IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I m 11^ ;» iiiM ^ m ■'MO U! IIM 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 II — 1.6 -« 6" ► •?S! ^ <^ /} « >%/ '^1 e. ^1 % /a '& 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation «^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 « '^p ^ \¥ <> ^ % V 'ii Vfk ^ MP< Wr O^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter an of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfilmd le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6x6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, uu qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage sont indiqu6s ci-dessous. D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur I I Coloured pages/ □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagde □ Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur6e et/ou pellicul^e D D D D D n Cover title missing/ Le tjtre do couverture manque Coloured maps/ Cartes g6ogiaphiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Reli6 avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serree peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion lo long de la marge intdrieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajoutdes lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmdes. Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes Pages restored and/oi Pages restaurdes et/ou pelliculdes Pages discoloured, stained or foxei Pages d^colordes, tachetdes ou piqudes Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es I — I Pages damaged/ I — I Pages restored and/or laminated/ I — I Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ I I Pages detached/ A Showthrough/ Transparence □ Quality of print varies/ Qualiid indgale de I'impression □ Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du materiel supplementaire I — I Only edition available/ D Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 film6es & nouveau de fapon d obtenir la meiileure image possible. D Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmentaires: V / This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film6 au taux de rdduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X SOX ■y ^^■^"^ 110V ifiy 70X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Library of the Public Archives of Canada L'exemplaire film6 fut raproduit grdce d la g6n(6ro8it6 de: La bibliothdque dos Archives publiques du Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de I'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original ;:,opies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont filmds en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film6s en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une emprc ite d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol —^> (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaltra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds A des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, at de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 L c. \ LANDMARKS OF HISTORY. BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON, M.A., LL.B. Victoria University, Colour^, Ontario. ^ TORONTO : WILLIAIVL BRIOGS, WESLEY BUILDINGS. C. W. COAXES, Montreal, Que. S. F. HUESTIS, Halifax, N.S. mi (Si) Entered according to the / ^t of the Parliau^ent of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-one, by William Johnston, in the Office of the Minister of Argriculture, at Ottawa. 3'^oi3 LANDMARKS OF HISTORY. BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON, M.A., LL.B. " OOW came I thus ; how here ?" mused Father Adam in the garden of Eden; and ever since that time man has continued to ask himself this question. Many have been the attempts to draw asiile the veil that separates the Known from the Unknown, and to reveal the secrets of that bourne whence no traveller e'er returns. But the mystery of life is as mysterious now as it was when Eden bloomed in primeval beauty. "How came I thus; how here?" is still a qu stion unanswered ; but, although we cannot stand within the inner veil and explore the depths of the wisdom and knowledge of God, or penetrate the secret of being, we can gaze in admiration and rapture upon the objects of His handiwork, and, it may be, become acquainted with his character by studying His dealings with man, who is the noblest of all His works. If it be true that "history repeats itself," and that "we can read the future in the light of the past," then, indeed, must the study of history be profitable. The poet sings : " Thus fought the Greeks of old, Thus will they fight again ; Shall not the self-same mould Bring forth the self -same men ?" But, alas ! alas ! we all know that the Greeks of to-day are degenerate descendants of the heroes of Thermopylee and Marathon. Byron wrote in mournful