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Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques

1980

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Jlk.f

'0 'Cl4J..C711.'^,

'HPiMMumi^^w^pwar"

Mew Brttftdttilcrc Scftool Scries*

PRKSCKinKI) liV THH HoARD OF Er)U{ATION OV NkW BiUT.NSWICK.

ELEMENTAET

J^aluFal j^ifioFy:

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE 8TUDY OF

MINP]RALS, li^ANTS, AND ANIMALS,

WITH

Special Keference to tho.<e of New Brunswick.

Prepared for the Use of Schools,

L. W. JiAILKY, M. \., I'lul)., F.R.S.C.

Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunsivick.

SAINT JOHN, N. B,

J. ^ A. :McMillan, 98 Prince William ^Street.

18$7.

Q H l-l

KPTJCATTON OFFICE,

PROVINXK OF NkVV BruNSWKK,

Fredericton, June 1, 1887.
The Board of Education, under the authority of the "Common Schools
Act, 1871," has presoribed this edition of Ei.kmentary Natural History as
a Text Book for use in the Schools of this Province.

WILLIAM (^R<)( Kirr,

Chief Superintendent Education.

Entered according to A(;t of Parliament of (•;m:,di», in the year 1S«7,

Bv J. ,t A. McMillan,

In the Otfice of the Minister of Agriculture at Ottawa.

PREFACE.

This work lias been written to meet a special want, and therefore
in a spe<;ial way. The want is this; namely, that while many ad-
mirable text books exist which present the facts connected with the
natnre, strncture, and history of minerals, plants, and animals with
a (;onsiderable degree of scientific fnlness and accuracy, there are
few in which the mere imparting of information is made subordi-
nate to the direction of the thoughts — more especially of young
pupils — towards the consideration of the objects themselves with
reference to which such information is given ; while such as do
exist, besiits being too advanced for the lower grades of schools,
contain no information whatever as to the natural productions of
our own Province. In endeavoring to meet this want the author
has had constantly in view the requirer ents of the course of in-
struction in the public schools as prescribed by the Board of Educa-
tion, and trusts that, while enabling the teacher or student, as the
case may be, to meet those requirements more readily, he may at the
same time succeed in awakening an intelligent and la,sting interest
in the subjects themselves. To promote this object, and to adapt the
work to the comprehension of comparatively young minds, he has
avoided, a.s far as possible, the use of purely scientific terms and
phrases, though he has not, he hopes, thereby sacrificed either true
scientific method or scientific acciiracy. He may also ht.e refer
to what is emphasized throughout the vohune ; namely, the desira-
bility of making the study a thoroughly pradical one : for iu no
other way can it be made of real ami lasting l)enefit. Mere descrip-
tions are of very little value unless the pupils have the opportunity
of seeing the objects described ; and ever, then they should not be
told what their characters and relations are, but by judicious guid-

ii Pkkkace.

anco be lod to dediico tlu'in for tliemsclves. Tliia will ho found to
be especially easy in the ease of plants, and, by the aid of these,
useful haltits of ()l»servatlon and eoni])ari8on may be awakened and
developed even in very youn^ minds. In the ease of mineral sub-
stanees the same metliod may be pursued, so far as the ordinary
metals are eoncerned, a col he! ion embracing one <'f eacb kind being
easily made ; and though it may not be so easy to obtain sj)ecimens of
their ores «ind of the less common minerals, svstems of interchange —
sueli as mav be originated in cojmectlon wilh the various Teachers'
Institutes — will go far to supply even this want. In the ease of ani-
mals, appeal nnist be made to the more obvious features of likeness
and of difference observable in such familiar forms as eome daily
imder our observation in tlie woods, in the llelds, in the barn-yard,
or ]»y the fireside. The work of study, in the ease both of plants
and animals, will be found to })e facilitated bv the use of sucli
diagrams and cards as are issued in Prang's Natural IFistory Series,
though these shoidd by no means be allowed to take the place of
the objects themselves.

The thoughts of young i)Upils having been directed, by the
means here advocated, towards the contemplation of natural objeets,
and the i)r()per methods of their study, a foundation will, it is
thought, have been laid ui)on which may be successfully based a
more am])le knowledge in maturer years.

In conclusion, the author desires to return his thanks to the
Chief Su})erintendent of Kducati(m for valuable suggestions as to
the special needs of certain branches of the school service, as also
to Mr. (Jkoikje Ii. IIav and Mr. (J. F. Matthkw for the revision of
the larger i)ortion of the text, and for aid in the selection of appro-
l«riate illustrations. To Kdwakd Jack, r'sip, ('. E., he is also in-
debted for valuable information regarding the distribution and
eliaraeteristies of our forest trees.

TABLE or CONTENTS.

iNTROmTOTioN — The Kingdoms of Nature; Reasous for their Study;
Metiiods,

I. The Miueral Kingdom,

Page
1

1. NATruK OF MiNKRALS — As Distinguished from T'lants and Ani-

mals; TJK'ii' S|»ec:al Characteristics; Their ('ompusition; Min-
erals as Distinguished from Kocks

2. TiiK RixocNiTloN OK MiNKRALS— .Properties of Hardness; Weight;

Form; Colour; Cleavage; .Solul>ility ; Fusihility ; etc.,

Z. Useful Minkrals,

I. Metals and Their Ores.

Iron — Character; Varieties ; Uses; Sources,

Manganese — I'ropertitts; Uses, Sources,

Copper,

Lead,

Zinc,

Tin,

Antinutny, ....

(iold,

Silver,

Mercury,

liarer Metals,

II. Minerals not Metallic.

1. Applicahleto Ornamental Purposes :

(iuart/; Mi(!a; Felspar; (Jarnet; etc.,

(iems,

2. Applicable as Sources oj Heal and LiylU:

Peat. — Nature; Use,

l^itiiutinous Coal — Character; Sources,

Hard ( ^oal, or Anthracite — ('haracter ; Soun^es,,..

All)ertite; IJituminous Shale,

Rock Oil, or Petroleum,

Sulphur,

3. Minerals Capable o/ Resisting Heat :

(Jraphitc, or Plack Lead,

Rrick and Fire Clays ,

Mica ; Stiapslone; Asliestos

4. Mineral Paints, etc.:

Ochres; Karytes; Clialk,

5. Mineral Manures: ^

(Jypsuiu ; Apatite, "

0. Salt and Mineral Waters.

Brine 'ipiings,

Miueral Springs,

4. Useful Rocks,

Granite,

9
11
12
i;^
14
ir>

18
IH

... 20

.... 22

... 2a

... 24
24-2r>

.... 25

... 2J;

... 26

... 27

.... 27

... 28

111

28-29

29
30

30
30

Iv Table of C'onteni'S.

I. The BUneral Kingdom. — Continued.

4. UsKKUL Rocks. — Continued. Page

Sandstones and Freestones,

Slates,

^ 32

Limestones,

Marbles,

6. Ok tiik Rklations of Rocks to thk Earth's Surpack.

L How Rocks Crumble and Decay. Action of Air and Water; Re-
sults, 84

2. Jfow Rocks are Formed. Souree of the Material ; Distribution ;

Consolidation ; C'lassification ; Aqueous Rocks ; Igneous Rocks ;

Altered, or Metauiorphic Rocks ; Fossils, 34

3. How Rocks Tell the Past History of the Earth, Rock Records, and

their Interpretation ; (ieology, 3G

4. How Rocks Determine the History of Man :

\. Through their Relations to Agriculture; Origin and Nature

of Soils, 37

2. Through their Relations to Surface Features; Origin of

Hills, Valleys, Harbors, etc., 37

3. Through their Mineral Wealth, 38

11. The Vegetable Kingdom, 42

L Ok LlFK IN Gknkkai ^ 42

2. Pi-ANT LiKK — Nature; Purpose; I'seful Ends, 42

Hirth of Plants, 44

Seeds, their Structure and (Jrowth ; (icrmiuutitin, , 44

(irowth of Plants, 45

Experimental Illustrations, 4.')-4C

Parts of Plants Concerned in fir oivth, 46

Root, Stem, and Leaves, 46-48

Varieties of Roots, 48

Varieties of Stems 4y

Varieties of Leaves. 51

Parts of Plants Concerned in Multiplication, 53

Nature of Flowers, 54

Parts of the Flower, 54

Varieties of Flowers; Causes of Oitference, 55

Nature of Fruits, 56

Varieties of Fruits, 56

Seeds, 57

The Food of Plants, 57

The Nourishment of Plants; Nature and Circulation of the

Sap, 59

The Useful and Hurtful Plants of Xeu' Jirunsvick, 60

L Crowfoot, or Buttercup Famify, 61

2. Water Lily Family, 61

3. Mustard Family (Mustard, Cress, etc.), 61

4. Violet Family (Violets, Pansiea), 62

5. Pink Family, 62

. 6. Linden Family, 62

7. Vine Family (Grapes), 62

a. Cashew Family (Sumach, Poison Ivy), 63

Table of CoNTtNTS.

II. The Vegetable Kingdom. — Continued.

The f'sr/ul and Hurtful Plants of New Brunswick, — Continned

9. Maple Family,

10. Tea Family (Fea, Clover, Locust),

U. Rose Family (Hose, Ap;)le, Tear, Cherry, Flum, .Strawberry),

12. Currant Family (Currants, Gooseberries),

i:{. Witch Hazel Family,

14. H.meysuckle Family (Honeysuckle, Elder),

15. Heath Family (Hlueborry, Cranberry, etc.),

Irt. Aster Family (Thistle, Dandelion, Aster, <)x-Fye Daisy, etc.),

17. Olive Family (VVIute and Black Ash), ,

18. Convolvulus Family (Morning Cflory, Rind Weed),

63
f>\
61
6.1
6.1
65
65
66
66
67

19. Figwort Family (Mullein, Toad-Flax, Yellow Rattle), 67

67
68
68
68
6!>
69
70

'20. Mint P'amily (Mint, Catnip, etc.),.

21. Buckwheat Family (Buckwheat, Dock),

22. Kim Family (Kim, Nettle),

23. Walnut Family (Butternut),

24. Oak I''amily (Oak, Betch, Hazel, Hornbeam)

2.5. Birch Family (Birches. Alders),

26. Willow Family (Will()ws, Aspens, Poplars),

27. Pine Family (Pines, Cedars, Spruce, Hemlock, Hackmatack,

Balsam Fi')

28. Arum Family ^.'idian Turnip, Calamus),

29. Lily Family (Lily, Trillium, Hellebore),

30. Grass Family,

31. Fern Family,

III. The Animal Kingdom,

1. Animal Life — Its Nature; ITow Manifested,

1. Animal Movements — How PlflTected ; Apparatus of Bones, Muscles,

Nerves, etc.,

2. Animal Volition and Consciousness — The Brain in Relation to the

Body V

3. Of Animal Sensation — Powers of Sight, Smell, Taste, Hearing,

and Touch,

4. Animal Xiitrition — Nature and Sources of Food,

Organs of Seizure; of Attack and Defense,

Organs of Digestion — Stomach and Intestines,
Organs of Circulation — Heart and Blood Vessels,
Organs of Respiration — The Lungs and Gills,

b. Animal Fa'inue and Jtesf,

6. Animal Reproduction,

1. By Direct Birth,

2. By Kggs,

3. By Buds and Branches,

7. The Death of Animals,

Architectural Comparisons,

2. Plans of Animal STRiTcrrRK,

1. The Vertebrate Plan — Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes,

2. The Articulate Plan — Insects, Spiders, f'rustaceans, Worms, ....

3. The Molhiscan, or Sac-like Plan — Cuttles, Snails, Oysters, etc., 92

4. 7%eJ2adio/cP/an—Sea-Urchins, Star Fi:jhes,, Telly Fishes, Corals, 93

5. Forms Without Definite Pton-— Sponges, Infusoria, etc., 94

71
74
74
75
75

80
80
8t
81

82
82
82
83
83

83
8.t

85
85

-M. T-'Kr'-'-

Plate I. —Forms of Minerals,

\/ \

rs^

.^^^^>>.

^^•^1^'

.•"■ ■■'•;• JV

EXPLANATION OP PLATE I.

FORMS OF MINERALS.

The above figures rpprosotit a few amoug the many shapos ast^umed by-
mineral siiltstanecs, atid whieh are coimuouly known as crystals. AW are found
in actual minerals, and are the result of purely natural operations. They are
also, in many instances, nearly related to each other, and to be ol»(aiiu'd, the
one from the other, by slight modificatioiKs. Thus, from Fig. 1, the cube (easily
cut by the pupil out of chalk, wax, or soaj)), it is easy to obtain, by merely cut-
ting off successive slices from angles or edges, or both, all the forms fi'om 2 to 6.
In each of these forms, length, breadth, and thickness arc alike. Tn the suc-
ceeding figures this is not the case, but the figures still possess their own sym-
metry, and may be similarly modified. Figs. lo-lS represent some of the
forms of snow crystals, the result of the grouping or clustering of many
smaller crystals around common centres,
vi .-. . ...■ .

INTRODUCTION.

In looking at the world around us, a jiroccss which wo begin at
a very early period of life, we are unconsciously led to divide the
objects which we see into two great groups or classes, viz.: into (1),
those which have I^ife, and (2), those which have not Life.

In the former of these classes we naturally place what we after-
wards leant to know as Animals and Plants both being easily
recognized as living beings, if not by any visib'^ movements or other
signs of life, at least by the fact that soom^r or later they all die.
In the second class, on the other hand, we include such objects as
stones, rocks, metals, sulphur, salt, and the like, which are essentially
unchangeable, and which have obviously no life to lose. A block
of wood, it is true, is also lifeless, as nmch so as a lump of lead or a
bar of iron, and so are the b( nes and meat vvhich we use as food;
but we know that bot' of these have once formed parts of living
beings, and hence we associate them with the latter, even though
thev now be dead.

If, now, we look further into the differences of things, we shall
find that, althou^;h both plants and animals are living beings, while
minerals are not, there are also between the former so few points of
resemblance, and so many features in which they are strongly con-
trasted, that we would hardly be likely, in any ordinary case at
least, to mistake the one for the other. Thus we are led to recognize
three great groups or divisions of all natural objects, to which,
borrowing a familiar term used in connection with the races of men,
we may apply the name of the Kingdoms of Nature, and which are
actually known as the Animal Kingdon,, the Vegetable Kingdom,
and the Mineral Kingdom.

But it is not enough to know, merely in this general way, that
there are such things as Animals, Plants and Minerals. An enquir-
ing mind will be led to seek out more exactly the points of resemb-
lance and of difference between them, and by so doing will soon find
its knowledge of each vastly increased. The more a person obee.ces.

2 Introduction.

the more lie will find to sec, and the better will lie be able to see it.
Thus his powers of observation — his senses of sight, smell, taste,
touch, and hearing — will be better developed, his mind will be led
to make more careful comparisons, and he will l)ecome in every
respect a better educated man. Hence some portion of such studies
is very pro[)erly required to be taught as a part of our ordinary
school work. Again, we are brought into relation with many dif-
ferent animals in many different ways, sometimes beneficially and
sometimes not ; we emi)loy both animals and plants for human food,
in the making of clothing, and in many other ways; and, finally,
we use various mineral substances in the construction of our dwel-
lings, iiv machinery, in coinage, in all the arts and industries of life,
and the better we know the nature and properties of all these bodies,
the better will we be in a position to use them advantageously.
Thus the knowledge gained by such studies is useful knowledge,
capable of being applied in numberless different ways.

It is the wish of the author, in the following pages, to help to-
wards the attainment of this knowledge by pointing out, in the
simplest possible way, the distinctive features of animals, plants,
and minerals, respectively, with special reference to such as are
found within our Province, and which, in one way or another, are
capable of serving some useful purpose. His work will be largely
that of a guide; but it is his earnest wish that attention should be
paid rather to the objects to be described than to the mere descrip-
tions of them, and that the statements made should, as far as practi-
cable, be tested by actual comparison with the subjects of which
they treat.

Methods of effecting this result, in connection with each of the
three great kingdoms, will be given in subsequent pages, and, if
faithfully followed out, will be found to present no difficulty, while
they will add greatly to the interest and value of the study.

As the Mineral Kingdom embraces objects of a simpler charac-
ter than are to be found in the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, it
is capable of being more readily understood, and will be first con-
sidered.

THE MINERAL KINGDOM.

1, Of the Nature of Mineral Sujistanxi-^s.

What is a Mineral?

In tlie Introductory Chapter it lias been stated that the various
objects on the earth's surface may all be placed in one or the other
of three great groups or kingdoms, termed the vVnimal Kingdom,
the Vegetable Kingdom, and the Mineral Kingdom. It will therefore
follow that whatever is not an animal or a plant must be a mineral.
But such an answer, even if true, would not be satisfactory, for it
leaves one entirely in the dark as to what are the real difierences
between these several groups, and still more as to what characters
especially distinguish mineral substances. Again, the terms " min-
erals," " rocks," and " stones," are of very coumion occurrence, as
are the objects to which they refer, and yet few persons, without
previous thought, have any definite idea of the difierences between
them.. Let us then see whether it is not possible to obtain some
clearer notions upon the subject.

If we look at any ordinary animal, such as a dog, a cat, a bird,
or a fish, we shall find that certain prominent features at once attract
attention. It will be seen to move, to take and eat food, to recogniz^^
the existence of various objects around it, and in other ways to show
that it is an active living being. It has, moreover, a variety of in-
struments or organs by means of which it efTects these various ob-
jects — legs, wings or fins for motion, a mouth, bill, teeth, etc.,
wherewith to eat, the senses of sight, taste, smell or touch wherewith
to seek and select its food, and, we may add, a stomach and other
organs wherewith to digest it. It is, in other words, not only a
living but an organized being, with parts or organs serving difTerent
purposes, but all needed for the well being of the animal that
possesses them. Each of these animals, moreover, possesses a dis-
tinct history. All have had their birth-days; all have attained, by
gradual stages, to their full growth; all in turn will die, but not

4 The Mineral Kingdom.

usually until after their own life has become repeated and continued
in that of their young.

Plants, again, are living and they are also organized beings. They
show that they are alive in the fact of growth, in being born or pro-
duced from seeds, which in turn they again produce, in their power
of taking food from without and of converting this into their own
substance, as well as in a variety of other ways. They show that
they are organized by the fact that they also possess parts or organs
especially designed to meet their various wants. Roots, stems, leaves,
flowers, fruit, etc., are all vegetable organs, each serving its own
purpose, and together making up the individual herb, shrub or tree.
These larger organs also are made up of smaller ones, and these
again of still smaller, so that no matter how minute the plant or
fragment of a plant we may have occasion to examine, its true nature
can at once be recognized.

Now mineral substances have none of the above characteristics.
They are neither living nor organized bodies. They are not horn,
they do not grov\ in any proper sense of the word, they cannot
move, although they may be moved, they do not need, and there-
fore they do not take, anything of the nature of food. They have
no senses, and are wholly unconscious, even of their own exist-
ence. One portion is essentially like any other, and each is inde-
pendent, to a great extent, of all the rest. But these are only
negative characters. Have minerals and mineral substances no
positive ones? Certainly they have ; and their characters, in most
instances, are as definite and fixed as are those of any animal or
plant, serving as means by which we can at once recognize and
distinguish them. Thus, they often have definite forms, and these
forms, as seen in what we call crystals, are almost endless in variety,
and often of exquisite beauty. They have, in each case, a definite
iceight, some being heavy and some light, in various degrees. They
are variously affected by heat, some melting readily, while some can
hardly be melted at all. They have various colours, which are
often rich and beautiful. They may be transparent, like glass, or
opaque, like the various metals. They may sparkle with the bril-
liancy of the diamond, or they may, so far as appearance goes, be
dull and unattractive. In a few instances they possess what are
termed magnetic properties, as in the lodestone ; in other cases again
they may possess some peculiar smell, taste or odour.

The Mineral Kingdom. 5

We may next enquire:

Of What are Minerals Composed ?

To answer this question fully would require some knowledge of
the science of chemistry — a science wliich treats of the nature and
constitution of bodies, — but it will be enough to say here that
minerals are made up of one or more of several distinct and simple
substances, which are known as the chemical "elements." Thus
Iron, Lead, Zinc, Tin, Gold, Sulphur, Antimony, etc., are simple
elements, it not being possible to obtain from either of these any-
thing but itself. But these are often united to form what are called
** compound bodies," and these compound bodies may, and generally
do, differ entirely in all their properties from the elements which
compose them. Thus, water is a compound body, capable of separa-
tion into the two elementary gases. Hydrogen and Oxygen. Most
of the ores of the metals are compound bodies, and lience special
methods have to be resorted to in order to separate them. Coal,
Glass, Salt, Alum, Saltpetre, are all compound bodies, and from each,
by appropriate means, several dillerent substances can be obtained.

Now, all these bodies are mineral substances, that is, they belong
to the mineral world, but they are not all minerals, as that term is
usually employed. So granite, limestone, sandstone, and slate are
mineral substances, or of a mineral nature, but are not minerals.
In the first place a true mineral is always a natural, and not an
artificial product, though many such minerals may be artificially
imitated or reproduced. And, secondly, a true mineral must be alike
throughout, and not a mere mixture or association of various unlike
substances. It is in this respect that a mineral differs from a rock.
In ordinary granite, which is so commonly used for building or for
•ornamental purposes, and for tombstones, it is easy to see that the
material differs in its various parts, or is made up of different sub-
stances. Here and there are hard, glassy grains, which are known
as quartz, while side by side are others, usually somewhat larger, and
of a pink or reddish color, which are known as felspar, and finally
still others, usually nearly black, which may be readily split into
scales with a knife, and which are known as mica. Now, the ([uartz,
felspar and mica are minerals, but associated together they form the
rock termed granite. So sandstone is made up of grains of sand,
■which may or may not be alike, and the same is true of many clays,
of ordinary earth, of slate, and many other substances. Again,

6 Thp: Mineral Kingdom.

water, quicksilver, and petroleum, or rock-oil, are minerals, notwith-
standing their ordinary liquid state, for they are all formed by
natural causes, are lifeless bodies of similar nature throughout, and
possess nothing of the nature of organs.

From what has been stated, it will be evident that the nature of
a rock will varv with the number and kinds of minerals of which it
is made up. We shall, therefore, proceed now to show a little more
fully how minerals are distinguished and recognized, and will then
proceed to enumerate and describe some of thoL, which are of most
interest and value.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF MINERALS.

The following are among the features of minerals which are of
most service in distinguishing and identifying them :

(1.) Hardness. This is easily tested with the point of a knife,
or the edge of a file. Each true mineral has its own degree ot
hardness. Diamond, for exjimple, will cut glass, quartz will only
scratch it, while black lead, which we use in lead pencils, but which
is not really lead at all, is so soft as to stain the fingers. A table Oi*
scale of hardness, containing a number of well-known minerals, and
arranged in a regular series, is of much service in making such
comparisons.

Related to hardness, and depending tipon like causes, are the
properties which minerals possess of allowing or not allowing them-
selves to be cut, or bent, or hammered out into thin sheets. Gold
and lead can be cut (or are sectile)^ while iron cannot ; gold, again,
is easily hammered out into gold-leif (i. e., it is malleable), and it
can be drawn out into wires, as may copper and iron (they are
ductile), but many others cannot. Mica will bend (or is flexible) ;
other minerals are brittle, like glass, and will break if we attempt
to bend them. All these characters depend upon the variations in
some inward force by which their particles are bound together.

(2.) Weight. Every one is familiar with the expression "as
heavy as lead." Bodies dift'er in their relative weight, and these
differences, where they are constant, as among minerals, often serve

The Mineral Kingdom. 7

a useful purpose in distinguishing them. Thus not only lead but
most of the metals are heavy, and so are their ores; but minerals
not containing metals are often much lighter. The differences may
be measured with great exactness, but the methods of doing so need
not be described here.

