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SKETCH ^-

"M.

OF THE

lOETH-WEST OF AIERICi.

BY MGR. TACHE,

BISHOP OP ST. BONIFACE,
1868.

) '

TKANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. BY CAPTAIN D. 11. CAMERON,

KOYAL AETILLERY.

Slotttyfal:

PRINTED BY JOHN LOVELL ST. NICHOLAS STREET.

1870.

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SKETCH

OF THE

NORTH-WEST OF AMERICA.

BY MGR. TACHE,

BISHOP or BT. BONtFAOB,
1868.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. BY CAPTAIN D. R. CAMERON,

ROTAL ARTILLERY.

PRINTED BY JOHN LOVBLL ST. NICHOLAS STREET.

1870.

The deep interest which now attaches to everything connected with
the North-west Territories, induces the Translator to hope that this
work may not be unacceptable to the public.

Few, if any, have had so good opportunities as Bishop Tache for
obtaining information regarding the country his Lordship describes;
and, although he may not be so sanguine as many others are about the
capabilities and future of the North-west, the facts, which his Lordship's
long residence there enables him to give f/om personal experience, shew
conclusively, that the climate, soil and mineral resources of the country
are such as must render it highly attractive to the emigrant.

Ottawa, April, 1870. ■

^^Ky:

«i .-, ,

SKETCH

or TBI

NOETH-WEST OF AMERICA.

When writing " Vingt Annies de Missions," we were aware how
imperfect the work was, and that, to render it interesting, there
were wanting, amongst other things, explanations touching the char-
acter and history of the country which had been the theatre of the
missionary labors we described. We did, indeed, promise to
supply explanatory notes on these points, but frequent long jour-
neys and other business prevented our then carrying out the
intention to which we now apply ourselves.

Neither the church nor geographical division of the country
supplying us with a single name by which to designate it, we bhall
adopt its commercial title, that is to say the name by which that
part of British America is known in the great mercantile organiza-
tion of the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company.

" The Northern Department" includes all that will be treated
of in this sketch.

This vaBt country is bounded to the south by the United States,
or the 49th parallel of latitude, to the west by the Rocky Moun-
tains, to the north by the Arctic Sea, to the east by the straits and
gulfs which connect Baffin's Bay with Hudson's Ba;/, 2ndly by
Hudson's Bay itself, (not including Ja meses Bay"), 3rdly by^ a
line connecting Cape Henrietta with th^40^ parallel of latitude,
following the watershed between Hudson's Bay, properly so called,
and James's Bay with Lake Superior, or, for simplicity's sake, let
us consider 90° W. long, as the eastern boundary.

The continental portion of this vast Department includes, then,
the country between 49° and 70" N. lat. In the south it
stretches from 90° to 115° W. long., and in the north from 90°
to 140° W. long. u;^ '> -^ ^

;?.■.;.*.;

■ The breadth of the country from west to east is, in round
numbers, 1200 English miles, and its length from south to north is
1500, giving the immense area of 1,800,000 square miles, without
estimating the Arctic Islands anciently and recently discovered.

There is a striking contrast between the vastness of this territory
and the smallness of others occupied by some of the most powerful
nations in the world ; and, the comparison naturally suggests the
enquiry : Are these vast solitudes to remain for ever in the condi-
tion in which Providence has hitherto kept them ?

Alone in these boundless deserts, one listens here for a loud
echo of the noise and stir in the world beyond the sea, of the more
feverish bustle and the bolder ambition of the neighboring great
Republic, or of the Dominion of Canada springing into existence.
'Our beautiful and large rivers, our Immense lakes, are they never to
carry but the light bark canoe, and the heavy oared barge of the
fur dealer ? The agricultural resources of the country, its mineral
riches, the wealth of its forests and of its streams, whatever they
may be — are these destined never to be known or appreciated at
their true value ? Is there nothing here worthy the attention of
man ? Is there sufficient to encourage those who dream of its
brilliant and prosperous future ? Is the severity of its climate
fatal to enterprise ? Will its soil repay the labor of cultivation, or
will it vainly drink up the sweat of the husbandman's labor?
Bounded as we have described, is the Northern Department

accessible ? _Orj_Jo_jfiafill_ltj__mu8* 0Ji®.._]^?'Y.?.,i]?? .fe^rdib-ood of
adventuiejawlva would seek riches at any cost, all the self denial
o f th ose :BrbQ thirst after the safety of souls, or the insatiable
curiosity of the tourist ? The glaciers of the north are certainly
an impassable barrier ; the Rocky Mountains on the west present
very great difficulties there ; on the other hand, the height of lands
to the east is not a serious obstacle and the 49° parallel does not
even undulate on the vast plains to the south ; in short, then, it is not
impossible to reach this place, the journey is even comparatively
easy, and I invite my friends to take an excursion, which will surely
not be without a certain charm.

I wish I could satisfy the legitimate curiosity of serious men who
think of this country : I wish above all to supply information to
those who are interested in us. But for a full description volumes
would be necessary, and I can only offer limited information, and a

few general observations on a country about which there have
been very contradictory statements.

Those wh() have hitherto seen nothing in Canada, but " a few
acres of snow," would see here only a few leagues of ice, where
cold blooded animals, or such as hibernate, can alone exist.
Optimists, on the other hand, appear to think this as good as any
• place in the world ; that if we have a great deal of ice, so much
the better for us ; — with them, ice is a luxury, and so on.
I cannot pretend to give all the information that may be desirable,
but I hope that this little sketch may at least assist in making
the country of my adoption better known. However feebly it
may shine I shall at all events derive satisfaction from having
sacrificed, to the good pleasure of a few friends and the desire
of being useful to them, the repugnance I have to writing on
a subject so foreign to my occupations and ordinary duties.

I shall divide the work into two parts. In the first I shall give
an insight into the state of the Northern Department, and in the
second I shall take a rapid glance at its history.

^•■:;' /-.;'!-■

FIRST PART.

To attain the object -which we have set before us in the first
part, that is to describe the natural and social condition of the
country, we shall divide it into seven chapters.

In the first chapter we shall examine the country from an
economic point of view, enlarging upon the returns to be expected
from its soil and climate, and enumerating its vegetable products.

In the second chapter we shJl touch upon the country's hydro-
graphy, which treats of its natural routes of communication with
their greater or less advantages.

In the third chapter we shall examine the political state of the
country.

In the fourth its commercial system.

In the fifth we shall enumerate the ecclesiastical divisions of the
country.

In the sixth the various tribes inhabiting it.

And in the seventh we shall refer to such of the animal kingdom
as are most remarkable.

Geographical maps on a small scale will be attached to the first
four chapters to assist the description.*

CHAPTER I.

RESOURCES OF THE NORTHERN DEPIRTMBNT.

Regarding the resources and future of the Northern Department,
the country may be divided into two very dissimilar portions which
we shall distinguish as the Northern and Southern Divisions. The
division may be marked by a diagonal line drawn from the south-
eastern extremity of the country to Mount TraflSc near 64* N.
lat., and 128° W. long. Of course nature has drawn no such
geometrically straight line ; yet, the accuracy with which the

* The maps referred to have not been published frith the Bishop's pamphlet.

imaginary line divides the country, in accordance with the view we
are taking of it, is surprising.

NORTHERN DIVISION.

Three ranges of mountains appear to have determined the
geometrical figure of the great continent on which we live.

The great chain of the Rooky Mountains — which, although
undulating, has no break — follows the longest line which can be
drawn on North America, and stretches from the Arctic Ocean, in
which it bathes its first links, to South America, laying down in its
ramifications the boundary which establishes the parallelism of the
western coast of our continent.

A second chain, that of the Alleghanies, not so extensive as the
former, establishes, on its side, the direction of the eastern
coast. This chain starting from the Gulf of St. Lawrence stretches
across the United States to Aiabama. There it leaves power to
the fury of the Atlantic waves to hollow out the Gulf of Mexico,
until checked by the Rocky Mountains. The latter line that Gulf
intA which the Mississippi pours the tribute of streams that water
a giuai portion of the vast plain lying between the two mouncain
ramparts.

A third chain of mountains determines the eccentric form which
the continent assumes at its northern extremity. It perfects the
embankments of the mouths of the giant rivers of the north and
east, and borders the north and east of some i the largest lakes
in America. It is the chain of the Laurentides forming the bank
of the great Canadian river from its mouth to Cape Tourmente,
near Quebec, and which, satisfied with having held the great river
in check, leaves it at this point to make room for the magnificent
lands that border it above. Further on, the range, after crossing
the Ottawa, bends towards the south as if again to look on the St.
Lawrence near Lake Ontario. Thence the Laurentides stretch
towards Lake Huron, which they border on the east, then they
reach Lake Superior, whence they pass towards the Arctic Ocean
by the North-west route, forming in the latter part of their course
a portion of the contour of the great Winnipeg, Athabaska, Slave
and Bear Lakes which they leave on their west. As is apparent,
the curve described by this chain of mountains is very analagous

to tbe parallelism of the northern coast of the continent, even

including the extensive and eccentric encroachment of Hudson's
Bay.

From what has been said, it appears that the chain of Lauren-
tides traverses the whole of the Northern Department. It does
not retain, however, the elevation which distinguishes it on the
banks of the St. Lawrence ; but it is still the same range, and of
the same formation. This collection of hills, — here they are but
hills, — has a general direction from south-east to north-west ; and
this is the explanation of nature herself having traced the all but
straight line to which we alluded as separating the Northern from
the Southern Division of the Northern Department. The Lauren-
tides, however, d-- not exactly follow the straight line. Here is
their divergence : From the south-east extremity of the Depart-
ment they stretch towards the east, encroaching upon the Lake of
the Woods and the two banks of River Winnipeg as far as the lake
of the same name, which they skirt to the east and the north.
Thence they run west-nor'-west, and passing to Beaver Lake seize
on Rapid River (a la Pente) and further on possess themselves of
the whole of Churchill River ; leaving the last river at Lake Prim-
eau they th'^re curve with a more marked inclination to the north.
These hills then reach Lake Athabaska, which they almost entirely
surround, and to which they give the English name " Lake of the
Hills." The Lauren tides then continue the same direction to form
the northern aid eastern shores of Great Slave Lake, -^nd, further
on, of Bear Lake. The diagonal line to which we referred
follows this general direction except at its two extremities ; for on
leaving Great Slave Lake the chain passes in a straight line to
INIount Traffic, and iu the south the diagonal strikes the Lauren-
tian formation, and brings it into the Southern Division. We thus
cut off from the northern division the angle formed by the lines
which we have just traced. :;ind this because its advantages connect
it with the Southern Division. On the other hand we have cut off
from the Southern Department a section which the laurentian
range would leave to it, but which, from a profitable point of view,
would naturally be rejected on account of the sevftrity of its climate.
In short, we consider the boundary of the Northern Division to be
an imaginary line drawn, as we have said, from the south-eastern
extremity of the Department to Mount Traffic. This portion of

the country is perfectly waste, covered for the most part with pri-
mary I'ocks of the Laurentian system. It includes, too, the " Bar-
ren grounds," and the Silurian formation of Hudson Bay, and of
the banks of Mackenzie River, as well as the lignite beds of the
latter. It can never be otherwise than a field for hunting and
fishing. The climate is everywhere very severe, cultivation
impossible, pasturage entirely wanting, and the timber of inferior
quality and of miserable growth. There are, of course, exceptional
spots, but these are few. And I think there need be no boldness
in asserting that this part of the country will remain as it is, and
will never be inhabited except by Indians and by hardy and ven-
turesome fur-huuters. It is quite possible that great riches lie in
the midst of this desolate waste ; but of what use, particularly in
places where frost of eight successive months and raore makes the
earth almost as hard as the heavy masses of granite that generally
cover it ? Some lakes abound in fish. Animals with, the richest
furs move about there in great numbers, displaying in the midst
of desolation the silky richness of their covering.

The two seaports of the country, of which only one is used, are
in the Northern Division. It will presently be seen that this
advantage is very much diminished by difficulty of navigation.

If the Southern Division becomes populated, if communication
becomes easier, if "many things, which do not exist, spring up in
the course of time, then, perhaps, the desolation which reigns over
those lands may lose "ome of its sternness.

With the informatioft I possess, — the changes which I dream of,
as others do, for this Division, appear to me to be impossible in the
Northern Division. I cannot imagine anything there different from
what it now is ; the Indian, hunting, fishing and starving ; the trader
collecting rich furs ; the poor missionary h.boring for the salva-
tion of abandoned souls, and — if you will — some factories, provis-
ioned with imported supplies at great cost. This Northern Division
then, at once deprives about two-thirds of the Ntrthern Department
of any prospect of a brilliant future, or even of any probable change.

To such as desire to engage neither in hunting nor in trading
for fura amongst the Indians, the Southern Division is alone worthy
of attention. ,^,.-^ -,..;- - -

!■,:■; ,

SOUTHERN DIVISION.

While including in this Division all the country which is not
included in the preceding, I could not forget that here, too, there^
are several spots or even districts of considerable extent little
favorable to the clever combinations of economists. I included
them, however, in one division, because a portion offers real agricul-
tural advantages. There are, it is known, mineral riches in it, and
great ways of communication : what is wanting at one point may
sometimes be found at another ; the less advantageous places must
be passed over to reach those which are more advantageous ; and in
short taken altogether they form a whole, at least m some respects,
Yet, for the sake of clearer apprehension, I shall subdivide the
Southern Division of the Northern Depp-rtment into three sections,
which I shall call " desert," " prairie," and " forest."

ht. The desert. — This word will not surprise those who have
studied the western part of North America. Every body has
heard of the great American desert, but all may not know that it
extends into British possessions, passing the boundary at 100° W.
long, and 49° N. lat., then following a Une more or less winding,
in a general nor.'westerly direction, passes still further towards the
north and bends again to the north-west at 113° W. long, and 52°
N. lat. ; thus forming an area of at least 60,000 square miles.
Here is a desert, — an immense desert. It is certainly not every-
where a plain of moving sand, and quite dried up ; but it is quite
vain to think of forming considerable settlements on it. Prairie
hay (^Systeria dyctaloides) is almost the only plant which is seen
growing on its arid coil. A narrow border of alluvial soil marks
its water courses, and these are dry nearly throughout the year.

The prairie hay supplies pasturage of the best kind : not only the
buffalo delights in it, but horses and other draught animals are
very fond of it. This herb, barely six inches high, of which the
plants grow so sparsely as to leave the sand or gravel on which it
grows everywhere visible, preserves its flavor and nourishing
power, even in the midst of the rigors of winter, to such an extent
that a few days grazing on one of these remarkable pasturages
suflBces to restore horses worn out by work to good condition.

Beyond this advantage, and the game to be found there, I don't
know of anything on this vast plain ^.vhich could attract the atten-
tion of economists.

The wearied eye seeks in vain for a shore to this ocean of short
hay. The weakened traveller sighs in vain for a stream or a spring
at which to quench his thirst. The heavens, dry as the earthy
hardly ever grant their dews and beneficent showers. The dry-
ness of the atmosphere aids the aridity of the soil ; some places of
which the geological formation would appear to favor vegetation,
produce no more than the naturally sterile ground. One travels
across this desert for days and weeks without seeing the smallest
shrub. The only fuel procurable by the traveller or hunter is
buffalo dung, which our Half-breeds call " bois de prairie " (prairie
wood.) Then this desert has its winters, — severe winters, with
violent wind, and a temperature often below 30° centigrade.

Very distinguished men in the United States do not fear to wound
national sentiment by proving the small real advantag.^s of a great
part of the west. Here is what Professor Henry says : —

" The whole extent of country to the west between the 98th:
meridian and the Rocky Mountains, called " the great American
Plains," is an arid desert over which the eye may wander to the
horizon without seeing anything to relieve its monotony . . . And
perhaps we shall surprise the reader by drawing his attention to the
fact that this line, which is drawn southward from Lake Winnipeg
to the Gulf of Mexico, divides the surface of the United States into
two very nearly equal parts. When properly understood this
statement will serve to dissipate some of the dreams, regarded as
realities, about the destiny of the western part of the continent of
North America ; but truth in the end takes precedence of praise-
worthy patriotic sentiment."

This opinion, so frankly expressed, is corroborated by that of Major
Emory on the frontier commission of the United States : " Hvpo-
thetical geography is pu^.hed sufficiently far in the United States.
In no other country has it been carried to such a point, or has it
been followed by such disas^.rous consequences. This pernicious
system was commenced under the eminent auspices of Baron Hum-
boldt, who, because he had made "='ome trips to Mexico, attv?mpted
to describe the whole of North America. He was surrounded by
people who had personal ends in view. In this manner it happened
that, — without other proofs than such as were furnished by men
travelling on mules, at full gallop across the continent, — the opinion
of the country was held in suspense on the subject of a suitable

route for a railway, and there was even created in the public nind
a preference in favor of a route which explorations had demonstrated
to be the most impracticable of all the routes between the 49th and
32nd parallels of latitude. On the same kind of ill-founded infor-
mation, maps of the whole continent have been engraved and pub-
lished in the very best style of art, and sent to receive the approba-
tion of Congress and the praise of geographical societies here and
abroad ; while those who have really contributed to sound geography
have seen their works robbed and disfigured, and themselves
neglected and forgotten. Whatever may be said about them, these
plains to the west of the 100th meridian are quite incapable of sup-
porting an agricultural population so long as you do not go sufficiently
to the south to meet the tropical rains."

So much for the American desert in the United States. It is
the same desert which does not fear to cross the 49th parallel to
stretch over British possessions up to the 55nd parallel — following,
however, the diagonal we referred to in tracing its limits.

The plateau of the Grand Ooteau (watershed hills) du Missouri
which extends into our desert, preserves its geological character
there. Apart from its elevation, its tertiary strata attract attention
while the rest of the desert belongs rather to the jsretaceous. system.
Very high downs and rocks of various ages everywhere bear wit-
ness to the violent action to which the land has been subjected.

This desert then deprives husbandry of one tenth, at least, of the
Southern Division, and here already is a shadow cloudmg the bril-
liant picture which often presents itself to the minds of thase who
look towards the Far- West, and who, seeing the sun going down
behind the Rocky Mountains, easily conclude that the land gilded by
its setting rays must all be, some day, covered with abundant crops.

2nd. The prairie or plains. Let us leave the desert to enter a
more agreeable region, — that of the prairies. These plains about
which I am going to speak have, in some places, a little of the arid-
ity of tha neighboring desert without its sterility ; elsewhere, this
resembles forest land, without its depth; the whole forming
-a distinct country worthy of the greatest interest, without,
perhaps, having all the advantages attributed to it. Our prairies
rest on the 49th parallel of latitude and on the desert about which
^e have just been speaking. To the north they are bounded by
the wooded country ; in other diiections they are also bounded by

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■wooded country, on which they yearly encroach and from -whichi
they are at present separated by a curved line that, waving irre-
gularly to the north of the Saskatchewan, crosses it near the mouth
of its southern branch, and thence proceeds in a straight line to the
foot of Riding Mountains to cross the extremity of lakes Manitobah
and Winnipeg, and stops at the height of lands which was formerly
the bank of the lake that has been replaced by Red River Valley.
It is difficult to give, even approximately, the area of these prairies.
I reckon them as being about equal to the desert country, that is
60,000 square miles.

The great expanse of the prairies tells plainly that their geological
formation must vary. The prairie which touches the desert includes,
like the neighboring country, secondary formation, while towards its
extremity it has transition rocks : for example, thecalcareous strata
of Red River and the coal fields of the Saskatchewan. The Silurian"
system occurs in its neighborhood and sometimes runs into old red
sandstone. Extensive deposits of sulphate of soda are found in the
neighborhood of the calcareous strata and elsewhere. The valleys
of rivers and the drying up in the forests, everywhere multiply re-
cent formations. There are thick alluvial beds there, and these be-
come covered with vegetable deposit, sometimes also of great depth.
The poor colonist who has labored at clearing the dense forest
land of Canada, who can only plant his land after a terrible struggle
with the giants that cover it, and after having dug it out to great
depth in order to extract innumerable enormous roots — he, no doubt,
naturally conceives a hatred for forest land. He has expended too
much labor and exhausted too much of his resources to believe
in the superiority of this kind of land. It appears to him that open
country, where nothing more is necessary, so to speak, than to put
the plough in the ground, is a fortunate country. From this point
of view, prairie has an unquestionable advantage ; but as nothing
here below is perfect, the advantage has its disheartening compen-
sation in a very great scarcity of timber and firewood. Time, far
from bringing a remedy, increases the evil. Fires, which destroy
even forests, rob the prairies of such small advantages as they may
have in this respect. I have crossed well wooded districts where
a few years afterwards I have suffered from cold, not finding where-
with to supply the smallest fire. The confiagrations are more
mnuerous in proportion to the increase of travellers. They are-

.t[

1)ecoming more difficult to chock as they find fuel in greater abun-
~<lauce and more combustible on the scene of their last depredation.
To the buffalo hunter, the prairie is a country without equal.
. Winter and summer — there is his empire, there he finds true happi-
ness in urging his swift steed in pursuit of prey, until recently so
-abundant and easy ; it is there that without obstacle and, so to
flpeak, without labor, he lays out roads, bounds over space, and
enjoys a spectacle often grand although a little monotonous. Seen
in the flower season the prairie is really beautiful, for its verdure-
covered ground is quite enamelled with different colors. It is a rich
carpet of which the various tints seem to have been arranged by the
bands of an artist ; it is a sea which, on the least breath, undulates
its scented waves. The plain, sometimes so uniform as to shew an
apparently artificial horizon, suddenly changes into rolling prairie.
Its beauty then increases ; a thousand little hills now raise themselves
liere and there, and by their almost regular variety give the idea
^f waves on the ocean in the midst of a great storm. It appears
as if the powerful hand of the Ruler of seas, mocking the fury of
the waves, had seized them at the instant of their rising, and by a
peremptory order, changed them into solid land. In many direc-
tions erratic stumps, seen on the top of downs or hillocks, appear in
the distance like the petrified spray of foaming waves. Elsewhere the
prairie is planted with clumps of trees and dotted with lakes as pleas-
ing as they are various in form. Here are basins which one would
say were the reservoirs of great rivers, and of which the sides carry
visible marks of the levels, once assigned by the Supreme Artist to
these dried-up ponds. Excepting the wild and rugged beauty of large
mountains, excepting the view of a great sheet of water bathing a
beautiful roadstead, and excepting all natural beauty improved
by the art — it is difficult to imagine anything more beautiful, or at
least prettier and more lovely, than are some parts of the rolling
prairie. One might easily believe oneself to be in an immense park
of which the rich proprietor had called into requisition the most
skilled talent. In the midst of these clumps, of these groves, of
the rich verdure, of variegated flowers, of innumerable lakes, one asks :
Where is the owner to whom belongs the large herds quietly grazing
in the distance ? Who has tamed this gazelle, so fleet, so graceful,
that approaches, as if to salute the traveller — that fear startles away,
that curiosity turns back again? These packs of wolves that sport

Tound you, that bark, that howl and snarl in tarn, are they the im-
patient pack waiting for the signal to start in pursuit of game ? Then
in autumn what a variety, what a number of aquatic birds cover all
these lakes ? Ducks sport themselves in thousands, the swan — that
habituS of all beautiful artificial waters — is there swimming about with
inajestic negligence and cooing its mysterious song. Oh yes ! the
prairie is beautiful ; and since we want here only people and homes,
there are certain spots that I would gladly point out to amateurs.
I am not surprised at the impression produced on the tourist
ivhile he experiences the real deUghts of a summer excursion over
these plains. Men, whose opinion must have weight, have, perhaps,
occasionally experienced this delightful influence, and have given
:a preference to the prairies to which they are not entitled in every
respect. Here comes the end of August. Already cold is threat-
ening ; severe frosts prevent the ripening of cereals and expose them
to complete destruction. At other times a similr.r result may follow,/'
drought. We are on the skirts of the desert, its scorching winds
rush over the prairie protected by no elevated land. The freezing
vrind, little less obstructed on its way from the Arctic regions, combats
with its violent rival, and the prairie, the scene of this struggle, sees
many hurricanes and hail storms very u^structive to the crops.
Enormous hail-stones have fallen on the p'-iirie ; over large districts
not only is the hay destroyed but the soil is as it were harrowed.
Then often, too often, the desert sends out its myriad of grasshoppers
over the prairie, and their serried squadrons are devouring pha-
lanxes that do not hesitate to starve the poor settler.

Winter has arrived in the beginning of November and continues
more or less in April, and, Great God! what winter! One must
travel in the midst of these vast plains and camp out during entire
■weeks in the midst of these snowy oceans to understand how scarce
•wood is there, and yet how necessary it is. i;is.r j. jx

These clumps, these groves, the strip along the banks of the
rivers and of some of the ravines, no doubt, border the space, diver-
sify the scenery, break the horizon, delight the eye of the tourist
who desires only pleasure, and who contents himself with a tuft of
grass, becauae it is pleasing to his sight and shelters him, during his
siesta, against the heat of a burning sun. But how all this beauty
fades ! How it dies with the leaves that it beautifies !

I have travelled on the prairies of the Northern Department, I

have crossed them frequently, and still I ask myself, what can at
large population do on these plains ? I except the prairies of the upper
part of the northern branch of the Saskatchewan, where the proximity
of the Rocky Mountains insures the supply of some of the wood
required in the settlements that might be formed there. I except,
also, the valley of Red River and the Lower Assiniboine because
there, too, the prairie touches on wooded country. On the rest of the
plains I do not see the elements necessary for prosperous settle-
ments. I have read glowing reports upon these plains ; they brought
out all the advantages, they particularly described the quantity
of wood. But book in hand I saw the country described, and I
asked myself, who is the dreamer, — the author or the reader ?

The only woods of any importance on the prairie, — that is, timber y
are the different kinds of poplar, but particularly aspen and some
birch. In Upper Saskatchewan, at a very few points on the road,
there arc also found white spruce and some larch. Out of Red
River valley and the Lower Assiniboine there is no hard wood ; it
'oes not exist to the west of 101° W. long., where the few solitary
and inferior specimens that are met with could not be regarded as a
resource. I say, then, that from the lOlst meridian up to the Rocky
Mountains, a distance of about 900 miles, there is not wherewith to
make a substantial road. Birch is certainly a ^^retty wood for
cabinet work, but it does not withstand the weather, and cannot be
used in work requiring solidity. This kmd of wood, too, is not
common on the prairie.

An exploration was made across these plains with a view to
establishing a telegraphic line. Those who originated the scheme
and did not carry it out have been very much blamed. Greater
indulgence would have been extended had the report of the con-
scientious engineer, who made the explorations, been known. The
difficulty, or rather physical impossibility, of obtaining telegraph
posts caused the project to be abandoned.

With these facts before me I am inclined to think that I have
ascribed too narrow limits to the desert, for really, from an econo-
mic point of view, it occupies nearly half the area of the prairie,
tha^ is to say all its centre, leaving only its outskirts fit for occupa-
tion. It may be truly said in a general way that prairie soil is very
fertile ; but the centre is certainly not so fertile as are the out-
skirts.

Ho Uii^ QuytZfK^lL ^ <^ct,A k fH> Ultw hJiMhJuut

Ifo l1rrr\.

/fjut-

f K'

I have already said that the climate is severe, yet the severity
'of our winters does not prevent extreme heat in summer. We have
•extreme heat and extreme cold. Never having had instruments
upon whose perfect accuracy I could depend, I do not venture to
submit the meteorological tables I have made ; but I have noted a
common centigrad e spirit thermometer every day during ten years.
Thrice during that period it has recorded 40° below zero, and it
has also thrice marked 40° abo"e, an'^ on one occasion even 43°.

During whole months in winter we have a mean temperature of
30° below zero in the mornings : while at midday in summer, we
have a mean of 30° above zero in the shade. I shall content
myself with these few figures : too many would be l^eq^uired to give
an exact idea of our temperature, or of its fitness for farming.
Accurate information on this subject must be founded on a series of
daily observations, during several years, at difierent hours of the
day and night. jFor agricultural purposes, only false conclusions
are to be derived from the study of the mean temperature tor each
month, for such mean temperature does not exclude sudden and
very great decrease of heat, which, although temporary, has not the
less a very injurious efiiect upon the produce of the soil ; and tbis
is not indicated by figures shewing only the mean temperature.
All the prairie region is subject to these sudden changes, which
often cause very great mischief. I have known the whole harvest
crop seriously damaged by a severe frost during the night 9th
to 10th August, although both days had been intensely hot.

Snow thaws very rapidly on the prairies, because there is little of
it, and the country is very open. Thus it is frequently practicable
to sow during the latter half of April. This advantage, unfor-
tunately, is often cancelled by frosts in May. My thermometer
once indicated 15° of cold on the 14th to 16th night of May,
while in the same month of the same year it marked 25° of heat.
These violent and sudden changes, in reality, do away with the
superiority of the prairie climate, as indicated by mean temperature.
The figures representing the mean temperature of the months,
during a year in which the limited observations were made, have
determined the isothermal lines, and greater experience proves that
they are not to be depended upon. These linps are fundamentally
wrong, for, I repeat, a single night is sufficient lo destroy all analogy
with the climate of the country to which they refer.

To-day, the 8th of April, my thermometer marks 22° below zero,
■while the last days of March promised us a very early spring.

The following indicates the division of the seasons and their
more striking characteristics : —

Spring. — From the 15th April to the 31st May, windy, cold
and disagreeable ; severe frost during the nights.

Summer. — June, July, August, hot ; little rain ; strong wind ;
cold nights towards the end of August. , .

V Autumn. — September and October, calm, serene ; very agree-
able weather ; nights generally very cold ; heat often intense
during the day, except in the last week of October. In autumn
there is little or no rtin, which accounts for the destructive prairie^
fires occurring at this season of the year.

Winter. — November, December, January, February, March and
the first half of April. Little snow, biting frost, keen, constant
and very dry until the month of March. Atmosphere generally
very clear, as is the case during the rest of the year.

I have read, somewhere, that our climate is not very severe, and
this statement, written by some one who had been in the country
during summer, was founded on the fact that Indians and Half-breeds
sleep in the open air without other protection than a blanket and
a buffalo robe. Understanding well the weight which such a state-
ment must have with those who are inexperienced, all here know
that it is incorrect. I am not an Indian, yet how many winter
nights I have spent under the beautiful stars, without any robe
at all. Does it follow that the temperature was mild ? No, for
often mercury is frozen during entire weeks. One cannot say
how much he can stand without experiment. If I am told that
horses pass the winter in the open, I simply reply that they do like-
wise at Athabaska and at Mackenzie River where, nevertheless,
the intensity of cold is very great. This circumstance, so remark-
able to those unaccustomed to this country, instead of proving the
mildness of the climate, proves the constancy of cold. Not only
does snow not melt in winter, but it does not even soften, thus it
does not become icy nor acquire, what is well known in Canada as
" crust." The horse, by pawing, can easily remove the covering
of snow from off the grass, and feed, — which would be impossible
were the snow to harden.

Proof of this statement is furnished by some winters milder thai

others. If, by chance, it rains during winter, if there should be a
thaw, or, in short, if the winter is milder, it becomes fatal to horses
wintering in the open. This very winter presents a striking
example. Our horses here at Red River, where winter is very
severe, are not stabled. In Dacotah Territory, where it rained in
December, horses not stabled aro dying in great numbers. The
horse, although an animal of a milder climate, nevertheless with-
stands the lowest temperature. Surprise at seeing horses winter-
ing in the open is nothing more than what Europeans experience
on seeing Canadian horses, after long journeys, standing out for
hours together without suffering in the least. The fact, then, that
horses can live without stabling does not prove the mildness of the
climate, but simply the abundance and superiority of the immense
pasturages left for their use. This, indeed, is the unquestionable
advantage of the prairie country. If there be many things want-
ing to shelter man, and to feed many industries, it has, at all events,
wherewith to feed innumerable cattle, not only in consequence of
its extent but from the character and richness of its growth, equal-
ling the finest clover. It^is known _that in cold countries grass,
acquires a nutritive power which its juices have not time to develop
TnmUdfiijj^ates.

Such is the fattening effect of natural prairie grazing, without
ether assistance, upon our slaughter animals, that in no very long
time, when they are healthy, they become worthy of the first markets*

The recollection of what happened here last year, obliges me to
add that our prairie pasturages have, and perhaps always will have,,
the disadvantage of being infested by insects which, flying in dense
clouds, torment cattle. Upon the whole, however, these prairies, so»
long as they are not cultivated, will furnish an extensive and
unequalled resource for the rearing of cattle. I am sorry that I
cannot assign to them equal importance in other respects, appearing
to me to involve essentials of prosperous and extensive settlement..

At tii3 risk of appearing to be unreasonably retrograde, I dare
positively affirm that not more than one-half of the area of the
prairie within the limits I have ascribed to it, or within the region
usually called the Fertile Belt of the Northern Department, is fit
for settlement, and that this half has not all the advantages attri-
buted to it.

Let me be pardoned for disarranging the symmetry of that

,i i[

fertile belt which has been called the " Rainbow of the Weat." More
cultivable land will be found in the forest region than has been lost
from the prairie.

8rrf. I%« Forest. — Under this head I include all of the North-
ern Department about which I havo not already spoken, an area of
about 480,000 square miles, placed between the Northern Division
and the prairie region.

The forest country assumes a little of the character sometimes
of the one and sometimes of the other. As we said above, the
prairie is encroaching upon the forest. Aided by the destroying
element it has reached close to the banks of lakes " la Bicho "
and " Froid," to the north of Beaver River. Further to the west
it touches Upper Athabaska River. Peace River and even Moun-
tain River, (rividre aux Liards) have their prairies. But as these
small divisions and distinctions necessary in detail are not so when
treating the subject in u general way, I shall still use the term
*' forest," as including all that is within the line I traced to
separate the Northern from the Southern Division and the line
drawn to mark the boundary of the prairie.

In the forest country, such as I have described it, are to be
found nearly all of the geological features which mark the other
regions. Crystalline rocks, which border it almost throughout its
whole length, enter it at its south-eastern extremity. To the west
of Lake Winnipeg begins the Silurian system, which is contiguous
to primary rocks almost uninterruptedly up to the Rocky Moun-
tains. Then come the other formations which share this vast
region.

If the word " forest " conveys an idea of labor, of suffering and
often of want, to the settler who clears his holding with painful toil,
it sounds far differently to the ear of the undaunted lumberer who
seeks, from this great growth of the earth, its contingent of riches
and its assistance, indispensable to colonization, to navigation and
to arts and manufactures, that he may give to the wealthy the
luxury of furniture and equipages, to the poor the tools necessary
for their work, to all a greater or smaller part of their habitations.

The Canadian who has visited the timber yards and wharves of
his country, and who sees the useful wealth piled in these wood
stores, must experience satisfaction at the thought that from the
forests of Canada, comes the rich, various and extensive supply.

The collection of woods at the Universal Exhibition of 1857
excited the wonder and admiration of all who noticed them. Why
is not satisfaction and admiration equally lively amongst those who
study the forests of the Northern Department ?

Here is a list of the most important trees to be found in the
forests of the Northern Department. '''

I have borrowed from Abbd Ovide Brunet's ** Catalo;»ue des
Vdgdtaux Ligneux du Canada," as well as from Sir John Richard-
son's list, the classifications of the plants enumerated below.

Other trees may be found in our forests, but I am acquainted
with only those mentioned here.

CONIFERiE.

Red pine Pinus resinosa.

White pine Pinus strobus.

Grey pine. Pinus banksiana.

Balsam fir Abies balsamea.

White spruce Abies vel picea alba. ,

Black spruce Abies vel pinus nigra.

Grey spruce Abies vel pinus grisea.

Tamarack Larix Americana vel microca^ pa*

White cedar Thuja occidentalis. ,. , ^.

Red cedar Juniperus Virginiana. •

Common juniper Juniperus communis.

CUPILIFERJE. ''^

Red oak Quercus rubra.

Post oak Quercus obtusiloba.

White hazel nut Corylus Americana.

Beaked hazel nut Corylus rostrata.

Iron wood Ostrya Virginia.

SALICACEiB.

Among the numerous kinds of willows "salix rostrata" and
" salix longifolia " are most common

Aspen Populus tremuloides.

Balsam poplar Populus babamifera.

Cotton wood Populus grandidentata.

f i

•{'

BETULACE^.

Cauoe birch Betula papyracea.

Alpine birch Letula nana.

Low birch JBetula pemila vei glandulosa.

Green alder A.lnu8 viridis. . _

Common alder Alnus incana. . \,« , ,

^,,.:^.t,':.- ULMACE^E. ■^-*-E.; ' •> r i<vV''r ; ,, ^..

White elm Ulmus Americana. •^'ih-f''

Slippery elm Ulmus fulva. . • v ' r :

OLEACE>iB.

White ash. Fraxinus Americana. ; I

Black ash Fraxinus sambucifolia. ;V

ACERINE^. ' - -.■'•"-:.;; -'y:-;^.

Sugar raaple . . = Acer saccharinum. •- '

Red maple Acer rubrum. • -• ' v

Dwarf maple Acer spicatum vel montanum.

Striped maple Acer Pensylvanicum. • > •

Ash leaved maple Negundo Fraxinifblium. •= **

Bas wood Tilea Americana :'

Red osier Cornus stolonifera vel alba

•■'■-'■'-■j ;"''' VITACE^. :■■'' ' ■■ ■■

Winter grape Vitis cordifolia.

Wood bine Ampelopsis quinquefolia.

KOSACE^.

There are several kinds of wild roses, Rosa woodsii, Carolina
blanda and majalis.
Wild pium Prunua Americana.

Wild red cherry t . . , . Prunus Pensylvanica.

Choke cherry Prunus Virginiana.

Dwarf cherry Prunus pumila.

Black cherry Prunus serotina. - ^y^Jt* «^

Seven bark Spiraea opulifolia. ^'* -'

Common meadow sweet Spiraea salicifolia. ^ -

Wild red raspberry . Rubus strigosus.

Black raspberry Rubus occidentalis.

Dwarf raspberry Rubus triflorus. - ■•'

White flowering raspberry Rubus nutkanus.

Bake apple Rubus chamsemorus.

Bramble Rubus arcticus et rubus acaulis.

Scarlet fruited thorn Crataegus coccinea Bourgeau.

Pear thorn Crataegus tomentosa (Bourgeau.)

Cockspur Crataegus crus galli.

Choke berry Pyrus arbutifolia. - '

Canadian mountain ash Pyr\is Americana. '

Shad-bush Amelanchier Canadensis.

, This family supplies us also with the most delicious wild straw-
berry. ,

Wild gooseberry Ribes cynosbata. ■..,/;.,.

Sharp thomed gooseberry Ribes oxyacathoides. ,, , ...

Smooth gooseberry Ribes hirtellum. J,.v ,

Swamp gooseberry . . , Ribes lacustre. ^ v .: ■; u^/v^if^

Red currant Ribes rubrum.,, , ,^ v -^^ . s ^ »;:,

Fetid currant Ribes prostratum. -a v.! <

Common gooseberry Ribes Hudsonianum. , ,

Wild black currant Ribes floridum.

' "^ OAPRIFOLIACE^. ' r ; ; -

Snow berry Symphoricarpus racemosus.

Wolfe berry , . Symphoricarpus occidentalis.

Small honey-suckle .; . . .Lonicera pariflora.

Fly honey-suckle Lonicera ciliata.

Mountain honey-suckle ..=.... Lonicera cerulea.

Bush honey-suckle Lonicera trifida.

Black fruited elder Sambucus Canadensis.

Red fndtad elder Sambucus racemosa vel pubensw

Ship berry , Vibernum lentaga.

Maple leaved arrow wood Vibernum acerifblium. ' ^ 'S*' E

High cranberry. Vibernum opulus. f '► 'rt i't

Cranberry Vibernum edule. : -^ : "■' i

' "" ' ' ■/ ERICACE^. "' ■ '■ -' '7"

Tea berry. Gaulteria procumbens.

Bear berry Arctostaphylos uva ursi.

Alpine tear berry Arctostaphylos Alpina. .

Labrador tea Ledum palustre.

4o. Ledum latifolium.

Snow berry Chiogenes hispidula.

Dwarf blueberry Vaccinium Pensylvanicum^

Canada blueberry Vaccinium Canadense. -

Bog bilberry Vaccinium uliginosum.

do , . Vaccinium myrtilloides.

Dwarf bilberry Vaccinium caespitosum.

Cow berry Vaccinium vitisidea.

Small cranberry Vaccinium oxycocus.

Common American cranberry . . . Vaccinium macrocarpon.

At the first glaace the preceding list appears to make our for-
ests much richer than they can claim to be throughout their extent,
as several species of the woods noted are to be found only on very
limited areas. Entire families are thus limited, as I shall explain
in the following remarks : • '

Sugar'maple, properly so called, and hard wood scarcely reach
the south-eastern extremity of the Northern Department. There
are three other varieties of maple to be found there in small quantity ,^
but surprised at being deserted by the sugar maple, they do not
spread beyond the LaLo of the Woods. Red and white pine do not
extend beyond Lake Winnipeg. The two kinds of cedar, oak,
elm, ash,1vine, bas-wood, and plum, while much inferior, where-
ever found, to the same kinds in Canada, are confined to a very
small area, for they do not grow beyond the 100th meridian, and
any exceptional trees found beyond this limit are quite valueless.
The maple of the country, (Negundafruxinisoli-um) of which the-
sugar is very similar to that of the sugar maple, properly so called,
extends westward to the 107 th meridian and northward to the 55th
parallel.

y'i'K'.-

Excepting the foregoing there are no other full-gro-wn forest
trees, at least to the west of the 100th meridian, but poplars, the
diflferent kinds of spruce, grey pine, balsam fir and birch. White
spruce is our finest and most useful wood ; red pine the
only durable wood, and birch the only wood fit for cabinet work.

The grey pine rarely attains suflficient dimensions to fit it
for large work. The balsam fir is still smaller. Shrubs are found
everywhere according to the character of the soil.

What precedes suflficiently proves, that not only are our forests
of less importance than those of Canada, but that generally they do
not produce the kinds of wood most required in practical life, and
that in this respect they leave much to be desired, even by those
who are most easily satisfied.

The districts of Rainy River, of Lake of the Woods, of Winnipeg
Fiver, the islands on Lake Winnipeg and the country between Lake
of the Woods and Red River, are the only places well wooded as
regards the description of timber, and will be an immense resource
for the colony of Assiniboia, where already is felt the want of this-
remote supply. The beautiful wooded belts which formerly bordered
Red River and the Assiniboine have already suffered serious injury.

At many points of what we call the forest, and occasionally at
very great distances, the most useful kinds of wood, which formerly
occupied the ground, have been completely destroyed. In the
centre of the forest, fire has done incalculable and irreparable injury.

A melancholy spectacle is presented by wood through which fire
has passed for the first time. Huge, half-burnt trunks stand erect,
shorn of branches, sapless and lifeless, awaiting sadly for another
conflagration or a strong wind to prostrate them on the bare ground ;
then they lay piled in horrible confusion until the destroying element,
laying hold of them for a third time, completes their destruction,
Of whatever kind, their cinders generally feed a nursery of aspens,
which almost invariably springs up in the place of primitive forest,,
excepting, however, on sandy hills where the grey pine shoots out
its tap-root.

Having suppheda list of our most important woods I •'/ould now
complete this subject by giving a catalogue of all the ^xora of the
North-west. As it is impossible for me to accomplish this desire I
give instead an analysis of the collection made by Mr. Bourgeau,
the botanist attached to Captain Palliser's expedition during the
years 1867-'68-'59.

ANALYSIS OF THE COLLECriON OF PLANTS, MADE BT MB. BOURGEAU,

or PALLISKR'B EXPEDITION.
ri,' • " ■•'

"' This analysis is the enumeration of Genera, Species, and the babitat of Families,

ill

;if >il

a.
d.
c.
b.
d.
a.
b.
a.
d.
d.
b.
b.
b.
b.
a.
d.
c.
d.
d.
c.
c.
c.
b.
d.
d.
a.
a.
b.
a.
b.
b.
b.
b.
c.
b.
d.
a.
b.
b.
c.
b.
c.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.

I '.

FAMILY.

Ranunculaceae . ■
^Iinispermancea!

Berberidese

Sarracenea!

Nymphaoeae . . . . ^
Papaveraceae.. ..
Fumariaoeae ....

C'ruciferae

Capparideie

(Ustmea;

Violaceae

Polygalaceae

Drosceraces ....

Linese

CaryophvUeu. ..
Paronycnieae . . .

Malvaceae

Filiacea:

Hypericincffi

Acerineas

Oxalideae

Geraniaceae

Balsaraincae

Rhamneae

Anacardiaceae...

Leguminoeae

Hosaceae

Haloragea:

Onagrarias

Grossulariete....

Crassulacote

AraliaceaB

Corneje

Rubiaceae

Valerianaceaj . . ,

Lobeliaceae

Ericaceao

Primulaceas

Gentianaceao.. ..
Asclepiadaae . . . ,
Uydrophylleae . .

Solaneae

Labiatae

Hcrophulaineae ..
Plantagiiipae . . . .
Polygonaceie . . .
Chenopodeae . . ,

=5.§

.-s t: n

I. O 0"

(-1

o»a

B <)

u«

S-i

S->

104

, ,

124

, ,

6
9

8
40

1
4

2
14

■•

5
24

a.
d.
b.
b.
b.
d.
b.
b.
d.
a.
a.
d.
d.
c.
a.
b.
d.
b.
a.
a.
b.
b.
d.
c.
a.
c.
b.
b.
b.
d.
c.
b.
d.
c.
ft.
b.
b.
b.
c.
b.
b.
a.
a.
b.

FAMILY.

RIagneae

Euphorbiaoae . ..

Salicaceae

CannabinacesB . .

Retulacese

Tjphaceae

>iaiade8

Uydrocaideae...

Trides

Melaiithaceae.. ..
Commelynaoeae .

Gramineae

Zycopodiaceffi . .

Loaseas

Cactaceae

Cucurbitaceae . . .

Saxifrageac

Umbellifcreaj . . .
Lorautbacea!.. . .
CaprifoliaceaD . . .
Composlteae . . . .
Campanuiaces..

Vaceinese

Pyronaceae

Oleaceae

Apocyiieae

Polemoniaceae . .
Convolvulaoeae..
Boraginaccae . . .
Verbenaceje... .
I^ntibularieaj. . .

Nyctagineae

AmarrintliaceaB

Santalace^

Aristolochieae.. .

Cupuliferete

Saliciuea:

Urtioaceae

ConiferesE

Aroideae

AlismacoaB

Orchidecs

LlliacesB

Juncaoeae

Cyperaceae

Fillces

112

* I • •

13
68
17

"5 - ««

t- 9 «

49
2
1
1
2
8
.28
1
7
170
1
1
5
1
1
3
3
6
2
2
2
1
1
1
6
1
4
7
6
2

16
2
8

153

321

218

NOTE.— The plants marlted (a) are found in the Arctic region ; (6) in the Circum-
Arctic region; (cj In the Central District, or wooded bolt; (d) the families of the
Canadian District, or of the Pacific Coast, or of the arid district of the Centre.

The columns marked with an asterisk are borrowed from the tables given in Sir John
Richardson's "Arctic Searching Expedition," 1861, vol. II, p. 822.

^ H

.. 2

. 2

.. 1

.. 2

.. 4

.. 2

. 2

1 5

; 49

"ifi

. 2

. 1

4 1

. 2

. 8

128

. 1

. 7

8 70

321

. 1

. 5

. 1

. 3

2 5

. 2

. 1

1 5

. 1

. 4

1 7

. 6

. 2

. 16

4')

) 2

[ 8

218

Summary of the foregoing list of Mr. Bourgeau's collection.

.-■-..^.r*.,. .-;.>;^gl9 species. • '"-■'■ '■=■'' •■"•■> "•■.'2-' - ^ '^'^•■.v■■ :«■.:;

349 genera. '. ■ - ■ '. ^ ' v "'^-^

v-;^.o..-K 92i^milies. ' ^^ \ •' '^'^ ■' ' "•■ " :■ '--■■^■■''■-

Of these families :

f..-%

a. 19 are found in the Arctic region ; j;

b. 40 in the circum-Arctic ;

c. 14 in the central district of the wooded belt ;

d. 29 are confined to the arid central district, and to the

eastern and western wooded districts. - v:}"?! •!v r

Of the same families, Richardson has enumerated, as being found
in British North America and Russia : . .

471 genera.
2155 species.
118 families. .

609 genera.

1725 dicotyledons. : .
, , 654 monocotyledons. , _

''" 2279 species. '' '"' ';

The region which I have described under the head " Forest "
includes an immense number of lakes : some are very large, as
Lake Winnipeg ; others, very numerous, stretch from 36 to 60
miles ; and there are numberless lakes of all sizes. So numerous are
they in some districts, that Indians who cultivate land have nearly
always to make use of small canoes which they carry from one
lake to another. I have crossed as many as twenty of these lakes
in one day in winter ; and m a six days' journey I do not think that
I passed over 10 miles of dry land, yet I did not follow a canoe
route. This obse^'vation leads to my remarking that a very largo
area of the forest region is water, and involves a large deduction
being made from it as uninhabitable. The area of uninhabitable
country is nearly doubled by adding swamps and land subject to
annual inundations, to the lakes properly so-called. It is true that
clearing land will render it salubrious by a natural process. Proof
of it is seen m prairie land recovered from forest, where there
are depressions — old swamp ground — without the least moisture ;

and even on perfectly dried up new prairie land, beaver dams are
to be seen — certain evidence of the existence of lakes or ponds at
the time when the place was wooded.

The large and averaged sized lakes are gener,ally stocked with
fish. The small ones are without this resource, and their multi-
plicity has, moreover, the disadvantage of unfavorably affecting the
temperature.

All the small lakes freeze to a great depth in winter. During^
May and a part of June, the sun, in melting their thick coating of
ice, wastes the heat which the neighboring soil would otherwise
abundantly utilize ; and this happens without compensation, for the
early frosts, even in midsummer, are more frequent and intense
in the neighborhood of small lakes, and particularly in the neigh-
borhood of swamps. ' " ' r:

Large lakes produce an exactly contrary effect. In their neigh-
borhood, even in high latitudes, harvests are much more certain.
They protect the produce of the earth against injury from cold,
and the reason of this is easily understood :

When the volume of their water has been warmed, it is not
affected in the course of a night by the changes of temperature to
which the atmosphere is subject. The warm vapor rising from
their surfaces neutralizes the cold of the currents of air coming
from a distance. **^ ■

On the cleared borders of He k la Crosse or even of Athabaska
Lake, harvests of wheat and vegetables are certain, while they are
very precarious at a distance from the water. On low ground and
in swamps, it freezes every month in the year, and cultivation is
impossible. This, I consider, proves that the borders of average
sized lakes, where land is naturally productive and elevated, are
much fitter for settlement than the prairie itself.

But if I had to draw a fertile belt instead of making a rainbow
in heaven or on earth, I would extend the limits of the prairie and
stretch them into the forest region, along the banks of the great
streams; for the region is traversed by beautiful rivers that will
probably some day see settlements disputing with them the pos-
session of their banks. Rainy River is one of these streams, not-
withstanding the swamps which encroach on its lower banks.

