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32X

A SAMLKAI AND WIFE OF FOR.MEK TIMES.

JAPAN

COUNTRY, COURT, AND PEOPLE

J. C. CALHOUN NKWTON, M.A.. D.D.

TORONTO:
WILLIAM BRIGGS.

MoNTRBA. : C. W. COAXES. Halifax: S. F HUESTIS.

ALFHEUS WATERS WILSON, D.D., LL.D.

LKADKIt IN FOREIGN MISSIONS,

GREAT PREACHER,

AND

A BISHOP IN THE CHURCH OF GOD,

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED

WITH SENTIMENTS OF HIGH REGARD
BY THE AUTHOR.

INTRODUCTION.

The writer of this book has taken advantage of the oppor-
tunities aftorded him, Avhile resident in Japan as missionary
and engaged in edncational work, to gather material for a
comprehensive x'lvw of the country, court, and people. The
enforced leisure of a couple of years has enabled him to put it
In shape and offer it as a contribution to a better understand-
ing of that far Eastern lation. The expedition of Commo-
dore Perry, which in 1854 opened the country to foreign
intercourse, awakened interest in the character, conditions,
and possible future of the pj^ople. This interest has been in-
tensified by the war with China and the entrance of Japan,
untler the operation of new treaties, into the community of
civilized nations. It is impossible as yet to forecast the far-
reaching results of these events. They have already pro-
foundly affected the life of the nation, and, in the nature of
the case, must influence its political and commercial and even
its religious relations with the Western world.

It must be borne in mind that it is still substantially a
heathen nation. The court and the people adhere to the old
faiths, Avith their attendant superstitions and consequent deg-
radation of character and life. It is true that there are many
individual instances of emancipation from this bondage; and
it may even be said that there is a widespread, uneasy sense
of the inadequacy of the ancient beliefs and worship to satisfy
the requirements of the new and broader life of these later
years. It may be considered a period of transition. But it is
to be expected, it may be reckoned as certain, that strenuous
effort will be made to reconcile these larger relations with
the outside world and the higher forms of thinking and living
required by them with the terms of the old religions. The
old problems worked out in ancient civilizations to their in-
evitable issues in disaster and ruin are to be tried again un-
der new conditions. The result cannot be in doubt. Mean-
time it behooves us especially of this Western world to give

(ix)

I I

X Japan: couxthy, (;ourt, pkople.

close and careful heed t.. the n,ovomenLs in this great national
drama, to get as true an.l thorough insight as possil.lo into
the eiiaracters and cronditions involved and to have ourselves
m re.uh„es8 I,y all lionoral.lo and Christian means to ai.l in
the development of Japan and tho establishment of its irov-

•urtrnt?';f """'f/''" T'' ^""-^^"«"« of righteousness
; nd truth tho only foundations which can insure p(u-petuitv
ilio gospe has done much in this behalf, but far more ro-
mams to be done Wo need to put in living asso<,iation
With these people tho finest fonns of Christian life an<l the
bes products of Christian thought. The forces of Christian
^eal directed and controlled by knowledge are calle.l for; and
both zeal and knowledge require a genuine, Christlike sym-
pathy. It ,s tho purpose of this book to help in all these di-
m^tions It IS not intended to supplant tho more elaborate
vorks whidi deal with tho same material. It is designed to
bring all that ^s essential to a right understanding of the
country, court, and people of Japan in comparatively small
compass wi hin roach of all who take interest in the fifture of
the race and establishment of tho kingdom of God. It is sent
torth with the earnest prayer that it may move many to more
active and personal participation in this vast work of the
Church of God. A. W.Wilson.

Baltiinoie, MU., Noveni))er 29. 1899.

national
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« 3 ■" .2

CONTKNTS.

PART I.

TiiK Country.

I. .rjip.iii : Whom Is It ? j

II. J:i|)!in: Its IMiysioj^nipliy ^

III. Tho Flora !!!!!!.'!!.* 17

IV. Tli(i Fauiiii j^r^

v. Y\^A\\ i a Japanese Wators '....! 38

VI. The Minerals y^

PART I r.

CHAPrEll I.

Mythical and Prkiiistokh; Pkuiod-Fuom an Unknown

Bkginnim} to 400 A.I).

I. Origin of the World, (Jods, and Men 37

H. Racial Origins of the Japanese .'!!.'.*!.'!.*.".'.'.'! 41

III. Priniitive Life of the People 43

IV. The Primitive Religion \ 47

V. Political Ideas and Manner of Rule 54

CHAPTER II.
Civilization from the Continent Brought In.

I. Introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism 58

II. The Chinese Learning gg

III. Influence of New Religion and Learning at Court. . . 73

CHAPTER III.

Rise op Military Nobles with Their Clans-Overthrow

OP the Court Nobles-War op White and Red Roses.

I. Foundations of Feudalism Laid 8.S

II. General Progress of Civilization in This Period! . .... 93

(xiii)

:•?

«v japan: country, court, people.

CHAPTER IV.

Shoguns in Power-Empeuoks Held Down-Civil Wars

OF Military Lords (1192-1603).

I. The Duarchy Explained ^^^^

II. Yoritomo's Feudal System '. li

III. Christianity Enters _ . . . ^

IV The Spread of Christianity in This Period". ny

V. Hideyoshi the Great-Invasion of Korea-Opposition

to the Christians ...

■trj 15 , • 114

VI. Progress of Civilization During This Period .' i22

CHAPTER V.

Feudalism Settled under the Tokugawa Siioguns-Yedo

THE New Military CAPrrAL-TnE Last of

THE Christians (1603-38).

TT S""r '?^ "^ ■ ^^^ Tokugawa Dynasty igg

11. Ihe Tokugawa Era Described 133

1. A Period of Peace * . ' ^33

Z. An Era of Unification 133

3. Stai.ied with Bloody Persecution of 'the Chris-
tians (Catholics) ^35

HI. Following Portuguese Example, 'spaniai^s,* Duteh!
and English Seek Trade with Japan; Finally All
Are Excluded Except Dutch _ _ ^43

CHAPTER VI.

A Hermit Nation-Civilization of This Period of

National Seclusion (1638-1854).

I. The People— Characteristics . . . jgg

II. Modes of Living and Working-Str;;ge" Way's' .' .' .' .' .' .' 154

III. Ranks and Classes of Society , j^q

IV. Customs and Manners i«^

V- Farming • ^^^^^ ■!!;;!;:;:;::;.;;: Zl

1. Rice Growing ' " qq^

3. Tea Raising and Curing 210

3. Tobacco and the Japanese Pipe. 313

4. Silk Culture ■"" ^^g

VI. At a Japanese Inn in the Olden' Ti'mA* " " * oao

Vil A Great Daimyo'g Retinue in the Olden Time .' 325

PAOK

... 97

... 98
... 104

... iia

ion

... 114
... 122

. 138
. 133
. 133
. 133
i-
. 135

142

.. 153

.. 154

.. 170

.. 177

.. 205

. 207

. 210

. 213

. 316

999

CONTENTS. XT

CHAPIER VII.
Religions of Japan in the Nineteenth Century.

1. The Shinto Religion 339

II. The Buddhist Religion and Ceremonies 237

CHAPTER VIII.

Japanese Akts— A Sketch.

Introductory Remarks 347

I. Lacquer Work " 355

II. Bronze Work and Sculpture [[][ 359

i II. Painting " naA

IV. Pottery Wares ...^ ...... ,, [ [ [ ' .' ' 379

V. Landscape Gardening 378

FABT III.
CHAPTER I.
Japan in Modern History (1854-1900).
Preparations for the Great Change from Old to
Now Japan ogn

I. The Opening of the Country (1854) by Perry, tlie
American ' go.

II. Townsend Harris, Another American in Japan. ... 292
HI. Stormy Seas g^^

IV. War of Revolution and Restoration (1868) .... . . . . 315

V. Christianity Again Comes In 322

CHAPTER II.
The New Japan.

I. Laying New Foundations— New State 333

H. Foundation Laying of the Christian Church "(1873189) .' .' 357

CHAPTER III.

Later Developments (1889-99.)

Tlu! First Parliament (1893) „«„

The War with China (1894) .'".".".'.".'".".'.'.*.'.'.".".*.'. " ' 885

XVI JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

The Results of the War: Expansion of Foreign Trade-'^*"^
Internal Improvements-Anti-Christian Feeling under
Form of Nationalism, Reenforeed by Scientific Skepti-
cism ^ ggg

New Treaties, July 17, 1899 ggg

Turning Again to the Truth ' 40O

CHAPTER IV.
Intercourse and Friendship between the United States

AND JaI'AN.

Diplomatic and Commercial Relations 403

Early Educational Influences Chiefly American .......... 405

CHAPTER V.
The Future.
Will Become a Christian Nation- Creed not Sectarian-
Reform in the Orient — Her Future Intercourse and
Trade with the United States, and What This Should
Mean for Asia ...

^^^'^^ 422

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

PART I.

THE COUNTRY.
1. Japan: Where Is It?

Japan h an island empire. It has more than one
thousand islands, large and small. Looking at the m^D
of the Eastern Hemisphere, we see that these islandsTIn
the form of a crescent, lie in the North Pacific Ocean,
off the eastern shores of Asia. On the north it is sepa^
rated from Siberian Russia by the Okhotsk Sea; oX
west from Korea by the Japan Sea, and from Ch „a
by the lellow Sea; while on the south and east ut
washed by the Pacific Ocean, which spreads its vast e "
panse of waters to our American shores.
Looking across the map to the Western Hemisphere

a..d Great Nippon,"* with respect t, Europe and Asia
r^pecfvely Great Britain, lying in the North Attr

ll^TT , a""' "l "^""P"' -^"P*"' '" '■"' North
sn^e both close to the continental mainland, but not

l!i^!i!:!^!!^!^i:i^^;^ded_^^

^Thu Japanese name of their counfrv naliorj K,r *
Japan. » M Mppon, and means rh^.^^GrTatNip^Jr^™"

(1)

4 japan: country, court, people.

of commerce from the Atlantic into Europe, and from
the Pacific into Asia, respectively.

Without desiring to make too much of this point of
geographical situation, Japan's place on the map of the
world is greatly to her advantage in the ever-increasing
trade and travel between America and the far East.

No other country is so long and narrow as Japan.
Stretching like a sea serpent from the Kurile chain of
islands in the northeast (see map) to the end of Formo-
sa, south of the Yellow Sea and near Southern China,
the distance is about two thousand five hundred miles;
but the average width is only one hundred miles. The
whole area, Formosa and the Riukius included, is about
one hundred and sixty thousand square miles, being
equal to New York, Pennsylvania, and tl e two Vir-
ginias. The Riukius, once under the authority of Chi-
na, passed many years ago under Japaji's dominion;
and Formosa, likewise, was ceded to her at the close of
the recent Japan-China war.

Again glancing along the map from tht Aleutian
Group, possessions of the United States in the North
Pacific, the eye pusses right along the whole length of
the Japanese sea serpent down to far Formosa, north
of the Philippines; so that both on the northeastern *and
the southwestern ends of her island dominions Japan
almost touches American possessions. A further look at
the geography, and we see that the long, slender archi-
pelago which we name Japan is really only one section
of a series of island groups that stretch from the Malay
Peninsula, south of India, to Bering Sea. Jinan,
then, is a portion of the immensely long ladder laid
down by the Almighty upon the ocean and connect: ig
Southern India with northern North Am.erica. Ea< 'i
island is a round in the gigantic ladder, the like of

)e, and from

this point of
B map of the
3r-increasing
far East.
w as Jajjan.
file chain of
d of Formo-
rhern China,
iidred miles;
miles. The
led, is about
niles, being
e two Vir-
►rity of Chi-
3 dominion;
the close of

tit Aleutian
L the North
le length of
nosa, north
eastern *and
lions Japan
ther look at
mder archi-
one section
L the Malay
ia. J; Dan,
Ladder laid
connect: ig

^^^n.

Ea< 'i
the like of

japan: where is it? 3

which is not found elsewhere in the world's geography
When the writer first went to Japan, the time l>y ship
from San irancisco was twenty days. It is now re-
auced to hfteen; and from Vancouver, B. C, it is only
thirteen. When the Nicaragua Canal shall have been
cut through, the distance between our Atlantic Gulf
Coast and Japan will be shortened. The time from
^ew York via Nicaragua will then be the same as that
from Liverpool via the Suez Canal.

SCENE ON THE INLAND SEA.

isl'mr wir '" "" ^"n ^-'>'P'"-go four principal

euo I. rr T"\^'"^ ''"'■''"" '' '^ important to
.en enibe . Honsluu, the main island, and lying in the

kokn, south, and Kai»hu., sonthwest, respective v of

he outstretched f.,. . of Ilonshiu. The last two na^ed

are separated from Jl.nshiu by the Inland Sea. far f^ned

lor Its picturesque b

esque beauty. This sea is about six h

dred miles long from east to

un-

west.

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^■- .

JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. 5

In American liistoiy we locate on tlie map the early
colonic'H, an MassachuHettH, Virginia, and tlie CWolinan
and we are glad to offer to our readers here a mai) of
Japan. J^y tlie aid of the map we not only locate the
tour principal inhinds just named, hut also tlie liiu-
kius and Formona. We note, too, how Japan almost
touclies RusBia in the north, and that Korea, a penin-
sula of the continent, is juHt next door to Japan's west
coast. These geograpliical facts all have meaning that
will appear later. ^

The chief cities are Tokyo, formerly Yedo, the ],re8-
ent capital, witli a j.opulation of 1,250,000; Kioto the
old capital, three hundre.l and twenty-nine miles so'uth-
west, with a ]>opulation of 280,000; Osaka, forty-seven
miles farther soutliwest, with a population of 500,000
and in domestic trade and manufactures the cliief city
of the empire; besides many otliers not named here
varying in population from 200,000 down to 25 000

nia, on lokyo Bay, and the port of the capital for for-
eign commerce; Hakodate, on the Yezo side of the

pw'k "" \f '^'^' ^^ ''''' ^^^' --^' - --1
next to 1 okohama the largest port for foreign sliips aiu

.^Kf Wa. ' " '''''"'' ''''' '^ "^-^^^^^ "-^kong,

of Avatei Lake Biwa, eight miles from Kioto, and fa-
mous m Japanese legend, literature, and war.

II. Japa.v: Its Physiography.
the mountam chains is southwest and northeast, with

n
o

iz;
o

C'^)

n
o

JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. 7

short rangcH jurI spurs tlirown oif abruptly on either
side of the long hackboiie. The mountains gradually
increase in heiglit as one conies from Yezo in the nor th,
or Kiushiu in the south, toward the center of the main is-
land, where Mount Fuji, the sacred mountain of the peo-
ple, and a few other jieaks are truly Alpine. The moun-
tains are not so lofty nor so majestic as the great Rockies,
nor are they equal to the mountains of Western North
Carolina along the French Broad, and yet there is an
indescribable charm about the mountain scenery of Ja-
pan that must be seen to be appreciated. Unlike the
Blue Ridge, the mountains are broken up more fre-
quently into single peaks, making many deep gorges
and narrow valleys. One is almost always in sight of
mountain and sea. As the mountains rise near the sea-
shore, the plains are not Avide, though the plain of
Kwanto and one or two others are exceptions. Kwan-
to (formerly designated Eastern Japan) includes several
provinces. Tokyo is in this plain.

Japan lias been called the Switzerland of Asia; and
while her mountains may not be so majestic, yet, with
her seas, bays, and capes, and hundreds of islets sown
on every hand, she is much more than Switzerland; for
she combines the scenery of the seashore, the island, and
the mountain in many striking and picturesque ways.
Her coast lines are much indented, giving unexpected
turns to the contour of the land and sea lines.

Her coast ranges and island summits, even when al-
most bare of forest, are clothed with peculiar beauty and
freshness under the ever-varying tint of sunshine, sky,
and water, and seem a picture larger drawn than any
human artist can paint.

"The landscape of modern Japan is one of minute
prettmess. It is one continuous succession of mountains

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

and valleys. The irregularities of tlie surface render it
picturesque, and tl>e labors of centuries liave brought
almost every inch of the cidtivable soil in tlie populous
districts into a state of high agricultural finish. . .
The face of nature has been smoothed; tlie unkempt
luxuriance of forest and undergrowtli has been so-
bered." (Griffis's "Mikado's Empire," p. 1)0.)

The rivers are all short and rapid, no stream being
navigable for five hundred miles. This lack of long
and navigable streams would be a calamity but for the
numerous inlets and windings of the seacoast>— bays,
capes, peninsulas, promontories affording good harbors
for all kinds of shipping, from the little fisliing boats to
be counted by the hundreds, to the great ocean steamers
that sail from San Francisco to Kob6 and Shanghai.
Japan is evidently marked out for a great home trade as
well as foreign trade. The fact that only one-eighth
of the area is tillable proves what was said above: that
it is a country of steep mountains and narrow plaiiis.

No one living in the country for a while needs to
be told that it is a land of volcanoes and earthquakes.
There are hundreds of extinct volcanoes, and eight-
een are now active. In fact, Japan is a slender vol-
canic rim of land, the volcanoes being huge funnels
turned upside down, the craters being tlie vents whence
at any time may burst forth the pent-up fires below.
At intervals during the centuries streams of lava have
flamed out from those gigantic funnels, flowing down
the heights and into the neighboring valleys, while great
volumes of steam were driving clouds of ashes upward
or shooting masses of hot stone high into the air, ob-
scuring the sun by day or the moon by night and darken-
ing the heavens, or else ever and anon lighting them with
billowy flames of awful portent. Sometimes the ashes

JAPAN: ITH PHYSIOGRAPHY.

and stones are sei/ed ],y tlie win<lH and driven to a great
distance. No one can tell when a volcano is going to
burst forth or an eartliquake make the eartli to tremble.
Whether ej.tirely dead apparently, or whether at the
bottom of the crater the water is s(rarcely boiling, and
sulphurous fumes slowly rising, in eitlier case there may
be a sudden breaking forth of fiery forces that will
spread death all around and strike terror to the hearts
of the few men or l)easts wlio may have escaped witli
their lives. One tiling we know: there is some kind of
connection between the earthquakes and the volcanoes.
That is, when there has })een a period of frequent earth-
quakes, if tlie fires locked up under the ground can find
vent through some volcanic eruption, then the earth-
quakes cease. Wlien the writer resided in Tokyo, ten
years ago, there was a period of unusual earthquake
activity by day and by night. Before breakfast and be-
tween meals, and in the night we were often suddenly
aroused by the shaking of the bed and other disturb-
ances of tlie house; but suddenly they ceased. The rea-
son, as we learned, was that a volcano had broken forth
m that region of Japan.

Fuji Yama {yama, "mountain"), rising majestically
from the plain of Quanto, sixty miles south of Tokyo is
over twelve thousand feet high. This snow-headed giant,
like a proud monarch unconquered, lifting its head far
above all the surrounding plain and away up into the
clouds and looking so solid, massive, and restful, has
more than once been the scene of terrible fires and smoke
bursting out from its hidden depths. The last eruption
occurred m 1707. We are told how at that time the
floating clouds of ashes turned day into night, how the
red-hot stones flew hissing through the air, and of fields,
temples, and villages that were covered with debris.

JAPAN: ITH I'HYHruORAl'Hy.

P'vm^

ft!

IVIoinil, Fuji iw visihlo from Tokyo, and is truly niai.-
iiitKcut,, Joouiin^^ up un-oHH tlio distant Hpaccs i„ solltarv
.UiaiMleur. From the docks of ships oi.tering tlu, ]Jnv Jf
Tokyo, or sailing southward alonj. th« coast from Vo-
kohama to Koln'., lasscngorH aro always eagor to get a
glim].s<! of the c(debrated mountain. Tf the sky is ck-ir
no one is disappointed. To the .lapanewe it in a sacred
mount, and liundreds of ],ious pilgrims visit yearly the
ten.ple ]>uilt upo.i it, thinking it the i>rivilege' of a lifo-
time to worship the rising sun from that sacred jdace so
high ahove the sordid world beneath. Standing guard
over all thei>rovinces of the Kwanto jdain, and covered
with ].erpetual snow, it has ],een the frecpient Hubjectof
l.oems and romanccH, and draws to itself the admiration
ot the whole nation. It is the embodiment of their idea
ol grace, simplicity, peace, and grandeur, as the follow-
hig lines show:

There on the border, whore land of Kahi

Doth touch Iho frontier of Surujra's land

A beauteous province stretcliing on cither hand;

i lu, clonds of lieaven in rtnorent won.hn- imuse,

iSor may the birds th(>s(! giddy l„.ifrl,i,s essav

Or thy fierce lires be q.UMiclied IxMieath the h'mow;

What name might fitly tell, what accents sing,

llniie awful, godlike grandeur?

'Tis I hy breast

That holdeth Narusha's flood at rest,

Thy side, whence Tusikawa's waters' sprinjr •

Great Fujiyama, towering to mortal men

A god -protector watching o'er all Ja,)an.

On thee forever let me feast mine ey(.s

("Manyoshu," translated by Prof. (^handuM-lain.)
The south side of Mt. Fuji slopes right down to the
sea, and is not accessible. The circumference of the
base IS sixty-five miles, and scattered around it are

JAPAN: COUNTRY, CO'^^T, PEOPLE.

five lakes. Toward the s^ , •'; - , is a series
of crests tiJl you reach the n..^ .e.t one, which is an
enormouM rim surrounding the crater. Being an extinct
volcano, there is inside the crater .% level space of al>out
two and one-half square miles, v/ith a sink in the center,
from the bottom of which slowly escapes green vapor or
steam. According to legend, Fuji rose i.o in a singlo
night while according to tlio same legend.' Lake Biwa
uear Kioto, wiis formed the same night by a great sink-
ing of the ground. Probably false, it is to them a beau-
til u I legend tliat their grandest mountain and most
beautiful lake were both born in a night. Fuiiyama
once seen, is never forgotten. The impression always
made upon the writer whenever lie has gazed upon it is
that of calm^ majesty. Surrounded by the struggling
world^ in sight of tlie foaming, beating waves of the
sea, Mount Fuji seems ever peaceful, strong, sublime.

Ihe earthquake is sometimes only less awful and de-
structive than the volcanic eruption. - They areevents "
says Rem, "against which man can in no way pre-
pare himself. They are of all grades as to movenfent
and force, from the slight tremor scarcely perceived by
a busy person to the violent sliock that shatters rocks
upheaves the earth or suddenly sinks tlie ground, and
hiys villages and towns in ruins." Accordingto a myth-
ical story believed in by the lower classes,^ tliere i^s in
the great deep a giant fish wliidi in its anger strikes
agamst the coast, making tlie land to tremble. A'.cord.
mg to another belief, a great monster is under Japan,
whose gyrations shake the land.

The story of the earthquakes and the havoc wrouglit by
them from 685 A.D. to the last one in 1892 is a terrible
chapter. The traditions teem with them. In 1703 an

earthauake, followed bv i .TT^o^t n ^

-i-i-owea Dj a great hre, destroyed nearly

JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY.

all of Yedo (Tokyo); and in 1830 Kioto was visited by
ail earthquake that roared like thunder, overturning
nioHt of the houses and killing thousands of people.
Again, in 1855, Yedo was destroyed by earthquakes, the
horrors of which still live in the minds of the oldest
l)eople. It is said that over one hundred thousand
l)oople i)eri8hed and the city was turned into ruins.

The last destructive earthquake, in 181)2, was in the
region of (Jifu, Osaka, and other cities on the Imperial
railway from Tokyo to Kobe. This earthquake caused
all sorts of strange and terrible things, rumbling noises
underground, openings in the earth, upheavals in one
place and sinkings in another, breaking of river embank-
ments, twisting of railroad bridges, the scattering of sand
and mud over the rice fields, the overturning of houses,
followed by a fire that consumed them, many people being
caught by falling timbers. Houses demolished, d2,091 ;
people killed or wounded, 9,330. A fire usually follows
such violent earthquakes, for the reason that when the
house is overturned the fire box, or brasier, nearly always
ignites the light, combustible material inside Japanese
dwellings. The result is that many who are caught or
stunned by tlie falling debris are brrned to death.

The writer remembers distinctly the earthquake just
mentioned. It extended south as far as Kobe, but with
loss violence It was in the early morning, and he was
saying his prayers. Having experienced many such a
few years before in Tokyo, he was at first not inclined
to be disturbed, but in an instant the shaking became too
violent for edifying devotions— a rush was made into the
open. The trees were shaking and the ground was un-
dulating like a field of waving wheat under the blowing
of the wind. It was a frightful time, but was soon over.
Japan is also subject to inundations. In 1895 the

14:

JAPAN: COUNTllY, COURT, PEOPLE.

: 1!

if!

coast northward of Swidai was visited by an awful flood-
ing from tlie sea that swept away scores of fishermen's
villages and destroyed about thirty thousand people! Off
that coast, under the sea, was a mighty upheaval that
threw the waves mountain liigh upon the land with force
strong enough to sweep away every village. Repeated
two or three times, as the tidal waves receded they car-
ried out into the sea people and houses. It is a fact not
generally known in this country that the violent earth-
quakes and upheavals send a tremor half around the
globe, and that Prof. Millnc's earthquake instruments
in England registered a slight movement. This shows
that tlie whole earth is connected inside by electric or
other equally mysterious currents. These awful nat-
ural evils, as earthquakes, volcanoes, and inuiidations,
like many other things that afflict ?nd destroy men, are
hard to be understood.

The hot springs of Japan are unrivaled by those of any
otherCcountry. They are distributed in every section
from north to south, tlie sulphur springs behig more nu-
merous in the districts of volcanoes. Some of them are
very hot, and in a few of them there is a hissing sound
and sulphur vapors, reminders of once-active volcanoes.
In some instances there are cracks in the earth from
which issue hot fumes where Japanese invalids sit for
hours, lioping for cures. To the superstitious these
openings in the eartli are connected with the * ' bad place "
down below and are so named; for example, at Beppu,
in Kiushiu, one is named o-Jl(/okn ('< great hell "); anoth-
er, ko-Ji(/oku ('« little hell "). The most frequented are at
Arima, in the mountaiws back of Kobe. Thither many
invalids flock every season, either to drink the cold
mineral waters or bathe in the hot, and both are good
for divers ailments.

japan: its physiography.

svful riood-
iBliernien's
eople! Off
leaval that
with force

Reiieated
I they car-
1 a fact not
ent earth-
•oniid the
strumeiits
his shows
ilectrio or
wful iiat-
Jidations,

men, are

)8e of any
y section
more nu-
them are
ng sound
olcanoes.
rth from
Is sit for
lus these
'd place "
t Beppu,
); anoth-
jcd are at
er many
ihe cold
ire good

I he chniate of Japan, as in every other country, is an
important factor in tlie life of its people. It affects
vegetation more than any other one thing. As compared
with the United States, the atmosphere is very damp a
result due to the existence of so many islands immediate-
y surrounded l,y seas. In consecpience the summer
heat IS sultry, oppressive; the winter cold is raw and
pierces into tlie bones. Thus tlie extremes of heat and
cold tliough not so marked by the thermometer, are
keenly f e t by the body. There is a lack of thunder
and tliunderstorms, due, it is said, to the lack of elec-
tricity m the atmosphere. Whether this be true or not
there IS a lack of something which the student is accus-
tomed to m America, and which he hnds needful to sus-
tain his nervous energies in hard study. Not only do
foreigners, but Japane- o students as well, have rnuch
trouble from the "sick head."

There are also wide extremes of climate between sec-
tions not two hundred and fifty miles apart. For in-
stance, the soutliern coasts are almost tropical, while
he nor^iwest coast is in winter piled with snow ten to
twelve feet de.p The northwest coast is swept by
currents from the Okhotsk Sea and by winds from S beril
messengers of the frigid .one), chilling the mo sti
".to snow; wliereas the south and southeast coasts are
warmed by the Black Current (Kuroshio), that rises in
tbo hot, equatorial regions. This warm current o
similar to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic both as o
t origin and characteristics, flows northward by the
1 land of Formosa, strikes the southern shores of K !
shiu, where its main stream bends eastward, flows alon.
1 e eastei-n coast of Japan till it turns again in a mo !
asterly direction, pa..ing along «outii o! the Aleu lan
Islands and on toward the coasts of North America

\
1

\ 1

1 !

japan: country, couht, people.

Iff

The Black Current is so named because in the sunshine
its waters are blue, which the Japanese sailors do not
distinguish from black. Its temperature, speed, and
volume all decrease as it flows northward. Origina-
ting, like our Gulf Stream, in equatorial regions, and
taking direction from the earth's turning on its axis
and certain projecting coasts, influenced, too, by the
monsoons, this warm, black current is worth millions
to Japan, just as tlie Gulf Stream is to England. It
heli)8 to make a semitropical climate and productions
along the southeast coast.

Winds also have much to do with climate. The
nortlieast winds from Siberia and the northeastern
from the Kuriles are freighted with cold, whereas the
south and southeastern winds are heat bringers. There
is a wind, called the typhoon, dreaded of all sailors. It
originates somewhere in the region of the Philijtpines
(see map), and prevails in August and September. It
has a circular movement around a mom'ng center, and if
a ship is caught too near that center, woe is unto it.
At Kobe, where it is less severe, the writer has known
it to blow at intervals for several days in one direction.
Occapionally whole fleets of fishing boats are wrecked
in these cyclones of the sea, and great ocean steamers
do not always escape unhurt.

The one delightful season in Japan is the autumn,
say from September 15 to December 15. During this
period the weather is simply unsurpassed. It would
be difiicult to imagine liow it could in any way be im-
proved. The sky is usually perfectly clear, atmosphere
bracing; and the glorious sunshine, reflected from the
sea, or touching the neighboring mountains with em-
pyreal splendor, baptizes the whole landscape with a
wealth of varying tints and shadows of yellow brown

; 1

THE PLOBA.

le sunshine
ors do not
speed, and
Origina-
jgions, and
m its axis
oo, by the
th millions
1 gland. It
troductions

late. The
jrtheastern
'^hereas the
rs. There
sailors. It
^hilijtpines
ember. It
'iter, and if
is unto it.
has known
! direction,
re wrecked
n steamers

le autumn,
hiring this
It would
v^ay be im-
Ltmosphere
I from the
\ with em-
ipe with a
.ow brown

grass, reddened leaf, overarplii'r.^ d
tide. TI,o scce is ^Xd ; ^ali . Lt f'"'^'''^
of pine, el,.„,. „f ^^Vu^XXl l^^^XZ
melhas a„d palms that dot the landscape ^

iJust storms do not frenpralKr >.„^ -f • t
China and West TexaTTt f 't ? "' -^"P"" ^ '"
wind and dust Tl!^ !' • ^"^^^ ""^^ '« ""■«!'

1-. In ti J t,dZtr:i;rit V'""'""'

J..ne, continuing f„. f^^y or fiftj ^II " ^«;"^'"
«..n.me ,„ .^at mate t'he vege^tfoTso IuI'L:';

di«agreeable/that inj^,:" Wk ' Jd 11' "t'*"'"" "
even clothing to mold overnight '' "''°'" """^

III. The PioKA.

:rs;^h sfrr ::a:hV""^^^^^^^^^^^

Dutch trading nosfat^r P^'""™ » «»»tioned at the

plants of 4ix:i^:!rtyZt:::^T'^Tr

scientific circles of Kurope L „ * ''"<'™ «» 'he
raen wrote in Latin Th?T; ^""^ *°*« I^»'«h-

genuine love of n:;ur Jt iTr::;or;f'':r ^i'"^''
system of medicine so long i„ vogl Ul td f '"• "
close attention to plants and flower" ^"'

forests. It is thp T.ro.1 • ^ ^^® scarcity of

io 18 tne predominance of nines fir« « \

i-.ntains thefrl^ al^ b^M:' t '""' ""^
-, smaller evergree^r^ .rott^^tUl;;

japan: country, COUHT, PEOrLE.

r to

these evergreens are to be seen: tlie bamboo in groves;
the orange orchards, the commonest siglit; the tea biislios
with dark green leaves and white blossoms with yellow
center; camellias with dark glossy loaves and red,
white, and variegated blossoms; tlie i)alm witli straight
shaft and tufted crown, besides others not mei itioned here.
The most conmion trees are the pine, cedar, majde,
oak (two kinds), mulberry, persinnuon, ajid willow.
Tlie following are also common in Japan, but rarely
found in tlie United States: Cryptomeria; red-leaved
maple, keyaki, a hard wood of fine quality; kiri, used
for making wooden sandals; hinoki, a kind cf cross be-
tween a pine and a poplar; lacquer tree, a species of su-
mach; camphor and tallow trees; eucalyptus tree, an
evergreen that furnishes an aromatic saj), said to be an-
timalarial, leaves bluish green; the bamboo, which is
more properly a cane; and, finally, the wistaria, a

heavy vine.

Nearly all of their domesticated plants were brought
from Korea, China, or India, such as rice, tea, and
mulberry (nilk), the three staple products; the five ce-
reals, wheat, barley, beans, millet, and sorghum; the
vegetables, as daikon, eggplant, turnips, onions, toma-
toes, and potatoes (sweet). The fruit trees are not so
numerous as with us, though l)y inq)ortation from
America and Europe they have been increased since the
opening of the country, thirty years ago.

The orange and the ])ersinmion deserve mention. The
orange is smaller tlian that of California, is grown in
great abundance, and is better adapted to table use on
account of its lobcd moat, and tliin, loose skin. The
persimmon, unlike the American product — the old
field and oi)osHum variety — is large and luscious, and
has been developed by culture hito several distinct va-

ill groves;
le tea bushes
with yellow
38 and red,
vitli Htraiglit
itioi led here,
odar, inajde,
and willow.
, but rarely
; red- leaved
y^; kiri, used
L cf oroHS bc-
!j)ecie8 of su-
tus tree, an
aid to be an-
)oo, which is
! wistaria, a

•vere l)rought
ice, tea, and
; the five ce-
lorghuni; the
)nionR, tonia-
es are not so
rtatioiv from
ised since the

ention. The
, is grown in
table use on
e skin. The
let — the old
luscious, and

1 distinct va-

THE FLORA.

rieties HohuIch being J.ighly jM-izod ],y foreigners for

^aoW,t.H,Jap..eHo dry and pack LnJal^^
alter the manner of treating t\g.. Many of the or-
-gos as well as the persimmons, are seedless A^-
.los, peaches, grapes, apricots, and strawberries have
::: ^''^^•"^^■•^•^"•^ ^••^^ ^''^^ ->-..t.-y, but, excepti g i
• grape are not used n.uch. The fruits just named ex^
-pt the grape, gnulually lone some of Iheir fine W
when grown n. C.una and Japan. This is due ^ri;
to the cxciossivu inoiBtiirc. '

Meadow «,.,.„„,.,, „t,,,„j,„ t„ ^^„

i; n;;:.: T ' * "" ■';'""" '''"™'- '- ^'- -"« ""^

^nret o ■ T '""'"'"""'l "'toourow,. Southland

«,.,?, 'Z *•'"■• ^'"^ y"' '■' '» •'"' "'"•"'ge when
om: recalls the fact that, excoiitinir fi«l, il,„ r

-..e- the i„H,.e„ce of l.'.ddhr '.^r 1 " ^ ^S'T

une, ago a,„l the further fact that tillable "„,dt

grass and ..attle i^rowin,. sect , n A ' ? ^ ^ J'"""'""' *
introduced there iZmZT F"' *"" '"'™ '*«»

success. """■""' "'"' g'-"^" *i"> «ome

r Jti^ "f-::r:;: :::t"^ ■-" °' "-""-''^ -
f.o and variety. Th:::, , ;:;;::;;:: -;' -^.-ory

l"mdred and twenty varieties T, L ', « "' ' """
a class of flowerin,; sin , h7 , • .".''"i *'''' """"e'-s a.hl

vatchutwhidg^ :„ iii, ;i' '" ^"""'^'' *" -'«-

eau.ellias, neonferi^v 1 •'"f^'-namely, a.alias,

™un,s. a::: ir,', t iS' ;™"'"' !■:'' "•"■^-""-
"' .'", «- It is :::l™ a Tz ^ftr 't

inij»erial crest beinc^ thn ,. 1 1 i. -Japan, the

sixteen petals T I. i ^^'"^^^^r^^'T^^^'thennnu with

irrpn C r • ' ''"^'"^'^ ^^^"^"^^^^ ^o the Id^^hest dp

glee ol perfectioji. " "i&utst ae-

japan: country, court, people.

Quoting from Prof. Chamberlain'8 description of
chrysanthemum gardens in Tokyo ("Things Japanese,"
p. 119): "The mere variety is amazing. There is notonly
every color, but every shape. Some of the blossoms
are immense. Soiri'j are like large snowballs, the petals
all smooth and turned in, one on the top of another.
Others resemble the tousled head of a Scotch terrier.
Some have long tihiments stretched out like starfish,
and some, to counterbalance tlie giants, have tiny petals,
as if they were drooping hairs. The strangest thing of
all is the sight of five or six kinds, of various colors and
sizes, growing together on the same plant. Last No-
vember there were several plants with over three hun-
dred blossoms; one had four hundred and seventeen.
In other plants the triumidi was just tlie opposite. The
whole energies of the plant are concentrated in pro-
ducing a single blossom. But what a blossom! One
tawny, disheveled monster of a chrysanthemum is
called 'Sleepy Head.' Each variety has a quaint name.
One is the 'Fisher's Lantern,' a dark russet; or the
' Robe of Feathers,' a richly clustering pink and white;
or, loveliest of all, the 'Starlit Night,' a delicately
fretted creature like Iceland moss covered with frost."

The plum and cherry are cultivated for their flowers.
The cherry atones for its unfaithfulness in not bearing
fruit by affording admiration to the festal crowds who
go forth to see its heavy banks of double blossoms.

Plum orchards are also much cultivated and admired
for the red, pink, and white blossoms. The red-leaved
maple is likewise planted in groups or rows, and much
admired for its " scarlet foliage."

Beside the flowering plants that grow on land there are
many beautiful water lilies; and there is the far-famed
lotus, with its round, large leaf lying for many days

THE FLORA.

jription of
Japanese,"
iis not only
e blossoms
, the petals
of another,
tch terrier.
ke starfish,
tiny petals,
Rst thing of
9 colors and
Last No-
three hiin-
seventeen.
)osite. The
bed in pro-
9som! One
ithemum is
iiaint name.
iset; or the
: and white;
I delicately
dth frost."
leir flowers,
not bearing
crowds who
ossoms.
md admired
B red-leaved
3, and much

md there are
le far-famed
•■ many days

flat upon the boson, of the water, an,l its <-n„l,I<„ fl
..e.cl,e,. u„on ti,e tall. «,.a,.ef,„ ^e,,,. ' T ^t i T
-.« to If „.l.,l,.., an,l is n„,..h ,,n«.,l in art as we

I he flowers are heing inerea«ed l.y iniportin,. new one,
fron. Amenea and K,.ro,,o, „„„h as rosei and «er ,1"
J.4.a„ese flowers have little fragrance, but H is a m s!
take to say they have none.

It is a remarkable faet that the vegetable kingdom of
Ja,,aa possesses not only a greater number ot^speeies
than any o her known region of eqnal area-say tW
thonsand-but also a greater number and differen e of
genera. Nor is this all, for while there are nlnv s °

mnofi?"^' *M t'""'"' American botanist, says: "No
part of the world, beyond his own country, offers as t!

United States than .Japan, for there are very remarkah!

srrrir^r- '"^ «- --- -

Before quitting the flora, so remarkably developed in

bouf ri ^-"''"'""'g"' "^ '■««• w«rds'n,ust bTsJd
about the fine cryptomerias, a species of cedar Z
beaufful bamboo groves, and the wisUrias. The crjn

Liketr "•" T "•'■=" '" "'""'''" -«' "ther grov'es"

ma^mcent grove tfarrSaXes Il'^^^k^

Ihere ig a proverb which •— -- ^^^

says,

one can say Aekko,

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

*l)eautiiul, ' till lie Iwim Been Nikko." The wriUn-, liaviiij,'
never Heeii >«'ikko, ciiii only r('i»oat wliat otliei-H say who
have. Nikko \h ciufhty luilcH north of IVikyo.

The tomb of the ^reat lyeyaHU, fomider of the Tokii-
gawa dynanty, in there; and all that nature and art could
do has nnule it the nioHt fanioiiH }»lac'e in Jajtan aH re-
gards scenery. The neighborhood around is marked
by very luxuriant and varied vegetation. The court
of the tomple-tonib is adorned with a sacred grove of
cryptonierias of great height and si/e. The road lead-
ing to this temple is lined on either side for a distance
of twenty-five miles with those line trees, which become
more stately as you apj)roacli the great ShogHn's tomb,
and, according to Rein, "is an incom])arably beautiful
and magnificent avenue."

The bamboo cane came originally from India, and is
now found in Japan in several species. One small
kind that grows to a finger's thickness is ])ri/ed for
the thick liedges made of it. Another kind when
young has spots, and when old turns almost black,
and is highly pri/ed for walking sticks, whistles,
etc., and is sent to other countries. l>ut the Lirge or
male bamboo is a tree in height, if not in thickness.
It is most valnable. In rich, damp soil at the foot or
on the side of hills it grows to a height of seventy-five
or one hundred feet, witli a diameter of from tliree to
six inches. Of course, like all tl>e cane family, it is
hollow, jointed, has a shaft i)erfectly straight, and no
branches except toward the to]>. It splits easily into
lengths of fifty feet, and as thin as you wish to have
them, and besides it is hard, durable, and elastic. It
combines more desirable qualities than any other wood
growth known to man.

Its rapid growth is a wonder. The shoots, appearing

S
§

ber, hiivliifi
I'H Hiiy Nviu)

the Toku-
il art ccmld
Lpau ilH YV-
\h iiijirked
The court
I grove of
roiul Icad-
a distance
ch become
Hii's tomb,
f beautiful

dia, and is
One Hmall
])ri/ed for
and when
lost bbick,
whiwtleH,
le large or
thickness.
Mq foot or
eventy-five
m three to
niily, it is
ht, and no
easily into
isli to have
:'lastic. It
jther wood

, appearing

(2:^)

japan: country, court, people.

just above ground in a night, witliin a week in good
soil reach a lieight of twenty to thirty feet. The
shootH when tender and boiled well are much enjoyed
as a spring vegetable. Growing in clunipH, tlio shafts
straight as an arrow, the tiny brandies at tlie top bear
lanceolate leaves, so tliat in the distance the foliage
has a floating, featliery appearance. As tlie whole
grove bends and waves to tlio winds, the feathery foli-
age of each tree touching and blending with the rest, it
graces the landscape with a charm unlike anytliing seen
in our country. Seeing that it would be almost im-
possible for the Japanese to live without the bam-
boo, some one has called the civilization of that in-
teresting country the "bamboo civilization." For as
to them no other food is so important as rice, so no
other wood growth is as needful as the bamboo.

The uses of the bamboo are so many and so varied it is
impossible to name them all. We mention the follow-
ing: for food, walking sticks, whistles, flutes, handles
of writing, painting, tooth, and dusting brushes, ladder
beams, rafters, latlis, palings, posts, stakes, poles,
props, scaffolding, rudder posts, masts, flagstaffs, Ash-
ing rods, yardsticks, rules, shoulder sticks for peddlers
and water carriers, breastplate of armor, spears, fen-
cing swords, roof and eave gutters, water pipes, pum])H,
pails, dippers, spittoons, pencil holders, flower vases,
chopsticks, ladles, hats, cages, sieves, chairs, litters,
bedsteads, tables, stands, bric-a-brac, mats, covers, sails,
picture frames, screens, fans, baskets of all kinds, boxes,
lattices, hedges, fences, rice bag probes, money holders,
napkin rings, curtain rings and poles, palanquins, and
pipe stems. The praises of the bamboo are often sung
by Japanese and Chinese poets, and it is a favorite sub-
ject with their artists on screens and wall kakemonoes.

mk ill good

feet. The

uch enjoyed

I, tlie shuftH

Me top bear

the foliage

the whole

athery foli-

i the reHt, it

ythiiig 8eeii

almoHt ini-

t the baiu-

of that in-

I." For as

rice, so no

300.

varied it is
the foUow-
es, handles
ihes, ladder
kes, poles,
staffs, tish-
or peddlers
pears, fen-
)e8, pum])H,
'Wer vases,
:rs, litters,
)vers, sails,
nds, boxes,
^y holders,
quins, and
often sung
vorite sub-
kemonoes.

THE FAUNA.

r.H,.h a length „f two L thJc ,Wt '"""""

A.no„g all the ia„,ou« flower-viewing reeorts of
Japan, none enjo.vH a greater ,,o,,nlarity than tTo em

ft!" ^TT" 1 '"""•'''"' '■" *'■" "'"»'■•'"'"•• Tokyo vTh
t» eelel.rate.! wistaria blossonm. R„„„in,, u,l'Zl

longtl, this flowering vine i, l-artieular y adaot^d T
al k,,,d» of treili... arhors, J.,,., and LS ^
J.... Med on horizontal arl„r„, the long pendentT-tL
t-« g.ve to the overhead a striking aLerinJ ik
w.»e o, the „ide. of Lowers U,eyLtrCZZlZ
toons, espeeially „,,on overarehing entrance, 'n,
Japanese are too appreciative of tl^, b« if,rn„,

""^^ '"" *'»* ' -™« y -..er or,;::r:; ;ir,tr

IV. The Fauna.
The domestic animals are few Sl.pp., u
goats, and anses are rarely seZ HnT^' ^"l "'"^'''

are unsightly s.nall v , ""^ ^'^ *^^ ^"^

fe'itiy, Hinaii, vicious, and awkwir.l ,-,. .
ment, but very hardv mm. '''WKward m move-

dies breed }Z T i '*"'"' ^''^ «^ *^^« ^^^t In-

Likealltd^r'/-"''^-^'^^'^^' '•^^ "^11 *"---d-

aged; ^^^.^:^;:::::t:f^^^ ""^"^-'^-

Cows arp Tw.f +1 / ^ ^^ behind agriculture.

cart, or fo paek Id 7'"^' '"""'^ *''" '^o-l'^elci
5 "1 lur pacK saaale nurnoHos Tt ia ,,^

thing, at least in the region of K„, ! '"'"""""o"
„ -oi.^ tne Highway lo town, the rice mill,

ausitammaamm

japan: country, court, people.

or the rice brewery; or hitched to the cartw going to
the same places. For all these uses the cow is very
hIow, hut trusty. Only occasionally when suddenly
meeting a foreigner at tlie turn oi" the road are the
cows at all inclined to stampede.* Horses too, with
l)ack saddles, may he seen l)earing a load of wood,
hoards, rice bags, or even a couple of long bamboo
poles. The absence of wagons, carriages, buggies, and
iine horses is very noticeable in Japan. The foreigner
misses these sights so familiar in his own country. In
a district back of the city of Kobe cattle raising has
been recently undertaken, and Kobe beef is becoming
noted in all the treaty ports. The Japanese in and
around these ports are learning to eat beef, and butter
too, which at the first has for them a very disagreeable
smell.

As for Japanese dogs, there are two kinds: the little
woolly ])et, and the street dog with its foxlike head — a
cowardly beast. Cats are common, some with tails and
some contrariwise.

As for rats, there is no country that sports larger
si)ecimens. It is a mistake to say that the Japanese, like
the Chinese, eat rats. There is a white variety of mice
wliich is a great jiet with certain women.

The most common wild animals are the fox, monkey,
wild boar, deer, and bear. Tlie fox, if not king among
beasts, is treated so l)y tlie i)eople. To hini is ascribed
the fearful power of bewitcliing people, cursing them
with madness, and causing the traveler to miss the
right road and wander on to destruction, lie is natu-
rally dreaded; and when, as he often does, lie prowls

* Most of the annuals in Japan are at first a little skittish
of a t'oreiguer, especially the dogs.

THE FAUNA.

,le skittisli

11-11 ivtii to-day, 1,1 Avliich are iiei-eheil l;ttl„ v,-. /

'"« mteno,. tow, I n ^l" ?'"" "" «'"" "' -"y of

0"», and a,.e f«,„„i „:, 1 , ' "''" ^'^ '""»<"•-

'-•at the tt n ttv ,""™"' ""'«■ ^^''"^"-^ «'-1
l"-oach even a t,-L T '" '"'•^ S""'*'" ■'""l ap-

"■ey «,.,. :::: f/t: z^'rr"'"'^"''^'"' "™''

ai"l it is said thit ;,. ,r ^ "" *''«y aI,ou„d,

»...<1 tl,..t ,„ a,e year )874-187.'i tl.irtj tl,o,„a„ci

M«iHd«ia«i0K«

japan: country, court, people.

were killed. Venison is for sale in some interior markets.
Wolves are scarce, and the tiger and wild cat almost en-
tirely unknown. Rabbits and squirrels are still found
in some sections in considerable numbers.

Domestic fowls are few, chiefly chickens and ducks,
though turkeys and pigeons are met with. Chickens
are raised chiefly for their eggs, and not much for their
meat. They do eat the fowl, but are not very familiar
with ''spring chicken." Indeed, native breeds are
small, and their meat is tough. The fighting cock is a
small bird of red plumage, and, like his Japanese mas-
ter, is a game fighter. The crow, swallow, and spar-
row may also be called domestic birds, for they are
guests of every village. The crow is often seen perched
upon the roofS of the houses. The hawk too seems to
fly around with freedom, as if there was no one to mo-
lest or make him afraid. The owl is the night bird.

In songsters the country is poor. The uguisu, or
nightingale, is the one exception. Though not equal to
our mocking bird, nor to the nightingale of Europe^
his notes are low, soft, clear, and flutelike, so that when
heard as one is climbing the paths or penetrating the
gorges of the mountains the effect is decidedly pleasing.

The skylark has interesting ways. As you walk the
paths dividing the cultivated plats or the road skirting
the rice fields, you will probably hear twittering notes
high overhead, and when you gaze upward you observe,
almost out of sight it may be, a lark rising in circles
toward the clouds, singing as he rises. In sunshine and
in rain he is accustomed to these circling flights of song
into the upper spaces, and thus teaches us a beautiful
lesson.

The principal waders are cranes, herons, and storks.
A species of heron lives in colonies, homing in the pines

THE FAUNA.

lese mas-

Hri"^?""' "' r^' ""•* ^"■"Pl*^ g'"^"'- I" Tokyo

The swimmers are numerous in certain sections wild
ducks and geese being frequently seen in the moats" d
ponds even .n the heart of Tokyo, accompanied ^ a

tahmg as m China, is not much used for that purpose
now. Speaking of wild ducts and geese, Reirsavs
'In a pond ten or twelve miles from lendJi Bay ducks

p stof;hr''Tr ■"""":"' **"" "'" *"-»•» --"'»
dit:f th'-xr 'co\":r ' '^ "" "-'*"' ^'''•'•'-

The reptiles and insects call for a few words Land

erpeiits are common, and, judging from the easy way

the Japanese have of handling them, they cannot^

anZeirr"- """^ ""^"''^ ''''^ »-» »° -^eh, coo^
and eat, as a nerve strengthener, so says Re n In

summer not unfrequently one finds a snake in tl^e yard
or m the house. At Bepp„ „„« of our missionary brlth

en had quite a novel experience one night with snakes
>n his room and even on his bed. Frogs llardsln
-itipeds are in abundance. There aT wo tMs J
salamander, the ordinary and the giant splcies Th.

The sea turtle is rare. I„ the small museum of th.
Kwanse. Gakuin, a Methodist mission coUegrat Kobe •
a turtle shell two and a half by two feet. The m^;,

— e -lesh- water tortoises are seen everywhere—

japan: country, court, PEOrLE.

in tiny lakes of yards, in temi)le tanks, where, under
the protection of priests and pilgrims, they live to a
great old age. In all Buddhist countries the tortoise is
a sacred creature, and kindness to it secures merit for
the soiil.

It nuiy 1)0 said in general that the Japanese are on bet-
ter terms with their domestic creatures tlian we Ameri-
cans are. For example, in the management of domestic
fowls and of the cow these are treated rather as if they
were a part of the household. As in Bible times, the
cow often has her stall under the same roof, at one end
or corner of the dwelling. It may be we are moving
away from the animal creation, so that we treat them as
aliens and servants, and not as friends or comi)anion8.
As a matter of course they feel this, and treat us in the
same unfriendly way. It is predicted that the horse
must soon go (out of our cities, at least); and if so, we
shall T)ecome still less familiar with and friendly to this
noble animal. It may be that with our advance in civ-
ilization we are becoming too artificial and cold, too far
removed from nature's teeming life and beauty.

The paradise for insects is Central and Southern Ja-
pan. Butterflies, moths, beetles, spiders, grasshoppers,
katydids, crickets, locusts, cockroaches, gnats, fleas, lice,
and mosquitoes abound. Some of the butterfles are large
— e. cj., the broad- winged papilio, wliich is brilliantly
colored. Tltere is the mantis, or prophet, a long-bod-
ied and long-legged insect, so named because it often
takes a position as if in prayer. The katydids, grass-
hoppers, and cicada) (sometimes called locusts) are very
numerous and very noisy. Grasshoppers in the day,
katydids at night and pleasant afternoons, and the cica-
das all day, from the middle of May to September, keep
the neighborhood full of noise. It is said that some-

;re, iiiider
live to a

tortoise is
merit for

ire on bet-
ive Ameri-
t' domestic

as if they
times, the
it one end
•e moving
at them as
mpanions.
b Tis in tlie

the horse
I if so, we
dly to this
tice in civ-

>ld, too far

iithern Ja-
sshoppers,

fleas, lice,
!S arc large
brilliantly

long-bod-
ie it often
ids, grass-
s) are very
I the day,
d the cica-
iiber, keep
that some-

THE FAUNA.

gnats iu Eg,; o, e It i Tl'^ "'" "' '"° "'"S- "^

-"ging Jul «t %' 1 ™r:-- ,f "' -"to..t wUh
I'y day as well soul, ^ "'"''" ''''^'""»

a..e»e iu „„„,„,o,- call f ; fl "^"^ *'"' '""*" ^"1-

a.-o singularly free f,.„,a ^^^Z^J^Z f^T'^'
rty-a result duo, Drobal.lv * ',"'*■" 1"^"*' the house
b.es aud that th;,':'at s^C r:;^-"- "*• '>"- -"

vat 1"' xTe'^i::'™ •^''"'''"'? ^^" ^" '^ f- o"-

'o.- it. «ik rotr:;; ;ri';r''r7^' ■"•—

mals subject to eeut,* re ;,lti:e„ ' "" "' "■""
oach with its own mark, ,?t iff' ^^ ""''' "'^""'os.
opod r„ l!,"T , ''ifference, have been devel

Japanese friend i:trnr„e'':;fbr"""' "'™''' ''^ ^
1.V -unuer, and produce = b't si k "' %"'"'^ "1 ™'-
-."".er spinners, that are n " V ' d"o;'' ''"

tlionty says there is considerable d ff^ """

'" tl.0 life and si.e of the silk nrff'"'' ""* "'"^
liut also in the for,,, ,l ^'^^-P'oducmg caterpillar,

coous. The I'an ' r"',"'"' *''" '"''"'■ "*' "'« «"'
Japanese prefer the white-and-green spin-

of '^h:x:r xif :: t"r:r t"™"''"" ''^-

«-t.ge; this lays t^e^:::Jr:;^;-ti^

japan: country, court, people.

hatches out into the caterpillar, third stage; and this,
spinning from the salivary glands inside its body the
finest thread, weaves around itself a thin case or hol-
low ball or cocoon, which is the fourth stage; then be-
coming a torpid, half-dead chrysalis in this inclosed
ball, it is in the fifth stage. It is this fifth or chrysalis
stage that becomes t'^ ; "'-, when it comes forth the
following spring a be lul butterfly, and thus com-
pletes the circle of changes. A very interesting fact
about the young hatched-out grubs is that they cast
their skins four times. When young — that is, to the
third casting — they must be fed three or four times a day.
Their food, as every one knows, is mulberry leaves,
which must be chopped up fine and given clean and dry.
To have healthy silkworms there must be a clean, dry
room, free from draft, with fresh air, no odors, and no
direct sunshine. Even the cleanliness of the keeper is
important. The keepers are generally women. If from
the neglect or poverty of their keepers the worms do not
get proper care, they become sickly and die by the hun-
dred. Just before the spinning time they lose their ap-
petite and become restless, often raising theii body, and
are almost transparent. Inside, two spinning tubes,
running nearly the whole length of the body, are now
filled with a transparent, thick fluid (silk stuff), which
comes out through two small holes in the worm's head
as silk threads. But instantly the two fine threads are
glued into one as they are spun out. Spinning away, it
soon weaves around itself a network of silk threads.
In about six days the cocoon is completed, and the worm
is inside. And be it remembered, that cocoon is made
of one continuous silk thread, varying in length from
1,300 to 1,560 feet. The life of the silkworm is a pe-
riod of about thirty-five days.

FISH IN JAPANESE WATEB8. 33

V. Fish in Japanese Waters.

deed .nexhau^able, for hundred/and thousandTof ; "
80118 have for o'oriPrnti^..,o i J^^

cAui generations been engaged in fishhifr ^i^i.

out any apparent decrease i,. the Lppt S xh^nded

rraff:;:'^.' '"^^" <ii«ting,.ireja„d det t:'

TellZT "™™' ™™'''^- The remarUle

dflTf. \' ' '""""•"• ■"""^oons from the In-

dia, Ocean bru.g ahoals of southern varieties- m ,L
wmter monsoons from the Okhotsk Sea t nVlt

gion some herb, some natural antidote for it !f

:MhrariVo:t\:e^--^^^^^^^^^^
r„:rndt-;^ --- -_- ::Se:t: :r

stCo„^:.t- "™ -- - t^^rdt'oTtrmtke^;

Yeto and he" ^"'' "^r"'"'" '*™-"^ '"^ '«!»<» of
dines' too » ""« P""""^' ""^^ '«'^» 't*^**-!- Sar-

fl h oil °. '/ f'r' °' ''"™"g' "^^ ^l-'-l'Ie for the
fi«l. o,. and also for the fish guano used by garden „

japan: country, court, people.

! t

and farmers. The one tisli preferred al)ove all others
is the tai, tlie aristocratic tish. Another fisli, the koi,
is noted for its strength and endurance, and, as we shall
see later, plays an imi)ortant part in a festival for boys.
Goldfishes abound. Eels and devilfish are frequently
seen in their markets. There are crabs, shrimps, and
oysters. Tlie oysters are small, hardly worthy of men-
tion with our Baltimore and Chesapeake oysters.
Though Avhales are so near, the Japanese have never
done much in the way of whale fishing. Seaweed and
cuttlefish are gathered in great quantities and sent to
China and other countries. In 1891 the total export of
cuttlefish was worth more than seven and a half mil-
lions yen (the yen is equal to fifty cents).

VI. The Minerals.

For many centuries the Japanese were acquainted with
ores, clays, rocks, lime, precious stone, and in a limit-
ed way used them; but for their light wooden build-
ings little stone was required. For walls around their
castle heights, for bridges over ditches, and for the many
long stairs leading to temples and shrines on the top of
the hill, and for tombstones and monuments heavy blocks
or slabs were used, chiefly of granite. There was no
systematic or scientific knowledge of geology or miner-
als. Minerals were generally named from the place
where first discovered or worked. For example, gran-
ite is everywhere called Mikage stone, from the village
Mikage, near Kobe.

Concerning the gold in Japan, Marco Polo, who was
in China for seventeen years (1275-1292 A.D.) carried
back to Euroi)e the most wonderful stories of its abun-
dance. "The lord of Japan," wrote he, "has a great
palace entirely roofed [ceiled] with fine gold. . . .

all others
, the koi,
i we shall
for boys,
requeiitly

nips,

and

y of meii-
1 oysters,
live never
weed and
\d sent to
export of
half mil-

nted with
n a limit-
len build-
)und their
' the many
the top of
ivy blocks
re was no
or miner-
the place
iple, gran-
he village

who was
>.) carried
• its abun-
as a great

THE MINEIIALS.
Moreover qll <i.

know,, tl,„t 0<,I,„„)„,„ !, , ^"'' '' " ""W

t'" to tl,o fa,- Ka„t, ,,a,l ],„:;„" 'T' *''" ^«""-

- <Io,..,t ,.i<.h gold , ,„ ; ,, f'"™'" '""- «--e wc-o
gold ,.avo,„o„ta a ."J'.^ 'fi' "'""«'''"■• %"'«

"«s fo,- «„ 1„, ' „ ,:„,; 7' " ™"«Jo.-al,lo q„a„ti.
«I--'.-'K theft,:, D ;h' :, -^ *"? ^--'''g-e'e a„d

I" co,,,,e,, i,.o„ c„" :, t '""".' ^«-" ve,y rich.

d"t,-,h„t„,l, i« of H„e o„.,K,v„, '''""• '" *'•'%

t™- Coal ap,.„a,. rZ ,v?7"" f '"'•'^'«" -""-
Yozo the q„a„tityi,lffi '.'"';".■■"»' "'« Ki„ki„«. I„

o-i>"t e<„ii ,„ i„gia: tr'a'v:„r',' '- ^ ^-'^

Kmshiii coal i„i„c8 ■„■„ ,r. nui'dred yeai-s. The

Clm,a. Japa,, coal, a,-e sfft W " '^""'"^■'' "'"J

•m,ch soot a„d 8„,oke a, d ; , '"""°'"' ""'' 8''™ off
fonnatio,. (Te,.tia,.y) a'j'' f ''/"e"'''"^ "'-e of a late

wo,.ked i„ ,,,„fity^ qra„titi k" "'"^ ''^^ '-een

the demand. A.ne.ieaT t % ' 'T ""' '''""" *»

"■a,-ked "Philadelphia" maTV ' «'"°"^ "^""h, a„d

eon-s of the em U'e.' R L^l"? " '"^ --'-'

<»lwcompeti„gwiththoA„,„ ^' howeve,-, Russian

ofvoIea.,oe,o,re.o,.ir,t:;i;'lC:i '"'''"'

^^y expect plenty of sul-

iil

japan: countuy, couut, teople.

phur, juhI tlicre is. The prcv.ailing rock furmatioiiH arc
granite and st^hist; next limestones Jind Handstones, but
they are not abundant. Marble and slate are found in
some sections. Porcelain stone (kaolin clay) is plentiful,
from which are nuidc the beautiful and famous porce-
lain wares. I5y examining the soil with a microscope
and by chemical analysis, scientific geologists can
prove that the land is largely volcanic. Several pre-
cious stones are found, rock crystals perfectly color-
less, the amethyst, topaz, agate, coral, chalcedony,
carnelian, green jasper, and a stone from which seals
are made.

J. . j^..»... . ■ -- — ^— 1

itioiiH arc
,onoH, l)ut
found in
plentiful,
118 porce-

i(TO8COp0

i^hts can
k^eral pre-
:ly color-
alcedony,
lich seals

PABT TT,
CHAFrER I.

THE MYTHICAL AND mEHl^TOHW PERIOn ..

AN UNKNOWN .EaiNNSNTTolfZ:^'^^

I- OltKjiv OF THK Wr»«r . rt

iHK woRLi), Gods, and Men

tolling how go2Zltill 'T'""^ "' allegorical,

bo, hoi the/,tt:f th t M atd r 1 "™'^' ''"'' '»
of certain marvelous expToUs of! " '''""" "''»

In such a mass of mv^^ , ancegtore and heroes.

nation wo ZZ la^t^^ Tl *'''"'""™^ '" «™7 Pagan

and -.igio„:- 1:: ;„''t, ,tr;: »''■•-"

a hillock of chaff T, ^^ * '""" wheat in

other nations a,^'f„fr"''" ■"^""''"g"^". ''ke those of
able, and i^C /"e .t'rTr f"'' "°""'"''' ""«--
yet these myths hive it tLr„fT'''™-. '""'
more than two thousand yea s a, d t """''" ^"'

some consideration. A nation's w, ft"""'' "''" ^"'
are serious things. "'^''' ''"^"'™'' false,

tradit1o~:! Tjr'''^" "' «- -^'7 beliefs and
in the langTa^! theT'^r/r''"'''^^'*''-'''-'
Things), writtfj'r 2 A D ;td heTl' "' ,^"-"*
clos), written 720 A.D. pr'tht WH^^f l'"

" -»vrCn.8, especially

(37)

japan: country, court, people.

tho lirst, wo Icurii what tlio l)oliel'H of ilio jtooplo wore
couccniiiig tlio bo<^iiMiiii<^ of all ihiiigH, iiKtliidiiig their
gotlH, what their boliefn aixl coromonieH arc l)aHi'<l upon.
As Prof. Chamborlaiii, traiiHlator of tlio book, haw Haiti,
tho Ko-ji-ki has proHorvud lor us tho mytholojjjy, maii-
nors, language, and traditional liintory of tlio tIapanoHO
more than any otlier book has done. Aecording to this
])ook tho origin of tilings is briefly this: There was
originally a (confused mass, land, sea, and air being
mixed together, just as chaos was descrilnMl by a jioot
of Homo long afterwards:

No sun yt^t iM'amed from yon corulean heijirht,

No <»rl)iiif^ moon repainul her horns of lij^lit,

No earth, self-poised, on litpiid other hunjf,

No sea its W()rl(l-iii('lasi)liij? waters llunj^;

Dark Avas tho void of air, no form was traced. — Ovid.

In some unc\'i)lained way the foamy, forndess nebula
began to move, to condense, and heaven and earth were
separated, ronuiining, however, much closer to each
other than now, and tho earth was softer and warmer
than now. It? was not 8i)irit first and then matter, but
matter existed before mind, and the gods were born or
evolved, some from tho heaven and some from the earth.
In tho plain of heaven were born three godn {/u//ni) who
afterwards died; and out of tho warm, soft earth slime,
floating about like vast masses of hair, a germ sprouted
as of a reed sprout, and from this were born or grew
two more gods [Kami), who also died.

After these seven divine beings came forth in pairs,
the last being Izanagi and Izanami. Now by the will
of tlie heavenly gods, Izanagi and Izanami were directed
to consolidate the drifting earth slime into land. Ac-
cordingly, having received a jeweled spear, they stood
on heaven's bridge, floating just al)ove the foaming

rZANAOI AND IZANAMI. 39

"l!r;,;;;';',',;'r'''';*'' 'r"' '^--«' "'"■-' ^ tm i. ,„„.

'.-•■■'...Is. T.,i„ 1„. ,0 o , T ^'""' "f "'" '^'■«'"

tlie .ra,,an<.«o hclicveU tint ,1, <-"""tn,.«, „„

-.,v oL, a,,.. thoXe ,: ::::"';'--;r''" "- """^-

their early wnU.,-8 says: «<"•" othcu O„o of

^::Hi:z^:ii:::"^ "'"-" ^^^

^''t <1<. X lift ,.,, my voioo in prayer.
Ron,imli„g „s of a Greek myth, ti.ero is in ,l,e ,r ••

"ot lift. After this marvll '1 ap:'"'''f ■"? T""
nagi purified l,i„,„elf bv Latin, • '^ "'''"' '"'"-

tl.e rinsings ^f Ws bX tw .T"",''™'''"""'' """ f™'"
'"•« l^ft eye Amatemsl^ T ^°''' """"' *'»^»''- ^'"»^

Susanowotl^:^ ..!."'"'", S?"' -"' f-" l>is nos

})tiiou8 male deity

japan: country, court, people.

'« m

Of all the Kami (gods) thus produced, the one es-
pecially to be noted is this sun goddess Amaterasu, be-
cause she is the center of their native Shinto religion,
if we may call it religion. This sun goddess, seeing
that the disorders, had been settled in the "Central
Land of the Reed Plains" — l. e., Japan— sent down her
grandson, Ninigl, to dwell in and rule over the country;
and he is the great grandfather of Jimmu Tenno, the
first Emperor of the Japanese. So then the Japanese
trace their ancestry through the line of their rulers di-
rectly back to the sun goddess in heaven. Before Ni-
nigi descended to a certain mountain on one of the
great islands, he received from the sun goddess certain
treasures, as the mirror, tlie emblem of her spirit, the
cloud-clustered sword, taken from the eight-headed
dragon's tail, and a precious round stone. The mir-
ror, sword, and stone are the insignia of imperial
sovereignty. The mirror is worshiped at the national
shrine of the sun goddess at Ise. No doubt many Shin-
toists believe to this day tha^ these three things actually
came down from heaven.

This same sun goddess (Amaterasu) ordained food for
mankind, rice to grow in watery fields and other grains
on the dry uplands. She planted the mulberry upon
the hills of heaven, raised silkworms and wove silk, is
the author of agriculture, silkworm raising, and weav-
ing among men.

Out of the jumbled mass of myths and traditions as
contained in the ancient Ko-ji-ki mentioned above, we
have in this brief way set forth only what relates to the
Shinto beliefs concerning the beginning of the Japanese
world, their Kar.ii (gods), and the descent of their rulers
from Amaterasu, the son goddess. It is only by seeking
some knowledge of these traditions that we can ^et an

RACIAL OKIOINS. .,

understanding of the Shinto religion of fh. T
As among all pagan peonle tl,! ., •'"Panese.

of the gods and their dlvhlll ™^ ' *'"* ''^^^o»^
been impressed «poTthe7r mf ^°*'*" '*"''«^'<'™ ^ave

furnished abundammlt^ anoft'^r"" ™^*°"''' »«»
erature and aits. ' treatment in their lit-

n. R.OZ.. 0«,OI.S O. XH. J.P,,,,,.

in the Saxon chronicles Cerdic earlvSo ,•
his descent back through bTu 7 "^"'^'^''^^
In Homer the great wf rrior k * 'V'" ^""^ ^^"'^en.
epokenof asdesLdedftl T^' "' *''« ^--eeks are
ueed not be surpled tZ^" ' T S'xlimses. So we
Tenno, the first Emperor of th" T^ ''''^'-'''' J'"""-
descended from the HeTvef S ''??'''"' '" ''^'^ *« be

but unfortunately there Ire ^"'"^ ^"''^ (Amaterasu),
gether in the earHe chapt rs f T"" '"'"^ ""-1 ">'
absurd and even immoral dl ^•1""'"' "'"* «" ™»y
it i« hard to separatnie tru h f "'?'* '» *"«"■' *•>«

».l:urL!n\it:;;f, -7« deities,- ..0^ ,„.

means no more than ►hat „ 7h. "^'^7 t""^' "f the book,
already in the country at .nv ! "'t '""* *"'"'« ^ere
the tribe who afterwards C." *'"' "'''<" ""<»
flrst came into the Tountry the ™""^ '''''"'""''

in the South, Northwest aL^r '""'' '""'?'« ''^'eady
«'e South (island! K^itt"'''""'"'™- ^'•"^e in
Korea and Malay India- thf T" P'obably from
probably of KoreL dtl, " '" '"^^^'bwest were
Emishi (Ainns), dwell 1; '" *""= ^^^^ ^ere the

greater partofLS,:7-*««.«-s in the

-« ^own from Eastern SiL^'Z^^J^

japan: country, court, people.

If'

we learn that all these earlier tribes were savages of a
low order and that they were finally conquered by the
Yamato-Japanese under their first king, Jimmu, and his
successors. The Ainus, particularly, were driven north-
ward out of the country — a la Americans and the Red
Indians. Racially the Japanese are a mixture com-
posed of a small Malay element in the South, a small
Siberian trace in the East and North, while in the cen-
ter was the chief stock that emigrated froni the Asiatic
Continent througli Korea into Japan. This chief stock,
named Yarmdo-Japanese^ probably started originally
from Central Asia, and are kindred to the Scythians of
Herodotus, the Tartary Huns who in ancient times
swept westward toward Europe and eastward into East-
ern Asia. The faces one meets with in Japan show
unmistakably a mixed race, some being broad-faced
with low nose, others long- faced with sharp nose.
That the Yamatos came immediately from Korea ad-
mits of no reasonable doubt.

This conclusion, however, is due to the investiga-
tions of foreign scholars; as for the Japanese them-
selves, though proudly claiming to be an old nation, yet
when asked where they came from and when their fore-
fathers came into Japan, they are utterly unable to tell.
This lack of information as to the times and Avhere-
abouts of their forefathers justly casts suspicion upon
their proud antiquity.

III. Primitive Life op the People.

The primitive Japanese Avere barbarians probably
upon the same level as our Anglo-Saxon forefathers,
with rude ways of farming and some knowledge of the
useful arts. They knew how to make weapons and
tools of iron, the ax and the bow and arrow being men-

PRIMITIVE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE.

wild antaals woreUker withhn t """"^ ""* "•''''^'
bamboo snares, flah we e^allt o/' «»™<'™t«. and
aided in tilling tl,e „.t i , ''°"™'= "'« women

the weaving Vn^arltt'T' f"' *'" «'"^''' »"1 "id
of Che men^ thlp^aZsTflT""" '•'"""^^-i ^«'-
»tin.; of «;« woLt etotefoTrf ""* "■'■^
cloth made from the „., ^ ,, "* *'«> loom, white

tionll reign of the fi,°w™\^'"'™ "''"• *''« '^'"ii-

In t..etr.ierralf:\ rrrMT,?' "^ '^"^'-'"S-
of books or money T,.»v i , " '" "° "ontion

with oars witho7sail fitrji "' "" '°°' "' '-'
the eampaign from ffiushfu I'^n^r';" 'rN^
"ig« they had rude houses and pits T ,„' • l-""- "'""
.lec^t tribes are spoken of as "ea ,' i "! "''°'' '"''■
to their dug-out caves 'n ,^'""' «P«'<"'-«." referring
irf. Ministef to Jain h„ "T' ^'■"'''' ^atow, Brit
the JapanesetS:"; 'ZiLl '"'"■'"'^) ''"-'«"l8« of
old forms, and U^tZ t"^ "" """'""ty "l>o>. its
"From the lal.age oftl "'"""" "^''''l^' "">-

learn that in the^l'fLt t " tl"'"? ^'•""^""'> ^^
eign was a wooden hut wt -r"" "' *''" «°™'-
g.-ound." (Seep. 19 vr/x -.!''"»''"'"='* '" «'"
Besides iron and ITper tenZ" ^^'^''" '"'"«'^)
e-ved Jewels, n.irror,'": I ~" 'jV^f « «' '-

-.; "lu^/eToth 'nt' f/™r"^''

-«. -rrors, ..omh^rtsir^'Tt^---

_-.^:-?L-'.-^'!Ii{pi

*; '

t-j

I *:

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

few precious stones are spoken of. The hair was worn
in two knots, one on each side of the head, but without
decoration of jewelry. Skins were also used for cloth-
ing, and the art of dyeing was to some extent practiced.
The food consisted of fish, wild flesh, rice, and a few
simple vegetables. Rice was probably used from the
earliest times; there was no milk nor cheese, but an in-
toxicating liquor is mentioned even in the mythical age,
and so are chopsticks. The method of preparing ' >od
was simple, cooking pots, cups, and dishes being men-
tioned, the last two of earthenware and leaves of trees.
Tables are not mentioned in connection with food, but
only in connection with offerings to the gods. The use
of fire for warming purposes is never mentioned. Do-
mestic animals in the prehistoric period were very few,
the horse for riding, never for drawing vehicles, the
barn door cock, and the cormorant for fishing. In the
later traditions dogs and cattle are also mentioned, but
sheep, swine, and cats are not yet introduced.

The family life of this period was of a low order.
Family names were unknown. The marriage rela-
tion was loose, a plurality of wives being not un-
common. Many things in the Ko-ji-ki are too im-
pure to be printed in English. There was much cruel-
ty also, as shown in the treatment of enemies and in the
severest punishment for trivial crimes. Junshi was for
many centuries practiced. When a ruler died some
of his retainers had to be buried alive up to their
necks. Standing planted in the earth, in a circle
around the grave of their chief, they were left to
starve, their eyes to be plucked out by crows, and
heada torn to pieces by dogs. This horrible cruelty
was abolished by the Emperor Suinin, 29 B.C.

Again, though they used the handbreadth for measure-

as worn
without
)r cloth-
•acticed.
id a few
rom the
tt an in-
cal age,
ng ' )od
ig nien-
)f trees.
)od, but
The use
i. Do-
sry few,
iles, the
In the
led, but

T order,
je rela-
lot un-
too im-
li cruel-
d in the
was for
i some
o their
. circle
left to
s^s, and
cruelty

easure-

mMITIVE UM OF THE PEOPLE. 45

for counting abL ten w./ ^'^'^^^^^^^^ words

that they eo'uM no! : .tTbrtn ''1^""",^^*^
was little luiowledM „f .v,„ ? i' ■^"■''"'■gl' there
earliest times "t Is t„f "■^T^'^ "° ™''"g '" t^e
Japanese hS a^^the iltle'^tlrir''^ '•'™'''^^
for nature that has since mark;d "te ' 7"^^"""
They were close observers ^iT. TI "'''''=""'''»'*•

Their hearts respondedTel J t ZlrTet *''^'"-

as they do to-dav to fi.^ • / ^^ousand years ago

tains and seas and thP ^T'""'"''' '^'"^^^ ^^ "-«-
and earthq akL and t^^ ""ghty upheavals of volcanoes

i-heirbr^t's^^^^^^^^^^^^^

The names of Japan in tnl^^^''°^^'"^*^«"-
legion, and indtr TC^ZtZTl'' "^ ^^"^^^^
natural aspects as well as it! ^''' '^""*'^'«

heaven A« p f , ^ imagined nearness to

neaven. As a few examples, take the following- -Th!
Region between Heaven and Earth " -IsTanf* f T^
Congealed Drop," ^^The Sun's C" ^^tITp
Country " (princess rpfpr« f f . ® Princess

Land !t m,iri^iZ'^Z!tor^:'^'^T'

tumns," "Land of Fresh Rice Eart •" Ip ^Tf ^"-
Reed P;, 1 m« » ir i, V , ^' Central Land of

name ^at Toundfstn J't? "T"' ''" "" '"'--*-
"Rice-Ear Tr"e You3 ^. " ''"•'-^- ^^ °"« '«•
cesH nf r .^ , ' *""*^'' '« poetically, "Prfn-
cess ot Great Food;" another "S„„w •• ^

riant-Wondronsaord-Your-kc Tb. "''"^"J'"^"'-
and goddesses also refer continual I ! "T'"* «'"''

parts and phenomena of rCaTlM '"^ ^^''""^

^ata^^tt^:!:;;';!:''::"^^^^^^^^^ ^-'verslty of

^'-," Still .e oan^ ™lt^--:-^^^^^^

japan: country, court, people.

' t i

provcmeiits in the rude civilization in those prehistoric
times, such as: that ponds and canals were dug — irriga-
tion })onds for rice growing — about the beginning of
the Christian era; that a smith, a pair of horses, and
a man knowing the art of brewing were sent over
as tribute from Korea; that the empress reigning in
the year 200 A.D. brought sons of Korean ruleri?
over as hostages, exacting also a tribute of gold and
silver; that a weaver from China came over, and a tribe
of clay workers came and settled in Id/umo, on the
vv^est coast; and that a wise man was asked for and was
sent, his name being Wan i-Kishi. This wise man from
Korea became the instructor of tlie crown prince, after-
wards Emperor Nintoku, about 300 A.D. We are also
informed that people coming over from Korea were put
to work on the pools and embankments, which i)robably
shows that Korea had been brought under Japan. Ac-
cording to the " History of the Empire of Japan," writ-
ten by Japanese and published by the Educational De-
partment, the compilation of national annals began in
the reign of Suiko, 620 A.D., and the use of letters
for recording events and dates, from about 400 A.D.

Japanese scholars have been so patriotic that in many
cases it leads to narrow-mindedness, and hence in their
histories they have not been inclined to frankly ac-
knowledge what has been borrowed from foreign coun-
tries; and now that Korea is so weak, small, and back-
ward, they are probably less inclined than ever to ac-
knowledge their debts to her. But just as Ireland was
once far in advance of England and sent light and let-
ters over to her, so in ancient times Korea was in ad-
vance of Japan. It is certain that Korea Avas inhabited
in the twelfth century B.C., and had then the elements
of Chinese civilization.

THE PRIMITIVE RELIGION.

IV. The Pkimitive Religion.
■reople are naturally reHa-inn« uu
in all ages of human J'''^'^'''''^^^^ ^^^r the world, and

Japanes^e were TeS ?' "T^' "^^ ""^^^"'- '^^•-
Books cannot mafc^^^^^^^ '''' .''^^ '^^^^^^'

anese had some kind J \ ^''^^' Ilie ancient Jap-
blessed (or cursed Wtht ^^^"^ ' *^*^'3^ ^«''e afterwards

^- at L-st ^?:T:r::f'z^T:''''r

means the "Wav of th^ ""^^ t^allcd Shinto, which

rituals ai„.„::iroM t; 'r ' ";f " "'"■'•^"' ^"""^

sistent web of trnt,h T " ""'T''"^!" '„ weave a con-

Japanese we™ ve.yehildla !r' '''""' *''^ -■"-'
exceedingly c-I ,L "'"'t '"r*'"" '''"''^' "-"-h-rts

translated ''Kods-'hrsr,/^ T""'" ^""^ •^«™-.

little, f„.. onXtd ";:d';.t"'"S^^ "'""'"'™ -'^^

for the wo.dA™„-, which .s b/not "'"'™ *"° '"""''
™..ds of the Japan'ese to o ^IZTlTf T ^
Japanese translation of ourOld .tfi ^n ■^"*'"'
the word A-ami had t° be .sed f T ^^^^'^™«"'.

But by the Japanese H wa itlted? I.^'"""' '"■<'•
M wonderful, or superior tTtl^.r^'f'Tf ""^f-
a heavenly beinp- a r«., • , ^^""^^7- It may be

life. For'^instT^e'e i,n : fi'T'' °'' "" """« -*<"■«

peach is addres::^'a?;'ii'r„n:;?''%''°-^'-''' "^

IS considered to be a cod » t !, • ' "*"" ^""■''l
.ods; a pheasant deu/isVenTo J-^.tf T "'^
crow guides Ji„nn. in his eastward n,;:; ''"' •'"'°"^'
-^•^ere are gods for every imaginable • '
conceivable name, fror

every

peach, a white boa

r, or

japan: country, court, people.

■> !

white liare, up to the Ileaveii-Shhiiug Great August Dei-
ty. Tliere are gods of wind, thunder, trees, mountains,
valleys, moors, seas, boundaries, roads, lire, passes, the
kitchen, and so on indefinitely. Some of the names are cu-
rious, such as Great Food Deity, Brave Snapping Deity,
Rock Splitter, Tree Fork Deity, Water Sprinkler. The
mere names of gods in the Ko-ji-ki would fill several
pages. Some of the names are long— for example, His-
Swift- Impetuous- Mate - Deity; and. His - Augustness-

Truly-Conqueror-I-Conquer-Conquering-Swift-IIeaven-
ly-Great-Great-Ears, which is equal to some of the long,
high-sounding titles of a broken-down Spanish noble.
In one place a rock ims turned into a (jod. (See Ko-ji-
ki, pp. 37, 38, 69, Chamberlain's translation.)

The gods of the ancient Japanese came by gradual
growth or were born, and some of them are said to have
''hid themselves"— that is, died. Speaking roughly,
they seem to be divided into heavenly and earthly,
those of the Yamato conquerors being the heavenly,
while the earthly ones belong to the "savage tribes."
And yet things are sometimes sadly mixed up among
the gods. For example, the god Susanowo is for a
while on the earth, then in heaven, and again in the
under world; sometimes he is ruling in power, some-
times suffering punishment or driven into exile. Not
only so, in the genealogies the evil and violent gods are
badly mixed with good ones. Heaven is only a coun-
terpart of the earth and not far above it, being origi-
nally connected by a bridge or a ladder. In heaven's
plain are trees and wells, a river and rocks; weaving,
weeping, marrying, and holding of assemblies. One
god is spoken of as gone to hunt birds and catch
fish. All this confirms the statement that the word
Kami, Qr "god," h^d a low and indistinct meaning.

ANIMALS, ANCESTons, AND MrEK01« A« aOM 49

■nythical /oology. '}],„ .,,„ ,,, ""«* Shamanimn, or

.™-e,to,; a,.o all ol i 3 f Z: ^ '" I ^"si'" "' '^•^'"^
«o.neti,ne8 called An „,i«,„ ,11' , " Shama,™,,,,

there .s „ot, but the «ovon„ ,0,7^ 1 ' .'l """"'^
.n.,.o,„,ding« a,.o believed to It ,0 l™!"' ,"" '''
"f si-.nts, of gods and demons J, !''""'7f H'wi's
foniine, enidcmio ct,. ,."."""• . ^" »">»<= of disaste,-,

ove„.,.„Vded w th eWl'de ^ ""T"' *''« '""""-^o l» '«
by ......gic .-it ,!] ,oI tat/r™' '^'"'™' ''°P'-opitiated

worship i„ the Shinto ,1V • '"""" °' """""'or

importance ' ^t f ""aT" ""'«'"*''"' "'*" S-^"
Japanese adroitly Id Tn ? ^"^"^"ng Yamato-

a« to magnify he^r fII "I "' ^''^'"^ '""""g". ««

tribes," Ske'the Ai,t "^ p™ "' '"' '''' »' *« " -vage
bo the Son of Hetven th T ."^ *'"''"' l^^Pe-'or t

- a divine bei!J: ^^ ^^ "'xh """T '"'• -""
Emi^oror bocarnf the bea^ ltd elte^oTtfe sl' •",' '"^
I'gioii, and even gods as well »= ^ "" ''"■

Heaven's suprenrvwl . " "'™' "''"^ ^'"" *"

oiipicme vicegerent upon eartV. tii,- i.

Sira:,::r r '"« '"^^^-"' «-"^

-t up in the teile? r;,::""""" •'^^ «'-'^ «"«"-
streets for the ^J^^l'^J^Zlrl "T'' "'
popes of R„„,e i„ the blazing ligr„f'h,s"- 7 "u
century have £r,>ffo„ ,1. , ® ""* nineteenth

and a/chr[st's "'^'"««i™s proclaimed infallible

- »sj:hnsts vicegerents upon earth claim to be th^

japan: country, coukt, people.

»', '!

ii^

•a f

supreme head of the Church, clothed with teniponil pow-
er U8 well! We ueed not uiarvel, therefore, at a Hiiiiilar
exaltation of JapaueHc Emperors as divine and as the
head of their religion and Htatc alike.

Of dogma, or moral teacdiing for the guidance of con-
duct, the Shinto religion (if we may call it a religion)
was from the tirHt almont destitute; tliey claiuied thr.t
commandments and codes of conduct were not needed
for the Japanese; such things were invented by the Chi-
nese because they were an immoral people with bad
hearts.

In those prehistoric days the same word was used
alike for palace and temple (3%«), pointing back unmis-
takal)ly to a patriarclial system, the father of the tribe
being its king and priest in one i)erson. And there are
indications that at tlie first the Emperor offered sacrifi-
cial worship, performing religious rites as the repre-
sentative of his people— tirst to Heaven, and then to his
own ancestors and other gods. The priests in that early
and simple period of society were not a separate class.
U])on fixed days tlie Emperor performed tlie sacred cer-
emony of washing himself as the representative of his
peoide, but afterwards a prince of the house or high
official of tlie court was sent as tlie Emperor's proxy to
bathe in tlie stream. We also learn that the three sacred
emblems— the jewel, mirror, and sword— at first kept in
the royal palace, were afterwards removed to tlie shrii-e
111 Ise, dedicated to tlie heavenly ancestress Amaterasu,
and there guarded by the princess, sister of the Emper-
or. It thus came to lie the custom for a kind of high
priestess to remain at the central national shrine. The
separation of temple from palace begun at Ise, as above
mentioned, was followed later by the fixing of shrines
m vr.rious places over the country, and this, of course.