(3.) Form. Minerals often have a definite shape, sometimes
exceeding in beauty and perfection of finish the most elaborate
works of human art. These regular shapes are commonly known
as crystals, the name being derived from a Greek word signifying
ice. Ice itself is a good example of crystals, as freezing aflbrda a
good illustration of what is termed crystallization. Snow, again, is
often seen to be composed of exquisitely beautiful crystals, and more
(Plate I.) than a hundred different forms of tliis substance have been
observed, though all are mere modifications of a comparatively
simple form. So most substances are found, at one time or another,
in a crystalline condition, and the form of the crystal being fixed,
within certain limits, for each substance, we have merely to notice
the form to know what the mineral is. Salt, alum, saltpetre, sugar
(rock candy), are other examples of crystalline substances, and they
show well the way, or one of the ways, in which many crystals have
been formed in Nature. We have only to dissolve either of them
in water, and then allow the water to escape again by evaporation,
when, if the process is not disturbed, we shall obtain it in the form
of crystals, each with its own peculiar shape. In the case of ice,
sulphur, and some other substances, the same result has been ob-
tained by the substance first melting, and then, by cooling, becoming
solid again. Snow has crystallized from a state of vapour.

(4.) Cleavage. This is the property which many minerals
possess of splitting or cleaving more or less read.^y in jiarticular
directions. It is similar to what, in the cjise of wood, we express by
saying that it "breaks with the grain." Some minerals, such as
quartz, have no cleavage, breaking much like glass ; mica, on the
other hand, splits indefinitely into thin sheets, often (but inappro-
priately) known as isinglass. Between these two extremes there is
every possible variation, but the feature is constant for each parti-
cular substance.

(5.) Relations to Light. These are manifested in two ways;
first, in the nature and extent of the light which minerals reflect from

8 . The Mineral Kingdom.

their surface, and secondly, in tlie corresponding nature and amount
of liglit wliicli they permit to pass througli tiiem. It is througli
the former power, cliietly, that tliey acquire their colour, varying
tlirough almost every i)ossible shade in different species, and often
subject to wrrh diversity even in a single one. To the same cause
also we are to describe their peculiarities of lustre, which may be
either brilliant, feeble, dull, or altogether wanting, or on the other
hand, may vary in character, sometimes resembling the lustre of the
ordinary metals, sometimes that of glass, resin, mother of pearl, wax,
or some other familiar substance. To the second cause and its varia-
tions are to be ascribed the i)roi)erty possessed by many minerals of
being transparent, or of allowing objects to be readily visible through
them, or of being only translucent, merely allowing light to pass, as
through ground glass or oiled paper; also the internal colours of
gems and i)recious stone?-', and in some instances the ai)parent
doubling of objects over which the mineral has been placed.
Finally, many minerals intercept light altogether, and are then
opaque.

(6.) Relations to Heat. Some mineral substances, like ice and
sulphur, melt very readily; others, like iron, with more difhculty,
and others again, like black lead, not at all. Some again, under the
influence of heat, may, like water, be readily converted into vapour.
For the better appreciation of these difierences, a special means of
applying heat in the form of what is known as a blow-pipe, is very
desirable, but even without its aid the test is often a very valuable
one.

(7.) Relations to Magnetism and Electricity. The com-
mon magnetic toys of the shops illustrate the first of these properties
in their power of mutual attraction. It is a property confined under
ordinary circumstances to certain ores of iron, and especially to that
known as tlie lode-stone. To the old Lati:^ name of this mineral, viz.,
magnes (derived from the town of Magnesia, in Lydia, whence it was
obtained) the words magnet and magnetism owe their origin.
Electricity is a related property which is developed in a variety of
substances as tiie result of rubbing and other causes. There are
several minerals which become electric and attract light objects
when thus treated. From one of these, ordinary amber, of which
the Greek name is electron, comes the familiar word electricity.

The Mineral Kingdom. 9

(8.) Relations to the Senses. Salt ami nlum nre readily
recognized by their taste; sea-vvaier is slightly bitter; many mineral
waters have offensive sulphurous odors. Such features are of com-
paratively rare occurrence, but when found, constitute usef il guides
in the recognition of t)^e mineral? ^vhich exhibit them.

A Description of the More Useful ]Mixerals, with

Special Keference to such as Occur in

New Brunswick.

I.
METALS AND THEIR ORES.

IRON.

General Ciiaracter. Every one is familiar with the general
appearance and qualities of iron, for among all mineral substances
there is none so generally emi)loyed, and so generally useful, as this.
Hard, firm, and unyielding, and yet capable of being fashioned into
almost every conceivable shape; possessed of great strength, and yet
in many instances flexible and elastic; not easily affected by heat,
and yet capable of being melted and run into moulds ; having little
tendency to change, unless when long exposed to damp air or
moisture, when it is found to rust; and, finally, occurring in enor-
mous quantities, and capable of being obtained at a comparatively
trifling cost, it answers far better than any other metal the ordinary
requirements of life.

Varieties and Uses. Three principal varieties of iron (or,
more accurately, of a compound of iron and charcoal), are known in
tlie arts, viz. : Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, and Steel. The first, thcjugh
hard and tough, is flexible and malleable, i, c, it can he bent with-
out breaking, or rolled out into sheets, as in ordinary sheet iron. It
can also be drawn into wire. It cannot, however, be readily melted,
its several forms being given to it by various processes of hammer-

10 The Mijieral Kingdom.

ing and working. Cast iron, on the other hand, containing much
more charcoal, is also more fusible, and hence better adapted for the
making of castings. Cast iron stoves afford a good illustrition of
its characicr. It possesses little or no flexibility, and, unless thick,
is easily shattered by a blc.v. Steel, again, both in natnre and
properties, stands between the other two, and further varies in
quality, according to the methods of making it and the use foi
which it is designed. Thus, in razors, knives, chisels, and cutlery of
all sorts, it is made, by a process termed (I'mperhw, extremely hard
and brittle, while in swords, saws, and wat i springs, by a moditica-
tion of the same process, it becomes pliant and elastic. Enormous
quantities of an inferior variety of steel are now emi)loyed in the
making of the rails of railways. Some idea of the extent to which
iron is at present used, in all its various forms, may be had from the
statement that the world's consumption of this metal, in the year
1883, amounted to more than twenty-seven million tons.

Sources. The sources from which this vast supply of metal is
derived are very numerous. In almost all countries it is found to a
greater or less extent, but there are a few whicii may be especially
referred to as the iron producing countries of the world. One of
these is Great Britain, where iron ores occur in large beds, and are
extensively worked, especially in South Wales, and in the :;ounties
of Stafford, York, and Derby. Large quantities are also obtained
from Norway and Sweden, and from Germany. The iron mines of
Spain have also been worked since a very early period. In America
iron ores occur abundantly in various parts of Canada, especially
in Nova Scotia and Quebec, and in the United States.

The ores of iron are somewhat various in quality and appear-
ance, but all are essentially compounds of the metal with the gas,
oxygen. To obtain the metal they are accordingly heated in large
furnaces, called " bLost furnaces," with charcoal, which removes the
oxygen and sets the iron free, combined, however, with a portion of
the charcoal. Pure iron is never found as a natural product of the
earth (though shooting stars, compo-sed of this metal, sometimes fall
ui)on the earth's surface), and is also never used in a pure state, its
various forms, as above stated, being all the result of a combination
with charcoal.

In New Brunswick, the chief localities for iron ores are St. John
county (in the vicinity of Black River), and Carleton county. In

TlIK MiNKUAL KlN'CiDOrr. 11

the latter the })e(Is are extensive, and were formorly largely worked
in the vicinity of Jaeksontuwn, near Woodstock. Over 40,000 tons
of ore were raised and used in the blast furnaces at tiiis place, and
for certain j;.irj)oses tlie iron produced was of excellent (piality, but
of late years it has been found impossible to carry on tlie business
profitably, and the Avorks have been abandoned.

The ores of Carleton are of a brownish red colour, and easily
recognized by tiieir weight and the colour they exiiibit when
scratched, this being eitlier reddish or brown. They are mixtures
of red iron ore {/lemalite) and brown iron ore (limonile). In the
rocks of the southern counties veins and crystals of magnetic iron
ore are often met with, but they are not in sufficient (piantity to be
of value.

Another compound of iron, known as Iron Pyrites, should also
be mentioned here, not that it is of any value in itself, but because
itbears some resembhmce to gold, and, being of common occurrence,
is frequently met with and mistaken for the more precious metal.
It is, in fact, often known as "fool's gold." From true gold it is.
easily distinguished, by being nuich iiarder, not yielding to a knife
like gold, and not beating out under a hammer; also by giving,
when thrown on hot coals, the well known fiame and odor of burning:
sulphur. It is a very common impurity of ordinary house-coal.

MANGANESE.
This metal, which in its properties bears much resemblance *©■
Iron, is rarely seen in a pure state, and in this form has little or no
value. Small quantities of manganese are sometimes associated
with iron in the manufacture of certain kinds of steel, or may, as in
the Woodstock iron ores, be already present in the proper amount;
but the chief value of manganese, or rather of its ore, arises from
the indirect use to which it is put in the process of bleaching^ and for
this purpose it is almost solely employed. Small quantities are used
in the manufacture of glass, both for giving and removing colour
from the latter.

Manganese occurs in large quantities in New Brunswick, and ha»
been successfully mined for many years. The most important
deposits are those of Markhamville, about twelve miles south of
Sussex, in Kings county. The anhual production from these mines
varies from 500 to 1,500 tons, being valued, according to quality.

The Mineral Kingdom.

from $15 to ^oO per ton. Other localities, not now worked, are
Shepody Mountain, (^luico, and theTattagouclie River, near Batlinrst.
The ore, which i8 of a dark colour, very heavy, and usually crystal-
line, in chieHy exi)orted to the United States.

Beds of very impure manganese ore, known as "wad" occur in
Tarious parts of tiie Province, and may usually be readily recogriized
by their very black colour. One such bed, of considerable extent,
may be seen on the ))ank of the St. John River, just above Govern--
ment House, in Fredericton. They are of no value.

Of foreign localities, those yielding the chief supplies of manga-
nese are Spain and Portugal. It is also obtained from various
localities in the United States and Irom Nova Scotia.

COPPER.

General Properties and Use.s. Several of the more im-
portant qualities of this metal, such as its peculiar reddish colour,
metallic lustre, hardness and durability, are familiar as seen in the
smaller denominations of ordinary coins. In addition to these
properties, copper is in a high degree malleable and ductile ; that is,
it can be readily rolled into thin sheets or drawn out into long wires,
■which are at once strong and flexible. It is not easily melted, while
at the same time it gives easy i)assage both to heat and electricity.
Lastlv, it unites readilv with other metals to form what are known
iUJ alloys, such as brass, bronze, bell metal, and the like. As a result
of these qualities, it is largely used in the manufacture of utensils,
in the sheathing of ships, for electrical purposes, in engraving and
-electro-plating, as well as in coinage. Even ordinary gold and
silver coins contain a certain proportion of copper in order to add
to their hardness and durability. Copper also gives rise, by chemi-
cal means, to several important compounds, such as Blue Vitriol,
Verdigris, Paris Green, etc. Introduced into the human body in
any form it is highly poisonous.

Sources. Copper is a very widely distributed metal, and is found
in nature in several different forms. In some instances it is found
quite pure, and large masses of such pure or native copper occur
about the shores of Lake Superior, where they have been mined
from a very early period. More commonly the copper is united
with more or less sulphur, forming either a rich brass yellow mineral
(Copper Pyrites), or one of darker and somewhat variable colours,

The Mineral Kingdom. 13

known us Variegated Copper ore. A bright green variety of copper
ore, known as Malachite, in addition to being used as a source of
the metal, is also valuable for ornamental purposes, lieing readily
polished and sdhiewhat largely used in jewelry.

The chief foreign sources of supi)ly for copper are the districts
of Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, portions of Russia,
Franc^, Hungary, and Spain, the Cape of Crood Hope, Australia,
and New South Wales. In America, in addition to the Lake
Superior region, there are very rich mines in Colorado, Arizona,
and other parts of the Rocky Mountain region, with some, of more
limited extent, in the Province of (Quebec.

In New Brunswick cop[)er ores occur at many localities along the
southern seaboard, in Charlotte, St. John, Albert, and Westmorland
Couiuies, as well as near Woodstock, in Carleton County, and near
Bathurst, in (iloucester County, and attem})ts have been made at
many diftcrent points to remove the ore, but as yet none of them
have resulted [)rofitably. All the varieties of ore above named are
occasionally met with.

LEAD.

Character and Uses. Lead is a metal remarkable chiefly for
its great weight, for its whitish colour, bearing some resemblance to
silver, and for its great softness, which admits of its boing readily
cut, bent, or hanmiered. It is also very easily melted. When freshly
cut it is bright and silver-like, but soon tarnishes by exposure to the
air. Its effects on the human system are highly injurious.

The principal uses of lead as a metal are in the making of pipes
for the conveyance of water, in the lining of cisterns, in shot, in
plummets, and, by union with tin, in the making of alloys, such as
plumbers' solder, and pewter. Combined chemically with other
substances it is the basis of several important paints, such as White
Lead, Red Lead, Chrome Yellow, and others, and, as "Sugar of
Lead," is employed in medicine. Several of these substances are
dangerous poisons.

Sou] CES. In the old world, lead is chiefly obtained from Eng-
land (especially Derbyshire), Spain, and Prussia. In the United
States, large and valuable deposits of the ore exist in Missouri and
Wisconsin, but the most remarkable mines are those of Colorado and
Nevada. From a single locality, that of Leadville, in Colorado,

' ^ .

14 TnK MiNKUAi. Kingdom.

there were obtained, in 1884, over 3o,000 tons of lead. It is not
mined to any extent in Canada. Jn New I>rnnswick, lead occnrs at
a nund)er of })()int.s, among which may be mentioned the island of
Ounpobello, in Charlotte eonnty ; Mnsqnash, in St. John eonnty;
^Norton, in King's eonnty; and the neighborhood of P.atlun-st, in
<iloneester eonnty. Ihit from none of these localities has it yet been
removed in profitable quantities.

The i)rinei])al ore of lead is a brilliantly lustrous, very heavy
mineral, looking nmeh like lead itself, and often breaking readily
into little cubes. It is a compound of lead and sulphur* aid ia
known as galena or yalenite.

ZINC.

Properties and Uses. Zinc is a metal of bluish -white colour
rather brilliant wlien quite clean, and not very liable to tarnish,
easily melted, and when made very hot, taking fire and burning
readily, with a peculiar bluish flame. Owing to the slight change
l)roduced upon it by air or water, it is very largely used for rooting
purposes, as well as for the covering and protection of other metals
which are more easily changed. Thus what is known as "galvanized
iron" is simply sheet iron which has been >vered over with a thin
protecting coating of zinc.

The metal is also very largely used in the production of electri-
city. It may be readily united with other metals, and one of these
compounds (or alloys), a mixture of zinc and copper, is familvar as
ordinary brass. Bronze, so largely used in early times, before the
general introduction of iron, is a compound cf zinc, copper and tin.
German silver is brass, to which a small quantity of nickel has
been added.

Some of the compounds of zinc are of service as paints, and
others as medicines.

Sources. Zinc is never met with, in nature, in the pure state,
but combined, most conmionly, with sulphur. It then forms the
mineral known as blende^ which the miners, from its dark colour,
sometimes call "blackjack." It has a peculiar lustre, recalling
that of resin, and, like true resin, will become electric by rubbing.

Zinc ores are found and profitably worked in many parts of
Europe (especially Belgium), and America. In the United States,
the most productive works are those of Kew Jersey, Illinois and

The Mineral . .nodom. 15

MiHSOuri. In Canada, deposits occur in tlie vicinity of Lake

Superior.

In New Brunswick, zinc ore (blende) is found associated with

lead ore (galena) at several jioints (chielly on ('anipol)ello Island)

along the soutliern coast, but the (piantity is loo small to be of much

value.

TIN.

General Properties and Usrs. Tin is one of the oldest
metals used by man, and possesse. many valuable qualities. It is a
■whitish metal, having some ret?: lance to silver, but with a less
brilliant lustre, and becoming somewhat dulled through long ex-
posure. It is quite soft, and i)ossesscs but little strength, but may be
beaten out into very thin sheets, then known as tin-foil. It is readily
melted, and much of what goes under the name of tin is merely
thin sheet iron which has been covered with tin by dipi)ing it into
the latter when in the melted state. IJy proper treatment, the surface
of this tinned iron may, owing to the highly crystalline character of
the tin, be made to assume » very beautiful frost-like appearance.
Tin unites readily with other metals, and a certain amount of it is
contained in bell-metal, bronze, Briitania-metal, plumbers' solder,
pewter, etc.

Sources. Tin is rarely, if ever, found pure in nature, but
rather combined with oxygen, to form what is known as tin-stone.
This mineral occurs abundantly in the district of Cornwall, in
England, where it has been mined from the earliest ages.. The
British islands were indeed known to the ancient Romans as the
Tin Islands, and it was partly with a view to obtain this metal that
England was invaded and conquered by that people. A certain
amount of tin is also obtained from Asia, and from Australia. It is
of rare occurrence- in the eastern United St'ites and Canada, but is
more abundant in some parts of the Rocky Mountain region. It
has been mined, to a limited extent, in the state of Maine.

In New Brunswick, tin ore was reported many years ago as
occurring about the Pokiok River, in York County, but the quantity
was small, and no similar discovery has since been made.

ANTIMONY. •

General Properties and Uses. Antimony is a substance of
decidedly metallic aspect, having a bright, somewhat silver-like,

16 Tjie Mineral Kingdom.

colour and lustre, winch does not readily change. It is a very
brittle metal, which, by hammering, is easily reduced to powder. It
also melts very readily. Owing to its brittleness, it cannot well be
used for many of tlie purposes to which tiie ordinary metals are ap-
l>lit'd, but certain quantities of it are often added to other metals to
make them melt more readily, or for other purposes. It is thus,
found in the metal of which type "s made, as well as in Ihitannia
metal, Babbit metal, etc. An inceresting application is in the
manufacture of rubber goods. A certain quantity is also used in
medicine, as the "wine of antimony," and "tartar emetic." It»
action on the human system, like that of arsenic, is highly in-
jurious.

Sources. Antimony is found both in the pure state (Native
Antimony), and combined with sulphur (Antimony Glance). The
chief foreign localities from which the metal is obtained are the
Island of Borneo and New vSouth Wales. In the Dominion of
Canada antimony ores occur in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Ontario.

Of the New Brunswick localities yielding antimony the most
important is that of Lake George, in the parish of Prince William,
York County. The first mines in this vicinity were opened in the
year 1802, since which, at various periods, considerable quantities of
ore have been removed. The latter is partly pure or "native" an-
timony, and partly a compound of sulphur. Expensive works for
the separation of the metal from the latter were erected near the
mines, but they have recently been destroyed by fire. When in full
operation they yielded about fifteen tons of metal every six weeks.
More recently the ore has been exported unchanged, and used chiefly
in the manufacture of rubber goods. It is said that not less than
$400,000 have been expended at the locality since the first com-
mencement of mining operations. ■

GOLD.

Properties ani> Uses. Gold is the most precious of all the
metals, its value dej)ending partly upon its rarity and partly upon
its well-known qualities. Of a beautiful yellow colour, it is soft,
malleable and ductile, receiving readily a high degree of polish, and
retaining its lustre unchanged under all conditions of temperature
and exposure. A very high heat is required to melt it, and the

The Mineral Kingdom. XT

only substances whicli will readily dissolve it are quicksilver or
mercu . .nd a combination of tlie stronger acids. Its chief uses are
in the making of coin, in gilding, in dentistry, and in the manu-
facture of gold plate. In coinage it is associated with a certain pro-
portion of copper to render it less soft, and therefore more durable.
As gold leaf, the metal may be beaten out so thin that 280,000 leaves,
placed one upon another, would not exceed an inch in thickness.
Some of the compounds of gold are employed by photographers in
giving a more desirable coloar or "tone" to photographic pictures.

Sources. Though somewhat widely distributed, and found in
many different countries, the larger part of the gold of commerce
comes from California, from Australia, and from llussia. From the
United States, in the year 1881, there was obtained an amount valued
at over ^34,000,000, and an amount nearly as large from Australia.
In the same year Canada furnished gold to the valre of between one
and two millions of dollars, most of which was obtained in Nova
Scotia and British Columbia.

In New Brunswick gold has, as yet, been found only in very
small quantities, usually in the bed of streams. No veins of the
metal are known to exist, and all search for profitable quantities
have so far proved unsuccessful. Reports of its discovery are, in-
deed, frequently made, but it is seldom that these reports can bo
traced to any reliable source, and in most instances they originate
from other and wo^'thless minerals being mistaken for gold. The two
minerals most likely to deceive in this respect are mica and iron
pyrites (or fool's gold), but the former is easily distinguished by
splitting readily into thin sheets, and the latter by be'ng hard and
brittle.

SILVER.

Properties and Uses. Silver, like gold, is a precious metal,
valued alike for its comparative rarity, its beauty of colo»* and lustre,
especially when polished, and its fitness for the manufacture of
jewelry, plate, coins and the like. Like gold, it is also malleable and
ductile, quite soft, but readily hardened by the addition of a little
ct)pper, not easily melted, an^'. unaflfected by exposure to air or water.
Dissolved in Nitric Acid, it forms the substance known as Nitrate
of Silver, so largely used in the taking of photographic pictures.
Its extensive application in the arts is well shown by the statement
E .

18 The Mineral Kingdom.

that the quantity thus used, in 1884, and not employed for coinage,
amounted in vahie to five and a half millions of dollars.

Sources. The chief silver-producing countries are the United
States, Mexico, and South America. In the United States the
richest mines are those of Lake Superior, Nevada, Montana and
Colorado. In Canada, considerable quantities have been obtained
in British Columbia.

In New Brunswick, some of the ores of lead have been found to
contain silver, but the proportion is usually small, and attempts to
obtain it have not as yet given satisfactory results.

MERCURY.

Properties and Uses. This singular substance stands alone
among the metals in being a perfect liquid at ordinary temperatures,
a fact which, in connection with its beautiful colour and lustre, re-
sembling those of silver, led early writers to mistake it for that
body. Plence its common name of quicksilver.

Owing to its fluidity, in connection with the fa^^t that it freezes
only at very low and boils only at rather high temperatures, it is
admirably adapted for measuring various degrees of heat, and is
thus employed in ordinary thermometers. Its weight, again, is so
great that a comparatively small amount of it (a column of about o()
inches) is sufficient to balance the weight of the air, and it is thus
used in the construction of barometers. Owing to its power of dis-
solving gold and silver, it is used in large quantities as a means of
separating these latter from their ores. Finally, one of its com-
pounds, Vermillion, is a valuable paint, and others, like calomel, as
well as the metal itself, are employed as medicines.

Sources. Mercury is found to a slight extent in a pure state,
but chiefly combined with sulphur, forming a bright red mineral
(cinnabar) resembling Vermillion. The chief mines are found in
Spain, Austria and California. It has not been found in New
Brunswick or other parts of Canada.

RARER METALS.

The following are a few additional metals, which are either 'of
comparatively rare occurrence, or not often seen in the metallic state,
but which find more or less extensive applications for useful pur-
poses.

"S»

The Mineral Kingdom. 19

Platinum. A metal bearing some resemblance to silver, but of
inferior lustre, is used ehielly in tlie m:ikin<i^ of vessels for chemical
purposes. It is obtained from nearly the same sources as gold.