strain : " The isles of Greece, the isles of Greece ! Where burning Sappho loved and sung ; Where grow the arts of war and peace, Where Delos rose and Phoebus sprung ! Eternal summer gilds them yet, Btit all, except their sun, is set." And Anthon tells us "that the geograpliical situation of Greece was eminently favorable to the development of intellectual power, and to that peculiarly nice organization by which delicacy of feeling is refined even to fastidiousness." But climatic influence does not now produce great men in Greece. Her national glory ha'^ long since passed away, and only her sun — that is, the light of her learning — continues to shine with undimmed splendor. The circle of eternal change, which is the law of nature, admonishes us that the past is gone forever ; that a nation has its periods of infancy, youth, manhood and old age ; and that when the winter of life settles down upon the barren land, the creative faculty of man can neither bud nor blossom. But as the life of an individual may be prolonged by obser- vance of the rules of health, so may the life of a state, by giving attention to certain great principles which may not be violated with impunity. The philosophy of history applies those principles. It gives a reason for the rise and fall of states. It postulates that every effect must have an adequate cause ; and, hence, that any historical event is the natural effect of its cause. In attempting to give, what seemed to me, the prominent features of one of the greatest of all great events, I shall constantly keep before me the cause and the effect, my object being to illustrate the educational value of history by showing that the Renaissance was the fountain-head of all the springs of social, political and religious reform which revived, re- freshed and invigorated the fainting nations of the sixteenth century. The lessons taught by the study of this period of history are pregnant with great truths, and it is my aim to pylee and of Greece itelleetual by which 3SS." But in Greece. 1 only her ihine with lich is the 3ver; that id old age ; ihe barren r blossom, by obaer- state, by may not ry applies id fall of I adequate e natural prominent .8, I shall my object y showing be springs vived, re- sixteenth period of ly aim to present them in a spirit of fairness and with due regard to the feelings of those who may not agree with me on several important points bearing upon the Renaissance, in so far as it ii:ay be considered a religious revival. It was the year of grace 1453. The Eastern Roman Empire had flourished a thousand years. Safe from the barbarian hordes — the Goths, the Huns, the Vandals — who had overrun Western Europe, Constantinople looked down, proudly and defiantly upon the Golden Horn. The wit, the eloquence, the learning of ancient Greece and Rome were here studied by a race of men who held dear the memories of the glorious and heroic past; but the evil day came when this relic of a bygone age fell a prey to the rapacious and fanatical Turk. Splendid villas, magnificent temples, and hoary libraries alike suffered destruction at the hands of the conquering infidel. Fleeing westward, with their treasured rolls of papyrus or parchment, the exiled Greek scholars found a home in Florence, Pisa, Rome, and other cities of Western Europe. The Renaissance had begun. The new birth of literature ushered in an intellectual as opposed to a superstitious reign. The bands of superstition and ignorance, which had so long held in chains the nations of Europe, were fast melting under the genial rays of this new sun which had just arisen in the intellectual heavens. Again the fiat had gone forth from the throne of Omnipotence, " Behold, old things are passed away, and all things are new." The allegorical instruction and religious trappings of the monastic Middle Ages were ruthlessly swept away by the leaders of the Renaissance. The intellectual was substituted for the ceremonial. "A vivid realization of the person of Christ " was pure religion and undefiled. To know Christ and Him crucified was the unalienable inheritance of every man and woman. The Bible was to be an open book, and every reader of it his own interpreter. The poetry, the philosophy, the politics of Greece and Rome were now studied with as much zeal as were the Gest books 6 during the Dark Ages. The poetry of Homer, the tragedy of Sophocles, the phillipics of Demosthenes, the politics of Plato and Aristotle, stood side by side with the works of Virgil, Ovid, Cicero and Caesar. Great scholars from the Continent — among whom Grocyn, Colet, Linacre and Erasmus stand in the first rank — brou<;ht the new learninn: to England, in which safe retreat it flourished with a vigor and productiveness far surpassing its growth in any other part of Europe; for the separation of England from the Continent