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Arm, Wo, A.D.— ^^r^ n> or vv HOLY REDEEMER LIBRARY. WtNOSOH 1: >■ • ;* CoPYRir.HTED, 1886, By martin garrison & CO. All rights reserved. ELECTROTVPED AND PRINTED BY RAND AVERY COMPANY, BOSTON. TranaUtloD of the epigram wrilt«ii by hi* UollacM on reoclpt of a copy of thin portrait. / ^/r/^r/vr,* <^'«-/^^ rrf/trtf/ttf PHOTOGnAi'Hic Art. Sparkling; IlkcneKR! swift touch of the sun ! By a ray instantaneously, splendidly done; Minutely aud truly reflecting each grace — Noble brow, beaming eye, and beauty of face. What n trlumpL of skill, as wondrous as new ; KVn tiio rival oi" nature. Apelles ne'er drew More beiiuiii'ul picture, or portrait as true. /^/^(/tftC/lC Uic^ /W^^^ PVU itz: /%*-e^ /• cu k^ t*/"" ^C A-e-* ^w^ }\\A \c. J M^c-V /- tw^-r- «v-,».- M^«^ ^ tl^. ... A J .^f^^L^ A.^-^^...^^ 4^^^^**.-— - 6 <^ *^ '^ t ^*-*-c^»*. Vci IBBb bv Geo H WaOrn ttCo bostcn (vlar'T. r/ftrnjin A ',;. P'llr Uo.'t-'n DEDICATED TO tlit ^omm CatdoUc people OF THE WORLD. t( p s: u tc le la tr bli sti br CO sp: spi th< pla the not phi all. INTRODUCTION. THE mission of the Catholic Church is to save souls. To realize this mission, she seeks to win, to warn, and to instruct them, by a thousand different methods : by the preaching and the writing of the word of God ; by prayer, sacrifice, example ; by the labors of her schools, colleges, universities, her priesthood, religious orders, her lay confra- ternities.- She recognizes that the four pillars of national no less than individual greatness rest upon religion, education, labor, and the union of them all. To develop, then, the truths of religion, to advance the work of education, to bless labor in its more exalted or humbler forms, to strengthen by all these means the bonds o( universal brotherhood in guiding us all heavenwards, — such is her constant, untiring aim and work. It was the mission and spirit of her Divine Founder. It must necessarily be her spirit and mission also. She thus seeks to place mankind in the proper relationship with one another. She seeks thus to place society on its true basis, by teaching men and women the true doctrine of mutual social responsibility; seeking not "the greatest good of the greatest number," as false philosophy would teach us, but rather the greatest good of all. As a consequence of her efforts to develop the moral, Hi :. « ' I I. IV INTRODUCTION. religious, and educational nature of man, breathing a divine spirit through it all, the sum of moral and social wrongs is diminished, and the social, political, and religious problems of the day find a new and correct solution. She ' alone rec ognizes authoritatively the equality of all men before God, since all have the same origin, duties, and destiny. She also recognizes the social inequalities which must exist forever, since inequality of taler t, energy, char- acter, moral strength, will forever exist, as part of a Divine plan ; but she seeks, like her Founder, to teach the lesson of Dives and T^azarus to the human mind and heart, and thus adjust the balance that is ever to be struck between them. An authorized mouthpiece of this divinely given mission and work has been established on this earth. We look to him whenever heresy or infidelity seeks to corrupt the gulf- stream of religious truth that flows, clear and strong, adown and among the tides of time, and which has touched the shores of every people from the beginning. We await his word whenever and wherever perverted minds seek to edu- „ce the mind at the expense of the heart, by taking down the thorn-crowned head from the wall of the Catholic schoolroom, and refusing Catholics freedom of teaching. We listen for his decision when nihilism, socialism, com- munism, anarchism, seek to deprive honest men of the rewards of honest labor ; or when titled despots seek to crush a nation ; or when aristocrats seek to rob the toiling millions of the reasonable enjoyment of their rights to life, liberty, and happiness. To him we turn our eyes when secret societies endeavor to lead men astray by counterfeit teachings and representa- INTRODUCTION. tions of Christian brotherhood, liberty, and equality, for- getting that true brotherhood, true liberty, and true equality were taught by One who "spoke as having authority." Who is this guide to whom the human race can turn with confidence whenever and wherever the perverse spirit of contradiction attempts to scatter abroad the seeds and tares of error in the field of religious, educational, political, in- dustrial, and social thought? Pope Leo XIII. He is the Moses of our day, whom God has appointed as the light, lumen de ca'lo, for the teaching of the nations of the world, and the glory of his people. He is the one who stands, as did the Moses of old, by Divine commission, before the "rock of contradiction." He smites it with the blossoming rod of his infallible teachings, of his encyclicals ; and the saving waters of life, to refresh the wearied and sinful world, immediately follow the blow. The object of this biography is to show how well Pope Leo has understood and fulfilled the difficult, dangerous, exacting duties of his exalted position. The watchman on the towers of Israel, his inspired glance has swept around the far-reaching horizon that bounds the world of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia ; and in each of these great divisions of the world he has re-created, inspired, recruited, and armed again the ten thousand cham- pions of truth, justice, and judgment on this earth. Like the founder of that Order on which he has con- ferred and confirmed its privileges, faculties, and exemp- tions, he seems to have chosen for his motto, " Work as if all depended on work, and pray as if all depended on prayer." He is the continuator of the long line of Roman Pon- vi INTRODUCTION. II iV - i )! i; tiffs, illustrious not only by the f . ent of birth, but by achievement even to an heroic degree ; of men who stand forth as the champions of the down-trodden and oppressed, as the rebukers of royal no less than popular injustice, as the bulwarks of religion, as the munificent patrons of art, of law, of education, of science, — of whatever, in a word, contributed to the advancement of true civilization. Now the praise-offering to exalted worth generally be- gins its word-painting by calling forth revered ancestral forms from long-forgotten graves, to fill the background, and then surrounds its hero with living forms of kindred greatness. But some figures in history appear so grand that they exclude from the canvas all companionship with the living, while they derive no additional grandeur from being grouped with the awful figures of the departed. They stand best when they stand alone. So might we say of Pope Leo ; and it is with this conviction that I close the preface of this book, and refer the reader to the record to be found therein of Pope Leo's claims to greatness. P. A. McKENNA. October, i8S6. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Papacy. — Christ's Promise that the Gates of Hell should NEVER PREVAIL AGAINST HiS CHURCH. — THE MaNY AND VARIOUS Ways in which that Institution has been assailed. — Irs Complete Triumph over all its Enemies. — The Greatness op the Kingdom over which the Pope, as Head of the Church, presides CHAPTER II. PopK Leo's Birthplace. — The Nobility of his Parents. — His Brothers and Sisters. — The Simplicity of his Ancestral Home. — The Rare Beauty of its Surroundings. — His Edu- cation FOR the Priesthood, and his Ordination. — Appointed BY Pope Gregory a Member of his Household PACK 13 20 McKENNA. CHAPTER III. At Benevento and Perugia. — How he drove the Brigands and Smugglers out of the Former Place. — An Anecdote illus- trating his Decisive Way of Acting. — He restores Order IN Perugia. — Pope Gregory pays him a Visit at Perugia.— Appointed Archbishop, and sent as Nuncio to Brussels CHAPTER IV. Appointed Archbishop of Perugia. — His Wonderful Zeal and Piety. — He founds an Academy for the Better Instruction OF HIS Clergy. — Called to Rome by Pius IX., and appointed Cardinal Camerlengo. — The Sacred Conclave ... 38 CHAPTER V. The Death of Pope Pius IX.— The Duties of the Cardinal Ca- merlengo. — Cardinal Pecci chosen Holy Father. — Elected ON THE Second Ballot. — His Appearance before the Popu- lace.