tinancial games are * brilliant operators,' and * Napoleons of finance,' and are imitated and envied by a numerous and ambitious following. " Ring management is an incubus on legitimate enter- prise, and an active, demoralizing element which is an- tagonistic to the very foundation of our social system. It furnishes the stock-in trade of the Socialist and Anar- chist, and is the keenest weapon which is wielded by all the impractical sentimentalists who wish to bring on the ' Coming Revolution,' and to destroy our present form of government. " Many Socialists and Sentimentalists affirm that if our government were made more practical in its character, and would adopt and absorb the business of our great corporations, abuses of all sorts would virtually come to an end. All such reasoning is thoroughly fallacious, for (were it otherwise practicable) instead of any such desir- able result, there would be an army of political abuses added to the present array of evils. The beautiful ideal which pictures the government as a great, immaculate 42 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. ill! ! personality in economic management, is rudely shocked by the actuality, which finds that its active lactors are embodied in selfish and scheming politicians. " It seems evident that some system of governmental control is needed to include the following : — '• 1 — The compulsory making and issuing of monthly reports in a uniform manner and after a prescribed for- mula^ the correctness of which should be aifirmed by the oath of one or more directors. " 2 — The removal of the reports from the possibility of interested coloring. " S — Enforce all the usual moral obligations that apper- tain to trusteeship. " 4 — Construe as bribery the receiving of any commis- sion or presents by any auditor, purchasing age. it, or of- ficial, which are given because of his official position. " 5 — That it shall be unlawful, with heavy penalties at- tached, for any corporate official or manager to buy the stock of the company, except for the purpose of invest- ment. Nor shall he sell the same unless he be the actual owner of the amount sold, and make a delivery of it ; and he shall neither buy nor sell except after prescribed public notice. , ,, " 6 — Kequire affidavits at stated intervals from each official and manager that he is not and will not make any speculative sales or purchases indirectly of the stock of his corporation, and that he has no interest in any such transactions which are made through any third parties." II CHAPTER III. .■H-' '«?/: ■t'i: The subject of village, town, and city drainage, is so in- timately connected with farm-drainage, that we offer no apology for introducing it here ; keeping to our idea upon undertaking this little work that — " Brevity is the soul of wit" and " boiling down" to a single chapter all that is definitely known upon the subject of sewerage. JT? rtitJi;;t; y.i *",»>; ?,n.> ,'ir .;^M( :yfi;\ '.V MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 43 }> It aiay be at once stated that the most economical way of draining farm-buildings, and most villages, is to carry all the water away to the most convenient natural outlet, — to some place in the neighborhood where the general drainage of the district empties itself, — by a system of drains, and keeping all the excreta, fluid and feculent matte/s, etc., for manuring purposes. We are of the opin- ion, from extended observations, that the " dry earth closet system" of deodorisation, would probably be the most economical, and fill the conditions of preserving the health and lives of people living in villages, or suburban, or even urban districts, more nearly than any other. It would be economical, because the gardens or orchards in the vicinity would utilize the productions of the water-closets, urinals, and cesspools with immense benefit. A movable water-tight box or vessel placed in the water- closet to receive the excreta, etc., where, as often as used, dry earth or ashes could be taken out of a receptacle pro- vided for them in the closet, and a few shovels full thrown upon them as occasion might require. If a couple of railway rails, or pieces of oak in place of rails, were put down, and the box or vessel to receive the excreta, etc., set on small flanged wheels, it could be — pro- vided a door were made in one side of the closet — easily run out and emptied when necessary, and its contents carted away, and the box replaced. There is scarcely any smell from this mixture, and in a very short time it is completely deodorised. In towns and cities, on account of the denseness of the buildings, it is seldom that the " dry earth closets" are practical. It therefore often becomes necessary to con- struct a system of sewers. The first thing to establish, as in all drainage works, is the position of the outlet. In sea-coast towns, of course, we find a point, where from the movement of the tides, currents, eddies, etc., the sewage will be carried out to sea and never be brought back again to pollute the beach or vicinity. Such a point can generally be found by an ex- pert in a few days. This constitutes the best of all out- lets. There hitherto has not been any device suggested I: I [ii HnSS7?5 i' 44 