There are great advantages offered by neaily all the rivers flow-
ing from the Rocky Mountains. Protected by this powerful ram-

-part in one direction ; in another, tLey have not to fear the injurious
influence which northerly winds in the east acquire in sweeping
over the far encroaching Hudson's Bay. Nor need they dread the
injurious influence I ascribed to southerly winds rushing with
unchecked violence across the desert that, so to speak, goes as far
as the Gulf of Mexico to meet them. Were it not for the distance
•of the rest of the world, and the difficulty of communication, the
plateaux that border these beautiful rivers would, ere this, have
teen occupied. But how can a population be transported so far ?
The little colony of Red River has already suffered for too Ion*'
a time, and still suffers too much, from its remoteness, for me to be
able to estimate the difficulties attending such settlements, and the
responsibility incurred by those who are too eagerly encouragint'
their establishment. , •. • .

CHAPTER II.

Mi'.t:'.! ■',:■ V

HYDROGRAPHT.

One easily understands the necessity there is for studying the
water courses of the Northern Department, with a view to forming
an opinion regarding the relative merits of the routes of commu-
nication and the opening out of the resources of the country.

For the sake of clearness I shall describe the three great basina
of the Northern Department separately. They are the Arctic
Basin, the Winnipeg Basin, and the Intermediate Basin.

THE ARCTIC BASIN.

This basil), includes several rivers of importance, some as routes
of communication, others, from historical associations.

Mackenzie River is the great artery of the Arctic Basin, or of
the north-western region throughout its length, from Mount Hooker
to the Arctic Ocean. This giant river receives the tribute of all
the streams in the territory on its left, and on its right, i{ loses
only those which flow directly into the Arctic Ocean. I place the
source of the river near Mounts Hooker^and Browne, at the head of
Athabaska River, close to the sources of Columbia River, for, in a
straight line at all events, this is its most distant part from its
mouth. This magnificent stream receives, besides a multitude of
small tributaries, the waters of Lesser Slave Lake, lac la Biche^
Clear-water River, the great Athabaska Lake and Peace River ;
crosses the south-western part of Great Slave Lake, and further on
receives Mountain River, riviere aux Liards, and the river of
Great Bear Lake.

At dififerent places along the stream the river is known by
different names. It bears the name Athabaska between its source
and the little affluent from Lac la Biche. It then borrows the
name of the latter until it is joined by Clear-water River, better
known as " la petite riviere BabaskaJ' It then becomes Atha-
aska River up to the lake of that name, or ^^Lac dei Collinea.'*

commu-

Then it is Rock River, of which the continuation ia called Slave
River until it loses itself in Great Slave Lake. From its escape
from this lake to its mouth it is known as Mackenzie River.

The river is navigable, if not from its source, at least from Jas-
per House to its, mouth, a distance of about 2,000 miles. In this
long line, navigation in boats of the country, is interrupted at only
two places : by the group of rapids in the riviere a la Biche, and
one in Slave River. The latter rapids, at about 1200 miles from
the Arctic Ocean, present the first obstacle to vessels going up
stream. Vessels of less draught could easily navigate from above
these rapids to the foot of river d la Biche rapids, but not at all
seasons of the year, as when the water is low there are numerous
sand banks in the way. From the latter rapids to Jasper House
the current is exceedingly strong, and the water generally shallow ;
so that here, navigation is very diflScult and possible only in boats
of the country when powerfully propelled. -. • •

The breadth of the river — at first onlji about a quarter of a mile —
gradually increases, but irregularly. In some places it is two
miles broad ; and, in short, as regards its length and its volume of
water, is one of the finest rivers in the world.

From its source to Lake Athabaka the water is muddy, being
strongly charged with clay and sand, that form shifting banks
difficult to become familiar with and to avoid. The turbidness of
the water increases the inconvenience of these obstructions.

During July this river, like all others rising in the Rocky Moun-
tains, experiences a sudden increase, due to the melting of snow.
^' '<"S upper part particularly, it then becomes an impetuous tor
rent, and navigation is very difficult, and often dangerous. Thi»
happens frequently, when there is intense heat of several days*
duration in the snowy region. The phenomenon lasts generally
inversely as its intensity.

The delta of Athabaska River at its entrance into the lake of the
same name is remarkable, and all the more so as it is also acted
upon by a great stream, Peace River, whose mouth is quite close to
it. These two powerful streams carry with them, besides sand and
clay, a great quantity of debris, and this heaped against the south-
western shore of the lake, forms the tongue of land that separates
the two great sources of Mackenzie River. The tongue is not yet
completed. Rivers cTMmbarras and cTUpinettes^ Lake Mamawee^

the Quatte Fourehea and very numerous water courses intersect
the tongue of land, and are still waiting for its completion. The
<5hannel3 of several of the branches of the delta change their direc-
tion as the water rises and falls in Athabaska and Peace Rivers.
Some of them cut the tongue of land at right angles to the main
streams. When the water is high, a portion of the delta is sub-
merged. The high points covered wi^' hay then form small islands,
generally of an oblong shape, that look ..^e the twine of an enormous
net, of which the gigantic meshes are represented by the small
sheets of water separating the islands. Hence the name Athabaska
-or Ayabaskaw (not of hay) that our " voyageursi" often pronounce
Babaska.

The southern border of Great Slrve Lake, from a combination of
circumstances similar to that I have just described, is being grad-
ually increased by deposits from tho rivers discharging into the
lake, and by the north winds, which are strongest and most common,
driving dehrii towards the southern shore, the lowest and easiest to
Btick to.

Upper Athabaska River flows through a fertile and well wooded
country. After an extremely rapid descent from the great moun-
tains, it receives the water of Lesser Slave Lake, a magnificent
"basin, a kind of enormous fish-pond, 75 miles long and 30 miles
broad, whose shores rise like an amphitheatre and are very pictur-
esque. This tributary on the left, has its pendant in the beautiful
Lac la Biche, a little further down on the right. The latter lake
is not so large as the former, but it is quite as deserving of praise,
and is surrounded by a very fertile country, very well suited for
colonization. From Lac la Biche there is a land road to Red River
and, therefore, to the United States. Already traflBc passes along
this road, and Lac la Biche may become the centre of the trade
which will be carried on along the whole of Athabaska-Mackenzie
River.

The next most important tributary is Clear-water or Little Atha-
baska River. This delightful little stream, rising to the east of
Methy Portage, has, up to the present time, and in spite of the
difficulties of navigation, enjoyed almost the exclusive privilege of
Bupplying a route to Athabaska-Mackenzie. On descending from
the heights of Methy Portage one takes boat on this little
river, which, in order to keep the traveller in the midst of the

beauties it presents to his viev, places obstructions in the way
necessitating the 'portages of White Mud, the Pines, Big Stone,
the Nurse, and the Cascades. The river is not navigable
by other boats than those of the country, and, even then, the
navigation is not easy.

Descending the great river, one enters Lake Athabaska at its
south-western extremity. It is a beautiful expanse of deep limpid
water, measuring over 200 miles in length at an elevation of about
600 feet above sea-level. This lake does not pay tribute to the
giant river of the north until it has itself recpivoii, as tribute, a
share of Lake WoUaston. The latter, like Island Lake from which
Clear-water River flows, does not decide on a northerly course
until it has given a share of its water to Churchill River, of which
it feeds the tributaries. • : - -L

I said that Peace River joins the great stream a little below
Athabaska Lake. Many consider Peace River to be the source of
Mackenzie River. It is of less importance to discuss this opinion
than to make known the river itself. Peace River is, unquestion-
ably, one of the most beautiful in the country, perhaps in the
world. Its navigation, at any rate in boats of the country, is
uninterrupted, except by a small fall and a few rapids. These
obstructions might be removed by works of secondary importance,
and then the river would be navigable, throughout its length, for
boats of considerable size, and this, too, nearly throughout the
summer.

Flowing through a valley as beautiful as it is rich, the stream
rises in the Rocky Mountains, quite close to the sources of the
celebrated Eraser River, with which, as River Athabaska does with
Columbia River, it forms a water channel that almost uninterrupted-
ly connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific.

The route is certainly not without difficulties, but these are much
less than would naturally be supposed to be connected with cros-
sing the Rocky Mountains by water. It was discovered by Mac-
kenzie in 1793, and has been used by fur traders. There are
those who maintain that it is the natural road to the North-west.
The valley watered by Peace River cannot but become peopled,
and then many inquisitive and interested individuals will admire
this grand stream that is now probably regarded with indiflference
by the poor family of beavers living on its banks.

Passing from Peace River to Slave River, let us rapidly descend
the latter to its falls, which we shall avoid by way of Chest Portage
(^Portage de la Cassette.') This is the beginning of the second
group of rapids on Mackenzie River. The first group, in River la
Jilche, is formed by calcareous strata crossing the stream ; this one
is due to azoic spurs which come here to salute the greet river, or
to test its power by throwing obstacles in its way, but unable to
check the violence of the stream, the furious river bounds over the
obstructions, making amends to itself for its exertions by a mag-
nificent display of falls and rapids. The traveller has time to gaze
on the scene, for, besides the Chest Portage, he has also to pass
Raft Portage (d^Emharras)^ Burnt Portage (^BrulS)^ Mountain
Portage, and lastly the Portage of the Drowned (t?e« NoySs).

As we cast a last glance at this rugged picture, let us take cour-
age to continue the journey, while we regret that we do not find a
fine ship here, which might now take us on, without hindrance, to
the whale fisheries of the Arctic Ocean. In default of this means
let us embark in the barge which awaits us. Fifteen miles further
on we shall pass Salt River ; and if w<> have not yet acquired the
habit of eating entirely without salt, we can lay in a supply from
the crystal-covered sides of the river, which look like banks of snow.
Still further on, after passing another delta, we shall have an
unbounded view across Great Slave Lake, another fresh-water sea.
Stony Island, a naked mass of granite, tells us that, on the east
and north, this great lake, like all its giant broth<-»'s, is solidly
banked with primitive i .ck ; while, to the south and west, the
shore is limestone. Tho lake is one of the largest in the world.
Its depth is equal to that of Lake Superior ; its waters are grand,
and maintain an immense number of fish. Unfortunately its navi-
gation is certain only from the beginning of July to the middle of
October.

Having crossed Great Slave Lake the great river takes, defin-
itively, the name of its discoverer. Before descending this part of
the stream, let us land, and be more polite than we have yet been,
for up to the present time we have visited no one en route.
Here there are missionaries, a bishop and priests. Sisters of
charity also reside on this bank, at Providence, the residence of
the Vicar of Mackenzie River.

Let us proceed again, and stop at the mouth of another large^

river, that called Mountain River, or Riviere aux Liards. Those
who would learn how a large river pours down over scarped heights,
and how our voyageurn are bold enough to trust themselves on
roaring waters which rush with frightful noise between their con-
fining walls, such have only to ascend Mountain River. At first
they will have no difficulty, but I promise them excitement as they
approach the summit of the mountains. They will go close to the
sources of Pelly and Lewis Rivers, which, with Mountain River,
form another almost uninterrupted water-connection between the
seas on the north and the west.

In descending Mountain River one has to firmly grasp the boat,
as. at many points, the current is so violent that the steerer lashes
himself to the boat to avoid being violently pulled out of his
place by the blows which the water gives to the helm he holds in
his hand. ? "s . (.. .t t /. . . - ,;' ■". ;' . • - ...^i ■:<:■, ^

Having returned to Fort Simpson, where Mountain River flows
into Mackenzie River, let us continue our course down the latter,
to admire the wild beauties it presents to us. Now it is the chain
of the Rocky Mountains which the river, in its turn, goes to salute.
This powerful wall drives back its swift visitor which occasionally
alters its course, to avoid an encounter. Further on it appears as
if the impatient river, rushing against rocks instead of describing
numerous curves, had thrown itself across the enormous masses
that confine it on either side. Numerous afliuents descend to it
from the mountains, bringing tribute from lakes.

Having examined the coal beds, and the lignite basin across which
the great river flows here — there is before us a hill over 600 feet
high, cut vertically, that invites us to view a large river flowing at
its base ; it is the Great Bear Lake River. We may ascend it, to
visit the enormous lake that gives it its name ; but let us not forget
that it is covered with ice during eleven months in the year, and that
we cannot, therefore, stay long, however great the interest it may
excite by its size, or by its historical associations from having been
made the winter quarters of Arctic expeditions. An additional
reason for our feeling an interest in this lake, is that its exception-
ally severe climate has not deterred the missionary who carried the
torch of faith there. We shall visit tnat missionary at Good Hope,
the last of our stations. Let us pass over what is called the rapidf
and wl^ch, when the water is low, may occasionally falsify my

statement, that the river is navigable for large vessels to the
Arctic Ocean, where it flows out across a delta of alluvial land.

The Arctic Basin includes several other rivers which, alth3ugh
practically useless, are not without interest, and have been render-
ed celebrated by the names and adventures of the noted travellers
who have explored these inhospitable shores. Coppermine River
is the first of these which have attracted attention. Its inves-
tigation was the object of the first land expedition made in the
Arctic regions, that of Samuel Hearne, in 1771. Then Fish or
Back River, which, like the preceding, has been the theatre of
many stirring scenes, and witnessed the last land expedition, made
by Andeiion and Stuart in 1855. It was at the mouth of this
river that the disco'»eries were made which put an end to the
uncertainty about the late of iranklin and his courageous com-
panions. I shall refer to these rivers when I treat of the history

of the country, . -: < r l : i: ; ;'.;:;;; ^^

',1, , \ 2nd. WIXNIPEG BASIN.

' The description of this basin quite naturally includes that of the

great streams flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and passing thence

into Hudson's Bay. I shall add a few words about the principal

rivers flowing into the same bay, to the west of Nelson River, which

I shall include in the Winnipeg Basin, to avoid multiplying divisions.

Lake Winnipeg is in the centre of an immense plateau. The

large rivers which drain the plateau converge towards it ; chey flow

from the east, the south, and the west, and having mingled their

waters pass through a common channel into that great salt lake —
the Hudson's Bay.'"' ■_ ,^-.^ ,...j... ...^^.r,.. ,-,,,.^.:,^. ,..,.:, .^

■ Lake Winnipeg, which formerly covered thrice or four times the
area it now occupies, still spreads over a great space. It is said to
occupy 8,500 square miles. Its greatest length is 280 miles, and
its breadth varies between 6 and 60 miles. Numerous observations
have established its height above sea level tc be between 600 and
'630 feet. Its depth does not exceed 12 fathoms. Its water is
none the more limpid from beating against the granite on its eastern
shores, and the sand and limestone on its western coast. It is
Winnipeg by nature as it is the Winnipeg of the Indian. In
Algonquin the name means dirtt/ water, and if the lake is not
muddy, neither is it so clear as large lakes usually are. f

Lake Winnipeg has floated other boats than canoes and ordinary-
barges. Archeologists of the future t ill like to know that the
first decked boats which navigated this sheet of water were built
at Norway House in the winter of 1831-32. They were named
George and Alexander. These two small schooners of 30 tons sailed
for only ten years. In 1842, Isabella and Mary, each manned like
the former by four or five men, replaced their predecessors, wiping
out the recollection of them without increasing their own Sclat. In
1848 Mary was consumed by fire, and in 1855 Isabella was
wrecked on shore. Lake Winnipeg, who sorrowed over the loss of
her little flotilla during nine years, gladly received little Polly in
the spring of 1866, and has suffered her to rule since then.

With a view to studying Lake Winnipeg, as a means of commn-
nleation, I shall examine its affluents : 1st from the east, 2nd from
the south, 3rd from the west, and 4th from the north where is the
only outflow from the lake. ■ '

1st. Affluents from the east. This great lake naturally has sev-
eral rivers flowing into it from all directions. Of those flowing
from the east, I shall mention only two : Berens River (aux Tourtes^
whose mouth is nearly at the centre of Lake Winnipeg and is of
importance only because the small boats of the two trading post««
on its banks pass to and fro on it : and the large and beautiful River
Winnipeg, which, as a route of communication, rising at the heights
separating Canada from tbf' territory of the North-west, naturally
excites the liveliest interest. This stream has been the subject of
special study, particularly during the summers ot 1857 and 1858. I
borrow the following figures from the official reports then made.
One of the sources of River Winnipeg is at Savanne Portage, after-
wards expanding into the Lac des milles Lacs, and flowing on as
River la Seine. The whole up to Little Falls, about 65 miles, is
navigable by small steamers, thence to Rainy Lake, about 67 miles,
it can only be navigated by canoes, and here goods must be carried
. by land.

From the beginning of Rainy Lake to the end of Lake of the
Woods, including Rainy River which connects these two beautiful
sheets of water, the distance is about 208 miles, and steam navigation
would be interrupted only at the Great Falls of Fort Francis. This
grand fall, twenty feet high, would necessitate locks. In short, the
Witcr route of which we are speaking, from its source to the end of

the Lake of the Woods, has obstructions considered insurmountable
for 72 milea of its length, while 263 miles are navigable. It
must not be thought that the navigable portion, especially the upper
division of it, is without difficulties. I think that in practice many
disappointments will be experienced : — but then what rivers are there
which, in so long a course, do not present obstacles ? Supposing this
route to be adopted as an important Une of communication, the result
indicated by the surveyors would follow the completion of the pro-
posed works. It is to be regretted that Winnipeg River ceases to
be navigable at the point where it assumes its n^.rae, that is to say,
from Rat Portage, where it receives the waters of Lake of the Woods,
to Fort Alexander, where it flows into Lake Winnipeg. This portion
of the stream for a distance of about 160 miles has so many nv
falls and cascades that it is impossible to imagine it can be made use
of for any other kind of b ^at than that now used on it. Bark canoes
pass over rapids with the greatest ease, and behave almost equally
well on the rocks along the banks. The barges, employed in addi-
tion to canoes, are 30 feet keel measurement and of 4 or 5 tons bur-
then ; they are propelled in calm weather with six or eight heavy
oars. These oars are not so easily worked as light paddles ; the barge
does not fly over the water like the bark canoe, yet with a long oar
for a rudder our dexterous voyageurs easily steer it in the midst
of ordinary rapids, and fifteen men can draw it over the steepest
portages. This is the only kind of boat which can be used on
Winnipeg River. Enormous works would be required to improve
the navigation of this stream. River Winnipeg has twenty-six
portages. • At one place it takes the name of While Miver, because
the water is everywhere foaming from the rapids being very con-
tinuous.

The most remarkable affluents of River Winnipeg are, on the
north. Little English River which empties Lao Seul and is the
canoe route, vid Albany River, to the post of that name on Hudson's
Bay, and on the south, the chain of lakes which was formerly the
canoe route vid Grand Portage and Pigeon River. Vermilion
Lfl.ke also drains into Winnipeg River. „ «

To obviate the difficulty presented by River Winnipeg, as a route
of communication, it has been proposed to make a road from Shoal
Lake (Lac Plat) the western extremity of Lake of the Woods and
the terminus of navigation, to Red River. The distance to Fort

>ua^*^X ^pu^^i

Oarry is 91 miles. The character of the soil would not necessitate
extensive works for a cart road, except near Shoal Lake.
^ 2nd. Southern Tributary. The only tributary to Lake Winni-
peg from the south is Red River, of which several of the sources
are close to those of the Mississippi.

Red River, on whose banks is the colony of the same name, is in
many respects a very pretty river. Its water, however, is far from
being clear ; it flows over a bed of clay that often makes it even
muddy. Several brackish sources impart a disagreeable taste to
its water ; its color is in striking contrast with its name. It is said
that its name is derived from a bloody combat, between Indians, that
took place on the borders of Red Lake, hence the name of the lake,
which, being one of the principal tributaries of the river, gave the
latter its name. This river, which is now known by the same name
from its most distant source to its mouth, was formerly divided into
three portions. The upper section from its source to the Grand Forks,
an affluent from Red Lake, was called Sioux River, while the Red
River of that time extended only from Red Lake to the Fork — the
confluence of the Assiniboine River. The Assiniboine, on the other
hand, preserved its name from its junction with Red River to Lake
Winnipeg. The greatest length of Red River along a straight line
following it? general direction, is about 400 miles. The windings
of its channel give it a length nearly twice that of the straight line.
There is only about one-fourth of the river in the Northern Depart-
ment, that is from near the confluence of Pembina River to its mouth,
a distance of about 100 miles by land. The windings are less
numerous and not so marked in this section. The average breadth
is from 150 to 200 yards. It is difficult to determine its depth, as
it varies from 2 to 30 feet, according to the season of the year.
A steamer has plied on Red River since 1859. The eight years'
experience thus gained enables us to form a more accurate idea as
regards its navigableness, than is to be derived from the necessarily
superficial observations or investigations r .ie in a sparsely popu-
lated country.

The first steamboat that was placed on Red River was The Anson
NoRTHUP, brought by its proprietors at great expense from St.
Peter's River, advantaf 3 having been taken of spring floods. The
boat arrived unexpectedly in the centre of the colony in the begin-
ning of June, no one anticipating its coming. Its arrival was treated

as quite an event, and, to the surprise of the public, cannon thundered
and bells pealed forth chimes to signal rejoicing. The puflfing of
steam moving about on our river, told the echoes of the desert that
a new era for our country was being inaugurated. Each turn of
the engine appeared to bring us nearer by so much to the civil-
ized world. Herds of domestic animals unaccustomed to the noise took
flight, thinking, I suppose, that they were being pursued by a larger
animal than themselves, and men of great as well as small minds,
rushed in a crowd to see the new arrival which, however, was not
a chef ''\-vMvre. Children gave expression to their astonishment by
declarii.^ >■ they had sc^" an enormous barge, with a windmill
on its stcK- assing by. \ ■■ > * , ^

The arrival of The Anson Northup, as a matter of fact,,
inaugurated a new era for the trade of Red River colony. The
Honorable Hudson's Bay Company determined to try the river for
some of their business. They procured a license to trade amongst
the United States Indians, and acquired a considerable extent of
land opposite the mouth of the River au Bceuf, 200 miles away
from Fort Garry. At this place, where they thought the steamers
could generallj/ reach, they commenced an establishment, to which
they gave the name *•' Georgetown," in honor of Sir George Simpson,
then Governor of Rupert's land, and who had warmly supported
the new enterprise. Messrs. Burbank & Co., of St. Paul, estab-
lished a stage line between Georgetown and St. Paul. In short,
all was done that could have been done to launch us into civilized
existence, such, at least, as is involved in the use of steam, or, failing
it, of well harnessed horses.

In the spring of 1860 everything answered the general expec-
tations ; the river was high, the steamer began its trips and
continued them throughout the summer. In autumn low water
created difficulties, and there was difficult rteering between the
boulders of the Outardes rapids, which were now being regarded as
a serious obstruction, at all events at this season.

In 1861 the Red River overflowed its banks throughout its
course. A steamer is not endangered by water, on the contrary
water is one of the elements of its power ; so that our little boat
was able to run with the greatest ease between Georgetown and
Fort Garry, and this up to the end of October. Thanks to it and
to Mr. Burbank^s coaches we were able this year to go from St.
Boniface to Montreal in twelve days.

'" 41 ., ^ ,

The success of this year naturally encouraged the proprietors of
the little steamer which was loser by its triumph ; it was now
thought too small, too clumsy and not sufficiently fashionable for
the magnificent Red River ! In short, it was decided to discard it.
The splendid International with its pretentious motto, " Q-er-
minaverunt specioaa deserti,'* came out of the Georgetown timber
yards, at a cost of $20,000, and was launched in the spring of
1862. Circumstances favored it to some extent. The excitement
created by the discovery of gold mines at Cariboo, struck the
hearts of many with yellow fever y and the sufferers hoped to allay
the symptoms most easily, by going to Fraser River across country.
One hundred and fifty miners went from Georgetown in the Inter-
national, on her first trip. Her success was not so great as was
expected ; she took six days to reach Fort Garry. Nevertheless,
the International continued plying during nearly all summer.
About autumn there was not sufficient water for her to ascend the
Outardes Rapids ; she was even obliged to lie up for the winter
sooner than those interested in her desired. This was the begin-
ing of the series of checks that steam navigation experienced
during four years on Red River. In 1863 the steamboat having
been taken to Abercrombie was unable to move, not alone on
account of the Sioux, whom there was good reason to distrust after
the massacre they had committed in the preceding autumn, but,
also, because the water was too low to keep her afloat, although she
drew only four feet. In 1864 she made only one trip in spring
and again the return voyage was made with difficulty. In 1865
a similar result, a single voyage, and that only possible just after
the breaking up of the ice. In 1866 the International did not
cast loobc from the large oak to which she is usually made fast at
Georgetown. On the melting of the ice it was possible to have
made a trip, but the failure of the preceding years lessened con-
fidence to such an extent that now there had been no attempt made
to collect freight. In 1867 the river was higher ; the steamer, which
made only two trips, might have continued to ply up to the end of
August. Freight being again short at Georgetown, the steamer .
was worked on the lower part of the river between the two Forts
Garry. Such has been the experience of eight years ; the steamer
could not ply during half the time, and during the other half she
was a complete failure. The result has slightly disappointed bright

4:!|

topes and money-making schemes. Now the idea of a steamer
on Red River docs not cause the enthusiasm which it excited at
first. Wealthy people and merchants, taught by experience and
disappointment, fear uncertainty. Poor people are decidedly
against steam navigation for the following three reasons :

1st. Red River abounds in fish and supports a great number of
the necessitous. It is well known that steamboats are not skilful
in the art of pisciculture.

2nd. Wood is very scarce on the banks of Red River, yet it is
very much wanted there, and the fire canoes make war against the
fuel on the banks, as well as against the food swimming in the water.

3rd. Land carriage from the United States hither, is an abun-
dant source of profit to the lanu owners of the colony, who thus
employ their horses and oxen ; but the running of the steamer
deprives them of this advantage, and all the money paid for cart-
age from St. Cloud to Georgetown goes into American pockets.

Whatever may be said about these reasons and disadvantages,
it is certain that steamers will continue to ply on Red River. If
instead of building so large a boat as the International a very
small one had been built, a more satisfactory result would certainly
have been obtained. .,,, , • .,:^ .

Red River receives, amongst other affluents in the United
States, Otter-tail River, and Red Lake River, which, flowing from
two lakes in the midst of fine dense forests, may be very useful
' for the conveyance of timber.

Shayenne and Pembina Rivers are also important tributaries.
The latter appears as if posted to watch the American frontier,
where it describes a curve out of British territory, in which are
its sources. ■- . „ '- ..-.. .^<. ■ ...j*-.;.*- "^^

• In the Northern Department, besides some useless affluents.
Red River receives the waters of Reed Grass River (^Roseaii),
Rat River and Stinking River (^Sale'), which — without offering all
the advantages possessed by the tributaries mentioned above, have
nevertheless rendered us great services, and will render us yet
greater, although they are nearly dried up during the greater part
of summer.

The banks of Red River are cliffs of clay, generally very high,
jet they are overflowed, the water often rising 30 feet above its
•ordinal'^ level.

'4\

The most important tributary of Red River is, unquestionably,
the Assiniboine, which was formerly considered the main stream,
and retained its name down to Lake Winnipeg. The Assiniboine
is not navigable, although it is several hundreds of miles long. In
apring, but only in spring, one can come down by it : and, in fact,
people do descend it in canoes or very flat boats, which never
return. I do not know that, as a rule, it is fit for any other kind of
navigation.

Its course is excessively tortuous ; at its lower part it flows, in a
bed of clay, througli a fertile valley ; the upper part runs through
a plain which is in many places sandy and arid.

In spring, the streams flowing from Dauphin Mountains can
<;arry the wood we shall require, into the Assiniboine, when we shall
have exhausted the supply, hitherto so useful to us, on its banks.

Rapid River flows through a fine country which will certainly be
occupied at some future day.

The great affluent of the Assiniboine to the west is Calling River
(^Qu'appeUe), a small stream running through a delightful valley,
and of which the expansion forms eight lakes, where the best kind
of white fish abounds. Were it more wooded, the valley of Calling
River would be peculiarly well fitted for settlement.

Some one has suggested the idea of constructing a dam across
the southern branch of the Saskatchewan, to force back, into the
valley of Calling River, the volume of water which formerly flowed
through it, and, by this means, to render the Assiniboine navigable.
Without stopping to ofier objections to an idea which appears to me
to be quite impracticable, I venture to express my astonishment at
a proposal conceived, partly at least, to benefit Red River Colony,
but of which the immediate consequence would be the inundation
and then the ruin of that ^ery colony. Inundations are precisely
the greatest obstacles that the colony finds in the way of improve-
ment, and a plan is suggested which, amongst other disadvantages,
would bring an additional volume of water into it, nearly equal to
that it naturally receives and that it cannot confine. Evidently
Calling River, instead of being a very small rivulet as it now is,
was formerly a beautiful and grand stream, or a large lake, occu-
pying the whole valley which is nearly 2 miles broad ; but, that was
at a time when the whole plain — through whose centre Red River
and lower Assiniboine River now run — was the bottom of a lake.

This plain would again become a lake were much of the southern
branch of the Saskatchewan turned into the Assiniboine.

From the south, Assiniboine River receives the water of Mouse
River, which rises quite close to Missouri River. Pieces of lignite
having been found on the banks of this river, led to its being sup-
posed that there were coal fields in the neighborhood. More care-
ful examinations have not justified the expectation.

It was in following up Mouse River for a part of its course, that
the explorers of Red River also discovered the head of Missouri
River, and thence they pushed their exploration to the Rocky
Mountains before any civilized man had seen their western slopes,
at least in that latitude.

Calling River and the Assiniboine drain the whole plain to the
very bank, so to speak, of the southern branch of the Saskatchewan,
while Mouse and Shayenne rivers receive all the waters flowing
from the Grand Coteau of the Missouri.

Red River receives, besides the foregoing, all the streams on the
east which do not flow into the Mississippi. It is not then surprising
that the melted snow, unobstructed on these vast plains whence it
flows towards Lake Winnipeg, is in too great quantity to be confined
within the ordinary bed of the river, and this is so much more natural
since the lake being still covered with a thick coating of ice, at the
time when the snow melts, does not lend assistance in drawing off the
great accumulation of water.

Our inundations are very different from those in a mountainous
country. Here, on our nearly horizontal plains, a torrent does not
suddenly rush upon us with noise and rapidity ; but the rising of the
water is rapid at the outset, then for several days very gradual,
afterwards almost imperceptible, and finally it remains stationary
for a few days. Its fall in like manner takes place gradually.

3rd. Tributaries from the west. — The western shore of Lake
Winnipeg opens its limestone border to receive two tributaries wor-
thy of the liveliest interest, and that absorb our attention on this
side, to the exclusion of a great number of small streams also flowing
into the great lake. These two tributaries are Dauphin River, also
called Little Saskatchewan River, and the justly celebrated Great
Saskatchewan River,

Dauphin River loses by want of depth : its stream is so beautiful
and so rapid ! Besides discharging all the lakes which, I believe,

were formerly in the same basin \vith Lakes Manitobah and Win-
-epegoos, this river is the outlet for the last two.

Dauphin River, which is but a few miles in length, flows out of St.
Martin's Lake, which is 30 miles long and receives the waters of
Manitobah Lake, through Partridge-crop River and hake Falle-d-la
Perdrix.

The word Manitobah is a corruption of Manitowapaw, signifying
Straits of Manitou, or extraordinary — supernatural straits. Indians
attribute the agitation of the water here, to the presence of a spirit.
The Lake Manitobah has an area of about 1,900 square miles, a
length of 120 miles, and a varying breadth nowhere exceeding 20
miles. Little White mud River flows into this lake at its southern
extremity. I mention the little stream, although of little importance
in itself, because it runs through a small valley very well adapted
for settlement, and there are now on its banks, as well as the shore
of Manitobah lake, some establishments.

Water-hen River, which connects Lakes Manitobah and Win-
^pegjos, decuples the distance which separates these two lakes,
twice or thrice over, in its meandering course.

Lake Winepegoos (^Little Winnipeg^ has about the same area
as its grand neighbor. Its length and breadth, too, are about the
same. A rather curious phenomenon is to be remarked in these
two lakes, where limestone abounds : — detached blocks of granite
heaped together in reefs, project into the open and render navi-
gation dangerous. It was on one of the reefs in Lake Winepegoos
that the zealous Mr. Darveau, having stov a in his canoe, lost his life.
In some places flint reefs run parallel to the shore ; they become
covered with soil and even trees ; they form strands or ridges which
are often only a few feet in breadth, and on the land side are small
lakes or marshes, occasionally of great extent, and which are very
annoying to such as do not like to wet their feet on landing.

The pretty Lake Dauphin, about 20 miles long and 12 broad, dis-
charges into Lake Manitobah ; and further to the north Shoal River
(riviere Plate) dischar^^'^' Swan Lake and River into the same
lake ; and lastly, quite at the northern extremity of the lake, Red-
deer River (a la Biche') one of the first discovered in the
country, adds its contingent. The banks of the last river, as well
as those of Swan River, being of considerable height, are naturally
fitted for cultivation, and appear to be very fertile. Adding, to the

lakes and rivers mentioned above, a multitude of others scattered
all over the country, it will be more readily believed that, at a nO'
very remote period, the whole, including Lake Winnipeg, was one
basin, or inland sea. Lake St Martin is only 25 feet above Lake
Winnipeg ; Lake Manitobah only 40 feet ; Winepegoos 60 feet, and
Lake Dauphin, the highest of the whole group, is only 70 feet. The
last is at about the same level as the land in the centre of Red
River colony, so that the levelling of the groups of lakes would
involve the inundation of the country in which I am now living.

Lakes Manitobah and Winepegoos are magnificent sheets of water
and navigable for vessels drawing ten feet. Unfortunately their
connecting channel, as well as that which joins them to Lake Winni-
peg, is not deep enough for large boats. This is the more to be
regretted as, were it otherwise, these lakes would supply the most
convenient route to the west where there are only four or five
miles of the Saskatchewan valley to cross by land, and it would be
an easy matter to make a canal through this strip, as the two lakes
to be united are at nearly the same level, while, by this means, the
twenty miles of obstruction to navigation, between Cedar Lake and
Lake Winnipeg, C3uld be avoided.

The mouth of Dauphin Rivei or the Little Saskatchewan, the
tributary second in importance on the western shore, is at the centre
of the lake opposite to the mouth of Beren's River, which is second
in importance on the eastern side. This kind of symmetry is also
observable in the case of the most important tributaries.

The only affluent from the south is opposite to the only discharge
stream at the northern extremity. River Winnipeg, the most impor-
tant eastern tributary, is at the south-eastern point of the lake ;.
and at the north-eastern point, the Saskatchewan — the great western
stream — flows into the lake. We have now to consider the latter
river.

The River Saskatchewan is of peculiar importance, as well from
its great size as from the richness of the country through which it
flows. Its name is an abbreviation of the OreeM^ordKisiakatchewan
(rapid stream) . Its principal sources are in the Rocky Mountains,,
which, and thanks to its windings, gives it a length of more than
1,200 miles. This great river divides into many branches that
flow capriciously through the vast plain which they cut in various^
and frequently quite opposite, directions.

The principal branch of the Saskatchewan is its northern one,
called simply the Saskatchewan, and by our voyageurs Pas River
(riviere du Pas). I said above that it rises in the Rocky Moun-
tains ; its source is a small lake near Mount Forbes, at about 51°
50 N. Lat. Winding amongst the mountains spurs near its source
it follows a north-easterly direction to Pine Point (^Pointe aux Pins}
thence it runs nor'-nor'-easterly to the foot of Big Horn Hill,
whence, having received the streamlet of this name, it hastens east-
ward to Mountain House. From this point to Fort Edmonton, its
general direction is north-easterly ; it continues in the same direc-
tion till it crosses the 64th parallel of latitude, along which it runs
and then turns southward towards Fort Pitt, and thus, between the
latter and Fort Edmonton,describes a large and almost regular curve.
From Fort Pitt the river continues its south-easterly course to the
Mboiv, whence it turns suddenly towards the north-east, first reach-
ing Carlton House and then Cumberland House. From the latter
point its general course is south-easterly, although its great winding
sometimes carries it towards the north, and sometimes towards
the south.

From its source to Mountain House, about 150 miles, the river is
quite unnavigable, although its breadth there is about 130 yards.
Beds of coal begin to shew there — but interruptedly. All around
is rather dense forest. Quite close to Mountain House there are
small falls followed by rapids. Very near here, too, Clear-water
River joins the main stream. From Mountain House to Edmonton,
about 150 miles, is navigable with barges. This advantage, however,
is not without some difiBculties, as much from the rapidity of the
current as from very low water at certain seasons of the year. So
great has been the inconvenience from these causes, that men have
preferred to leave their boats and cut a road through a partly
wooded country. About midway between the two establishments
the Saskatchewan receives Brazeau River, called also North Branch,
(Fourche Nord) which has led to its being confounded with the
main stream. A little lower down. White-earth River joins from a
pretty lake which there was an effort to render celebrated by state-
ments that there were very rich gold mines on its shores, as wen as
in the bed of the river.

At Edmonton House the river is 200 yards broad, and the valley
in which it flows is 190 feet deep. A few miles below Edmonton

House is the mouth of Sturgeon Creek, which, flowing out of St
Anne's Lake, crosses St Albert Lake and receives the waters of
ether lakes in the same group.

From Edmonton to Carlton House, about 600 miles hy water,
the Saskatchewan is navigable for stear.iers during six or eight
weeks. Some years it may be navigable for a longer period ; but
the un«ertainty and irregularity of the navigation, except from the
middle of June to the end of July, makes it impossible to depend
upon its being good for a longer period. When the river is low,
its small rapids and shallows have not more than thirty-six inches
of water. With every desire, then, to confirm the statements
of those who talk loudly about the advantages of the Saskatchewan,
it is impossible for mo to regard 3 feet of water, winding over
irregular and shifting banks, as sufficient for navigation of any
importance.

At Carlton Iloiise the river is 480 yards broad, "^-^tween
this point and the junction of the southern branch, it 50
or 60 miles from Carlton, there is a serious obstructiou to navi-
gation in Coal Rapids, extending for 20 miles ; and even before
reaching the rapids several places have to be passed that are shal-
lower than the river above Carlton House. The stream in Coal
Rapids moves at eight miles an hour, and is therefore a serious
obstacle. In many places, boulders obstructing the passage from
bank to bank would make the descent dangerous, even when the
river is moderately high, and quite impossible when it is low, unless
very great labor were to be expended in clearing it. The descent
is safely practicable only when the river is very high, and then it
would be impossible for steamers to return up stream on account
of its rapidity.

From the Grand Forks {la Fourche) where the northern and
southern branches of the Saskatchewan meet, to Fort a la Corne^
there is no ot;her difficulty to be contended with than the rapidity,
3 or 4 miles an hour, of the &tr°iam.

From Fort a la Come to Cumberland House, about 175 miles,
navigation is verj uncertain ; shallows and rapids are numerous ;
many places are not over two feet in depth when the river is low,
and this occurs even in spring, when there has not been much snow
in the preceding winter. The rise that takes place in June cer-
tainly makes the river deep enough for ordinary steamboats ; but

then the current is so strong, that ordinary engines cannot over-
come it.

Another difficulty at this part of the river is the rapidity with
vrhich the water falls after its summer rise ; it goes down at the rate
of 4 or 5 inches an hour. But few hours would be needed to
reduce the level to such an extent as would stop a steamer in its
trip ; and should such a misfortune happen it might involve the
complete wreck of the boat, as, were it impossible to remove the
steamer from its dangerous position, it would be exposed to the
breaking up of the ice in spring. The strength of the stream at this
place would impart such force to the floating ice, that the boat could
not withstand it. This fear, singular though it be, is the result of
careful study and observation by a thoughtful engineer, whose report
has supplied me with some of ray information about the Saskatche-
wan, -/...vb W-.-'-v:-' ,. '.'.•-■■ ' .;.■}',■..'"■'. ,. ^

From Cumberland House to th( lower part of Cedar Lake, a
distance of about 200 miles, the river is very well fitted for naviga-
tion. Between Cedar Lake and Lake Winnipeg, 20 miles, naviga-
tion of any importance is not to be thought of. Many rapids,
amongst others L,.M-Qharge du Mother Mouge, and particularly
Grand Rapid, are insurmountable obstructions to ordinary naviga-
tion. The character of the geological formation presents a serious
difficulty in the way of carrying out such works as would be
required to render the stream passable ; so that we must wait
a long time before the Lower Saskatchewan will afford an easy and
certain navigable route. The mouth of the river forms a safe and
convenient harbor, capable of holding many boats.

However it may be as regards the difficulties which I thought it
right to enumerate, the advantages are not to be lost sight of.

From the lower part of Cedar Lake to Edmonton, a distance of
about 1,000 miles, for a period of six weeks, and that in the least
favorable years, steam navigation would really meet with only one
insurmountable obstruction, viz.. Coal Rapids ; or, if you will, from
the mouth of the southern branch to Carlton. . It has been sug-
gested that this serious difficulty may be lessened by following the
southern branch for about 60 miles, to a point where the road from
Red River meets it, and then to proceed by land to Carlton,
whence traffic might again pass by water as far as Edmonton.

This plan presents a route following two sections of tha river —
each section being about 500 miles long — a portage of about 22
miles between the two sections, and another portage of 20 miles to
connect the navigable part of the river with Lake Winnipeg.

I have already given my opinion about the scarcity of wood on
the banks of the Saskatchewan. The engineer's reports, to which
I alluded, exactly corroborate the opinion I formed on the ground
itself. From Cedar Lake to opposite Cumberland House, there
is not enough firewood to supply even a small steamer, and this is
an uninhabited country. From Carlton to Fort Pitt, 250 miles, the
scarcity is almost as great. From Fort Pitt to Edmonton, and
from the mouth of the southern branch to the Red River road,
there is a few years' supply of aspen and white spruce. We again
ask, what could a large population do in such a country ?

A part of the Saskatchewan flows over a bed Oi olay, and its
banks are also nearly everywhere clayey ; so that it is not surpris-
ing to see its water strongly charged with insoluble matter, and never
limpid. The mud and sand carried along by the stream are deposited
ill Ijanks that are shifted and altered in all kinds of ways by the
current, so as to deceive the most experienced pilot. The ''olor of
the water quite conceals these banks, sometimes formed only the
day before, and creates another difficulty in the way of navigation.

The first large tributary of the Saskatchewan, in descending the
stream, is Battle River. Its source is a group of lakes to the south
of the Saskatchewan, at about the 53rd parallel of latitude, and oppo-
site to the St. Anne group, which is at about the same distance to •
the north of the Saskatchewan. Batile River runs south to about
the 52nd parallel of latitude opposite to the point where the Saskatch-
ewan reaches the 54th parallel. It then goes northward to the
.63rd paraiiel, and after again going slightly towards the south it
pours its waters, which have flowed with difficulty along a course
of 300 miles, into the Saskatchewan. Battle River runs in
a deep and narrow valley through a rich country. It derives 'ts
name from the numerous fights that take place between Crees, Blr^ck-
feet and other Indians inhabiting the surrounding country, and who
regard one another with inveterate hatred. The accidents of the
ground there, present faclities for the bush-fighting of these cowardly
and merciless skirmishers.

The southern branch of the Saskatchewan is, to the northern

branch, what the Missouri is to the Mississippi — a vassal more power-
ful, but less celebrated than his lord. The southern branch, which
our voyageurs usually call la Fourche des Q-ros Ventres^ has three
main sources all flowing from the Rocky Mountains. The southerr.-
most of the-e three retains the name Q-ros Ventres, given to it at a
time when an Indian tribe so called, lived on its banks. The inter-
mediate source is Bow River, which joins the preceding at about
112° W. long. ; and lastly, the magnificent Red-deer River, which
carries the waters of Buffalo or Bull Lake across an exceptionally
picturesque country, and joins the souhern branch of the Saskatche-
wan at about 51° N. lat., 109° 31^ W. long. These three large streams,
thus united, form a grand river 300 or 400 yards broad, in some
places deep, and very rapid everywhere. As the country thro-::''h
which it ^ows is sandy to within some distance from its mouth, its
water is of course clearer than that of the northern branch.

The country through which the three feeders of the southern
branch flow, is exclusively occupied by wandering tribes. There is
not even a single trading post in that extensive region. At first,
dread of Indians prevented an establishment being located there ,
then habit, and a hope that such small supply of furs as the country
was capable of producing, might be drawn from it by other means.
In 1822, the Honorable Hudson Bay Company, amalgamated with
the North-west company during the preceding year, established a
post at the junction of Red-deer River with the southern branch of
the Saskatchewan. The establishment was called Chesterfield House.
Officers selected from the staff of both companies — who, as well as
being courageous, s/sre experienced in dealing with Indians of this
district in the course of the busines, they carried on at posts on
the northern branch — were sent with one hundred men to this danger-
ous post. They held the place for only a few years, in the course
of which several men were killed. This led to the abandonment of
an experiment of which the dangers were not compensated by its
trading advantages, as the mainteinance of the place involved an
outlay which absorbed the profits.

Since then the Indians have become much gentler; a few
have become Christians : dangers such as I have related no longer
exist there ; and one of our courageous missionaries has now
selected a spot near Buflalo Lake where he tneets the dreaded
Blackfeet Jndians, and teaches them, puttiag off the erection of a

■A

I:il

permanent establishment that he may more effectively labor at the
conversion of these feared children of the plains.

I am sorry I cannot describe the character of the southern branch
of the Saskatchewan as regards navigation. I have not got such
information on the subject as I can depend upon. The various
expeditions that have crossed this country, certainly supply abundant
and valuable information ; but I am not aware that repeated
observations have been made at various seasons and in different
years, from which alone it would be possible to arrive at correct
conclusions with regard to the fitness of these rivers for navigation.
Much has been said about uninterrupted steam navigation on all the
branches of the southern Saskatchewan and on Bow River, up to
the Kocky Mountains ; but as I know that these rivers are easily
fordable at many places, I conclude that their navigation must be
obstructed, at all events in a few places ; yet, as the Mississippi
has been navigable, and particularly from Lake Pepin tc St Paul,
it is evident that not much water is required to obtain a great result.
Shift-ng sands render works of improvement all but impossible in
the kind of rivers that flow from mountains across all but woodless
plains, and, experiencing sudden rises and falls, move with much
greater rapidity than do rivers having their sources in aflat country
or flowing through wooded districts. This last circumstance, while
creating a diflSculty from the force of the current at the time of a
rise, limits na'ugation, as the rivers which have overflowed beco&e
very shallow again in the course of a few days. ■': -i •;>

A tributary, which is celebrated in the history of this country,
flows into the Saskatchewan from the north, by way of Pine Island
Lake. Its name is Rupid River, in which we include the series of
lakes and rivers draining the country to the south of Fort de Traite
Portage. This portage, called by the English — Frog Portage, is 365
yards long, and connects the Rapid River waters with Churchill or
English River. Frog Portage lies low, and when Churchill River
is swollen it overflows along the portage, converting it into a rapid
which a canoe may sometimes descend. An ofiicer of the North-
west Company was drowned in shooting this rapid.

The stream, leaving Frog Portage, presently enters the Lake of
the Woods, then passes into Chetek or Pelican Lake Jind Half-moon
Lake ; flowing onwards, as Rapid River properly so called, it enters
Beaver Lake, the southern limit of the Laurentian system at this

longitude ; then the stream runs, sometimes with diflBculty, over the
never-ending limestone beds of Maligne River, in whose pools are
found sturgeon, whence it is called Sturgeon River ; thence
passing through Pine Island Lake it flows into the Saskatchewan.
It is very difficult to pass along this chain of lakes and rivers ;
even when swollen the stream is interrupted by thirteen por-
tages and a great many rapids. When luv our voyageur^ dread,
and with good reason too, the passage of Sturgeon River, where I
have often been grieved in watching their painful labor.

It is, then, useless to think of other navigation on Rapid River
than that primitive kind now practised on it.

Carrot on Root River and the Little Pas River, which has
the honor of giving its name to the giant of the west and to the
mission at its mouth, are also affluents of the Saskatchewan, running
along its southern bank. A little I elow Pas, the northern bank
opens to admit the waters of Moose Lake.

The upper part of the river, in particular, has many other afflu-
ents, which; to avoid tediousness, I have omitted to enumerate.
Some of these small tributaries, howeve have the advantage either
of flowing from lakes well stocked with fish, or of being easily
utilized as water power.

The coal fields which cross the d 'li branches of the Saskft^cli-
ewan are a great source of wealth, and l. the settlement of the
valley in which nature has multiplied pictu sfjne sceh^ ry that
challenges comparison with the most remarkable of its kir in
the world. I can understand the exclusive attachiaent ot the
children of the Saskatchewan for their native pls^e. Having
crossed the desert, and having come to so great a distance from
civihzed countries, which are occasionally supposed to ' ave a
monopoly of good things, one is surprised to find in t! extreme
west, so extensive and so beautiful a region. The Author of the
universe has been pleased to spread out, by the side of the grand
and wild beauties of the Rocky Mountains, the captivating pleasure
grounds of the plains of the Saskatchewan.

4^^. North of Lake Winnipeg. Lake Winnipeg has no affluent
from the north, but towards this point, and to it alone, it bears the
immense volume of water it receives from the tributaries, great and
amall, which crowd round it on all sides.

Lake Winnipeg diicharges^^itself through a strait, or a wide, deep,

•

rapid and very short river, which flows into Great Play-green
Lake. The latter, as if fearing the result of the aggression, divider
its waters into two branches and dashes them against the bare rocks
on its southern shore, confident that, by this double attack, it will
deceive, and secure itself a passage over the thick bounding wall.
Success crowns its first efibrt. These liquid battalions are
familiar with such struggles ; for it is not to be forgotten that of
Pigeon River, Winnipeg River, Red River, the large and small
Saskatchewans and a thousand other vassals who have sent their
contingents, some, from their very birth, have fought in the midst
of rocks, and others have, at all events, tried their strength in
struggling over limestone beds. Uniting in Lake Winnipeg these
streams could not fail to acquire greater power, and the vigor they
display on separating at the extremity of Play-greeD Lake is not
to be wondered at. After the victory gained over the first obstruc-
tion they unite again in Cross Lake, as if to wait for the effect of
their first effort. They appear to catch the roaring of a world of
lakes checked by the heights they have just disturbed. The
uproar inspirits them, and, again sounding the charge, with a shout
they rush down the rapids and plough them up as they tear along.
And now, drawing breath in another lake, they are joined by re-
inforcements coming, by Hay River, from Reed and other lakes, and
decide upon leaving the 53rd parallel and proceeding by the north-
west to gain the intersection of the 5th parallel with the 90th
meridian, having thus far advanced by Katchewan River on one flank,
and on the other by the first section of Nelson River. The two branches
re-uri'ing in Split Lake are there jo'.ned by Burnt-wood River,
increased by additions from many lakes. This volume of water,
pouring out the grand and impetuous Nelson River, flows eastward
to Hudson's Bay, receiving in its course the pretty Pierre-d-chaux
River that also drains several lakes.

Nelson River is one of the mightiest that I know. It alone
drains the whole of Winnipeg Basin, that enormous plain whose
boundary passing along the watershed of tl St. Lawrence then
follows those of the Mississippi and the Missouri and turns back
from the Rocky Mountains, at first along the watershed of the
Arctic Basin and then along that of the intermediate Basin.