— "Viva Papa Pecci, Leone XIII. I " 45 8 CONTENTS. \ \ hi CHAPTER VI. Papal Elections. — How the Head of the Church has been CHOSEN at Different Times of its Existence. — The Manner IN WHICH Earthly Rulers interfered. — How and When SUCH Interference was ended. — The Power of Veto al- lowed Germany, France, and Spain. — The Way in which this was exercised. — How the Custom of selecting a Pope FROM THE College of Cardinals crew CHAPTER VII. Pope Leo's Coronation. — The Magnificent Ceremonies attend- ing THE Event. — "Holy Father, thus passes away thb Glory of the World." — The Significant Ceremony of burn- ing the Flax. — The Pope replies to the Address of Con- gratulation offered him by the Cardinals. — His Exceeding Humility, and Great Confidence in Divine Assistance. CHAPTER VIII. PAGB S3 66 On the Papal Throne. — His Holiness notifies the Temporal Powers of his Accession to the Papacy. — The Reply of the Crown Prince of Prussia. — Leo XIII. issues a Bull restor- ing THE Scottish Hierarchy. — He confers the Red Hat ON Cardinal McCloskey 72 CHAPTER IX. John, Cardinal McCloskey. — A Sketch of the :^irst American Cardinal. — Early Catholicity in Brooklyn. — His Collegi- ate and Ecclesiastical Life. — Pastor of St. Joseph's. — Presi- dent of Fordham. — Bishop of Albany. — Coadjutor to Dr. Hughes, and Successor. — Created a Cardinal by Pope Pius IX. — His Impressive Funeral. — Bishop Lynch's Description of his Character 91 CHAPTER X. The First Encyclical. — Leo XIII. reiterates the Doctrines enunciated by Pius IX. — No Condonation of the Spoli- ation of the Church. — The Errors of Modern Times, and THE Evils consequent upon them, forcibly portrayed . .98 CHAPTER XL Socialism and Communism denounced. — The Holy Father ISSUES A Notable Encyclical against those Erroneous Doc- tunes. — The True Principles which should govern Society s ■ COATTENTS. 9 PAGB ABLY Expounded. — The Sophistries of the Upholders of Modern Errors exposed and refuted. — A Document which WON THE Vatican Great AND Deserved Praise . . . .no CHAPTER XII. The Second Year of Pope Leo's Pontificate. — The Glorious Promises of its Predecessor more than fulfilled. — The Holy Father's Diplo.macy smooths over Many Menacing Dangers to the Church. — The Indefatigable Energy of the Pope. — His Labors in Behalf of Education. — His Unassum- ing Modesty, and his Simplicity of Life 128 CHAPTER XIII. The Third Year of Pope Leo's Pontificate. — The Relations ex- isting BETWEEN the HoLY SEE AND GERMANY. — HOW THE PoPE'S Conciliatory Methods tended to break down the Odious Falk Laws. — His Great Concern for the Well-being of the German Catholics. — The Pope's Proclamation on the School OF St. Thomas 159 CHAPTER XIV. The Doctrine of St. Thomas. — A Succinct Summary of the Teachings of the Angelic Doctor. — How marvellously St. Thomas's Arguments confound Modern Errors. — The Won- derful Mine of Wisdom and Piety his Teachings contain. — Pope Leo's Great Regard for his Doctrines . . .171 CHAPTER XV. The Third Year, continued. — The Church in Belgium. — The Attack of the so-called Liberals in that Country on the Church. — The Pope's Intimate Knowledge of Belgian Af- fairs, AND his Defence of the Belgian Hierarchy.— The Appointment of Several American Bishops . . . .190 CHAPTER XVL Continuation of the Third Pontifical Year. — The Great Activ- ity of Leo XIII. as Head of the Church. — His Concern for its Welfare in All Parts of the World. — Some of his More Notable Acts during this Year of his Reign . . 202 CHAPTER XVH. The Insult to Pope Pius' Remains. — The Dastardly Affront of the Roman Infidels. — The Pope's Indignation at the Shameful Occurrence. — Condolences sent to him from Various Parts of the World. — Proof that the Holy Father must remain a Prisoner in the Vatican . . .222 lO CONTENTS. 1 CHAPTER XVIII. PAGB Pope Leo and Ireland. — The Holy Father's Great Concern KuR TiiK Faith of his Irish Subjects. — He summons Irish Prelates to Rome, to acquaint Hlmself with the Situation. — No DouHT of his Sympathy with, and his Good-Will towards, the Irish People in their Struggle for Legisla- tive Independence 230 CHAPTER XIX. The Pope's First Canonization. — Giovanni Battista de Rossr, Canon of Santa Maria in Cosmedin; Father Lorenzo da Brindisi, Capuchin of the Minor Observants of St. Francis; liENEDicT Joseph Ladre, Layman; and Sister Clare of the Cross of Montefalco 242 CHAPTER XX. The Fourth Pontifical Year. — His Holiness prepares to send THE Red Hat to Cardinal Gibbons. — The Busy Routine of HIS Daily Life. — Rev. Dr. O'Reilly's Description of his HoLiNESs's Private Mass. — A Graphic Description of an lNrERF;STING CEREMONY 25! CHAPTER XXL The Pope and Ireland again. — His Holiness sends a Special Encyclical to Cardinal McCabe. — He reiterates his For- mer Warnings against Secret Societies. — The Elections IN Italy, and the Attitude of Catholic Citizens . . . 259 CHAPTER XXIL Principal Events of the Year. — The Pope secures the Par- don OF the Polish Bishops exiled since 1864. — Appointment of Bishop Richter. — Death of Right Rev. P. N. Lynch of Charleston. — A Sketch of that Prelate's Life and Labors, 268 CHAPTER XXIIL Character of Pope Leo's Policy. — His Skilful and Diplomatic Manner. — Spiritual Compatible with Civic Allegiance. — Utterance of the Baltimore Fathers on this Point. — The Attitude of Modern Governments towards the Holy See . 272 CHAPTER XXIV. The Fifth Year of Pope Leo's Pontificate. — Letter to Cardi- nal McCabe. — Brief to the Catholic Total-Abstinence Union of America. — Deaths of Notable American Bishops. — Brief Biographies of those Prelates. — Autographic Let- ter OP his Holiness to Cardinal McCloskey .... 279 CONTENTS. II CHAPTER XXV. The Encyclical ahout the Rosary. — The Holy Father's Great Rkgard for this Devotion. — He declares the Church to stand in Great Need of the Ulessed Virc.in's Aid. — He adds New Favors and Indulgences to those granted the Rosary by his Predecessors PAGE 293 CHAPTER XXVI. The Baltimore Council. — The Calling of the American Prel- ates TO Rome. — The Solemn Opening of the Plenary Coun- cil in the Haltinj^re Cathedral. — A R^sum^of theCouncil's Work. — Sermons -uy Eminent Prelates 301 CHAPTER XXVII. Another Famous Encyclical. — The Pope speaks against Secret Societies. — Their First Condemnation in 173S by Clement Xn. — Allusion to P'reemasons. — That Society not the only Condemned One. — All Cognate and Affiliated Socie- ties equally Vicious and Reprehensible 3'9 CHAPTER XXVIII. The Year 1885. — Conferring of the Pallium on American Arch- bishops. — .\ppointment of Dr. Walsh to the Dublin See. — Death of Cardinal McCloskey. — The Reply of the North- German Bishops to the Baltimore Council . . • . 342 CHAPTER XXIX. The Present Pontifical Year. — The Pope a Closer Prisoner than ever in the Vatican. — He issues an Encyclical de- creeing AN E.xtraordinary Jubilee. — Reasons for his doing so, AND THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR OBTAINING THE INDUL- GENCES OF THE Jubilee. — The Carolines Dispute. — The Pope as an Arbitrator. — Satisfaction of both Spain and Germany WITH his Decision. — His Holiness decorates the German Emperor and Bismarck. — The Latter publicly praises the Holy Father .... . . 360 CHAPTER XXX. The Encyclical concerning the Christian Constitution of States. — One of the most Remarkable of all the Papal Documents. — Full Text of the Letter 367 i i'\ I I ill 12 CONTENTS. CHArTER XXXI. FAGB Cardinal Gibbons. — Short Sketch of America's Second Cardi- nal. —His Career as I'riest in Uai.timore, IJisiior in North Caroi,ina ANn Virginia, and Arciiiushop in Maryland. — The Way in which he answered a Caitious Lawyer . . . 393 CHAPTER XXXIT. Lf.o the Great. — The Pope's Great Affection for the Jesuits. — The Wonderful Progress the Church has made under HIS Administration. — The Testimonyofthe Haltimore Fath- ers IN his Regard. — His Forthcoming Golden Jubilee . 401 APPENDIX. Ecclesiastical Reference Table 407 General Distribution of the Catholic Population of the World 407 List of Popes; from Stefano III. to Leo XIII 408 List of Popes; from St. Peter to Stefano II 410 Cathedrals of the World 411 The Remarkable Growth of the Catholic Press in the United States and Canada 414 Abbreviations of Ecclesiastical Words and Expressions . . 