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 1 or proposed whereby the agricultural constituents of the sewage can be eliminated so as to leave a profit from the operation. The next best outlets are undoubtedly^ the inland seas or lakes or large rivers. The main things to guard against are (1) the return of the sewage by storms or currents, to be thrown upon or against the shores and banks border- ing upon the lakes or rivers in close proximity to the town or city to be sewered. (2) The pollution of the air or drinking water by the noxious effluvia, or by mixing their deadly germs with the source of supply. As North America is so situated that large lakes and rivers abound ; and for the purposes of commerce, most of the larger cities are located on their shores, consequently, an expert has generally little difficulty in the selection of a suitable outlet. If the sewage is to be emptied into a lake, the principal thing to determine in the first place — and one most times of easy attainment — is to find the direction of the- currents, whether caused by storms, winds, etc., or by some peculiarity in the formation of its shores. After this has been determined, find a position for the outlet, where the sewage would never come back to pollute the shores, or find its way into the drinking water. .^ ■.■■■■.;■ --^^ -i-- ■ .-, •i^'^ j : ..-> In large rivers, such as the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Missouri, etc., the outlets are much easier found ; for when the sewage is once in the river it is carried down by the current, and the only thing to guard against is the pollu- tion of the air or drinking water of a community of peo- ple living below, somewhere on its course to the sea. Proper investigation by an expert will show whether any community below on the river will be injured by the sewage as it passes along. ? ' .*.... A competent Civil Engineer should always be appointed with full control over works of this kind, where the lives and safety of the inhabitants depend upon the work be- ing well done. It mt/ be laid down as a fact, about which there can be no controversy, that improperly con- structed or badly ventilated sewers are worse than none at all, •-. .,- ._, -. ....„ ., ,. , ,,_ _ ' MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 45 the the The intelligent aldermen, councillors and mayors of cities c*nd towns, can always very materially assist a prac- tical engineer by their suggestions and even counsel ; and if they would observe the simple operations of nature they might correct his errors of judgment : but their busi- ness pursuits and training generally preclude their acquir- ing experimental knowledge of Sanitary and Civil Engin- eering. We have observed in the long course of experience, that, in North America at least, the Chief Engineer of works is converted into merely an executive officer to carry out the directions and orders of committees of the corporations. The idea prevailing seems to be that, the members of civic or other governing bodies being elected to guard the public interest, therefore they should direct and control the execution of public works as well — that the election itself imparted to them greater knowledge than they had before — instead of leaving the design and execution of works to responsible salaried experts. It stands to reason where salaried officers are relieved of all responsibility by being made like mere wheels in a ma- chine, that the committees who direct and control engin- eering operations should understand something of the governing principles of the science. We therefore present the following facts from acknow ledged authorities on Sanitation : We deal with observed facts not theories, and do not account for the how, or why thev are so. — We assert that wherever filth and dirt are found, there also are found the elements of disease. There are already many works in print : many of them scientific : many unscientific, which any one of leisure can examine, and cull out, perhaps, clearer, briefer, and sounder sanitary maxims. But this little book is for common men who have not time to study the larger treaties ; and besides we feel like any other man who writes a book, that this one will fill a gap in the numberless books already written. A pure water supply is an indispensable element. Be- 1^ 46 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. w : fore any sewerage works are begun, this necessary life- giving element should be secured. First, make an analysis of the water supply. Any good analytical chemist will be £ ole to tell whether the water is pure and healthy or not. " It is now certain that an impure water supply may be the cause of terrible outbreaks of cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and other allied disorders, but even doubts are widely entertained whether these diseases, or some of them, can possibly attain general prevalence in a town except where the faulty water supply develops them." Extract from Dr. Simon's Report to the Privy Council^ 1867. When disease is prevalent and the diagnosis points to blood poisoning as the cause, it is well to remember that disease is often caused by excremental pollution of the soil. Water is poisoned by leaky sewers. Sewage