Nelson River, in the variety and n' mber of its falls and rapids,
presents grand scenes. This may e .isily be imagined, as its great

volume of water fiows over the chain of Laurentides, which, while
they have certainly lost some of their elevation, yet preserve suflS-
cient to infinitely diversify the views on one of the largest rivers in
the world, that boldly crosses them.

The navigation of Nelson River is all but impossible ; yet, it has
been frequently ascended and descended.

Many attempts ha^e been made to maintain trading posts on
the lakes discharging into Nelson River, as the country is naturally
very wc^l mited for hunting and fishing ; but in the end, the diflS-
culties of navigation have been found to be so great, that the Hon-
orable Hudson's Bay Campany have now only one post on the whole
of this stream and its affluents. The post is Norway House,
whence are brought the goods taken there, with so much labor,
from York, by the Hayes River route, which imposes on the unfor-
tunate packages, and on the still more unfortunate voyageurs
who carry them, a journey thrice as long as would be necessary
were Nelson River easier of ascent. From an economic point of
view this majestic stream is useless, and therefore, saying nothing
more about it, I shall leave it to roar on its impetuous course.

Fearful of the dangers to which those who descend Nelson River
are exposed, let us return by another route to Play-green Lake,
where it debouches. We shall first say a word about the narrow
tongue of land that separates this little lake from Lake Winnipeg.

It is called Mossy Point, and, in fact, thick beds of moss and
vegetable matter cover a great part of the tongue. These deposits
are, in some places, several yards deep, and were probably heaped
there by the currents prevailing in the north of Lake Winnipeg and
the northern winds meeting these currents. Besides the waters
of Lake Winnipeg, Play-green Lake also receives the River aux
Brockets, which gives its name to the dep8t a short way from its
mouth, and which the English always call Norway House. These
two names applied to one establishment cause it to be supposed,
sometimes, that the route towards the north or to the Hudson's
Bay is by the River aux Brockets (Jack River) ; while that river,
instead of flowing from the north-east, comes rather from the south-
east, its source being a lake of the same name. Not finding, here,
the route which we would follow to York Factory in company with
regular travellers, let us turn to Sea River, which is but the com-
mencement of Nelson River. Let us advance with care so as to

' ^t

!!«.■"

avoid following the dangerous route we wish to shun ; let us see if
there be no other channel. Here is Black River, a mere streamlet
into which the voyageurs launch their boats, hauling them over
three beaver dams that alono render this route practicable. The
ingenious architects of these dams were protected for several years
by a grateful law, and gaining confidence they were in the habit of
fearlessly approaching the voyageurs. With vile ingratitude and
thoughtless improvidence these very voyageurs broke the protect-
ing law and destroyed the peaceful families of the laborers. Since
then, men have had to do the beavers work, and have acquitted
themselves but poorly in repairing the dams. ^ :;* * ^* t '

The source of Black River is just at the foot of the height of
lands, formed by the chain of Laurentides, that the great Nelson
River does not fear to attack, and proudly vanquishes near by.

From the height of lands (^Portage de la Roche peinturee) the
route descends to York, ot first along a small river without a name?
then along lac du Milieu, River au (7ow^eaM, Knee Lake, Jack River,
Logan Lake, Hill River, Steel River, and lastly Hayes River.
This series of rivers and lakes forms an uninterrupted water course,
but it is an extremely difficult on.e to navigate, as it has no less than
thirty-four portages in a distance not much over 300 miles.

What the position of Red River colony, and of the whole Northern
Department, was when this was the only route of communication
may be imagined. All who came into the country, or left it, had
to experience transhipment thirty-four times in this short journey,
while the shoulders of the voyageurs were the only available vehicles
in the portages, of which many were of considerable length. Twenty
to thirty days were required to return up this water course with
large canoes, and this with voyageurs whose strength and agility
enable them to undertake greater labor than any other men. The
same route is still followed in going to and returning from York
Factory ; but the greater part of the trade of the country passes
through St Paul in Minnesota.

York harbor, called also Port Nelson, is at the mouth of Hayes
River. The harbor can shelter only two ships, and is only five
fathoms deep. It is in reality only an inlet, sheltered on the south
by the main land, and on the north by a sand bank or tongue sepa-
rating the mouths of Hayes and Nelson rivers, and thrown up by
these two large streams which press on either side of it. The little

harbor is perfectly sheltered at low water, for then the sand bank
is quite uncovered and it looks like an artificial pier. High water
overflows it, but does not entirely do away with its sheltering power.
The harbor is open only during the months of August and
September, and visited only by the Honorable Hudson's Bay
Oompany's ships, of which one or two go there annually. The
anchorage is several miles away f^om the factory, whither goods
are brought from ships in the roadstead, by a small schooner kept
in the harbor, and which is also employed between the factory and
Fort Churchill. ; ' -^^i' i: ,:-'': :--X:

The River Severn, used as a means of communication between
the two posts on its banks, is rather a fine river. Its navigation is
difficult. It flows into Hudson's Bay to the east of Port Nelson.
The height of land from which Beren's River, previously alluded to,
flows, is reached by following Severn River and the lakes connected
with it. Bark canoes sometimes take this route in passing from
Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay. ,,

-^; ,;•:," ;■ jjj^ INTERMEDIATE BASIN. ^

Under this head I include the country between the heights
sending their drainage into the Arctic Ocean and those sending
their drainage into Lake Winnipeg. This intermediate basin, like
the Winnipeg basin, discharges itself entirely into Hudson's Bay,
and has only one large artery with which are connected all the
veins that circulate the aqueous life of the country. There are a few
exceptional streams, of no importance, that flow directly into Hud-
son's Bay. The great artery to which I allude is English River,
called also Churchill River. The Crees refer to it as the Mimwipi
(much ivater^^ and by the Chippeways it is known as Janei Dez-
nadhe Qjreat river'). As we remarked, when speaking of Macken-
zie River, Churchill River has two of its sources in common with two
important tributaries of the river of the north. These sources are, first,
Island Lake, which, while feeding Clear-water river, also supplies
Churchill River through Rock and Egg Lakes. The second common
source is WoUaston Lake, a portion of which flows towards Athabaska
Lake and some towards Deer Lake, which faithfully conveys it to
Churchill River. This phenomenon, occurring twice in the connection
of Mackenzie and Churchill, is repeated between Churchill and

Saskatchewan rivers, for Long Lake supplies water to both Beaver
and White rivers, the latter being an affluent of the Saskatchewan-
In short this intermediate basin has sources in common with the
two great basins I have already described.

The mouth of Churchill River forms the port of the same name
on the Hudson's Bay coast, This harbor, celebrated in days gone
by, is capacious, safe and convenient. The little schooner which
sails between Churchill and York Factory, still makes use of it ;
and here, too, are sheltered such Hudson's Bay Company's ships
from England as are accidentally obliged to winter in these parts.

The windings of Churchill River make its course as long as that
of the Saskatchewan ; and its volume of water is at least as great,
but is very different as regards navigation. From Primeau Lake
to its mouth, the river flows almost the whole way amongst rocks.
These it appears to hollow out into couches ; but finding them uncom-
fortable, it bounds about violently and irregularly. The rocks,
enraged by its audacity, draw back and uncover yawning gulfs,
and into these it wildly rushes. Between its numerous cascades
the river becomes calm, and takes the form of chains of lakes that
are often very beautiful.

After this general view of the entire stream, let me now enumer-
ate its different parts, such of them, at least, as are used as routes of
communication. Let us return to its most remote source, that is,
tothe.headof the Beaver River, to which I referred a short time ago.
This small stream, formerly used by the North-west Company as a
canoe route vid lac la Biche to Lesser Slave Lake, is separated
from lac la Biche by a portage of only two miles in length. From
this first source to Vile d la Crosse Lake, Beaver River is navigable,
at all events when swollen, for bark canoes. I came down it in this
manner without any difficulty, rowing freely throughout a whole
week. Were this river always thus full, it would be very advanta-
geous, as it passes through a country which is generally fit for settle-
ment. Unfortunately the supply of water, which depends up'^n the
Almighty, does not take account of the desires of weak mortals, and
Beaver River, deeper than Green Lake, at any rate throughout two-
thirds of its course, is frequently very ill suited for navigation, even
in bark canoes. If I recollect the ease with which I descended it, I
certainly cannot forget the difficulty I had in ascending it.

The plain over which Beaver River runs is quite covered with

magnificent lakes in which fish abound. The ramifications of the
river near its source, connect a number of these lakes together.
Then, amongst its affluents is North River, a route sometimes fol-
lowed to Pike Lake, and thence to Pembina and on to the Athabaska.
The magnificent lac Froid, which receives the waiters of lac des
Outardes, begins a series of lakes. Front Lake, lac du Detroit,
and Water-hen Lake, which, with the rivei of the last name, make
a route, parallel to Beaver River, often followed in passing between
Vile a la Cross and lacla Biche. The southern bank, after an elbow,
becomes the eastern, where also, there are many very remark-
able lakes. Amongst them may be noticed Moose Lake, Green
Lake, Assiniboine Lake, also those called Traines, Dor^ and Plunge ;
and a great many more of less importance, of which I shall spare
the reader an enumeration. " n;^ ^^n;' ^^

Beaver River discharges into VHe d la Crosse Lake, one of the
principal links in the chain of lakes called Churchill River. Let us
now ascend to other sources of this river.

I have said that this stream has one of its sources in common with
Little Athabaska or Clear-water River — the source is Island Lake,
fed by streams flowing from the Montagnais country. The lake,
after parting with some of its waters to Clear-water River, dischar-
ges the remainder into lac de» Roches^ which flows into Clear Lake,
and this discharges into Churchill River.

The head of Churchill River is generally considered to be Methy
Lake. This lake discharges into a river of the same name, on which
vogageurs have to make three portages. On leaving Methy Lake
one enters Buffalo Lake, about 40 miles long and fed by Buffalo
River. Buffalo Lake is connected by Buffalo Straits with Clear
Lake (iac des (Eufs} to which I have already twice referred.
Deep River (^Riviere Creuse') flows from Clear Lake, in a south-east-
erly direction, into VMe d la Crosse Lake, where it meets Beaver
River.

The Lake of Vile d la Crosse, about 60 miles long, collects the
various sources of Churchill River. It discharges through Puise
River, in which there are five rapids {Crooked Rapids,') into Pri-
meau Lake, having previously been joined by Deer Lake — the outflow
of Cree Lake.

Violently tossed about by Croche Milieu and Knee Rapids, the
stream seeks repose in Knee Lake ; flowing tbence, it forms Hay

Biver '^riviere aux Foins) and receives Pine River. These two
streams flow on together peacefully and as if to strengthen their
friendship, for their waters have, in part, come from one place.
Another widening in the river sprer.ds them out into Sandy Lake ;
nolens volens, they have then to shoot Serpent Rapid, to cross
Serpent Lake, and then Mouse Lake. The large and difficult Pine,
Birch and Broken Canoe ( Canot tourn^} Rapids, shoot the stream
into Black-bear Island Lake (VHiiile d* Ours) whence it passes
over Thicket Portage ( Cascade de Harrier or Portage des Haliers)
into Trout Lake. The beautiful Trout, Steep Bank (de» Equors)
and Big-rock Rapids, carry it into Devil's Lake, and then follow
four exceptionally difficult rapids of the same name, which former
voyageurs were unfortunately too apt to apply to whatever stood in
tbeir way ; so true is it that forgetfulness of God necessarily involves
slavery to the demon.

On escaping from Satan's empire, Churchill River reposes for an
instant in a very small lake, whence, descending the extremely
beautiful Otter Rapid, it flows majestically into the lake of the same
name-

The two hills and the cacsades beyond them, lead to the mouth
of Rapid River, an affluent from Laronge and other lakes grouped
¥dth it, which flow through Hare Lake. The view of the two hills
prepares one for the grand scene presented by the cataract of Rapid
River rushing down a height of one hundred feet. This turbulent
•stream assumes a certain degree of calmness as it flows into
-Churchill River, but after a momentary pause it again rushes
wildly, in a succession of rapids and cascades, to Frog House, near
which is tlie Frog Portage previously alluded to.

The part of Churchill River which I have just described,, from
500 to 400 miles long, is only navigable with the canoes in use. It
is impossible to utilize the route otherwise. The rapids I have
enumerated, present serious obstructions ; many are very danger-
ous, and involve as many as twenty portages.

From the southern extremity of Vile a la Crosse Lake to the
mouth of Methy River, a H^tance of about 120 miles, there is no
obstruction to navigation ; but a long time must elapse before the
country shall be so changed that more convenient boats shall
replace the canoes and barges now used there.

A little below Frog Portage, the mouth of a second Deer River

is seen ; this one flows from the large Deer Lake. This sheet of
water is one^of the largest in America, its length is not less than
from 150 to 200 miles. Completely surrounded by crystalline
rock the lake is extremely deep and its water remarkably clear.
Deer Lake receives the waters of Jack Lake (^des Brockets) which
in its turn is indebted to Wollaston Lake, the same that we alluded
to as feeding the eastern tributary of the great Athabaska Lake.

I shall not undertake to describe the part of Churchill River
between Deer River and Hudson's Bay into which it flows. I
have never seen that portion of the river, and I have never met a
single individual who had visited it ; yet, formerly, that part was
frequented, for the Hudson's Bay Company penetrated their
domains by that route, as well as by Nelson River. The extreme
difficulty experienced in ascending, and even in descending, these
two rivers, has led to both routes being abandoned, and lower
Churchill River is no longer navigated with the Company's boats.

The violence of the rapids throughout this great stream ig
explained by the fact that it, too, flows over the chain of Laurentides.

The upper part of Churchill River, which is beyond the chain,
is not so impetuous as it becomes immediately afterwards.

Besides the great river, there are other streams in the interme-
diate Basin which flow into Hudson's Bay, such as Seal River and
others of which I know only the names, and about which I can-
not give the least information.

The whole of the intermediate Basin is^emphatically the region of
lakes ; they are there in profusion, r, -

CHAPTER III.

. H' POLITICAL CONDITION. ,. ^

The Northern Department has three distinct political divisions,
known as the North-west Territory, Rupert's Land, and Red
River Settlement. Let us consider these separately :

/ / I. THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.

The first political division, which we have already referred to as
" the Arctic Basin," includes all the country watered by the
streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean. It comprises the space
enclosed in the angle formed by the Rocky Mountains, and the
height of lands winding from Mount Hooker to the northern
extremity of Melville Peninsula. ;,/,:.■.:,

The first to explore the North-west Territory, I believe, was
Samuel Hearne, who, in 1769, penetrated into the interior, from
Churchill, as far as Copper-mine River. The remainder of the
country was almost entirely discovered by employes of the North-west
<Jompany. This Company was formed in Canada, in 1783, with
a view to monopolize or to consolidate the interests of those
who, since the conquest of la Nouvelle France by England, carried
on the peltry trade in the Indian country. The title which the
Company adopted does not appear to me to indicate a right to the
possession of the Territory, which I include under the same name.
The Company assumed this particular title only because, on leaving
Canada, it moved towards the north-west of the continent ; or to
follow up the idea which had always possessed travellers taking
that route. The idea was to discover a passage by the north, or
by the west, to the Pacific Ocean. The geographical position — in
British America — of the region of which I speak, naturally origi-
nated its name.

There remains but the name. The Company of the North-west

has ceased to exist. On amalgamating itself with the Hudson's
Bay Company there was no question of special title to proprietary
right in the Territory, nor to any right or privilege of the kind.

In 1821, when the two rival companies — ruined by their rivalry-
joined their interests, the English Government gave them, under
the title of " Hudson's Bay Company," a license or exclusive
privilege to carry on the peltry trade amongst the Indians living to
the west of Rupert's Land. This monopoly was granted for 21
years. Before the expiration of the term — 1838 — the license was
renewed for another period of 21 years, that is, until 1859.

Since that date the monopoly has not been exercised as of right,
ao that now the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, who still
occupy the North-west Territory, have no exclusive privilege there,
nor do they pretend to any. Competitors are free : some enterin*'
by Lac la Biche in the south-west: others, having crossed the
Rocky Mountains, come from the west by Peace River. Competi-
tion has not, hitherto, injured the trade of the Company. The
remoteness of these regions, the diflBculty in reaching them, and of
maintaining one's self when there, and the enormous expense of
transport, cannot but defeat ordinary ambition, and ruin private
enterprise. Moreover, the influence which the Honorable Hudson's
Bay Company has acquired over the Indians of the Territory, and
the facilities offered by their numerous posts, which afford one
another mutual support, combine to render competition diflficult —
80 difficult, that all competitors withdrew last year, and the Com-
pany is now alone in the field.

The political condition of this part of the British Dominion is
very remarkable. The Home Government entirely disregard it ;
no established colony does or can exercise any authority in it;
nobody in it has any rights or privileges ; and the country is
without law, without government, without administration, and with-
out civil or legal jurisdiction.

Who is to improve the political condition of this country ? Will
England do it, or will Canada ? Will the United States decide
to obtain possession of it, simply becaus*^ it presents the easiest
route by which they may reach their American Russia ? These
are questions which naturally suggest themselves, and to which the
answers are locked in the secret recesses of the future. For my
part, as there are extremely great diflSculties in the way of colo-

nizing the few points of this vast Territory capable of cultivation^
I acknowledge franklj *^^hat I would as soon — perhaps preferably —
see the country remain as it is, as see it change, if the changes are^
to be such, as it appears to me, they would inevitably be.

II. Rupert's land.

This is the name of the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company's-
possessions, that is to say, of all the country watered by streams
flowing into Hudson's Bay, and i^^s extension, James' Bay.

Ift speaking of the Northern Department we use the name
Rupert's Land to designate only a part of the great whole to which
it belongs ; to indicate all of our Territory whose drainage flows intO'
the great bay.

The political condition of this division of the Northern Depart-
ment is very different from that of the preceding one.

This country is under a Company whose title is incontestible, at
least as regards a portion of this vast territory ; and, according to
some learned lawyers, the Company has a good title to the po.'&es-
sion of all. We shall not undertake to disicuss the arguments for
and against the proprietorship, but, having pointed out the most
plausible objection, we shall content ourselves by also pointing out
the titles and privileges of the Company.

The strongest argument against the rights of the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company is the previous possession of the Ter-
ritory by France. Forty-four years before the grant made by
Charles II. of England tc M? cousin Prince Rupert, and his
companions in adventure, a charter granted by Louis XIII., in
1626, gave the district of Hudson's Bay to La Compagnie de la
Nouvelle France. 1 - is said that the treaty of Ryswick, in 1696,
admits that the whole of Hudson's Bay belonged to France.

By the tret".ty of Utrecht, the coast of Hudson's Bay was ceded
to England in 1713, and it was not until then that she acquired a
good title in these parts : moreover, care was taken to insert clauses,
in the treaty, to insure protection to the " Compagnie de la Nouvelh;
France," which had previously been put in possession of the
country b^^ the authority of the charter granted by Louis XIII.

Although the boundaries of the French and English possessions,
between the signing of the treaty of Utrecht and 1763, are not well
defined, nevertheless the English — even those least favorable to-

French pretentions — acknowledge that Red River and the Saskat-
chewan were in Nouvelle France, and that, with the other French
Canadian territory, it was this district which was ceded to England
hj the treaty of Paris.

Now, by the treaty of Paris, the French Canadians were
guaranteed their rights and privileges, and received a promise " that
they should not be subjected to other imposts than those established
under the French Government" — (" Den'Stre pas soumis a d'autrea
imp^ts que ceux ^tablis sous la domination Fran9aise.") ♦;

The Hudson's Bay Ct)mpany have, therefore, no exclusive right
or privilege in the Red River valley, nor in the valley of the
Saskatchewan, and its title to a part of the country to the north of
these valleys is doubtful.

The foregoing is the objection, of which I shall discuss neither
the value nor the bearing : I merely state the case, and, following
the example of many others who understood it as well as, and even
better than I do, who, moreover, were competent judges in the
conflict of pretensions and opinions, and who, notwithstanding, have
never made the least attempt to deprive the Honorable Hudson's
Bay Company of their rights and privileges, — I shall be silent as
regards this doubtful point. This significant waiver, supposing its
support necessary, in effect, leaves the Hudson's Bay Company
mistress in the country wichin the limits assigned by its charter.

The charter, we said above, was granted by Charles II. of Eng-
land to his cousin- -Prince Rupert,under whose patronage was formed
a company of merchants and explorers (^aventuriers) who hoped,
too, to find a north-west passage to the western seas. This asso-
■ ciation — in the words of the charter — is described under the title
of" The Governor and Company of Adventurers from England, trad-
ing in Hudson's Bay," and known by the title " The Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company." The full and entire possession of the
territory described in the charter, is assigned by it to this Company.
Hunting, fishing and the exclusive right to deal in furs are also the
Company's privilege. The Company has, moreover, absolute juris-
diction over the inhabitants of the country. In effect, the Com-
pany is declared to be mistress of the whole country and all apper-
taining to it.

Such is the political condition of Rupert's Land. Such, at least,

ifi

ia its condition as created by the charter to which the Imperial Gov-
ernment has ascribed the ireight of a valid title.

I do not know that the Company has ever asserted its exclusive-
right to hunt and fish, but up to 1848 it insisted on its claim to the
trading monopoly. The claim has been abandoned since that date,
and, in fact, from that time there has been perfect freedcri in trad-
ing here. The ruling influence of the Company in Rupert's Land is
not attributable to its rights and privileges but to the resources of
its organization. All the world is free to go and to come, to hunt and
to deal in furs. Excepting the difficulties to be met with in travel-
ing, there is no country under the sun in which greater freedom is
enjoyed, and this, notwithstanding the impression spread abroad that
the Company holds the country in a half enslaved state. The Com-
pany, nevertheless, still retains its titles and exercises civil authority.
This state of things ought to be considered when enquiring into the
policy to be adopted with reference to this country, and when speak-
ing of the changes to be made in it. These changes are working
themselves out — What are they to be ? The United States — which
fancy they have a right to whatever suits them — look upon it as
natural that they should come and take possession of this country.
The new confederation of British Provinces does not lose sight of us.
What is England going to do ? What part will the Company play ?
A few years, I suppose, will solve this problem, which I do not pro-
pose to examine.

III. RED RIVER SETTLEMENT.

We have just treated of two great divisions of the Norchern Depart-
ment ; there remains a third to be noticed, in the centre of which
I write these lines.

A Scotch noble — whose position in the Honorable Hudson's Bay
Company gave him great influence — conceived the project of estab-
lishing a small colony in the heart of Rupert's Land. With thia
object he obtained a grant of a certain extent of land on the banks
of the Red River and the Assiniboine, and there began the settlement
which still retains his name — " Selkirk Settlement."

This oasis in the desert, where the voyageur and the trader may
seek rest in the decline of life, is better known by the name of"' Red
River Settlement" or " Assiniboia."

31' may
["Bed

The Settlement, founded in 1812, experienced many difficulties,
which frequently exposed it to complete ruin. It survived, however,
all these destructive shocks ; but, its founder was not to see its
growth. ,-;» ..; : " ■■; -- ,,- ■,.,.,_.,,., ,.v ,„.;,,:,, -..;:■.,, ,:.„.., .;.;,rw'' '■

The Hudson's Bay Company bought back, from Lord Selkirk's
heirs, the lands which it had sold to his Lordship : and now it is the
Company which governs the little colony.

Assiniboia is very circumscribed, inasmuch as its boundary is
described with a radius of only 60 miles, about a point at the con-
fluence of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers. The colony has then
the advantage of extending all round the compass. We are
enclosed in a circle, — but it would be unjust to consider us in a
" cercle vicieux." *

Although under the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, the
Red River Settlement has a distinct political existence ; time
has developed a constitution for it, which, in theory, is the
lame as in the days of the Company's monopoly, but in practice is
now very different. The affairs of the Settlement are managed by
a governor, who is not always the governor of Rupert's Land — who
has not even been invariably a member of the Company. The
Hon. Judge F. Johnson was once governor here : Colonel Cold-
well, who was governor before him, was not only not a member of
the Company, but was appointed by the Crown.

To assist the Governor of Assiniboia, there is a council of an
indefinite number of members. These members are also nominated
by the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, but justice requires that
we should say that — without introducing the principle of public
election — the Company during tho past twelve years, at any rate
within my personal knowledge, has been guided, in its selection of
councillors, rather by the public voice than by its own interests, at
least its mercantile interests. It has selected several council-
lors from amongst those who have been most vrarmly opposed to its
trading, It is true that on two occasions it refused to appoint citi-
zens who presented numerously-signed petitions in their favor ; but
it must be remembered — and I have official proof of the fact — that
these gentlemen, anticipating a refusal which otherwise they would
not have experienced, publicly loaded the Company and the council

• "Corcle vlcieiis"— ill •' logic" a circle out of which there is noescape.-- D.O.

^ :..•-

V' /

of the colony with so much gratuitous abuse, that their appointment
became an impossibility, as much for the sake oi the honor of the
Company itself as for the honor of the council, of which many mem-
bers would have resigned had men thus disposed been forced upon
them as colleagues. However, the Executive Council — which is also
legislative — is not chosen by suffrage. It is composed of various
elements selected from people of fair intelligence amongst the diffe-
rent classes of society in the colony.

If the selection of councillors does not meet with universal appro-
val, it is, I think, at all events, as good as could be expected were
it entrusted to others than the Company. Although I am my-
self a member of council, conscientious conviction obliges me to
declare that it conducts public business most faithfully. The
governor does not exercise any influence over it other than that
which is lawful and reasonable, and limited by the interests of the
members, of whom only one belongs to the Company. " "° '

Law is admir'stered by a chief judge called " Recorder," assisted
by justices of the peace, cuncillors are justices, ex officio. This tri-
bunal is our Supreme Court and sits quar*-erly. In addition, small
courts to enquire into civil causes of secondary importance sit
monthly in the central district, and bi-monthly in all the others.

A justice of the peace assisted by several magistrates presides in
these Courts. The magistrates are appointed by the Colonial Council.

The Governor and Recorder, the only officers whose salaries are
of importance, are paid uj the Company. The salaries of the other
officers are so small as to be drawn from the Colonial Treasury. This
treasury is not the main resource of the Company — far from it.

The public revenue is derived from an import duty of 4 p. cent*
on the cost price of articles. Many articles — amongst others, agri-
cultural implements — are not subjected to this charge. Licenses
and fines are the >ther sources of revenue. The Company is on the
.same footing as individuals with reference to import duties.

The public accounts of the colony of x^ssiniboia hav?^ an advan-
ttage which many governments — even elective ones — might
envy, they always show an excess of receipts. The councillors,
not being elected by the people, dare not tax them, much less draw
large salaries from them.

The little settlement has a population of about 10,000, speaking
French, English, Gaelic, Saulteux, Cree, &c.

Separated from the rest of the world for so long a time, they now
see communication becoming easier, and civilization with its advan-
tages, — alas ! perhaps too, its disadvantages, — threatening destruc-
tion to their perfect liberty, — a liberty, often, it may be, indolent ;
but certainly more virtuous and fair dealing than its detractors
think or allow. - ^ ; : ... . < a. <-. : •

Such, in few words, and without wearying detail, is the politi-
cal condition of the Red River Settlement. Offspring of Rupert's
Land, it will follow its mother and be ruled by the influences which
affect her. Yet, although not quite free, the child has acquired
certain rights ; it possesses or occupies lands for which it has not ^
always paid : it has cultivated them with its labor. True, — the labor
has not always been great ; but we speak of a child of the desert.
It commands indulgence ; it presumes to hope that here the for-
eigner shall not be preferred, that in the great and wise plans
matured by the Mother Country and Canada — its eldest brother,
its past history may not be entirely disregarded. '

In the colony itself there is nervousness and uneasiness about the
future. Some who hope to gain by any change are clamorous for one ;
others, dwelling more upon the system of government than upon
its application, would like to try a change, certain that they would
never return to the primitive state from which they desired to
escape ; a greater number — the majority — dread that change. Many
are very reasonable; the country might gain by the change, and it
would certainly obtain many advantages which it now lacks ; but
the existing population would certainly be losers.

As we love the people more than the land in which they live, as we
prefer the well-being of the former to the splendor of the latter,
we now repeat that, for our population, we very much dread some of
the promised changes. The sincerity of this conviction will receive
the more credit, since, personally, we have many reasons for desiring
these changes. •. . v

{ f

I 4

--r*iK;«ct*-

CHAPTER IV.

'^i ,, 1^5. M^'

u- ''-iif'

MERCANTILE SYSTEM.

Our country being under a trading company, all that refers to
ita mercantile system acquires importance. For this reason we
would say something about that which is connected with the system,
and point out the distribution adopted in working it.

I. MERCANTILE ORGANIZATION.

The Governor and Company of Adventurers from England trading
to Hudson's Bay entered into partnership on the issuing of the
charter which was granted to them by Charles II. in 1670. Rights
and privileges are not sufficient wherewith to trade ; the Company
had to provide a joint stock capital. The capital, at first small,
was afterwards increased, so that in 1863 it amounted to £500,000
stg., the shares being unequally distributed amongst about 300
members. All the shareholders entrusted their interests to a
managing committee having a governor and a deputy at its head.
Formed in London — the committee there directed the affairs of the
Company, effecting sales of the hides and attending to all that con-
cerned the prosperity of the Association.

The Hudson's Bay Company, thus organized, entered a new phase
in 1863. The society called " Internationale Finan9i^re" bought up
all the shares, property, rights and privileges of the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company, as well as its Reserve Fund, which had
been ably husbanded by the committee to meet unforeseen events.

As we said above, — the capital of the Company was raised to half
a million pounds sterlihg. This sum was divided into shares of
XIOO. The rest of the property, rights and privileges were esti-
mated at £1,000,000, or, in all, a nominal capital of £1,500,-
000 sterling. The shareholders were asked and consented to sell

their shares at 200 per cent, premium, and the International
Company paid <£ 1,600,000 to the shareholders of the Hudson's Bay
-Company.

This transaction transferred the whole interest of the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company into the hands of the " Soci^td Inteniationale
Finan^i^re," who did not long retain possession of the vast region
they had just acquired. It was presently thrown on the market
again, its nominal capital being raised to £2,000,000 sterling, and
was for sale in shares of X 20. , .

These shares were bought by a great number of people : in 1865
the share list included 1420 names. The new shareholders reformed
the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, elected a governor, a
deputy-governor and a committee, who were to continue the business
of tjie old Company thus modified. In the programme of the new
Company was included a proposition to establish a telegraph line
across all their territory, and^other great improvements, to the carry-
ing out of which they did not just then see all the difficulties which
really exist. ' •" ; ' '

Thes3 proceedings present three distinct commercial transac-
tions : 1st. The sale, by the shareholders, of the first Hudson's Bay
Company — a sale which gave then a net profit of 200 per cent, on
the original stock, for their rights and privileges.

2nd. The speculation of the " Socidt^ Internationale Finan^i^re,"
which gained half a million pounds sterling — that is, if it was able to
sell all the shares, representing a capital of X 2,000,000.

3rd. The purchase made by the shareholders of the new Hud-
son's Bay Company. They inherited the rights and privileges of
the old Company ; but financially they are very differently situated,
as they have had to pay £2,000,000, while their predecessors, at
least the original shareholders, having the same rights and prid-
leges, and as great a profit, never paid more than £500,000.

It follows, then, that there must now be four times the net profit
of former days to pay the existing shareholders equally large divi-
dends. ,.,.,,„_,.

Although there have been changes in the very heart of the
Hudson's Bay Company in England, — in Rupert's Land its organi-
ization has remained unchanged.

The General Government and its committee — while retaining their
fiuperior authority, do not now any more than formerly, interfere

with the most difficult part of the business, that is, the peltry trade-
amongst the Indians. This has always been, and still is, a distmct
branch of the Company's business, carried on, under a managing
committee, by quite an active commercial hierarchy, having no share
in the stock or property of the Company nor any interest in its pri-
vileges ; they are merely paid for their labor, some by a salary or
a fixed sum taken out of the gross profits, others by a portion of the
net profits.

The following are the titles of the members of this hierarchy :

Ist. " The Governor of Rupert's Land with a regular but vary-
ing salary. -

2nd. " Chief factors" — superintendents having two shares.

8rd. " Chief traders" — superintendents having oiTigle shares. ?
■4th. " Clerks" receiving from X 75 to X 100.

6th. "Apprenticed clerks" receiving from X25to £27. ; ^ v •

6th. " Postmasters" receiving from X40 to X76. ^ ...,,*,

7th. " Interpreters" receiving from X30 to £45.

8th. A great many travellers' guides, helmsmen, pilots, bowmen
for barges and boats, and middle or oarsmen, with wages from £16 to
£40 sterling.

The regular salaries — from that of the governor of Rupert's Land
to the lowest of the employes — are charged against the Company, and
deducted from its gross profits. The interest of money in circula-
tion is also deducted from the gross profits, and paid to the
shareholders. This interest is charged at the rate of 5 per cent.
; The dividends paid to the shareholders, as well as the shares paid
to the chief factors and traders, being dependent on the net profits,
necessarily vary with them.

These profits, when all deductions alluded to have been made
from them, are divided into ten equal parts ; six of these are distri-
buted amongst the shareholders in proportion to the stock they hold ;
the four others are subdivided into 85 parts averaging £300 each.
A chief factor receives two of these shares while he is employee^
and for one year after discharge. A chief trader receives
similarly only one share. During six years following the first after
retirement, chief traders and factors receive half pay.

The governor of Rupert's Land superintends the departments
entrusted to him. To assist him, he assemble* a council of the
chief traders and factors annually ; and from this source origmate

the regulations considered necessary for carrying on the peltry
trade. The duties and pay of the junior oflScials are settled by this
council : it also submits to the governor and managing committee
the names of clerks for promotion to chief trader's rank, and of
chief traders for appointment to chief factorships.

The diflferent departments are subdivided into districts. In
each district there is a chief factor, or a chief trader under
whose orders all the employes in the district are placed. The dis-
tricts include several " posts" or " forts" entrusted to oflficers of
diflferent grades. . ; i

Each post keeps separate accounts shewing the profits or loss, in
account with the district, just as if the business were being carried
on between strangers.

The districts have also their accounts which they adjust with the
factory, the dep8t or the districts that supply them with men, merchan-
dise, provisions, &c., and to whom in return they send peltry.

All these accounts are kept with an astonishing minuteness of detail.
On examining them, they appear to be those rather of rival companies
than of members of an association having a common interest.

This wise system and skilful book-keeping have the happy effect
of creating lively emulation and a spirit of great economy.

Each oflficer has to render the accounts of the post entrusted
to his charge. The accounts are examined, scrutinised, criticized,
altered and modified by those to whom this duty is assigned.

The total expenditure of the year, compared with the total value
of the peltry and other goods suppUed, aflfords an exact measure of the
success — if not of the labor — of the person in charge of the post.

Advancement depending upon success, all are interested in
increasing the general profit, although the greater number of the
employes have no direct interest in it.

This clever system and the strict husbanding on all hands have
insured the success of the Company whose trading extends from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, its ramifications passing through the
whole of British America with the exception of the Maritime Pro-
vinces and the part of Canada to the south of the St Lawrence.

Supported and expanded by its judicious organization, and by the
ability and zeal of a great number of its members, it has with-
stood trials — occasionally formidable, and generally gives good
dividends to its members.

.1!

It should be told in its praise that its rule throughout the vast
field of its operations has been such as to teach even the most barba-
rous Indians to regard it with affection, and to respect civilized
man so that he may travel whither he will in perfect safety. It is
unnecessary to say that individual abuses have occurred here and
there, rivalry has originated them, — monopoly has multiplied
them. The trade in " firewater," which is now confined to a certain
district, is perhaps the on!^ reproach which can fairly be brought
against the Company as a body, as it is the only one which I know
to be approved of by its goverument. , -y

)* II. COMMERCIAL DIVISION.

The Company has divided the country into four trading districts :

1st. The Montreal Department, ^^ich includes the Company's
establishments in Canada East.

2nd. The Southern Department, which includes the other
Canadian establishments and those of Rupert's Land to the east of
90° W. long.

3d. The Western Department, to the west of the Rocky Mountains .

4th The Northern Department, in which I am, and of which I
have previously defined the boundaries.

The Northern Department includes the 10 sub-districts as follows :
Mackenzie, Athabaska, English River, Saskatchewan, Cumberland,
Swan River, Red River, Rainy Lake, Norway House, lastly York
District.

1st. The Mackenzie River District — This district, the most
important from the quantity and quality of its furs, includes,
besides the country surrounding Great Slave Lake, all the region
watered by Mackenzie River, properly so called, and its affluents, as
well as by the other rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean. Nearly all
this district is now, and must remain, hunting ground. With the
exception of a few isolated spots on Mackenzie River and on
Mountain River, cultivatior is impossible. The cold is every-
where intense, notwithstanding the encouraging assurances afforded
by an examination of isothermal lines multiplied by science on
certain geographical maps, and which were certainly never traced
by those who have lived in the country for any length of time.

The Mackenzie River District contains carboniferous deposits and

▼ells of mineral and bituminous pitch. Extensive calcareous
itratification is found adjacent to primitife rock.

The principal place in the district is Fort Simpson at 61'' 51'
25" N. lat, and 121° 51' 15" W. long, at the junction of Mountain
and Mackenzie Rivers. The superintendent in charge of the dis-
trict resides in this fort. Here, also, towards the end of August,
the clerks of the various posts assemble to receive instructions from
their chief, and goods for barter in the peltry trade.

Access to Mackenzie District is gained by descending the river
of the same name. The difficulties of navigation in Behring's Straits
hare hitherto prevented any attempt being made to reach
Mackenzie District by the sea. The route across the Rocky
Mountains presents the most serious difficulties amounting prac-
tically, although not absolutely, to an insurmountable barrier.
Beyond the Rocky Mountains, the Mackenzie District has a post
which we shut out, as it were, by making that great range the
western boundary of the Northern Department.

This post, — Youcan, is situated on the banks of Porcupine
River. In tracing the boundaries of the Northern Department we
neglected this post because we considered it to be on what was
lately Russian and is now United States Territory*

2d. District of Athabaska. — This district is close to the former,
bounding it on the south-east. It includes the remainder of the
North-west Territory, excepting, however, the region watered by the
upper part of Athabaska River and its affluents, from-its source to
the rapids of Deer River (^riviere d la Biche.') The greater part
of this district also is incapable of cultivation. The valley of
Peace River is a magnificent exception to this melancholy barren-
ness. On both banks of the stream there is the richest soil : the
prairie here is most fertile, and dotted with clumps of the most
useful timber.

Some points, too, on the Athabaska offer great advantages to
settlers. Nature is splendid this district : the valley of
the little * Clear-water" Rive las striking and exceptional
beauties. A view of the banks ot' the b.rge stream recalls the

It is said that since the transfer of this Territory from Russia the Hudson's
Bay Company have been directed by the United States authorities to withdraw
their establishment at Youcan — D. R. G,

grandest riverB of the world, and one finds one's self regretting the
severity of the climate, which will always be a great obstacle to the
occupation of even the cultivable parts of this vast territory.
Mineral riches, including sulphur, iron, bitumen and plumbago,
abound all over the district. I think that there are also petroleum
springs there.

The Great Athabaska River flows over immense beds of limestone
broken here and there by cliffs of slate-clay, (argillaceous schist)
■which constantly opens out to display the rich minerals it contains.
Peace River has plaster quarries and carboniferous deposits supposed
to be of great value. Gold dust, concealed in large quantities of sand,
is washed from the Rocky Mountains by its rapid stream. All
these riches,* combined with the fur supply, give Athabaska great
importance.

The importation of trading necessaries, as well as the exporta-
tion of furs from the district, has been carried on, hitherto, by means
of boats on River Athabaska and Clear-water River (la riviere de
Veau claire) which flows below the heights of Methy Portage. For
tyio years it has been customary to travel by land to Deer Lake
(?rtc la Biche) and thence to descend the river which flows out of it.
This route appears to us to be much preferable to the former. Access
to Athabaska may also be gained from the west, since Peace River
approaches very near to Fraser River ; and although by this route
it is necessary to cross the Rocky Mountains, navigation is less
interrupted than in coming by the rivers from the east.

The chief place in the Athabaska District is Fort Chipewyan,
situated about 58° 40' N. lat., 104'' 35' 15" W. long.

The fort built on the heights skirting the north of Lake Athabaska
or Little Hills Qcollinei) commands a grand view : to the east
it is vast as the ocean : to the south is seen a delightful variety of
islets against a universally verdure-covered back ground of dense
thorn forest. The north discloses the tortuous windings of ^s
Cf mpact granite confines, and the rays of the setting sun glancing
from lakelets, streamlets, sandhills and the prairies which fringe
the great lake. In summer the scene is as variegated as imposing.
Why, then, does a long winter of seven months blend all its beau-
ties into one icy monotony ?

3rc?. Lnglish Eiver DiatricL — This third district comprises
nearly all the land watered by the river of its name — the river being

also called Churchill. The neighborhood of the river's mouth
belongs to York District ; and Upper Beaver River — the western
branch of Churchill River — flows through part of the Saskatchewan
District.

In this district there are none of the riches which we described
as being found in the preceding one. Some of its surface is per-
fectly sterile, or composed of primary rock. I know of nothing
there connected with the transition period. The coal fields and
Silurian formation of the neighboring district are not seen here.
Upper Beaver River and the borders of the lakes which empty
themselves there, present some points for cultivation. The remain-
der appears to be the bottom of what was once an enormous lake, not
yet become salubrious. In other places elevated downs refer to
another period. Nowhere are lakes so numerous. Fine forests
at one time covered a part of this district : fires have destroyed
nearly all of them : their remains are still to be seen on the banks
of rivers and the borders of lakes.

Fish abound in almost all the lakes, making it easier, if not more
enjoyable, to live here than in some other places, and affording the
Aborigines an opportunity for uninterruptedly hunting for furs,
which are here of the finest quality, and abundant.

The barren country which forms the northern part of this district
is the home of the little cariboo, where they are to be found in count-
less herds.

The principal place in English River District is the post at Vile
d la Crosse on the border of a lake of the same name about 55° 25'
N.lat. and 107° 55' W. long.

English River, which flows through the district, discharges into
Hudson's Bay at Port Churchill, at one time of so much import-
ance. It appears as if the most natural route by which to enter
this district would be up this large river. We mentioned, how-
ever, in the last chapter, that difficulties and dangers of navigation
prevented this route being followed, and that access to the district is
gained by way of the Saskatchewan and its tributary. Rapid River.
A cart road open for the last two years between the Saskatchewan
and Green Lake (lac Vert') appears to offer a better route to the
northern part of the district, about which I am now talking, and
-of which the importance is exclusively confined to its peltry trade.
4iA. Saskatcheivan River District. — This extensive and important

division comprises the immense expanse of territory watered by the
two branches of the Saskatchewan and their tributaries, down to their
confluence, as well as the country of the Upper Athabaska ?>nd its
affluents. This last pa.'t, cut from the North-west Territory, is very
fine and fertile, although it is not usually included in what is called the
" fertile belt." Part of the Saskatchewan District is sterile, part prai-
rie land and part of the most fertile character, which we have called
" forest." This district may be of great value for colonization, but not
throughout its entire extent and in every respect, as we have already
said, although it includes some land of the very br-sc kind. Ever since
the discovery of the country this district of the Northern l)epartment
has presented numerous advantages. The part of this district
which is not forest land does rot supply such fine furs as the districts
to the north of it. It has, ho'vever, been of assistance to these by
famishing thoia \\'n.a supplies necessary for transport service.
The plains of Saskatchewan were, until recent y-ars, the home of
the bis«.xi (bufialo) which crowded there in coul less herds at all
seasons of the year.

The flesh of these animals has invariably furnished the food
re ^ ' .'ed ir. travelling. The most dehcate parts of the animal, being
cut into very thin slices, are dried at the fire or in the sun and are
then called dried meat (yiaade seehe) ; the rest is made drier and
pulverized, it is then called pounded mQ2ii(yiande pilSe) . Pounded
meat, mixed with melted bison suet, in the proportion of 2 to 4,
forms a kind of pie, the uncooked skin of the animal taking the
place of crust. The meat is rolled in the hide of the animal to
protect it and preserve it, oi ten for several years. Thus this curious
food — under the name of pemmican — is sent to the market, or to be
dealt with as those who wish to eat it may desire. Its name is Indian,
and implies a mixture in which fat forms the principal irgredient.

The supply of peramican, although not exhausted, is nevertheless
much diminished, and all iwiicationi lead to the belief that it will
shortly cease.

Like^all other rivers which flow from the Rocky Mountains, the
Saskatchewan carries over its clayey bed, gold dust mixed with sand.
Up to the present time this source of gold has not been very pro-
ductive. Gold is found only in the bed of the river which is frozen
( ver during six months of the year, and for three months is often over-
flowed, 30 that the time during whicii gold may be collected is

very short. The find has hitherto been so small that tho miners who
have one after another worked for many years back have despaired
of success. Gold, however, is to 1 i >und , and by making its
acquisition a secondary occupation the inhabitant of Saskatchewan
J^^y? by means of it, add to the oth< i advant^os of his 'adopted
country.

The coal mines of Saskatchewan assure it unquestionable im-
portance. The immense coal deposits are seen exposed in the cHffs
of the great river. The coal, a "though not of the best quality, is used
by the blacksmiths of the district ; and if the surface beds can thus
be utilized, those more deeply embedded will surely prove superior.

The early frosts which often destroy the harvest, and the want of
^ood required in the manufacture of implements, are the only reasons
that prevent my partaking of the enthusiasm which the excellent
land excites in many, I do not know of uny stone quarries suflS-
cient to supply the requirenflents of large settlements. Beds of
sandstone are, however, visible in the banks of the tiver. In dif-
ferent localities scattered blocks are found in great number, and
perhaps indicate the proximity of masses from which they have been
detached, in which case, there may be an ainple supply procurable
for the construction of even large works.

The Saskatchewan, like all other rivers flowing through slightly
tenacious and light prairie land, runs in a very deep bed. The
banks — several hundred feet high — are everywhere grooved by
natural drains (^CouUe) or ravines, often very narrow and
of great depth, and in which, at certain seasons of the ye«,r, water-
power can be utilized.

The principal place in Saskatchewan District is Fort Edmonton at
53° 30' N. lat. and 113° W. long.

AH this district is accessible by the large streams which travel se
it. Moreover, it is possible to travel in any direction on horseback,
and almost anywhere on wheels, with the solitary exception of the
most wooded country in the North-west.

bth. Cumberland Listrict. — Cumberland District is the basin of
the Lower Saskatchewan, from the junction of its two principal
branches down to its mouth, and of its tributaries. The chief post of
the district gives it a name. Cumberland House is on the south
border of lake Cumberland, called also Pine island Lake (lac de
Vile aux Pim) at 53° 57 N. lat. and 102° 20' W- Jong.

:i:.

The western part of the district on the Saskatchewan as far as
Cumberland House, a distance of about 200 miles, is well fitted
for settlement. The remainder of the district is either covered
with rocks or subiect to inundation, and the whole north of this part
of the district is occupied by an extensive belt of primary rocks.
Limestone strata of Silurian formation neighbor these primary
rocks, a geological phenomenon which, first appearing in the south,
is lost sight of in English River District and reappears in Athabaska
aadMackenaie River Districts.

BaBkatchewan River forms a large delta before flowing into Cedar
Lake (lac BoxrhoTi). Up to this point its waters have been strongly
charged with ciay or sand. In crossing Cedar Lake the river frees
itself from impurities, there its waters become limpid, niah in impe-
tuous waves over limestone boulders, atid all boihxig up enter Lake
Wirmipeg — where ends their race.

This large river, then, carries with it not only gold dust but great
quantities of clay ai\d sand which it deposits in its course.

It is these deposits that have successively i'orraed the land in the
neighborhood of Lake Cumberland, Cedar Lake, and Moose Lake
Q' Original} w^hich with lakeij \^innipeg, Wii:iei)egoos, Manitobah,
Dauphin and St. Martina and many others surrounding them,
formed, at perhaps no very remote period, the vast inland sea of
which these lakes were merely the deepest parts. The limestone
deposits, being the highest points, were at that time islands in the
midst of this great sheet of water; these were next coated with
Alluvial matter ai\d then withdrawn from their isolation and con-
nected with the mainland by the dtrsposits of which we have been
talking, and which are not yet healthy, for there are still in these
regions vast stretches of uninhabitable Hnd. I once went up
the Saskatchewan from Cedar Lake to Cumberland House,
where I was not able, so to speak, t^^ put foot to ground dur-
ing the whole journey, for the coimcry veas flooded with the ex-
ception of some prominent points rest-ing on limestone, and which
very clearly indicated the formation of which 1 have been speak-

ing.

' i6!ii?f|;

Cumberland restrict is not of so raiich importance as the others
to which I have alluded. It supplies some fine furs. Its innum-
erable pools are liavoiite homes of the inuijquash,, which live there in
great numbers. A portion of the district is well wooded, the rest is
interior in thiy respect.

nan

WKB^t

Qth. Swan River District. — Swan Rive* District is to the south of
Oumberiand District, and extends to the frontier of the TJnited States,
including Winepegoos and Manitobah lakes and the country watered
by the rivers flowinginto and outof these lakes, as well as thatthrough
which Assiniboine River flows to within 60 miles from its junction with
Bed River. Like its neighbor to the west, Swan District includes
•desert, prairie and forest. It is, however, of much less importance
than Saskatchewan District. Here not only is the desert sterile,
but the prairie is somewhat of the same character. It is the centre
of the prairie, of which I spoke before, and is not so valuable as
the outskirts. Its forests are of importance, and timber of greater
utility than that on the western boundary begins to appear on the
■eastern. Dauphin Mountains, Duck ( Canard) Mountain, Thunder
Hill, Porcupine Hills and Pass Mountains are well wooded. These
hills, which are connected svith Pembina Mountain, evidently formed
the western bank of the immense lake to which I referred in speak-
ing of the preceding district, and now distinctly mark the division
between the transition formation on their east and the secondary
formation of the plains on their west. Swan River District encloses
a large extent of useful land in the midst of these alluvial deposits
which are not yet sufficiently raised to be free from inundation.
Between the hills noted above and lakes Winepegoos and Manitobah,
as well as between the latter and the Great Winnipeg Lake, it may
almost be said that the land is water. Travelling there is bad,
above ail in autumn when the water is becoming cold. I shall
remember for a long time a journey I made towards the end of
October. For many days together I had to walk up to the knees
in freezing water, and more than once I got in up to my waist. The
higher points of this alluvial district are very fertile. Between
the Assiniboine and Dauphin and other mountains there are
very valuable lands, rendered all the more valuable by supplies
of timber ; the streams flowing from the heights aflfording great faci-
lities for its transport in spring.

In Swan River District, to the west and to the south of the
Assiniboine, I donot know of a single place suitable for a large set-
tlement.

In the Devonian formation of the western shores of lake Manito-
bah and Winepegoos there are very many springs strongly impreg-
nated with salt. The inhabitants obtain salt from this source by

I-

bwling the brine — a more economical result would be obtained by a
process of slow evaporation. This salt is generally used in Red
River Settlement, and is sold at from 2d to 3d a pound. It is not
equal to marine salt, nor to that of Athabaska.