Nickel. This metal, of wliitish colour and rather brilliant
lustre, is but little affected by the air or water, and is" often spread
over other metals to protect them. It is familiar in American
coinage and in nickel-plated goods. It is also a constituent of Ger-
man isilver. It comes chieliv from Germanv.

Cobalt. This metal accompanies nickel in Germany and else-
where, and is chiefly valuable from the power possessed by some of
its compounds of imparting a deep blue colour to glass and china.

Arsenic. The name of this substance is most familiar as that
of a deadly poison. What is commonly so called, however, is not
really the metal arsenic, but a wliite compound obtained by roast-
ing the ores of th etal. It comes mainly from England and
Germany. Considei.jle quantities are also obtained from a mine
in Ontario. In New Brunswick it is of rare occurrence.

Bismuth. This metal is used, to a limited extent, in making
soft solder and other easily fusible conn)ounds ; also to some degree
in medicine. The supply comes chiefly from Hungary, England
(Cornwall), and Australia. Small quantities have been found in
Canada and in New Brunswick.

Chromium. This metal is used only in the form of certain
compounds, which are valued for their colours. The most c-jmrnon
of these is the bright yellow paint known as chrome yellow. They
are obtained from certain ores of iron found in the United States, in
Turkey, and in Russia.

' Aluminum. This metal can only be described as rare in the
sense that in the pure metallic form it is comparatively unfamiliar.
In reality it is one of the most wide-spread and abundant of all
metals, as indicated by the fact of its entering hirgely into the com-
position of many minerals and nearly all rocks. It is especially
abundant in common clav, and fullv one-twelfth of the solid crust
of the globe is believed to be composed of it. As a metal it pos-
sesses many valuable qualities, especially those of strength and light-
ness, but its separation is difficult and expensive. Its more important
compounds will be again referred to.

20 The Mineral Kingdom.

IX.
MINERALS NOT METALLIC.

1. Minerals Applicable to Ornamental Purposes.

Quartz. Tliis is one of the most common, and, tliongh exhibit-
ing much variety, one of tlie most easily recognized minerals. In
its simplest form it is clear and colourless, like glass. It is then
known as Kock Cry^stal, and under various titles, such as Rhine-
stone, etc., is largely used in jewelry. Not unfrequently it is coloured
of a rich purple tint, from the presence of a small amount of man-
ganese, and is then known as Amethyst. This, also, is highly prized
in jewelry, being especially suitable for brooches. Other varieties
are Chalcedony, Carnelian, Agate, Bloodstone, and Jasper. All
of the pbove, except Bloodstone, are occasionally found in New
Brunswick, but much finer specimens are obtained from Nova Scotia
(Nortii Mountains) and from Lake Superior. All varieties of quartz
are too hard to be scratched with a knife, and are also destitute of
cleavage.

Quartz is an abundant constituent of rocks, such as granite and
the like, in which it is easily recognized by its hard glassy grains.
Owing to this hardness, and the fact that quartz is unaffected by air
or water, it remains unchanged when these rocks decay, and thus
originates the grains of sand found in ordinary sandstones and soils.
Quartz, alone, is also essentially infusible, but when heated with
certain other substances may be readily melted. Ordinary glass is
thus made by heating and melting together clean sand with either
soda, potash, lime, or lead, or mixtures of these latter. At a certain
temperature the material becomes soft or waxy, and may then be
blown or pressed into any desired forms. Quartz is also the most
common filling matter of mineral veins, and hence the most fre-
quent associate of metallic ores.

Felspar. This very common mineral, a compound of Alumi-
num, is chiefly interesting from the fact of its entering so largely
into the composition of ordinary rocks, and its relations to the soils
which result from the wear and decay of the latter. It is the pink
or reddish constituent of ordinary granite. It is, like quartz, very
hard, but, unlike that mineral, splits or cleaves in two directionSr

The Mineral Kingdom.

nearly at right angles, and thus forms bright, lustrous surfaces. By
the action of air and water it " weathers," or decomposes, and thus
originates the different varieties of clay, which, besides forming an
important part of ordinary soils, are used extensively in the making
of bricks, tiles, earthenware, pottery, china, and porcelain.

It is found in all the granites of the Province, associated with
quartz and mica, and often forms also the larger part of many prom-
inent hills, especially aroimd Passamnquoddy Bay.

Mica. This mineral, also an aluminous compound, is most
readily recognized by its power of splitting almost indefinitely into
thin, flexible and elastic slieets. When these are sufficiently large,
as they are found in some parts of Quebec, they may be profitably
mined and used for the windows of stoves and similar purposes, but
in general they are too small to be thus employed. As one of the
elements of common granite it is of frequent occurrence in New
Brunswick, and is also found in other rocks and in soils. Owing to
its brightness and silvery lustre it is frequently mistaken for gold,
another instance of the fact that " all is not gold tliat glitters."

Garnet. This mineral, in its finer forms, has a rich cinnamon-
red color, and a high lustre, and is used in jewelry, both under its
proper name and that of carbuncle.

In New Brunswick, small garnets are found in some of the rocks
near Moore's Mills, in Charlotte county, and in the parish of Can-
terbury, York county, but they are too small to be of value.

Tourmaline. This mineral is also occasionally found in clear
transparent crystals, of green or red colours, but is more commonly
black and opaque. The latter variety is sometimes found accom-
panying garnet, in the localities given for this mineral.

Fluor. This mineral exhibits rich shades of colour, including
green, yellow, and purple varieties, and, being rather soft, is often
used in England for the making of articles of ornament. In New
Brunswick, it is found somewhat abundantly in Ilarvey Settlement,
in York county, also on Frye's Island, in Charlotte county, and in
Westmorland. The mineral, however, as occurring at these points,
has little or no value.

Hornblende. This mineral deserves mention chiefly as one of
very frequent occurrence, being often found taking the place of

22 ~ The Mineral Kingdom.

mica in many granite-like rocks, and sometimes making u[) the
larger part of tlie latter. It ditiers from mica in not splitting into
thin sheets as that mineral does, as well as in being much harder
nnd heavier, features which it imparts to the rocks of which it forms
a portion. It presents many varieties of form and colour, one of
them being the mineral asbestoSf valued on account of its long,
flexible fibres, and its power of withstanding heat, in the manufac-
ture of fire-proof fabrics, the lining of safes, and for roofing purposes.
It has been found at a few localities along the southern coast.

Serpentine. Tliis name is given to a compact and massive
mineral, of pale yellowish green or dark green colours, and which
is so soft as to be readilv cut bv a knife. In its finer forms, and
when mixed with limestone, it often forms a rock of considerable
beauty, known tis verde anti(]ue marble, and is tluis found at a num-
ber of points in 8t. John county, including Musquash, Pisarinco,
and Portland. S[)ecimens of large size are, however, difficult to
obtain. A dark green variety occurs in rocks in the vicinity of St.
Stephen.

Gems. A few of the minerals already n*ientioned, such as
garnets, tourmalines, and some varieties of quartz, inay properly be
included under this head. \\\ addition to these, the following are
the gems most highly valued, viz.: Diamonds, Rubies, Turquois,
Sapphires, Emeralds, and Topaz. Excepting diamonds, which are
varieties of carbon, they are all more or less nearly related to
Felspar. Their value and use depend upon their beauty and bril-
liancy of colour, in connection with their rarity. None of them
are known to occur, in available forms, within the limits of the Do-
minion.

2. Minerals Used as Sources of Heat and Light.

PEAT.

This name is given to the masses of half decomposed vegetable
matter, consisting largely of branching mosses, often found bordering
the shores of ponds or lakes, and sometimes covering extensive
tracts. It is especially abundant in Ireland, where, after drying, it
is largely used as fuel. It has also been so employed in Canada. In
New Brunswick, it is not uncommon in the southern counties, and
sometimes — as in parts of Charlotte county, near the liue of the

The Mineral Kixciinnr.

New Brunswick TJailway — covers large tracts, Xo use has liere
}>een made of it. Many small streams orij.nnate in peat bogs, deriv-
ing therefrom a dark colour and swainpv taste. At the same time
these bogs, by their spongy character, tend to retain the water, and
to prevent its too rapid removal.

COAL.

Nature. Coal is, like poat, of vegetable origin, but, unlike peat,
is not now to be seen in process of formation, and dKrers further in
many important particulars. It has been shown to be the proiluct of
a far distant period of the earth's history, when not only did vege-
tation of a widely diflerent kind flourish on the earth's surface, biit
with a luxuriance which has not since been equalled, and yet under
such peculiar circumstances as led, from time to time, to its general
overthrow and burial beneath vast quantities of sand and clay, now
hardened into rock. As a result of this burial and the enormous
pressure thereby produced, the vegetable matter has been greatly
changed, and in this changed form, hardened, compacted, and dark-
ened in colour, it constitutes our ordinary eoul.

Varieties. There are two principal varieties of coal in com-
mon use, viz. : Bituminous, or Soft Coal, and Anthracite, or Hard
Coal. The former, as indicated by its name, is rather soft, easily
broken, takes fire rather readily, and burns with a bright but
somewhat smoky flame. The latter, on the contrary, is hard,
brilliantly lustrous, difficult to ignite, and, in burning, produces
great heat, with little or no smoke. In this respect it is like coke,
such as is formed in gas works from the heating of bituminous coal,
and it is altogether probable that it has been similarly formed from
such coal by the heating of the latter, through natural causes, while
still within the earth.

Uses. In addition to its employment as fuel, soft coal is the
direct source of illuminating gas and of various burning oils, such
as Paraffme, Kerosene, etc. Indirectly, it is also the source from
which are obtained the rich and varied Aniline dyes.

Sources. The chief coal-producing countries are Great Britain,
the United States, Belgium, and Canada. In each of these countries
coal-bearing rocks cover extensive areas, and enormous quantities
are annually removed. In Great Britain alone tliere were raised in
the year 1884 nearly one hundred and seventy million tons of this

24 The Mineral Kingdom.

«iibs-.ance, wliile tl)e amount raised in the United States was bi
less. This (piantity is about one-fourth that of the total proc
of the world. Hard Coal, or Anthracite, is almost solely tl
duct of the Pennsylvania mines, and from the latter the qi
removed in 1883 amounted to over thirtv-one million tons. )
a rate is the mineral fuel of the earth being consumed !

The coal fields of Canada are confined to the Maritime Pro
chiefiy Nova Scotia, and to some portions of tlie North',vest. Ii
Scotia the coal beds are numerous and thick, and are largely w
especially about Pictou, Spring Hill, arid Sydney. Single co:
occurring here are sometimes as much as thirty feet in thickn

In New Brunswick the coal-bearing rocks cover a very ext
area, embracing large portions of the counties of Queens, Su
York, Kent, \Vestnu)rland, and Northumberland, in all aboii
third of the entire Province. But though seams of coal
been observed at many different points over this great tract
are for the most part very small, the only ones which have j
capable of profitable working being those found in Queens C
about the head of Grand Lake and the streams connected w
Even in this last-named region the seam is thin, not exc(
twentv-two inches, and were it not for its nearness to the si
and the consequent ease with which it can be obtained, it woi
of comparatively little value. As it is, considerable quantiti
removed every year, and sent to the Fredericton and St. Join
kets, where it is especially valued for blacksmiths' use. The
amount of coal originally present in this coal field has bee;
mated at 150,000,000 tons, of which probably not over 100,0C
have as yet been removed.

Beds of impure anthracite occur at Lepreaux, in western St
county, but have not repaid the cost of working.

ALBERTITE.

This name has been given to a peculiar mineral first foi
Albert county, New Brunswick, and which was there mined for
yeai*? with great profit. Though often called by the name of .
Coal, it is not in reality a true coal, being rather of the natui
mineral pitch, and probably resulting from the chemical altt
of mineral oil or petroleum. It does not occur, like coal, ir
but in the form of irregular and branching vei»^.s, of whic

The Mineral Kingdom. 25

largest, when first discovered, had a thickness of eighteen feet. Be-
tween the years 18()3 and 1874 over ir)4,()00 tons were removed,
having a vahie varying from $1') to $20 a ton, Init in descending
the vein was found to diminish greatly in size, and after reaching a
deptli of over 1,")()0 feet it was found necessary to ahandon the mine.
Numerou.5 attempts liave been made to discover other veins, hut so far
as known to the author none of workable size have vet been found.
The Albertite, a black, highly lustrous, pitch-like substance, was
never nsed as an ordinary fuel. Its great value resulted from its
employment in the manufacture of oil (Albertine) and gas.

BITUMINOUS SHALE.
This is the material in which the veins of Albertite occur, and
from which the Albertite itself was probal)ly derived. Jt is a rock
rather than a mineral, and is found in thick beds extending through
a large part of Albert county (from Elgin to Ilillsboro'), and i)ortion8
of Westmorland (about Memramcook). It is of a dark grey colour,
very tough, with a strong bituminous odour, and in some places
contains so much oily matter ji« to yield oil in considerable (quan-
tities when heated. Works for its separation were at one time
established near Baltimore, in Albert count v, but the discoverv of
the great i)etroleum wells of Pennsylvania prevented the work from
being prof" table, and it was soon abandoned. Portions of the shales
contain large quantities of fossil fishes, and the oily matter contained
in the rock has probably, in great part, been derived from this

source.

PETROLEUM, OR ROCK OIL.

In addition to the oily matter spread through the Bituminous
shales last described, fluid oil, or Petroleum, is sometimes found
oozing from these shales in small quantities. It has been thus ob-
served in the Albert Mines, and at several places about Memramcook,
where it is accompanied by inflammable gas. Ail attempts, how-
ever, to obtain it in profitable quantities have so far failed.

Petroleum, in large quantities, is found in Pennsylvania, the
Russian provinces on the Caspian Sea, in British Burmah, and also
in Ontario. After being refined, it is employed chiefly as a burning
oil, but has also many other applications. Single wells in Pennsyl-
vania liave in some instances yielded 6,000 barrels of oil a day,
'*- while the value of the yield in the United States for the year 1884

I was upwards of twenty millions of dollars.

Ma>**.»»w«-nii.i.iyiiJMii rifi

26 The Mineral Kingdom.

, SULPHUR.

The ai)pcaran('e and some of the }»roi)ertit's of this substance
are made familiar by its iisse in connection with ordinary friction
matihes. The first ignition of the hitter is (hie to a small quan-
tity of phosphorus with which the match is tipi)ed, })ut })ehin(l this
is Ji (piantity of sulphur, which, taking fire from the phosphorus,
in turn ignites the wood. The sulphur is a bright yellow substance,
very brittle, and very indanunable, i)roducing, when burning, dense,
suflocating fumes. In addition to its employment in match-making,
sulphur is used in enormous (piantities in the manufacture of gun-
powder and lire-works, as well as in the making of suli)hurie acid, in
medicine, in bleaching straw goods, and for many otlier purposes.
The supidy for these uses comes chiefly from Sicily and other vol-
canic countries, where it is found in a nearly })ure state. No such
pure sulphur is to be found in New Brunswick or P'astern America,
but many ores of the metals are com])ounds of sulphur, and from
some of these the sulpluir may, if desired, be profitably extracted.

A compound of sulphur and liydrogen is sometimes found dis-
olved in the water of mineral springs, which are accordingly known
as "sulphur springs." They are readily recognized by their ofieiisive
taste and smell, but are often considered as serviceable in the cure of
certain diseases.

3. Materials Capable of Resisting Heat.

GRAPHITE, OR BLACK LEAD.

Graphite is probably vegetable matter greatly altered by intense
heat. It is therefore now but little afiected by the latter, and may
be usefully employed where the effects of lieat are to be resisted. It
is tlius used for "facing" the moulds in which stoves and similar
articles are cast, as well as for giving to iron a bright, glossy surface.
But its most important application is in the manufacture of lead
pencils, for which it is especially adapted both by its softness and its
black colour. It lias not, as its name would seem to indicate, any
relation to ordinary metallic lead.

Graphite is obtained from many different localities in Great
Britain and the United States, as also in Caiuida. In New Bruns-
wick the mineral is found at several points in St. John county, and

i j iiiiiii j llpii i i - p ii p i

The Mineral Kingdom. 2T

has been mined to some extent in the vicinity of the Snspension
Bridge, in Portland.. As here fonnd it is somewhat impure, and htis
been chiefly used for foundry purposes.

BRICK AND FIRE CLAYS.

The dillerent vjirieties of Chiys are not properly minerah^ but
result from the decomposition of the latter, especially from felspar
and mica. Thev are most commonly found in the valleys of the
larger streams and rivers, but Jire also to be met with in other situ-
ations. Their most important quality is tliat of their plaaticitij, or
power of being moulded into any desired form. In consequence of
this property and the })()wer which they ac(juire, when baked, of re-
taining their form and of resisting heat, they are largely employed
in the manufacture of all kinds of bricks and tiles. They also con-
stitute the basis of the manufacture of all varieties of earthenware.

Brickyards are of common occurrence in the Province, but the
two of most importance are those at St. John and at Marysvllle, in
York County. From the latter there were produced, in the year
1884, not less than 8,000,000 bricks.

Fire brick differs from ordinary brick in being made of a purer
clay, and one better adapted to withstand high temperatures. It is
generally of a whitish colour. Clays suitable for such use are fre-
quently found beneath seams of coal, as at Grand Lake and else-
where.

MICA, SOAPSTONE, AND ASBESTUS.

The first of the above minerals has already been referred to a&
being frequently employed in the making of the windows of stoves^
being adapted to this use by its transparency, by its splitting readily
into thin sheets, and by not being acted upon by heat.

SoAPSTONE is, as its name indicates, a stone of a peculiarly soft,^
soapy feeling, and is sometimes used in the making of stoves, mantels^
etc. It does not occur in any available form in New Brunswick.

AsBESTUS. This substance is a variety of the mineral Horn-
blende, or sometimes of Serpentine. It is remarkable chiefly for its
fine fibrous character, resembling cotton or flax, and its power of
resisting heat. In consefjuence of these properties, it is largely used
for roofing purposes, for packing fire-proof safes, in making fire-
proof garments, and for kindred purposes. The mineral is of rare
occurrence in New Brunswick, but has been found in some parts of St.
John County. It is much more abundant in the Province of Quebec

28 TnK Mineral Kingdom.

MI1S.XRAL PAINTS.

1. OCHRES.

Oclires are clays variouHly coloured with compounds of iron. By
their colour and softness they are adapted to the manufacture of
certain kinds of j)aint, and in some parts of the I'nited States are
largely so used. They are found in New Brunswick, both as yellow
and red ochre, at a number of localities, especially iu Albert county,
but little has as yet been done with them.

2. BARYtES.

This is a white and very heavy mineral, sometimes known as
Heavy Spar, and used somewhat largely, both alone and in connec-
tion with White Lead, in the makin;^ of paints. It is found in
many i)arts of the United States, in Canada, and in P'ngland.

In New Brunswick it is found chieflv on Frve's Island, in Char-
lotte county, and near Memramcook Station, in Westmorland.

; 3. CHALK.

This is the familiar material employed for writing purposes. It
18 a variety of limestone, and consists largely of the remains of very
minute animals, at one time living in the sea, at the bottom of which
similar material is now believed to be accumulating. Chalk is wide-
ly spread, and in large deposits, over the continent of. Europ*^
(especially in England and France), but in America is confined to
some small beds in the Rocky Mountrin region.

MINERAL MANUEES.

1. GYPSUM.

This mineral occurs in very large beds f>otli in New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia. In New Brunswick the chief localities are in
Kings county (in Sussex and Uplmm), in Westmorland county (near
Petitcodiac station), in Albert coMnty (near Hillsboro and Hope-
well), and in Victoria county (on tflJe^Tobique River). Near Hills-

The Mineral Kingdom. 9^

boro it hoH l)een very extensively ([narried for ji number of years,
and large works iiave l»een erected for grinding and burning it.
When simply groinul, ( fy[)sum is found to be of much service in
adding to the fertility of certain soils, and from several of the
localities above mentioned it is reujoved in large (quantities to be so
employed. On the otiier hand, when heated, it loses water, and be-
comes converted into Plaster of Paris, a nuiterial largely used in the
making of cements, in the interior linishing of houst*s, in the
stereotyping of books, and for 'uany other purposes. From the
ilillsboro beds the total amount rc/noved during the last year (188())
was 20,1)21 tons, of which the larger part was exported to the United .
States.

As a mineral, (ryj)sum presents several varieties, being some-
times wliite and opa<iue or slightly translucent, being then known as
Alabaster, sometimes granular, sometimes fibrous, and sometimes
crystallizing in large, Hat, transparent slabs. It also varies much in
colour, that of Ilillsboro being pure white, while that of the Tobique
is of reddish and chocolate colours.

2. APATITE.

This mineral is not known to occur in New Brunswick, but is
mentioned here as being one of the important mineral products of
Canada. It is often known as " Canadian Phos])hate," being in
reality a IMiosphate of Lime, and, like bone-earth, which has nearly
the same constitution, is highly valued as a fertilizer. Immense
quantities are annually removed from mines in difierent parts of the
Ottawa valley.

SALT AND MINERAL WATERS.

1. SALT.

The Salt of commerce is obtained from three sources; viz., from
sea water, from beds of solid ro k-salt, and from salt-springs. The
two last may occur together or separately, and are thus found in
many parts of the world, notably in England, France, Spain, Austria
and Hungary ; also in the United States and in Canada (Ontario).

In New Brunswick no beds of rock-salt have as yet been dis-
covered, but salt springs or brines issue from the rocks at several

so The Mineral Kingdom.

points, as near Sussex (Dutcli Valley), Upham (Salt Spring Brook),
and the Tobique Valley. Near Sussex the brine has been employed
as a source of salt, and from sixty to seventy bushels per week have
been at times manufactured — an amount which might easily be
largely increased.

2. MINERAL SPRINGS.

These are springs containing mineral substances in solution.
In addition to those containing salt, already noticed, there are
springrs containing compounds of sulphur, iron, magnesium, and
the various alkalies. Owing to the presence of these dissolved
bodies, they acquire more or less of a medicinal character, and are
often resorted to for curative purposes. In America the best known
are those, of Saratoga, in New York, and the Sulphur Spriags of
the Southern States.

Sulphur springs, so called, have been observed at a number of
places in New Brunswick, especially in Carleton county, and have
acquired some local celebrity, but none of any great value are
known. AVhere waters contain iron it is usually indicated by the
formation of colored films upon the surface, and, eventually, of a
reddish brown sediment in the brooks which they originate. An
alkaline spring occurring near Apohaqui Station in King's county,
lias been recently brought to notice as possessing valuable curative
properties.

USEFUL ROCKS.

The relations of rocks to minerals have been pointed out on a
previous i)age. Among the substances already noticed there are
some, such as rock-salt and gypsum, which, though true minerals,
occur in rock-like masses, often of great extent, and otlicrs, such as
coal and iron ores, which are rather rocks than minerals ; but we
have now to notice a number of substances, largely employed for
useful purposes, about whose rock nature there can be no question.

1. GRANITE.

On page 5 this substance was referred to and described as afford-
ing the best illustration of what a true rock is — an association of
two or more minerals in considerable masses. These minerals are

■Bfai?

The MiNERAi. Kingdom. 31

quartz, felspar, and mica, each distinguisliable by its own peculiar
features, but distributed very regularly and in nearly equrd quantity
through the granite formed by their union, and hence giving to the
latter, in any particular instance, corresponding uniformity. One
granite, however, compared with anotlier, may difler in the propor-
tion of these parts as well as in their size and colour ; and hence
diflerent varieties of granite originate, adapted and used for a variety
of purposes.