416 Chief Heresies of the Church 418 Councils of the Church 420 Pronouncing Dictionary of Catholic Words, etc. , . .421 LIFE AND LETTERS or HIS HOLINESS POPE LEO XIIL CHAPTER I. THE PAPACY. WHEN, over eighteen hundred years ago, the Divine Founder of the Catholic Church de- clared to St. Peter that he wa? the rock whereupon He would build His Church, He intimated, that, after His own return to the heaven he had left to redeem fallen man, the Papacy would represent Him on earth as the visible Head of the Church for all ages ; and when, furthermore, He declared that the gates of hell should never prevail against His Church, He promised that the Papacy should abide until the end of the world, and prove Impregnable to all assaults which might be made upon it. It is unnecessary here to detail how both these promises have been kept to the letter. Nineteen centuries have nigh elapsed since the words in which they were made fell from the 13 i jill: ; I I ii 14 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. lips of the Divine Master ; and in that long stretch of time, albeit the Papacy has been assailed times without number, and in manners past description, it exists to-day as full of life and vigor, as potent in influence, and as grand in dignity, as when St. Peter himself first held its sublime office. Driven, on more than one occasion, from Rome, — justly regarded as the seat of their power, — the Popes have always managed to return to that Eternal City ; and not- withstanding that the Piedmontese government at the present time holds the States of the Church, which Victor Emmanuel sacrilegiously robbed the Papacy of, the right of the Pope to his temporal domain has never been surrendered ; and, in God's own chosen time, there is very little doubt but what the stolen property will be restored to His vicar upon the earth. The Papacy is the one institution of the earth which has endured the assaults of time, and which exists to-day the same as when it was first founded. Thrones and empires have crumbled away ; but it remains, and even flourishes more vigorously the more it is attacked. It would be out of place here to recall the many vicissitudes through which the Church, in its head, has passed during the nineteen centuries that it has existed. The pages of history, ancient and modern, bear testimony to the wonderful vitality it has exhibited whenever the gates of hell undertook to test its strength. In our own day, while we may THE PAPACY. 1$ not have witnessed any of those open attacks upon the Papacy which former ages beheld, we have never- theless seen it assailed in manifold manners ; and the grand resistance it has made to all such assaults, and the splendid triumphs it has scored over all its enemies, enable us to see how wonderfully, even in this nineteenth century, are verified the Divine predictions alluded to at the beginning of this chap- ter, to the effect that 'Christ would abide with His Church forever, and that nothing should ever prevail against her. Foes from within and enemies from without have marshalled their forces against her, times without number, only to discover that she was endowed with a strength that was superior to all their powers. Heresy and schism, dissensions and all forms of error have tried to undermine her foundations, only to find that she was indeed built upon a rock that was im- pregnable to all their assaults. Nation after nation, led astray by unbelieving rulers, have launched their thunderbolts against her, only to have them recoil upon their own heads in punishment of their folly and crime ; while intact and unharmed, unchanged and unchangeable, the Church still remains, and will remain until the mission her Divine Founder intrusted to her is completely fulfilled. It may be doubted if there ever was a time when the Papacy was more powerful, or exerted a greater influence in the affairs of the world, than it does at i6 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X/lf. I«l!; M :;i i ? the present time. Shorn of all of its temporal domain, it is still recognized as the grandest and most inlluen- tial power on earth ; and recent years have afforded instances of the readiness of secular powers to avail themselves of its potency. Thus, not so very long ago, we beheld the Czar of the Russias thanking a Pope for his salutary edict against socialism and nihil- ism ; Germany, still later, availed herself of the good offices of the reigning Pontiff to adjust the dispute into which she was led with Spain over the Caroline Islands ; and words of commendation have been ac- corded from all quarters of the world to Pope Leo for many of his recent excellent encyclicals, whose teachings have everywhere been regarded as salutary and timely ; while never, perhaps, has the Church been considered with more favor by sectarians than it is at the present time, thanks to the able, wise, and praiseworthy administration of its present illustrious head. The life of Pope Leo, who is universally admitted to be one of the greatest Pontiffs that ever sat in the chair of St. Peter, must, therefore, have a peculiar attraction for Catholics ; and in order that they may have a record of his career which shall be complete, and a history of his government of the Church which shall omit nothing that is in any way important, this work was undertaken. It will be its purpose to sketch the life of the present Pope from his entrance THF PAPACY. j; into the sacred .ninistry, the plenitude of whose grand powers he now enjoys, following him from his boy- hood through his priestly episcopal, cardinalitial, and papal careers; and to furnish as complete account as possible of the many notable things he has accom- plished since that third day of March, in i87<^. when he was elected by the College of Cardinals the suc- cessor of Pius the Ninth of glorious memory, and the two hundred and fifty-eighth successor of the blessed St. Peter, the first of the lengthy and unbroken line of Roman Pontiffs, who to-day occupies the Papal throne, and exercises the apostolate of the Fisherman throughout the whole world ; while with and in sub- mission to him, are some eleven hundred bishops, governing as many separate sees throughout Chris- tendom. The latest and lowest estimate puts at more than two hundred and seventeen millions those who render obedience in things spiritual to Leo XIII. Of all nations, and tongues, and forms of government, they form one compact, organic body under the Pope of Rome. Political persecution and worldly criticism have, by God's mercy, done good. Never has history presented the Church better knit together in its mem- bers with its Head. And so the Papacy, possessed of everlasting youth, is a living, visible fact in the world. Its action is no less manifest. From his high watch- 1: IF j'l IS I! 'i ■> ■ !.' .' (J i 'It III s M iii i\\ i8 Z//"^ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL tower our Holy Father, Leo XIIL, observes the signs of the times. He, aided by wisdom, experience, and Divine help, has, through encyclical letters, instructed the world at large, and the children of the Church in particular, concerning the sacred fundamental laws of religious, civil, and domestic society. His Holiness has, in like manner, raised his voice against the ene- mies, secret and avowed, of social order. On his subjects the Holy Father has earnestly inculcated the union of all hearts in the cause of Holy Church ; an increase of piety and devotion to our Lord Jesus Christ through the holy rosary ; a spirit of unworld- liness and of alms-g-ving by laboring under the ban- ners of S. Francis of Assisi and of S. Vincent of Paul ; an extension of the sacred and profane sci- ences among the clergy ; a loyal obedience of people to pastors, and of people and pastors to the Holy See ; and, finally, the Father of the Faithful has, " moved by the consciousness of the greatest, the most holy — that is, apostolic — obligation, issued the most memorable encyclic out of the fourteen, on The Christian Constitution of States." To secure the fullest exercise and extension of Holy Church, Pope Leo XIIL has labored to have closer reLition with Catholic governments; to non-Catholic rulers he has extended the right hand of friendship; and even with Mahometan and pagan sovereigns has he entered into communication. These varied acts, done » k THE PAPACY. J9 at different times, have been borne by steam and elec- tricity to the furthermost parts of the earth. They have been pubUshed and commented on in the press of the civiHzed world. And so the name of the Pope has become a household word in every land, and the teaching of the Papacy a familiar fact. Papal Coat of Arms. 11 i1! I I h !? i' P 1 Ji '1 i * 1 ii I ill; If s! 30 Z//"^ ^A7? LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL CHAPTER II. THE POPE'S BIRTHPLACE. THE birthplace of the present Pope was Carpineto, a town in the diocese of Anagni in the Papal States ; and the date of his entrance into the world in which he has achieved such eminent honors was the second day of March in the year i8io. His parent- age was noble, his father being Count Louis Pecci, and his mother Anna Prosperi, the daughter of a noble family whose seat is at Cori, in the near neighborhood of Carpineto. His full name, as given him at his bap- tism, was Vincent Joachim; he was the youngest of four brothers, two of whom are laymen, the other is a cardinal priest, modest with all his learning, which was conspicuously displayed in the preparatory com- missions of the Vatican Council, at which he was one of the theologians of the Holy Father, and also at the Seminary of Perugia, where for six years he taught the philosophy of St. Thomas. The Pope has two sisters, both of whom are happily married, and are the mothers of large families, distinguished for their piety. The Pecci family is one of the oldest and THE POPE'S BIRTHPLACE. 