So good ar« prairie roads that one may ride anywhere, or drive
even in a carriage to many places, except in the mountain and the
extreme northcm district.

Fort Pelly is the principal station in the district of Swan River.
It is situated on the banks of the Assiniboine, at a place called the
Elbow (le Coude) N. lat. 51° 43' W long. 102° 15.'

7th. Red River District. — Red River District is to the east of Swan.
River DiNlrinl nnd to ^h<^ south of Lakes Manitobah and Winnipeg.
Hod Ilivei District ia tho commercial title of the colony of Assiniboia.
It reaches along tho Assiniboine for about 60 miles from its mouth,,
and ainiig tho Ilnd Plivor from r,>mbina to Lake Winnipeg.

This district is iiriportant with reference to the fur trade, not
because it is a source of supply but because it is the only important
centre of business transactions in the country. Besides the trade-
of the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, that of its rivals is car-
ried on here, and we have already mentioned that trade is free.
All these rival traders scatter themselves from the colony, over the
neighboring districts, so that a large portion of the furs of the
Northern Department are imported into Red River Settlement, there
to be sold to the highest bidder, and thence forwarded abroad.

Besides the peltry trade, which is more important in this district
than in any of the others, general commerce here is of much conse-
quence, and a source of considerable profit, for everything is sold at
exorbitant prices, to the loss of those who may have neither the
means nor tho will to import for themselves. Everything is sold at
from 100 to 300 per cent, over the cost price in England.

To a certain extent these extreme prices are accounted for by
the great transport charges to which imported goods, more particu-
larly heavy kinde, are jsabjecf. It cannot, however, but be a source
of regret that iJw ilile of affairs chiefly affects the poorer classes
of the people ; 4n lidber are able to import for themselves.

Fort Garry, at tt^fr confluence of the Assiniboine with Red
Eivur, is at 49^ 52' K. kt. and 96° 53' W. long., 700 feet above
the level of the sea. It is the principal post of the district
fuad at the game time the s«kt of Government of the colony of
Awimboia.

\-'"^:'-^,:.m.i^::Z%

Red River District, not yet completely settled, is undoubtedly
the part of the Northern Department best suited for colonization.
Rich alluvial soil and perfectly uniform plain are universal in
me district.

In speaking of the two preceding districts I referred to the immense
lake which at one tin; e occupied all the eastern region and has since
dried up at some points. Before this drying up, the whole of Red
River District was a part of that lake ; and inundations are now suffi-
ciently frequent to assist our imagination in realizing that period,
and to prove to us the correctness of the view I advance.

The Assiniboine valley, which >7as on the western side of that
inland sea, is now nearly free from inundation.

The banks of Red River now alone suffer. Flowing through the
very centre of the basin, and its deepest part, this river drains an
enormous pbteau.

Like the Saskatchewan — Red River is muddy. The clayey
matter which it holds in su8pMfj§ion is denosited at its mouth and
forms a delta. Thoao deposits, which i constantly encroach-
ing on Lake Winnipeg, extend the valley and effect changes at
the south of the Great Lake similar to those effected by the
Saskatchewan to the west.

Here, too, the land is not yet drained ; there are swamps several
miles in extent which are gradually becoming healthy. At first
clothing themselves with reeds, then with hay and lastly form-
ing beautiful prairie, they assist, so to speak, in making the plains
we inhabit.

8^^. Raini/ Lake Piatriot, -Hie eighth district comprises the

region watered by Winnipeg River, its sources and its affluents.

This country is generally ill-suited for colonization, except on the

banks of Uaiuy Ulver, some islands on the Lake of the Wooda and

some isolated spots on Winnipeg River.

Fine ibrests, in which are many of the most useful kinds 1
timber, as I said before, give a great advantage to this section of
the country. It is, in fact, almost the only place in the Nortb*
em Department which furnishes first-class timber.

Game is here less plentiful than elsewhere. Furs are found
here as in all wooded districts.

The district also produc is wild rice, zizania aquatica, knowa
to travellers m *^ wMk 9i^.' iJ*dl^ avoine.) I am not aware that

i.i.'*

''''^4

this grain is to be found elsewhere in the country. The precious
plant grows in sluggish and shallow rivers, and is a valuable resource.
The Indians collect the grain in canoes by beating the grass with
sticks as they paddle through the crop. They heat the grain to
free it from its husk, and make soup of it. It makes an excellent
soup, and is preferred by many to common rice.

Rainy Lake District, which connects Red River Settlement with
the west of Canada, appears to be the natural route by which British
subjects would travel to this part of our Gracious Sovereign's
dominions. Roads through it have been made the subject of special
study by order of the Canadian Government. The resulting official
reports may greatly assist in enlightening the public mind ; but
I take leave to say that the difficulties appear to me to be greater and
the advantages less than they are estimated by the authors of these
reports.

The Winnipeg, like Churchill River and all others flowing over
rocks, presents very remarkable beauties.

Cataracts, waterfalls and rapids, we have said, constantly inter-
rupt navigation.

As it were in compensation these obstructions multiply the
grand and picturesque views which they are ever unfolding to
the enraptured gaze of the astonished traveller. WiUingly he
halts by cataracts to watch the roaring waters leaping down
in foaming waves, and again rushing forward to new leaps,
"dividing the flood in descending steps. Then the whirling pool
returns back on itself as if to exa'Tiine the obstacle overcome
with so great effort ; and in the violexitly agitated water, under the
falls, eddies twirl rouhd one another in wild confusion. And now,
become calm, the stream rests in mirrored lakes, to the margins
of which come rocks to admire themselves and to display the
richness and variety of their forms.

Fort Francis, at the extremity of Rainy Lake, was, for a long
lime, the principal post in the district. It has, however, ceded
■the post of honor to Fort Alexander, at the mouth of Winnipeg
^iver, only a few leagues from the mouth of Fed River.

9th. Norway House Duirict (riviere aux Brockets.) —
This district stretches to the east and to the north from Lake
"Winnipeg, to the ridge of rock?, which forms its massive boundary,
rough and rugged beauties of River Winnipeg h?,ve pre-

^■v

pared us for the wild character of the country we now enter. Resting
throughout on a bed of primary rock, hardly anything is to be
seen in this district but lakes and bare rocks. There are a few
fine woods, but only at isolated and unimportant points.

The climate is everywhere extremely severe ; the proximity of
Hudson's Bay lowers the temperature very much. The whole
tegion, too, is remarkably poor, nevertheless fish and fur-bearing
animals abound in it, but beyond these there is nothing to attract.
The traveller who arrives in summer may, indeed, enjoy himself for
a few days ; seated on bare masses of rock he may contemplate,
with some admiration, this expanse of the great Laurentian system,
the strong belt with which God has surrounded all the great lakes
of North America ; he may derive pleasure, too, from a multitude
of small lakes jewelled with thousands of islets, as various in color
as inform, and enlivened by innumerable flocks of aquatic birds flying
over and resting on them. This, doubtless, is pleasing, but when
we regard the reality of the inhabitants' quiet and monotonous life —
how desolate a country it is ! The spaces between the rocks do not
always form beautiful lakes, on the contrary they art generally
muddy and almost impassable marshes.

Many parts of the district are frozen up for nine months in the
year. I found the ground frozen a toot deep in July. One may
judge from this what is to be got out of this desolate country.

Norway House, near the mouth of the small Jack River {la riviere
aux Brockets) is the principal post in the district. The establish-
ment is about 54° N. lat. and 98° 10' W. long. Up to recent
years, that is, before a part of the trade of the country passed through
the United States, all passed by Norway House ; all the brigades
of the various districts went there ; besides, goods for the most
distant districts were stored there during the winter.

This post has now lost some of its importance ; it retains, however,
sufficient to be still one of the largest of the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany's dep6ts.

10th. — York District. The height of lands whence streams flow
directly into Hudson's Bay is the limit of York District. The large
rivers Nelson and Churchill do not rise in that ridge, but, passing
through it, enter the district.

. This is a country of desolation. A large portion of it is covered
with masses of granite ; and beds of Silurian formation close in the
flanks of this vast charnel-house.

The alluvial deposits skirting Hudson's Bay do not make a plea-
sure garden of its neighborhood. The climate there is terrible ; it
freezes in every month of the year. The proximity of arctic ice
lowers the temperature much more than might be expected in that
latitude, for the district reaches to the 53rd parallel.

York Factory, the principal post, is not at the mouth of Nelson
Kiver but at that of Hayes River, although the bay into which both
rivers flow is called Port Nelson. The geographical position of the
post is 57° N. lat. and 92° 25' W- long.

Fort Churchill, — at one time the most important place on Hud-
son's Bay, where were bi ilt strategical works of great strength for
the period, and at great cost, for the materials were drawn from
England, — is now a post of but very secondary importance. The
great diflSculty in providing firewood there makes the place almost
uninhabitable.

A straight line from Churchill to the mouth of Mackenzie's River
crosses the " Barren grounds," — the most unfortunate country in the
■world — the home of Esquimaux who can barely sustain life except
along the coast. This diagonal line, about 1,200 miles in length, has
on its north-east a great extent of country in which there is not a
single trading post — in which there is barely a trace of vegetation,
and which is known only by the reports of hardy explorers who
have suffered greatly in crossing it.

York District owes its importance to its harbors, for 20 years
ago all exports and imports passed through it. The trade of the
North-west Company and others from Canada passed by Lake Sup-
erior : whereas Hudson's Bay was the route invariably adopted by

the rival company, up to the time when the United States afforded
greater facilities.

After this sketch of the mercantile system of the Northern
Department I should like to give statistics to prove its importance.
Unfortunately my information is incomplete.

The exports, it is easy to understand, consist almost entirely
of furs. I can give the number of them bought by the Hon-
orable Hudson's Cay Company in 1865.

The table, no doubt, does not include the grand total of the fur
trade in the department. By doubling the figures for Red River
District an approximately true result will be obtained, for the pur-
chase of furs by other traders than the (company is almost entirely
confined to this district ; and, without being certain of the fact, I
believe that the Company purchases about half the quantity import-
ed into the district.

1-4

H 01 03

a 5

B «

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Black.

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Buffalo liobes.

Ermines.

Blue.

Silver.

Cross.

Red.

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White.

Kitt.

i § H

e ft e

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P6kan or Fisher.

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2 £3

Minks.

Musquash.

8 : : :::::: g | Musk-Ox.

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Otters.

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Racoons.

Skunks.

Marmots.

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-1 en

Wolves.

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to M (U _ lU lU -3

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Squirrels.

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.;(;?.>];

CHAPTER V.

BBLIGI0U8 DIVISION.

Under this title we would enumerate the different fields assigned
to those charged with preaching the Gospel in the Northern Depart-
ment, and also the different reUgious denominations which are to be
found in the country, at least those in it having ministers and con-
gregations.

The Roman Catholic Church here, as elsewhere, was the first to<
establish missions.

The jurisdiction of the Bishop of Quebec extended over all this
country from its discovery down to 1844. From 1822 to the last
mentioned year jurisdiction was exercised through the agency of
an assistant. It was then the Holy See erected it into a vicarship
to make a regular bishopric of it in 1847.

The diocese of St. Boniface included all the Northern Depart-
ment until 1862, at which date its incumbent had it divided by the
erection of the Mackenzie River vicarship. Thus matters remained
until 1867. The Bishop of St. Boniface, being at Rome, asked
for a new division of the diocese, proposing the creation of a Sas-
katchewan River vicarship or a diocese of St. Albert. The request
was favorably received and the Holy See promised to grant it, so«
that we may now say that the Roman Catholic Church has entrust-
ed the Northern Department to the jurisdiction of three prelates r

Ist, the Bishop of St. Boniface.

2nd, the Vicar of Mackenzie River.

3rd, the Vicar of Saskatchewan, or the Bishop of St. Albert.

The English Church has sent clergy into the country since 1820.
In 1844 the Anglican Lord Bishop of Quebec visited the colony of
Assiniboia, and his influence obtained the creation of a bishopric in
this vast territory. In 1849 the first Anglican Bishop arrived at
Red River with Royal Letters Patent, conferring upon him the title-,
of Lord Bishop of Rupert's Land. The jurisdiction of this prelate.

such as the English Church is able to confer on its Colonial Bishops^
extends not only throughout the Northern Department, but, as his
title indicates, over the whole of Rupert's Land. His Lordship
selected for his cathedral the church of St. John in the centre of
the colony of Assiniboia, not more than a couple of miles from the
cathedral of St. Boniface.

After the Episcopalians came the Wesleyan Methodists, who arriv-
ed in 1840 from Canada. They immediately selected several stallions
which they still occupy, and have since added others.

Lastly, in 1851, there came a Presbyterian clergyman from
Canada, to take charge of a congregation of 300 of his church
who had hitherto been attending the English Church. From the
establishment of the colony the Scotch had been begging for a
clergyman, but it was not until now that one was sent to them.
And, although they were the first colonists to occupy the soil, the
richest farmers and the most independent, they were the last to
have a minister and a church.

The three Protestants sects to wul^h I have alluded have
branches in the interior of the country.

In the synoptic table which follows I enumerate all the posts or
centres of congregations in the country. The following abbrevia-
tions are used : s , ,

M.C. — Places at which there are Roman Catholic Missions.
A. — " " " Anglican Episcopalians.

M. — " " « Methodists.

P. — " " " Presbyterians.

I. DIOCESE OF ST. BONIFACE.

The bishop of this diocese, whose cathedral is at St. Boniface,,
holds jurisdiction over ^

1st — Red River Valley,

2nd — Lower Assiniboine Valley,

3rd — Swan River District,

4th — Rainy Lake District,

6th — Norway House District,

6th — The part of York District of which the streams do not flow
into River Churchill. "

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I. The Valley of Red
River.

II. Lower Assini-
BoiNE River.

III. Swan River Dis-
trict.

IV. Rainy Lake Dis-
trict.

V. Norway House
District.

^ L'Assomption M. C.

Ste. Agathe M. C.

St. Norbert M. 0.

St. Vital M. C.

St. Boniface M.C. A.M.P.

Ste. Anne (or la Seine. .
<( River) . M. C

St. John M. C. A.

Kildonan P.

St. Paul M. C. A.

St. Andrew A. P.

St. Clement A.

^ St. Peter M. C- A.

St. Mary A.

St. Margaret A.

St. Ann A. M. P.

St. Paul M. C.

St. Francois Xavier. . . .M. C.

Trinity Church A. M. P.

St. Charles .M. C.

^ St. James M. C. A. M.

FortPelly A.

TJiunderHill A.

Egg Lake

Calling Lake M. C.

Fort EUice A.

Shoal River M. C- A.

Duck bay M- C-

Water-hen River(PoMZe- .

oteau) M. C.

Fairfort A.

Manitobah M. 0. A.

White River M C. A.

Oak Point M. C.

^ St. Lawrence M. C-

^ Fort Alexander M, C. A.

Eagle's Nest

Islington A.

Rat Portage

Fort Francis M. C.

Lake Seul M. C

Norway House M. C.

Split Lake (lac Fendu) . .

Nelson River

Beren's River

^ Great Rapid '

.M.P.

VI. York District.

^ York Factory A.

Severn

Trout Lake

< Oxford House M.

Jackson Bay

God's Lake

Iron Lake.

VICARSHIP OF MACKENZIE RIVER.

This vicarship includes :
1st. — Mackeni:,ie River District,
2nd — Athabaska District,

The Providence Mission, on the banks of Mackenzie River at the
outflow of Great Slave Lake, is the head quarters of the vicarship.

I. Mackenzie River
District.

^ Fort Resolution .

Fort Rea

Big Island.. .

Providence . . .

Fort Simpson .

Liard Fort. . . .
I Fort Norman ..

Great Bear Lake

Fort Good Hope .

Peel's River . . . .

Stone House

^ Fort Youcan . . . .

Fort Chipewyan. .

II. Athabaska Dis-
trict.

Fond du Lac .
Vermillion Fort.
Dunvagan ....
Fort St. John. .

..M. C.
..M. C.
..M. C.
. .M. C.
..M. C. A.
..M. C.
..M. C. A.
..M. C. A.
..M. C.
..M. C. A.
..M. C.A.

..M. C.
..M. C.
..M. C.
..M. C.
..M. C.

THE SASKATCHEWAN VICARSHIP.

The bishop to whom is entrusted this portion of our Lord's vine-
yard has zealously labored and exercised authority

1st — In Saskatchewan River District,

2nd — In English River District,

3rd — In Cumberland District,

4th — In the western part of York District watered by the streams
flowing into Churchill River.

I. Saskatchewan Ri-
ver District.

Fort Jasper

Little Slave Lake
Ste. Anne Lake.
Deer Lake ....
Mountain House

Turtle Lake

Buffalo Lake

Boeuf)

Fort Edmonton . .

St. Albert

Victoria

White Fish Lake.

St. Paul

Fort Pitt

Fort Carlton ....
Prince Albert....

....M. a

. . . . M. \jt

M. C.

. ..M. C.

M. C.

....M.

du
.... M. \j%
M. C. M,

. . . t JM. \j,

...M.

. . . . JXL. \j,

. ...M. C.

. • • . JM. \j,
....P.

II- English River
District.

Crosse Island {Vile d la

Crosse J M. C.

Me thy Portage (^ Portage

d la Loohe) M. C.

Green Lake (iac Vert) . . .M. C.

Cold Lake M. C.

Stanley A.

Cariboo Lake M. C.

Fond du Lac M. C.

III. Cumberland Dis-
trict.

IV. York District,
Western Part.

Nepowewin A.

Cumberland A.

Pas A.

L'Orignal Lake

(or Moose Lake)

^ Grand Rapid

Churchill.

CHAPTER VI.

U]'

POPULATION.

The study of the populauoii of the Northern Department pre-
sents a vast field of interest to thoughtful minds. It presents
a remarkable mixture and combination of races.

Diversity of origin and variety of language impart a distinct
character to our people.

Fourteen civilized nations and twenty-two Indian tribes, with
Half-breeds — the offspring of intermarriage between these different
races, have scattered over the immense territory, about which I
em writing, the extremely small population inhabiting it.

I shall first say something about the foreigners, next I
shall speak of those of mixed parentage, and, lastly, I shall treat
of the Aborigines or Indians.

THE FOREIGNERS.

Scotland and the Orkney Isles have supplied the strongest con-
tingent to the foreign population of the Northern Department.
The greatest number of the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company's
superior officers are Scotch. The Red River colony speaks with
considerable pride of its" Scotch Settlement" ; and nearly all the
stations in the interior, even those in the most remote parts of the
country, have some Orkney men as employes.

Alongside this first foreign element of populat on, range the
French Canadians, who are, however, very differently situated.

Discovered and occupied by Canadi s before the conquest of La
Nouvelle France by England, the country has k-st its original
owners. Ruined by the fortune of war our fore athers saw them-
selves stripped of all they possessed here, as it ' rere in the very
heart of their country ; conquered, in spite of their heroism, they
were forced to submit to the consequences of defeat and to serve
their new masters, v ' •^- '' - '^ '^ ' ^-

Companies, called English but generally composed of Scotchmen,
were formed in Canada to continue to make the most of the rich
furs of the forests of the north. Necessity obliged them at first to
accept the co-operation of French Canadians, who maintained their
influence by the share they took in the working of the companies.
Imperceptibly the French Canadians withdrew th3mselves or were
shut out from lucrative appointments. It was, nevertheless,
advisable to retain the French Canadian element to perform the
work of that body of hardy and active voyageurs who were then
without rivals. A knowledge of the French language was even
required of all who entered the service of the North-west Com-
pany. All officers had occasion to use French in conveying orders
to their subalterns who spoke no other language. The mainte-
nance of the readily acknowledged prestige which the discoverers
of the country knew how to win from the Indians seemed, too, to
require the use of French. This circumstance explains how, after
the Scotch, the French Canadian element is the most important.

The other countries which have supplied a portion of our popu-
lation are England, Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, France, Nor-
way, Italy, the United States, Mexico and Central America. It
would be useless to study the distinctive characters of people from
each of these countries ; they are sufficiently well known, although
the exceptional circumstances of our lives modify them in a peculiar
manner.

A few individuals from the neighboring great Republic are
here ; but the American element has produced no marked effect.
If the Americans form a party it is only with a view to celebrating
the 4th of July, to smile at the thought, more or less serious, that
one of these days we shall be theirs, to accumulate a fortune, if
there be means of so doing withou*- too much exertion, and, in a
few cases, to join with some disaffected individuals from the Pro-
vince of Ontario to make common complaint about the state of the
country ; at the same time clearly indicating their conviction that
all would be well if only their own interests were more favored.

Although many nations contribute to our population, our commu-
nity is divided into only two sections, the French and the English.

This nomenclature does not uniformly point to nationality, but
refers to the languages spoken, and embraces those who have been
grouped with one or other of these divisions by special circumstances.

The so-called Engliih population occupies a more important-
place in our midst than does that in which the French element pre-
dominates. It is not difficult to understand the cause of tliis
difference. Greater opulence is naturally the share of the English,
for from their ranks are drawn the superior officers of the Hudson's
Bay Company, and it is under the shadow of its wings that they
retire in the decline of life, electing to remain in their adopted
country rather than to return to their native land. Another reason
for the greater prosperity of the English is that they include a
great majority of the women who come from abroad. The French,
who founded Red River Settlement,* and who have passed away, had
with them only four Canadian women. Whoever has seen the
gentle, sweet and pious influence of our mothers, in our happy and
well-ordered Canadian homes, will readily appreciate the great
void there is among our French people from the want of women's
influence in their family circles. In speaking of this section it is
more correct to talk of individuals than of families, for the French
or French Canadian family did either not exist or were so few thatj
they could not form society.

At first, too, the English had also the advantage of superior
education, the natural result of the causes to which we have just
alluded, as originating their superiority in some other respects.

The French population of the Department of the North console
themselves for their inferiority with the reflection that there is a law
of universal compensation. If their " rSle" has been a secondary
one, they have kept in the second place on many occasions when to
shine in the first was no subject for boasting.

Recruited from the lower ranks of their native country this little
people has many faults with which to reproach itself. It justly
felicitates itself, howeyer, on having retained so much of its early
education as to be incapable, at least with premeditation and delibera-
tion, of much that the indifference of others render? easy and natu-
ral. Poor and despised since long ago, this peop! ;> is aided by
traditional history to console itself under contempt Wi 'h it believes

* Red River Settlement was founded in 1812 by the Earl of Selkirk, who sent
out several Scotch families in that year. On the 18th July, 1817, the land on
which the settlement is established, was first bought from the Indians by the
Earl, who subsequently transferred his purchased title to the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company. D.R. C. .^ '''^■-''-' ^•-'':-^:'~^ J:.:^-'^-4iM

'dill

F''

in certain respects to be an honor. Besides, his experience must be
very limited who thinks all advantages are concentrated on one point
and all wretchedness enclosed within so small a circle. The cold
contempt of national pride is often a most fruitful subject for merry
and witty joking by those who are despised, and one must not
wonder at what the different classes of our population say and think
of one another. Indeed, there is probably no other place on earth
"where so much harmony prevails amongst people of different origin.
Not only is there no antagonism, but, as an almost invariable rule, it
may be said that all feel like brothers and endeavor to rival one
another in good deeds. Only last week a respectable old man,
talking to me of this smoothness of intercourse between the different
sections of our population, said " I have been very often among the
French ; I have but onu thing against them, they have constantly
endeavored to kill me with politeness and kindness. And the
French when speaking of their good neighbors, the Scotch, have
always been careful to add, " They are indeed nice people ; they
are so agreeable when met on the road, and so hospitable in their
houses."

I thought it of importance to establish the existence of good feel-
ing because the events which occurred half a century ago might
naturally create a very different impression. At that time two great
rival companies competed for the fur trade. The North-west Company
formed of, or at least directed by, Scotchmen, required that its
members should speak French, and all its junior employes were
French Canadians, so that the Company appeared to be a continuation
of that formerly established in Nouvelle France. The Indians, when
referring to this Company, always spoke of its members as " the
French." The English, on the contrary, was the designation univer-
sally used in referring to the members of the Hudson's Bay Company,
although its officers were generally Scotch and its employes Orkney
men. Commercial interests produced bitter rivalry, so bitter indeed
that the word Englishman applied by a Scotchman of the North-
west Company to a fellow-countryman of the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany became a term of contempt.

The employes of the rival companies, without being more zealous
than their chiefs, — as sometimes happens, but was now almost impos-
sible — shared with them their animosity, cordially hated one another
and regarded their opponents with supreme contempt. Neverthe-

less it is deserving of special notice that national rivalry did not exist,
although the epithets used might lead to a contrary conclusion. The
contest was simply commercial rivalry. It ended in the amalgamation
of the companies; and since that event French, English, Scotch and
others form one people amongst whom reigns perfect entente cordiaU'
This, however, does not prevent the occurrence of little jealousies
and trifling accusations, but the accusations and jealousies are such
as occur between brothers.

A newspaper is published in the colony, and although it is in Eng-
lish, and almost entirely supported by the English-speaking popula-
tion, whatever other faults may be attributed to it, we must injustice
say that all those who have filled its editorial chair have had the
good sense to avoid all questions likely to provoke unfortunate dis-
putes involving nationality, which could only serve to injure the
people and to check the growth of their prosperity.

I would gladly hold this example up to numerous newspapers in
other countries, where they appear to require the sacrifice of some
of their fellow-countrymen, that on the ruin they may build up the
reputation of their own special nationality.

The foreign population of the Northern Department does not
exceed 4,000.

THE HALF-BREEDS.

This is the name given to all inhabitants of mixed origin, more
particularly to those tracing their parentage to both civilized nations
and Indian tribes.

We me^itioned in the foregoing part of this chapter that there
are representatives of fourteen civilized nations and of twenty-two
Indian tribes amongst the inhabitants. Marriages are contracted
between the men of the difierent nations and the women of the differ-
ent tribes.

The offspring of these alliances or their descendants, however
traccJ, are called Half-breeds, in French, metis ; some English
authors use the term Half-blood, an expression not used in this
country and applic Me in a literal sense to only such of the Half-
breeds as are equally aUied to Indians and to white races. It is
plain, relationship cannot be thus equally distributed in all cases.
In some instances the term Quadroon is applied to those having only

one-fourth of the blood in their veins Indian ; as, for example, those
of whom one grandmother is Indian. We use the word Half-breed
to designate all who, not being pure Indians, are related to
them in any degree. It matters not from what tribe the mother
may spring, no allusion is ever made to such a distinction. With
reference to paternal descent, however, the Half-breeds of the Nor-
thern Department, just as is the case with the foreign inhabitants,
are divided into two classes distinguished as '* French " or Canadian
Half-breeds and English Half-breeds.

This classification is principally based upon the language spoken,
and is such that we may find Sutherlands and Greys amongst the
French Half-brueds, and Lamberts and Parisiens amongst the Eng-
lish. Chance circumstances have imported people of various origin
into one or other of these two classes. A small colony of Iroquois
from Canada went to the Rocky Mountains. There they allied
themselves with the tribes of the locality, and, curious to relate,
the ofispring of these alliances are classed among our Half-breeds.
The desc 3ndants of those saAage warriors who made our forefathers
in their pioneer Canadian homes, tremble for their lives, in whoso
veins there flows not a drop of white man's blood, are called French
Half-breeds.

The poor Iroquois owing their escape from barbarism to the
Roman Catholic faith carried it with them from Canada. Isolated
in the Rocky Mountains in the midst of tribes hitherto entirely
infidel, they did not neglect the precious gift they had received,
they transmitted it to their children, offspring of their marriage with
the infidel tribes ; and a few hundred of these Iroquois Half-breeds
waited onlj^ for the arrival of priests to complete the religious educa-
tion of which they learnt the first lessons from their brothers on the
laps of their infidel mothers. It is this circumstance which connects
them with the French Half-breeds, with whom they mingle and com-
bine as one race of people. Before we discuss the differences which
may mark the Half-breeds of different origins I desire to speak of
Half-breeds generally.

The Northern Department contains about 15,000 Half-breeds.
Abroad the term Half-breeds, or descendants from Indians, is under-
stood by many, I know, in no very complimentary sense. Here it is
far otherwise : our Half-breeds are not an inferior race. Far from
blushing for their origin they are proud of it, and are simply

imbued with the same feeUng of superiority over other races, even
the most civilized, that these experience towards one another.

A Frenchman is aiway proud of his birth because he belongs to
" the Great Nation." An Englishman puffs himself out with his
good luck on having had his cradle lit up bj the rays of " powerful
Albion's" sun ; and who can describe the Spaniard's feelings of noble
pride as he tells his children of the glories of " Ancient Castillo ?"
This sentiment of national pride God has implanted in us for our
gratification. That which is most loved — loved first — is it not
one's home, one's country ? Justifiable pride, and the love of all
that God has rendered dear to us, permit all men without offence
to any, to sing :

" Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam,
Be It ever so iiumble there's no place like home.''

or, agam-

" Lives there the man with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
This is my own, my native, land."

This pride of birth I willingly allow in others as I claim it for
myself; besides I am far, very far, from reproaching our Half-breeds
for their feeling. Every race has its share of good qu'^lities, as have
all the poor children of Adam their share of misery, and this
whether we regard them collectively or single out individuals.

The Half-breeds are a race of handsome men, large, strong and
well made ; although generally swarthy, a great many of them are
very fair, shewing no sign of Indian extraction.

The Half-breeds are intrepid and indefatigable travellers, and
their strength and agility are surprising. In their winter journeys
they usually run, and rarely shew signs of fatigue. Their summer
journeys, especially such as are made in boats, demand of them
double exertion, to which they are equal. The Half-breeds appear
to possess an instinct peculiarly Indian, and which other people
hardly ever possess ; it is the power to steer across forests and
prairies without any information other than a knowledge of the
general lay of the country which is insufficient for all others, and
they cannot always satisfactorily explain their power to themselves.
They are nearly all remarkable for great power of observation :

100

i'll

nothing escapes their eye, and it may bo said that all they hav^
seen remains indelibly graven on their minds. IIow often I have
been surprised, in travelling, by hearing ray companions calling
out, in the middle of a dense forest, for example : " I passed by
hero three or four years ago and there was a branch of such a
shape on this tree, it has disappeared," or, arriving at a rapid,
which they had seen only once or twice : " Take care, there was a
sharp stone here ; as the water is low this year, it may injure the
boat." On the vast prairies they appear to recall the slightest
accidents of the ground, and if they are asked for information they
give a description such as a proprietor could, with diflSculty, give
about his own small holding ; and, after very minute details, they
complete your surprise by adding : " I don't know that place well,
I was only once there, a long time ago." A glance is sufficient to
enable them afterwards to recognize all the horses of a largo herd
which does not belong to them, and after a considerable lapse of
time they can tell the diffeiencea between one horse of the herd
and another which they may or may 'not have seen at the same
time. This is sufficient evidence of their keenness of observation.
Besides, without appearing to be taking notice, they eye a man and
estimate his character with surprising ease and correctness.

Last a^'tumnl arrived at St. Cloud with seven new missionaries.
The Half-breeds who came to meet us were at the Railway station ;
they desired to pay their respects to my companions and remained
for a few minutes on the platform in the midst of the crowd and
bustle on the arrival of the train. I then went away with them to
visit their camp. How great was my surprise to hear from my
guide, his opinion — shared by his companions, who had seen us arrve,
— of my party. In the course of the few minutes which had elapsed
they had so correctly scanned my fellow-travellers that we were all
very much astonished to recognize the accuracy of their opinion of
us formed at a glance.

Their facility of observation is a source- of true enjoyment to our
Half-breeds, particularly when a stranger comes amongst them
■who holds himself aloof for fear of expressing the contempt in
which his conceit holds all that is Indian. The curiosity of our
men seizes on his appearance, and with quiet and unconcerned
manners they study the unsuspecting stranger ; then removing the
varnish of civilization they clothe him according to their fancy.

101

I dcclaro that, many a time, I have had to burst out laughing on
hearing the waggish jests, full of wit and humor, excited in their
observing minds by pedantry.

Our good children of the North arc not deficient in wit ; it may
be said, too, that they arc intelligent. Those of the llalf-brcoda
who havo had opportunities for self-instruction have generally
shewn marked talent, and in the dififerent ranks of society they
are seen fiiiing the offices entrusted to them with honor. They
learn languages with astonishing case. As a rule they display
more dexterity and diversified resource than the great number of
men of their own social standing with whom they come in contact.
It is in travelling that one has occasion to admire these qualities,
without which it would be impossible to extricate oneself from the
difficulties to be met with in crossing the vast sohtudes which wo
have to traverse. Many engineers or even ingenious officers might
here learn useful lessons. The skill of the Half-breeds as mounted
hunters is probably unequalled.

These various points of superiority, which strikingly shew them-
selves in their numerous journeys with strangers, compensate our
Half-breeds for the little humiliations to which they are occasionally
obliged to submit, and largely assist in making them contented
with their lot.

To these mental characteristics are added many natural signs of
warm-heartedness. Half-breeds are not malicious, on the contrary
they are generally very tender-hearted. Generous to excess, they
do not hesitate to deprive themselves, even ot ecessaries, to
relieve not only those whom they like, but also strp.ugers who are
nothing to them and whom they may never see again.

HospitaUty, so acceptable to the poor wayfarer, is ^^ par excel-
lence " a Half-breed virtue. They say themselves, and they verify
their saying, " that it is impossible to eat in the presence of any-
one without offering them a share, even if it be but of a mouthful."

Accustomed from their infancy to journeys and prolonged
absence, they still love their relations, and always experience
renewed happiness on returning to their homes.
. Half-breed families are generally large, and this is enough to
shew the falsehood and absurdity of those who assert that Indians
are a different species from civilized races, assigning as proof of
their assertion, the extinction of Half-breed families when left to

102

themselves. I would not have noticed this nonsense, had it not
been seriously written by men who should have known better.

Half-breeds love their children very much ; I am sorry I cannot
say that +hey love them well. The mothers especially too often
sacrifice the true welfare of their children for the delight of
watching them, in fear of rebuking them and bringing them up
properly. Whatever the character of the affection, it is certainly
very strong and sincere, and sc much the more disinterested since,
in not a few cases, the love is unreturned.

Another happy trait in the character of oi»r dear Half-breeds is
their patience under trials ; when others would fly into a passion,
swear and blaspheme, they laugh, joke, and suffer their misfortune
with the best grace. Co- jparatively great losses are also submitted
to with large mind.

Theft is a crime scarcely if at all known amongst Half-breeds.
The fact is that the coming of strangers has alone obliged us to-
protect ourselves with lock and key. Even in the centre of Red
River Settlement, and without any kind of police, cases of theft are
extremely rare. Thousands of articles easy to steal and conceal
are left about everywhere without care, and their loss is quite
exceptional.

Blasphemy, unfortunately as frequent as shocking from the lips
of a great many Christians, is hardly ever heard in Half-breed
meetings. It is indeed very diflficult to express the sadness which
overtakes me on thi i account when obliged to travel in so-railed
civilized countries, and particularly in the United States.

I like to authonticate these characteristics, because their enu-
meration alone is the best possible refutation of the false accusations
often brought forward against those of whom we are writing.

" This picture is not at all black," some one may say ; " amongst
its shadows there is even a profusion of light." The picture is not
complete ; to finish it shadows must be added, and the love that I
bear to the Half-breeds, who know that they are dear to me, allows
me, without fear, to enter on the delicate task of enumerating
their faults.

The most striking fault of the Half-breeds appears to me to bo
the ease with which they resign themselves to the allurements of
pleasure. Of lively disposition, ardent and playful, gratification is a
necessity to them, and if a source of pleasure presents itself they

103

sacrifice everything for iis enjoyment. Hence a great waste of
time, and a disregard, often too easy, of important duties ; hence
frivolity and unsteadinesu of character which appear to be the
natur"vl index of graver vices than those with which they can truly
be charged.

This love of enjoyment too often makes them drunkards, they
drink to amuse themselves, and yet, almost invariably, drunkenness
deprives them of their ordinary gentleness and drives them to
deplorable excesses. Drunkenness, in the case of most of those
^ving themselves up to it, is madness. They scream, they shout,
they fight, they tear themselves and then they drop tears of
remorse. Love of pleasure necessarily does away with self-cou-
straint. Work is too much of a restraint, and too often there is
indolence. They lounge about seeking pleasure when they hope to
meet with gratification, and again they lounge about that they may
enjoy doing nothing. Generous hospitality encourages the evil,
and the loungers pass from house to house, certain of an invitation
to enter. Not always sufficiently considerate in accepting proffered
hospitality, they sometimes install themselves, for a week at a time,
where their presence is often not desired.

The open air which one breathes, the unbounded liberty enjoyed
in this country, and the ease of living in one way or another, all
these inspire the minds and hearts of our youth with a passionate
love of freedom. At 15 years of age they consider themselves
men, and boldly enter on their parts. If dissatisfied with the
paternal roof they leave it ; if under engagements they dislike, they
break the ties without scruple ; if it is their bad luck to be at school,
they immediately fly from it ; in short, they are free and will not
sufier restraint. We may add that their poor home education, due
principally to the mother's want of firmness, is far from counter-
acting this unfortunate disposition. This kind of unsteadiness of
character is nursed and developed by the journeys which are a
necessity peculiar to our position. It is this sa.ne diapopition that
explains why mechanical arts are so little cultivated oy our Half-
breeds. We said above that they display great dexterity and
variety of resource, they accomplish more or less perfectly all that
their inclination leads them to undertake. They are ingenious and
skilful, and if trained would become superior artizans ; but, to
axrive at this they would have to submit to restraint, personal

104

inconvenience, and the regular service of apprDnticeship, too great
sacrifices to be expected of our youth. Our mechanics are nearly
all foreigners. '* '''''^' v^*.-.H_'^^t.' r-:t-t

This yielding to the temptation of the moment, this lack of self-
control, does not render our Half-breeds vicious, mischievous, or
hurtful to others, but makes them often too thoughtless and im-
provident, and deprives them of a share of the many advantages
•which the present condition of the country oifers for their
acceptance.

Too often I have heard parents justly complain of the ingratitude
of their sons. This reproach is not generally applicable to the
daughters. These return the affection lavished on them by their
mothers, blind though it often is.

The foregoing long list of characteristics and faults, is the result of
my observation during twenty-three years of daily intercourse with
Half-breeds of various origin. These traits of character are not
peculiar to French Half-breeds, but belong as well to others. In
writing these lines I am not ignorant of the impression they will
make on the minds of certain persons who may read them. I know
iihat they will readily take advantage of my evidence to prove, and
even to exaggerate the weaknesses of the Half-breeds, especially of
the French. To men thus disposed I will say, and repeat as often
as may be necessary, that their version would be a misrepresentation
of my experience and feeling. I esteem the English Half-breeds,
"but they will excuse me for asserting that in character they are in
nowise the superiors of their fellow-countrymen, the French Half-
breeds. The latter have been despised, vilified, and accused, often
unfairly and unjustly. These charges, when their source is known,
lose all their force, or rather react with full power upon those who
originated them. I shall mention but two examples : On my arrival
in the country I read letters written by a man who had achieved
some celebrity. In these letters, the writer, after expressing great
contempt for the French Half-breeds, continued nearly in the follow-
ing words :

" They (the English Half-breeds) have more self-respect than
the French. The latter don't hesitate to marry Indian women ; tho
former regard such marriages with abhorrence."

Were I capable of rejoicing at evil, my national pride, wounded
by this insulting sentence, would be amply revenged in the knowledge

m
III

self-
, or

105

that the author of those words, so full of apparent dignity, fit tho
very time he was wriimg them, taking advantage of her senseless-
ness was the paramour of one of the most disgusting of Indian
women, and she has left him two children to inherit his noble name.
-' I have here a work entitled " Journey from the Atla,ntic to the
Pacific." This, in many respects, interesting work has enjoyed a
considerable circulation, and has even been translated. I knew
the Journey before it was printed, for the author had already
put his experience in " black and white" in this country. Many
things in this account, published in Europe, have caused me surprise.
The following passage has excited my profound contempt : " The
French Half-breeds, being intensely superstitious, and firm
believers in dreams, omens and warnings, are apt disciples of the
Romish faith. Completely under the influence of the priests
in most repects, and observing the outward forms of their religion
with great regularity, they are yet grossly immoral, often dishonest,
and generally not trustworthy. - v, ,..>••.>

' Without recalling to the aathors' minds many cirumatances of
which they wore not ignorant, and which should have reminded them
that gross immorality is not assignable only to French Half-breeds,
I dare fearlessly assert that it would be difficult to find so much
falsehood and error contained in so few lines as these.

Often in remarking the unjust opinions written on this subject, I
have been persuaded that the Pharisees of to-day are as the Phar-
isees of old, and the words of our Divine Master addressed to the
former, may be used to the latter : " Thou hypocrite, cast out first
the beam out of thine own eye, and then shall thou see clearly to
pull out the mote that is in thy brother's eye." Without going more
into detail, I am happy to assert that, on the whole, the morality of
French Half-breeds generally, and when they have embraced Chris-
tianity, places them on an equality with virtuous people. And, as
regards superstition, if that which is said of the working classes in
England be true, our Half-breeds are much less superstitious tnan
they are.

Leaving the question of morality, if we enquire into the sociol
condition of French Half-breeds we shall discover a weak side. From
this point of view they are inferior, in the first place, for the reasons
we indicated in speaking of the foreign population, and next in con-
sequence of peculiar circumstances affecting tLe»i'i.

'ikm

s'm

106

The greatest social crime of our French Half-breeds is that they
are hunters. All cannot be accused of this fault, if we mizst thus
designate a natural taste, for amongst them there are some who have
never done anything else than cultivate their land. However this may
be, it is certain that their life of adventure is very prejudicial to our
population. Fully sensible of the fearful crisis through which we must
pass when buffalo hunting fails, I cannot but hope for the cessation of
these hunting excursions, which, by their natural, easy and somewhat
remunerative allurements, withdraw a great number of our people
from their homes. Born very often on the prairies, brought up in
distant and adventurous excursions, horsemen and re')dy marksmen
from their very infancy, it is not very surprising that the Half-breeds
are passionately fond of hunting, and prefer it to the quiet, regular
and monotonous life of the farmer.

In estimating them it is too common to neglect the exceptional
circumstances in which they live, and to attribute to peculiarity of
disposition that which is but the effect of the accidental influences
to which they are subjected, and which would act in like manner
upon any race of men. It is easy to convince one's self of the
truth of this statement by observing the great difference there is
between Half-bfceds of the same origin, or even of the same family,
according to the variety of circumstances affecting them.

I know Half-breeds, excellent farmers and upright merx, at Red
River, whose brothers, brought up in the interior of the country,
are ^nly hunters differing little from Indians of the lowest stamp.
The social condition of a certain number of the English Half-breeds,
similarly situated to our French Half-breeds, is in no way superior
to theirs. It is the different circumstances surrounding the English
Half-breeds which accounts for theu' different social standing, with-
out their being superior, naturally or in character, to their brethren.

Many of the English Half-breeds, being sons of rich parents, have
naturally been well educated, and have received some means which,
of course, has helped them in not trusting entirely to hunting for their
livelihood. I repeat, that the English population having early
received a large share of civilized womens' influence, the English
Half-breeds have naturally participated in the influence, and sooner
acquired habits of husbandry. Let us again say to those who reflect,
that the French population, and, ^^ a fortiori,'' the French Half-breed
population, were deprived almost entirely of the important influence

^^41

'! u

107

of civilized women until the arrival of sisters of charity in th&
country ; for, as we have already said, there were only four French
Canadian women in the country up to this period, while English
women and Scotch-women were in sufficient numbers. This fact
alone will account for many things, without having recourse to gross^
and false accusations poured forth by narrow-minded national pride
or by deplorable religious fanaticism.

The death of Governor Semple and his men, killed in 1816, has
been the theme of many charges brought against the French Half-
breeds or " BoiB-Br'Oles" We shall say further on, when talking
of the history of the country, what we think of this deplorable event,
and on whom the responsibility should rest. For the present we
merely wish to shew that this event proves nothing against the
character of our population, and still less against the Roman Catholic
religion now professed by the majority of the " Bois BrAlSs." At
that time not one of them had been baptized, not one of them had
had the least opportunity for experiencing religious influence . and,
moreover, an isolated fact can never be an index to the character of
any people.

Admitting that the tragedy to which allusion is made merits all
the horror with which the most violent enemies of the " Bois BrUUs'^
regard it, nothing can be deduced from it. Of what nation and of
what race of men is the whole history without a blot ? The French
of to-day, are they to be reproached with the deeds of ancient Gaul ?
The proud Anglo-Saxons, found they their claims to glory in the
doings of the conquerors of Britannia ? Or, must they not cast a veil
over a multitude, ay, a series of deeds far more hateful than the
struggle of the 14th June, 1816 ? It is very unjust, then, to
search out from the annals of the country an event which occurred
in years gone by, when the Half-breeds, such as they then were, had
no knowledge of Christianity, and on it to found a charge against
those who have since experienced the sweet and improving influence
of religion, and who now, we repeat, are a virtuous people.

In order to criticise anew, I reproduce the opinion of Sir John
Richardson, given in his " Arctic Searching Expedition." At pages
273 and 284 he says : " In character the Half-breeds vary according
to their paternity, the descendants of the Orkney laborers being
generally steady, provident agriculturists of the Protestant faith ;
while the children of the Roman Catholic Canadian voyagers have

t ,'

108

much of the levity and thoughtlessness of their fathers combined
■with that inability to resist temptation which is common to the
two races from which they are sprung." I regret that this sen-
tence was written by so distinguished an author.

Such unjust opinions can only be accounted for by traditional
prejudice pervading a certain class and appearing in a stereotyped
form in all their writings. No, no, the Half-breeds do not thus
vary in character according to their paternity ; and if to this cause
must be attributed so powerful an influence, this would not be
its effect. I wiUingly allow that the Orkney laborers may
merit all the praise given to them ; but I cannot quietly suffer the
abuse and calumny lavished on others who are equally praise-

■ worthy. ■'^' -><,'i,,T>...-i ^r)' :'■>.: J :h^: r..-i:',''-r -y^h v.<»..';- , ^-;:v»'::v "-■ ■f-,W^3'>:-

There ic too much nobility in French blood that it should be thus
despised ; and, at the risk of finding all our detractors opposed to
me, I say, and I know it to be true, that French Half-breeds are
not a degenerate race.

The surroundings of my birth and my life, the direction given to
my thoughts, the aspirations of my heart and mind, all that I know
of my fellow-countrymen and of their children, prevent my hearing,
without contradiction, that which strangers to our race — men who
know us not — allow themselves to say with a view of bringing us
into contempt, contempt which they themselves often do not

feel. v»*': '• ^:■^^''^■ r^-'f^.:^^''':''';''^':^';;^

Ihe designs of Providence which we reverence without compre-
hending, have surrounded us on this continent with a network of
diflSculties that reasonable and reflecting men know cannot be
adduced against us. The Northern Department, discovered by the
energy of French Canadians, now sees the descendants of its
discoverers in an inferior social condition. I confess it, but it is
impossible to prove their mental inferiority.

It is true that the English Half-breeds have more land under
cultivation ; that they are better educated and richer, is also true ;
'but that they are more virtuous, more sincere, more upright and
moral is untrue.

I like the saying of our old voyageurs, and I like it the more as
I know it to be true from the lips of rniny of them : " I am poor,
but, thank God, I am honest." And that other saying of many of
-their children when talking about certain individuals who are not

109

French Half-breeds, " Well, well, these people are very troublesomer-
It is very terrible that they are such rv =^cals. Were I to die for it, I
could not act as they do."

We have courts of law. Small causes, debts of ten or fifteen
shillings, and petty disputes, often draw our French Half-breeds
into them, but every one in the colony knows that our poor people
do not enjoy the exclusive privilege of entering an appearance there
for felony, and cool and premeditated crime ; far from it, according
to the proportion their numbers bear to the entire population. Our
registers need not be searched from end to end to prove that at
least two-thirds of the crimes enumerated are not committed by the
despised class of our population. We have drunkards, and too
many of them ; but it is known that dealing in and the consumption
of spirits are not confined to those who are most vilified.

Let not these reir irks be considered too sharp or too bitter, for
I can fearlessly assert that I have no ill-will against any one-, unless
perhaps it be against calumniators. I accuse not; I defend the
accused. Too long has freedom been abused by the ready pen of
calumny.

The good Lafontaine, who has put more wisdom into the mouths-
of the brute creation than is utteied by a great many men of intel-
ligence, has taught us, at the assembly of animals («ufiering from'
a plague, how prone we are to blame the least of errors in the poor
and weak, and how we are not less prone to palliate the vices and
crimes of the powerful. The lion greedily craunching with his
teeth raises a hue and cry against the donkey who has merely nib-
bled a patch of meadow no larger than his tongue, and that, too, in
a monk's meadow.

Here, we have seen the exploits of many lion cubs who, having
satisfied the appetites of a heart neither pure nor just, in this coun-
try, have, when in other lands, endeavored to establish their own
merit by accusing, with deplorable injustice, those to whom they had
strong private reasons for being grateful.

I should regret all that I have now said were it to be considered
as springing from want of consideration or respect for the other sec-
tion of our population. Such is not my motive ; by choice as well
as by habit, I prefer to recognize that which is good in my fellow-
beings, to attempting to swell the list of weaknesses and misfortunes,
ever too numerous, to which all men are liable. I willingly

110

acknowledge the good qualities of the English Half-breeds ; but I
likewise desire that their panegyrists should acknowledge the good
points in our French Half-breeds ; points which may differ from
those of their fellow-countrymen, but which are not less numerous,
or less praiseworthy.

m\ ]

:! :, i

THE INDIANS.

The name, " Sauvages" as used in Canada, is applied to all the
aboriginal tribes of America. They are called " Indians" by the
English, and are universally known as Red-skins. Without enquir-
ing into the correctness of these different designations, it may be
understood that by using the term " ISauvages^* to denote all the
Aborigines of the Northern Department, it is not intended to imply
that they aie all barbarous, ferocious, or savage, but that in their
manner of life there is something wild, or, as opposed to the term
civilized applied to nations practising reUgion, living under a
form of ^ >vernment, obeying laws, and following arts and industry.

Only 50 years ago, the Indians of the Northern Department had
no idea of Christianity, nor oven of any definite and regular creed ;
and even now nearly all of them, Christian or Infidel, retain their
original social customs.

Hunting and fishing, with very few exceptions, are their only
resource and occupation. The Indian is not only migratory but
roving and adventuresome. Without a house, as a rule without
even a fixed abode, skin tents, (plages') huts of bark or of branches,
or even of snow and ice, often the Almighty's great chamber,
without other roof than the starry or cloudy firmament — these are
the Indian's habitations, and he changes them at will.

Some families live secluded, others collect in camps, more or less
extensive, according to the opportunities for fishing and hunting.