Owing to its hardness, firmness and durability, granite of almost
any kind is well suited to the making of the foundations of build-
ings, and is larg(dy so employed. In many instances, also, it is
favorably employed in the construction of entire edifices. Granite
for such purposes is very abundant in New Brunswick, especially in
Queens county, in Charlotte, in York, and Gloucester, in each of
which it covers large areas and rises into prominent hills. At many
points, also, it is suitable for ornamental and decorative purposes,
taking readily a high polish, and possessing shades of colour which
are highly valued. The principal quarries are those of Long Island,
or Hampstead, in Queens county, and the neighborhood of St.
George, in Charlotte county. At the former locality the rock is
mostly gray, and is chiefly employed in the rough state for ordinary
construction. That of St. George, on the contrary, has a rich, warm
reddish colour, derived from the felspar which it contains, and is
largely polished both at St. George and at Carleton, St. John.

2. SANDSTONE D.

In a sandstone the particles of which the rock is made are
not, as in granite, crystalline particles, but simply, as the name
indicates, cemented grains of sand. The grains may be large or
small, and either firmly or loosely compacted. They may also vary
in colour. Thus sandstones also present many difterences, and be-
come fitted for a variety of uses.

Sandstones which are rather fine, and at the same time not too
hard, and having an even texture throughout, are connnonly known
as freestones. Such stones are highly })rized for building purposes,
and they have been very largely employed in the construction of all
the Atlantic cities. They are commonly known as Nova Scotia stone,
but a very large part has really come from New Brunswick. The
most important quarries in the Province are those about the head of

"tBIWthHa ifBl l lw ii .; ii •• ..iiiiiti

32 The Mineral. Kingdom.

the Bay of Fiindy, near Hopewell and Harve}'", in Albert County,
and Dorchester and Westmorlahd ; also on the North Shore, at New-
castle. Stone from the last-named locality is now being used in the
construction of one of the large public buildings at Ottawa. It i&
readily cut into ornamental forms, and is quite durable. The
colours vary from olive gray to purple.

Sandstones which are of a very uniform texture, and which
possess a clear sharp grit, are adapted to the manufacture of mill-
stones and grindstones. Such roc!:s are found with ordinary free-
stones at the localities above named, and are often removed for such
uses. Grindstone Island, off the coast of Albert County, derives ita
name from the o(;currence here of rocks of this character.

3. SLATES.

As sandstone is composed of cemented grains of sand, so slate is
only a hardened bed of clay. It is thus much finer than sandstone,
of more uniform texture, and, owing to the pressure which it has
undergone, exhibits a tendency to split or cleave into thin slabs.
It also does not allow water to pass through it readily. Owing to
these properties it is largely employed for roofing purposes, as well
as in the manufacture of writing slates, slate pencils, etc.

The best slates in America come from, quarries in Maine, Penn-
sylvania, and Vermont. In New Brunswick slate rocks are common,
covering a large proportion of the entire area of the Province, but
little has been done to test their quality. The area which affords
most promise in this particular is that of northern Charlotte County
and southern Queens.

4. LIMESTONE.

Limestone is the rock from which ordinary lime is derived. It
is found in beds, often of great thickness, and extending over con-
siderable tracts of country. It varies much in colour, though usually
tending to pale ^ey, bluish, and whitish tints, and may readily be
recognized by its softness, and usually by the facility with which it
effervesces or froths up upon the addition of an acid. It not un-
frequently contains shells, the relics of former life, and much lime-
stone is almost wholly thus constituted.

In New Brunswick limestones are found in beds of great extent
and purity along either side of the St. John river, in the county of
the same name, and large quantities of stone have been thence re-

The Mineral Kingdom. 33

moved and burned for the making of lime. Quite recently this
business has assumed very large proportions, and in the last year
(ISSG) over 1 50,000 casks of lime were manufactured here. Lime-
stone is also found, and lias been to some extent burned, at iMuscjuash,
in St. John county, and at L'Etang, in Charlone county. Smaller
beds occur along the valley of the Becaguimic river, and at Wind-
sor, in Carletou county ; near Ilillsboro, in Albert, laid elsewhere v
and from some of these beds considerable quantities of lime have
been manufactured, but only for local use.

5. MARBLE.

' larble is of the same nature as limestone, but is harder and
more crystalline. It occurs in the same way, and exhibits similar
differences of texture and colour, but owing to its firmness, durabili-
ty, and capability of being worked and polished, it is better adapted
for ornamental purposes. It is hence largely employed in the manu-
facture of tombstones, monuments, mantels, statues, and the like, and
at times for the construction of large public buildings. The best
foreign marble comes from Italy, but some varieties of American
rock are also extensively employed.

In New Brunswick portions of the limestones of St. John county
are true marbles, and in small specimens are often quite liandsorae,
exhibiting, in addition to pure white varieties, shades of blue, pink,
green, and dark grey. It has, however, been found difficult to obtain
rock sufficiently free from cracks and flaws, and as yet has been but
little used. At present there are no marble quarries in operation
in the Province.

OF THE EELATIONS OF ROCKS TO THE EARTH'S

SURFACE.

In the description of rocks and minerals in the preceding pages,
and of the uses to which they are applied, they have in all cases
been supposed to be removed from their natural places, and often
subjected to various artificial operations. But even in their original
positions, rocks at least often affect our well-being, and that not less
than the ores, gems, ornamental or architectural materials which we
may obtain from them. A few of the rocks already noticed will
c

■HHH

34 The Mixerat Kingdom.

enable us esisily to underatand tliis point, while they may also serve
to convey some Idea of how rockx are made, mhen tliey were made, and
in what way they tlirow light on the earth's history.

(1.) How Rocks Crumble and Decay. We commonly look

upon rocks and stones as unchangeable and everlasting ; but one
has only to go into some old church-yard to find proof of the fact
that this is not the case — that these, like everything else in nature,
are liable to cliange and decav. While some newlv erected tomb-
stone will present a surface which is clear and bright, otheis by its
side, and which liave been longer exposed, will be found to be far
more dull, while in still others, evidently the oldest of all, the in-
scriptions which they once bore have become well nigh illegible.
These changes result from the action of the air, which, partly by
variations of heat and cold, partly by frost and moisture, and partly
in other wa s, tend sooner or later to alter the character of the sur-
face and to hasten its decay. Ordinary building stones are liable to
similar changes, and many beautiful buildings in various parts of
the world, erected at enormous cost, have had their beauty sadly
marred by this cause, or have fallen into utter ruin. So in general
all rocks exposed to the action of air and water, whether in large or
small masses, whether on mountain sides or in tlie more level plains,
and whatever their nature, tend eventually to break up, crumble, and
to fall to pieces. The power which water has of dissolvimj many
rocks and minerals, especially those containing lime, aids in this
process, as does also the constant wear produced by the How of this
water in streams and rivei*s. We have next to emjuire " What be-
comes of all the material (has set free?"

(2.) How Rocks are Formed. Rocks, ns we have seen, by
"weathering" crumble and decay. But in so doing the materials
composing them are not lost; they are only changed in character or,
it may be, removed to some new position, and thus they are made
to contribute to another important result; viz., iha formation of veiv
rock. In some instances the material is merely added to the soil,
and there is reason to believe that all soils have to a large extent
been produced by similar agencies. Some of the varieties of these
will be noticed presently. In other instances the loosened materials
are taken up by flowing waters and borne away, it may be only for a
few feet or yards, but not \uifrequently for scores or hundreds of
miles. But, whatever the distance, sooner c r later the material must

The Mineral Kingdom 35

find a resting phuc, and tliere lieapcd up it in time becomes rock
again. If the material transi)orted be sand, a bed or beds of
8and will be deposited; if mud, a "lay; if jiebbles, a bed of gravel.
Moreover, as quickly moving waters have more power to bold nj)
and carry along solid matter than those which How more gently, and
jis dillerences of this kind are found along the whole length of
streams and rivers as well as upon the sea coast, pebbles will accu-
mubite at one place while sands are forming at another, or mud-beds
at still another. Or, by changes in the condition of the stream at
various seasons, as in times of drought or freshet, very difierent
kinds of nuiterials may be dei)osited in the same place, one above
another, in successive beds.

Nc V it is true that tlie materials thus deposited differ from our
ordinary ideas of rocks in being loose and uncompacted, rather than
hard and solid. But we nuist not attach too nmch weight to the
diflerence. Hardness is a very variable characteristic, and compara-
tively slight changes are sullicient to determine it. Snow, by mere
pressure, becomes as hard as ice, and so clays and sands, by the mere
pressure of their own weight, tend to become more compact and solid.
So sand and lime become compacted into mortar, in time becoming
as hard as many rocks, and as lime is often present in the waters
which penetrate sandy and clayey beds, these in similar manner may,
by its agency, also become cemented, and thus aojuire firmness and
solidity. And thus it is that a large part of the rocks of the earth
have been produced. A sandstone, as lifis been described, is only a
hardened bed of sand, and so a shale or a slate is but a hardened bed
of mud ; or where the material is coarser, consisting of rounded and
various pebbles, we have what geologists call a conglomerate. Such
rocks, as their nature at once -shows, have all beeiTTormed by the
action of running water, and for this reason are often called Aqueous
or Water-formed Hocks. Again, such rocks successively laid down
in moving waters are usually in layers or beds, and are sometimes
known as Bedded or Stratified Rocks. Finallv, iis most waters con-
tain or may receive different forms of vegetable and animal life —
tree-trunks, leaves, insects, shells, etc. — portions of these often be-
come imbedded in the forming deposits, and there entombed and
preserved constitute what are known as fossils. In the rocks accom-
panying coal beds, such as those of Grand I^ake, fossils in the form
of leaves and trunks of trees are exceedingly abundant, though they

36 The Mineral Kingdom.

have probably been entoinbed for thousands of centuries, and so at
the Albert mines nianv of the shales were found to contain mvriads
of fossil fishes, wholly unlike anything now living, while in the north-
ern part of the province (and similarly over much of America and
Europe) we have large tractt?, and even mountain masses, almost wholly
made up of shells, corals, and other forms of marine life. But while
water has thus been the great agency both in the destruction and
building up of rocks, there is also another, that of heat, which may also
operate in the same direction. Thus enormous quantities of melted
rock are at times poured out from volcanoes, and overflow extensive
tracts, carrying destruction with them. Or they may be thrown from
volcanic craters high into the air, and, falling, build up a high cone
or volcanic mountain around the point of their discharge. Such
rocks, of course, will not be stratijicd in the same way that we have
seen water-formed rocks to be, nor will they, in general, contain re-
mains of living beings. They are what are known as Fire-formed
or Igneous Rocks. Lastly, igneous rocks, on their way to the surface
from the bowels of the earth, may bake or alter the rocks through
which they pass; or the heat from the earth's interior, spreading
through a great mass of rock without actually melting it, may
greatly alter its character, either simply hai dening it, or, it may be,
giving it a crystalline character. This is probably the way in which
granite and many related rocks have been produced. Originally
formed by the action of water, as the stratified structure in some of
them clearly shows, they have since been acted on by subterranean
heat, and thus made to assume their present form. Such rocks are
accordingly known as Altered or Metamorphie Hocks.

(3.) How Rocks Tell the Histoi ^ of the Earth. From what

has been stated, it will be evident that in the various features which
rocks present we have not only an indication of the special circum-
stances under which each was formed, but also of the various
changes which at different times have affected the regions in which
they were formed. They enable us to tell the former sites of lakes
and rivers, the former different distribution of land and sea, the former
frequent changes in the surface level of the continents, and the depths
of the ocean, and — most interesting of all — the former existence of
whole tribes of plants and animals which liave at various times
peopled the earth, but of which we would have no knowledge what-
ever were it not for their remains which the rocks reveal. Thus

Thj: Mineral Kingdom. 37

the earth becomes n great historical recor(1, tlie events of which are
to be unfolded and read througli the careful study of the rock forma-
tions wliich constitute its successive leaves. This study is the work
of the science of Geology.

(4). How Kocks Determine the History of Man. Besides

constituti'.ig t!ie solid foundation on wiiich all human structures^ rest,
rocks have a most important bearing on tlie welfare and develop-
ment of man in many other ways as well.

First, Theu Originate and Determine the Character of All Soils. —
These are directly t!ie result of the breaking up and decay of rocks,
as previously noticed, and their character and productiveness are di-
rectly dependent upon tlie nature of the source from which they are
derived. If the materials rctpiired for the healthy growth of plants
are not contained in a particular rock, the soil resulting therefrom
cannot contain them, and will be correspondingly sterile ; if it is
rich in such materials, the soil will be fertile and productive. Thus
some rocks weather easilv and others scarcelv at all, so that the one
will be covered with a deep soil, the other with little, if any. Soils
resulting from the breaking up of sandstones are themselves sandy,
and therefore generally poor, lacking firnmess, and not readily keep-
ing the moisture which plants require; while those resulting from
the decay of clayey rocks are apt to remain cold and wet. By
ploughing, and various other agricultural operations, the natural
conditions of soils may be greatly altered and improved, or, by bad
agriculture, they may become impoverished ; but the general char-
acter of all soils is originally and chiefly determined by the rocks
on which they rest, and from which thy have been derived.

Secondly, Rocks Determine all the Distinctive Features of the Land.
— Some rocks are hard and some are soft. The latter accordingly are
readily washed away, while the former are but little aflected. Thus,
in part, originate hills and valleys, highlands and lowlands, and
with them the general aspect of the country and all the details of it •>
scenery. The course and length of rivers, the position and depth of
lakes, the i)lace and character of water-falls, and, upon the coast, the
occurrence of bnvs and headlands, of rock -bound shores and sandv
beaches, of islands and harbors, are other features, all of which are
largely determined througli like differences. And these, in turn, de-
termine the origination of commerce^ the sites of cities, the construe-

vJ8 TiiK Mineral KiNc;i>o>r.

tion of railways and canals: in general, all those factors upon which
the character and growth of nations depend.

Lastly. Rocks and their contents afford or produce a large
part of the wea.ih of nations. From them we derive the greater
portion of the materials employed in the construction of our dwell-
ings, much of the material of which all our tools and machinery
are constructed, a large part of our fuel, the substance of our coinage
and plate, and all of our gems and precious stones.

Being thus intimately connected alike with the present and the
past condition of our earth and the beings which inhabit it, the
study of rocks in their various relations nuist ever be a source of
profit as well as pleasure. It is hoj)ed that the few simple explana-
tions and statements contained in the preceding pages may contribute
to this result.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

PLANT LIFE.

Figs. 1-5.— Stagks of Growth. L The Seed; 2. The Seedling; 3-4. The same
more advanced ; 5. Th» Plant with fully formed Leaves.

Figs. 6-10. — Tiiic Branching Plant. G. Showing position of Buds (Linden);
7. Nature of Buds as undeveloped Branches; 8, 9, 10. Forms of Trees.

Figs. 11-20. — Forms of the Stem and Branches. 11. Prostrate Stem or
Runner (Strawberry) ; 12. Underground Stem, forming tubers (Potat(j) ;
13. Stem with Branch forming a tendril for climbing (Vine); 14. Sec-
tion of "Exogenous" Stem, showing bark, pith, and rings of wood.
Figs. 15-20. "Endogenous" Stems; 15. Grain of Corn germinating;
> 16. Same more advanced ; 17. Leafy Stem ; 18. Underground Stem or
" Root-stock " of Iris ; 19. Grass ; 20. Section of Endogenous Stem.

Figs. 21-26. — Forms of Roots. 21. Toung Seedling forming root and root-
lets ; 22. Roots branching for absorption ; 2;i-2G. Hoots thickened by
deposited food : Carrot (23) ; Turnip (24) ; Radish (25) ; Dahlia (2G).

Plate II. Plant Life.

p. 39

Thi: Vkgp:table Kingdom.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

PLANT LIFE

Fios. 1-10. — Forms of Leaves. 1. A simi)le and complete Leaf; 2. Leaf
M'ith cleft margins; 3. Loaf with throe-lohed margin; 4. Three-cleft
Leaf; 5. Three-divided Leaf; 6. Compound Leaf, with seven Leadots.
The above arc Leaves of " Exogenous" Plants. Figs. 7, 8, 9. Leaves of
Endogenous I'lants. Fig. 10. Leaf of Feru.

Figs. 11-21. — Forms and Groups of Flowkrs. 11. Solitary Flower (Bluets);
12. Flower-cluster of Lily of the Valley ; 13. rmbrella-likc clusters (or
Umbels) of Caraway ; M. Heads, or " Compound Flowers"; 15. Hare-
bell, showing Calyx and Corolla; IG. Flower of Stone-Crop, showing
Sepals, Petals, Stamens, and PisliKs ; 17, Flax-blossom cut thr. nigh, and
showing — in addition to Calyx, Corolla and Stamens — the Ovary or
interior of the Pistil, Avith contained Ovules. (The above are Flowers
of Exogenous Plants.) 18. Adder's Tongue; 19. Trillium; 20. Indian
Turnip — a form of flower cluster in which the small and imperfect
flowers are near the base of a central fleshy "spike," and concealed by
an enveloping flower-like leaf; 21. Flower-clusters of Grass. The
above are Flowers of Endogenous Plants.

Figs. 22-28. — Forms of Fruits. 22. Stony Fruit of Plum; 23. Fleshy Fruit
of Cranberry; 2-1. Nut or Acorn; 25. Strawberry — the true Frujts
being minute and buried in the thickened stem ; 26. Winged Fruit of
Maple ; 27. Pear, divided to show the core, or ripened ovary; 28. A Pea-
Pod. .

Plate III. Plant Life.

II.

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

1. OF LIFE IN aENERAL.

Tk tlie first portion of this work tlie attention of the student has
been directed, almost exclusively, to what may be termed dead
Nature. The various rocks which constitute the substance of the
earth, together with the minerals of which they are composed, or
which are contained within them, however liable they may be to
certain kinds of change, never manifest in any way the possession of
what we term Life. Plants and Animals, on the other hand, are
livir\(j beiiujs. They are produced, they grow, they move, they take
and digest nourishment, and finally they die, their life having, how-
ever, in the meantime, been transmitted to their young. Now if we
reflect upon these characteristics of living things, as compared with
those of rocks and minerals, we shall see that the diilerence lies in
this one thing; viz., that the former are capable of doing some-
thing, while the latter are not. Mineral substances may be used in
a variety of ways; they may be made the implements wherewith to
do something, but they cai do nothing of their^^lves. Plants and
animals, on the other hand, are always doing '»ing by powers

of tlieir own, and as soon as th'^y ceusc to f' ^ die, and return to

the earth from which they sprung.

What we have to study, then, in the case of Plants and Animals,
is, WhatTiiey Do, and How They Do It. As the work of Plants is
far simpler than that of Animals, and as the agents or organs by
which it is effected are also much simpler, we shall find it most con-
venient to take up tlieir study first.

2. PLANT LIFE.

It seems somewhat odd at first that we should look upon a plant
as a living thing, and should attempt to describe its life. In an
ordinary herb, shrub, or tree, there seems at any one time but little
to suggest vitality. The trunk of the tree apparently diflTers but
little from the boards into which it may be sawn: the leaves flutter-

, TlIK VKfiKTAHLK KlX(il)OM. 41^

f ing in tlie bree/.o yecni no more alive than wlien, tletarheil by the

same breeze, tiiey are scatten*! over the ^Mound. We Kee no motion^
except such as tlie wind i)rovokes. Tlie tree lias apparently no
(trgans wherewith to take food, or to digest it when taken. It seem*
neither to eat, nor drink, nor sleei>, nor breathe, nor climb; and
though we know that it grows, it is far from being obvious at first
how this growth is ellected, or by what agents it is carried on. And
yet a plant docs all tiicse things and a great deal more, after its own
peculiar fashion; and so it is a real living thing, as much so as we
ourselves are, having a regulurly allotted term of life, having a
definite work to di?, and dclinite instruments or organs wherewith to
do it.

The study of this peculiar life of Plants, systematically pursued
and in all its varied relations, constitutes the science of IJotany. It
is both an interesting and a valuable study for many reasons, of
which a few only can here be stated:

(1.) Plants supply us directly or indirectly with all our food. A
knowledge of vegetable growth and structure therefore assists us in
obtaining from the earth the greatest possible supply of such food
and of using it to the best advantage. The whole science of agri-
culture has for its immediate object the promotion of the growtl of
plants, and its successful prosecution may be very largely afiected by
our knowledge or ignorance of the laws of Plant life.

(2.) Plants furnish us witli much of the materials wherewith we
clothe our bodies and build our houses. Their suitability for these
purposes depends upon peculiarities of structure and growth wbich
it is the part of the botanist to work out and understand.

(3.) Plants supply us with many important drugs and medicines,
with valuable perfumes and dyes, with the materials for tanning, and
with much of our fuel. Their capability of being so used or not can
in many instances be directly inferred from a knowledge of their
botanical character and relations.

(4.) A knowledge of plant-life — of "What Plants Do, and How
. ' They Do It" — adds a ten-fold interest to the contemplation of the
plants themselves. With such knowledge they cease to be merely
the pretty things they were before, valued only for their beauty of
form, or colour, or perfume ; they become things in which we can
take an intelligent interest, as being constructed according to some

^;v.

44 The Vegetable Kingdom.

plan; as hitving everything about them with a meaning and a pur-
pose ; in short, as being so many manifestations of Creative Wisdom.

To understand fully all that is embraced in the life of plants
"would, of course, require a very lengthy course of study, even on the
part of those of mature years, and with all the modern aids to assist
investigation. But much may be learned from the mere observation
of the most familiar plants, and wc shall now proceed to sliow, in
i* very simple way, some of the facts which tliese are capable of
teaching us.

4. THE BIRTH OF PLANTS.

The farmer, in order that he may obtain his crop, sows his seed.
The dandelion and tiie thistle by the wayside, despite the farmer's
wish, scatter McjV seeds broadc < by entrusting them to the winds,
and again n crop is sure to foL^vv. In all our woods, seeds in large
numbcis fall at certain season (- the ground, and from them again,
sooner or later, springs up a lot of young seedlings, some to gi^ow
iigain into trees, but a larger number to perish. So all ordinary plants
spring from seeds, and this springing from the seed (commonly
called germination) is the first obvious act in the plant's history.

Obtain now a number of seeds, as many as can readily be pro-
cured, and compare them one with another. Probably some will
be large, others small ; some heavy and others light ; some of one
colour and some of another; some smooth and others wrinkled or
having various appendages attached to portions of their surface.
Put these are only outside differences. Amid them all this one fact
remains, that each one, provided the seed is good, contains in the in-
terior a living plant, which is at least capable of growth, and which
will grow as soon as it is placed under suitable conditions. Even
•within the seed thi» little plantlet can generally be discovered, with
its little stem and leaf or pair of leaves, but, from want of room and
other causes, generally so crumpled u»> or otherwise mis-shapen that
-we are ai)t to overlook its true nature. Thus, even from th« inspec-
tion of a few seeds, if attentively considered, we are led to recognize
this important principle, that amid r.U the apparent variety of nature
there is unity and harmony of design — one general plan which
may be recognized amid an infinite divei-sity of detail.

These statements will tind other and more interesting illustra-
tions as we now trace the df'velopment of our seeds into lull-grown
ulants.

The Vegetable Kingdom. 45

5. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.

Let the pupil take a number of sucli seeds as have been above
named — lliose of the Bean, Pea, or Morning Glory will answer
well — and sow them, a few of each kind, half an inch deep or
more in clean sand placed in a small flower-pot or saucer, ap.d to
which a little water has been added. After an interval of two or
ihree days let him repeat this process with other seeds of the same
kind in other jars, and yet again a third time, after :i similar inter-
val, if in the meantime all the pots or saucers have been kept in a
moderately v.arm place, Jind also kept moist, it will be found that by
the time the seeds last planted begin tc peep above the sand, those
which were planted first will have attained a considerably greater
growth, and thus, by com{)arison Avith the former, will enabM us to
ascertain in wliat that growth consists. To make the comparison
more complete it will be well to have, in addition to the growing
plants, a few actual seeds which have simply been soaked in water
in order to soften them.