OEKEMONIAL OFFERINGS.

called fur .-i vIuhh of ixm-hohh f<. ♦..i. i

,,, , I'UHoiiH to tuko clijime ol thorn

"toniplo mjiHtci-H/' ^ mem—

Tlie offerings and .acrifice« were of th.ve kiiuU or

1 UHt Ji.uitN, the least of tastixg the first rice * Them
was also at first a kind of n.onfhly festival tt th
-on; afterwards it I,eea„. ..n.d^:;T^XZ

sn lines or their o-ods '^i^iw> ,.ri -i. ^ , .

»e„t«I in the iWm of I", "'""' '^ ""«' '■°1'™-

a .•l,aracte,-i,tio of the .ra,,a„„«.-a rcl"l tW .f ?'

;-. ,ei„g i„ tM„ ,.,.,,,.,1 .,i„v.,.e„t s. c ,::o■
»ext to go,Ui„o»s," as ..ith John Wes y , "'7 ""
.™e»c are „,, the way toward ,„„Ui„o 7 To e ^i:,',':

ji.iH...o,we™,™::!i::;z:;:i;:;'^^^

ex])lain8 why tlie rovil i.nio , ^'"« P'«>^«iW.y

death of th[ sove Z ^ ' """' ^'^'"'^^'^ "^^^^' '^''

_____^^^^^_^^^^^^^^ coming in contact

* In ancient times offerintrs wei-e nin.i» ;.. > '

to the New Food (ind in J i , " ^''■'''■•^' ''^"sehold

people. The e . i / -"^^^ ^^^^^''" ^"^^ '" ^^"<« "*' ->»""c>n
dan Food "o "horn ! r^'/T"'"' '^ ^''^*'' ^^''''^' ^bun-
m ,ngs, |,„t afterwards this was performed bv worn
en. Th.re are also gods of tlie kitchen. -^ect bj ^^om-

JAl'AN: COUNTllY, COURT, PEOPLE.

' 1.

with another's birth or death must purify themselves.
Salt was also used for ceremonial piiritication, and at
the dedication of the royal palace sake brewed from rice
was sprinkled to jiurify he j)remiHes.*

At the i)re8ent day, })efore the ]»orson a|)proa(!hes the
Shinto tenjple, he carefully washes his mouth at the
sacred stone font provided for tlie puri)ose in the tem-
ple court, and wipes clean liis hands with the towel
hanging above it. Jfe has at least a clean mouth and clean
hands, if not a clean heart. As Griffis says: "The root
idea of sin was pollution." And the rituals show that
from early times the "offenses" or defilements were to
be removed to the lower world and finally got rid of.
The expiatoiy offerings standing for the "offenses"
were cast into the streams, then carried into the sea,
then gulped down ))y a deity in the sea, and tlien car-
ried to the Bottom Country, and so finally banished and
got rid of. Third, projntUttAyry oJfeHm/s among the
Japanese included human sacrifices to certain gods, es-
pecially wlien about to go forth to battle; and this re-
mindL us of the Greeks of Homer's time. It was called

* According to Mr. Satow, the dedicatory ceremony dates
from the setting up of the first Emperor Jinimu's capital in
Yjunato Province. The object of this ceremony was to pro-
pitiate the two deities of timber and rice, and to obtain their
protection for the sovereign's abode and his food against de-
filement by snakes, crawling worms, or birds flying in through
the smoke holes; from night alarms and the decay of the
building. Offerings arranged in order were presented to the
gods, consisting of a mirror, beads, spear, mantelet, mulberry
paper, and hempen thread. The sacred emblems of sov-
ereignty (sword, mirror, and precious stone) were deposited
in the royal hall; the four corners of the l)uilding were hung
with red beads, while sak^, rice, and cut thread were scattered
inside the four corners.

SUl'EBSTmoNa MULTIPLY. 53

O-chi-matm^H, the "honorable blood cnremonv " In
tins way they hoped to please their god a,„l gaiuvieto-
ry over the,r enemiee. for e«„„ple, wl,e„ the Kn.press
J. ngo Kogo wa, about to invade Korea (200 A.D.) the

reached the sea other offerings were „,ad„ to the sea
god. I he foundafoMs of hnildinga were laid npon some
l.u,na„ vctuu seized for that purpose. This was to ap!
pease the demon or god of ba,l Inek. I.ikewise whcM,
d,re calanuty or danger fell „p„n them-the Hoo.l, vol-
can.e or earthqn.ko npheavul, fan.ine or pestilenee-

gods. Anything, „. laet, that was pre<.ions was willing-
ly given np to s.ati„fy the angry gods and evil spirit!
When a house was built certain ceremonies wc e ot
served and arrows shot into the four quarters of heaven
o ward off the atUck of evil spirits. This dedicaJo
ceremony may be seen to-day, and is a weird and curio™
affair. At stated times of the year the dwelling are
hung around with rice straw ropes to ward off the an!
proaeh of evil, and even trees are thus festoonedtr the
same purpose. The curious cult of sacred trees ser^
pen s, horses foxes, and even the phallic symbol to-
gether with that of the demons of l.I.,kand m'isfor ,i ^
caused to spring „p in the minds of the ancient Japane e'
Koreans, and Tar.ir peoples north of China a t'^mgled
undergrowth ot superstitions and customs that stiUev-
St among the ignorant classes to an extent little under-
stood by many modern civilized Japanese.

Nor ,s the reason far to seek. The knowledge of
he true God, the one Creator and Divine Father, Wl

recroflhe"""''""-"";' " -^'^ "'" "^^^^^ -"1 "l--
jects of the universe under one intelligent system of

government, and separates the Creator fmn/r.^™,.!

japan: country, court, people.

I III

'■i

1 ■- !

i i lif

ated world. But when the "boundary line between
the Creator and liis world, or the eternal difference be-
tween mind and matter, is not clear, then anything that
lives, moves, or has power may be a god." The result
is, that to the bedarkened mind and imagination, in the
whole world of sky above, in the air around, upon, and
in the earth, in the waters of tlie great deep, and in the
dark regions of the lower world, there are multitudes
of gods and goddesses, demons, good or evil, who are
to be dreaded, worshiped, or appeased.

Nevertheless we welcome tlie fact that there is a basis
of truth, liowever much obscured, in all that confused
mass of traditions and superstitions. One of these
truths relatei^ to the divine origin of man. When we
read in the Ko-ji-ki that the ancestors of the Japanese
are the descendants of the Heaven Shining Great Au-
gust Deity it reminds us of tlie closing words of St.
Luke's genealogies: ''Tlie son of Adam, which was the
son of God." (Luke iii. .38.) Another truth held by the
primitive Japanese as a thing taken for granted was the
future life of the soul. The existence and life of their
ancestors is logically implied in the custom of ancestor
worship.

V. Political Ideas axd Manxer of Rule.

Concerning the settlement and political beginnings of
the Japanese na,tion as gathered from the Ko-ji-ki, we are
able to sift out a few conclusions:

1. If the legends of the so-called "divine age" were
credible, we should have to believe that races* of gods
held sway for a long time in the land of Japan, who re-
sisted successfully the first, second, and third expedi-
tions sent from heaven to quell the "painfully uproar-
ious" and "savage deities," but th;it -'U'torwards the

! between
jreiice be-
lling that
'he result
on, in the
ipon, and
nd in the
Lultitudes
who are

is a basis
confused
of these
Vhen we
Japanese
reat Au-
Is of St.
was the
d by the
was the
of tlieir
ancestor

LE.

iiingH of
i, we are

3" were
of gods
who ro-
expedi-
n]>roar-
I'dn tlto

POLITICAL IDEAS AND MANNER OF RULE. 55

Deity-Master of the Great Land abdicated in favor of the
August Grand Child, Kinigi, wlioni the sun goddess
wished to make sovereign of the country.

2. According to the earliest traditions, Idzumo, on the
west coast, is prior to Yamato; moreover it is neither
Id.umo nor Yamato to which Ninigi descends from
heaven b,it in the land of Kiushiu, in the southwest,
where his people, afterwards called Yamato-Japanese,
made their first settlement.

3. At first the government was not autocratic, but
tliere was some kind of ansembly in which important
matters were discussed and decided. (''History of the
Empire of Japan, "p. 26.) These assemblies were doubt-
less similar to the village assemblies of early tribes in
all parts of tlie world. The government was for many
centuries a mixed patriarchal feudalism.

4. Jimmu, the first of the Yamato-Japanese rulers
was only a fighting, conquering chief, whose eastward
march from his original settlement in Kiushiu was re-
sisted by a -number of other chieftains, each exerci-
smg sovereignty in his own district." (Id p 9(5 )
His march was by slow stages, with successive setUe-
ments for a considerable ti^e in several places, requir-
ing more than sixteen years in passing from Kiushiu to
the river's mouth at Naniha, now the city of Osaka a
distance of three hundred miles in a straight line. The
Japanese authors just quoted are constrained to say
(p. 32) that ''Jimmu's sway was limited to a few dis--
tricts 111 tlie neigliborhood of Yamato," but the Ko-ji-ki
tells tluit Jimmu's elder brother was killed in the bat-
tle with the native rulers of Yamato. That Jimmu
and Ills successors had for a long time only a limited
sway m clear: (<,) From tlie number of tribes livim? in
the c-ountry, the Kuniaso people, the Koshis, Idzumos,

japan: country, court, people.

'i'

the Kibi tribe, and in the east the Eineshi. (A) ^J^Jie
many and long campaigns of tlie Yaniato-Japanese
chiefs agahist these tribes, and tlie fact that for hun-
dreds of years they were not effectually conquered.
Even as late as the first century of our era, Yamato-
Dake, the great warrior prince, had to spend liis whole
hie fighting these tribes, one after another, and died be-
fore returning to the capital. As late as the regency
of Queen Jingo Koge (about A.D. 200), eight liundred
and fifty years after Jimmu's time, there was no settled
or widely extended empire, (c) The mention of " tu-
torial owners," even of Yamato and of the "rulers" of
Idzumo, with many other facts, clearly shows that Jini-
mu and his successors were for many centuries rulers of
only a part of what is now Japan, and that their domin-
ions were extended slowly by figliting. So that, while
in honor of the imperial house the early rulers of Ja-
pan may be spoken of as Emperors and their dominion
as an empire, it is not historically correct; on the con-
trary, Jiramu was the same kind of a warrior chieftain
as tliose of the Danes or the Norsemen who led their
followers fierce and strong from tlie north country into
England. All was rough, heroic, and fierce, and tliere
were laid the beginnings of a nationality which has re-
mained unbroken by any foreign power to this day. But
tliose beginnings were laid in struggle and by conquest
of the weaker peoi)les already in the country.* And
for many centuries after their first so-called Emperor it

* We cannot understand the ground for the statement by
the Japanese authors ("History of the Empire of Japan ''
p 16) that "the Japanese Empire has an origin different
from that of other states. It owes nothing to aggression
conquest." etc. This is certainly incorrect, the Ko-ji-ki }.J^
Witness. •' ^

POLITICAL IDEAS AND MANNER OP RULE. 67

wan i.o empire, certainly not nntil after Jingo's invasion
ajKl conquest of Southern Korea. As to Queen Jingo's
conquest of Korea, however, Griffis has serious doubts,
and Prof Chamberlain says: "There is no mention
of the subjugation of Korea in Chinese or Korean his-
tories, and the dates given in the Nihongi clearly shoM-
the inconsistency of tlie whole story."

Still the evidences of contact with Korea are so nu-
merous, and the fighting qualities of the early Japa-
nese being reasonably assumed, we need not reject the
story of the Korean invasion as entirely unhistorical.
As for the Chinese, they were leaders in civilization
or tliree tliousand years before Christ, and naturally
became the teachers first of the Koreans and then of
tlie Japanese; for the conquest of Korea by the Japa-
nese under Queen Jingo was tlie opening of the chan-
nelfor a stream of enlightenment to flow from China
and Korea, a stream that flowed for many centuries

Abo.it the year 285 A.D. the tribute from Korea was
brouglit by Wani,saidto be a scholar who subsequently
taught that crown prince who afterwards became Em-
peror ^ intoku. (See p. 46.) This Korean teacher was
naturalized, it is said, and his descendants were teach-
ers at court, and therefore we may suppose that a few of
tlio court ofticials and princes learned to read and write
a httle Chinese. At least by the year 400 A.D. the
i-oignmg sovereign sent out secretaries or chroniclers to
the seats of the district rulers for the purpose of record-
ing and forwarding to the capital important events and
tlomgs. Hence it is probably safe to say that reliable
Japanese Jiistory began about 400 A.D.

'I :'^ii

R I

CHAPTER II.

CIVILIZATION FROM THE CONTINENT BROUGHT IN.
I. LxTEODucTioN OP Buddhism and Confucianism.
Reli,.ion is the most powerful of all the things that
shape a nation's civilization. This is so because reli-
gious beliefs strike deeper into the heart. As is their
religion so are a people's thought and life. Now we are
come to the time when a new and foreign religion is
brought in. The introduction of Buddhism marks a
most important date in the history of the Japanese. It
was m 555 A.D., in the reign of Kimmei Tenno, the
twenty-ninth Emperor. In that year the ambassador
from a tributary state in Korea brought over an imarre
of Shaka (the Buddha) as a gift to the Emperor, also
some books explaining the Buddhist doctrines.

As Japan looked upon Korea and China as much ad-
vanced, and as the ambassador was not backward in
commending the new religion, informing his majesty
tliat all the great countries this side of India liad ac-
cepted the Buddhist religion, the Emperor was there-
lore favorably impressed, His Prime Minister, Iname
likewise favored the new religion. But two other min-
isters ot state said: -Not so; our country has its own
gods, and they perhaps will be angry if we worship a
foreign god." The Emperor said: ''Let Iname try it."
And lie, taking the image, forthwith set it up in a room
or shrine in his own house, and prayed to the new god
But very soon there broke out upon the people an epi-
demic which the two ministers of state in superstitious
(08)

BUDDHISM BROUGHT IN.' 59

fear declared was a punishment for tl.e worship of the
"loreign god." At their earnest entreaty the Emperor
ordered the image to be tlirown into the canal * (where
now stands the great city of Osaka) and the house to be
destroyed. Thus the first effort to bring in Buddhism
tailed.

Still later another and more successful attempt was
made, not, however, without bitter opposition. This
time two priests, a nun, and an image maker, some
books and images, and a temple carpenter were all sent
from Korea to the tlien reigning Emperor. In a little
win e the Prune Minister, Umako, who had succeeded
his lather, Iname, b.dlt temples and pagodas to Buddha.
Once more, as the story goes, a pestilence broke out
among tlie people, once more court officials protested
to the Emperor against the new gods and tlie new reli-
gion as being tlie cause of the people's afflictions, and
once more the decree went forth prohibiting the worship
of Buddha and commanding temples to be burned and
images thrown into the sea. But the plague stayed not;
It grew rather worse, and was explained to be a punish-
ment sent from Buddha, who had been insulted, and the
Prime Minister now got permission from the Emperor
to worship Buddha in his own house.

The next Emperor was for a long time ill, and suf-
fered so m.ich that it occurred to him lie should wor-
ship the new god, Buddha. Tlie matter was discussed
by us ministers of state, and resulted in the formation
of two parties at court, the anti-Buddhists and pro-
Buddhists. A Buddhist priest was brought in to min-
!!^!!j!0!!:!y!i5^^^ of the sick Em-

* Afterwards, wIumi Buddhism triumphed, a tcmplT^

japan: country, court, people.

pe.o ),„t l,e died, und tl™ wa« the occasion of an „„t-
bcak hctwccn tl,c two parties. The Prime Minister
Un,uk„, and the Hogcnt, J-rince Shotokn, led a l,„dy"f
tro«j,s agan.st the anti-I5„ddhists, killing their leader
and another n.inister of state. The o„,f„„ents o tl^
new rehg,ou were now either put o„t of the way or 2-

Punie Minister devoted themselves with great zeal to
reaehing the new faith. Thenceforth Buddhism began
Its triumphant course, its first victory being won byfhe
»word. Umako, still Prime Minister, and st!ll powei f„
the government, sent persons to Korea to study the
Buddhist doctrines, and he set apart a number of priest!
and nuns, and buiU temples for tlie new religion

But It was in the reign of a woman, a later sovereign,
named Suiko, that Buddhism was publicly adopted a^
the religion of the sovereign and the court. '^She iled a
proc amation to her subjects approving of the Birdl
leliglon Her Regent and nephew. Prince Shotoku, en-

of'Buddh""' "' f '^''"' "'" '' ''"°*" - *'- f-"^ ■•
not like to claim a woman as their founder. Shotoku
as 1.C d in greatest reverence, and is said to have been a
prodigy from birth, that he could speak from the hour

nld '^ ^^^-l^'-f"! "'^'"O'-y; I'oce is sometimes

ssued to the crown prince and other princes of the
blood, and to the higli ministers of state, to have image!
made and set up. Ranks of honor were conferred nl,

niage niakei-s, and grants of rice lande bestowed upon
th m. I ehe old central provinces ,nany temples w^-e
built. It ,:, indeed said thatseveral ,,f the oldest Buddhist

1 of an out-
! Minister,
a body of
leir leader
iits of the
vay or de-
u and the
sat ;2eal to
ism began
^on by the
powerful
study the
of priests
on.

overeign,
lopted as
i issued a
Buddhist
toku, en-
founder
'8 would
Shotoku
e been a
he hour
he same
metimes
author-
!r8 were
of tlie
images
2d upon
id upon
es were
iddhist

THE RULERS EMBRACE BUDDHISM.

temples in Yamato and the central provinces date their
foundation from Shotoku's time. lie had large copper
images of Buddha made for each government officer, the
king of Korea sending a contribution of gold for the ex-
pense. The officials of the government, following the
Regent's example, rivaled each other in building tem-
ples and supporting tliem at their own expense.

After thirty years as Regent and chief man in the gov-
ernment, Shotoku died, but Buddhism went on. The
very next year the priests, nuns, and believers in Bud-
dha had become so numerous, and temples were in
soniany places, that a general superintendent, or high
priest— a Korean, by the way— had to be appointed.

A few years after Shotoku's death, Umako, the ven-
erable Prime Minister, died, and soon after him Suiko,
the aged Empress. Thus the three advocates and found-
ers of Buddhism were all taken away, but the new reli-
gion was so well planted In the soil of Japan that it was
destined to completely change the mind of the nation.
Summing up, we find that from the first effort to in-
troduce Buddhism to Suiko's death (630 A.D.) seventy-
five years elapsed. During the first thirty-two years of
that period it failed to get a footing, but during the
next forty-three years it gradually extended through-
out the land.

Another noteworthy fact is that its first converts
were the rulers and princes at court. The Empress
Suiko did for Buddhism what Constantine the Great
did for Christianity in the Roman Empire. Since this
was the best slie had ever heard, it is creditable to the
woman's heart tliat she so readily embraced the new
foreign religion and extended it among her subjects.

A brief account of this religion is in order. Bud-
dhism was originated in India by a man whose name

japan: country, COUllT, TEOl'LE.

\ik

was Gautama (Shakya Mm.i), born probably about DOO
li.C. Iho time of liiH l)irth iH uiicertaiji.

Taking a dark view of tbo world ami of Imman life
he fornook his wife and little sou and went away into
the hills. Tliere he joined himself to a hennit living
m a cave, but being disappointed in ]u,t Huding deliv-
erance from doubt and evil in the hermit's teachings,
he went forth again and spent a long time in meditation
and self-denial in the lonely fields. Finallv, when
weakened and reduced in body, he found, as he imag-
ined, tJie True Path. ^

He had reached the conclusion that all evil is the re-
su t of desire, and all desire is tlie consequence of indi-
vidual existence; hence he concluded that the only wav
to get rid of evil is to get rid of desire and of individual
existence. He also got the idea that for wrong deeds
or indulgences in one's life, their effects must l,e suf!
fered in the next life, and so tlie ills and sorrows that
we now suffer are the result of bad deeds in a fonner
sme of existence. This suffering in one lifetime the
effects of deeds done in a previous lifetime is known as
the law of Kharma.

Now as no one is able to get rid of de.ire in one life-
time and as every one must suffer according to the law
ot Kharina, so when one dies he must be b^rn again in
another form, generally an animal of some kind-a
beast, reptile, or worm Tliis doctrine of being reborn
in another form after one dies is tlie doctrine of trans-
migration of souls, as held by the Greeks and other an-
cient peoples. If one has been very bad, the next time
he 1 born he will have to be a hog, loathsome snake,
or vile worm. And so there are for every one cycles of
iving, dying, and being reborn, that go on for ages and
ages indefinitely. Finally a few, and only a few! reach

THE BUDDHIST SYSTEM.

a state of deliverance called Nirvana. But wliat does
Nirvana mean ? It means either tlie end of all existence,
annihilation, so say some scholars; or reabsorption of
the soul back into the changeless ocean of existence, so
say otliers. Practically, eitlier way amounts to the same
thing, for it is a salvation that ends in losing all individual
cxiHtcnce and activity. The soul has been literally lost,
lie also taught that the world passes through cycles of
development, followed by corresponding periods of de-
cay, and tliat for each world cycle tliere is some sort of
incarnation sucli as Buddha himself was. In some of
the previous cycles the incarnation had been in the form
of an animal.*

As Shakya Muni, the founder, left his own wife and
children, so he tauglit that in order to reach the state
of Nirvana no one could marry, and hence his earlier
di8cii)les in India were monks and nuns. And so
Buddhism, as originally taught, was not only atheistic
and nuiteriali8ti(s since Sluikya left never a word about
God or a first creating cause of tlie world, but it was
also nnfriendly to tlie family and social life of mankind.
Kno.ving nothing of the one true and living God and
Heavenly Fatlier, this dreary system had at first no
God, no Saviour, and no worsliip. Afterwards, how-
ever, as it spread from Iiulia into C^iina, Siam, and
otlier countries, it was changed, many gods and god-
desses being gradually added, Sluikya Muni, named
tlie Buddha (Dai Butsu in Japanese), being consid-
ered the chief god. Tlie blank idea of a motionless,
dead state of existence. Nirvana, was also changed into
something more real and ple asing to the senses. And

*It is difficult to decide whether Gautama himself tauglit
this tlioory of world cycles and incarnations, or whether his

disciples foisted it upon \m .system.

japan: country, court, people.

they „„,„,,,t , ce™„.,„i<.„, and „„,K.,„tiU,;„H,

llley h,wi temples, aItai-8, ami prieste. They toM,.|,t
penance, .,,,t allowed all to n.any and cnga/c h t le

Jl'oy inoelain.ed a doetrine of ,/,>*« (I,<.1I). will, it„

mon«t,-o„e devils and bun.ing flan.es, where in p„ J, "

or al tonnenta the .....a,; arc consigned; and p,Lli„e

U/olm-ul;,) rudo and sensuous, where the faithful ar<.

tl k.Unig of animals was forbidden, as in other Bw.l-

<«ust eountries. This was to avoid, as they suppo.s,,l,
he eafng „f a grandfather, or a father, who n.igh
avo been reborn as a pig, eow, or son.e other auiut.l,

the th„„gi,t „f ^hich would have been horrible to thci^

children.

The moral teachings of Bud(llu«,n, as far as tliey l^o,
are not bad, and may be summed np in tl.e five com-
mandments: (1) Against stealing, (2) against lying, (;n

Kesnming the story of the spread of Buddhism, after
the death of Empress Hr.iko, we find that, onc-e adopted
by the rulers, the spread of this religion goes on apac-o
so that not many decades pass before the reigning sov-
ereign commanded every house to have a Buddhist
altar, and forbade the slaying of animals an 1 eating of
flesh, and a sovereign commanded copies o Buddhist
scriptures to be written, and images to be mad 3 for th(.
governors of provinces, and temj.los to l,e ^;uilt for
prie^sts and nuns. If man could be made religious and
good by commands of earthly rulers, and by buildiiur
teniples and casting images, tlien the Japanese ought
to have been the best of people. As a fact, however

''^'-— --•""" —

FOUNDIN(i OF NAKA, THE NEW CAl'ITAL.

most of the fomiiioii pcopk' living in bai'k-lyiiijr dis-
triftH would fjiiii hold on to their old gods, worHhi])ing
the HUH iuid moon and dead ancestors. It was in this
l)oriod that Xara, the capital, was built in Yamato
Province.

The founding of the now capital was tlie work of
(ieniniyo (A.I). 710), another female sovereign. Hith-
erto the capital had In-en moved from jdace to place, a
new one being set up every time a sovereign died; Imt
then it became fixed for al)out eighty years. The pal-
ace and left and right halves of the new capital iivo
btiilt in a style and si/e never before known. Durin-^
the Nara epoch ]>r<)Hperity and progress were marked*^
and nothing could exceed the devotion of the imi)erial
house to tlie Buddhist religioii, says a Japanese histo-
rian. Here at Nara they built the temi)le of Todaiji,
one of the most remarkable in the land, and in which
rests the celebrated image of Buddlia. This image of
bronze is enormous in si/e, })eing fifty-seven feet hi<di,
the head and shoulders proportionately large. As usiuil^
the image sits upon a huge lotus flower. It is the lar-
gest innige of Buddha in Japan. Here, too, is a magnifi-
cent sacred grove, more than one hundred years old, in
which gentle deer roam at will and are fed from the
hands of pious pilgrims, nuns, and residents. How do
they know but that they may in this way be feeding an
ancestor, whose soul has been reborn in the deer form?
On either side of the road to the town tliere is a row of
towering cryptomerias and stone-columned lanterns,
inaki]ig a beautiful avenue of approach. One of the
oldest towns in the country, with its temples, groves
and imperial tombs, Nara is still held in reverence and
mucli frequented by native pilgrims and foreign tour-
ists.

JAl'AN: COUNTIIY, COURT, PEOPLE.

ii '

The ].ru!8tH of JiuddhiHiii have now bocoirio important
luTHoiiagoH ut court, an luM-sonal friondN and adviserH of
the ruler. It \h rehited of one of them, named Gyogi,
wlio liad been elevated to the powition of prelate at court
and archbiHhop of the country at large, that he was tlio
hrnt to teach the doctrine of Buddha's incarnations. Ah
iiulicated al)ove, though the r.d<MH were all enthuHiastic
diHciplcHof the lJu(hlhiHt faith, the maHHCH of the nation
still preferred their old Shinto gods, who, as tliey bi--
lieved, were the ancestors of their race, the founders of
their state, to whom indeed they owed tlie very exist-
ence of their luition. Now this prejudice of the people
the Buddhist i)riests cunningly overcame by saying that
Aniaterasu, whom all the Japanese worship as the sun
goddess and ancestress of their first Emperor, vas /wr-
Hclf <ni inmrmnUni of BmMJm. Tims Gyogi and his
priests began the policy of compromise by preaching to
the nniltitude in such a way as to give good standing to
the old national gods of the land, and at tlie same ttme
get them to accei)t Buddhism, with Buddha as their
chief god. This compromising ])olicy worked well.
When people's prejudices are satietied, they will more
easily practice an inconsistency.

When the capital was removed from Nara to Kioto
(A.D. 704), not only the Emperor, great nobles, and
high officials, but the people also, began to accept Bud-
dhism as the orthodox faith. After the new capital had
been laid out and tlie imperial palaces erected, all on a
scale of magnificence that eclipsed the Nara capital, the
l)riests commanding the i)atronage of the rulers and
contributions of the upper classes built great temi)leH
and i)agoda8 in a style of architecture and wealth that
rivaled even the imperial buildings. The priests, now
a great multitude, have become proprietors of broad

j !

liUDDiriHM IN rOWER.

iM}»ortJint
IviserB of
1(1 Oyogi,
oat court
B was tho
ioiiH. Am
liUHiastic
10 nation
tlioy l»c-
nidei-H of
iiy oxiHt-
10 i>eo|)lc
^iiig that

1 tllO 81111

was ]ier-
aiid his
chiiig to
iidiiig to
nie time
as their
id well,
ill more

o Kioto
Les, and
pt Bud-
ital liad
ill on a
ital, the
era and
jem])loH
th that
ts, now
broad

OHtates, and Ww. hea<l j.ricHtH, at least, liavo the wealth
and j.oHition of liigh government otlicials. HuddhiHm
iH now the estabUHhed religion, HUi)i)orted every way by
the government.

A little later a movement to popiilari/e limldhiHm
tliroiighoiit the land waH again taken w^. There lived
at thin time two remarkable i)rie8tH, who went to Cliina
to Mtiidy, and returned, one of them to found a new
HuddliiHt Meet, and to buibl near tlie new capital a celc-
hratcd temple on Mount Hei/an overlooking tlie i)alace.
ThiH temple waH to i)rote(t the imperial family from bad
luck, evil HpiritH, and the like, whidi, as they believed,
came from the northeast. Taking up tho compromising
work named above, tliese two jirieHts i)U8hed it still far-
ther. Going tlirough the country as i)oi)ular preachers,
they tauglit tliat all of the Japanese gods were manifes-
tations of the one divine being, ]5uddlia. The result
was a mixed religion of Buddhism and Shintoism, and
thus the new religion was completely popularized with
tlie i)eople. They saw their old national gods not dis-
carded, but given honorable rank in tlie Buddhist i)an-
theon of gods and goddesses, and this pleased tliem.
Tlie adroit and time-serving Buddhist priests even par-
ticipated in the ceremony of Gosaeye— the procession and
worship of tlie imperial ancestors of the land. A few
facts illustrating how completely Buddhism had gained
the day may be added:

1. It became a custom with the Emperors, after sit-
ting upon tlie throne for a short while, to abdicate and
become i)riest-kings, retiring with shaven heads to some
temple palace.

2. The codes of law established in a former period
were afterwards almost entirely set aside by Buddhist
teachings and sanctions.

(08)

.!^.

THB CHINESE LEARNING.

H
O

->)
i»
O

3. The great temples and monasteries at Kioto, and
the ()>ie at Nara, became castles and camps for the train-
ing of soldiers. The priests and lord high abbots,
haughty and powerful, wished to be surrounded by
bodies of priestly soldiers, and on more than one occa-
sion they marched, armed and armored, into Kioto to
enforce with spears and long swords their demand upon
tlie government. One of the Emperors had to invite a
l)Owerful general of the Minamoto clan to come to the
capital to defend him against those temple priests and
soldiers. "What a contrast this, since the time when by
command of an Emperor tlie image of Buddha was cast
into the sea and the shrine destroyed! but that was
more than five hundred years previous.

II. The Chinsse Learning.

Along with Buddhism came tlie Chinese learning.

Having no written language of their oAvn, the mastery

of the complex Chinese characters, to know them at

sight, write them correctly, and to use the proper ones

for their Japanese words, must have been a most difficult

task. It is not surprising, then, that so many years

passed from the time when Wani brought the characters

over from Korea till the day when the Japanese wrote

their first book* in those Chinese characters. The first

writings by Japanese consisted of brief chronicles of

events and doings reported to the central government.

In ancient times the writing men belonged to a certain

family, this knowledge or art being lianded down from

father to son. Accordingly Wani, who was originally

a Korean, became a naturalized subject, and he and his

descendants were kept at the capital to write and teach

*See Ko-ji-ki, oldest extant hook. 711 A.D.

JAPAN: COURT, COUNTRY, PEOPLE.

I i

the Chinese characters. This became tlieir authorized
and hereditary profession. In i)rocesH of time scliools
were set up for the teaching of young princes, sons of
nobles, and high officials. After the removal of the
capital to Kioto a sort of central university, so called,
was opened, where history, Chinese classics,* law, and
mathematics were studied. About this time a few
schools were also opened in some of the principal pro-
vincial towns for tlie sons of governors and other chief
officials. In the so-called university at Kioto almost
nothing of our modern sciences was known. Medicine,
botany, and the anatomy in vogue in China probably
received some attention. In China iu seems ^.hat certain
men were appointed to experiment with medicine upon
monkeys, and to dissect tiieir bodies. In this way
cliarts and diagrams were made, and these were proba-
bly used in Japan, but were afterwards found to be im-
perfect and false. It came to ])aHS in process of time
that tliere arose a class of scholars in Japan who re-
garded the Confucian classics (named after Confucius,
a Chinese sage) and the Chinese philosophy as the
heiglit of all human wisdom, tlie treasury of }»recept
>'-id principle for tlie family, tlie guide for the right
conduct of affairs of state, and the standard of literary
taste and composition. And without doubt there is in
the Cliinese classics much excellent teaching toucliino-
filial piety, fidelity, justice, and even benevolence. But
the cultivation of Chinese literature and composition
lef : the Japanese language and literature neglected as
unworthy of the attention of scholars and accomplished

*The classics are the four books (Great Learning, Doctrine
of the Mean, the Analects, Sayings of Moncius); and five can-
ons (Book of Changes, of Poetry, History, Rites, and Spring
and Autumn).

THE CHINESE LEARNING.

persons. Every scholar must write in Chinese, pcrupu-
iously affecting Chinese styles. This was strange, had
not precisely tlie same thing occurred among other na-
tions. Just as the educated few in Japan, despising
their own language, proudly affected tlie letters and
])]iilo8ophy of China, so it was in Rome, where Greek
letters, art, and manners were much in vogue, in pref-
erence to the Roman, which were simpler. And in En-
gland too the educated classes of the court, gentry, and
clergy once came near discarding their vernacular for
Latin and Norman French. There are men still living
who, when boys at school, had to give as much time to
writhig Latin verse as to their mother tongue.* In
Japan the bad fashion once set continued to l)e slavish-
ly followed for many centuries by the educated few. It
must be said to tlie credit of the Buddhist priests that,
with all their faults, they promoted the Chinese civili-
zation among the Japanese. As in Europe the clergy
were for a long time the chief teachers and bookmak-
ers, so in Japan tlie priests of the foreign religion were
leaders in spreading Chinese learning and arts. One
notable exception is that of the Sugawara family, not
l»riest8, the members of which held for generations the
position of court teachers. It is said that several of the
Emperors, deeply versed in Chinese literature, were pa-
trons of letters and art and promoted the establishment
of schools and the formation of libraries in their capital.
Three of them were so skillful in writing the Chinese
characters as to earn the name "the three penmen."
Indeed the skilled penman was held in as high rank as the
painter. Penmanship in Japan and China,, not being the

*Tli(^ writer once heard the Dean of Westminster speak of
this and lament it.

i72

japan: country, court, people.

'il; i

plex ch,„..ct.,.» w.« n.ga,-.k.,l .„ a i,rof,.»„ic,„ a„.l a lino
a.t. Some uf t!,c«o .-haraotcr, a,v »i,„,.lc o„„„„|,-_,w
example, t7, moaUi; ft, sm, ,„• ,|.,v. L
^. . uu, etc. But otl,e,« ..equire ten „,• twelve .lif
ferent strokes and <lots-for oxannilo es , ,

«. iron; H^. ho,..,e; etc. ' ' '^^^ «'"" '"■ "''°^'

III. INI-LUKN-C. „r Nkw K,,,i„,o.^ ^,„ j^,,„^,^„

AT CorRT.

The influence of tlie IJ.uldliist creed and Tl,;,

dl iHt iel,g,on before they l,egan adopting Chinese n,od-
els of government, official rank, and cere'nonv T.
"1 lier reign that tl:e hrst offici- 1 in '''"'"''' ' ^^ ''''''
M-ith riiJn. rp, ,^^^^^^'^^ "itercoursetook idace

^MtU Chn.a. 1 he Halutation was as follows- ' Tl.

.^o,n.t „roee,.,„.e J O -L' ,Cu,;"':i;r "to T' ""^ "'
country. He eon,|,ilea a kin.l < f code of L ^ ""'"
teen articles I.ase, on f 1,„ i V ""'" °' *''^<"'-

t.ie seventi/r:::. ;ri :L:r.t;-'r,r" -i

but was not co„,,,lete,l until n.any "a,^ .. ^'"'•""'
Tliese refonns touched certain nc -'ftei-wanls.

gove,.n.ent and to t„c ,:X ^^^Zr^"-" '" '"«
J. Measures relitivirv < v n-

iciatn.o to sellnig and holding hinds.

yiii

of the al-
ts of com-
tiid a iiue
ngli— for
loiiiitaiii;
'olve (lif-
or door;

UXIXG

Chinese
us at tlie
s Siiiko
le Blai-
se mod-
It was
k ])l;i('e
''The
3 sover-

le ruler
odcA of
is own
seven-
un and
vritton
flowed
die of
)rni8,"
vards.
to the

unds.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 73

Brought up in demoerati. A^nerica, some of my younger
-de., nuy be surpris.! to learn that the log.U r If w
hoM land as private property was not re:>g:i^ ^
J. 1>UH unt.l alter 1808. Yet even under the Taikw
reionns steps were taken to stop tl.e nobles and l-!;
ofh.ials from grabbing all the lands. The com S
people could not own land at all. But to every eimd
H.X years old, two-thirds of an acre was allotted; wh^b
however reverted to the state for redistribution T i
ennnds us of the law given by Moses to the Israelite

tein^r ^^^-f '^^'"'""'^'^ '^'"'^' ^^- mtieth vet • :

tead of the s.xth. Thus all the land was regarded as
the property of tlie state or crown

;^. Measures of taxation. The taxes were of three
^Hls: .^ ,, and c... The .. was eight sheaves "
n< e out of . .ery hundred, the estin.ated crop of a half
acie. Ihe y. ,vas ten days of public labor by every
n wenty-one years old, but might be paid L ZL
"'Nt .Kl. J he cho was a tax npon silk, fish, and other
productions got out in large quantities. "

f. Kelorms relating to local government.

five hundreTV?' ""^'^'f "*" ""''y-''^''' 1^--'-- -<i
five hundred districts, and the smallest unit for local ad-

mnustratioii was the space occupied by five houses Tit

eople lived for the most part in towns and village . ( n

to principal roads from tlie capital to the provim.es w

-lays of post horses. At important points on the w y

weie guardhouses, lookouts, an<l garrisons to arrest

nsp.cious persons and keep order. Curiously eno "l

P .-sons tnwcling in the interior were requiri to clT^y

Jl: ^V"^ ^ I'^'^'i'"'''- '^"«* ^^^^^^^ they had to iin'-
gle he heil we are not told; of course the passpo t
h.ul to be shown at the ''road-doors" along the T!
At hrst the appointments to office in the provinces

japan: country, court, people.

and districts were to be upon the merit of tlie person
according to tl.<, <.ivil service theory in China; but thi^
plan did not work well, und the cuntoni was renewed of
holding office for life, with a good prospect of the son's
ho ding the same position. As a matter of fact, office
holding was generally lianded down from father to son
m certain ruling families in each town or village.

4- Administrativeorgani/ation of central government
111 all nations there has been a slow growth of the various
offices and functions in governmental affairs. Away
back 111 primitive times, in the davs of Abraliam, for ex-
ample, It was the patriarch or prince of the tribe who
was 111 turn the judge, ,>riest, and propliet, and the leader
m war. In process of time these different offices were
intrusted to certain j.ersons, and generally to the head
ot the «ame f niily in successive generations. The
first to be thus separated were men for in-iests and
prophets; later, men for judges; latest of all, the gen-
eral of the army. Witli us even now tlie President of
^^e United States is tlieoretically commander in chief
r: all our army and navy. So among the Japanese
ere was a slow growth of differing functions and de-
partments in the government. At iirst we see tlie M"
kado, or king, wliose throne was liis tent or hut, whose
capital was his camp. As judge lie lieard and decided
causes; as liigh priest, performed the ceremoi-y of pu-
rification in behalf of his people; as general, he led
his figliting men to battle. Upon important matters
he consulted the assembled elders and liead men as
his counsel or senate. Later there appeared with the
Mikado a kind of Prime Minister, and after that a Sho-
guii or general, while his brother or some prince of the
Mood IS the head of religious matters, a princess like-
wise becoming the priestess at the national shrine. Still

■i"'-^-.— 1— Irt

CHINERE MODELS AT COURT.

later, in the EmpresH Suiko'H reign, liesides the JVime
Minister, tliere Jippear two more liigli ofticialH, the min-
ister of tiic left and the minister of the right; later still,
the minister of the interior. Along with these higl!
fnnctionaries eiglit ])oar(Is were added, eacli in charge
of certain dnties and departments of government; and
each board was again divided into bureaus. The gov-
ernment tlius bcarne thoroughly bureaucratic, as in
Cliina. The Emperor no longer has personal oversight
and direction of government affairs.

Besides all this, six official ranks were created, each
rank being named by a Avord. Thus, first rank, virtue;
second, humanity; etc. Each of these ranks was di-
vided into a higlier and lower order, making twelve or-
ders.^ Afterwards tlie number of distinctions or titles
was increased to nineteen. Now these orders or dis-
tinctions were not l)estowed upon the individual, but
rather upon head^i of families, and so handed down
to their sotis. This wliole system, attributed to Suiko's
Regent, Sliotoku, an admirer of Chinese civilization,
was fasliioned after the Chinese court and government'
and continued without much change until 1868.

Before touching u) o?i ihQfffh feature of the Taikwa
reforms we w^ould njerel> .jay that a third code of laws,
adoi)ted a little later, was more thoroughly Chi-
nese than ever. This code of law and officiaf proce-
dure, called the Taiho Statutes, was based upon the laws
of the Tang dynasty. It consists of two ])arts. The first
part is largely taken up with regulations i)ertaining to
the imperial court and officialdom generally, such as
rank, costumes, ceremonies; then religion, niilitary de-
fense, buildings, etc. The second part is chieily a
criminal code, and under the criminal code the penal-
ties were execution, exile, slavery, beating (stick), and

japan: countky, coubt, people.

Lr ;;;:f 'ltd ■"; '"""" "■ '"'''"■« ^™'" '" ^"^ li^

.»i,rl„ 1 i-"."'"^- ■"»> I'l'rau" a<uM,sed of a crime
■gl '« -am.ncl by tort.n-o to n.ako l,i,„ confess

i"c oai J C,ln-i8tla„ inw„,o„ario8 of tlio Meiji era (mm

:'::r;;r.r:i;:;:r;----''/--
K;;:;s;:n::;:rLt::;;::H:::r"''r'^-

Yoir's ,..., . 1 . ''^*^"' P'li'i^'e to receive the Xew

tl,ri , *""""«' 'l"ly l..-e8cribo,l offieial ..mforms

the whole ce,-emo„ial being eondueted with the S^
<■« jmmp and eti<,„ette. Thenceforth the n.leTTo,.

^:t:;::;:;zt' «""^''-^ -^ "«»<^' ■■»"-«

5 We may i.ow return to consider the rules relating

Tadt dT;.;'- ,«;'w:;rf %':"'.1. ^'-- ^^^

classes and ,a ' "''"'S "^ th" P^ople i"to

posit ,,'lr: ir sl" *" '"-f ^ <=osce„t,'offi,,al
TT.. T !• ^^^"'^ confusion had creut in

tlle rto.ties (2) those descended from the Empero," and
(3 those of foreign descent. The basis of tl is c Iss fi
cation was the respect paid to noble fan.ilies.

OKIGIN OF SOCIAL CLASSES AND NAMES. 77

And tlu.H Mc are ],ro„gl.t face to face with a most
iHterestjng queHtiou, a.ul one beset with non.e difficulty
-namely, the oru;in .>ffn,niU, ,,,,,, ,,^^i ^^^^^. . ^^ ^^^^^ J
lhi8 18 a question of interent to the student of civili -v

ml V //'"'' "' '^'' ^'^ ^''^' ^^''^-^ t,o unlock

many doors of Japanese thought and soc-ial institutions
explains many eventful turns in the history of this inter^
esting people, and is probably somewhat unique in the
development of their civilization.

To begin with, as previously indicated, the primitive
Japanese, l.ke all primitive peoples, lived under a sort
of patriarchal system, the father of the tribe being its
ruler even when it had sub-families in it and mim-
bered thousands of people. Under such a system fam-
ily names, as we now know the family, were not so im-
portant. Personal names were of course given, or, as
was the case among the Japanese, the children were

thai' !lT ^r.?''^' '?""^"'^ civilization it is probable
that all of the members of the tribal family did all
kinds of work; for example, all are warriors, all hunt-
ers, fishermen builders, according to the season or
need. But when the Japanese came across from the
contment into the islands now named Japan, though
still patriarchal, they were already entering upon the
second stage of civilizadon-that is, the Mikado began
to make a distribution of authority and of labor among
his people With these facts in mind ^ve arc prepared to
understand how family nan,es and social classes took
-neir ongm, from one of three things, at least:

1. In-om the holding of office. From early times
governmental affairs were conducted by hereditary au-

japan: country, court, people.

thoiity, tho original hoklor of an office liandiiig it down
to liiH sou for siicceHsivo goiieratioiiM. It thus retmittHl
tliat family names were derived from official titles.
For example, the official title for persons conducting
religious dut ies and ccremoni«'H was Nakatomi (literally,
intercessors) or Imbe, and so there came to ho a family
of Kakatomisandof Imhes. Intliesamo way afamily of
Otomos arose, being at first tho military title of those
commanding trooi)8 and guards. Of course at the first
tho men selected for tlieso posts were lusir kinsmen of
the Mikaflo, a son or brother. And tliis sIjows us how
a circle of court or noble fandlies arose related by l)lood
to tlie sovereign. Again, among the common people
some were ordered to perform certain kinds of work for
the ruler, and this was fron\ generation to generation
their work. Each class of workers was under the con-
trol of a head man, wlio generally belonged to some
brandi of the ruler's family and received the official
title of Omi, JVIuraji, and soon; and these i)ositions, be-
ing hereditary, resulted in forming a numlier of Omi
and Muraji families of tlie ruling class. Now wliile
this process of forming tlie ruling classes and families
from official position and title was going on, at the oth-
er end of the line there was

2. The origin of family names by occupation. Only
a few examples of the many must suffice. The makers
of jewels from jade and other stones were called Ta-
matsukuri, and this became finally their family or tribe
name. Cormorant keepers—/, e., fishermen— took the
family name Kabane; rice tillers were called lade;
road keepers Chimori; etc.— which afterwards became
common family or tribal names. Not only by custom
and convenience did the father and his descendants take
the name of their occupation as their family or clan

RISE OF RULING FAMILIES.

name, but also by direct permiHHiou of tlie Mikatlo fam-
ilies or clans originated in the same fashion. For in-
stance, we read in the time of a certain ruler tliat the
stone-coffin makers aiid earthenware masters were es-
tablished as separate clans or tri])es, each bearing these
names. And so oilier tribal families bearing the name
'>f Fishers, Sutlers, Keepers, Bankers, were formed.

H. And yet another source of family names was some
signal cnent, c.rph>it, or important place. For instance,
tlie tiiehihumi (orange) was brought over from Korea,
and the man who brought the first one to the Mikado,
or who first grew it in Japanese soil, was nonored with
the name of Taciiibana as a title of nobility; cf.
House of Orange in English history.

To this category belongs also a large number of
territorial lords who took the name of the province or
conquered district to which they had been appointed
governors, as their house or family name. It exjilains
itself when in the same paragraph in the Ko-ji-ki it is
said tliat "seventy kings and queens were all granted
i-ulersliips in the various lands," and that '< savage
deities and unsubmissive peonies were subdued in the
East and West." Each one of these territorial lords,
going down from the capital with a few military retain-
ers, took control of his assigned district, and so became
one of tlie ruling class; tlie conquered tribe meanwhile
becoming the serfs of liis clan. Those territorial lords
were always ready to grab more lands, so as to increase
the numl)er and strength of tlieir clans. As a part of
the social system slavery existed. The slave class was
increased from time to time l)y the degradation of aris-
tocrats as a punishment, or by tlie employment of pris-
oners of war in servile labor. The common peoi)le were
.•egardod as the property of the aristocrats, being bought

^n^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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If 1^

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2.0

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i^ 11 1.6

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niuiugiypiiiC

Sciences
Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

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^^- -^^x^

japan: country, court, people.

i ' '

and sold at the will of the latter, Mairiagti between
the ruling classes and the lower did not take ])lacc.
From the foregoing facts we see how the ruling families
and upper classes were formed, both those at the capi-
tal and the territorial lords in the provinces; and how
under them the serfs and common people gradually be-
came the inferior part of the clan.

Kow it naturally came to pass that certain of the
noble or aristocratic families became more intiuentiri
with the throne than otliers, and eitlier on account of
ability and wisdom, or by the favoritism of the sover-
eign, rose to higher position at court. It has always
been so. Among the first to rise into })rominence after
the introductiop of Buddhism was the Tachibana fami-
ly (Orange family), previously mentioned. Tlie Huga-
wara house was also famous at court for their learning,
this being their family profession. They were tlie in-
structors of princes of the blood. The most conspicu
ous noblemen of the Sugawara house was Michi/ane,
a man of lofty character and brilliant in Chinese learn-
ing. He rose to the position of Minister of the Inte-
rior, and besides was the honest counselor of tlie young
Emperor whom he had tauglit as a boy prince. But
another noble family, the Fujiwaras, h;id for a long
time been more noted, honored, and powerful than any
other, nor did they like to see Michizane standing so
near to the Emperor and wielding so much influence
with him; therefore they had him sent into honorable
banishment as a viceroy in Kiushiu. There he died
about 900 A.D. After his death a great change of
opinion took place, and iin;- Uy lie was canonized with
the name of Tenjin (heavenly nian)^ and in his honor the
25th of every month was a holiday in all schools, and
the 25th of June was his annual festival. Boys learn-

POWERFUL FUJIWARA FAMILY.

ing to write difficult Chinese chai-acters, then so much
prized, had to pray to Tenjin for help. As is frequent-
ly the case in history, the powerful Fujiwaraa were
ready to garnish his tomb since he was dead and out of
their way. Speaking of the Fujiwaras, there are few
examples in history of a noble family enjoying such ex-
traordinary honor and power in the affairs of royalty
and of state. According to legend, the ancestor of tliis
noble house came down with Jimmu's grandfather from
tlie heavenly plains. Therefore it ranks next to the
imperial house itself as the oldest and most honora-
ble family in tlie Avliole empire. Besides, there sprang
out of this family men of marked ability in controlling
men and directing affairs. Then again several circum-
stances helped their ambitions and fortunes. Owing to
the early death of one of the Emperors, tlie throne was
left to a mere child, which made a Regent necessary.
Now the Prime Minister was already a Fujiwara, and
the result was that both the Prime Minister and Regeiit
were of this proud family. Having once gotten affairs
under their hands, they were loath to give back the
reins when the child became a man.

Now and then a strong yoinig Emperor was able to
assert his authority and to live out his days upon the
throne; but the most of them, becoming restless under
the restraints imposed upon them after reacliing man-
hood, soon resigned and retired as priests or monks with
shaven head to a monastery. Thus foi a considerable
period Japan was afflicted with a line of *' child rulers,"
and " ex-Emperors." This was just what the ambitious
and powerful Fuji .raras liked. Another thing they liked
was the choosing of the queen from among theii- daugh-
ters. Tints it came to pass that the Prime Minister
or Regent was grandfather of the boy Emperor and had
6

japan: COUNTllY, COURT, TEOPLE.

lil

charge of his education, and continued to exercise the
Htrongest influence over him after he was elevated to
the throne. Again (888 A.D.), another high office was
created, the office of Kwamhaku, and of course it was
filled by a member of this powerful family. Kwamba-
ku means literally " to bolt the door." In early times
anybody had access to the throne or could send up
memorials to the sovereign concerning grievances and
evils touching the welfare of the country. This new of-
fice Avas created ostensibly to prevent his imperial n^aj-
esty from being annoyed by too many persons seeking
audience. But the Kwambaku soon learned how to
"bolt the door "(((/aui.'it all 2H'rso)is vkom /tedkhiot vnsh
to see coming into communication with the Emperor.
It soon came to pass, therefore, that the Emi)eror could
see only such persons and receive such information as
this new doorkeeper chose to admit.

Shortly after this, Daigo came to the throne and ruled
for the long period of thirty years. By reason of his con-
cern for the welfare of the people, his reign is regarded
in Japanese history as the golden age. The arts flour-
ished, and the country was in comparative peace. But
^der the affluence and arts at the court and capital, so-
cial corruption was lurking. The history of nations tells
how prosperity is often followed by decline. These
young Japanese Emperors became more addicted to the
pleasures and flatteries of their intriguing wives and con-
cubines than to the affairs of State. Even had they a de-
sire to look after the affairs of the empire, the door of
communication from the country to tha throne was
barred. Thenceforth for a hundred and fifty yoars the
administration of the government was in the hands of
the Fujiwara family. But to the ancient and powerful
Fujiwaras a change came— even their downfall.

CHAPTER JIT.

AV.S7:,' OF MfUTAllY NOBLES WITH THEIR CLANS-

ovEirriiiiow of the court nobles- war of

WHITE AND RED ROSES.

I. Foundations of Feudalism Laid.

From early times tlie Yamato-Japaiiese, like the an-
cient Romans, were surrounded by hostile tribes more
or loss barbarous, tribes tliat must be conquered. And
even after the stage was readied properly called em-
pire and Jai)an had apparently pacified the surrounding
regions, either by wliipping them into subjection or
by blending tlie policy of marriage alliance with that
of bow and spear, there was ever and anon fresh out-
breaks. In Kiushiu and Shikoku, on the west coasts,
and in tlie Kwanto region eastward there were frequent
rebellions. In the remote provinces, especially on the
northern frontiers wliore the savages and still uncon-
quered Ainus dwelt, garrisons had to be stationed.
Indeed, in all the provinces bands of troops had to be
kept. In Kioto, now a rich Oriental capital, the six
guards, commanded by six generals, were maintained as
a kind of imperial guard. Then there was Korea, that
had occasionally to be looked after by sending over
troops to enforce the tribute, or give protection against
China. All tliis campaigning, fighting, and garrison-
ing, kept up at intervals for one thousand years, could
naturally produce but one result: a strong warlike
spirit. Like the Romans, the Japanese are a nation of
fighters.

As previously observeil, the Tachibanas, Suguwaras,

(83)

JAPAN; COUNTRY, COURT, PKOPLE.

, ■; '

V ' ' '

ii ' ,

hi ■'

Fujiwaras, and other iu)l)lo faiuilies had Htood in jijreat
|)owci' at the cai)ital, eHi)ec'ially the FujiwaraH, who for
a long time liad heen the head of evervthinir, includinir
inilitary affairs as well. And so wlien the Emperors,
no longer following the example of earlier rulers,
ceased to lead their armies out to hattlo, it fell upon
some Fujiwara nohles to take the iield and suppress
the rebellion. But after a while they also became
too fond of their pleasures or their literature at the
cai)ital to enjoy tlie rough experiences of life and
warfare in tlie distant provinces or military districts.
Hence, though still receiving a])pointments as })rovin-
cial governors, tliey remained at tlie capital and sent
out to rule in t^eir name some of the Samurai (military
gentry), or some young officer or noble selected from
other great families. The natural result of this policy
was the rise of a class of military iioldes, with their
fighting clans, outside of the Fujiwara clan. This was
a great mistake. It encouraged the growth of two
powerful military clans led by militwi/ nobles, des-
tined to become rivals of the court nobles. The two
powerful military families or clans were the Taira and
the Minamoto. They jtlayed a leading part u})Ou the
stage of national affairs of this period, and their strug-
gles in overthrowing tlie Fujiwaras, and then each
other, make celebrated chapters in Japanese history.

Just a word as to the origin of these two clans. These
also had royal blood in their veins, for tliey claim do-
scent in a branch line from former Emperors. The
Minamoto clan was descended from Emperor Seiwa, and
from this clan the celebrated warrior Yoritomo sprang.
The ancestor of the Taira clan was descended from
Emperor Kwammu, and gave to Japanese history the
great Kiyoraori. The heads of these two clans, though

KISE O? MILITARY NOBLES.

not counted now as members of the imperial family,
nevertheless because of their royal descent were in many
cases favored with positions in the central government
or with posts as ju-ovincial governors. According to
the fashion of the times, they accpiired as provincial
governors rule over wide territory, and gathered around
tliemselves large ])ands of Samurai as military retainers.
Hitherto the Samurai had been comi)elled l)y custom to
attach themselves to tlie Fujiwara clan, but thenceforth
they began to follow the Tairas or Minamotos. Tliat
part of the Taikwa reforms already mentioned, touch-
ing the unlawful getting of territory by the territorial
governors, failed in the end, like the rest. Afterwards,
as the imperial house declined in prestige and autlior-
ity, the practice of grabbing and holding possession of
large districts, nothwithstanding the Emperor's sover-
eign right, went on worse ajid worse. Smaller terri-
torial nobles and lords wishing to remove to Kioto, the
capital of fashion and pleasure, transferred their es-
tates to the great nobles, who gradually widened their
landed possessions. These large provincial landlords
were called Bdimyos (great men) and had their own
military retainers, the Samurai, while the common peo-
ple now i)ractically tilled their lands in serfdom.

We need not be told that the rising military chiefs of
the Tairas and Minamotos, following the example so long
set by the court nobles aiul provincial governors, began
like\yise to extend their rule and possessions over large
districts. In fact, Kiyomori, the famous leader of the
Taira clan, before striking his final blow for supremacy
had gotten sway over thirty provinces. The Taira
chiefs established themselves for the most part in Cen-
tral and Southwest Japan; while the Minamotos, under
Yoritomo and his brothers, held their domains in

japan: countuy, coukt, peoi'le.

fi ^'ji

the Kwanto, and other custern aiul northern prov-
incew. Their territory being He[)iir:ite<l in this way,
there was for a while no conflict; but as the day ol"
struggle for supremacy between these two chins ap-
proadied, as ineanwliile the i)owerof the imperial liouse
declined, and tlie Fiijiwaras became Aveak from luxury
and social corruptions, the times of lawlessness, dan-
ger, and confusion came on apace. In the first place,
tliose intriguing ex-Emperors wielded more })ower be-
hind the screens than the reigning Emperor; tlie liigli
police court at Kioto and tlie six imj)crial guards were
no longer able to punisli offenders or prosecute unjust
ofticials; tlie i>rovinces were being scurried and j)illagcd
by bands of nwirauders; the seacoasts, south and west,
were infested by pirates, some of them Japanese and
some of them Koreans; and then, worst of all, the reign-
ing Emperors were kei)t in ignorance of the real condi-
tion; and, to add still further to the troubles, the priests
and lord high abbots, with their castle temples and
retinues of armed soldiers, began to take a part in gov-
ernment intrigues. All of this was but the lowering of
the storm soon to burst upon the country. The fore-
warning of dreadful civil wars came in the year 939
A.D., when simultaneously east and Avest the stand-
ards of insurrection were raisod, both directed airainst
the throne. They were both quickly quelled by play-
ing one military clan against the other, but for a while
they threatened to shake the whole empire. In the fol-
lowing century there were three rebellions in the east-
ern and northern provinces, tlie second one being
known as the ''Nine Years' War," the third the "Three
Years' War." These were quelled by the Minamotos,
and thenceforward that clan held the power among the
military chiefs and Daimyos of the eastern provinces.

IMPENDING HTOUMH.

The waves of the Hlonii bout, l»c>;ivily upon tlie tliroiio
and (.'nipire, when, in the middUj of tlio twellth century, a
battle broke forth right in the ('a})ital, hhh result of court
intrigues between the Emperor and an ex-Kn»peror; and
some njilitary nobles, with their troops, were on one
side, and others, with their followers, on the other side.
This battle at the city gate is knowr. as the " Ilogen in-
surrection." But the Fujiwaras n»anaged still to keep
in j)ower. Their <lownfall was not yet. Quickly came,
however, anotlier, the "lleiji insurrection." Thongli a
revolution of sliort duration, it was tilled with momentous
events and results: sudi as the cei/ure of the Emperor by
the Minamotos^ the overthrow of the Fujiwaras at last,
and death of their leader; the utter rout of the Mina-
motos, and death of the great leader Yoshitomo; and
the possession of the capital by the Tairas, with Kiyo-
mori at their head. Supreme power was now in the
hands of the Tairas, and their able chief, Kiyomori, got
himself appointed Prime Minister, tlie first time that a
military noble had ever been elevated to such a position.
He had now reached the zenith, for he saw his sister tlie
wife of one Emperor, and afterwards his daughter the
wife of another, and his sons and followers appointed
to all tlie high offices in the capital. He even saw his
own grandchild, Antoku, on the throne, so that he now
stood in tlie same relation to the imperial house as that
previously sustained by the proud Fujiwaras. Besides all
this power and patronage at court, he held the military
power of the whole empire in his hands, so that, going
beyond even the proud Fujiwaras, he banished an ex-
Emperor to Sanuki Province, where he is said to have
died of starvation, and kept another ex-Emperor im-
prisoned in his newly built palace at Fukuhara.
And yet, notwithstanding this transcendent power and

JAPAN: COUNTllY, COURT, PEOPLE.

glory, Kiyomori'H career and that of Win clan were sliort-
lived. Their dowiilall came quickly. Thougli the rival
clan, the iMiiiainotos, seeined to he utterly broken, and
their great leader, YoHhitoino, slain, two of Ids cluldren
were saviMl fronitlie Hword of the Tairas: tlie one named
Yoritomo, thirteen years old, the other a half-brother,
named Yosliitsune, an infant at his mother's breast!
'I'hese two boys were d(>stined to regain the lost for-
tunes of their clan in a desperate civil war with the
Tnlras. As the banner of the Minamotos was white,
and that of the Tairas red, we will call tliis war "The
War of the Red and White Banners." Indeed it is the
war of the lied and White Roses of English history re-
peated in Japan.

The child Yoshitsune, placed in a monastery to become
a monk, was so ruddy and fiery that the monks, not able
to manage liim, named him the '* Young Ox." Discon-
tented there, he made his escape to the far north, and
became a Samurai to the Daimyo of Mutsu, and in that
rough and barbarous region grew to be a soldier of great
skill and courage. Yoritomo, his brother, was sent into
exile in Idzu Province, to be kept under the eye of two
Taira officers. The farmers, seeing hini as he passed
along tlio road from Kioto to Idzu, compared him to a
young tiger; but as he grew up he formed the habit of
politeness, courage, and the constant repression of his
feelings. Thougli reared in captivity, as it were, when
he became a man he married the beautiful daughter of
one of the officers who had him in charge, IIojo Toki-
masu, to whom he made known his purpose to avenge
his father's death, raise again the fallen banner of his
clan, and free the country from Taira rule. The young
tiger felt that it was time to go forth from ids lair. At
first it seemed a lost hope, for he was driven from the

p i

ItiaiNG OF MINH AGAINST TAIRAS.

TTakono MountuinH, wliere he liad tried to start the
moveniei.t. But not diHcouniged, ho afterwards took the
eaderHhip of a snwtll army ut a country village, named
Kamakura, which afterwards became his capital. Here
he hxcd hiH headquarters and began preparing for war.
1 his place, situated in a valley surrounded by hills on
all sides except where it looked out upon the sea, close
by, was well (.hosen. It was connected by a legend with
Ins grandfather, who built there a shrine to llachiman
gJKl ot war. From its inclosing hills the majestic Fuji
Mountain, so sacred to every Japanese, loomed into full
view not more than ten miles off. It was easily de-
fended, because just south of it was Ilakone Pass be-
tween the mountain and the sea, which made the pass-
ii.g of the enemy's forces from Kioto a difficult thing.
- As the days went by, his little army kept increasing
by the coming of Minamoto chiefs, with their armed
bands, from different provinces east and north. Mean,
while Kiyomori, aware of this uprising, sent an army
toward Kamakura. The two armies met on the banks
of the luji River, but did not join battle. The Tai-
ra forces withdrew in the night. Yoritomo, strength-
ened by the coming of his brother with an army
from the north, and another from the Shinano high-
lands led by his cousin, was able to take the aggressive
About this time the able but cruel Kiyomori fell ill, and
shortly died. His sore regret was that Yoritomo's head
had not been brought. His dying words were: -Do
not propitiate Buddha on my behalf, nor chant the sa-
cred liturgies. Only do this: cut off Yoritomo's head,
and place it before my tomb." But his son and sue
cessor, Munemori, could not fulfill his father's dvinff
command; the head was never brought. On the con
trary, shortly after this the first heavy battle was fought

JAPAN: COUNTUY, COURT, PEOl'LE.

III

fil
pi

and was a total defeat to tlie Taira army. When this
i.ewH waH l,ro.,j.l.t to the capital, Munen.ori fle<l with all
h.8 family into .Shikoku, taking the young En,,K.ror
Antoku and the imperial inrngnia-tho «wor<l, minor,
and i)reciou8 Htone.

The victorious Minamotos now marche<l on the cai)i-
t^il, and their arrival was greeted as a deliverance by
two ex-Emperors left there. The Emperor Antoku, now
a fleeing child, is straightway dethroned, and in his
Htead Go-toha is made Emperor. They tarried not in
the capital, however, but hastened in pursuit of the flee-
ing Tairas. Mt r<>,fte they r.i/ed to the ground Kiyomo-
r. H luxuriant pahtce l>uilt at F.iknhara, near wliere now
Hits the modern and flourishing seaport city of Kobe.
Hushing on to Sanuki Province, in Shikoku island, tliey
again defeated the Tairas and burned their castle, },ut
dul not capture either the Taira chief or the child Em-
peror. With barely time to escape, and with the Child
Emperor in the arms of his grandmother, the Tairas
sailed westward for Kiushiu.

The Taira clan had been strong in those central and
Boutliwestern regions, and so at a j.lace near the Shimo-
noseki Straits of the Inland Sea the Tairas rallied for a
desperate strnggle. They liad a fleet of five hundred
war junks, into which were crowded women and chil-
dren as well as soldiers. Their hannn- ,ras ml The

Mmamotoshad seven hundred junks, armedandequipped
with hghting men only, and floating to the breeze above
tliem was their v^hite humer. The odds were greatly
ni favor of the Minamotos, but both sides fought to win
or die. The Tairas fought in desperation, knowino- this
to be their last hope, and that their capture meant
death. They had also tlie imperial insignia, and the
person of the ruling sovereign was in their keepiiur

TFIE TAinAH OVUIITIIUOWN.

ivugo U,o„ Ion,,,.,- <l„w„f,iU ,.n,lon„a trmt.m.nt ut

took |,I.uo. 1 1,0 sea ^.w rd «iih l,loo,l. Tl,„ Tui,-.«
tin. I'.... 'Linuyul. I ho grari,huotlu.r, with

.0 K,, |,o,-or i„ l,er arms, seoinj, that all wa„ lost
Pl nig-a into tl.o «.a, a,„l l,oth ,,e,.i„l,o,l m!^ v
■""..■a »ui„i,l„ at t,,„ Ia„t ,„„,„„, t. A ew c, I'aT

"'" '•■ • > '-' •'»•••'/ ". .1.0 hill. Mu oi , : ,> :

■toiHo at h,.,„ak„ra, „„1 aft..,-war,lH l,oh<.a,l,.,l. The
.X o„,„ at,,,,. wl,i..h tl,o Tai,.a„ o,,™ i„te„dea „,. t „
M .>,„to» wa„ „,e,-..il..™ly i„„i,i„, th..,„Jlv

taught. Itwa8tttciTil.lo<lowi,fall

Y„«hit«,„„, tl,o vioto,.i,.„H go„oral, thou „„tifi„,l i,;,
brothor at Ka,„ak,„.a of wl,ut l,a,l l.oo„ <io„o, ...no.-ti, 4

at l„8 loot. l{„t Yontoi„«, with all his ability as load
er a,.d o,.ga„i.o,, <.,.„ld „ot sta„d tho pop,.larity „ ht
bro ho,, ga,„ed l,y l,i» vioto.y ovor tho Tai,™, a„.l so

'^. • . '^. iHucve tli.'it VoHlutBime Avas roallv

zz^^r"' ''■'" ^"'' ""*'*'' *" -ko i.i .1^

tiie iieutl ot the empire.

ku,aa„do,-ga„,z,„g h,sgovon,„,e„t Vo,-ito,„o procoeded

splendo of !, s eq,„,,ago. A brilliant rocoptio,, was
S.ven 1,,,„, and festivals ,,.oro ..olobratod fori ,„o,^h
Then ret.m„„g to his oapital, al,o„t the year IWi Td

japan: country, court, people.

he was honored with the highest military dignity, that
of Sei-i-ta'-Sbogun, which became henceforth the he-
reditary title of tlie Minamoto Shoguns. This long
title means literally the ' ' Eastern l^arbarian Squelcher. "
The court records and treasury department wore trans-
ferred from Kioto to Kamakura, and though olie Em-
pero." was still recognized in a way as monarch and tlie
administration is carried on in his name, yet as a mat-
ter of fact Yoritomo and his successors hold the reigns
of government under tlie title of Shogun. Tlie court
nobles have been overthrown, and the' military nobles
now rule the country. Very soon tliQ Emperors, the
legal sovereigns, become mere shadows. These are the
results of the V/ar of the Red and Whits Banners.

II. General Pkogkess of Civilization in This

Period.

The Influence of J2uddhism.—lt is true of Buddhism,
as of Romish Jesuitism, that it lirst bri.igs some bless-
ing and then much evil Undoubtedly th3 Japanese
got some good moral teachings from the Buddhist
priests. Their religious feelings were appealed to; they
were made to feel that this world is full of evil and
vanity, and to long for deliverance. In a measure their
religious hopes and fears wore met by Iwrid de8cni)tion8
of paradise and hell. They were taught to pray, to fast,
to do penance, and deiiy the body in order to heaj) up
merit for 'Vne soul in tho next birth. Yvlth much mix-
ture of falsehood, there Avas something to stinuilate
conscience and give an outlook t^'>^^'lrd tho future life.
Schools were encouraged, especially amon-^ the ruling
classes, and of course their novices in training for the
l)riesthood received some instruction. For ol)joct los-
sons in Isetter styles of buildings than tho Japaiioso ever

CIVILIZATION OF THE PERIOD.

had, the Buddhist temple served a good luirpose, and
the Buddhist artistH brouglit from China and Korea
models in sculpture, i)aiiiting, and temple decorations.
All these things are a great means of progress to a com-
paratively barbarous peoi)le. ]3ut tliey go only so far,
no farther. It is Christianity only that can furnish the
power as well as the standard of continued and uidim-
ited progress. Unfortunately the Buddhist leaders,
when well establislied in the land and their followers
from among the rulers and nobles were numerous, and
when they had great temples and broad lands— in fact,
when they became rich and lived in ease — fell away even
below their own creed. They became worldly, proud,
loose in habits of living, even lawless. Of course this
soon produced a bad effect u})on the morals, education,
and literature of the nation.

Mention is made of a nniversity in Kioto and other
schools established by great nobles. Some of the Em-
perors were undoubtedly versed in the Chinese classics,
history, and poetry, and did much to lielp on the cause
of education among tlie aristocratic classes. Unfortu-
nately much of the scholarship was mere i)edantry, im-
itating the Chinese style of composition, to the neg-
lect of the practical uses of learning. Nevertheless,
while it was all the fashion in court circles and among
scholars to affect high-sounding Chinese words and the
stilted style of composition, this period is accredited
with the working out of the Japanese syllabic alphabet
called hum. A famous priest, Kobo Daishi (died 835
A.D.), has tlie honor of completing this syllabary. By
shortening certain Chinese characters, forty-seven syl-
labic characters were gotten, simj)le and easily writ-
ten. Thus K was reduced to i», the sound i; £ short-
ened gave ^. the syllable ro; ^^ was reduced to

! !

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

y;, ho; etc. With thoHe forty-Hovou cliaractcrH one
can write tlie JapaneHe L-uiguage without using any
Chinese characters at all. It is tlierofore creditable to
a few Japanese poets and novelists of this period that
they, contrary to tlie fasliion of the C^iinese style of
writing, used tliis syllabic hami, and cultivated a pure
.Tai)ancse style of composition. Some of tliese were
princesses and court ladies. These writers of ])ure Japa-
nese, say from SOO to 12(H) A.I)., make the golden age
in Ja])anese literat.ire as distinguislied from the C'liinese
styles. Their writings, chiefly romance and l>oetry, are
now hivaluable to modern Jai)anese scholars wlio wish
to know sometliing about their language in those earlier
days, as well as for tlie pictures of Japanese customt and
manners that shine out from tliem. Education was con-
tined to the npi)er and ruling classes, and was not 1)V
any means general. Tlie common peoi)le had very little
communication or information as to the outside world.
The only light that reached them was probably a little
received from the l^uddhist ]iriests, but just how much
concern those priests liad for the lower (dasses it is hard
to say.

In style of living, just as in education, there was the
widest difl'erence between the official classes at the cap-
ital and those living in country districts. Kioto, the
capital, Avas the center of magnificence and of i)leasure.
The imi)erial palace was si)acious, and its grounds were
beantifully laid out. The ])rinco8 and great nobles
were housed in niucli the same style. 8ome of the
nobles, as well as the ministers of state, had suburban
residences built n])on some height oveidooking tine
scenery and wide prospects. All the arts and decora-
tions of the age, especially the art of decorative garden-
ing, whicli had already reached high development, were

STYLE OF LIVING AT THE CAPITAL.

used to beautify those suburban yashikls. At tlic prin-
cijial gate of the gvent i/ashi/d stood two-wlieeled carts,
lacquered in black, gold, and silver, and drawn by well-
groomed oxen, according to tlie fashion of the times.
Horses were not much used. As to dress, the court
nobles and tlieir families wore gorgeous clothing, rich
brocades, embroidered silks. It got to be the fashion
with courtiers and high officials to despise the work of
government aflfairs and to give themselves to literary
culture, etiquette, and pleasure. Moonlight parties in
tlu; autumn and morning parties in the spring were quite
fasluonable, and the guests were regaled with music,
the making of i)oetry, and puns. Festive entertainments
at certain times were observed; one in Ai)ril, when wine
cups were floated down the stream; another in Fehrua-
ry, the New Year season, when young i)ine8 on the liills
were pulled up by tlie roots; another in the fall, for
viewing the reddening maple leaves; and a fourth inore
elegant and literary than all, when tliree boats, canopied
ami richly decorated with flowers, floated out upon some
water, tlie bo. '. being filled with persons accomplished
in Chinese poetry, music, and the like. Wine feasts
were also held, where, besides the wine, there were
songs and dancing. As to the dancing, it was never by
both sexes, but only })y one person at a time. Later in
this period fasliion, dress, and pleasure were so much
thought of among the upper classes that men be-
gan to imitate women by painting their eyebrows and
blacking their teeth. Looseness of morals followed.
Tlie nuirriage relation was })adly observed, and plurali-
ty of wives became fashionable, the wives still living,
not with their husbands, but apart in their own houses.
In short, according to a Jai)anese writer, "tlie first ob-
ject of the time was gratification of the senses."

japan: country, court, PEOrLE.

■

hi* !

IS,,.,

While all this cultun-, woiilth, and ]>loasuro wore be-
ing j)iirHiio(l at the capital hy govonnnent ortiiMalw and
court nohloH, "in the country diHtrictH the iKioplo's
mode of life was almost uncivili/cd." In Kioto Iioiihcs
were tiled, whereaH in the country the jteople's rude
huts were thatched with straw. Tlseir chief Ixisiness
was farniini?. Their sitorts and iraines in the villa<''eH
were at first few, hut afterwards increased ])y dwarf
dances, i»ui>j)et shows, jugglintr, fortune tellinjr, etc.
In the country <listricts there were many abuses of {gov-
ernment., roads were had, and the few carriers and iK>st
liorses i)rovided were for the officials only. Traveling
was on foot, food and cooking utensils all henig carried
on the hack. At sunset the traveler sought shelter in
some temple or shrine. Highway rohhers were many;
or if one traveled hy ])oat, the pirates were to he
dreaded. As mentioned in a former chapter, the Ja]>-
anese have always heen careful of cleanliness. This
was in part due to the su{)er8tition that everywhere pre-
vailed. Even the sight of sickness and death heing
regarded as an occasion of pollution, travelers were
often left on the roadside to die from hunger or disease;
and masters thrust out their own servants who had
some chronic disease, leaving them to die. In time of
epidemics multitudes of peo})le were swept away. Re-
viewing this i)eriod, it seems that Avhile the upper
or ruling classes were rising in intelligence and in
the arts of life, the common ])eople were either put
down lower, or stood very little higher than they
did at the opening of this period, eight hundred years
previous. Tiie twelfth century closed this long ])oriod
with civil wars and a general overturning, to he fol-
lowed hy more stress and strife in the future. What
the final result will he we shall see in the sequel.

(CHAPTER IV.

I. TiiK DuAitcuiv KxrxAiNKr).

iJ'JZ vT ""-■ '1'"" «"™--. -I tl.o author,
ity ot tl,« K„,|H.,,,™ ilunnK this lo„.. period of ov,.,.

hvo cemn„c.», ,„ay „„t be out of JJ Z U,J\

..«-.le„,an o,. ,„ilit,.,.y ,„,.., eve,, attcnptci W „ t

glo to kcei the su,„-o,na,.y the ,,oli,.y of the ,S|,„„„„„ „^„

;;■. ana,,, down.. ere\:!;;:r;:::!:;;r:--

M.ogu„«, wh.oh re„,i„d8 u» of the ,„avor8 of tl, ,
U.a,.le. Murtel .„d Peppi,, «,„ 8ho,. I F^ , h h^:'
And yet, ior all that, there was a certain ve em ^^^^^
then- En.pevors which tlie nation never lost and ,
fore these Sl,„g„„s, the actual rulers mado'ar ,'°;
. ow of respecting then, too, even ;i.o t; we"

nen es. And so, ,n the quarrels and civil wars of th,.

::::irreTe

a -now Of carryi4 ^:^:t.n2ZC':tu::^
had great advantage, whereas the other side was W
".to the had plight of being "rebels "

r,le , H '" •'■"';""''' '^'"'o ••""' Kan,akura; Lo
."le-,^the nonunal one, the Kn.peror, and the Lctual

(97)

japan: country, court, people.

\ilV'

li.'l I

one, the Shogmi; two governments, the throne and the
camp; two courts, the ohl aristocratic nobles at Kioto
and the military lords and Daimyos at Kamakura anO
in the j>rovinces. In the actual control of things tlie
Emi>eror counted for little, while the Shoguns were the
real rulers. Yoritomo, the founder of the Shogun-
ate and tlie new capital, saw to it that tlu; territorial
lords, or Daimyos, should become liis vassals, and he
confirmed the possession of their lands in order to unite
them directly to him as their liege lord.

II. YouiTOMo's Feudal System.

Kamakura is to-day an unimportant town of six
thousand, about fifteen miles westward from Yokoha-
ma, but it was once a prosperous city of probably a
million people. While his brother Yoshitsune and
other chief captains were fighting and winning victories
over the Tairas, Yoritomo was laying out and building
his new capital, Kamakura. And while there are to-
day only a temple to Ilachiman (god of war), a mam-
moth bronze image to Buddha, and upon the top of the
knoll the tomb of Yoritomo, and while tiiere are rice
fields and growing vegetables around the j)lace, here once
stood the mansion of the Shogun and others less grand of
the military lords; here were splendid courts, avenues,
temples and monuments, military reviews, tournaments
and festivals, the shining armor, swords, and lances
of captains and their troops, tlie fine dresshig of rich
merchants and their sons. All of tliis dazzled the eves
of gay ladies Avho, though koi)t behind the screens,
heard and even saw all that was going on. Kamakura
had arisen in tlie East as a rival of Kioto; military
feudalism had been set up in .ra])an. Now and then,
during this period, there were times of peace and tlirift;

MILITARY FEUDALISM. 99

but ,,.,., |,c,-i«,l ,„ „ „.,,„1„ i„ ,„„„„.;„„„ f^,,. .^^ ^.^.^

a. d Woody LutU™, i„t,.i,«,u.» .a,„l ,,u,-ti™. disorder i„

ho towns and „,ti.«, nnd dovanutiou of tl,o «,. ;„

the .ou„t,.y d,»t,-„.t„ The ,,oo,. ,,e,.«a„t,y nufforod most

o aU. hyou the |„-,esls caught the s|,int of war and

o,t,hod can k.,, where troops were quartered, whence
they salLed iorth to take si.I,,, i„ „,„ ,.i,ii ^^^■f^_ jj,,^
"pare our readers a view of this wil.lerness of intrigues
«t Jes, assassinations, suieides, rohheries, and devlsta!
tions. Let a few exan.ides tell the tale of the times.

i or.to.no, hav.ng .-eac-hed the ve,-y .enith of power
ho d.ng the reins hotl. of eivil and .nilita..y gove.' ...e, I
.. lus hands d.d not live long. Falling £,.„„, Ms horse
he d,ed .„ „.,„. o,,,t i„ „,iHary affat, as well as hi
ad,nin.st.-at.o.L of goverin.,ent, he was suspieions, cruel
and selhsh. Like Bon.e othe.. fa.nons i..'histo,;, i t

he treated h.s l„.„tl,e.-, Yoshitsune. As set forth iu I
fo™er chapte... tins In-avc and ahle genc-al, .-eturning
f.om lis .,eto,-y over the Tai.-as, expected to present
...sel , w, h h,s t,.ophies, at Ka.naknra; but, iLan e
-t ins popularity ,„ the eyes of the nation, Yo.-itomo

ttonld n< t allow hnn even to enter the capital ken
I'.m wa,t.ng i„ a village outside, nor woni^l he v
read h.s letters .n which he earnestly p..otested his fait^L
fnlness. F.,nUly, p..otendi.,g to believe hi,,, a traitor
\ o.-.to„,o o,-do.-ed that he bo assassi,n,t«d. Itnnted f ronl
.la<'e to place, he was at last mn,-de.-od, and I,is head
-"Sht. V... this inh„.na,. cri.ne Yorit'on.o's „ Let
held ,„ s„,all honor, while Yo,.|,itsune is one of the fa-
vonto he,-oes of the .Lapanesc-an instance of the law

100

jatan: (mhntuy, coiikt, rioui'u;.

of liiHtoriciil rotrilmtion. " YoHhil.Hiino tlio ln'iivo,
llio loviiiii;, the (OiiviilroiiH, Ih tlio Japiiiiese boys'
model; jiiid on Miiy 5, wiieii the iiiuit^eH ol" illuHtrioiiH
hiM'oeH are net out in feslive iirriiy, none, Having the
Knii»eror'H, receivcH a hiijher ])la('e and irreatcr lionor.
No other thrills the liearls of ,la]>anese boys lik(^ tlio
name of \'^oHhitHiMie."

After the dealh of \ Drit.onu) liin won .succeeded to
the ShogMnshiit, but Avas afterwanls deposed and assas-
sinate<l in accordance with his <jrandfatber''s ordiTS.
Then ant)ther son succeeded, but lie was beheaib'd by
liis nephew, and this may bo t.'iken as a sample of wliat
often happened during this perio<l. Thns Yoritomo's
line Ol' Shoguiis ciimo to an end 121!) A.D. Then the
Shognnship passed nominally to a succession of boy
princes, first of tho Fujiwara family, and then of the
imjterial house, but tho real sway was held by i\w. Hojo
family as llegents. As seen on a ])rovious pagc^, Yori-
tomo married into the Hojo family, Avhich family are
now the real rulers. They exercise power in a double
sense — that is, over the Shoguns and over the Emperors.
They worked tlio wires and tlio schemes not only at
Kioto but also at Kamakura. lV.it Avith all Iheir selfish
scheming, tlie IIojos had their name made mcmoraldo
in history by tho rcpolluig of tho invasion of the C'hinesc
and Mongijls in 12J)1.

In Mongolia there had appeared a conqueror of
world-wide fame, (Tenghis Khan, sweeping away Tar-
tar kings and C/hinese Em]»erors. His grandson, Ku-
blai Khan, extended tho JMongul compiest into South
diinaand over a great part of ]\orea, and conceived tlu>
})roject of coiupiering Japan als<.). lie could see no
reasmi why the rul(>rs of Japan should not bring tribute
and ])ay him homage like the rest of Asia. According-

KUliLAI KHAN TIIUEATENH JAl'AN.

101

ly, 1.0 Hoi.t .nvoyH througli Korea to Jupun lo raution
ug.'t.nHt the Hc..n,i„.. iM,liin,nmco of lu-r rulorH to the
great ronqueror, and the danger of sncli a cotirne. A
Hceond envoy waH Hent, but no answer wan given; in-
Hteac thereof orders were iHsued hy the JIojo Regent to
oxpel the envoys. AH this canse<l nnu-li uneasiness.
And the K.nperor sent a prayer written l,y Idniself to he
aid up before tlic national shrine in Ise for the lieaven-
ly jM-oteetion of the empire, and lie eaused sueh prayers
to be sanl at all the shrines and temples in the land "
ivi.blai sent one embassy after another, ]>ut Japan's
rulers refused to make answer to messages which wore
really nothing else than national insults. Finally en-
raged by this unaeeo.mtable refusal of Japan's nders
to he treate<l as his tributary, lie determined to clias-
tise them, and sent a fleet of one hundred and fifty war
.l.n.ks against them. The Koreans were likewise or-
dered to reenforce his fleet. Appearing on the <-oasl,s
ot ( hikuzcMi and armed with guns which the Japanese
did not have, they made havoc with them firing at loiur
range; nevertlieless tlie Daimyos of Kiushiu and tlu-ir
followers made heroic defense. The Chinese co. .-
mander being seriously wounded and a heavy gale hav-
ing damaged liis vessels, with tlie remnant of his fleet
he went away in the niglit. Once more Kublai sent an
envoy, but he was put to death at Kamakura; and once
ugam two envoys were sent, ],ut the answer given tliem
was the sword. Of course tlie Sliogun's government
knew wliat to prepare for, and so one of tlie iroio
luniily was put in command of all tlie coasts west and
south; the imperial guards were sent from Kioto, and
cmhM-s issued to the Kiushiu Daimyos to build forts
afong the coasts.

Kublai Klian, having now completely mastered China,

102

japan: country, COUUT, rEOPLE.

IN ■ i

,111

III

Ht'iit Jiguinst Japan an army of one l»uiulrc<l thousand
Chiiu'Hc and ten thouHand Koreans witli a great fleet
of war vesHels. This was in May, 1281 A.I). They
hore down upon the coasts near wlierc the city of Na-
ganaki now stands. Witli their firearms an<l cannons
the Chinese had great a<lvantage in homharding forts
and slauglitering Japanese soldiers. ]5ut for all that,
the Japanese fought l)ravely, and it was impossible for
the invaders to effect a i>ermanent landing. The Jaj)-
anese vessels, thougli smaller and not so well-equipi)ed,
were swifter, and by quick, bold attacks several Chi-
nese vessels were set on fire or boarded, and their crews
slaughtered. For sixty days the Chinese army and
fleet were kei>t at bay. Providence intervened, and
a terrible storm swept down upon the Chinese fleet,
wrecking the ships and drowning multitudes of soldiers.
The surviving remnant took refuge in an island off tlie
coast, but they Avere attacked by Japanese trooi)S and
either killed or captured, all except three who escajted
to tell the tale. That Chinese Armada sent against the
Japanese reminds one of a similar ex})edition two liun-
dred and fifty years later, the Spanisli Armada against
England. The result was the same: a storm ]ielj>ed the
defenders of native land. Disaj)pointed, tlie Chinese
and Tartars were taught to leave the Japanese alone.
As a result of this victory, they won reputation for
themselves and the nation. Hitherto they had stood in
considerable awe of the great and ancient Chhia, but
now all diplomatic intercourse was broken off. This war
called out a patriotic spirit and for a while united all
hearts. The glorious victory brought increased honor
to military men, and to soldiering as a career. Another
curious result of this war was this: everybody was
deeply religious and gladly paid the priests large sums

*■

FALL OF HOJO SH0GUN8.