Although as a rule the Indians have no form of government, nor
any code of law, in some tribes, particularly those who still carry
^n war, the chiefs exercise a certain authority, which is very
limiffid. unless, at the risk of paying for their temerity, they
inspire their brethren with fear. Natural superiority, greater dex-
terity and sometimes, too, excess of good-nature, draw a numerous
family of friends around certain individuals, and here the patri-
archal authority of tiie mature or old man is exercised with some
■degree of firmness.

nor

111

The Indians of the Northern Department travel a great deal,
more correctly it may be said that they are constantly moving.
Before the establishment of the numerous factories which are now
scattered all over the country, the Indians often undertook
journeys of more than 3,000 miles to barter furs with European
and Canadian traders. The factories are now so generally distributed
that it is no longer necessary to travel so far for the pu-pose of
bartering, nevertheless the Indians stiL mak *'heir journeys. The
light bark canoes, following the course of streams and numerous
lakes, facilitate their wanderings through forest-covered districts.
The Indians of the prairies have horses, and use them in crossing
the vast plains. In winter, dogs take the place of canoes, and at all
seasons they assist the horses in transporting goods and provisions.
Indians, particularly those of the prairie, adopt a curious plan
in availing themselves d horses and dogs for draught purposes :
Ends of two long pries are crossed on the back of the animal,
and retained in their position by straps, which take the place of
harness. The other ends, spreading out more or less according to
the length of the poles, trail on the ground, icy or otherwise. The
baggage is placed upon straps or buffalo skin fastened across
between the trailing ends of the poles. This means of carriage is
used for sick or weakly members of a family, and gentlemen who
have tried it, Lave assured me that the jolting is as easy as that of
the best hung carriages. / ^i ,,?;,

Indians are not rich. Often, without any assistance from the hus-
band, the wife can carry all the belongings of the family on her
back. Money wealth is unknown— for throughout the extent of
the Northern Department, with the exception of Red River Settle-
ment, coin does not pass current— its value and use are unknown
to Indians. Furs and provisions, the produce of hunting and fishing
are their riches, and these they barter for clothing and English
and American implements which, with the addition of horses for
prairie Indians, and dogs for all classes, include all their property.
Amongst the Indians, absence of wealth is associated with extreme
poverty. Whole tribes are constantly in a state of semi-starvation and
daily suffering ; and every one of the tribes, at one time or another,
lacks the very necessaries of life. It is wonderful, too, to see to
what extent these poor creatures can support privation. To be for
three or four days without any food, appears to them quite a matter

112

of course. Very often these extreme privations continue for seven
or eight days at a time.

Add to this, semi-nudity in the midst of the rigors of our fright-
ful climate, and a faint idea may be obtained of the physical trials
of these poor people. I said that the wife occasionally carries all
the belongings of the family on her back. This indicates the posi-
tion of women amongst the Indians. I speak of infidel Indians,
for the condition of Christian Indians is much improved. The
former reap, in all their bitterness, the fruit of the curse pronounced
against the mother of man : the latter find consolation in their mis-
fortune, from the benediction bestowed upon them through the
intervention of the Mother of Christians. It is said that the
Esquimaux and Loncheux treat their women with a little more
humanity than other Indians, I have never seen these tribes, but
all I have seen of infidel tribes, obliges me to regard the Indian
woman as the most unfortunate being that can be imagined. The
miserable creature is not only the porter of the family, but she is.
literally its beast of burden. All drudgery is hers, and hardly
ever is she allowed the slightest relaxation. Her condition is ren-
dered still more painful by cruel treatment, the profoundest
contempt, and the demeaning position in which she is kept. How
often my heart has been wounded on seeing their wretched misery !
How I have blessed and thanked the Good God, who amongst other
divine favors has placed our mothers in the position they occupy
among civilized Christians ! How ignorant and foolish were those,
who, in order to speak irreverently of regenerating religion, dwelt
on the imaginary well-being of a primitive people in the forests of
America ! How far from the sad reality are these Utopian ideas, these
dreams of wild imagination, or of depraved hearts ! I have spent
more than half my life in these lands, and, notwithstanding that I
have been the constant witness of misery — misery which I have
sometimes shared with its victims — I still ask myself the question,
How can Indians thus suffer and live ?

In Europe particularly, where Indians are never seen, very odd
ideas are formed about them. To do away with all these false
impressions m two words, suffice it to say that Indians are men»
This statement, apparently so simple, nevertheless describes these
unfortunate races much more accurately than do all the fancies of
those who speak of them without acquaintance.

118

The Indian is a man, in the first place, in physique, very often,
indeed, a fine type, with the exception of slightly too prominent
cheekbones, too dark or coppery a complexion, and want of beard.
Many Indians are vory fine men. Their height is much above the
average, particularly when compared with tho inhabitants of
Southern Europe. I have seen a crowd of Europeans and Cana-
dians quite as dark as Indians who have not been very much exposed
to inclemency of weather. All the Indians I have seen, have black
eyes, and this organ, like that of hearing, acquires great keenness
from constant use. I have never had proof of what I have
read about the delicacy of their sense of smelling. The black eye
of the Indian is often full of life, intelligence, and malice, in others,
it has the calm of kindliness, or the blank expression of indifference.
The Indian is well proportioned ; if, from want of use, his muscles
are not well developed, exercise makes amends to him by making
him extremely active and endowing him with surprising power of
resistance to the fatigues to which he is exposed. Tho Indian
is an eating, drinking, sleeping, walking man. He eats enor-
mously when he has wherewith to satisfy his appetite juct
as he does without food when necessary ; he drinks very often
to excess, particularly of " fire-water." Many civilized people,
especially from cold countries, know very well that this disposi-
tion is characteristic of humanity. This wild man, like other
lazy people, sleeps during the day and night, when he has
nothing else to occupy him; but he also watches for longer
periods than any others that I know of. He walks — this biped —
with legs slightly bent, and with toes turned inward from habit,
and he travels like a veritable hunting dog. He runs, too, and
this at such a speed as to overtake deer on the plains, and in the
forest. The Indian is a man, for he is born amid weeping, he grows
up amongst tears or dreams ; and he occasionally grows old when ex-
cessive privation has not broken down, before its time, a constitution
endowed by nature with all that is necessary to insure longevity.
Subject this Indian to the numerous influences that afiect civilized
nations, let him accept the refined aid of tailor, perfumer and hair-
dresser, and you will have a fashionable gentleman, often more
graceful than the majority of those who most avail themselves of
the distinguished title. So much for the physical man.

.11 i

114

I say again the Indian is a man, a man of intelligence, and
while I say so, I fancy I scca contemptuous smile passing over the
lips of some ; but I believe I have good reasons for the statement.
The Indian is a man of intelligence, and in proof of it, I refer to the
language he speaks, the thoughts which occupy his mind, and the
sentiments whioh animate him. Each tribe talks a different lan-
guage from any European — different, with the exception of Esqui-
maux, perhaps from Asiatic or African idiom — different even from
the language talked by other American tribes. Each of the races,
even each of the tribes of Indians in the Northern Department,
uses a distinct dialect, as distinct one from the other, as French is
from Chinese, or English from Hindostanee.

The dialects are not inarticulate sounds, as some have unhesitat-
ingly asserted ; they are not mutilated, unintelligible, meaningless
fragments ; no, on the contrary, they are irue lauguage, expressive
of all the ideas which occur to the mind, and all the feelings of those
who speak them. Their idioms convey to you, strangers who
understand their speech, all that fills the minds of these poor
children of the forest, whom you probably decline to acknowledge as
fellow-beings ; equally well do they express all that you could desire
to say to them.

And these different languages, who has made them ? Who has
preserved them? To whom is it due that whole tribes speak them
with greater perfection than civilized nations do their own lan-
guages?

Without- grammar, w'.thout dictionary, and without any kind of
written document, the father repeats to his child the accents which
he caught from the lips, of his own parent, and the littlt infant^
knowing only how to cry, begins by picking up a few syllables and
lisping out Pa ! Ma ! then it provokes the affectionate mirth of the
family with an imperfectly articulated sentence ; mastering this it
passes on to another and another, until matured intelligence com-
pletes the task, that the pupil may in turn transmit his learning to^
his own offspring.

The Indian is an intelligent man. His mind, whatever its
grasp, usually concerns itself only with that which is of immediate
interest — food and excitement. What grand and noble intellects
have been hidden in the shade of obscure existence, while, thanks
to fortune, mediocrity has soared aloft ! Is it surprising that

115

differences, so frequently observable between men of a nation,

between even members of a family, rjhould be found to exist between

races of men-

The compass of the poor Indian's knowledge is certainly very

limited, but it is not tp be expected that his intelligence should be

exorcised in an extended sphere ; yet, watching his struggles in his

contracted sphere, is sufficient to convince one that he, too, is an

intelligent being.

The Indian sees, examines, compares, judges, modifies, remembers,
foresees, learns and forgets. Idiocy amongst Indians, is rare ; wit
is common. He jokes, laughs, and amuses himself at the expense
of others, not in the manner of quadrumanous monkeys, but like
the most sly of biped monkeys. A certain Protestant clergyman
was once in the midst of a tribe little inclined to listen to his teach-
ing. The orator perceiving that his exhortations made but Uttle
impression, had recourse to theatrical device. Seizing his watch
he held it up before the Indians and called on them to admire its
mechanism, and from it to conclude the superiority of civilized men
over those who were listening to him, all so unskilfully as to wound
susceptibility and pride, as sensitive in Indians as in other descend-
ants from Adam. After a moment of silence, during which the
speaker glanced contemptuously around on those whom he imagined
he had convinced of his superiority, the Chief replied, " True, true.
You civilized people are men of wisdom ; we are brutes. But you,
gir, shew us your artificial sun. Did you make it ?"

" No," replied the interlocutor.

" Ha ! ha ! you did not make it and yet you shew it to us in proof
of your mental superiority ! I am a brute ; but listen to me ; I
won't talk long, because you appear to despise us too much. Here
are my bow and arrows, I made them myself ; here is my gun
which, like your artificial sun, was made in your own country.
You people are wise, you know how to do everything, and you
ought at least to be able to use the gun ; take it, and this
powder ; I shall take the bow and arrows. Let us both start
for the woods, and return at the next moon, you can then let
us know if you are cleverer than we are."

This argument, although not strictly logical, was sufficient,
as may easily be imagined, to call forth a roar of laughter from the
whole assembly ,and to throw the unskilful speaker into confu-

iSi

116

aion, as he Vnew well that, if Indians have much to learn from
civilized peopie, they have also much in their manner of life that
may be instructive to the latter.

The man of the wilderness — so ignorant, and without an instructor,
learns with great quickness from the first master presenting himself.
We have books written in syllablic characters. I know an
Indian who learned to read them in one day, and many have done
as much in three days. I have lived amongst Indians for a quarter
of a century, and I have always considered that they are as intel-
ligent as the uneducated of the most intellectual of races. But, it
may be asked, if the Red-skins are so intelligent how do you
account for their condition ? How is it that, in our day especially,
in the midst of light which by its brilliancy would, as it were, blind
other people, they know so little ? We have railroads, they travel
on snowshoes ; we have submarine telegraphs, they have not even
an idea of a post-office ; we have rifled guns, needle guns or
ehassepots ; we can shoot to enormous distances, and they still retain
the primitive weapons of their forefathers ; they have only spears,
qviivers, bows and arrows, and can only shoot to short distances ;
and we have armor plated vessels while they have only bark
canoes ; we read all the secrets of the visible heavens, while they
recognize only a few of the constellations ; we reckon the ages of
all the strata of the earth, and their knowledge is limited to an
acquaintance with the animals inhabiting it. In short, we are the
great and powerful nations of the age, and they are only the poor
and ignorant Indians of the forest and plain. How is this ? The
reply to this important and serious question is, certainly, one of the
Almighty's secrets. But does not the aU good God, in this, appear
to desire to teach us a useful lesson by shewing us the limited cha-
racter of the human mind when left to itself? The Indian races are,
like the other races, quickened with the breath of life which made
the descendants of Adam mteiligent beings. Their intelligence, if
you will, is, as it were, in a latont state, and allows centuries to pass
without brightening those who possess it, and light to shine else-
where without/esculng this unhappy people from the deep rut into
which they have fallen, or leading them back to the point whence
they started. Therefore, the human mind, left to itself, is power-
less and unfertile ; and, therefore, it will not suffice you, fool !
v^ho would reject the Omniscient.

117

The Indian is a man, and there is proof of it in his moral charac-
ter. His intellect, administered to by his senses, too often subjects
itself to their tyrannic rule — of which, too, it sometimes knows hew
to free itself.

The Indian, like the civilized man, raises himself above the power
of his senses, when, embracing Christianity, he accepts that sublime
philosophy so embarrassing to professors of free-wili. How sweet,
how consoling, to observe the submission of the yet untamed
Indian bowing to the authority of the Gospel !

Yes, the Indian is a man who finds in divine teaching wherewith
to enlighten his mind, until now so clouded, — and in heavenly pre-
cept, wherewith to fill the void in his heart ! How often I have
been deeply affected, what grateful tears I have shed when watch-
ing the working of Divine grace on these unhappy orphans of for-
tune while it piepared them for felicity! Yes, the Indian is a
man, a man capable of subjecting himself to his intellect, and capable
of experiencing Divine influence. If the moral character which
can convert the Indian to Christianity, is not suflBcient proof of
humanity, you who do not fear to reject Divine teaching, con-
sider the infidel Indian, and his degradation will convince you that
he is of the same species as those who spurn him — man like all
those who ignore God, or deny Him, like all those who will not
accept either the Gospel, or its morality — man like all slaves of sen-
suality and worldliness — man like all vain boasters, murderers, and
thieves. Oh yes ! the Red-skin shews that he is human like the
infidel white man. ' - . ;

The Indians of the Northern Department, even before the arrival
of missionaries amongst them, were possessed of some religious
ideas, at least some biblical traditions, easily recognized, interwoven
with the gross follies and superstitions which encompass^them.
All Indians acknowledge some Being superior to others, to which
they give various names. Some of them render the greatest
homage to the sun; others, while recognizing **the Good Spirit,''
prefer to worship and honor the Evil. Nearly all profess a kind
of gross polytheism, calling on all the powers of nature, more
particularly supplicating those of unusual and striking appearance.
Infamous and absurd superstitions captivate the poor people, and
often hinder their conversion. Jugglers and sorcerers, who are
usually their " medicine men," pretend to possess supernatural

118

strength and power, by which they exercise a great ascendancy
over their fellow-men ; and, as they thus find a certain means of
gratifying their sordid passions, they are interested in preserving
the practice of their art, and in opposing all that, by lessening their
influence, would operate to their disadvantage.

As regards the importance to be attributed to their jugglery, I
find it not only very difficult to express an opinion, but even to
form a definite idea on the subject. Doubtless, as a rule, their
art is but dexterous deceit ; at other times, I should be tempted to
believe in the agency of evil spirits. Generally, the sorcerers oi
" medicine men" are by far the worst in the community, and the
evil spirit, if God suffers him, would find it serve his purpose to
make use of them. I have never been able to witness their magic.
My justifiable curiosity has been excited by descriptions of their
doings, and C!,lso, I must acknowledge, by the character of the
serious and intelligent men who said they had been eye-witnesses
of their wonders. Often I have requested to be shewn the sorcerers,
feats, and the performers have declined to comply — they them-
selves asserting that they had no longer any power in the presence
of " the man oi prayer," or even before a sacred object, such as
" the Book of Holy Writ," a cross, chaplet, &c.

From whom are the Indians descended ? I have just said that
they are men, therefore, they are descended from Adam. I add,
Noah was their ancestor, and Shem their progenitor — for the Red-
akin or American is connected with the Mongolian race, from which
he differs less than do the descendants of the three sons of Noah,
one from the other.

The possibility of America having been peopled from Asia, or
even from Northern Europe, is no longer doubtful. Its simplicity
is universally recognized, even supposing that travellers in those
days may not have had the faciUties they now have. But this
supposition is improbable, and for my part I am convinced that
Indians were formerly more civilized than they now are ; that they
have degenerated through forgetting the traditions which bound
them to God, just as they will recover their position by accepting
the teaching which brings thorn nearer to their Maker and their
destiny ; moreover, their condition serves as a warning t; those
who would weaken, and then subvert the precepts of tho Divhi'^
Saviour.

119

What would become of humanity were it to adopt atheism ; were
it to profess materialism ? It would become Indian, and Indian of
the worst kind. How guilty those are who, by direct means,
attempt to lead it to these monstrosities, although they call them
by a less offensive name. The poor Indian has never been so
senseless as to deny the existence of a Supreme Being ; he has
never been so foolishly wicked as to claim a standing amongst the
brute creation, and yet, by retaining only vague and indefinite ideas,
he has descended to the very brinks of these two abysses. What
would be the result, undreaded by some, of going down into these
fearful depths ? ni- v, ..;.:■ , « , ->

* When was America first peopled ? An answer to this question
would be extremely interesting, but I am sure it will not be dis-
covered here, and I even think that it will never be found. Or.c
Indians of the Northern Department, have no chronicles, no annals,
no written monuments, nor record of any kind whatever. They do
not know even their own or their children's ages, or did not until
our arrival amongst them.

Their traditions appear to be accurate only when they refer no
further back than to the time of the speaker's grandsires; so that
it is easy to understand how difficult archeological research ia.
Chronology, so difficult to establish in the case of partially civilized
people, is quite vain and impossible here ; we shall, therefore, not
make the least attempt in this direction.

Having given the foregoing brief sketch of Indians in general, it
appears a natural arrangement to describe them in detail.

There are five distinct families of Indians in the Northern Depart-
ment, the distinction being specially marked by variety of language.
The idiom of any one of them has not the least resemblance to the
idiom of any other : other points of difference characterize these five
families and help to distinguish them, just as resemblance of lan-
guage makes us class in one group tribes which, from other points
of view, might appear distinct.

The five families are as follows : —

1. Aigonquins, t^*;^^

2. Assiniboines or Stonies. '

3. Blackfeet.

4. Chipewyans.

5. Esquimaux.

!■

120

THE ALGONQTJINS.

We give the name " Algonquins" to the various nations or tribes*
"whose dialect is so closely allied to that of the Canadian Algonquins,,
that it is impossible not to attribute them to a common origin.

The Algonquins occupy, to the exclusion of all others, the districts
of Norway House, Rainy Lake, Red River and Cumberland House,
and they are found, as a majority, in the Saskatchewan and Swan
River districts. The Esquimaux of Melville Peninsula alone dispute
their undivided possession of York District. Algonquins are
also numerous in English River District . Some isolated families have
penetrated as far as Athabaska : so that Mackenzie River District
is the only one entirely free from Algonquins. If to this enormous
extent of country is added that occupied by branches of the Algon-
quin family in Canada, it may easily be credited that this group
of Indians is one of the most widely scattered in North America.

In the Northern Department there are not more than 30,000
Algonquins.

Tradition tells us that formerly they were much more numerous.
War, famine, and particularly frightful mortality from small-poxy
have reduced their number. My own observations since I have
been in the country, persuade me that their numbers do not vary.

The Algonquins are here composed of three tribes :

The Saulteaux or Chippeways.
The Maskegons or Swampies.
The Crees.

The Saulteaux, in the Northern Department, occupy a belt 3° or
4° in breadth to the north of the 49th parallel of latitude, and extend
from the west of Canada to the eastern part of the Saskatchewan
District.

The Maskegons inhabit the country to the north of the Saulteaux,.
as far as Hudson's Bay.

The Crees, who in all respects appear to be intermediate between
the Saulteaux and Maskegons, generally occupy the country
extending between the two sister tribes, up to the Rocky Mountains.
This belt has an average breadth of 58°.

The Saulteaux are a high spirited, proud and excessively super-
stitious people, and, in consequence, diflficult to tame. Of all our

121

Indians, these have had the greatest facilities for learning the tniths-
of religion, and they, too, have least profited by their opportunities,
and count fewest Christians amongst their numbers.

This fact is the more surprising, as they should natui-aliy expe-
rience a salutary influence from their Canadian brothers who are
all Christians. Even at Sed River, and surrounded by churches and
the means of salvation, the majority of the Saulteaux remain infidels ;
they waste their indolent and miserable lives in their wretched
bark hovels, and retain all their primitive habits. They tattoo
themselves, and give themselves up to their ridiculous and, often,
cruel superstitions, just as if their folly had never been pointed out
to them. On the other hand, those who, at a mature age, embrace
religion, attach themselves to their faith with great constancy and
firmness : unfortunately, many children, baptised under exceptional
circumstances, have had to live with or return to their infidel relations.

The Saulteaux are generally fine men ; nearly all have a very
great liking for intoxicating drink, which is one of the causes of
their callousness. War songs still exist there, and often in the midst
of starvation, and privation they undertake journeys of several hun-
dred miles on foot to surprise and scalp an enemy who is generally
defenceless and return triumphantly to perforr:^ the war dance,
and to shout the hideous scalping song. I cannot understand why
the Red River Colony submits to be a witness of these horrors ; the
entire absence of a regular force can alone accourit for thici too
tolerant submission. Those of the Saulteaux who have been brought
up amongst our Half-breeds, and there are a few such, do not appear
to partake of their fellows' disposition ; and this proves that all their
bad traits are the result rather of circumstances and the influence
of their education than of natural disposition. There now lives with
me a yourxg Saulteaux, twenty years of age, who embraced Chris-
tianity three years ago, and his conduct leaves nothing to be desired.

The Saulteaux are r-^ssionately fond of colored glass beads, and
other glassware of the kind. They load themselves with necklaces,
and pierce their ears to attach long strings of ornaments as ridicu-
lous as they are cumbersome, large rings, thick chains, old watch
and clock wheels, shapeless pieces of copper, tin, &c.; and their
poor ears are not unlike the dirty shop of a ruined goldsmith. The
weight stretches their ears to a size that more than on« fashionable
man would fail to envy ; while the metal appendage which completes

122

im,

Itsbulk merits its Chipewyan ndimQ^^Betzarenetchay"(i.e.\&rgQ ears).
To complete the toilet, add a large piece of tm made fast to the
nostrils, long and dirty tresses, strips of cloth, fur and a great col-
lection of feathers on the head, and you will have an idea of the
display of vain pretension characteristic of the Saulteaux. The
spectacle being constantly before my eyes, I may well be pardoned
for the possibly too severe criticisms I have passed upon the head
ornaments, which, were they in better taste, would not the less owe
their origin to the motive that induces the Indian to burden himself
with useless and unsightly encumbrances.

The Saulteaux derive their name from Sault Ste. Marie, which
separates Lake Superior from Lake Huron, and whence they origin-
ally came. Many authors describe them under the name of Chip-
peways, which is perhaps a form of the word Ojibway, the name of
a tribe of Saulteaux living in the neighborhood of Red Lake. The
Crees call them "Nakaiveiniwih," while the unassuming Saulteaux
call themselves "Anichinebewok" or" Men" ! Could one ever have
imagined that these braves had so much pretension to being the
superior race, as to consider themselves the only representatives of
humanity ? , ^. - y

The Mashegons or Sioampy Indians. Maskegon is a corruption of
the word Omaskekowah, men of the swamp. Maskey (i. e., swamp)
is the root of the name of the tribe about which we would now
discuss ; they live on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and in the neigh-
borhood of the group of lakes which collect the water of the great
rivers flowing into the bay. Their name is derived from the swampy
character of the district which they inhabit. The name " Swampy"
is an etymological and literal translation of OmaskSkowah.

The Swampies, like their neighbors and brother Algonquins, the
Saulteaux, have a very distinct character. They are gentle, averse
to bloodshed, easy to influence, and less superstitious. The neigh-
borhood of the principal factories has greatly modified their color
and nature. The anecdotes of travellers induce a natural belief
that this circumstance has not produced a favorable effect upon
their habits.

The English and Methodist churches have some missions amongst
the Swampies, of whom very many willingly receive the teaching
'Offered to them.

Besides hunting and fishing, the Swampies find an abundant

123

resource in boating between York and Jaok River, being employed to
transport goods. Whether these exceptional circumstances influ-
ence the character of the Swampies, or that their character is differ-
ent from that of other tribes, it is certain that they are more easily
induced to settle down, to build houses and to cultivate land. In
the neighborhood of Norway House is seen Rossville Village, and
the mouth of Red River has its Indian Settlement of Swampies.
In this settlement there are a few of all the races, but the Swampies,
from different parts of the country, greatly predominate.

THE CREES.

These Indians, called Crees in English, are known as " Kinis-
tenovoh " by the Blackfeet, and speak of themsekes as " Neyo-
wock," or " lyinuvuh, i. e., " Men." Recognizing their modesty,
it may be seen that they are a branch of the Algonquins. They
appear to hold a middle place between the proud and untameable
Saulteaux, and the gentle and peaceful Swampy. As if to render
this double likeness more perfect, the Crees consist of two tribes •
the Plain Crees — warriors and living in camps, and the Forest Crees,
humble hunters and fishermen leading an isolated life. These two
tribes speak one language, very different from that spoken by
the Saulteaux, but sufficiently analagous to prove the identity of
their origin, and to enable them to understand one another at
once, at any rate in some degree. Cree is a beautiful and rich
language, and probably the easiest of all Indian languages. The
Plain Crees speak with purity and even grace. The Forest Crees,
by the introduction of some Swampy, lose a little of the purity.
In some localities there are families who have adopted words and
consonants not to be found in pure Cree. The letter R, for example,
is not to be found in the Cree alphabet, and yet the Crees of
Athabaska use its rougher sound instead of the soft Y.

Here !S a table showing different forms of the personal pronoun
as expressed by the various branches of the Algonquin family in
the Northern Department.

English Me. Thee. Him.

Saulteaux Neen Keen Ween

Swampy Neena Keena Weena

Crees, proper Neeya Keera Weera

Athabaska Crees Neera Keera Weera

He h, la Crosse Crees Neela Keela Weela

Nearly all Forest Crees Neetha Keetha Weet

I-

124

There are a great number of words of which the inflections are
thus regular, so that when one has found the key, the difficulty of
mastering the language disappears.

The Crees of the plains live in somewhat extensive camps, gene-
rally with a view to bufialo hunting.

They are at war with their neighbors, the Blackfeet Indians.

The Forest Crees, on the contrary, and with reason, consider it
wiser and safer not to expose themselves to be slaughtered. Their
greatest enjoyment is to hold feasts, and to invite all the world to
join them. They make use of dogs' flesh on grand occasions.
Their improvidence and wastefulness are extreme. They 8ufl*er
privation even under circumstances in which other Indians, as the
Moi tagnais, would provide themselves with abundant suppHes.

The Crees of the plains Uve in " loges," or leathern tents, while
the Forest Crees often content themselves, as do the Swampies and
Saulteaux, with birch bark huts, lighter to transport and not less
comfortable, if comfort is to be found at all in an Indian lege.

The Crees are somewhat less superstitious than the Saulteaux, and
their conversion is easier.

Like the Saulteaux and Swampies, when unconverted they are re-
voltingly sensual. i;

II. THE AS8INIB0INEI OR STONIES.

„..L:-- JIB

fivil

The Assiniboines are the second family of Indians in the North-
ern Department. A branch of the formidable race of Sioux,
whose language they speak, they are nevertheless their implacable
enemies.

The Sioux are called by Saulteaux, their next neighbors to the
north and their traditional enemies, " Pwan," or in the plural
Pwannah, from the Saulteaux word pwan, called Apalath (i. e.,
roast meat) by our voyageun.

The origin of the name is probably to be found in the horrible
custom, still practised by some Saulteaux, of roasting and eating the
Sioux they kill in battle.

The Saulteaux word has been adopted by the Crees, who have
slightly altered it into Pwatah, and from this is derived Assinipwa-
tak — Sioux of the rocks (^Asmni) — or mountain Sioux. Frenchified
into AssinipoelSy the name was applied to the tribe by the first

125

di8coverer8 of the country, and afterwards it was altered into
Assiniboins, the form now generally adopted. Englishmen also
use the name A.ssiniboines, but they call this tribe of Sioux Stonies.

The Assiniboinea, like the Crees, are subdivided into two tribes,
the Assiniboinea of the plains, and the Assiniboinea of the forest.

The latter are a good and gentle people, but excessively p^or.
On their wretched bodies they carry the marks of the extreme and
constant misery in which they live. The Assiniboines of the plains,
on the contrary, are large and active, merry fellows, and uncon-
strained knaves, hence the proverbial expression, " Thief, like an
Assiniboine."

They join with the Saulteaux to fight the Sioux, and with the
Crees of the plains to pursue the Blackfeet.

The barbarity of the Indian is too well known to be described here.
A little research, unfortunately, proves that similar barbarities are
to be found in the histories of most civilized people, so true is it
that nothing resembles one man so much as another man.

Without being as poor as their brothers of the forest, the
Assiniboines of the plains have the knack, in spite of their
plundering, of being always the most destitute of all Indians who
live by buffalo hunting, and the extent to which they accustom
themselves to hardships is diflBcult to be believed, or even imagined.
It is no unusual sight, in the depth of winter frosts, and in the
midst of violent storms, to see an Assiniboine riding without any
other covering for his naked bust, than a buffalo skin thrown over
his shoulders without any tie, while the rest of his clothing is in
perf""^ keeping with this ; having spent many years in the Indian
country, and having frequently experienced the severity of our
climate, I still ask myself, " How is it that all these Indians do not
perish ?"

The Assiniboines were certainly united with the Sioux in former
times ; having subsequently been forced to withdraw themselves
to the lands of the Algonquins of the west, and there they mingled
with the different tribes of that family, occupying a narrow diagonal
strip of country stretching from Mouse River, (riviere d la Souris)
to the upper part of Athabaska River. The Forest Assiniboinea
frequent Lake St. Anne mission. Further to the south, the
Methodists have a mission on Pigeon Lake.

Superstition and love for thieving are such amongst the Assini-

\ '

Ail I

'lil

126

boines of the plains that some of them actually cut off finger jointfr
to increase their success in plundering.

As, in talking of Red River, there was frequent reference made
to the Sioux, it will be considered surprising that in enumerating
the Indians of the Northern Department, I barely alluded to this
fierce and cruel tribe. The reason is simply thr' Sioux do not live
in British territory. Formerly a tribe of this ^.eople, known as
" Canoe Sioux," made an expedition into our country ; it was one
of these who murdered Father Armand, junior, of Vdrandrye and
his men. Except as visitors, Sioux have not come amongst us for
many a day. The frightful massacre committed by these unfortu-"
nate people in Minnesota, in 1862, led to their flight before the just
punishment which the Americans had in store for them. It was
then that, from time to time, bands of these Indians, taking advan-
ta«»e of international law, came into the colony of Assiniboina, where
it became necessary to supply them with food to prevent them from
starving to death. However, these cruel assassins are not of our
people ; we have sufficient misery and responsibility without
attending to them. Their own history, and the principle deeds of
their brothers, the Assiniboines, do not inspire us with a strong
desire to claim them. We have enough of the Assiniboines, who,
as we indicated above, occupy Swan and Saskatchewan districts in
numbers amounting to 3000 or 4000.

ni. THE BLACKFBET.

To the west of the Crees of the plains, and to the south of the-
Saskatchewan, in the district of that name, the third family of
Indians in the Northern Department, the Blackfeet, are found.

Like all Indians of the plains, they live in large camps, and their
only resource is hunting buffalo and other game to be found on the
prairie. When huntmg is successful, they gorge themselves ; when
it fails, they pine away, and often die of starvation. I have had no
opportunity for studying the Blackfeet, but report gives them a
noble character, noble, no doubt, according to an Indian standard,
nevertheless somewhat better than their neighbors.

An English gentleman, who had spent several years amongst the
Blackfeet on one occasion appeared to be much astonished because
I did not take an interest in them, while he went on to express his-

127

admiration of them in the following exaggerated language : — " The-
Blackfeet are to other Indians, what the English are to other
people." I bowed to express the high sense I had of his opinion,
and leave others to criticise as suits their fancy.

As warriors, the Blackfeet are celebrated and dreaded, even
beyond the Rocky Mountains. In their almost continual war with
the Crees, they are not generally accused of being tke first ta
break the treaties of peace made from time to time.

They are wealthier than their neighbors, particularly in the
possession of horses. This draws the latter into expeditions, having
for object — at least as a secondary motive — to procure steeds, which
they sometimes capture in numerous droves.

The Blackfeet also live in skin tents. Their loges are more
roomy, and better made than those of other Indians.

In times of abundance, there reigns amongst them a certain
luxuriousness ; luxury of hair and hide !

The Blackfeet are less slovenly than other nomadic tribes.
Their clothing, although made of leather, is sometimes rich and
elegant; they display even refined taste in ornamenting their
clothing. The quills of porcupines, the hair of moose and horses,
and particularly the locks of their enemies, supply them with means
of ornamenting in a style far superior to what expert artists might
think possible with such means.

As the Crees attack the Blackfeet on account of their horses,
10 with similar object — theft and pillage — the Blackfeet make raids
even on to American territory, as well as beyond the Rocky Moun-
tains. They are dreaded, too, by all their neighbors, n.. -

Let us hope that the efforts initiated, a few years ago, for their
conversion, and already crowned with some success, will ultimately
regenerate this people, and put an end to their wars that may
otherwise exterminate the tribe.

Blackfeet, little tender about that regarding which a man of
feeling is most sensitive, are nevertheless extremely jealous ;
very many of their women bear strong marks of the jealous rage of
their pitiless masters. The nose of the woman is the point of attack,
and many of their faces are shorn of this important organ. A
alash of the knife, or a snap of the teeth, has sufficedTor the opera-
tion. How noble is Indian nobility !

The Blackfeet number about 6,000, but are decreasing^in con-

titi

imnit-

128

sequence of war and the ravages of contagious diseases, to which
they are more liable than others from the greater unhealthiness
of their climate.

The Crees call the Blackfeet by the generic name Ayatsiiyniwok
(foreigner$, enemies'). The Montagnais call them Ennasslini,
(wicked Crees or wicked foreigners').

The family of the Blackfeet is subdivided into three tribes : first
the Sixika, or Blackfeet, properly so called, then the Pi^ganew,
and lastly the Bloods or Kena.

These three tribes speak the same language, unite for war, have
identical manners and customs, and yet are quite distinct. This
whole group of Indians is very revengeful. Retaliation may be
delayed, but is seldom forgotten.

Without a regular form of government, the Blackfeet have a
better defined military organization than other children of the
prairie. They luive seven classes of soldiers, each commanded by
a leader, upon whom devolves a share of the organization of the
camp and of the maintenance of order.

The tribe is characterized by sun worship, ;. public and solemn
ceremony, especially marked by a fete occurring in the beginning
of August, and in which the whole tribe takes part. This fete
appears to point to a closer alliance with known races. The wor-
ship of the orb of the day, natural enough to man deprived of
revelation, has its high priests, its vestals, its improvised temples,
its sacred fire, and its burlesque and profane exultation. The cere-
monial of the fete is very complif ;.. ed ; sacrifice is an essential part
of it ; some fanatics immolate per .ions of their own bodies, cutting
oflF their fingers with this object. Vocal and instrumental iiiusic
increase the excitement if not the fervor. And what virtuosi are
these savage howlers of the prairies ! The grossest and most
absurd superstitions, embellished by the haughty swaggering of chiefs,
captivate this people, who readily submit to the authority of a custom
or a creed of which they know neither the object nor the origin.

The festival of the natural sun, and the reverence paid to this
brilliant manifestation of the Sun of Justice, have led some of those
who have described the Blackfeet into error, by inducing them to
conclude that the trib« did not recognize a Supreme Being. But
these Indians, like others, have an undefined idea of divinity and of
the superiority of au invisible Being. The word God cannot be

129

translated literally into their language, but divinity and its attri-
butes may be described in it. For example, they say " Ispouin-
itapi" (He who is on high) and " Kminou" (Our God.) This
superior invisible Being, whom they naturally suppose to be above in
heaven, is certainly the God whose infinite goodness they declare
in addressing Him by the same title as the Son of the Eternal has
put on our lips in teaching us to pray.

The Sartis, a fourth tribe, not of the Blackfeet family, is con
nected with them.

The Sarcis, as regards manners and customs, are exactly like the
Blackfeet, but speak a different language. By language, the Sar-
cis are connected with the Castors who live on the banks of Peace
River, and are a branch of the Chipewyans or Montagnais, to whom
we shall presently refer.

The Sarcis have lost all the gentleness, peacefulness, and honesty
that characterizes the family to which they belong, and instead
have become imbued with the spirit of revenge and inclination to
thieve which characterize the tribe to which they have now allied
themselves. This shifting of a tribe, which war threatens with
extermination, is very similar to what h:;8 happened in the case of
the Assiniboines. These have not only abandoned their brothers
or natural allies, the Sioux, but are actually at desperate war with
them, and have vowed implacable hatred towards them.

The separation of the Sarcis led to their migrating towards the
south. The separation of the Assiniboines drove them towards the
north, or the north-west.

Before leaving the Blackfeet let us say that, contrary to the
custom prevailing amongst other Indians of the Northern Depart-
ment, they do not inter their dead. They dress the body with
care, place it in the logo, and at the door sacrifice horses, particu-
larly if the deceased was a chief, that his spirit may hunt at leisure
in the other world. Where the body has laid is presently pastu-
rage for deer.

IV. CHIPEWYANS OR MONTAGNAIS-

On quitting the prairies and the tribes inhabiting them, scenes
of bloodshed, theft and brigandage disappear, and now we enter
more peaceful regions, and find ? different people froni those we

^^iii : I

130

have been considering. T!ie Chipewyan or Moniagnais family are
in striking contrast to those they call " Grandes Oreilles" (Sault-
eaux), the Wicked Strangers (Blackfeet), &c.

The names given to the Indian family about which we now wish
to speak, cause them to be confounded with others with whom they
are unconnected. Thus the name " Montagnais" has led to the
suppositicn that these Montagnais of the north are related to the
Montagnais who live on the lower St. Lawrence and on the banks
of the Saguenay. The latter are related to the Algonquin family,
■whose language they speak, while the Montagnais of the north are
& distinct race. Gentleness of character undoubtedly greatly
assimilates the two Montagnais, and it is this j oint of similarity
which has probaoly led to the name Montagnais being applied to
the* tribe in the North-west. Travellers, who had first seen the
Montagnais of Canada without understanding their language, and
afterwards came amongst those of the north whom they understood
no better, might easily conclude that the two were one family.
The name Chipewyan is also sometim'^is mistaken for Chippeway or
Ogibiway, which the English invariably use in speaking of the
Saulteaux. -• ^- • ,;^-,.;.t:.^.v;^q-,?rj^;i

The name Tchippewyan, in the plural Tchippeweyanak, as writ-
ten in Cree, i? derived from the two roots, Tchipwan (pointed), and
Weyan (skin, blanket or clothing), and was applied by the Crees
to the Montagnais, who formerly wore pointed clothing, as the Lou-
cheux and Esquimaux now do. The pointed form of Montagnais
canoes may also have had something to do with the name, as, with
elision, the name would express this form of boat.

Whatever may be the case about these two names, confounded by
many, the Dene family (or Men) bearing them, differ considerably
from the other tribes about which I have spoken. Their dialects
are not at all analogous, and their habits differ as much as their
language. The Montagnais are gentle, timid, and more indolent
than the other Indians. Although hidden in the recesses of dense
forests which serve to protect them, they are always fancying that
they are being pursued by their enemies, " the Wicked Strangers"
(Eunasline.) Up to the arrival of our missionaries a-nongst them,
they were frequently seized v/ith absurd fear and panic, and ran
until they were out of breath, or plied their paddles with redoubled
vigor, and this even when there were many of them together at
the time.

181

A girl once fancying she had heard the click of a gun-lock, ran in
fright to warn the family, or the camp ; and immediately, without
any other sign, the whole band of doughty knights took to their
heels.

These causeless panics were doubtless caused by the recollection
of former wars with the neighboring tribes. If they were then
brave soldiers, they have very much changed ; at present, at all
events, the Montagnais are not imbued with warlike spirit. The
Crees, their enemies of former days, but now their friends, say of
them that they were brave when once engaged. This opinion
places their courage really on a par with the courage of many who
are acknowledged to be brave.

The Montagnais fear not only the living but the dead. When
any one dies they fire a great many shots to calm the exasperated
departed spirit, haslen to place the corpse in the grave, and imme-
diately move away to avoid as much as possible the neighborhood
which they now consider fatal.

I was once travelling with two infidel Montagnais. Bad weather
obliged us to stay for a whole day near a burying place. At mid-
day, one of my companions was attacked with burning fever, his
face swelled up, his pulse throbbed violently, and his breathing was
difficult ; he sighed, puffed, and fretted. I thought him very ill,
and he really was so. Next day we continued our journey ; I
changed places with the patient ; I packed him warmly in a blanket
in the middle of the canoe, and taking the paddle I rowed as hard
as I could to hasten our arrival at the next habitation on our road.
We had hardly pushed off from the bank when I observed that the
paticnt'b breathing was easier, and his nerv^ousness less ; presently
he asked for food. A few hours later he had perfectly recovered
and told me that fear of the dead had been the sole cause of his
illness.

On the death of near relatives, the Montagnais give themselves
up to extravagant grief; they cry, even howl, and used to burn and
destroy all they possessed. Covered with miserable rags, whose
possession they owe to charity, they lived a whole year without
hunting, trusting for food to the pity excited by their wretched con-
dition. Exaggerated dread of death is also observable in this tribe.

It is unnecessary to say that this excessive fear, and the customs
noted above, ceased with the introduction of Christian teaching,

182

' *i

'^W

-i

1 .

I 1

■fi

''!

1 ' [I

which in this and many other ways has much ameliorated the char-
acters of these unfortunate people.

The Montagnais have a great horror of blood, and don't under-
stand any other kind of fighting than pulling one another by the
hair. They are, however, far from tender-hearted. The Montag-
nais do not give themselves to bloody deeds; but, before they
became Christians, they were so unfeeling that they abitadoned
their relations, without help in the midst of the forest, when age or
infirmity incapacitated them from following the family. Other
tribes kill their old and infirm people, the Montagnais leave them to
die. Orphans, even when adopted, were treated with a severity
■Tfhich might well have been called cruel. And then their women —
oh ! how unfortunate are Montagnais infidel women ! The men, ."
gentle, so kind to strangers, so cowardly towards imaginary
enemies, often became the exc utioners of the companions of their
lives. No tribe probably held its women in such contempt.
This selfish scorn so arranged matters, that the man reaped all the
advantages, while to the mother, the wife, the daughter, were left
the endurance of all the suffering they could bear, privation and
labor. Oh ! holy religion, what blessings are thy maxims — to tribes,,
as to individuals !

A consonng trait in the character of the Montagnais, is their
freedom from thieving ; there is certainly no more honest people.
All travellers have observed and admired this feature, characteristic
of them before the introduction of Christianity. This freedom from
thievish propensity is so much the more striking as the Montagnais
are, I believe, the most interesting of Indians. They have not the
improvidence of others, and keep, as well as they can, something to
meet times of want. They do not experience the unbridled desire
wl.ich the Crees have, to eat all they possess in feasts ; they some-
times invite their relations and friends to a banquet, but at proper
times and places, and never with the result of poverty and suffer-
ing the next day. All Indians are beggars, the Montagnais more
so than others, without, however, being offended with the refusals
they oftcu experience. Their curiosity is insatiable, they must
needs see and touch everything, but what is very remarkable, is that
they invariably replace such articles as naturally most excite their
covetousness, even when they might steal them without risk of
Suspicion.

133

Superstition, natural to ignorant man, and the result of a neces-
sity for some belief, prevails amongst the Chipewyans, restrained,
however, within narrower limits than in the case of some other
Indians. They have their jugglers (jkawze) who dare not claim
the power arrogated by Cree and Saulteaux jugglers.

Polygamy, common to all infidel nations, is found amongst those
of whom I am speaking. Marriage does not appear to them to be
binding, hence, doubtless, great disorder. It is consoling, however,
to know that this people observe the laws of nature so far as not
to commit unnatural crimes, notwithstanding the numerous examples
of the kind notoriously furnished by the Crees, with whom they
are in daily communication.

It can easily be understood that the total of these qualities has
favorably disposed the Chipewyans to embrace Christianity ;
nearly all the family have accepted our holy religion, and the great
majority of them faithfully observe its important obligations.

Amongst the Montagnais are some of our most thriving missions.
Their happy disposition made us seek them out from the first. It
being impossible to preach the Gospel to all the Indians of the
Northern Department, Bishop Provencher, and his successor,
preferred to labor at the conversion of the Montagnais. Success
has shewn the wisdom of the plan. A vicarship was created nearly
exclusively on account of this group of tribes ; besides, the
Montagnais of I'lle k la Crosse District are now under the care of
a newly appointed pastor, in consequence of the missiona'^y success
amongst them, as well as at Upper Saskatchewan River.

The Montagnais family inhabits the districts of English River,
Athabaska River and Mackenzie River, with the exception of the
ooast of the frozen ocean, occupied by Esquimaux. Some Cree
families also spread out to Athabaska.

The Chipewyans include a great number of tribes which we
.shall class in four groups : —
The Chipewyans,
The Castors,
The Slaves,
The Loucheux or Quarrellers.

The Chipewyans include ^liree tribes : —

The Montagnais, properly so called.

The Cariboo eater (Mangeur de Caribou),

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134

The Yellow Knives (Couteau Jaunes), -who are not
distinguishable by any striking feature, unless it be differences ia
clothing, depending upon the materials supplied by the localities in
■which they live.

2nd. The Castors include : — the Castors, properly so called,
living on the banks of Peace River and the splendid lands washed
by that river ; the " Mauvais mondes '' (Bad people,) who are
neighbors of the others, and live on the eastern branch of Mountain
River ; lastly the Sarcis, of whom we have already spoken, as
having separr"*ed from the Montagnais and joined the family of
Blackfeet. '1 ' \> tors' language differs from the Chipewyans*
proper, but is rek k> it, and the similarity of idiom permits the
classification of the two tribes under one head.

The Castors keep themselves apart from their brothers, whoso
good nature is not quite equalled by theirs. More levity, gene-
rosity, improvidence, and an unbridled passion for gambling, also
mark a difference of character.

8rd. The Slaves, who derive their name from the profound con-
tempt in which they were held by the others, at the time their
enemies — when in war ihey fled before their adversaries.

The tribes which compose this nation, are the Slaves, the Hare-
skins, the Dog-rib (les Plats cdtSs de chins'), the Teken^s^
the Nahan^s, and other small tribes composed of only one or two
families. Differences in the languages of these tribes, as well as
certain similarities, appear to refer these to the heads under which
I have classified them.

It is difficult to realize the extreme poverty in which these latter
Indians live. Their climate is one of the most severe. In some
places, they are so far to the north that the sun does not shew above
the horizon for whole weeks, and they are there exposed with-
out any logos or tents, having merely huts made cf branches.
When hares or rabbits fail them, their want is frightful. It was
during one of these trials that they were seen to give themselves
up to all the horrors of the most revolting cannibali&m. On this occa-
sion twenty-four Hare-Skin Indians were eaten by their brothers at the
gate of one of the Honorable Hudson Bay Company's posts. Justice
and truth require it to be said that, almost invariably, distressed
Indians obtain relief at the trading posts : when practicable, reUef
is even sent to those known to be in extremity. The occasion w&

135

alludp to happened in the winter of 1840-41. Mr. Fisher, then
in charge of Fort Good Hope, instead of being able to assist
the Hare-skin Indians, who were starving, was himself obliged,
with his men, to abandon tha trading post of which he had charge,
to seek refuge elsewhere, leaving only a Canadian called St. Amaud,
to take care of the office. Distrusting the Indians who were
grouped around the Fort hoping to obtain succor, St. Amaud was
under the cruel necessity of closing the doors to save his life,
and the establishment entrusted to his care. He supported his
own and his family's lives with pieces of parchment which were used
in the windows, the ends of cords or pieces of leather which had been
dropped in the sheds, or in the Fort. At the same time the
unfortunate Indians were suffering all the horrors of famine ; a great
many of them died ; twenty-four were eaten. By the light of the camp
fire, St. Amaud saw the unhappy mothers, suffering the agony of
despair, seize their little infants, dead from inanition, raise them
in the air, uttering dreadful cries, followed by a laugh of des-
peration more excruciating than their weeping, then he saw them
roast their children, to dismember them and share their flesh with
those whom % Uttle remaining vitality preserved from the final
agony !

This unhappy people, usually so gentle, surprised two sleeping
letter-carriers of the Hudson's Bay Company. Women killed
them in their camp with axes, and the tribe fed upon them.

It must have been extreme want which, from the time of these
•vents up to the arrival of missionaries amongst them, led this
tribe to destroy their girls at birth, or a few months afterwards-
This very horrible custom does not occur amongst other Indians
of the Norw„ern Department ; on the contrary, they all love their
little children ; they certainly prefer their sons, but their daughters,
too, get a large share of the love planted by nature in the hearts of
fathers.

If the distressed cries of those innocent victims have mng
along the banks of Mackenzie River, let the echo of their plaintive
voices excite compassion for the extreme want which alone could
lead to such crimes.

Are they then useless and vain, the heroic efforts of the men
who have gone to live the lives of these unhappy people, to improve
their moral, and with it their physical condition ? It is in that inhoe-

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136

pitable region, in the midst of the unheeded tombs of so many vic-
tims of suffering and grief, at Good Hope, where lie the mortal
remains of dear and zealous Father GroUier. May the sublimity
of Ai« sacrifice rise, even to the throne of God, as a sweet incense,
to neutralize the heavy and disgusting atmosphere overhanging
all these human sacrifices ! May the eager accents of prayer of
this, the first martyr of apostleship in Mackenzie Vicarage, bring
down an abundant shower of blessings upon the too unfortunate
Indians to whom he was the first to say, " Do not murder your
daughters." And then, to give weight to his words, he expended
his own life of noble tender-heartedness, generously and rapidly, for
the benefit of these neophytes and catechumens.

4th. Tlie fourth nation connected wit. the Montagnais family
is the Loucheux. The name is a translation of the Montagnais
D^kedh^.

The Loucheux call themselves Dendjiye (Men), and English
travellers generally call them Quarrellers. The Loucheux are
generally classed as Montagnais on account of similarity of lan-
guage, but difference of habits would point to other relationship.

Very few of the Loucheux live within the limits I fiave given
to the Northern Department. The mass of the nation live beyond
the Rocky Mountains in the territory ceded by Russia to the
United States.

Of late, the Loucheux have been at war with the Esquimaux, and
even amongst themselves.

The Loucheux are large people. Their warlike spirit displays
itself in ornamentation, of which they are very fend ; rich and ele-
gant dress appearing to mark the handsome and good soldier.
Modern armies shew that this idea about appearances is not foreign
to the maxims of the art of war. Why should not our warriors
of the woods and of the plains carry a bunch of long feathers on
their heads ? The most valiant of military commanders in the best
trained armies, look upon a plume as a necessary finish to the uni-
form of any branch.

The Loucheux have a marked liking for colored glass beads, which
the Montagnais despise. A similar remark may be made about
daubing the face with colors. Apart from a spirit of affectation,
this habit of the Indian on the war path, is due, in a great measure,
to & desire to render their appearance formidable, or to conceal

]:'■

137

th- strong emotions caused by fear which very frequently makes
them tremble all over when they reflect on the possible result of
the combat.

Their shell-work, as well as their glass trinkets, are extremely
chaste. Colored beads are also used for currency, being more con-
Tenient than furs in supplying the place of coin.

The Loucheux are credited with better behavior towards their
women than other Montagnais.