Xow, if the pupil will take one plant from each of the jars which
have thus been successively started, and place them side by side in
the order of their growth, adding finally the unaltered seed as the
starting point of the series, he will be in a position to recognize a
number of things wliich, if he were to confine his attention to any
one period, be would probably fail to see. Thus, in addition to the
fact of growth, he may, if he cares to do so, form something like an
estimate of How Long it Takes to Grow, lie may see more clearly
the direction of the growth. He may, by a few trials, see also what
circumstances may promote and what may retard their growth. He
will see, for example, how they turn to the light (that portion, at
least, which is above the ground), and if he allow tliem, by care-
lessness, to get dry or to become chiiied, he will be led to recognize
their need of warmth and moisture. Finally — and this is a point
to which he should pay especial attention — he ought to be able to
see wherein, if at all, his more advanced seedlings differ from those
which liave but just sprouted, or even from the plantlet in the Beed
which has not yet sproutec at all. The growth of the same plants
in gardens aflbrds admirable opportunities for further profitable com-
parison. The culture of beans, acorns, or grainr, of corn, allowed to
Bprout and then suspended in tumblers or glass vases filled with,
water, also affords good illustrations of the subject.

46 The Vegetable Kingdom.

Having now hecome familiar with the facts of growth in any
on3 of the several kinds of seeds with which he started, if the pupil
■will fiirllier take tlie rows or series of specimens illustrating that
^rowtli, and i)lace them side by side, he will he in a position to make
further comparisons, and to see wherein one plant in its growth
rescn.bles or dillers from another. By so doing he will again find,
4is he did in the co:n})arison of seeds, that amid many ai)i)arent dif-
ferences, there is one conim(mplan; that, however unlike various
plants may be in the rapidity of their growth, in their form or
<3olour, they are composed of essentially the same i)arts, having the
same relations to each other, and doing the same kind of work.

We have next to consider what these parts are.

6. THE PARTS OF A PLANT WHICH ARE CONCERNED

IN GROWTH.

It will not be possible, nor is it desirable, within the limits of this
little work, to describe in detail all the various parts of which a
Plant consists, with the more minute structure and mode of opera-
tion. If, however, the i)ractical experiments which have been above
reconmiendcd have been faithfully performed, and the comparisons
suggested by them have been carefully thought over, the pupil will
probably have already learned for himself all the main facts of the
case. lie will, for example, have recognized in each of the plants
examined an obvious distinction between that portion which re-
mains beneath the ground and that which rises above it into the
light and air. In the former he sees the Root> in the laiter the
Stem and Leaves; and though he may find when he begins to com-
pare, as he should do, one stem and its leaves with another, or one
root with another, very considerable difTerences, he will again l!nd
that among these seeming differences the main idea is never lost,
and that Stem and Koot respectively have certain constant features
by which they may always be distinguished.

In the case of the Root or Roots (for even on the same plant
there may be one or many) the first common feature is that of their
xlownward growth. They seem to be attracted towards the earth
and to avoid the light. In the second place they have no ai)parent
regularity of growth, turning here and there without any obvious
reason, and, though branching freely, having the branches also
disi)osed on the root without order or synunetry. Finally they are

Sp» . 1 W ^ M^ 'i " m tm

The VKfiETABLL Kingdom. 47

"wliolly destitute of leaves. A little reflection will |trobably suggest
tluit this, after all, is what might be expected; for, buried in the soil,
a root is obliged to take its chance, and grow this way or that as
circumstances may determine. Again, the roots being (as will
presently be shown) the parts concerned in drawing up moisture
from the soil, they will naturally turn or form branches wlierever
such n\oisture ha})[)ens to be most abundant. But they have no
leaves, for, even if they liad, they would, underground, be of n(»
service whatever.

In the Stem, on the other hand, we have, in most of our })lants.
at the beginning at least, a single upright shoot looking towards
the sun and skv.

Along the sides of this shoot, and upon its summit, it is clothed
with leaves, but these are found to be disposed with great regularity,
either in pairs or one after another up the stem, so as to give to the
latter the appearance (and it is more than mere appearance) of
being composed of a succession of joints. If, now, we further com-
pare together any one of our series of experimental seedlings, we
shall see that the whole growth of t)*e stem, from the beginning,
consists merely of the successive formation of new joints, each one
growing, as it were, out of the preceding one, and each having at its
top a leaf or pair of leaves, which are necessarily left on the sides as
new joints are formed above them. It would seem as though it were
the object of the joints to increase the number of the leaves, and at the
same time to place each of the latter where it shall have the greatest
possible amount of light and air. And this is indeed the ease; for it
is the main purpose of leaves to digest the plant's food, and this
they can only do when freely exposed to the warmth and light of
the sun.

It may here be added that ev.ni if we extend our observations to
plants of longer and larger growth, we shall find no different parts
or organs concerned in that growth. A seedling Maple may, in
time, become a tali forest tree; but whatever its size jr age, its
growth is merely a repetition of the same process, and is effected
through the same organs — roots below and stem above, the latter
bearing leaves on its newly-formed joints or twigs. It is true that in
this and similar cases the original stem naturally sub-divides at
quite an early period into what we call the branches, but these are
evidently mere repetitions of the main stem, consisting of the same

48 Thp: Vegetable Kingdom.

parts and growing in the same way. They may produce flowers
also, but (as will be shown farther on) these are in no way concerned
in ordinary growth, iueir purpose being the formation of seed, by
which the plant is to reproduce itself.

Root, Stem, and Leaf, then, are the agents or organs of Vegetable
Growth, and eacli has its own peculiar part to fullil, — the root that
of binding the plant to the soil, and of absorbing therefrom a por-
tion of its food ; the stem and branches serving to carry up this food
to the leaves, wliich are at the same time spread to the liglit and
air, and the leaves serving, under the influence of the sun's ruys, to
so change or digest this food as to flt it for the nourishment of
plants and animals.

But Root, Stem, and Leaf are subject to numerous modifications,,
and are made to serve many other than their ordinary purposes^
becoming, as a consequence, so disguised that we may at times have
difficulty in recognizing them. As some of these modifications
play a most important jiart in the life-history of the plant, a few
of the more prominent may now be noticed.

7. VARIETIES OF ROOTS.

Let a pupil or a school devote a half holiday to the collection of
Roots — entire ones in the case of the smaller plants, and portions
of the extremities in the case of ihe larger. The specimens having
been collected, place them side by nde and compare them one with
another. Such comparisons are veiy suggestive, and the student
should endeavor, /or himself, to find a meaning for all the differences
which lie sees. A few examples only can here be given.

(L) Roots Designed Mainly for Absorption. These are

usually thin and fibrous, branching freely, as they thus increase the
number of points as well as the extent of ground available in the
taking of food. They are especially common in annual plants, which
have to do all their work in a single season.

(2.) Roots Serving as Depots of Food. Many plants do

not become sufficiently mature to flower and form seed in a single
year, but require two or more for the purpose. In these the root is
often made a receptacle in which a portion of the food prepared in
the first season is stored away under ground to be drawn upon for a
second season's growth. Turnips and carrots are examples. What

The VEGjrrABLE Kingdom. 49

is food for tlie plant is food for man and beast as well. Ilcnce the
value of such root-crops in ordinary farming and gardening.

(3.) Roots Serving as Holdfasts. This is to some extent the

case wit!i all rrots, but besides those which grow directly downward
from the seed, otlicr roots are often seen higlier on the stem which
would seem to have tlils as a more special olKce. It is to some ex-
tent the case with the roots developed from the second or higher
joints of the stem in common Indian corn, v. hen earth is heap.ed up
around the latter, and so it is in many vines and trailing plants; but
there are other eases, like that of the English Ivy, in which this
would seem to be the sole i)urp(!se. the whole stem being thickly
covered with little rootlets by which the plant is enabled to cling
for support to various objects, and thus to reach heights which would
otherwise be unattainable

8. VARIETIES OF STEMS.

The Stem, as might be expected, presents a -imch greater num-
ber of varieties than does the Root. Thev mav be studied in the
same wav bv the collection of as manv diflerent kinds as can con-

«' ft «.

veniently be got, and then, remembering what has been said of the
proper nature of the stem and its mode of growth, endeavoring to
recognize that nature amid all the possible variations. These all
have their purpose, and to seek it out in each special case is a most
entertaining study, but our space will only allow us to mention a
few of the more striking examples.

Stems, then, differ in lemjth, from that of the tiny seedling to that
of the tall forest tree, and with increase of length there is generally,
but not always, increase of breadth, thus giving the necessary
strength. Stems ditfer in firmness and solidity; some, like our ordi-
nary herbs, being soft, juicy, and ettsily injured or destroyed, while
others, like our shrubs and trees, are woody and not so readily affected
by outside influences. Even among woody plants great differences
exist, as seen in the contrast between our hard and soft woods, and
the uses to which they are applied. Again, stems differ in duration,
those of herbs either dying altogether at the end of the summer,
after the seed is ripened, the plant being then an annual ; or dying
down to the surface of the ground, as in many biennials and peren-
nials. They may differ also in the method and extent of their branch-
ing, some (like our Spruces) sending off only small side branches,
D

80 The Vegetaiii.k KingdOxM.

>\'hile tlie main trunk continues to grow upward like a spire, or (as
in Klnis and Willows and Maples) the main stem may, at no great
<listan('e from the ground, lose itself in the branches. Stems, again,
<lif}er in pnsilioii and direction of growth, some being wholly above
giound and standing erect, or nearly so, while others, like those of
Mayilowers and Strawberries, recline or lie jjrostrate on the ground.
They may even lie below the ground, in which case they are apt to
be mistaken for roots, as in the subterranean stems of Couch Grass,
j\lint, etc. In the latter instance they are often used, as was the case
with some true roots, to serve as depots of food, and become greatly
thickened as the latter is deposited in them. Some varieties ot
hulbii, and what are knov.n as tubers, as in the ease of the connnon
Potato, are thickened stems of this sort. In the case of under-
ground stems, the leaves borne by them are generally only in the
form of small and useless scales, but the i)resence of the latter, with
their arrangement on the stem, and the occurrence of buds develop-
ing into leafy }>ranches, usually remove all difficulty in recognizing
their true character.

The only other kind of diflference presented by stems which can
be liere referred to is one connected with their interior structure,
and which results from their different modes of growth. To under-
stand tlie difference, cut with a sharp knife a slice from off a stem of
Indian corn, a Lily, or a Grass, and then a second similar slice from
a young Beech, Maple, AVillow, Grape Vine, or Elder. In the latter
ease, as every one knows, there will be revealed to view a separable
bark on the outside, enclosing one or more hiyers of wood, and, it
may be, a quantity of soft pith in the centre. The cut end of a cord-
wood stick exhibits similar rings still more strikingly, and in very
old trees they may be very numerous. In the plants first named, on
the contrarv, there is no distinct bark, nor is there anv yerv distinct
wood; for, though the latter is really present, it is so scattered in
irreguhir bundles, here and there, that some search is required to
ihid it. Now it has been found that plants possessing these two dif-
ferent kinds of stems differ quite as markedly in the character of
their leaves, in the nature of their seeds, and in the peculiarities of
their flowers, and hence the distinction is of much importance in
the grouping or classifying of plants. The figures and explanations
of Plates II. and III. will serve to make these differences more
intelligible.

The Vegktable Kikcjdom. 61

It may be well in this place to observe, further, that it* our ordi-
nary powers of vision be assisted by the aid of a strong magnifying
glass, or, still better, })y a good mieroseope, such a view may be
obtained of wood, jiith, and bark (as well as of other parts of the
plant), as will serve to show more clearly their real nature and rela-
tions, as Avell as to give a better understanding of the i)rocesses by
which vegetable life is carried on. Whatever be the i)art taken,
such an examination, by means of a thin slice •^nfilciently enlarged,
will show that it is not, as we might su})pose, absolutely dense and
solid, but is really made up of a vast nuiltitude of little cavities,
each bounded by its own proper walls, and which are A'ariously
associated together, as they also present many diflerences of form
and size. These cavities are known as cpUs, and tlie masses formed
by their association as Cellular I'issue. In the case of pith the cells
are either round or, b} mutual i)ressure, many-sided, looking much
like honey-comb, while they are at the same time thin and easily
destroved. Similar tissue forms also the edible portion of ordinarv
fruits. In wood, on the other hand, many of the cells are found to
have been lengthened into tubes, and tiiese being arranged side by
side, spliced together, as it were, as well as thickened, help to give
strength to the rising stem, as they also serve to form the fibrous
framework of the leaf. It is from diflerences of this kind *hat we
have the familiar distinctions of "Hard" and "Soft" Woods, of Sap
Wood and Heart Wood, etc., as well as the adaptation of each kind
of wood for some particular use. Finally, cellular tissue may, in
certain cases, become so dense and thick as to acquire almost the
solidity of stone. This occurs in die so-called Stone Fruits, as the
Cherry and Plum, and again in the outer portion of luits.

9. VARIETIES OF LEAVES.

Let the student again collect as many different varieties of leaves
as he can conveniently find. The mere search for such varieties
can hardly fail to suggest many instructive comparisons. The
leaves having been collected and arranged before him, let him
then endeavour to see what they have in common, and wherein
they differ. One part, the Blade, he will be pretty sure to find in
all, it being the most im[)ortant part of the leaf, and, as evident from
its form, so constructed as to expose to the sun's rays the greatest
possible extent of surface. In many he will tind a second part, the

-■ri-^^w^'i^r-'W'r^'TY^^'^'wrr^^rw^^^^r^mgmmRlt^m'im^^fJ^llffl^

52 The Vegetable Kinc4Dom.

leaf-stalk, by wliich the Blade is attached to the stem, and he may
find a third in the form of two little appendages, often resembling
miniature blades, and atta(!hed at the base of the leaf-stalk on
either side. These are the parts of which a complete or pattern
leaf consists ; but now for some variations of the pattern.

In the first place there m ly be variations due to incompleteness.
The leaf-stalk, for example, not being absolutely necessjiry, may be
very small or (with the appendages at its base) may be wanting
alto<?etlier. Secondly, in the blade itself there mav be an endless
variety o^ form and size. Tiiirdly, tliere may be great variety of
colour. The prevailing tint is, of course, green ; but, as seen in many
foliage plants, and again in our autumnal woods, leaves often assume
colours almost as rich and varied as those of flowers. Fourthly,
they may differ in their Viuniiic/; ?". c, in the way in which the deli-
cate little tubes or vebis of tiie leaf, forming its more solid frame-
work, and serving to carry through it the sap wliich it digests, are
spread through the blade. In those plants which possess a true
bark and rings of growth, these veins generally branch irregularly
through the blade, much like the veins of our own bodies, while in
grasses, corn, lilies, and similar plants not possessing a bark, they
commonly run i)arallel from one end of the leaf to the other.
Finally, leaves differ through being emi)loyed for various and
unlike purposes. Their ordinary purpose, that of assisting the
plant in the processes of digestion and breathing, is best effected by
having the leaves broad, thin, and deli<?ate ; but leaves, like roots
and stems, may be thickened by having nourisliment temporarily
deposited in them, as in ordinary Onions and most bulbs; or they
may become thin, narrow, and flexible, as in some tendrilsy then
enabling the plant to climb; or they may become hard and woody,
as in the outer leaves or scales of buds, when they serve to protect
the more delicate leaves within.

It will be of service to the pupil at this point to look again at
his series of experimental plants, and, beginning with those which
have attained the largest growth, to trace the parts of which they
are composed backward through the different members of the series
to the earliest seedling. If he does this carefully, and notes how
the parts, without altering their essential character, become reduced
in size and number, he will probably have no difficulty in tracing
the succession even into the seed itself, and of thus proving what

.» .iA

The Vp:getable Kingdom. 53

has been before stated, that a true plant with stem and leaf (or
leaves) actually exists in the latter, even before it begins to germi-
nate and grow.

So, alsQ, lie may with advantage compare c .le of the leafy twigs
formed early in the spring on many of our common shrul)s and
trees witii some of the still unfolded buds on other parts of the same
plant. He will thus see that a liud is nothing but an un(k'Vc'loi)ed
stem or branch, thickly clothed with leaves, which, as the branch
grows, simply separate from each other by the lengthening of the
joints, at the same time that tiie leaves expand to their full size.
So the seed may be regardetl merely as the first bud, compacted and
protected by external coatings, so that it may remain uninjured until
its life is awakened bv suitable conditions.

10. THE PARTS OF PLANTS WHICH ARE CONCERNED IN

MULTIPLICATION.

The Koot, Stem, and Leaf, which have so far engaged our atten-
tion, have been described as concerned in f/rowth only, and as being
the only parts or organs actually needed for this purpose. But
sooner Or later in the life of all ordinary plants^' these are found to
produce what seem to be new parts in the form of Flowers, which
by a process of ripening become converted into Fruits, within
which again are contained the Seeds. As the seed contains a new
plant which may grow independently of that which produced it, we
may regard such Seed, with the Fruit which holds it, and the Flower,
out of which the seed was formed, as Organs of Multiplication or Me-
production.

Before considering these organs further, it will be well here to
draw the attention of the pupil to the fact that the ordinary stems
and branches may and often do serve the purpose of multiplication.
For example, nothing is more common than to multiply such plants
as common Geraniums by slips or cuttings; i. e., by portions of stem,
bearing leaves, and which, when placed in water or damp earth,
grow into new plants. So strawberry plants, by sending out long
slender branches or runners bearing a bud at the end, and there

*No account is here taken of certain forms of plants, such as Ferns, Mosses,
Lichens, Sea-Weed, Mushrooms, etc., which never form true flowers. The be-
ginner will do well not to attempt their consideration until more familiar witU
higher forms.

■ffwii %r^^' '

64 The Vkoetablk Kingdom.

striking root, soon spread over large areas, and sooner or later
l>eeonie independent ()lants. Finally, the great ditticulty met with
in exterminating such weeds as couch grass from our gardens arises
from the fact that their underground stems, full of ahundiuit nourish-
ment, branch in all directions, a!id each being largely independent
of all others, each will grow into a new plant and throw out more
branches, even if all the other i)arts shall have been destroyed.
The sowing of potatoes, in which the so-called eyes are nothing but.
little buds on a greatly thickened piece of stem, is another illustra-
tion of similar facts. But it would seem as though plants could not
indelinitely nudtiply in this way. By d(nng so they are likely to
become weakened and would eventually be destroyed, so that, sooner
or later, we have to come back to the other method, through the
formation of Flower, Fruit, and .Seed.

U. THE FLOWER AND ITS VARIETIES.

Flowers may be studied in the same way as roots, stems, and
leaves. Let some comparatively simple flower — that of a Geranium
(so called), the Flax Plant, the Rose, or the Apple will answer well
— be first taken and carefully examined as to the parts of which it
consists. These will be found to be, (1) on the outside a circle of
green leaves, smaller, it is true, than the ordinary leaves of the plant,
but not unlike them in colour and appearance. These are known
under the name of Sepals, and together they form a sort of cup
around the rest of the flower, which is known as the Calyx. Next
within them is another circle, also composed of parts which are
somewhat leaf-like, but much more delicate than any ordinary leaves,
and either pure white or, like the leaves of many foliage plants al-
ready referred to, possessed of some gay and brilliant colour. These
are the Petals, and together they make up the showy part of the
blossom, called by botanists the Corolla. If these be in turn re-
moved, we And, standing just inside of them, a number of curious
organs, which seldom bear much resemblance to leaves (though the
botanist stiU regards them as representing the latter), and which are
more especially concerned in the formation of seeds. Of these the
outer ones, known as Stamens, consist of a long narrow stalk (//a-
. ment), bearing upon the top a sort of sac or case (the anther), from
which, if the flower is ripe, there will fall, when shaken, a yellowish
powder, known as Pollen. The inner ones, on tlie contrary, which

w^mi^mmm^mm

The VE(iETABLi: Kingdom. b'>

are known as P/W/As, and which occupy tlie very centre of the flower,
are usually largest below, forming a second sort of sac (the Oranj),
usually lar^'cr than the anthers, and havin<^ within it what appear
to be small seeds, and which will reallv become so if in anv wav the
j)olk'n shed from the anthers can reach and act u[k:\\ them. To
facilitate this the u})per part of the pistil is usually lenf^theiied out,
and either on its to[) or side is left bare and moist, so that thei)ollen
grains (either falling by their weight, blown by winds, or carried by
insects), if they happen to touch it, readily cling, and thus gain
access to the interior. As soon as the ovules have l>een acted u[>on
by the pollen, the office of the llower has been accomi)lished, and
soon after all parts of it, except such as are needed for the protec-
tion of the seed, fall away and perish. Those which remain, how-
ever, become greatly changed, and these changed portions, with the
seed which thev enclose, eventuallv become the Fruit.

The varieties of flowers are almost endless, and no more interest-
ing or delightful study can be engaged in than that of tracing out
the one common plan amid this infinite diversity of detail. The
total number of (lowering plants now known to botanists will not
fall far short of 120,000, yet in every one of these the only parts
present will be one or the other (or all) of those which have been
referred to above, and which, by sufficiently careful study, may be
recognized and distinguished. The variations are due to a number
of causes, a few onlv of which can here be mentioned.

Differences may arise, (1) from unequal growth in the several
parts of any one circle, producing corresponding irreyularity of size
and shape, as in Violets and Pansies; (2) they may arise from the
total failure of certain parts to grow, thus interfering more or less
with the si/mmelry of the blossom ; (8) they may arise from the dis-
appearance or suppression of entire circles, three, two, or only one,
being sometimes left, as in some Maples and in Indian Corn; (4)
they may be due to the growing together or union of the different
members of any one .net or circle, as in the calyx of Fuchsias or the
corolla of Bluebells; or (5 those of diflerent circles, as the petals
with the stamens (Morning Glory), or the calyx with all the parts
within it, as in the Apple or the Hawthorn ; (6) they may differ in
the interior structure of the ovary, and in the number and arrange-
ment of the seed-like bodies (ovules) which it contains, but for the
examination of these a good magnifying glass is required ; lastly (7)

M' The Vegetable Kingdom.

flowers differ in their mode of attachment and distribution
stem, sometimes ocrnrrinj^ «>"gly, sometimes in numbers; soi
wide apart, })ut more eoajmonly chistered; sometimes wi
sometimes without little stalklets of their own. All of th
features are pretty constant, not only in individual plants, b
in whole groups of phnits, and are among the means by wl
recognize their family relationships.

12. FRUITS AND THEIR VARIETIES.

The parts of a flower which are commonly lost in the Fi
the Corolla and the Stamens, these having served their purp
perished. The Calyx may also disapi)ear, but it conunonly i
giving a degree of protection to the parts within, and is su
so where, as in the Apple, it has grown into union with th(
The latter, however, is the essential part of the Fruit, ai
ripening, becomes a seed vessel, in which the seeds are niatui
this process various changes take })lace, determining as man;
ent varieties of fruits, but only a few of the more common c
be indicated.

In ordinary berries (such as currants and cranberries) wt
seed vessel or ripened pistil, which is soft and fleshy throng
is also the case with tomatoes and grapes. Orangjs and len
similar, only here the outer portion forms a thick and leatiie
which becomes still harder in cucumbers, pumpkins, ajid
In stone fruits, on the contrary, such as the clierry, plum, ant
it is the inner part which becomes hard or "stony," while tl
portion becomes soft and edible. In our common grains
rye, Indian corn, etc.) the whole fruit becomes dry, the seec
here also clinging closely to the seed. It is nnich the san
nuts, only liere, as in chestnuts, beechnuts and tlie like, the
free within. The seeds are also free in ordinary pea-pods, or
the seed vessel, when ripe, splits down one side, and thii
something like the leaf of which it is really only an alterc
In the scales of a pine-cone, which are also ripened pistils, I
quite numerous and crowded together, this resemblance to o
leaves is still more evident. Where the calvx remains as a
of the fruit, it may also form the larger part of it, as in th<
portion of apples, pears and quinces, where it surrounds a
€ore within, containing th*» s^jeds. Finally, much of what

^RMVPI

The Vegetable Kingdom. 5T

the fruit (though it is not properly so called) may be only thickened
stem, with the true fruits resting upon or imi)odded in it. '"he
strawbe;rv furnishes the best illustration of the latter kind.