103

;

of money for their prayers offered throughout the coun-
try. Jiut when tlie war was over and the country deliv-
ered the priests still demanded money, saying it was
tlieir prayers that had saved the land. Tiiis was turn-
ing prayers into pennies in an unexpected way.

Notwithstanding the united patriotism called out by
the recent Tartar invasion, very soon Japanese affairs
became more deplorable than ever. When tlic Em-
peror Godaigu succeeded to the tlirone (1318 A.D.) he
realized how low and weak the throne had become, and,
though compelled to alulicate, determined to throw off
the rule of the Ifojo Shoguns and regain the throne.
Fond of pom]), luxury, andgayety, he showed considera-
ble energy in liis efforts to regain the throne. He in-
invited the monks with their troops to join him, but the
attempt was a failure and the IIojos sent him in exile
to an island. Not discouraged, however, he made his
escape from the island, and, gathering another array,
marched upon Kioto. At this juncture there appeared
two chief tans who threw all their forces on the side of
the throne and against the Kamakura Shoguns. One
of them is a hero greatly admired of the Japanese to
this day, Kusunoki Asahige, who is held as a model of
patriotism and loyalty to the Emperor. The other
chieftian standing forth at this trying time was Nitta
Yoshisada, of whom we shall hear later. For a while
victory perched upon the imperial banners, the Sho-
gun's capital was attacked from tliree sides, and, though
his forces fought valiantly, Kamakura was captured
and burned. Thus the IIojo power fell, never to rise
again. The restoration of Godaigo to the throne gave
some hope of a return to the old single rule of the sov-
ereign, wi til out the intervention of a Shogun; but it
Was a vain hope.

lUl

japan: coixTuv, curuT, i'koi-i.k.

13: i

Stiui.gc to Hiiy, tho EmiHTordid not prizo tluHaiMilul
Wiirrior« KuHmioki and Nitta, who risked all lor liin
cauHc, but made llio largest rewards of territory to
otlicrs less worthy.

Avoiding the confusing details of tliis dark and
troublesome time, it is sullicient to say lluit for about
sixty years there was a double dynasty of Emperors,
known as the Northern and South'ern, and that in this
period of constant conflict the two patriotic chieftains
justmentioiuMl }>eris]ied, while <^n the contrary Takauji,
an ambitious member of the Ashikaga family, rose in'l.)
prominence and i)ow(.r. He got ^himself aj.pointed
Shogun by one of the puppet Emperors of the Northern
Dynasty, returned to Kamakura, rebuilt the city, and
founded tlie third line of Shoguns— namely, the Ashi-
kaga Dynasty. Witliin less than one himdred and fifty
years two dynasties of Shoguns luive risen and fallen,
tlie Minamoto and the Hojo. We sliall now have L
third.

III. Christianity Enters.
The Ashikaga line was closely connected with the
famous Minamoto family, and the first of this new dy-
nasty was Ashikaga Tajauji. During tlieir reign the
disorders that prevailed under the Ilojos continued.
The imperial throne sunk lower and lower, and the
military lords became more powerful, and the country
was more frc^ucitly torn with civil wars. Says Rein:
"How low th. i^r.'^iige of the Emperor was, is shown
by the fact tliat when one of them died in Kioto, about
the middle of the sixteenth century, his corpse had to
be kept forty days at the gates of 'the palace, because
the means were wanting to defray the costs of the pre-
scribed funeral ceremony. To tlie horrors of never-
ending civil wars were added about that time frequent

FEUDAL LOHDH IN I'OWKR.

105

vioh-i.t, nirtlKjuakcH, droKjrlK, and failun. of ,to|.h, f.im-
nio uimI <lvyaHUil\uir AinranvH. Kvni tl.o roMH«,luti„n of
ri'li-ioM w.iH wHMtin.tr, for tJic. H...MI,i„t pricHlN liad
lonjr Ihh.i, Hir.uu^vvH to 1,1,0 ,l„(,y of i.ni.urtii.jr whatovor
of con.lori or l,<,,,o thoir poor ivliiriou M.ijrl.t ivally
I'avc; tnulo and induHtiy, oxcopt for the (Miuii,.n,,nt of
warnoi-H, were (iuit,. ni-jrlectod; tho ruin lu'caiuo deeper
and more nnivei-Nal."

-About tho year 1545 Kioto was so redu(,ed that 1,0
one coiihl live in it, and any one who vi'ntured to remain
.'iniidNt the ruinn ran the HhIc of l,ein,tr iMin.ed, murdered.
OP dying l,y Htarvation. The court iu>l,ility ha<l l(.ft
the city and nought nholter and i>rotection with tho
feudal lordH (Daln.yoH) in th.. j^rovinccH. The peaHant's
ot was most n.iHeralde of all. InipoveriNhed, his Hpirit
J'rokeii, and without liopo of roajnug the fruit of hin
planting, ho waw iiudined to leave untiUed hiw Held
JJandH of robbers followed tlie army through the coun-
try, making terror, lawlesHuess, and oftentimes want in
many a section of the country. Those living near the
coasts, especially west aiul south, tunuul away from
their shops and fields to the sea, where they followed
the life of tlie pirate."

Since now the succession of shogunship was horedita-
ly, the governorsliips of tlio provinces likewise became
so; that IS to say, the governors were now fixed feudal
lords m their provinces; lu-nce this period was marked
by the loundij.g of powerful and almost independent
Daimyos, witli their cdansmen as vassals of the soil
1 he more powerful ones rendered scant respect alike to
Mioguns and Emperors, and were aml,itious to eniar<.e
their territory. It came to pass that while the Shoguii
had a hard struggle to maintain his authority over the
Whole country., tliese powerful Daimyos were fighting

<
o

(100)

III

o
w

"^
U

PORTUGUESE DISCOVER JAPAN.

107

among themselves, the stronger invading tlie weaker,
seizing Iuh castle and making him his vassal. It was a
time of castle hnilding. To-day, as tlie traveler i)asses
through the country he sees ever and anon the wliite
castles planted ui)on tlie heights. Tliose great cas-
tles, with tlieir massive walls and wide moats below,
were built by the feudal lords or Daimyos of tliis pe-
riod. Each Daimyo must of course have liis trained
retainers (Samurai), mailed and wearing two swords,
while the peasantry and artisan class are attached to
the soil in vassalage.

Meanwhile, among the most important events of the
Ashikaga period were the coming of Roman Catholic
missionaries and the beginning of intercourse witli Eu-
ropean nations. Marco Polo, a celebrated traveler
wlio came to China, and for seventeen years held a post
in Kublai Khan's court at Pekin, and who returned to
his native Venice in 1295, was the first to make Japan
known to the Europeans. But the first Europeans to
set foot in Japan were the Portuguese Mendez Pinto
and two others. In 1542 they landed on the south
coast of Kiushiu. At that time tlie Portuguese liad not
only a flourishing trading settlement at Macao, on the
coast of China, but also other colonial ports in the
Straits Settlements and other places on India's coast.
Indeed, at that time Portugal and Spain were the lead-
ing nations of Europe in power upon the high seas, in
foreign trade, and in numerous colonics. Naturally,
Pinto and his companions were thinking about oi)enino-
trade with the Japanese. But what most interested the
Japanese, who now for the first time looked upon Eu-
ropean faces, were their beards and their guns. They
were quick to see that these guns were better than any-
thing- ;.hey had for long-range fighting or for hunting.

108

JAPAN- : COUXTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

Eii »:

I' I'll

81.oot, and t KMi Low t„ make the ir,ii,s tl,o,„s<.lvi.» A
great »e„„at.„„ w,« ..a„„e,l by „„„^f t„..„„ j^ ,:,„„t

o d ,^: ;;"""'f' ""^ i"-""«'" ''"-' >■- «•■»' ''-'e

^ t„. ,^ '"i"'™'- "" ■•" "•"^'= ""l^-I <■-"■ tl'O

gun t„ be shown to bin,. Afte,- a stay of «iv n.ontbs

an agreement was n.ade allowing the^ort.^Z t"
come w.th their ships for ,,nr,,.,s:s of trade, lZ2
Zm ^'^""""^ "'■ *™'^'-' '""' ""«"•-".- with e"

This trade and travel to Japan was the opening of the
door for the eoniing in of Kom-n, c.,.!, r r,, . .
;t„ Ut V ■• , Jtonian Catholic Christnin-

ity ht \avier, tbe fanions .Tesnit nussionary, bad lust
amved roni Enropo at Goa, in Sontb India'' He n"

^.th the Portugnese, who had learned the Portn.n.ese

C atbol e Church Xavier was at onoo deeply interest-
ed ,n the Japanes, nation, and, with Anjiro'as bis ,„,u.
pan.on, gn„ e, and interpreter, be landed at Ka„lsll
ma, m Sent ern Japan, in 1540 A.D. After havhj o
eave several p aces on a.-connt of rivalries and joal^ns!

kind" iVr T"^":- ■'" '•■•"'"' *" """^'"' -'--'- -as
kn.dly received and eneonraged in bis work. After

P;-e.aob.ng there with son.e „n,.cess tbrongb Anjiro as
us mterpreter he went „p to Kioto; bn't, after vain
efforts to obtan, an andience with tbe En.peror, and
fin<ln,g the e.ty in a confnsed and dilapidated oLndi-
t.on, he d,d not get the car of tbe people as he had ex-
pected and so returned to Bnngo. In a few months
he left Japan a.ul went on a nnssion to Cliin.a, which
l.e never aeeon.plisbed, because shortly afterwards ho

PREACHING OF CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES. 109

died oil ill! isLuicl in the nioiitli of Canton River. In-
Hpired l,y ],is example, Koniaii Catholic missionaries
(1 ortuguese and Spaniards) l,egan to pour into Japan.
It being a time of social, i,olitical, and moral demoral-
i/ation, as already oLserved, these missionaries attract-
ed to tliemselves many followers who longed for better
things. Indeed, their success in winning converts dur-
ing the first fifty years is remarkable. On pages 8G
and 99 mention was made of the j.olitical confusion
wretchedness, and civil wars of this period; but sud-
denly there appeared above tliis confusion and wretch-
edness a man wlio sought to restore to the troubled
country discipline and order, even though it must be
done witli an iron hand. That man was Ota Nobuna-
ga, tlie first of the three greot men. in Japanese liistory.
Tracing his descent back to Kiyomori and the Taira
elan, he yxxin the son of a soldier, and, like his father
was of a warlike spirit, and, like him, was in favor of
standing up for the Emperors as the true rulers. Inher-
iting possessions in Owari Pro-Mice, he soon won six
others witli his sword. In his youth he was inclined
to ])e profligate, but when tlie steward of the house
committed suicide as a protest against his dissolute
course lie completely reformed. But unfortunately, ac-
cording to the cruel and warlike spirit of the times, he
did not hesitate to use liis sword upon tliose who op-
posed him, even his brotlier and father-in-law. The
fame of his bravery and unl>roken victory in battle
spreading far and wi<le, lie was appealed to from two
quarters. One of the young Asliikagas wished to be
Shogun instead of his brother, just assassinated. No-
bunaga secured tlie shogunship for the young prince
but sometime afterwards de],osed him, and this was
the end of the Ashikaga Shogiins. Tlie Emperor also

110

japan: country, cofrt, peoplk.

I ! '

appealed to him to pacify the country, hut tliis wa« a
much harder thing to do than setting up or putting
down a Shogun. He had sense enough to do one thing
at a time. He first restored order in the Emperor's
capital, so tliat people couhl in cpiietness pursue tlieir
daily business. He repaired tlie Emperor's palace, the
bridges and streets inside and fortifications around the
city, and improved the roads in tlie surrounding dis-
tricts. The Emperor now appointed liini Minister of
the Right.

Nobunaga, looking over the whole empire, would i)ac-
ify and govern it in the name of the Emperor, but he
saw two powerful obstacles in the way: one was the
Buddhist priests; the other, the strong and almost in-
dependent feudal Daimyos in the provinces. (We are
aware that, in strict order of time, the title J}mmi/o
came into use later.) For instance, in the Kwanto east-
ward, in the central provinces directly west, and in Kiu-
shiu the great Daimyos were carrying on their own wars
and feuds, caring little either for Sliogun or Emperor.
Nobunaga also saw that he must destroy the strong cas-
tles which the haughty and corrupt priests of Buddha
had built. Among tlie strongest of these was the well-
fortified castle of Mt. Ilci/an, near Lake Biwa, and the
Hongwan ji, in tlic city of Osaka. Tlie former had at that
time three thousand buildings. Standing one day in
full view of its mountain site, he ordered his astonished
geiiorals to destroy the place with fire and sword, saying:
''The priests transgress their own rules, eating fleSi
and stinking vegetables (onions and garlic.), keeping
concubines, and neglecting prayer and the sacred writ-
ings." The next day his command was carried out;
men, women, and children were slain, and buildincrg

NOBaNAQA PERISHES.

Ill

bunied. Later he turned his wratli upon the Buddhist
castle at Osaka, wliose i)riest8 had been his sworn ene-
mies for a decade of years.

His policy toward tlie Christian missionaries was
quite diiferent. Seeing that their doctrines were taking
root in tlie land, he favored them, and built a chapel
at Kioto for the Jesuit preachers, and gave them a site
for a settlement near his o\vn magnificent castle on Lake
Biwa. In various ways he helped them, and protected
them against tlie persecution of the Buddhists.

In overcoming tlie i)owerful territorial Daimyos, so as
to bring all of the country under one system of govern-
ment, he was joined by five able commanders, two of
whom, indeyoshi and Iyeu<mu, are destined to win
great and lasting renown. lie had already defeated
the armies of the military lords in the Kwanto and far-
ther northward, and had sent his favorite and ablest
general, llideyoshi, to bring the powerful Mori in the
west into subjecton, when he met a violent death by
the treachery of one of his own generals. Seeing him-
self suddenly surrounded in a temple at Kioto, where
he had stopped for a day, he knew what it meant, and,
finding escape impossible, retired to an inner room, and,
setting fire to it, calmly committed hara Jciri and was
consumed with the building. This was in the year 1583.
He was only thirty-nine years of age. Had he lived, no
doubt he would have brought the whole country under
his rule, in the name of the Emperor.

The Buddhist priests and Roman Catholic historians
take op])osite views of the character of this military
chieftain. The former regard him as a demon and perse-
cutor who deserved death. The latter speak of him as
a defender of the Church and friend of Christianity.
He did favor the Christians and help them, but it was

112

JAPAN : COUNTUY, (OIKT, I'EOl'LE.

probably with him a uuittor of state policy Ho «C
course saw that the morals and habits of the Catholic-
teachers were better than those of the IJuddhists He
was not a (jhristian, for in a si.lendid temple which he
'»nlt he had h,s own statue set up witli otlier idols, and
caused his own son to bow down to it alon,. witli his
other vassals. Nobunaga, it is said, was tall of stat-
ure, of unbounded ambition, but brave, nui^^nanimous, a
lover ol justice, an enemy of treason-a heart and spir-
it, say the Jesuits, that made up for many defects He
had a qun,k and penetrating mind for planning a cam-
paign or leading a battle, and, ever seeking to mid the
thoughts of others while concealing his own, he was
created to be a commander. Summing up his character
we may say with Rein: 'qtisiug „p i„ the midst of intei.:
nal confusion, he stood as the champion of the Emperor's

If It T ''\^r;;;f !'-«^«^' «f the Ashikaga Sliogunate,
as the foe of Buddhists, whose power he checked, and a
the protector of Christianity, though a stranger to its
spii It.

IV. T.iK Spread of Ciiristiaxity tx This Period.

Under the protection of Nobunaga, the Christian

doctrine as taught by the Roman C^atholics had spread

rapid y so that about the year of his untimely death

(I088), there were in Japan two hundred churches, and

tZ 7; r /"' ^^^^^^-'---1 -averts, all this in less
than thirty-hve years! In Kii.shiu, where it was first
preached, the Christian faith liad won several princes
or Daimyos, who as zealous converts induced their peo-
ple to pull down Buddhist temples and build Chris-
tian churches instead. The Daimyo of Tosa, in Shikoku,
also embraced the new doctrine in spite of the opposi^
tion of Ins leading men. On the mainland too, sk ting

NOBLES VISIT THE I'OPE.

il3

the northern .shore of the Iiiliu.d Sea, from Xa-
gato in tlie west, on tlirouirh Hariina and SetHu Prov-
inces, to Kioto and Lake JJiwa, a diHtance of .six liundred
miles, were many Christians, and ainong them a few
Dannyos, princes, and ariny officers were enroUed A
hirge chnrch in the capital was open daily for preacliin^r
and mass, the same having been built by Nobunagalnni-
self; and there were said to be twenty thousand ad-
herents m and near tlie city. J^esides the cliurclies and
congregations of native C^n-istians, the Jesuit mission-
aries had in Hondo, the main ishmd, three settlements
where by the side of the church was the school or the
monastery— namely, at Kioto ; on Lake I^iwa, near tlie
great castle, called "Nobunaga's Paradise;" jindat Aka-
shi, in Ilarima. But the oldest Jesuit settlement was
at Funai (now Oita), in Kiusliiu, where there was a flour-
ishing mission college. Li the college twenty Portu-
guese fathers taught and bestowed academic degrees.
It was in Kiushiu tliat the Roman Catholic Church took
deepest root and won the most converts. Of tlie forty
churches in the city of Nagasagi, some of the most
splendid were built upon ground where before had stood
Buddhist temples.

About the time of Nobunaga's death, upon tlie ad-
vice of the Jesuits, an embassy of four voung Japanese
nobles were sent from Nagasaki to visit the pope at
Rome. With letters of salutation and profession of
fidelity to the Church, and uitli suitable presents from
the three Daimyos of Kiushiu, thev set sail for their long
voyage February 22, 1582. Going first to Madrid and
Lisbon, they were received in audience by Pliilip IL
The journey of these young princes tln-ougli Portugal,
Spain, and Italy was a succession of ovations. When
they reached the Eternal Citv itself, they were received
8

114

JAPAN : COUNTllV, COUUT, TEOl'LE.

by liigh Church dignitaries with marked coiiHidoration.
It wuH regarded as an open trophy of the (^hurclfs tri-
umph in Asia, that these representatives of princes from
far-off Japan sliould come to ])ow the knee to the i)ope
the head of the Church. This evidence of the conver-
sion of Jai)an'8 princes and nobles was taken as an off-
set against the mischief which Luther and other lieretics
had wrought by their rebellion against the Holy Church
After an absence of eight years, the embassy returned
to Nagasaki bearing letters from the pope to theCn.ris-
tians in Japan, but nieanwliiic great events and changes
had taken place, as we shall see in the secpu^l.

V. lIii>Kv<.siii THE Great— Invasion ok Kokka—

Opposition to the Christians.
The news of Nobunaga's death brought grief to the
Japanese and fear to the Jesuit missionaries. Ven-
geance quickly fell upon the officer who had treach-
erously caused Nobunaga's death, and his head was
brought and set up in front of the tem,)le where the
treacherous deed had been committed. Meanwhile Ili-
deyoshi, hastening back to the capital, took command
Nobunaga left two sons and an infant grandson, each
of whom had partisans among the generals and terri-
toruil lords. But Hideyoshi espoused the cause of the
little grandson as the heir and successor to Nobunaga-
and so, becoming liis gtuirdian, he carried the grandchild
m his arms in the procession at the public funeral, thus
signifying to all the nobles, princes, and generals pres^
ent his purpose to control affairs in the interest of the
grandchild as Nobunaga's successor. The sons and gen-
erals of his old master at once opposed him, but he
overcame them either by fighting or by discreet negotia-

1IIDEY08HI (IVELUS HIS ENEMIEH. H5

lri(lcyo«lii had moved to Osaka and mad,, th.., l •
«oaMe,.«Udi„g the old castle there, C t: 'it ,, '
« o ti,a„ anything eve,- known before. That caJcTod
rta d Tk "?""'"" "' ''''■ «•" -•"!« "b-nt

w, r .0 : .'Id t"; r^r""""^' *"" ''"y^-^' -'*

,„.„i 1 *= ^^ "' l"""'"' " l>""cc in Shikokii

".ade j,lans to attack and sei.o Osaka Returnh fwth
great speed, Ilideyoshi crushed him. A Uttle 17)
prepared to bring into subjection .Shi„.d. t e "

W..S noted for the bravery and skill of its warriors A

to submit. 1 hu8 Kiusluu was settled. Knowinir when

clndan, f ,. "'S-'"*"^ ^^^^'"'' '"'» ""' being a de
scendant of the Minamotos, and on account of his W

to this exalted position. But Ilideyoshi proved that
he was not only a general nf ,.^,.. . provea that

adnn-nist.r«t.or as w.^f IT ^^"^""^"^^^« S^^^^^. but an
camtaT Tk- . i "' ""^'^"'"^ ^"^^ improved the

capital at Kioto, by erecting great buildings, by paving

lie

.iai'an: countuy, (-(ukt, i-koi'mo.

with Huj,.HtoncH the \ml of tho Kano, that flows through
the nty, and hy iortll'yii.jj; Funhinii, an important out-
work. Jfc brouirht overythinjr into HyHtoni and ordor
under tho ocntral -ovcM-nnu-nt, and mad'o ro-uhitionH for
tho Nurvoy and rc-JHtry of landH and collection of taxes.
Many lands ha<l been opened that had not been report-
ed to the orovennnent. Thenceforth two-thirds of tho
crop must be paid to the state, one-third kept by tho

tfl^f' ll '^f ^llltH l 1 \n Vu\ 'f^fTf¥^^^^¥^^(^? ^?^

alii

IHUDYOSUI TUE GliEAT.

tiller. Besides the great castle which he built at
Osaka, he improved tho town by opening canals and
building bridges, in this way laying the foundations of
the commercial career which it holds to tliis day. He
erected a great mansion at Kioto for his own residence.
Requesting tho Emperor to visit him, a grand reception
was arranged for, and in the presence of all the nobles,
princes, and feudal Daimyos TTideyoshi had them swear
allegiance to the imperial house. At his suggestion

WAll IN THE KWANTO.

«a.l,, «^}„1., llHloyuHhi with two„ty-«.vc.„ IVu.lul IMi-
J-o« «,• I„,,l„ l,,.„„j,,„ „,, „„. „„„. ,^ ^^.^^^ ^^ _^ .^^_^

!..«,>, cor l,y „ur,-y,„K an.l f«.,li„K Xol,„„a^,u'« !,„,.«,„.
I.oro was „uw only one ..nh,u of the ...npiro tl.at
■"1 .lot »„l,„„Uod to Ui(leyo«l,i-„ ,v«i,„._ „a,n,.lv

must ,0 l„.ouj;l,t into »„1„niH»io„. H„|,|,o,,,,.,i ,,y I,/

y<.»", ho ,„,.,vh,.a with a,, ov.M-wh,a,„i„j; an„y URai ,„t

- ] ojo „t,.onghol,l at Odowan., woKt'of the ...odcn!

: ; 1 •'"' "'"'"""'■''• 'J'''« ■■••■""H WHH the .-onfiH-

.it,o„ of the o.ffht ICwanto |„-ovi,„-<.« a„,l llu-ir transfer
to Iy<,ya„„ who at nidoyo«hi'« „„ggc»tio„ „,,, „,, his
: a <.a»t.o and ..a,,ital at th„ viUugo of Yedo, il, the
d.un of Kwanto, at the head of Yedo liay. Thi« vil-
age soon .-ose to be the most i„,,,„,,ant dty cast of
Iv.oto for, as we shall sec, it hccan.c the capital of a
ew dynasty of Shoguns, and is to-,lay the great capi!
Ul of the new emp.rc. In this campaign against the
Iv^anto Hojos an incident occurred iliusftting Hi!
doyoslns Napoleonic cunning. It was necessary that
many horses should cross the Sea of Enshu, which was

rough at that season. The sunorstitious l.,..,t
f ., -^"^ °"P*^''»''ii^ioiiH boatmen were

afraid to transport the horses in their boats, because

for '7 '""\!"°."™ SOA, Kyugn, had a speci'al dislik^
fo. horses. Calbng the boatmen to hin,, he told them
bo was transportnig these horses at the command of the
Emperor, and that the god was too polite to interfere

would be right be would write a letter to Kyu.M. ex-

118

japan: country, coruT, i-eoi'le.

'if' I i

l>liiiiiing the matter and aHking him to protect the ))oats.
AddrcHHing tlie letter to "Mr. Rytigu," he threw it into
the sea, whereupon the boatmen seemed HatisHed to take
the horses over.

From about the year 1590 peace and order prevaihid
over the country, a state of tilings unknown for many
generations. Hut the active and ambitious spirit of
Ilideyoshi had long ])een revolving ])lans for a war
outside of Japan's borders, the conquest of Korea and
China. Even ])efore Nobunaga's death he had revealed
his i)urpose and asked for the revenues of Kiushiu to
})e given to him for one year in order to enable him to
prepare for such a war. "I can do it," he said, "as
easily as a man rolls a mat under his arm."

As to justifying the invasion of Korea, did not Jingo
subdue that land, making it tributary to Japan? and
had not the Chinese and Tartars, supported always by
the Koreans, attempted to invade and subdue Jaj)an
without any provocation? and had not Korea neg-
lected to bring tribute for many generations? In con-
sequence of misrule and civil wars it had been impossi-
ble to enforce tribute from Korea or i)unish China for
her unprovoked attack upon Japan. But now it was quite
different. Ilideyoshi's scheme was to bring the Ko-
reans into subjection first, and then use Korea as a base
of operations against (^hina, and finally to unite tliese
three nations under the rule of Japan. He had proba-
bly learned that China had been easily conquered more
than once by foreign invaders. He therefore sent the
Warden of Tsushima Island, lying in the Japan Sea
halfway between the two coasts, to invite the king of
Korea to an audience with the Jaj)anese Emperor. He
determined to insist upon presents })eing sent to Japan
by both China and Korea, and to demand of the, Ko-

HIDEYOSHI'S TBOOra IN KOKKA. m,

rea«« that thoy „hu„l,l i„t„„.t the„,selv..» i„ ,.ai„i„^

oigl.t co,-,,», and nine thou«„n,l sail,,™ f„,. ,. V
Tu/4i . / ^ <^ iinstiaiis, led tlio advance vovim.

~ ..o.-tl,wa..„, and «ont to ^Z ^^^^Z^Z
Alter n„„.l, ,l„lay (Jhina .lid .end a few loZ \m '
Japanese l,ad to contend witl, othe,- enom eT- ; ' I
rigorous winter, and Inn.gor. I„ faetTl !v " ' "

Polled to retreat without flnislnng t, ^w " ^.^0" 'T
however, ITideyoshi ,-,..r„i.„,, ,.,",', f ftorwarfs,

s-ppno. and ordered a. n;wV;:fr;ir:^^^^^^^^^^^^

120

japan: countky, corirr, people.

mil

same generals (Kato, the Christian hater, and Konishi,
the Christian) l)ack to Korea. At first tlie Japanese
met witli reverses; ])ut notwithstanding the suffering
from I'rost-bitten hands and feet, and the scarcity of
food during a long siege, the Japanese, being reen-
lorced, attacked the Chinese, completely routing them
in two successive heavy engagements. It was in one of
these l)attle8, in the summer of 1598, that 38,700 heads •
of Chinese and Koreans were taken. After the ears
and noses were cut off, the lieads were buried in a heap.
The cars and noses, pickled in tubs, were sent back to
Kioto, and there buried under a mound with a stone
monument, upon which is inscril)ed *'Mimizuka" (ear
mound). It ipay be seen standing to this day.

But Ilideyoshi, the Taiko, never conquered Korea,
nnich less China. Unfortunately, in his older years
he had become sensual, and Avas ruining himself with
liis vices. He died in September, 1598, when his ar-
mies were again gaining victories in Korea. For some
time l)eing ill, he had become anxious about his armies,
and as death approached gave orders for tlieir recall.
At the last, opening his eyes, he exclaimed: "Let not
the 8i)irits of the one hundred tliousand troops I have
sent to Korea be(^ome disembodied in a foreign land."
Thus ended an unfortunate cliapter in Japanese history,
and thus closed the career of a man who had the milita-
ry genius, a capacity for remarkable administration,
and a power of ins]>iring tlie love of his soldiers equal
to that of Nai)oleon. Like Napoleon, he had unbridled
ambition, and l>e8idcs in his later years of wealth and
l)ower was given up to licentious iiabits. The imme-
diate results of his Korean wars were a few tubs of
])ickled ears and noses, and a few bands of Korean i)ot-
ters brought over and settled in Satsunui, wlience comes

PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. 121

the famous Satsuma ware. lyeyasu, Hideyoshi's sue-
c-e8«or, never really approved of the Korean war, and
did not renew it. A few years later Korea sent an en-
voy bringnig presents and suing for peace.

At first Hideyoshi's policy toward the Christians was
a friendly one, but gradually he h.canie suspicious of
them and became their persecutor. Some of the Cln-is-
tiun priests, especially the Spanish Franciscans, lately
come from the Philippines, were so arrogant and vio-
lent that he ordered them to leave Japan, and prohib-
ited tlie people from becoming Christians. He even or-
dered the Nambanji church in Kioto to be destroyed,
rhe priests, however, carried on their work in private
houses, and the native converts kept on worshiping in
secret, with the result of ten thousand converts l>einc.
made yearly for several years. It is said, too, that the
quarrels between the Jesuits and tlie Franciscans, and
their mutual accusations, aroused Hidevoshi's suspi-
cions^ These suspicions were confirmed by the gossip
ot a Portuguese sea captain, reported to him "The
king, my master," said the captain, "begins by sending
priests, who win the people first; then he dispatches
troops to join the native Christians, and the conquest of
the country is easy." And this was the explanation of
the vast dominions of Portugal's king, as he exhibited a
map of the same. This seemed to agree witli what Hi-
deyoshi had heard about the Portuguese in the East
Indies and China, and he resolved to make such a thine
impossible in Japan. Therefore he ordered all foreign
teachers of religion to depart in twenty days, or else be
put to death. In consequence of this edict, in 1593
A.U., six Franciscans and three Jesuits were arrested in
Osaka and Kioto, taken to Nagasaki, and burned to
death. Ihis was the first martyrdom of Roman Cath-

122

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

"■ir

olic missionaries by governmental edict. Portuguese
merchants might still trade in Japan until further or-
ders, but must not, on pain of having their ships and
goods seized, bring over any foreign religions.

The Roman Catholics, however, tell a different story.
They say the reason why Hideyoshi got angry with the
Christians was that when he sought to have certain
beautiful Japanese maidens brought into his harem
they positively refused because they were Christiana.
This he considered an affront to his authority and high
position, whereas they ought to have considered it an
honor bestowed upon them. The foreign teachers and
priests he rightly considered responsible for these new
morals among Japanese women, and hence resolved to
be rid of them.

VI. Progeess OF Civilization Dfring This

Period.

Four hundred years is a long space, even in the life
of a nation. During this long period the intervals of
peace were short; and, while we are no advocate of
war, yet it is a historical fact that a period of war and
of struggle is often a period of invention, discovery, or
revolution tliat tells upon the nation's future.

As to arts and industries, the highest achievement
was probably in the making of swords and armor, it
being natural during so many wars tliat this line of art
should receive special attention. Indeed, sword making
and mounting was one of the fine arts. The occupation
of a sword smitli was an honorable profession, the mem-
bers of which were often of gentle blood. Among the
upper classes, where trade and manual labor were de-
spised, it is not strange that this one occupation should
be an exception, for the soldier's career and his martial

SWOllD MAKING.

123

exploits were held in the very highest honor. To be a
feamurai the retainer of u military chieftain, was to be an
honorable man of the ruling class; while to bea chonin
a town man or trader, was to be a low man. The story
18 that the ex-Emperor Gotoba not only gathered the
most famous sword smitlis about him, but that lie in-
dulged his fancy by making swords liimself. For a lono-
time Kioto was the home of the noted sword makera*'
but afterwards the new military capital, Kamakura, at-
tracted them. There resided the prince of sword mak-
ers, Masamune, and the noted Myochin family, and many
others whose swords and armor are truly wonders of
skill and beauty. Like everything else, the profession
ot sword smith was handed down in families from fa-
ther to son. The traditions of the craft were many and
curious. During the critical hour when the steel edge
18 being forged into the body of the iron blade it was
the custom to put on the robes and cap of the court no-
ble, and close the doors in order to labor in secrecy and
freedom from interruption, the half gloom adding to
the mystery of the operation. Sometimes, indeed, the
occasion was invested with religious sanctity, and a
tassel cord of straw, sucli as are hung before Shinto
shrines, was suspended between two bamboo poles in the
forge, thus converting it for the time into a sacred al-
tar. Those swords were famous for temper and keen
edge. A newly forged sword, esi)ecially if made for
a Shogun, must be tested upon Iiuman bodies, usual-
ly those of criminals, l)efore ])eing accepted; and it is
said that a sword of best workmanship must cut through
tln-ee bodies at one stroke. Dogs and beggars lying on
the roadside were not unfrequently used for proving the
edge of a Samurai's sword.
As regards architecture, it is to be noted that, in spite

124

japan: (JorxTUY, corur, i'Koi-lk.

i\ I

of tlie continued warn, many great ])iul(Iing8 were erected.
For example, tlie Kinkakujl (golden pavilion), the man-
sion of an ex-Sl.ogun, ni)on Nortli Mountain, overlook-
ing Kioto, was truly magnilicent. The materials of
timber and stone being of the linest quality, the columns,

PAGODA AT NAGOYA.

doors, alcoves, and ceilings were decorated with gold
dust on lacquer, and it stands to-day, an interesting
relic of Kioto. Another celebrated building was (rni-
kakuji (silver i)avilion), on East Mountain, at Kioto, the

OTHER ARTS.

125

colmnnH, eoilings, etc., of this „.ansiou being covered
with (liiHt of Hilver. ^ "vcicu

Tho Ashikaga Shoguns of this period were strong be-
rr ";/^"^^'"'!->' -'<! the san.e ex-8hogun who tuilt
go den pavd.on" for his own residence erected a
Buddhist temple oi unparalleled n.agniHcence at Kioto.
Kioto, however, was for a good while eclipsed by the
inilitaiy capital, Kan.akura, in architectural wealth, and
purticnlarly after Kioto became the scene of so many
battles, and the imperial palace, great temples, and
mansions of nobles were burned to the ground About
the end of the fifteenth century the oifce-splendid X'
was reduced to desolation, and tlie Emperors were una-
> e to restore the city for a long time. Of course the
h.uMn.g of so many great castles all over the land by
lords and Daimyos encouraged tlie quarrying of heavy
atones and the erection of massive walls. We have
iio hmg m America that corresponds to the Cyclopean
walls surrounding Japanese castles. Built upon some
commanding mount, these white castles, visible from
afar acW much to the picturesque landscape, and always
attract the eye of travelers.

The arts of painting, pottery, lacquering, and sculp-
ture were cultivated and much patronized by the luvu-
nous nobles; even the military nobility, .^lo at first
practiced severer habits of living, became addicted to
luxuries and arts, surrounding themselves in their man-
mo.s with the costliest paintings, porcelains, and lac-
quer work. It was in this period that translucent por-
celain was first made, in Japan, the art having been
brought from China. The a..no-,u (tea cerenfonill '
wh ch uid Its origni under the Ashikagas, greatly stin.
" la ed tlie production of fine porcelain wares. The «rt
ol lacquering also made great progress in this period

126

japan: country, couht, imoople.

yiii

J urther treatment of Japanese arts i« reserved for a later
Chapter Japanese authors ("History of the Eu.pire
Japan") say: "The blackest era of Japanese history
BO far as concerned the preservation of public peace and
security of life and property was nevertheless a time of
marker artistic development." But their further state-
nent that in this respect Japanese history is different
Irom that of the mediaeval period in European history
cannot be accepted as correct, for it was in tlie media>val
period that those magnificent cathedrals and abl,ev8
arose which are monuments of grandeur and beautv

In education little progress was made. The military
class, which was the ruling class, found little time or
inclination in those stirring days for study of books.
Nevertheless there was developed a scliool of literature
distinctly Japanese. The Chinese learning was for the
most part confined to the priests and a few court nobles
not yet swept into tlie whirlpool of luxury and pleasure.
JSow ana then a Shogun or Emperor patronized letters
and schools. The geographical knowledge had without
doubt considerable expansion during this period. For-
eign intercourse, hrst at the time of Kublai Khan's in-
vasion, and then at the coming of tlie Portuguese and
Spaniards with their strange goods and guns, gave occa-
sion for inquiry about countries and people far across
the seas. It is a benefit to a people to get a wider geo-
graphical horizon. It was in this unsettled period that
so many Japanese on the coasts took to a life of piracy
not being able to live in safety at liome, they turned sea
robbers. And these forays uj.on tlie coasts and coasting
vessels of Korea and China added to their knowledge of
the seaports and tlie trade of those countries, and led
them to establish trading settlements in Macao, south
coast of China, Siam, Anam, the Philippines, Malacca

EDUCATION.

127

In this period they made conquests of the Riukiu islands
It appears that a little later than thi« . '''"'^"^'^^^"ds-
-de v„,ages evon to 8,::^^^:^;::^ oTt
Pao he coast, and to India. Borneo, and Java "'

the farming distri t " T 1 , m T? ""^ ''""'"""■y "^

prosperit^fothrVhirCeX'::^^^^^^

nation feels it. ^ "^'^ ^^^ ^^ole

TOKUGAWA CKEST.

CTIAITKR V

:^'ii

lUi

FEVDAIJSM ^KTTLKD UMJEU Till': ToKlKLWV]
SJ/oaCNti- YIWO TllIC M'AV Ml UTAH V VAPITM,
-THE LAST OF THE VIllilSTIANS (t(m~l:;8H).

I. F«)irxi)i.\<{ OF I'liH ToivifjAWA. Dynasty.

Ok tlio throo ijroiit iiu'ii, TyeyuHii, tlio third ono, now
comes ti) the forofront in Juihuicko Jitlaii-H. Nolmiiut^a
c'loiirod the tj^roiind for hin s^n-cat hiu'cohhoi-, Ifidoyoshi,
who in turn laid tlie fonndationH »i}>on wliich tlie wise
lyeyaHU sotth-d and iiniliod ioiidaliHni, making it firm
and unchanijjoahle for two hundred and fifty yoarw, As
Ilideyoslii saw liis death ai)i)roaclnn_<r lie said to Tyeya-
su: *'I foresee great wars after my death; I know tliere
is no one but you who can keep tlie country quiet. I
tlierefore hequeatli to you the whole country. .
My son Kideyori is still young, and I heg you to look
after him; and when he is grown u|» T leave it to you
to decide whether or not he is to he my successor."
lyeyasu, who traced his descent straight hack to a hero
of the famous Minamoto clan, had already received
eight jn-oviiK es in the Kwanto and set up his cajntal at
Yedo. He had fought under Nohunaga, at first against
Hideyoshi and then under hiu), and is now to be his suc-
cessor, and the founder of a new line of Shoguns known
in history as the Tokugawas. After llideyoslii's death
certain i)roud and ]>owerful Daimyos, as Mori, Choshu,
and Satsuma in South and Soutliwestern Ja|)an, unwill-
ing to submit to the new ruler of the whole country,
formed a league against lyeyasu and his Eastern vas-
(128)

"APITAL

w.v).

rv.

[)no, now

i<l('yoHlii,
the wIhu
jf it tinn
ill-H, As

o lyeya-
jw there
iniot. I

• • •

to look
t to you
•ceHsor."

a hero
received
il)ital at

1 agaiiiHt
lu8 siic-
i known
's death
L'hoshu,
tniwill-
oiintry,
!rn vas-

BATTLE OF SJilvIOAIiAltA.

129

aa«..„ to „,.,.o K„„„i„,i, , „,„„„,, .^^ ,.. ^ ^^

Wh„,h ly .y,.„„ wa» to,„|,o™.ily ,.),„,.„t ,.„„„„,,|i„' „.:
".-t >,„ .„.aw„. and t„a,, H wo,,;,!",;: , / J,' ,::;-

A« ho a,.,„„. f u,„ „,.,u,e„, ,,.,,„. ,„.,,,„ ,; „ ;, ^^ ^:

"U 1 ()«aka ho was ,.„lleoting hi« at Vo,h,. Man^h
ng tho,,™ w.th «ovonty-tivo th„„„a,„l „„l,Ii,.,.« I„ , ,1

A I) at the v.Uago „f ,Sokigahu,-a, ,„■«,• I.ako iiwa

/« Itt IT"" ^"^".'""""•"^-" —t ."o,„o„to„ ::;

lought n, Ja,,an<.«o hmtoi-y, and dosorvo., to be recordod
among tho doci«ivo hattU. of the wo.-ld. , , ,'

twa, the old and ,„-oud .Sonthon..,. h.agnod "a

Yedo a« the „ow oa|,ital, r™,,,,,,, „„, „ f,,„ ,„„',.'
!jnov,on. f,.„,„ the l,ari,a,.on« Ahn,«, wL »tiH ,■ , " ,
Illy c.vd,.ed compared to the ancient province, ts't
«,„,a and ChoBhn. Again, tl,o»e So the,- cin et

ence, State's r.glits," a, it were, though thoy ..l- in.od
to he don.g service for Ilidevori son of T n f

under when. t.,ey had been vassal's :,;:',: "s;;',
funher, „, this side were tho Christian Go Ko,'
and h,s sodK-rs, who ha.1 done such har,l «ghtin
Korea; and therefore it was with this side' th,""tho

[« PI

130

JArAX: COUNTUY, CorUT, I'ROPLK.

'f,.;

Portuguese luisHionarios iialiirally Hyniputhized. The
native ChriHtiaim also generally Hided with the confeder-
ates. On the other side, lyeyasu stood for the les8-{!iv-
ilized East, for centralized government and for anti-
Christian j)aganisin.

Sekigahara, where the deadly struggle between tlie
Southerners and the Easterners took j.lace, is an oi)en
rolling plain between the east shores of Lake Biwa and
the range of hills rising a little farther eastward. The
great national road, Nakasendo, passes right through
it, and here enters the northwestern road coming out
of Echizen Province. Near the eastern side of the
lake, situated on a hill, was tlie seat of the Portuguese
missionaries, easily visible from the battlefield. The
morning of the battle the confederate armies moved
into position before daylight, followed quickly by lye-
yasu's. He remarked to his followers: "The enemy
has fallen into my hands." But a heavy morning fog
fell upon the plain, making it impossible for either side
to know just where the enemy was, and so neither side
dared to make tlie attack till the fog lifted. On the
side of the confederates were heavy odds in numbers,
but they lacked the unity of one supreme commander
and purpose in action; :'t was a league of different
armies. lyeyasu's forces had one commander, one dis-
cipline and purpose. His banner was a golden fan on
a white field embroidered with hollyhocks. When the
fog lifted at 8 a.m., and the armies stood over against
each other ready for the awful conflict, the drums and
conches sounded from the i^enters the signal for battle.
Cannons and guns were used in the fighting, but the
most effective slaughtering v/as done by swords and
spears. Effective slaughtering is an unpleasant phrase,
but that is just what a battle means, either to kill, cap-

ed. The
confoder-
) IcHs-civ-
I'or anti-

wccii the
i ail o})eii
liiwa and
rd. The

through
riling out
e of the
)rtuguese
Id. The
iS moved
J by lye-
e enemy
uing fog
ther side
ther side

On the
lumbers,
nmander
different
one dis-
1 fan on
Hien the
' against
inns and
r battle,
but the
rds and

l)hrase,
:ill, cap-

BATTLE OF SEKIGAHAKA. 131

tun. o.. „,„^ ,,,^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

, " '-"™ ,*'»"'--'l ■■""1 till tv^dve „'..lo.,k it „■■.

"k ^,,,1 1 y ov„,„„K wc-o utterly ,•„,„,«!. ls„t thoy l,.;,!

couhng to .la,,aMc«o l„»t„riau«, foil „,,„„ tl,„ ,lu„t uLvc-
t" n»o agan, Multitu,!.. of tl.o wouudcl, foa,- ,' "I
t".v, cou>u„tto,l /„„« ,,v,- to ,„.event that d g™™

;lui ri :" ;■' " """ '"; '™'"'"' "- vi-^toHout:,;

gathL ed „ to tl,o cento.- of the hattlofield, each soldier

^:s t^'ir '■'" f' "- '"" i'"-e':;: "b

""""'• ■* '"> ""l''""-'' wlio could show tlie most l,cad«
or pr«onor» wore, of cour.e. tl,o l.oroo, of t. day A
mouiul named "Head Pile" «tlii ., i ^'"-"-'J- A
to mark tl,„ , 1 , ' """"'" "*""■ tlie road

to nuik tl,o placo where the confo.Ierates were burie.1
and a n.onun.ent «tand,, upon tl,o mound. '

It was fortunate," says Murray, "that lyovaeu tho
v,e or,ous general, knew how to nfake sure t^f Us of

it, an7X,.~::r : ciitt --'-'

him the ,,roverb- 'After V; , "'P°'^*<f *" *''»«« a™""!
striu..s „/™™"'- ^f*'- "<'t»>-y tighten your helmet

It was fortunate, too, that tlie victor was i man nf

s": rr/'t^:' "' "r-"'^- ^i«positio„."^To\:::r

seveial of the generals were captured and executed
among whom were the ChristiJ.s Kouishi and Out

r:, :2:Zef;rai: r t;: t "''-""'''"' •^^^"''»

T,,^ . ^ «ig'iiiibt the Japanese trovernment

d red .t;^ r r;';: r ■"'^" --'''-' ''^^ ••'■-

ngnt, that of portioning out the fief lands and

i:j2

JAl'AX: COUNTUY, COUUT, I'lOdPLK.

(liiliniutoM k) liiH own rHiMifiil vaHHiils, and ho providod
well for tlu'ni, avvanlini,^ tluMu one liiindred and fifty
ilaimiaU'H out of tliroo Jinndrod and Hixty-throo. IJut
he Mi»ared many of tho old and honorahlo Dainiyos, oh-
pocially tlio jrrcat Lordn of Mori, SatwuMia, and ClioHhn,
whom he treated with conHideration after they came
forward and pU'dtrcd aUeirijuice to liim. Ah h(>fore
said, lie was in fact tlie foinnh'r of a new dynasty of

7Z7a

VTTTn

VTTT^^mM

7^2Z77777Z7ZV7

lYEYASU.

Sliognns, and received that title in KJOIl The name
Tokugawa comes from tlie village where lie was born.
Founder of a new line of rulers, he was the builder of
a new and great capital city, Yedo (i:ow called Tokyo,
and greater to-day than ever), and inaugurated a long
period of peace and unity after so many centuries of
civil wars. He was a man of fine presence, had a re-
markable knowledge of men, was an able general, a
wise legislator and administrator, and Avhat put him

i '

|)rovi(lo(l
iikI fifty
.•e. Hut

iiyos, t'H-

ey camo
i Ix'fore

iiiiHty of

^ 7P7^

T^TZ:

B name
8 born.
Ider of
Tokyo,
a lonij
tries of
d a re-
eral, a
lit him

THE TOKIKUWA ERA DKNOlimni,. 13a

''.';" '■« *'"""'" r.«»tl,u,„„„H rank „,„.„« ,,, , " l
«ul, ,,,,,, t,U.., .SlH,.i..|,i.i.To«h„.U„i.Uo„«c.n- ,. ' s :

of JiiKldl.r iw/ 1 J^-iHt-Greut Incarnation

iiiKUll.a. 1 retty houvy titlen, tliink you?

II. TiiK ToKiNjAWA Era DEscuinKn.

,>eto^l..rn '' ^'"'"^ "'■ ''"^*"'- ^^^^'^ ^'^'"''^ '-^'xl Korea
peace Jiad l)oen reHiiiiwxI Af i. i . ^ ^^^^lut

'^. It was an era of unifidtmi. t.^

■""Will? of a „«,;,>„ ,T ,-f, '"""■" ""■■™ ™s «'»
f".- it .r not i " i'" ""' """■>■ -"■" »» -o know,

known .re itlr r'"'''"""y"'"'gt'''Tl.ad

strong, nioderato and ," ""? "' '"""^ "" ""*-' "
S, iaouei ate, and permanently estahli'sTm/i ^ i

government, represented by the ShL.m E f n

ot the clan paid tribute u.ul .,11 ''^'"'- ^'^^'^^ Dannyo

gun at Yedo and T^ ^lleg^^nce to the central Hho-

L owni::i't;^ri^^;-*^^--^ ^^- vassalage of
'• -^'^^ ^^ ^ii^^"^ the Conqueror of En-

134

JAPAN: COUNTIIY, COUIIT, I'EOl'LE.

gri'i'

gland, lyeyasu adopted the safe ijolicy of settling liis
kiiismeu and vassals in l)otween the proud and strong
Dainiyos wliose intrigues niiglit be feared. lie knew
how conii)letely tlie feudal system liad rooted itself in
the history and thinking of the Japanese people, and
with far-sighted statesmanship he built on the old foun-
dations. He knew that every new system in order to
be permanent must be an outgrowth of something that
has gone before, including what in the old is good and
lasting. The dual form of government had existed so
long and the Japanese had become so accustomed to it,
that lyeyasu determined to perfect and keep it.

Nominally the Emperor is the head of tlie nation and
the fountain of rank, titles, etc. ; he is still regarded as
of divine descent and the father of the people, the Son
of Heaven, who is too sacred to touch with his hands
the common affairs of administration and the like.
This is the fiction indulged in by the people and en-
couraged by tlie Shoguns. Really tlie Emperors have
b« ^me effeminate, lovers of pleasure, incompetent to
rule, and are consequently kept in retirement in Kioto,
shut up in the palace with courtiers and wives. Prac-
tically their authority is small, and the people never
see their faces.

The Shogun at Yedo, while professing to rule in the
Emperor's name and receiving his title of Shogun from
him, actually holds the reins of full power in his
hands. He had his own army at his capital, and put
his own vassal Samurai to garrison the castle at Kioto
and Osaka, and in the region of the Kwanto, guarding
the approach to the capital. From his own family
and clan his advisers and officers of the central govern-
ment were chosen.

lyeyasu's Legacy or Code of one liundred chapters

THE TOKUQAWA ERA BESOBIBED. I35

refleets the mild and peaceful character of its author

huteen chapters coi.sist of moral maxims and reflections

tieatof politics and governmental affairs. Twentv-
wo chapters relate to matters of W. Seven chapt fs

th CoTe "a ' rf '^''''"'""■^' "• ''^ °«" lif- Wh e
the m.tary or ruling class, it shows that he is also
nundful of the welfare of the pople. He sav • ^'h
n.y youth my sole aim was to conquer unfriendly prov-
noes and take revenge upon the enemies of my ancel
0,-s; but since I have come to understand the pr!cep
'To assist the people is to give peace to the em^^ re ' I
have followed its teaching. Let my posterity h;id
fa this principle, and any one turning his back upon

da ir tr"^'"' °' ™"'«- Tl^^ People are the foun"

dation of the empire." (SeeMurray's "Japan," p. 202.)

huch democratic doctrine as this was the seed from

tutioir" '"'"' ""' "'^ y^"^ ''f*"™--"^ » ™-"-

tutional government grew and ripened into actual bar-

3. But the early part of this period is stained with
the ],ersec«tioii and destruction of the Christians.

Uoubtless onr readers regard the introduction of Chris-
fanity by St. Xavier and his Jesuit brethren, the r
conflicts and remarkable success for the first iiftv
years, as the most interesting chapter in all this story of
Japan. We now come to a period of cruel persecution.
We have seen on a previous page how Nobunaga was
favorable to the Roman Catholics and hostile to the
Buddhists, and how the Catholics not only i„ Ki, !
shiu but a so in Yamaguchi, Osaka, Sakai, and Kioto
built churches and schools and exerted a wide influence

136

JAPAN : CUIXTUY, CorUT, PEOPLE.

•j ?;

I,'

'i (

1 ,

111 Nagasaki and Oita, besideB churches, they liad lios-
].HaLs and anylunis; in the latter, a flouri«hing college
We have also seen ],ow Jlideyoshi, wlio was at first fa-
voralde, became suspicious of the foreign missionaries,
the Jesuits; and the Franciscans, and began to persecute
tiieni. ^

This change in tlie policy of tlie rulers of Japan to-
ward the Koman Catliolics is cdearly understood wlien
we consider a few facts. In the fii;t place, the Jesuit
leaders incited the native converts to insult tlie gods and
deface the images and shrines of tlie liuddliist religion
1 hen the Franciscans, who had come from the Philip-
pii.es, after tlie Jesuits, quarreled with them, and their
mutual accusations only damaged the standing of both
in the eyes of Japanese rulers. A little later, when the
Dntch and English cameseeking trade, they gave Jesuits
and J^ ranciscans alike a bad name. The invasion of Hol-
hmd by Philip ir., Catholic king of Spain andPortucral
had cnnbittere<l the Dutch against the Roman Catholics!
1 he English too had cause for ill will toward tlie Cath-
ohcs and the Spanish Armada. IJesides, Hideyoshi's
susi,icions were strongly aroused by the gossip of a Por-
tnguoso sea cai)tain who was reported as sayino-; "The
king, my master, begins by sending priests, who win
over the people; and Avhen tliis is done he dispatches
troops to join the native Christians, and the conquest
IS easy and complete. " He now determined to stop the
Jesuits and tlieir ],reaching by decreeing (1587) that all
foreign j.riests leave the country in twenty days or die-
but though ceasing for a wliile in pulilic, they continued
to i)reac]i m private, and are said to liave won ten thou-
sand converts in one year. In 151)0 six Franciscans and
three Jesuits, and seventeen Japanese Christians were
taken to Isugasaki and l,urned. Persecution began to

lYElASU AND THE liOMAN CATHOLICS. 13/

wax worse a„,l worse, and even two or tl.ree arn.v «en.
cmls wore jMit to deutli for ti.eir laith *'

During Jjeyas„'„ first years of rule tlio Christians
were not aist„r,.„a i ,e was too „ns.v wit,, afft' "^r

CO . ]re,,,.e the l„sho,,s an,l ,,riest» of the Catholie

C „„<., s e„,e,l at hrst to have «oo,l ho,,e of In's a,h,,,t.
".g a ],ol„.y of toleration. I„ Kin,; „„e of the bishops

so , oul,. Ily that he an,l In's cohiborers were „,„d, en-

Zfdt '* ','""■". ""'•'= *•"•«" """S^ at least tl t
a ousedljeyasu'shostUity against the ]?oman Catholics:
no do I r™ '^^ "',*'■"' P<"-'"S"^-^ «ea captain had

Je nt„ and L ramosoans alike were politieal .agents of tlie
Portngnese and .Spanish rulers or the ,,o,,e of ]io, ,e
ho were only watehing their op,,ort n ty to se t ',
their rule n, .Ia,,an. (2) Those foreign priests h
strangely orgotten th:..t win., they we™ ,iyi ^ «„ i 1

^le rfC: " """ ''"'■ ^""' >"'"■"'« tlK.n,Jel^es'„„
s do of lyeyasu „ ene„,ies, who had fought .against hi,,,

was tfr,"T- ^'^ ''!"' ""'"' "'■ ■•""•«-- tole,-atio
was the , ,„,known. The,-e w,« no «„<.,, t!,ing ,« ,.,ii.

g o„s l,„erty .at that tin,e even in Eui-ope. Sot o 1-
,ad 1 ranee heen ton, for seventy ye.a,.shv civil wars
ti.at we,-e also religious wai-s between ciuholi 's a nd
Protestants .-esnlting «„ally i„ tl,e exinilsilof he
H„g,,enots but Ge,.„,.any „nd Ausfia w re likewi ec
gaged n,,vl,g,o„swa,.s-the Thirty Years' Wa, ; an, ,
E> gland too, even the I'l-otestants wh..„ in power ZVe
cuted tl,o Ro,„an Catholics. ] Ien,.e there was no "» er
course open to lyeyas,, but to hohl to the JSnddLt e
.g.on and o,.,,ose with his n,ight th,. Christians, o em-
Wace Cl,r.st,an,ty and pnt down the Buddhists Pre-

138

jai'an: country, court, people.

ii'

vhcly 80, the JesuitH liad taught the Christian princes in
KiUKhiii that they muHt compel tlieir Hubjectn to renouneo
Jiiuldliium and accei>t Christian baptism. The Prince
of Akashi, in Ilarima Province, liad bitterly i)ersecuted
all his peoi)le wlio did not willingly receive baptism,
and Konislii, tlie brave Christian general, wlio had re-
ceived for his service a part of lligo Province, had forced
baptism upon his people, and confiscated Buddhist tem-
ples and lands. Evidently, then, tliese Jesuits and their
Christian princes in Jaj in could not complain when
lyeyasu began to use the same practice of persecution
against tliem which they Jiad attempted against the
Buddliists. It should bo noted, however, that the Ito-
man Catholic historians of this period give a different
reason for the persecution of the Christians— that is, that
because certain beautiful Christian nuiidens refused to
obey llideyoshi's command to enter his harem, he be-
came enraged and resolved to crush out the Christian
sect, and as a good excuse for putting them down charged
tlie foreign teachers and priests with plotting against
Japan's independence. But unfortunately tliere is too
niuch evidence of })olitical intrigue on the i)art of .Jes-
uits in otiier countries, and of Romish claims for tlie
temporal authority of the i)ope. In view of the above-
mentioned facts, and in the spirit of the age, lyeyasu
concluded that the furtlier preaching and progress of
the Christians must be stopped. He issued a proclama-
tion in 1()0() declaring tliat ho had been pained to learn
that many had embraced tlie Christian faith contrary to
I lideyoshi's decree. He declared it to be hurtful t Jthe
state for Japanese to become Cliristians, that all who
had done so must change, and ordered jill the officers of
his court to see the edict strictly enforced. This clear-
ly shows that lyeyasu feared the Jesuits as dangerous to

PBBSEOUTION OP THE CHRISTIANS. 139

the country, m. proclaTuation did not, liowcver, deter
hem irorn p„l,h.ly (.elebruting in tl.o city of Nugasaki
n the moHt gorgeoun manner the canonization of Igna-
tius Loyohi, the founder of the Jesuit society. The
bishop arrayed in robes and followed by the various or-
ders of Jesuits, Franciscans, and others, made a solemn
procession through the streets, making a public display
in direct violation of government edicts. This led to
severer measures. It is said that lyeyasu discovered
about this time written proof of a plot on the part of
foreign priests and native converts to reduce Japan to
subjugation to a foreign power. At any rate, lie deter-
mined to destroy the Christians root and branch, and
accordingly in 1G14 issued a decree tliat all religious or-
ders, whether European or Japanese, should leave tlie
country, that tlie churches should be razed to the
ground, and native Christians renounce their faith
len tliousand troops were now sent to Kiushiu, where
the Christians were most numerous, to execute this de-
cree Accordingly three hundred persons, including
ai of the Jesuits, except twenty-seven, wlio hid them-
selves, were banished, and tlie most vigorous efforts
were made to compel the native Christians to recant

1 he persecutions that now l,roke upon the heads
ot the Christians were horrible beyond description. 1.,
order to search out the Christians in every nook and
hole, so as to kill them or make them give up their faith
a special inquisition was organized by the government.'
Ihe Jiead of each house was examined and required to
swear that no Christian was with him, his wife chil-
dren servants, or passing traveler. A reward was of-
lered to any one giving information about the Chris-
tians and priests. In connection with this there was in
troduced a test, the e-fumi, or trampling upon the C^hris-

■Hi

■).''

!•'

140

JAI'AN: ("orXTHV, coruT, i-koj-mo.

tian

s croHs.

Jesii

wood

H was laid dovvi

<Mi or iiu'tal croHH with

I, aiidc^acli porHoii

plo It as ail act of dotestatiou or l,e at

c iMiajjfo
was required to

ed. Often parents woidd make tl
It to make tliem hate the ''Ja

]

'itli

.'ir lit
iuion.

lie perse-

n]> an entlmsiasm and
overcome by the
government. Exiled
returning to the couii-
martyrdom; and
Christians were.beino-
killed, oth-
oame for-
t' 1 a r i n g
tion to the
C li r i 8 t .
from the country to
the Philij)j)ine8; but
to meetwitlninquail-
.•iiid sword of their
Seizing the Chris-
wrapped them in
throwing them in a
They were thrown
grave, soon to bo
b n r n e d , beheaded
hurled from the steei)
(•ages to starve, witli
to tempt them to re-
Sometimes they were

once arrest-

lo children do

'!•(! si)ranir

cntions tli
a courage liard to
]>owerful arms of tlie
])riesls ke]>t sec^retly
try, as if desirous of

.4v:*'V

thougli J
hounde(

ip'i'iit'sc
punislied.

ers

boldly
ward, de-
their devo-
te r o s s o f
Many fled
China, Formosa, and
thousands remained
iiig heroism the fire
cruel persecMitors.
tians, they sometimes
straw sacks, and,
lioap, set fire to them,
alive into tlie open
filled II]). Tliey were
with the sword, or
precii)ice; i)ut into
food i)lacod outside
iiounce tlie faith.

^xMfi. ^ .4- . ' r" crucilied or hanged,

VI li feet fastened to a post and liead downward, and
eft m that condition to perish or recant. All accounts

(Roman Catholic, Dutch, Japanese) witness to tlie

THii LAST OF THE CHRISTIANS. 141

coiiraKcoiiR onclnriime of tLo iiativ,. CI.,.; .■

Jt was i„ 1,124 that all foreiBnors except tho Dutch
an,l Ch„,e»o were I,a„i,l.„a fro,,, tho country l,y ho S J^
g".. iyon,Kl.„ K,.c„h persecutions of nati/e (Ctians
oven .no,.e tc-rnblo than tho early one., followed, t ^
V t "' ""*"•" ,7"» "I'l'li"! that barbarisn. coul.l in^
vu I)ur,ng all these years of horror and torture the

vol :•;;".;"' """'''""-™- '-i^tanco; but in
yea, !(,.!,, the ,-enn,ant left in Kinshiu we,-e driven it

::;:::• *-V'™"™'^7'. --l -l-'tonnined to defend th e,,.

solve, Aooonl.nsly they t-,rthe,-ed together in an old

ba,,doned castle of A,.inn., in Kiushiu^'to the nu.nbe

" thnty tl„,,„a„d. Tl,„ event is known in Japanese

. n Cathol,., w,.,t,.,-« as "the n,assac,-e of Shin.aba,,.."

b o ly alter a s,ege of three n.onths, assisLl, .t is
«. Ml, by ca,,„on wh.ch the Dutch loaned them, did

Rol Z"^ :: "•""""■'"« *•'« "-««• Acco,.ding o

Rock " .'"""*;"' Vf «'<"" ^''■•o led to "Papenb,„.g
Koek ,n the harbor of Nagasaki, and there hurled
f on. the steep cliif into the sea; but the n.aio,^ty of
the u we,-e either killed i„ the fighting within the cT«,h
or .,n,nediately afterwa,.ds. To'day t1,e to, ri ' st" d
n.g on the oc.an stean.ship as it ente's NagasakT;,! W
w U have pointed out to him that "PapeT.burg Kock "
whence m those liloodv d'Lva tl„> t'\ ■ J ^iock,

to death « Tf ■ , ^ <-lin»tians were hurled

o h. 1 • , ""^ """ ''""'"" *''" '""-""^y ■'"d fervor
of t e Chr,st,an conve,.ts of to-day, ortlie ability of 21
Japanese to oiuln-ace a higher form of faith ,C the"
willingness to suffer for what they believe, he has tl

142

JAI'AN; CUUNTUV, COlltT, I'EUI'LE.

ill

^fti

to reu<l the uccoumn, iu Ku^.liHl., T)uU,l,, French, Japa-
nese and J.aUn, of varioun witness, to the foHit.ule
ol tlio JapaneHe (Christians in the seventeenth century.
1 he annals ot the j.rinutive Chureh furnish no instances
ot sacrihco or heroic constancy, in the Coliseum or Ko-
jnan arenas, that were not i>arallele(l oi, the dry river
beds and execution grounds of Japan."

Finally, believing tliat tlie last vestigt, of the Chris-
t.an nan.e had },een uprooted, tlie Japanese government
l-os cd on the notice boards all over the empire the edict
ot deatl» against any person following or believing in
the corrupt religion." And the word went forth IVom
the Japanese rulers that: -So long as the sun shall
warm tlie earth, let no (Christian be so bold as to come
to Japan Let all know tliat the King of Spain him.elf,
or the Christian's God, or the great (4od of all, if he
violate tins command, shall pay for it with his liead "

And yet the Christian name and faith among the Jan-
anese were not entirely wiped out, as was proved two
liundred and fifty years afterwards.

III. FOLLOWINO PORTUGUKSK E.VAMPLE, SrAXTAKDS

Dutch, and EmnA^n Skek Thai,,-: with Japan; Fi-
NALLY All Ake Exclitdki) Except Dutch.
Whatever may be the truth about Columbus having
m mind Zipangu (Japan) when he set sail westward
across the Atlantic, it is certain that navigators lioped
to find a short ro.ite to Asia by sailing directly west.
Ihe English Cabots and their successors hoped to find
a passage around the north of the new country which
Columbus had discovered; and it is said that even La
Salle, the French explorer in what is now Canada, was
seeking an overland route to Asia! And yet for i
Whole century after tlie discoverv of a pasnagc to Lidia

^'li, Japa-
fortitudo
century.

iUHlaiiCCH

II or Ko-
Iry river

CIiriH-
ernineiit
i-lie edict
Jving in

rtli from
m shall
to come
liimsolf,
11, if ho
liead."
he Jap-
ped two

vn; Fi-

having
stward

ho})ed
' west.
to find

whi(^h
^eii La
a, was

for a

India

SPANIARDS IN JAPAN.

143

by the Cape of (^od Hope (1497), the commerce of Eu-
ropean nations was almost entirely in the hands of the
di!2Tl% T"" '^'^ ^'^ ^''''' P«H«essior.s in In-
coast of Cli na, they got ahead of all the other European
nations and kept the bulk of the trade of Japan fo
about a century. ^

Next after tl.c Portuguese mmc m I1i„„d„r,h. But

rt ' ! *,''""*""''"'' '"^^overy of a passage through
he S ra.ta of Magellan, aud the settlement of Spauia.ls
111 the Philippines, seriously interfere with the Portu-
guese monopoly of trade with (Jhiua and Japan. With
New Spain (Mexieo and Southern California) in their
possession, and Manila as a trading colony, the Span-
lards ought to have rivaled the Portuguese'hi these'C
taste, n ports. Aud they did make an effort. Don Ko-
dngo the Governor of Manila, made a visit (lfi08) to
he Shogun, i„ Ins palace at Suruga, who received him
m great state. In fact, the Shogun offered him a ship

q^iested Phihp, K „g of Spain, to send fifty mi„'e,.s f..^
Mexico, who, as he had heard, were more skillfull
mining and smelting silver than his own people A
little later a special embassador was sent with splendid
presents, asking leave for the Spaniards to b„ 'S
from the forests of .lapan and explore her ..oasts. TMs
was agreed to. Already the Spaniards were sendinl

And now the plan is to make Japan the third corner of
tl.c ffvct ,.cmnictrian„le of trade on the Pacifi^n^,^^l^

that! but It failed. It was prophetic, however; for
when the Americans shall have cut through the ^^iZ
guan or Panama canal, then the triangle °of ocean t^ade

144

jai'an: coi'XTKv, voi'iir, i'i.:ui'i.k.

(•

w.inHM.o.nph.u..l: ihoAiuU oi' Mexico, Manila, a.ul Ja.
P'ln. JJ.it tl.o poor Sj.anianl will l.avo .unall ],art, in it
A]»o..tthi8 ti>nu {Wm) tho firnt Dutd. shi,,, the Jiod
L.oi., arnvcl at J lirado, a little northward of Na^.aHaki.
^ioth I ortug.K'Ko and SpanianlH <li,l tho-r utn.ost to
IKTHuado the JjipanoHe to refuHo the Dntcl,. They told
tl)o Sho^n.n that J)„teh hIu^h were not true tradin.. ves-
Hei. l,ut wore nea piraten. The Shogun, havin.i,^ heard
of the wars between S.,.-.,n and Holland, nndenstoo.l the
H.tuation, and replied: -I have nothin,. to do with Ku-
ropoai, quarrelH." And well did the J'ortngneHe dread
the J)uteh, for they were the tirst KMro,,ean8 to l,reak
in u]>on the Portniruese monopoly in Eastern seas. The
I nteh out of the Jl.Ml Lion were kindly received l»y the
old J)anny^ at Ilirado, and a deputation with presents
m t .e nan.e of the king of J folland was safely conducted
to the SIu,gun's court. Having got permission to estal,-
l.sli a trading post for their ships at Ilirado, they sailed
lor lolland bearing a letter from the Japanese Sho^un
to their king. The salutation of that letter is as fol-
lows: - T Emperor and King of Japan, wish to the
King ot Holland, who hath sent from so far countries
to visit me, greeting." The Dut<.h made a second voy-
age (l(>n) under Ca,,t. Spex and secured a permanent
commercial charter. They at once erected a large
warehouse at Ilirado; ami twenty-five years afterwards
when the Portuguese were expelled from the country'
they transferred their trading post to the little island
ot Deshima, at Nagasaki. Thither a few ships came
yearly, and here stayed a superintendent, i)hvsiciaii and
surgeon, a naturalist, and a few emi,loyees, a dozen men
111 all. Tlie Dutch made enormous profits by this trade
At t^his point in the narrative comes the strange story
of William Adams. The Dutch merchants at Amste.:.

Dl'TOH «yMm»,N ANB ,v„,,, ADAM8. I45

■^:or:x:zt:V;;;::'tT'' "'"^'-"

y-»-„ or ,.™ , , ,'"" ' "' "■';.«'■■""'. -!,..„ twelve

India (IV «Vl, '''.'■■"''■"" '"■ ''"" "'"I'" -'ili'!,' for

t.v, indrUiy, .-iiKl (;„„,| x,.«.„ N„fu.;fi, , 1

r'"'™ •''-» ly^^^^Z^ T^"iT

twciitv-f(,i„- ,,„.„ 1;,. J '■"'"■ only 1,1,1! tiKinty, with

" '0 c.,„i,:: : ; ;; ;c;'r;'r- -■-" rr'"^

WHvos; l,ut thcv l.-.rl . 1 , '^ tl'i-otigh wnulH jind

-:"r:t::r:7'''^^^''-'"-^«— ^"^

J 'oni suivnig iiicii were able to wilt a 1
was sent to Osaka, wl,c,-e 1,. ,nef ,1 «, """'

wo„,l,.,C„lly co»Uv ,„„„!- 1 *'''"S"" "in a

asked i,i,„ L." ,f, 'eZ' .j''" *';-*-• '"■'" ^-dly a,.d

of Lis co,„i„. to r, ^ " ™""*''y' *■'« ^^""»«

witi,. a. t Ids "; : ; :;?'"";'"■" '"'"^'■■""' ''*' *«■•»

»« -oplied t„at t e ,. 'i::;'r '-"^ "" '-' ™".o.

Indies and desire,! f ,-, ■ Tl , *'' '""f-''" "'« '^■«t

•'"t WHS at j,ea,.e w il ttl e "''''/"'■"''?••" '""l «Pain,

i-ointed o„t o„ a n^a o t :\::;;;;';;r'"- '"" "'"" •-«

the Strait of Mam.) J ,1. v '""""'■''"^ ""-ongl-

'lnl;.ot iKdieve ll'. "" *'""'''"" """^'"'^ l-'-i^ly ho

Though tllUN kiiidlv roooivpri \ 1
b-ck to prison, who./ J o ' ' f "T ^'' ""^^'"^^'^

n-nth, and cxpo.tc.^e : CJ::'::^^ '"^^-^^ ^^" ^

■ordiiisr to t!io ciistoni of
secution of the Christian^ lud bo<

the times, for the per-
nm. lint although the

.iai'an: countuv, ((Hht, i'koim-k.

if ■

!■■■ I it-

1!:^'

Portutjiu'Hi' dill llu'ir ntiiKiHt. ufriiliiHt iVdaiiiM, tho Shojrim
iiiulciNlood tlu'ir iiKjtivi', uiid, (';illiiij^ for A<l:iinH uguiji,
lie held a loiiij ('oiivri'Hat.loii willi liiiii, ijiicHtioiu'd him
(dowtdy, and then, to liis HiirpriNc, st't, liiiii at, liberty.
Tlu' Sliomiii had diNcovcrcd i\daiiiN'H kiiowlcd^c' of Hhl|>-
hiiiliiiLj and iMalhcniaticN; and ihcinan'H Hkill Htood him
in m>()d Htcad, lor hc^ Hoon mad(( liimNclf vi'iy UHcful to
tiic Shoi;iin by tcachini,' his Hhi|»1(iiil(U'rH how to build
ships iirici" the Miironcan model. IJut lie wan lonirin"'
to iH'tiirn to hJH native Pjii^land to see IiIh wife and chil-
dren. 'The ShoLCUii reeoi^ni/ed his HerviecH and Honj^ht to
make him content by ijfivinj^ him "a livinuj like a lord-
Nhi|> in Kiiwland, with eiu;hty or ninety HorvantH or
slaAt's." In thiw way uVdaniH jjfot a thorough knowledge
of the nders, the people, and the country. IMh diary,
which haH been ))nblished, is now invalua))lo as a j)ic-
tiire of thoHe timen, 'I'hough living like a JapancHe
nobleman, he was never satislied, and nent a letter bv a
Dutch ship to the KngliMli merchantN in the iHland of
Java, and through them to his wife and chihlren in En-
gland; he also urged the Kngliwh to oi)en trade in
.Ia]>an.

And fiinr otoiii/h the J'JiHj/ixh came (UllH) vnder Capt.
John Siiriti. Saris was welcomed at llirado by the name
old Daimyo who had so kindly received the Dutch, and
he begged the Daimyo to send to the Shogun's capital
for Adams. In about twenty days he came, and what a
joyous meeting it was, especially for Adams! After all
these years in that strange land to see once more his
own countrymen direct from home!

Conducted by his fellow-countryman, Capt. Saris and
his company went up to the Shogun's court, where,
through the influence of Adams, he was received with
marked consideration. Cant. Saris has left interesting

ENOLISH SEKKINCI TKAUE.

147

"''"•■'•™^"' ■ »•''-' !'<• »"«■ on l.i« i„,„.„<.y from lli,..al-

« luHown ,„e„, i,„.l,„li„. ,„„,.,,,,„„, ,,„^,,, ,i .

• '/ ''"■';;"' ''y '1- "''• "-.".v., wi,,h a largo «alU.y

»•,. j-„v. .«,. to th. „i,|., ,„a„ne,l ,vitl, „iuy „,e ,
ti. «all<.y l,.,„jj ,,aM,l„.„,„.ly tiucd „„t wiU, wui„u
<'I"t .« un.l ,.„si.„«. Th..y ..„,.,„.,, ,,„„« the k" i .

.0 .,,„...,„,, ,„ O...U, „o ..y„, „a,. ,„a„y ^l,, I

> 1 ^ «,.,,„„ a ,.,v,.,.aH w ,0 a. t„. Tl ™ at 1„„„1„„.

•'"»".« " > a ,■,«.,• ,„• canal In,,,, ( )„aka i„ a »„,all l,„at

:':''■'■;' -i. •■<-• Ki,.u,. M..,-o 1,0 „aw the ; :

.",.1 <>„aLi. 1 1,0 ga,',-,«„, w,iH l,oi„g ,.|,a„.,<.,l a„,l 1,„
saw ,„.,.. a,.,.ay. Thoy wo,,, a,.,„o„ wft,, H,.;,,!; -'J

'"""" >" <"'"'»• ll<' was ii,iim.K»o,l witi, tlioii-

g.„o,..l ,„ tho ,-oa,- „,a,Tl,i„j, i„ jj,,,at«tato, l„,„ti„ir •.„d
mwk,„g all ,1,0 way, ,,l,o l,awk« ),oi„g ,,,a„. g aftop

....«o t„ S„,.,,ga. I,, „,a» tho Tokaiclo r„a,l fi-om Kioto
U> ^ o.Io. woll l„,iU a„.l lovol, and „,„»t „f tho wX „
siglit ol the «<.a. •' '"

For Capt. Saris a palai.qi.i,, was also f,n'„ishcd for
<''.ang,„g f,.o,„ his ,,„,,e. Tho dist.a„eo al„„g tl,o ro^d
was „,arko,l ovo,-y th.-oo „,ilos by two little hiUoX
»-' o" oael, „,do, a„,l „,,„,. oaoh l.iUook was ,,la„^^ a
.a,r ,,„.o troo tr,„„„od i,. ro,.„d „ha„o. Tho Jroat 1,
was full of t,-avolo,-s, ,„a„y villages a„d towns wo,-o

, ^''vr^.r'^T'' "' *''"-"™' """ *""■"'- »'«-™d
111 JX10V08, "tho })l(.aRantcst i>laen for .i.i:..i.. :.. .,

whole conn

'7- At the town tuverns wl

lere they

148

japan: country, couut, i'eoi'le.

Hiil

I''

'i 1

J'i]

lodged, horses and men were changed like tlio [)ost8 in
England, The i)eople ate rice and lish chiefly, with
wild fowl, and plowed with horses and oxen, and raised
good red wheat. Besides sake, brewed from rice, they
drank warm water witli their food.*

The entrance to the Shogun's seat, Suruga, was not
savory for tlie sight of several crosses with dead bod-
ies hanging. Tliese corpses were often used by passing
Samurai to test their swords, and so by frequent hack-
ings were much cut up. The city hud a population, so
he judged, of 250,000. The handicraftsmen dwelt out-
side of the city, so as not to disturb with their pound-
ing and hammering the riclier and more leisurely sort.
After a day's preparation Saris was conducted into the
castle, bringing his presents upon small tables of
sweet-smelling wood, according to custom. Inside the
castle he passed three drawbridges, each with its
guard, and then, ascending handsome stone steps, he
wao met by two grave and comely officers, the Shogun's
Secretary and Admiral, who led him. into an antechamber.
After resting a bit upon the mats, the two officers rose
and conducted him into tlie Presence Chamber, in order
to make due reverence to the empty throne chair. It
was about five feet liigh, sides and back richly finished
in cloth of gold, but without a canopy. The presents
from his English King James, and his own, were laid
in order in this audience room. Presently, while wait-
ing in the antechamber, it was annomuted thiit Ilis
Highness had arrived and was seated. Saris, now en-
tering alone, approached the Shogun and presented,
probably on bended knee, the king's letter. The Sho-

*0n account of a violent colic that is so common the peo-
ple even to this day drink but little cold water.

CAl'T. SAWS AND THE SHOOUN. 149

gun, taking it, i-aiBed it to l,is forehead as a mark of
.v»l.cct according to a cstoui still j.revalent, and,
ti ough h,s „.^..prete,, kneeling near hi„., bade th^
B...gl.shman welcon>e, and to rest after his wearisome
jonrney, and said that an answer would be ready in a
<lay or two. In due tin.e the answer to King James I 's
letter, and an official copy of trading >„-ivM
hniulofi f„ u • ,,""' tiatinig privileges, were

handed to .Saris, and he then returned to Hirado.
Shortly afterwards Capt. Saris, with the Shogun^

England Adams, who had entered the English India
Con^pany's service, and seven others, were left in
charge of the trading post at Ilirado. But notwit-
standing this auspicious opening, the English did not
succeed in their trading enterprise in Japan. They
bought junks and made efforts to open trade from
Japan wiUi Siam, Cochin China, and Korea; but th"
Dn ch pushed their enterprises and had the bulk of the

;f t f^'',- '" " '^''* 5"""'^ ^'•"- '"■oke out between
the Dutch and English at home, and so the DiTtch
with several ships and an overpowerin.. force of men'
attacked the English in .lap.ane'se wate™ ^^^^^
tuun. inally, i„ 1623, discouraged over their losse
he English abandoned their trade in Japan. To i ^
to-day It ,s strange reading that the J),Lk ,„-e J

stated, the rebellion of the pe.as,ant Christians at Shini
bar.a greatly enraged the Japanese rulers against the

rS"V •"'' " *''^y '«••"-«'. «*"--l "P tha
"PHsmg. An edict was therefore issued forbiddin.
two thmgs: hrst, any Portuguese coming to Japan for
anv purpose; and second n,i,- r> .

thJ country. ' ^ ■^''"""''" S'-'-S out of

5 n

f!;lM

150

japan: coun'tuy, coukt, people.

iH;

'H '•■

And 80 it came to pass tliat tlio Dutch alone were
left ill their little trading island at Nagasaki; and
they were practically shut up and treated as prison(>rs
in tliis island. Witli tliis sliglit exception tlic period of
oi)en intercourse and trade with Europe was then
closed, and Japan entered upon a i)olicy of rigid isola-
tian as a hermit nation. (We should say that the Chi-
nese were also allowed restricted trade in Jai)an along
with the Dutch.) And how can we explain this change
of policy?

There are two reasons, perhaps more. Fli-st, the
Japanese were afraid of the Roman Catlu>lics, who liad
gotten so much influence over certain i)rince8, Daimyos,
and generals, especially in Kiushiu. Secondly, tlu'y
were afraid of becoming entangled in the broils auvl
wars of P]uroi)ean nations, and of being attacked by
their ships and trooi)s. India had been invaded, first
by ]'ortuguese, then by the Dutch and French, and tlien
by the Englisli. And thirdly, it nuiy be tluit the morals
of many of the sailors and merchants of Euroi)e who
came to Japan did not make a very favorable impres-
sion upon the Japanese. The Portuguese and Span-
iards were Roman (^atliolics, tlie Dutch and English
were Protestants; but wliether tlicy acted in sucli a
way as to make the Japanese resi)ect and desire the
Christian religion is doubtful. If tlie example of Capt.
Saris's ])ad sailors is a rej)res('ntative one, we fear the
Japanese were not favorably inii)rcssed by their con-
tact with tlie Euro])eans. Wlicn Saris returned to
llirado from liis visit to the Shogun, seven of his
crew had run away and johied the Portuguese at Na-
gasaki, alleging that they had been used more like
dogs tlian men. During Saris's absence otliers, seduced
by drink and women, had committed great irregul

ar-

ALL EXCLUDED EXCEPT THE DUTCH. 151

ities, quarroli„g with tlie Jujancso und amou<r thcn-
«olvos, even to wounding, n.uin.ing, und d.atl.: Hav-
ing paid up a good nniny l>ounling-l,<,„so and li<n,or
shop billH again,st his „,on, Sarin naik-d away. See
llildreth p. 172.) Shan.eful patterns these oV Chns-
tiau civilization before the eyes of idolaters! Ah' if
the Konntn Catholics had kept their han.Is froni nuMl-
diing with the Japanese government, and if the J^rotest-
ant, Dutch, and English had been pure in morals an.l
upright 111 tlieir <lealings, „o that the intercourse and
trade so auspiciously opened couhl have gone on, what
wonderful changes would have been wrought in the
mind, ot the Japanese! It lias been charged against
the Dutch who managed to keep their little tradin<r
p«8 and bnng in their ships yearly, that thev pracl:
tRuilly renounced Christianity and cringingly ^uLn^-
ted to all sorts of restrictions, insults, amf indignities.
ihere is some truth in the charge; how much,\ve do
not care to discuss. That the profits of tliis trade were
enormous there is no question. The Dutch l,rou,.l,t
their goods and carried away silver; and when tlu/sil-
ver became scarce they shipped gold; and at last, when
silver and gold became scaive, they exported im-
mense quantities of copper. IJefore leaving the Dutch
and their trading post at Nagasaki there is one thin<.
we must thank them for: that with their little colony
they always kept a resident physician and surgeon and
a naturalist. Those scholars of scientific tastes, like
Kampler and Siel,old, studied as best they could the
country, its productions, the people, and" their man-
ners ; and their historical and scientiiic writings, now
pi-eserved m the great librari(>s of Europe and America,
nvo i.iM.K. prized as authorities for those times.

ijy

CHAPTKll VI.

I ' 'i

j" !i

Bin

'1 'I [> .

A UEliMlT NATION VIVILIZATIOS Oh' THIS PKRIOJ)
OF XA TIOXA L SK( 'L I 'S/(}\ ( /,;,«- /.sv7/,).

(^iiuisTiAMTv huviiio; been outlawed jiH a "corrupt
sect," duiigerouH to jrovonmiont and i)eoi)le, wooden
edict boardn were huno- up in ail public j.bicos forbid-
ding the profe8Hion of the (M.ristian faith, or the har-
boring of any teacher or di,sciple of it as a crime i>un-
isluiblo with death, and large rewards were offered to
informers. As we have stated previously, all foreign-
ers and foreign Christians were forbidden to ei;ter the
country; and all connnunication and trade with for-
eigners, with the slight exception of Dutch and (Chi-
nese, were strictly forbidden.

The proud Samurai, despising all kinds of trade and
manual labor, only held the Dutch in lower contempt
for being willing to be shut up, as it were in jn-ison,
for the sake of base gain. In keeping witli the ])olicy
of isolation a<)opted by the Tokugawa Shoguns, even
foreign books, writings, and pictures found in the j.os-
session of a Japanese were seized, and the man's head
taken off. To i.revent the possi])ility of trading over
sea with foreign countries, all ships above a given size
were seized and destroyed, and new ships had to l,e
built within the i>rescril)ed size.

Tlie impression was everywliere sought to be made
upon the minds of the i)eo])le that foreigners were dan-
gerous ])arbarians, worthy only of loathing and suspi-
cion— "hairy ]>arbarians," w(>aring l)eard;"and the ]»a-
triotic thing was to kill any of them that d

(152)

<]aro set their

THE PEOPLE.

153

unhallowed leet upon Japan's sacred soil. Thus, with
her gates dosed to the outside world, Japan remained
a hermit nation until the year of our J.ord 1854, a spaee
of over two hundred years. Before passing on to the
«tory ol more recent times we must i,ause to consider:

T. The People.

They have small bodies, yellow skins, black coarse
hair, dark eyes, lij.s rather thick, and nose not very
high. They have not so much of the almond eye as tlie
Chinese and yet the shape of the eye is somewhat sim-
liar. Unlike the Chinese, liowever, tliey are livelier
and quicker of movement, and more polite. Tliey arc
m politeness and grace, the French of tlie Orient. Like
all Asiatic peoples, they are liiglily comeited, l,ut, d'-Jfer-
ent from their (Ihinese neiglibors, are chivalric, l>rave
and patriotic to the liighest degree. No braver people
nor more patriotic ever breathed, nor c an we withhold
our admiration for tlie self-sacriHces which they liave
made m recent years for the love of their country,
iliey pride themselves on the antiquity of their nation.
As to their antiforeign feeling it was not originally a
national characteristic, but lias been taken on as a re-
sult of historical experience witli foreign peoples.