Their tents are not conical like those of their brothers, but semi-
oliptical, and are well arranged to protect them against the excessive
cold to which they are exposed.

The various Montagnais form a population of about 16,000. The
tribes of Mackenzie River especially have been for some years a
prey to a contagious disease which is rapidly decimating them.

The Montagnais, without being so well supplied with beards as
white men, have much more than other redskins. I have seen a
great many pure Montagnais children with bright red hair, and these
same children advanced in years, with hair as black as that of the
rest of the tribe. This peculiarity, frequently observed, has strength-
ened my conviction that the accident of circumstances, as much as
extraction, originates many of the differences existing between
Indians and their civilized brothers.

V. THE ESQUIMAUX.

Passing through the Northern Department to study its ethnology,
we have just glanced at the Aborigines who occupy the country
from its south-eastern extremity to the mouth of Mackenzie River ;
but there is a people of whom we have not yet spoken, the
Esquimaux, living on the coast midst the perpetual glaciers of the
Arctic Ocean, over which, as a guard, Providence appears to have
set this people adapted to its frightful climate, and they in turn
Appear to think it made only for them. In America the Esquimaux
form a living curve about the polar sea. They are about all the
straits, on very numerous islands, and on the mainland from Green-
land to Behring's Straits, avoiding coming south on the Hudson's
Bay, past the 60th parallel of latitude : then* mission, to guard the
frozen ocean, brings them to the south of this latitude on the coast
of Labrador. The Esquimaux, not content with being only an

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188

American people, cross Behring's Strait?, and on the Asiatic coast
are known as NamoUos. These Indians, then, form a connecting link
between the old and new worlds ; they are the only uncivilized
race to be found on both hemispheres, in proof that the inhabitant*
of all continents have one and the same origin.

The name Esquimaux is of Cree or Algonquin origin ; Ayask-
imew (plural ayaskemewok) being the name given by the Crees to
their people. The etymology and meaning of the name is found in
the two roots " Aski" (raw flesh or fish) and " mowew" (he eats),
implying " He who eats raw flesh, or fish."

It is easily understood that tho tribes of a race occupying so
extended a territory must differ. The distance between Labrador
and Behring's Straits, from Greenland to the northern extremity of
Asia, is too great for the race occupying its coast line to be every-
where alike. Some have experienced influences which have modified
their habits and not affected others ; all, however, speak the same
language, from which it may be concluded that they have a common
origin.

We would Bpeak here only of the Esquimaux of the Northern De-
partment, who are to be found betweenChurchill and the mouth of
Mackenzie River, who were but lately within the jurisdiction of the
Bishop of St. Boniface, and who are now, some in the vicarage
of Athabaska and Mackenzie River, and the others in the last eccle-
siastical subdivision of the country.

These Esquimaux call themselves " Inno'it." I don't think they
number more than 4,000 or 6,000.

The Innoit are greatly renowned for bravery. They know that
they must defend their country, else, were they driven from their
narrow shore line, whither could they go ? But in this country they
are exposed to war at only one point, the mouth of Mackenzie
River, whose possession the Loucheux dispute with them, otherwise
they come in contact with none, unless it be the Cariboo Eaters, who
also frequent Fort Churchill, whom they meet on the outskirt of the
barren lands, and with whom they live in perfect harmony. The
Cariboo Eaters are certainly not men to give occasion for cultivating
the art of attack, or of defence ; naturally of gentle disposition
themselves, they declare that their dear neighbors are still more
gentle and perfectly docile. This, however, does not prevent them
from sometimes thinking that the Esquimaux are their enemies, —

139

an effort of imagination which proves only one thing, and that
is their own pusillanimity.

Esquimaux are not giants, but they are not so short as is gen-
erally supposed. The women, however, are below average height,
which will not surprise those acquainted with the Montagnais tribes.
I cannot assent to the opinion which connects Esquimaux with
white races. I think that, without wronging them, they may be
said to be slightly yellow, if it be too much to say that they are
Red-skins. That Esquimaux may be whiter or less coppery than
other Indians and yet have a common origin, may be easily under-
stood. There is certainly less difference between them and their
neighbors than between people from different parts of Europe.
The life led by Esquimaux would have considerable effect upon
their complexion. Shut up in their ice cabins for a great part of
the year, without light and without fatigue, it is simple to under-
stand that they may be fairer than others of the same race who are
constantly exposed to inclemency of weather, and upon whom want
produces striking effects. I have seen Indians of ordinary color be-
come almost black as negroes during severe famine, and in mid-winter;
and to such an extent is this true, that when I meet Indians whom I
know, or presume to have suffered hunger for a prolonged period, I
examine their complexion to assure me of their actual condition..
The beard of the Esquimaux is not more peculiar than that of the
Montagnais.

In short, I consider that they are of the same stock as our other
Indians, but more closely allied to Kamschatkans, or northern
Mongols.

The Esquimaux live in wood huts, which they build of drift
wood which has been carried to sea by the rivers, for, of course,
wood does not grow on their desert coasts. In default of wood,
stone is also used for building. In either case, snow and frozen
water serve as cement. When there is no other material, ice, which
is never wanting, is at the service of this unfortunate people, taught»«
like other men, by nature, to overcome such obstacles as she has
thrown in their way.

A little moss, a few seals and ice, these are often alone avail-
able to the Esquimaux ; and with these poor means, in the midst
of horrors and of a chaos of frozen coast, he supports existence,
prolongs life, and does not always suffer so much as might naturally
be imagined.

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140

Ice makes a house in which doubtless there reigns squalor and dis-
comfort, but which, from its nature, admits light from without, and
at Iht; gn.ne time screens its occupants against wind and storms and
the rigors of a climate without parallel. The flesh of seals feeds
the family ; their skins clothe them, and their oil supplies the lamp,
whose wick of moss on a stone, or the frozen floor, sheds a dim
light. This is their only light, and their only fuel. There live
beings very low, no doubt, in the scale of humanity, deserving (rfall
our compassion and our interest : beings in whom shine rays of
intelligence, and in whose bosoms throb feeling and loving hearts.
The mother bestows affectionate kisses on her cherished infant, and,
in the absence of all other means, clothts it with affection, solicitude
and a little moss. There is the eye of man which cannot contemplate
the splendor of the sun that is hidden from view for many months
of the year, in the midst of nature which shews neither flower,
verdure, nor vegetation, but is always clothed in a death shroud —
there, the eye of man rests with sweet emotion on those whom he
loves, and whom, in his language as in ours, he calls father,
mother, husband, wife, child, brother, sister, friend ! These family
ties unite beings who appear to have no other source of enjoy-
ment.

How great is their need of this feeling, to enable them to experi-
ence some joy here below ! For, let us declare it, the enthusiasm of
certain poets is very absurd when, in prose oftener than in verse,
they paint the well-being of Esquimaux and other Indians, from the
dreams of their imagination, and not from a true knowledge of their
actual condition.

I have said that the Esquimaux who visit Churchill are very
gentle, I will add that now, for some time, they have had trading
relations with that post. The other Esquimaux of the Northern
Departmer , began to form such relations only in 1849. Up to that
time, their enemies, the Loucheux, did not allow them to ascend
Mackenzie River, and their kind of life on the sea-coast was not
suflSciently attractive to draw others to them. In this region, par-
ticularly, the Esquimaux are great thieves. They think they have
a right to all a stranger's property. They display as much adroit-
ness as effrontery in stealmg and concealing whatever is within
reach. Why should not the glaciers of the North have their pick-
pockets as well as the most polished centres of civilization ?

geggBweeBW

141

The Esquimaux build their huts in groups or villages where
whale fishing assures them of abundant subsistence. Under other
circumstances they live very isolated, gaining a livelihood by seal
fishing and cariboo hunting. Naturally the interminable and severe
winters through which they pass, oblige them to be more provident
than our other Aborigines.

When the cariboo are migrating at the close of summer to
avoid a winter they could not survive, the Esquimaux kill them in
great numbers, just as they seize with great dexterity, courage and
perseverance, every opportunity for fishing, notwithstanding its
diflSculty in the frozen ocean.

Their cleverness in making leather is astonishing ; they succeed
perfectly in making it very pliable and waterproof, so that they
make canoes of it, their " kayiak" and "uniak." The kayiak par-
ticularly is extremely light, and is used by hunters, who install
themselves in it, and even enclose themselves by means of a very
flexible and waterproof dress, made from the intestines of the whale.
This dress is fastened about an opening in the upper part of the
canoe, which is otherwise completely covered in. The hunter, or
fisherman, is no sooner seated than he laces the upper part of the
dress around his body. There he is, on the Arctic Ocean, in a boat so
light that he carries it on his shoulder to the shore, and in which he
ties himself so securely, that waves may wash over the boat and the
man in it, without risk of drowning the one, or swamping the other.

The paddle of the Esquimaux is double bladed, which makes it
easier to guide, and the action quicker in steering the frail boat.
It is surprising to see the Esquimaux in it, facing the dangers of the
sea at considerable dislauces from the coast. He displays, too, great
dexterity in the construction of ice sledges ; and his expertness in
managing his untiring dogs is wonderful.

All travellers assert that Esquimaux are more susceptible of
being educated, and more manageable, than their neighbors. Their
remoteness has hitherto prevented their favorable character being
considered. Insufficient means, particularly as regards personnel,.
have denied us the happiness of earUer bearing to them the torch
of faith. Its soft light, however, is beginning to shine in their eye?
The missionaries of Good Hope have already made several success-
ful journeys amongst the Esquimaux of the west ; while one from
Cariboo Lake started at the end of last winter to pass the summer

142

amongst the Esquimaux at the east. Let us pray for the success
of an enterprise so full of danger and generous self-denial, and so
abounding in sacrifices of all kinds. May God convert the Esqui-
maux, and thus accord to their devoted missionaries the only
recompense that their zeal asks for here below !

llli

CHAPTER VII.

THE ANIMAL EINQDOM.

With the view of filling in the outline I have sketched for myself,
I wish, in this chapter, to bring out the most striking features of
that part of the animal kingdom which lates to the country that
is the subject of this sketch.

Nature, even in the midst of the rigors of the climate, is lavish
here as elsewhere. If the animal kingdom, like the vegetable,
does not present to us ^U the riches that it displays in more fortu-
nate regions, it cannot on that account be called sterile : it has
even specialties reserved for our eternal glaciers, and riches that
spring, so to speak, out of our destitution, and the rigors to which
we are subjected.

Complete treatises on the zoology of the North, by men who
have specially devoted themselves to the interesting and diversified
subject, are procurable ; but as these works are voluminous and
expensive, I thought I might oblige those interested in me, by
giving an epitome of what appeared to me to be the most striking
points of the subject. I shall devote a portion of this chapter to
each of the four classes of the first great division of the animal
kingdom. It is not to be understood that there are no examples
here of the other divisions worthy of interest. No, the division of
articulated animals in particular can furnish subjects for deep study ;
but it is impossible for me to think even for a moment of entering
on such a work.

I borrow the generic and specific names of the majority of the
animals I shall enumerate from Sir John Richardson's "jPauna
JBoreali Americana.

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144

MAMMALIA.

This class, it is known, is subdivided into nine orders.
In the preceding chapter I spoke of the population, and even
of tribes of Aborigines, in the Northern Department.

l8t.

Order.

MAN.

2nd
Order,

Quadruniana or Monkeys are not found in the Northern Department.

I. Fam. Cheiroptera.

Genus Vespertilio

.2 species.

II. Fam. Insectivora.

tiENnB..Sorex

" ..ScalopB

. .2 species.
.1 "

III. Fam. Carnivora.

Ist Tribe:
Plantigrades.

Genub .Ursus.. ,,

.4 species.

" ..Meles

.1 "

" ..Procyon

..Gulo

.1 "

" 1

2nd Tribe :
Digitigrades.

GKNUB..Mu8tela

..Lutra

" ..Mephitis

" ..Car"

.6 species.
.1 "
.1

R II

" .. " (Lupus)

.. " (VuTpes)....
" ..Felis

.8 "

3rd Tribe : Genos. .Phoca 1 species.

Amphibious. " Trichechus rosmarus.l "

4th
Order.

Marsupial animals are not found in the Northern Department.

Gehub. .Fiber

.2 specie...

" ..Arvicola

.5 "

• " ..Mus

.1 "

^« J

" . . Mei-iones

I. Fam. witL perftct

" . . Arctomys

o^i

clavicles.

" ..Sciurus

.8 "

■t:2

" ..Pteromis

.2 "

s«

" ..Jeomys Talpoides.

.1 "

II. Fam. with imper-

Gemub. . Hystrix

.1 Loecies.

f»>ct clavicles.

" ..Lepus

.4 "

6th
Order.

Edentata are not found in the Northern Department.

7th Order

Pachy-

dermata.

I. Fam. Proboscidea.

II. Fam. True Pacby-

dermata.

to Elephants.

GENUB..SU8

— 1 B[,ecie9.

III. Soliped.

Genub. .Equus

. . ..8 species

I. Faro Hornless.

No Camelidie.

II. Fam. Horned.

iBt Tribe :
Solid Uorned.

Genus.. Cervis

. ...6 species

I'd

2nd Tribe :
Hairy Horned.

No Giraffidse.

8rd Tribe:
UoDow
Ilorued.

Genus. .Antelope

" ..Capra

1 species.

1 "

..Ovis

" ..Ovibos

" ..Bob.

2 "

....1 "

....a •■

Genub. . Physoter 1 species.

..BafanB 1

145

even

To prevent certain learned men from being led by the ignorance,
sensuality, and color of our Indians, to conclude that they are in
their first penod of transformation, God has not placed any
examples of the second order of Mammalia — Quadrumana, in this
country. There are no monkeys here ; they are only to be found
far away ; and if our Indians were only improved monkeys, they
must have migrated from a much greater distance than they have
done, being men and sons of Adam.

I shall make no more remarks about the first two orders ; but
after giving a general table of the Mammalia, I shall proceed to
examine the other orders of this important class.

:f}/>-!6i-r

Third Order. ;'>/-; :.';j;>'r^^^^ ^
tarnassters. ^ "

The third Order of Mammalia is represented here by three
families of several tribes and species.

Below is a Synoptical table shewing such examples as I know to
belong to this order. - ^v .j^>* ;.;

Family.

1. Cheiroptera.

Tribe.

Uat.

SpecioB

II. Insectivora.

Shrew

Shrew-mole.

Q
M

in. Carnivora.

I.
Plantigrade.

Bear

Hadger

Racoon. .. ,
Wolverine.

II. Digitigrade

III.

Amphibious

Animals.

f Weasel.

Stoat...

Minlca..

Marten.

Tekan. .

Utter. . .
^ Skunk. .

« ") Fox

Kit.

Cat

u, f liger Cat.

Seal

Walrus.

I. — By the foregoing table it will be seen that the family of
Cheiroptera is represented here by only two species of one tribe.

) Frimosus, or Hoary Uat.
Bat.— VcsportUlo. |

) Lululatua, or Say's Rat.

146

J ill

The bat — harmless here as elsewhere, — sleeps throughout the
winter, and during the day in summer, enveloped in its wings »
hanging bj its feet, head downwards, and very certain that it will
not suflFer from inflammation of the brain. It begins its eccentric
flight at night, and here, at all events, is not likely to intimidate the
brave children of the North, nor to excite the diversion my school-
day recollections bring back to mind, as the result of its visiting
our dormitory. ,, , 5 . ,.,

II. — The family of Insectivora is represented by three species
of shrews, viz., the American Marsh shrew (^Sorex Palustris),
Forster's {^Sorex Forsteri) and the Uttle shrew (^Sorex Parvwi).
The shrews are the most diminutive of our quadrupeds ; but our
severe winter does not affect their feeble and slender existence, nor
does it check their movements.

I know of only one species of mole here, the shrew mole, (^Sca-
lopa Canadensis') . We do not make war against them; they do
not trouble us. ' ■ -'■'■\^'- ''- -■ '■■^■■'''''■^^ '',',^-'-:-:-'''^k'-^J

III.- The family of Carnivora is naturally more interesting than
the preceding, and better worthy of special study. It is represent-
ed by three tribes in this country : — .• :^ •:^"^".

Plantigrades, Digitigrades and amphibious animals .

1st, The tribe of Plantigrades includes the following species :

The Polar, or Sea Bear — Ursus Maritimus.

The Grizzly Bear — UrsusFrox.

The American Black B'. . — Ursus Americanus.

The Barren-Grounds Bear, or Brown Bear — Ursus ArctoB
Americanus,

The American Badger — Meles Lalradoria. IM^^

The Raccoon — Procyon Lotor. . .; . , \^.'4:k:.

The Wolverine — Gulo Luscus. ,.,:... .. -; -■■,„.':■A.,./.^i'.:^■^■**■-:^''il■\'^^^v

The polar bear appears to be the outlying sentinel of the Arctic
Region, posted to watch great glaciers, on which he takes his
beat when not in a state of lethargy. This species is marked by
a greater length than the others ; the neck is longer and of a
yellowish white ; the muzzle and tongue are black ; the lips and
inside of the mouth are of nearly the same color. The animal
sometimes measures nine feet in length, and four and a half in
height. His strength is exceedingly great ; it is equally savage,
and is feared with good reason. It goes great distances out to

147

sea, on icebergs ; its principal food is fish, which accounts for the
disagreeable flavor of its flesh.

If the polar bear be considered the sentinel of the north, the
southern boundary of the Northern Department finds a guardian
in the grizzly bear, also furnished by the Plantigrades. This is
the largest of the bears, some individuals attaining to an enormous
size. I have seen grizzly bears' claws that measured seven inches
in length. From this may be judged how great would be the
pleasure of falling into the arms of such an animal, to have your
sides torn open, or to be hugged with like warmth. The grizzly
bear is dreaded even by hunters, who attack it with redoubled
precaution, and combine to help one another unless armed in a very
exceptional manner. This species is generally found on the plains,
or in the outskirts of the woods bordering them. The color of its
hair varies very much ; wliite hairs she w on a russet or black
ground.

A book might be written about the feats of strength of this
Tormidable winter-sleeper ; and many pages might be filled with
accounts of the coolness and courage of Inr iters, or even of some
women, who when seized by this species of bear retniaed their
presence of mind, and managed to es' '>e from its clutches without
displaying the least emotion. I hav*. '>n many Indians who h^ve
been deprived of the use of a limb, or have been marked with deep
cicatrices, the result of encounters with grizzly uears.

The black bear is found all over the country. . tliink thut it
differs from the European bear, but it is not a savage animal
Even children hunt it, and in pursuit of this animal . is the
hunters greatest anxiety to get close up to it, for it i variably
runs away on the least noise, and never attacks,even when wouud<^d,
unless it is brought to bay.

Chocolate, or rather, cinnamon colored bears are merely a ety
of the black bear, of which they are, not unfrequently, the young.
The fur of both kinds, but particularly the cinnamon colored, is
very handsome. The coat is long, thick and silky. Everybody
knows that boar's flesh is excellent, and particularly when the
animal has fed on fruit.

The fourth species of bear frequents the sterile country up to
the very shores of the Arctic Ocean. It feeds during its life of
activity, on both auijnal and vegetable substances.

i I

ilii

ill

WW:

1 ■ .- !

148

This animal, neither so large nor so fierce as the grizzly hear,
which lives on the southern plains, is also dreaded by Indians, even
by those who do not in the least fear black bears. I once
travelled with two young Indians, Cariboo Eaters (Mangeurs de
Cariboii)-, who were constantly in childish fear of meeting with
imaginary enemies, as I described in the last chapter. So, every
evening we had to camp on some island, and, no matter at what
trouble, there and there only. Darkness, wind, rain, nothing
could induce them to pass the night on the mainland. Every
night we had to push on to reach some island, however small or
inconvenient it might be. After much argument, I did nn«- succeed
in removing their fear. I laughed a great deal at their cowardice,
saying to them, that for my part, I could not see any other enemy
in these dense woods than bears. My surprise was veiy great to
hear thorn burst out into a roar of laughter, declaring that they
desired nothing better than to see a bear, that they might kill it
and break the monotony of our daily meagre fare ; then they
went on to °i<y it would be a very different thing were we on the main-
land, (the barren-grounds), there the bears are terrible.

The plains are frequented by another of the Plantigrades which,
like the bear, winters in a den without losing much flesh. The
bad»er is a small animal, from two to two and a-half feet long.
Shy, it flies at the least noise, or at the sight of man, but at the
same time it fully gratifies its cruelty towards small animals, on
which it feeds with great voracity. It partakes, too, of vegetable
substances to a small extent. The coat of the badger is too dull
to be elegant, but it is very stout. This small quadruped has
wonderful strength in its fore-f^et ; when it has once got the lore-
part of its body into a hole, it is impossible to draw the beast out,
and this, no' withstanding the peculiar facilities, of which hunters
know how to avail themselves, presented by the hinder part of the

animal.

Raccoons are found along the southern boundary of the Northern
Department. They appear to be unable to li\ further north, but
are found in great numbers further south. T)\is animal resembles
,i fox with the habits of a bear. It feeds on roots, plants, green
grain, fruit, insects and birds. It is particularly fond of blood and
brains. It catches fish in shallow watr . Its fur is nicer looking
than badger-skin, but it, also, is not v< ry choice.

149

The only other mem oer of the Plantigrades in this country is the
wolverine, the plague of the forest and the scourge of the fur
hunter.

This animal, as if to make up for the torpor of others of the
family, is endowed with a feverish and very extraordinary activity,
particularly in winter ; yet it cannot run quickly ; its progress is
not even easy, except on well beaten pathways. About as big as a
dog of only average size, it is able to commit depredations requiring
strength a: r" skill that often appear fabulous. It steals all kinds
of things, not only food but utensils, and even the long heavy
country saws, and hides them in the snow, or elsewhere. I once
witnessed one of these tricky performances of the wolverine :
my fellow-travellers, coming to meet me, had left behind them in
store, a double-barrelled gun, and a bag of provisions to be used on
our return. Knowing the risk there was of losing these things, it
appears they secured them. The gun was forced between the
trunks of two trees that grew very close to one another ; the bag
of provisions was hung, by a cord, from the centre of a long pole,
resting on two trees at some distance from one another. On our
return, we were surprised to find how a wolverine had treated us.
Not only had he climbed up one of the trees, but had even walked
along the weak and flexible pole that appeared to be unequal to his
weight, and gnawed through the cord by which the bag of pro-
visions had been hung up. The food he had eaten, scattered or buried,
and the gun had disappeared. After a long search we first found
the leathern gun case, Avhich had been taken off the gun, for it had
been carefully put on to protect and conceal the piece. Then, in
another direction and farther away, we found the gun under the
trunk of a tree ; leaves had been thrown over it, and scattered for
some distance around as if to conceal the tracks of the thief. We
should certainly have concluded that a man had been at work, had
not the deep solitude of the forest obliged us to recognize the acts
of a wolverine, of which traces were everywhere visible in the
neighborhood. If the skilfulness of the wolverine sometimes
insures him success, here is an incident that proves his mischief
frequently brings punishment on him: A v. Indian had left his
loge without anyone to look after it. A wolverine presently
entered the deserted habitation, brought out, one by one, all the
things he found inside, and hid them here and there, and even far

! Mi

150

Mm
imh

. ! 11

ll.ip
m

awaj from the loge. There remained only a bag of gunpowder.
This the animal seized between his teeth, and concealed amongst
the cinders in the fireplace. Some fuel still unextinguished soon
burnt the bag and caused an explosion of which the roguish
wolverine was the first victim, fur it stretched him dead on the
spot, scattering the brains of the thief right and left.

2nd. The tribes of Digitigrades is represented here in three
distinct divisions : weasels, dogs and cats. There are seven
species of weasels, and they excite the covetousness of fur fanciers,
and furnish to this branch of commerce one of its richest resources.

The following, according to the table given, are the species of
weasels — {mustelop).

The Common Weasel — Wustela Piitorius Vulgaris.

The Ermine or Stoat — Mustela Putorius Ermina.

The Mink — Mmtela Putorius Vison.

The Pine Marten — Mustela Martes.

The Pekan Canadensis.

The Canadia'ii Otter.

The Hudson's Bay Skunk — Mephitis Americana Hudsonica.

Our hunters scarcely distinguish between the weasel and the
stoat. Both are reddish in summer, and in winter perfectly white.
Considering the old established custom of using these fine furs to
ornament the robes of high dignitaries in church and state, it will
naturally cause surprise to learn that, here, they are thought so
little of as not to be sought after. These small skins are so small
that they do not attract the attention of those who deal in larger
furs which pay better.

Next to these two dwarfs of the division about which I am now
speaking, comes the mink, so choice, so fashionable and so highly
prized just now, notwithstanding the infectious odor which it
lavishes on those who hunt it. The mink lives on the banks of
rivers into which it plunges, often even in winter, and it is easily
killed, either with a gun or spring traps.

Next comes the marten, which delights in dry and arid places,
and whose fur, always rich and highly esteemed, experiences the
ame attention that fashion has won for thu mink skin.

Then the pekan, the great weasel of the north, richer even than
the preceding, but loss numerous. Like the marten it lives on
bood and carnage. Although the weasel delights in partridge flesh,

151

its own is not on that account pleasant. Indians who are by no
means educated gastronomists, eat weasels only when pressed by
hunger.

The otter may be grouped with the three animals last named.
Its coat, while not so silky as the others, is not the less rich or
highly esteemed, and is superior to them as regards closeness and
durability. Some otters are all blacl:, and extremely beautiful.
Even in winter they seek water, at rapids, where the severe cold
has not been able to freeze it. It is a curious sight to see them
playing about, and when the temperature is at the lowest, plunging
and replunging after fish, and then moving away to great distances
in search of other places where ice has left an opening into the
river. In these wanderings, otters make a great trail on the snow,
without leaving any defined impression in the groove. On first
seeing one of these tracks, it is difficult to imagine that it can have
been made by a quadruped three or four feet in length, which crawls,
BO to speak, over a considerable distance, then gives a spring, and
again goes on crawling with wonderful speed.

The last of the weasel tribe is the skunk, the cMcdk of the Crees
(from chicaJcok or Chicago, Land of skunks). This animal is very
prettily marked, but otherwise is not at all pleasing. A very slow
runner, it is easily killed with a stick. Its only defence is the eject-
ment of a disgusting fluid, which it reserves for the moment of attack,
and scatters more or less as it runs, thus disclosing its whereabouts.
The infectious smell that comes from the fluid is perhaps not quite
80 bad as it has been described. I have frequently seen skunks
killed, but I have never witnessed tho disagreeable consequences
which are related on this subject. The skm, which retains the
smell, is considered a powerful specific, in some parts of the country.
I have seen it kept in houses for this purpose ; but to tell the
truth, I have found the remedy worse than the evil.

When the animal is carefully skinned, its flesh is far from being
unpalatable : I have enjoyed a meal of it, and shall eat of it again
whenever I shall have an opportunity. In winter, the skunk lives
under ground and comes out only at rare intervals. It feeds, like
the weasel, upon all the small inhabitants of the forest.

if'

152

1; -

The second division of the Digitigrade tribe includes the follow-
ing species ;

The Domestic Dog — Cams Familiaris.

The Esquimaux Dog — Canis Borealis. ;. ; ;

The Indian Hare Dog — Canis Lagopus. . , ,

The North American Dog — Canis Oanadenais.

The Prairie Wolf — Canis Latrans. ^< !

The American White Wolf — Canis Lupus Occidentalis.

The American Grey Wolf — Canis Lupus Occidentalis Griseus.

The American Red Wolf — Canis Lupus Occidentalis Sticteus.

The American Dusky Wolf — Canis Lupus Occidentalis NuhuluS'

The American Black Wolf — Canis Lupus Occidentalis Ater.

The Arctic Fox — Canis Vulpes Lagopus.

The Sooty Fox — Canis Vulpes Lagopus Fulginosa.

The American Fox — Canis Vulpes Fidvus.

The American Cross Fox — Canis Vulpes Decussata.

The Black or Silver Fox — Canis Vulpes Argentata.

The Kit Fox — Canis Vulpes Cinerco Argentatus.

The dog, man's faithful companion, is not wanting from the
Northern Department. It there shares with its master his labor, his
sufferings and sometimes his prosperity. The dog, not satisfied only
to hunt with the Indian, draws or carries his burdens, and shares
his great trials in the midst of severe and protracted fasts ; some-
times he satisfies his gluttony on the carcases of numerous animals
thoughtlessly and improvidently slaughtered.

There is a great variety of the dog in the Northern Department.
Nearly every breed known in Europe has been imported into this
country ; and, moreover, each wild tribe presents varieties of form,
color, and size, and yet all present one peculiarity, cocked ears.
All the domestic breeds crossed with wild ones, and all the wild
ones crossed with one another, and even with wolves, make a confu-
sion of varieties which it is impossible to classify, or even to distinguish.

The Esquimaux dog preserves its distinctive character more than
the others, for the simple reason that his master keeps himself quite
apart from other people ; he has either no communication, or very
little, with the whites, or even with other Indian tribes.

The Esquimaux dog has great strength and endurance. They
have been known to run, without other rest than lying out on the snow
during the night, for thousands of miles, drawing sleds laden with a

168

hundred pounds for each dog, and this with scarcely a sign of fatigue.
An advantage which almost all wild breeds, and particularly Esqui-
maux dogs, have over the common kinds is that they require less food :
also, in their winter journeys they are less subject to footsore, which,
more than anything else, exhausts the trader's dog ; and to this incon_
venience is to be added the trouble it involves to the dog driver, who
has every morning to put a shoe or stocking on all lie paws of the ani-
mals in his train, and in the camp, in the evening, he has to ornament
the fireplace, at which he warms his benumbed limbs, with a curious
display of a multitude of dog's shoes that have to be thawed and dried
against the morning. . ' «r; ;.

The dogs of Plain Indians are generally of large size, because
they share the abundance of their masters, who are buffalo hunters >
while the poor little dogs of the Montagnais Hare Indians, and others,
indicate very clearly the habitual starvation they experience. One
must be almost a witness of these poor animals' privations to under-
stand how much they can endure, and how little food is necessary
to support their wretched existence. Dogs living in packs, and driven
with a whip, lose nearly all their peculiar sagacity. The majority of
traders' dogs are so stupid and stubborn as to try the firmest pati-
ence, and unless one has driven dogs for long journeys it is impossible
to form an idea of the difficuties and fatigue involved in the task >
and, also, unless one has travelled in this manner, how difficult it
is to understand how very useful, and even necessary, the dog is as
a beast of burden in this country, and his capability for this kind of
work. On a good road, good dogs can travel for twenty hours out
of the twenty-four, feeding only once during the day, and this for
weeks at a time. Trained dogs, in good condition, can thus travel
for three or four days at a time without any food at ail, and without
showing signs of much exhaustion.

The difference between wild dogs and wolves is not great ; it is
very slight indeed between the small dog and the little Prairie wolf,
called, also, Loup a Moule. This name is derived from the hunters
drying this animal's skin on a stretching frame [Moule) as is usual
with all small fur skins. This little wolf is about three feet long, has
a bushy tail, is wonderfully swift, lives in large packs on our vast
prairies, is very harmless, sports about close to hunters, and howls,
snarls, and barks in turn, without in the least alarming the voyageurSf
but not without causing them great anno^yance by their noise, some-
times continued throughout the whole night.

164

Common American wolves are very numerous in our country. They
probably differ in form from the European wolf, and certainly have
not its boldness : for notwithstanding the ferocity of our wolf it is
generally frightened not only at the sight of man but by any unfamiliar
appearance. Wolves, besides attacking all domestic animals, also
prey upon almost all the denizens of the forest ; two or three of them
would devour the strongest dog, yet the appearance of the smallest
child puts them to flight. A solitary wolf will not always defend
itself against a large dog. It is said that hunger provokes them to
attack man. I have never known of such an occurrence.

A fisherman was in the habit of entrusting fish to one of his doga
for his master. To prevent the dog being attacked by wolves, the
man attached bells to the animal. The dog performed his duty daily
for scv'eral consecutive winters ; but, on one occasion, the bells being
forgotten, the poor animal was eaten up, and the splendid fish that
the delicate attentions of a poor servant intended for the chief of a
post, became, with their carrier, a feast for wolves. While I was
staying at Vile d la Crosse, three large wolves, one black and two
grey, made havoc amongst our train dogs, eating several of thom.
Tb'^ir cunning in avoiding traps enabling them to escape the death
planned for them, a price was set upon their heads. An old Canadian,
of the name of Morin, made a great effort to gain the reward, and the
skins. A skilled trapper, he made use of all his experience in setting
his best spring traps, which, as usual, he fastened by a chain to a very
large piece of wood. All the dogs were carefully locked up, and every
other precaution adopted to make the three troublesome visitors
hungry. Morin visited his traps daily, and everybody was in the
habit of going to meet him on his return to learn the result of his
expedition. The subject was the theme of the day. There came a
furious storm during which the trapper remained at home. Calm
weather followed, and the old Canadian went to visit his traps in the
distance he saw snow covering one of the three thieves that had been
caught : a second trap had been set off unsuccessfully, and the third
had disappeared; disorderreigned in the pack of wolves; the others
never appeared again. Moric after long and vain searching, was
regretting the loss of his trap when, a month having elapsed, the
people of Green Lake, about 90 miles from Vile d la Crosse, saw a
wolf walking on one of their lakes, apparently with difiBculty. Several
dogs were sent after him ; he was caught and killed. He was no

came a

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3d, the

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155

other than one of the rogues from VJle d la Crossey for tho trap wai
Btill attached to his leg. The chain and log of wood were detached
at the time of his companion's death, but he had wandered in every
direction through the forest for a whole month dragging this heavy
and cruel ^ ncumbrance in the midst of the most intense cold. This
wolf was reduced to a mere walking skeleton, but the occurrence indi-
cates a power and tenacity of life in the animal, difficult to understand.

Amongst the foxes are those of the Arctic Regions. There
are two varieties of them ; one is quite white, particularly during
winter ; the other has a bluish tint. This fox is much shorter than
the common one ; it has as ugly a head, but an uglier tail than its
slim relative. Its fur is inferior, and very little thought of, although
at first sight the striking whiteness of the first variety leads one to
Suppose it a valuable fur.

The ordinary American fox is very common everywhere here.
There are three varieties of it : the American or Rod Fox, the
Cross Fox, and the Silver Fox, which is sometimes black. The
varieties, as in the case of wolves, do not indicate different species*
for they are sometimes found in one group.

The fur of the red fox is least prized. The value set on cross
foxes is much higher, while silver fox skins rise to an exorbitant
price. Some of these skins have been sold for more than sixty
guineas a-piece. There is no perfectly black fox, and the variety
is always called silver fox. In addition to beauty of fur, and
fullness and elegance of tail, the value of this, the most costly of
all furs, is decided by its darker or lighter color.

There are three species of the cat tribe here:

The Domestic Cat — Felis Dome%tica.

The Canadian Lynx — Lynx Canadensis. l

The Tiger Cat or Panther — Pardalis.

Domestic cats were imported, and are not yet numerous. At seve-
ral of the posts in the interior there are none. At some of our
missionary establishments we have been annoyed by mice, and
were unable to obtain cats ; but as the country is progressing day
by day in every way, it cannot be long before the mewing of this
hypocritical friend of the family shall be heard throughout the
Northern Department.

The Canadian wild cat, or lynx, is a native of this country. It

166

abounds here some years, its flesh supplying a valuable resource
to those who hunt it for its skin. Its length is about three feet.
Although of the cat kind, it moves like a rabbit, jumping like that
animal, and, similarly too, has hind legs of great length. The
flesh of the rabbit is its principal food. Ancient authors, and our
Canadian voyageurs^ give the lynx the additional name of Lovp-
cervier, because it is said that it conceals itself in trees to leap
down upon deer to kill them.

The name Pichon, familiar in Canada, is that which the Crees
give to the wild cat. This animal's fur, without being one of the
most valuable, is yet rather choice. The lynx is easily taken, the
slightest bloAv on the small of the back kills it ; but it is generally
caught, like hares and rabbits, with springs and snares. The best
way, however, to catch them, is with dogs : the lynx being very
timid takes to a tree on the first sound of a dog barking ; the dog
keeps the animal treed until the hunter arrives, when a shot causes
a quicker fall than any movement that this extremely slow moving
cat has performed during its life. The lynx is an excellent
swimmer ; it has no difiBculty in crossing not only rivers, but lakes
of considerable size.

The Panther or Tiger Cat of this country is a small quadruped,
found, generally, on the Rocky Mountains, and sometimes comes
down to the plains on the eastern side. This animal is about the
size of an ordinary dog ; its skin is fawn-colored spotted with black »
its tail is long and fine ; although aomewhat savage it is not to be
feared, and it is not common, iv - .. : .-.y :

3rd. To finish what I have to say about the order of Caniassiera
I shall add a few words about the third tribe of the third family.

I know of two amphibious animals that frequent the Arctic Sea
and its coast; they are: ,.

The Seal, or Sea Dog — Phoea.

The Walrus or Sea Horse — Trichechus Rosmarus.

The head of the seal is like that of the dog, which it resembles
in character, being easily educated to a certain extent, and shewing
great affection for its instructor. This amphibious animal is a
precious resource to the Esquimaux. Its flesh supplies them with
food ; the oil extracted from it is also used for food, and is the only
fuel burnt in the huts of these poor inhabitants of the frozen zone.

167

Its sinews, like thoso of a quadruped, make a very strong thread,
used in sowing the skins. Its intestines take the place of trans-
parent glass, and make waterproof clothing. Tiie skin completes
the dress, makes the summer dwelling, and canoes. The bones,
too, serve to make various utensils.

The seal is caught by surprise while it sleeps at the water's
edge, or it is followed and harpooned from a canoe.

The walrus, larger than the sual, is generally eight or ten feet
long, but it sometimes reaches twenty feet. Its average weight is
from 1,500 lbs. to 2,000 lbs. ; its girth is about that of a horse ; its
mouth is as large as an ox's. From these circumstances it has
derived the names sea-horse and sea-cow. Some call it sea-
elephant, in allusion to its two enormous tusks which project down-
wards from the upper jawbone. These tusks supply a more valu-
able ivory than the elephant's, and its whiteness is striking.

In the polar regions the walruses lie in groups on the ice,
ci'owded one against the other like pigs ; one of the party acts as
sentinel while the others have a snoring match. On the least sign
of danger, a prolonged roar awakens the sentinel's neighbors, who
pass on the warning to the very last of the groups ; all start up,
striking the ice with their strong tusks, and make a noise that
reaches several miles away. The skin of this animal furnishes a
peculiarly pliant leather ; its flesh is hard and unpalatable, but its
blubber, when fresh, has a very pleasant flavor. ; ■. ; .'
K walrus supplies as much as three barrels of oil.
Their tusks render them dangerous to those who pursue them in
boats which they can split. ^

The fourth order — marsupial animals — is not represented in this
country. I shall therefore say nothing about it here.

II. THE FIFTH ORDE^.

Rodentia. — The order of Rodentia, so common everywhere,
cannot but abound up to the frozen regions. In this country there are
representatives of two sections of the order^ including ten genera
and twenty-seven species, which are all enumerated in the following

table, prefixed to the details I propose to give about the most interest-
ing and most useful of these quadrupeds :

Spocioa.

6tii Order,
rodentia.

1st Section:
With perfect clavicltd.

The Beaver
The Musquash

2nd Section
^With imperfect clavicles

5 Meadow-Mor.se
1 The American Field-
Mouse

1 The Labrador Jerboa
{ 6 The Marmot

i 3 The Squirrel

2 The Inlying Squirrel
1 The Mole-shaped Sand

Rat
1 Porcupine
4 Hares and Rabbits

The genus Castor presents us with two species.
The American beaver — Castor Fiber Americanus.

The musquash — Castor Fiber Zibethicus. Everyone knows, at
all events by name, the indefatigable and intelligent laborer called
the beaver. In it, the Northern Department is indeed possessed of
a resource ; its flesh furnishes abimdant food, and its skin a rich
and substantial far. An exterminating war against the beaver, at
one time, very sensibly reduced their numbers. They are very
far, however, from having disappeared,^ for in 18G5 the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company collected sixty-eight thousand three hun-
dred and seventy-four skins.

While in Germany and on the baaks of the Rhone, the dense
population, and the noise and bustle of the civilized world, oblige
the poor solitary beaver, at the bottom of a burrow dug at the
border of the stream, i^o . lemoan the loss of the empire that nature
had, as it were, bestowed on him : here, in the majestic calm, the
perfect stillness, tiie vastness of our forests, the beaver gives to his
ingenious instinct the fullest development of which it is susceptible.
Here, in many places, it is not merely the individual that wc see
existing, neither is it the limited life of the family that we observe,
— it is society, Whole tribes unite to build villages. Houses,
invariably of two floors, bear witness to the uniform genius of these
architects. The pantry occupies the ground floor, while the leisure
hours, amusements, and sleep of the family, are reserved for the
first floor. It is not to be understood, that the master is in his

159

office, the mistress in the drawin,2;-room, and the master and miss
Beavers in the school or play-room. No, the beaver is a brute ;
and many authors have fallen into the error of supposing it to be
possessed of more reason than nature has bestowed upon it.
But, however this maybe, there is great skill displayed by this
rodent, in the building of his habitation. The walls and upper part
are remarkably thick, bometimes measuring several feet. Then, at
the commencement of hard frost, the exterior is coated with a
thick layer of mud, which immediately freezes, and has the double
advantage of perfectly shutting out the cold air, and of guarding
against the attack of wolverines. The sagacity of the beaver is
also seen in the care it takes, not only to lay in provisions in advance,
but also in arranging creep-holes, to insure its retreat in case
of surprise and its subsistence in a day of need. The most extra-
ordinary works of beavers nrc the dams they throw across rivers
and along the shores of lakes. In this matter, one could not
hesitate to grant them an engineer's diploma. Two points in their
work attract attention : the skill and strength displayed in the
construction are perl'ection of their kind ; and even engineers, with
the same materials-^-braiiches and mud — have not been able to
make so good roads as are made by beavers. Their skill is of the
same kind as the swallows', which fastens its very substantial nest to
a smooth wall, and thus makes a comfortable home for its young;
their dexterity is like the eagle's, who, with apparent negligence,
puts dry twigs together on the top of the highest trees in the
forest, and thus builds its aerie that wind and tempest may
sway about with its flexible foundation, but can only be over-
thrown together with its support, and when its occupants have
gone, remains firm, to bear witness to the develo})ment and
perfection of unreasoning instinct under the powerful influence
of the Creator. What would the works of man be, were Divine
inspiration the only moving power, and the only guide of his genius 'i
Ho who looks at a beaver dam, or assists in taking one to pieces,
must be struck with the remarkable simplicity of the construction,
against which angry Avaves, and flood of rapid streams, dash them-
selves without effect. One wonders how the mud kneaded and
applied by the beaver's naws, unassisted by even its trowel-shaped
tail, becomes a hydrauhc cement that time hardens instead of
dissolving. How many are the secrets that natui'e conceals from
science? The extent of these works is as surprising as their

! li::»-i ti

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160

perfection. Some of them are really colossal, and several chains in
length. Artificial lakes, of very considerable size, owe their origin to
these dams. The extent of the dams is the most striking proof of
the social habits of the beavcrj for several families must have com-
bined lo carry them out, and if individual instinct produces the
result of a general government amongst these laborers, they ^ust
necessarily be influenced by a sense of common interest.

The extermination of the beaver has been followed, in some
places, by the disappearance of woods, or their transformation into
prairie. At one time, beavers must liave been extremely numerous ,
for their dams are found in all directions. Water, checked by these,
could not flow in its natural course, hence a multiphcity of lakes of
all sizes that kept the soil and atmosphere in a damp state, and
thus forest growth was encouraged, as well as preserved against
devastating conflagrations. On the death of the beavers the work
of repairing the dams was neglected, the discharge channels that
these useful quadrupeds opened or closed, according to the require-
ments of the time, now let all the water flow out of the basins, and
they dried up. The woods, no longer suppUed with moisture
drooped ; then fire came, and this destroying element now unob-
structed, accomplished its work of destruction, leaving no sign of
the forest but the numerous dams that had beeu built by the beavers
in days gone by, and that everywhere attract the attention of the
traveller, reminding him of the Aumber and activity of the first
inhabitants of the northern and western regions.

Of course the beaver is an architect by birth, as the wolverine
is a thief: neither the one nor the other needs instruction. It is
neither the rod, nor impositions, nor rewards, nor sense of honor
nor sense of duty, that urges them to perfect their work. The older
ones are no more overseers than are the younger ones apprentices?
I am sure, too, that none of them wear the cross of the Legion of
Honor.

The beaver lives on grass, roots, and the bark of trees. I have
never seen very large trees that have been cut down by beavers ;
and the exclamations of Indians, on shewing me an aspen, of eight
inches in diameter, on which were the marks of beaver's teeth, per-
suade me that they rarely cut down trees of great size. Very large
trees, blown o^ er by wind on the banks of rivers frequented by
beavers, are generally deprived of their branches by these animals,

161

eight
, per-
large
''1 by

1 caals,

and this may have led to the idea that they also felled the trees
themselves.

The beaver is easily tamed, and eats whatever food is given to it.
Hearno says " it is very fond of plum-pudding," and of roast
beef, I suppose. .'

The tamed beaver is affectionate and fawning : it shews pleasure
and joy in a thousand pretty ways. Its long incisors were formerly
employed by the Indians as tools, particularly for hollowing out
wood. It is easy to understand that they have been advantageously
superseded by steel tools.

The coat of the beaver is a compound ; the long hair, generally
of a, russet brown color, notwithstanding its shiny appearance, is far
from coming up to the estimate that might be formed of it from the
very high price at which the skin formerly sold. The short hair,
on the contrary, is a down of great softness, and it was this that
raised the price of the beaver skin so high, when it was the only
felting material. 8ince silk has been introduced into this branch
of industry, it has superseded beaver, lowering its price, but not
supplying its substantial quality. However, as fashion requires
frequent change in hats, the cheap silk ones retain their shine long
enough to last until the adoption of a new pattern ; and the suc-
cessor of the old fashioned and substantial heaver^ is not literally
entitled to the name.

Tiie tail of the beaver is more like a tongue, in shape, than like a
tail ; it is carried horizontally, and is covered with oval scales ; it is
about one-third the length of the animal, that is, from twelve to
thirteen inches for a large beaver; it is about six inches broad ; it is
nothing else than a piece of fat, — but less oily than the fat of the
body. This last quality makes the flesh less palatable than it is
asserted to be by those who have never eaten of it without its
having been subjected to preparations which greatly modify its
flavor.

Although there is only one species of beaver in the country they
are not all uniform in color : some are perfectly black, and these
are by far the handsomest : on very rare occasions they are found
white, and spotted. This variety is not a pecuUarity of the ])eaver
kind only : for, although the majority of Avild animals have colors
peculiar to species, there are exceptions in nearly every case : and

II,;

; ^

piii.

the varieties of colors amongst beavers are but accidents of like

kind. :'::■■■;>-'::::':.•.•/■ -■'- '^ ^-:-.. . /"^;--

The second species of the beaver, in this country, is the musquash,
•which so nearly resembles the true beaver as to be classed with it
as of the same genus, and yet differs from it a good deal.

The musquash, or muskrat, is about one-third the length of the
beaver, -while its small sharp-edged flat tail is about two-thirds the
length of that animal's tail. The color of the musquash is some-
T?hat similar to the beaver's ; its fur is far from being so glossy, or
silky, as the others ; it is of an inferior quaUty, and the least valua-
ble of all furs. Muskrats, however, are so numerous, that their
skins are important articles of commerce : as many as one hundred
and fifty thousand are annually exported.

The flesh of the muskrat, particularly in autumn, is not disagree-
able, but one tires of it quickly when nothing else is to be had ; and
if there be any one who disbelieves me I invite him to come and
try for himself.

The muskrat builds a house somewhat like the beaver's ; being
a weaker animal, it cannot transport heavy material ; it makes use
of the materials on the spot, for its foundations and walls ; it uses
the long grass or rushes of small lakes and marshes, in building its
spherical dwelling ; it does not pull up the grass, but merely binds
it together with badly kneaded earth. While the robust beaver is
satisfied with a rough flooring of branches, his little brother, the
muskrat, makes a bed of straw for his delicate hmbs ; this is always
placed above water level, although there is neither substructure, nor
gallery, ia the habitation. The pond is the rat's exercising ground,
its pleasure ground, and its store ; it keeps breathing holes in the
ice, and to prevent these freezing up it stops them with a ball of
clay or of moss, visiting them from time to time to smell the pure
outside air, or to breii he it at leisure. In summer it digs holes in
the banks of rivers, and in these it nestles its young thrice in a
season. Its fecundity preserves its race from extinction. Its
great losses are not due to the fortune of war alone ; inmuKations,
exceptionally severe winters, and accidents of which the origins
are unknown, often carry desolation into the army of muskrats —
fortunately the only kind of rat we have here. Our water-rats require
■water, and when they have none, which happens if the suiall lakes
they have chosen in autumn for their abodes freeze up, they die of

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163

and

starvation, or pressed by hunger they eat one another. If for one
reason they require some water, for another they may have too much,
for now and again they must land, which they cannot do when the
country is flooded. They die, too, when, in spite of their skill and
watchfulness, frost is so intense as to close up their breathing
holes.

Next the genus beaver (^Fiber)^ of which the two species are so
useful, I place the genus arvicola having five species. These are :

Wilson's Meadow-Mouse — Arvicola Pennsylv aniens.
Northern Meadow-Mouse — Arvicola Burealis.
Back's Lemming — Arvicola (^Geori/chus') Trimucronatus.
Hudson's Bay Lemming — Arvicola ( Greorychus} Hadsonius.
The Greenland Lemming — Arvicola ( Greorgchus') Grroelandicus.

These five small quadrupeds have more than one point of
resemblance.

The first, the smallest of all, is barely more than three and a
half inches long ; while the last, the largest of all, is not much
longer than six inches. All five are found even in the Arctic
regions. There, at all events, these little workers, who are also
reapers, can injure no one, whereas the little field mouse often
brings ruin into our cultivated fields, and the injury is not compen-
sated for in any way ; no one dreams of profitting by their fur,
extremely fine though it be, unless it be certain Indian jugglers
who put the skin in their medicine hags. The Greenland Lemming
becomes rather white in winter, but never assumes the brilliant
whiteness of the ermine.

The American Field Mouse, Mus Leucopus, different from the
common European mouse, but similar to the field mouse of the old
continent, is very numerous here. It gets into all parts of houses,
and amongst other inconveniences, makes a very disagreeable noise.
This kind of mouse has also a mania for stealing a quantity of small
things, particularly grain and other food ; but what is more extra-
ordinary is that it does not store the stolen property either in its
dwelling, or even near it. One morning, after a cold winter night,
on takiag up one of my mocassins it appeared to be heavier than
usual. Being very cold I did not wait to examine it, but proceeded
to put it on, when, behold, my foot came against a collection of things
which naturally should not have been in the mocassin. On looking

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164

at them, I found grains of barley, peelings and chips of potatoes,
and rubbish, including even fish bones. To account for this curious
collection, it must be told that to fish and potatoes, making our
ordinary meal, we had added, on the previous day, the luxury of
barley broth. Our proficiency as hcusemaids did not go so far as
to remove all traces of the cooking that was done in the same room,
for we had but one. It will be understood, then, how fish, barley
and potatoes made their appearance in the rubbish placed by the
mouse, during the night, in the mocassin. In the course of one
night thei^e little quadrupeds will remove a bulk larger than them-
selves, and as they do not use travelling bags, and as there is not
always much that they can pilfer, it may be concluded that several
of them unite their ciforts to work for one store. They are a regular
plague. Here at Red River, they are so numerous that they injure
the standing crops, as well as consume and steal the grain after it
has been gathered in. This thieving disposition Avas of unexpected
service to us this year, however. The grasshoppers exhausted our
supply of a pea that we were cultivating with success ; we put the
last of it in the ground in spring ; the grasshoppers ate it, and it was
thought there was no more to be had in the country ; but
at St. Norbert, where for several years it had been found impossible
to cultivate this kind of pea, there was found a considerable supply
concealed by mice on the shelves of an old altar that had been left
over the vault of the church.