13. SEEDS.

The general nature of seeds, and some of their differences, have
already been i)ointed out. (I^'ee page 44.) It only remains to say a
few words iiere as to the means of their dispersion, and tlie con-
ditions which determine their growth, or otherwise, when once
spread abroad. Tlieir escape from the seed vessel may be effected
either by tiie splitting of tlie latter or by its decay, and sometimes
the very act of tluis opening, if sudden, may serve to jerk tlie seed
to considerable distances. More commonly this is efll'cted by the
agency of the winds, and to facilitate it many seeds are furnished
with tufts of hairs, a:; in Milk-weed, or long woolly hairs, as in
Cotton-plant, or by various other contrivances, in many cases,
however, as in Dandelions, Thistles, and similar plants, these appen-
dages are attached to the fruit, L e., the ripened pistil, rather than
to the seed.

The subsequent growth of the seeds will depend upon a variety
of causes, as, first, U})on the length of time they have been kept.
Good seeds will, in some instances, retain their vitality for many
years, but the period i« usually quite limited. Even when good,
iheir growth will usually require for its beginning a certain amount
of warmth and moisture. It may also, to some extent, be affected
by the presence or absence of light. But once started and brought
up to the surface by the employment of the materials which the
mother-j^lant has provided for its use, it now enters upon a career of
its own, rising higher and higher above the ground, developing
more and more joints of stem, and more and more leaves, as the
roots, simultaneously produced below, continue to supply it with
more and more material for the purpose.

14. THE FOOD AND WORK OF PLANTS.

This brief review of the life of plants may now be closed with a
very few words as to the sources from which their food is derived,
the way in which this is worked up by the plant into its own sub-
stance, and a few of the products which are thus formed.

Plants derive their Food mainly from the Mineral
World. — Of the substances thus taken, one of the most abundant

58 TlIK VEGETABLE KlNdDOM.

is Water, as indicated by the necessity for the frequent watering of
phmts, the effects of prohmged droughts, and tlie entire absence of
vegetation in rainless regions. But with this Avater various otlier
miner? i substances, in a state of solution, are taken in as well.
These *'..'liide compound of soda, potasli, lime, iron, etc., which are
found in the ash wlien the plants are burned, and sometimes so
abundantly that wood-asli is a common source of lye or potash. Of
course these mineral substances can only come from tlie soil, and
their presence or absence in the latter may determine the difference
between a good soil and a poor one. TIence the importance, in
some cases, of supplying the deliciencies of the soil by the addition
of suitable manures. Hence, also, the ini})ortance of various well-
known agricultural operations — such as plougliing, harrowing, fal-
lovving, etc. — wliich have for their object the speedy restoration (by
the action of the atmosphere chiefly) oi the fertility of sods which
may have been impaired by excessive cropping. As different crops
require different forms of mineral food, an obvious advantage is
sometimes attained by a judicious "rotation " of crops.

Another mineral substance absolutely required for the growth of
plants comes mainly from the air, and is known as carbonic acid,
being one of the substances formed when coal (or carbon) burns.

A few 2)lants possess the power of capturing and using animal
food, such as insects and the like, but though very curious, they are
exceptional, and cannot be further noticed here.

Plants take in their Food mainly by their Roots and
Leaves. — This is obvious, as regards the roots, from what has been
already stated. Any common garden plant plucked up by the roots
during the active period of its growth soon begins to wither or decay.
That the leaves are concerned in the saihe i)rocess1s not so obvious,
but yet the fact is one which has been placed beyond all question.

Plants Take in Their Food by Mere Absorption or
Soak AGE. — The surfaces of plants, so far, at least, as the stems and
roots are concerned, exhibit no openings by which food may be in-
troduced, and Ihough, in the case of leaves, when highly magnified,
they are found to contain numerous little apertures, chiefly on the
lower side of the leaf, these are merely the openings of little tubes
or winding passages by which (as in the case of our lungs) air is
freely carried into the interior of the leaf. Nothing of the nature
of true mouths is found iu either. But openings are not required

ThK VEGilTABLK KINGDOM. 59

where tlie food consists simply of li([ui(ls and ^ases. It may and
does pass in by simple soakage, much as water would pays througli
paper.

Plants are Notrisiied ry the Circulation of the Sap. —
Tiie food, us we have said, passes in, but into what ? As there are
110 mouths, so (in ordinary cases, at least) there is nothing of the
nature of a stomach. There are not even cavities or tubes visible to
the eye. But just as water spreads through i)aper (itself a vegetable
substance), so it spreads with ease through the material of the root,
and from the root to the stem, and finally from the stem to the
leaves, meeting there with other food which may have been imbibed
more directly from the air. In the leaves much of the water whicli
has been concerned in this process (the rise of the sa})) passes oft
into the air, but a portion of it is retained, and out of it, in connec-
tion with carbonic acid, a variety of new products are formed, which
are now suited, as the original or raw sap Wiis not, to 8upi)ly the
plant's wants. These products are only formed in the leaves, and
there only under the influence or through the power of the sun's rays»
But it is not in the leaves that the material is required. It is needed
elsewhere, either to be used for immediate growth, or, where occisioii
requi/es, to be stored up for future use. In the one case it is carried
directly to the growing parts (chiefly in he form of mucilage and
sugar), and there employed ; in the other, as we s:iw in previous pages,
it is carried to some place, root, bulb, tuber, bud, or seed, and de-
posited in a form (chiefly that of starch) in which it will be removed
from ordinary sources of injury, and not be liable to change until it
is again needed by the plant itself. The employment of common
potatoes and wheat as sources of starch, and the similar employment
of sugar cane, beet root, and maples as sources of sugar, are good
illustrations of the facts above stated. So the sweetish taste of pota-
toes which are beginning to ^.prout, the similar change of hapd (i. e>
starchy) unripe fruit into what is soft, mellow, and sweet, or, on the
other hand, the formation in certain portions or kinds of fruit (nuts^
etc.) of very hard material, show the readiness ' h which the plant
converts one of these substances into another as need may arise-
By what power the plant effects these changes we do not know, any
more than we do how the sap is directed from the roots to the leaves^
and from these back again to the roots or other parts. It is simply
one of the faculties which plants possess as living beings.

60 The Vegetable Kingdom.

Having now learned something of tlie nature and life of Plants,
yre may proceed to notice very briefly those forms which, occurring
within our own Province, may, in one way or another, be regarded
-either as serviceable or as a source of injury to its inhabitants. In
so doing we may at the same time learn something further of their
botanical relations

The Useful and Hurtful Plants of New Brunswick.

SERIES L FLOWERING PLANTS.

All the plants of this series are possessed of true flowers, con-
taining stamens and pistils, and formiug true seeds; i. e., seeds having
within a true, though usually minute plantlet, or embryo. As these
latter differ, however, in possessing either two or only one seed-leaf,
so the whole structure and mode of growth of the plants springing
therefrom present corresponding differences, and lead to the sub-
■division of all flowering plants into two great groups or classes, the
Outside Growers (or Exogens), and the Inside Growers (or En-
dogens).*

Class I. Exogens.

The plants of this group possess two seed-leaves in the embryo,
and in growth form stems embracing a true bark, wood, and pith, the
wood increasing by annual zones or rings on the outside next the
bark. (See Plate II., and Page 50). The leaves are iietted-veined ;
i. e., their veins form an irregular network, and their flowers have
the parts usually arranged in fours or Jives.

In the greater portion of the group, the seeds, while ripening,
are enclosed within and protected by an external cc/ering or "seed
vessel" (either a berry, pod, nut, or core), but in the Pine Family
the seeds remain uncovered, being borne upon the inner side of the
scales of cones.

Again, while many plants have flowers in which all the several
parts are present, and the leaves or petals of the corolla quite dis-
tinct and unconnected, in many others these are more or less united
into one piece, while in others again they are wholly wanting.
Tliese characters are taken advantage of in the further classification

♦For the features of the latter group see page 73.

The Vegetable Kingdom. 61

of plants. In the following groups, forming the natural orders or
families of the Vegetable Kingdom, the first thirteen, as far as and
including the Witch Hazel Family, have both calyx and corolla, the
petals being at the same time distinct. They are therefore termed
Polypetalous, or Many-Petalled Flowers. The next seven, from the
Honeysuckle to the Mint Family, inclusive, usually have the petals,
more or less united into one, or are Monopetalous ; while after these
are a number of other plants in which the corolla, and often the
calyx as well, is wanting, they being therefore known as Apetalous,
These all have flowers witii covered seeds. The naked seeded plants
include in this part of the world but one family only — that of the
Pine and its relatives — often known as Cone-bearing Plants. The
various families of Flowering Plants may accordingly be arranged
as follows :

SUB-CLASS 1. PLANTS WITH COVERED SEEDS.

DIVISION I. POLYPETALOUS PLANTS.

Crow-Foot or Buttercup Family.
The most familiar representative of this family is the common
Buttercup. To it belong, al'<o, the Clematis or Virgin's Bower, the
Anemone, the Goldthread, and the Columbine. Witli the possible
exception of the Goldthread, whose yellow bitter roots are some-
times employed in curing sore moutlis of children, their value restn
solely in their beauty. From an agricultural point of view, butter-
cups can only be regarded as weeds. The Aconite or Monkshood^
often cultivated in gardens, and the Baneberry of our woods and
meadows, are noticeable as dangerous poisons.

Water-Lily Family.
Water-Lilies have no direct utility, nor can they be regarded as
noxious. As the ornaments, however, of our inland lakes and
streams, they well deserve a passing notice. Yellow pond lilies
are common everywhere. The far more delicate, beautiful and
fragrant white lilies are less frequently met with.

Mustard Family.

The members of this family, of which the wild Mustard may be

taken as a type, are, so far as our native species are concerned,

noticeable onlv as noxious weeds. This is seen in the Wild Mustard

itself, and again in the common Shepherd's Purse of the gardens.

62 The Vegetable Kingdom.

Introduced and cultivated forms are, liowever, of more value; in-
cluding, as they do, Nasturtiums or Water-Cresses, Cabbages, Tur-
nips, Mustard, and lladish.

Violet Family.

The Violets are valued only for their beauty. There are several
Icinds, of which some are common and cithers rare. To the same
family belongs the Pansy of the gardens.

Pink Family.

The w'U^ •Members of this family, including Corn-cockle, Chick-
weeds, anu the like, are noticf able only as troublesome weeds. The
*!ultivated members include the Pinks and Carnations of the gardens.

Linden Family-.

Two kinds of Linden or Lime Trees exist in New Brunswick;
viz., the American and the European. Both are handsome trees,
-with tall trunks, branching freely, and densely clothed with foliage,
making them admirable shade trees. They are also noticeable for
their conspicuous flowers and fruit. They are, however, apt to be
infested with insects, which often lead to their premature decay.
The native si)ecies is far from common.

The wood of the Linden, sometimes known as Basswood and
AVhitewood, is of considerable value, being soft, white, and of a tine
close grain. It is also very tough and pliable, with little tendency
to split from change of temperature, and is hence largely used for
making the curved fronts of sleighs, panels of carriages, etc. It is
also used by stair-builders. It is readily carved and turned, and has
been employed in the making of figure-heads of vessels, also in
domestic utensils.

Its inner bark is tough and fibrous, and hence adapted to the
manufacture of rough conlage, but is not often so used here.

The Vine Family.

AVe have apparently but one native species of Vine, the Winter
or Frost Grape. It has been observed at a number of localities
along the St. John River and its tributaries, but in tiie wild state is
far from common. It is often cultivated for the shade which it
affords to arbours and verandalis, as well as for its fruit. The latter
is small, with a tough skin and decidedly acid tlavour, but yields a
juice from wliich may be obtained a wine which to many is not un-
pleasant.

.■>

The Vkoktaulk Kingpom. 53

Cashkw Family.

The representatives of this family in the Province are the
Snmach and the Poison Ivy. Tlie former is not nncommon along
the borders of liehis and gardens, wliere its leaves and fruit, especi-
ally in autunm, are quite conspicuous and ornamental. Its bark and
lea'^es are also said to be serviceable in tanning. The Ivy, on the
contrary, is a plant to be mentioned only as one to be avoided : its
long vines, creeping orer rocks or climbing upon trees and shrub-
bery, being highly poisonous to the touch, thougli more so to some
persons than to others.

The Maple Family.

Five kinds of Maples are to be found in New Brunswick, four of
which are conniion. Of these the most valuable in everv wav is the
Rock or Sugar Maple. Not only is it a majestic tree, beautiful alike
in form and foliage, and serving admirably the purposes of shade or
ornament, but its wood is also one which is highly esteemed. Hard,
dense, and compact, it takes readily a high polish, and in the several
varieties of Curled Maple, Birds-Eye Maple and others, is highly
valued for interior decoration, especially of railway carriages. As
fuel its value is unequalled. The Rock Maple is also the source
from which maple sugar is obtained, holes being bored for this pur-
pose into the trunk, and the liquid sap which escapes being boiled
down until it assumes the sugary condition. Large quantities of
such sugar are annually manufactured in the Cc unty of Madawaska,
and but little of any other kind is there used.

The Red or Swamp xMaple is next in importance to the Rock
Maple, but is usually of smaller size, and with a wood which is
weaker and less durable. It is, however, capa})le of being readily
turned and polished, and finds useful application in the making of.
furniture. It is also sometimes used in house-building. Similar
remarks apply to the rather rare White or Silver Maple.

The two remaining varieties of Maple; namely, the Striped
Maple and Mountain Maple, are both much smaller, not often ex-
ceeding a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and, though not devoid of
beauty, are of no special interest. The Striped Maple is sometimes
known as Moose-wood, it being said to l)e the favorite food of that
animal. » .

The cultivated Morse-Chestnut is closely related to the Maples.

64 The Vegetable Kingdom.

The Pea Fa:mily.

The members of this family, one of the "roval families" of
plants, are readily distinguislied in most cases bv tlie resemblance
of their blossoms to that of the Common Pea, and of their fruit to
an ordinary Pea-Pod. Their most imjjortant representative, next to
the Pea itself, is the Common Clover of our fields, so highly valued
bt)th by bees and cattle. Locust Trees, frecjuently planted for orna-
mental purposes, belong to this group, as do also the diflerent kinds
of A'etcli, often found in garden? and trailing over bushes along-

river banks.

The Eose Family.

The characters of this family are well exemplified in an ordinary
Kose, but it embnices also many other forms which differ widely in
size and general ap[)earance.

Among tliese we have first the diflerent varieties of Cherries, of
which several kinds (the Dwarf Clierry, the Wild l\ed Cherry, the
Choke Cherry, and the Wild lilack Cherry) are foun<l in the Prov-
ince. With the exception, however, of the Black Clierry, whose
wood is sometimes used for cabinet work, they possess but little
value. Choke Cherries are jjrized by children, but, especially if not
quite ripe, at the risk of stomachal disorder.

Next to the Cherries stand tiie Thorns, or Hawthorns, noticeable
alike for the feature to which their name alludes and for their bright
red berries in autumn. There are two species, both of which are
often employed for hedging. A related tree is the Shad Bush, or
Service Berry, of common occurrence in the Province, and which is
quite attractive, but has not as yet been brought under cultivation.

Still another tree, belonging to this family and valued for orna-
mental purposes, is the Mountain Ash. It favours low, cold and
moist giound, but will grow almost anywhere, and is often cultivated
for the beauty of its foliage and its groups of bright red berries.
The common Apple and the Pear also belong here.

Besides the above-named trees, the Rose family includes a num-
ber of important Berries, including the Strawberry, the Kaspberry,
the High and the Low Blackberry or Dewberry, and the Swamp
Blackberry. Of these, by far the most abundant as well as the most
valuable, are the common Strawberry and the Raspberry, which
abound in all parts of the Province, and especially about newly-
cleared settlements. In the peat bogs of St. John and Charlotte

TiiK Vkcjktaijle Kingdom. G5

countii's, especially near the coast, a little berry known as the Cloud

Berry oceiirs abundantly, and, under the designation of liaked Ai»[)le,

is highly prized for tlie making of preserves. The Thini))ie J'erry,

found in some parts of tlio Province, is also a delicious fruit.

Three species of Kose grow wild in New IJrunswick in addition

to the Sweet Brier, which is common about gardens. In the valiey

of the ui)per St. Jolni tlie banks of intervales and islands, during tiie

latter i)art of July, are often gay with the blossoms of the J']arly

Wild Kose.

CrKRANT Family.

This family embraces both the Currants and the (J oosel terries, of
which several varieties grow wild in the l^rovince. They are, in
some instances, not tnipleasant to the taste, and may be advantage-
ously used, either alone or with otlier fruits, in the making of pre-
serves but are greatly inferior to the cultivated varieties.

The Witcii-IIazel Family.

The AVitch-IIazel deserves inention, partly as being worthy of
cultivation as an ornamental shrub, and jtartly as being the plant
from wiiicli Avood is often sought for the mar.ufacture of the so-
called ''mineral rods," sometimes used in the search for water,
precious metals, and the like. As the practice of using such rods
still prevails in some portions of the country, it may not be out of
place here to say that, for the purpose refer lhI to, they have, and
can have, no value whatever.

DIVISION IL MOXOPErALOUS PL ANTS.
Ho .\ E Y.S LX'K LE F A M I L Y.

This family embraces several fl(VAers which are deservedly es-
teemed for their Iteauty, including the fragrant little Twin Flower,
several varieties of Honevsuckles, some of which niav be used for
hedging, and the two kinds of Elders, as also the High Bush Cran-
berrv. The latter is not a true Cranberrv, but its large red and
handsome berries have a flavour not altogether unlike the latter,
and are regularly brotight to market in considerable Cjuantities. In
its cultivated state this plant is the Snowball of the gardens.

Heath Family.

The true Heaths are wanting in Xew Brunswick, but many mem-
bers of the family are found here, some of which are valued for

66 TlIK VlUiKTAULlO KlN(iI>OM.

their ilowers and otliers for their fruit. Amon<^ tlie former stands
out proniinently the well-known Mayliower, the much-prized and
beautiful Inirblnger of spring; also the dilierent speeies of Laurel,
Khododendron and Labrador Tea, wliich, blossoming almost simul-
taneously, for a ft'W weeks in spring, add sueh a richness of red and
purj)le colour, mingled with white, to the surfaces of bogs and
swamps.

Of the fruit-bearing species, the most important are the Cran-
berry and the IJlueberry. Cranberries grow in great abundance in
peat bogs and marshes near the coast, and thousands of bushels are
annually gathered there. Blueberries are also common on rocky
and swampy tracts. Winter-green berries may also be mentioned
here as affording a familiar flavoring extract.

Tup: Aster Family.

Tliis family, as represented in a wild state, embraces but few use-
ful forms, but is worthy of mention as embracing many which,
owing to the ease and rapidity of their nniltiplication, are apt to
become pernicious weeds. Pre-eminent among these stand the dif-
ferent kinds of Thistles, wliich, once that they have gained a foothold,
are found so difficult to eradicate. Llere, also, be'.ong the Ox-Eye
Daisies, Burdock, Fire-weed, and the Yarrow, all common weeds.
Here, too, belong the Dandelion, the Michaelmas Daisy, and the
Golden-rod, though in these latter cases the beauty of the flowers
make some atonement for more objectionable qualities. Dandelions
are also valued for "greens." The Thoroughwort, common along
streams, has some useful medicinal qualities; as have also Arnica,
Chamomile, Wormwood, and Tansy, all members of the same family.
The common 8un-flowers of gardens also belong here. In all tlie
plants of this family wliat seem to be single blossoms are in reality
composed of many flowers, closely clustered into more or less dense
heads, and by this feature, among others, the members of the family
may generally be distinguished.

Olive Family.

This family is represented in New Brunswick only by the Ash,
of which two spe(,'ies are conmion. Of these the most valuable is
the White Asli, which is found i'.i most parts of the Province, and
forms, nnder favorable circumstances, a tall tree, fifty or sixty feet
high. It is most abundant in rich loamy woods, and in the vicinity

TlIK VEGETAnLE KlNGDOM. 67

of streams. Its wood is strong, tough and elastic, and is extensively
employed hy sleigh and carriage makers, as well as in the manufac-
ture of furniture and agricultural implements. It is well adapted
for the making of oars.

The Black Ash is a less valuahle tree, but still yields a wood
possessing remarkable toughness, strength, and durability. It has
been employed to some extent in the manufacture of furniture, in
the panelling of railway cars, and largely in the construction of
sleighs and i>ungs. It is generally employed by the Indians in the
making of basket-work. It may be seen in great quantities along
the bordei-s of the larger streams which are tributary to the upper

St John.

Convolvulus Family.

The plants of this family deserving mention here are the Hedge
Bind-weed, often called Convolvulus, and the Dodder. The former
is noticeable for its handsome and conspicuous flowers, to be seen in
great numbers along the banks of the St. John, and often cultivated
for ornament; the latter only as a worse than useless weed, destitute
of any foliage of its own, but twining its long yellow and leatless
stems around those of other plants, and living at their expense.

The common Sweet Potato is the imported root of a plant of this
family. The ordinary Potato, on the other hand, is not a root, but
the greatly thickened underground stem of a })lant of the nearly
related Night-shade family. Tobacco is composed of the dried
lenves of a plant of the Convolvulus family. Ked or Cayenne
Pepper is also derived from the same group. * .

FiGWORT Family.

This group is noticeable only as containing several very common

weeds. Among them may be mentioned the Mullein, the Toad-tlax

or " Butter and Eggs," several kinds of Veronica or Speedwell, and

the Yellow Battle. The latter has spread widely turough the

southern counties, giving a yellow colour to the fields, but is rarer

in the interior.

Mint Family.

The members of this large family, embracing only herbs, are
usually readily recognized by their square stems, opposite leaves,
and the two-lipi)ed character of their tiowers. Among them the
Mint itself is one of the most common, to which mav be added the
Catnip, which sometimes escapes from gardens;, and both of which

68 The Vegetable Kingdom.

are valued for their medicinal properties. Here ixho belong several
weeds, such as t!ie IJrunclla or 1 leal-All, common in field, and
pastures; the Hemp-Xettle, equally common, and the Motherwort.

Amon,t( cultivated })iants the Thyme, Marjoram, and Summer
Savory, all valued tor culinary purposes, belong here.

DIVISION in. APETALOVS PLANTS.

The llower.s in tliis grouj) arc without ]>ctals, the flower-leaves, if
present, representing the calyx, but often wholly wanting.

Buckwheat Famii.y.

The onlv important member of this familv is the Buckwheat it-
self, one of our most valued and reliable crops. The otJier, or Avild
species, including several kinds of Polygonum, and the Dock or
Sorrel (liumexj, are only pernicious weeds.

Elm Fa^iily.

As an ornamental tree the Elm has probably no equal among
the native trees of the Province. ( irowing to great heights, branch-
ing freely and gracefully, and often featliered with drooping branch-
lets, it is a conspicuous feature in the landscape wherever it occurs.
It is especially noticeable about islands and intervales, and much of
the beauty of the St. John river vallev is due to the manv fine
specimens of Elms which skirt its banks. Trees are occasionally
met with girthing twenty feet. On uplands it is comparatively rare,
and is wanting where tlie soil is poor.