21 most respectable of the Sienna nobility, and traces its origin back through centuries. It was not until the fifteenth century that It removed from Sienna to Carplneto, and became resident in the States of the Church. Its burial-places are In the Church of the Capuchins at Rome ; and Its coat-of-arms dis- plays a green pine or poplar tree, a bar, two lilies, six roses, and a coronet on an azure field. An old portrait of the Pope's father, which is kept In the room of the family palace In which his Holiness was born, shows him arrayed in the uniform of a French colonel, thus indicating that he saw foreign service ; while a picture of his mother betrays the source from which the Pope obtained that amiability and grace of expression which have been so often remarked upon by all who have looked upon his saintly countenance. The room in which the Pope was born is on the second floor of the Pecci palace ; and, while it is furnished In a manner becoming the apartments of a noble family, it has nothing of extravagance about it, and very little of what Americans would consider indispensable to comfort. The floor, like all Italian ones. Is of stone and uncarpeted ; the bedstead is of iron, surrounded with modest drapery ; and a plain silver crucifix, apart from the family portraits, Is about the whole ornamentation of the place. The room itself leads into the family chapel, at the altar of which the Holy Father and his priestly brother have t( •r •i.;. r iiiiil ill 22 Z//"^ i4iV2? LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL often officiated. The palace itself is in no sense a grand one ; and, in fact, the whole town of Carpineto has little to boast of, apart from being the birth- place of the Pope, as it is composed mainly of miser- able houses, all of which are built of stone, and ap- pear to be hanging to the rocks which serve them as foundations. Since the accession of the present Pontiff to the throne of St. Peter, the place has had its attractions for travellers and tourists ; and it will well repay a visit, as the scenery in and about it is truly beautiful. The town itself stands upon a height, and is flanked on either side with deep ravines ; while the Volscian Mountains, which sur- round it, are one of the most picturesque ranges in all Italy. It may be mentioned in passing, that, at the time Pope Leo was born at Carpineto in 1810, Pius VII. was in captivity. Young Pecci's childhood was spent in a home not less pious and happy than noble and refined. Sweet- ness of temper, readiness to oblige, and, withal, a quiet and serious behavior, marked his early as his later life. When old enough, he was sent to the Roman College conducted by the Jesuits, who had recently been brought back to Rome and the world, to the joy of all sincere Catholics. He made his final studies in the Academy of Nobles, where those of high birth are prepared for the ecclesiastical state. The Church, in bestowing her dignities, recognizes no aristocracy but THE POPE'S BIRTHPLACE. 23 that of virtue and ability ; yet slie is too just not to make provision for the ricli and the noble as well as for the poor and the obscure. While she has been glorified by thousands who have risen to her highest honors from abject poverty, she has ever welcomed the genius inherited from a long line of distinguished ancestors when it has come accompanied by worth and good intentions. The young nobleman from the first had given proofs of his piety and talents. His taste and aptitude for learning, in spite of his modesty, made him known to Gregory XVI., always ready to detect genuine me'-it. As soon as he was ordained, he was appointed a domestic prelate. It was not long before a task was given Monsignor Pecci, that had been too much for older and more experienced men. Benevento, though in the midst of the kingdom of Naples, had for centuries been an appanage of the Holy See. Independent of Naples, to which it nat- urally belonged, and far from Rome, to which it was nominally subject, its people, noble and common, had been used to laugh at the authority of the delegates set over them by the mild and easy Roman govern- ment. For years it had been given over to smuggling and brigandage, and on these many of its proudest families subsisted. The learned and courtly )oung Monsignor Pecci was kindly received by these brigand nobles, who brought him an honored guest to their castles. They were really glad of his coming ; for they ! 1 .■> >$ H LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL had been used to see in their delegate men who, while helpless in the presence of flagrant crime, yet rendered themselves hateful by a parade of empty severity. Here was a civil and pleasant-faced scholar, who would bury himself in his books, and let every one attend to his own welfare. Suddenly, without the customary warning from their Roman friends, the brigands were attacked in all their fastnesses on the same day. This was without precedent ; and expostulations arose even in the Vatican, but in vain. The Pope stood by his delegate, and brigandage and smuggling were stamped out in Benevento. Rome and Naples together thanked Monslgnor Pecci for his achievement. From moun- tainous Benevento he was sent as delegate to Perugia in lovely Umbria. In this country of blue skies, yellow hills, and dark-leaved olive-trees, he spent some time pleasantly enough. But he was needed elsewhere ; and. having been made Archbishop of Damietta in part., he went as nuncio to the court of Brussels. Here his skill, as well as his agreeable manners, en- deared him to King Leopold, who parted from him with regret, and, it is said, recommended him for the cardinal's hat. In 1846 Archbishop Pecci was ap- pointed to the see of Perugia, and he was warmly hailed by its citizens, who had not forgotten him. Though strongly b/mpathizing with the yearnings of his countrymen, he did not countenance the radical desires of the atheists. These sought to pervert r THE POPE'S BIRTHPLACE. 25 lawful fondness for the beautiful land into a blind passion that would lead it to ruin. By his firm and dignified attitude in the face of all the troubles that came to Umbria during his residence there, Arch- bishop Pecci showed that religion is the best pro- moter of patriotism, and that in becoming a priest he did not cease to take pride in the glory of his country. He was made a cardinal Dec. 19, 1853. When the Italian government took possession of Umbria, he counselled his flock to peace, and kept on in the work of his diocese undisturbed by the political troubles around him. At the death of Cardinal De Angelis, in July, 1877, Cardinal Pecci was made earner Icugo, or chamberlain. Appointment to this office has generally been thought to work as a prac- tical exclusion of a cardinal from all chance of suc- ceeding to the papacy, and history furnishes grounds for this belief. But when Pius IX. died, amid uni- versal mourning. Providence evidently designed him for Pope. Mr. O'Byrne, in his " Lives of the Car- dinals," says of his Holiness, " Possessing unmistak- able literary talent, he never became a litterateur. The turmoil of his time left him little opportunity for literary pursuits. An elegant Latin poet, his imaginative power found expression in Latin hymns, — models of purity and eloquence and of exalted feel- irtg. His classic compositions in Latin and Italian will by and by find a place in the literary history of the ( 1 mm ' • I i]' 26 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. .♦ M'j conflict between faith and unbelief — between Church and State — in Italy. No more cogent piece of rea- soning will be found in modern Catholic literature than his reply to Kenan's daring impeachment of the divinity of the Saviour ; and our time has not seen an abler statement of the mission of the Church in the world than his now famous pastoral on The Church and Civilization." He was elected Feb. 20, 1878, and crowned Pope on March 3. In making himself the thirteenth Leo, Cardinal Pecci chose a name sugges- tive of piety, learning, and statesmanship. The Pope was only eight years of age when his father sent him, with his oldest brother, Joseph, to the Jesuit College at Viterbo; and it was there that he made his first communion on the feast of St. Aloysius, June 21, 1821. His mother died in 1824, three years later; and after her death the future Pope removed to Rome, where he took up his residence with his uncle in the Palazzo Muti, continuing his studies at the Rc.ian College, which his namesake Leo XII. had just restored to the Jesuits. He studied rhetoric under Fathers Ferdinand Minini and Joseph Buonvicini ; and philosophy and mathematics he learned from Fathers Pianciani and Carafa, under whom he was for three years. His professor of theology, of which he took a four-years' course, was the renowned Father Perrone, though he had other instructors as a matter of course, among them Fath- THE POPE'S BIRTHPLACE. 