should not, under any circumstances, be allowed to leak through a sewer to poison the soil of our streets, or render the rainfall, which is pure when it leaves the clouds, the messenger of disease. " Natural streams should not be arched over to form main-sewers ; because a natural stream may drain a dis- trict very much larger than the area built over, and con- sequently a culvert (or sewer) of capacity to remove flood- waters in a wet season would be comparatively dry during a dry season, and any sewage then flowing in it would stagnate and evaporate, causing nuisance." — Sir R. Raw- linson, Chief Engineer, Imperial Gorernment Board. Besides this, if the sewer were constructed small enough to carry the whole of the sewage out it would not be large enough to carry the natural water of the district drained by it, dunng floods : and then, those whose lands, either inside oi outside of the town, originally drained by the stream, would have recourse to the courts for redress. They would be entitled to damages caused by said floods. For the common-law, which is scommon-sense, allows no corporation or individual the right to impede or obstruct the natural drainage, and cause damage to private in- terests. ■■' ''^ ' ':}jy:i ::'-'■ MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. «r We do not think it necessary to say more on the sub- ject of water supply. This manual is confined to the sub- ject of drainage to a large degree. Water-works for the supply of towns and cities being subject to the laws of pure hydraulics, and not so complicated as the subject of general drainage, will form the matter of a subsequent manual. \7. DRAINAGE AS A PREVENTATIVE OF DISEASE. The records of English Sanitary works, according to the medical health officers of the Privy Council, show, that properly constructed sewers reduced the rate of mor- tality from Typhoid fever 50 per cent, and from Phthisis 30 per cent ; and the total of lives saved from drainage worKS has been fully 18 per cent. " Statistical investigations made by professor Petten- kofer, show us that for every case of death in public in- stitutions for the sick there are thirty-foui' cases of serious illness, so that the unnecessary deaths must be multiplied by that number in order to give you the minimum cases of preventable sickness. These cases of sickness last on the average 18 J days." — Dr. Lyon Play fair* 8 Address ^ delivered in Olasgoiv, 1874. In his inaugural address, as President of the Socisty of Civil Engineers, Mr. B. Latham informed us that in twenty years a sum exceeding £531,475, had been saved, in the estimated value of lives saved, as a result of his sanitary Engineering. Dr. Chamberlain reports from a conversation with Dr. Richardson, acting secretary of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, " that there they never have a fatal case of scarlet fever or diptheria, without finding some cause for it in defective drainage, ventilation, or bad sewerage of the dwelling." Sewers Should be Self -Cleansing. — The prevailing opinion that brick sewers, on account of their roughness on the inside, retarded the velocity of the contents to such an extent as to cause them to choke up, is founded in error. The only way to prevent deposits on the inside of f. 48 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. T 1 1 any sewer is to give it a proper fall Both brick sewerj and pipe sewers are equally subject to be blocked by the sewage if sufficient fall is not provided. The gradients of sewers must be so proportioned that the sewage flowing down-grade through them must have surticient velocity to prevent any settlement of the particles held in suspension. About three feet per second for main sewers, and five feet per second for small sewers, will pre- vent settlement of their contents if this velocity is kept up constantly. The velocity which does the work is that at the bottom of a sewer, which is less than the mean velocity. (See Prony's experiments.) It seems hardly necessary to say that the laws of gravi- tation control all motion. A sewer without a fall can give no motion to sewage. Sewers or drains without fall will eventually be choked with their contents. Not later than 1885, we were gravely told by one of the city authorities, in London, Ont , " that the question of fall did not matter much when pipe sewers were used." In February, 1886, the following spring. The London Free Press, said, " Recent sewers have been laid with so little fall that it has been found necessary already in many of the latest construc- ted ones to have them opened up and cleaned of the solid matter which they contain, which effectually pre- vented the flow through them." By experiments we find that dirty water will not flow with the same velocity as clean water through the same channel. The velocity varies with the amount of solid matter held in suspension. Hence, molasses has a much slower velocity than water. Practical sewer engineers construct their own tables of velocities. The data being their own experience and observations, as the density is always in proportion to the solids held in suspension, and necessarily varies in different towns and cities. Sewar Pipes. — Every pipe for use in sewer- work should be submitted to the analysis of the best analytical chemist in the town or city to be sewered. He should report upon its material. It should be practically impervious and not subject to be injuriously acted upon by sewage in any MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. 