In agreement witli the testimony of Adams, St.
Xavier spoke of the .Taiwanese three hundred and 'fifty
years ago in one of liis letters as follows: -I really
think that among barbarous nations there can be none
that has more natural goodness tlian .Tapan." Again
in the same letter: "They are wonderfully inclin.a to
see all tliat is good and iionest, and have an eagerness
to learn." Griffis, wlio visited Kioto in IHT^], Hays:

<tXT

Jaj

No people are more courtly and ])olislied f]

)anese;

m.n the

le citi/(>ns of the Mikado surpass

i>y.

h\ :ii

P^'

154

./ai'an: coi .ntkv, coi i:t, i-iooimj;.

Hll others n. Jup;i„ i,, rotino,! jnunnorH un.l i^nicoH ol
ctKjMotU,." Am U, tlioir HiiNpiciousnoNH ;i.kI luck of um-
t.iul conlulcK.o or cmulor, il.iH is not a defoct poouliar
to J.-tj.tnoHo more than to oiUw idolatrot.H nations.
JVlutnal conf.donce in not a fn.it of idolatrouH roli.non
.'u.d cvdi/ation. Altor renidin^r an.ono- tluMn lor son.e
yc-ti-H, t ho Avritcr is inclined to say that the Japanese
ure (luick-nnnded, lovers of the beantilnl, polite brave
patriotic, <>ager to learn, 1>nt extre.nely sell-conceited
und rather snsj.icious. For a delicate sense of proprie-
ty un.l gracefnlness of n.anner, they probably have no
equals m the world. In the absence of aroused passion
or strong preju<lice they are very kin<I-hearted; and
personally the writer has been well treated by them
und holds n.any of them as his dearest friends. When
anger IS arouse.l they are rather vindictive and cruel
.lu. ged by our standards. This is due to long centuries
otJendal.sn,, which not only justified but enjoined the
taking ot revenge upon an enemy. Of one of their
.n.-irked charaeteristics, the ,,assion for the beautiful, we
sl.all speak later when considering tlieir fine arts.

II. MODKS OK L.viXG AND WoUKIX.j.

Their ways of living are quite different from ours.

I Ley do not live in town and ro,,ny as we do, but in

town and m.//u,,;,. No sep.trate farmhouses are seen

there but m villages they ,lwell, with the surrounding

mMgl.borhood divided into little farms of from one to

five aeres. The streets are narrow and for the most

part without pavements. Houses are built right on the

Htm>t, or. If a rich man's house, it is built in a large yard

cut oft from the view of the street by a liigh waU and a

great gate. !n Tokyo some wide streets with pave-

luents have been laid out recently. The houses, made

'I'H Ot

r imi-

•ul

i;ir

Moiis.
iii?iou
Homo

illlCHO

>i';ivo,
•cilod
)l)ne-
/e no
hhIoji
luul
tlieiii
^luMi
ruol,
uricH
I tl

lioir
, wo

It 111
soon

to
lost
tho
art]

MiMl

lii,' F

150

JAi'Ax: (orvruY, (oikt, n.;,,].,,,,;.

^ of wood and planter, arc low ,tn,l .ovoml with tilon <„■
with Hti-iiw thatch.

cUe.Kl at the oaves two and a half to throo foot hoyond

: ?\'" ^^T! ^'^^^ '"''''^^'^ -- l-<i ^lown thin .shoot-

n^ and upon th,s Hhooting n.nd is laid ahout two and

a alt inchos thu-k, and in this soft nunl tlio tilos aro

Lud 1 hoso tdes of burnt clay and of iron color, aro as

have V "" '"•''' '""^' "-^^ "^'-^'^'^ ^'— V and

' . vc a flange on one edge and a groove on the other.

Jhoy „.ake a very ohoap, durablo, and pretty roof. If

.0 roo .s ol straw, the straw is lai<l on six im-hes thic-k

. m iuHtenod at the cond> by bundles of straw bent into

.1 halt curve, laid on crosswise and fastened with

s .^ong cords oj- tough root rope. Whether of tile or

tl>.itoh, the lack of clnmneys is noticeable. For sn.oke

escape there ,s loft in the roof a square hoie that u..- b

iH ot thatch, tlio smoke escapes through the gables and
-dor the eaves. Now that the house^ is underroof le
walls are next to tinish. Fi.st, instead of lathing nailed
OH to the studs or posts, bamboo splits are waUled in
between the pos^,s, and tied with strings. Tl>e n.ortar
IS then put on and tinislied with white plaster. If it be
'- poor man s house, there is no white-plaster tinish of
the wall, and the most of tliem are very poor. On tl^

outs de ihn A.roll. „,.„ ,.l..„. . . . -^ ^ • ^'" "^"^

tsido tlie walls are plastered in th..
that, for protection against the rain, tl
boarding from tlie

same way except
, tliere is a weather-

boards are charred to make them 1
of scarcity of timber

ground six foot upward. The

1st,

and, on account

, are very thin, and nailed

upright fasliion. WitI ^„

tbis l)oarding at the bottom, tlio id

on 111

eaves extended at the top, and

walls last a lon<»- t

imo against wind and r

l)lustorod or stuccoed

am.

A JAPANESE DWELLING.

157

VV. h „o .•|,M,„„.y„ ,,,,,1 „„,,a, ^i,„,„„, ,

tlic cvolut,,,,, „r ,1,0 .l,.,,un„„o ,hvoIU„g. T„ ,„.t ^ ,"
wan,, „,,„„1„„.,, ,,u „f „,„ „i,,^ („,^ ^,,,,^° ^. .5: J -

Ic) ,.,,. a ,,.a,.l ol a„otl,c.,- »i.I„ of the !,„„„„ arc „„.,Io
n,uvc.al,k.-tl,at ,», „lidi„j, <,„„,« ,„,„„^„i^ |.^„^ , «

INTEiltlOK VIEW OF JAl'ANESl! IIOUSB

a ,r !| ' .''^ ""'"• "" '■""""'« '" " S'--ve above

ana ),„Iow; «„ that n, .Iayti„,„ ^ are slided ba.k i„to

ala.ge „,„,gl,t box at one end of the l.onse. Tln-so

shd.ng doo,-8 a,-e ..ailed „«„„/„,,, and in an o.-dinurv

ho„so n,„„ber f,.om t,velve to twenty. At night these

d««™ a,-e a 1 ,,„t in plaee and the whole side of the

ho„8e closed „p. Every mo,-ning the first thing done

158

.TAl'AX: (^OUNTUV, COUHT, I'lOoi'f K.

I i

Sis

IS to HlMlc lack tl.O <,/.,,,,^o., othorwiH.. 11,0 I.OUHO

would In. vory dark, and i„ „,„„„K.r l,,,,, |„, „,,. ,^,i„.
down iiro UHually sinull. Now just in.si<h. a narrow
vcrand. ,h anotl.or Hlidin.^ j.artition nmdo of Hlondn-
TZ 77"*':\^'i^'' tntUHparent ,>a,.er, or, an in tl.o
cut, filled m with ,irlaHH. ThoHo arc called ,Ao;;. Jf wl.on
t..o outside anuuloH are slid back, it is too dan,,, or
Windy, the hIiojIh remain shut; if it be },oth britrht and
warm, then In.tli amados and Hl,ojiH are pushed back
and you sit inside the house looking n\d,t out into the
open, and enjoy the fresh bree/e or tlie scenery By
this arrangement Japanese houses are deliglitiully cool
in summer, but disagreeable in winter.

Supi,oHe, now, you are going to visit a Japanese house.
\on hrst go through a low, slatted, double slidin.r <.ate
into a small yestibule. The fioor of this yestilmk. is
cement or clay packed hard. To tlie one who api.ears
to receiye you, you make a low bow, and are invited
to come "lionorably up higher." This means tliat the
house fioor is about two feet above that of the vesti-
bule. Giving humlde thanks and leaving your shoes
you get up on the floor, and soon observe Ihat every'
where it is covered witli a slightly yielding thick mat-
ting, laid down in pieces six feet long and three feet
wide. You notice, too, that there are no fixed wooden
or brick walls dividing the rooms, but that the slidinir
papered frames (shoji) just described, serve for parti
tions between them; and that these, easily tak .n out
would throw almost all the house into' one room'
When you look around you are surprised to see no
chairs, tables, or other furniture like ours. You ob-
serve too, tlie lack of fireplace, and stoves for heatinc
but instead you see in the center of the room the /^'
Oack,, the fire box or brasier, with a handful of charcoal

INHIDE THE HOnSE.

159

Hlowly hunuMg. Sitting HrouM.l tins /.//.,./,; „pon .nuts
on the floor, you warm your luuuls mul wrintH, and h„
for yo,„. foot you k..p then wanu l.y nitting on then
likothoJupanoHodo-.ryou know Low. You loaveyour
shoes in the l.ttle vestihule l,ecauHe the Japanone <lo
not Hit on cha.rs or <livan«, or Hleop on l,e(lHtoa<lH (only
a few „«e our furniture now), or nh at tables as we
do, but for H.ttzng, writing, sewing, eating, sleeping,
etc they get right down upon the thick matting. I,,
order to keep this perfectly elean, the shoes, with
<i-Ht and d,rt, must m,t be worn indoors. Sho.dd you
be mvitea to a meal, y<,u discover no common table
with chairs set aroun<l for tlie whole family. While
eating, each one sits on the floor behiml his little stand
«ix H'ehes high and receives his bowl of rice, drinks his
tea eats his hsh, and bits of vegetables without knive's
orks, or spoons. Instead of these, two slender sticks
ten inches long are used; and you would be surprised
to see how dexterously these chopsticks are used in
picking off the meat of tlie fish, etc. The tea is taken
without milk or sugar, and serves at meals for eoffee
and milk. And sliould you bo invited to stay all night
YOU do not sleep on a high bedstead but on a single
pallet made down on the matting. During tlie day the
bedding is kept in a closet with sliding doors, called
the push-put-in-place." The pillow is not a large, un-
healthful thing made of feathers, but is like a lady's
hand muff stuffed with cotton, or a wooden piece three
inches high and ten long placed under the neck. As
the Japanese are a cleanly race, every house except the
poorest lias a bath and closet.

7Vavelmf^ hij Kago and Jinrlkusha.-ln feudal times

he common people walked; the upper clashes rode in

ka(/os or sedan chairs. To a foreigner the sitting be-

i|.!

(j(;o)

o
<

>
as

JAPANESE DOcrrOHlNO. ^(ji

comes vcrj- irk»o„u., if „„t ,„.i„f„,; ,,„t ,,|,o .r.,„.„.,„,, „...
™« o„u.,l to bcKlins tlu.i,. i,.,,s ,„„,..,. ,1,0,,,, , ,„l „i,w

«i, the,- foet f,.o„. ,.|,il 1, .,„, ,,,,„ „i, , . , "=

l.u„.bo„ cl.a.r witi,o„t g,.out ,li„,.„„,f„,.t. T ho el i«
»w,„,g to a polo .,on,o o„ iho „,,„„I,U.,.„ of two ,0
0..0 in f,-o„t «„.l o„o l,ol,i,„l. TI.O K,.j,„ i„ „mi , ;^^
fo,- t,.avol aovoHs tl,o ,„o„„tai„o„« ,,.,.,. ?,f the co ,
S ,0 „ ,.ovo„t,o,,, tho Ji„Hk„„l,u huH I,oo„ i„vo„tid
a„<l i„t,-„,t„..o,l, a,„l i„ „„„. i„ ,.„ ,,„^ „„i^„,^,^

::;:>; ":: •""'",^ "'." -i"- ->a»»oH. n «::» ' :

vo'.t.o,,, ,t i„ s,.„l, of a fo,.eig„o,. i„ Sl,a„gl,„i. .Ti„.
nk„Hha „,oa„„, lito,-uUy, " ma„-,„nvo,-„l„.d," a,„ 1,
ee„ ,,. c„t, ,» a „„,all two-who,.,..,! vol,i,..o,viU, „,„,,!
1, iwM ny a in.iii. Dhh ih a very coiivoiiiont
way „ t,.a«.l, ,,„t it i, ,,.,.,1 „,,„„ ,,,„ ,.„„£ ,^,„;

. W l,o„ the ,-„a,l i„ lovol a,„l 1,.,,,, t|,o ,„,„ ,,„ i,.„^
^o ng at ,. l.voly g„it, ,,„t ,,,0,. ,voatl,o,. i„ ,,ad .^
oaI» a,.c heavy o,- hilly, «„oh a lifo is vo,y ha,-,! to tho
M ll.ng .,.a„. I„.lood, it iH »ai,l tho avon.ge lifo of t
.,nkusha„,a„ ,s „„t „,„,.o tha„ to,, yoars. I„ tho oitio«
bc-o a,.c j„„.iU„»ha statio„H whe.-o yo,. „,ay o„gag fWo
t" a„y ,,U,.o ,„ tho tow,, at a„ avo,-ago , .to of »ovo,'

'^<""» 1 '»""■; « »"t "f »"-. a„.l tho°liHta„oo is on

yo,. .nay travol l,y ,.oh.,s. Ii„t i„ oitho,- case be s„re
to make yo,„- 1,a,-gai„ woU „„do,.stoo,I iK.fo,-e yo„ 8ta,-t
otherwise yo,. will s„,.oly have t,-o„hle at the ^Z

Japanese 7>„,.*«,V,y.-To-day th..y have .nodical col-
leges and st„dy tl,o Wo8to,-„ systo,,, of „,odioine hut
.mt.l .-ocently the (•l,i„o«o syste,,, was i„ vog„e Th ,
was a „„«,„.„ of science and s„,,o,-»tition, o,- ,,hysio

,nod,c.ne man ' was a sacred person or p.-iost. I„
the hrst p toce the Avholo theo,y of diseases was based
UDon certain ♦"«"!" f '^^ • - •- - >"*»«^'-i

upon

teachiiigy of Chi

nesc i»lnluso|)liy an to the

lli

\m:t 1

JAPANESE DOCTOEING.

163

CO
M

male (yo) and female (in), principles in nature, the pos-
itive and negative. When these two principles are not
iii^nglit balance, then ])eople got sick.

The doctor was a great man, and when called came in
consKlerable state in liis kago. Tea was at once offered.
With no watches or thermometers, pulse and tem,,ora-
tt.re were taken after a fashion. The point in the dif-
ferent pulses indicated luid something to do with the
two principles above Tucstioned, and the question for
the doctor to decide was: Whic-h one has got the upper
•aiul.^ 1 lie examination finished, and the lumds washed
to purge away the in.purity of tlie disease, the doctor
was ottered refresliments. There was no fee for the
visit, but the doctor lived l)y selling his medicines. The
drug store liad not yet separated from tlie doctor's office
llio medicmes were made of lierbs and the organs of
animals or insects. Powders, pills, and decoctions were
made of plants. The brain, heart, liver, and otiier
parts of insects, frogs, lizards, and quadrupeds were
dried and reduced to powder, and in this form v ere
sup]»osed to have great liealing virtue.

Acupuncture with a very fine needle were also in-ac
ticed, especially for pains in the stomach and bowels
he number of punctures ranged from one to twenty,
depth from one-luiif to three-quarters of an inch. Mas-
sage was also i,racticed l,y a guild of blind men, who
made tlieir living rubbing the skin and kneading the
muscles. Massage was recommended to persons fatigued
from walking, or suffering witli back aclie, rheumatism
etc. Until 1870 the blind shampooers, a guild extend-
ing all over ^l.e land, with one office in Kioto and an-
otlier m Y.Hio, was divided into several grades and each
required examination and fee. The organization is not
now so ttourisliing, still the melancholy whistle of the

(164)

A DKY GOODS STOBE.

166

blim d,ampooc,-, a„ l,e »lowly fool» l.is way alo„g the

rubbing dowiiwai-a .nstuad of ujiward
ttio b.te of dned plant, wlud, we call mui;wort, arc

hod to the body. Moxa was applied for fainting spelli
o.e bleeding, rl,e„„,ati«,n, and a hundred othe a !

p'atfnl ,'";■ ' "' '"" ""•^••^ '*"" «'° ■'■^'-1 «kin

...cnt for bad eh.ldren. Little blaek spots arc oftni
Heen upon the legs and backs of coolies showing ha
the moxa is still nuu-li used "

idef oTrt''"'"-"'?" "'•^"''-".ving cut gives a f.i,.

Idea of a Jai.aneso dry goo.ls store. Tlie two vouna

-n are clerks; one is calculating with the IZ^

. ha,- ns) the cost of a pic. of goods whic-h the la,ly

t e abacus ,s always used in n.aking calculations, even
he snuaicst; an,l while they are very quick and acc^
.ate in castn.g up figures with it, with.n.t it they are .at
a great oss. All of the .dcrks are sitting, wi«, it"
bent back nnder then. One is surprised th lirst ti ;^e
he ente™ a Jap.anese shop (store) to see the n.ercha, or
™ clerk s.tfng npon d,e nutttcl floor and apparently
iKhiferent to the selling of his goods. There is no , o^
l.te usher at the door to invite you in and inoun-e w at
you w.sh. Nor does the clerk rise to receiveV 'u oT n
qun-e what you wish; you yourself must ask for what
you w.sh to see. In Jap.an there are no great storl a
n, A„„..,ca, they are rather little shops of stalls It
the custou, of the merchants to procure young boys as
upprenfces through a go-between, whose bus.^rUi

r
i.'l

'liJ

f 'I

!Ui'

jl--

«l'

,1^ I

(166)

STRANGF! WAYS.

167

-o find employees und l,ring tl.em to their employers
After years of service, tJie master raises then to th^
|-ank of clerk, and if still faithful and capable frecpu t-

daughter n nuirnage, or sometin.es gives him a little
money and sets up a branch .hop or ^tore bearing th
same name as the master or father-in-law

Ainong those people tl.e same domestic and economic
conditions exist to-day which ol>tained several genera-
tLons ago among the English-speaking nations-that is,
m the same dwelling the master, his family, and ap^
prentices reside, tl>e goods are on sale in 'the front

factured. 1 he store, the shop, and the family du^dling
were one and the same place. ' ^

Straxgp: Ways.
In matters of etiquette and form they are quite differ-
ent from us. To lei-t, not the right, is the side and
seat o honor. White, and not black, is the appropri-
ate color of mourning at funerals. We teach our chil-
dren not to make a noise when sipping milk or water,
but in Japan noise with tlie lips and brcatli when drink-
ing IS a mark of polite appreciation. Witli us, women
must be given preference, but with them the women
mu«t give preference a.,d ,,articular j.oliteness to the
lords ot creation," for it is not proper in Japan for
the gentlemen to l,e liumble or give precedence to " weak-
er vessels " Again, the order of the family and .iven
names is directly the reverse of ours-for instance, John
Smith in Japan would be Smitli Join,, and the titles
such as ''Mr." 'Miey."and the like are placed after the
name, so tliat Prof. Jones would be Jones Prof. The
title -San," meaning Mr., Mrs., or Miss, has bc-ome a

'T \

' ' ' • 1

If I

Ii,i l;

(108)

HTRANOE WAYS.

109

well-nigh univemil title applied to noblemen, gentle-
men women, and Hervunt8 alike, hence we are continu-
ally hearing such terms as '^PJiyHician Mr.," ''AVlieel-
man Mr.," -Cook Mr.," and even -Bal>y Mr." It is
said that when the steam cars were iirst^rought into
the country some of tlie Hin.ple-minded country folk,
tlnnkmg them to be a thing of life and power, called the
cars "Steam Car Mr."

Their mental oi)eration8, as seen in tlie way they say
things, are quite different from ours; for exan.pi; the
preposition in English is a post-position in Japanese,
tor It always follows the noun, lience they say: "Go un
mountain into." In short tlie order of^.liouglit in a
Japanese sentence is in general the direct reverse of ours
so that ni translating Japanese into Knglisli it is well to
begin at tlie end of tlie sentence and go ])ackward.

With us it is not considered polite\,o speak much or
too well of one's self, but we do not carry it to the ex-
treme that the Japanese do; for they, i'n speakincr of
ones self, his family, or concerns, muk use humble^md
depreciatory language, whereas for the j.crMon addressed
honorifies, longer forms, and even different words must
be used; for instance, my ,nfe must be designated as an
t.gly dunce of a thing, my son as a stui>i,f fellow, but
yonr v'ife is an honorable la<ly, and the like. In fact
in polite language m>/ son is translated by a different
word irom yonr son. Foreigners aiv frequently per-
plexed to find a suitable word to apply to their wives
so as not to offend the tastes of the J^ipanese nor violate
their own sense of what is due their wives. As to say-
ing of my head that it simply aches and of ^/o^r /lonora-
ble head that it aches or augustly suffers we forei^rners
have no sort of objection, l)ut when it comes to speak-
ing of our wives as stupid things we must draw the line.

170

JAPAN : (.'OUNTItY, COUKT, I'EOrLE.

fetill fi.rtlier we notice that the Jap.aneso way of work-
ii'g iH often different from onvn; for exan.ple, when we
hrst went to Japan we were surpriwed to nee ho many
sitting down on tlie floor or ground wlien at work. We
ohnerved hlackHniitlis an well as coopers and tinkers sit-
ting down Hat on the ground. When passing one on
the street t.liey turn to the left; the carpenter pulls his
plane and saw instead of pushing it. In n.any other
ways one is frequently impressed witli the fact tliat he
i« m the midst of a people of different modes of think-
ing, ioelmg, and acting; in fact, a civilization far re-
niovcd from ours. And yet tl.eir hearts and their needs
ot soul are quite the same as ours.

III. Hanks and Classes of Sociktv.

During the Tokugawa period tlie ranks and classes of
society were somewhat as follows:

I 7' /-/c <• ,. f-^'omin.'il ruler, fount of

^.,\ honors, head of na-

en), Ji,mi)eror. . . . J +: , ,. .

^ ^ '< tional religion, con-

sidered divine, even

•a^

11. 7\M(/e, Court Nobles.

III. Slioifitn j

IV. Ills Nobles.

before death.

Actual ruler, with au-
tliority of a king; his
relatives, with their
retainers, hold fief
lands as his vassals,
making a standing
army of 80,000, the
"Ilatamotos" (under
the flag).

RANKH AND CLASSES.

171

V. Dalmyos and Unr /';,,,,///.. .-The ancient no-
bih y were allowed l,y Sliogunn to kcop part of their
iJiiulH iis territorial lords.

While the Shogun J..d his own guards at Iuh capital
and kept his own garrison, in tlie Osaka and Kioto cas-
tJoH, fron. Ins own family, clan, and vassals he chose
officers and advisers for the government; the Daimyos
were also recogmzed l,y appointing from the eighJon
gieat daimyates live of them as his Great (^o.mcil, and
tJiree others as a Second Council.

Eac-h Daimyo had his own castle, his bands of Samurai,
ai d his feudal revenue estimated in rice, accordino- to
which he paid tribute yearly to the Shogun. For ex-
ample, Satsuma had a revenue of 7lO,()()()\koku of rice
the amount of yearly rent from his Lmd. Tlu>y wore
aUowed to control the affairs and people witlii,; their
own doman.8 pretty much at will. IJut certain restric
urns were laid upon them, respecu:.g the increase of
thc.r lands by marriage alliances or purchases, consent
of the Shogun being required. And as a mark of vassal-
age they were required to spend a part of every year in
their yashikis surrounding tlie Shogun's castle at Yedo
Ihe coming of these territorial lords from all parts,'
^ith their proud priu.os and demure princesses, theii'

Ir Yedr '""'"^ ^'"'"'''' '"^ '''™''' ^^'""-^^^ ""'^
Xo other capital in the world enjoyed such a tiling.

Uis explains why, in tlie older geographies, Yedo was
named the largest city m the world. As the time came
ar^md for .he Daimyos to leave their country yashikis
ami go up to the capital, we can imagine wluit a stir
^here was, and how the towns and taverns along the
liigliways would be decked out to honor the great Tono-
samas. And when these nobles with their families, borne

172

JAI'an: <ointuv, coruT, vvawlk.

u 1 1

we.. ,.11 cute,.,,,. ,,„„ g,,,,,,, ,„i,i,, ..^^ ^i^^ ^ »; ^^.

..■o.o««,on« a,„l ..,,„ii,Hge« „u,.i l.uvu prcoutcl a l.ii'
iiaiit and iin|ircH8ive scone.

VI. na .*»«««/.— Tl,c«o were the liaurfitv niilitM-v
ge,,t„y a„a aehola™ „f t,,„ elan, an exclusive he^lua,' v
.•lass. I hoy «.„,„ tl.o guu,-,l„ of tl,o Dain.vcs, f ■ wlu,.,;
I .■(«.so .™a !,„,,„,. thoy were al«..ay„ .-oa.ly to »,k.,1 t!,,-!
'1-.I- r .oy I,aa no othor ,,„„i„e«« than sorv-h.^j thou-
lo.-,:. an< koo,„n« the connnon ,,„o,,lc in ...hjootu:,, an.
wore to,l from thoir lor,r« store of rico. Durin./f „
o.,sc.-aot ,,oaoe (16.38-1 854) thoir tin.o wa« sp^.tin
on,.„,g, t«,„-naniont», an.l „|,hcr military «,,ort. In.nt-

..^ att., ing drinking 1 t„, and stil,'ing .'o'r,

bo„k8 taoh one wore two swor.ls, a long and short
ono; the long one cither for the defense of hi., lord In-
to slay h,s own enemy, the short one to take hi„ „w.,
hfe m certan, emergenoios. TI,ey were «u,,,,„sod to ho
.-u y a ways to proto..t the weak and inni,!ent .an.l to
d.e tor then- honor. The ruling olass for so n.any go .!
e.-ations tl,ey naturally foil into the hahit of ,L^,is-
n,g all below then, and ofttin.os troate.l then, roughly.
1 h.y dospisod trade and money. " The sword is the
soul o the ha„.urai" woU exprosnos the oharaotor of
that class and accordingly the nation has a fearless
warliko-sjin-it. '

VII. The I'nest CT«,.._Among n.ost of the ohlor
.,at,on» pnosts have ranko.l next to the king, l,ut in
Japan the foreign religion „f ]J„ddhisu> pusi,e.l aside
the natne Shn.to cult, whose head priests wore of the
....penal fanily. Sou.e of the chief, abbots and head
p.-.ests among the Buddhists were of noble blood yet
as a class they wore below the Samurai. Bu.ldhist
priests were sup,,osed to bo without wives or ohildrou

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(173)

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(716) 872-4503

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174

JAI'AX: ((MNTHV, COUKT. I'EOI'LE.

11^

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.l.;.n« „,.,„„. „f very poo,- f.tho™, l,a,l to live wit tl e
li"e« .„ ,,„ t„,„,,,e as M, sorv,„,t or assistant. 0.0^

:r:;; ^? '" """ -' ^ ■■"'''« "■• i'™'™ <" ^i- i.io„d is

« t n ,a, t i o,- a pnest. Dnnng the Tokugawa ,,e,-io,l the

■nests 1,..M „u,,o,.ai„ate rank as govcn„„e„ ,^ffi I !

. icU ...to ..o„sia„,.al,lo clisrcputo „„ amount of 1 1, „ b

"cntof t.m W„„to »l,n,„.s was a noble of tl,e inn-c-

-1 .onsc; an,UI,e.Sl,og„nasi,at,-on of ]i„,WI,ism l,a 1 a

oW„n,an a,,,,„„,tc,l ,„.in.ate of the Buddhist temp o!

tlironghont t'lo country. ^'-•"pice

fh?'"'', ?" '^'"""«"""/'«V'fc— They wore divided into
three snhclasses, each lower than the others. Ue,, «■ ■!

Kniinroof Ja]>an,"i,. .')41.) 'y "i tne

sans and tr.xlers PronL ancient times dependent n„„„
agnculture and iishing, an.l influenced by' the e.van ,

the hrst rank among the eon.mons. Being below the
Nnnura. the farmers were not alfowed to wear sword
to bear faunly nan.es, nor intennarry with the hi.. «;
classes. They were, in fact, serfs of the soil and nnde
the control of the lords. Outside the castle town .
whole connuunity dwelt in villages, and the „eas\.nt^ '
were ruled by three classes of offlcks: The vilire ll
or n,ay„r, the cb.ef of the five fan.ilies or streets, and the
representafve of the five n,en. The whole village being
<livu led off n.to streets of five fan.ilies, and these subdi
v.dedaganunto groups of five persons, all the affairs of
the village, and of theirlittlofarms in the neighborhood
the.r conduct, etc., were intrusted to these three offi!
cials. All matters of pctitioii and appeal to the Uaimyo

THE COMMON I'EOl'LE.

176

o. lord of the ma>,or were in the I„m.I, of the villa™ cid-
ers and regulation, of land, t=«e», irngationCjs
and ditches, and all demand, „on>ing down f.-o n t e

I a,v I» ^'T '"'", ".'"""g W'" J'''l>— connnon,.
ii any n alter of complaint or petition for relief con-
cerned the whole dai„,j.ate, then .,11 the village elCrs
acted m a hody ,n behalf of their village. So„,eth,

80. fs n.to poverty. A notaldo instance of this is given

UW Japan ) Somotnncs when their niiscrv became nn-

g at then- lo,-d's gates, the people tnrnedo,.tc« „»,,,...

SK^Lles ,n then- g.rdles instead of swords, and band,oo
poles upon then- shoulders, and marc:hed in a body to
the gates of their lord'syashiki. For this boldness tiv
may have to pay a few of their heads, but ther l„o

e™tt"Ltf ;;""^ '" "'"^ '"■• '"-■ -^™« -"«>^' -

cannot live as things now are.

The farmers dwelt upon their lords' lands as hei-ed-
.tary tenants of the soil, p.aying as a rule fortv per ent
rent year y_so„,etin,es fifty per cent. Tl,; aveZe
ainount of land ranged from an acre and a half to ^tT
i arm laborers received, besides food and clothes a
yearly wage of from *n.r,0 to *:«. IIi,ed Laborers rare!
1 ■ got to eat of the ri.-e which they cultivated. Th ir
staple food was millet, sweet potatoes, etc. On festival
days and anniversaries they received, as a raritv, b Jk
wheat and barley. During the Tokugawa pc'^o he
peasant farmers fared better than dur^ig the previo s
periods; yet even in this long, peaceful period "hy
were serfs of the soil and had a hard lot. ^

r. ;

\h'l^

ml'

176

JAPAN : COUNTIIY, COURT, I'EOI'LE.

2. The artisan stood in a class next to that of the
farmers. Each handicraft being handed down from fa-
ther to son for generations, it came to pass that some of
them became very skillful in certain productions. The
mechanics, like the peasant farmers, were serfs of their
native village, and could not move from place to place,
nor cross the boundaries of their lord's domain without
his permission. Under certain restrictions they were
allowed to form guilds, and each guild had its own
head man, and tlie members wore a certain letter or
other device woven into their outside garments.

3. The trading class was still lower than the artisan.
In fact, the mercantile class as we know it was hardly
existent in tliose days. The traders were only small
shopkeepers^ peddlers, hucksters, not merchants in the
modern sense. Not only the Shogun, but the great Dai-
myos as well, had their own warehouses and agents, and
ordered direct from the manufacturer, or themselves
manufactured such things as were needed. There was
little need, therefore, of the middleman, who stands be-
tween producer and consumer, buying from the one and
selling to the other. These facts show how the mer-
cantile class was not important in those times, and how
trading people were lower in the social soale.

4. The etas were an outla\ i, outcast people, away
below all the above-mentioned. Indeed, they were not
accounted as having any social rank whatever, for they
were not even regarded as men. Their origin is obscure,
some believing them to be descendants of the Koreans,
captured slaves; others, that they are the enslaved
remnant of tlie ancient Ainus. They were restricted to
the following kinds of work, considered exceedingly de-
grading: butchers, tanners, body burners, execution-
ers, and scullions of criminals. If an eta entered a

0D8TOM3 AND MANNEBS.

177

house of any true Japanese, it would at once be pol-
U.ted; hence they were required to live apart, as if they
were aoc.a lepers. We are glad that, atlr he revolu"^
t.on, the Emperor granted them sta.iding room as hu
man be.ngs and citizens along with his either 7.Z^^
Of course the shadow of the feudal system stiU re»V:
upon the whole fabric of Japanese socfety, 1, d " «
«ot be expected that the old lines of excU«i„„ betw"
classes should be wiped out at once.

IV. Customs and Mannkks.*
In matters of etiquette and form the .Japanese were

St. ictly observed, and many things which we do in an
.nformal way they do with -.e form n„d cer^mon;

Special regard was had to precedence of class, rank, a fd
age^ Just as .t was among the European natio, s in
feudal tunes so an.ong the Japanese now; insignia, of
ftce, and rank count for n.uch. Son.etimes the airs and
d.gn,ty of a petty ottlcial are sin.ply ridiculous in the
eyes of fore.gners. The lower classes or ranks in offi!
;'.al c.rcles nn.st bo careful to pay court to the higher,
il e due respect of inferior to superior, of youngfr to
cUler, of vassal to lord, was all-important infold J^^n

rv':Cci:.'^''-'"^'''^^°"^-'--'»«^-.''t

The etiquette of salutation and taking leave will il-
lustrate our point. On the street a sin.ple low bow
»d l,ftmg the hat, if one is worn, is sufficient whel
acquaintances pass each other without stopping. If
hey stop, then the bows un.st be lower and more de-
hbera e, and must be repeated, interspersed with polite
!!!3!!!!!!f:l^fference^ the weathir, etc. The infe!

*Cf. "Mikado's Empire," p, 804.

I*. , II

'pi'ii

178

JAPAN : COUNTUy, COURT, PEOPLE.

nor 18 of course more i>olite and deferential, in every
movement an well as in language. Even on the street
the one proposing to pass on must be careful to beg par-
don Each is supposed to be at the service of the other
and besides is delighted to be in the presence of his friend
or superior; hence it is impolite to appear to be in a
hurry m passing on. In short, to be in a hurry, except
on business for one's superior or lord, was always a
breach of good manners. Dignified, slow, and meas-
ured movements were the outward marks of a gentleman
and a sdiolar. If the salutation is indoors, then it is
always more elaborate and decorous. Indoors the par-
tics are, of course, down upon the floor, and so, being in
a kneeing or sitting posture, the bows must be lower
and salutations more elaborate. If marked respect is
".tended, the bowing is low enough to touch the floor
with the forehead; meanwhile, thanks for some atten-
tions or kindness received in the past must be made in
words of grateful humility, and apologies for former
rudeness or for not making an earlier call, must be of-
fered. Shaking hands was never practiced until re-
cently, nor was kissing ever considered good form

Tea IS always served to guests. The guest, entering
the guest room, stops at the lowest mat, the mat neai^
est where he entered. The host will insist that he come
up highcr-that is, nearer to the tokonoma, the raised
dais, or place of honor. Tne guest's good breeding rnd
proper regai-d for the rank, age, or position of his lu,st
will decide how far up he should go. Aln.ost imme-
diately after he is seated a clapping of the host's hands
brings the servant with tea canister and cups The hi
bachi and kettle are probably already in the center of
the room. The host then proceeds to make and serve
the tea, which the guest receives with a low bow and

BIRTH AND REARING OP CHILDREN. 179

IJiiebc gives to it a charmed namo ri .1.

or weaning fS;, who " '^'■•""'•'' *" *■'"' «P-«<"'

tne mouth of the child, pretending to feed it Ti^
same is done with five rice cakes Thj! . ^^

is handed back to his pare^ror guaidt T::{ 1 1 e' ^'''
sor presents three cups of wine dritt ' '^^''"

<=;

[••1 ■

RKAlUNd OF CHILDUKN.

181

ncH.tro.ulnH .,.o,.Hor. Dn,.! linl. Is tlu... Im-om,.'.!,

• "jyieaHt iH Hproad, uc-oonling to the .no.-u.H of the
^-Hly. I the cl.ild IH a .iH, th.n tlu, H,>onHo.- in a
wo nan 1. .-o.n the fifteenth <lay of the elevl.th nu>nth
1.0 third yc.tr two lo.kn of hair, one on eaeh Hide
-'Ht „i front ot the ears and <,ne at the ha.-k of the
Ha, ,n<,vvedtogrow. T^p to thin tin.e the whole
H.U l.HH been kept nhaven, l,nt now the eeren.ony of
to ha.r euttn.g takeH .htce. On thin oeeanion also a
«I>onHor ,H ehoHen, and neven i,resc.ri}>ed artich-s are
^m>u/^ht on a large tray: eon.],, s,.iss<,rs, thread, seven'
rioe straws, etc. The ehihl in pLu-ed faein, the poin
of con.pasH snj.posed to he hn-ky for that yc>ar, and the
Hponsor with scissors n.akes three snips each of the hair
i.pon^ the two temples and the center. Then follows
certain enddeniatic-al tying of hair, drinking of wine

y-u, the child IS invested with the hakama, the loose
trousers worn l>y the Samurai. The child on this ocea-

Z^TT- " ""7" '' """'""'^ ombroidered with
sto ks, tortoises, hr trees, and l,anil,oos. The stork
and tortoise sy.nholi/e long lifo; the pine tree, an un-
H.ajing heart; the ba.nhoo, an upright and straight

nnd. In the fifteenth year, a lucky day being chosen
the most important ceremony of all tales place: tluU
whicli places the son among full-grown men. A per-
son of virtuous character is chosen to perform it. A
tray and earthenware wine cup are brought, whereupon
sundry ceremonies of drinking wine, aiul cutting and
tying up the hair after the fasiiion of a man are per-
formed. Tt is on this day he receives his name-/ .
his name as a man. A high-.lass man of the ohlen tiiues

ti — ; -

182

.'AI'AN: COrTNTRY, COURT, I'KOPLK.

had hrec naniOH: (1) his real name, known only to the
family and intnnatcH; (2) the chihl nan.o, known only
to the conununity; and (H) the man nan.o. The nriii
naine ih frequently changed, as was the custom in Bilile

«o.//.^^^ the old times learning to write Chinese

characters wan the principal part of a chihrs oduc-ation,
and required years of diligent application. Only th^
children of the upper classes had leisure enough for this
i lie schools must have been noisy, as the children had to
sing out tlio characters as they wrote them stroke by
stroke, to prevent them from talking or meddling with
one another's tasks. During the Middle Ages education
was ,n tlie hands of the Buddhist priesthood. The tem-
ples were the schools. -The accession of the Tokugawa
Miogunate (1 (50.3) brought a great change. The educated
classes became Confncianists. Accordingly tlie Con-
tucian classics were held in great honor, learned by
heart commented upon as carefully as in China itself.
IJesides the classics, instruction was given in Chinese
history, Japanese history, and literature. Education
as a rule, was confined to the military and noble class-
es. I he women of course got less.

Mmruu/e Cereniotiws.~Thc marriage ceremonies were
various, depending upon the rank and means of tlie
family. As it was in Bible times, the choosing of a
wile was a matter arranged by the parents through a
^ go-between." The young men and maidens of Amer-
ica little realize what extraordinary privileges they en-
joy. Such liberties as pleasant walks, drives, accom-
panying one's sweetheart to church or public enter-
tainment, or spending an hour in the parlor with a
young lady friend is unknown in Japan. According
to Japanese etiquette, a girl from the early age of ten

w i

i I!'

MAItl{IA(JE CUHTOMH.

188

"lUHt not associate or play with the boys, but only with
the girls, and must not talk to any young man except
her brotherH; an.l as for receiving a gentlenuin friencl,
never! When going out she is always accompanied bv
her mother or maid. Marriage in Japan could not, as
a rule, be for love, for the reason that the young num
and lady have little or no acquaintance with each other
before l>etrothal, probably having not so mud, as spoken
to each other. 80 that such a tiling as a young man seek-
mg the heart and hand of a young lady whom he loves
iH little known among that people. The only excep-
tion is where a young man has seen a young lady upon
the street with her mother and thinks he likes her, though
probably he has never spoken to her in liis life Ho
may place at tlie entrance to her house or apartments a
flowering plant in a pot. If it is left to wither, lie
knows his hopes are vain; if it flourishes, he knows
that her parents are willing to entertain negotiations
for the betrothal of their daughter. The next thin<. is
to get his father to send tlie "go-between" to see abtut
It. J3ut even in this case the rigid rules forbi<l the ro-
mance and pleasure of courtship. Not even by corre-
spondence is the young man permitted to address tlie
young lady. It is only among the lowest classes that
there is freedom of the sexes.

After the -go-between" has found a suitable youno-
lady for the son of his friend, an opportunity is somo^
times given by mutual arrangement to get a look nt the
girl he has never seen. This meeting is called the
look-at-each-other meeting." There are three occa-
sions for this: at the home of the girl, upon the brido-e
and at the theater. But in each case the father ''or
mother is present. In fact, the girl is so bashful she
could hardly speak to the young man even should she

184

JAIMV: r„lvn,v IIT, |.1.:„|.|.K.

W1.U k„.,w, „.„,i,i„j, , , ,,„., «,-,, wi,., i„ u, .r :j ;

; ' "•" " "'.•■"•l.-lmiK,,..,!? Abs ul„o IW t|„. ' ;,■

IvHown ,„.rH,,Hn..«. ,,.;,„ ,,iu ,.r,„.,.w,.,.,l„. u„,I „ ,.. V

"'"'■" "-!"•• ^'---'f.'- i" fm- unoU,..,- ,„., iv ^r

:::::n.;:!„:'::M';:^.:,u;.„:;;.:; -r-"-^".-

::a:;!;r''v-i •:'"'■"■''■','■'';■ '••■•■ '-'--til

olltUKIl.l, ||,|„ „|„v,,,.„,il ,|,,„i,,, ^ ,„.,..„,,,„,,.„ ,, ,

»o son i„ l,on, in tl„. 1,„„«„. F,-..„„ omlv" „ ,1
take, ,,1...„ .„,,i.v, ,„., t,,„ a,l„,,t 1,1 t'

1» nal Unnly down, and (•,„„,,li,.at,.„ ..am™ ..„,I kl,,
«..p. Many a HiWi™, „,.„„ia,.: diHo„»„i„« ,„' Lt' i

^a„j,.„,. a.,.o„« o, •;;;r,' ir '^s:;;;:~^^^^^^

•'c.ft,..„lt,es"wo,.l.l ,li„a,,,.„a.-, for th,. ,Iiffi,. ,U .: ,

As a ,-„le children arc not betrothed so yonn<r as in
Kl,a, and yet in n.ost cases years elapse^.We t. e
"mon IS consnnnnated. If the girl be nllv .V ,
very poor, her parents n.y havf l! ti'lt.olTwM:

~i'

MAHIIIAOB CUHTOMR. 1^5

Ni>(. iH to tuko to !,«.,• ImHl,a,„rH homo If is H.i.l <i.

It to luHt ho, for many yearn. A proverb Hays:
I. ouKl. H n.an },e rioh, if he have throe ht.M^htors he
w.ll l>eoonu. ,>o<,r in n.arryin,. then, off." W^^ ^
^^ncvc.ta.o,laoe^

.11 iiLi i.itii(.| H hoiiNo (or tlio marriage but In

.r=.,-. ti,o ,,ri,i., i„ ,.,.„„g„t i„ ,. „,„„, ,„„,, t,t ,',;:„

of the g,.„o,„'„ father. A little tire huvi„„ ),ce„ I ,

d ed at the door I ,„atti„K „„„„„ „,,„„ The grom d

B he leave- her f atherV l,„„„o a,„l e„ter« the el„„efi «e hn

.a,r borne u,,o„ the -houblern of „,e„. I, " Je 1' '

e "go-between," the retainers of the bridegroo who

. o «ent to weleon,e her, and a few servant, f^lllw

i be servants carrying nrosenta in fl,„ "

boar bri„btl„ 1 • ', ^""'' ^ *'i° grooms fannly

bndos family „|,„„ them. The bri.lo will be treated

hence be, fa her sen.ls presents to every niond,er of the
groon, s family, servants included. The marriage cere-
•..o..y m olden Japan was not celebrated by prieftew itb
prayers, vows, and blessings. It is not a^religlous bu
a domestic and sonal function. ^

Briefly the marriage is as follows: The wedding room
.8 always decorated, especially the tokouoma: with

186

JAl'AX: COINTUV, COVUT, PEOPLE,

' !,

v; i

pine, I,aml,o«, and plum },lo,S8om8 in vasen, and three
picture scrolls hanging on the wall just beliind the to-
konoma In the middle of the room is placed a .^hite

at etl^r 1 "^' T' '' ^" '''''''^' ^'^^ P"-' -^
at either end an old man and woman-dolls dressed

m ancient style. This decoration signifies wishes for
nviil' ^"^ I'7«l--ty to the couple. The moment
hav ng arnved, the groom is seated upon a mat in front
of tlie tokonoma, the seat of honor, waiting in a solemn
n^-n 1- bride then enters, moving slowfy and grac"
fully, takes a seat next to liim; and then the -go-be-
tween sit down in front of the couple. By the bride's
.^de sits two married ladies or two little girls. tL
bride IS dressed in a long white silk ro]>e, heavily inter-
lined over an under dress of white, with a thick white
veil that falls down upon her as a mantle. Genera] V
a lady s sleeve is one foot four inches, but the sleeves
of wedding cu^sses aie two feet five inches; and tVe
silk sash, ricnly emLroidere.l in gold, is eleven feet lone
and IS wound around lier many times. Her tali, '^hall
hose," with divided big toe, are also of white silk.

^ Any Japanese lady dressed in this way will be pretty
oeconnng and attractive." The groom also wears th^
ceremonia dress made of silk in colors according to liis
ran^ All being quietly seated, two voices sinewing a
ow Japanese song will be heard from the next room, and
this will contmue tlirough the ceremony. A low white
^.vood_ stand is now brought in bearmg ^hree flat cuips
placea each upon the other. This being placed in froiit
of tiie bride, one of the bridesmaids pours a little
sake from a wine jar decorated with two butterflies.
The smallest of the cups being passed to the bride, .he
takes three sips and hands it to the groom; then

188

japan: country, court, people.

3'^'

(Li

follow the second and third ,.„ps. During the passing
will If ■ 1 i ' *°«'^"'''" ^'g"'««« that the couple

irdr^rth!: > '"i "■' '°™"- ^"^^ ^^^ f-^ c' ;

8 drunk the "go-between" announces to the parents
and friends that they are properly married. ^

A great feast is now spread in the same room and the

sits by her husband's side with uncovered face to!
-the most elaborate and expensive of all the" feast

couple makmg congratulations. Wine cui>s are ev
tions At this feast clam soup is always served The

fnd thf ""t"r *° " '^'« """■ ' --» -hen all are goTie
and he couple have retired to their room, anothef c,n

the'^;:: i r'"'?^?'* ''^'--" *- ■■» «h; pre*: e ^

the go-between's" wife, and this ends the ceremony
The reader has doubtless noted the important T2;

Si t^tt "rrT" ^>i through cie'r

x;' lewdraea with a present; and if hp rinoa
not get what he thinks he ought to have had, t w"
come often to borrow money

be W rjl'' 7"""" "."""^^^ "^^ »''■"«. the new name
bemg registered m the government office. Other
changes mark her now as a married woman. First Z
changes the style of her hair. There is but one stl
for a marned lady. Japanese women did not dre s
th ir own hair, nor do they do it now, but pay a a
diesser from two to eight cents per week. They never
wear boni^ts or earrings, but hair Jewels, small' coX

W M «'■• "I'f' "i "^'•"•■^^' °ft^" ™T costiv and
beautiful. Secondly, the married woman ch.angcs her

AFTER THE WEDDING.

189

dress for one of grave colors. Married Japanese ladies
never dress gayly like many American women do who
are even beyond fifty years. However rich and costly
the material, it is made up in the same plain and taste-
ful way as any other dress. The modest, elegant sim-
plicity of a high-class lady's costume in Japan is wor-
thy of admiration. Only women of bad reputation
wear gay and flashy clothes. Thirdly, she must shave
her eyebrows, to show that she is not single but mar-
ried. This is certainly an ugly custom. Fourthly
she must blacken her teeth, which also disfigures the
woman no little. The blackened teeth are explained
to be a mark of subjection to her husband. This cus-
tom is now becoming obsolete.

There is no honeymoon for a Japanese bride and
groom. They take no bridal tour; but from the very
first the bride must rise early, see her mother-in-law and
her father-in-law, and ask how they rested, etc.; and
must mingle freely with the servants and make herself
immediately useful in household affairs. The truth is,
she has become a daughter and a helper in her mother-
m-law's house. It is good form for the bride and groom
to be at first reserved in manner toward each other in
the presence of the family and not show much affection.
She comes among strangers who are observing closely
her every step, and she has to prove herself acceptable to
the family by her amiable obedience. The trying cir-
cumstances of her case are explained by saying that, in
a sense, she has married the whole family— that is she
must please them all, and obey not only' her new hus-
band, to whom she is a stranger, but her mother-in-law
father-in-law, and her husband's elder brother. After
the seventh day she may make a visit to her father's
house; but this over, she returns to her mother-in-law

190

H;;

III;

I''

f i','

lL\ ]

JAl'AX: COlXTUy, court, I'EoI'LE.

exoi-<-,sc.8 strict an.l rightf„l <.o„tr„l ti,. T °

mat ;\t • l:;.::;:;:;;^:;;:'' '"™^^"- . ^^^ ^°""' -

th. and but w„ ,lo uffinn that the ],ositi„ , of the wi c
.Japan ,s ,,y ,,„ „„.,,„ ,„ ,,^,^. .^^,^j^ - w <«

ly Jiaia Dj our American women. PlnraHtv r.f

countHes thejthS h Jet:,', ::i:!^: ;""'-"-

of by bnrial, b„t afte,- Ton n ^ '""■'' '''"'"'^'"1

was i"tro.,,;edTB..:.:it°Hl— t"h' •"■;""?
both we. p,.aeticed. The. w^jrCd., '«:"

FUNERAL CnSTOMS.

191

8t.ll 18 muel, difference i„ the ceremonials of different
sects. We condense an account ofafnneral as given by an

Z7TT l'""^ ''"" '^°- '^'■<' '""'y- -'-^f -"y cashed
and head shaven was dressed exactly as in life, and

placed wth head to the north upon a mat, in front of
tlie intsmlau (god altar) and covered with a white cloth.
Food ,s offered it, and all the fau.ily lament. During
the night candles are kept lighted, incense is burned!
and a feast w.th wine drinking i« given to the watcher
and witnesses after the fashion of an Irish wake. At
the appointed hour the priests come in to cliant the
prayers and readings, an assistont striking meanwliile
w.th measured strokes a small gong. The sound of the
gong mingling with the chanting of the priests produces
an impressively solemn effect upon a foreigner at least.
1 he eldest son and others of the family burn incense at
tffi, T ;f ^""^/''-"■g'^een put into a tub-shaped
coffin of white wood, placed in the tub in a sitting pos-
ture, is now borne from the house in a scpiare ble or
closed sedan chair, which is suspended from poles and
carried upon the shoulders of men. The f uneril proces-
sion IS different from anything seen in our country. At
Uie head move the men, some carrying flowers and ever-
gieens, others banners and lanterns. Sometimes a large
cage with doves is drawn upon wheels. These birds
a.c to be liberated at the grave. Two tablets are ear-
ned after the bier with appropriate inscriptions to the
dead, the date of his death, and the new name now giv-
en him by the priests. Following the tablets and bier,
all on foot, or ridmg in jinrikushas, is the procession of
mourners, servants, friends, and acquaintances, and the
priest in robes. The -r .n-ners, bearers, and a 1 female
attendants are dressed in white. The mourneirl
hired women, according to Bible custom. The eldest

192

JAPAN- : COUNTRY, COUKT, PEOPLE.

i'n

ii'

»<! oW«a„ce ,„ade to thr^oX't bw" " '•'"'I
aliove. After this tho 1,„,7 • • , '^'' 'nentioi.ed

po«, „„de.. apivuL "h/:z" '"■•""r' '"'• "'" •""-

tl.o tiro is ig„ ted bv 2 '" *'"' "'''"'• «''"^'-«'

P-ictehantit/aliXt :;::'■ ""^"'^ "'"='«-' ">e

mome« with outward solenn.ity, tl e est of th. ■"■'"
■■y Jtaplay strange lightness ani curiol T LT'"""
l>atlet,c sole„„,ity and silent reverence to wh^ 1 '^'""
aeeiistonied are laekii,,, nt „ """"^^^ <■<> which we are

strange cir<„.„,st: ct^"f thatT " "'""I- ^-"'«-
do not attend the fm, ll o^the 1 '' "J *' '""'"^

if the second or thirl . , '' "°™' ^°' example,

eM. brother, 1' n.'.lr g::?''^'- ^^'"^ »-^-

-'ved rit'Val^t'T""'^ ™-^ '"'■«' -» »»>■
n.onr„in. gar'nelT .' 'f ^'^^''^ "t ''""e. by wearing

flesh. For^nae ;'„r f -^ '^"'"""^ ''■™ -"'« -^

n.ents were r^nct::, :::;;: ,t r^'-^.^-

days; abstinence iron, flesh waslr fi k; ^d'tf"?
days respectively. The inferio,- . :■ T ^"'"-^

the East acco„„-ts for th d ;: eC Jr'th" ""'""' '"
period. ^^^^rence m the mourning

Government officials were expn«p^ f
home during the mourni"; "erfod'd LTo "'"'":' "'

;::x:iS^i^::.X^^^
p-iMtingLsirs-s ::2 ^

a certam period. The whol^ ..of • ^ "' "^^"^ ^or
f . ine Whole nation is supposed to be

HONORING THE DEAD. 193

which the T„ c/„^i^ r T". *'" S'-ave«to„o, under
dead is bur ed Th « " ^"^ '^"""'^ '"'<' ^^hes of the

comes to chant prayea^fo,. wW fl '""'' **•« I'"""'
fee. In recent tiJ^Th' '"' ''<"'"™» " «">''"

se-ved. oT::r:;taV:?rrr'"f"'^''''-

on tlie first and third „,,, • ' ""'' ""'' ^l'*, and

must bo made tt™ToT"" 1 '"^ ''^^"'' ^'^''^
Other customs in hon^, I lll7lT *." '"■•" '"''^"^^•
further, except to sa; that on tit ttTf T,' "''"'" "'
fe.tival in honor o/dead 1:0^ l™' s Lp"; ' aHv'

"e^rtdlhin r ^"^^'^'■'-' - '-^

out of the;:' Lr ::■■:: tr r f r -^ "^^"

of fruits and vegetables, T; b' pU ed wr";f"^
.ncense burned, and flowers offered o ''1"',*'"""'
regular n.eal of rice, tea etc i« , ""^ ""> "

to living guests T„ n ' ™'' '" *<> "^Wots as

ban.boo1,ok: ; lig 'd bTfr'f T"^'™ """S ■"»■'
repeated on the IStlfev^ i " " o, H frT'^^ """ '»

break, all the articles pL'dtttheUi ' "'* "'''^■

little boats made of straw with ^ ", '""' ^""^^^ ""»

procession with mus c rdToid''''^"?'"i' "'*' "''"'"' '"
-'.ere, being launcUd ' 'Z ^ZT T ^"T f'"' '
^cad are thus dismissed to ret^rr 1- UX " tS

194

japan: country, court, people.

festival, called the -lea«t of lanterns," is still observed
with great enthusiasm and display at Nagasaki. From
tlie foregoing we see that ancestral worship is an im-
portant part of the religion of the Japanese.

Ilam kiri means suicide by disemboweling. This re-
volting custom probably originated during the dark
warring days of the Middle Ages. In tliose cruel times
every Japanese warrior knew that if he fell into the
hands of his enemies in battle his head would be cut off
but before being killed some indignity wo.ild be hea],ed
upon him which he would be helpless to resist; and the
takmg of his own life was tlie last desperate act to avoid
falling alive into the hands of his victors. It came to
be a universal custom for every Samurai to carry two
swords, the short one for performing /unn kiri in case
ol emergency. Starting in this way, it came to pass
afterwards that retainers took their own lives under cer-
tain circumstances to prove their fidelity to their chief
If he had made some serious blunder, had failed to carry
out some command, and thus l,rought defeat or disaster
upon his chief, he purged liimself of suspicion of treadiory
by dying from his own hand. There grew up gradually
a code of honor, in which hara hiri had an important
place. As it was in the days of the duel code in certain
circles m our own Southland before the late civil war
so no Japanese Samurai could endure an insult but
must demand satisfaction; and if is not driven must
avenge himself and maintain his own honor as a gentle-
man by slaying the man who had insulted him. But
ofttimes, in avenging himself upon his enemy, he vio-
lated some law of tlie Shogun's government; and hence
as soon as he had slain his enemy he must take his own
life, else be arrested and put to death l)v the govern-
ment. Women, too, wives and daugliters of tlie military

observed
L. From
3 an im-

This re-
le dark,
lel times
into the
cut off,
i heaped
and the
bo avoid
:!ame to
rry two
in case
to pass
ler cer-
r chief.
<o carry
lisaster
;acliery
idually
)ortaiit
certain
il war,
[t, but
must
gentle-
But
e vio-
hence,
s own
3vern-
litary

THE RONINS.

196

of l„vo™ wl,o, being prevented fro,,. ,„urryi,., „r Z, r

fai'cd to a,„ together tl.a„ to live «oi,,„-,.ted 1' he

years went on, it seems thnt +i i "^

^ «^ ■, ju Bi.t,iii8 inat the Jiorror i\f /Kw,fi

lens dreaded, and suicide became a e • leu " i 7'
I'on.tments and failures of divpv^ iT i !• '^'"

to this form of suicide Wl 7 " f'-^^^ently led

oi suicKle. VV Jiat was at first a fMistom ).«
came a privilege granted ])v tl.^ ^i V "* '"«^«"^ *>e-

to tlie milit.rv .1. y J^l»ogun'8 government

«^nf + V . ^ ^iimselt m tlie presence of an officer

sent to witness it T^ +v.' i wiuL^ei

Q..,,, ™ie«s It. In this way he saved his honor as a

.s».Li .ho,trg losfrcMinsiTarr"-^

the waves. The story of " The For v V t, l'""

a bloody but a heroic one ,,! ^^'y''^™" «<»"»« " is
Lo,'d of Ako h„!lT ' "™''' "'"''^f' •^«''n%

— ,,, i! t,,e^t:e.,i'':^r:ii?i:-r^^

106

jai'a.n: countuy, (ourt, i-koi'lio.

• ■ t

pi:

tHUicTH ul once bccaino roiiiii, vuhhuIh toHHcd to and fro
M'ltliout u c-liiof. Thc-y were HcaikM-od, l,ut }>ofore Hq.-
uniting, iuriy-Hoveii of tlieiu entered into covenunt to
Hky their dead oliiefHenen.y, and ho avenge liis deatli.
io lull suspicion of their plot, they waited a year, and
then on a winter'^ i>ight in December Huddenly gathered
around KutHuke'n niauHion, ],roke.into it, overi.owered
hiH guards, found tlieir niaster^H liated enemy, and slew
him. Cutting off Ids ],ead, tJiey marclied rapidly to tlie
grave of their chief, Asana, at a temi.le near Yedo
Washing the head at a spring near l.y, they presented
It as an oifering to tlieir dead chief's spirit, the leader
lii-Ht, and tlien tlie rest of tlie hand, burning incense.

Knowing that they must die, tlie leader ^engaged the
abbot of thQ temple, giving him all the money tiicy had
and said: -When we forty-seven men shall l>.ave per'
iormed /uon XvW, I beg you to bury us decently. I rely
upon your kindness. This is but a trifle that I have to
offer; siu.h as it is, let it be spent in masses for our
souls." As they expected, tliey were sentenced to com-
mit ham hn, and lianded over to four different Dai-
myos, wlio according to custom were to see the sentence
executed. Tlieir corpses were carried to tlie same tem-
l)le, and ])uried in front of the tomb of cheir chief.
When this was noised abroad, the people flocked thither
to pm>/ at the graves of those faithful men, and reverent
hands still deck those graves with green boughs and
burn incense tliere. The armor and clothes they wore
have been stored in a room of the temi)le as 'relics
That occurred two hundred and fifty years ago, and yet
It is a story very fresh in the admiration of the Japa-
nese. [N'or can we dissent from Mitford's words: "This
terril)le picture of iierce heroism it is imi,ossible not to
admire.

(107)

198

JAPAN: COIIXTRV, C'OUUT, l'K«WLK.

f ' ■

Ah t.) tl.o c.(M-onu,ny <,f /,,,;.,. /,>/, n.nrl, has luum M',i(,.
ten. It ,s c;tn-io<l out in ntrict order of mi.n.toHt ruLn
H'Hl UHagc-H. For H a.HcTl,,tu,n, uh MitnoHHcd by M itfunl
ut Ihogo m 18(J8, HOC "TaloH of ()1<1 Japan," ,,. IJ^O.
Wo disnnsH tins disagreeal,lo «u],jo.t of /,.,;v. >tvW with
oim observation. Itopulsivo as the thing is to ns it
l>rove« that the .lapaneHo eHteeni some things an n.'ore
valuable than life itself. And though they were nn,;-'
taken in thinking tliey had a right to p.it an end to life
hy their own hands, and may have been mistaken as to
whut those things were tliat they count^.l al,ove life, we
a Hgree that there are things worth more to ns tJian
bocldy life. We will never lay violent hands upon our
own body; but if in devotion to truth and d.ity-the
servu-e of (Jod and our fellow-men-we have to die, let
us die brav«ly.

In the olden times the Jaj.anese were a sentimental
and l,ght.hearted people. Tlie upper classes ha<l plenty
of leisure and plenty of ehivalry. Work, hurry, and
money, m tliose ron.antic feudal times, di<l not bother
resi,eetal,le people. The land is of volcanic ori<an, as
we saw at the outset, and there have always been, Ld
still are, many volcanoes, some active, some silent; but
tliough these subterranean fires are always l,eneatli their
feet and liable to burst fortli at any hour, they have al-
ways been merrily indifferent to their danger, and fre-
qnently go forth in picnic fashion to enjoy the sweets
and beauties of nature. In spite of terrific eart]v,ua,kes,
floods, and pestilences, tliat from time to time con.o
"pon them, there has never been that ,,rosy <>. r-.rioMs
feeling about life as with us. It is to be feared, how-
ever, that they are losing some of their light-hearted-
iiess, .nd will soon be addicted to hurry, bustle, and
nervous anxiety to make money, like the Americans.

FLOWER FESTIVAL.

199

It has lK.c.n Hui.l tlmt Japan in the land of clorloHs
"oworH, HonglcsH ImhIh, tailloHH cuIh, ami laUos that
never c-ry-nono of wl.irh is quite corro(,t. The ilowers
have not the fragrance that ouvh have; still, the pl.nu
> oHHon., w>l,I rose, Hweet-Mmelling lilic-s, and cIumtv
l.loHHoniH do exhale some fragrance. While their How-
ei-H are not ho fragrant, the lack in more than n.ado up
»y the keener appreciation of rtowers )>y the Japanes..
Jieauty in nature, like truth in the Hil,le, h seen an<l
enjoyed Ly thone only who have the right kind of eyes,
feo fond are they of flowerH and of nature, tliat accord-
ii.g to the season they have been acc.stonied to cel-
ebrate for generations a number of flower festivals.
When their iavonte flower is in season multitudes take
hol.day and go fortli in gala dress to r,]>end the day vis-
iting the gardens and orchards kept for the p,„.pose in
Huburbs of cities and towns. The n,any tea Iiouses and
pavilions in or near the grounds afford opportunity for
ookmg at the beautiful blossoms, meanwhile sipping
tea and enjoying social gossip.
In the flower calendar there is:

1. The plum blossom— last of March to June. The
plum, coming first, is greeted with joy. It introduces
the sprn.g with red and white, and that too while the
l>ranclies are without leaves.

2. The dierry trees in Ai>ril exhibit a wealth of blos-
Homs m white and delicate pink th.ts. In and around
lokyo, and other places as well, they are planted in
great numbers in gardens and avenues for ornamental
pnri,o8es. Tliese blossoms are double petalcd and larcre
and viewed from a distance when in full bloom tlie
trees look like domes or banks of pure snow; nor is
the effect dispelled when you draw near, for you are
surprised, if a foreigner, to see how large the blossoms

200

JAPAX: (COUNTRY, COtUT, PEO.

<■!

are with triple petals densely set r. =- ,e of

roses. Besides the v. i.ite, there are the .nost delicate
pink blossoms, ^^hen the moon is out and the weather
lair, It IS not uncommon among the Japanese to visit
the cherry gardens in the n:glit in order to get a differ-
ent effect Passing by the wi.taria in JViay, the j.eony
ree and lilies in June and August, and the' sacred l.tus
Hi August, we have:

3. The chrysanthemuu, festival in Oetober to Novera-
be,-, .ays ChambeHai,, ("Thirgs Japanese," p. 110):
A curious sight .s to he seen in Tokyo at the proper
Beason. It consists of ohrysanthemun,; in all shapesJ-
men and gods boats, bridges, castles, etc. Generally
some historical or mythical .scene is portrayed or some

el.te of rokyo society is admitted once a year to ga.e
upon chrysanthemums which those who once see will
never again speak about chrysanthemums in New York
or London. Not only in Tokyo but everywhere com-
panies of people go out day and night to feast their
eyes upon the chrysanthemum, which has been brought
to perfection m Japan as nowhere else. Tl,e golden
chrysanthemum of sixteen petals is the Emperor's^rest,
and it 18 therefore tlie national flower.

4 Tl,e red maples from November to December.
Ihe Japanese are accustomed to class red leaves un-
der the head of flowers, and in the last of autunm the

2LZt T f"^ '" '"^ "''"^ y--- T""-

beaut.ful red leaves not only in the autumn but when
they hrst unfold in spring. These are planted folo "
nament in temple groves and are greatly enjoyed by
those beauty-loving people. Besides these flote^- festi^
yals tliere are other social or domestic festivities and

FLOWER FESTIVAL.

201

parties. It was quite common, for instance, for a well-
to-do family to go out to a tea house where with feasting,
punning, music, and pantomime the whole day is spent'
On such occasions yelsha (music girls) are engaged to
add to the merriment. Many of the tea houses are
perched upon the side or summit of a hill, and so af-
ford visitors a magnificent view of land P,nd sea at once
In some sections night parties are accustomed to go oui
to see the rising moon and tlie silver waters of tlie sea.
Ihere is a favorite resort of this kind outside of Tokvo
Ihe New Year, the chief social and domestic festi-
val, IS the one gala season of all the year. The liouses
have all been cleaned beforehand, evergreens of pine
and bamboo have been planted on eitlier side of tlie
door, and the rope of rice straw twisted into five or
seven strands is lumg over the entrance, with fruits and
vegetables festooning rope and bamboo. The ^o^e
separates the pure from the impure and wards off' the
approach of evil spirits; the pine and bamboo are sym-
erit """'^ l^'-^PPiness; the fruits signify pros-

Every person, rising early, bathes and dons new
clothes, greets the rising sun with obeisance, and pravs
before the iluu, the ancestral tablets at the houseliold
altar, and offerings of food and drink are made to the
gods. Greetings and presents are exchanged with pleas,
ant countenance and hearty wishes for good l.ick for a
thousand years. Rice cake of a certain kind and vege-
tables all consecrated at tl,e temple are eaten on New
^ear, and wine with spices is drunk. No other people
give 80 much care to making New Year calls. No peo-
ple with more beautiful courtesy are so careful to re-
turn thanks to friends, benefactors, and superiors for
kmdness during the year just passed.

202

JAPAN : ("OrXTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

III

III •:

Festimd of noils, 3d of ylj>>r//.— This is specially
dedicated to tlie girls, aiul the whole of tlic sex appears
oil this day in holiday garb, and mothers devote it ex-
clusively to their girls. The Japanese were accustomed
to store away among the heirlooms of the family their
dolls, so on this day they are brought out and set up in
order in the best room. The living dolls entertain tliese
inanimate ones, offering them both food and drink. In
Tokyo, especially where so many mammoth dolls are
made, the doll stores make a brilliant display at this
season, and are crowded with eager buyers. The mam-
moth ones, made of bisque or papier-mache, are sold at
liigh figures ; the wee ones, two and a half cents. ' ' Some-
times," says Mrs. Brannvell, writing about child life in
in Japan, ''one meets a flock of gayly dressed little
maidens going out to tableaux, their faces wreathed in
smiles and tongues busily chattering. Upon the back
of each merry girl is strapped a brilliantly dressed new
doll imitating the omnipresent baby that sister always
carries upon her back when she goes out to play with
other sisters in the street or temple grove, similarly
mounted and strapped with babies. And where are
tlie small boys on that day? Tliey may be seen in
knots on the corners, sulking or pretending indiffer-
ence because it is not their day.''''

Femt of FliujH for Hoys, 5th of J/«y.— Outside of
every Jajtanese dwelling where for that year a male
child has been born, a tall pole has been set up witli a
pa])er fish floating from it by a cord in the air. These,
some of them fifteen feet long, made in exact shape of
a fish, with mouth, eyes, and all, properly colored and
filled with air and floating to the breeze, announce to
the neighbors around the joy of tlie family in having a
baby boy. In a large city hundreds of them may be

FESTIVALS OF DOLLS AND FLAGS.

203

seen swimming in the air around these tall poles. This
hsh 18 the carp, and is said to be the strongest fish of all
strong enough to leap up over the waterfall or swin'i
against the most rapid current, and with so much forti-
tude that even when cut in Imlf it still moves with
strength as if unhurt. This fish then symbolizes tlie
heroism and fortitude which the parents wish tlieir boy
to have. As tlie girls were given new dolls, so for this
May festival the shops display all sorts of images of
heroes, generals, soldiers, genii of strength and valor
and toys, too, representing the regalia of a Daimyo in
procession with all kinds of thhigs used in battle. The
writer has seen in Tokyo a company of boys out in May
dmwmg along tlie streets a two-wlieeled cart with a
tall framework of wood upon it, and at the very to,>
the efhgy of some hero or patron god decked out as a
model for a boy's ambition. Drums and streamers en-
liven tlie s:ght— the boys were happy.

Although tlie Japanese may be losing some of tlieir for-
mer liglit-lieartedness, still there are many games wliich
the children enjoy immensely. Gorgeous displays of
things pleasing to cliildren are still seen in sonie of
tlie courts and streets leading to the coh>brated temples
Street theatricals, showmen, fortune tellers, sleight-of-
hand performers, tumblers, story-tellers, candy ped-
dlers toy sellers, conjurers, fire eaters, c-harmers, and
the like, are slowly disaj.pearing from modern Jar,an
but what will take their place is the question. Amon<.
ehih ren's sports and games we mention shuttlecock
and battledoor. Upon Kew Year this is the universal
game for girls. Dressed in their new gay c-lothes, with
powdered faces and painted lips, and haii- arranged with

Cm.?'!!;'-''' ^^'"^^^ """'t ""'^ "'^^ ^^'^ 'T' ""''' '^''^^ «P^'''^^

^'^'ond of her skill, one girl man-

hours at this game

204

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

if, ■ I

Hv:l:

ages two or three shuttlecocks at the same tiu.e; while
0..0 m being tossed up two others arc couiu.g d„w„ at the
proper intervals They are also fond of hopscotch and
various hnger and string games, counting and singing as
the motions and clappings are gone through with.

kites with the Japanese. Indeed, when the Japal.cse
2 .tes American kites are not there, they are not in
sight they are not to be mentioned. Japanese kites
a.e ol enormous size, with tails i„ proportion, are of
various shapes (hollow, fiat, oblong, and sqnai-c), a.^d
..,e variously colored and decorated. Moreover, by a
series of strings drawn across like an ^Eolian harp
tliey siiig while they «y. This is a sport in which men
too engage with zest, especially during the New Year
holidays. They are sent up to a very great lieight, even
the large ones going out of sight. Sometimes as one
walks out 111 the evening, he hears from the heights
above deep humming sounds, and after searching the
sky he finally discovers two, three, or more of Siose
mammoti, ^olhan kites almost lost to sight. Some!
times again the sound is heard as a deep-tonod serenade
from the upper air, but the kites themselves have gone
out of ,ight. A few years ago the writer's wife and
daughter, sUndmg on a hill in Imaioho, in the city of
lokyo, counted three hundred kites all flyh.g at the
same hour. Two things stand out distinctly upon the
held of 1,18 memory, witnessed more than once in Ja-
pan: one IS the sight of hundreds of white fishing sails
dotting the smooth surface of the sea in the early
mornrng; the other a fleet of kites like living boats
sailing the air and borne up against the skv in the
evening. , i- i^.

The outdoor Hportn of men are fencing, target nl.ooting

NOTES ON FARMING.

205

With bow and arrow, hunting, fishing, and wrestling.
h encmg is the most keenly enjoyed by the upper classes,
lor It takes them back to their old-time native life the
handln.g of the sword. Wrestling is practiced mostly
by a professional class of fat giant men. This has al-
ways been a great sport and is witnessed by the multi-
tudes. The grounds of the temple are the most fre-
quent arena for tliis sport. It is said that wrestling
was originally a sort of religious exercise and was in
Home way m.der the auspices of certain temples that de-
rived a portion of revenue from it. It is considered the
hijvhest lionor among the guild of wrestlers to be per-
mitted to wrestle before the Emperor.

V. Farmixg.
Tokugawa lyeyasu, founder of the last dynasty of
Shoguns, m one of his eighteen laws, declares that
tarmmg was given by the sun goddess (Amaterasu).
ller temple in Ise must be cared for and rebuilt of Lew
/imoJd wood every twenty-one years, in order that the
land might have peace and tlie five cereals thrive. In
this liigh estimation put upon agriculture the ancient
Japanese imitated the Chinese. The words iV^o wet Ku-
ni no Moto, -farming is tlie foundation of the coun-
try," express the feelings of the Japanese. This is
clearly proved by their placing the farmer in higher
social rank than the artisan and merchant. During
the long period of peace from the year 1600 all foreign
commerce was restricted so as almost to prohibit it,
hence the energy of the nation was turned toward farm-
n.g. And it was during tliis period that the land was
so much improved. Rein says that, while the taxes
upon tlie soil were high and lia.l to bo paid in kind
yet, altogether, the lot of the Japanese peasant was a

206

japan: couxtuy, court, peoi'le.

lU!h

hapi,ier one tl.un that of the poasuntn of Europe <lurin«.
tiie iVliclale Aires. ^

The fanning system of Japan n.ay be ],rieHv de-
scribed m a few sentences:

1. The small size of their farn.s-from a h.-tlf to Hve
acres.

2. Probably tho most porfec-t Hystcm of in-igation
.ml tc„-aec» n, tho workl. Ko, „..a,n,.lc, innucUatcly
. „„ml the Kwa,„c> Gakuin, a,„iHsio„ „„llog„ „ea,- Koli
the w,->te,- lou.Kl a network of <,„„noctcd irrigatin,:
I.U-l,o« and ,-es,.,-voi,-« arranged for storing tbe water

to tile vi "'«","i ;■ "•'■"•■'.■""' •■""' '"»'"''"ti"S it ■"> «ca»o„
to the ,ee helds lyn.g just below toward the sea. On

the hdlsnle, f„,. half a ,„ile n,, level plats are made by
l.ggnigand dragging the earth from tho upper to the
lower sKlos an,l by building a stone wall on the lower
side oi each plat to hold tlio earth. Thus tho water
as soon as ,t fIoo,ls one ph.t, is led into tho one just bo^
low, and so on until all are covered with wair. I„
the case o those plats down on the shore plain, a mud
wall a foot Ingh ,s made, and tln-ough a hole or notch
made n, tins n.u.l bank the water is led frou, one plat
to another till all are Hooded. As one views the g a
stretches of .H,nt,u„o„s rice fields extending along the
shore plam for u.ilcs, and crosswise fron. the bea.^h
away up tho sides of tho hills, and all flooded wit}, wa-
ter, he landscape is a striking one, and presents a scene
the like of winch is nowhere seen in America. These
terrace walls and level plats, numbered by hundreds
are a triumph of the patient toil and industrial skill of
tne Japanese.

3. The rotation of crops. In one year three crops in
successioii, wlieat or barley, rice, and some kind of
beans, or vegetables, are often raised in the same plat

RICE GROWING.

207

"in

4 The fertilizing i„ a peculiar system, making „se of
wl.at with „„ usually goes into the sewage.

for the soil 18 worked as we do our gardens

b. The tools and implements are primitive and rude
Ihe work IS exceedingly slow, and labor-saving n.a-

tzi'ii r'^:'- ''''' "^ *"'<• *•"" ^" ^'-"f""-

gieat helds of wheat are mowed down, the wheat
threshed out and fllled into hags by the aame huge ma
chnie as It rolls along propelled by steam. A 'wagori
follows in the wake picking up the bags, and the wlfeat
IS ready for market. But in Japan the little patches
of wheat or barley are cut /«„,?/•„; i^ hauaful\.imZ

f.om he wheat by the winnowing fan and the wind
reminding „s of the "winnowing fan" and the "wini
that blows the chaff away," of Bible times

Mco Gmwiry.-AB stated in a former section, the
rtaj'lo productions of the soil are rice, tea, and silk

tt stiff f";?/' 't^""* *"""' '""''"'"' ■■'- " *" t'-ni
the staff of life. It is grown in nearly every province

After wheat harvest, water brought down from the esi

ervoir hrough a little ditch, or by a brook flowing 1

rectly from the mountain, is led into the small fields to

soften the ground for plowing and harrowing. Japan

being a narrow country, with valleys, plains IZ

mountains close together, it is easy to'kad down the

wa er trenches into the fields. After the water has

softened the ground somewhat, the farmer with his

cow (sometimes a horse) beguis to plow, and, recross-

ng. plows agam and again, till the whole is muddy

s sh. It IS a strange sight, a man with a cow plowing

and harrowing m water six inches deep

Kice-planting season is in May, and men and won.en

(208)

IIICE GROWING.

209

• -v;.

a.
o

l-H

plant. .,-o a,,„,,;„i. C: -Wh™ '''"^'=- Z^""" '"«

seen in tlio i.ictnic. ' '"'* '" ''"^s »«

Tlio Inirvostint; of tho ri^o ;„ „ ■•
T"o .■i.e ha, g,.„tn intL ^ ,.„ h r-Zof TT''
"<g until al,„„t thi-eo weeks l„.f,"., ,1 .""' »'''""-

it is drawn off Tl,„ ,,1, ' "Pening, when

fan„e,.andl.i"fa„, ;S^-?"'S;;' '"° -^'-•. the

therootewellstin-ed a dt„" f '' ^''""'"^ ""•""»

"on„d the .a,k —^ 1 Sr An!,' f™ •'
Angnstthe rice is ri„e and ready for the'sictle "^.r
»Me ,e still nsed in cutting H. wllntiZ \ ,
."to bundles and hung n.o..^^,,, „^"';;^ "^ " - -d
'liT'"g, the bnndles are taken and ^\,Tl ^^ ^

wheeled carts loaded wil ncdeaned ";"" '"'"

cows or by the far.ner ,ud is b" ;'•'"' > ''^

-11 his riee, or t„ the ,„iU t b cleanfc ":^ ! h""" *°
cottage, where it is stored until Tid * 1^ ^

2" ::r;;;:;- -r^^^^^^^^^^

I (

1 1* 1

.<.:J

210

jai'a.n: countuv, couut, riooPLK.

til

J Ml

mill, the cows that have ))rouglit the rice ba^^H ui)on
theirhacks. And if one passes a line of cows thus load-
ed witli bags of rice, he knows tliat a rice mill is near.
Much of the rice is cleaned, however, at home by hand,
or rather by the treadhxj of fret. Under a little shed be-
side the house one often sees two or more mortars and
pestles. The pestles being attached to the end of hori-
zontal beams, and the beams being ui)on a pivot, a man
stands on the other end, and, by treading, works the i)es-
tles uj) and down. This is slow work. Or, sometimes
in the rice dealer's store one sees a half dozen men
in a row, all treading those jiestle beams. This is their
regular work. Large quantities of rice never enter into
the niouth as food, but as sake, rice-brewed beer.
Sake is their national drink, and immense quantities
are consumed yearly. Less intoxicating than whisky,
it has more alcoliol than beer. The largest, longest'
and highest warehouses the writer has ever seen in that
land are the warehouses of the sake breweries.

The Japanese say that their rice is better than the
Chinese product, and we think it is equal to our Caro-
lina rice. A few years ago, on account of the rice fam-
ine, immense quantities of Chinese rice were brought to
Japan to relieve the distress; but some of the people, al-
though in need of food, refused to eat the bad-smelling
Chinese rice. How much their national prejudice had
to do with the bad smell we know not. Large quanti^
ties of rice are shipped yearly to foreign countries, in-
cluding America.

Tea liaising.— Oi the Ternstroemia family of ever-
green bushes and trees, the tea bush and the camellia
tree have become famous throughout the world, though
they are by no means grown in all countries. In China
and Jaj)an they have for centuries been cultivated for

TEA IIAISING.

'fijj^H u])on
jhiiH load-
.1 is near.

by hand,
c shed be-
rtars and
1 of hori-
ot, a man
:s the 1)68-
ometimee
)zen men
is is their
inter into
ed beer.
[uantities
1 whisky,

longest,
n in that

than the
ur Caro-
rice fam-
ought to
;ople, al-
sraelling
iice had
! qiianti-
bries, in-

of ever-
samellia
, though
n China
ited for

211

their leavoH and Wowvvh 'I\...

furnishoHthel-trJ . . T ^""^^"'fe'' "^^^ rice,
name for t 1 Wd "' ^^—--o in Japan. Th

mologic. 1 " 1 "d " "T^ ^--Snnges, and all ety-
»al I.O...0 of the tea , 1,„, ', V ■'":'' "*' "'" ""S'"
ft-o... a,„.ie„t ti,„os I, rh ^"™"'f"a'm., known

and in Japan l,y the 4(Hh "'" *'. '/'"^S''"'" "' 'atituclc,

n.oi»t, looHo «anc,.v loan, on i «« „':::; '"' .T, =*
c»,,cc-iHll.v on tl.o southward „lo^,e if " ? f . T '
the g,o,n,d is well drained T.\ \ " '"""' '''""''
f-n the nnr„o,y are ^'i f ' 7* """ »«<«">g«
ant,„nn„r8,,rin/ The «! '.''""'"'S' *'»"'> i« "•
tween U,.ii '"tj 1 ^70 't'f"" Tl' ""'' "^
i-e«,,eetivelv. If there ,! • , ' ""<' """<'« f««t

then vegetlble" and ro 7' "^""^ ''"'^«^» ^'"*«.
For vigfrot ' o^ f, IT ""^ J?'"""^'' ^"'^"^'^ them

manurfd and f eTir;^,^;" Ther""' ""^""^ ^^"
important in order L 2 the f '""""'"g too is very

surface and to 'gu tf^t^^rr" f "!'''«''
the groinid 'r,-hn,„;„ ■ V^ ^ branches from

Bei^an evergre" hf /' k°" ""'" '"^ ^"P '« '<*-■
and t^™,n!Idfo nifo \V ""' " '•^g"^'"- '•"-«
tract the ^e f T^X^'')' ™^ ^'^ -'-"y at-

f - - p. esent. aie nut i.he least attractive. The

212

.JAPAN : ruL'.NTIlV, COl'llT, I'EOl'LE.

IhihIk-h -.ivv iiHiiiilly from two to tlirco feet hvyohh, n\n\
from llireo to four feet hii^Mi, the limhw bmiich out thick-
ly, with many Hiiuiller braneheM makinjr adeiiHC maHH of
h'UVCH. The leaveH are a dark gloHHy green, ovate in
form, Hliirlitly notched at the edtrcH, and when young
arc very tender, but as they grow old liecome thick and

Hliff.

The bushes begin to yield leaves for picking the third
or fourth year, and Hourisli until the tenth or twelfth
year; then begin to decline until the eighteenth year,
wlien a new^ netting is necessary. In the tea district of
rji there are some trees that yield leaves for twenty-
five or thirty years. 'JMie leaves arc picked twice a year,
as a rule; tlie chief crop is in the spring, and the juck-
ing begins about tlie first of May. The second picking
is about six weeks later, but yields inferior leaves not
put U])on tlic market, but kept for home use. After be-
ing })icked the leaf is carried through a long process of
preparation.

1. Steaming the leaves. Rows of kettles or pans
are set in a long oven half tilled with water and lieated
by charcoal from beneath. Upon each pan is placed a
covered sieve with tea leaves spread out upon the bot-
tom. For a half minute the tea leaves in the sieves are
steamed to i)roduce tlu; tea odor. The sieve is now re-
moved, the leaves are si)read out upon luats or tables,
wlun-e they are fanned and quickly cooled.

2. The tiring conies next. For the tiring, the leaves
are placed in large tlat wooden or bamboo frames or
trays coated with cement underneath, and brought to a
slow heat with charcoal. Meanwhile a man almost
naked, and one to each frame or tray, is working the
leaves with his hands, lifting up into the air, stirring,
rolling, rubbing between his palms into balls, then

roNH, aii«l
Mit Uiick-

muHH of
oviite ill

'II yoiiiijr
liic-k and

the third
' twelfth
itli year,
Htrict of

twt'iity-
e a year,
he |»i('k-

pickiiig
ivoH not
Utcr he-
•ocess of

or pans

1 lioatod
1 (laced a
tlie hot-
eves are
now re-
• tables,

B leaves
inies or
^ht to a
almost
:ing tlie
tirrinti:,
s, then

I'll

d m

ifs'i

" J

214

japan: COUtnTKY, COUKT, PEOl'LE.

breaking u|» and repeating it. ]Io continueH this work
for several lioiirs, until the mass takes on a dark olive
color and the separate leaves are twisted and rolled.
They are now spread out upon the drying frame, still
kept a little warm, until they become quite brittle.
The tea is now ready to be sorted and packed.

3. The sorting of the tea. In tlie picking, stems,
capsules, unhealthy or unequal leaves have gotten in
with the good leaves. With a bamboo sieve all these
impurities are separated as far as possible. Finally the
tea designed for export is spread out upon tables or
mattings, and girls go over it carefully, picking out ev-
ery impurity or thing that prevents the tea from having
a uniform appearance. It is now ready to be sent to the
treaty ports and sold to foreign exporters.

4. Second firing. Before sending it on its long sea
voyage to New York, London, or Paris, the exporter
subjects the tea to a second firing. For this purpose,
in the treaty ports like Kobe, there are large tea-
firing establishments, where hundreds of women and
girls work at the unhealthy business of standing over
tea ovens and rolling the leaves between their hands
until they are perfectly dry. If the tea is intended for
the American people, it is colored to suit their fanciful
taste, but the Japanese do not color their own. For the
coloring, a small quantity of powdered Prussian blue
and gypsum is sprinkled on in the last firing. The
powder is readily absorbed by the moist, warm leaves.
Most of the exported tea is green, being colored in this
way, and is shipped to the United States. The black
tea of China is prepared by some kind of fermentation.
As for the powdered tea, the Japanese consider it the
best, and it is the costliest. It is i)repared from the
most delicate leaves and best bushes, put away witli

TINY TOBACCO PIPES.