27 ers Manera and Patrizzi. He sustained on several occasions, at public examination, both in the Roman College and in the Sapienza, theses in a manner to win him the warmest applause from his teachers and all present. From the Jesuit College he went to the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics, where he studied law and di- plomacy. It was here that his brilliant talents first won him the recognition he received later on from Gregory XVI., who, seeing in young Pecci a student of remarkable abilities, as well as an ecclesiastic of eminent piety, great modesty, and true priestly spirit, attached him to himself, and named him a household prelate on March 14, 1837, at the same time appoint- ing him Referendary of the Segnatura, at a period when he was barely twenty-six years of age, a time when very few ecclesiastics have ever succeeded in gaining such eminent distinction. In the beginning of the same year, 1837, he was ordained to the sub- diaconate and diaconate by Charles, Cardinal Odescal- chi, in the Chapel of S. Stanislaus, in the Church of Sant' Andrea, which stands on the Quirinal. At the ember days of December, the same year, — or, to be precise in the date, on the 23d of December, — the same cardinal conferred upon him the order of the priesthood ; and he celebrated his first Mass in the same Chapel of S. Stanislaus, being assisted at it by his eldest brother Joseph, who had previously 111 H! I ^ 28 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. joined the Jesuits, and been ordained a priest. It was thus that young Pecci entered into the sacred ministry in which he has won so many and such renowned honors; and, in selecting him to be one of his own household, Gregory XVI. probably little thought that the youthful monsignor would one day rise to the eminence he himself then so worthily occupied. Such, however, was what was destined to take place. AT BENEVENTO AND PERUGIA. 29 CHAPTER III. AT BENEVENTO AND PERUGIA. MONSIGNOR PECCI, however, was not destined to remain long a member of Pope Gregory's household. On the 15th of February the following year, 1838, that Pontiff appointed him his delegate to the province of Benevento, where, owing to the prevalence of brigandage, it was necessary for some firm hand to take the reins of government and re- store order. This was the first step that young Pecci made on that ladder of eminence, the topmost round of which he now holds ; and it was no easy task that the Pope assigned him when he sent him to Bene- vento as his delegate. Brigands and smugglers had literally overrun the province to such an extent that the authorities were absolutely powerless, and even the noble families were obliged to connive at their misdeeds in order to save their lives and properties. The common people were completely terrorized, and the authorities found the execution of the laws im- peded at every step. Monsignor Pecci, nothing daunted, however, set himself resolutely at work to =-!i !H ii 30 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI 11. accomplish the difficult task intrusted to him. His first move was to secure the hearty co-operation of the King of Naples, whom he induced to re-organize the public forces, reforming the custom officers, sev- eral of whom were suspected of being in league with the smugglers, and enlarging the powers of the au- thorities. These preliminary matters having been satisfactorily settled, he went to work determinedly, and attacked the brigands and robbers so vigorously, assailing them in their very strongholds, and arresting all who were known to harbor or assist them, that he succeeded, in a comparatively brief time, in ridding the province of their pestilential presence. Within fourteen months from 'he date that he came to Bene- vento, armed with Pope Gregory's authority to restore order, he had purged the district of its many male- factors, restored peace to its inhabitants, and regained for the law and authorities that respect and confidence which both before lacked. As an evidence of the ways the monsignor em- ployed to carry out this reformation, the following story is told : After he had succeeded in driving out most of the brigands, he was informed of the exist- ence of one band of twenty-eight, who were the most daring and reckless of all, and who were pro- tected by a rich marquis of the province, who prof- ited by their ill-gotten gains. This individual came one day to Monsignor Pecci, and said to him, — AT BENEVENTO AI^D PERUGIA. 31 " I am about \.^ start for Rome to procure an order for your expulsion from the province, and if I do not succeed in getting it I will have you carried away." "Oh, very well," replied the Papal delegate; "but in the mean time, before you start for Rome, permit me to intrust you to these carabineers, to whom I now give orders to keep you in prison for the space of three months, and to feed you on bread and water." The marquis had no choice in the matter, and to prison he accordingly went. The very first night of his incarceration there, Mgr. Pecci had his castle sur- rounded ; and the twenty-eight brigands who had en- joyed his protection were all either killed or arrested. Such decision and prompt action won for young Pecci the admiration of the people of Benevento, who had long groaned under the exactions of the brigands ; and it also acquired for him the thanks and good-will of Pope Gregory, who lost iio time in congratulating his representative on the good work he had accomplished, as well as the esteem of the King of Naples, Ferdinand II., who publicly praised him on the excellent results of his labors. In what esteem and gratitude Benevento held him, can be judged from the fact that when, at a later date, the monsignor was attacked with a fever which threat- ened to terminate fatally, the people of the place marched in public procession to the church, to im- m ,;l ; i ;tl, ^ '4 i j 32 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. plore Heaven to grant him a speedy recovery ; going bareheaded and barefooted through the streets to ask this favor for the ecclesiastic whom they all considered their deliverer. The success of his first mission naturally inclined Pope Gregory to confer additional honors on young Pecci; and when, three years later, in 1841, there was need of sending a Papal delegate to Spoleto, he was selected for the post. Something or other delayed his commission, however ; and before he could be despatched from Rome, a still more important trust was confided to him. Perugia, a place of some twenty thousand inhabitants, presented some difficult questions of government ; and, mindful of the skilful way in which he had put an end to brigandage at Benevento, the Pope appointed Mgr. Pecci to the place, intrusting him with the fullest powers to exe- cute whatever designs he might see fit to undertake. It was the story of Benevento over again. By going intelligently and resolutely to work, the monsignor succeeded in restoring perfect peace, brought back into respect the law, and emptied the prisons which on his arrival were filled with criminals, of their in- mates, either compelling these to enter into an honest way of living, or to quit the place altogether. It goes without saying, that Pope Gregory was prouder than ever of his young delegate, of whose abilities and piety he formed even a higher opinion than he had .'■■-ti. AT BENEVENTO AND PERUGIA. 