The Labrador jumping mouse (^Merioties Lahradorius) also fre-
quents the Northern Department as far as G^reat Slave Lake. Here,
as elsewhere, this little rodent is remarkable for the extreme length
of its hind legs, and the still more exaggerated length of its tail,
which exceeds the head and body together. This rat is from four
to five inches long, and jumps with surprising agihtyand quickness.
The long tail, generally pliant, is stiffened at length when the animal
is jumping, and then the hair on it gives it a curious appearance.

The Northern Department also furnishes five species of marmots
enumerated below : ^. _. _: : i... .- -^ „, , ..^„, .i*^^

The Weenusk or Quebec Marmot — Arctomys Empetra. . .1 : ;.
'The Whistler — Arctomys Pruinosus. ' ■*^i < ■•:-

Parry's Marmot — Arctomys SpermojjJdlus Parryi.
The Tawny Marmot — Arctomys Spermopldlm liichardsonii.

165

Franklin's Marmot — Arctomys Spermophilus Franhlin'd.

The Leopard — Arctomys Spermopldlus Hoodii.

The Quebec marmot measures from ten to twenty inches, and is
found throughout the eastern portion of the Department, and also
in the Rocky Mountains : the western districts are probably without
it. The fur, without being of remarkable quality, is yet an article of
commerce. The number killed amounts to only a few hundreds,
which proves that the fur is neither valuable nor much sought after.

The mountain marmot, the Canadian Whistler, is found in this
country only in the Rocky Mountains. It lives in the slopes of
sandhills, in which it burrows. It forages in autumn, as well for food,
as to furnish its dwelling.

The fur of the Whistler, although of little importance in commerce,
is in much request, in its native country, for its warm and lasting
qualities. Several skins sewn together make a robe with wli^ -h
one may face cold, and that lasts for years.

The remaining four species of marmots that are to be found here,
are in no way interesting, unless by breaking the monotony of our
great solitudes.

These quadrupeds are like squirrels, but without their agility.
All of them live in holes, whence they come out from either choice
or necessity, and to which they fly on the least sign of danger.

The flesh of the Tawny is very palatable. Indians and voyageurs
feed on it willingly, particularly when large game fails them.

The genus Sciurus is represented here by only three species :

The Hackee — Selurus (^Taniias) Lysteri.

The Four-banded Pouched Squirrel — Sciurus (^Tamias) Qiiad-
rivittatus.

The Chickaree — Sciurus JSudsonius.

The first two species do not exceed five or six inches in length.
They climb trees with great facility, are full of life and spirits during
summer, but during winter never leave their retreat. ^ ■^.

The Chickaree is larger than the other two species, measuring
from eight to nine inches. Its color is greyish brown ; it makes its
nest in the bottom of the largest trees, arranging several passages
by which to leave its dwelling to enjoy its frolics on the branches.

Besides these, we have two varieties of flying squirrels. The
smaller one, Pteromys Sabrinus, is met with in the south-eastern
part of the Department, and the other, Pteromys Sahrinus Alpina^

fi!
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166

is an inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains. Neither of them has
the power of flying, properly so called ; but membranes joining their
fore paws to their hinder ones, act as wings or parachutes, and
enable them to spring from one tree to another at a considerable
distance, but their flight is inclined downwards.

To complete the enumeration of rodents provided with perfect
clavicles, there remains to be mentioned a species of sand rat, the
Mole-shaped Sand Rat, Qeomys Talpoides, which lives in extensive
burrows that it makes in the form of galleries. Although resembling
the mole, this animal cannot live on earth-worms, for there are none
of these in our latitudes. It uses its pouches or cheeks for carrying
earth from the galleries, which it begins to clean out as soon as the
snow melts, and until the thawing of the soil enables it to add
new galleries to those already made. None of these animals are
valued in this country. In times of scarcity all of them are eaten,
but they are not sought after by our Indian epicures.

The Section of rodents, embracing those having imperfect clavicles,
fii'st offers to our attention the Hystrix Pilosus, the Canada Porcu-
pine, of about thirty inches in length. The coat of this animal is
composed of three kinds of hair : that next its skin is of a dirty brown
color ; then come longer hairs either white, black or party-colored,
scattered through the under coating, and lastly the quills which
are characteristic of the animal ; these cover the whole body from
the nape of the neck where they are shorter, closer and stiffer, to
the haunches, Avhere they are longer and more supple.

Porcupine flesh is excellent, and much sought after not only by
Indians, but, also, by others who have tasted it. This animal is a
very slow mover and a poor traveller, for it spends whole weeks in
one place, or in so limited a space, that Indians having once seen
it, put off" hunting it for several days, knowing well that it will not
escape from them. The trail of its tail on snow betrays its presence,
as does also the damage done by its incisors to the branches and bark
of trees upon which it lives. It is fondest of the grey pine, pinus
haiiksiana, and selects localities in which this species of tree abounds.
The cowardly porcupine's only defence are its quills, not that it
can lance them against an enemy like javelins, but from the danger
there is in seizing the animal, for the quills are very sharp pointed^
and barbed, and work themselves deeper into the flesh as soon as
they have penetrated the skin. When one'e dog attacks a porcupine

««

inted.

167

it is necessary to extract the quills from his mouth, otherwise these
little darts may cause the death of the dog. Such often happens
in the case of wolves attacking porcupines.

The quills, dyed, and of their natural color, malce very rich
embroidery work of exceptional endurance. The women of certain
Indian tribes and some of our Half-breeds excel in this kind of work.

There remains for me to notice four species of the order of rodents
that belong to the genus Lepus. These are —

The American Hare — Lfpus Americanus.

The Polar Hare — Lepus Glacialis.

The Prairie Hare — Lepus Virginianui.

The Little Chief Hare — Lepus Lagomys Princeps.

The American hare abounds, periodically, throughout the extent of
the Northern Department : it occasionally appears in prodigious num-
bers ; but it is a curious fact that it disappears almost entirely from
time to time, and then again multiplies, increasing for three or four
years, and once more there is a period of abundance, and again they
disappear. The periodicity is sufficiently regular for it to be foretold
with tolerable accuracy when the hares are to be numerous and
when scarce. Their numbers, when plentiful, are something fabulouS'
One need not be a first-rate sportsman to shoot a hundred in a day?
and a good old woman, who is experienced in setting snares, always
exceeds this number. I have heard of twenty-five thousand killed
during one winter at a single post of tlie Company. t

The American hare is hardly superior to the European rabbit in
size and flavor. Let not the lovers of hare ragout envy the luck of
those who subsist on hares. Even their palates would be very much
disappointed if they had no other food during winter than miserable
hares, fat or skinny, roasted on the end of a stick, or boiled in a pot.
Our hares weigh from four to six pounds, and measure about sixteen
or seventeen inches. Of a uniform color in summer, they change
their grey for a long white fur in winter. Our rabbit does not bur-
■ row, it simply lives amongst clumps of willow or young trees, of
•which it eats the bark. The skin ofthis animal is of no value, because
it'has no substance. In order to make use of it, Indians cut it into
strips, which they plait or weave like cloth. This kind of fabric makes
extraordinarily warm clothing.

Besides this small hare which inhabits all the woodland of the

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168

Northern Department, there are two other mucli larger species : the
Polar Hare and the Prairie Hare. Each of them attains a length of
from twenty to twenty-four inches, and weighs from seven to ten
pounds, and sometimes even more. The polar hare is not found to
the south of the 04 th parallel ; and the prairie hare is not found
much to the north of the 55th parallel. Both species seem to re(iuiro
vast plains, in which they jump at pleasure ; just as the
American hare leaps in every ''-ection in the wooded district run-
ning from south-cast to the north-west between these two plains that,
differing so much in character, ha. e, nevertheless, each a species of
hare, as each has a species of bear, and a species of buffalo. If the
Ohipewyans have the largest hares in their country, or Barren-
grounds, tbey have also the smallest hare in thn Lepus Princeps, or
Little Chief. This small animal inhabits the liocky Mountains, and is
found on the eastern slopes between tho ciuudes within which the
American hare is still more abundant. . ives amongst the rocks,
where it makes li^form without burrowing. Itleaves its resting-place
only in fine weather and to collect provisions against the severe sea-
sons. This hare, if hare it must be called, is only six or seven inches
long. This genus, it is known, does not boast of long tails, and the
Little Chief's is so small that it may be said to have none at all.

After this rapid glance at the order liodentia, we must pass
still more rapidly over the 6th order, Edentata, for the Northern
Department does not furnish any specimens of it. All our quadru-
peds here have good teeth, and our Indians would be as much sur-
prised to see one of the Edentata, as they are to see a young civilized
man with imperfect teeth.

■ m

III. SEVENTH ORDER,

Pachydermata.

The seventh order is, likewise, not indigenous to this country. Of
the three families composing the 0»-der, the Proboscidea are entirely
absent. No one having yet afforued us the amusement of a mena
gerie, elephants have never been seen here. Nor are the other
families of the order well represented. The only common Pacliy
dermata here, are the domestic hogs (iS'ms Scropha^; while the horse
(^Equus Cahallus), the ass (^Equus Asinus) and the mule are our
only soUpeds.

169

the

What can one say of tho pig — unless it be that it is lovable only
in tho pot or on tho table ? Nearly six thousand years elapsed
before this animal was imported into this country ; but it came,
about half a century ago, with the first tide of civilization, and as
the boniticcnt stream flows northward, the pig advances. Without
being exactly a type of good manners and politeness, it appears to
be an indispensable companion of civilized man ; and soon the por-
cine race will have spread to the most remote confines of the country.
There are no wild boars here. The pig was first imported in 1818,
vid Hudson's Bay, from England.

Everybody knows that the horse is not a native of America^
The herds of wild horses in the southern and Avestern prairies, arc
but the descendants of animals that escaped, from the Spaniards, on
to the plains of Mexico. I am not aware that there has ever been
an unowned herd of horses in the Northern Department, and I can-
not fix the period at which the Indians first became possessed of
these animals. Some of the Indians have numerous herds, — and
proprietor and animal mutually recognize one auotlier, for Indians
tame their horses when much younger than is the case among civil-
ized people. Not unfrequently a yearling colt carries a small horse-
man, and thus accustoms itself, if not to harness, at all events to
the saddle. The breed soon degenerates amongst Indians who have
but a few animals. Bitted almost at birth, overpowered with exces-
sive work, badly fed and (;[uite uncared for, it is not surprising that
this noble creature loses its perfection of form, its grace of move-
ment, and tho freedom and swiftness of its pace.

On the other hand the Indians' horse acquires extraordinary
powers of endurance. Apparently dull and devoid of the tractable
spirit that is characteristic of its kind, it gets through its work with
a determination and perseverance that surprise all who make use of
it. These horses may be wearied, but it is all but impossible to
exhaust them ; and, as the Ilalf-breeds say, " there is no end to a
small Indian horse," because their durance is really almost
endless.

Indians have no stables, and their horses know no other than that
which the good God has put over all. It need hardly be said that
this stable is not warm in winter. The Indian horse knows as much
about oats, or any other kind of grain, as it docs about a stable.

There are several fine breeds of horses in Red River Settlement.

V I

lii

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till

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170

Admiration of horses is sufficiently strong among our people to need
no encouragement. Here, too, horses generally winter in the open ;
and it is remarkable that, as a rule, they thrive better than those
that are kept in a stable, and fed only on hay.

Of late years, voyageurs have brought mules here from the United
States, and these get on perfectly well when wintering in the open.

The only ass in the country, about seventeen years ago, was so
expensive to its master that they left together ; and no other has been
here since until last year, when a couple of these animals came to
awaken the prairies, again, with the echoes of their powerful voices.
These also Avinter out. The first ass foal born in the Northern
Department made its appearance in the spring of 1868.

' " IV. EIGHTH ORDER.

■ '- . . . t

, , Ruminantia.

Our vast plains have the advantage of being inhabited by various
species of ruminants. All the species of bisiilcated animals are not
to be met with here, but there are sufficient of them to excite the
liveliest interest, — for here, as elsewhere, they are of first import-
ance, and they are even absolutely necessary. What would the poor
Indians do if they had only the carnassiers and rodents to supply
their wants ? These two orders are, certainly at times, the only
resource of a great many unhappy Indians, but all anxiously look
forward to success in hunting ruminantia. And then, the white
population of the Northern Department, like all other children of
ci' ilization, finds in the eighth order wherewith to satisfy the most
indispensable requirements of society.

Two species of foreign ruminants accompanied the blessed tide
of civilization into this country. . ,,., „ ,„.,„,„,

171 *

Below is a synoptic table of the order.

EIGHTH ORDER. — Rummantta.

I. Family. Hornless Ruminants are not found in the Northern Depnrtment.

' ';'■ ' ■

1st Tribe.
Solid Horns.

Moose.

Cariboo.

Stag.

Deer — 2 species.

II. Family.

2nd Tribe.
Hairy Horns.

No Giraffes.

Horned Ruminants.

3rd Tribe.
Hollow Horns.

Antelope.
Wild Goat.
Wild Sheep.
Domestic Sheep.
Musk Ox.
Bison, or Buffalo.
Cow.

As is seen by the table, there is no representative of the first
family of ruminants in the Northern Department. The camel, so
useful and necessary on the great deserts of Asia and Africa,
avoids our frozen plains.

Roebuck are not the same as our deer, for the former have no
horns, and the musk kind is essentially different from the musk
ox.

Only the first and third sections of the three composing the
second family of ruminants, are represented in this Department.
The second, that of Hairy-homed Huminants, or Giraffes, is not

met with. -,•, .-,;/;■■ .:/-^5. , ■ .-" ...Jr/; ■ '■.■■'. -..::.'. ' . ' '-;.Y

There are five species of the deer kind and two varieties of
these species, with solid horns, in this country :
The Moose — Curvus Aloes.
The Rein-deer or Cariboo — Curvus Tarandus.
The Woodland Rein-deer — Curvus Tarandus Sylvestvis.
The Barren-grounds Rein-deer — Curvus Artica.
The Wapiti — Curvus Strongyloceros.
The Black-tailed Deer — Curvus Macrotis.
The Long-tailed Deer — Curvus Leucurut.

172

Tho first species of deer noted is the moose or American elk.
It is the largest deer, and a noble and beautiful animal on the
whole, although the form of its various parts in detaii is not so
graceful as that of tl e common deer. The moose stands higher
than the horse, but iis body is shorter ; otherwise it bears a
considerable resemblance to the proud soliped, whose tail it has good
reason to envy, for it is almost without a tail itself. The absence
of this useful ornament is not compensated for by an elegant head.
The head is heavy and unsightly, and furnished with a pair of cars
that might well be envied by a mule. The male carries enormous
horns, which it sheds annually ; their weight sometimes exceeds
fifty pounds. This heavy and clumsy load does not appear to
inconvenience its bearer even in thiCk woods, nor does it prevent
the animal from trotting J't an amazingly swift pace.

TiiC flesh of this deer is excellent and, coming after Buffalo meat,
is preferable to all of its own kind. The mujle (^in ."'r Up) of a
fat yourg moose would satisfy the palate of the g: -atest epicure.
The nose v,f the animal is much prolonged, to increti^e the sonse of
dmell, I L ^ jjose, just as the large ears act as acoustic horns. The
animal's fine senses of smelling and hearing make hunting it a
difficult pursuit, so much so that peculiar expertness and patience
are required, unless there is a good covering of snow on the ground.
In this case, provided Avith v( ry lai-ge snow-shoes, the hunter can
easily overtake the moose, especially when there is a crust on the
snow that is not equal to bearing the %gitivo's weight. Excepting
this circumstance, and overtakinn; the animal when swimming,
moose-hunting is quite an art, and brings out all the tracker's
acuteness.

I believe the Oariboo is only a* variety of the Lapland rein-
ueer, and inhabits the Arctic Regions in both the old and new
world. Indian traditions make lut that it came from one continent
to the other, over a bridge suppf^ed to l^iave been the corpse of a
giant, tumbled down backwards, having i*:8 head resting on the
country beyond lae Froi'l, and its heels still resting where it, once,
stood in the country where the giant lived. Tliig fable appears to
iixdicate that the cariboo, or rein-deer, frequents both shores of
Behring's Straits, and perhaps occasionally ventures on tho ice on
the straits. The cariboo is not tamed in this country. There are
two ' arieties of them, the Barren-grounds Rein-deer and the

173

,i^

rein-
aew
tinent
J of a
the
once,
irs to
ea of
ie on
are
the

Woodland Rein-deer. The former migrates regularly fri)m the
shores of the Arctic Ocean to the border of the fin'ost country,
where it winters. The Woodland Rein-deer joins the other at
this point, and after staying there moves south again to the northern
limits I assigned to the prairie country.

Cariboo-hunting is not so difficult as moose-hunting. Advan-
tage is easily taken of the curiosity of the Rein-deer, which
invariably approaches any striking object. Availing themselves of
the knowledge of this peculiarity, the Es'jnimaux lay ambushea.
The Montagnai-: kill a great many cariboos, in their country, bv
surprising herds while crossing small lakes, or by driving fcho deer
into the lakes. The Moiitagnais attack the herd while swimming,
and, without pity, slaughter them by thousands. The small
cariboo is also caught, in wooded belts, by means of traps ; but in
the forest it is invariably killed with the gun.

The Woodland Cariboo, although the larger of the kind rarely
weighs more than two hundred pounds, while the Barren-grounds
Cariboo weighs bavel^/ half as much.

The size of the honis varies inversely as the size of the two
varieties ; and the shapes of the horns are so irregular that two
sets are rarely found alike. The female carries horns, and sheds
them later than the male does. Cariboo skin makes a very warm
robe. The grain of the skin an.l the hair are so close that clothing
of this material haa the double advantage of being extremely light
and proof against the most intense cold. An inconvenience
connected with cariboo robes is that the hair falls out, and although
much may come a, vay without sensibly diminishing the value of the
robe, the hair sticks to all it touches.

Cariboo ^esh is good, but Avhen the animal is thin it is not
nourishing ; and from this originates the voyageurs' saying, " One
may eat enough of it to get a stomach-ache, but not enough to
support one."

On leaving the country of the cariboo, we enter that of the
Wapiti. This animal is, as it vere, an intermediate species between
the Moose and the Cariboo : it resembles the European Stag, but
stands higher.

Its flesh is pretty good, but its fat hardens so quickly, that it has
to be eaten very hot.

This deer lives in large herds on the prairie, and is an easy prey

4
I

174

to oar huniers. The Wapiti were fortunately so numerous this year,
on both sides of the Red River, to the south of the settlement, that the
people of Dakota Territory, and in the north of Minnesota, found
them a substitute for Buffalo which, for the first time, entirely failed.
Had it not been for the supply of deer, the settlements at rivers
Shayenne, Folle^ and Pembina, would have suffered the horrors of
famine > T. am asaured that these herds are migrating from the south-
east. The settlement of the Western States of America is driving
these poor beasts towards our uninhabited plains. This accounts for
the deer being so numerous in the Salca VaJleydurin<!; the kvSt few
years. In their movement, they have almost reached the boundary
of our Department, and appear to be a prey to fear at the (rhange of
habit necessai'ily involved in migration. Instead of Iiving,a& formerly,
in groves of trees,they now seek the open prairi(}. Although branches
of trees are their natural source of food, these poor exiles from more
temperate climes, are now redu(!ed to scrape the snow, in winter, like
horses, and to feed on the dried grass of the plains. The softest
and most pliant leather, and the least likely to harden after being
wetted, is that raa<l.e by the J^ndians from 'kVapiti skin, and always
called jst'au de bic/ie hj the French here. The genus Oervits has
other irepresentativesi. in this coun'-j.-y, Macrotis and Lanourus. One
is reniarkable, at very first sight, for its black tail: this is the lUule-
deer i^cei-f mulet)', the othtjrhas a long tail and is the Roe Chevreuily
properly so called. These tvro species are found in the Department,
jut uot so plentifully, for' during almost twenty-four years that I
have lived here, I have never either seen or tasted them.
The third section is thsit of the hollow-horned ruminants.

The Prong-horned Antelope — Antelope Furoifer.

The Rocky Mountain Goa't — Capra Am ^ricana.

The Rocky Mountain Sheep — Ovis Mon ana.

The Domestic Slieep — 0\n» Aries.

The Musk~Ox — Oribas 3IuscJiatus.

The American Bison (or .Buffalo) — Bos Americanui.

The Domestic Ox — Taurus.

The first subject of this section, is the graceful Prong-horned
Antelope J that our voyageurs always call U cabri (the kid). It is
ceitainly net tlio African gaaelle ; but without Vi^aiting to enquire
of what species it is, I viill. simply remark that il; is the fleetest of

"mffi

175

ifiicd
lti8
liiire

!St OJ?

our quadrupeds, and probably also the mos*- elegant and graceful.
Standing high on its fine limbs, it carries its head well; its large
black eyes are brilliant and meek, its movements are energetic,
suddeii, and repeated springs; it is restless and inquisitive ; curiosity,
which is baleful to so many innocent creatures, is very fatal to the
antelope. The hunter, knowing well that a fleeter steed than his
would fail to catch the fugitive, takes advantags of the animal's
excessive curiosity, by showing it something that not only fixes its
attention, but actually draws it within easy shot of his gun.

The young Antelope is like a kid, and hence probably its name
Cabri. The resemblance passes oiF as the animal grows older, with
the exception of the hair on the back, which keeps like a goat's ; and
from this circumstance the Antelope is sometimes called a goat by
jllnglish people here.

There are two ruminants in the Rocky Mountains that never
descend on to the plains, at all events in the Northern Department.
These are tlie Rocky Mountain goat and sheep. The wild goat
nearly resembles the domestic sheep in size. Its long white wool
is silky and beautiful, and would certainly make fine and substantial
cloth. The good sisters of St. Anne Lake, having procured a
little of the wool, knitted some socks and gloves of it ; these were
stronger, softer and warmer than those made of common wool.
A board, and fulness of neck, give this animal quite the appearance
of a goat, but some naturalists decline to classify it as a goat. Its
flesh is disagreeable. It amuses itself on the most rugged peaks
of the great mountain chain, leaving the lower eminences to the
white sheep. The genus ovia is with difficulty recognized in the
wild sheep. Its body and coat look like a stag's, but its horns and
head are very similar to the domestic ram's. Its flesh is delicious
and much sought after.

The domestic sheep first came into this country, in 1833, from
Kentucky ; since then they have been imported from other places.
They thrive very well here, and when we shall have made so much
progress as to have manufactories, we shall see the innocent and
useful Jamb skipping in large flocks on the plains that have hitherto
been occupied by deer.

The genus ovis brings us to that of ovibos or the Musk- Ox. This
animal is limited to the northernmost part of the continent, and is
to be met with ou our most icy deserts. It is of the size '^f a small

176

ii.

OX, and has most remarkable horns; these are very large, and come
so close together, at least m the male, as to unite into one horn at
their base. I have seen plates, a foot in diameter, made of Musk-
Ox horn. This ruminant, like all others in this Department having
heavy horns, ic almost tail-less. Its short legs do not prevent it
from being very fleet ; it descends very abrupt declivities with
astonishing "gUity, and chmbs them too with very great ease. The
rocky character of some of the plains on which it lives does not
interfere with its walking or even running. Like the Cariboo, it
feeds on herbs and lichens. Providenco, avIio placed this animal in
the polar regions and on i>erfectlj woodless plains, has clothed it
with the very Aviinnest of coats. The Musk Ox is covered with a
double fllMUH^. l(Oiig aiirfaee hair gives it the appearance of a
butfalo, but its coat is longer and more silky, and on its back there
ia a light oolnl'Ptl covering. Tbe under-hair is close and fine
wool, and protects the niilmul against the severity of the climate.
VViU'o tills wool manufactured, it would make very excellent cloth.
As a robe, nothing can be preferable to the Musk Ox hide. I am
indebted to a nol)le friend for one of tliese robes, made for my sleigh ;
it is made of four skins ; it not only protects me against cold, but I
should have regarded it as too luxurious, had it not been given to
me as it was.

The Bison frequents our vast plains. A few individuals live in the
forest, where they isolate themselves, and grow to a much greater
size than those on the prairies. The latter go about in immense
herds. About fifty years ago their numbers were fal)ulously great ;
they not only occupied our plains, but also a great part of the
United States. Settlement has driven them westward as far
as the northern branch of the SaskatchcAvan. Thousands and
thousands of these animals have been killed by the numerous Indian
tribes, whose sole resource they have been. Civilized man has also
made war against them, a war full of amusement, excitement, and
profit. During a quarter of a century, and until recent years, I
calculate that not less ihzji a million of bufialo were killed annually ;
b«t now, their naafeere iwre diminished so much, that la«t sum-
mer and througli jut the wvuter there were none, cmtside of the
Sapkatch-wan District, wititki thi« Department. They are now
found only in the extreme west, and I believe that we are just aboat
to gee ♦^heir total extinction in this country. Buch m. event wil^

•' ^^:

produce great changes, first in the matter of food, and next as
regards the habits of the people. No more buffalo, — no more
pemmican, no more dried meat, no more prairie hunters ; — then,
salted meat for journeys, herds of domestic animals, and cultivation
on a greater scale. Tl*3 inconvenience of changing will pass away
with time, and be succeeded by real improvement, but during the
transition there will be extreme difficulties. I perceive indications
of what these trials will be, in White-horse Plains, — a parish a few
miles from St. Boniface. During recent yeata this place has been
the principal home of our buffalo hunters, who supplied the colony
and the Department with much food, and who never experienced
want ; but now they are obliged to content themselves with the pittance
doled out from the limited stores of charity. But why do these
people give themselves up to hunting instead of cultivation ? Why ?
Because man naturally, and often passionately, prefers that which is
easy, agreeable, and lucrative, particularly when the preference has
become a habit from youth, and wus taught ^'- one's parents.

Buffalo hunting, in the days when the^ .vera plentiful, was
peculiarly exciting. Twice a year, hundreds of families assembled
at Ked River in large camps on the prairie. Their organization
was perfectly judicious, orderly, and suitable to the occasion ;
their expeditions lasted from eight to ton weeks, during which the
men killed game and rode about, the women prepared meat and
skins, and all feasted and brought immense quantities of leather,
dried moat, fat, and pemmican, to their loges. Although the men
had the most agreeable and easiest share of the work, good meals,
profit and habit inspired the women with quite as strong a liking
for these expeditions. Our Half breeds hunt the buffalo on horse
back. When the sctuita, or visible signs, indicate thatbuffalo are neai*
at hand, the horsemuu prepare for what they call a hunt (uwe
cou.r»e)y mounted on th:ir light steeds — often several hundred
together — they allign themselves, and wait with gun on arm, whip
in hand, excitement in their breasts, and impatience on their
features. At the first signal from their leader, the bold troop
moves forward at a gentle canter in the indicated direction.
Arrived at the distance which experience has shewn to be the
best, the last signal is given, then the whips laah the Hides of the
horses, these feel increased exvicemeut, and m ft &w minutes

ITS

the dexterous and fearless riders disappear in clouds of dust
raised by thousands of fleeing buffalo ; and with confusion, that
would be frightful but for their well-known dexterity, the hunters
rush among the fugitives. Firing goes on at the rate of four or
five shots a minute; and sometimes in less than half-an-hour, a
thousand of these enormous bison are stretched dead on the ground,
where, a few minutes before, they were enjoying the sweet grass.
A hunt rarely passes off without some accident ; but the skill and
agility displayed in the field, are really astonishing. Half-breeds
are as much at home on their saddles, when going at full speed,
as ordinary hunters would be when standing still.

The Domestic Ox is not a native of this country. The stock now
here, came from Missouri, in 1825. Oxen are now numerous and
much used as beasts of burden ; they are harnessed with collar,
&c., exactly like horses. I do not know that it is due to this
arrangement, but certain it is that they do an immense amount of
work. On long journeys, with heavy loads, they last better, and
even get over the ground as quickly as horses that are not fed
upon grain. Many oxen make four months' journeys at the rate
of twenty miles a day.

V. NINTH ORDER. — Cetacea.

To conclude this sketch of the mammalia of the Northern
Department, I must add a few words about the Cetacea. Every-
one knows that the Arctic Ocean furni iies the largest examples of
this order. While whale-fishing draws the fishermen of all coun-
tries beyond Behring's Straits, the poor Esquimaux waits- on the
coast for the giant» to approach ; in their frail skin canoes, the?
often succeed in capturing the whale : and thus, in the midst of
the desolation of their country, they secure abundance.

SECOND ARTICLE. — Birds.

Having recognized the bounty of Providence, who has furnished
the country with the mammaUs of which I have just been speak-
ing, let us now regard His gooc^iess in peopUng the forest and
plains with birds, that, besides affording us pleasure, are extremely

., /■ - ■ 179 ''.-■■/ , ,

useful. The bird kingdom of the North, is not so rich as that of
warmer climates ; but we have specimens of all the orders of the
class, in some cases numerous. The following is a synoptic table of
the entire class :

«!

Q
'A
O
U
fA

OKUKB.

l8t.

Rapaces.

FAMILT.

Diurnse.

TBIDK.

l8t.

Vulturidae.

OENUS.

L< thartes .

2nd.
Falcoiiidte.

II.

NocturEse.

Strigidae.

Aquila . . .

Faleo

Accipiter.
Butfo....

Strix.

2nd.
Insessorea.

Deutirostres.

Conirostree.

1st.
Lauiadx.

Lanius

Tyraunus. .
Tyraimula.

2nd.
Murulidx.

Cinclus..
Morula. .
Orpheus.

3rd.
SylviadfB.

Erytliaca. . .
Syivicola...
Setopliaga .

I'arus

Seiurus

Authua

4tli.
Ampelid*.

Vireo

Borabycilla.

l8t.

Fringillidai.

Alauda ...
Emberiza..
Fringilla, ,
Tyrgita ..
Loxia.. . .
Tyrrhula. ,
Linaria.. .

CarUuelis

Coccotbraustes.

2nd.
Stuiuido!

3rd.
Corvidse.

Corvus. ..
Garrulug .

BPE-
OIKS.

Molothrus

Dolicbonyx

Agelaius

bturuelta

Icterus

l^uLscalua

ScoJecopbagus

iili

:i-;f

mrr"

n-v

180

Q
1

f OBDXB.

VAMILT.

TBIBX.

6BNU8.

BPB-

exits.

8rd.
Cartipedes.

Cllmbera.

Ist.
Picidae.

Pious

1
1

Colaptes

Melauerpes

2nd.

Ccrthiadn.

Troglodytes

II.

Tenuirostres.

8rd.
Trocbilide.

Troohilus

III.

Fissirostres.
IV.

4th.
Hirundinidffi.

6th.
Capr. \ulgidaB.

bth.
Halcyunidae.

Ilirundo

6
2
1

Capriiuulgus

Alcedo

4th.
Basorei.

1st.
Tetraonidse.

2nd.
Columbids.

Tetrao

Coluniba

7
2
1

I'hasianus

Meleagris

6th.
Grallatorss.

Curtlpennae.

No Ostriches.

II.

Pressirostres.

Calidris

1
8
1
1

Charadrius

Vaiiellus

Strcpsilas

III.

Cultirostres.

Grus . . , ,

2
2

Ardea

IV.

Longirostrcs.

•

Recurvirostra

Nunieuius

8
9
6
2
2

Triuga

TotanuB

Liniosa

Scolopax

Macrodactyles.

Raleus

2
1
3

Fulica

Phalaropus

6th.
Palmipedes.

Divers.

Podlceps

4
3
4

Colym >U8

Uria

II.

LongipennaB.

Sterna

13
3

LLrus

Lestris

III.

Totipalnue.

Pelecanidae.

Felicanus

IV.

LameUirontres.

Anatidse.

Anas

6
1
1
2
S
6
S
1
3
2
6

Mareca

Dendronessa

Someteria

Oldemia

Fuligala

Clangula

Hare da

Mergus

Cygnus

Anser,

181

r. FIRST ORDER.

5
2
2

2
1
3

; ' .. ' ' Rapaces.

The first order of birds in the table is represented by two
f&milies, Dai/-Bapaces and Night-Hapaccs.

The dai/-rapace8 form two tribes : the ^rat— vultures, is repre-
sented by only a single species. In the second— /"aZcon*— there
are four genera of fourteen species.

The following are the names of all the species in the first
family : —

The Turkey-Vulture — Cathartes Aura.

The Golden Eagle — Aquila Chrysaetos.

The Bald Eagle — Aquila Leucocephela.

The Osprey Eagle — Aquila Haliceeta.

The Peregrine Falcon — Falco Peregrinns.

The Gyr-Falcon — Falco Islandicus.

The Little Rusty-crowned Falcon — Falco Sparveriut*

The Pigeon-Hawk — Falco Oolumbarius.

The Merlin— J'a^co JSsalon.

The Goshawk — Accipiter Palumbarius.

The Slate-colored Hawk — Accipiter Pennsylvanicus.

The Common Buzzard — Buteo Vulgaris.

The Red-tailed Buzzard — Buteo Borealis.

The Rough-legged Falcon — Buteo Lagopus. -

The American Hen-Harrier — Buteo Oyaneus.

In the foregoing list, there is but one vulture, and it is neither
the king of its tribe nor the black vulture ; — but it is a brown
one, found only in the Saskatchewan district, whither it is
attracted probably by the carrion, upon which, alone, it feeds.
The vulture is merely a bird of passage : it arrives later than
other birds, and hence the belief that it does not come at one
flight, but is drawn on gradually by the carcases that engage its
attention en route.

The Golden Eagle is by far the largest of the three of its species
i)und here : its home is in the Rocky Mountains.

Plains Indians are passionately fond of the feathers of this bird
which warrriors' plumes are made. The number of feathers in

m^im

i ij

182

the plumo indicates the number of enemies slain by the hrave who
wears it. ,

The Nonne^ or Bald-headed Eagle, abounds everywhere in the
Department, and is an early visitor. It is the DetanitcJieo, or biy
bird, of the Montagnais, who are very fond of its flesh, and with
good reason. The aerie of this powerful flyer is always built at
the top of a tree, and the apparent negligence with which the nest
is put together, gives the idea of accident rather than design ; yet
it is firm.

All Indians agree about the following : — Eagles are always in
pairs ; when one of the pair happens to be killed, another very soon
takes its place, whether the victim may have been male or female,
and this will occur twice in succession. It is only when the third
partner has been killed that the remaining bird becomes disconso-
late, and deserts its aerie. Others, besides Indians, have assured
me that they have remarked the same fact. An individual, who
was making a great display of his biblical knowledge, found, in the
foregoing, a very natural explanation of the verse : " Thy youth
is renewed like the eagle's."

The Osprey visits us early in spring. It feeds more exclusively
upon fish than the common eagle does ; like all those of its kind, it
hovers, and sweeps, beautifully, in mid-air ; and at heights almost
beyond the reach of the human eye, its powerful sight marks the
prey upon which it swoops down with amazing velocity. It pur-
sues other birds of prey, and obliging them to drop their spoil,
catches it before it has reached the earth. The talons of the
Osprey are very bent, strong and sharp, to enable them to easily
seize living fish, and to lift them out of the water. There is a
story, for the truth of which I' cannot vouch, that the Osprey
seizes its prey so firmly that it has been seen to be drawn down by
larger fish than it could raise, and punished for its temerity by
drowning.

Besides these three species of eagles, the tribe of falcons
includes three kinds: falcons, properly so-called, vultures and
buzzards. The eleven species of these three genera have too many
points of distinction to be enumerated here. All of them are
birds of passage, and come, just as far as this country, to feast, here
as elsewhere, on flesh and blood. Some of them prefer carrion,
others fish, and there are some that satisfy their delicate taste with
victims not yet cold.

,,,'.

188

The family of birds that prey by night — rapacen nocfurnce,
includes nine species of the genua strix, or owl. These are ;

The Long-eared Ovfl—Strix Otus.

The Short-eared Owl — Strix Brachiotcu

The Great Cinereous Owl — Strix Cinerea.

The Barred Owl— *SYn^ Nehdosa.

The Virginia Horned Owl — Strix Virginiana.

The Arctic or White Horned Owl — Strix Arctica.

The Great Snowy Owl — Strix Nyctea.

The American Hawk Owl — Strix Funerea.

Tengmalm's Owl — Strix Tegmalmi.

At least eight of these nine night-birds remain in this country^ '
where they live on rapine and destruction. Their chief food con
aists of small quadrupeds, small birds, hares and rabbits.

The great Cinereous Owl is the largest : it is a handsome, and
very strong bird.

The Barred Owl is not so common as the last : it visits this coun-
try only accidentally.

The Virginia Horned Owl, which is peculiar to America, I believe,
is found everywhere in the Department, and knows how to make its
presence known. Its powerful voice is very like that of a man
crying at the bottom of a sepulchre.

Its cries, echoing in the peaceful depths of the forest, impart a
peculiarly melancholy and uncomfortable character, to the still
majesty of night, and on first experience, sometimes make so
strong an impression on the mind, as to terrify those who are not
accustomed to the plaintive voice. It is related of some voyageun
who camped near a burying place, +^at for nights together they
were kept in a most nervously uncomfortable state by the cries of
this owl, mistaking its melancholy accents for the bitter wailing of
the dead disturbed in their last resting place by the intrusive visit .
I readily confess, that I myself have been painfully affected on
being suddenly awakened by the cries of this night sentinel of the
forest. There is a natural reason for voyageurs being troubled
and frightened by these cries, for, Indians on the war-path agree
to imitate the cry of the Virginia Owl, or of some other animal,
as a signal for rallying, or for making a general and unexpected
attack on the enemy, who are deceived by the strategem.

■If

IMAGE EVALUAirON
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Photographic

Sciences
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23 iVEST MAIN STREET

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(716) 872-4503

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— TIT-*-'— -

184

The White-horned Owl is a very beautiful bird. Its stay in the
Arctic regions, even during summer, tells plainly that it does not
dread the light of the sun, for, as every one knows, the benificent
orb of the day does not always set in high latitudes. The same re-
mark applies to American and Snowy Owls, which also move towards
the frozen ocean during summer. The eyes of these three kinds
of owls must be different from those of exclusively night owls. The
majority of owls, like Tegmalm's owl, the last on the list, cannot bear
light. Judging by the awkward and ridiculous gestures of this
friend of night, exposing it to the rays of the sun must be a cruel
punishment. Perceiving its helplessness when thus situated, the
little birds come round the distressed tyrant, and taking advantage
of its plight, amuse themselves at its expense, just as schoolboys
would do were they to find a disagreeable master s\iddenly struck
blind and making absurd grimaces. And Tegmalm's owl, also,
often disturbs the rest of the voyageur.

II. SECOND ORDER.

Insessores or Perchers.

Adopting the classification of the author! om following, the second
order of bird,* is called Inseasares, that is, j)erching birds. The
intention of the learned author, in adopting this classification, was
not to include under this head all birds who can perch, but merely
those which are distinguished : 1st, by having the hind toe jointed
in the same plane as those in front ; 2nd, by the absence of a
kind of hook which alone enables birds of the Rapaces order to tear
their food before swallowing it ; 3rd, by a small notch in the case
of the two characteristic groups of the order, in at least one of the
two mandibles, to enable the bird to hold, but not to tear its food,
which is almost invariably swallowed whole. .... ...-,\, :;:,.;,-.., ^

The second order, chus defined, includes two families : the
JDentirostres and the Comrostres,

I. The family of Dentiroatree is composed of four tribet : four-
teen genera and of thirty-three species enumerated below :

Greater Northern Shrike — Lanvis Borealis.

American Grey Shrike — Lanius Excubitoridet^

m \-

Mi:.

^"'1 VVvs.

. King Bird — Tyrannus Intrepidus. ■
I Northern Tyrant — Tyrannm BorealU.
Say's Fly-catcher — TyrannulaSaya,
Little Tyrant Fly-catcher — Tyrannuta Pmilla.
Short-legged Pewit — Tyrannula Richardsonii.
American Dipper — Cinclus Americanus.

Red-breasted Thrush — Merula Migratoria.

Little Tawny Thrush — Merula Minor.
Wilson's Thrush — Merula Wilsonii.
Hermit Thrush — Merula Solitaria.
Thrush-like Mock-bird — Orpheus Meruloides.
Fox-colored Mocking Bird — Orpheus Bufus.
Cat-bird — Orpheus Fdivox.
. Arctic Blue-bird — Erythaoa Arctica.

Common Blue-bird — Erythaca Wilsonii. .

Citron Warbler — Sylvicola Estiva.
Yellow- rump Warbler — Sylvicola Maculosa.
Yellow Red-poll Warbler— *S^Zuico?a Petechia.
Golden-brown Warbler — Sylvicola Coroncta.
Black-poll Warbler — Sylvicola Striata.
Nashville Worm-eater — Sylvicola Ruhrieapilla.
Tenn^ ^see Worm-eater — Sylvicola Peregrina.
Yellow-tailed Gnat-catcher — Setophaga Rutidlla.
Bonaparte's Gnat-catcher — Setophaga Bonapartii.
Black-cap Titmouse- -Parus Articapillus.
Golden-bvown Accentor — Seiuruj Aurocapillus.
Aquatic Accentor — Seiurus Aquaticus.
Reddish-brown Titlark — Anthus Aquaticus.
Red-eyed Greenlet — Vireo Olivaceus.
European Chatterer — Bomhycilla Garrula.
Cedar-bird — Bomhycilla Americana.

I shall not stop to consider these various species, which are
interesting only from a scientific point of view, or on account of the
pleasure they afford us. Many of them are very beautiful. Except
the Black-cap Titmouse, which faces our Arctic winter, all are birds
of passage. During the summer, they visit us to display the beauty
of their plumage, often very rich and variegated, and to enliven our
woods with their chirping and harmonious warbling. When gloctoy
winter freezes up, aa it were, the last warming rays of autumn's sun

"186

all these gentle little travellers turn their backs upon us and seek
milder climates ; then they return in spring, to see -svhether winter
has not really killed all, in a country where the cold would have
been fatal to themselves. ■; ;

II. The family of Conirostra is divided into three tribes often
genera, including the following thirty-four species :

Horned or Shore-Lark — Alauda Cornuta.
Snow Buntling — Emheriza Nivalis.
Lapland Buntling — Emheriza Lapponica.
Painted Buntling — Emheriza Picta.
' Clay-colored Buntling — Emheriza Pallida.
Bay-winged Finch — Frinyilla Graminea.
White-crowned Finch — Erin(/illa Leucophrys. ^ ■

White-throated Finch — Fringilla Pennslyanica. ■

Fox -colored Finch — Fringilla Iliaca. '

Black Finch — Fringilla Syemalis.
Crested Purple Finch — Fringilla Purperea.
Arctic Ground-finch — Pyrgita Arctica.
Pine Bull-finch — Pyrrhula Enucleator.
White-winged Crossbill — Loxia Leucoptera.
Grey-crowned Linnet — Linaria Tephrocotis.
Lesser Red-poll — Lie aria Minor. «.^' -■-

American Gold-finch — Carduelis Americana. ''■'k;

Evening Grosbeak — Coccothraustes Vespertina. '' " - ■
Rose-breasted Grosbeak — Ooccothraustes Lududciana.
Cowpen or Cuckoo Bunt — Molothrus Pecoris. • ' •■
Sharp-tailed Rice Bird— I) olychovyx Orizivoros. • -

Red-winged Maize Bird — Agelaius PTioeniceus. '•'
Saffron-headed Maize Bird — Agelaius Xanthocepalus. .- -

Crescent Starelet — Sturnella Ludoviciana. .- •. i - •■

Baltimore Hangnest — Icterus Baltimore. ,,, ; fii'l-

Common Purple Boat-tail — Quiscalus Versicolor. .^/il;i.?vv

Raven — Corvus Corax.

Crow — Corvus Corone.

Magpie — Corvus Pica.

Blue Jay — G-arrulus Cristatus.

Whisky Jack — Q-arrulus Canaderisis.

Short-billed Jay — Garrulus Brachyrynehus.

id seek
' winter
Id have

> of ten

This series of Passerines is but little more interesting than the
preceding one. Some of them, however, are remarkable for the
havoc and ravages they make in our fields. I refer to the star-
lings and crows. The majority of this family -{ Conirostres') are,
also, birds of passage, that visit us in summer ; but there are several
exceptions. The Snow Buntling is only absent for a few weeks in
mid-winter. The Crossbills, as well as the lesser Red-polls, are more
courageous, for they nev^;r leave us, even in the severest weather.
It is extremely intertjtii t^ to see these birds fluttering about in
numerous flocks, and going, as it were, in front of the snow, whose
coming they signal. Who crm explain how these frail little birds
can live happily through the intense frosts that are heard splitting
forest trees ? jJ^ext these diminutive inhabitants of our frozen coun-
try come the black ravens, at least twice the size of crows. Mr.
Raven is not content merely to feel the cold, he appears to defy
it. "When the storm is at its height, the piercing north wind
driving clouds of snow, and nature appears to be threatened with
destruction ; when the bivouac-er, before a roaring fire, shakes and
shivers under the thickest robes, — then, the Raven, holding the
swaying branch with vice-like grasp, faces the wind, perched on the
highest tree tops, and sounds his defiant Ca', as if he would say tc
the frozen traveller : " Ca' man, — Ca' ye this cold ?"

15 either do the magpies dread our climate. Although the intense
cold paralyzes the jaws, and benumbs the tongue of the traveller, it
does not affect the loquacity of this, the prettiest bird that winters
with us. Our voyageurs call it " Pie de France^' (French Mag-
pie) keeping the simple name pie for the Canadian jay. The last
is, so to speak, the door-keeper of the forest, and meets all new
comers, as if to enquire for news, and to communicate its own stock,
or, at any rate, to break the solitude. In winter and summer, it is a
constant attendant at camps, ho^os, jumps aboit from branch to
branch, joins in the dogs' feast, md very gradually approaches
the traveller to beg a share of his repast in pp7ment for the plea-
sure it has afforded by its presence, and the confidence it displays.

In solitude is discovered the necessity and idvar'tage of society.
How often the sight of jays has caused me livaly pleasure. I could
almost believe that they understood perfectly, how soothing it would
have been to me to meet, there, those I loved.

If it is startling to be roused from sleep by the screech of the

188

H-;-i<A

Virginia Owl, the Rose-breasted Grosbeak's sweetly melodious
song produces a very different effect. The notes of this pretty
songster — warbled louder and more harmoniously in the stillness
of night, — are delightful to the traveller reposing at the foot of a
tree ; and they assist him to praise God, and to thank Him for the
wonders of creation.

rM,:

I !•

;■( ^,-

: III. THIRD ORDER.

Curtipedes (^short-footed).

This order, according to Sir John Richardson's classification,
would include the family of climbers, as well as the Passerines, which
have not yet been enumerated. The birds of this order are dis-
tinguished by one or other of the following marks : short feet, or
beaks more or less complete. The order includes three families •
the Scansores, the Tenuirostres, and the Fissirostres,

I. The family of Climbers here, includes two tribes, four genera
and ten species, as follows:

The Pileated Wood-pecker — Picus Pileatus.
The Hairy Wood-pecker — Picus Villosus.
The Downy Wood-pecker — Picus Pubescens.
The Yellow-bellied Wood-pecker — Picus Varius.
The Common Three-toed Wood-pecker — Picus Tridactylus.
The Arctic Three-toed Wood-pecker — Picus Arcticus.
The Golden-shafted Wood-pecker — Calaptes Aaratus.
' The Red-headed Wood-pecker — Idelanerpes Erythrocephalus.
The House Wren — Troglodytes Adon.
The Winter Wren — Troglodytes Hyemalis.

The iniportation, in 1867, of the Parroth&s added another genua
of this fap;.iy to those in the Department, but I do not know that
it serves any good purpose. Three species of peckers winter here,
concealing themselves in holes, which they hollow cut in the trunks
of trees. We are not indebted to these birds for the possession of
Passerines. The peckers are extremely active, and when engaged in
their work, they become so preoccupied with it that they do not

189

perceive the danger they may run in pursuing their enemies. The
Winter Wren which, although so named, leaves us in winter, is our
smallest bird, excepting the humming-bird. The latter is the
sole representative of the second family of this order.

II. THE FAMILY OP FISSIROSTI^ES.

The Northern Humming-bird, Trochilus Coluhris^ Sir John Rich-
ardson, in his Fauna Boreali Americana, gives the following des-
cription of a northern humming-bird killed on the plains of Sas-
katchewan.

" Colour. The whole of the upper plumage shining gilded
" green. Wing% dusky black, glossed with violet ; lateral tail
" feathers the same, but considerably darker and glossed more
" with purple, particularly beneath ; the two middle feathers
*' entirely green, the next pair edged with green. Under plumage :
" a black fillet passes from ear to ear and forms a line under the
"chin ; the upper part of the throat is covered by scale-like feathers
j' of a brilliant and changeable ruby-red colour, the feathers round
" which, towards the breast and on the sides of the neck, are white.
" which becomes more obscure on the body, veut and under tail
" covers ; the sides are dusky but glossed with green.

" Form : Bill perfectly straight in its entire length. Wings short ;
** the quills narrow, and not reaching to the end of the tail ; the
*' fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth quills are very deeply and oblique-
" ly notched at the tip of their outward webs, in such a marked
"and pecuUar manner as to give an idea ttiat the notch was artificial.
" The tail is rather short, but distinctly forked ; the two outer
" feathers are nearly equal, the rest gradually diminish ; they have
" an obtusely poiiited form, being narrowed tr,wa:?as their ends ; but
" those in the middle are broader."

■:'«:-

^i^i'

<< DIMENSIONS."

In.Lia. In

Length, total 3 6 Length of bill above

of tail 1
of wing 1

LJn. /:: In. Lin.

TJ Length of middle toe 2
ofbill to rictus 9i " of its nail 1^
of tarsus IJ Depth of forl£ of tail 4

190

:"•■■■ *•

This description sufficiently proves the delicacy and elegance of
this aerial dwarf, and, at the same time, the richness and variety of
its plumage. Nature seems to have delighted in clothing with
grace and beauty, this, the smalle'st of birds, to which it has entrusted
the duty of charming our solitudes.

III. The family of Flssirostres includes three genera and eight
species :

The White-bellied Swallow — Hirundo Bicolor.

The American or Barn Swallow — Hirundo Americana.

White-fronted or Cliff Swallow — Hirundo Lunifrons.

The Sand Martin — Hirundo Riparia.