215

still

care, and ground just before usino- This ton i«
onlyonoceasionsofgreatcere„.on;,i-o i t^^^
^a par .es, a,^ i. not exported, 't,. scent;^^'^^'
tea by using odorous blossoms such as jasmine dathnr
and o..nge, like the coloring custom, L sWy d ^^
"Jg. It IS still practiced in China Th. T, \

- a™, eoia .ate., no- milk lie' itTln"
stant dnuk at meals and between meals AM, T
tea was known from about 805 A.D Tt .1 d n„n ^^
the national drink till about 1400 A D a ,1 f ' f""
tl.at the Portuguese did not exponta f C-t

Europe, nor did the Dutch. Only sinoe hi ?

opening of the country by Commod'or P^rry' n X
has tea been an article of exi,n,-t w . '>^' "' '**"''.
tities are shipped yeady ' '^ """" ""™«"'° "-»-

ailed tabcio It is said to have originated in Namban
and of which one drinks the smoke." The smokii ^

• ante T1 '^"'^y ^-"""^ "" "l''--' -en dTom f
alike. As .James I. of England issued a decree TIZ^
.ts use all in vain, so the rulers of China and lanr

,-;,„;; , . ,, ^H>^^<'^<^ pipe, it is a sman affair be-
ing about half the size of a lady's thimble. The Jamn
ese smoke fine-cut only, never chew, and only take a fW
whiffs at a time; and as they draw the smoke into tie

s7.>d:;ilrf ""',f'™:^'' ^"^ --"'-'.en::;?,"

saj <lanktobacco"_that is, the smoke. .

1 assing by otlier agricultural industries such as
wheat and millet raised in small quantities, ciil,"
and various oil-producing pbints, as well as djCfisf

216

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

! ' 'J! '

i";:

m'A<'

cotton growing calls for a few words. The writer,
brought up in a cotton-growing State, was interested at
first in the cotton growing in Japan, but he saw noth-
ing worthy of comparison with our Southern cotton.
The plant is small, nor do the people seem to know how
to cultivate it, for everywhere the stalks are left too
thick in the row, and the yield is very small. But
now, when many and large cotton mills are being set
up in Japan, one would think that the authorities should
promote better methods of tillage and the planting of
better kinds of cotton seed.

/Sifk Cidture. — If we speak of silk raising in Asia,
India has from ancient times produced it, but of late
has not increased; Turkey and Persia have declined in
its production; so that China and Japan are the foremost
countries for silk culture. In Europe the Greeks had
the first knowledge of the silkworm through Alexander
the Great's expedition to India. He sent silkworms to
his famous teacher, Aristotle, who was the first to de-
scribe them. In modern times Italy, Spain, France,
Germany, and other countries attempted silk culture;
but Italy, with France next, is the silk-producing coun-
try in Europe. In America efforts have been made to
raise silkworms, but with little success. When a child,
the writer used to hear his mother tell about the mul-
berry and silkworm growing of his grandmother in
South Carolina. It must have been on a small scale.
Japan, China, and Italy remain to-day the three chief
silk-growing countries in the world. It was not until
the fifth century of the Christian era that the silkworm
was brought over by immigrants from China or Korea.
The then reigning Emperor and Empress sought by
personal example to encourage the growing of mulberry
trees and silkworms, but it did not become an inipor-

SILK CULTURE.

217

tant national industry before the middle of the sixth
century. During the Tokugawa rule silk weaving
made great progress, owing to the use of tine costumes
by the noble and middle classes. It has been said that
when our early English forefathers were living by fish-
ing and hunting and dressed chiefly in skins the Chi-
nese were wearing silk; but this cannot be said of the
Japanese. Their rulers and nobles at court may liave
worn silk from earlier times; but the weaving of white,
lustrous, figured silk damasks, and fine silk crape was
not known until very much later.

The three kinds of mulberry plantations are, first, the
low stump, so named because the stump is cut off near
the ground. Shoots put out all around the stump,
bearing large, strong leaves that are stripped off and
carried to the feeding silkworms; and this is the meth-
od in the level districts where the soil is loamy and deep-
ly worked. Secondly, high-stump plantation, where the
trunks are cut off six feet above the ground, as seen
in the hilly regions. Thirdly, the high trees, upon the
steeper slopes or narrow gorges where the mulberry is
allowed to grow wild, as it were. Trees properly cared
for live fifty or sixty years, but not more than forty if
neglected. The plantation is set with seedlings of a
year old and in rows at regular spaces. The mulberry
chiefly planted is the white- fruit kind. The black-fruit
variety that grows in America is not found in Japan.
Cultivated for centuries, there have been developed sev-
eral species of trees as well as silkworms. The people
who engage in silk raising keep the worms when feed-
ing and spinning in rooms in their dwellings, frequent-
ly in rooms built for the purpose. In order to do well
the rooms must be airy, dry, and perfectly clean.
This habit of cleanliness has improved the condition of

218

JAPAN : C01.1NTRY, COURT, I'EOI'LE.

<'M

V i

! '1

I. I
)■ 1

the silk growers to a marked degree, as seen in their
clean Iiouses and mats. No other branch of agriculture
has so beneficial an effect on tlie peoi)le.

As was stated on page 81, the butterfly, or moth, that
comes from the cocoon lays its eggs; and they are made
to lay upon paper boards and stick fast to the boards —
say forty thousand eggs to a board three feet by two.
During the winter these boards with the eggs are stored
away in a dry room, and carefully covered and wrapped
in paper to keep out the mice and the dampness. When
the hatching time draws nigli, the boards are brought
out into the hatching rooms and placed in a shady place
in the open air. The grubs are hatched in from twen-
ty-five to thirty days, usually in April and May. Arti-
ficial heat shortens tlie time. When tlie young worms
appear, they are transferred to hurdle beds of bamboo
splits, or matting, sprinkled with tender chopped leaves.
During the feeding period these beds must be cleansed
daily. A net made of hemp yarn is stretched just above
the beds, and when tlie worms have crawled up on
this netting, the bed beneath, witli its droppings, dead
worms, and remnants of dead leaves, is taken away
and cleansed. Worms of the same age and size are kept
together on the same hurdle beds, the sluggish, sickly
ones being placed upon separate beds. After feeding
for about thirty-five days, and casting their skin four
times, the worms are ready to spin their cocoons. For
this purpose layers of stalks of some kind, or twigs of a
bush are laid in order over the hurdle beds. When the
worms begin they must have something of the kind to
which to fasten the first thread in spinning tlieir co-
coons. The cocoons are about an inch long and half
as thick. The outside thread is thin, less valuable, and
is called floss silk. After separating this loose floss silk

PAPER MAKING.

219

from the outside of the cocoon, the best ones are chosen
for lireeding tl»e next season, and the rest are exposed to
the hot sun or put in boiling water to killtlie worm in-
side, now changed to a chrysalis. The next step is the
reeling of the silk from the cocoons or balls. In olden
times this was done by the silk grower, but now reeling
establishments are in operation that buy the cocoons
from the growers and reel off the silk by machinery. It
may be stated that since the country was opened, thirty
years ago, Japan has been exporting to foreign coun-
tries immense quantities of the various products of the
silkworm, from the egg up to the most costly damasks
and brocades, making a total annual export worth more
than thirty million dollars.

Paper making in Japan deserves brief mention. In-
deed, Rein devotes twenty -six royal octavo pages to tliis
subject. In the oldest accounts of the country tlie many
uses of paper are mentioned. Two liundred and fifty
years ago the Dutch traders observed it, and Kiimpfer
especially. It was used for many purposes other than
tliose known to us; not only for writing, book printing,
painting, wrapping, packing, etc., but also for fans,
screens, umbrellas, lanterns, dolls' clothes, waterproof
cloaks and tarpaulins, large rain hats, tobacco pouches,
pipe cases, boxes, windowpanes, leather, wood, and
even for iron. These numerov-s uses were due to the
lack of other suitable material — for e?fam])le, lack of
glass — and also to the lightnrsg, cheapness, and tough-
ness of their paper.

Our machine-made paper is smooth and pretty, but
very brittle. The Japanese hand-made paper is the
better for lightness, pliableness, and toughness. This
is because it was made of the inner bark of trees and
shrubs, chiefly the paper mulberry, and because the fiber

i',

Ir^

PAPER MAKING.

221

HV^

celiH of the burk ;ire not cut to pieccH by machinery, but
are i)ounded an<l beaten. Tliis Hoftens while it leaves
tlie fibers long and tough, and when made into paper
slieetH tliey are Hurpriningly tough, flexible, and as soft
as silk paper. On the other hand, their bark-made pa-
per is porous and thin, and not suitable for pen and ink,
but well suited to the little brush and thick India ink
which tlie Jai)aneHe and Chinese use in writing. After
the fashion of tlie Chinese, only one side of the leaves
of a book is printed. P:very couple of leaves is left
uncut, so tluit tlie imprinted pages of each coui)le are
inside and unseen. It is said that the making of paper
was invented in China about !(»;') A.l). The art of
making j.aper from the bark of the mulberry was
brought from Korea to Jai)an about the beginning of
tlie seventh century, which was several centuries before
pai)er making was known in Europe.* It became one
of the most imi.ortant branches of industry and trade in
Japan, and is so to-day, and this has led to the growing
of mulberry and other paper-yielding trees and shrubs
ni many parts of the country.

Until recently paper making was carried on in many
dwellings, on a small scale, there being one or two vats
in a house. In the summer, when the family was busy
with the crops, pap r making was suspended. The
(commonest jiaper for writing, printing, and for hand-
kerchiefs, was named "hanshi." Recently machine-
made jiaper has come into use. These mills, and the
men to oiierate them or teach the Japanese, were intro-
duced from Europe. Besides the ordinary hanshi, a
kind of pa])ie r-mache, crape paper, leather paper, oil

■^^Hilclreth supposes that Europe derived the idea of paper
hanging (wall papering), as a substitute for tapestry, from
Japan.

'i 'Sfli

f I

]\\
, III

?■ i

222

JAPAN : COUXTllY, COURT, I'EOPLE.

paper, a soft, lustrous silk paper unsurpassed l)y any
country, and a paper resembling parchment almost as
tough as leather itself, were all manufactured by the
Jai)anese before the advent of the modern foreigner into
tlie country. We doubt if anywhere else in the world
as good a quality of parchment paper is made. Two or
three other uses are unknown to us— such as window
panes, shoji papering, and lanterns.

Other industries, either peculiar to the country or
earned on in a peculiar way— such as bamboo and
wicker work, matting and rugs, umbrella making, fans,
lanterns, sake brewing, and camphor distilling and re-
finnig— might be interesting topics, but space is lacking.

VI. At a Japanese Inn in the Olden Time.
Of the seven great government roads built centuries
ago, the Tokaido (East Sea Road), from Kioto to Yedo
was the most traveled. More than two hundred years
ago, when the Dutch trader, Kampfer, had to make the
annual visit to the Shogun and carry presents, he was
surprised at the number of people whom he met along
that great highway on his way to Yedo. Posthouses
were built at intervals of from six to fifteen miles to ac-
commodate travelers wishing to hire horses, porters, se-
dan chairs, and footmen. These were not inns or hotels
but were kept for stabling and hiring horses and bag-
gage carriers, which were let at fixed prices by the clerk
Messengers were also kept day and night in waiting
who carried from one posthouse to the next the letters
edicts, and proclamations from the Shogun or ^rreat
Daimyos; swift-footed mail carriers they were. Put in
a black varnished box bearing the coat of arms of the
Shogun or prince sending them, and tied to a staff borne
on the shoulder, these communications were carried by

AT AN INN IN THE OLDEN TIME.

223

fleet messengers to the next i)o8thouse. The messen-
gers ran two together, so that if one fell ill or became
disabled the other could run on. All travelers, even
Daimyos, had to give the way when these messengers
bearing edicts from the Shogun came running and ring-
ing a small bell. Just as he reached the posthouse, and
even before stopping, the box was thrown to the mes-
senger there waiting for it, who instantly started in a
run to the next posthouse. In this way communications
were sent out from the Shogun's capital with considera-
ble haste.

Kampfer tells us that the best inns were in those vil-
lages where tlie posthouses were. But even the well-
built ones were only one story, or, if two, the second was
low and good for storage only. Those inns, though
narrow in front as other houses, were deeper, running
back sometimes two hundred and forty feet, with a
pleasure garden in the rear inclosed withhi a neat white
plastered wall. The front side of the inn had small
lattice windows and a narrow veranda jutting right
on the street, which was without pavements, being con-
venient for mounting a horse without soiling the feet.
In the rear too was a similar veranda, where sat the
guests in the cool of the evening looking into the gar-
den with its pool, artificial mountain, and well-kept
trees and shrubs. The movable partitions and screens
betweeii rooms were removed except when a person of
quality is a guest, so as to enable travelers passing along
the street to see clean through the house and back into
the little park or garden. The kitchen was in the fore
part, and was often filled with smoke, there being only a
hole in the roof for smoke to escape. Here the foot
travelers and the meaner sort of people lodged with the
servants. Rooms in the front were generally sorry

224

JAPAN: (^OUNTKY, COURT, I'EOrLE.

mil:

I.! I

and j,oor in coinpuriHoii with tlione in the rear, which
were always reserved for officials and persons of qnal-
ity, and were neat and clean to admiration.

He speaks of the recessed wall on one side of the
room, and of the dais where rest the vases filled with
flowers and green ],ranche8; and of the hf^-emo,^, or
hanging sc-roU, embroidered and hanging upon the wall
behind the flowers, with the drawing of some saint
maxim, or bit of poetry by some celebrated scholar,
written m large characters, or some scene of mountain
and sea, bird, bamboo, or plum blossoms; of the in-
cense brasier or vase, from wliich pleasant odors are ev-
haled into the room, in honor of a distinguished guest;
of some strange piece of wood wherein colors and
grains run in an unnatural way. He likewise men-
tions the sc.x)ll work in wood adorning the veranda and
the space just above the shojis; of the branch of a tree
or piece of rotten wood, or some stone remarkable for
Its dctormed or curious shape. All these the traveler
sees to-day. AH along the road in those days, as it is
to-day, there were smaller inns, cook shops, tea houses,
sake and confection shops where the meaner sort might
for a few sen ge^ refreshment. Even though sorry and
poor there was always something to amuse travelers
and draw them in. In summer a pleasant arbor in front
or a little garden or orchard seen through a passage in
the rear, with a pool or brook flowing down from the
hill close by, a rockery or grotto-all invite the weary
traveler to stop. Sometimes a couple of young girls
well dressed, stand at the door and civilly invite travel-
ers Here various eatables, besides tea and sake, were
sold: round cakes big as hen's eggs, filled inside with
black bean curd and sugar; root jelly cake cut into
slices and roasted; boiled or pickled snails, umall fish

DAIMYO'8 RETINUE IN THE OLDEN TIME. 225

and «>.ollH»l,; ,U1 „„,,« „f ,,,a„t„, ,.„„te, ,,„;«,, wa.I,„d

r«„t», and vegeUl.k. <I„.„«„l ;„ ,,,„„,„, ^ij The
com,„„„ „a„<.o for the»o di„I,o, was soy. The, tl.e™

rrtZfurv' "T ""'""■ '■""•" ^'«-'"'o to «;

oyc tlun to Ihc ta«to. Into the .oin>, m»ser or othor
l.c.wder„,l root was K,,ri„klod. The' .^shfs were 1^"
nished w,lh leave, or »liees of orange j,eel. ^

VII. A GttRAT D,UMV0'S liKtls-JK ,.v THK 0,.DEN

TiMK.

s<.rth«nr. K^'t' *'"?' ""^ ™'"^''^* f"«-' « de-

, ki Lr"^'"' "5 '?"S"'' '•"' ■•« '"'.■o condensed.

1 . n,,tk,ng therr annual visit to Yedo the more powerful

Baunyos raveled with great ,,o„,,, be.on.ing as wolT tl e^
own qnahty and wealth as the n„ajesty ^of the g ea
Shogun to whom they were mimr to „„„ ,i • \. ^
He sava tl,„, 1 ^ ^ P^y *'"'"' homage.

Ue says that o loe he met the retinue of a powerful
Dannyo mnstering about twenty thousand men tl a
they „,arched in bands at intervlls, and required two
days to pass then, all; and on the third day he Zjd ^
Da,myo hin.self, attended by his numeri^,s co't To
avoid confusion of two great lords traveling tie same
road at the s.an,o tin.e, the posthouses .and inns areTe
spoken beforehand. Notice boards fasten d to high
bamboo poles inform the people along the way of he

gove.no, . 1 he ro.ads are repaired, and everything along
the way put ■„ neat and clean order; clerks and cook!

AftefZ 1 t™''«/«'g'"=-. victuals, and provender
After the clerks and cooks comes the heavy Waacre in
small wUlow W lashed to horses' baeC^^h tC
coat of arms of the Daimyo in large cha acirs or
chests covered with red lacquered lefther borne "p^n

22f)

JAI'AX: COl'NTKY, (ontT, I'KOI'LK.

ineirH Hhoiildei-H. Next caino HiiuiUor lotiimcM, nut of
the ]);iiniy(), hut of liin chief officcrH uiid iiohlenieii,
with jdkcH, howH, uiid jutowh, uiulMvlliiH, Heduii chiiii-H,
!Ui(l liorHOH. Soiiio of tlu'HO ofticialH iiro in HCihiu cliiiii-H;
othiTH ri<lo on Iioi-hoh. Then vouwh tho Dahnyo's own
train, mari'liing in adniirahlo ohUt, divichMrinto ten
or twelve cotnjianieH, licacU'd oacli hy au officer. 1.
Five tine liorscs, cadi h'd hy two ^M-ooniH, one on each
Hide, and followed l)y two footmen. 2. Five or nix
richly chid i)ortGrH hearing upon tlieir HlioulderH lac-
quered chcHtN, Jai.ainu'd trnnkK, and haHketH containing
tlie Oainiyo'H wearing a|)i)arel, each i)orter heing attend-
ed hy two footmen, '.l. Five or niore fellows carrying
in wooden cases jiikes, short swonls, and firearms. 4.
Two or nioi-o men bearing the i)iko of state, or other badge
of authority, adorned with a buncli of cock's feathers to
distinguish from other daimyos and lords. 5. A gen-
tleman hearhig the Daimyo's hat under a velvet cover,
and attended hy two footmen. 6. A gentleman attend-
ed by two footmen bearing tlie Daimyo's umbrella. 7.
More trunk bearers, etc. 8. Sixteen of tho Daimyo's
])age8 and gentlemen of tlie bedchamber walking in front
of his sedan chair. 9. The Daimyo or prince himself
seated in a stately sedan chair. If dusty, the streets in
towns through which he has to pass are sprinkled. The
peoi)le retired within their houses, tightly closed, or
knelt beliind screens in the front of the house, or else
retired to tlie field at a respectful distance from the road.
The Daimyo's chair was borne on the shoulders of
six men richly dad, others walking at the side to take
their turn; also two or three gentlemen of his bed-
chamber to wait OK him and assist him in getting in and
out. 10. Two or three horses of state with saddles
covered with black velvet, each horse attended by two

S not of
iblt'llK'ii,
ti cliJiii-H,
11 clinirH;
r'o'H own
into ten
cer. 1.
on each
or hIx
lei-H Lk •-
iituining
J iitteiul-
•Jinying
•niH. 4.
cr badge
itherw to

A gon-
t cover,

atteiul-
'11a. 7.
•aimyo'H
in front
hiniHolf
greets in
d. The
)sed, or

or cIhc
le road,
ders of
to take
lis bed-
pii and
HaddlcH
l)v two

o
o
n
<ji
<ji

if!

o
o

<Ji

I i,

t 'i

(227)

228

japan: country, court, people.

grooms and several footmen. 11. Two pike bearers.
12. Two persons carrying two baskets each of great
size. This great procession is closed up in the rear by
a multitude of domestics and subordinate officers of the
Daimyo, with their own servants, baggage, and other
utensils. The whole train is headed by the prince's
high steward seated in his sedan chair borne upon the
shoulders of men. If a son of a Daimyo or lord accom-
panies, he follows immediately behind his father's reti-
nue, with his own train of attendants. All except the
pike bearers, those who bear the sedan chair and the
livery men are clad in blue silk and march in elegant
order, with becoming gravity, and in so profound a
silence that not the least noise is made save what
arises from t^e motion and rustling of dresses and bag-
gage and the tramping of horses' feet.

Of course, when the great Shogun traveled, there
was a still greater retinue of troops, servants, horses
and baggage. As he proceeded, a runner going ahead
cried out to the people to clear the r-ad and to go down
upon the ground. "Shitaye! shitaye!" he cried—
''down! down!" and all in profoundest humility went
down upon the ground. Any person who did not c^o
down might lose his head instantly. Only a stroke or
two of a Samurai's sword would take his head off. All
of this display and parade was a part of the feudal sys-
tem. Officialdom, ceremony, and red tape played a
great part in those times.

CHAPTEK Vir.

RELIGIONS OF JAPAN IN THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY.

I. The Shinto Religion.

At the time the country was opened, thirty years ago,
Buddhism was the principal religion among all classes;
howbeit, owing to the compromising policy of the Bud-
dhist priests centuries before, there had come to be a
mixing of Buddhism and Shintoism. The old national
Shinto gods were recognized and worshiped, even by Bud-
dhist believers (see p. 67), especially the sun goddess, the
imperial ancestors, and certain national heroes of legen-
dary fame. In some Shinto temples Buddhists had charge,
so that they were more Buddhist than Shinto. In every
important town a temple had been built to the sun god-
dess, the mother of the race, modeled after the first na-
tional shrine erected to her in Ise. Once a year, or at
least once in a lifetime, every Japanese must make a visit
to that shrine in Ise. Shinto temples are usually built
upon an eminence, in a retired spot, surrounded by a
grove of pine or cryptomerias. They are approached by
a grand avenue, at the entrance to which stands a torii,
or gateway, of wood or stone. Such surroundings would
indicate an imposing structure; but, j)a88ing through
the avenue or grove and drawing nigh, one finds a sorry
small building, usually about eighteen feet in length
and breadth. This plain structure is made of white,
mipainted, planed wood, the pine or hinoki. Being, as
is claimed, a development of the primitive hut of their

(229)

[i J

V'. I

I !

230

JAPAX: COUNTRY, COUKT, PEOPLE.

ancx^«tor8 in Ania, the roof of thone in purest stylo is
«till of tliatch, l,ut many have roofs of sliingle, some of
copper sheeting. The rafters extend upward, crossing
the ridge pole in the form of an X, as seen in the picture
ihe primitive hut had probably no floor, but Shinto
temples have floors raised some feet above the ground
and a sort of balcony runnhig around, with a flight of
stairs up to the entrance.

ENTUANCE TO SHINTO TEMPLE.

The temple proper consists of two rooms, front and
rear. In the front is a wand, from wliich hangs white
paper notched m a particular way, which represents the
white cloth made m ancient times from the paper mul-
berry and offei^ed to the gods. Separated from tlie front
room by a latticed partition is the second sanctum, into
which even the high priest enters not except on rare oc-
casions. (Cf. Ileb. ix. 7.) Back there the emblem of

the god is kept within a box. T

his emblem is the sym-

SHINTO TEMPLE.

bol of the august spirit of the god, and is usually a
mirror, sometimes a sword or a curious stoue. The
mirror symbolizes a female god, and the sword a male
god. The absence of images in Shinto temples has
been variously and unsatisfactorily explained. Some say
it is because the ancient Japanese had no knowledge of
painting or sculpture, but many low and rude peoples
have had some kind of idols to represent their gods;
others have explained it by saying that originally the
Japanese were worshipers of one god only.

In front of the temple proper there is frequently a
kind of antechamber, or porch. Above this entrance is
a gong and a large rope hanging, which the worshiper
shakes to sound the gong in order to call the attention
of the god to his prayers. Never entering into tlie build-
ing, as we do in our churches the worshiper stops here,
bows low the head, claps the hands, and offers worship.
In the temple yard in the front is a stone tank, whei'e tlie
hands are washed preparatory to worship. After a very
brief worship, or generally beforehand, a few copper
coins are cast upon the floor or into the alms chest. In
the courts of these temples may frequently be seen little
shrines dedicated to other Shinto gods, local deities, and
demigods. The fox shrine, with little white images of
the fox god, is a common sight here; and not unfre-
quently a sacred white horse is kept in a stall in tlie
temple precincts. At all these temples the priests sell
little white slips of paper inscribed with the title of the
god, which is esteemed a charm for the protection of the
family. This, or a wooden tablet of the same meaning
and purpose, may be seen pasted above the door to tlieir
dwellings, or else kept near the god- shelf or altar inside
the house. Tlie sale of these sacred charms brings
something to the living of the priests. Even to the old

I? ,M

r f

i-^-

232

f !

JAPAN : (•OUNTRY, fODRT, I.Rorr.E.

placed around them as ff 1 ''™" '•"'"' "^'='J *» '»
divine spirit. ^ ^""^ '*°^»"«1 % some

regularsertices n wM h "^^^T fT. ''' ^""^^^^ -^

bIieslikotheCh™tlnlg;i2nn'^^

ing. Only at the festival fimf t ,,^' ^'' "° '"•«'"^''-

then they Lver en Jrtoteim'r "Tr"""? ''"'
repair to the temnlp on. t ^^°^P^e. The worshipers

a.ethep™atSScU;t":^T"'r'""^- ^»'
people; only ^hen ef gltl ^f t " '•' '""^'™''^

offering is a peenliar'dts worn "Th"^ ""' '™""^
long, loose ij-ow,, «,;,. T, ""'• ^'"s consists of a

waiflwitra^^X alln.tT' '"'"""^^ "' ^-^^
t>.e head withal white m,:t"'"N:t;,t TT" "''""
bound by any vows of oMhT '"*° l'"«'*'«

priests, but are fi^Ito Lar ''',' ",' "' *" ^""l-i''"'
like. Young wire, » ^^ "" "'^"l" ""^ '''"•«^'- 'W

acting as pr&r;\;tXrcSir. r '*

the sacred pantomime or dllL I- V^ *° ^'^'""'
They are u^der no vows' ot^H^r '"^ '""™'''

the'SXtt^rSst ;:r-^-™"'«' -'"^^ "^

ferings of ri-e fish If ^ ^ "' P^*'*^^^^' ^"^ of"

tern las ^:'^:t::ztz,:^':fT' r

of things, maki:; oSro/rheT ' T ""^ "'"^^"* ^'''^
and regarding neoMp '-eligious festivals,

the wofship of the !% '"■'■"^'""l 'li^f^'^ as unfit f„
dieturbe^t/o^r'pl t:;d: ;^^^^^^^^^^^ -f ' "" " "^

ceremonies are mUsimprintrirrLr

SHINTO PRIESTS AND RITUAL. 233

heaven and to offer diitifnl «,.^ ^^^s^^P the god of

earth. Why they rtouU worship such a wicked and
law ess creature is strange. Preparatory to hi"
d ys tt S: T "'^'S"^"''-'' "« «nea f or severa

-.fpj^itttx^Lrtoi^^^^^^^

3ira?/otr::t; n^" -r *'"•- '■"--do':,::

two-wheeled cart, sometimes several, is brougt Z

L„,e is the'lfnd?':;;. "I^: 'ZI'/'TT' ''''
-king a hideous kind of .usi;: ^T^'eat W^a^d

i ill'

III!
I!

234

japan: (-OTTNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

all, decked out with (Mirtains and streamers, is drawn
l>y a multitude of boys and men, by means of a very
long rope. As they move along the streets they are
followed by crowds of i)eoi)le, for this drawing of the
cart is considered an act of merit. It is indeed a hilari-
ous time.

The mikoshi is a decorated square shrine under a can^
opy ornamented with tinkling bells and chains, the
whole being borne upon a framework of poles upon
men's shoulders. In this portable shrine is the sacred
mirror, and the (johei~i. e., white paper cut into
notches in a particular manner and hanging from a
wand. Upon the top of the canopy is perched the
bronzed figure of the sacred phoenix, which to the cas-
ual observer is a rooster. As the wildly joyous crowd
go forth at niglit running and yelling in concert, as they
leap and toss tlie mikoshi with uplifted hands in rhytli-
mical measure, it is indeed an exciting scene. The
writer remembers distinctly a scene of this kind wit-
nessed by night years ago, in the city of Kioto, lie had
just reached the eastern end of the bridge crossing the
river that goes through the city. As the rushing, noisy
mikoshi bearers passed by us, followed by multitudes of
excited people. Dr. Walter Lambuth remarked that " to
be met by such an excited crowd in China would be
dangerous to foreigners." We were not in the least
molested, and enjoyed the strange procession.

Sometimes, however, a Japanese citizen, who is not
popular on account of his oppressions, stinginess, or
other fault, suffers injury during this festival. Under
the idea that the mikoshi is guided by the spirit of the
god, it is borne to the door of some hated man, forcible
entrance is made, and punishment inflicted unon him for
his wickedness.

SHINTO FESTIVALS AND GODS. 235

The ffosanffi festival at Okayama is another local
festival It IS at night, and hundreds of people from
city and country assemble in the temple yard to wait
or the throwing of the gosangi. The gosangi is a sa-
cred wooden wand one foot long and two inches thick,

of it and 1 1 . ?'' ^^"^"^^ ^^" S'' P««««««ion
of It and take it to his house will have l,ick and bless-

niSt nrtV'' '"\ Accordingly about 11 o'clock at
night It 8 thrown right into the crowd, and then follows
a struggle to seize it and run away. The struggle con-
mues sometimes for hours, the gosangi being snatched
from one to another.

In the smaller local festivals, the village god, some

orT' TT. "/'^'^^ '' '''' ^^«^"^*' ^ f— 1-ro
or sage deified after death, is celebrated by the people

of the village. One can easily tell when a village fes-

school where he writer lived and taught was a great
grove and in the center of it a local temple chiefly ihin-
to. At a certain time in the year the festivities contin-
ue for three days, and the clanging of drums, gongs, and

TixiX': ''' '''-' ''''' '''' ^''- -^^^^^> -^

foltow^ng.^^' numerous household Shinto gods are the

1. Amaterasu, sun goddess, worshiped as the morn-
ing and evening sun.

2 Ebisu, god of money, often seen on the god shelf
ot business places.

3. Daikoku, god of property and estates.

4. Sumiyoshi, faithful retainer of Temmangu

5. Temmangu (Michizane), deified and worshiped as
god of learning. ^

6. Inari, rice god and messenger of the gods.

236

f! f ?

1. 1,"

71, t

!-■ !

japan: COTJXTKY, court, I'EOI-LE.

7. Kojin, god of health and the kitchen.

8. Kompira, protector against lire and Htorni, known
as tlie sea god.

9. Ilachiman, originally god of war, also now over-
seer of family affairs.

10. Jingo Kogo, goddess and protector against disas-
ter, shipwrecks, etc.

The ihai, ancestral tablets, also have place at the
household altar. Their position Huctuates. Accord-
ing to pure Shinto, they are reckoned as ancestral spir-
its of the dead, accounted to be divinities to be prayed
to; but according to Buddhism, they are departed souls
m purgatory to be prayed /or, that they may be deliv-
ered therefrom. A festival of purification is observed
m the following manner. A caldron of boiling water
IS prepared, and the people gatlier around it; an old wom-
an dips a heavy branch of some bush into this hot water
and brandishes it overhead. The warm copious shower
tails upon her and those near her, and tlius they are
purified. "^

We saw how in the primitive religion the Emperor
performed the ceremony of purification in behalf of tlie
people; and it is probable that tliis oil woman sprink-
ling the water upon herself and tlie people represents
the Emperor's sister, wlio in ancient times was hi-h
priestess at the national slirine in Ise. The Shinto serv-
ices at a funeral are very simple. Tlie officiating priest
always rides on horseback in the funeral procession.
It IS almost needless to say that the reigning Emperor,
with his august ancestors, is tlie head and center of the
Shinto religion, and hence many oi)ponent8 of Chris-
tianity try to make the point that to be Christian vio-
lates one's allegiance to the Emperor as the nation's di-
vinely descended head.

' 14

BUDDHIST RELIGION.

2.37

II. The Buddhist Religion and Ceremonies.*
Vidtora to Buddhist temples have often remarked
the resemblance of Buddhism to Roman Catholicism.
lUere is, however, a wide difference as to the original
doctrines of the two systems. Buddhism knows nothing
of salvation by grace, but only by works; self-perfec.
tionment is by self-denial and meditation without the
vicarious death of a Redeemer. It does no/;, teach the
immortality of the soul in a way that Christians could
accept, for the state of Nirvana is practically the loss
of individual existence, and Buddhism is silent concern-
ing the existence of one supreme God, Creator of the
heavens and the earth.

But there is a real and very striking resemblance be-
tween Buddhism and Romanism in their outward sys-
tern and ceremony. Their sacred books havo never been
translated into Japanese, but, like the Romanist, their
ritual service is in a foreign tongue, and it Is said that
the priests themselves have an imperfect understanding
of the Sanskrit, or even the Chinese version of their sa-
cred books. Their priests, excepting one sect, are eel-
ibates like the Romish monks; tliey have monasteries,
nunneries, and orders of begging devotees; they have
pilgrimages, penances, fasts, and gods, the tinkling of
bells, counting of beads with their prayers, processions,
sale of indulgences, and a scale of merit, altars, candles
images, pictures, incense, relics, prayers for the dead'
canonizing of saints; and, instead of the Virgin Marv'

ii?if"/l?"''" ''^^ *^^^^ ^'^r^' *h« "Mother ol
Buddha " Though a Hindoo woman, unto her a temple
stands dedicated on the top of a mountain near Kobe^
There IS also in Buddhism an elaborate system of priest-

*Seepage65^

238

JAI'A.V: rOTJNTRY, fOUKT, PEOPLE.

t 1 1>
i 1

ffiili '

Ir'u

ki'-'i

ly hiera,-,.l,.y, with it« gra,lati„„„ a,,,! „,d„8, from the

Kud.ll™t temples, unlike the Shinto, are noticeable
for s,ze and n.terior splendor, at least ti.ese are the
.•l.aracter,stu.s of their head temples. These, u„ual y
unit npon an elevation either withh> or j«s „„ „ide
the town and overlooking it, are often the best and most
conspicuous buildings in the place. They serve no
only for worship, but also for recreation ^and a,™ c-
ment, ben.g surrounded by spacious grounds adfruod
w.th groves gardens, and walks. TWs is especi y
true of the Asakusa temple in Tokyo where are b„oth(
tea houses, sorcerers, fortune tellers, jugglers, siuging

fice!;r'fh I'" ^' """ approachisnhe most^nl^
tueab e thn.g about a Buddhist temple is the graeef uUv
curved roof wzth its heavy tilings, supported, as he
afterwards sees, by massive columns. Asyou c, ter the
gateway n.to the temple yard-a very infposing gate
"sually-there is „„ one side a belfry where hangs h^
large cup-shaped bell, that is sounded not by the striking
of a metal clapper, but by a s,vinging beam of wood with
which men strike the bell ou the outside. Then a few
Steps farther in is the stone laver like the one beforT
Solomoii's temple in Jerusalem, where the people wash
thei. hands before worshiping. And on eithi side of
the paved or gravel walk leading to the temple there is
frequently a row of stone lanterns about five feet high
When you reach the entrance to the temple you see on
either side a hideous, large image, genLlfy painted
.•ea representing the guardian gods. These idols are
"aked giants, with eyes and features distorted. One
has his mouth open; the other has his clbwhe^ o-> has

II the
sect,
boys

leahlo
•o the
uially
itside
most
li not

UllHO-

U.l

<rmg

llO-

ully
I he

the
ate,

the

' is

(239)

I' >'!

240

japan: COIINTIIV, c:OI,ItT, TROI'LE.

» club ,» )„„ right Imnd, tho l„ft hanging, f„,ely down-
the oth.r „tret«h,.„ „„t l.„tl> hand, a„ff r„,„dll „„^'
0..0 or ,,ar,,ving a l.low, one fi,t l,„ing tigl, ly .dL W
Th .0 h,de«n« god, are the sentinel, tl.at'guard ^

Iwrn , iHo have distorted eye, and featnren, and hold
Innderholt, n, their hand,, or hag, of wind to stZ
the approaelnng worshiper, with awe. Sometime,, too
he gnarchan, of the ten.plo are a pair of i„,ag T,;

t:'::/ti':t:;. """ "'- '" - "■«^- "— « '«

A,cendi„g the flight of wide ,tep, at tho entrance
you reach the floor of tho colonnade that run, along tl ^
whole front of the temple or frequently around tho

support the great and heavy roof. For example, Kfimp-
fe,s over two hundred year, ago, visited a temple it
K.oto, the great roof of which wa, ,upported by ninety-
four nnmense pUlars, three feet through, and alipain Jd
red And to-day the n.ammoth Ilongwanji ten.ple in
Kioto has scores of groat wooden pillar, ,n,,porting its
enormon,, curved roof. These colnn.ns, with the beams
and cornices above them, are painted, gilded, or lac-
quered; sometimes the native wood is polished and left
nnpamted. The beam, and cornices are decorated with
carved dragons, bulls, hares, storks, and tortoises.
And all manner of mythical scene, and legend, are rep-
resented ,1, the interior decoration, of ,uch a temple.
In the gables are carved figure, of animal, tliat enter
into the twelve ,ign, of tho .odiac, a, received from
l'hin,a. After gazing for a while at the many pillars
and the elaborate carvings, you then take in the interior

BUDDHIST CEKEM0NIE8.

241

plan of tho buildii.gs. Witliin tl.e colouimde, and sep.
urated from it either by latticed partitionu or paper
8hoji8, 18 the hull, :iMd in this hull the i»eoplo assemble
occasionully to heur the priests m they sit and preach
or they enter here sin.ply to pruy. Again, in the rear
part of this liuU i,s another inclosure containing the altar
and shrine, and within the Hhrine the image of Buddha
and two or three subordinate gu(l8. This shrine is
beautifully decorated with lacquer and gold, and there
are flowers, candles, and holy incense, reminding one of
the altar and cruciH.v of a Roman Catholic church. It
18 here in front of the alt.u- and shrine that the priests
beat the gong, chant prayers, and road portions of the
sacred books which it is said they scarcely understand.
On either side of the shrine are hung in order upon the
walls the name tablets, names received after death of
the dead in the i)ari8h— that is, of those whose families
have paid money enough to get the priest's prayers for
parents and other kindred believed to be in purgatory.

Behind the temple, or adjoining it, are the rooms for
the priests and the attendants who have charge of the
place. In a great temple there is quite a retinue of
priests with their attendants. Those priests are sup-
posed to be without wives, and they go with shaven
heads and ])eculiar dress. Over a loose long gown of
white cotton they wear another with wide sleeves but
not so long, made of some thin black or yellow stuff.
Hanging loosely from the left shoulder and passing under
the riglitarm, a wide band of the same material passing
across the breast, is a loose cape of saffron color. This
represents the skin which the early disciples of Buddha
woi-e in India, and is a sign of their poverty and self-
denial. Not unfrequently the familiar rosary is seen
m their hands. The daily services of the priests begin
16

« mi

If)

,■ ; ir

!) I
1(1'

1^'

242

li i-r

6 ; ^

japan: country, court, people.

before daylight. Residing once near a temple, the
writer remembers how, before daybreak every morning,
the temple drum and gong were invariably heard. At
first the strokes were low and slowly measured, but
gradually grew more rapid, and were continued for an
hour or more. At the same hour another priest began
his prayers, chanting his sacred books. An important
part of the prayers were the masses for the dead who
had gone from the parish into purgatory. But for
those not able to pay the required price prayer was of-
fered, not by name but by wholesale, as it were Of
course such wholesale prayer could not be so efficacious
m delivering miserable souls out of torment; but as the
I3oor people could not help it, their kindred must stay
longer in that place. From these paid prayers for the
dead, from funeral fees, and from the voluntary contri-
butions of rice, money, and sake, the priests got their
living. Some of the head temples own lands and other
properties that yield a yearly income.

Besides the regular priestly order, there are enthu-
siasts or impostors, pilgrim vagabonds living by beg-
ging, by pretending to drive away evil spirits, to Und
lost things, discover robbers, interpret dreams, decide
the guilt or innocence of accused persons, predict the
future, and cure diseases which they perform throucrh
the medium of a child into whom they pretend the spiHt
enters, thereby being able to answer all questions.

One sect, the Nichiren, the most superstitious and
bigoted of all the Buddhists, claims special power in
oriving away evil spirits from houses and from persons.
Ihe fox spirit often possesses people of a supersti-
tious turn, who are nervously reduced, ,>roducing a
sort of double self that is very tormenting to the png.
Bemd victim. Prof. Chamberlain, of the Imperial

BUDDHIST FESTIVALS.

243

University, had a few years ago, when traveling on foot
in the country, a curious experience. It was in the sum-
mer of 1879, a great cholera year, and upon entering a
village in the evening he and his companion were ac-
cused of bringing into their village, at that sad season,
the evil spint of the cholera. After much parleying and
standing in the drenching rain with night approaching,
the learned professor and his companion agreed that the
priests might be sent for. They came in white vestments,
bearing heavy branches of trees in their hands. Wav-
ing these dripping branches over them, the priests then
struck them on the back with swords, and after that the
spirit was supposed to be driven away, and they were
allowed lodging for the night.

Only a few words about Buddhist festivals. The
festivals described on pages 199-201 were social or na-
tional occasions, and only indirectly religious. The one
most written about by foreigners takes place the 7th of
the 7th month, at Nagasaki, and is called the feast of
the lanterns, or Tanabata, after the name of the star
Weaver, in the Milky Way. This is to give help and
comfort to the departed dead. At this festival the
priests perform special services, and at night there is
much masquerading both of men and of women.

The festival to Kwannon, the goddess of mercy, is
another night festival. The people tiock out to watch
the stars, anxiously waiting to see a shooting star, or
the conjunction of two stars; and the climax is reached
when 'the seven stars come into a certain position in the
heavens, which appear to be just over the roof of the
temple, and which they are taught to believe fall into
the temple.

1 ne batiiing of jjuddha's image was generally ob-
served in former tiroes, and is still observed to some

^44

japan: country, oolkt, people.

extent. A little image is brought out and the sweet
juice of some vegetable is rubbed over it, a little shrine
IS made for it and it is then decorated with flowers.
Ihis bathing of Buddha is done as an act of merit for
the soul. The Buddhists, unlike the Shintoists, bold
preachnig meetings. Once a year, especially in winter
or sprnig, they hold protracted services. Every day for
ten days or two weeks preaching meetings are held in
the temple by the priests. The time between these
services is spent as a sort of holiday; occasionally meet-
mgs are held in their houses, the congregation consist-
ing of the neighbors. The first and fifteenth days of
reTi^our ^'' ""'"^^''^^ i^olidajs, partly social, partly

Hyahumanhcn was, according to the literal meaning
of the word, a million prayers. These were prayers
for persons dangerously ill. The person about to die
sits in the center of a ring of persons, and the rosary is
passed around, each one repeating certain words and
counting a bead. This is repeated many times. There
18 another Buddhist ceremony which takes place at
mght. Ihe writer once witnessed it at Arima, in the
hills a lew miles back of Kobe. On an appointed
night the people march from the temple to a certain
evel open space and form a great ring. In the center
18 built a rude platform upon which stand the leaders
who, when they drawl out certain words, all the peo-
ple 111 the ring cry out in a kind of chorus, meanwhile
stamping and swaying their bodies. Upon inquiry it
was stated by a Japanese on the spot that the object of
this j>erformance was to get the soul of some one out of
purgatory Tlie doctrine of purgatory has a la ge
place in the belief of Buddhists, as of Komanists; aifd
many are the awful pictures of the unspeakably horri-

BUDDHIST CEREMONIES.

245

ble tortures which Emma Sama, the god of hell, inflicts
upon the wicked. At the temple shops of image deal-
ers such pictures are always on sale.*

The Japanese are by nature lively and gay, but in
the bottom of their hearts are inclined to religion.
This is shown in all their history. Their acceptance of
Buddhism in the sixth century, and the great success
which the Roman Catholics had during the sixteentli
century, in winning converts both from the highest
ranks of life and from the common people, clearly show
that the Japanese race is inclined to religion. The
hold which many superstitions still have upon the
masses proves the same thing. Though Buddhism and
Shintoism alike have undoubtedly lost the influence once
held, there is tu this day much evidence that speaks of
deep religious feelings and beliefs, unfortunately beliefs
too often utterly false. For instance, tlie wayside gods,
though often neglected, are not forgotten; one sees
them honored with offerings of flowers; the wayside
shrine is still in some neighborhoods replenished with
fresh light, and the neck of the idol bedecked with a
new red or yellow bib. Again, the little prayer flags
may still be seen stuck into the ground by the hundreds
as you approach some temple in the hills. And over
the doors of many dwellings of tlie common people
strips of paper or wooden tablets are tacked up with a
picture, or some sacred character upon it, procured
from Is6 or Kompira. These are amulets or charms to
keep away evil spirits or calamities and plagues of dis-
ease, fire, and storm.

Duri n g tlie Tokugawa pe riod the Buddhist was really

*When the writer first went to Japan, in 1888, there was
still celebrarod near Tokyo, in the month of August, a reli-
gious festival to the devil.

246

I'l^

japan: country, court, people.

the established religion, and it received rich endowments
trom the government. At the restoration, in 1868 it
was disestablished, and Shinto was reinstated as Ihe
ofticially authorized religion of the Emperor and his
court; accordingly many Buddhist temples were ^'puri-
hed," stripped of their images and other paraphernalia
t^iat betokened the Buddhist faith, and turned over to
fehmto priests. But the attempt was not successful,
the Board of Religion of the State was abolished and
the Buddhists regained some of their lost prestige,
lo-day they are making a strong, not to say desperate,
ettort to maintain their footing against Christianity
brought from America and Europe. As a rule tl/e
priests are not intelligent and are morally loose
Some of the Buddhists themsalves ha e complained bit-
terly of the ignorance, indolence, and vice of their
priests.

ii !,

CHAPTER VIII.

JAPANESE ARTS— A SKETCH.
Introductory Remarks.
Fifty years ago a new impetus was given to interna-
tional arts and art industries by the great exhibition in
London, opened by the late Consort Prince Albert. By
means of other similar but larger displays in Vienna
Pans, Philadelphia, and Chicago, a better acquaintance
with the art products of all nations is possible, and we
are made to see how other peoples dwelling on the other
side of the globe, and quite different from ourselves in
language and customs, have a sense of the beautiful
feelings of taste, and skill to express those feelings in
their art. Like the religious instinct, the feeling of
the beautiful is natural, and therefore more or less de-
veloped in all nations, needing only to be enlightened
by true and lofty ideals.

It is remarkable that in no country is the union of
liberal and industrial art so close as in Japan, so that
m the language of Regamey, the artist workman and
tlie workman artist are one person. No broad line of
distinction between liberal and technical art exists
nor should it exist anywhere. From Plato down to
this day all attempts to define beauty have failed, but
the two important elements of proportion and 'har-
mony are no less essential in industrial than in liberal
art. Another fact not generally appreciated in Amer-
ica is that Japanese industrial art lias had a felt in.flu-

ence upon the art industries of E

urope and America.
(247)

m
' If

IIP)

248

I ^1

V I ii.i.

'i!' I 111

!WI i

]i is

■'AJ'A.V: iOlSTllY, (•()r:RT, PEOPLE.

r^ST'"'' '^ ^^^^"- ^"«^- ^^ ^« -y that
Exhbto^mtr'T'' i^^'«^-^«-t our Centennial

, tion (18/6) caused a sensation in art ciro]o»- ^^
wa« the .en«atio„ le«. noticeable two ^a™ te wal
at Pans; and at the Wodd's Exidbition at Ohicll n,

wiie.eas „, Chma and Japan indnstrial art took the

lerfectitf f' '" T""" -■<■•"'«*- all but .-eaoh^
pertection-for instance, the Parthenon at Athens
while jn Easten, Asia it has always been of a Wo";
der. In representation of the human form the Jam
nese as compared with the Greeks stand in sorry con-
trast. The reason will be shown later. India Pe,™
Chma, Korea, and probably Holland, are the co„n S
whene the Japanese received certain' forms ZZZ
ods of art production. The debt which Japan owes
China can be told by the simple words *« JJ "w
««?,«.««. Th,at Japan is in advance of China „
art culture is everywhere allowed

From 1787 to 18:!0 was the acme of the golden a^e „f

art industry which began with the Toiugaw.a^crt

Nikko, with its tombed temples, rich in cafvhl i i

decorations of lacquer and gold, is the silent nZumom

of that age's highest achievement. The conditio ad

characteristics of Japanese art. though a subj ct : o

great interest, can only be briefly considered. The

three conditions of successful art are well fulKUed in

Japan: (1) an inborn passion for the beautiful, univer"

sa even among the very lowest and most ignoraat, .-ho

often have m tlie little y.-ml of th' ' ■■

hovel h

on;e a

pot

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

249
of flowers or u bit „f green; (2) keen observation and a

kt, e ,y H„gi„,„„„„_ accomplished in matters of
a.t, in which he stated that the Japanese eye was so
keen and accurate that their artists had caught cetta n
movements and poises of birds on the wing wh cTi ar
t^ts of other eonntries had not detected. Ihl "t ao -
dinary deftness of hand and fingers is the ZTlf
usnig for successive ages the brush in writing. Almost
every Japanese can sketch an object or diL a Z
Rc.gamey tells us how the saleswoman in a seed slZ'
squatting in the corner of her master's shop, takes h^;
brush and on the paper bag you are waiting for n^.
cates in a few strokes the -picture of the plant which the
seed you are buying will produce. I„ learnin^t,!
write with a brush the diflicult characters of tneWa^i
guage, the Japanese are continually training both eye

tion of lines and curves, (.s) Yet another condition is
furnished by the varied and attractive natural world
surrounding the people. Japan, like Greece his all
he diversity of mountain and valley, wi^d ng 1
.ne witii mlets and bays, peninsulas and islands. In
.cturesque scenery of mountains and seas combined
It IS more than Switzerland. Several less important
auditions in art culture have likewise been fuimied-
that ,s to say, the different branches of handicraft arts
=.re handed down in families, thus securing teblefi
of heredity; slow apprenticeship, the son or th Ip!
prentice being put to his life work wlien a child; a pow-
erful memory and vivid imagination, wher by t^e
scene or object ,s held in the mind for an inde'finite
time, ready to be reproduced with realistic feeling-
and patronage of great and powerful nobles. Artists

ii:'

250

JAPAN : (-OUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

were attached to the castle and court, and their work
was keenly appreciated l,y lords, Dainiyos, and their
iannlies. Lastly, Japanese artists had a contempt for
money. The artist worked on and on for the love of
art, without hurry, bringing all the concentrated enthu-
siasm of his soul upon his piece till it was brought to
perfection. The workman artist of old Japan had two
things greatly in his favor: (1) He was never in a hur-
ry, had time for study and meditation till the idea and
form of the object to be reproduced lived within him
and also abundant time did he have for the execution of
his idea, returning a hundred times to the same point
till It was perfectly executed; (2) he was always sure
ot appreciation.

Japan is the land of surprises in art as well as in
other things. ' One is often astonished at the mean and
sorry home of the artist. It is often nothing more than
a simple hut, lacking all conveniences and comforts
and his workshop, like his living room, is the narrow-
est place. The writer was once in the little hovel of a
porcelain decorator, and his beautifully done designs
were in sharp contrast with his sorry surroundings.
Again, even in the homes of nobles and people of qual-
ity, patrons of art and possessors of art treasures one
IS struck by the absence of furniture, where everything
IS simplicity itself, but very clean. Where, then, is
their beautiful virtu? The Japanese do not like to
display their treasures and objects of virtu in recep-
tion halls, parlor, and dining room, as we do. Their
collections are stored away out of sight in the godown
Occasionally, and for reasons, they bring forth their
prized objects of art, fine lacquer ware, ivory, porcelain
bronzes, pictures, silk robes, costly and rare swords
and armor handed down as heirlooms, and never more

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

261

than two or three choice i)iece8 at a time. A single
vase, liighly prized for its beauty and perfection of
finisli, may be set out upon the raised dais of the toko-
noma, or a rare picture, mounted in damask bordering,
18 hung upon the wall. After a time these are stored
away and other objects brought out. It is not so
much as great builders as in chaste and delicate dec-
oration of small things that their characteristic power
displays itself. ]3ut, though fond of decorative art of
every variety, and adepts in it to a degree unexcelled
by any other nation, there is also delicate taste in its
display that is more to be admired than the garish man-
ner too often seen in wealthy American circles. So
that we can say of the better classes, at least, that they
have a genius no less for etiquette than for art.

As to the materials and forms utilized in Japanese
art there is the richest variety: the Vitruvian curve,
arabesque and swastika, vines, flowers, slender graceful
bamboo, pine of normal and deformed shape, the leaf-
less and blooming plum, cherry, magnolia, flag and rush,
rocks, and water scences, gardens with little lakes and
miniature mountains, certain beasts, cranes and herons,
pheasants and nightingales, insects in motion and at
rest. Again, the animals of the Zodiac* appear in
Japanese art, especially in the gable carvings of some
of their temples.

As history progressed, its warriors, heroes, battles, and
castles came in for art treatment. Like other nations,
their religions, both Buddhist and Shinto, with their
mass of myths and traditiojis of gods and goddesses,
semidivine ancestors, deified Emperors and warriors, de-
mons and monsters, furnished a rich field of subjects

*The Zodiac, borrowed from China, canie originally from
Persia or Assyria.

252

japan: cottntry, ootrt, people.

h ' ,!

; U I

for eatment in tl.eir art. About all the architoctnre
worth mentioning in Japan is from linddhisn 7.
interest of this relidon nU'mthn' ^'^

edictreouirinc..]/ 7 J ^"'''''''''"^'"^^««''«^l''*n

with t^ ^V ' """^' "^"^^^''^ ^'"""^ to be adorned
with the can od in.age of some Buddhist divinity This
was bad re i,ion but it stimulated ..ulptur. a .d e

hf; fill Tvo" f ""; ''"*^ "'^ ''^'"- ---1 --turls
that fill a very large place in decorative art, especiallv
bronzes, fabrics, and paintin... ' ''''^'''''''^^y

*!-> an .uh the u of : :;:i:\:i/ ;rr: a":

.t s the noblest form of animal creuion. As an i,„-»
nat,on of the Ave elements-earth, fire, air wa e an i
ether-from *hich all things are ^.ade the ZT^Tot
tins an.ma n, philosophy came to be a ^ube ami globe
the pyramid with its five or more stories, and the tuft
of rays on gravestones. '

The pte„fe is the second of the incarna-.ions, and is
o wondrous form and mystic nature. It has the head
of a pheasant beak of a.swallow, neck of a tortoise, and
features of the dragon or fish. Its plumage repre ents
the five colors, symbols of the five virtues, upright . J
obedience, justice, fidelity, and benevolence TomI

::;it:;:\!trir "^^"'""-"^ ■----'--
a.^:f r^i:-:\i:-~--

produefons. It is not the common tortoise of our nat!
u.absts, but a creature that rose «p out of the Yellow
River m ages long gone by, with mystic writing upon
Its back. From this divine tortoise all other toftoLs
have come. It hves a thousand years, hence is the sym-

INTKODUCTORY REMARKS. 263

bol (,f l«„.ovity in art and in litcratnro. In pictures
-TKl .,. sculpture it is often of colossal size, and serves
as pedestal of nionunient or tablet. Often, too, the stork
stauds on ti.e back of the turtle in art. With the now-
er of transtornuition, it is one of the incarnations of the
legions of spirits that live around us.

The ihuujon is the chief of the four. This wonderful
creature mis the largest place in art, literature, and leg-
end. Ihcre are nine kinds of dragons, and artists never
tire in representing tlieni in bronze, in wood, and upon
fabrics. It IS also pictured on the imperial coat of arms
and on Japanese coins. Curled up like a snake, with
sea en, tails, and horrible head mounted with .Vorns, it
IS the eml>lem of vigilance and strength.

Anotlier group of designs often seen in bronze reliefs
are the seven gods of fortune. One frequently sees in Jap-
anese art the same object repeated in pairs, a combina-
tion which to us is either unintelligible or ill befitting,
because we do not know the legend, tradition, or provei-b
referred to. For example, the lion and the peony, some-
times seen on a kakemono or screen, refer to an ancient
dance where a man personating a lion dances across a
bridge decorated with peonies. The deer and maple
scene originated with an ancient poem, and symbolizes
quietness or solitude. The lotus and silver heron used
m temple art represent the idea of nurity. The plum
tree and nightingale signify early spring, but the crane
and turtle are emblems of prosperity and long life The
homewar-i flight or alighting of wild geese is in the Ian-
gnage ot art a reminder of home. The cuckoo and the
moon also sometimes appear in their art. This suggests
that while Japanese art is strongly realistic, it is also
abundantly symbolic.
No artists have shown such ability to be true to nature

«.. ' •

'"'i'j

254

japan: cuuntuy, court, i-eople.

in tiio oxactest dctailH of her objects and

thei

HceneH, and yet

e iH a Htrange tendency to indulge in lawless f

whereby tlie unnatural, the deformed

inc

boldly set forth. While on the one hand
ture and true to her })eautieH, the

and hideous are
so fond of na-

that

re is a freak of

'omsto revel in the caricature of nature's deft

mind

'cts.

It IKW been stated that iu .ra|,am.H„ painting there is no
I-«,.ect,ve. That ,, not quite ju«t; there i„ «on,e, 1,„I
■ot enough. Thi« i„ ,,rohal,l.v duo to much coneentra-
tion ,>|K,n nuniature work, and in which tliey excel all
other nation,. I„ closing this introductory we touch
"I-on the most ser.ous defect of Ja,,anese art. We Inve
already stated that re,,resentati„ns of the human form
as co„,,,arcd with that of the Greeks are very sorry.

sTi'ritTT' ■ T" "'1'"''^ *" portray with life ami
s,,„ the hun,an face .and %ure is the unfortunate lack
of any lofty idea of nmn. A high i.lea of free individ-

.sm had too long crushed out the free sj.irit of the man.

rhe serious defect, then, of Japanese art, and of litera-

ture as well, rs the lack of lofty and grand ideals.

ihe.e ,s love of nature, of the beautiful, and a genius
for execution; hut the deep and all-pervading meaning
of nature and man's place above nature are wanting-
wanting because the idea of God overall, uniting all
and elevating all into one sublime whole, is lacking
Japanese art is marvelously skillful and beautiful, bui
not subliine or deeply spiritual. It is handicapped by
the lack of Christian ideas and sentiments. Thi sami
IS precisely true of their literature. When Christianity
shall have been received into their hearts, and the view

to God, there will sprmg forth from artists and poets a
new creation. ^

LACQUER WORK.

I. LAcHii'KR Work.

i V

255

o art of lacquering is very ancient in .Tat

conhng to Jiem it \h ut tl.e ton of all tl

arts. In this brancli of th

eir art

and Hkill nioi

eiitly of Chinese canons, and

the Jai

>an. Ae-
leir industrial

- i>ane80 feelincf

•e qiuclily asserted tliomselvcs independ-

ese canons, and x-onnd a wide ficdd for

ho„- own creatmns; and in no other l.ran,-!, of art have

indeed, the e is "oconntry that can eompete with them
«. the exeellenee and manifold a,,,lieati„ns of the a"
q"or„,g art I.acquer varnish is obtained fr„n> he lae
tree a speces of sun,ac growing in the northern parts

of th . T'" ; ""'• „"" "'"'"" "f *''« ""-"-"« " tion
con n m;;"'""^? "" "f *''« '- ^V^^'o -- from one
comnun Mty Gon.g out n, the spring and summer, thev
make what .s called girdle cutting tf rough the hark of
he tree, and with an iron spoon take the sap. Unlike
he sap of the sugar n.aple in Kentucky or Ve'rmont, the
lac of this tree does not flow freely. The color of the
raw lacquer strained and ready for market is from a
gray to a tan brown, and it is a syrupy, sticky 1 „" d
Unhke our oopal varnish, which is an artificial mixtue
^acquer varn,sh is a ready-made product of natu::.'

m (^77 "■" '•""" °^ "^ ■•emarkable qualities:
M) l^ives off a poisonous vapor. (3) Turns black
when e.vp„sed to the light. (3) Is tMnned wiV tl
verged camphor-a liquid thinned by a solid U)
Hasgreat hardness when it dries, and a nfirrorlike luste
that increases with time. (.5) Dries best in a damp at

the heat of boiling water, frost, etc., to such a degree
th,.t Its durab lity is measured by decades and c^u!

q — .a „„.. a hundred and eighty years old, and its

256

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

h.h

I ,

Hi'

1 1

>i ! '

luster .8 as if it were of yesterday. (7) Still an^
other excellence is that it may be applied to every
naniable article or object that has a smooth surface,
from the tmy medicine box to the architectural orna-
mentation of palaces and temples; to articles made of
wood, sword scabbards, toilet, and present boxes, or
cabinets; metals of all kinds, papier-mache, leather/pa-
per, horn, tortoise shell, unglazed clay and porcelain
ware. At Nikko, a temple dedicated to one of the
great fehoguns has the floor of the outside gallery in
black lacquer upon which people walk barefooted; and
a sacrea Dndge in tlie same place, over which a reli-
gious procession is made once a year is done in red
lacquer. Frequently the columns of imperial palaces
a.id great temples are finished in red lacquer, put on
thick by successive coatings. There are two or three
distinct classes wlio engage in lacquering. There is
first the lacquer artisan, whose business it is to prepare
the piece by careful smoothing of the grain, miing up
holes and joints with a kind of paste, polishing the
urface, and then laying on the solid background of
aoquer by many s.iccessive coatings of varnish, care-
fully drying and polishing each coating till at last a
lacquer ground is obtained as smooth and lustrous as
plate glass. Sometimes as many as twelve, or even
wenty lacquer varnishings are put on the same surface
If the piece is to be plain lacquer with one color,
nothing more is needed.

A second and superior class are not artisans but art-
ists, experts m lacquer painting and decorating. These
handling the brush and other delicate instniments a^
leal artists, and putting on the designs in colors, gold
silver, or what not, do not work simply accordit o
pattern, but devise their own desigiis'from nalU:

I.4CQUEB WORK.

257

There arc , livers mctl,o,l, a,„l ,„atcrial, i„ lacq„er dee-
«,.t.o„ ,.e„l;ng different effects or styles. Belid s the
pla 1, aeq„er..>,g m one color, as indicated, there are

a flat surface. 1 or .nstance, there is a condonation of
the fonr colors, hlack, red, yellow, and green, which

L™:;;:; : "",">' "'""'■"• ^«^"»- ^herf is aL i,:'

tot,o„ of wood; for n.stance, a vase which Rein found
." a London sho,, was lacqnered in in.itation of red

lot™ "7 ■ T "!'■<""-""«"' l'"-«ve hundred
lolla.s Agan,, tl,cre is gold, silver, bronze, and tin
lacqnenng, on a flat surface, obtained by sJfting^
Bpnnkln.g the ,,ulveri.ed n.etal dust u,,on the lacque
whde u ,s n,o,st, and when it has dried and the looseTy

coatn g of transparent varnish is laid on. In the same
way l,>cquern,g „, powdered mother-of-pearl is nro-
<lu-l The oldest preserved specimen of lacque'^d

It >» b a,.k, and dates from the seventh century. In the
eleventh and twelfth centuries the nobles at Kioto be-
can,e stylmh enough to drive ox carts lacquered in black
and gold, stylish carts of state. Afterwards great 3
•ess was «-en ,n that, beside, the g.ound of plain gold
pr,nkle,l gold, and in in.itation of the pear, shark's^k ,7
and gran, o native wood, nu.ny elaborate designs w re
mtroduced lor decoration, bloondng plants, vines arl!
besques, bits of band,oo branch all o°, a flat „r re and
m colors of black, red, and gold, etc. '

ab^"t'i'40,r'/n*"''° °'r'' ""■'-•'"-^ was invented
about 140(1 A.D.-namely, lacquering in relief In the

reach'fnhe'°.""; ' f'""''' *" """' *» """l--'^ -■'
.eached_the highest po„,t of perfection, and many of

lak":

,1:;;!.

Ill

111

258

japan: COUNTIIY, COUKT, I'EOrLE.

the small cheste, writing utensils, case, for keeping and

r.L,n i, n I ™"'=^M«. "'-'-^pieces. Landscapes,

t r and fl ' "'°;""f"'«. '-l-'l^, geese, animals

tiecs and flowers, are built up in low relief by succes^
«ve layers of lao.uer varnish, in gold or bronL e.

i he vase mentioned above in imitation of red sinda

wth ,vo,y, and represented the seven wise men of Chi-
"a cranes, and bambo-. By con.bining the carvinl
and mlaymg with the laecp.ering in ,e!Vf tl e m If

abo^te and beautiful designs fave W pr^, ^^

1 or dlustrafou, take the cover of a box give, by Koln
and done by one of the old n.asters. Upon a g™ nd

t.e with r?'"' *"' "r"™^ *"■»■"' "' -"•« ^h™l> or

buds, and two huranung birds l^overing above is all
-.-ought out in carving and in relief, making a mos't tr,!^
■ng p.cturc. Nor has the artistic skill lied o^tL.

,t '"T ™ '" «'« Japansese collection at Paris a
|..e'e wh,ch attracted attention for the elegance and
nchness of its lacquer decoration. It was^ thr

p.oducts from India, France, and Kngland n.ade a great
mpre»s,on upon lovers of art. Qutting from r1I„
"A more beaufful orn.a„,entatio„ in raised gold lacq' ,:
work ,s scarcely conceivable than the n.agnifleently e"e
cuted red-and-white peony blossom in gfld and sUve
chrysamhemun,s and other flowers with leaves wMc h

was sold for s.xty housand francs. Still another fea-

b le Th™;*" 'r"'""^ '" "<■"" l'"-lain and
Uo.i^e. Ih,s ,s not an un.-onnuon variation now used
n, decoratmg bron/.c a.,d porcelain vases.

BBONZE WOBK AND SCULPTtTEE. 259

II. BkonzK WoJtK AND SoULl-roUK.

meUI ,„ts l,y the demand ci-eated for i„.age», l,eU, and
-n.e,-s. B„t i„ tl,e Middle Age», whe.^.l the Itj

::r„v'"' °"iy ''■•"'»-<> i".tp.-«tic.ed wa., the '?: :

t.y of the nation. During this long period of war the
wor<l .„„th stood in the ranks of the learned nrofls!

r" 1",? "'r;:"""Y ""'"'• ^^"■- »■"""- veiita^I
ait sts devoted themselves to this honorable calling

dehance the famons swords of Da.nas.n.s and Toledo
It was not only the forging and te„,„ering that caU "d

:i 7:rz' "■" ■"""""'''"''« "«»■■'' '™' ■' --

of two 1 '"";'' '""^'"S «"S''S'«J «'« best effort

of two classes of workn.en artists, one in metals, one
m lacquering. It is said that the Goto family , oted

school of painters, reproducing them in miniature upon
their swords. It was a great honor to he the fortunate
owner of a sword engraved with the name of one of the
famous sword smiths, and for such blades fabulous
pnces were often paid. It was a great honor, tio „
h.ave many of these precious blades, some handkldo'wn
f om warrior ancestors, some received as presents and
o liers captured from the s'ain enemy. A p"o ' Uy
clad man, wearing .-ostly swor.ls at his belt, was more

swoi d. I hese traditions and sentiments natnrally stim-
lated the art of the sword smith. M.asamuncf who
lived at the end of the thirteenth century, was tie
."ost lamous of all the swonl smiths; and L My"clin
family was similariy distinguished as armor n ake

I")

iiH

< 1 m

260

*^')?,

■ i

i>-

f !

HI i

.IAI-.\\: COT^XTUY, COUUT, I'EOPLK.

All oaglo, now in the Kensington M

forged by one of tl.e Myodiins, in an _ .._ ,,,,,„.

plo of tlieir art, and cost five thousand dollars. Wlien

useiini, London,
lins, is an admirable exani-

the ly

eyasu dynasty of Sliogun

upon tlie tlirone, and

8 was firndy establislied

branches of metal

wars ceased in tlie land, otl

arts once more received conside

ler
ra-
country was opened to foreign-
ornamentation

tion. 8o tliat Avlien the

ers in LSCH, there was no forn/of metal

except galvanizing not perfectlv understood l,v t"]

,• „„ .- ^ --.' — vv^wv.. .)y tlie na-

lives. Ihe precious metals, as well as copper, bronze,
steel, and iron, all yielded to the skillful liand and ar-
tistic spirit of the workmen artists who understood i.er-
fectly the different methods of decorating and finishin<>-
^^asting, embossing, liammering, turning, engraving,"
chasing, inlaying, plating, damascening, and colorin^r
As an exa,mple in iron work, take one of their cast-ircm
kettles I he Kettle is the only vessel of the household
J-lass of utensils tliat is dec-orated. The cover is usual-
ly inade of bronze. Tal,lets of copper plate, ],ordered
111 thick silver wire, are inlaid on the side of tlie kettle
and on one of tliose plates there may be an inlaid dier-
ry tree and a niglitingale perched in the branches. The
forged liandle and the copper cover mav also be deco-
rated with inlaid .vork. Speaking of inlaid work, it
should be remarked that tlie Jai>anese understr.nd the
methods of enameling upon metal, damascening and cloi-
Honiiework. They have even perfected a mode of inlay-
mg 111 cast iron, as in forged iron, by a peculiar process
. of softening the surface at the point where the inlavinc is
to be done. Many of their large and beautiful i,ronze
vases are first cast and then softened at certain points
and hnally treated with inlaid and carved desi^n.s of
elaborate patterns. They have perfected, three forms of
damascening: (.,) The wire or narrow strips of gold and

BRONZE WORK AND SCULrTURE.

201

silver fix..l in tho furrown rh. .bovo the surrm^e, lik.
low rohH; (/.)the inlui<l jM-ecioun .notal doon not ,„•<,-
,ect, but iH flat with t}.o Hwrraco; (.) tl.ore Ih u mJl,..!
or netted work uj.ou tl.e sMrrucc. Another iorni of
treut.nent immi be nientioned-nuniely, cloinonne enun.-

CiliKAT I.MAGK OF BUDDHA.

eling upon n- t.l or porceLun. Fine (ili<.r(.e huuln o|
copper ure Ux.i to tho metal .surluce by .soblerin^-, unci
the inclosed space in filled up in different patternn with
the enamel of pulverized gla«H, powder of lead, etc.,

2G2

JAI'AX: COUXTUY, CurKT, I'EOl'LK.

If'i Ml

aiu fuse<l by beat. IJy ropoutiug the enameling un ef-
fect m relief is produced. Lfpon porcelain, too, c-loi-
Honne enuniel lias ],cen applied. Another reso.irce of
decoration developed by Japanese artists in metal is tlie
CO oring effects. They give special attention to the
color, brilliancy, and sparkle of the metals to be used,
and sort out and coml,iiie tlieir colors with all the care
of tbe painter, (living his cast iron a dead black or
steel blue, and combining with bronze and other metal-
H' colors, he heightens the effect of the decorating,
l^osides the vases and censers of l,ron.e, there are nu-
merous images and temple bells upon which they ex-
pend their best skill. Tiiese images often astonish one
by their great size and exceedingly fine casting; the bells
likewise are numerous, and many of them tn.e monu-
ments o tlie n-.older's art. Among the many innu^es
o uddha there are tw. that are most noted because
of their colossal proportions: one at Xara, the other
a Kamakura. As for the temple bells, the tourist
m Japan should be sure to see tlie one at Kioto
and he.r he one in the wood on Lake Biwa. When
leard o. a ...mmer evening, sounding far ovtr the lake

nZi'^; n ^T"^"^ '''"^'"^'' '^'' impression upon the
"ind of the stranger will never be forgotten. Often
has the writer sat in silence in tlie evening listening,
to the sweet tones of tlieir temple bells, and had mint
gled feelings of enjoyment and sadness. No church
bell which the writer has heard in America has the
mellow music of the temple bell in Japan

There is little space to tell of their ,>olished steel mir-
rors. At the back they are decorated in relief with
legendary persons, flowers, mottoes, etc. It has been
known for a long time that some of these metallic mir-
rors, when held up to reflect the sunlight upon the wall

I))''

i m

L-:

264

i i

japan: country, court, people.

Wiey we,o (.alk.l magic, n.irrorH. Mucli Iuih l,ecMi writ

Tliere ,„■„ many ti„y pieces of metal work deco,-.
^o„» i„,. „word«, „,odu.i„e ca«OH, pine, L^tX "

Skill of .Ja,,a„e»« artiste. These little articles with
the,r chasn,g, carving, inlaying, and so on, re, reLnt

..mature an entire landscape. For effec ive'eomi ,a
t.on of materials and of colors to ,„.,.,1, """"""..>-
P-iate effect, and for the ex-c: ^i ,,X S: r.r™-
«ame tin.e n.ost a<.,:nrate details of [he wo .fc the T„
neso artists are nnexcelle.1 hy those of a^ ,'.: ' .j^T'
It.s only when the atten.pt is n.ade toLroi e t"^
hnman lorn, in n.arble that they fail to in., tT f ^
«pi.-it, and fallbelow the Greeks. """"!'=" '"o »"d

III. Painiing.
For a long time there h.-is been an enormnn, ,
^^.ption of pictures and iUnstratcd a.>: "^ ie"';
famous artists treating of every possible su biec fo
the earher periods t.n-ee schools of painting I ad "..ow
or u „,fl„ „cc: the Chb.ese, Korean, and bXT
The begmntng of the In.perial Acadeniy dates fro he
tot of the eighth century; but we do not c^eU le '
b ause wo are seeking something more distinctly J,!

Klls of h" ; '■"'""•> 'T'^-" «*""- a- tow.
withstanding such e.vaggerations, he was reali; onfo;

PAINTING.

265

Japaii'8 greatest i>aiiiter8. One of his pictures is said
to compare favorably with the work of the Italian mas-
ters three centuries later. Landscapes, animal life,
and figures were all produced by Ins brush. ()„e of his
disciples, Kose, devoting himself to religious subjects,
has left a famous painting, the representation of the
tortures of tlie damned in Hades. Not till the begin-
ning of the eleventh century did there arise what might
be called a Japanese school of i)ainting (Y^amato-e) *
Though distinguished for its brilliant coloring, it re-
tained the Chinese defect as to the liuman figure and
artificial face. Along with tliis Yamato-e school there
appeared a rollicking priest named Toba, who started a
style of comedy and caricature, an Oriental Puck who
was original, simple, and skillful, and who could have
made i)eople laugh ijinocently had he not have been so
coarse and vulgar. The troublesome times and civil
wars in the early Middle Ages were very unfav -able to
the progress of painting. At the beginning of the
thirteenth century, under the luxuriant Shoguns and
Regents of the Kamakura capital, languishing art be-
gan to revive, and the great Tosa s(^hool arose, named
from its founder. This school, as a modified form of
the Yamato, still exists. About a century after the re-
vival of Italian art a new impulse was given to Jap-
anese painting by a priest from China,^ Josetsu, who
came to Japan and established a monastic school. His
three pupils were the founders of scliools of painting
Chodensu, another Buddliist priest, div^ides with Josetsu
the honor of reviving Japanese art. As a painter of
Buddliist pictures he is said to be unequaled. Pro-
foundly religious, of childlike simplicity, and passion-

*Yamato=ancient name for Japan, and e=pieture.

■•T '

|Mi

l(j ti,

lli

260

JAI'an: coixTiiY, coi;Rr, I'koi.f.k.

ately devoted to l,i„ art, l,o rcnu,,d„ „„ „f ),;, u.,-..^
eo,,te„,,,„,.,.,.,Mi,,,aol A„„.Io. After .,„..„,„; ]^Z
at court, the Sl,og„„ a»kcd l,i„. w|,at ),e wi»l,:,I (,
rephcd: "For ,„onc,v and rank I have „o need; o
du geof ra„,.e„t a,,.l a ,,ot of rice suffice for ,„y dail,
wants. &„n,e of h,» ,„cture8 still exist. One of tl.em
m oo,,y the writer has seen, made about ]4(.(. A I)
.» an munense painting thirty-nine feet long by twentv-
».x fee w.de, and represents the death of «uddhr '

were Bndd.''- "/""•""" '''""'''"" •"' •'"*»«*"• **" "' ">«"■
we,e Buddl„st prn-sts, which reminds us again of the

St n kti;?, '" "'" '"""" «"■"""-"-' '"at religio,
stimulated the great n.asters. Tl,e first one, *,!/,„

went to China hoping to drink in inspiration f rom tl2

ma, ers there, but was so disappointed as to cry on

J ho mountains, rivers, grass, and trees shall he my

musters!" I e showed such remarkable talent that t" e

Emperor of Ohma gave him an order to paint a picture

«..pe«, the outlines being bold, color tinting sparse
e also pamted portraits, dragons, tigers, foliage, and'

TZ nl" ""^ '" *'"""" ■"'""■'' -■>" "-""ble to
throw off Chinese models.

seane'l' '""'*^"•' 7°"^' '"'' ""'"•''"y »''"»"' i" land-
scape, figures, birds, and dowers. His outlines were

drawn m ink with a slight dash of color

Acmo, tlK> founder of the third school of painting

was born of noble family the same year as Angelo, aiif;

like him, hved to the great age of eighty-four, kano

rambled through the land with empty Imrse, one change

of garmen and his painting implements, sketching

whatever pleased him and paying for his food with if

creation of his brush. Simple, unambitious, and poo

he would never flatter a lord to win his patronage'

ji.*'».

■ . t

■J

PAINTING.

267

After ,i« niarriHgo, hin wife, wl.o wa« ubo h p.iinter
worked with hi.n. His i.aintiugH were distinguishoa foi
«in.i.lu..ty, freedom, and rapidity, HLowin^ force and
suggestiveneHB without effort. Though Landic-apued
by Chinese artificialities, originality flashed forth from
every picture, whether it were a mountain pass, a path-
way to a cottage, or a dragon. From about 1400 to
UOO ,N Kano school, together with the older Tosa
school, occiipied the chief place in the art culture of the
country. The Tosa school of painters hovered around

but the Kano school cultivated deities and Chinese
sages, landscapes, birds, and flowers. In this period
the great castles of the country had their gilded walls
embel ished with enormous pic-tures. pLing ovxm-

iTsITn " iT" r/. ""''' "" ""'^ "^«^^ ^^-^ -' 11 the
lis but add nothing to genuine art, wo come to the end

of the eighteenth century, when a new fountain of een-
H.H opens. It is a fountain that flows <lirectly from na-
ture, and not from the overworked models oi Chinese
ar Okiyo had the boldness to believe that something
better might be learned from nature than from the arti
icial and conventional teachers who had gone before
IT.s school, named 0%.,* while not entirely free fronl
he faul s of the old schools, introduced more perspec-
tive and showed delicacy and freedom, especially in
the treatment of landscapes. Their paintings are much
sought after. In the latter part of that century a great
effort was made by many painters to restore the Chi-
nese style and to improve it.

But about the beginning of the nineteenth centurv a
new head and leader of the Okiyo school appeared.

*Also Shidea-e.

I'.,.

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Sciences
Goiporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(7161 872-4503

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268

JAI'A.N

<;OUXTRV, COURT, PEOPLE.

liT

It; I

ill

'■i -i

making it still more natural, real, and popular. TliiH
was irokusai, whose career was long and remarkable.
He was born in 1760, and died in 1849. Born of the com-
mon i)eople, he and his school brought tlie art of paint-
ing from the castles of Daimyos and mansions of nobles
down to the masses. The first forty-five years of his
life were spent in obscurity, before he was induced to
establish himself in the capital, Yedo, as an industrial
artist and teacher of drawing. His characteristic as a
painter was life with its vigor and manifestations— "al-
ways and everywhere life." While there was notliing
in his pictures to shock the most {esthetic, no lack of
dignity in his sages and saints, no lack of might and
fierceness in his warriors, all his paintings and sketches
were brightene,d by flashes of native humor and touches
of actual life. His real strength, indeed, lay in the pop-
ular sketches of the everyday life of the people, which
were recognized and enjoyed by everybody. Their cer-
emonies and amusements, historical episodes, homely
jokes and characters which the unlearned could under-
stand and enjoy, the household pet, a favorite flower,
any one of the thousand objects and scenes of everyday
life, found graceful reproduction by the magic touch of
his pencil. The result was that this realistic master
(realist of everyday/ life and humor, but not of vulgari-
ty and indecency) was immensely popular. Pupils
flocked to his feet, and his woodcuts attracted imme-
diate attention by their novelty and beauty. To meet
the demand he began the publication of a series of en-
gravings, entitled *' Ten Thousand Sketclies." Besides
these, book after book appeared at intervals, each pic-
ture or sketch bearing the stamp of his easy touch and
clear insight into life. One of his books contained a
hundred views of the sacred and far-famed Mount Fuji,

PAINTING.

269

He worked right on with verve and ease until he was
nearly eighty. At the age of seventy-five years he wrote
of himself: "It was at the age of seventy-three that I
came near to a comprehension of the true form and na-
ture of birds, of fishes, of plants, etc., and I am dissat-
isfied with all I produced prior to the age of seventy."
Thougli dying at the great age of eighty-nine, and after
such a remarkable career, he never received any reward
or word of recognition from those in high station, while
many artists of gentle birth, but without talent, received
for their lifeless pencilings both rank and pension. Ho-
kusai did more to make Japanese art immortal than any
other of the great names that might be named. Among
his many contemporaries and successors there is one
named JCt/osai, who, like his master, excelled in every-
thing, particularly in caricature. His boldness in pic-
torial sarcasm brought down the wrath of the rulers
upon his head, and got him into prison, but nothing
could smother the fire of his genius. He drew with
amazing vigor, and not without taste and delicacy of
feeling. Most of his pictures are colored and of small
size. As examples, Regamey describes two: "The first
represents a serpent that has just seized a sparrow.
Though so simple, every stroke of the brush tells: the
veiled eye, half-opening beak, the body pulled together
and palpitating under the serpent's tooth, the plucked-
out feathers flying away. This is in the midst of plants,
among pink flowerets, where glide tiny green spiders.
Which to admire most, the perfection of the execution
or the intense emotion suggested by the picture, one
cannot say. The second scene is a comedy: a sparrow,
flurried and stifled with surprise ab the sight of a mole
coming out of the ground at his feet; startled, and with
wings wide apart, it makes the most expressive and comic

270

JAPAN- : roiTNTUY, COUUT, I'EOI'LB.

*f l!

■f

(Sec "Japan in Art and Art IndustrieR," p.

44.)

The present condition of Japanese painting is said to
be that of decline. As in so many other things, Japa-
nese painters hardly know where tliey are. In 1876 the
government established a school of painting and draw-
ing in foreign style, hut after about six years dropped
It. lo-day tliere are some societies in the capital tliat
ami o cultivate painting in oil, after the manner of the
Western schools; but, with a very few exceptions,
nothing meritorious has yet been achieved. We are
confident, however, of better things for them in the fu-
ture. It takes time to change the modes and forms of a
nation's art.

IV. Pottery Wares.
Japanese pottery had its beginning in mercy. When
the Emperor Suinm's queen died, A.D. .3, one of his
courtiers suggested that clay images be substituted for
the human victims usually buried alive around the grave
of one of the imperial family. It was done, but those
clay figures were of the simplest unglazed workman-
ship. The invention of pottery and the use of the wheel
a."e ascribed by tradition to a Buddhist priest, Gvo-i
renowned in legend alike for his philanthropy and nte-
chanical genius. Descended fro, the royal family of
Korea, he came over to Japan about 750 A.D. Before
this, unglazed wares were made for storing rice seed
and cooking, only a few vessels of a better finish for
the use of the Emperor in certain religious ceremonies
being required. Not till the first part of the thirteenth
century was there much demand for a better kind of
pottery. This new impulse was caused by the intro-
duction ot the tea leaf and tea drinking from China by
the Buddhist priest, Yeisai. Bringing a jar of tea seed

POTTERY WARES.

271

and a book of directions, the cultivation of lea spread
rapidly. The new beverage became very popular with
the upper classes, and accordingly there sprang up a
demand for more artistic jars and for cups suited to
"good form " for the new fashionable drink. To meet
this demand of fashionable people a Japanese potter
went to China, studied the modes of making good pot-
tery there, returned the fifth year to Seto, Ins native
village, set up kilns, and made a new ware quite supe-
rior to anything hitherto made in the country. These
new potteries at Seto won such prestige over all others
that very soon Setomono (mono = article) was the name
applied to all kinds of pottery ware, just as "China"
is with us.

It was just twelve years before the discovery of Amer-
ica, in the reign of one of the luxuriant Ashikaga dy-
nasty, that a second impulse was given to pottery arts.
This was the establishment of the tea ceremmiial under
the distinguished patronage of the Regent, who retired
from the affairs of state to his great palace at Kioto.
This tea ceremonial, with its four cardinal principles of
hospitality, politeness, cleanliness, and tranquillity, and
its numerous observances and rules, had a wonderful in-
fluence in the artistic improvement of Setomono styles.
Professors and masters of this gentle philosophy wrote
books upon the tea ceremony, and it got to be all the
fashion among the gentry and nobles, and increased the
demand for exquisite qualities of tea pots, cups, ewers,
and the like. The many potteries naturally vied with
each other in meeting the taste of the dilettantes at Ki-
oto and Kamakura capitals. Besides, it was the wont
of the fastidious and luxuriant Regent to hold reunions
of noblemen and literati in his palace, to whom he sub-
mitted for their admiration or criticism every new and

272

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

elegant addition to lus collection of Setomono and of
lacquer ware as well. Of course every nobleman and
courtier must follow the example of'the palace by
keepmg a fme set of tea service. Up to this time the
>^are made m Japan was coarse pottery and faience, but
not porcelain. 80, to meet this new demand in cultured
society for something more artistic, a potter went to
China to get the secret of making porcelain. Ilegotit,
but he did not get another secret longed for: the proc-
ess of decorating under the glaze and enameling over it
So that we come to the latter part of the sixteenth cen-
tury before the production of Setomono of a strictly
Japanese nianufacture is worthy of record in the history
of art. About 1570 a new era in the art of pottery
cawned. It was reserved to Ilideyoshi the Great to give
his powerful patronage to the progress of tliis art.
Born of low parentage, but now a mighty ruler lie
wished to prove to his blue-blooded nobles, who' de-
spised his low origin, that he was not only a warrior
and administrator of affairs, but also a master of their
own exquisitely refined tea ceremonial, the climax of all
their fashion and etiquette; doubtless, too, he wished by
his example to draw away the minds of the warlike Dai-
myos and generals, whose -souls were in their swords "
to softer, gentler pursuits. He visited in person some
of the chief potteries, rewarded excellence with money
or titles of honor, and even allowed in some districts
presents of stoneware and porcelain in lieu of revenue
and of military service. The consequence was in-
creased enterprise among the potteries throughout the
country. But being disappointed in the achievements
ot the native artists, he ordered his commanding gener-
als in Korea to send backskillful Korean potters; hence
about the end of the sixteenth century nearly all the

POTTERY WARES.

273

chief potteries in Japan were either established or im-
proved by the aid of the Korean experts brought over
as captives from the war. In brief, then, Japan's ceram-
ic art had its real beginning about 1600, under instruc-
tion of Korean captives, and what went before was only
preparatory.

We may divide the ceramic wares of Japan into
three kinds:

(1) The coarse earthenware of clay, the paste of which
is not so carefully kneaded and sifted, for thick, heavy
vessels, either glazed or un glazed, such as we jse in
kitchen, pantry, dairy, Hower garden, and so on. It is
characteristic of all rude civilizations, being made by
hand without the wheel or molded in willow baskets
— the wheel is a later invention.