33 previously held, though what regard he had for him was abundantly proven by his honoring him with the trusts he had already conferred upon him. In order to personally thank the monsignor for his good works, more than for any other reason, the Pope proposed to visit Perugia in person. Hearing of this intention of the Sovereign Pontiff, the delegate has- tened to Rome to acquaint himself with the day of the Pope's intended coming, in order that he might honor him as befitted his high rank as Head of the Qiurch. In those days, when travel was done in carriages, it was of the utmost importance that the roads should be in good condition. Unfortunately, however, the high- way leading to Perugia from the Eternal City was in a neglected state. Nothing daunted at the herculean task, the monsignor resolved that it should be repaired before the Pope travelled it ; and although the people tried to dissuade him from undertaking a task which they said could not be finished in such a short time, he went to work with his customary zeal and earnestness, and the result was that the road was prepared and put in excellent order by the time that the Pope traversed it to visit Perugia. Mgr. Pecci was a model magistrate in more ways than one. While he was at Perugia, complaint was one day brought him, that certain bakers were defrauding the poor people by selling them loaves of bread which were under weight. Accompanied by the proper offi- fi m 4 34 L/F£ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIl. cials, the monsignor went out one fine morning, and inspected all the bakeries. Wherever he found loaves of inferior weight, he confiscated them, and had the bread distributed in the market-place to the poor. It is unnecessary to state that he did not have to repeat the visitation of the shops a second time. So struck was Pope Gregory with the admirable qualities of young Pecci, that he determined to honor him in a still more striking fashion than he had yet done ; and although the monsignor was only in his thirty-third year, after he had spent eighteen months at Perugia he preconized him Archbishop of Dami- etta hi partibus injidclhim, and sent him, in the qual- ity of apostolic nuncio, to the court at Brussels, oyer which Leopold I. then presided. The monsignor was consecrated in the Church of St. Lawrence, Rome, by Cardinal Lambruschini, assisted by Bishops Asquini and Castellani, on Sunday, Feb. lo, 1843 ; and imme- diately after his consecration he proceeded to Belgium to acquit himself of the duties to which the Pope had assigned him. He made the journey by the way of Marseilles, Lyons, and Namur, and remained at Brus- sels three years, during which time he won the affec- tion of king, court, and people, to such an extent that they all regretted his departure ; and even till to-day they speak of him in words of the highest praise, and tell what a ready and liberal patron he was to all Cath- olic undertakings, being especially eager to promote 1 1.. AT BENEVENTO AND PERUGIA. 35 the cause of Christian education. When about to leave Brussels, — which he was forced to quit, as his delicate health could not endure the Northern climate, — King Leopold conferred upon him the grand cross of the Order of Leopold, as a token of his friendship and of the high esteem in which he held the y^.ing archbishop. He received other marks of favor from several of the noble families, especially from that of the Count de Merode, at whose house he paid frequent visits during his stay in Belgium ; and from the Arch- bishop of Liege, Mgr. Montpellier, who was a fellow- student with him at the Roman College, and with whom, as might be expected, the nuncio spent many pleasant hours while he was stationed at Brussels. The following Incident will serve to show what manner of man the nuncio was in Belgium : — When Lever, the Irish novelist, resided at Brussels, his house was near the ambassador's. Sir Hamilton Seymour. Receptions at the embassy closed for the public at eight p.m. ; and none remained later, save on special invitations which constituted them private guests. Lever always opened his house on the reception evenings at eight p.m., when all who could not remain at the envoy's poured in on him. Strangest meetings were the consequence. Dr. Whate- ly, the Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, when his guest, would have no one near him for the evening but the papal nuncio. Stranger still, this nuncio was no other than the present Pontiff, Pope Leo XIIL, better known, perhaps, as the genial Cardinal Pecci, whose relations with a Protestant king were so cordial and concili- atory. He sat beside Queen Victoria one day at dinner, and after- ^^ 56 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL wards attended her drawing-room, presented by Lord Palmerston, — the only pope of whom such things can be told. . . . Some of these conversations have been recorded, from which it is clear that Cardinal Pecci added, the grace of the courtier to the culture of the ecclesiastic. Leopold said, " I often forget Pecci is an Italian ; and his French is so fluent, that, if I were not a German, I should certainly find myself some day converted by the charm of his dic- tion as well as by the logic of his reasoning." Leopold one day said to him at Laeken, " I am sorry I cannot suffer myself to be converted by you, but you are so winning a theologian that I shall ask the Pope to give you a cardinal's hat." — "Ah," replied the nuncio, " a hundred times more grateful than the hat would it be to me, to make some impression on your heart." "Oh, I have no heart," exclaimed the King, laughing. "Then, better still, on your Majesty's mind." When the nuncio left Brussels, he went to Liege to visit his old college-mate, Mgr. Montpellier, the archbishop of that place ; and after spending a short time with him, he went to see some of the famous cathedral towns of the Continent, returning to Brus- sels for a brief period of rest. Later on, he paid a visit to England, spending a few days at London, from which city he again returned to Brussels for the final leave-taking. Just as he was quitting that city for the last time, the King, true to his prom- ise, handed him a despatch for the Pope, In which he probably recommended his elevation to the cardln- alate ; but, as Gregory XVL died before the nuncio reached Rome, the contents of the despatch were AT BENEVENTO AND PERUGIA. 37 not learned, though the Pope, prior to his death, in naming him to the vacant archbishopric of Perugia at the request of the inhabitants of that place, had also preconized him a cardinal, reserving his nom- ination in petto, as it is styled, — a nomination which his death afterwards delayed from receiving confirma- tion for some time. Mgr. Pecci, on his way back from Brussels to Rome, travelled through the prin- cipal French cities to Marseilles, where he took ship for Civita Vecchia ; arriving in Rome only to find, to his inexpressible sorrow, that his Papal patron was dead, and the See of St. Peter vacant. i! ii 38 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. CHAPTER IV. ELEVATED TO THE CARDINALATE. IT was on Sunday, the 20th of July, 1846, that Archbishop Pecci took formal possession of his see of Perugia. His entrance into the city, as may readily be imagined, was a grand triumph. The peo- ple remembered him as the civil governor who, a few years previously, had given them such an excel- lent administration ; and now they were overjoyed to welcome him as their spiritual guide and father. The whole populace turned out to greet him, and the town arrayed itself in holiday attire to welcome him again to its precincts. The archbishop found that the good works which he had inaugurated three years beforehand were still bearing fruit ; but he lost no time in planning and executing other tasks for the amelioration of his people. He began by instituting, for the benefit of the clergy, the Academy of St. Thomas, in which he took especial delight in attend- ing all the meetings ; giving these, by his presence, an additional charm that did not fail to attract to them an increased attendance on the part of the ELEVATED TO THE CARDINALATE. 39 clergy, who were only too glad to enjoy the familiar intercourse with their archbishop which these re- unions afforded. When he was nuncio at Brussels, he was particu- larly struck by the great merit and unselfish devotion exhibited by the Ladies of the Sacred Heart in their care and education of their pupils. He lost no time in fulfilling a promise he once made to the venerable head of that order, Madame Barat, whom he visited at Paris, that he would do what he could to intro- duce the Ladies of the Sacred Heart into Italy. Now, as Bishop of Perugia, the opportunity to do so was in his power; and he consequently applied to Madame Barat to keep her part of the promise. The result of the application was, that a band of the Sisters was forthwith sent to Perugia ; though this was not the first colony to enter Italy, as one had been in existence for eighteen years previously at Rome, where they had possession of the Church and Convent of Trinita de Monte. The archbishop, who had always been a zealous worker in the educational cause, early undertook the building of a seminary ; and he also repaired and beautified the cathedral, which had fallen somewhat into decay. He presided over numerous councils of the bishops of the Umbrian province, often writing out the acts with his own hand, and doing every thing he could think of calculated to advance the ^1^ iri i' Wn ■!|f 40 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL I : * 1 I ■ ■ 1 1 ■ ; • ,1 1 1 ; ! 