by a physical barrier promoted the growth of the peaceful arts and sciences, at a time when the nations of the Continent were plunged in ruinous wars and intestine strife. The political and social influence of the Renaissance is best seen in More's " Utopia." Coming from the pen of one of the most gifted of the politicians and statesmen of that period, it u)ay be taken as embodying the leading principles of advanced thought on social and ])olitical science. The piercing, graj' eyes, the thin, mobile lips, the intelligent and irregular features, the restless activity, the tumbled brown hair, the negligent dress of the young lawyer who, at the age of twenty-three, had sufficient influence in the English Parliament to cause the refusal of the king's request for a subsidy, could not fail to leave the impression upon the most careless observer that this beardless boy was destined to play an important part on the stage of human action. The name of Sir Thomas More will ever be revered by those who prize honor and virtue above the external advantages of rank and fortune. Done to death by a besotted king and his licentious queen, he passed calmly to the scaffold, rather than do violence to his conscience by acknowledging the religious validity of the marriage of King Henry VI H. and Anne Boleyn. From a writer of such nobility of nature we should expect exalted sentiments on social and political questions. Accordingly, More informs us that in England laws are made in the interest of the wealthy and for the purpose of oppressing the poor; but in Utopia — this dreamland of nowhere — the poor have he trajjedy politics ot" works of m Grocyn, c — brou<'ht b flourished its growth if England the growth ! nations of (1 intestine a,nce is best one of the hat period, •incipK'S of le piercing, d irregular I hair, the the age of Parliament )sidy, could iss observer important 5ir Thomas honor and id fortune, ious queen, violence to iity of the y^n. From ect exalted ccordingly, the interest t the poor; poor have more advantages than the rich : that all must labor and all partake of the fruit of labor. In England, half the population could not read ; in Utopia, all are well instructed. The religion of Utopia is simple and sincere. Its centre is in the family, rather than in the priest. Complete religious toleration prevails in Utopia, because "it is not in man's power to believe what he list." In Utopia, the law prevents, rather than punishes, crime. The certainty of punishment, consequent upon the committal of crime, greatly lessens the severifij. To hang a man for theft is merely tempting the thief to become a inu'derer; therefore, punishment should be proportionate to the magnitude of the offence. Such are the great questions discussed V)y this enlightened statesmen, with a penetration and Christian philanthropy far in advance of the popular sentiment of that time, and, indeed, in several respects, in advance of our own more favored age. Truly, the suffering poor of England might exclaim, "The night is far spent, the day is at hand ; " and the .succeeding outburst of national song gave expression to the joy of an emancipated people. But the light of the new learning was now gliunuering far from the shores of Italy and England. It had penetrated the forests of Germany and illuminated the mind of Coper- nicus, in the q jiet town of Thorn, by the dark and sluggi.sh Vistula. Boldly discarding the Ptolemaic System, which had stood the te'^'^ .f ages, Copernicus revealed the secret of the universe. Astonishment and delight filled the hearts of men. Groping for ages in doubt and uncertainty, they had now come to the light. Enlarged views of God and God's works quickened man's intelligence, and redoubled his efforts in search of truth. The Pope might pronounce the believers of the new system accursed, but that did not crush it; for, Veritas prae- valehit; Galileo might recant and affirm that the earth does not move, but men believe that it moves, nevertheless. And now the .spirit of discovery has taken possession of man. He must know more about this world, if he cannot reveal the .secrets of " that undiscovered country from which no traveller has ever returned." But who dare venture beyond the pillars of Hercules, and stem the billows of the dread Atlantic ? And, in the fulness of time, Christopher Columbus comes forth and answers, I will. And this directs our atten- tion to the Moslem occupation in Spain. At a time when England, France and Italy were shrouded in intellectual darkness, a Moorish kingdom, situated in the south of Spain, gave literature, science and art to the students of TT 8 Europe. The period of her greatest glory and prosperity was the tenth century. While England was torn by the Danish invasions, tlu> broud lands of Rahman and Hakeni bloomed, fruitful as a garden. The valleys