(2) Faience, a term probably equal to our term China
ware. The paste is made of kaolin day, is crushed
and pulverized, and treated with one process after an-
other in its preparation. The glaze is composed of va-
rious metals mixed with lye. Faience may be applied,
then, to our ordinary table and chamber ware, as well as
to the more artistic pieces of decorated vases, pitchers,
and urns in our drawing-rooms.

(3) Porcelain is made chiefly of silica, quartz, or pul-
verized granite, and is always distinguished by the
thinness and translucency of the piece. This ware
usually yields a metallic ring to the snap of the fin-
ger. The glaze is composed of silica, lye, and various
metals.

The firings, first of the molded piece, which is then
called biscuit and which is porous and easily cut with
a sharp tool, and the subsequent firings to fix the glaze
and the various decorative designs, some under and
some above the glaze, need not detain us here. In the
18

274

japan: country, court, people.

management of the glazes the Chinese were without
peers, but finally the Japanese acquired the knowledge
of preparing both transparent and variegated glazes. '
The process of decorating calls for a few words.
Though slow in getting into all the intricacies of the
process, Japanese artists at last mastered the art of pot-
tery decoration in all its branches. For a long time the
Chinese blue, so solid and lustrous under the glaze, could
not be reproduced in Japan. For a long time, too, the
handling of polychromes and the shading of tints and
colors as when chocolate brown passes into amber, or
black is relieved with clouds and streaks of gray, was
an unsolved problem, but it was mastered. By ce'rtain
combinations they learned how to produce a marbled
surface in patches, imitating tortoise shell, and a green,
dully speckled surface like a Japanese pear. Various
designs and figures were applied under the glaze,
arabesque, Vitruvian curves and bands, vines, flow-
ers, birds and animals, in black, gold, silver, coral red,
etc. Above the glaze, with their usual simplicity of
means in achieving manifold and marvelous results,
they were likewise masters of the three chief methods
of decoration: («) By applying with the artist's brush
pigments in paste, softed with water or oil, and fash-
ioned according to the desired design, sometimes pate
sur pate (paste upon paste), so as to get the design in
low relief; {b) with enameling of ground glass and other
material made into a paste and filling up the required
design; (c) witn jewels set into the enameling while the
paste is moist.

Of the more than forty styles of ware named and de-
scribed by Capt. Brinkley, editor of the Japan Mail,
there is space here for only four or five of the more
lamous ones.

ii-i

POTTERY WARES.

275

Jlizen TF^m— The Ili/en ware is, he thinks, the most
important, and includes three varieties made in that
province. First, an enameled porcelain of old Japan
specimens of which are in the earlier European muse-
ums, and famous in tlie seventeenth century for its ex-
cellent blue under the glaze and colored enamel over
the glaze. This ware was exported to Europe by the
Dutch trading at Nagasaki. Secondly, another variety
was noted for the milk whiteness and softness of the
glaze, the blue under the glaze, and the delicate decora-
tion. This is said to be the finest jeweled porcelain in
Japan. A third style was distinguished for its blue or
pure white under the glaze, and its exquisite decora-
tions incised and in relief.

Kioto Ware.— Kioto became the center of the arts, and
hence many great potteries with hundreds of workmen
and scores of connoisseurs eventually settled there. A
few of the principal ones made porcelain, but for the
most part the Kioto ware was faience. For instance,
the Raku faience, so popular among the tea clubs, was
made there; Raku, being the seal conferred upon a fa-
mous potter by Hideyoshi the Great, continued to be
used as the stamp of that ware for thirteen generations.
Another ceramist of Kioto produced many beautiful
pieces of jeweled faience, of close hard paste, yellowish
or brownish white glaze, finely crackled and delicately
decorated in red, green, gold, and silver designs. Of the
Kioto porcelains, one was distinguished for the variety
of its glaze, coral red, spotted green, and the tasteful
blending of colors as well as for the hnely executed
decorations in gold.

Satsuma Ware.~^^0\i\ Satsuma" was long the craze
of European collectors, but nine hundred and ninety-
Jime pieces out of every thousand so named are simply

276

JAI'AX: COUNTHY, COIHT, I'EOPLK.

i .11

skillful forgtM-ics. In 15!)8 the lord of Satstiina settled
near hnii Hevouteeu Korean i)otterH, who have increaHed
to five hundred families, and HtiU carry on the same art.
The reason why old Satsunia is so rare is that it was
never produced for the general market, but only for
the great lord of Satsuma and his friends. Old Satsuma
was genuine enameled faience, noted for its great
purity and fine crackle, the ground being reddish brown
or cream, the paste being as close as ivory, and the
decoration over the glaze chaste rather than ricli; later,
however, a richer gilding and enameling with brilliant
colors were introduced. A pottery set up in Satsuma
about the beginning of this century has acquired a
great reputation for the making of teapots, cups and
saucers, bowls, and the like, while elsewhere the pro-
duction is chiefly vases and urns.

Kaga Ware (Kutani Porcelain).— From the Kutani
village, planted on a high mountain in the province of
Kaga, comes one variety of porcelain with enamel of
great brilliancy and beauty. In some cases large por-
tions of surface are completely covered with enamel in
green and yellow. In another variety, upon a back-
ground of russet red, silver decoration is freely used.
Later styles tend toward the glitter of gilding and red
coloring, which the Japanese do not much admire; but
they make tea, coffee, dinner, and dessert services pro-
fusely decorated in red and gold to meet the taste of
foreign buyers.

Otcari Ware (Seto).— The village of Seto will ever be
memorable in the history of ceramics, where was manu-
factured the first faience worthy of mention in indus-
trial art. Here were made the little tea jars and cups
of the tea clubs in the thirteenth century. Having be-
come headquarters for the tea ceremonial vessels, it

POTTERY WARES.

277

came to j.ans that i.mny of their tiny ^ares deHerved
high admiration, the execution beinjr perfect, the ma-
hogany, ruHHct brown, amber, ami buff glazes showing
wonderful luster and ricliness. At i>re8ent Seto is the
chief place in Japan for porcelain. Nowadays, how-
ever, many of the porcelains spoken of as Owari
ware are decorated l)y a gild of artists living in Yoko-
hama and Tokyo. The designs, generally pictorial,
are put on with a brush in cheap jiaste, the little coffee
cui,s being decorated with tiny birds, flowers, fishes,
insects, or bits of l»amboo branches; and the monster
vases six feet liigh in blue, wliitc, and red. All tliis
wholesale production is for tlie market in America and
Europe.

J^Jijl/shell Porcelain.—Seyeral villages in Mino Prov-
ince made fine porcelains in earlier periods. The egg-
shell porcelain, of wonderful delicacy, was produced,
which, so far as beauty and technique are concerned,
will bear comparison with China's best. The manu-
facture, confined to tiny tea bowls or wine cups invari-
ably plain on the inner surface, is decorated on the out-
side with designs of the utmost simplicity, illustrating
the charming combination of grace and boldness for
which Japanese art is remarkable. An example of this
exquisite decoration is given by Brinkley: "There is
an outline sketch of the peerless Mount Fuji, its blue
dome touched by golden clouds among which float a
flock of wild swans, or, perchance, a single branch of
plum blossom peeping tlirough mists that hide a forest
of flowers. » Another style of eggshell porcelain, known
as Tajima ware, is still more remarkable than the gos-
samer eggshell just mentioned. "One is inclined to
doubt," says Capt. Brinkley, "whether the celebrated
Vincennes flowers that deceived King Louis himself

278

japan: COITNTHY, rOtTHT, I'KOPLB.

can have }>con morti iiiarvelouHly uioltled than somo
HjiecimenH of tlio Tajinia j)orcohiiiiH. Ah was naid of
l)aintiiig, ho it lian heon foaixMl that tlio ceramic, art of
Japan liaH entered upon a decline, that tlio wholoHalo
production of cheap ])iit gaudily decorated faience and
porcelain for tlio foreign market, and the loss of indi-
vidual patronage of the old i»rince8 and lordn for whoHe
eye the hest artists of old achieved their higlieHt renultH
by years of quiet, persevering work, have cut the nerve
of genius and ambition." In this fear wo do not sluire.
The conditions ])eing changed requires time for adjust-
ment, but in due time this art will bloom again.

V. Landscape Gaudkxino.
In landscape gardening and making of ])ouquets the
Japanese probably excel any other nation. It is really
a line art. One thing that strikes tlie foreigner Avhen
ho walks into a flower garden is the total absence or the
paucity of tlio flowers, and the many evergreens to bo
seen cveryAvhere. This is because tlie purpose of every
garden is to reproduce on a small scale some famojis
natural scene of Japan, somo mountain like sacred Fuji
and its surroundings, some island or lake S(!ene. As
Fuji has lakes and streams not far from its base, this be-
comes the type of most of tlieir flower gardens. The
writers upon landscape gardening divide off into schools,
and have considerable discussion upon the principles
and rules for laying off the garden. Copying a natural
scene, the characteristic is variety. They are planned
also to hide a part as well as to reveal a part of the
scene, so that when one enters he cannot take in the
whole, but as he walks a surprise greets him at every
turn. The little Fuji, the clumps of trees and shrubs,
the bed of the river, or the little brook with rustic

LAND80APE GARDENING.

279

bridge, the little lake, and tlio pebbled walkH nil show
the greatest variety. An American flower garden or
park would naturally a})j)ear monotonous to tho Japa-
nese. The ground is too flat and the plan is too uniform
and regular, and so too mucli of it comes under tho eye
at one time. The Japanese are exceedingly skillful in
giving a mere glimpse of a scene, here and there, excit-
ing suggestion and imagination more than our American
parks or gardens do. They are likewise skillful in tho
dwarfing of trees. For instance, you may see a pine
sixty years old and perfect in every part, but not more
than one foot high. Another principle in landscape
gardening is to symbolize certain abstract ideas, such as
peace, old age, prosperity, etc. A famous master of the
flower art, as well as of etiquette, wrote much on the
subject and taught at the capital to many learners his
principles and rules. It is a kind of philosophy. With
the Japanese, branches with leaves and buds are treated
as flowers. There are two or three principles differen-
tiating the flower art of the Japanese from ours: (1)
Color and combinations of color are not so important in
Japanese eyes as with us; (2) the linear arrangement of
the bouquet rather than the circular cluster; (3) the sym-
bolic meaning of the flower counts for much; (4) admi-
ration of certain flowers founded upon tradition as to
their being lucky or unlucky. The study of the subject
of bouquet making and landscape gardening will soon
convince the foreigner that it is a difficult but graceful
accomplishment, and that the Japanese could teach us
some good lessons.

. i

i 'i;

'ili

PAB2' IIZ

CHAPTER I.

J^PAN IN MODEBNEISTOLY {1854-1900).

Pkeparations for the Great Change from Old

TO New Japan.

^ As seen on a previouc page, the Portuguese and Span-

hit Tt T" ^.^'^ ^" '^^^ seventeenth century,
the Enghsh voluntarily abandoned their trade, and the
Dutch alone kept their trading post for over two hun-
dred years, but it was by submitting to be trer.ted .noro
like prisoners than citizens of a free Christian nation. ^
Jiarly in the present century foreign nations made re-
peated attempts to open trading relations with the coun-
try so long shut within itself. The Russians did not

a sh n m 1818 and again m 1849; but anxious as they
were to extend their commerce from India and China,
they .aued to induce Japan's rulers to open trade with

It was fear of foreign nations that led lyeyasu and
his successor, to shut up their country to itself, and the
reason why they did not fear the D.t.h and made a
slight exception m their favor was because they could
insult them ana treat them like captives

Murray in his work on J.pan .ays: ''It is now plain
that this sec usion was a niista ke. It would have been
of inostimable value to this enterprising people to ha.e
kept m the race for improvement witli the other nations
ox .ne world." On the contrary, wo believe that shut-

PREPARING FOR A CHANGE. 281

ting up the country against foreign nations was at that
time wise; and that if things had gone on as they were
going Japan would certainly have become a Roman
Catholic <,ountry, and probably fallen under foreign
rule. Nor can we find it in ci:r hearts to condemn the
-.apan.38e for their treatment of the Dutch. The Dutch
were there solely for gain, and not to promote civiliza-
tion or Christianity in any sense. The only course open
by which to avoid the danger of entangling foreign al-
liances was to limit the trading post to a dozen Dutch-
men m one port only, shutting them up in the little
island at Nagasaki and allowing a few ships to come
yearly to sell their cargoes under the most rigid regula-
tions. If the Dutch, simply for gain, were willing to
submit to such indignities, we cannot blame the Jap-
anese much for imposing it upon them to protect, as
they believed, themsel/es.

At any rate, it was never a European nation that suc-
ceeded m reopening the long-barred gates of Japan to
Western trade and light. This achievement was re-
served to the youngest of the Western nations, our own
American Republic.

I. The Opening op the Country (1854) by Perry,

THE AMilRICAN.

The man who, under God's providence induced Japan
to change her long and rigid policy of exclusion and to
open her ports to foreign ships was the brave, accom-
plished and Christian commodore ot the United States
Navy, Mathew Calbraith Perry.

^ When Andrew Jackson set up his strong foreign pol-
icy, m 1832, Le commissioned Edward Roberts, Esq., to
pre^sent to tlie Emperor of Japan a letter respecting
trade, but he died before reaching Japan. After the

282

/) i

J-

iiif

It I PI
' 1 1

japan: country, court, people.

United States came into possession of California (1848)
our leaders naturally looked across the Pacific Ocean
and began to talk about trade with China and other
Asiatic countries. It was plain that the Pacific Ocean
would be a great highway of ships sailing from America
to the far East. Now Japan lay right along that great
highway to China, and, steam having been applied to
navigation, the coal supply for so long a voyage was the
important question. A ship could not carry coal enough
from San Francisco to China and return; it was indis-
pensable to our commerce with China, Korea, andSiam
that we should have access to coaling stations in Japan.
Besides this increasing trade with China, the Americans
began sending yearly many whaling vessels into the
seas north of, Japan. About ten million dollars were
mvested and ten thousand seamen were engaged year-
ly in the whale fisheries just north of Japan, but not
a friendly harbor was open on all those coasts. This
worked not merely inconvenience, but irreparable loss
of property and life. It was necessary, therefore, that
America and Japan should be friendly with each other,
that the latter should be open to our ships for coal^
and as a refuge for our shipwrecked whalers.

Again, the very currents of the Pacific Ocean, its
winds and storms, showed plainly that Amenca and
Japan should have friendship and trade with each other.
For instance, our American whalers were not infre-
quently driven upon the northern shores as wrecks of
the storm; and thus at the mercy of the natives, instead
of receiving aid and protection, were seized as enemies
and imprisoned. On the other hand, every few years
Japanese junks, blown out to sea, were drifted by the
Black Current on to our Pacific Coast. In 1831 such a
junk, with several Japanese still alive, was drifted ashore

OPENING OP THE COUNTRY BY AMERICA. 283

near the mouth of Columbia River. A vessel, named
the "Morrison," was fitted out in this country to carry
the unfortunates back to their native land. But when
(1837) the vessel reached Yedo Bay, and the Japanese
officials came on board and found she was unarmed,
they refused to allow the unfortunates to come upon
their own native shores, and the next day actually fired
upon the defenseless ship, notwithstanding its mission
of humanity!

But the American ship Preble (1849) went to Ja-
pan upon a different errand. Our government in Wash-
ington, having learned that seventeen American seamen
had been imprisoned by the Japanese rulers, sent the
armed Preble to demand their release. Although the
Japanese with junks tried to prevent it, she proudly
steamed into Nagasaki harbor, and although cannons
from the heights above were trained upon the ship, the
fearless commander demanded the release of the Amer-
icans, and when the Japanese replied in haughty and
defiant terms he met them with the demand for the
immediate release of the prisoners in the name of the
United States Government. In two days the Ameri-
cans were released.

Hence it was that both from considerations of hu-
manity as well as the interests of international com-
merce between America and Asia, Japan must be in-
duced to come forth from her isolation and fear into
relations of friendship and trade with foreign nations.

For securing such a change on the part of Japan no
other foreign government was in so favorable a posi-
tion as America; for Japan's rulers had no ground
whatever for prejudice against the Americans, for the
reason that the Americans had never shown anvtliing
but kindness to Japanese unfortunates drifted' upon

284

japan: country, oourt, people.

i'l

our Pacific Coast, l.ad never joined the Europeans in a
policy of conquest, nor had any Kon.an Catliolic ever
sat in the Presidential chair at Washington. Presi-
dent i illmore and the distinguished Secretary of State,
■ ,^^"^^^ Webster, as well as his Secretary of Navy of
literary fame John P. Kennedy, all favored a formal
approach to Japan for the purpose of establishing rela-
tions of friendship and trade between the two nations.
Accordingly, early in 1852, preparations were begun for
the sending of twelve vessels upon such a mission The
sending of so large and well-equipped a fleet was to se-
cure proper respect and reception at the outset, and to
prevent, if possible, any indignity such as the Japanese
had l)een accustomed to visit upon the Dutch

Commodore Matthew C. Perry, brother of the liero
of Lake Erie, and himself a naval officer of long and
honorable carec, was commissioned witli full diplo-
matic powers to take command of the expedition.
Perry had inany things in favor of his success, even
where all others had failed. He was born of a fami-
ly of seamen and naval officers; had seen service wliile
yet a lad in the war of 1812 with Great Britain; in the
Mexican war had commanded the largest squadron of
American men-of-war ever known; had been an educa-
tor and leader in developing our navy; was a strict dis-
ciplinarian, but just in all his demands; was a com-
mander of men fearless in danger; a gentleman and
Christian of high character.

_ In November, 1852, Perry sailed from Norfolk, Va.,
m the flagship Mississippi. As for these two names
we cannot but believe that they were and are prophetic'
Norfolk IS destined to be a great port of trade throuc,]i
the Nicaraguan Canal with the far East; and the Mis-
sissippi River will yet bear upon its flowing tide to the

K jif

QfVMLMODORE PERRY.

(285)

286

japan: country, court, people.

!!■"

sea enormous quantities of steel, cotton, flour, raachin-
ery for export to Japan, China, and Korea. After a
long voyage, and reorganization of his squadron in
Chinese waters, he sailed into the Japanese seas in
1853, and in July dropped anchor off the city of Uraga
at the entrance of Yedo Bay. '

Through information from the Dutch concerning the
sailing of the Americans, the Japanese were expecting
them; but, having never seen steam vessels before, they
were surprised at the black "lire ships" of the barba-
rians when they saw the heavy clouds of dark smoke
pouring forth from the ships' funnels, and the vessels
plowing the waves against the wind. Yes, these mon-
sters of the deep caused consternation among people
and rulers alike. From the decks the people could be
seen ninnmg to and fro, troops gathering, and fortifica-
tions being thrown up at certain points.

Shortly after the Americans anchored, a fleet of Jap-
anese guard boats hove in sight, surrounded the Ameri-
can squadron, and attempted to come on board. This by
Perry's orders, was promptly refused. Finally, having
learned through his Dutch interpreter that the Vice
Governor was in one of the junks, he was allowed to
come on board, but not to see the Commodore, a subor-
dinate officer being ordered to hear what he had to say
Ihe Vice Governor's demand was that the foreigners
should not anchor here, but return immediately to Nag-
asaki, where the Japanese had always dealt with the
Dutch and Chinese. For over two hundred years
whenever a Dutch ship came into Nagasaki harbor, the
Japanese authorities promptly put it under guard, went
on board, took possession of cargo, ammunition, firearms
and even the books and symbols of their religion, until
the day of the ship's departure. They had a thought of

OPENING THE COUNTRY BY PERRY.

287

treating the Americans in the same fashion, practically
as prisoners. But Commodore Perry opened their eyes
when he told them through his subordinate officer that
he would neither go back to Nagasaki, nor would he sub-
mit to the indignity of allowing his vessels to be sur-
rounded by guard boats; and that if the junks did not
go away immediately, he would order them dispersed
by force. As he had come on a mission of friendship
and peace from an independent nation, he would not
allow himself, his men, or ships to be treated as prison-
ers. He was the bearer of a letter from the President of
the United States to the Emperor of Japan, which could
be delivered only to a person of proper rank, and au-
thorized by the Emperor to receive it.

Perry showed remarkable knowledge of Japanese cus-
tom and etiquette, so important in their eyes, and a clear
insight into their character. This he had gathered by
long study of the books on Japan written by the Dutch.
He therefore adopted the only policy that had any
promise of success— namely, to combine firmness with
courtesy and ceremony, asserting for himself and gov-
ernment a dignity that must be respected, meanwhile
not demanding anything contrary to justice and right
among civilized nations.

Not only so, but the third day brought another anom-
aly. The Americans would transact no business on this
day; it was their Sunday, and they were Christians.
The commanders of Dutch vessels at Nagasaki had
yielded up even their Bibles and their prayer books,
everything that had the name or sign of Christ and his
cross; but these Americans are wreathing their ship's
capstan with the flag, and a big book is laid thereon, and
smaller ones are handed around. One in solemn manner
l^ows his head in prayer, all do likewise, and directly they

288

[fir

i';

11 iii'l

i. h'

II': ^'"^

! ;

japan: coiintuy, court, riaorLE.

sing, and the nhip's band with their instruments swell the
volume of music until it floats to the shore. The music
was -Old Hundred;" tlie hymn was " Before Jehovah's
awful throne, ye nations bow with sacred ^oy;" the birr
book was the Bible. In the afternoon a minor official
was denied the decks of tlie ships; it was their rest day.
1 his was the Admiral's habit for many years. It was a
strange sight to the Japanese-the Christians chanting
the praises of the one true God and his Son Jesus Christ
in the harbor of a pagan city, the doing of which for
the past two hundred years would have cost Japanese
and Dutch alike their lives. It was a challenge and a
prophecy in tlie name of Christ. To-day, from a thou-
sand places l)y land and port, the Japanese are worship-
ing Christ without molestation.

The Japanese, with quick insight, saw that they dare
not treat these newcomers as they had habitually treated
the Dutch. The point gained by Perry was the courte-
ous reception of the President's letter and the establish-
ment of pleasant personal relations with the Governor
and other officials. The President's letter, engrossed
upon costly paper and incased in a gilded box costing
one thousand dollars, was delivered to commissioners
appointed by the Taikun to receive the same, and by
them, carried up to Yedo, the capital. Tlie Council of
Regents was much perplexed and pressed in mind, and
sat up the whole night considering this message from
the head of the American Republic.

As the Yedo rulers demanded time to answer the
President's letter. Perry remained only a few days
meanwhile keeping his men busy surveying the bay to-
ward Yedo, and sailed away, saying to the Japanese
that in six months he would come again to get their an-
swer. Four days after Perry departed, a message was

PRESIDENT FILLMORE'S LETTEB.

289

sent to inform the Mikado at Kioto that an American

mado ..patehea a ^::^^.^':^xr:ir:

vine breath to sweep away the barbarians. (See "Mat
hew Calbrauh Perry," p. 345, by Griffis.) ^ ^'""

The Prceident's letter was in part as follows-

to cean. and o„r\errUo.'':,''C „rd"ror'^°"',.''"T
.■ectly opposite to the dominions oT^Z iS^ ITm 'f '
O,. steamships can go from CaHfornfa to J^n t ^Z

Si .hin, Mt;;;;rr:^e::re;r-=i" ^-
wither, that o7„ :"r :Hips LT: 'r/"""™'' '? ^•"■•"■^

ueriil Afiipcf^->a « *. « "^"uuie i erry to beg voiir Tm-

.ah.e in^themse,.es. hut may ser/e Tsrimt? oTthL^:

l!< :

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Ij.'i

|i.

fit/

ij ■;

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290

japan: f'OUNTBY, COURT, PEOPLE.

manufactured in the United States, and they are intended as
tokens of our sincere and respectful friendship.

May the Almighty have your Imperial Majesty in his great
and holy keeping!

Your good friend, Millard Fillmoke.

Edwaud Everett, Secretary of State.
[Seal attached.]

According to his word, Perry, with a larger squad-
ron of nine ships, made the second visit to Japan, Fe\)-
ruary, 1854, and this time, steaming farther up into the
bay, he cast anchor off where now sits the modern city
of Yokohama. When informed that he was now come
to get their answer to the President's letter, the Japa-
nese began a policy of evasion and delay. After wait-
ing several days and listening to their demands and
evasive answers, he moved his ships farther up the bay
toward Yedo, and notified them that he was willing to
treat with them on the shore just opposite his present
anchorage; that if they continued to refuse him a suit-
able place, he should, in accordance with the usage of
civilized nations, go up to Yedo in order to treat with
the rulers in the capital. Lest he might sure enough
sail right up to Yedo, the Japanese suddenly changed
tack and agreed to meet Perry on Yokohama beach.
Accordingly a "treaty house" was thrown up, and the
report spread through all the towns and villages of the
region, as well as in Yedo, that their rulers were about
to treat with the foreign barbarians at that appointed
place.

On the 8th of March, 1854, a clear and beautiful
morning, crowds of excited people gathered upon the
bluffs overlooking the place— country folk. Samurai,
with swords and other feudal paraphernalia, crowded
out to sec the strange spectacle of their own authorities
receiving as equals Jhe foreign barbarians and treating

( »

TREATY MADE BY TERBY.

291

With them. Tho Japaneeo officials, with their suites
and flying insignia of rank, could be seen standing on
the beach near the water's edge, while others were in
their boats, with banners and other regalia, all waiting
eagerly the Commodore's coming. Attended by his
officers, marines, and sailors, numbering three hundred
men, all uniformed and armed, he was quickly rowed
to tlie shore, and, with the United States flag borne
aloft, was escorted to the "treaty house," where he
was received with much courtesy and conducted to seats
withm. Treaty negotiations were now begun in ear-
nest, and after several days of such meetings, though
with less formality and much parleying, a treaty was
concluded. According to the treaty the Japanese imre
to open two ports to the free access of American ships, and
the American govermnent would said consular representa-
twes to reside there whenever deemed advisable.

The two objects of Perry's mission had thus been
peacefully accomplished: humanitij and trade. Pres-
ents also were exchanged in plenty. Indeed, Perry
had personally superintended the buying of a great
quantity of useful implements and machinery intended
as presents from the United States to Japan: steam en-
gines and rails, telegraph apparatus and wire, rifles
gunpowder, sewhig machines, clocks, plows, mowers'
maps, charts, books, wines, etc. Rails were laid, the
engine placed thereon, steam got up, and it was run
to the great astonishment and delight of the people
As fear wore off, they drew nearer, and soon were glad
to mount the engine and ride around and around the
great circle like so many happy children. One mile of
telegraph line was also put in operation, to the infinite
astonishment of the Japanese.

Commodore Perry, by his commanding presence, his

202

japan: (JOUNTUY, court, rEOPLB.

kh:

kindly consideration of all that was fair and right,
coupled with firniness and dignity, convin<!ed the Japa^
neso officials that he was an extraordinary num. And
he was; he was both a great naval officer and a good
man. A constant reader of the Bible, he observed the
sanctities of the Sunday, even upon foreign seas. Re-
turning to America, where he was the recipient of hon-
ors in different cities and States, his stalwart frame
and iron will began to yield to the heavy strain so long
endured. He lived only till the 4th of March, 1858.
Dying in New York, there was profound grief, and
many distinguished men, civilians, army and naval offi-
cers, attended tlie funeral. Among the mourners were
many of the sailors who had been under him in the Ja-
pan expedition, as well as others who had fought in the
Mexican war with him. A suitable monument marks
his grave at Newport, R. I. A better one is in his-
tory: his heroic deeds.

It should have been mentioned in the foregoing that
as soon as it was known that the Americans had suc-
ceeded in making a treaty with the Japanese, the Eng-
glish, Russians, and Dutch made similar treaties. And
so Japan was opened to the trade and Christian civili-
zation of the outside world, opened never again to be
closed.

II. TowNSEND Harris, Another Americax in Japan.
It was Commodore Perry's duty to ^n-ina open a
barred door; it fell to Mr. Townsend Harris to keep it "
open, to complete Perry's work by making a fuller
treaty of friendship and commerce. No more honor-
able v'liapter in the history of America's foreign inter-
KHir^j hm ever been made than that of our first Consul
Geiitu-dand Plenipotentiary to Japan, in 1856-1861; nor

uor

TOWNHENI) HARRIS, ANOTHER AMERICAN. 293

has any officer H«>nt abroad to represent our government
had greater difficulties to overcome in the achievement
of a victory at once so signal in its consecjuences both
to Japan and to foreign nations, and so i»eaceful in the
means employed to win it. The story of Mr. Harris's
career m Japan, first as Consul General and then as Min-
ister, gathered chiefly from his own diary, remains to
be told. He was born in 1804, in New York State.
Ills j.arents were fond of books, and fostered in Town-
send a fondness for study. IIIh motlier was a stately
woman of keen intellect and engaging manners. His
grandmother, named Thankful, taught him to tell
the truth, fear God, and hate the British, all of whicl,
he did to the end of his life. Neat in person, careful
m his dress, courtly in manner, he was a cultured
Christian gentleman who read the best books, both in
^ rench and English, and was a successful business man
J^or thirty-five years a resident of New York, for many
years the head of a prosperous mercantile house trading
with China, and for six years on the Pacific Ocean or
Hi the Orient, he gained an uncommonly good knowl-
edge of things and people in the Far East. In his ca-
reer IS Illustrated the truth that when God marks out by
his providence a certain man for an uncommon task in
lile, his previous training and experience somehow turn
out to be a preparation for the- special task.

In accordance with Commodore Perry's treaty, Mr
Harris was appointed consul general to Japan by Pres-
ident Pierce in 1855, and, after a long voyage around
the Cape of Good Hope, he reached Shimoda, one of
the two treaty ports, in August, 1856. Mr. Ileusken,
a Hollander, was his clerk and Dutch interpreter.

Immediately upon his arrival, and even before knd-
mg from the ship, he was met by annoyances and de-

294

japan: country, court, vfj

III

lays which seemed to him iibsuvd, ant . ,. uii-id hig

patience. The Governor of Shimoda tried to a/oi^'
recognizing him ae Consul General of America, wisliing
to receive him only as one of Commodore Armstrono-'s
suite, lie atteiupted to quartei Japanes ». officers in his
house, *'day and night to await his pleasure," really
to act as spies. The people were forbidd 'n all deal-
ings with him, hoping thereby to force the buying of
things through a Japanese official; he was refused for
a long time the exchange of A.nerican money for Jap-
anese coin; and even the simple request for two Japa-
nese servants was delayed for a long course of negotia-
tions, evasions, and lying. Finally, when he became
thoroughly convinced that the Japanese officials, both
at Yedo and Shimado, were trying to prevent the
treaty with Perry from taking effect, Mr. Harris, tak-
ing occasion of the visit of a high Yedo official and the
Vice Governor of the town with their retinues, told
them plainly that they were lying, and that if they
wished any respect from him thei/ must tell him the truth.
Every little order for a trilling thing needed in his
household aifairs required the longest delay and called
forth many excuses and promises; and the most ob-
vious regulations of tlie treaty were obstinately ob-
structed by mountains of difficulties and delays.

Of course it must be remembered, not as an excuse
for their lying but as a palliation of their slowness, that
all this treaty business and foreign consuls were new
things to the Japanese. If Consul General Harris
had submitted to be browbeaten and treated generally
like the Dutch at Nagasaki, the Japanese would have
known how to act, but they were now dealing with an
American. It must also be remembered that the ma-
jority of the most powerful Daimyos were bitterly op-

HARRIS PROCEEDS TO YEDO.

296

id big

posing their Shogun for having made a treaty with the
Americans, and were now angry over the country be-
ing opened to foreign trade and intercourse, so that
probably Mr. Harris was not aware of the dangers that
threatened the Shogun's government, making him afraid
to carry out the treaty. What added to the burdens
and difficulties, already too heavy upon Mr. Harris, was
the apparent neglect of the authorities at Washington
in not communicating with him. For more than a year
after reaching Shimoda he received not a letter from
America. His stores gave out, and, compelled to re-
sort to Japanese food, his life as an exile beset with
so many a/moyances began to wear away, his spirits
and health failed. And yet in spite of it all he evinced
an unconquerable will, and determined to meet the
strategies and deceptions of the Japanese officials with
truth honesty and truth always, and with this weapon
he finally won victory.

A signal example was the case of the President's let-
ter. This letter, addressed to the Emperor of Japan,
then supposed to be the Taikun or Shogun, was in-
trusted to Harris with instructions to deliver it in per-
son at Yedo. The Japanese invented every possible
excuse to prevent him from going up to Yedo. But he
remained firm in his demand, and though for many
months they refused to answer his communications,
finally, after a year's delay, the Yedo rulers agreed
that he should come to the capital in the person of an
American envoy.

The Shogun issued a proclamation to the officials:
"The present audience with the American Ambassador
will be a precedent for all foreign countries and must
be attended with great care. As intercourse with the
foreign countries necessitates repeal of all regulations

\'\>

f£^ I

) ii

296

japan: country, court, people.

and restrictions, the matter is attended with difficulty,
the possible evils cannot be foreseen." *

Elaborate preparations w^re made for the American
envoys journey. The government issued another or-
aertothe officials along the way: ''When the Amer-
ican ambassador visits Yedo, each householder is to
keep his portion of the road swept clean; travelers may
pass as usual, but beggars must be removed, and guards
mu«t be stationed at the small guardhouses to suppress
disorder; sight-seers may stand at designated places, but
noise and confusion are not to be allowed." Mr Har
ris with all his insight and consideration, did not then
understand either the difficulty or the pel-sonal danger
to himself in making this journey. ^

On Monday, November 23, 1857, he started from
Shimoda, and as the Shogun had decided to receive him
m the most honorable manner, a great retinue was or-
dered to escort him after the fashion of a great Daimyo
or military lord Besides the flag, Mr. Harris's guards
had the arms of the United States marked uport their
breasts, and all the packages had covers in wifich were
worked the same, and several little pennants of the
United States were flying from short bamboo sticks at-
tached to the articles of baggage. A strange cavalcade
that, an American envoy traveling in state to the capi-
tal w.th a Japanese escort numberhig three hundred
men mcludmg the Vice Governor and other officials
Striking into the great national road, thirty or forty
feet wide and bordered by noble cypress, pine, fii,
and camphor trees, he traveled sometimes near the sea
n sight of many white fishing sails, then was hid among
the hills, or skirted the foot of the mountains, but
everywhere was treated with distinguislied honor by
the curious people along the way, who, in holiday garb

HARRIS PROCEEDS TO YEDO.

297

had come out to see the great American barbarian; and
those of rank saluted him, while all below rank knelt
with eyes averted from him. At every stopping place
the house was decorated with strips of cloth festooning
gateways and door, and the imperial colors. A stake
was always in place for hoisting the United States
flag. He observed that the country seemed prosperous
the people well fed and clean, an equal absence of
wealth and poverty. Only one unpleasant episode oc
curred along the whole way. At the gates of the Ha-
kone Pass the Japanese officials were going to search
his palanquin according to their regulations respecting
Japanese subjects. To this Mr. Harris justly objected
because, as the envoy of a foreign government, he was
not subject to their regulations. They insisted, saying
that It was a mere matter of form, but he remained firm
and threatened to go back to Shimoda before he would
submit. He was allowed to pass without examination.
After a week's journey Mr. Harris with his retinue
passed in state into Yedo, the streets for seven miles
being lined with people eager to see the great foreigner
Ihus escorted by officials and guarded by rows of po-
licemen, armed with two swords, and standing in front
of the hues of people, he rode in his palanquin through
streets, across bridges and moats, until finally, borne at
a full run by his bearers through the gateway of the
higli castle wall of stone, he was received at one of the
Shogun's houses by a prince, and with warm welcome
assigned his apartments. Tliis was in truth an impor-
tant event in Mr. Harris's life and more important in
the history of Japan, for he was the first foreign repre-
sentative received at the capital with the rights and
honors of embassy fully recognized.
Eight persons of rank liaving been appointed *' Com-

298

japan: country, court, people.

11'

■I'l
01

?n (

■ U\

missioners of the American Ambassadors' voyage to
Yedo," he was waited ui)oii by them in state and arrange-
ments were made for an audience with tlie Shogun and
l)re8entation of the President's letter.

Awaiting the day, they attempted to get him mean-
while to promise not to go about in the city. Misun-
derstanding their motives and not aware of the danger
to his life, he refused to promise. As a matter of fact
two ronin (roving, bullying rowdies without a liege
lord) had made a conspiracy to assassinate the Ameri-
can. They were arrested and afterwards died in prison.
The Japanese authorities were truly anxious about the
American's safety, but were ashamed to tell him the
true situation, and, being a brave man, he was liable to
embarrass ;them unknowingly by exposing himself to
attack. As a thing to be noted, on the first Sunday in
Yedo, Mr. Harris, assisted by Mr. Ileusken, read the
full service for the day according to the prayer book of
the Protestant Episcopal Church. As the American was
the first foreign flag ever planted in the capital, so this
was the first Christian service of the Protestant Church
ever celebrated. With paper doors pushed back and
with voices to be heard through the building, the
American Envoy and devout Christian read the scrip-
tures and prayers in the name of Jesus C^irist, a name
forbidden to be worshiped under penalty of death. In
his diary for this Sunday Mr. Harris says: "I mean to
demand for the Americans the free exercise of their re-
ligion in Japan, and to demand the abolition of the
trampling on the cross which the Dutch have basely
witnessed for two hundred and thirty years at Naga-
saki. I shall be both proud and happy if I can be the
humble means of once more opening Japan to the
blessed rule of Christianity.'

,» 5»

Harris's audience with the shogun. 299

Upon the appointed day Mr. Harris was conducted
forth to be received in audience by the Shogun. We
will let him describe the ceremony, omitting here and
there some details. "I was attended by the same es-
cort as on my visit to the Prime Minister. My dress
was a coat embroidered with gold, after the pattern
prescribed from Washington — blue pantaloons with
gold stripes down the legs, cocked hat with gold tas-
sels, and pearl-handle dress sword. On arriving at
the second moat all except the Prince and myself had
to leave their palanquins, and just before reaching the
bridge the Prince left his, together with the horses,
spears and attendants- At the bridge I left mine,
crossed it accompanied by Mr. Ileusken, my interpreter
bearing the President's letter, and proceeded to the au-
dience hall. Before entering I put on my new shoes
and waited awhile. Informed that the time for the au-
dience had come, I passed down by the Daimyos, who
were seated like so many statues. As we apj roached
the audience chamber, the Prince threw himself upon
his hands and knees, and a chamberlain cried in a loud
voice: 'Ambassador American!' About six feet from the
door, I lialtedand bowed, then advanced to the middle of
the chamber, halted and bowed again, the Prime Minister
and Great Council being prostrated on my right, the
three brothers of the Shogun likewise prostrated on my
left. Pausing a few seconds, I addressed the Shogun as
follows: 'May it please your Majesty, in presenting
my letters of credence from the President of the United
States, I am directed to express to your Majesty the sin-
cere wishes of the President for your health and happi-
ness and for the prosperity of your dominions. I con-
sider it a great honor that I have been selected to fill the
high and important place of Plenipotentiary at the court

h I

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300

japan: country, court, people.

of your Majesty; and, as my earnest wish is to unite the
two countries more closely in the ties of enduring friend-
ship, my constant exertions shall be directed to the at-
tainment of that happy end.' After a short silence the
Shogun began jerking his liead backward over his left
shoulder, at the same time stamping with his right foot.
This was repeated three or four times; then in a pleas-
ant and firm voice he spoke what was interpreted as
follows: ' Pleased with the letter sent with tlie Ambas-
sador from a far-distant country, and likewise pleased
with the discourse. Intercourse shall continue for-
ever.' Mr. Heusken, who had remained back at the
entrance, now advanced, bringing the President's letter
and bowed three times, whereupon the Prime Minis-
ter arose and stood upon his feet by my side. Opening
the box and showing the letters, the Prime Minister
received them upon the palms of his two hands and
then placed them upon the lacquered stand near by.
He then prostrated himself again before the Shogun
and I faced him. After a moment's pause, he dis-
missed me with a courteous bow. So ended my audi-
ence. As for the Shogun, he was seated upon a chair on
a platform raised about two feet above the floor. From
the ceiling there was hung in front of him a grass cur-
tain, rolled up and kept in place by large silk cords and
heavy tassels. His dress was silk with a little gold
woven through it, but was far removed from royal
splendor. No rich jewels, elaborate gold ornaments,
nor diamond-hilted weapons were seen. His crown was
a black lacquered cap of a bell shape. There was no
gilding in the audience hall, the wooden posts thereof
behig unpainted, nor was there any furniture in any of
the rooms except the brasiers and the chairs brought in
for my use."

HARRIS CONCLUDES BETTER TREATIES. 301

The Prince told Mr. Harris that all present at the
audience were amazed at his "greatness of soul," and
his bearing in the presence of Japan's mighty ruler: they
had expected him to be humble, to quake, and to speak
with faltering voice.

Anxious to negotiate a fuller treaty than Perry's, short-
ly after the audience Mr. Harris began to urge the mat-
ter upon the attention of the Prime Minister, to whom
he said: <'By negotiating a treaty with me who am
purposely come to Yedo alone and without a single
man-of-war, the honor of Japan should be saved and
the country gradually opened. " He named three points
to be covered by the treaty: first, the residence of for-
eign ministers in Yedo; second, freedom of trade with
the Japanese without the interference of government
officers; third, the opening of additional ports.

He further pointed out the danger and humiliation
that now threatened China from the fleets of the for-
eign powers, and how similar danger might soon
threaten Japan; but showed that, by voluntarily enter-
ing into relations of friendship and commerce, Japan
could become a i)ro8perous and powerful nation. The
discourse lasted two hours, and the Prime Minister was
deeply impressed. But obstacles were great that stood
in the way of Japan's coming into closer relations with
the American or other foreign nation. At that very
hour the Shogun's government was a seething caldron.

The leading men of the clans, as well as the court
officers, had been stirred up over the reception of the
foreign envoy, the representative of a barbarian coun-
try, at the capital, and the honors accorded him. In-
deed, the fires of internal strife over the question of
opening the countrv to foreifners were threatening to
break out against the Shogun's government, and plots

' '1

302

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IM:

'• fl

't ir,

japan: country, court, people.

to murder the foreign barbarians were freely made by
reckless ronin. But Mr. Harris continued to urge the
necessity of making a better treaty, and finally com-
missioners were appointed to negotiate it, and meet-
ings were held for the purpose. After tedious and
vexatious^ negotiations for six weeks, a treaty was con-
cluded. The Daimyos had to be consulted, the Shogun's
brothers and tlie Council of State had to be won over.
The treaty included every important point that Mr!
Harris contended for, and was really a treaty of friend-
ship as well as commerce; such as, residence of diplomat-
ic and consular agents; the opening of additional ports,
as Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki, Hiogo (Kobe),'
and American citizens to reside therein; exchange of
foreign coiji, religious freedom, limits of foreign travel
fixed; mediation of the United States in differences be-
tween Japan and European powers; the right of Japan
to buy or build ships of war in the United States, and
to engage men for scientific instruction, and for admin-
istrative advice, etc. It was signed July 29, 1858, but
was not to go into effect until July 4, 1859. ' This'new
treaty was forthwith reported to the Mikado at Kioto
for his sanction. The Shoguns had seen the day when
he was little sought; but now, with the tremendous op-
position to the new move the government was attempt-
ing, it was very desirable to secure the sanction of the
hitherto mere nominal sovereign. The Shogun's min-
isters dispatched for this purpose urged upon the court
the necessity of discontinuing the old policy of exclud-
ing foreigners and foreign trade; but notwithstanding
insinuations, intimidations, and persuasions, the Mikado
was induced by his courtiers to firmly refuse. The
Mikado's ministers questioned the Shogun's messengers
closely. "Does not the national sentiment abhor the

MIKADO REFUSES TO SANCTION TREATIES. 303

treaty? What do ' 1854 ' and ' 1858,' dates in the treaty
signify? Do these dates not show that America is a
country of the evil sect (Christianity)? What security
give you that the barbarians, wliom you would let re-
side in Hiogo, will not defame tlie sacred capital? " It
was impossible to satisfy these questions, for who can
satisfy prejudice and ignorance? The great Daimyos in
in the South and Southwest were bitterly opposed to
opening the country, and among many of the populace
likewise the same sentiment was rife. Placards were
posted in the streets inciting to vengeance upon the
traitors who had befriended "strange folks." Tims
Harris's treaty became the occasion for two parties: the
one, the Mikado party, that hated foreigners and would
drive them away; the other, the Shogun party, who,
though not loving the foreigner, said that the times
were changed and that Japan could no longer maintain
her isolation, but must enter into treaty relations with
the great foreign powers. Hence, in spite of the clamor
against it, the Shogun's government subsequently con-
cluded with Great Britain, Russia, France, and Hol-
land treaties based upon those with the United States.

Before going into the tumultuous period that fol-
lowed the signing of the treaty with the American
envoy, a few more words pbout Mr. Harris. The his-
torians have not generally given him justice, least of
all the British, who imagine that the presence of their
conquering fleets in Chinese waters was the chief cause
of Japan's willingness to conclude a treaty with the
Americans. And Harris did make a discreet allusion
to the warlike events taking place on China's coast,
but in fact he did not use threats, he rather used
moral suasion and relied upon the power of truth to
persuade. He kindly, patiently instructed the Sho-

Ili'l

304

japan: oountky, coukt, people.

gim 8 muuHtevB. As his diaries show, he from day to
day gave tliem what was practically a course of instruc-
tion 111 international law and commerce and the vvoa-
ress of modern nations. As Mr. Nitohe, the Japanese
author of Intercourse hetween Japan and the United
States, says: -While Commodore Perry used mild
words his conduct was to tlie Japanese audacious, and
l)::cked by his fleet, wliich lie never used, he neverthe-
less inspired awe; but Mr. Harris was both gentle in
words and action, and inspired confidence."

Let us consider for a moment what he did and how
ho did It. Accompanied by only one foreigner, a Hol-
lander, with not a semblance of military power of arms
or ships, he succeeded by the forces of reason-intelli-
gent counsel, firnmess, persistence, and by manifest
truthfulness and honesty-in persuading the Japanese
rulers at Yedo to conclude this fuller treaty of com-
merce and friendship. As seen above. Great Britain
and other nations were not slow to take advanta<.e of
the American's patient toil and unprecedented achieve-
ment Bi.t It came near costing the noble American
his life. Nature too long overtaxed could no longer
stand up; directly upon his return from Yedo to Shi-
moda he fell dangerously ill of nervous fever, and was
tor many weeks near the door of death.

III. Stormy Seas.

It was a critical time in the history of Japan, and as
the Shogun had been apoplectic, liKamon, Lord of Ila-
kon^ was appointed Regent, and soon became the head
of the progressive party tliat favored making treaties
and trade with foreign nations.

Mito, a powerful and scheming vassal lord, became
tlie head of the party that opposed trade and friendship

n KAMON ASSASSINATED. 305

With the foreignom. ]I„ ,v,« ..cnnectea l,y fan.ily with

hoiwc and the woalthioHt Daimyos.

li Ka,„„„ wa, a re«ul„to and shrewd statesman, and

a 1 gent had the rei„« „f g„vern„,ent in l,i„ „wn hind.

fo tl,orefo,-e l,eg,„, a bold policy of «„,,,,re,,ing hia on.

ponents by ..ans.ng the arrest of infl .ential men co -

court l-ive of the more j.owerfnl Daimyos were de-
posed and their vast estates turned over to their sons
yet mere cliildren '

Mito himself was ordered to remain in his own
honse as a prisoner, and spies were appointed to watch

The Kegentnow rewarded hi, friends and supporters
by g.«ng then, high position i,, the government. ()
conrse he knew he was playing a dangerous game. The
thing he now had to fear was assassination, and sure

Maich, I860, a great levee was to be held in the Sho-
gnn s oastle, and now that all his enemies had been put
down. It was to be a d.ay to glorify the young Shogun
and his able Regent. But alas for the Regent! Scare°e y
had he emerged from his mansion, borne in his palan-
qiun to the castle, when he was rushed upon by L.ed
men and killed; his head was cut off and sent ti Mito's
City, and there exposed.

Great confusion followed and nobody knew what to
look for next. The Shogun was a youth, and his cabi-
net seemed stunned now that their able head had been
lost.^ Nothing was done, though it was clear that
Mito s retainers had perpetrated the deed. The assas-
sms voluntarily confessed the deed and gave as their
reason that li Kamon had admitted foreigners into the

306

japan: COUNTUY, court, PEOi'LR.

'''111

country by treaty, and that this was contrary to the
will of the Emperor.

Two tilings appear in all this: First, the hitter hatred
of tho military class toward the foreigners; secondly,
the Emperor felt "his face fouled" hy tho making of
a treaty with the "barbarians" without his consent.

The government, now weakened by the loss of the able
and resolute Kegent, and the Emi)eror's displeasure over
the treaty having l)ecome known, the coimtry would at
once have been i)lunged into civil war but for the fear
of the hated foreigners, who were now at the door. For
the first time in their history the Japanese leaders felt
they must stand united because of the presence of the
foreign powers, whom they feared. All wished the for-
eign barbarians driven away, but it was not done; even
Mito, their archenemy, did not come forward to lead the
glorious war against the handful of hated foreigners
within the two or three treaty ports. Instead of open
war, the assassin's role toward the foreigners was
adopted. Outrages on foreigners now followed in quick
succession.

Pursuant to the Harris treaty, a minister was ap-
pointed to the Shogun's court in Yedo by the United
States government, and Mr. Harris* himself was the
man, with Mr. Heusken as the Legation secretary.
Other foreign ministers also took up residence in the
Shogun's capital. But on the 14th of January, 1861,
Mr. Heusken was attacked by night and murdered.
The Shogun's government was alarmed, and sent a note
warning the foreign legations not to attend Mr. Heus-
ken's funeral, lest there might be an attack upon all
of them; but they did attend, and there was no outbreak.

*S6ep. 393.

•y to the

er hutrcd
secondly,
taking of
nHcnt.
f the able
Hure over
wotild at
• the fear
>or. For
iders felt
ce of the
1 the f or-
Hie; even

lead the
oreigners

1 of open
ners was
I in quick

was ap-
le United
■ was the
secretary,
ce in the
ry, 1861,
inirdered.
;i)t a note
Ir. Heus-
upon all
outbreak.

JAl'ANEHE EMllASaV TO WASHINGTON. 307

In July tl,o HritiHl, legation was attacked l,y ,.oniu
banded together to kill the aceur«ed foreignern (ul thil
"«tw,th»tanding the governn.ent had staU od a 1":
.o»e guanl. Several of the guards were killed, and wo
lint,»her» were severely wo,„,ded. The .Shogun's „un-
.»tcrs were now HUed with alar.n, an.l hun.iltatio , t"o
Bcen,g that they were unable to |,roteet the f ort. "'
ga Uons, and fearing the lorcign powers ndgUht 1 o-
voked n.to war. The truth is, the Shogun's g„vorn, ent

afves ol lore.gn powers in the dark as to the unfrien.Uv
co,npln=at.ons that now existed between the two o ts
o Yedo .and luoto and as to the faet that the South r
and Southwestern Dain.yo, were agitating the rightso
the tM,peror and forn.ing an anti-Shogun party

Meanwhile, through the ageney of Mr. Harris an em-
assy was sent by the .lapanese to Washington Com-
P sedo n,Huent,al personages, and everywhere received
with kn.duess and honor, the embassy's visit to San
Iraneiseo Washington, Baltin.ore, and'^othe eit L ^d
much good. It showed the Americans that am^" u e
Japanese were men of astute minds and graeef u ma !

i.a banans. Receiving such distinguished attention

e.wa d , of the haughtiness and cruelty which they had
inflicted upon foreigners that had come to M«> coILrt

years iS' «"'""" 'f *""""' ™»'"""'0. Th^
years mZ-Si are memorable for the murderous attacks
upon foreigners. It seems that the anti-Shogun party
(the I„,pe™l,sts) were determined, if possible^o brh g
on war between the Shogun's government aui the for
e^i. powers, and what increased the embarrassment of
the Shogun's ramisters was the loss of Mr. Harris who

^- 1

I
V J!

|!)-|

li«

M' 1

308

japan: country, court, people.

had become their trusted counselor and educator in ev-
erything pertaining to foreign affairs. Though they ad-
dressed a formal letter to President Lincoln, requesting
that Mr. Harris's resignation be not accepted, he felt
compelled to return to the United States, and they with
great regret saw him leave their country. In these stoi my
times, and sailing upon unknown seas', they felt the need
of such a foreign friend and counselor. The Hon. Rob-
ert H. Pruyn came as his successor, in April, 1862. Ev-
ery fresh outbreak upon the foreigners, the Shogun's
government being powerless to prevent it, was taken as
a positive proof of the folly and danger of opening the
country; and hence a strong party, led by the powerful
Daimyos of Choshii and Satsuma, gathered around the
Emperor as against the Shogun. Even the marriage of
the young Shogun to the Emperor's sister did not heal
the breach.

Meanwhile the Mikado requested an assembly of Dai-
myos at Yedo for a conference with the Shogun and his
ministers, one of his own court nobles being present as
his representative. This assembly brought no help to
the Shogun in his troubles.

Shimadzu, lord of Satsuma, having gone on to Yedo,
where he was received coolly, and failing to influence
the Shogun to expel the foreigners, started back by the
great national road from Yedo to Kioto. When he was
near the newly opened treaty port of Yokohama, he and
his train were met by a party of Englishmen who were
out for a ride, one C. L. Richardson being the leader.
Refusing to turn aside from the road, or even to salute
the Daimyo, as had been the custom for generations, and
though besought by his companions to turn back, Rich-
ardson rashly pushed forward, and when opposite the
Daimyo's palanquin was set upon by his guard and mor-

r 111 ev-
bhey ad-
juestiiig
he felt
ley with
jstoimy
ihe need
n. Rob-
12. Ev-
ihoguii's
taken as
ling the
(owerful
lund the
•riage of
not heal

'^ of Dai-

i and his

resent as

help to

bo Yedo,
nfluencc
k by the
n he was
1, he and
ho were
3 leader,
to salute
ions, and
;k, Rich-
ositc the
iiid mor-

ATTACK8 UPON FOREIGNERS. 309

tally wounded. The rest escaped. The British govern-

7Z^ZTf '"'' "^^^"^"^^3^ «f **^0«'^H)0 of tlie Shogun,
f 00,000 of batsuma, and the surrender of the slaters.
I his was refused, and the matter was referred to Lon-
don.

a««f ' ir^"}'A ^' '"'^^ "' '^'^ ^P""^ «^ 186'^' ^^other
a sembly of Daxmyos had taken place at Kioto, and the

Shogun himself, for the first time in over two hundred
years, had proceeded to Kioto to confer with the Em-
peror. The peaceful suburbs of the imperial capital
once more clanked with troops and arms, as if for war
An edict from the Mikado was read out before this as-
sembly saying it was his will that the obnoxious ^^bar-
banans be brushed out, and the Shogun's Prime Minis-
ter was to fix the day. Tlie Mikado now proposed to
make a pilgrimage with the Sliogun to the temple of the
war god Hachiman, where he should deliver to him
Ojin s sword, to use in the holy war of driving out the
miserable "barbarians." But the Sliogun feigit^d being
HI, and the holy war was never undertaken. But every-
where the Samurai were stirrino- ^^\,^i^ «.„ •

, ^ A weic HLiiung, ivioto was increas-

mg, and Tedo was decreasinc/, and tlie anti-foreign side
was growing more determined against the Shogun's
policy of opening the country. Now that the Mikado
Had said, ^BrusJi mvay the barbarians/'' it is loval to
do so.

The American legation was attacked and burned, the
Minister Mr. Pruyn, barely escaping. Fleeing to a
temple he was warned of another attack, and had to
escape by going on board a Japanese vessel, that brouHit
him to Yokohama. The United States Consul and the
missionaries were likewise warned to flee for their lives
An American merchant was threatened by his own
Japanese clerks and servants. A Mr. Stearns was at-

ill

i '^jl,!

310

japan: country, (joukt, teoplk.

taoked and robbed, and Mr. Robertson was seized while
sick in bed, and carried off to a swanij).

Twice even the Shoi^iin's castle was destroyed l)y fire,
and a Japanese was assassinated merely for intimating
that the foreign powers were too strong for Japan.
Murderous assaults were made upon the British subjects
residing in the treaty port of Nagasaki; a French lieu-
tenant was assassinated a little afterwards, and two
British officers were murdered.

The Shogun's government was now placed between
two fires, on the one side unable to give protection to
the foreigners or carry out the treaties; on the other
side, it was being harassed by the imperialists under the
lead of the powerful Daimyos of Clioshii and others.

Speaking of Choshii recalls a coup d'etat planned by
the Dairayo of that jjowerful clan. According to the
Oriental fashion, the sovereign is first seized, and then
through him whatever edicts and laws they desire to le-
galize their enteri)rise are issued. Choshu having been the
rallying ground of all the malcontents in the land, the
Daimyo, followed by a troop of Samurai of his own
province and ronin of other provinces, marched up to
Kioto and in collusion with several of the court nobles
were about to seize the Mikado, but the Shogun's spies
discovered the plot and the Mikado was informed in
time. In great anger he ordered the Choshii leaders
with their troops to leave the capital and never again to
enter its precincts. Thus disgraced, the Choshu peo-
ple, with seven court nobles, had to retire from Kioto.

In the summer of 1864 Choshu, having been greatly
reenforced, marched again on Kioto, intending to ret^n-
ter and take their old position. They were forbidden to
enter the city, and the troops of Satsuma, Aidzu, and
Echizen, under the command of the Kegent, were there

M i

',0(1 while

I 1)y fire,
tiinating
I' Japan,
subjects
nch lieu-
and two

between
ection to
lie other
uider the
)ther8.
mned by
ig to the
and then
lire to le-
; been the
land, the
his own
ed up to
rt nobles
m's spies
jrnied in

I leaders
again to

shu peo-

II Kioto.
1 greatly
f to reen-
bidden to
dzu, and
ere there

SHOGUN'S GOVERNMENT IN A TURMOIL. 311

and put tliemselves in readinesn. The battle was at
the gates an<l m the streets, and the greater portion of
the city was destroyed by fire. The Choshu men were
overpowered, thougli they fought witli ]>ravery. A lit-
tle after this battle the embassy returned from Europe
the second one sent abroad, making tlie astonishing state-
ment: JVot theforeiymm, hut we are the barbariam:^
1 his was traitorous news, but the Shogun's cause was

Choshn 7 \ 7""' ''^^'"^ "^^« ^^'^--^^ *« «h-tise
Choshu, which he attempted to do, but in the first place

Satsuma refused to join him, and tlie ShogunK, troops
^^e defined in battle with the OhoM forces. The
^hogun lost prestige b> his defeat, and neVer regained
It. Meanwhile the English squadron having been or-
dered to punish the Daimyo of Satsuma for the murder
of Richardson, sailed around to Kagoshima, Satsuma's
capital of 180,000 souls, and opened fire, almost destroy
mg the city, and burned the Daimyo's three new ships
recently bought. This opened the proud Daimyo'^
eyes and he had to pay the full indemnity in cash
and see his batteries, factories, etc., destroyed; bul
thougli humbled and convinced that it was foUv to
measure arms with the foreigners, he resolved with
the characteristic energy and courage of the Kiushiu
people that he would get hold of the secret of their
power. lie was therefore the first of the territorial lords
to send students to Holland to study, and he emploved
Europeans to teach his people the arts and arms of
modern warfare.

The next year another most disastrous affair took
place, which both humbled the Daimyo of Choshii and
opened his eyes also to the true situation of Japan in
the presence of foreign powers. He had procured from
Holland or other Western country some war ships

■ic^

312

japan: country, coukt, people.

armed and drilled his Samurai according to modeni
ways, and had i)lanted lus ])atterie8 uj)on the heights
of the Shimonoseki straits, at the western mouth of the
Inland Sea. In June his batteries opened lire on the
United States ship Pembroke; tlie next month a PVench
man of war was seriously injured; and still later, a
Dutch vessel was attacked. Even one of the Shogunh
ships was jired upon.

For these hostile acts the United States warship Wy-
oming was sent to bombard the place, and then two
French vessels went and did the same; l)ut for all that,
Choshu was still defiant. Wherefore seeing the Sho-
gun was neither able to keep open the Iidand Sea to
foreign ships, nor bring the Daimyo to a peaceful tem-
per of mind, the foreign powers united in an expedition
consisting of seventeen vessels, and went to pay their
respects and teach Choshu the error of his ways. The
attack of the united fleet, British, French, Dutch, and
American — howbeit the Americans had only one steam
vessel which had been chartered for the purpose of fly-
ing the United States flag — was nmde on the 5th of Sep-
tember, 1864, and it brought the Choshu lord into abso-
lute submission.

The foreign ministers then called a conference with
the Shogun's foreign minister and demanded an indem-
nity of three million dollars. It is l)ut just to say that
this sum was unnecessarily heavy and unreasonable.
The Shogun had apologized for the firing upon foreign
ships, and it was perfectly plain tliat in the disordered
condition of affairs he was unable to quell his unruly
and powerful Daimyos. It is therefore with grrtifica-
tion that record is here made of the act of Congress in
1873, by which our share of tlie indemnity, $785,000,
was voluntarily returned to Japan.

1% • f

THE TREATIES RATIFIED.

313

In the meantime the conflict between the Shogun's
government at Yedo and the Mikado's court at Kioto
becanie more threatening. Botli parties were now con-
vinced that hrushhu, out the foreujners was no easy
thing The powerful Daimyos of Satsuma and Choshu
had learned l,y experience tlie folly of that policy.
Ihe southern Daimyos would no longer render alle-
giance to the Shogun, and like falling stars matters
hastened to a crisis, the issue being which should be su-
preme, tlie Mikado or the Shogun. Many of the wisest
men saw that, under the changed conditions of treaties
and trade with foreign nations, Japan must have one
head and not two. What hastened this conflict be-
tween ledo and Kioto was the decision of the foreign
ministers to recognize only the legal head and sovereign
of the nation, and to demand the ratification of the
treaties by the Mikado. Accordingly Mr. Pruyn, the
American and the other ministers proceeded to sea
from Yedo to Iliogo, and thence opened communica-
tion with Kioto, urging the Mikado to ratify the trea-
ties, immediately. In November, 1865, the Mikado
formally ratified the treaties. TJiis action greatly
strengthened the party of the imperialists against the
fehogun. °

Shortly afterwards the young Shogun died in his cas-
tle at Osaka. His succr asor, under tlie title of Yoshin-
obu, took the reigns of government, but soon found
that tlie power and glory of the Tokugawas was fad-
ing away. Besides the action of the Daimyos of the
South and Soutliwest in rallying around the Mikado as
against the Shogun, and besides the recent action of
the foreign ministers in seeking the Mikado's sanction
ot the treaties, thus proclaiming to the whole Japanese
world that he alone was the lawful sovereign, there

; II

Jill '

fcfl

314

japan: (K)Ttntuy, court, people.

was a tliird ])oworfiil source of influence destructive of
the Shogunate and favoring the rcHtoratioii of the Mi-
kado's ]>ower. Under the liglit of tlie Dutch learning,
some of the brightest scliolars of the nation liad been
studying tlie liistory of -Incr natioiis, and their own.
They had discovered in i-- studies that in the early
ages their nation had hao. .t one r-der, the Emperor,
who governed in his own person and authority; that
gradually the Shoguns had ro])bcd liim of his power,
until finally they pushed him aside and shut him up
in his palace, a shadowy and harmless, but sacred figure,
while they held the scepter of power over the nation.
These scholar patriots united their voice with the rest-
ive Southern Daimyos, crying, ''Down with the Sho-
gun! up witli the Emperor!"

We have s])oken of the death of the Shogun; the be-
ginning of the next year (18G7) saw the death of the
Mikado. lie died of smallpox, a disease that the low-
est classes die of, and some were inclined to think tliat
this disease was sent upon the Emperor as a curse from
heaven because he sanctioned the treaties with the "bar-
barians." In the autumn of the same year the Daimyo
of Tosa sent a remarkable memorial to the Shogun:
"The reason why Japan's affairs do not go straight is,
there are two heads, and the two sets of eyes and ears
turn in different directions. Your Iliglmess should
give back the supreme power into the hands of the
sovereign, in order to lay the foundations upon which
Japan may take its place as the equal of other coun-
tries." The Shogun, upon this advice, addressed a
letter to his vassals, proposing to resign the Shogun-
ate and give back the supreme power into the hands
of the imjierial cou.rt. Though none of his oreat
vassals openly opposed it, there was deep discontent.

WAR OF REVOLUTION.

315

In November, 18(57, the Shogun Hei.t Iuh reHignation to
the Emperor. It was acceiited in Holemn form, but lie
was requested to continue temporarily the administra-
tion of the government, excepting what pertained to
difficulties with the Daimyos.

IV. War of Revolution and Restoration (1868).
Though the Shogun had thus resigned, his vassal
Daimyos and lords of Kwanto and the North were by no
means ready to see the old and honored dynasty of the
Tokugawas fall to the ground in such a fanhion, and
were determined to uphold the i)ower of the Shogunate
if need be by fighting. In Yedo especially, the news
threw the city into excitement. They could not believe
It. It is said that the wavering Shogun soon regretted
his resignation, and that when he offered to give^'up the
government he was hoping that his resignation would
not be accepted. The Mikado had accepted his resigna-
tion, but requested him to continue the administration
of affairs temporarily. But certain astute personages
of the Mikado's court, together with leaders from among
the Southern Daimyos, who had labored so long for the
overthrow of i.e Tokugawa rule, were not willing to
wait. They determined upon a coup d'etat, by which to
make sure of the situation against the Shogun and his
supporters. Accordingly, with sudden surprise to the
P)hogun, who was at that time staying in nis Kioto cas-
tle, they seized the palace gates, dismissed the Aidzu
clan, who had always guarded them and who were loyal
to the Shogun, and replaced them by troops of Satsuraa
and other Southern clans. The court nobles favorable
to the Shogun's cause were dismissed, and by a so-called
edict the offices of Kwambaku and Shogun were abol-
ished. A provisional government was forthwith planned,

I! I

f ;
ft '

}i.''r

:':l

4tl r

i:AMii:

IS! i

316

JAPAN': COUNTRY, OOTtrt, PKOI'LE.

witli suitable men for tlie several dei)artment8. A de*
cree was issued declaring that lieiieeforth the goveni-
ment of the country was solely in the hands of tlie im-
})erial court. It was a revolution. One of the first acts
of the new government was the recall of the Choshu
Daimyo and the banished court nobles who had in 18G3
been expelled from Kioto; the Choshu troops were also
given an honored place with the royalist clans in guard-
ing the imperial palace. But who is the new Emperor?
He has not yet emerged before tlie public, but will do
so soon. The Shogun voffended and tlie Aidzu and other
troops devoted to him being angered, he withdrew by
night from Kioto into his Osaka castle, forty miles away.
The situation was now critical; civil war was impend-
ing. The ex-Shogun, as we henceforth name liim, hav-
ing been invited to come back to Kioto with the prom-
ise that he shall be treated with honor, was suspicious
of a plot against him, and resolved to proceed with a
body of troops and deliver the young Emperor from his
advisers. But by order of the court he was declared a
traitor and forbidden to enter the city. The "loyal"
army marched out against him, met him at Fushimi, near
Kioto, and the civil war's first battle was fomjht. The
ex-Shogun was badly beaten and retreated back to Osa-
ka castle, and thence fled by sea to Yedo, followed later
by troops of the Aidzu and other clans. Meanwhile
the foreign Ministers instructed their nationals in the
treaty ports to observe strict neutrality, furnishing arms
to neither side.

An outbreak upon the foreigners in Hyogo, which had
just been opened, was led by a captain of Japanese
troops. A company of noncombatant foreigners were
wantonly fired upon and stampeded. The new govern=
ment sent an envoy to wait upon the foreign ministers

ENGLISH MINISTER ATTACKED.

817

A de-

goveni-

tlie im-
Hrst acts

Ghosh u
[ in 1863
rere also
II guard-
inperor?

will do
lid other
drew by
}H away,
iinpeiid-
im, hav-
e proin-
spicious
. witli a
rom liis
?lared a
'loyal"
ni, near
t. The
to Osa-
ed later
mwhile
1 in the
ig arms

ich had
ipanese
•8 were
^overn-
nisters

at ITyogo, and to declare by official letter that the Sho-
gun had resigned, and thenceforth the Emperor would
exercise the 8iii)reme power, and had established a for-
eign department in his government; and therefore that all
attacks upon foreigners would be punished and the trea-
ties carried out. The Japanese captain mentioned above
was sentenced to hara kin and beheading. This letter,
delivered in the most solemn manner, was signed by the
young Emperor, MutsuhHo, being the first time that the
personal name of an Emperor has been made public. As
a proof of the good will of the new government the
foreign Ministers were invited to visit Kioto and be re-
ceived in audience by the young Emperor. England,
France, and Holland accepted. But when Sir Harry
Parks, the English minister, with his suite, was pro-
ceeding to the i)alace a murderous attack was made upon
him in the streets by two anti-foreign Samurai. The
next day the Emperor was visited in safety. A little
earlier a French officer and ten sailors were murdered
at Sakai, near Osaka. Three days later the murderers
were given up to be put to death, and when eleven had
committed hara kiri in the presence of the French offi-
cer he interposed in behalf of the other nine, and their
lives were spared. In the meantime, the court having
mobilized an army and the Emperor having appointed
his uncle commander in chief, the civil war shifts to
Yedo, in the East.

First, the Shogun's troops burned down the Satsuma
Yashiki in Yedo, occupied by some Satsuma Samurai.
As the imperial army approached the Shogun sought
negotiations and agreed to evacuate his castle, surrender
his ships and munitions of war, and retire to private life
at Mito. So, leaving the capital founded by Tokugawa
lyeyasu and made famous by a long and powerful rule,

I't '

I'^i.

!'' *

318

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

the last of the line aisai)i.ojired from the field. The
Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns thuH i)a8Hed into history,
never to live or flourish again. But the war was not
ended. The last of tlie Shoguns left Yedo, but liis sup-
porters, in all more tlian twenty Daimyos of Kwanto and
the North, refused to disband, and continued tlie strug-
gle. On July 4th a battle was fought in tlie temple
grounds of Toyezan (now called Uyeno Park). The
rebels were defeated, and the most splendid of all the
Yedo temples was totally burned.

Having seized the high j.riest (an imperial prince)
and made him their Emperor, the rebels fled northward
to Aidz.i. The struggle for the possession of the chief
towns in the North was an obstinate one. The Northern
braves defended their castles with courage and fortitude,
but at last all were captured, and they had to flee to
the island of Yezo. Meanwhile Admiral Enomoto,
commanding the ex-Shogun's fleet, and refusing to sur-
render it, escaped by night from Yedo Bay, and with
eight ships sailed to Hakodate, there to cooperate with
the land forces. It was the declared purpose of the
rebels to establish in Yezo Island a new kingdom, but,
after a fruitless struggle of a year and a half, Admiral
Enomoto surrendered his fleet, and the civil war came to
an end. Be it said to the credit of the Emperor's gov-
ernment, that in the main clemency was extended to
the leaders of the rebel side. For example, Enomoto
was afterwards sent as Minister to St. Petersburg.*

Turning back to the events of the new imperial court
at Kioto, we discover that a government of eight de-
partments had been organized, including: (1) the su-

*One exception to clemency was the (!ase of Kondo Isami
who was brought in a cage to Yedo, beheaded, and his head
sent m liquor to Kioto.

3ld. The

history,
' was not
t his sup-
vantoaiid
jhe strug-
le temple
•k). The
>f all the

1 i»rince)
Dr th ward
tlio diief
STorthern
ortitude,
o flee to
liiomoto,
g to siir-
md with
ate with
s of the
am, but.
Admiral

' came to
►r's gov-
nded to

hiomoto

,-g,*

al court
ight de-
the su-

o Isami,
lu8 head

THE EMrEROR BECOMEH ACTUAL KULER. 310

preme admiiiistratiou; (2) the Shinto religion; (3) for-
eign affairs, ami so on. Al)le and far-seeing men were
behind every movement in the new order. One of
them, Okubo, made a novel and startling proposition
in a memorial addressed to the throne. It was, in
brief, that, contrary to the custom of liis ancestors,' the
Emperor sliould come forth from l)eliind the screen, and
take the rule of the country into his own hands, 'sul)-
jecting all his court and government to his personal su-
pervision; and that to tliis end the capital and eourt be
transferred from Kioto to Osaka. Okubo knew how
difficult it would l)e to abantlon the old traditions and
set aside tlio age-long customs of the puppet Mikados
if the young Emperor remained in the old capital at
Kioto. Such a proposal in former times would have
been regarded as treason and would have cost the i)ro-
poser his life. But now tlie men who surround tlie
young Emi)cror breathe tlie freer air of a new life. Oku-
bo's plan was welcomed, and, after discussion, a change
of capital was decided upon. The young Emperor, Mift-
suhito, sixteen years old, came in person before the'coun-
cil of state, court nobles, and Daimyos, and in their pres-
ence took an oath (April 17, 1869) as actual ruler, prom-
ising: (1) That a deliberative assembly shall be formed
and all questions decided by public opinion; (2) that
uncivilized customs of former times shall be abandoned;
(3) justice and impartiality according to nature sliall
be made the basis of action; (4) ir.tellect and learnmcr
throughout the world shall be sought for. This chai*
ter oath is the basis of the modern constitution of Ja-
pan. The youtliful Emperor standing in the assembly
of the court and the Daimyos, and swearing to grant
them a representative assembly, and that the unrdvil-
ii5ed customs of Japan shall be broken away from, was

■i i

320

!i'l,

JAPAN: COUNTHY, ('OimT, I'KOPLK.

a tino subject for a paiutlnj,'. Of (.onrno it is not to bo
HU])i)OHe(l that ho. rejilizcd tlio full meaning of tlu; words
that lie had been taught to mo l)y hJH couuHelorH, but
they evidently knew what they were doing. Follow-
ing the victorious army, the young Knii.eror and his
court bade farewell to aiu-ient Kioto in November, 180!),
and set up histhrone in Yedo, his new capital, changed
to Tokyo. It wm the Jtesfomtion. The one serious mis-
take—so far as wo can see, the only mistake— which the
young Emperor's counselors made at that critical and

EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OF JAPAN.

revolutionary time was the hostile position taken toward
Christianity. The old edict of the Tokugawa Shogmis
against Christianity was renewed, as follows: "The
wicked sect called Christians is strictly prohibited. Sus-
pected persons shall be denounced to the officials, and re-
wards (for the information given) shall be distributed."
The foreign ministers protested, but without avail, ex-
cept that the words "wicked sect" were omitted. The
decree was issued under the plea that universal publiq
sentiment against Christianity strongly demanded it.

not to 1)0
lu! words
lors, hilt
FoUow-
aiul luH
er, IHO!),
changed
iotiH niis-
/^liich tho
/ical and

)

toward
$hogini8
"The
d. Sii8-
, and rc-
buted."
^ail, ex-
I. The
L public
!dit.

01T08ITI0N TO MISSIONARIES. 321

tok^'i'-n ^°'"' '"•°"'""' "'" •''''""»="" ""thoritie. were

naW Notwithstanding tho severe laws and cn.el
p.n,shn,ent„ carried „„t against (Christians for w„
hundred , ears it is truly astonishing that a ZZ.
n.ty o( tl,en> had secretly nn.intained their faith in a

"on,. In 1H(,H the i,„,,erua government ordered the
whole eounnun.ty where tl,e Christians lived number
.ngt reo thousand, to be deported into e. le TTd -"

'd Icl'Trr '"r" '"''•'^-'""^ D-n-yosoft e
und. Kido of Choshn, and a leader in these stirring
tnnes of the War of the Restoration, was seT.t N^
gasak. to superintend the deportation of the condemned
Chnsfans The English Consul at Nagasaki rZ„-
tratod, w.th the result that only one hundred and
wenty harmless Christians were sent away by hip t^

ment'bv : ""^"'T' '" ^""'''^ ""» ^arbar^.s tit
ment by accusing the n.issionaries of having come to

Japan to tempt the people to violate the laws C

was probably a natural n.istake for the leaders of th

Restor,at.on to make, but it was very unfortunate tha

Chi • ^ "'' ^""'''^y *'"^ ^^""^ !-«-"<"' toward

Ch,. t,an.ty as the Tokugwara Shoguns, whose rule wis

towarf Ch Z' r"- '"'""S" - h^tile feeling
towaid Christianity was a great wro,,^ .„d very unwise

of the lestoration ,n attempting to make the Sh I'nto reli-
g.on he state religion, the only religion of Japa.^ and
have the young Emperor reoogni.edls the divine Cd
both of religion and of tho stat*. The young Emperor's
advise™ would have him launch the new Japan' upon

rSl

rr
ft ,

tej m

*' If

r ^;

322

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

the great stream of modern enlightenment and repre-
sentative government in the old ship of the heathen re-
ligion — an impossible thing.

V. Christianity Again Comes In.

For the facts in this section we are chiefly indebted
to the late revered Dr. Guido F. Verbeck, one of the
l)ioiieer missionaries, and to "Ritter's History of Prot-
estant Missions in Jai)an." When, in 1854, it became
known in America and Great Britain that Japan had
made treaties of amity and peace with several Western
powers, the friends of missions were particularly inter-
ested in the event, for now at last that country was
again to be opened and Christianity to carry its message
of light and help to the millions of Japanese. If Chris-
tianity brought to them by the Roman Catholics in
1549 had been so successful, and native converts had
shown such heroic fidelity to the cross of Jesus in time
of liery persecution, what r ^ght not now be hoped
from the introduction of the purer Protestant form of
the Christian religion?

As soon as permanent residence for foreigners in the
treaty ports was secured, which was not until 1859,
missionaries were sent out by three Protestant bodies,
the Protestant Episcopal, the United Presbyterian, and
the Dutch Reformed, all from the United States.
Prior to this, occasional visits had been made by mis-
sionaries in Shanghai, China; but there were no resident
missionaries until 1859. The next year the American
Baptists sent a missionary. For ten years these four
were the only missions represented in Japan.

The first period, from 1859 to 1872, was the period of
persecution and imi)risoiiment. The missionaries, while
untouched by tlic violent hand of the rulers, were prac-

THE MISSIONARIES PERSECUTED. 323

tically regarded as enemies of the country "come to
tempt, the people to violate the laws." As ^rhav^
seen It was a time of political turmoil resultinrin the
overthow of the Tokugawa Shoguns at Yedo and T

restoration of the Mikado t,. ii. \u ' *^^

., "^ •'"*' ivnjcaao to the throne. The stafp nf

t^ c„„„t,.y wa» peculia,., and often dange, ons The

couise with natives, even within the "foreim, settle

indeed f„, a period of fonr years after their arrival

to visit the missionaries, as if making a friendlv

teacher eonld be secured until March, 1860, and he was
a government spy. A proposal to ti^ansla e the Scrir

rior:fc:L-:iirwV-'^'''^"^^- ^"»
..-owing of thetr':^ ::t.ort:::si7t'hni

Japanese would be beheaded if they shouldlive elr to
such things. There was at that time a sysfein of i^
formers and spies in fnll swing throughoutClult r
there was no mntnal confidence between man a^id man'
t e n -ri:: ::"^"™^ ^?- "" »"« -o- inaccesslbrt.;

wh^h^ircZr '"^ *^ "'"' ^"^ °"^^ -- ^o'

There was naturally much that was perplexing di.
com-aging, and dangerous to life and 11'.? BelSv^ "
that the missionaries had come to seduce them Cm
then- loyalty to the god-conntry (Japan), .and toTorrZ

lacKs, without either warning or nrotecfion Th
who ki'llrifl o +• • ^ p'oiecuon. I he man

Who killed a foreigner was a patriot, tlie more so if he
put .m ena to a teacher of the "wicked sect," a mission!

H -I

llli

If!

324

japan: country, court, teople.

aiy. The missionaries dared not, at the risk of their
lives, set their feet beyond the limits of the treaty settle-
ment. It was contrary to treaty regulations, which the
missionaries could not wish to disregard; but even had
it been lawful, it would have been extremely perilous,
because the first group of two-sworded Samurai the mis-
sionary would meet would be after cutting him to
pieces as if they were slashing a dog. These swagger-
ing Samurai were particularly liostile to foreigners, and
doubly so toward the missionary, and eager to Slake the
thirst of their " rollicking blades " in his blood. While
the common people feared the missionwies, the ruling
class hated them, nor was it abated, as might have been
hoped, W;lien the Shogun's government was replaced by
the restoration of the Emperor. For, as already seen, one
of the first acts of the Emperor was the renewal of the
edict against Christianity making it a crime along with
murder, arson, etc. The i)ersecution of the Roman Cath-
olics from 1869 to 1872, as previously recorded, needs no
further comment here; it simply proves that the new ruler
and his advisers were in dead earnest when they issued
that edict. "In fact," says Dr. Verbeck, than whom
there is no more reliable witness, for he was on the
ground at the time, "even late in this period Christian-
ity was regarded in some communities with intense
hatred and fear, and the Jol ("barbarian expelling") rage
was at its height." A few examples will sufiice. Mr.
Satow, now the Hon. British Ambassador to Japan, and
two or three other foreigners went up to Yedo in 1869,
and as they walked through the city they met a number
of " rollicking blades" and angry scowls, but, being at-
tended by an armed guard, they were not attacked.
Mr. Verbeck, shut up in the school for so long without
air and exercise, felt that he must get out, and though

pi '
ill !

seen, one

PEBSECHTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. 325

he was accompanied by two of hm »tudento, wlio were

armed w.th two «word«, being a,lvised to do so^ 1 e

ailed to go w th bin. f„,„. „,„cd guards, inMead o t e

go out On the way be met a number of those "rol-

::^s::%r '-'' - -- "^ -"«^ -- -

sat," ^^"^^ "/"""g Buddhist priest, baptized at Naga-
saki, was afterwards cast into prison, when Dr. Ver-
beck went away to live in the North, and endured much
sufferuig m various prisons for five years

At a later date when inquiry was nnule of the Gov-
ernor of Kobe whether a native bookseller would be al-
lowed to sell the English Bible, the reply was that any
Japanese bookseller knowingly selling the Bible would
have to go to pnson. Showing what native believers

T, ^ '"'' " '*'"''""• "' Kobe fully illustrates

In the spring of that year the teacher and his wife we,^
arrested at the dead of night and thrown into prison

of the Bible and had expressed a desire to be baptized.
His wife was not then regarded .as a Christian. Every
effort was made to secure his release, both by missiona-
nes and the American Consul at Kobe. To the mis
sionaries the governor frankly stated that if the man
had received baptism there was no possibility of his e, •
eaping the death penalty; if he had not been baptized,
s 1 fe might be spared. Where the unfortunai, man
ad been imprisoned could not be discovered until some
time afterwards, when it transpired that, not being able
to witlistand the miseries of his condition, he dfed in
prison in Kioto in 1872.
In 1869 one of the imperial Councilors was assas-

I • ,

326

japan: country, cottrt, peoi'le.

sinated in Kioto because lie was su8i)ec'ted of being in-
clined toward the "wicked opinions"— tliat is, ('hristian-
ity. It is on record that certain CJhriHtian di])lomat8
were urging ui)on a high official of tlie Japanese gov-
ernment tlie stopping of tlie i)ersecution of Christians.
He remarked to them in reply that C^iristianity would
be opposed like an invading army. It seems that tlie
advisers of the government were laboring under he
gross misconception that tlie Protestant religion, no less
than tlie Roman Catholic, would undermine the throne;
and how could the Emperor allow tlie foundation of liis
throne to thus be undermined by the wicked foreign re-
ligion? It lias been recorded that the governor of Yo-
kohama forbade the jieople going to Dr. Hepburn's free
dispensary because so. many were flocking to him for
relief from their ailments. With these facts before us,
was ever a field so unpromising? When the profession
of Christian faith is i)roclaimed a crime to be punished
with death by the rulers of the land; when tlie lower
classes fear, and the upper classes cordially hate, the
missionaries; when they themselves are shut up, as it
were, in the narrow limits of the foreign concessions —
what could the missionaries do? Some of the Churches
in America, which had been so forward in sending out
the first missionaries to Japan, began now to think that
a mistake had been made, and impatiently wrote to
them, asking: "What are you doing?"

There were two things, and only two, which the mis-
sionaries could do under such trying circumstances: win
the confidence of the Japanese, and master their lan-
guage. By living forth the teachings of their own
Master and by diligent study of the language they were
sure of winning, finally, access to the ear and heart of
the nation.

GROSS IMMORALITY.

327

But as to the mastery of the language, unfortunately
there was not a single Japanese who knew how to im-
part It to a foreigner.* The Japanese had never made
I a grammar of their own language, and knew little or

■ nothing about the scientific study of it, and of course

there was no Japanese-English dictionary, no manual nor
vocabularies. It was left to the missionary and consu-
lar bodies in Japan to make their own tools, the gram-
mars, manuals, and dictionaries, and so for their diffi-
cult work they must build the road, bridges and all,
as they proceed.

Respecting the religious and moral condition of the
nation, it was deplorable. The minds of the common
people were exclusively under the sway of Buddhism.
Ihe upper classes were more or less influenced by Con-
fucianism; some of them affected a kind of Confucian
skepticism toward religion. Shintoism had little or no
religious influence. After the restoration Buddhism was
disestablished, and the effort made to make Shintoism
the national religion, with the Emperor as the divine and
recognized head. The revenues of the government were
withdrawn from the Buddhist priests and temples, and
men of rank were forbidden to enter the Buddhist
priesthood; many of their temples were "cleansed"
and turned over to the Shinto priests. The Buddhist
priests had for the most part been corrupt, lazy, and ig-
norant And while there was little in the outward prat
tice of Japanese paganism to shock a foreigner by its
cruelty or atrocity, nothing like the rites of the suttee
or Juggernaut in India, newcomers fresli from Ameri-
ca and Europe loere shocked by the gross immorality of
the people. Dr. Verbeck says touchin g this matter: " In

teaciiing their own language to foreigners.

328

it ' t >:

!, •

III '
'ikl i:

! i 1 'i

r' :n

JAPAX: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

11 :f-

certain directions the most astounding moral callousness
and blindness were evinced. The general moral degen-
eracy of the people manifested itself most conspicuous-
ly in two features: in the absence of truthfulness, and
m a general ignorance of the commonest morals concern-
ing the relations of the sexes." Many painful and dis-
gusting spectacles were unavoidably witnessed by many
older missionaries in the streets, shops, and by the way-
side. "^

The two things named above, which the mission-
aries were to do— namely, to live according to the
spirit and precepts of their Master, and to learn the diffi-
cult language, did not fail, could not fail to break down
m the end the miserable prejudices and fears of the peo-
ple and rulers, and in some measure win their confi-
dence.

For many years the missionaries could do no direct
evangelizing, but it was a symptom of the beginning of
toleration when the Shogun's government erected ex-
tensive buildings in Yedo where hundreds of young
men of the upper class were to be taught English and
French, and requested the missionaries to take charge.
It certainly meant a good deal when the Prince of Hi-
zen, before the revolution, and other princes and gov-
ernors after the revolution, engaged Drs. Verbeck and
Brown, Capt. James, and Prof. Griffis to take charge
of their newly formed schools for teaching to Japanese
young men of rank the foreign learning and the Eng-
lish language.