The Purple Martin — Hirundo Purpurea.

The Whip-poor- Will — Caprimulgus Vociferus.

The Pisk — Oaprimulgus Virginianus.

The Belted King-fisher — Alcedo Alcyon.

So we have swallows, — even five species of them. They come to
us in a lively, chatty, busy crowd in spring. How merry is their
twittering as they salute the first rays of the rising sun ! How
active, their irregular and graceful flight !

The species called Cliff Swalloiv generally builds in the small
hollows in calcareous strata, where their numerous rests find pro-
tection from so many small natural roofs.

Two Indians with whom I was travelling along Athabaska River,
oflFered to regale me with a kind of dish I had never tasted ; I
accepted their offer. A short way on, the men turned the boat towards
the bank ; I objected, saying we had no time to lose. The men
insisted, declaring that in a few minutes they would provide me with
an excellent dinner. Having got out of the boat, taking with them
the punting poles, they ran towards some calcareous strata at a
little distance from the bank, and over which there were thousands
of swallows flying about. In a few minutes they returned carrying
their caps filled with swallows no bigger than one's thumb,
whose tender and rosy skins were not yet covered with the least
down, and looking very like small lumps of fat. We continued our
voyage, and at dinner time the hunters prepared a frying pan to
cook some of their little victims, carefully avoiding to dress them
more than was necessary. Our situation renders it almost unneces-

ill

191

sary for me to add that no spices were put in the pan ; yet, I
thought the dish delicious, and was convinced that the men had not
deceived me in promising to supply me with an excellent dinner.
But, I do not say that I did not grieve over the desolation brought
to so many families in the little straggling village of flyers. The
heart-rending notes of those sorrowing mothers, who had been
deprived of the objects of their tender solicitude, produced thoughts
and feelings that my rude travelling companions could certainly not
suspect while they were gieedily devouring the delicate and suc-
culent meal they had prepared.

The Whip-poor-will is a most annoying bird, from the noise it

makes all night long with its monotonous notes that voyageurs think

resemble the words " Bois Pourriy'' but the EngHsh ear takes for

" whip-poor-will."

But I like the Pisk better, as it catches mosquitoes in the evening

on the wing, and swallows at least a few of these gnats, the enemies

of voyagcurs, whose rest they interrupt — even when most required

after long journeys and fatigue.

Besides the two preceding species, the family of Syndactyles

furnishes the belted kiug-fisher, which feeds on fish it catches, at

the surface of the water, while on the wing.

liver,
id ; I
Iwards
men
with
them
at a
isands
Tying
lumb,
least
Id our
)an to
them
Ineces-

IV. — FOURTH ORDER. , ,. ,,

Itasoresor Gallinaceous Birds. .'.'... T

' The sight of suffering and privation, and man's experience of
them, naturally inclines the mind to attach more importance to, and
to feel more ' interest in, that which is useful than that which is
pretty and agreeable. And, it will not cause surprise if, in this
imperfect sk itch of the ornithology of the Northern Department,
I place more value on the orders to which I have yet to refer, than
OR those we have now rapidly glanced at. .: •'>*^ ,^ . ; ;
' The first order which attracts attention, are the Gallinaceous
Birds. God, in His bounty, has furnished us — first and foremost —
with two genera and eight species of this order. Man has added,
by importation, three species — one allied with an indigenous genus.

192

the two others foreign ger.cra. Below are the names of the eleven
species of the order :

The Ruffed Grouse — Tetrao Umhellm.

The Spotted Grouse — Telrao Canadensis.

The Ptarmigan — Tetrao (^Lagopus) Miitua.

The Rocky Mountain Spotted Grouse — Tetrao Franklinii.

The Willow Grouse — Tetrao (^Lagopus) Saliceti.

The Rock Grouse — Tetrao (Lagopus) Uupestria.

The Prairie Chicken — Tetrao (^Centrocercus') Phasianellua.

The Passenger Pigeon — Columba Migratoria.

The Domestic Pigeon — Columba Bomestica.

The Domestic Hen — Fhasianus Q-alliis.

The Turkey — Meleagris Gallopavo.

This short enumeration may cause the remark which preceded it
to appeal strange, particularly as the three species last named are
indigenous. I dare assert, however, that the history of the country
supports my statement. What I know of that history forces me
to recall some heartr-ending circumstance whenever I hear the
word partridge* mentioned. This timid bird abounds in the
Department and does not shun its rigors ; nor does it avoid man,
but has saved the lives of many unfortunate starving people. When
the unhappy individual who has already passed through all kinds of
trials is at length exhausted and reduced, from impossible or
unsuccessful hunting, to extreme misery in the midst of Avinter
horrors, very often has a poor partridge served to support him
until more efficient help could be procured. Stories of severe and
prolonged starving are not told without some mention of a partridge,
at one time or another, serving to feed so many hungry
persons.

One evening I was sitting pensive, at the foot of a tree. Two
young Crees — travelling companions — were making arrows. Al-
ready the shadows of the forest, on a neighboring lake, had almost
disappeared. Having no ammunition, our gun had been silent all
day. We had no evening meal. Our dinner had been little
better than the meal we should have had before it. Nothing was

"Parti id ffe is the name by which the grouse is generally known in the North-
west. »• B' 0'

198

to be heard but the whittling of knives, trimming arrows. Some-
thing moved near us, and the practiced ear of one of tlie Indians
recognized the presence of a partridge. " Be quiet," said he; " if
I can finish ray arrow before it gets too dark, you will not escape
from me." The young Indian hastened his work, and he had
barely cut the arrow out in rough, when he rose and discharged it
at a partridge perched at a few paces from us. So we secured
our supper.

The yerms Tetrao includes seven species here : two of them are
found in all our woods : the Ruffed Grouse, and the Spotted Grouse.
One kind frequents the mountains, while the other of these Laga-
pedes prefers stony ground. The two others of the same suh-genua^
generally frequent the Arctic regions.

The last on the list cf Tetraonidae, the Fahnn of voyageurs and
the Prairie Chicken of the English, inhabits the plains, but a few
are found in the woods. The last is probably the most palatable, — its
flesh is less insipid than that of other members of the same family.
Although the assertion may surprise epicures, I owe it to truth to
declare that there is very little flavor in our partridga flesh, and it
is certainly not a gastronomic delicacy which led t' my talking
with feeUngs of pleasure about our humble and modes c tetrao.

The willow grouse is undoubtedly the prettiest of ^ae genus^ and
probably the most numerous, for it is seen in vast flocks. The
color of its winter dress is in no way different from the brillian
white of its bed. It is in the snow that this Lagoped sleeps a*
night, and there, too, it conceals itself to avoid pursuit.

There is but one species of pigeon that frequents this country^
and it visits us only in summer. At that season they abotind here
as they do in Canada, and are an abundant source of food. Already
some people in the colony are calculating on the time when these
will help in alleviating the famine which is in the country.

Domestic pigeons have been imported, and I have often admired
their bravery and endurance in withstanding the vigors of our win-
ters without any artificial protection against the cold. The simplest
pigeon house, or the most miserable ruin, is sufficient for them.

Poultry were brought here from Sault Ste. Marie in 1822, We
have now all kinds, from the common to the giant Cochin-China

their food has much reduced them

(^Shanhai).

gram

194

this year, but wo can still occasionally have a roast fowl and an
omelet.

Although a native of America, the turkey is not indigenous here.
There are a few in the country — the first having been imported
from England by Hudson's Bay. We have no peacocks.

,j ;(

V. FIFTH ORDER.

Grallatores or Waders.

The waders are not represented here by the largest species of
the order.

I. The family of Brevipennes is not known here. We have no
ostrich, cither American or of the old world.

The other four families of the order are represented in the De-
partment, at all events during the warmer months.

II. Of the family of Fressirostres there are four genera and six
species, as follows ;

The Sunderling — Calidris Arenaria.

The American Ring Plover — Charadrius Semipalmatus.

The Kildeer Plover — Charadrius Vociferus.

The Golden Plover — Charadrius Pluvialis.

The Grey Lapwing — Vanellus Melanog aster.

The Turnstone — Strepsilas Interpres.

These various species of plovers and lapwings are found
throughout the Department, and extend along the Arctic coast,
where they pass the breeding season, and then return southward
to remain until the approach of winter, when they leave definitively.

III. The family of GuUirostres includes four species :

The Whooping Crane — G-rus Americana.

The Brown Crane — Grvs Canadensis..

The Great Heron — Ardea Serodias. " .'

The American Bittern — Ardea Lmtiginosa.

These four large birds are found throughout the Department. The

ii^'i . I i

195

horon is not common, but tho throo others abound. The cranes
aro valuable as their flesh is good food. It is true that their long
stilts are deceptive, and the hunter does not make so good a bag as
ho might expect on viewing them from a distance.

The White or Whooping Crane measures about four foot in
length: standing erect, bill upwards, it is over six feet in height.
It rises ^vith difficulty from the ground, and, in its first slow flight,
affords an easy mark to tho sportsman. It is dangerous when
merely wounded.

Tho Brown Crane, a little smaller than tho preceding one, is
more palatable.

IV. Tlio family of Longlrostres is very numerous ; it includes
six genera, subdivided into twenty-two species, as follows :

The American Avoset — Reciiruirostra Americana.

Tho L)ng-billed Curlew — Niinienim Longiro^tris.

The Hudsonian Curlew — Numcnius ITudsonicus.

The Esquimaux Curlew — Numeniua Borealis.

Douglas' Sandpiper — T ring a Donglasii.

The Slender-shanks Sandpiper — Tringa Himantopus.

The Semipalraated Sandpiper — Tringa Semipalmata.

The Purple Sandpiper — Tringa Maritima.

The American Dunlin — Tringa Alpiria.

Shinz'a Sandpiper — Tringa Schinzii.

The Pigmy Sandpiper — Tringa Minuta.

The Diminutive Sandpiper— IVm^a FusiUa.

The Knot — Tringa Cinerea.

The Semipalmated Tatler — Totanus Semipalmatua.

The Tell-tale — Totanus Vociferua.

The Yellow-shanks Tatler— ^oilanMS JP;av^pes.

Bartram's Tatler — Totanus Bartramanis. ^

The Green-rump Tatler — Totanus Cidoropygius.

The Great Marbled-Godwit — Limosa Fedoa. . • H'

The Hudsonian Godwit — Limosa Budsonioa. ;,, ; ,

The New York Godwit — Scolopax Nbvoboracenm,

Drummond's Snipe. — Scolopax Drummondii,

Hunters and sportsmen will permit me to leave to them the task
of making out the distinctions between these various species. All

,;•)

these chevaliers (jsandpiperti) sans peur, and these snipe or sand-
pipers sans reproche, certainly offer nutritious food. The smallness
of their bodies gives little encouragement to our people to pursue
them. Oar t .bles are well enough supplied when they carry that
which is strictly necessary. Powder and shot are too scarce here
to be wasted on sach small game, whatever may belts delicacy.

The family of Mxcrodaetiiles includes here three genera and six
sveeias :

The Yellow-breasted Rail — Rallus Novohoracencis.

The CaroUna Rail — liallus (Jarolinus.

The American Coot — FuUca Americana.

Wilson's Phalarope — Phalaropus Wilsotiii.

The Hyperborean Phalarope — Phalaropus Uyperhorius.

I'be Flat-billed Phalarope — Phalaropus Fulicarius.

The last two species, at least, are found on the islands of the
Arctic Ocean, while the others do not go into such high latitudes.
The Coot, the largest species of this family, is not unworthy of the
sportsman, who is often liappy to meet with it. , •., v

Vr. SIXTH ORDER.

» Natatores. — Palmipedes.

If the order of G-allinaceom birds is peculiarly appreciated by
those Avho arc starving in •■.inter, in summer the palmipedes may
boast of furnishing an abundant supply. In this vast country
many people have no other means of support. Nearly all the
species of the order attract the attention of sportsmen. Our lakes,
our rivers, and even our northern seas are numerously frequented
by these Natatores. Hardly Jias the first warmth of Spring melted
a little 8n;>w, and formed an icy pool, when the swimmer's enjoy
themselves in it, and there wait for the thaw'ng of natural lakes
and rivers.

These simple creatures of the good God, obliged to leave us in
autumn, when water threatens to freeze up, appear to comply
regretfuUywith this providential law, which is, as it were, the signal

197

enjoy
lakes

ug in
:)raply

for distress to very many children of the woods. A few of these
birds remain with us wO long as there remains a pool in which they
can plunge, and thus find a means of counterbalancing the coldness
of ti.e atmosphere now become intolerable. Such of them as
migrate early, assemble in immense flocks, and journey by stages,
stopping here and there, as if to mark their affection for these
localities ; hundreds, and often thousands, are victims to this instinct*
But their numerous losses do not prevent them from continuing
their habit, or from thus rendering us the great services which they
do. Twice a year the arrival of these birds dimiuishes, and oftere,
at least temporarily, puts an end to the severe fabts of the Indians.
I. The family of Divers jiicludes three genera and eleven spe-
cies :

The Crested Grebe — Podieeps Cristatus. ' ' ^-rr t- •.

The Red-necked Grebe — Podieqys RiihricolUs. ' ''^

The Horned Grebe — Podieeps Cornutus. . :.:'

The Pied-bill Grebe — Podieeps Carolinensis. ~ .,

The Great Northern Diver — Colymbus G-lacialis. ;

The Black-throated Diver — Colymbus Arcticus. V

The Red-throated Diver — Culjmhus Septentrionilis. •;"

The Foolish Guillemot — Uria Troile. V -

Brunnich's Guillemot — Uria Brimnichii.
The Black Guillemot — Uria Gry lie. ^

- The Little Guillemot — Una Alle.

This country has four species of grebes ; they are here cabled
water-hens (jpoules d^eaii) ; they have no tails, their legs being
placed at the extremity of their bodies ; they walk .^ith diflficulty ;
their movement has the appearance of being caused by an injury to
their hips, and the Algonquin?, attribute it to a kick given to the
giebe by Wesakedjan, the name they give to the Coot and also to a
fabulous Being that takes an important part in all Indian legends.
Grebes do not leave the water, so to speak ; tht/ make their nests
in the reeds and rushes, on the borders of lakes and rivers, where
they heave up and down with the water that supports them. These
oirds make up for bad walking by excelling in swimming.

We have throe species of Divers. The largest is a magnificent
bird, thirty-six inches in length ; its rich and variegated plumage
withstands the action of water so well, that it is skinned to make

198

bags, which are as pretty as they are useful. Its plainl;ive and
melancholy cry is sometimes like the scream of a man in distress.
At sunset, the time of nature's extreme beauty, the echoes of
the forest impart a power and expression to their cry, to which it is
impossible to be indifferent. Of all our birds the Great Northern
Diver is the most difficult to kill ; not only does it dive with great
ease, but it swims under Avater with great swiftness, and, in a few
seconds, re-appears a long distance away from the spot where the
sportsman at first expected to shoot it. ^ - ■':\'::::-)Ji'-',

Divers are numerous on all the lakes in this country.

The GruiUemots are entirely sea-birds; The Arctic ocean
appears to be neither beyond their reach, nor too cold for them.

The second family of our swimmers, the Longipennes^ or large
sailors (^grands voiliers) is divided into thr*^ e genera^ including the
following nineteen spea'es : . , ,

The Greater Tern — Sterna Hirundo': , •

The Arctic Tern — Sterna Arctica. . \ , • , . ■

The Black Tern — Sterna Nigra. -s. *•■-■-

The Burgomaster Gull — Larus Glaucus. ' i '

The Arctic Silvery Gull — Larus Argentatoides.

The White-winged Silvery Gull — Larus Leucopterus. ' .'

The Ivory Gull — Larus Eburneus. - - , - '

The Mew, or Common Gull — Larus Canus. "*

The Ring-billed Mew-Gull — Larus Zonorynchus. : ' ; *

The Short-billed Mew-Gull — Larus Brachyrynchus.

The Kittiwake Gull — Larus Tridaetylus.

Frnnklin's Rosy Gull — Larus Franklinii.

The Bonapartian Gull — Larus Bonapartii.

The Little Gull — Larus Minutus. , /

The Cune-ate tailed Gull — Larus Rossii. .. ^.L, , {-■ .

The Fork-tailed Gull — Larus Sahiniii :'' ;; 3, ."

The Pomarine Jager — Lestris Pomarini.

The Arctic Jager — Lestris Parasitica.

Richardson's Jager — Lestris Richardsonii.

There is nothing more pleasant on a voyage than to see these
gulls, wagels, or mews flying all round about, as if to amuse the
passenger. Their flesh is generally excellent ; their eggs are also
very good, and found in such quantities as to be a valuable resource ;

i i !

199

a feast of eggs in an Indian camp is a tremendous affair. Some
of the Longipennes enumerated above, frequent only the open sea ;
the majority, however, also visit our lakes, upon whose islands they
deposit their eggs, apparently in the most careless manner, which
results in their being easily found.

KI. The third family, the Totipalmes, are represented by only
one genus of two species :

The White Pelican — Pelecanus Onocrotalus.

The Double-crested Corvorant — Pelecanus (^Carho) Dilophus.

The Pelican is a magnificent bird, except as regards his beak,
which, bemg too large, is rendered still more unsightly by a large
pouch hanging from the lower mandible. The flesh of this bird is
disgusting; its eggs are no better ; no one thinks of lookirg for them,
and this makes it useless for them to lay their eggs, as they do, on
islands difficult of access, and on the brink of cascades and rapids.

The Pelican gorges itself with fish, and pockets a quantity,
simply to carry it to its nest to feed its young. I have often seen
Pelicans, surprised while fishing, throw out as many as three large
White fish or Oarp that they had just caught and stored away in the
appendage to their enormous bills, which serve as larders. It is
known how easily fish spoil, and there is no occasioQ to attempt a
description of all that is to be found in their travelling bag ; the
neighborhood of their habitations is almost unbearable, and if all
Pelicans are like ours they ai:e certainly not beautiful emblems,
unless as regards their striking whiteness.

The Corvorant, a dark species of Pelican, has a flattened bill.
It is of the size of a goose, and is uniformly black.

IV. The family of LamelUrostres is the largest of all this class
of birds, if not as regards species, at all events as regards number.
This family includes eleven genera and thirty-two species :

The Shoveller — Anas Clgpeata.

The Gadwall — Anas Strepera.

The Pintail Duck — A.nas Candacuta. "

The Mallard — Anas Domestica.

The American Seal — Anas Crecea.

The Blue-winged Teal — Anas Discors.

The American Widgeon — Mareca Amerieana.

200

'1 !'

iJiMi

The Summer Duck — Dendonessa Sponsa.

The King Duck — Somateria Spectahilis.

The Eider — Somateria Mollusima. :m^^^ ;^ i;

The Surf Duck — Oidemia PerspiciUata. " * t

, The Velvet Duck — Oidemia Fmca. -i ,

The American Scoter — Oidemia Americana.

The Canvas-back Duck — Fuligula Valisneria.

The Pochard — Fuligula Ferin a:

The Scamp Duck — Fuligula Marila. ; ;

The Ring-necked Duck — Fuligula Rufitorque9. ' "

The Ruddy Duck — Fuligula Rubida. ,T -^•

The Common Golden Eye — Clangula Vulgaris. ; * ' ■

The Spirit Duck — Clangula Albecla. ::

The Harlequin Duck — Clangula Ifistrionica-

The Long-tailed Duck — Harelda Glonalis.

The Goosander — Mergus Merganser. -' '

The Red-breasted Merganser — Mergus Serrator.
,:, The Hooded Merganser — Mergus Cucidlatus.

The Trumpeter Swan — Cygnus Buccinator. ' ■

Bewick's Swan — Cygnus BewicTdi. *

It is easy to see by this list how rich the family of Lamelliros-
tres is ; but, to appreciate its full importance, one must know the
number of individuals included in some of the species. It is only
on our deserts and in our solitudes, chat wild birds are seen in such
vast numbers. It is not meant that they are to be found every-
where, and at all times ; but there are places where at times they
are innumerable. A good shot, with a good gun, and abundance of
ammunition, could make a bag that would excite incredulity amongst
the first sportsmen of civilized countries. One of my friends, Mr.
James M'Kay, killed seven hundred duckt^ in one expedition.
Large establishments in the interior, live, for months together, on
winged animals. Indian tribes, at some seasons of the year, have
no other resource, and these hardy inhabitants of the forest require
a large supply of game for their support. Some idea of the
quantity required may be gained from the following: — At the
Company's establishments, where they subsist on game, the daily
ration for one man, is one swan and two ducks, or three geese, or
four of the largest ducks. From this, it is easy to imagine how many

201

would be required for the supply of a large establishment ; but, it
is not so easy to realize that, in years of plenty, the slaughter is
carried on without perceptibly diminishing the source of supply^
Whore geese alight in their spring migrations, and more especially in
those of autumn, the flocks are so vast that a curious saying of our old
voyageurs is often literally verified. They say " At Rabaska geese
are like banks of snow," (" Au Rabaska lesoies, c'est comme les
bancs de neige.") i_ .■.;;;'h ;:;>>:.:;:., ;;■/,'''■■.;•

Of all ducks the Teal is the greatest delicacy. The Mallaid,
called " le canard de France^'' by the first inhabitants of Canada
from its resemblance to the domestic duck, is about the largest. It
abounds everywhere.

The Scaup duck, or canard d'automne, remains with us for a
long time in autumn, and becomes so fat that it has difficulty in
getting on the wing ; when in this condition, it is a great delicacy,
and very nourishing.

The Caille, or Spirit Duck, lays its eggs, and sits, in trunks of
trees. When the yc ang are old enough to swim, the mother takes
them, one at a time, to the bank of a river or neighboring lake.

Our swans are handsome ; it is the largest kind of the family,
and the least numerous. The harmonious notes of its dying voice
have never been heard but by the imagination of the poet.

" The wild swan's death hymn took the soul

.*■ }^;:i'" •!; Of that waste place with joy ;; ' ; -; ".

V . : , Hidden in sorrow, at first to the ear

'•'':' The warble was low, and full and clear. "

■ <, I . 7; - f . » ' Tennyson's " The Dying Swan."

; Without being a musician, it is easy to perceive that the song of
the swan is not a melody. * -' v :^

Of the five species of geese we have, that called hdtarde ( Canada
goose') is by far the largest, and passes the period of incubation, as
well as the rest of the summer, dispersed throughout the country ;
its liking is not for this or that latitude, but for the best pasturage.

The other species of geese breed in the Arctic regions ; they
merely stay here to rest on their long return journey, and to afford
us an opportunity to rejoice at the increase in their numbers. They
then pass on to winter in milder climates.*

•The following species are enumerated by Sir John Richardson :

The Laughing Goige — Anser Albifrons.

The Snow Goose — Anser Hyperboreus.

The Canada Goose — ^nscr Canadensis ,

The Brent Goose — Anser Bernicla.

Eutchiu's Barnacle Goose — Anter Hutchimii. d. b. o.

202

THIRD ARTICLE.

Reptiles.

It is without regret that I proclaim the poverty of this country
as regards reptiles. We here observe, with pain, the absence of
many noble, useful, and pleasant animals. The roaring of the lion
is not heard in our forest ; the quiet and enduring camel, and the
mighty elephant refuse us their services. Amongst the feathered
tribe those of the richest plumage and the sweetest notes avoid us.
The absence of these, we may regret ; but we cannot say so much
about reptiles. That the voracious crocodile does not delight in our
ponds ; that the enormous hoa does not conceal itself in our trees
to encircle its victims ; that the rattle-snake does not shake its
noisy tail here, are facts which cannot disquiet me. Nor do 1
desire to tread on the asp, or the basilisk ; nor am I anxious to live
among dracos, or to gaze on the changing hues of the chameleon.

I subjoin a table shewing the tliird class such as it is, here, within
my knowledge.

, ., THIRD CLASS.— iJep<«ea. K

Ordek.

Family.

Gknus,

Spb-

CIE8.

l8t

Chelonia.

I. Land Tortoise,

Tpstudo

II, Fresli Water Tortoise.

Emys

1
1

Trionix

III. Soa Tortoise.

2nd.

Sauria.

: :• 1. Crooodilidae.

. ■^-■' ^«-:i' *•■.;.

II, Lacortinidae.

Lacerta

III. IfFuanidte,

IV. Geckotidae.
V. ChameoeleoiiidaB,

VI. Scincidje.

8rd.

Ophidia,

I, Anguincs.

II. Serpentea non virulentae.

Coluber

III. Serpent38 virulentae.

208

THIRD CLASS.— 7?c;><We8.—Cont«nued.

ORDER.

FAMILY.

QKNCS.

8PK-
CIES.

4ttl.

Batrachia.

I. Eana;.

Kana

Hyla

II. liufoues.

Bufo

III. Salamandra;.

Salamandra

As is shewn by the foregoing table, the class of reptiles is repre-
sented in each of its four orders in this country.

I. FIRST ORDER.

Ohelonia.

The Tortoises, while shewiiig us their bony shields, also convince
us of their slowness. We have four species — two of them are oval
and small, and belong to the family of Land Tortoises. One of the
species has a convex carapaee marked with black and yellow, while
the other is flatter, and brown all over. Thero are very many tor-
toises in our lakes and swamps — particularly towards the south.
The largest kind — which I believe is of the genus Emys — attains to
a diameter of eighteen inches. . ^ '

We have a species of Trionix that has a soft carapace, and a breast
plate that is also very slightly ossified.

I do not think that there are any tortoises in our northern seas.

The species we have, deposit their eggs in the sand on the borders
of lakes, choosing, for this purpose, the northern shores which are
most exposed to the rays of the sun, so that heat may develope the
germ in the eggs. The latter are disagreeable to eat, but the flesh
of the animal that lays them is esteemed. When the young are
able to move, they have but a few paces to go to plunge in the lake,
and there, or upon the neighboring strands, they are left to them-
selves from their very birth, and have to sustain their existence in
the midst of all the difficulties and dangers to which they are
exposed.

;■■• ■, 204 .:;';"';::;;' / ;'■■:„,., ,,,,:^

.' n. SECOND ORDER.

.^ V Sauria.

The species of this order are characterized by changing their
skins every spring ; but they do not find many conveniences, here>
for the annual toilet that nature has prescribed for them. These
reptiles are provided with toe-nails, teeth, eye-lids, and articulated
jaws ; their only representative here is of the second family of the
order. The first family is not met with, for, as I have already
stated, wo have no crocodiles. Our hzards are of two species —
one, rather larger than the other, is marked with green ; the other is
altogether grey. These animals are very harmless, and are chiefly
found in the centre of the prairie region. They are most numer-
ous in the small lakes, and in the neighborhood of the Touch-wood
Hills. Their only unpleasant points are their appearance, and desire
to approach travellers. When camping, at certain seasons of
the year it is necessary to surround one's tent with a small ditch,
of which the inner side is cut vertically, as these lizards climb up
only gentle slopes. Unless this precaution is taken, they come into
the tents in every direction, — and there are many who would dislike
to be either awake, or asleep, on a bed covered with lizards. It
is a happy trait in this animal, that in its sympathy with man it
awakens its friend on the approach of danger; but in this, as in
many other matters, the human race displays the ingratitude which
characterizes it. I have never yet seen the man who was pleased
with the intimacy of the lacerta. But this family has no monitors.
These guardians do not hiss an alarm at the moment of danger.
And we have no more scaled monitors than we have sheeted ones.

.li

!t!

III. THIRD ORDER.

Ophidia.

itlsl u

Tho order of Ophidia is hardly any richer than the preceding. We
have neither hlind-worms (orvets') nor venomous serpents. Here
the order is limHed to the genus, coluber , of non-venomous serpents ;
and, in it, we have but five kinds of adders, that much ^semble one
another, except as regards size and color. More careful investigation

205

■would probably shew that the varieties of size and color do not indicate
distinct species, particularly as regards our five kinds of garter
snakes, which probably belong to one and the same species. Our
adders are quite harmless, and abound in the prairie region, where
children play with and torture them at leisure, going even so far as
to make garters of them, and the more they find, the happier
they are. These reptiles arc not found i'^ the north \sost of the
Department.

IV. FOURTH ORDER.

Batrachia.

Not cfcAj have we a toad, but according to our voyageurs every-
thing in nature is 3 toad, for either ill-temper, or often merely
habit, leads them to apply the word " crapaud,^^ toad, to everything
they mention. We have three famiUes of Batrachia. The timid
and croaking race of frogs counts three species, — one of these is all
green, and th*^ others are either brown or spotted with a variety of
shades. We have not got the famous Wawaron Qrama mugiens
vel taurina, or bull-frog). Our people are not familiar with the
notes of this giant frog, and are curiously impressed by the sound
■when, in trrvelling to the south or the east, they hear it for the first
time.

The little Green Tree-Frog (j'ainette) hops about harmlessly
here.

The second family is represented by the toad, which is no more
slender-waisted here, than in tropical climates, and is in no way
pleasant, or genial looking.

We have a species of reptile which is neither serpent nor lizard,
but is, I think, the Terrestial Salamander . I have never seen the
animal, but from what I have been told, I am led to believe that it
should be classed as I have indicated.

FOURTH ARTICLE.

Fish.
The fourth class of vertebrated animals is, by comparison, much
the poorest here. Of the eight orders composing it, four are entirely
wanting. Some are represented by only on^ family ; several of

■

. ■ -. ■'' 206 V- ';■•- - : ."■ .

the famiUea have only one genua ; and the majority of the genera
have only one species. But the limited variety does not deprive
Icthyological studies, here, of importance. To some extent, the
abundance of species makes up for the poverty of the class. Our
lakes, and some of our rivers, are really like natural vivaria, or
according to our Half-breeds — " they are the storehouses of the
good God." I subjoin a general table of the class. ^

FOURTH CLASS.— Fiah.

Ordku.

Family.

Gbnus.

81'K-
OIKS.

l8t.

Aoanthopterygil.

1. Ttenioidete.

11. Gobloideae.

III. Labroida:.

IV. Percoldeaj.

Perca

1
1

Ijucio-neroa

I'oinotis

Cottus

Gasterostous

8ci(£ua

V. Scomberoideaj.

,: - . .\, ■ -

, ■'

VI. Squammipinna:.

VII. Bouches en Flute.

•■ ■.'',-■ - f. . 'V'

.1.'.

2nd.

Malacoptery^l
Abdomiuaiia.

I. Cyprinoideas.

Cyprinug

II. Esocidae.

Esox

III. Siluroideae

IV. Salmonoldese.

Salnio

" Namaycush

" Mackenzii

" (Thymallus) ....
" (Corogonus) —

V. Clnpeoideae.

Clupea

Uiodon

8rd.

Ualaoopterygil
Subnujliiatl.

I. Gadoideae.

Gadus (Lota)

" (Fhyoib)

n. Flatessoideffi.

Fleuronactes (Platessa.)
" (Bbombus). .

ni. Diwoboll.

: ''::,: I'M-: 207

FOURTR CLASS.-i^»;k.-Contlnuod.

OHDBR.

FAMTLY.

OENITB.

BVE-

OIK».

4th.

Malacopterygil

Apodes.

Anguilllformos.

:...'V> '■>■■■ '^*- '■■

Lophobraiichii.

^ • ; --.^ - :■-■:■■ ,-«.s-^% ,,.,c.

'■

Ploctognatlil.

Chondoptoryffil.
Eleutheropomii.

Sturionidcas.

Acipeuaor

Chondoptorygll.
Treniatopneoutos.

Selachll.

As is shewn by the table the osseous or Osteopterygii fish supply
ocly three orders here, and the series of Ohondropterygii or carti-
laginous fish, is limited to a single genus and of one order.

I. FIRST ORDER.
Acanihopterygii. ' .

The first order of the series of osseous fish, is composed of such
as have spinous dorsals, and is represented hereby only one family,
the other six being entirely wanting. We have neither Ribbon
fish, Gropre's Wrasse, Seombers, Tons, nor Mackerel. Nor do the
families to which the Bandoullieres and Bouches-en-flute belong,
frequent our waters. The only family of the order that we have
is the PercoideaD, including, here, six genera and eight species :

The American, Perch — Perca Flavescens.
The American Sandre — Lucio-perca Americana.
The Northern Pomotis — Fomotis Vulgaris.
The Bear Lake Bull-head— (7o«m8 Cognatus.
The l^brth Georgian Bull-head— (7<}«m8 Polaris.
The Six-horned Bull-head— (7o«^m8 Hexacornis.
The Tiny Bumstickle — Cf-asteroteus Concinnus.
The Malashegand — Scicena Jiichardsonii.

Of these eight species, four are of no importance to us: these
are, the three bull-heads and the bumstickle ; the remaining

208

four, on tho contrary, are a great resotirce. It is true that the
Perch and tho Pomatis are not found in many waters, but in return
the Sandre (^Bore) is found in nearly all our lakes and rivers, and
add greatly to tho stock of food in the country. The Malashegan^
is not found in tho highest latitudes : it prefers tho soutliern. Like
the Maigres (or true Sciucna,) this fish has the power of producing
a noise like the distant beating of a drum, deep in the water. *

It is a good table fish, and is somewhat like turbot, of which it
has all the firmness ; tho Red llivei breeds an immense number
of them, and we are very glad to have them.

II. SECOND ORDER.

Malaccopteriigii Ahdominalis.

This order is the most numerous of the class, and there are
species here of each of the five families composing it.

I. The family of Ct/prinoidece supplies us with five distinct
species :

La Quesche — Cyprinus {Abramis?^ Smithii.

The Grey Sucking Carp — Ci/pririus {Catastomva) Iludsonius.

The Red Sucking Carp — Cyprinus (^Catastonms') Forsterianus,

The Piccouou — Cyprinus (^Catastomus} Saeurii.

The Saskatchewan Dace — Cyprinus [Leuciscus) Gracilis.

At the mention of Carp, the people of other countries figure to
themselves a good and fine fish ; but, here, the impression is quite
of another character. When I first came into the couiitry, I talked
with gusto about soupe a la Carpe ; — an old man who had never
tasted soupe a la carpe, but who considered he had, in his time,
eaten rather too much of the fish, could not agree with me, and
said significantly : " It is useless to talk about it ; carp is but carp."
I did not at first understand the reason for his dislike : later I had
the opportunity and leisure to appreciate the correctness of his

• Of the malaslieffane or Sciiena (corvina) Jiichardsonii, Sir John Richardson
ays : " The remarkable drum-like noise which the maigres, or true scifona
have the power of producio;;, at a considerable depth in the water, has not been
ascribed to the corvinal."— d. b. o.

H ;jliili

209

opinion. When ono has but one kind of food to eat, when, for
example, it is necessary to be satisfied with Carp, — boiled, parhaps
in the water it was born in, — without sauce or salt, or addition of
any kind — one quickly tires of the fish, and when this is fre({uently
repeated the simple name of the animal suffices to excite repulsion.
The head of the carp is, beyond comparison, preferable to the
body ; — but many heads would be required to satisfy an appetite
excited by work and fatigue, and one soon tires of sucking these
small bones. All the species abound in this country, and parti-
cularly the Red and Grey Suckers. This fish spawns in the month
of June, and, several weeks previously, they are seen and killed^in
great numbers. When spawning is over, particularly in shallows
on stony river beds, they assemble in such numbers that their
crowded dorsal fins, shewing above the water, make it appear as if
all the fish were artificially attached to one another : and they can
then be killed with a stick. It is easy to understand that, in such
circumstances as those, Indians cannot absolutely starve, but they
invariably look upon the necessity for feeding on Carp as starvation.
The Montagnais arc very fond of raw fish eyes, and as soon as they
capture a fish they tear its eyes out and eat them. The vitality of
the Carp is so great, that many true tales about it would be regard-
ed as fabulous. A Carp may be frozen, thawed and then decapi-
tated, and yet not die immediately : and they are seen to strike with
their tails, and jump about for a long time after they have suffered
such mutilation as would be apparently most likely to quiet them,
and to cause them immediate death.

II. The second familj'' of the order I am now dealing with is
that of the Esocidce. Of these we have :

The Common Pike — Esox Lucius.
The MasJdnongS — Esox Estor.

The two kinds of pike are a good deal like one another. The
latter is generally the larger, its color is paler, its scales less oval,
and its flavour being milder is more palatable. The pike is the
tyrant of fresh water ; it swallows other fish, as thei/ do insects.
The voracity of tho pike benefits the hungry, for it takes a bait set
under the ice more readily ^an any other fish. In times of want,
the unfortunate sufferer often finds wherewith to satisfy his hunger
in a pike that, urged, probably by similar necessity, has taken the

iO'?

■;<

;?* ■ ; ^

210

deceptive b*^it \rith its perfidious hook. Providence, who has so
severely tried us this year, has given a proof of His pity in the
unusual take of pike at Lake Winnipeg and Manitobah. The
large kind make an excellent dish when there is seasoning to
relieve its flavor, and to modify a peculiar taste, and even odor,
probably unknown elsewhere, but unmistakable here. Carp-like,
Pike are sought after only when all other supplies fail. There are
pike in all our lakes, and in some of them magnificent fish. I have
weighed some of thirty pounds, and I believe I have seen larger
ones. Pike swallow very large fish without doing them the least
damage. I have often seen as many as two White Fish in the
stomachs of pike, and these, together, did not weigh less than five
or six pounds. The numerous sharp teeth of the pike inflict a
severe wound, not only when the animal bites, but when by
accident, and after they have been detached, one pricks oneself

III. The family of Siluroidem supplies us with only one .^jecies:
The Mathemeg — Silurus (^Pimelodus) Borealis.

Our brill (harhue) or Cat-fish is little likely to gain favor by
its appearance ; some Indians call it " Ugly fish," but it is rich,
plump and well-flavored. An ordinary Cat-fish weighs from five
to twelve pounds. It is much sought after by those who are
familiar with its good qualities. Like all of the same family this
fish is devoid of scales. Its broad, flat, and nearly square head
has earned for it the name cat, as its eight beard appendages
(barbes) have procured it the name harhue. The Cat-fish is not
found, I believe, to the north of the Saskatchewan. It swims in
the lakes near Red River, and the afiluents of that stream, and also
in some of the tributaries of Lake Winnipeg. The Cat-fish (or
Land Cod) is caught with set lines.

IV. The SalmonoideoR is \y far the most important family we
have. It includes the followmg speciet :

The Common Salmon — Salmo Salar.

Ross's Arctic Salmon — Salmo Rossii.

The Copper-mine River Salmon — Salmo Hearnii.

The Long-finned Char — iialmo Alipes.

The Angmalook — Salmo Nitidus.

The Masamacush — Salmo Hoodii.

211

The New York Char— -Sal mo Fontinalis,

The Namaycush — Salmo Namaycush.

The Inconnu — Salmo Mackenzii.

Back's GrayUng — Salmo (^Thymallas) SigrJfer.

The Lesser Grayling — Salmo (^Thymallus) Thymalloides.

The Attihawmeg — Salmo (^Coregonus) Albus.

The Tullibee — Salmo (^Coregonus) Tallihee.

The Round-fish — Salmo (^Coregonus) Quadrilateralis.

The Bear Lake Herring Salmon-

-Salmo (^Ooregonui) Lucidm.

The foregoing enumeration shews that this country is not without
representatives of the important family Salmonuidece, and, when
it is considered that fifteen out of our thirty-nine species of fish
are of this kind, it is easy to understand that their relative impor-
tance is eveti greater than their absolute. All the Salmonoidece Sire
numorous, and many species furnish us with the best table-fish. Our
Arctic rivers supply us with three species of salmon properly so
called. The Common Salmon ascends the streams flowing into
Hudson's Bay, not perhaps in the incalculable abundance of the
rivers of New-Caledonia, but nevertheless in sufficient quantity to
be a valuable resource. ■

The salmon called after the celebrated navigator Ross, are so
plentiful in the Arctic rivers that as many as three thousand three
hundred and seventy-eight have been taken at one haul with a net.
This number is all the more remarkable when it is considered that
the fish are of good size, — measuring as much as thirty-three inches
in length, and often weighing ten pounds.

The Copper-mine Rive Salmon are as numerous as the preceding.
A poor woman, who was nearly blind, was fishing at the foot of the
Bloody Falls (La chute Sanglante.') This old Esquimaux was
murdered by Hearn's cruel companions — who had, a short time
previously, also killed her unfortunate relations. The wretched
assassms theti took the old woman's spear, or harpoon, and continued
to fish with it for salmon. It is in reference to these exceptional
circumstances that this species (^Hearnii) of fish is first mentioned.
This salmon must be peculiarly palatable for the intelligent and
tender-hearted. Hearne concludes the account of the horrible
butchery committed by his companions in hit presence , by saying -.
"When the Indiana had finished their ruffianly act (acfe de in

31 i S.

gandage) we sat clown and made a good meal on fresh salmon."
It must be confessed that this sentence is in exquisite taste, and
savors, at all events, of salmon.

■ "' Besides tliese three species of salmon, the family supplies us
with five kinds of trout. Two of them are limited to Arctic streams,
and the others are found in our lakes and clear waters generally,
but particularly in such as are rock bound. This fish, like all the
others, varies in flavor according to the place where it is found, and
the season when it is caught. It may be excellent when taken
from one lake, and detestable from another, much sought after in
summer, and avoided in winter. The Namaycush is a splevidid
fish. At Groat Slave Lake its weight varies from twenty to forty
pound"^. I have never seen them so large as to satisfy me on this
point, but I see no reason to doubt the evidence of the respectable
people who make the statement.

Next comes the Inconnu. This name was given to the salmon
of Mackenzie River, by voyagsurs who did not recognize its appear-
ance or flavor. The name has since been ":enorally used, and ia
•ven Anglicised. This salmon is intermediate between the Trout
and White Fish, and is peculiar to Mackenzie River basin. It is not
found elsewhere. It is plentiful in Great Slave Lake, and ascends
the river of that name, up to the falls which interrupt navigation.
It weighs from five to fifteen pounds. It is not so much thought
of as the other Salmonoidece, and those who eat it often say " it is
only inconnu, in the same sense as they would say of a Cyprinus
" it is only carp."

Two kinds of Back's grayling — the prettiest fish we have — sport
in the little rapids of our mountain streams. They are also found
in Cariboo Lake, and a few other places. These fish are not of so
much importance as the others of the same family. : , i

The Attihawmeg or White Fijh. (Salmo Corcgonus, Albus) is the
most interesting to us. This is hardly fish in the sense referred to
above. Without exception, it is uncontestably the most palatable of
all our fishes, and is the only one which is tolerable as a sole food.
The Attihawmeg is found throughout the country ; the lakes — large
and small, are neaily all frequented by them, and they providen-
tially swarm in some of the little lakes, otherwise, witi.jut this
resource, many parts of the country would be uninhabitable. I aai
entitled to speak on the subject, for I have lived for whole years on

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213

»>

White Fish as a principal food, and frequently the only one. It is
not to be understood that living wholly upon one kind of dish is
not tiring, but this particular fish does not pall, nor does it excite
the aversion generally caused by all other kinds.*

The White Fish generally weighs only three or four pounds ; but
they are occasionally caught weighing as much as fourteen pounds,
and in this case their flesh would delight the most experienced
judges of this kind of food. Without dressing or sauce of any
kind, these fine fish are much superior to any I have tasted else-
where, even when most artistically cooked. The white fish
spawns in autumn, and this is also the season for great fishing
expeditions, although the fish is in its worst condition. The
Attihawmeg, caught in autumn, are preserved in a very peculiar but
simple manner : a frame work is set up, and on its top strong p:>le3
are laid at three feet apart. Small rods, rather longer than the
space intervening between the poles, are next prepared. As the
fish are thrown on to the bank, a hole is cut through their tail
ends, and using this, ten are threaded on to each rod, thus forming
what is called a hroche (a spit) the ends of which are placed on
two of the poles. The fish, now hanging head downwards, have
their throats cut with a slash of a knife, to free the blood, and to
allow water to escape readily.

The sharp nights at the end of Ocfober, assist to harden the fish,
and to preserve them. When the season is not exceptionally
warm, hung fish (d la perite) is excellent. Of course the flavor
is injured by prolonged heat, and naturally it is only in autumn
that this process can be adopted!

The Talihee is very like the White Fish ; it is, however, inferior,
and much less plentiful, and as much may be said about the Round
Fish, one of the Coregoni, which takes its name from being less wall-
sided than the preceding species:

The Herring Salmon, which is found in Bear Lake, appears to be
intermediate between the Hareyigm and the Salmo.

V. The family of Clupeoideoe has two genera.

The Common Herring — Clupea Harengus.

The Nacacysih, or Gold-eye— /ii'ocfow Chrgsopsis. .

• Sir John Ricbardaon says : " Though it (white fish) is a rich, fat fish, instead
of producing satiety it becomes daily more agreeable to the palate ; and I know
from experience, that though deprived of bread and vegetables, one may live
wholly upon this fish for months, or oven years, without tiring. — d. r. c.

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214

The Common Herring frequents our Arctic sea, but the fishmg
does not assume the importance there that it does in other places.

In the southern part of the Department, the Clupeoidece furnish
us with a pretty little fish, the gold-eye, white and delicate. This
little glutton is caught with hook and line, and also with small
meshed nets made for them. The Naccaysh measures about twelve
inches ; it is very fine ; has a large mouth ; its large and shining
scales give it a silvered appearance, and its extremely large eye,
with a yellow iris, has won for it its English name " Gold-eye." ,

In some of our rivers there is another kind of fish which resem-
bles the herring, and is, probably, the Fresh-water Herring ; and
some other small fish that are found in shallows are, perhaps. Marsh
Fish. I should experience great difficulty in classifying them or
in indicating either their ^(9/iws or species.*

III. THIRD ORDER.

; 'VSl<, ;

># • ;, , MalMopterygii Sabrachiaii. ; „;

the three families composing this order we have two here :
I. The Q-adoideoeiwrmsh. us with iM^o genera represented by only
two species : ' " ' '' ' " - ,'

The Methy or Burbot — Gadus (Lota') Maculosus.

The Spotted Phycis — Gadus (^Phycis) Punctatus. '^"

Our Loche or Methy is not a fashionable fish, for the following is a
common remark in this country: " How is it that you ask us to
eat of it ; even dogs refuse it ? " It is a fact that dogs, however
much accustomed to eat fish, will not touch this kind. For myself
I have several times eaten it, and I found nothing in its flavor
to justify aversion to it. It is not a delicate fish, but when dressed
by an average cook, it is equal to the majority of river fish. I
think it is the same kind as is called Queue de poilon in Canada.
It may be truly said that this is not a pleasant fish to look at.
Gorged with food, or full of roe, its naturally short body becomes
inordinately enlarged ; and its tail, very much like that of an eel,
matches very badly with the thick body. The Methy has scales,
but they are so small, and so deeply embedded in gelatinous epi-

• Sir John Richardson gives the following classification of these two fishes :
Hiodori Tergiou. — Order — Maliicopterygii Abdominalii. Family — Olupeoideos.

Qenus — Hoidon. The notch-fined Hiodon, or Fresh-water Herring.

Amia Ocellioanda. Order — Malacopterygii Abdomiaalis. Family — Glupeoi-

deoB. Genut — Amia, The Marsh Fish.— d. r. o.

.\V'Vt('i ■

eel,
lies,
epi-

001-

215

dermis that they can barely be distinguished in very many specimens.
This fish is a cause of great annoyance to fishermen in winter : it
fixes itself with fishing lines in the most wc ierful way, and
entangles them most perfectly. When taken out of the water it
alternately wriggles and straightens itself so as to make it a difficult
task to unhook. Its smooth and sticky skin is so much colder than
that of other inhabitants of the water, that the fisherman, who shivers
for hours together in the intensest cold on the lakes, is not very
happy when he finds a Methy on the line he draws from under the
ice. They are generally thrown away to feed crows : only the roe
and liver are retained. At the posts in the interior, the roe is
pounded, and made into a kind of biscuit, to which whatever name
strikes the fancy is given. The liver, which is rich and delicate,
is also made into food, unless it becomes necessary to extract the
oil from it for lamps, by which one can only half see, and have,
besides, anything but an agreeable smell.

The Spotted Phycis is like that of Canada, but is very rare,
while the Methy is everywhere plentiful.

II. The second family of the third order includesi two species :

The Stellated Flounder — Pleuronectes (^Platessd) Stellatui.

The Arctic Turbot — Pleuronectes (^Bhonihu? Glacialis:

Two kinds of flat fish visit the mouths of Copper-mine, and some
other rivers : — one of these is called Turbot from its resemblance
to the European Turbot.

The family supplying these species does not, that I know of,
make an appearance in any of our lakes. A similar remark applies
to the family of Discoboli.

The fifth order — that of Lophobranchii — is also entirely wanting
here : we have neither Pegasi^ nor any kind of fish bearing shields;

The sixth andlast order of o«seoM« fish — the Plectoganatid — which
nearly approaches to the cartilaginous class, in the hardy ossification
of the skeleton,— 's likewise unknown in these parts. Of course we
have not got Sea-hogs y (^Herisson-t de mer') Boursouffius and Sun-fi&h
in our inland lakes, and I am not aware that they frequent the
Arctic Ocean.

The second series of fish— the cartilaginous chodopterggii, wherever
found, is less abundant than the preceding, but here, it is very much
less so. Of the two orders that compose the series, the one with fixed
gills is not represented at all in this country. We have neither

■fr-i-

It f

\ ■■!

it: A

I I

216 v-.-;:y;,:;,:., .. ^.

Sharksy Hammer-head^ Saw-fish. These tyrants of the salt sea do
not trouble our fresh water ; I suppose, too, that they do not like
our frozen ocean. I have the same idea also about Ray and Lam-
preys. '.. :'..v.^ .. .,^^,,

n IV. SEVENTH ORDER. '

.,. ' . ^ SturionidecB eiv

The seventh order — which is the first of the second series, or that
with free gills, — comprehends two genera^ or families, as follows : —

The Rupert's Land Sturgeon — Acipenser liupertcainus, ;..,

The Ruddy Sturgeon — Acipenser Ruldcimdus.

There are Sturgeon in North Amorcia as well as in Northern
Asia. Not only does the Pacific Ocean send them in crowded shoals
into the rivers flowing from this country, but our lakes are not
without them. This large fish delights in a part of this territory :
it willingly frequents Lake Winnipeg, and nearly all the important
rivers flowing into and out of it ; there are some in the lower part
of Enghsh River, but they do not ascend beyond the fall at Frog
Portage, and they try in vain to get over Carp Rapids in Rapid Ri-
ver, a tributary of the Saskatchewan ; so that the neighborhood of
Frog Portage is the northern limit to which they rea«h in the inte-
rior of the country. Nor are they found to the west of this point in
the same latitude ; but, to the south and east they are generally dis-
tributed. In our great central basin they are found in abundance.
There are very fine sturgeon in Lake Winnipeg : I have seen them
seven feet long and one hundred and fifty pounds in weight. The
fish is excellent to eat : it furnishes a great deal of oil, and its air-
bladder, simply dried, supplies the very useful isinglass of commerce.

The Ruddy Sturgeon is much smaller than the common sturgeon ;
its head is more elongated, and the cartilages are more prominent.

Salt provisions are as yet not much used here, and salt is so
dear that salting sturgeon has not hitherto been thought of ; but such
a method of preserving them would be more profitable than the plan
of merely drying some pieces adopted by the Indians,

FINIS.