1 > i ' I cause of religion among the clergy and the people. Six times he made the visitation of his entire see ; and during his episcopate thirty-six new churches were erected, while many of the old ones were re- paired. His pastorals were always timely, and replete with wisdom and piety ; and his whole administration was marked by a devotedness of purpose, and a zeal for the greater glory of God and the salvation of the souls intrusted to his supervising care. When the Piedmontese robbers invaded Perugia, and seized upon his seminary, he prompdy lodged the semina- rians in his own house, thus enabling them to con- tinue their studies without interruption. He wrote two memorable letters to King Victor Emmanuel, protesting, in the first, against the law of civil mar- riage being foisted upon Umbria; and raising his voice, in the second, against the expulsion of the Camaldolese friars of Monte Corona from their pos- sessions, and also against the ejectment of other religious bodies. When two of his priests exhibited an unworthy spirit towards the Pope, in regard to a petition to have him abandon all claims to his tem- poral possessions, he promptly rebuked them, and deprived them of the exercise of their priestly facul- ties, in the hope that such salutary discipline would bring them to their senses. It failed to do so, however; and the reprimanded priests, instead of submitting, showed the archbishop's letter to the V, B.LEVATED TO THE CARDINALATE. 4' government officials, who tried — without success, however — to institute proceedings against him. The life which Archbishop Pecci led at Perugia was a very simple one ; and even to-day, when he presides over the entire Church, his ways are almost the same. He was always an early riser, and a most indefatigable worker. Though slight of build, he performs more actual labor than stronger men are capable of doing, and he seems impervious to fatigue. Daybreak in- variably found him out of bed, engaged in prepara- tion for the holy sacrifice of the Mass. When he had celebrated this, he at once set to work in his study, busying himself with history and literature, for which branches, after the studies of his sacred calling, he always had an especial predilection. He was pas- sionately fond of Dante, from whose works he can recite long passages learned by memory ; and, as all the world now knows, he was given to the com- position of poetry himself, some of his verses having won him high praise ; while a collection of them, which has been done into various languages from the original Latin and Italian, has quite recently been published. His meals were models of abstemiousness. Like all Italians, the archbishop at Perugia took but one meal a day, and that of the simplest sort. He con- tinues the same practice in the Vatican, and at all seasons of the year he retired at ten o'clock. In per- I i| I- i I ! I !ti' ! .H « 42 L/FJS AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL lit sonal appearance the archbishop is spoken of by those who remember him at Peru lilil m : * 1 » 48 Z/FB AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI IT. nobility, bound himself by oath to see that the regu- lations of the Church in reference to the holding of the conclave were faithfully carried out, each cardinal also taking the same pledge. These were but the preliminaries, however, to the holding of the conclave. When they were over, each cardinal, accompanied by a noble guard, retired to the cell assigned him in the Cortile di San Damasco, a part of the Vatican, where he passed the night. At eight o'clock of that evening, all who did not have a right to enter the conclave were ordered away from that part of the Vatican, the keys to the outer door of \vhich were handed to the marshal, all the other en- trances having in the mean time been closed up ; while, of the two doors that barred the one remaining en- trance, the marshal held the key of one, and the Car- dinal Camcrlingo that of the other. At nine o'clock the closing-in of the conclave had been completed, and all was in readiness for the sessions of the morrow. On the morning of Feb. 19, the cardinals repaired at nine o'clock to the Sistine Chapel, where Mass was said by the dean of the college, his Eminence Car- dinal Luigi Amat, who gave communion to all of his colleagues. Mass ended, the cardinals retired to their cells for breakfast ; and the first balloting did not take place until noon, when it proceeded with sealed bal- lots. The first ballot was void, because one of the ELECTED HOLY FATHER. 49 voters, contrary to the regulations, had affixed to his paper his cardinalllial mark of dignity. Towards evening of the second day, the second ballot was taken ; and out of sixty-one votes cast, Cardinal Pecci received thirty-eight, or seven more than a majority. A two-thirds vote, however, is required to elect, so that another ballot was rendered necessary. After the second ballot had been taken, the number of cardinals in the conclave was increased by the arrival of Cardinal Cardoso, Patriarch of Lisbon, who was admitted with due formality. On the following day, Feb. 20, the third ballot, which proved the decisive one, was taken ; and Cardinal Pecci was elected by receiving *brty-four out of the total sixty-two votes cast, — mo- - 'h;\n two-thirds. The dean of the Sacred College at i ^ asked the choice of the conclave if he would accept the supreme pontificate ; to which query Cardinal Pecci replied, that he was all unworthy of the honor, but as the conclave had chosen him, relying on Divine assistance, and submitting to God's will, he would do so. To the inquiry how he would be known as Pope, he answered that he would take the name of Leo XI IL, in memory of Leo XIL for whom he had always entertained the highest veneration. After his acceptance and election had been duly drawn up and certified, the newly elected Pontiff retired immediately to the sacristy, vested himself in the Papal robes, and, returning, gave his Pontifical blessing to the assem- 1^^'1 ' '"l 11 ,J If 1 1 t iS i ; ^Wm . '1 ^Hal.w^BI . ;i ii V..X '''} i. ']!' I' ' 50 Z/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL bled cardinals, who congratulated him on his elevation to the Fisherman's throne. Then, after some little delay, the bars of the great loggia on the fa9ade of St. Peter's were let down ; and there appeared before the populace waiting below, the dean of the Sacred College, Cardinal Caterini, who announced the election of the Pope by saying, " I announce to you great joy ! We have as Pope, his Eminence the most reverend lord Joachim Pecci, who takes the name of Leo XIII." Up from the assembled multitudes, as soon as the an- nouncement was made, rose loud shouts of joy and thanksgiving; the bells of St. Peter's rang out their most joyous chimes, and all over the city were heard shouts of "Viva Papa Pecci, Leone XIIL ! " Later on still, the gates of the loggia were again thrown open, and the newly chosen Pope made his appearance. The crowds below had been swelled by the accession of thousands who were not there when the cardinal dean announced the election ; and their cheers rolled up like thundering waves to the loggia where the new Pope stood, ready to impart to them his first apostolic blessing. After quiet had been in a measure restored, the Pope, turning to the high altar, intoned the ad- jutorium ; and, after a choir of myriad voices had answered with the antiphon, he raised his hand, — now decked with the Fisherman's ring, — and blessed the multitudes below him, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost : Amen. Afte Father and, al doors c tine CI receive^ exterio] in his p of the ceive tl tolic bl( the Ha] ments, i the folL election " Since his Holint be sung, a ' Preces di the churcl this montl rung solei Finally we Holiness and 24th sacrifice 01 "Given ELECTED HOLY FATHER. 51 After the benediction had been given, the Holy Father retired amid tho acclamations of the populace ; and, after the marshal had thrown open the closed doors of the conclave, he proceeded through the Sis- tine Chapel to the Hall of the Paramenti, where he received the persons who had been engaged in the exterior service of the conclave. Afterwards, vested in his pontifical robes, and accompanied by the officers of the conclave, he went to the Sistine Chapel to re- ceive the homage of the cardinals. Then, the apos- tolic blessing having been again given, he retired to the Hall of the Paramenti, was disrobed of his vest- ments, and retired to his apartments. In the evening the following proclamation officially announced his election : — '. L.; f I: \M " Since God Almighty has deigned to raise to the Papal throne his Holiness Leo XIII., it is ordered that the *Te Deum laudamus' be sung, and the prayer which is found in the ritual under the title : * Preces dicendoe in processione pro gratiarum actione ' be recited, in the churches of the Holy City, without any exception, on the 22d of this month, at ten a.m. Moreover, all the bells of Rome shall be rung solemnly at the same time during the space of one hour. Finally we prescribe, that in thanksgiving for the exaltation of his Holiness Leo XIII., during the next three days, viz., the 2 2d, 23d, and 24th inst., the collect ' pro gratiarum actione ' be added in every sacrifice of the mass. "Given in our residence, on this the 20th day of February, 1878. "RAPHAEL, Cardinal- Vicar. "CAN. PLACIDUS PETACCI, Secretary." '.. V '■'■J f 1 ;|>i m i ; 52 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIl. On the 2 2d, after the Te Deum had been sung in the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope received the am- bassadors of several of the European nations, the French representative securing the honor of being the first to be admitted; and from that day on, his Holiness was besieged with delegations from all parts of the world, who came to pay their homage to the Vicar of Christ and the successor of the glorious Pius IX. if w wmM>^ T3 i Wi ' m 1 ; I'f *l H ri i'l' "F m mi\m JO 1 i f r ■' / jjn 1 1 i li 1 7} liliJ''^' ' s m B ijllllj ''if 1 M i IHI' llii '1 1 ^ (A H TJ m H m 73 CO » O IT ma the held in From v can see most si decepti< tempte( tion. / do so ; hell sh( not th( exercisi to mak form to the Chi care on as Phili of cere serious PAPAL ELECTIONS. 