But how strong the opposition to the Christian reli-
gion had been is seen by the fact that, for the first
twelve years from 1859, the missionaries had baptized
only five Japanese in the south and five in the north
—twelve years, and only ten converts!

llousness
il degen-
ipicuous-
ews, and.
concern-
and dis-
by many
the way-

tnission-
to the
the diffi-
ik down
the peo-
ir confi-

direct
ning of
!ted ex-
young
ish and
charge,
of Hi-
id gov-
jck and
charge
tpanese
e Eng-

m reli-

tie first

iptized

north

UNFRIENDLY EDICTS BEHOVED. 329

Tl,e very. fi,,t to receive Christian baptisn. wa, Yano
R"., who wa, Kev. J,r. Jialla«h'« ,,'.r«„„al teacher

ofTJk r; J. 7''"p ''"•"''' "^ '"•• ^"'•'^'^'''^ ^-"« -

ti. , I I ?' V-'" *°''° '""^y"'« "'" «»'!« =""l <-'l.ri«-
t.a>, book« at a distance of two days' travel! Not being

To r V t,*° ""'* *'" """'"""'-y' "'«^ «ent amesse-g^
to car y their questions and to bring answers, and tlius
their hearts were opened to receive the trutl^ and they
hnally souglit baptism. ^

t! J!r ''"''"'' f "*' "' *" go™™""'"* against Chris-
tianity were taken down the tliirteentli yLr after the
oming of ,he missionaries. Doubtless political reaso
lad some hing to do with the removal of those edict

M°:,i wr ^'Z™''"'^"' »'- "™- «" I'ong, our AnieHe n
M niste, to Japan, gave warning to the Prime Minis-

United htates g.,vernment would be affected by the
ofteial persecution of those who listened to Christian
eachiiig. In 1871 IVince Iwakura and a scoit ^ « h"
er high officials and leaders in the new government
went abroad as an embassy to visit theeapC " h*
Western Powers to persuade those governments to repeal
tZ ~":"°'-l<^l--* in their treaties with Jap'ai
of State ' w 1 •"* *'"' ''"^''^"" ^'--""'^ ««''-»tary

with u» "t ;"'f ""' "'" •""'""^y ™ -»f™"«

on because they were inclined to hear Christian teach-
ing and were made to understand that the enforcing
^'!l2!i^f!!!lj2L^|l!i5anes^_rule^^

of'foX'eS''S'„'r™'lH'''"'»' "-^ '-^' and punishment

permitted ot:t^?.:„it-rs'r'' ■" •f^i'- *«•-<"

eign consuls stationed tC' '"' ""^"'^ '" "^^ '""

830

japan: country, court, pkople.

fi I J

looked upon with indifference l)y tlie United States
government. The Prince, it \h Haid, proinptly informed
his government, and earneslly advised tlie immediate re-
moval of the edicts from the iMil)lic notice })oards. In
1872 their removal took place, quietly, silently.

No doubt, too, tlie gentlemen composing that famous
embassy, being sagacious and observant men, were
deeply impressed with the wide difference in the civ-
ilization of the nations of Christendom and that of their
own Japan; and when they returned, in 1878, having
failed to convince a single government that they were
competent to take charge of foreigners, they may not
have said in words, "Not the foreigners, but we are
the barbarians," but they probably felt it to be true.
However this may have been, without doubt the mis-
sionaries were the chief cause of softening the bitter
prejudices of the Japanese. Before that embassy was
sent abroad the quiet, harmless, humane, and enlight-
ened life of the missionaries had begun to attract remark.
There was a marked increase about that time in the num-
ber of young Japanese of "he upper classes who came
seeking instruction from the missionaries.

The first organized church in Japan was indeed like a
grain of nnistard seed for size. In 1872, thirteen years
after the coming of the first missionaries, the first Prot-
estant Christian church was organized, consisting of o?)!^
twelve members. It was in the foreign concession at Yo-
kohama, and under protection of the American flag.

"The Japanese Church was born in prayer." At
Christmas, 1871, a few English-speaking residents be-
gan holding prayer meetings in Yokohama. Some
Japanese students, partly out of deference to their
teachers and partly from curiosity, also attended.
Yet even a short time before, one of them had asked

ed States
informed
t'cliiite re-
urdH. In

!it fiunoiis
ten, were
I the civ-
it of their
8, liaving
hey were

may not
it we are

be true.

the mis-
he bitter
►assy was

enlight-
t remark,
the num-
'^ho came

ied like a
sen years
rst Prot-
ig of only
)n at Yo-
. flag.

er.

At
ients be-
i. Some
to their
ittended.
id asked

GENERAL GOOD RESULTS. 331

H«v. Dr. Kallagh what he must do to got a new lieart
>urn.g the week of prayer, in 1872, thL prayer mee"
ngs were hehl daily, and, as the Japanele w"e vT
I dent y ,„,r ,,,,^ ,,^^ ^^^^ eontinued^for two month

it dTtolf ";""■" "^^' *'^ •'•^P^--' -^^ *- "
j..>ri in prayoi. After a week or two loiiffer thev
began o pray with great ea„,e8t„e««, even w ("/
beseech ng God to mve 1,;. «.-•.. t '

eartvrhuti. J .,^ '•'"'" *» •^"P"" "^ to the

apostles r ? "Z^"*''" "'"* S^'tbered to hear the
apostles. Capums of English and of A.aerican nien-
of-war wore present and were profoundly impressed
I was a, fte fruit of these prayer n>eedngs and of 'the

o.ganized. It was organized after the Presbyterian
order, the pastor chosen being Missionary Ballaglt he
cWer and deaeon being two older Japanese The
c^ ".-eh was named the "Cln.rch of Christ in Japan " •
ri|e creed was very short and sin.ple. ^

Other results of this period are briefly: the publiea-
serr n r* .^'^ ^-l' ' Japanese-English Dictionary

aus 'and m b". "" '"" '""' '"""' f"'- *"« »'--■'

great nlbe", t''""'"'^ *"* ''-^ *''« «"•»« ™».
great numbers of Japanese flocking to him for medi

re^tTdv'rr^r'^"'" ^'"""'^ °' «-" -'i--"-

e study of English m the missionaries' houses; the
small begmmng of what afterwards became a girls'
seminary i„ Yokohama, and a missionaiy school Jn a
very small scale in Tokyo; the circuUtln of Cl"ris!

building of Christian nnion churches in the forei™
concessions of the treaty ports. In this enterprir S
m.»«iona„es took active part. The union chuTch in

f 1

832

japan: country, court, peoplk.

lokohaiua stands upon the sife of the tcnii»orury
treaty house in which Commodore Perry made t!ie first
treaty. Toward the ere<aiou of that comely luMise of
worship the Hon. Townsend JFarris made j). contribu-
tion of 151,000 on leaving Japaji. Dr. Vcrbeck and one
or two others were engaged in teaching a part of every
day in the Kaisei Gakko, in Tokyo, wliieh afterwards
grew into the present Imperial University. One direct
result of the missionary influence and example was to
cause the Japanese to feel how backward and defective
their own system of education was. Indeed, we shall
see that the indirect influences of the foreign mission-
aries were felt in many different directions.

.',«

IMPEKJAl. CRESTS.

■t ! '

i'l- ^
itia n

3Tn])orary
) t!ie fii'Mt
luMiHe of
colli I'ibu-
: Jiiid one
of every
tor wards
ne direct
D was to
lefective
we shall
mission-

CHAPTER II.

THE NEW JAi*AN.

_ RiTTEu says: - Most of the i.nportant turning points
m the history of P.otestant nussions in .lapau ftlnd h
close connection with certain changes in the political
hfe of the country." This is only what we should ex-
pect, for the influence of missions upon diplomacy
upon commerce, and upon the education of a nation h
undoubtedly great. Christian missions in pagan or pa-
pal lands is both deeper and broader than some people
have thought The second period of missions in Japan
begins from 1872 and ends with 1889, but this period
answers so exactly to a corresponding division in the
political history that we shall have to treat the two
gether ^ ''"^ ^""^ missionary events somewhat to-

I. Laying New Foundations— New State.
A most important event at the very beginning of this
period was the return of Prince Iwakura's famous em!
bassy from a tour around the world. (See p. 329.)
iailmg utterly to convince the rulers of the Western
nations that Japan was yet qualified to take charge of
foreigners, and having seen with their own eyes the
advanced civilization, power, and progress of Europe

soiT.r'' T^ ''^''^'"' ^^"' '" "«^ themselves the rL
son ^hy They niust have realized that their own Ja-
pan had been a Rip Van Winkle, with China and oth-
ers, sleeping in ignorant securitv for crenPr^t.ions -h^'i.
the Christian nations had gone^ far in advan"ce 'on't;

(333)

I I 'it:

Itl

884

JAI'AN: COUNTUY, COUUT, rKOPLK

•r

road of (Mvilization. These gentlemen on their retnrn
took again high i)osition in the government and court,
and muHt liavc exerted a p^crful influence in favor of
reform and i)rogrc8H. Thin deHiro to ''catcli up" led the
leaders of tI»o new Japan to determined and sometimen
feverish efforts to pusli their nation into tlie stream of
modern progress. That mistakes were occasionaly made
was to he expected. A new pilot witli a new hoat sail-
ing through unmapi)ed straits and cliannels is very
likely to run her upon the shallows or against the rocks
on one side or the other.

"Wo omitted to state earlier that the young Emperor,
as soon as restored to the throne of his ancestors, at^
temj)ted to secure a kind of national assemhly in ac-
cordance with his charter, oath. An assembly was
called of men representing each clan, and chosen by
the Daimyos, and great hopes were set upon the useful-
ness of such a body. Its function was to deliberate
u])on the important affairs and problems that now con-
fronted the new government, and to give advice to the
Emperor. But it proved a failure. The members of it
were too conservative, in other words, too narrow and
ignorant for the new times. Like old wine skins, un-
suited to put the new wine in, they had to be set aside
after a few months.

Still another remarkable political event in Chinese
history took place early in the period under consid-
eration. It was the abolition of feudalism. Since
the Shogunate had been overthrown the whole mili-
tary system of feudalism, existing for nearly eight
hundred years, was naturally weakened, and only one
thing more was needed to end it, the surrender on
the part of the Daimyos of their feudal possessions
and rights to the new Emperor. Such gifted and far-

.FEUDALISM ABOLISHED.

836

cir return
111(1 court,
I favor of
p" led the
loiuetimes
stream of
laly made
l)oat eail-
i is very
the rocks

Emperor,
istors, at-
»ly in ac-
ibly was
iiosen by
le useful-
leliberate
now con-
ce to the
bers of it
•row and
kins, un-
set aside

Chinese
' consid-
Since
)le mili-
ly eight
>nly one
iider on
isessions
;ind far-

Hif^htcd HtatcHmcn as Kido and Okubo were convinced
that thiH was nocesHary to the successful carryiiwr out
of the new order. And lot it be recorded to the credit
ot the moHt of the Dainiyos that they voluntarily laid
at tlio foot of the imperial throne their fiefs and hered-
itary privileges. That was a notable paper in i>olitical
Jiistory, the memorial i.resented to tlie Emperor by the
great Daimyos of CIiohIiu, Satsuma, ToHa, Ili/.en, Ka«a
and otliers afterwardH (numbering in all two hundred
and lorty), offering to their sovereign the lists of their

LEADING MEN OF NEW JAPAN.

men and lands. It was written by Kido, who had been
so prominent in tlie revolution, and gives, says Mur-
ray, supreme evidence of his learning and statesman-
ship. With lofty eloquence the memorial exclaims:
Ihe place where we live is the Emperor's land, and
the food we eat is grown by tlie Emperor's men. How
can we make it our own? We now reverently offer up
the lists of our possessions and men, with the prayer

that the Emperor will take good measures for rew.nivl,
them to whom reward is due, and taking from those

336

JAI'AX: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

i i',

Whom puui«lnnent is due. Let the imperial orders be
issued for altering and remodeUng the territories of the
various classes, etc." "*

So the Emperor issued a decree (August, 1869) abolish-
ing the daimiates and restoring their revenues to the im-
penal treasury; furthermore the rank of Daimyo and
court noble (kuge), were united in one rank. For pur-
poses of government, prefectures (Ken), instead of daimi-
ates were created, and the Daimyos authorized to act as
governors of thene Ken; but unfortunately they proved
unfit for their new office, and had to be substituted grad-
ually by competent persons. It cost the imperial gov-
ernment an immense sum of money. It would be nei-
ther just nor prudent to leave penniless the Daimyos
who had surrendered all their territories. The central
government had to borrow $1(55,000,000 in order to ],ay
to each Daimyo an equitable sum. But what was to be
done with the Samurai, who had constituted the stand-
iiig armies of each clan and had been supported from
the revenues of their Daimyos? The central govern-
nie^it put many of the able-bodied ones into the arnT
and navy, made policemen of others, and appohited
some to gove-nment office. Later, the pensions pro-
vided for the Samurai were capitalized into a lump sum
and paid oif by the government. This was unfortunate
tor many cf them, for they spent it foolishly and quick-
ly, and, knowing nothing about work or business, many
were reduced to poverty and suffering, and, becoming
desperate, caused a civil war later on. To most of
them, however, as soldiers or policemen, or in office
the new order brought no hardship; it pleased their
pride as bearers of the sword and rulers still in the
land.

Afterwards another reform in the social revolution

orders be
ries of the

?) abolish-
oo the im-

dmyo and
For pur-

iof daimi-

I to act as
ey proved
ited grad-
3rial gov-
d be iiei-
Dairayos
le central
er to pay
ivas to be
he stand-
ted from

govern-
)he arn^y
ppointed
ons pro-
nnp sum
ortunate
d quick-
ss, many
ecoming
most of

II office,
3d their
i in the

'^olution

LAST SCENES OP A DAIMYO. 337

pontic. H;L7o\:Teir Lrr/"" *-° ^^^

were in fact serfs „f tl,/ x, ^'""'^ "*'"<'«.

family „a,ae» a fd ^fh! •', ' ^f """" *''^y ""^y '"'ve
The fibemTo'nlf ^ '"■/""* "S^t^ ''» f^eo individuals.

end„fA.iaticde.p„..,anfrend t;X?r

bet ':::~;:/f -n'T^: ^-^*- -''">^ ^-^

mentioned thDai,m''""'i'- ''''"'''•) ^« "'»'-«

Kens .«aevte":rr Tfic t/r"- °f
Tokyo,ther:To ;::"!;■* *^"^ ^™"- '»

of Echizen to bid farewell to hi "I ' ' ''"'"^''
-eetor of ^B^^n^l^wr;- 1 tlfa^tt: '"
the castle. ilT^e TXT,^-'' ""-.""""« "'

All the «iiaing,artiti::;s':rr:„ov':iTn::r""^-

vast area of n.atting („ne vast halnTl > ""''
their rank ea.'h i,, , . T '' ^" *''<' "■■<•«'• of
shaven ™wn and T ■* -en.onial dress, with
clashing ,;,ir„^f S!"'-l'am...er topknot, with hands

- of Tokyo. It was th;Vor:;:!:;^:\s:

?il

338

JAPAN- : COUNTRY, COURT, I'EOl'LE.

fi " i

tutioiis under which they had lived for seven hundred
years. I fancied I read their thoughts, somewhat as
follows: * The sword is the soul of the Samurai, and the
Samurai the soul of Japan. Is the sword to be ungirt
and be thrown aside for the inkstand and the mer-
chant's ledger? Is the Samurai to become a trader? Is
honor to be reckoned less than money? Is Japan's
si)irit to become degraded to the level of the sordid for-
eigners, who are draining our country's wealth? Our
children, too — what is to become of them? Must they
labor and earn their own bread? Must we whose fa-
thers were knights and warriors, and whose blood and
spirit we inherit, be mingled with the common herd?
Must we now marry our daughters to a trader, defile
our family line to save our own lives and fill our stom-
achs?' These thoughts shadowed the sea of dark faces
of the waiting vassals. When the coming of the Dai-
myo was announced one could have heard the dropping
of a pin in the silence. Matsudaira Mochiake, now Lord
of Echizen, but to-morrow a pri ate nobleman, ad-
vanced down the wide corridor of the main hall. He
was a stern-looking man. He was dressed in purple
satin hakama, inner robe of white satin, and outer coat
of silk crape of dark slate color, embroidered on sleeves,
back, and breast with the Tokugawa crest. In his gir-
dle was thrust his short sword with a hilt of carved and
frosted gold. His feet, cased in white cloth tabi, moved
noiselessly over the matting. As he passed every head
was bowed, every sword laid prone to the right, and
the prince with deep but unexpressed emotion advanced
amidst the ranks of his followers to the center of the
hall. There in a brief and noble address, read by his
chief minister, the history of the clan and their rela-
tions as lord and vassals, the revolution of 1868, and

hundred
ewhat as
i, and the
be ungirt
the mer-
ider? Is
J Japan's
)rdid for-
th? Our
lust they
vhose fa-
lood and
on herd?
er, defile
)ur stora-
ark faces

the Dai-
dropping
low Lord
man, ad-
lall. He
n purple
uter coat
I sleeves,
1 his gir-
rved and
)i, moved
ery head
ght, and
idvanced
iv of the
id by his
leir rela-
863, and

A DAIMYO's FABEWELL. 339

the ca.,se thereof, the rertoration of the imperial house

ter,S ?' *"" ^''■''"'^"■» ■— f« ordering he
te.ito.ul prmeea to restore tlieir fiefs, were terselv

h" e ,*,' ™;'"««™-t" "-Mikado and the imperial

n their new relations, their persons, fan.iliei, and I
tates, ,n ehaete an,l Ntting language he hade his Z-
lowers a solenn, farewell. On behalf of his vassals

with kn.dly references to the prin.^e as their former lofd

h t""?r, rr """ "r"; ^"^^-'^--^ "> »'"^ '-peHi

the wh 1 . '*"•""■'«"'» tl'" '■"••omony. The next day
^e whole e.ty was astir and the streets were erowded
w.t people fron. o,ty and country, coming in their best
clothes to see their prince for tife last time. It vas a
farewell gathering of all his people, hundreds of old

h m o rlt f ^r«'r^'' °f °- thousand men escorted
h n, to Takef u, twelve miles away. A few retainer.
h,s oa servants, and physician LompaldtiTt:
lokyo. A scene like th,s probably occurred at every
provn.ca seat throughout Japan. To the people it was
the breakmg up of tlieir world.

The dying scenes of an old order of things are always
ad to look upon. This dying day of Japlese 3
ism would ■„ any ease be of deep interest to the student
of Instory; but hero it is still n.ore so, because it was no
only the end of feudalism for Japan,' but for the w" d
T^ re ,s now no country where the feudal system prt
va,ls to any e.xtent worthy of mention. Here, then
perished a socal order and a system of governmen never
to reappear ,n tlie history of the world's eivili^a^ien
However, it is not to he supposed that these rapid

■31

340

japan: countuy, court, people.

currents of reform and progress were not met by strong
counter currents. There was still a strong anti-foreign
and anti-Christian party, who believed that every step
away from the old order and customs, and any adoption
of foreign ways, meant ruin to Japan. The radical
changes made by the government aroused deep dissat-
isfaction in many quarters. A rise in p-ices angered
the common peo])le, who said: "It is because they have
let the foreigners in." Tlie ]5uddhist priests, galled
because of the goverinnent's harsh treatment of them,
were only too glad of an excuse to stir up their Bud-
dhist followers over the removal of the edict boards
against Christianity.

Against Prince Iwakura, in particular, there was bad
feeling. ; "This man, who comes back from the foreign
countries lilled witli their notions, is an enemy to our
Japan; let him be killed as a pest." And sure enough,
one January evening in 1878, as he was returning from
an interview with the Emperor, just outside the castle
moat, near the palace gates, he was attacked. His car-
riage was pierced and slit with spears and swords.
Iwakura, wounded in two places, jumped out on the
other side, next to the moat, fell, and rolled down the
bank into the water. Fortunately it was i)itch-dark,
and the murderers were afraid to stay to searc-h for him.
lie recovered. Soon afterwards nine ronin were ar-
rested and beheaded for their attempted murder of the
Prime Minister.

But the discontent was especially rife among many
of the Samurai, who, l)ecause their i)ensions had been
decreased, and afterwards paid off in a lump sum and
most of it spent, were now, as they imagined, left to
starve. "Our swords," they said, "restored the Em-
peror to the throne, but now his

advisers noirlect

us.

SATSUMA REBELLION. 342

Trained only for war, too many of them were like fh.

Z^ntZ:?^:T "; ""^^"^'' ^"^^ ^--"-'d roving

', leady to follow a leader in a7i nprisinjj esneciallv

m the South and So.itliwesf TTnf / / 1 "^"^^'^'^^^^y

-. who ten years betotady J 'rt^Zf''"

we. „„ .„.„,„.„,^ «"^™*"-. "f Sat:,;': i^^"/«r

do ™R,n T ' *"" "'" ''""^« *"'-« g"="'d« had cut
do«„ Richardson near Yokohama, and Sa^ohad been a
con„nand.ng general in the late war with L Z^n

When the tall form and brave heart of Saigo Te^t
over to the side of the discontented Samnrai, then the
government became alarmed. Hewas holding'a il po!

"".is e'f T ^r"™?''""' «»' -'S-y because";
the counsel of Iwakura and Okuba the Emperor would
not declare war against Korea. Quitting the govern
ment he returned to Satsnma and began drilW 1

h, 1 1 f! Sovernment struck the Samurai right

'" '■^"" '"<'<'« ^y ««"i"g a decree forbidding then, t,
wear then- swords, an ancient honor dearc^ha ' i '

Ivl '';Tf "'■''' ™'y «'-« connected with army or

renat to t ''"'■°"*?*^'l ^""""-^ were a constant
n tnace to foreigners, and would be the occasion of for
e.gn war. But the taking away of their swords w^
more than they could stand; it was to deprive them !^

himself resolved to rise up against the government
War broke out in 1877. But notwithstanding a valH t
struggle he was defeated, and died on the "battlefl: d

a faithful follower. His hca<l was cut off, to prevent
recognition and insult if he should be captured B^t

'Hi'

II i

ujt '

'ill

'SI

rfj

342

JAPAN : COUNTRY, COUIIT, I'EOl'LE.

when the bloody liead was brought to the imperial gen-
eral after the battle, he wept an<l ordered it to be treated
with honor. Strangely, Saigo died figliting agaiiiHt the
Very throne he had helped to restore.

This, called the "Saigo" or "Satsuma" rebellion,
cost Japan much blood and millions of money. After
this rebellion there was no more fighting. This was the
last open and violent struggle of the old Japan against
the new. Nevertheless, after this there still burned the
spirit of revenge; and the excellent and progressive gov-
ernment leader, Okubo, was the victim who had next to
be sacrificed upon th- altar of enlightenment and liberty
in his country's behalf. Okubo was murdered in the
public highway, in broad daylight. May, 1878.

More than all his colleagues, Okubo was inclined to
foreign ideas, and more determined to raise his country
to the level of foreign countries. Resolute, modest, his
will was iron and his action rapid. He was the author
of many reforms. Warned of his danger, he said to his
friends that he believed Heaven would protect liim if
his work was not yet done; otherwise, his life would not
be spared. His words were prophetic. His murderers
were, it is said, six Samurai who had escaped from the
Satsuma rebellion. The funeral, attended by princes,
noblemen, and foreigii ambassadors, was the most im-
posing ever seen in Tokyo. Griffis says: "Okubo's tall,
arrowy form, heavy side whiskers, large expressive
eyes, and eager, expectant bearing gave him the look of
a European rather than a Japanese."

To the earlier part of this period belongs the reform
of the central government. It seems lu be a combina-
tion of their ancient system of go-ernment modeled
after the (niinese court, and of tlic modern French min-
istries, as follows:

IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZED.

343

•erial geii-
1h' treated
[^aijiHt the

rebellion,
y. After
8 was the
11 agaiiiHt
iiriied the
^sive gov-
d next to
id liberty
jd in the

clined to
i country
jdest, his
ie author
lid to his
it liini if
ould not
lurderers
Prom the
princes,
iiost ini-
bo's tall,
pressive
i look of

i reform
ombina-
nodeled
ch min-

The Emperor, supreme in authority of every kind.
Dai jo Kwan, great Council of State:

(1) Emperor;

(2) Daijo Daijin, Minister-President;

(3) Sa Daijin, Minister of the Left;

(4) U Daijin, Minister of the Right.
3. Ministers of the ten departments:

(1) Ministry of Foreign Affairs;

(2) Ministry of the Interior;

(3) Ministry of Finance;

(4) Ministry of War;

(5) Ministpy of Marine;

(6) Ministry of Education;

(7) Ministry of Religion (now abolished); '

(8) Ministry of Public Works;

(9) Ministry of Justice;

(10) Ministry of Imperial Household.

The administration of the thirty-five Kens, into which
the whole country was divided (1876), was intrusted to
governors appointed by the Emperor.

Two or three international events require a word here.

The Formosa imbroglio was brought about by an at-
tack made by the semisavage people of the island upon
some shipwrecked Japanese sailors. To teach them a
lesson, Japan sent to Formosa an expedition that made
short work of them. This led to complications with
China, which claimed sovereignty over that island, and
war was about to break out, but was averted by her
paying an indemnity to Japan for the expense of the ex-
pedition. Okubo was the man for the crisis.

That the Japanese world was moving was shown in
the scene enacted by the Japanese Ambassador standing
uprisrht before the rulpr of t.hp DrQa-rtr. Thv««o /m,;v"\
dressed in tight black coat and pants, white neckwear,

ill

If >n

344

ffe

rr.

K i

itit'Ji

|!„i:
fl-'ifl

i !
1:1

japan: countrv, uouut, I'doi'lis.

1„ n» , "''' '""'"'"S " ^'■•''"y "'"1 bearing con-

ii->"pi.e Chnm l,a,I affe,.te<l conte.npt for Japan be-

ca,.e she was inAating the way» „f U.o' " foreig^T: ils"

ot America and Eino|io.
The Korean affair wa« also peaeefullv settled. The

Koreans had fired upon a Japanese vessel seeking pro!
nlTo™ "t'll' ""' "',r'"-'"'-d the war spirit !f'the
vellin ^ '"/^"'■''^"^ '="1 been treating the Japanese
vessel m ,1 stress as the Japanese used to treat the
American sh.ps. An expedition after the pattern o
Commodore Perry's was dispatched (1876) to Korea

d -rtL?'" ^'**:- ■•'''^''"-- NegUiatLns .^sX

last of rr' "^.r"^/'"* ""™'»«'-™' ^^ «■"« "«

The T '•" ''!'■""* '"■'g'l"»"' ^a« opened to the world,
effort to T? ""•*/'■'"'- "-1 both made earnest
failed ,y°"f '^^«'«•>> ■■' feat.y wit!, Korea, bnt had

Still another event of some international significance
was Japan's cvhibit at onr Centennial E.x-po»itio!, at Phil

u,t she ever attempted to offer her productions in a pnlf
1.C way to the gaze and scrutiny of the civilized w^ 1 1
Japan was among the first to accept the invitation to

a'd he?:'':-,"-!'" """""''"' "' ^^'"-■'-" bKlepende ce;
and her exh.b.t.on, especially «f her art produc'ts, was

surprisingly well got np, and produced in art cii leTa

ftedrtVT"'""- '"''' "■•' <""""•" '-" -' ''ee "ed
ted to the Japanese. Nor was the sensation less marked

two years aftorwards, when Japan's art exhibirwere

uncovered at the World's Exposition in Paris.

Omitting many tilings, we can touch upon only a few

more reforms undertaken by the new governme„r

•ri

•ing con-
! Sunrise
apan he-
1 devils"

d. The
ing |jro-
it of the
Japanese
•eat the
tterii of
' Korea

result-
hus the

world,
earnest
Jilt had
e Japa-

ficance
It Phil-
liistory

a ])ub-
world.
ion to
dence;
s, was
■cles a

cred-
arked
1 were

a few

BEF0RM8 OP THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 346

IJZ t ^ ,1 "'"«^^*^"" ^»'«» Holdiers were re-
cnuted rom all parts of the country ai.d from the

twentv V ""^' "'"""' ""^ ^11 !'-■«-- f-.u

aTde and tt Tr'' ''""' '""^ ^"^ ^'•''""^ ^-- -«t

in tit f T '"■' ^"'^ "^"^^»^d' ^r"^^^' '-^^'d drilled

af I'::^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ '-'' '^^ -""--o- castles

over t t 1 w, f ' ""^'' '"'^-'^^ ^''^^ --- ^""-d
ovei o the war department, were dismantled. That

one to the Samurai, the dismantling of the seats of
honor and might of their old chiefs^ Meanw lite the
naval department was also reorganized. Th « It ,

A ong he first war vessels of the Restoration was the
Stonewall, presented hv the TJnitPrl <io*
at the closp nf f^ i ^^^^^ government

at tlie close of tne war between the States. The first

oftcers and commanders of the Japanese navy we'l
tran^d in England, France, and the United States
in IStTwo' "" '''''''' <ifedueaUon was adopted

Lll!f- ^ ''"""^ "^ ^ '''^' «^ 1^^« creating and
the study of the educational side of missions, the mis-

onlvT "'^ '""'" '" '^^^i'^" the Dutch was the

u ^rtTat'"^^"\"i;^' ' '^'^ '^^ '^^^— -"W
use, and that very badly. Among Perrv's caro-o of

zr 'p ''' ^"^^^'•- ^^ '^^p- - wLsterDi f

hei IpparLrT T ' ""^ ^' ^*''^^^^^^' ^^e present
hn apparent to the imperial throne reads and .peaks

t^p^i

I /

340

japan: roUNTUY, coruT, I'ROn.K.

i^^

Innuodiatoly aftor tl.c trcaticH went into operation
ami lun J' won ,)|mmm"<1 lor loiviir,, tm.l,., ivKidoiic*', ainl
ships, tlu. mvd fur a knowl(>(lir,. of KnjrliHh wan kciMily
f«'lt. Not the Dntih l)iit ti.o Kn^lish control tho tra<lo
of tho hiirh HcaH and portH of Ania. Anyluxly tlu'iv-
foroanionjr the .laj.anowe who coiMd hjk'II a few KnirlJHh
words was in ^r.-oat demand. In tliose early days of the
oi»en ports the demand for Ku^rU^h was ho pressinsr
that elerks from stores • -id sailors from their vessels
hetook themselves to teacliini,^ Knirlish. Many of them
knew little more than tlie '' thre(/irs." Ahis! many of
them were more familia;- with vulirar, swearinjr words
tiian their Knylish or,-ammar. 'I^heir fre<pient oaths, evt>n
in the schoolroom, puzzled their jtupils, who conhl not
find such words in tlieir spellers and small Knirlish dic-
tionaries, liy and by, however, the Japanese discovered
that these sailors and carpenter teaciiers were impostors
of Kiii^dish learnin^^ hy contrastinir tliem with the
learned missionaries. So tiie career of the sailor mas-
ters in Jai)an came to an (ini)timely end, being sup-
planted by the missionaries.

'rhe Ifon. William II. Seward, Lincolii's Secretary
of State, who afterwards visited Jai)an, wrote substan-
tially: ''If the United States's inHuence in Japan is to
be successful, it must be based uj.on distinctions, not
merely of war and strength between nations. Instead
of navies and armies, let teachers be sent to instruct
them and establish schools wliere |»iiiloso|)hy and
morals and religious faith may l)e taught with just re-
gard^ to their influence upon the social and domestic
life." These words of Americ^a's great statesman have
been fulfilled in a good degree.

It was in 1872 that Hon. Mr. Mori, then Charge
D'Affairs at Washington, sent circular letters to niany

o|)(>rjiti()ii

tlio ir.ulo
<ly tlicrc-

lyH of tlio

ir vohhoIh
r of tluMii

niany of
if^ words

itllH, CVIMI

'oiild not
jflinli (lic-
iHcovcrcd
inpoHtorH
kvifh tlu'
ilor uiJiN-
ing Hiij)-

>e(^r('t}iry

Hul)Hl.;iii-

:»iin \h to

ioiiH, not

InHteJid

iiiHtruct

>liy and

juHt ro-

lonu'Htic

laii liav«5

Charge
to niany

MODERN EDUCATION ADOPTED.

:J47

o^ .., <.oIl.g..H and nniv<.rHity jM-oHMlontn in Arncri.-a
HHkngUHMro,Hn..n<.lM,lMM.|^^^^^^^^

.C a n'odn r'^T' "'' "'•"'^•''"^' Huggo^tionn' touch-
ing an odi.catu>nal HyNt(.in f«,r Japan

•'•'V''^-;-' l<'.td..rH likoM<,ri, IO,.k„.awa, and others

-'"'•-1 W<.Ht<.rn ideas, and especially those of the

n. ed .States, and hen<. to<,k the edueati<,nal systen.

ot America as a nio.hd f„r theirs A , . •

. ' fill. II fi, JY < ornpreliensi ve

HyHl,..,,, „l K<.vc,-„M,„„l „„|,o„l„ waH 1,1,,. ,,.»nlt 'n,,.v
went l„.yon,l „v,.n „,n-m.lv,.K, i„ i,|„a ,.„ ,.,|„,,ui,„„.| ,1,;!

,'" ■: """" *"" •'•'"""'' "' •'!'« «"v.u- .„t, ,„„1 ,,!,„ ,,..u,l

t waH ma,l. a ..al.inn „„„i„l„.,, a,„l th. aUon.la ,f

l"-o lH.,„« ,„.„vi,l,.,l f,,,. ,,y ,,,,„,, a,, „ „„„, , 1

o.lu.at,„„ out ,,f ,,h. an„„al «..«.,■„„„.,„, l„„l,,..,,
"'%'■■".".!? at t.lu, IwUoiM, H„.r„ i„: (n ,,|,,. i„i„,...v

:""""= <-' "'" ''"" -•'-'■"; Oi) uu, K..V,., ; ::

v.™.,y tl,« h..a,l of U,„ ^„„„., ,,1';,.

..".v.',.„„,y ,,,,..,.0 a,.., ,„„.„„a ..,„„,1„ ,„,u, ,„a a'd

,'"'"• " ;"'• '•"'■"'"'y a school .,r H .H,H. l.-„,. ,,|,„

»<li"«l in lokyo, ami takos the , |,o„t i„t,.n.„t in it„

nma .1., an,l ,„ a, wU j„i„u„, t,,,,,.^,,,, „„ , ,,.

Ml. nce„ „, the ,„i,l,llo „,.|,<.„1k and ,.„1U,^,„„ ,„„,,„.„
well w,t <.orr..„,,„n,ling institutions in tl.i«^,unt,.y'
Jl.ngl„h and „tl,c.,- languages arc regularly taught

t !;

f I

348

japan: (X)UNTUY, COUHT, I'EOI'LE.

i; 1.

t' I it

Liii

from the middle schools upward. At firyt the luiHsion-
aries were earnestly sought after to take charge of these
schools. For example, Dr. Verbeck was the lirnt Presi-
dent of the university in Tokyo, from 18(>i) to 1874. The
missionaries not being able to devote sutticient time to
this outside work, afterwards not less than four Imndred
other foreigners were engaged at high salaries to teacli
in these new institutions. Later still, scores of the
brightest young men, who had been sent by tiie govern-
ment to the United States and other Western countries
to be educated, came back and were assigned high i)osi-
tions in the educational department and in the schools.
The eagerness of the Japanese youth for English
and other brandies of foreign learning was a nuirvel.
They drjtnk it in like thirsty men drink fresh water.
At first it was Webster's blue-back spelling book, Wil-
son's readers, Mitchel's geography, Goodrich's histor-
ical series including United States history, and Quack-
enlios's natural histoiy. Way land's *' Moral Science"
and ''Political Economy " made a new epoch when they
were introduced. It looked indeed as if the Japanese
leaders were intent upon making education the hand-
maid to religion. We shall see. Private schools also
sprang up here and there, notably tliat of Mr. Fuku-
i5awa, in Tokyo, where some of the briglitest young
men were educated, men who became prominent in
public life.

JSTew J'ostal System.— BeiovQ this, letters were carried
according to tlie primitive system of runners. It cost
twenty-five cents to send a letter one hundred and fifty
miles. This cumbrous and slow way did not suit the
foreign settlers in the treaty ports, and hence the Eng-
ghsh, French, and American governments established^a
system of post offices of their own in the open ports.

I)OHl-

, '»

MODEBN PROORERR.

349

But n, IS, 1 the .ra|„„„.«. (r„ven„M„,l a,l„,,te,l the („,..

of the U,„te,l Hute«, and i, superior to it. There i,
l.eo del.very ut every ,„a„'„ door through the couutrv
o^,,,ln,« even to t.u, towuR and villago! in the re,„ I

.tenor d,Htr.,t.. There is „othing equal to this in
*o Un.ted «tate». A few years afttr t!,e foreign sys"

m was nurodueed it worked so well that Japfn was
( u 18, ,) formally aduuttcd into the International Post,
ai Union.

Mw Mice A>te„. -As early as 1872 the police
fo.ce was organized in foreign fashion. The police-
men were taken from the 8an,„rai class, who/.^ing
cd to the exercise of authority over the ,,eople, fell
Mo their new posts and duties of quietly patroUius
the streets and keeping order as if they had Len at h
for generations. At first they felt a bit awkward in
their new uniforms, caps, eo.ats, pants, and hoots, all
n fo.eigu style, hut as soon as they touched the hil s of
the.r swords, which they still wore at their sides, they
folt themselves to be the same old Sa aurai as of yore

Ws rorJ' T''™'" •'' '"'"" "^ '""S "» •'« - f-i
., 1i,„ , ""•"■^ """' '•""^ """S" ^•'<"'« S""'"'-*!

awe of them. The writer has frequently seen one of
the common ,,eople humbling himself before the po-
Wmen in a manner quite uncommon in our country.
Nor would It be easy for a foreigner or a Japanese,
when once his name and residence arc known, to es-

fo, the whole force is subject to one central office in To!
kyo. Unlike ours, it is imperial or national.

Hitherto the foreigners' movements were particularly

.. „..< ne,. ,>y the policemen. In the first place, your pass-

350

JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOrLK.

1 ' i

port from the government must be in your pocket when
you start, otlierwiHc the policeman at the railway station
or the sliip'H wharf will turn you hack. And when you
land at your dewtination tlie lirHt tlnng to do is to show
your passport, and when you get to the inn or sto[)i)ing
place your name, age, nationality, and jilace of residence
must all be reported to the nearest \hAu-o office. Some
foreigners, including tljc missionaries, found all this
red tai)e to be annoying sometimes, esi)ecially when the
police officer was disposed to i)ut on official airs, but it
was right, for it was accordhig to the treaties. As a
rule the writer lias found the police to be reasonably
civil and considerate.

JVeio BanJchuj and Coinage %s«em.— Abraham's
money was silver, weighed out upon the balances;
Japan's in the old feudal times was gold and silver bars,
and coins of gold and copper pieces. The wealthy
Daimyo could issue paper money current in his prov-
hice. But the New Japan has national money and
banks. In 1872 bank regulations were issued by the
government authorizing the opening of national banks
like ours in America. As many as one hundred and
fifty soon sprang up, and afterwards many more. The
Bank of Japan in Tokyo was intended to be to Japan
what tlie Bank of London is to England. It lias a i)aid-
up cai)ital of ten million yen, and is the central bank
of the whole system, and handles the loans and bonds
of the government. All are under the superintend-
ence of the Treasury Department. The system of
coinage is like ours, the decimal, consisting of dollars,
dimes, and coppers. Japan is now a part of the great
monetary system of the world, and checks of excliange
may be bouglit there upon any of tlie great banks of
Europe or America. And now that she has been made a

m ii

MODERN PR0GRES8.

kct when
y station
/^hen you
i to show
sto[)])i]ig
•esidence
i. Some
all this
vhen the
•s, but it
i. As a
isonably

)raham'8
►alances;
^er bars,
wealthy
is prov-
II ey and
by the
il banks
red and
e. The

Japan
! a i)aid-
al bank

1 bonds
•in ten d-
tem of
iollars,
e great
:c]iange
inks of
made a

361

member of the International Post Office Money Order
Convention, money orders payable in any of the cities in
the civihzed world may be bought in Japan. The national
mint, located in the city of Osaka, was of course, like all
other new enterprises, started nnder the superintendence
of foreigners, though now all the mint officials are Jap-
anese. It 18 a large establinhment, and clean silver dol-
lars are turned out by the barrel daily Japan is a
silver country, though gold is also turned out in small
quantaties. Arrangements have been made for adopting
a gold standard. ^ *

I^^irst Jiai/r<unl~The first railway opened in 1872
was only eighteen miles loi.g, and extended from Yoko-
hama to Tokyo. It was ],uilt by English engii.eers, and
became the pattern of all the roads of the em.nre. In the
Eng ish system engines are low, coaches are small and en-
tered from the side. The coaclies are in apartments, and
are of the first, second, and third class. While in elegance
convenience, and speed Japanese railways cannot com^
pare with the American - palaces on iron wheels," En.-
ish thoroughness and strength may be quickly seen m
the construction of the imperial trunk line running
now fi-om Tokyo to Kobe. As yet there are no Pul^
man sleeping coaches. That was a high day for Janan
when on a clear October morning the Empe'oi mXa
procession to tlie stone-built depot in Tokyo, attended
by prmc^s of the blood, court nobles, members of the
foreign diplomatic corps, and many other distinguished
men, besides twenty thousand in promiscuous multitude
His majesty and his suite stepped into the train, and

d c aied the road open. As the train moved off the
national hymn, said to be over two thousand years old
was played. When the train, passing flower-decked

I H

'fT

i I r

bi if

352

japan: country, court, teople.

stations along the way, reached Yokohama the thun-
dering salutes from foreign war ships made congratula-
tions to tlie new Japan. Mr. Grifti8,who was an eye-
witness that day, says, however, that all the pageant
and pomp paled before tliat other scene, when four
merchants in plain garh, approaching the Emperor, read
to him a congratulatory address, and he replied. To
us, with our democratic spirit, this would have small
significance; but in Japan it was little Ichs than a so-
cial and political miracle, the lowest of the social class
speaking face to face with the Son of Heaven, their di-
vinely descended sovereign! It was proof of the birth
of a new Japan; that the merchant class is to be lifted
up from its despised place, giving commerce new
meaning and power in the future destiny of the nation;
that steam power will sui)plant the old metliod of go-
ing on foot or in the sedan chair and the hauling of
goods by two-wheeled carts pulled by men or cows.

Mrst Tehgnq^h JJnes.— Even before the opening of
the first railway telegraphing was introduced into the
country, the first telegrapli line being from Yokohama
to Tokyo. Afterwards telegraj)!! lines were extended
fror.i Tokyo as tlie heart of tlie system to all the prin-
cipal towns north and soutli. Commodore Perry's
men operated on shore both the railway and telegraph
on a small scale, and the people stood and marveled.
To-day they are familiar with the sight of the railway
train, teloo-raph wires and poles. Unlike the Chinese,
they rt^ere not tlie alarmed victims of fiiny-skui, and
did not rise up like tliem in excited mobs and tear up
the railway track or tear down the telegraph poles.
Japan has been admitted into the International Tele-
graph Convention, has cables laid under the sea be-
tween Nagasaki, China, Korea, and the Russian port

MODERN PK0OBE8S.

read

353

V-ad,vo8t„ck Messages „>ay be sent all aro«„d the
worid reaching New York or New Orleans save al
hours before they were started from Japan'

Ol/wr- lutmwl ImprovemenU. - Besides the fore-
going there were public works, maehine shops, naval
yards, customhouses, lighthouses, and buoys. "^ ksThe
coastw,se commerce increased, it became necessary to
to have n,oder„-bu,lt lighthouses, the beacon lights for
Bh.ps, and the sailor's delight in the darkness Har-

sfelT"'" '"'i'™™''; customhouses were established;
steamship companies were also organized, not only for
the coastwise trade, but for trade with Siberian Rus-

neriod ''"' ^""'' ""^ ''f'«™''«'» I-dia- In this same
pe.iod several cotton and silk spinning factories and
paper mills were started. Of course it is to be under
stood that all these new and unknown enterprises coiild
not be started by the Japanese without instruction and
superintendence from foreigners, and that the most of
the earlier ones were aided by government moneys.
Notably so was the case of the first steamship and
mrning companies. When we say Japan made' such
md such reforms or established certain modern enter-
prises, we mean that the government did it, not the peo-

W ?' If ""*'"<»™1 enterprise apart from the
leadership and hnancial aid of the government was not
yet, but this brings us to the

First ^teps Umard ComtittiUonal lAherty of the Peo-
ple.~To the Americans, so long in the birthright of
personal rights and individual liberty, it may not be so
interesting a theme. We liave P.een that the first at-
tempt at a national assembly failed utterly. As a sort
of second attempt in the direction of a representative
government, the wise statesmen of the government in-
vited the governors of all the Kens to come to Tokyo
23 ''

[!' f

■ i .'.

354

japan: country, court, people.

to discuss, ill the presence of the Minister of the Interior,
quci^tions of roads, bridges, rivers, public works, build-
ings, taxes, relief of the destitute. Likewise the ques-
tion of local government, of towns, villages, and the
problem of prefectural assemblies were submitted to
th» tie governors. In 1879, the beginning of local self-
go /ernment, a right so precious to every branch of
th. Anglo-Saxon race, was taken when regulations
were issued for the holding of the city and lu-efectural
as omblies. An assembly building was put up in the
criutal of every Ken, and though the governor was and
still is appointed by the sovereign, the peoi)le of each
Ken or Ken city chose their representatives to the Ken
assembly, which has considerable range of discussion
and decision in local affairs. These Ken assemblies
may be compared in size to the legislatures of small
States like New Jersey, Delaware, and Rhode Is-
laifd.

Karly in this period the advocates of the rights and
liberties of the people, becoming bolder, began to agi-
tate for a true representative assembly, a congress or
parliament, elected by the people. Political meetings
were held to promote the movement toward popular
rights. It is well to inquire just here, where did this
sentiment of the people's rights come from? Who
were the advocates of this strange doctrine, on Asiatic
soil, of representative government? Have not all the
Oriental governments from time immemorial been of
the nature of absolute despotisms? This movement for
popular rights was stirred into power by the young
men of the nation Avho had come in touch with foreign
ideas. Even before the revolution of 1868 the Shogun,
as well as some of the Southern Daimyos, had sent a
few picked young men of rank to study iu Holland,

BIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE. 355

And this explains how the advisers of the youthful V
peror when he ascended th^ t J„ ''"e yoututul Km-

that he would Zt . fiM ^""'^"'"'^^^"^'"^^^^r

« woum giant a deliberat ve assemblv tk
advisers had been touched by the smrh T^\ ''

litical freedom Tr,.ri .1 ^ ^ ^ ^^ modern po-

be., of 5 yo^;'::: :'rhr':t"f"'"'-^'«*- '■'''»-
by the «ovi„.Ltaf;r,: „'^,t. SaT m-

fetau.8 to get their education all the . ," **

paid out of the i„,perial t.ea^ui WhatTr'^, "';^'
natural result^ Whm fl, ^' "^ ''at could bo the

oral yea,. i„ heTree a "of i""^ """' '"" "'^'"" '-
».d seen with thei, eye thet ''" °'' *'™' ''""■'■'
lightenment of those cou^W^T', ''"*"■' "'"' «"-
their native Tauan t^ ' "'"' '""^ ■•"'"""^d '»

;yitb the p:.trr::oXr ^C'tdV""''

Lcu,s it. Tle.ifti', ''"":,'■ "«''^ ""* ''"g"" *-

the natlr H re L r:;i ;■«"* "" '"^""g "f
molding the puMit IZiJiT^A 'T' "'' "'" "'
had ever had [„ deal with The ";.''r"lS»^«">«'«"'t
in 1871 * bv Kido ,1, , V *'"'»*'"' ^'"'/"■, started

a„d P f . o " ♦''«t">g"ished Samuroi of Choshu
and Co unclor of Sute, began to advocate through is eol
umns the cause of Pf«iaf;f..+,- i ""S'ntscoi-

^dUHe oi constitutional government Rnf fv
cabinet nipped all this in the bn,1 K ""'^''*- ^"^ the

called the -Press and Polt i^ '''"'"^ ^'^^^'^ ''"^^^
x-ress and Political Meet ngs Reffulat'ons •'

A new.,aper ™ight be suspended and the ediS i'.; .

oned ^ ,_^^ve^t cautious i„ his writings, and a po-

Prof. Chamberlain ^'"^^ Japanese, " page 258, by

r#^

(, '

lb. .,

> t

mnf

356

japan: counthy, coiut, people.

litical meeting must not be held without notifying the
police of the phice, time, and nature of the subject.
And although Okuma, another leader and State Coun-
cilor, advocated the plans of a national assemblv, the
ministerHand leaders of the government decided rightly
that the nation was not yet ripe for so great a change
as popidar self-government. But to satisfy the de-
mand which was evidently deepening and strengtlien-
ing in the under swell of the nation's heart an imperial
rescript was issued to the nation declaring that in 1890
a constitution would be granted and a parliament cre-
ated. To j>repare for this great and radical change in
their government, a commission was ai)pointed and sent
abrouti i;,o studv the codes of laws and the constitutions
of foreign countries. Count Ito, who liad been Prime
Minister, was disi)atched (1882) abroad to make a per-
sonal study of the institutions in those countries, and
upon returning was nuide the head of the burea i of
o-iinent lawyers, both foreign and Jai)ane8e, to pre-
pare the constitution and the new jodes under it. This
was the work of years. Meanwhile further imjjrove-
ments and reforms in the administration of the govern-
ment were introduced. For example, the cabinet with
a privy council, much like that of England, was organ-
ized, an army of useless officials was cut down, salaries
were reduced, and civil service rules for the appoint-
ment of men to office in tlie several departments in
Tokyo were put into operation. The local govenmient
of the cities and Kens was also much improved. All
these tilings were the preparation for that great epochal
day, February 11,1 889, whe]i the Emj)eror, in the pres-
ence of the most distinguished and numerous assembly
ever gathered before him, proclaimed and granted a
constitution.

viiig the
Hubject.
e Coim-
1)lv, the
V rightly
- change
the de-
Jiigtlieu-
imperial
in 1890
lent cre-
lange in
and sent
titutions
II Prime
e a per-
'ies, and
I real of
to j)re-
t. This
ni})rove-
govern-
let with
8 organ-
salaries
ippoint-
lents in
ernment
id. All
epochal
he pres-
ssenibly
anted a

FOUNDATIONS OP CHRISTIANITY. 357

II. Foundation Laying of the Christian Chukch

(1873-89).
Having seen the conflicts, changes, and progressive
movenxents in the new Japanese state, let us now turn our
eye upon the missionary held. Hand in hand with im-
portant political events set forth on previous pages, there
were correspoiulmg movements in Cliristian missions-
and other events, which, thougli partly political, had
direct influence upon the missionary work.

The years 1878-74 are notable in missionary no less
than in political annals. There was (1) the partial adop-
tion of the Gregorian calendar. TJie old bunglesome
Chinese way of counting tliirteen moons to the year was
set aside, and the modern method of twelve montlis with
the new year beginning always with January 1, was
adopted Sunday was adopted by the government as a
weekly lioliday in all government offices and schools
1 he missionaries still engaged in the government schools
refused positively to teach on Sunday, and foreign offi-
cials employed in the government service likewise re-
fused to work on that day; hence the Japanese authori-
ties made Sunday a, voekly holiday for all who wished
It. Ihe hrst step was tnus taken for the beginning of
our Christian Sunday. The trading people and farmers
paid no attention, but went on with their ordinarv busi-
ness, and those not Christian do so still. And (2) the
'±:y ^TV '^^'^^^f ''^^'^-^'^^ boards against tkeVkrls-

«d ti^nl ^^^ ""T ^'^ '^" government partly for

political reasons, and a sort of halfwav aj.oloijy was

Tvt the ca "^^''^f^^"^^ 'or it; but, 'all [he sfme ]
gave the cause of missions much advantage. It put
Cliristian preac-hing upon a different basis. No lonler
could any fanatic say that the "Jesus doctrine" wa
I'StHn r'' government, no longer say that ^ITg
a Uhristian was a crime punishable by death.

ii i:|

r I

fi' i

358

japan: country, coijkt, people.

Iff-]

Again, in this time the missionary force was doubled.
Three new missionary societies entered the field for the
first time— namely, tlie Methodist Episcopal (United
States), the United Presbyterian (Scotch), the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel (English), later the
Cumberland Presbyterian (United States), and English
Baptists. By the year 1882 there was a force of one
hundred and forty-nine male and female missionaries,
exclusive of wives, representing eighteen societies,
American and English. Not only so, but they were
thenceforth more successful, and better able to extend
their operations. Hitherto little or no preaching had
been attempted outside of the "treaty concessions."
But the missionaries felt that their work was for the
millions of Japanese, and were anxious to escape tlie
narrow limits of the foreign concessions, where so few
Japanese lived. They longed to go forth to preach to
the teeming cities beyond. To their joy they had won
sufliciently the confidence of the rulers to get passports
of travel into the interior, and so there sprang up a num-
ber of publicly advertised preaching places in Tokyo,
Yokohama, Osaka, and other cities; at first ^i the houses
or inns of a few willing natives. Afterwards these
preaching meetings, not without some fear, were opened
in the interior cities, and became the centers of a few
probationers. These inquirers, besides hearing tlie
preaching, were organized into classes for special in-
struction and prayer, the New Testament, catechism,
creed, and commandments being the subject-matter of
instruction. In process of time, after due examination
as to their faith and experience in the things of Christ
these were baptized. Later still, these little bands, not^
withstanding opposition of neighbors, and sometimes
bitter persecution, grew till they were able by the aid

»5

PIBHT PREACHING IN THE INTERIOR. 369

Of missionaries to rent or build small chapels. Then
small local clmrches were organized, and meanwhile the
congregations increased. Some were drawn out to hear
by curiosity, some to mock, and others by soul hunger,
they hardly knew for what, till their ears caught for the
hrst time tlie strange news of one God and Father in
heaven who pities and saves all who seek him. These
preaching places and small congregations were regularly
visited by the missionaries in circuit, and instruction giv-
en them. So that gradually there was developed a num-
ber of stations besides the central ones where reside the
missionaries. We have seen that the first church in Yo-
kohama had only twelve members. The second one was
organized in Tokyo with eleven. It was thought by
some to be a mistake, the organizing of such feeble
bands mto churches, but in five years the Yokohama
church increased to one hundred and twenty-six, and
the lokyo church to one hundred and twenty member...
In one decade from the birtli of the first little church thei e
were thirty-seven stations and ninety-three churches
It 18 said that the first extended and systematic preach-
ing tour in the interior cities was made by the Rev Ir-
vine II. Correll, of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
^\ hen he started forth from Yokohama some advised
against it as an undertaking too perilous to life, and
that he could accomplish but little even if he came back
a ive. Contrary to their fears, after many days of trav-
el and preaching, he returned unhurt. But it must not
be imagined that the hatred is all gone, for it continued
for a good while still. Many were the cases of perse-
cution relentlessly visited upon the head of a newly bap-
tized Christian. Mothers have been known to threaten
suicide when they learned that their sons were about to
receive Christian baptism. Even many years after the

ii yi

360

JAPAN-: COTTNTRY, COUUT, I'KOl'LK.

period under consideration, a daughter who had heon

going to a mission school hud received into her lieart

the truth of Jesus, hud in fact become an earnest student

of the New Testament, and when slie asked her fatlier's

permission to be bajiti/ed lie got angry, shut her up in

her room for many days, and seized her New Testament.

But determined as he was to crush out her Christian

faith, she was more determined still, and said: "You

may take away the leaves of my Bible, but you cannot

take the truth out of my heart." She was so patient

and so firm that the fatlun- finally relented and suffered

her to receive Christian bai)tiHm.

That there was still opposition in liigh circles is
shown by a bitter, anti-Cliri.tian pamphlet issued about
this time, and indorsed by an introduction to it which
was written by the famous and inliuential Prince Shi-
madzu, of Satsuma. Tlie charge was made that the
teachings of Jesus destroy both loyalty to the state
and obedience to parents, that the Christian religion is
an enemy alike to tha country and family. **There-
fore the spread of tliis 'evil sect' must be stayed by
putting the Christians to death !» And yet the Jesus
doctrine continued to spread.

^ As to the need of Christian schools the missionaries
m Japan almost without exception held the broader view
of Christian missions. They were convinced that the
one supreme ideal, as well as the one unchanging basis
of culture, is Christian. Tlie story of the small classes
started and carried on in one mission is the same story
for all of them. For example, take tlie Dutch Reformed
iinglish Episcopal, and afterwards the Methodist Epis-
copal at Nagasaki, and we see that at first there were a
few Japanese who wished to learn English and other
branches; and a little later some of these were in the

MEDIOAT. MI8SIONARIEH.

361

Bible class. Then the Christian ladies connected with
the missions attempted the same kind of instruction for a
few Japanese girls. Out of these small beginnings the
foundations were laid for day and },oarding schools, male
and female, and for Biblical seminaries for the training
ot native y(,„ng men for the ministry. The Methodist
i.piscopal Mission was perhaps the most i.ronounce.l as
to its educational polity. It was their declared aim to
plant a day st^hool by the side of eacli chapel.

The medical work in connetrtion witli Dr. Hep-
burn's dispensary in Yokohama has been mentioned.
Ihis was the very first mission work in all that recrjo,,
Drs. Berry and Taylor (Congregational) and Lm.ius
(American Episcopal) and Faulds (Presbyterian) were
conspicuously active in medical work. The healin<r of
the bodies of tlie diseased and suffering is in directt tine
with tlie humane work of our Lord when lie dwelt
among men, and when done for the poor without mon-
ey and without price is proof of tlie benevolence tliat
lies at the heart of Cliistianitv, which appeals M'ith
power to the tender feelings of pagan communities;
is something that cannot be spoken against, even by en-
emies. Dr. Berry started a medical class for Japanese in
Kobe, and hospitals opened by Drs. Taylor and La-
nius, where the poor were received as well as the rich,
made a deep impression on the people. These Chris-
tian doctors were not only kind, passing what they had
ever known, but they were far more skillful than their
native doctors, and gave relief and permanent cures in
many cases where the Japanese doctors had failed ut-
terly. Dr. Berry won so much confidence that the
Governor at Kobe granted him permission to teach
anatomy by dissection. He also gained great influence
by his advice given the authorities concerning the pre-

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362

JAPAN : (.'OUXTRY, COURT, PROrLE.

t; '

vention of epidemic and other diseases by making re-
forms in sanitation. Very soon a change was noticeable
in the health of the prisoners even. Anotlier of tlie
earlier medical hospitals was that of Dr. Faulds, in the
foreign concession of Tokyo. The banner that floated
above it had the red sun of the Japanese national flag,
but within it was tlie white cross. Thousands of the
afllicted in the great capital flocked to his hospital
yearly. Here, too, was organized a medical class for
the Japanese, and lectures were given on scientific sub-
jects. Dr. Faulds was recognized by the government,
and in time of a dreadful epidemic was clothed with
ofticial authority. His hospital was very popular and
had a great run of usefulness, until the Japanese gov-
ernment, copying the example, built a hospital of its
own.

Still another form of missionary work was the liter-
ary. As in pagan Greece, Rome, and England, there
were absolutely no Christian books; so in Japan and
China it is the work of missions to translate the Bible
into the native tongue and publish Christian books and
tracts and circulate them. The first book ever pub-
lished by a missionary in Japan was Dr. Hepburn's
English- Japanese Dictionary, in 1867; and in the same
year he issued the first Christian tract. In the year
1872 a convention of missionaries met in Yokohama to
take steps for the translation of the entire New Testa-
ment. A translation committee was organized on that
day, but the difliculties were many. Even after the
manuscript may have been finished there were at that
time no movable type in Japan, the old Chinese system
of block type being still in use. The committee finally
completed the New Testament in 1880. The Old Tes-
tament was completed and printed in 1888.

OSAKA CONFERENCE.

363

Besides the Bible, Christian catechisms, prayer books
creeds, and other Christian literature had to be created
The Japanese are a reading people. The first Chris-
tian newspaper published in Japan was started in
18^6, and was named Weekly Misdonwy, afterwards
changed to F.ikimi mmpo (Gospel News). In no
country is there so great an opportunity for the print-
ing press as in Japan.

The great Osaka Conference was lield about the mid-
dle of this period. This Conference of a week rep-
resenting all the missions, was in many senses a 'great
missionary convocation. This was the first time that
all the workers had met in solemn and yet joyous as-
sembly, and it was the first opportunity the younger
men ever had of sitting in Conference with the old pio-
neers. When Dr. Hepburn, the senior chairman, to6k
the chair, he spoke with a heart deeply moved of the
attitude of the country toward foreigners and Chris-
tianity, as contrasted with what it was when lie ar-
rived twenty years before. When entering Yedo Bay
then, he did not even know whether missionaries would
be allowed to land. The hatred was then so fierce the
laws against the Christians so relentless, he scarcely
hoped for a single convert for many years to come, but
had prayed with his wife for a home and field in Japan.
His prayers had been answered, and far more tlian his
hopes had been realized, and now he was privileged to
preside over so great an assembly of Christian laborers.
Many and important were the discussions of that Con-
ference, but more important still was the rew spirit
that came upon all, the spirit of union, of hope and en-
thusiasm for the redemption of Japan from paganism

Here were Americans, Englishmen, and Scotchmen;
Episcopalians, Baptists, and so on, all agreeing in love

ifi.

364

JAPAN': COUNTUY, COUUT, I'EOl'LE.

li .' «S I i

to sink out of sight their smaller ditferences and to
magnify the essentials of their common gospel. This
spectacle of brotherly love between different national-
ities and branches of Protestant Christianity, deeply
impressed the native Christians. They understood that
tlie Protestant missionaries were one at heart and truly
zealous for the salvation of their nation.

Hitherto, even the few native j)reachers had shared
with all the Japanese some of the same inherited preju-
dice against the missionaries because tlu'y weie for-
eigners, and had underestimated tlicir al»ilitv because
they could not s})eak the Ja]»ane8e language as ttuently
as themselves. That Osaka Conference gave a power-
ful impulse to all missionary operations, and marked a
new era of success in the history of missions. The im-
mediate result of the Conference was an increase in the
number and spiritual depth of prayer meetings in native
churches. The prayer meetings begun during the Con-
ference were continued almost daily for weeks, not
only at Osaka, the seat of the Conference, l)ut at Kioto,
Tokyo, and in many places where native churches liad
been planted. The burden of all the prayers both
among missionaries and native Chilstians was for tlie
outpouring of the Holy "Spirit. The results were first
the quickening of the native churches, next tlie gather
ing in of multitudes of new converts; then the in-
creased popularity of the mission schools, and the wide
spread of Christian l)ook8, tracts, newspapers, and
magazines, and especially of the New Testament in
wliole or in parts. Making some allowances for excess
of emotional excitement, there is no question as to the
genuineness of the revival fires that burned upon many
altars. Along with the rising tide of Cliristianity in
the land, there was a manifest change of jiopular scnti-

9 and to
'1. This
iiutioiial-
, deei)ly
ood that
lid tridy

I shared
d ]>rejii-
ore for-
hecauso
fluently

L ])ower-
larkod a
The iiii-
ie in the
n native
he Coii-
sks, not
b Kioto,
hes liad
rs botli
for tlie
Bre first
gather
tlie in-
lie wide
I's, and
iient ill
:' excess
i to the

II many
mity in
r scnti-

W
W

O
W

o
>

w
a;

(305)

'( '

366

.lAPAX: COUNTRY, (JOUUT, I'EOPLE.

ment respecting foreign ideas and things in general.
Ihis was seen in the mission schools being crowded
with eager i)ui,il8 both male and female.

The small cuttings set in the ground some years pre-
vious in the treaty ports now sprang into great and
widely branching trees and many birds lodged in the
bram-hes thereof. For illustration, at Nagasaki, the
)u.di Reformed ana Methodist Episcopal missions each
had flourishing day and boarding schools, and the for-
mer a Biblical seminary; at Osaka, the Presbyterians
and English Episcopal schools were crowded to over-
flowing and the latter started their Divinity School; at
Kobe the Congregationalists liad their girls' school
probably the best-equipped female mission scliool in
tlie en.pil-e; at Yokohama the Presbyterians rejoiced in
i^crris 8 Seminary for girls, which was then, and still is
so widely and well known; in Tokyo the Meiji Gakuin'
with academic and theological departments, and the
(:.raham Seminary for girls, all Presbyterian; the Meth-
odist Episcopal college and theological seminary, as
well as their splendid girls' school, were all flourish-
ing to a remarkable degree; the Protestant Episco-
palians were equally encouraged with their St. Paul's
Boys School and Divinity School; in Kioto, the old
capital, besides their girls' school and hospital and
school of nurses, the Congregationalists founded their
famous Doshisha College. In several important inte-
rior cities, also, mission schools were founded before
the end of this period, and all flourished. The substan-
tial character of this period, notwithstanding the loose
material always floated in during a time of high tide
18 seen in the marked growth of self-support in the na-
tive church, as well as in the rapid development of a
native ministry. Earlier, perhaps, than in any other

i '

FAVORING CIRCUMSTANCES.

367

general,
crowded

'^ears p re-
treat and
id in the
saki, the
ions each

the for-
S^yterians
to over-
"hool; at
' school,
t'hool in
joiced in
1 still is,
Gakuin,
and the
le Meth-
lary, as
flourish-
Episco-
. Paul's
the old
tal and
id their
[it inte-

before
ubstan-
e loose
h tide,
the na-
nt of a
' other

mission field was the rise of influential Japanese pastors
and teachers. This was a distinct advantage, but it
was not without some danger to the healthy culture of
the native churches.

Other outward circumstances helped this extension
of Christianity. First, was the disestablishment of the
native religions by the government. The year after the
Osaka Conference, the state priesthood of Shinto and
Buddhist priests was abolished. The priests were no
longer appointed officials of the government with rantc
and authority. It is remarkable how all corrupt priest-
hoods of corrupt religions follow even the bodies of the
dead with oppressive enactments. By law the family
names had to be registered in the temple books; other-
wise the priests could deny burial. But now this is
likewise abolished, a.id cemeteries were provided acces-
sible to Christians equally with others. Not that the
Christians were yet able to secure equal rights with
others, but the fact that Christians had some rights was
now recognized by the government, and the Shinto and
Buddhist priests were deposed from official rank and
authority. Secondly, as the return of Iwakura in 1873
from his visit to foreign capitals was the occasion of
beneficial changes, so the visit of Count Ito to the
countries of Europe to study their constitutions and
laws and his return to Japan had a marked influence upon
affairs. Being an Imperial Privy Councilor, he changed
the thought of the leading men of the country. Charged
with the distinguished and difficult duty of framing a
constitution for Japan, it could not escape his notice
that in a constitutional government religious liberty
was necessary. He had long been a zealous champion
of the Western civilization. It is stated on what ap-
pears to be reliable authority that in conversation with

fi ■ *

I!''

Ill

tiki.

CHRISTIANITY FAVORED.

369
Emperor William and Priiu-n r;. i ,
>"". that "Chri^tia, y wa It T f^ ""°'""^'^
tion for the n,ai„te„ate ^f TanJ^ '."""" '"™"-
wa« a reality in the hearts o'te'" ^,^7' "'"
too able a statesman not to )>,„„ .j u '" ^'^

known and felt 1^,,? ""'*'' •"' ""Pressions

%io„s lib" ty tr an:,"'''';;.'' V "'" "'"'<"'■'« -

any rate was' notitl: in ^^17:^ "'"'"«'' "

vorable turn was Mr Fnk, "''"'^''' ''™'"''''' "' "■!» '»•
n>etr„,„lita„riy 7^^:^ "1 S\«f - "^ "^ J-^-g
™ost fa„,ous privrt^ ach„:r 't 1 i e'™:'; a "' '""

its acceptance. Fourthlv hZ ^ r ^ ' ^'^ ^^"^^^'^^
rv,,w • ^"iiitniy, It must be confeaspd that

- -",."«.;":/:: .7~x,'"t';- '';r

:-Wi

370

japan: country, coruT, tkoplk.

the youth of the country. The foreign language, cos-
tumes, and ways were fast coming into favor in edu-
cated and official circles of the younger generation;
while the ignorant and belated ways of their parents
and elders, ignorant of foreign history and sciences,
were looked down upon. Even the disuse of Chinese
characters in writing and printing the Jajanese lan-
guage was seriously thought of, and a society to pro-
mote the use of the Roman characters in writing Jaj»a-
nese was organized and a magazine was published as
the organ of this language reform. In fact. Old Japan
was about to be swept off her feet unlens vole/is, and out
into the swift flood of Western ideas and sentiments.
Such a movement, while right in its direction, was
dangerous in the extreme to the best interests of the
nation.

It was in the midst of this flush period of foreign
ideas that three missionary societies from America
founded missions in Japan. About the year 1886 the
Southern Methodists, Southern Presbyterians, and the
Baptists of the Southern Convention sent laborers to
this country, and it is a coincidence that, all three being
from the same Southern section of the United States,
occupied the southern and central portions of Japan.

As for the Southern Methodists, who took Kobe as
their headquarters and proposed to occupy the region of
the Inland Sea, it was fortunate that their pioneers had
seen service in China. Dr. James W. Lambuth had
been nearly forty years a faithful laborer there; and his
son. Dr. Walter R. Lambuth, had been born there,
and, after completing his education in America, had
returned as a medical missionary. With apostolic zeal
and labors abundant, these men were remarkably suc-
cessful in winning quick access to the hearts of the

ORGANIZED ENEMIES.

871

ago, C08-
• in edu-
iieration;

■ parents
sciences,

Chinese
lese lan-

■ to ])ro-
ng Jai)a-
lished as
Id Japan

and out
itimenis.
on, was
iS of the

' foreign
America
1886 the

and the
(orers to
ee being
I States,
apan.
Kobe as
egion of
eers had
uth had

and his
n there,
ica, had
olic zeal
bly siio-
s of the

Japanese. With uncommon rapidity circuits were laid
out and mission stations occupied, small churches or-
ganized, and schools, male and female, founded. It
was also fortunate that Bishop A. W. Wilson, D.I).,
LL.D., was in episcopal charge, and was in i)erson
upon the ground in those early days of this young mis-
sion.

The other two sister missions, Southern J'resbyte-
rian and Baptist, were also not without success in
those regions. The former is particularly strong in its
two centers, the cities of Kochi and Nagoya; the latter
is well planted at several pohits on the coasts of the
Inland Sea, and has a girls' school at Moji and one at
Ilimeji. It seen.s to be a fact that the representatives
of these Southern missions had a quick insight into the
peculiarities of Japanese character, and have been able
to work with a good degree of harmony. The Japa-
nese are a chivalrous people, and this must be recog-
nized and met in the same spirit.

We would not close this period leaving the impres-
sion that Christianity has conquered a peace in Japan.
On the contrary, adversaries at the close of this period
made a strong rally in the name of the native religions.
Every effort was made by the priests and devotees of
Shintoism and Buddhism to stir up the prejudice and
keep alive the hatred of the Jesus doctrine and the
cross.

In the island of Shikoku a society named Ycr-
Taji ("Jesus enemies") was organized. The Shintoists
joined with the Buddhists in this hostile movement.
Take, as example, the threatening letter sent to four
Congregational missionaries then residing in Kioto,
and signed, "Patriots in the peaceful city, believers in
Shinto." The letter ran in part as follows: "To the

I! ^!

/I '.

KEV. WALTEU li. LAMBUIH, M.D., 1>.1>.

(372)

!:(

||:|'

;

!■;

BISHOP AU'HEUS W. WILSON, D.D., LL.D.,
A Leader of Missions.

(373)

•S

374

japan: rouNT?,Y, court, peoplr.

iy.i

;:i

four American barbarians, Davis, Gordon, Learned,
and Greene: You come with sweet words in your mouth,
but a sword in the heart; bad priests, American barba-
rians, four robbers. You have come from a far coun-
try with the evil religion of Clirist and as slaves of the
Japanede robber, Neesima. With bad teaching you are
gradually deceiving the people; but we know your
hearts and shall soon with Japanese swords inflict the
punishment of heaven upon you. . . . Hence take
your families and go quickly." When we recall how
many of the Japanese have been assassinated, and that,
according to the code of Old Japan, it was honor-
orable to murder a man for revenge and for patriotism,
if it had been oj enly announced beforehand, we cannot
think stich a lett*3r merely a piece of bravado. Had not
the police been very vigilant, the threat would probably
have b^en carried out. The means employed to check the
spread of Christianity were various: scurrilcas pam-
phlets and magazines forbidding their followers to rent
houses to the Christians for chapels, persuading a hus-
band to divorce his wife because she had been a Chris-
tian, and so on. Others, with better views, attempted
reforms in Buddliism itself, and persuaded the priests
to stir out of their ignorance and laziness. Even edi-
tors of non-Christian papers, while professing no belief
in the Christian faith, warned ti e Buddhist leaders that
they could not hold their own against the energetic
propaganda of tne missionaries if they did no', arouse
themstelves and reform abuses.

From the missionaries many of the Buddhists learned
methods of working. They established a college at
Kioto, their seat and center. The writer has himself
seen upon the shelves of its library English books upon
the Bible, and has met young Buddhist priests upon

;

NEEsiMA Goes to America.

Learned,
ir mouth,
m barba-
Par coun-
es of the
5 you are
3W your
iflict the
nee take
call how
md that,
s honor-
triotism,
e cannot
Had not
probably
heck the
as pam-
8 to rent
g a hus-
a Chris-
tempted
3 priests
ven edi-
lo belief
lers that
neraretic
- arouse

learned
Liege at
himself
ks upon
bs upon

375

(

'■■

the cars with New Testaments in their hands. Their
aim was to study the Jesus doctrine so as to demolish
it. Girls' schools, young men's associations, copied
after the Young Men's Christian Association, Sunday
schools, and preaching meetings were opened in many
places. This uncommon activity of the Buddhists
shows clearly that they felt that they were losing
ground, losing their hold upon the people. And they
were losing. The number of pilgrimages and attend-
ants upon festivals as well as regular worshipers at
temples and shrines had decreased, and there was like-
wise a marked falling off in the receipts from contribu-
tions. As we shall see later, the strongest and last
rally against Christianity came from Shintoism.

As pre /iously stated, the gospel bore fruit in Japan iji^,,,
the rise of influential native pastors and teachers sodner
than in any other foreign field. Conspicuous above ^1
his fellows was Joseph Hardy Neesima, son of a Samurj^i.
So glad was his father when a son was born, he exclaimed,
*' Shimeta" ("I have got it"), and this became his name.
He had a yearning for knowledge in early youth, and was
led to think about the true God by reading in the be-
ginning of a manual of geography: "In the beginning
God created the heaven and the earth."* This he con-
trasted with many legendary gods of his own country,
and it made him dissatisfied. At that time death was
the punishment for every Japanese who left the country
Avithout permission from the government, but stronger
than the fear of death was his longing for the truth and
the wonders of the Western countries. Finally, after
several failures, he got himself taken aboard a foreign
ship loading at Hakodate fcr Shanghai. Under cover

^ It is a pity that theistic or Christian truth is now so
little recognized in our modern schoolbooks.

'^•^^Z:

.JOSEPH H. NKKSIMA.

.- ■;:,!--'1^':^4:

™'!!;n~i3Ja

NEESIMA VISITS EUROPEAN CAPITALS.

377

of darkness he went in a little huckster's boat to the
ship, and, to escape the search of the police, had to hide
himself away until she sailed. The kind captain gave
him free passage to Boston, in consideration of which
he acted as a servant boy, performing menial service,
naturally despised by all Samurai. Landing in Bos-
ton, the captain brought him to the owner of the ship,
Mr. Joseph Hardy, a zealous Christian man and member
of the Missionary Board of the Congregational Church.
In Mr. Hardy young Neesima found a father (Jose})]!
Hardy was his baptism name received in America), and
in his family a Christian home. The young man's
heart poured itself forth in the following prayer: "()
God, if you have eyes, look upon me; if you have ears,
hear me; with all my heart I wish to read the Bible
and to become civilized through the Bible." Mr. Har-
dy, his foster father, kindly educated him, first at Phil-
ip's Academy, then at Amherst College, and last at An-
dover Seminary. At that time no missionary of the
Congregational Church had been sent to Japan, and he
resolved to be a missionary to his people. In 1871 he
was commanded by Viscount Mori, then Minister from
Japan to our government at Washington, to go with
Prince Iwakura's embassy as its interpreter. Being
afraid to leave the United States, he was pardoned for
leaving Japan, and as he accompanied the embassy to
the great capitals of Europe, and saw with eager eyes
their great institutions, he was seized with tlie idea
which decided his future career— namely, that the civ-
ilization of Europe and America was based upon C'hris-
tian education, and he therefore determined to found a
Christian school for his people and a school where na-
tive teachers might be trained. Traveling with the em-
bassy, he was brought into relation with men who were

'fi'

1 .

h -

iff

378

japan: countuy, codbt, people.

then and afterwards leaders in Japan's pnl.lic affairs
B;.ch as Iwakura, Ito, and Kido. He L«r ed from
l^urope to America, and was in 1874 appo n d a ^s
sionary to Japan. About to sail, he wafallowed to ad
W he annual meeting of the Missionary Board and
h address was with so much power, as he pleadek for
ta.ve country .n its darkness, that all hearts were

We H. h 7 "' "'""" '" '°'""» " Christian col-
lege. He had written out his speech in full, but did
not use .t The night before he spent seve alhourl
wresting in prayer to God for his country, and so the

his soul in impassioned appeal that melted his hearers,
ihe mmediate response was *3,500 for the purnose of
starting the Christian school. V^fom ol

Arriving in Japan, he joined the Congregationalist
missionaries in Kioto, and with them stafted an acad
emy and a theological school under the name of tt
Doshisha." This school, begun in 1875 with only
eight pupils in rented rooms little better than sheds
grew rapidly into a flourishing institution. By h s
earnestness constancy of purpose, and acquainunce
with the inttuential leaders of the country, the Govern-
01 of Kioto, and cabinet ministers in Tokyo, he was
enabled to enlist an interest in this school on the pan
of Japanese men of means and influence. As a result
he secured an endowment fund of 70,000 yen from the
Japanese, much of it given by his non - Christian

He became clearly convinced of the delusion and dan-
ger to many of his countrymen who were grasping for
the external benefits of Western civilisation and mere
mtellectna culture based upon the Western sciences.

He said: "The snirit of nhvi.t;,^!,- _.„,,-.

1 J. -.1. itjv.rtiittj penetrates every-

DEATH OF NEESIMA.

379

c affairs,
led from
id a mis-
ed to ad-
>ard, and
saded for
rts were
tian col-
but did
al hours
d so the
ured out
hearers,
rpose of

iionalist
n acad-
! of the
th only
sheds,
By his
intance
irovern-
he was
le part
i result
om the
iristian

d dan-
ng for
I mere
iences.
every-

thing even to the bottom, so that, if we adopt only the
material elements of civilization, and leave out religion,
it is like building up a human body without blood."
Hence his cry was: "Christian education, and for this
purpose a Christian university. " To accomplish this he
laid himself out day and night, planning, working, and
praying. A university was projected with several de-
partments, and from America $100,000 was received
for the founding of the department of natural sciences.
But he was not permitted to see his hopes fulfilled. In
January, 1890, being only forty-seven years old, he was
taken. His labor had been too much for his strengtli.
Two days before his death he called his friends to his
bed and exhorted them. Arousing all his remaining
strength, he pointed out on a map certain cities that
should be occupied by gospel workers, and for two of
them engaged personally to bear the expense of send-
ing preachers there at once. Thus passed from Japan
one who was perliaps the greatest of all her Christkm
subjects. He united the spirit of Old Japan with faith
in Christ and heartiest devotion to him, probably as
perfectly as any Japanese Christian in the whole na-
tion. He loved his country, appreciated the better ele-
ments of her civilization, such as obedience to parents,
self-denial, simplicity of life, and unswerving honor,'
all of which had been instilled into liis heart as the
son of a Samurai; but saw how tlie Christian civiliza-
tion of America was immeasurably superior to the pa-
gan of his own nation. Educated in all the culture
of America, full of trust in God, and withal personally
modest and courageous, he was a living bond of union
between the nrJv nonaries and his native brethren; and
sometimes such a man was needed.

The Roman Catholics, after having been forbidden

ii fl

iri

fj I

|i!

M
O

M
W

DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS. 381

for more than two hundred years, entered Japan again
when the country was opened by the Americans; but,
being under dark suspicion, they were for many years
compelled to work in a very quiet, unseen way. As
previously stated, all of the Catholic believers, de-
scendants of the Christians of tlie sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries, who would not renounce their
faith were torn from tlieir native villages and distrib-
uted among the various provinces. In 1873 they were
released, and since that time the priests of the Romish
Church have been diligently laboring, and have estab-
lished orphanages, convents, schools, and churches in
many sections of the country. They now have 4 bish-
ops, 157 male and 102 female missionaries, 246 congre-
gations, with a total of adherents, including children
of 53,000. '

The Russo-Greek Church, presided over by the ven-
erable Bishop Nicolai, has had a mission since 1870
but IS not making rapid progress. Howbeit the Russian
cathedral is by far the most magnificent ecclesiastical
edifice m Tokyo. Built upon an eminence, it is a con-
spicuous building as seen from several quarters of the
great city. Being so much higher than the Emperor's
palace, and standing .upon an eminence, the imperial
premises are easily visible from the lofty dome, which
fact at first caused tlie Japanese to murmur, but the
authorities permitted the structure to be finished not-
withstanding the murmurs. The statistics show a
membership of 24,531 and 169 churches.

mi' f

;.;■ II

I i

III 1 1 ;

;i!

jjft J

(382)

(■'K W

iHi.il

rg^

H
H

O
-J

w
o

CHAPTER III.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS {1880-lsno).

The First Pt(rliame?it.— hi accordance with the con-
stitution proclaimed in 1889, an election was held,
and the first national representative Diet was opened in
Tokyo, 1893.

The right of suffrage is quite limited: only those
whose annual income tax amounts to yen 15 and who
are twenty-five years old are allowed to vote. The
Diet consists of two houses, the Lords and the Com-
mons. It was opened by the Emperor with great cere-
mony, and the members were all dressed in the pre-
scribed "Prince Alberts." But, being the first experi-
ment in free representative government, it could scarce-
ly be expected that such a body of men, with no train-
ing in such duties, should be able to do great things, or
avoid serious blunders in what they attempted. Unac-
customed to free and open debate upon public meas-
ures, there was some abuse of their prerogatives upon
the floor, some unruly spirits, a disposition to be in-
subordinate to tlie presiding officer, and a factious tem-
per was particularly manifest toward the cabinet min-
isters, who appeared on occasion and addressed the
Lower House upon measures proposed by the govern-
ment. Very quickly, too, tlie body broke into numer-
ous parties, and legislation was blocked.

Like the English House of Commons, voting the gov-
ernment budget submitted by the ministry lies with the
Lower House. It was here that a serious conflict
quickly arose between the Opposition, led by the Lib-
erals, and the Government, represented by the Cabi-

(383)

384

JAPAX: COUXTIIY, COURT, PEOPLE.

net J he real kme back of all questions of budgets
ami polices was whether or not the ministry was re-
sponsible to the Parliament, or to the Throne only
Hy the constitution the cabinet ministers were appoint^
ed and removed by the Emperor, and hence the con-
servative or government party held that the ministry
was responsible to the Throne only, and not in an;
wise to the Parliament, for their policy or measures'
and that to insist upon responsibility to Parliament
was to invade the sovereign rights of the Emperor.

Ibe answer to this was the refusal of the Lower
House to grant the budget for governmental expenses,
i he rejoinder from the Throne was the immediate pro-
roguing of Parliament. In due time a new Parlianient
convened. It took the same stand and met the same
tate-dissolved and sent home by imperial edict. The
defeat of the Opposition was oft repeated, and as often
resolutely renewed. Thus the conflict went on until
1898, when at last victory was won in the overthrow of
the ministry-the cabinet was forced to resign We
may conclude then, that from that time the ministry
was to be held responsible to the Parliament as well as
to the Ihrone, that the regime of the party govern-
ment, as in England, has been inaugurated in Japan.
AH we l-wishers of this nation, and all concerned for
the political reformation of Asia's despotic systems,
are watching with uncommon interest the outcome of
constitutional government in that country. No doubt
in process of time there will be a widening of popular
suffrage; but it is well that for the present the sover-
eign should continue to rule with a strong hand; for
the people are not yet ready for a popular form of gov-
ernment. More than once the Throne has saved tlie
nation from politir-al obiT%TTT„o-ir

THE CHINA-JAPAN WAR.

885

■ budgets
T was re-
)ne only. •

appointr

the con-
mi nistrv
t in any
measures,
rliament
ror.

3 Lower
xpenses.
iate pro-
I'liament
he same
5t. The
as often
)n until
hrow of
n. We
ninistry

well as
govern-

Japan.
led for
y^stems,
ome of
> doubt
)opular

sover-
nd; for
^f gov-
ed the

The War mith rAma.— Since the times of the Em-
press Jingo Kogo (circ 200 A. D.) Japan has claimed
some sort of suzerainty over Korea. But China has
ever claimed the same. Sometimes Korea's rulers sent
presents and paid court to one and then the other, and
sometnnes carried water on both shoulders by sending
what was considered as tril,ute to both at once. Since
Japan entered upon her career of enlightenment and
political reform she has looked with impatience upon
China 8 unhealtlif ul influence in Korea. The civil dis-
orders and barbarity there were sources of danger to
the peace of Jaj.an herself. A treaty was entered
into with China, regulating their mutual relations to
Korean affairs, and in the spirit of that treaty Japan
attempted to lead the weak and tottering little king-
dom along a better path, but invariably China's posi-
tion was reactionary. Civil disorders increased, and
several attacks were made upon the Japanese, not only
in the treaty ports, but also in Seoul, the Korean cap-
ital. Japan dispatched troops thither to protect her
own nationals and her trade. This China resented in
such a way that war was declared, and hostilities began
in 1894. Japan's armies quickly took possession of
beoul, and the seat of war was on Korean soil, or in
waters contiguous. All the world knows the result.
In almost every battle, whether on land or sea, the
Chinese were ingloriously defeated. China's war ships
being either captured or disabled, the war having been
pushed northward into Chinese territory, Mukden, the
ancient Mantchoo capital, having been captured, and the
Liau-Tung peninsula occupied by Japan's armies, Pe-
km Itself was in danger of capture. The Chinese
therefore, besought the American Ministers at th-
court of Pekin and Tokyo to intercede for an armistice

'11

I I

;;

m '« M

i|:'i

11:;!

1 r

I ;

Til'

2< '^i

ifi \

*»

386

and

japan: <ountuv, cofut, i'koi'le.

licaco iiogotiatioiiH. To tliiH .Tui»hii ji^rnnMl, and at
uo HiiHpoiKU'd lighting. Li I lung ('hang, tlu; wily dip-

lomat, was Hcnt aH Chiiia'H ri!|

was the able HtatoHnian, ('oiint I to. T)

n'cHeiitativc; and Japan's

u> treaty of

peace was signed at SliinionoHeki, Ajd-il, 18!);'). Hon.
John W. Foster, J'resident Harrison's Secretary of
State, was besought to act as China's counselor in that
critical liour.