49 degree. Earthenware pipes, salt glazed, are generally the best for all situations. Sewers up to eighteen inches in diameter may be used in all situations, but if larger pipe sowefs are required, they should be laid in abed of con- crete for safety, as in some kinds of soil they require its supporting power to prevent probable collapse. Every sewer should be practically water-tight, from end to be- ginning, as the soil of our streets is often polluted by leaky sewers, and the effluvium disengaged is nauseous. Portland cement nearly pure should be used for joint- ing all sewer-pipes. The pipes themselves may be made of Portland cement and screened gravel. Use the cement two parts to one of gravel. Putty should be never used to make joints. Lead pipes are subject to the injurious chemical action of acids and lime. All lead pipes should have lead joints. Zinc pipes are certain to fail when subjected to the chemical action of sewage, and therefore are never used in first-class sewer work. Bricks. — It has been found from experience in London, Eng., that the inverts of brick sewers wear out first. This is according to the well-known fact that the effect- ive velocity is at the bottom of a sewer, and the scouring action of sewage tends to wear it out at the bottom first. The very soundest bricks should be selected for sewer work. Those made from what brickmakers call " strong clay " are usually the sounder. They should have a me- tallic ring when two of them are struck together, and the harder burnt should be selected for the invert of the sewer. Those partly vitrified by the acMon of fire should be chosen, and when laid with plenty of good Portland ce- ment will make sewers practically watertight. Brick work should be protected from water till the cement has thoroughly set, otherwise the soluble parts of the cement may be washed out, and the sewer held together with nothing but a rope of sand. A man can readily pick out the joints with his fingers when water gets admission to brickwork before Portland cement used in it has aet, but 60 MANUAL OF DRAINAGE. m )f let it set first, and then it takes a cold chisel to lemove it. This will account for the failure of some sewers built recently. Cement. — Asphaltum is good for making joints, but Portland cement is most generally used. The failure of some brickwork in sowers maybe account- ed for by the chemical action of sewage on some kinds of cement. Some sorts of cement are chemically changed in their properties, when they come into contact with the acids, ammonia, etc., found in sewage, and the sewer has nothing but the sand in its joints, which a man can easily pick out with his knife. A good Portland cement will bear a tensile strain per square inch, after being set 7 days, of 350 l})s., and weigh about 112 lbs. per bushel. It has the invaluable property of neither deteriorating by age or climate when kept dry. The following is the usual ordinary composition of a good, sound, Portland cement (according to D. C. Collins, Esq., of England) : Lime fS.SO Silica 21.70 Alumina 9.82 Oxide Iron 3.78 Sulphuric Acid ] .67 Alkalies 0.50 Magnesia 1.04 Moisture 2.79 100.00 A cement so composed, no matter by whom, will invari- ably give satisfaction in sewer- work. We wish to impress upon those who may read this manual the importance of getting a good cement for all sewer- work. However good a cement might be for hydraulic works in general, it may be totally unfit for sewer-works on account of the well- known chemical action of sewage upon certain substances. There are many spurious cements passed oflf for Port- land cement ; and here, where the protective tariff raises the price of cement to the consumer it is well to be sure of the quality of what you buy. 1= . Ventilation. — The remedy for noxious gases and foul air is dilution and dispersion by means of ventilation. The gases in sewers and the foul, fceted vapors com- posing the miasma of organic corruption, are absolutely MANUAL OP DRAINA(iE. ^ foul deadly under certain conditions if not mixed with a largo proportion of pure atmospheric air. Even smallpox virus miglit be sufficiently diluted with air or water to be innocuous, aad fevers cease to be con- tagious when we do not shut out of our houses and hos- pitals the air which has been so plentiously provided for us, as was ])roven by experiments of Dr. Fordyce years ago. The proceedings of the Koyal Society of April 1877, con- tain a paper writen by Dr. Percy Fiankland referring to " The transport of solid and liquid particles of sewer gases," giving as the cause of an outbreak ot cholera which occurred in Southampton, Eng., in 1866, as the late Professor Parkes said, " the dispersion of infected sewage through the air produced by the pumping c f the infected sewage and its discharge in a frothy condition down an open channel 8 to 9 feet long. The effluvium disengaged by this seething mass was overpowering. A virulent epi- demic of Asiatic cholera broke out in a few