of OuadaUiuiver and Xenil produced grain, mulberry trees and sugar-cane; luscious fruits clothed the hill -sides; roads, canals and a(|ueducts spread a net- work of induf^try over the land. She sent her silks and sword- blades, her \^oollen goods and dyed leather, her linens and cottons, to le bazaars of Egypt, Constantinople and India. Thriving towns and graceful cities dotted the fair domains of the swarthy Moor, lordly universities reared their massive fronts in all the cities. Here flocked students from all parts of Europe, to study mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and medicine, under .the Arab professors. But the mosque of Mahomet crowned every hill-top, and the devout Moslem turned his face five times a day towards Mecca, and prayed to Allah. There could be no peace between Rome and the infidel ; and hence the Pope commissioned Christian Spain to expel the Moor, and take possession of his territory. Thus was begun a war which lasted, with many interrup- tions, nearly eight centuries ; and whioh was waged with so much chivalry, that its romantic incidents still linger, in poetry and song, among the hills of Southern Spain. The prowess and magnanimous conduct of El Seid bear a striking resemblance to the achievements of Prince Arthur : each is an intensified realization of the spirit of a warlike age, in which love and hatred, humanity and cruelty, beauty and deformity, are mixed in inextricable confusion. With varying fortune the war went on, until, in the year 1212, the Moors suflfered a crushing defeat in the great battle of Navas de Tolosa. This defeat was followed by the capture of the Moorish capital, Cordova, in 1236 ; and Granada then became the seat of Moslem power in Spain. Here, for two centuries and a half, the crescent flag floated over the lovely city of Granada. East- ward were seen the snow-clad peaks of the Sierra Nevada ; southward, as far as the eye could reach, lay a fertile plain, irrigated by innumerable rills, drawn from the river which meandered through it ; while high above the loftiest dome of her many stately palaces, arose the giant columns of the gor- geous Alhambra. And, so, the Emirate of Granada continued to thrive among the hills overlooking the Mediterranean; the kings of Portugal, Navarre, Castile, Arragon and Leon being too busily engaged in defending their own possessions, against each other, to uuder- ake any great war against their infidel neighbors. 9 sperity was tne Danish Q bloomed, and Xenil iciouH fruits pread a net- and sword- linenH and and India, domains of lir maasive ni all parts mistry and mosque of ut Moslem and prayed le and the m Spain to y interrup- ;ed with so linger, in pain. The ^ a striking each is an e, in which deformity, ig fortune ors suffered losa. This sh capital, of Moslem half, the ida. East- a Nevada; rtile plain, iver which st dome of )f the gor- ive among f Portugal, engaged in ', to uuder- Ek i i But, when Leon hocnmo part of Castile, and Arnigon was united with Castile, iiiult't Ferdinand of Arnvgon and Isaltella of Castile, it looked as if uni*)n would produce strength, and that the infidel must (|uit the soil of Spain. And thus, in 1479, the whole of Spain, except Navarre and Granada acknow- ledged the sovereignty of this illustrious king and tjuecn. Christianity, still smarting under the disgruco inllicted upon it hy the extinction of th(! Eastern Empire, called loudly for war at^ainst the followers of Mahomet. The thurulors of the Vatican pealed forth their notes, to encourage the Christian, and strike consternation into the heart of the Moor ; and Ferdinand set out to conquer Granada, strengthened hy th«^ blessing of the Pope and the acchiims of his loyal and devoted subjects. For ten years the strife was continued. Brave was the resistance of the Moors ; many the ft ats of \ alor performed by both parties. Year after year saw the circle of Moorish territory contract, until the surviving population was forced in upon the city of Granada. In six months famine luul done its work, and then the Emir Abdallah made honorable terms of capitulation with the con(|U(ror. Then, "down from Alham- bra's minarets were all the crescents flung." A few houis, and Abdallah reined in his steed on a rocky hill, which is still called, "The Last Sign of the Moor," to take one long farewell of Granada. His eyes were filled with tears. "Welld )th it become thee," crietl his mother, "to weep like a woman for what thou couldst not defend as a man." On the second day of January, in the year 14!)2, the war against the Moor ended ; and on the third day of August of the same year, Colun)bus left the .shores of Spain, bound on his ever-memorable voyage of di.scovery. And here the (|ues- tion may be asked, what caused Spain to grant to Columbus the as.sistance which Italy, Venice, Portugal and Englan