By the treaty, C'hina had to pay an indemnity and

linquish to Japan tlie island of Formosa and the Liau-
Tung Peninsula; but, by the joint remonstrance of Jlus-
sia, France, and Germany, Japan was constrained to
cede back to China that jjcninsula. That was a very
unjust demand upon the i)art of those three powers.
By all the rightful claims and usages of the conqueror
in war, as often illustrated in the history of Euroj.e and
America, Japan had a legitimate claim upon the Liau-
Tung Peninsula for the purpose of making it an integral
l)art of her own empire. But she yielded to the inevi-
ta})le, not being able to contend against Russia, backed
as she was by France and Gernumy. Nor has Russia
allowed China to forget that she bJfriended her in the
hour of humiliation. It is not probable that Japan has
forgotten Russia's unjust action toward herself; and if
a good opportunity occurs in future international com-
plications, the Northern Bear will be made to suffer for
his intermeddling.

Though Japan was cut to the heart by K-in-^ji .'s unjupt,
action, nevertheless her signal and quickly wo.i victory
over ancient Cluna had come as a surprise to most peo-
ple in the Western hemisphere. They had thought of
tlie "little Japs" as either a part of the empire of
0.7 'na, or at least as only a slightly different people;
Mid m China had a vast empire of territory and four

il, and at
wily (lip-
l Jiipaii'H
treaty of
5. Hon.
•etary of
r ill that

V and re-
jho Liaii-
Bof Hm-
•ained to
H a very

l)ower8.
onqueror
roj)G and
he Liau-

integral
lio inevi-
i, hacked
s Russia
Jr in the
ipan has
f; and if
iial com-
uffer for

's unjiipi,
I victory
ost peo-
mght of
ipire of
people;
lid four

(387)

f\-l

l..^

(

Jl I

?^88

japan: cotintuy, court, '^oplic.

hundred iiiillion j)cople, it wap \^ oi a strange

thing that she should be brought to ner knees <?nd suing
for peace witliin a twelvemonth by Japan, with only
about forty millions.

Well, t(. those living m Japan, rnd acquainted with
the actual conditions in the two countries, the result of
the war was no surprise. (1) Japan's ? rmies aad navies
were trained and equipped according to the latest and
best methods of war, whereas China's forces had not
had proper training. On account of their unconscion-
able conceit, the Chinape were not willing to take suffi-
cient instruction from foreign military officers. The
result was, their generals were incompetent, tlieir sol-
diers undisciplined. How could such an army fight?
(2) In the hour of national peril there was no national
spirit in China back of the war. The Viceroy of Can-
ton said: " It is Li Hung Chang's war; I'll not send my
ships." (3) In fightmg, the Japanese were at their best;
the Chinese, at their worst. The former are a nation of
good fighters; the latter have been several times con-
quered by a people inferior in numbers and resources to
themselves. But (4) in that war it was the ideas and
methods of the Western nations in conflict with the
worn-out civilization of tlie Orient.

The conduct of the war on the part of the Japanese
was highly creditable. It was the first instance of Avar
carried on by an Asiatic nation in accordance with the
high ideals of the Red Cross Society. Chinese pris-
oners, the wounded and dying, Avere treated by the
Japanese in a humane manner. Only in one instance
(at Port Arthur, and that under the most trying provo-
cation) is it charged against Japanese soldiers that
they acted with barbarous cruelty toward the Chinese.
These severe criticisms have been challenged as unjust,

i strange
nd suing
ith only

ted with
result of
id navies
itest and

had not
jonscion-
ake suffi-
rs. The
lieir sol-
ly fight?
national

of Can-
send my
leir best;
lation of
nes con-
(urces to
leas and
vith the

apanese
} of Avar
svith the
;8e pris-
by the
instance
5 provo-
!rs that
Chinese,
unjust,

THE BESULTS OP THE WAE. 3^9

and it remains for the impartial historian to decide
whether or not noncombatants were put to the sword
on that occasion. Upon the whole, high praise is due
alike to the generals in the field and the high officials of
the War Department at Tokyo for the very humane and
enlightened conduct of the war.

TheJ^esults of the TTar.-As to the eclat won in the
eyes of civilized nations there can be no question, for
Japan has arisen to an international position, if not to
the rank of the first class along with England and the
United States, yet certainly to that of a second-class
power Neither Russia nor England can afford to ig-
nore Japan hereafter in international politics

As for Japan herself, the war was a momentous event
It gave a new impetus to almost every branch of secular
life. It caused the national ambition to run hio-h Bv
using the large indemnity received from China"; it was
believed that their armies and navies should be further
increased so as to make Japan the dominant power in
Asia. Many of the younger men, whose ambition and
national bigotry were beyond their sound judgment
imagined that Japan would soon be in a position to die'
tate terms to England in India, taking, of course, the
hegemony in the international politics of Korea and
China.

This new national consciousness put extreme empha-
sis upon armies, fleets, and the like as the enduring
foundation of a nation's greatness, and thereby wrought
considerable harm by forgetting the religious and moral
side of he r^ation's life. Victory is often more hurtful
than defeat, The Japanese hurt themselves in thus at-
taching undue importance to war, to commerce. .r,A tn
manufactures.

Material prosperity was more -oticeable than ever be-

390

JAPAX: COUNTRY, COUUT, I'EOI'LE.

fore in the liiHtoiy of tlie nation. As tlie government
waH in(u-eaHiii<r lier annieH and navies, HiniultaneouHly a
general H2)irit of enterprise 8[)rang np all over the coun-
try. Money was flush, prices ran higli, scores of new
manufacturing and commercial enterprises appeared;
Japan had entered upon a period of unparalleled pros-
perity.

And forsooth murmurs were heard in far-off America
and England, respecting Japan as the manufacturing
rival of Manchester and Falls River. Sometliing was
said about clieap labor in Japan and twelve-dollar l)i(;y-
cles! ]5ut many of the new enterprises were, like bub-
bles, soon to burst; many others, however, continued to
thrive, Jis the following figures for 1895-1)6 sliow the ex-
istence of (58 cotton mills, running 1,250,000 spindles,
consuming 200,000,000 i)ound8 of raw cotton. In 1895
there were 2,758 factories of all kinds; horse and water
power, 54,576. From 1880 to 1895 the area of rice cul-
ture increased from 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 acres; silk-
worm raising has more than trebled, ar.d tea culture
more than doubled.

Expamiori of Foreign Trade. — ^As a further result of
the enterprise of the times, tlie Japanese government
granted subsidies to new steamship lines, so that, be-
sides a great increase in tlie coastwise trade, and besides
the foreign lines already ruiniing to China, Siberian
Russia, India, and Australia, new lines Avere put on,
making regular trips to French and English ports, and
to tlie American ports on the Pacific coast. In 1872
there were only 96 foreign-built vessels; in 1895 the
number had increased to 827, with a total tonnage of
21.3,000; the total export and import trade in 1875 was
only $47,000,000, but in 1897 it was equal to 1382,-
000,000.

ANTI-FOREIGN SENTIMENT.

391

Internal Improvements, too, took on new life. Tiie
harlior of Yokohama Avaw improved at lieavy expense,
and a gigantic scheme has been projected for the en-
larging and deepening of Osaka harbor, so as to admit
ocean steamers. In many of the larger cities water-
works were put in, iron pipes for the same being brought
from Nashville and Birmingham; and consequently tlie
rate of disease and death is being diminished. For To-
kyo a grand scheme of improvements has been adopted,
including waterworks and tlie widening of principal
streets, the purpose being to make it one of the great
capital cities of the modern world. In 1898 Japan had
about three thousand miles of railway, and bought from
the United States sixty-six locomotive engines— y<o^e
well.

Feeling against Fc. signers and Christianity. ~T\\q
rapid progress of Christian missions and the sentiment
in favor of everything foreign reached their climax about
the year 1890. From that time the pendulum of na-
tional feeling began to swing back in the opposite direc-
tion. Gradually the old anti-foreign spirit rose higher
and higher. There were several causes for this.

In the first place, there was disappointment because
the old treaties Avith foreign powers had not been
changed. They liad earnestly wished for the old trea-
ties, with their extraterritorial jurisdiction in favor of
foreigners, to be repealed, but the foreign powers had
refused. This embittered and angered the nation.
The government adopted a more rigorous policy in re-
gard to passports and the privileges granted to foreign
residents and visitors. All along the lines of official
authority the policy was: "Xo more favors to foreign-

lie Buddhists quickly caught the idea, and stirred

ers

rii

392

japan: country, court, people.

?n 4, *.

up the old prejudices of tlie i)eople against the Chris-
tians. Public meetings of Christians, hitherto so pop-
ular in the theaters and even on the streets, were now
to be systematically broken up by rowdies sent for the
purpose by the priests. On several occasions violence
was threatened, and the Christian lecture meetings in
the theaters had to be given up. The chapels and
churches were in many places invaded, and windows
and lamps smashed. At Nogoya, a strong Buddhist
seat, the house of one of the missionaries had to be
guarded by the police for about three months, and the
assembling of the native Christians for worship was
nmch interfered with. Even coolies became intolerably
insolent in their manner toward foreigners, and alterca-
tions between foreign traders, and travelers and Japa-
nese employees became fearfully frequent. Missionaries
and officials of foreign legations were hooted at or treat-
ed to stones from boys in the streets of Tokyo. To the
ladies of the foreign settlements it was particularly disa-
greeable, liable, as they were, to insult at any time when
out on the streets. Everywhere, and in everything, the
tension of feeling was high. In the mission schools, and
even in the native churches, the strong nationalistic feel-
ing showed itself in unseemly ways toward the missiona-
ries. Newspapers, magazines, and lecture platforms all
reechoed the notion that Japan was being unjustly treated
by the foreign nations— in fact, was being oppressed by
them. Everything the foreigners did was looked at
with the green eyes of envy; even the trade they had
built up in the treaty ports with foreign countries was
looked upon as a robbery of their own citizens, because
they could not themselves control it. It shows how
national prejudice distorts the vision.

Two events, both of them very discreditable, took

le Chris-
» so pop-
'^ere now
b for the
violence
itings in
t)el8 and
.vindows
Buddhist
d to be

and the
hip was
olerably

alterca-
id Japa-
donaries
or treat-
To the
rly disa-
ne when
ling, the
ols, and
itic feel-
lissiona-
orms all
' treated
388ed by
oked at
hey had
'ies was
because
svs how

e, took

VISIT OP THE RUSSIAN PRINCE. 393

place, that illustrate the folly and passion into which
the nation was now drifting. The one was the attempt
ot a Japanese policeman to murder the crown prince of
Russia. He who is now the Czar of all Russia was mak-
ing a visit to Japan, and was out with his suite, in jin-
rikushas, doing the sights of Kioto and its environs. As
they proceeded along the way, at a neighboring village,
in broad daylight, a policeman, who had been nursing
his anti-foreign feelings till lie had become a fanatic, see-
ing the distmguished foreign prince, suddenly fell upon
him with his sword and tried to kill him. He inflicted
wounds upon tlie prince's head. This came near plun-
ging Japan into war. Tlie Russian prince was a guest
of the nation, and the very officer wliose duty it was to
protect him had turned upon him with murderous rage
The Emperor and all the high ministers in Tokyo were
both alarmed and humiliated. The Emperor himself
went in great haste, by special train, to Kioto to apolo-
gize for the shameful deed.

The officers and marines of the Russian squadron,
then lying in Kobe harbor, and who had escorted their
prince to Japan, could scarcely be restrained from
marching instantly to Kioto, where he lay wounded.
The event spread alarm throughout the land, and hu-
miliation too. The people, as well as the rulers, knew
they could not cope with Russia in war, and they had
made a miserable exhibition of their anti-foreign feeling
before the whole world. It was felt that the fanatical
and anti-foreign feeling of that policeman was the nat-
ural outcome of the anti-foreign agitation indulged in
by the press, the priests, and political agitators. It
showed plainly that if such violent feeling be not
checked it would surely bring on war with some pow-
erful foreign nation. And besides, to a few clear-head-

394

JAPAX: COTTNTUY, roPRr. I'EOrLK.

I i '

I'! !

I §•

ed statesmen it was seen that such anti-foreign feeling
was defeating the very o])ject for wliieh the government
had been for years earnestly laooring— namely, the re-
vision of the old treaties. Foreign governments would
never agree to treaties placing their nationals under Jaj)-
anese law and officers as long as such national prejudice
against foreigners was rife.

Russia acted magnanimously, accepted the apologies
and demanded nothing. Tlie Japanese governor of the
district where the attempted assassination occurred was
deposed and tlie murderous policeman was i)ut to death.
Tlie crown prince was ordered from St. Peters])urg not
to go to Tokyo, but to return to his fleet in haste.
This incident had the effect of opening the eyes of tlie
nation, and tlie journals of the day began to condemn
tlie absurd and dangerous lengths to which the Ja])a-
nese had been carried by their anti-foreign feeling.

Another event alike discreditable was the expulsion
of Rev. Mr. Tamura from the Presbyterian ministry
by his Japanese brethren. Mr. Tamura, pastor of a
leading church in Tokyo, had been educated in Amer-
ica, at Rutgers College and at Princeton. Being
thoroughly acquainted with our social usages, marriage
customs, and home life, and seeing the contrast to
those of his own nation, he wrote a little book, entitled
"Japanese Bride," j)ublished by the Harpers. In the
book he hit off a number of things in American society,
courtship, and marriage, and exposed several things in
the marriage and home life of the Japanese in a bad
light. At this time the whole nation M^as so extreme-
ly sensitive to criticism that even the Christians were
not free from the baleful influence, and consequently
charges were preferred against the author of the briglit-
ly written little book, and he was expelled from the

fn feeling
veriiment
y, the re-
its would
nder Jaj)-
prejudice

apologies
I or of the
irred was
to death.
il)urg not
in haste.
es of tlie
condemn
he Ja])a-

xpulsion
ministry
tor of a
n Amer-

Being

narriage

trast to

entitled

In the
society,
hings in
n a bad
Jxtreme-
ns were
squently
briglit-
rom the

UNITAKIANIHM FAVORABLY llECEIVED.

395

ministry hy his i)resl)ytery in the city of Tokyo. That,
too, was a saddening exliibition of what national preju-
dice and pride will do for a people. Of course the in-
tense nationalistic reaction and anti-foroign feeling Avere
felt in the work of the missions in Japan, in their
Christian schools, and in the marked decline of attend-
ance upon the Christian meetings. The churches no
longer made the rapid annual increase in converts as in
former years. Causes otlier than political and nation-
al were working to put a temjiorary check upon the
growth of the native Christian Church.

It was about the beginning of this period that Uni-
tarian propagandists were sent over from Boston.
Their unfriendly attitude toward the evangelical and
orthodox missions, their wise use of the Japanese press
in disseminating far and wide their prhiciples, and
their disposition to recognize Buddhism and make a
sort of compromise platform between it and Uhend
Christianity, produced a noticeable effect in educated
circles, an impression favorable to liberal ideas in reli-
gion, and against the orthodox interpretation. The
impression became somewhat prevalent that the Unita-
rian system was the only system of Christianity tluit
could stand the test of modern science and progressive
thought. Many of the head professors in the higher in-
stitutions of learning had imbibed a materialistic skepti-
cism or agjiosticism, justified, as they claimed, by the
recent advances in the iield of natural sciences. Scien-
tific skepticism became the fashion of the day in edu-
cated circles of the younger men. Many of them
had studied in Europe and America, and had brought
back these skeptical views concerning Christianity
fron.i the foreign universities wliere they hiid studied. '
It came to pass that the government schools, whose

396

JAPAN' : rOFXTRY, COURT, PKOPLR.

I '

•*

foundations the evangelical Christian missionaries liad
laid, were now become tlie citadels of enmity to C^hris-
tianity and nurseries of skepticism respecting all reli-
gion. A student under suspicion of attending the"
meetings of the Christians was made to feel the dis-
approbation of liis teachers and fellow-students alike,
and various means were resorted to in order to break
him down. We therefore see that the causes of this
anti-Christian reaction were of three sources: na-
tional questions, religion (Buddhist and Shinto), and a
perverted form of modern science. Some of the' lead-
ers in education and politics said: ''We do not need
religion of any kind. Wliat we want to insure a glo-
rious future for our beloved country are armies and na-
vies, commerce, manufactures, and modern education,
witli plenty of natural science in it." They argued
somewhat after this fashion: "Our war with China
\\^^ proven what we can do in arms, and natural science
has disproven Christianity. Why then trouble our-
selves about religion?"

Tlie opposition to Christianity took still another
turn about the middle of this period. The Emperor's
counselors had also observed that the anti-religious
spirit which had taken possession of the government
schools was already bringing forth bad fruit in the
loose morals of the students. Examples of insubordi-
nation to authority were painfully frequent in you7ig
Japan. To check this bad tendency, the Emperor is-
sued a famous "Rescript on Morals in Education,"
which was ordered to be read at stated times in all the
schools of the empire for a period of five years. This
document has been used against Christianity by many
who claim that the Emperor's instructions are not in
harmony with Christian morals as taught by the mis-

I I

CHRISTIANITY CHALLENGED.

397

laries had
'■ to C'hris-
g all reli-
nding the'
I the dis-
nts alike,
• to break
es of this
rces: na-
bo), and a
the' lead-
not need
ire a glo-
8 and na-
ducation,
y argued
th China
al science
ible our-

another
Imperor's
religious
i^ernment
it in the
isubordi-
in young
iperor is-
ication,"
n all the
8. This
by many
e not in
the mis-

sionaries and Japanese preachers. It is claimed that
loyalty to Jesus Christ as Lord over men's hearts and
lives is disloyalty to the Emperor and to tlie state.
And even after the China war, in which the Christian
soldiers proved their bravery and tlieir loyalty, tliis was
still a favorite accusation made against the Christians.
. And so, in 1897, a new movement against Christian-
ity was started, called ''Nippon Shugi," the object of
wliich was to revive Shintoism in a modified form, with
the Emperor as the head of the religion of Japan. It
was an effort to use the universal reverence of the na-
tion for its Emperor as a barrier against the acceptance
of the faith of Christ. Strange' to say, among its pro-
moters were professors in the Imperial University,
some of whom have studied in our Ainerican universi-
ties. A challenge was sent forth to the Christians in
the following: 1. ''Can the worship of his sacred
majesty, the Emperor, which every loyal Japanese
performs, be reconciled with the worship of God and
Christ by the Christians? 2. Can the existence of au-
thorities that are quite independent of the Japanese
state— such as God, Christ, the Bible, the pope, the
head of the Greek Church (Tsar) — be regarded as
harmless? 3. Can the Japanese who is a faithful
servant of Christ be regarded at the same time as the
faithful servant of the Emperor and a true friend of his
majesty's faithful subjects? or, to put it in another
way, is our Emperor to follow in the wake of West-
ern Emperors, and to pray: 'Son of God, have mercy
on me?'" ^

And yet it is not to be supposed that during this re-
actionary time Christianity was making no progress.
A needed sifting of the Christians took place, and
while some fell back again into paganism, or into no

t f -

398

japan: corNTUY, <orin\ i-koi-m;.

hi'.'

religion, the faith of oMuts wuh HtnMigtluMied. The
growtli of tho Cliiirclj, though hIowci-, was inoro Hub-
Htaiitial, and wliilo tliero was hoimo doctrinal defection
even among ]>aHtorH, othci-H, full of /eal, were tlie more
detorniincd to maintain the faith of the goHpcl. Tlie
leaven still Avorked, and in many wayH the power of
Christian truth in themindHof the jieople was cropping
out. Deep down in the heart of the JajjaneHe nation,
which is really intdined to religion, tliere was a con-
science that could not deny the Huperior liglit that was
shining among them, tlie Liglit of ChriHt. Even the
movements of the Uuddhists and the latest Shinto
movement only too clearly prove that the pressure of
Christianity upon public thought was being felt by its
enemibs.

7Vu', JVew Treaties, 17th of July, 1899.— That day
nuirks a new and glorious era in tlie political history of
the.nation. The old treaties of Perry and of ] larris be-
came on that day null and void— that is, foreigners re-
siding or visiting upon Japanese soil passed from the
jurisdiction of their consuls under the laws and juris-
diction of the Japanese. Thenceforth, for any crime
committed, or dispute at law by foreigners, the arrest,
summons, trial, and judgment of the case are to be
made by Japanese officers or before Japanese judges.
In other words, Japan entered on that day into the fam-
ily of Western nations upon terms of international
equality. And it was a day longed for by every Japa-
nese. For forty years they have keenly felt that their
national autonomy and the sovereign authority of their
Emperor in his own country were being set at naught
by the existing treaties with foreign nations. They
were embittered over this, as the foregoing pages
plainly show. But when these old treaties were made,

ncd. The
moro Hub-
l defection
« tlie more
qu'l. Tlie
l)ower of

S <TOJ)})illg

ise nation,
:.'iH a con-
t til at was
Even the
ist Shijito
ressure of
felt by its

That day
liifltory of

larriH be-
ignerH re-

froni tlie
md juriH-
my crime
he arrest,
ire to 1)6
e judges.
» the fam-
rnational
Bry Japa-
ihat their
Y of their
it naught
s. They
ig pages
ire made.

NEW TREATIES TAKE EFFECT.

399

It was clearly out of the .lucHtion for foiv,gn govern-
inents to place their nationals under thc! barbarous and
cruel procedures of judges and magistrates such as ob-
tamed in JaiKin at that time. And as often as Ja-
pan's leaders approached foreign powers xx\Km the <pies-
tion of changing the treaties and abolishing foreign
jurisdiction ui»on their soil, their invariable answer
was: ''(io and qualify; an.l when you have (pialified
we shall be willing." And at last England, then the
United States, followed by other j)owers, were con-
vinced that the rulers had made s.itlicient progress in
law, order, and enlightenment to entitle them to more
liberal treaties; and accordingly new treaties were en-
tered into, to become operative on the Hth day of .July.
Nevertheless, many foreigners living there, botli among
the missionaries and the commercial communities in
treaty ports, are cpiite skeptical in regard to Japan's
being ready to take charge of foreigners. As the day
upin-oached many were the fears exi)res8ed as to the ca-
jKicity of Japanese officials to administer law impar-
tially and justly where the interests or rights of for-
eigners are involved as against a Jaj.anese subject.
And indeed, this is the first time in all history that an
Asiatic nation has ])een recognized on term of interna-
tional e(piality with Christian nations.

But the distinguished leaders of the government,
like Counts Ito, Inouye, and Okuma, are confident that
Japan will ])e equal to her new responsibility and prove
herself worthy of a place in the great sistcM-hood of
Western nations. And even the doubters must confess
that the leaders and counselors of the Japanese sover-
eign have long foreseen what the era of constitutional
government and of international comitv signified, and
have been wisely preparing for it. The old system of

400

jai'an: ((H'ntky, coruT, piodplk.

trials, tortiiroH, and jiidiifiiiontH waw aboliHlicd, and a
systom of lawH, tlio i'niil, of the niont patient study of
all the codeH of VVeHtern natiouH, was framed, an<l a
new Hysteni of coiirtH orj^ani/ed, with a Hiij>reiiie donrt
of juHtiee in Tokyo. That Hyntein of lawH conHiHtH of
eonijdete civil, eriininal, and coniinenMal eodeH. The
judges of the supreme court are appointed by tlie crown
for life, or good behavior; the barristers at law, as well as
the judges, many of them have ha<l the benefit of thor-
ough training in the best law schools and under the ablest
jurists in Europe or America. And as Japan's leaders
have hitherto measured u|> to new responsibilities and
emergencies, and as the whole nation is jealous of their
standing before the eyes of foreign nations, realizing
that they are now being watched by friends and foes
alike, the writer believes the forebodings and doubts of
those who have opposed a revision of the treaties will
prove groundless.*

Turning Again to the Truth. — Within the past three
years there has been a decided change in public senti-
ment. The sudden elation of mind following the
great victory over China lias given place to soberer
views of national glory. That exaggerated confidence
in the power of fleets, armies, and commerce to heal
the hurt of a nation's sins has yielded to a more ration-
al view of what the real needs and dangers of the nation
are, and what the remedy is. There has been a healthy
seeing of the evils in the land, the corruption and fond-
ness for luxury in higher social circles, and the lack of
commercial honesty in commercial transactions. One
of the healthiest symptoms of the nation is that many of

*TheAvriter of these pages favored treaty revision several
years ago, for which he Avas treated to sarcastic review by
one of the English papers in Yokohama.

)d, and a
J stiuly of
lid, uikI a
3111(5 court
oiihIhIh of
ICH. Tlio
lllO (M'OWIl
HH WoU HH

t of thor-
thc a})U!Ht.
's leaders
ilitieH and
18 of their
realizing
and foes
doubts of
aties will

jast three
)lic semi-
wing the
> soberer
onfidence
B to heal
re ration-
he nation
a healthy
md fond-
le lack of
ns. One
fc many of

HIGHER 8TANDAIID8.

401

the enlightened leaders, and i>articularly the Christian
pastors and teachers, are boldly speaking out concern-
ing the national sins, the moral evils that threaten so-
cu^ty in modern Japan. There is a call to repentance
not by the missionaries only, but by the Japanese
preachers as well. Higher standards of life and morals
are now de.na.uUMl of public leaders. Criticism of
public affair, and of social questions or reforms is freer
and l>older on the part of Christian leaders. The ne-
cessity ot religion as a basis of national morality-the
doc^tnne insisted upon by George Washington after
the American Kevolution-is being recognized by many
open-eyed teachers and leaders of the preset day
ihe consequence is, the turning again of many to the
messengers of Christ. All the reports of Christian
woikers tell of meetings more largely attended, and of
renewed interest on the part of the people. All the
tokens are encouraging. And now that the long-
standmg restrictions respecting the residence and travel
of missionaries have been removed, their work in the
future and their more direct presence and participation
11 the administration of Church affairs, made leL by
the new treaties, will be more effective than ever.
26

on several
review by

li\

m i

I';

fi ■

iiihi

'i;!i'.

CHAPTER IV.

INTERCOURSE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN THE
UNITED STATES AND JAPAN IN THE PAST.

In his interesting book entitled " Intercourse between
the United States and Japan," by my whilom fellow-
student, Dr. Inazo Nitobe, a Japanese gentleman and
Doctor of Philosophy, of Johns Hopkins University, he
sets forth very fully, first, the relations between Japan
and Europe, and then America.

Diplomatic JRelatiotis. — Should some one wish to
write f^or one of our American reviews a chapter on
the early intercourse between the United States and
Japan, let him entitle it "An Honorable Chapter in
American Diplomacy." Perry, Harris, Bryan, De Long,
Bingham, and Hubbard, our representatives from 1854
to 1888, stand out, all of them, as conspicuous examples
of honorable dealings on the part of a strong with a
weak nation. Judge Bingham, who was the American
Minister to Japan for thirteen years, by his unsullied
Christian character and his willing helpfulness, became
preeminently the trusted counselor and confidential
friend of the leaders of the New Japan in these critical
times. His ability and experience as a lawyer, his gen-
uine sympathy for them in their untried measures for
reform and progress, were highly serviceable to Japan.

More than once he stood fortli tlie champion of their
national rights against the unreasonable demands of
other great powers made upon a weaker nation. As in-
stances of America's friendlv dinlomacv, as renresented
by Judge Bingham, is the fact that he was the first to
(402)

japan's only friend.

403

?iV THE
AST.

between
1 fellow-
man and
3r8ity, he
3U Japan

wish to
apter on
ates and
lapter in
3e Long,
•om 1854
jxamples
g with a
Lmerican
insullied
, became
ifidencial
e critical

bis gen-
3ure8 for
o Japan.

of their
aands of
. As in-
tresented
e first to

break loose from the diplomatic cooperation which,
though at first probably a necessity, was extremely lia-
ble to become a sort of machinery by which the great
powers could make blustering and unjust demands upon
Japan in the hour of her weakness. When in 1874 the
Japanese government issued customs regulations with-
out consulting the foreign consuls, Judge Bingham
alone defended Japan's right to do so; and when in
1878 the cholera was raging, and the government at-
tempted the very reasonable measure of medical inspec-
tion, and, if need be, quarantinhig merchant ships, and
the foreign consuls objected, it was he who declared:
'I The action of the consuls is a substantial denial of the
right of the Japanese government to prevent the im-
portation of pestilence by foreign vessels." The next
summer, when the German consul, by means of a war
ship, took a vessel out of quarantine in defiance of the
regulations, Gen. Grant, who was there, remarked on
the occasion that "the vessel ought to have been sunk;"
and Mr. Bingham resented the German consul's audacity
both upon the ground that Japan, a weak nation, still
had the right to do right, and because the unreasonable de-
fiance of wholesome regulal ions in time of epidemic im-
periled alike American residents and Japanese subjects
in the treaty ports. And again, when Japan's regula-
tions for the sale of opium were objected to by the
British and French Ministers as derogatory to extrater-
ritorial rights, betook a different view, recognizing the
right of a weak as well as a strong nation to protect
Itself against such a curse as the opium traffic is. In
the words of Mr. Nitobe, "All honor to the veteran
judge from Ohio!"

For further examples of a friendly attitude toward
Japan in her struggles, we mention the fact that when

; !

404

japan: country, court, people.

she i)ropo8ed to enter the postal and telegraphic con-
ventions with foreign nations, the United States was the
only treaty power that did not hesitate. And the return
of the Shinionoseki indemnity is another example of fair
and honorable dealings on the part of a strong power
with a weak one, and had the effect of cementing the
friendship between the two countries. Gen. Grant,
speaking of American policy in Japan, once said:
"Whatever may l)e her influence, I am proud to think
it has always been exerted in behalf of justice and kind-
ness." As early as 1878 did the United States take
steps toward the revision of certain portions of the
commercial treaties.

Resf^ecting the revision of the old treaties, with their
restrictions upon Japan's riglit to regulate her own tar-
ifs on imports, and the extraterritorial jurisdiction of
foreign consuls upon Japanese soil, so odious to every
Japanese, the United States and her worthy representa-
tives, when they saw that Japan had qualified for better
government, were foremost to agree to consider new and
juster treaties. This Avas proved when (1888) the pro-
posals for treaty revision were communicated to the
Ministers of the great powers in Tokyo, and the Amer-
ican Minister, Hon. ex-Gov. Hubbard, obtained by ca-
blegram, within twenty-four hours, permission from his
government at Washington to accept them. Well does
the writer remember how sanguine Mr. Hubbard was
over the prospect of the speedy conclusion of the new
treaties, feeling, as he did, that it was just and right.
And the reason why they were not ratified was not the
fault of President Cleveland, President Harrison, or of
the United States Senate; but it was due to opposition
among the Japanese themselves, on account of the pro-
vision for mixed j udges in Japanese courts. The proud

-phic con-
es was the
the return
pie of fair
ng power
lilting the
11. Grant,
nee said:
L to think
and kind-
jates take
18 of the

;vith their
' own tar-
iiction of
I to every
spresenta-
for better
r new and
I the pro-
Bd to the
he Amer-
ed by ca-
i from his
(Veil does
bard was
• the new
nd right.
s not the
ion, or of
pposition
the ■pro-
'he proud

EARLY EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES. 406

Japanese were not willing to see foreign i.kWs sittiuL.
on the bench; and if Count Okunia hlliJfoi W h
such^a treaty, there would probably liave^eenTrr

While in his carriage on the streets of Tokyo he re-
eiyed a wound from a dynamite bomb throwif by a fa-
natical youth. The wound came nigh being mortal and
he was forced to resign the office of l^re^/S
whereupon soon afterwards the question of^re^rrev !
sion was for a while dropped. ^

It is just to say that when the new treaties were con-
cluded .t was g,.,,, Britain that was the iirst o sign
them followed quickly, however, by the United Htatfs

and h , T, T ^""'' '^^^ '^ appreciate the friendly
and helpful policy of the United States. When Gen
Grant made his tour around the world, nowher ;t":
more enthusiastically received than in Japan. As t e
distinguished representative of the great America^

tTo raifdTr''"^'/" "'^ ""^^ '''' ^-«^ «f tl- '-
tte Eml "^"T^. ""^ conHdontial interviews with
the Emperor, in which the future relations of the two
countries were discussed; and in one of them the Em-
peror is reported to have said: "America and Japan
being near neighbors separated by ocean only, will be'
come more and more closely connected with each other
as time goes on."

T/ie Early Educational Influences of JSTeio Jamn
Jlere Almost Exclusively American.-L. GuidoT
Verbeck, the honored and now lamented missionary'
was the first President of the Kai Sei Gakko (is"^:
74), which IS now the Imperial University, and this
notwit^istanding the government's dislike of Christian-
ity. One of the earliest professors was another mis-
sionary, the venerable Dr. McCartee. Jiesides these,

1 1

406

japan: country, fOURT, PEOPLE.

i.':

Profs. Morse, Wliitman, Puul, Mendeiihall, Chaplin,
Waddell, Veeder, Terry, Jewett, FenoUosa, and others
— all Americans — were at one time or another connect-
ed with some department of the university in Tokyo, in
its earlier years.

Daniel Murray, LL.D., prominent in educational cir-
cles in New York, became adviser (1873) to the Depart-
ment of Education, and rendered valuable service in
the organization of the public school system, and in
completing tlie fine educational museum in Tokyo.
He was decorated by the Emperor with the Order of
the Rising Sun. Reference has been made in a pre-
vious page to the early school books, that were almost
exclusively American.

Prof. M. M. Scott, of Kentucky, organized and
opened the first normal college in Japan (1872), and
this became the basis of the normal school system.

The Japanese had in their schools no knowledge of
modern music until an American — Mr. Luther Mason,
of Boston — went to Japan (1879), and spent three
years in the service of the government, introduchig
musical instruction into the schools.

The training of nurses was introduced by an Ameri-
can lady. Miss Richards, and this suggests the remark
that the foundation laying of modern female education
in that country is chiefly the work of American mis-
sionary women. Beginning with Mrs. Hepburn and
Miss Kidder, the American ladies have done a work
for which Japanese women will ever be grateful. In
1887, out of a total number of seventy-four missionary
women in Japan, sixty-nine were Americans. Nor was
their work confined to the mission schools for 'Tjirls, for
Mrs. Chappel was for a number of years before her
marriage one of the foreign lady teachers in the school

ADVANCE IN SCIENCE AND IN BUSINESS. 407

for the daughters of the nobles in Tokyo, an itistitu-
tion under the patronage of tlie Empress.

In scientific services, Gen. Capron, with liis staff
of American assistants, stands preeminent for what he
did in introducing scientific agriculture. His staff of
specialists did important work besides, in geological,
mining, hydrographic, and trigonometrical surveys!
New industries and crops were introduced, including
American breeds of horses and of sheep; fruits, as ap-
ples, plums, berries, and grasses. In Hokkaido, Profs.
Pumpelly and Lyman (the former in mining, the latter
in geological work) rendered most important service.

The agricultural college at Sapporo, in the North,
begun by Gen. Capron, was developed into a splendid
institution by Col. William S. Clark, Ph.D., LL.D.,
President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College,'
assisted by several Americans.

Americans introduced likewise the art of fish can-
ning, destined to become so important an industry in
the Northern waters; dairying also, so much needed in
Japanese living; and gymnastics in their schools. And
it was an American, Mr. Goble, who invented the ve-
hide named "jinrikusha," now so indispensable as a
means of travel.

Mention has already been made of the first medical
classes, organized and instructed by Drs. Berry and
Faulds, both Americana.

Their postal system was modeled after ours in Amer-
ica, and Mr. Paul Bryan, of Washington, D. C. , went out
to assist the government in improving and expanding it.
He was sent abroad as commissioner for Japan to per-
suade the treaty powers to admit that country into the
International Postal Union, tlie United States, as
usual, setting the example to the others.

408

JAPAX: COUNTUY, OOT'RT, PEOPLE.

Likewise the coinaye and hankiny system, as well as
the })ateiit regulations, were all modeled after those of
America. Messrs. George W. Williams and Matthew
Scott were engaged for a number of years in the finance
department, and rendered valuable service. The mint
at Osaka was, however, set up by an Englishman.

I7i naval affairs, .' -ation the name of Gen.

Legendre, Lieuts. Ca.- . and Wasson, to whom
were tendered the appointment and rank of Commo-
dore in the Japanese navy. Gen. Legendre was ex-
pected to proceed with the expedition against Formosa,
but was prevented by the American Minister; neverthe-
less they all rendered good service to the navy. In
this connection a number of young men were sent by
the government at Tokyo to our naval school at Annap-
olis for training, and they now occupy important posts
in Japan's navy. The names of Drs. Griffis, Cutter,
and Murray, Profs. Eastlake and Antisell, Drs. Simons
and Whitney, Capt. James, Mr. A. Jones, Mr. E.
Peshine Smith (adviser to the government in interna-
tional law). Col. Joseph W. Crawford, Prof. Frank
IluUot, and others whose names are not accessible de-
serve honorable mention for work in developing some
line of modern civilization in Japan.

Dr. Fenollosa, professor in the university, saw the
radical mistake the young artists of New Japan were
making in discarding their ancient pictorial art styles
and too eagerly imitating everything Western. The
government appreciated his warning, and appointed
him Commissioner of Arts, to visit Europe and Amer-
ica to inspect and report upon the management of art
schools and museums, and to purchase books and art
productions for the imperial government.

In works upon the Japanese language the Americans

WRITERS AND STUDENTS.

401)

IS well aa
i" those of

Matthew
le finance
rhe mint
lan.

of Gen.
o whom

Commo-
i was ex-
Formosa,
iieverthe-
lavy. In
J sent by
t Annap-
mt posts
1, Cutter,
I. Simons

Mr. E.

interna-
f. Frank
sible de-
ng some

saw the
>an were
irt styles
■n. The
ppointed
d Amer-
it of art

and art

juericans

have made no mean contribution. Dr. J. C. Hepburn's
Enghsh-Japanese Dictionary stands preeminent, being
the first of the kind ever published. Then Drs. Brown
Griflis, Eastlake, Imbrie, White, Lloyd, Muller, Brad-
bury, and others have issued language text-books upon
Japanese, or Japanese and English. The manuals for
Japanese students studying English, issued by the
Americans, have been valuable.

As for American writers on Japan, they are num-
bered by the score. Since Mr. King, a merchant of
Macao, who went in the ship Morrison in 1837 on a
mission of mercy, published in the next year the narra-
tive of his voyage; and since the monumental works
published by our government, giving the narrative of
Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan in 1854, mis-
sionaries, tourists, scientists, and artists have been mak-
ing their various contributions upon that picturesque
country and interesting people.

Japanese ^Students in America.— America has indeed
been an El Dorado to Japanese young men bright and
eager, some of whom have been chosen by the govern-
ment and expenses provided for, while others, sons of
wealth or rank, came at their own charges; but most
of them were indigent and ambitious, having spent all
they could scrape and rake together in paying their fare
from Japan to this country. These last, ofttimes intel-
lectual and studious, were dependent partly upon their
own toil-all manner of work which th.ir hands could
hnd-partly upon tlie kindly aid of sympathizing Chris-
tians, and upon special consideration and reduction of
fees granted by the school that received them. It would
be hard to estimate the amount in clean cash freely con-
tributed by the American Christians to Japanese students
direct, or by the institutions receiving them by granting

410

JAPAN : COUNTUY, COURT, PEOPLE.

special favors, assistance being given in eitlier case al-
most invariably l>ecause they were Japanese ywiiuj men
<tnd profess! tHj (Jinstians.

Two pioneer students came to New York in 186G,
liaving a letter from one of the missionaries in Japan.
Their expressed intention in coming to America was ' ' to
learn how to build 'big ships,' and to make 'big guns,'
to prevent the European powers from taking jjossession
of their country." And this ambitions scheme, wortliy
of a Peter the Great, they proposed to accomplisli with-
out knowing the language of the Americans, and, wliat
was worse, with only about one hundred dollars in their
pockets.

Tlie Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed
Church, in New York, kindly came to their relief, and
later the money was refunded by the Japanese govern-
ment. In illustration of the statement made above,
from the year 1866 to 1896 about live thousand Japanese
students sought advice or some kind of assistance at the
office of tills Board of Missions, in New York City; and
Rutgers College alone has received more than three
hundred of tliem, first and last. In every prominent
Church institution in the Union, Nortli and Soutli, Jap-
anese students have studied, and almost invariably been
beneficiaries to a greater or less extent.

In the several State universities likewise, Japanese
young men have studied. The agricultural, technolog-
ical, and professional schools scattered throughout the
country have also had Japanese students among their
matriculates and graduates.

Be it said to their credit, the majority of them have
been diligent in study, have taken high rank in their
classes, and been exemplary in their conduct. It was
to be expected that out of so many a few would prove

3r case al-
Hmn(f men

: in 186G,
ill Japan,
a was ' ' to
big giinH,'

)OHH0HHion

e, wortliy
lisli with-
and, wliat
rs in their

Reformed
elief, and
e govern-
lo above,
JapancHo
nee at the
City; and
I an three
•rominent
>utli, Jap-
ably been

Japanese
2chnolog-
^hout the
ong their

tiem have

: in their

It was

lid prove

IMHIHIN<» AdNOHTKllHIVr.
tobereligioiiM impoMtorH, pretending to I

»e oanieHtCliriH-

tiauH Hiinjdy ;im a cloak to gain favor and aHsista.uT
wlule 111 thiH country, the cloak being promptly thrown
off upon their return to their own country.

Dr. Nitobe, who haw Htudied both in tlu. American
and (Jerman univernitieH, drawH a contrast between the
higher education of the two eountricH, and while he
thinkH the (iermanH are rather more thorough than the
AmericaiiH, "at the same time the moral influeneew, an<l
much more the religiouH, of (Icrnuin academic life are
wanting wlien weighed in the balance," etc. JIc there-
fore wouhl recommend young men ix.t matured, or pre-
pared to take a special course in (Jcrmaiiy, to come to
America. But, after all, he doulits whether it be ad-
visable for HO many young men to go abroad to study,
even to America. Many of those who have graduate<l
Irom Ameri(ran colleges and universiti<>s now occupy
high i)OHitionH not only in the Imperial University and
various tedmical institutions of the govei-Timent, but
also in the several mission schools, as editors of lu^ws-
pa])er8 and maga/ji.cs; and many hold lucrative posi-
tions in tlie departments of the government, at the har,
in engineering, and as l)ank oflicials; many, too, are en-
gaged in religious work as preachers. And it must be
that these men, who have Imkhi so kindly trciated by the
American j.eople, and have nu^eived the Ix-st training in
American institutions, will be a powerful l)ond of g„(,<l
will between the two countries in the future. Alas!
some of tliem have carried ])a(^k to their native country-
men a broken faitli and the spirit of materialistic ag-
nosticism, the result of teachings imbibed, or i)erchan(!o
of the inconsistent lives of professing Christians with
whom they liave come in contacrt. A h>yf fc'i'ialn stu-
dents were likewise sent over, by the govcM-nmcnt's ap-

(!fl

412

JAPAN : I'iM'NTKV, COl UT, I'KOl'MO.

M i t!

'l.l

provul, ut nil early <Iuy — (laii<,'lit,crN of hi;j;li rank and ho-
cial j)osition. Sumo of tlu'iu are now onthuHiaHtically
dcvoUid to tlu) larger ciiltnro and Hphcro of woman in
Japan. The i'orotjoinjjj facts, touchinj^ the largo iiioas-
iiro of kindnoHH and snbHtantial aid boHtowod u])on Imn-
drods and ovon thouHands of JajancHO young nion, have
not l)eon wot out moroly for tho purpoHO of eulogizing
the American poo})le. Ileavon knows, wo AmericauH
liave our faults and national sins, but it is meet and
riglit that the facts be recognized as illustrating tho liis-
tory of the intercourse between tl»e United States and
Japan, all so clearly set forth by Dr. Nitobe, himself
once a university student in our country. Wo only add
Jiero that such substantial aid bestowed upon so many
students from a foreign land is not surpassed elsewhere
outside of America. These men, educated in the United
States and now in places of Icadershij*, and intrusted
witli the molding of tlio thought and sentiment of the
future of their nation in future, cannot l)ut be a bond of
friendship and of commerce Itetween tho two lands.

Another ])owerful bond between the two countries has
been fo'-ned by the large number of missionaries from
our shores that labor and live in Japan. The number
of American missionaries exceeds by far that from any
other country. Tliey liave been severely criticused from
time to time; but, after all, it is likely that their influ-
ence in promoting good will toward Japan is not suffi-
ciently recognized either here or there. The Japanese
themselves are probably not aware to what extent the
religious motive and the Christian principles of foreign
missions have awakened and still keep alive the strong
interest of the American people in their welfare and
progress. Commercial interests are 8t)-ong, literary and
artistic motives nuiy lead a few to think and care for

NATIONAL UIOriTH DEFENDED.

ik iiiid Ho-
HijiHticiiUy
woniuu ill
r^o meas-
i]>()n htin-
iieu, huve
ulogiziug
Lmeri(^:iiiH
meet and
fX the liiw-
tates and
I, himself
only add
so many
dsewhere
le United
intrusted
nt of the
I l)ond of
ands.
itries has
•ies from
i number
"rom any
sed from
eir influ-
lot sufR-
rapanese
:tent the
'. foreign
e strong
'are and
rary and
care for

the .Ia|,aneH(, juHiph., hut hy far tlui strongest and widest
interest in those people lias its springs in Christian mo-
tives ami ieelings; nor is it the less intelligent, for, as a
matter of fm.t, the ])est-read students of JajKUK'se civili-
zation, history, and religion, as well as modern progress
uretohe found among the cultured Christian gentlemen
and ladu.s connected with tin, several missionary s(.«ue-
ties. Sui)i.ose wo cut out and cast into the sea of ol)-
livion all the missionary work done in Japan hy preach-
crs, teachers, writers; destroy all tlie friendship and as-
sociations whieli they and their wives have cultivated
there, and all that they have v.rittvm m private letters
periodicals, and l,ooks in h.-half of the Japanese nation,
and where wouhl Japan stand to-day? Kvery mission-
aiy 18 a strong cahle binding the hearts of the two na-
tions together. One tiling frequently o<,eurring, ]>ut
whicli is .^fm,>f/e/i/ overlooked, is tliat the missionaries
in Clima, Japan, and otlier countries liave been the
stanchest (aiami)ions of their mitional rights. They are
not slow to sj)eak in behalf of the countries where they
live and work. A notable example of this was tlie al-
most unanimous sentiment of the American missionaries
working in China against the Chinese Ex(dusion bill
passed by Congress. Nor has Jaj.an lacked for <,]iam-
pions among the missionaries resi)ecthig the justice of
her demand for a revision of tlie old treaties. They are
about th« first of all the foreign residents to frankly
recognize the j>olitical advancement and general jjrog-
ress of the nation among whom they dwell and for whom
they work.

C'11A1*TKK V.

mil

M->

THE FVTVUK.

Japan has done what no other AHiatic nation haH over
(lone: adopted a eonHtitutional form of governniont and
secured entrance into the family of Western nations
upon terms of equality. This mucli in history, and with
this much gained she launches upon the twentieth cen-
tury.

Ifer future peace, progress, and power can, however,
be secured pvmmmnthj only ui)on the accei)tance of
Christianity as the religion of her people. It cannot
yet he said either of the rulers or of the people tluit tliey
are Christian. It cannot ho a Chrhthm empire when
tlie Emperor still has eleven or twelve concuhines in
the palace; it cannot he a Christian nation when so
many of the pco])lc are still idolaters, worshiping gods
and goddesses, and even the sun and moon, or the fox.
Kor is it just, on the otlier hand, to call them indiscrim-
inately pagans and uncivilized. The truth is that Ja-
pan is now neither Christian nor pagan, neither Orien-
tal nor Occidental, hut is in a state of mixture and tran-
sition. The whole question of Japan's future depends
upon lier acceptance or rejection of the Christian reli-
gion. There are many conflicting forces all fighting for
supremacy over the Japanese mind.

Buddhisiii is still struggling for its ancient footing;
Shintoism has made a new rally, attempting to enforce
Itself upon the Japanese heart by setting up the Em-
peror and loyalty to liira as against the allegiance and
worsliip of Jesus Christ. But both of these are doomed
(414)

CONFLICTINQ RELIOIONH.

415

religions in Japan. A religion that hm to comproniiHo
itself and jierpetuate itself l.y borrowing and iniita-
ting Christianity can never stand in competition with
it; and as for tlio vain and bombastic talk about tlio
worship of ''his sacred majesty, the Emj.eror, which
every faithful .laj.anese performs," it will not save
Shintoism.

]5ut there is modern infidelity, imported from Eu-
rope and America, a rationalistic and scientific agnos-
ticisin, that bids for the educated claHses. jMucii has
been done to make tlie youth believe that Christianity
18 a worn-out system, to be ever liereafter discredited in
the name of modern science. New Japan affects to l)e
strictly scientific— scientific or nothing. Again, there
18 a class of practical secularists who believe that Ja-
pan can get all the benefits of Christian civilization
without Christianity itself; or, another school says
accept a quasi Christianity without a i)er8onal Christ'
or even the historical Christ without believing in his
uniquely divine nature and claims.

A kind of utionalistic eclectic system dubbed Chris-
tianity (partly Japanese, partly paganism, and partly
European) will probably be attempted }>y a few rare
so.ds who imagine they could devise a religion up to
date, by convention and resolution (on paper)— a reli-
gion vastly superior to anything yet heard of either in
the West or the East.

Of course, while all these movements make common
cause against evangelical Christian! ke the Phari-
sees and Sadducees in the days of ou. i.ord, they are
naturally against one another. Out o^ this many-sided
and intensely intellectual conflict the gospel of Christ
will finally come forth victorious. Apostolic, historical
Christianity will be the accepted religion of the Japa-

416

japan: country, court, people.

i'!'

N !" .-

ii|H

HPP|H

1 J ' 1 ^ M

lijjyl

\ m/Km

•■^

Fl ' !

nese nation. It will not be the Christian faith bur-
dened and weakened by all the discordant tenets of the
many sectarian creeds of the Western hemisphere, but
will represent the essentials common to the several
branches of Protestant Christianity. To Calvinists,
Lutherans, and Iligh-Church Ritualists this may come
as a disappointment, but the reader may depend upon
it, the Japanese are not going back just far enough in
Church history to begin with all the controversies that
have raged, and, trying to bear them upon their shoul-
ders, wade througli the fight up to the twentieth cen-
tury, but will take apostolic and historic Christianity,
in its common essentials, as their creed. And Japan
will be the Jirst great Oriental nation of modern times to
embrace the religion of Jesus. This we take to be a fore-
gone conclusion, notwithstanding there may be tempo-
rary reactions. There may indeed be many unfriendly
isms and movements to contend with, and yet Christ's
Name and Gospel will move steadily on and finally win
a great victory, and secr^e to this wide-awake, pro-
gressive country an honorable career among the Chris-
tian nations of the earth. Already Christianity has
struck its roots deep into the heart and respect of the
nation, and exerts its influence far beyond what its
numerical strength would indicate. For example, the
first President of the Lower House of the new Parlia-
ment, as well as the President of the last one, were
professing Christians, and one of the judges of the
Supreme Court in Tokyo is to-day a Christian known
and recognized as such, and there are others in high
position appointed by imperial authority. As the
years go on, the Christians will make themselves felt
more and more in questions of public morality and re-
form. The next Emperor (now heir apparent, and about

I faith bur-
Biiets of the
Lsphere, but
the several
Calvinists,
i may come
Bpend upon
r enough in
versies that
their shoul-
ntieth cen-
hristianity,
And Japan
'em times to
o be a f ore-
T be tempo-
unfriendly
ret Christ's
finally win
wake, pro-
<; the Chris-
tianity has
pect of the
i what its
:ample, the
lew Parlia-
one, were
ges of the
ian known
jrs in high
As the
iselves felt
ity and re-
, and about

CHRISTIANITY WILL WIN.

417

twenty years old) will never ascend the throne a po-
lygamist, but as the husband of one wife.

That the Japanese will accept Christianity as the re-
ligion of their country and of their homes needs hardly
to be argued. The missionaries will continue their
work of preaching and teaching; the native ministry,
with its constituency of disciplined and gradually
self-propagating and self-supporting churches, will in-
crease in both numbers and efficiency; and then there
is that indefinable and invisible spread of Christian
sentiment under the Spirit of all truth, so that in due
time a great harvest of thousands upon thousands will
be gathered yearly into the Christian Church. Al-
ready there is an increasing number of educated men who
now recognize that modern civilization without religion
means the corruption of society, the unloosing of all
the bonds, and the undermining of all the foundations
upon which a nation's peace and safety rest. One
thing characteristic of the leaders of the New Japan,
in spite of occasional national reactions against foreign
ideas, is the open eye that marks the lessons of history,
as observed in the nations and countries beyond them-
selves, and along with this open eye is the determina-
tion to have the best. Converted to Christ, and tak-
ing its place among the sisterhood of enlightened na-
tions, Japan's future career needs to be considered from
two different points of view.

Refonn in the On'm^.— Japan's conversion to Chris-
tianity will in many ways have a tremendous influence
upon China and Korea. The Japanese are a people of
action, aggressive in temperament, being in this respect
more like the Teutonic than the Oriental races, and will,
when Christianized, become powerful and successful
missionaries of the Truth among other Oriental peoples.
27

418

JAPAN' : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE.

i'! J

bl;

rii ^J

HtTtt Q

They are at the same time Oriental enough in language,
literature, and race, and their ancient political in-
stitutions were so closely modeled after the Chinese, to
give them an easier access to the heart of that vast em-
pire. They themselves will be the living proofs, show-
ing how superior the Christian religion and Christian
civilization are.

Not only as evangelizers, but also as political reform-
ers, the Japanese will have a powerful influence upon
Korea and China. Being Orientals, they have the genius
of the Oriental mind, and can understand what polit-
ical institutions and forms of government are adapted
to the Oriental race better than the Europeans can pos-
sibly do. They will make a more powerful appeal to
those hitherto absolute despotisms to enter the path of
political reform and liberty. They will be the cham-
pions of constitutional government, and will play a
leading part in alliances to maintain the independence
of the far East against the scheming aggressions of Eu-
ropean powers. At this writing such a journal as the
London Spectator is seriously discussing the possibility
of Japan's entering into offensive and defensive alliance
with China, so as to frustrate what are supposed to be
Russian schemes, which alliance would put Japan in
the lead of China's political reformation. At all events,
Japan has secured for the future a recognized position
in the international politics of the far East, which En-
gland, Russia, and the United States must reckon with.

As to the large and influential place the Japanese
have won in the Orient, there can be no question what-
ever. It is a fact not generally known among Western
writers that at one period in their history the Japanese
came nif/h beitu/ the great maritime and colonizing power
of all the Orient. They still have the same bold,

Language,
itical iii-
hinese, to
i vast em-
)fs, show-
Christian

il ref orm-
iiice upon
,he genius
hat polit-
e adapted
3 can pos-
appeal to
le path of
the cham-
11 play a
jpendence
•ns of Eu-
lal as the
jossibility
e alliance
)ged to be

Japan in
ill events,
1 position
rhich En-
ikon with.

Japanese
ion what-
; Western

Japanese
ing power
me bold,

CHINA SHOULD REMAIN INTACT. 419

seafaring spirit whicli was then checked bnf n« a

fabrics and pr„d„i. xTeCket, rfaZl ''' ''"'
2 well aa the great cities oUileria 1 ; trXte

iiiff in all tt T y "^ *^^ '^^« ^''^ anchor-

-.ets of the Kai, the/r tvef Hfiv" Z
must be treated as friendly rivals '

A^ela :a^t e ve.^t ;::;''%':'''-^ ^'^"^ ^" ">ough
anese, she wiu LTh^e tlrp'ol^rhc"-'; •'='•'-
»pon that nation. That tbeS's^ irZ::
W.1I be drawn close together in international polby !"
the far tast may be illustrated by considering V-^
jctive attitudes at the present IZ:^^^^.
te^ "'r;-"-"-' of China. As arecent writeH,"
the MMh Mnerimn Me^iev, has shown, the UnitTd St,/
should conthn,e to demand the "ope, door" t P.
and do all in her power, short of deci: itg tar n 2
to perpetuate the integrity of the Chincsc\w •," o, r
comn,e„,.al n.tcrests, now guaranteed by t,' aty w^

hXendZ ofThi'"''''^ '' """"""'"'^ «- -«»-
aepemlence of Chma. Japan strongly feels the same

i^^H- ■^r.""'"""'"' "'•" •'"'"■■ly opposed to China's Te
mg divided out among the Eurnnpr,, . '"'""'>; « "«-

f, lue auropean powers, and will

=V7=

420

japan: country, court, people.

I*! II

welcome any understanding with the United States to

prevent it.

Again, Japan will furnish an increasing market for
our products; our wheat and flour, iron and steel, ma-
chinery of all kinds, cotton, wool, hides, and coal oil.
Let the reader pause to consider that last year the for-
eign trade of Japan amounted to $444,000,000, and that
America already huys more from Japan than any other
foreign nation, and he will see how easy and natural
ought to he the increasing exchange of our wheat, cot-
ton, iron, and steel, for the immense quantities of Japa-
nese products which we huy. We shall have enormous
quantities of raw material, which the Japanese must pur-
chase to supply their manufactories and mills. Japan
is destined to he a manufacturing country on a large
scale; and the Pacific Ocean, which was once a harrier
and separated far apart, now unites and makes neigh-
hors of Japan and America. Three things will in due
tnne he done to still further promote intercourse of trade
and travel;

1. The Nicaraguan canal will be cut through.

2. Ocean cables will be laid from the Pacific coast to
the Hawaiian Islands, and thence one line to Japan and
another to Manila.

3. The reduction of the time of a ship's voyage across
the Pacific to ten or twelve days.

Inasmuch as our American republic opened Japan in
1854, and has since that day pursued uniformly a friend-
ly and helpful policy toward her; and since our geo-
graphical position gives decided advantage over that of
the European nations, let us concliule that as a reason-
able and natural reward America's white sails of peace
on the P.acific will be increased tenfold, probably a hun-
dredfold, within the next quarter of a century, and that

A BRILLIANT FUTURE.

421 -

<»t tlu. RiHn.g Sun, ^vill be a familiar sight in the chief
ports on our Gulf a,.d Atlantic coaHts

And ,f the giant ItepPoiic of America will always sot
the oxamplo, and the first Constitutional Monarchy of
Asia will always follow tliat example, of standing for
iMirnan freedom and progress, tlie eternal principles of
justice and philanthropy, recognizing tlie rights of the
weak as wel as of the strong, according to the teachings
of Christ, then the combined influence of these two
countries upon the future history of the far East will
be lull of blessing and glory.

indp:x.

Ill

J' I

1^'.

!t ly

'1. I l^!J

Abokioinal, tribes, 41, 65.

Adams, VViiiLiAM, story of in Jnpan, 144 flf.

AiNi's (Kmislii), 41, 5G.

Amatekasu (sun goddess) : Cliief god, 40,54; niotlierof imjoerial ancestors,
her slirine at Iso, 40, 50; ordained food for mankind, 40.

Americans and Japan: Interest in Nicaraguan Canal, 143; in position to
open Japan, 283; legation attacks in Ycdo, 309; .slups witli allied fleet
in bombarding Sliimonoseki Heights, 312; Government's (at Washing-
ton) i)osition concerning ofllcijil outlawry of Christianity, 402; exam-
ples of helpful i)olicy, 404; contribute to language, literature, 409;
future intercourse and trade, 20, 419; the "open door" for both in
China, 419; future policj' of the two countries, 421.

Anjiro, a Japanese, accompanied St. Xavicr from Goa to Japan, 108.

Architecture: IJuddhist temples, models of, 93; Eastern Asia and
Europe contrasted, 24S.

Arts IN Japan: Flower art, 279; patronized by court nobles, and some
of the Sluognns, 125, 217; exhibits of at International Exix)sitions, 241,
344; union of lil)eral an<l industrial, 247; growth of in Eastern Asia and
Europe, 248; the human form in Greek and Japanese contrasted, 248;
Jai)an's debt to China, 248; golden age of, 248; conditions of develop-
ment, 248 ff.; materiiils and forms of, 251 fl',; defects of, 254, 264 ; decora-
tion, 2fiO, 274.

Bamboo: Groves, 21; uses of, 22.

Bank op Japan, 3S0.

Berry, dr., pioneer mondical missionary and services to Jap.an, SGI.

Binoham: Judge of Ohio, Ameiican minister, 402; cham])ion of Japan's
national rights, 402, 403.

Black, John, Englishman, founder of first newspaper, 355 (footnote).

Brinki-ey, CAPT., Editor Japan Mail, high authority on Japanese arts,
274, 277.

Bronze Work and Sculpture, discussed, 258, 203.

Bryan, Paul, Washington, D. C, organized postal sj'stem, 407.

Buddhism (sec Shaka Muni): IJronght from Korea into Japan ( A.D. 555),
58; opposition to, 58, (iO; adopted by Fhnpi'css Suiko, 00; doctrines of,
62,00; moral teachings, 04; modified form of in Japan, 64; eating of
flesh forbidden, 19,04; became the established religion during Nara
period i,sce Nara), 00; priests at court, 00, 93; compromised with Shin-
toism, 06, 07; popularized by itinerant preaching, 67; finally triumphant,
67 flf.; influence of upon civilization and arts, 92, 93; priests become rich
and immor.nl, 03; priestly class in Tokugawa era, 175; resemblance to
Romanism ami difrerenccs, 237; temples, 238 AT. ; the priest's duties, etc.,
241 flf.; festivals. 243 flf.; under Tokugawas, the established religion, 245;
disestablished after the Ilestoration, 327; priests adopt methods of

ikfi

INDEX.

423

CA8TLBS and castle walls, 125.

Cha No Yr, liigh tea ceremonial, 125

?hildr'en biT'an 'T'' r^'"'^«««'"'«'' «t t''««ty with Japan (1895), 386.
vuiLUKKN, Dirth and training, 179-181 /» -j^".

Christianity (Protestant): Enters Japan (1859) 3'>2- on<l«,v«,i i

ernmentof the Restoration (1869) 320 '^^fi- p.h ^li' ''"^^f"^'' ^y ^ov-

(1872), 329; flr.t Christian Ch rch 33^'a, ti' fh"!,°'"f •''*''"'" ""^^'"
1S7Q Q^A. „ 1 , "'"'*''^"» """-t^nristian feelinK bitter in

a lie s' 35"'nati^rr' ''h' ''^^""""" «""' ^««; examples' of sfeai-
rastness, 3o9, native clmrches quickened by Osaka Conference TfU-

CHRvsANTHKMtM.. National flower, 10; Prof. Chamberlain's description

CLmra^K-'^Wil"' ^; ^"■''"''"* "''"•'•■"It"'-"! college at Sapporo, 407.

Coal, bituminous, abundant, 35.

CO..MB.S, Studied Marco Polo's maps containing Zipangu (Japan), 35,

rni;!;!.? '/"«^"^"'*"'''"* ^'^ '•^•^ ^"'•"' t° K"™p«' 3'''-

CO s nip^.T' ?■''•'' "•' '"•"'" ^'•■^* evangelistic tour in interior 359

;.esire:"25/2r'"^ ""'^^••*^'^"' nobutter,littlemilk,25: beSl.t-
Cryptomerias, 21.

424

japan: country, court, people.

J 5

. «»'t

Damasckning, three forms of, 260.

DivoRCK, frequent, aii<l cuusesof, 190.

DBACiON (sec niKler Am), 253.

DrTCii: Surgeons iind botanista with tra<lingpost at Nagasaki, 17; King
of Holland's letter to Ju|)aneise rulcrH, 144; trading HCttlement in De-
shlnia Island, at Nagasaki, 144; other Kuropeans exi)elled, ISO; merce-
nary spirit of, 280; submit to indignities, 281; influence of Dutch learn-
ing in Japan, 314.

Eakthquakks AND VohCANOKs: Described, 8- 13; writer's experiences of,

13.
Education: First schools were for nobles at court by Wani and his sons,
70; Chinese classics introduced, 70; Chinese styles affected, 71, 93;
commons ignorant, 0(5; University (so-called) at Kioto, 93; little prog-
ress in from 1192 to 1003, 120; schooling, Tokuguwa era, 182; modern
system of, 347; English taught in, 347; Imperial University, 847; mis-
sion schools, 3(S0; Imperial rescript on, 380; early educational influ-
ences were American, 405; Americans professors in Imperial Univer-
sity, 400; services of other Americans in education, 406 ff.; school for
peeresses under patro age of Empress, 347.
Ekumi (cross trampling), 139.

Embassy: Sent by Shogun to Washington, 3J7; another to Europe and
return,' 311; later another to America and Europe, mission a failure,
329, 330,
English (British): Captain Saris seeks trade in Japan (1613 A. D.), 146; his
journey overland to Ssiogun's scat, 140 ff.; audience with Shogun, and
offers King James I.'s letter and presents, 148; unable to compete with
Dutcn, abandon Ja|)anese trade, 149, 280; seek to ojien trade again in
nineteenth century, 280; demand indemnity of Shoioin for murder of
Richardson, 309; fleet bombard Kagoshima, 311; English Minister, Sir
Harry Paiks, attacked in streets of Kioto, 30. .
Eta, an outcast race, admitted to citizenship, 391.
Exorcists and Impostors, 242.
Exposition in Paris, Japan's exhibits at, 844.

Extratkrrioriality: Repugnant to Japanese, 329; abolished (1899) by
new treatif's witn Western powers, 398.

Farming: Formation of country, 205; system of described, 206 ft".; Irriga-
tion and terracing, 206.

Faulds, Dr., medical missionary, 361.

Fauna: Poor, 25; domestic animals, 26, 28; wilil, 26, 27; birds, 28; rep-
tiles, 29; insects numerous, 30.

Fenollosa, Prop., services to Japan as Art Commissioner, 408.

Festivals, Shinto, 233.

Feudalism: Foundations laid, 82 ff.; Yoritomo's system of, 98 ff.; lyeya-
su's account of, 135; abolished (1869), 334, 336.

Fillmore, President, letter of, to Japan's ruler, 284, 289.

Fish, abundant, 33, 34.

Flora: Wealth of, 17; prevalent types of, 18; domesticated plants im-
ported from Continent, 18; the fine cereals, 18; fruit tr^es few, 18;

mi . I

INDEX.

425

P»iachmM kingdom (.see I'rof. Asa Uiiiy on), I'l *^

t i.owKK art, 27)».
Ki-owKK : Festival, liH) tt'. ; ,l„il.s unci flags, 202,

jZ"'2.""''""*"" ^""^•''"•'""« "•'"' ^^"''»' ««ttle.l, :.4a; ce.led to

^Tp'^'ni^Is.-- '"" ""•' ""'"^''^ ^"""-•-•' '" '"""^^''^ ^'-ty With
Fox gods: Divine, 2«; sin-inos and images of, 281.

* UJiVAMA, the sacred mountain, described, <J fT

SX^lsa '"«"" "'•» prime ministers, 80 ff.; held offlc'e «;

Gkkmany joined Kussia in demands upon Japan, :m.

OOLD mines in earlier times, 35.

tiOTOBA, ex-Emi)eror, famous sword smith, 123

GRANT, GEN. IT s.: On Gern.an Consul's conduct in Japan m- on

UREGORiANcalendar adopted, 357,
Hara kiri explained, 144 AT

Ycclo, 295; ;„,„■„„,. thither „,„| ,„„iie„ce with Shoeun, m IT tieatf »i h
Shog„„ made, 301; »|,|,„,iti„„ to ...ousecr, »; M,-. Itari. „n7c "''
mo,lo,e Percy comparej, 303; his Mcctmy «ik interi^roto Mr it„

fo ;;;.pr»°'"' "^ "" ^"^"'"- *> "««'"« Ar,";,r';iS::.
s«":«!=r,rr-'-r.r,,siii;,°ri5-ete e-

before dy ng , " nffir, f, , ' li'''?' ,'^°"'- '" "^^ '■«»"» '""P" J"»l

see„t„r/,.,fiii;«i«::j^;' ^.,: :-;-^.»..^

Honowa™,, noted tem„le in Kioto, 240.
UONSuiu, main island, 8.

426

japan: country, court, people.

1 <

VI n

ft'-'

iiiiii I

Hot Sprinqs, numerouH, 14; superstitious concerning, 14.

IlorsK OK Commons: Liberal party of, opiiones cabinot's policy, 888; the
real Ihsuu touching iiuoHtion of renponglblc niiniBtiy, 384.

lIoiisKs: Structure an<. plnn, ]ri<i; interior arrangements for eating, work-
ing, and Bleeping, IM, tin.

IIUBBARi), ox-governor, American minister to Japan, favored revision
of treaties, 404.

lilAi, ancestral tablets, !!lt4.

Il Kamcn, Lonl of Hnkone: Regent, 304; his bold policy vs. anti-foreign
party, 805; assassinuteil March, 18»K). 305; confusion followed, ;«)«.

IMAOE, great, of Itiiddha, CO, 202.

Imperial insignia, 40, 2:U; party, mads a coup d'etat, 815.

Incarnation (see Doutkinks ok IUddhism), 00.

Infidelity, imported from Christian lands, 415.

Inland Sea, Its beauty, etc., 3.

iNL'NDATiONa, destructive, 13, 14.

Inlaying, in cast iron, art of, 260.

Inn, at a Japanese in tiio oMcn times, 222 ff.

ITO, Count: Prime minister, 350; inlluenco as Privy Councilor, 307;
champion of Western civilization, 309; represented in treaty with
China, 380; commissioner to prepare modern code o! laws, 350.

IWAKt',KA, Prince: head of embassy to foreign countries (1872), 327; con-
fronted at Washington, I). C, with question of government outlawry
of Christians, 329; assassinated, 340.

lYEYASu: Founder of Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns, 128; tomb at Nikko,
22,133,248; built castle and capital at village of Vcdo, 117, l.'!2; after
succession tollideyoshi'a power, opposed by league of Southern Confed-
erates, 129; moderation toward conquered iMieniios, 131; ability as
general, as administrator of government, lit^ ; Tokugawa era described,
133 ft'.; his legacy or code, 137; policy of excluding Europeans, 150 ft'.;
made Japan a hermit nation, 152.

IzANAGi and Izanari, parents of the race, 39,

Izanari's descent to Hades, 39; Izan.igi's search for her and his puriilca-
tion, 39,

Jackson, Andrew: Strong foreign policy of, 281; commissioned Mr.
Roberts to bear a letter to Japan's rulers.

Jatan: An archipelago, 2; bounilarics of, and geological position, 1; area,
2; new American possessions in N. K. and S. W., 2; section of an oiunin
ladder, 2; the f<mr chief islands, 3; physiography of, ft".; scenery of
picturesque, 17; poetical names of, 45.

Japan (nation): Origin of, 41; a mixed race, 42; Yaniato Japanese the
ruling tribe, 42, 49, 55, 82; will lead political reform in Orient, 417; a
maritime people, 418; commands recognition in international afl'airs
of Far East, 418; characteristics of, 45, 153; modes of living and work-
ing, 154: strange ways, 167, 169; politeness, 177; lively and gay, 245.

Jesuitism: In Japan, 92; Jesuits and Franciscans quarrel, 121, 136; sus-
pected of intrigue vs. government, 131, 138, 151; celebrate canoniza-
tion of Loyola with great pomp at Nagasaki, 139.

INDEX.

oinb at Nikko,
117, \W1\ arter

1 his puriilcn-

lissioned Mr.

•f'MMirTKNNo: First Emperlor.4i- l.i« f.ii i

jSmnr '""" ^=^' ''•"•^' '«" '--'"^ Korea, 57.
Ka«o (sedan cl.air), traveling by, 159

Kioto in wealth an., splen.lt mV' '"'"""■^' '"*»••*"'• "' ' r'val of

Of fou.lallsn., 335. ''''' •"«'»"'-"»'^ed throne touching abolition

Kioto: Second (Ixedcaoltiii fw nr.

^. tal capital, «,; aUeX'^^cl Ll?^^^^^^ ""'"'""'"' «"' "■-" «'•'-
KIRIN, the, 262 (see under Art) ' ^ Kaniakura, 1.2, 97; in ruins. JO6.

KiTKs, and kite flyinR, 204

"'™;c:«,r,r:^:z;ir4iL".i.r™r'"''« -•

ans, J07. ' ' ^"^ ►'"'Hon of Jajmn seen by Kuropc-

», W, <0. '" ''°"'" "• : •"""' °' JapanoM traditlo,,,, etc

Ko»i?.'; ." '',"'""°" "'"""■»'• "». ■». M-

Lacqukr work, discussed, 255 ff
Lake BnvA, 5.

Lambuth,Kkv. James w n n „ .

pan, 870. "''' ^-^ ^•"•' * ^"*«»"» miasionary to China, then Ja-

Lambi TH, Rev. Walter R., d d m n • vu ,

LA^r' '''' ^'''^^ "°" ''"'^'^ «"c..;;s in Vap' .''a?! """'""' •""«^°"*'-^ «"
Lands.; APE gardening, 278, 279 ' *

Circ. «0 A.D., 10; „„„„„„, a„„a ;com„ned ;.i A^'. , '""""■ """"'
>ear„l„. ,„u„wed B„„dh,™, o„ SefJSfc'rr'^^"^ ""'""'
MANuPicTTOiKQ, cotton ralllj, 853. ' ' '

428

japan: country, oourt, peoplk,

MakcoI'oi,o: In China, 84; storloH of gold in Japan, 114; IiIh maim showed

/iipiuigii iJapan),:)r>.
MAUKiAiiK <'i'it'ni(ini('><, is-i ff.

M ASAMi NK, fain()U8 hWoidHinith, and Myocliin family ditto, 128.
Mashac'KK of ChriHtiana at, Sliiuiubara, 141.

McCartkk, I>k., v«'n«ral)ln nilsHionaiy and a picnteer teacher in Universi-
ty of Tokyo, 405.
Mkxioo, trade from to Japan in seventeenth ciMilury, 143.

MiciiiZANK SroAWAR.v: Km))eror'fl c<mnH('l()r and tcaelior, MO; ImniHheil
died, then waw canonizfij, 8(). '

Mikado (Emperor): Hon of Heaven, 49, 170; head of Shinto cnlt and wor-
shiped as divine, 49, 2iHl; ho performed in primitive timos hiHtration
rites for the people, 50, 23(i; a low \erHed in ChincHO ClOMsics, 71; be-
came effeminate, 84; j m we r w rested liy tlie Shognns, 97; hisconrt no-
bles, 170; his court oi)p.)Hed to foreign treaties and opening of country,
209,1102,805; conllict between two courts ot Kioto and Yedo, 807, 818;
ordered Barbarians to be "brushed away," 809; dually ratiliod treaty
made with Perry, 813; Mika-lo dies, and the youth Mutmihito ascends
the throne as Kmperorof the Kestoration, 814, 817; his oath, 818; new
gctvernmcnt organized, 819; edict vs. Christianity renewed, 820, 326;
capital removed to Yedo (Tokyo), 820; oi-dered Koniaii Catholics de-'
ported, 820; opened Japan's ilrst parliament, 883.

MiKUSHi, 234.

MiLNKs, I'KOF., on eartlKiiiakes, 14.

MiMi/UKA (monument of ears), 120.

MiNAMOTO Clan: Descent, 84 (see Yoritomo).

MiNEitAi.a, 34 ff.

MiUKORS of steel, S02.

Missions, Foreign, in Japan: First entrance (1859), 322; misaionaries
persecuted, 822, 320; of native Christians ditto, 825; lay foundation of
modern education, 848; Ilrst preacliing in tlie interior, :{5<); policy of
touching mission schools broad, 800; medical missions, 8(;i, :i(;0; literary
work of, 362; New Testament imblished.aoo; theological scliools found-
ed, 8(i«; missions a bond between Japan and Western countries, 412.

Mississippi, Perry's llagship, 284.

Mori, Viscount, and Western education, 340.

Mulberry plantations, 217,

MtTRRAY, LL.D., Daniel, services to educational department, 406.

Murray, historian, on policy of excluding foreigners in the seventeenth
century, 280.

Mythologies: Our knowledge of, 37; Kami (gods), 38; origin of world,
39; meaning of word /frtmt, 47, 48; i)rogonitor9 of race, 38; myths and
art, 41; relation of Japanese race to sun goddess (Amalerasn), 41; " di-
vine age," 54; names of gods and goddesses, 48; truth in their myth-
ology, 54

Nab A, first fixed capital, 65; temple of Zodaiji and great image of Buddha,

66, 261; pilgrims' and tourists' visit, 65.
Neeshima, Joseph Hardy, 875 ff.

jii

liiH inu|m ithoweU

INDEX.

429

BY, 80; linniHhed,

age of Buddha,

NEwsrArKii ni,m piibiiHhod, jibs.

NiC'AKAdltANCANAI,, ;. 420.
NlCOLAI, HiHliup, J)8|.

"'Z'T "" "' ""■ «"•""»' «-«-« '..hero, .,„„„„ T„„„^

NiKVANA (see under JJuddmksm), m

o:;i^;rs::s:s.,t:;rz;;:;;L«''-;; ■";''"•»•"'•

lections for foreign idenH, nj-. "'"""""'' •'^"' chanictcrl.tics and predl-

Okanok, the, IS. ^ ' ' *""•

Osaka MI^s8I0NARY Confkrknck. nm
Osaka (Nanihn),citv of,.), r,r, ' *

tav,,,, R,„„„„ Cnllumc,,ln; Sh„; ,;,» t ""'"""' I"*""."".

e.»i., n„ „,„„„„.„,, ^;nu,i,,K'::,;i:;,';';f ,7;;-''° »' •""<-■■

PAiNTiN(i, art and Hchools of, 264 fl"
Papenbi'ko Rock, 141.
Paper Makino, 219 IT.
Paradisk ^see RrDnm.sM), 64

PjrRRV.CoMMODOREMATTHKwC: Character 9SI. f ••

284, 290; arrived in Yedo Bav, 2S0 ^v- ' .'.f '^ training, 284; his fleet,

character and manners, 287; bou^.j.t" .""of t"! ."'''' '" •'■"'"""^^^
as presents, 29, ; refused' to he treate ke tl^e D.u h "'l^^''''"'''.^' «tc.,
nobus.nessAvith Jaj.aneso on Sunday 287 «.^' ^nRnsakl. 287;
made a tieaty, 291- wh-u ho m..^, r ,' . ' *"'""'* ^■'''''* ^o Japan, 290-
York and gra";; at Newport, 292 "''''""' ""' ^«^^' ""'' "«"th in n7^

Persimmons, is,

Phimppines, 2, ]2fi.

Physicians and medicines, 161 ff.

Pierce, President, 29a

PmIc.^bT?.n' ^''"•^"^"^«''> -«"' *" Japan (1545), 107.
PIRACY by Japanese upon foreign coasts, 123.

72; codes of .... based ...^C^l^Z^,^ 72^ "'^ fl"' '^""'^*^"'
81; court nobles at Kioto supulemonfPd i. ,, J' <^'"'^ emperors,"

••'■i

l'\ !"

'If'

430

japan: country, court, peoplb.

Emperors sunk low and civil disorder prevailed, 104; government of
the Restoration, 343; reforms after foreign models adopted, 346 AT.; con-
stitution pioclaimcd, 356; flrst parliament, 383; suffrage limited, 383

Polo, Marco, io7,

POKCELAIN (kaolin) stone abundant, 30.

Poktlguese: Monopoly of Japan's trade for a century, 142; first Euro-
peans to visit that country, 107; effect of intercourse upon Japanese,
128; bad morals of, 150.

Post runners and jxjst houses, 222.

Pottery and pottery wares, 270 ff.

Primitive life. Il.-vbits, etc., 42 ff. ; family life and morals, 46.

Primitive religion: Shinto the native religion, 47, 40 (see Kami under
Mythologies); names of gods, 48; nature and ancestor worship, 49;
Emperor head of Siunto cult, 40: no dogmas, 50; palace and temple
one, 50; Emi)eror jierforms rites of purillcation, 50; offerings and sac-
rifices, 51, 5-2; human sacrifices, 53; fox god, 26; sacred trees and an-
imals, 53, 232; national shrine, 229; temples described, 259 ff.; jiriests,
231 ff.; household gods, 235; a doomed religion, 415.

Red Cross Society in Japan, 386.

Rein's, view, 112.

Rice growing, 207 ff.

Richardson, an Englishman, cut down by the Lord of Satsuma's guards
308.

Riu, Yano, flrst Christian baptized, 329.

Riukiu (Loocho<;3),con(iuestof, 127.

Rivers, short and rapid, 8.

Roman Catholics (see Jesuitism): St. Xavier entered (1549) followed by
Portuguese and Spanish priests, 109; success during Nobunaga's power,
112; built churches, monasteries, and schools, 113,135; sent an embassy
of Christian princes from Japan to the pope of Rome, 113, 114; at flrst
favored, then bitterly persecuted by Hideyoshi, 121; persecutions con-
tinued under lyeyasu, 136 ff.; fortitude of native Christians in spite of
cruel tortures, 140; massacre of the Christians at Shimabara, 141;
propagandist reentered Japan after country opened by Commodore
Perry, 381: remnant of Catholic community discovered near Nagasaki
(1868), 32v., 321; statistics of, 381.

Ron IN, the forty-seven, story of, 195 ff.

Russia: Siberian Russia, 1; Russians seek trade with Japan in nine-
teenth century, 280; attempted murder of crown i)rince by Japanese
])oliceman. 39J; Czar accepts a))oiogy for same from Emperor of Japan,
394; interferes with China-Japan treaty, 386; Ruaso-Greek Church in
Japan, 381.

Saigo, leader of Satsumara rel)ellion (1877) and death in battle, 341.

Salutation, etitiuette of, 177.

Samurai (military gentry), 84, 123; despised manual labor and trade, 123;
in Tokugawa era, 172; stirred against opening the country to foreign-
ers, 309; after the Restoration .;till hostile to foreigners, .'524 ; under the
new regime, 345; as policemen, 349.

i;i

INDEX.

431

tsu ma's guards,

S.TO., „„„. ,.,,,, 3..,.,, „,„,,,^,. ___^_, ^^^__^_^^^^^ ^^ ^_^^^_^^ _^^^^^^

cUn ,„„„.|e,| miliary cJuar„^;°'aLr„ri ""t "' "'"""""^

the Minanioto line, loo- Jfoir. s:i. Sliognn line, 92; end of

«OCIA. C.ASSKS A.I>Cl^^^'J;, ;','.^"';"-;2^« «••

origin of tribal and fan.ily namP«! f according to descent, 76:

ilies, 80; rise of militar7nobir ^V Tr'' ''f'\ '''' «' ""'"^ 'am-'

«''«'1^0ff-;thccon„nonsl74tr;im.v o^rr'""^^ '" Tokugawa
SoKOBAN (abacus), use of, ics. P^»sant» J » condition of, 206.

STo\^E,^';r;gS"i?,^67^^^ ""■" ■'"''*''"'''•' «^"«"«^' *» 17thcent„ry,280

Students : Japanese, sent by Shounin to ii„ii , .

354; eagernessforEnglislila li 1 3 J?"""'^/'^^'''« '"« devolution,
409-411 ; feniidc students, 4,, "*'"•"'''' ^^^^ «i«at number of in America,

SUIMX, Emperor abolished Junski (B.C. 44), 29.

^^ -, Of, Claimed descent from an Emperor (see Kzvomor,,,

Taxes, in kind ui)on soil, 205

TkI'^''«:-^^"" ^''""'""'" '"«^*'''"' '"issionarv, a61
TKA. Raising, 210 fl-.; curing, 212 0- • hM Tn.

served to guests, 178. ' °'* ^"^'^ ceremonial, 271; always

Temple bells, 262.

'"B'r„^;.!,r'° "" "°""- "■"■""- -""'"") B..UU,,,.,, ,.e. „„,„

Tobacco and pipes, 215.

Tokyo (Yedo), 5.

Toleration, religious, 137.

ToKTOisK, .TO; see under Art, 252

IRAdk: Opened by Portuguese in letl, c-^ntu, v 107- i

lemen s on China and other foreign '-"a u In a' T"'" *''^'""S «*-
to Mexico, India, and Korneo, 12^; t",.,^ vo '' '''' '"""« ^«J'»S'^«

«"•• flag of the Uisino. Sun to be Len ■'''''"''*'"'''"•' «''"''t«n«'l

EMIGRATION, doctrine of in Bu.ldhism, 62.

432

japan: country, court, people.

lii

! ;

iJtif

Trkatibs: With foreign powers, 30*; storm followed, 306; foreigners at-
tacked in many places, 307 flf.; treaty revision agitated, 391; new trea-
ties with Western nations (July 17th, 1899), 398.

Unitarianism: Entered (1889) and made vigorous propaganda, 895; in-
, lluence of among educated classes, 395; policy of compromise toward
Buddhist teachings, 395.

Vekbeck, D.D., Rkv.Guido F.: Pioneer missionary, 322,325; testifles con-
cerning gross Immorality of people, 328; taught in Dainiyo's school at
Nagasaki, 828; he and others founded the Tokyo University, and was
llrst president of same, 348, 405.

Wanikisui, Korean wise man, came to Japan (circ. 300 A.D.) and taught
the crown prince, 4(), 57, 69.

Wars: Period of civil strife begun (939 A.D.), 86; of Red and While Ban-
ners (Tairasand Mlnamolo clans), 91; battle nearShimonoseki Straits,
91,92; period of intrigue and anarchy, 99; Tartar fleet destroyed, 102;
Hideyoshi's wars in Japan, 115, 117; vs. Korea, 118 fl".; war of Southern
Leaguers vs. lyeyasu and battle of Sekigahara, 129; battle in city of
Kioto between Regent's troops and Choshu, 311; war of revolution and
restoration, 315; outbreak upon foreigners in Hyogo (Kob6), 316; with
Chrha, and cause thereof, ?85; conduct of by Japanese, 385, 388; treaty
of l>eace made, 386; results of victory over China, 389 ff.

WEBhTKR, Daniel, favored approaching Japan for treaty, 284.

Whalers: American in Japanese waters, 282; cruel treatment by na-
tive, 28d.

WiLS^Ni Bishop Alpheus W., D.D., LL.D.: Had episcopal charge at
planting of Southern Methodist ISIission, 371; his views of present
problems in Japan, Introduction, pp. vii., viii.

Winds: Relation toclimate,16; hot and cold, 16; typhoon (taifun) is a cy-
clone on the sea, 16.

Wistaria, 25.

Xavier, Saint: Meets in Goa Anjiro, a Japanese, 108; his labors in Ja-
pan, 108, 135; death in Canton River, 109.

Yamato-Dake, 56.

Yamato district, 50.

Yedo (Tokyo), fouiuleil by lyeyasu, 117.

Yezo, large northern island (Hokkaido), 3.

YORiTOMo: Famous leader of Minamoto clan, 84, 85; founder of Kamaku-

ra capital and first of the Shoguns, 92; his cruelty, 99.
Yoshitsune: Japanese hero and brother of Yoritomo, 88; put to death by

Yoritomo, 91.

Zodiac, 251.

l^l

; fovelgnct'S at<
, 391; new trea-

gunda, 895; in*
iromise toward

5; testifies con-
inyo's school nt
nsity, and was

,D.) and taught

,nd While Ban-
}noseki Straits,

destroyed, 102;
var of Southern
lattle in city of

revolution and
Lol)6), 31(); with

385,388; treaty

, 284.

satnient by na-

opal charge at
!ws of present

[taifun) is a cy-

s labors in Ja-

ler of Kamaku-
put to death by

4^^