The wood of the Elm is strong and elastic, and is used to some
extent in connection with the furnishing of ships; but owing to
peculiarities of grain, is somewhat ditiicult to work.

The Nettle, a i)ernicious weed, well known for its stinging prop-
erties, is, though only an herb, nearly related to the Elms. The cul-
tivated Hop and Hemp also belong here.

Walnut Family.

The sole representative of this family in New Brunswick is the
Butternut, and this is found only in certain portions of it, including
parts of the southern counties and the valley of the St. John, es-
pecially above Woodstock, where it often forms beautiful groves.

The Vkoktablk Kingdom. 60

The wood of the Butternut is liiglily ei^teemed in cabinet mak-
iui,' and for purposes of interior decoration, liaving a rich reddish-
yellow colour, which deejiens with age, and hears some resenihlance
to that of the Knglish Oak. It is especially well titte<l for the in-
terior of churches, jnul has been so cmi)loyed in the Cathedral at
Fredericton and elsewhere. It is also valued, owing to its lightness
and durability, for the making of carriages. The young nuts are
often em})loyed in the making of pickles.

Oak Family.

The chief members of this family in the New Jh'iuiswick woods
are the lied Oak, the Beech, the I/azel, and the Hornbeam, known
also as Iron- Wood and Lever- Wood.

The Red Oak is a rather connnon tree to be found in most parts
of the Province, and, owing to the beauty of its trunk and foliage,
deserves a place among ornamental trees. Its wood, however, is of
little value. White and (irey Oak also occur at a few points, but
are comparatively rare.

Lumbermen and others distinguish several kinds of Beech, but
these are regarded bv botanists as onlv accidental varieties of a
single .species. This is an abundant tree throughout the Province,
especially upon the southern coast, and where the conditions are
favorable, attains a vigorous growth, trunks being sometimes met
with seventy feet or more in height. Its wood is highly valued as a
fuel, being second only to that of Bock Maple. It is also durable
when kei)t dry, or, as in the holds of vessel?, permanently wet, but
decays readily when these conditions are frequently changed. It has
been found to answer well in the manufacture of car[)enters' tools
and farm utensils. Its ashes yield large quantities of lye, available
in the manufacture of soap.

The Hazel is rather a small shrub, two to five feet high, and of
no great value.

The Hornbeams are both comparatively rare, but the hardness
and density of their wood, to which the name of Iron-Wood alludes,
makes them well suited for certain kinds of work in Avhich compact-
ness and solidity are required.

Birch Family.

The important members of this family, which is sometimes com-
bined with that last noticed, are the Birch and the Alder.

ThK VK(;ETAI5I,K KlXCiDOM.

Five kindi of- Birclu's are found in New Bnmswick, ol wliich
four are quite common. Tiie first, in point of value, is the Rlack
Kircli, which is found in all j)arts of the I'rovin^'e, hut especially
ahout the deep and shady hanks of rivers, and on gravelly ridges
along the shores of the IJay of Fundy. Its principal use is in the
manufacture of S([uare timher for export and for shi[)-huil(ling. It
lias a line close grain, is readily iiolishcd, and, having a rich
mahogany colour, is weU suited for chair and cahinet work.
Carriage-makers employ it for panels, and shoe-makers for lasts.
It also makes an excellent fuel.

The Yellow Birch is also a large and valuable tree, attaining
sometimes a height of seventy feet, and a diameter of two or more
feet. It grows in rich, moist lands, in company with spruce and ash,
and is used for the same purposes as the Black Birch.

The Paper Birch is nearly as large a tree as those last mentioned,
but is easily distinguished by its tough and sei)arable bark, the latter
being the material employed by the Indians in the manufacture of
canoes. The wood is line and glossy, soft, and of a handsome color,
but lacking in durability and strength. It answers moderately well
for fuel, and is said to yield ar excellent charcoal.

The White Birch is a much less valuable tree, growing chiefly
upon the poorer classes of soils, and not often exceeding thirty or
forty feet in height. Large quantities are cut for fuel, but for this,
as for other purposes, its quality is greatly inferior to that of the
other Birches.

The Alders are common everywhere along the banks of streams,
and should be mentioned, if for no other reason, that they help to
protect these latter from being washed away. When dry they make
good fire-wood, though of small size, and ako yield excellent charcoal.

Willow Family.

This family is represented* in New Brunswick by ten or twelve-
kinds of Willow, two Aspens, and as many Poplars. Of the Willows,
only one, an introduced species, is of large size, and is not unfre-
quently planted as an ornamental tree. Its wood, owing to its
pliancy, is well suited for basket-work, and is often so used. The
Balsam Poplar or Balm of Gilead also thrives well under cultiva-
tion, and is frequently planted. The Aspens are common forest
trees, readily noticeable for the continual agitation of their leaves,
and possess some beauty, but are otherwise of little value. : ^

The Vkgetaule Kinguom. 71

The Pine or C'oxe-Beaking Family.

No group of plants found within the rrovince is better charac-
terized tiian tiiis, or contains more forms of economi'.; value. Thin
will be at once a})parent from the simple Htatement tinit it contains .
the Cedar, the Hemlock, the Si)ruce, the Fir, the Pine, and the
Hackmatack or Larch. These include the greater part of what arc
commonly known as "soft-wood" trees, and also of "everi^reens,"'
while from the i)eculiarity of their fruit, consisting of many opt ii
jdstil-lcaves closely crowded together, they are also often known a.s
"cone-bearing" plants.

The Pines. — Of the true Pines we have three species — the
White Pine, tl e Kcd or Norway Pine, and the (Jray or Northern
8crub Pine. Of these the first is bv far the most valuable, and its
exportation at one time constituted one of the most important
sources of revenue to the Province. Large trees of this si)ecies
have, however, now become very scarce, the extensive forest liies.
which have at times devastated the Province having removed it
from large areas in which it was formerly abundant.

The Bed Pine, improperly known as the Norway Pine, is also a
valuable tree, its wood being strong and durable, and was formerly
largely employed in the construction of vessels. It lias, however,
like the White Pine, become greatly reduced in numbers, and large
trunks, such as were at one time abundant (with a height of eighty
or ninety feet, and a diameter of three feet or more), are now rarely
met with.

The Scrub Pine, known also as Banks Pine, is greatly inferior to
the other pines both in size and value. The wood is very luird, full
of pitch and free from sap, but is apt to be full of streaks. It is
especially abundant over [lortions of the mountainous country bor-
dering upon the South -West Miramichi River.

The Cedars. — The so-called Cedar of our woods is properly
the Arbor Yitje. It is a common tree in the Province, being
especially abundant in low boggy grounds, where it often grows in
almost impenetrable masses, forming what are known as " cedar
swamps." The largest and best trees occur intermingled with liard-
wood. Very large tracts of land are thus covered in the counties of
Victoria and Madawaska, is well as about the head of the Resti-
gouche, many of the trees being three feet or more in diameter.
The wood of the Cedar is soft, light and fine grained, having a

72 ThK VkgETABLE KlN(iDOM.

slightly reddisli tint, and an agreeable aromatic odour. It is used
in wvy large (|.iantlties for tiie nianulacture of railway sleepers and
shingles, the fact of it being iniaflecled by changing conditions of
dryness and moisture ej^}>ecially suiting it for such uses. It is also,
from its durability, especially suited to the making of fences.

Wliut is known as Red Cedar, but more properly as Juni})er, is
found, oceur'-ing si):'.ringly, along the southern coasts, and on the
bea«!ies of IJestigouche county. It is liere, however, only a low
prostrate shrub, of little or no value.

The Spruces. — These are very valuable trees, and their v*'ood
constitutes one of the most important exports of the Province.
There are two kinds, the A\ hite, or Single Spruce, and the Black
Spruce. The latter is the most valuable. At one time it covered
vast areas of the Province in dense forests, but fire and the axe of
the lumberman Jiave now greatly reduced its supply. It is most
abandant in the southern and middle counties, growing usually
around lakes and in low situations. Its wood is strong, light, elastic,
and durable, and is extensively used .' ' shipbuilding, especially in
the making of yards and topmas-ts. Very large quantities are manu-
factured into deals, clapboaiV-;, and battens for exportation. It is
also used to some extent in the making of shingles.

The White Spruce is a larger but more slender tree than the
Black Spruce. It is also of less frequent occurrence. Its wood is
white and soft, and generally free from knots, but it possesses less
strength and elasticity than the last naiued variety, and is therefore
less vahiable. Tlie spruce deals shipped from the northern counties
are largely made from this tree.

Hemlock. — Another important tree is the Hemlock Spruce, or
Hemlock. It is one of the most abundant of our evergreen trees,
and is found on almost every variety of r>oil. Under favorable cir-
cumstances it reaches a height of seventy or eighty feet, '";i*H a
circumference of from six to nine feet. It is ot more frequent
occurrence in the s<Mithern and middle than in tlie northern portions
of the Province, and Is rare north o' the Grand Falls. Both its
wood and its bark are of value. The former, being delicient in
resin, decays readily under exposure, but is well fitted for the con-
struction of dwellings, out-buildings, and the )ikt, and is largely so
employed. The bark is valued for tanni.ig purposes, and enormous
numbers of trees are annually stripped with this object in view, the

The Vegetable Kingdom. 73

bark being partly used directly, partly exported, and partly era-
ployed in the nianulacture of bark extract. A large proportion of
the trnnks felled for this purpose have been left in the fore:^t8 to
decay and to help tlie spread of foiost lires.

Hackmatack, Tamauack, or Larch. — This is another of the
more valuable trees of New Brunswick, easily distinguished by its
numerous horizontal and irregular branches, and by its bright red
flowers or "atkius. Its favorite place of growth is near the banks
of sluggish brooks and around the borders of bogs, and here it some-
times attains a height of forty or fifty feet ; but on the bogs them-
selves, though abundant, the trees are generally nuich smaller. In
such situations the trees have, within the last few years, bc^n subject
to a disease or blight, the work of insects, and over large tracts along
the upper St. John they present an appearance as though they liad
been blasted by lire.

The wood of the Hackmatack is valued on account of its dura-
bility. It is very resinous and compact, as well as stro:ig, and is
therefore admirably adapted for i\ui requirements of the shipbuilder.
From its trunk he obtains timbers and beams, and from its roots,
knees. It is al^^o well adapted, on account of its hardness and dura-
bility, for floor-boards and door-steps. The su})ply, however, is now
greatly reduced as compared with ihat of former years.

Balsam Fir. — This tree, more commonly known under the
simple name of Fir, is only mentioned here as a tree of rather fre-
quent occurrence. It is a handsome tree, and one of rapid growth,
but is short lived and rarely attains a large size. Its wood also is of
little value, lacking the desirable qualities of hardness, strength, and
elasticity. It is most abundant in the nc thern counties. From it
may be obtained the substance known as Canada Balsam, used in
medicine and in the nuiking of varnishes.

Class II. Endoger*^ as Flowering Il^ints.

The plants of this class have a stem which is not distinguishable
into bark, pith, and successive zones of wo'>d, vhe latter being irregu-
larly scattered through the stem, and mosily near the centre; lience
called Endogens, or Insid;^ Growers. The leaves have thi? veins
usually arranged in parallel lines ratlier than branching, are not
toothed, and generally clasp *he stem, The parts of the flower are
usually in threes, and the embryo possesses but a single seed-leaf.

74 The Vegetabi.e Kingdom.

The group embraces quite a number of families, of wliicli, liowever,
only a few tan liere be noticed.

Arum Family.

This family derives its name from the "Wild Arum, or Indian
Turnip, commonly met with along the borders of brooks and in
hhady woods. Its tuber, or thickened underground stem, is remark-
able for its intensely biting taste, and when grated and boiled (when
it loses its acridity), is a popular medicine in the cure of coughs and
consumption. A plant of more real value for its medicinal proper-
ties is the Sweet Flag, or Calanuis, not unfrecpiently employed in the
diseases of children. It is found in river intervales, and about the
borders of lakes and ponds.

Lily Family.

But fcAV members of this family are noticeable as useful plants,
but many are deserving of mention for their beauty: one, the Onion,
constitutes an article of food, and another, the Hellebore, is a violent
poison. Among the forms noticeable for their beauty may be men-
tioned the ordinary Yellow or Orange Lily; the true Canadian Lily,
the ornament of intervales and meadows ; the Belhvort, common
also in similar situations ; the Adder's Tongue, or Dog's Tooth
Violet ; and the Trillium, whose flowers, especially of the white or
painted variety, are among the most common and beautiful blossoms
of early spring. All of these plants are capable of successful culti-
vation. The cultivated Onion is of course familiar to every one,
while wild Onions abound along the banks of the upper St. John
and its tributaries. The Hellebore, on the other hand, is l^ss widely
distributed, but is not uncommonly met with along the banks of in-
tervales, where its broad green leaves and luxuriant growth can
hardly fail to attract attention. The poisonous qualities reside

cliicfly in the root.

Okchis Family.

This family is hero alluded to simply for the reason that it in-
cludes some of the most beautiful and curious, though not the most
abundant, of our wild flowers. One of the most familiar forms is
the Lady's Slipper, whose flowers, including both white and })ink
varieties, are among the choicest ornaments of our vernal woods.

Iris Family.

The two representatives of this family here ibund are the com-
mon Blue Flag, occurring everywhere in wet places throughout the

The Vegetable Kingdom. 75

Province, i\nd tlie Blue-Eyed Grass, iibundant in fields. Both are
noticeable for their beauty. Cultivated species of Iris, with large
and showy blossoms, are common in gardens. The Crocus and
Gladiolus are related forms.

Rush Family.

The Rushes are only noticeable as weeds. Five or six species
are of common occurrence, but are for the most part homely, worth-
less, and trG;:blosome.

Cat-Tail Family.

The Cat-Tails, or Flags, are common in wet and nuiddy places.
They have no important applications, but their dried spike-like
fruits and long sword-like leaves are often employed for interior
house decoration. The leaves are sometimes made useful for weav-
ing the seats of chairs.

Gra.ss Family.

Though usually of small size individually, of simple structure,
and with inconspicuous flowers, no group in the vegetable kingdom
is more deserving of mention than that of the Grasses, for this, if
for no other reason, that it affords so large a proportion of the food
both of man and beast. Thus, within this family are included not
only all the ordinary grasses of fields and pasture lands, which,,
either in the green state or as hay, form tiie chief xneans of subsist-
ence of all our domesticated cattle, but here also are found such in-
valuable plants as Rice, Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats, Indian Corn, and
Sugar Cane.

SERIES II. FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

The plants referred to this great division of the Vegetable King-
dom differ from those previously noticed in that, though they con-
form to the general plan of vegetable growth, they fail to fornL
either true flowers or seed, multiplication being effected by spores,-
i. e., minute seed-like bodies borne upon the leaves, but which con-
tain within no ready -formed plantlet or embryo.

To this series belong (1) the Ferns or Brakes; (2) the Club-
Mosses or Ground Pines; (3) the Mare's Tails or Scouring Rushes;
(4) the true Mosses; (5) the Mushrooms ; (G) the Lichens; and (7)
the Sea-Weeds, with a multitude oi related forms.

The Ferns are especially noticeable for their abundance and their
beauty, being unexcelled in the whole vegetable kingdom for the

76 The- Vegetable Kingdom.

delicacy, variety, and elegance of tlieir foliage. Tliey are also well
iidaptcd for garden and house cultivation. The Club-Mosses are
iilso beautiful })hints, well adapted, by their trailing stems and spruce
or pine-lilve leaves, for interior cultivation and decoration. The
Mare's Tails are connnon about ponds and wet situations, but are of
no special interest. Tiie Mosses, the Fungi or Mushrooms, and the
Sea-Weeds (better known as Algae) all embrace many beautiful
forms well worthv of consi<leration bv the lover of Nature. Their
study is, however, too ditiicult for the young beginner.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

FORMS OF ANIMALS.

Figs. 1-21. — Vertkbratk, ou Back-Boxed Animates. Figs. 1-10. Mammalia:
1. Man; 2. Monkey; 3. Lynx; 4. Cow; 5. Bat; 6. Bear; 7. Rabbit;
8. Star-nosed Mole; 9. Seal; 10. Whale. Figs. 11-17. Birds: 11. Hawk,
and 13, Owl, birds of prey ; 12. Wood-peeker, a climbing bird ; 14. Fowl,
or scratching bird; 15. Heron, a wading bird; 16. Wren, a perching
bird; 17. Duck, a swimming bird. Figs. 18-20. Reptiles: 18. Turtle;
19. Snake; 20. Frog. Fig. 21. Fish (Smelt).

Figs. 22-25. — Akticulatk, ok Ringed Animals. 22. Spider; 23. Butterfly;
24. Worm ; 25. Lobster.

Figs. 2G-29. — Moixuscan Animals, or Shkll-Fish 26. Squid; 27. Peri-
-:.ikle; 28. Snail ; 29. Clam.

Figs. 30-34. — Radi.\te, or Rayed Animals. 3U. Sea-Urchiu; 31 and 32. Star
Fishes; 33. Jelly-Fish; 34. CoraL

24 "^''"'^^^/a.i^'''^"^"^*"^^

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Plate IV. Forms of Animals.

ITT.
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

ANIMAL LIFE.

In .an earlier portion of this work referring to the general char-
acteristics of living beings, some of the main features of distinction
between these and the lifeless objects of the mineral world have
already been enumerated ; and in the study of the life of plants
these distinctions have found illustration in the various kinds of
work performed by the latter, as well as in the various implements
or organs by which it is accomplished. But animals also work in
many more and in much liigher ways than plants, and the organs
possessed by them are, as a consequence, also far more varied and of
liigher and more complex structure. We have now to consider,
somewhat more fully, what these organs are, how they are consti-
tuted, what is the special work performed by them, and what are
some of their modifications in different animals.

In studying this subject the same method may be followed as has
already been employed in the study of plants. That is to say, the
student may first make himself acquainted, as far as is possible,
witli the general structure of some one animal with which he is
familiar, and then, taking this latter as a standard or pattern for
comparison, ascertain wherein others difier therefrom. By so doing
he will very soon find that, as was the case with plants, there are
certain connnon features in which all animals agree, certain kinds of
work which they all perform, certain general plans of structure, few
in number, in accordance with one or the other of which thev are
all constructed. The difTerent.'es arise from the several ways in
wliich the required work is done, and the various modifications of
their organs which thus result. A summary of the common features
referred to will not only serve to illustrate these principles, but to
exhibit more strongly the features both of resemblance and of differ-
ence between animals and plants.

It makes but little difference what animals we choose, but select-
ing the following ;is being familiar, and at the same time of somewhat
varied structure — viz., a dog, a cat, a horse, a cow, a bird, a snake,

■. 78 , ,

. TTAf . » " ■ » '■ »! . -»« ». ■#» .j J* , I ■ wi B i.M II. iX

The Animal Kingdom. 79

a Lutterfly, and a snail — a little observation will suffice to show that
they possess, each and all of them, tiie following features:

(1.) The Animal Moves. It is by this power of motion that
the existence of an animal is most commonly recc-njni/.od. But
plants, as we have seen, also move; and tliis j)owcr, taken alone, will
therefore not always suffice to distinguisli tiiem. To say nothing,
however, of the difference in the two cases as to the amount and
rapidity of the movements, there is this essential diilerence ; namely,
that animals possess, what plants evidently do not, instruments or
organs which are constructed and adapted for this si)ecial purpose.
These are as various as are the animals in which they are found —
taking the form of legs, wings, lins, etc., and determining, as the
case may be, an equal variety of movements, as walking, running,
leaping, flying, crawling, gliding, and swimming; but they are in
general accomplished by a special machinery, of which the follow-
ing are the most essential parts. In the first place there are certain
hard parts, through which the force producing the motion is applied,
and which are jointed or hinged togetheif much as in ordinary ma-
chinery. These are what are termed the bones, or, in some instan-
ces, the shell. Secondly, there are between these movable pieces
fibrous cords, which, much like ordinary cords of elastic, have
a peculiar power of contracting, and thus of j^ulling upon the bones
or other parts with which they are connected. These are the
Muscles, the appearance of which is familiar in ordinary lean meat.
The muscles are commonly connected with the bones or other hard
parts through the agency of Tendons, which act nuich like the straps
and belting used in mills to convey the power of the engine to
various distances and in various directions. Oily matter is also pro-
vided about the joints to prevent friction. Lastlv; the power of
contraction on the part of the muscles is called into pbiy through
the agency of what are termed the Nerves, which, starting from the
Brain, the great centre of life and power, extend, in the form of
delicate cords, to all parts of the body, and especially to the muscles,
which without their control can do nothing. How the Brain and
Nerves act upon the Muscles we do not altogether know, but in many
particulars the action is very similar to that exerted by an electric
battery in ordinary telegraphy.

Nothing in any way resembling the apparatus of nerves and
muscles is ever found in plants.

80 The Animal Kingdom.

(2.) The Animal Directs and Controls Its Motion. This

is obvious from tlio nature and purpose of tiie motion itself. Iii
plants tlie source of tlie motion is in general from without; j'. r., it
is (h'lKudent on tlie action of the sun's rays. In aninjals it comes
from within, and is used for a definite purpose.

(:^ ) The Animal is Conscious of External Objects. With-
out such consciousness the jtower of motion would only be a source
of dan<;er. It would also be totally useless even if, under such cir-
cumstances, it were possible. This power of recognizing and dis-
tinguishing objects outside of the animal's mvn body resides in what
wc term the Saues ; vi/., tliose of Touch, Taste, Smell, Sigb.t, and
Hearing. Each of these is constructed in its own special '/ay, and
in ditlerent animals i»rcsents great dillerences of detail, in form,
number, complexity, etc.; Init their general mode of operation is
much the same in all, depending u})on a second power possessed by
the nerves, and througli wliich certain })eculiar impressions are con-
veyed to the brain.

(4. 1 The Animal Seeks, Selects, and Seizes Food. In the

case of plants, their food — the earth and air — are everywhere, and
everywhere essentially the same. Hence they do not require, and
are unable, to make any selection. "With animals the case isdifler-
ent. Their food must be sought, and a choice must be made between
such kinds as are, and such as are not, suited for the purpose. This
they do through their organs of locomotion and their organs of
sense. In addition to this, however, their food must be seized; and
in many cases, where such food consists of other animals, these have
to be attacked and overcome. The limits are JJie organs most com-
monly used for this purpose, being armed with claws, talons, hoofs,
etc., but many other parts of the body — lips, tongue, 'teeth, nose,
tail, etc. — may be similarly employed; or, as in some snakes, the
body itself.

(5.) The Animal is Nourished by Food Taken Into Its
Interior and There Digested. l*lants, as we have seen, take in
their food by mere absorption over their outer surface, and chiefly
through their roots and leaves. Some animals of very low organiza-
tion and simple structure also subsist by mere absorption through
the surface ; but in all the higher forms the food is never thus taken,
being first introduced into an interior cavity, where it becomes sub-

The Animal Kingdom. 81

jected to a variety of changes whieli render it better titted to serve
its purpose. Tiiis interior cavity is the stomach. In some animals
it is a mere sac or bag connected with the moutli, but' in many it
foyms only one portion of a lengthened tube — the food canal —
having connected with it a variety of accessory organs, such as the
liver, spleen, etc., which add to its efficiency. To facilitate the pas-
sage of food througli tliis canal it is lirst cut, torn, or otherwise
divided (in the case of man it is also often cooked), and when intro-
duced into the mouth is further subdivided by the action of the
teeth. These are very various in number, form, and structure ; but
always exhibit the most exact adaptation to the kind of food upon
which the animal subsists. The final result of the process of diges«
tion is the formation of blood.

(6.) The Animal Possesses a Heart (or some Related

Organ) and Blood Vessels. Blood is to animals what sap is to
j)lants — a nourishing Huid; hence it requires to be conveyed to all
parts of the body where growth or change is in progress. In plants
the sap flows by mere soakage ; but in most animals a more complex
machinery is provided, consisting of a central reservoir, the heart,
and of a system of pipes or tubes, termed blood vessels, by which the
blood is more rapidly conveyed from one part of the body to an-
other. The heart, besides being a reservoir, is also a sort of force-
pump, by whose action the blood is constantly kept in motion, being
drawn from one portion of the body and driven to another. The
tubes conveying blood from the heart are termed arteries, and those
which carry blood to that organ are known as the veins. The entire
movement is called the Circulation of the Blood.

•

(7.) Animals Breathe. The animal body has been compared
with a machine, but, like a machine or engine, it? povvers can only
be kept up by the constant use of fiiel, which is as constantly con-
sumed. The fuel of the body is the food, converted into blood, and
then into the various organs of which the body is constituted ; its
consumption is effected, as in an engine, by air taken into the in-
terior and there made to unite with the blood or other parts. The
apparatus for this purpose consists in some animals of lungs and in
others of gills ; but the purpose is the same in either case, and leads
to the same results. One of these results is the production of power,
either nervous or muscular, or both ; the other is the production of

82 The Animal Kingdom.

heat. Those animals which, like our ordinary boasts and })ird3,
breathe pure air and have good lungs, are warm-blooded ; those
which have poor lungs, like reptiles, or only gills, like fishes, have
blood which is cold. The former also have a body covering, con-
sisting of hair, fur, wool, or feathers, by which the warmth of the
body is preserved ; while reptiles and fishes have only scales serving
the piu-pose of defence.

(8.) The Animal Rests Portions or the Whole of its Body.

The nutritive processes described above require time, and when
material is consumed more rapidly than it is renewed, derangement
follows, producing the sensations of fatigue and pain. Rest is re-
quired. This is attained, as regards separate parts of the body, by
ceasing to make use of them ; it is accomplished for the entire body
through the medium of sleep. Even plants have periods of inac-
tivity, determined by alternations of light and darkness, the varying
seasons, and other causes. In the case of certain animals, such as
the bear, bat, etc., a considerable portion of the year is passed in a
dormant state.

(9.) The Animal Grows. This is not directly obvious, but, as
in the case of plants, it becomes so when we compare together the
body at periods more or less apart. In most cases the change from
any one of these periods to another is gradual, and no difference is
observable other than that of she; but in other instances the change
is more abrupt, and the animal, in successive periods, presents
features of a wholly unlike character. Thus the fish-like tadpole
becomes converted into the frog, and the worm-like caterpillar into
the bright-winged butterfly.

(10.) The Animal gives Birth to Young. This it may do

either directly, or indirectly through the egg. The former is the
case with all our ordinary quadrupeds, as well as bats, seals, and
whales — in other words, with all Mammals, or animals which
suckle their young; all others, whether birds, reptiles, fishes, in-
sects, or the like, are born from eggs. The egg is with animals
very much what the seed is with plants ; and as from the seed
:i new plant is developed, so from the egg a new individual is
hatched. The important part of the egg is tlie yolk, for out of this
the new animal is directly made. The white of the egg and the
- shell when present merely afford nourishment and protection.

The Animal Kingdom. 88

It is interesting to notiee tliat, besides forming eggs, correspond-
ing to seeds, animals may, like plants, in some instances multiply
also by a process of budding, and thus build up a sort of community
of animals, all bound together as are the separate branches which
make up a conunon shrub or tree. The most noticeable example of
this kind of growth is furnished by the coral animals of tropical
seas, and it is by their i)ower of so multiplying that tliey come to
build the extensive reefs which skirt many tro[>ical islands, or even
themselves form islands in the midst of the ocean.

(11.) The Animal Dies. The duration of all living things is
limited. Subject at all times to internal change, subject also to acci-
dent and disease, as well as liable to be attacked and destroyed by
other animals, each kind, or rather each individual, having served
its purpose, and having given birth to new individuals, becomes the
subject of decay, and, dying, becomes resolved into the elements out
of which it was made.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

In the study of natural objects, as in all other kinds of study in
which comparisons are made, the mind is naturally led, as the re-
sult of these comparisons, to group or classify tlie objects or ideas
thus considered according to their features of resemblance and of
diflference. We classify familiar objects as houses, churches, barns,
and the like ; we classify words as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. ; in
the first part of this work we distinguished rocks from minerals,
and metals from bodies which are not metallic ; and, finally, we
grouped or classified plants in a number of distinct families, each of
which had some repi'esentative member and some peculiar features
of its own.

The classification of animals has the same object in view, and is
effected in the same way; viz., by bringing together into distinct
groups those animals whicli have conmion features or which stand
more or less nearly related to each other. The classification of
animals, however, is not nearly so easy as that of minerals or plants,
becfiUse they are of a far more complicated structure, and the
grounds of comparison are at the same tim^ mucli more numerous

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84 The Animal Kingdom. •

and less thoiouglily understood. Hence naturalists are not altogether
in accord as to the number and relative importance of the groups to
be adopted, but certain general principles are, nevertheless, recog-
nized by all. Tiiese principles will be best understood by a few
simple illustrations. ►

If we were called ujton to classify the books of a library, we
might, as a matter of convenience, do so with reference to their
relative size ; or, as a matter of taste, from tlie character of their
binding ; or yet again, with reference to the dates of their publica-
tion. But such classifications would be of little or no vahie for any
one who wislied to know wh;;i sort of books the library actually con-
tained. For this purpose he would need to go beneath the surface
and know something of the subjects of which they treat. So with
the different varieties of buildings; we distinguish and group them
together with little or no reference to their size, colour, amount of
ornament, or other unimijortant features of like kind, but with ref-
erence to the plans of their architecture and th.e purposes for which
they are to be employed.

It is the same with the classification of animals. The first and
most important feature to be determined is that of their })lan of
structure. According to what general pattern are they built? In
the Vegetable Kingdom we found but one such plan, but in the
higher Animal Kingdom this number is considerably increased;
four, if not a greater number, of distinct patterns being here recog-
nizable. The first of these patterns finds illustration in the case of
our own bodies, as well as in all ordinary (juadrupeds, birds, reptiles,
and fishes, the common feature which they all possess being that of
having an internal bony skeleton, with a back-bone for an axis. The
division or branch of ihe Animal Kingdom possessing this common
feature is hence called that of Back-Boned (or Vertebrate) Animals.
The several groups referred to may be regarded simply as repre-
senting so many modes of carrying out this one idea or pattern, and
they make up so many classes into which the Vertebrate Branch may
be subdivided. So each class may, with the varying complexity of
its members, their form and mode of life, be subdivided into smaller
groups, known as orders and families, genera and species. The plan
is the same in all, but is variously expressed.

In addition to the Back-Boned or Vertebrate plan, three other
plans are recognized by most authors, known respectively as the

The Animal Kingdom. 85

Articulate or Jointed Plan, the Sac-like or Molluscan Plan, and the
Ray-Formed or Radiate Plan — plans which are equally to be found
in all the various animals which belong to each, however much they
may vary in individual peculiarities. These, therefore, make three
more branches of the Animal Kingdom, and they in similar manner
are subdivided into classes, orders, etc., according to the varying
ways in which the one common plan is executed.

Finally, it has been found necessary to adopt a fifth branch
(Protozoa) to include a number of forms, mostly of minute size, the
structure of whose bodies is so simple that they can hardly be re-
garded as being built upon any definite plan.

Referring once more to our architectural comparisons, we may
regard the four main types of animal structure as corresponding to
the difierent styles of building distinguished by architects — the
Grecian, the Gothic, the Norman, the Elizabethan, etc. The em-
ployment of any one of these styles, such as the Gothic, for building
a castle, a cathedral, or a house of parliament, as the case may be,
is paralleled among vertebrate animals in the adaptation of some to
life on the land (Quadrupeds), others to life in the air (Birds), and
others again (Reptiles and Fishes) to life which is essentially aquatic.
Again, a cathedral or a castle, built upon any one pattern, may be
large or small, may be simple or complex, and may have various
relations to its surroundings; and so any one class under any one
branch of the Animal Kingdom may have members presenting
similiar diversity. Finally, to complete the same comparison, the
members of the fifth branch, which are not constructed iipon any
particular plan, may be regarded as corresponding to rude huts and
hovels, which, in like manner, cannot be referred to any particular
architectural method, though they necessarily exhibit many of the
more essential features upon which all edifices are built.

The following systematic but simplified classification of the
Animal Kingdom will afibrd further illustrations of these simple
principles, as it will also give opportunity for reference to some of
the more important wild animals of our own woods and waters.

Branch I. Back-Boned or Vertebrate Animals.

This branch embraces all animals possessing an internal, usually
bony, framework or skeleton, having the back-bone as an axis, en-

86 The Animal Kingdom.

dosing distinct organs of sense, of digestion, of circulation, and of
respiration, and supporting externally two pairs of limbs, variously
modified. The right and left sides of the body correspond, and the
head is distinct and well defined. .. v

The branch embraces four classes, exhibiting adaptations to as
many disdnct conditions of life, as follows :

Class I. Mammalia. Vertebrate or Back-Boned Animals
bringing forth and suckling a living young; adapted in most in-
stances to life on the land, and hence having their limbs developed
into legs and fee!, for walking, leaping, running, etc. ; possessed of a
four-chambered heart, with a double and perfect circulation,* and
lungs inflated with air ; warm-blooded, and having the body more or
k.s protected by a covering of hair. In addition to ordinary q ad-
rupeds the group includes also Man, Monkeys, Bats, Seals, Walrus,
Whales, etc., which, though not all four-footed, and in some instan-
ces not inhabitants of the land, are yet true Mammals, possessing all
the essential features of the group.

Omitting Man, the following are the chief orders in the Mam-
malian class, with some of their Provincial representatives :

1. QuADRUMANA. The Monkev Tribe, including Apcs, Monkeys,

Baboons, et<;., only seen in imported specimens.

2. Carnivora. Flesh-Eating Animals, or Beasts of Prey, hav-

ing usually strong, well-knit bodies, keen senses, and active
movements ; having also mouths provided with sharp-pointed
and cutting teeth, and feet armed with claws. Their entire
structure adapted for the recognition, pursuit, capture, and
digestion of living prey.

In addition to domesticated dogs and cats, this group is
represented among the wild animals of the Province by the
Wild Cat, the Canada Lynx or Loup-cervier, one or more
species of Fox, the Weasel, the Raccoon, the Sable, Mink,
Otter, and Ermine, highly valued for their furs ; the Skunk,

* A perfect and double circulation is where the whole of the blojod, in ad-
dition to traversing the body, is driven through the lungs, and thereby purified.
The heart, in such cases, always consists of four cavities, and the blood is con-
•tantly and thoroughly renewed.

The Animal. Kingdom. 8T

the Bear, suul one or more Seals. Wolves were at one time
common in the Province, but seem to have entirely disap-
peared.

8. Herbivoua. Plant-Eating Animals, adapted externally and
internally for subsistence upon vegetation ; iiaving bodies
often large, but weaker and generally less active than those
of carnivorous animals ; their senses often acute ; their teeth
adapted for cuowing rather than for tearing or rending ; and
their fee' ^rmed with hoofs instead of claws.

The domesticated representalives of this group are our
common and most useful animals, the Horse, the Cow, and
the Pig. Among wild forms we have in the Province tlie
Moose, the Caribou, and the Red (or Virginian) Deer. The
two former are becoming lessened in numbers by the whole-
sale slaughter to which they are subjected by huntei's, but
the last named appears to be upon the increase.

4. Whales. These very peculiar forms of Mammals, which,

with the closely aUied forms of porpoises, are generally
mistaken for fishes, are not unfrequently seen upon our
coasts, and are of several different kinds. Their main pecu-
liarities' are their enormous size, tlieir water residence and
fish-like form, the absence of hind limbs, and the imperfect
development of their teeth.

5. Bats. These are another exceptional group, being adapted^

though true mammals, to life in the air. They are possessed
of powers of flight; but these, instead of being effected
through a true wing, composed of feathei-s, as in birds, are
the result of a mere expansion of the skin, stretched upon
and moved by the greatly lengthened fingers. They are
small-sized, feeble animals, living in dark situations, flying
only by night, and passing the winter season in a state of
inactivity. We have three species, but only one of common
occurrence, in the Province.

6. Insect-Eaters. The only reprerentatives of this group with-

in our borders are the Shrews ai :i the Moles, of which there
are several kinds. Both are very small and feeble animals,
subsisting upon insects, burrowing under the ground, and

88 The Animal Kingdom.

rarely seen by day. Their feet are adapted for digging;
ri eir fur is very soft and fine, and tlieir eyes remarkable for
their small size ; features all connected with the conditions
of their underground life.

7. Gnawers. These include the Rats, the Mice, the Squirrels,
the Woodchucks, the Muskrats, the Beavers, the Rabbits,
1 and the Porcupine. They are all plant-eatei-s; but in ad-

I dition to being of small size and feeble structure, are pecu-

liar in having their jaws and teeth (especially tlie two front
teethineither jaw) adapted for gnawing. The three animals
; firstnamed, as well as Rabbits, are common everywhere. The

Porcupine, remarkable for its covering of quills (really modi-
fied hairs), is also not uncommon, frequently coming even
into settlements. The Beaver, on the contrary, though once
abundant, is now rare, being confined to the least frequented
and most inaccessible portions of the Province, where the
occurrence of their dams and houses attest the results of
their activity and singular habits.

The other groups of mammals met with in foreign countries need
not be noticed here.

Class II. Birds. Vertebrate animals, developed from eggs,
and adapted for flight. The fore-limbs formed into wings, and the
body covered with feathers. The circulation double and perfect,
the respiration aerial, and the blood warm. This class may be
divided into several groups, distinguished by peculiarities of their
bills and feet, of which the following are the most important :

1. Birds of Prey. Hawks, Eagles, Owls.

2. Climbing Birds. Woodpeckers.

3. Perching Birds. Sparrows, Warblers, Swallows, ThrusheSj

Humming-Birds, Crows, Blackbirds, Blue-Jays, etc.

4. Fowls, Etc. Including Barnyard Fowls, Pigeons, and Par-

tridges.

6. Wading Birds. Heron, Snipe, Woodcock, Curlew.
6. Swimming Birds. Ducks, Geese, Loons, Gulls.

riMM

The Animal Kingdom. I

Class m. Reptiles. Vertebrate animals, developed from eg^
and adapted for land life, for water life, or for both. The limbs a
short, rudimentary, or altogether wanting; motion being slow, 1
creeping or gliding. Circulation douWe, but imperfect ; the bio*
being only in part conveyed to the lungs (or gills), and but partial
renewed. Eet:piration either through air or water, or through bot
but inactive, with development of little power, and leaving the blo<
cold. The body covering is composed of scales. The following a
the subdivisions of this group :

1. True OR Scaly Eeptiles.

• -

(1). Turtles. Having tlie body enclosed in a shell made
the back -bone, ribs, and hardened skin. The mou
bird-like, without teeth.

(2). Lizards. Having a lengthened body, not enclosed in
shell, but covered with scales; limbs present. Tl
mouth provided with small teeth.

(S). Snakes. Having bodies greatly lengthened and destitu
: of limbs, motion being effected by gliding. The mou'

is provided with small teeth. In venomous serpen
these are replaced in part by fangs, connected wi
poison-glands, but none of this character are to be foui
- • ' in New Brunswick. About four species of snakes oce

in the Province, all of which are harmless.

2. Amphibian or Naked Keptiles.

''1). Frogs and Toads. Keptile-like animals, which in ear
life live, as tadpoles, in the water, being fish-like
form, and breathing by gills, but subsequently chanj
to land-life, acquiring limbs and lungs. The body
, short, with distinct head, and soft membranous skin.

i 2). Newts and Salamanders. Lizard-like animals found

I cellars, wells, and similar situations, but, unlike lizarc

having a body without scales, and breathing more
less by giUs.

Class IV. Fishes. Vertebrate animals developed from eg
(roe), and adapted exclusively to a water life ; the body lengthene
horizontal, and cylindrical, without marked inequalities, and coven
with scales ; the limbs developed into fins ; the circulation perfe<

W) The Animal Kingdom.

but single, the blood passing but once through the heart, and re-
newed by gills instead of lungs.

. The tliree principal groups of fishes, all of which have repre-
sentatives on our shores, or m our lakes and rivers, are :

1. Bony Fishes, including nearly all food-fishes^ such as Trout,

Salmon^ Perch, Herring, Mackerel, Pickerel, Cod.

2. Cartilaginous Fishes, destitute of a bony skeleton, and

mostly injurious, as the Sharks and Rays.

3. Sturgeons, having the body more or less covered with bony
- _ plates. They are often of large size, and are common in

the St. John river, where they are captured in considerable
numbers for the oil which they yield. t i

Branch II. Jointed Animals or Articulates.

The animak of this branch are without an internal framework
or bones of any kind, the hard parts of the body being external.
The body is usually lengthened, and more or less conspicuously
divided into rings, which are articulated or jointed tcqfether, and
which, on the outside, have attached to them the organs of locomo-
tion, seizure, respiration, etc., variously modified. The right and
left sides of the body correspond. The branch embraces the follow-
ing classes :

Class I. Insects. Terrestrial or Aerial Articulates, having the
horny body divided prominently into three distinct parts (the so-
called head, chest, and tail), living in and breathing air, and usually
provided with wings for flight. They pass through several stages of
growth, of which the first (as grub, caterpillar, or maggot), is worm-
like. The principal groups are the following :

1. Bees, Wasps, and Ants. Social insects, living in communi-

ties, and working for common ends. Of service iis affordiug
honey, but also often injurious to growing vegetation.

2. Butterflies and Moths. Four-winged insects, the tribe

of beauty, and of service in connection with the fruiting of
plants, but as caterpillars often highly injurious.

The Animal Kingdom. 91

3. Beetles. " Ilard-shelled " insects, with four wings, of which

two only are used for flight. Tlie mouth is provided with
jaws. They include — besides all varieties of Beetles — June
Bugs or Cockchafers, Potato Bugs, etc., many of them working;
incalculable injury.

4. Fltes. Two-winged insects, including the common House-

fly, Bot-flies, etc. ; in part beneficial as scavengers, but apt
to become pests by their numbers and habits.
Fleas are related wingless forms.

6. GRASSHOPi»ERS, Crickets, AND LocusTS. Winged insects,,
having the framework of the wing arranged in straight
continuous lines. They are highly injurious to vegetation.

6. Dragon Flies. Four-winged insects, having the framework
of the wing exhibiting numerous branches, and the mouth
provided with jaws. Though formidable in name and aspect,,
the dragon-flies are wholly harmless to man ; affording, on
the contrary, much service by preying upon and therefore
reducing the number of injurious insects. Though not con-
fined to such situations, they are most commonly found about
ponds, lakes and rivers.

ClclSS II. Spiders. Air-breathing, articulate animals, related
to the Insects, but destitute of wings, and having four instead or
three pairs of legs. The body, which is soft, is usually divided inta
two distinct parts. They live largely upon insects, which they cap-^
ture with the assistance of their webs; but some forms are plant-
feeders, and very destructive to vegetation.

Class in. Crustaceans. Jointed animals, having a body cov-
ered with a hard and rigid shell, the pieces of which are so united
as to divide the body into two prominent regions. They are con-
fined to the water, and breathe by gills. Of familiar forms there
are but two groups ; viz., (1) the Crabs, and (2) the Lobsters and.
Cray-fish. They are largely employed as human food.

Class IV. Worms. Articulate animals, with a soft body con-
sisting of an indefinite number of similar rings, with or without
external appendages. They are confined to water and damp earthy

^2 The Animal Kingdom.

breathing either by gills, or by the general surface of the body. Be-
sides the ordinary earth, or angle worm, they include also the
Leeches, often found in ponds, and many marine forms. Earth
lyorms are of service as helping in the formation of isoils, and leeches
for medical purposes. . ,

Branch III. Soft-bodied, Sac-like Animals.

MoUusca.

Animals destitute of a bony framework, consisting essentially of
«, soft fleshy unjointed bag, containing the stomach and other organs,
and usually protected externally by a limestone shell. The num-
•erous (over 20,000) distinct forms are mostly referable to three
groups, as follows : • * • .

Class I. Cephalopoda (Head-Footed). The Squid and Cuttle
tribe, having w'ell defined heads, surrounded by long arms,
employed for seizure and locomotion, and (in our species)
destitute of a shell. The species of our coast are mostly
small, but some in the North Atlantic attain a length of
^orty feet.

Class II. Gasteropods (Belly-Footed). Molluscs, enclosed
in a shell usually composed of a single piece (univalve) and
coiled spirally, as in the Snail. The body consists of a dis-
tinct head, with eyes and feelers, and of a soft, fleshy disc,
containing the stomach, etc., by which motion is effected.

Class III, Bivalves. Molluscs enclosed in a double or two-
valved shell opening by a hinge, as the Oyster and the Clam.
They are destitute of a distinct head, and, in most instances, ®

of locomotive organs. Kespiration is effected by plate-like
gills (the combs of the oyster), or by a system of water
tubes.

Eelations or the Mollusca to Man. These are varied and
important. In the first place they yield, as in the case of the oyster,
clam, and some other forms, valuable articles of food ; some of them
are available as bait ; and many animals of importance to man, in-

The Animal Kingdom. 9S

eluding varioua food-fishes, and even the gigantic whales, obtain in
them a large part of their subsistence. Their shells, from the lime
which they contain, are valuable as fertilizers, and owing to their
beauty, for the making of ornaments. Mother of pearl is a portion
of the inner layer of sliells of this group, and the pearl itself is
similarly constituted. On the other ha.'l, they may also be injuri-
ous, partly as preying upon other animals, as in the case of the
cuttles; or by preying ui)on plants, as with the slug and snail.
Finally, by the power which they in some instances possess of boring
into wood and stone, they may work immense damage to such human
structures as are exposed to their attacks. The ship-worm (not
really a worm, though conmionly so called), is one of this character,
and produces incalculable injury.

Branch IV. Ray-Formed Animals, or Radiates.

Animals destitute of a bony framework, but often possessing a
calcareous skeleton, with the organs of the body, external and inter-
nal, arranged radially around a central axis. This brunch includes
two main divisions, mostly marine, and several subordinate ones, as
follows :

Class I. Echinoderms. Having generally an external body-
covering, composed of many calcareous pieces, and bearing more or
less prominent spines. Their most familiar forms are the Sea
Urchins and Star-Fishes, abounding on the coast.

Class II. Jelly Fishes (£,nd Belated Forms). Having soft,

jelly-like bodies, of very simple structure, growing and multiplying
much like plants.

Class III. Corals (and Related Forms) . Having the simple,

sac-like body divided by radiating partitions, which, with the body
itself, generally become hardened by stony material into an endur-
ing skeleton. Growth and multiplication resembling that of plants.

Relations of the Radiates to Man. Except that these, in
various degrees, eat and are eaten by other animals, they are — at

The Animal Kingdom.

least in our waters — of little direct importance to man. In warmer
latitudes, however, they play a part of the first importance in the
building up of limestone reefs, such as surround many tropical
islands, and mov even form the bulk of the islands themselves.

Branch V. Protozoa.

These are systemless animals, having the simplest possible struc-
ture, possessing few, if any, disUnct organs, and not built upon any
definite plan. They are mostly of very small size individually, or
even microscopic; but, by a process of budding, build up large, some-
what plant-likip, communities. The mist familiar example is ordi-
nary sponge, varieties of which are common in our ponds and upon
the coast. The best sponges come from the Mediterranean. Ordi-
nary Chalky which we employ as a writing material, has a somewhat
similar origin.

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