53 CHAPTER VI. PAPAL ELECTIONS. IT may not be amiss here to give a brief history of the manner in which Papal elections have been held in the Church at various epochs of her history. From what is said in the preceding chapter, the reader can see that the Church takes the utmost care and the most stringent precautions to see that no fraud or deception — if it is possible to imagine any such at- tempted — can creep into and vitiate a Pontifical elec- tion. And it is only natural and right that she should do so ; for, although God promised that the gates of hell should never prevail against His Church, He did not therefore absolve her liom the obligation of exercising care and prudence to keep error out, and to make every thing connected with the Church con- form to what is right, just, and proper. Accordingly the Church has always in all ages bestowed the utmost care on the important function of electing a Pope; and, as Philippus Laicus says, the system is no mere mass of ceremonies or formalities, but is the result of the serious study of eighteen centuries. Wherever a defi- 1 i ^v! ! ■■ H ! !M ' f ;i/' t> 54 r//''£ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XTIL ciency appeared, it was supplied; and all measures had no other end in view but that the electors should be irreproachable, that they should be free from all exter- nal influence, and should follow only their own con- science in the election. A very brief historical view of the matter will suffice to prove this. In the earliest ages, there was no rea- son to require any difference in the elections of popes or bishops. There was no fear that any one would covet this dignity through worldly motives ; for, how greatly soever the early Pontiffs were revered by the faithful, yet they knew that in accepting this pre-emi- nence they had to sacrifice whatever might render life pleasant or desirable, and that they must look for- ward to a bloody martyrdom in the end. Thet-e was then no earthly inducement to stir up the ambition for the tiara in the first Popes. And if the candidate had none, much less we find it in the electors. They had nothing to offer, and they had nothing to hope from the one whom they might elect. All Christen- dom in those days looked forward to martyrdom ; and under such circumstances men are necessarily virtuous, and inaccessible to unworthy motives. Hence, in a vacancy of the Holy See, the bishops of the sees near Rome assembled, and, together with the clergy and faithful people of the capital, agreed on the choice of a successor. There was no definite form of elec- tion to be observed under pain of nullity. When the PAPAL ELECTIONS. 55 choice had been determined, the newly elected was consecrated by the Bishop of Ostia, the seaport of Rome. This continued until the Roman emperors became Christians. Thenceforth the emperors became the protectors of the Church, and as such they received certain rights and privileges. They began by po'->- ing out, in cases of difficulties arising out of a multi- plicity of candidates, none of whom could secure a majority of votes, which of them should succeed to the chair of Peter. The Papacy now began to exer- cise an external influence ; and then the dangers also came to light which did not exist in times of bloody persecutions. It is true that time was needed to develop these dangers, and to strengthen the imperial influence ; until at length it became necessary to op- pose it, and to erect such barriers against it as would restore and preserve the ancient freedom of election. When Odoacer had secured to himself the pos- session of Italy, he claimed the same rights which the emperors had exercised before him ; and Theodo- ric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, who ruled in Rome after him, went even farther, by appointing one Pope, Felix III., by his sole vote. His succes- sors were more modest : they, however, required the election to be referred to them for approval ; they issued an edict of ratification, for which a handsome tribute was expected for the royal treasury. M *'t: If . 1 » ,( 56 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. In later times, the Eastern Emperor Justinian re- conquered Italy ; and then the right of approving the papal election was vested in him and his successors. The Emperors representative held his court at Ra- venna, under the title of Exarch ; and this officer was to receive immediate notice of a vacancy in the Roman See, whilst the decree of election was to be always subject to the approval of the Emperor. The tax on the ratification was first remitted under Con- stantine Pogonatus, in 680; and, as the imperial power gradually sank lower and lower, the Papal election became more and more free. But now another danger appeared. Parties had been formed at Rome, by the various nationalities of' which its population consisted ; and these brought their influence to bear, sometimes in unlawful ways, on the election of the Pontiff. To counteract this, protection was again sought from the princes ; but this time not from the court of Constantinople, which had lost its hold on Western Europe, but from the Carlovingian princes, especially from Charlemagne, who had restored the empire in the West. Thence- forth the election was always to be held in presence of the imperial ambassadors ; a decree not invariably observed, yet giving a recognized right, which, on the dissolution of the Carlovingian Empire, passed over to Germany. The German emperors used the power with all the PAPAL ELECTIONS. 57 arbitrary violence of the worst times under the East- ern Caesars. At first they stretched their privilege so far as simply to name the Pope themselves, with- out any election. Thus Henry III. aloni elevated three German bishops in succession to the Papacy. It is granted that he was happy in his choice in each case, and hence the arbitrary use of his imperial privilege had no bad consequences for the Chirch. But that was not a condition worthy of Goes \''u:r>x on earth ; and there was no assurance that ail futjre elections or nominations would be equally fortunate, or that future emperors would be equally favorably disposed towards the Church. A serious dangov, therefore, threatened the freedom of liie Church ; and, since she cannot announce the truth wliile shf is the handmaid of earthly princes, she was threat- ened even in regard to the fulfilment of her mission. And the fact that the Emperor's choice fell only on worthy incumbents only enhanced the danger as' this circumstance seemed to approve a measure which attacked the very heart of the Church. But God has promised that the gates of hell should not prevail ; and therefore, as this state of affairs was u real dan- ger to the Church, He shielded her with His lilmight/ hand. From that era dates the re-actioa against every external influence, — a re-act'on which has steadily gained ground even to our own times. It was the lot of Po^^i Nicholas II. to inaugurate • -i \: H;i.!lJ Si. IS i \'. 5n W r ■fl Ill' ii i ■ : . rS T\ r ; in 58 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. the movement for the freedom of the papal election. In a decree, " De Electione Pontificis," published in 1059, he points out the evils which had hitherto hampered the election. He mentions even bribes as having been used by ambitious candidates or their supporters. As precautions for the future, he? ordains that the cardinal bishops shall first consult together about the future Pope ; then the cardinal clerics ; and finally the lower clergy and the people shall give their vote. The Pope thus chosen shall be acknowledged as legitimate by all, under pain of excommunication. It is evident that nothing new was hereby ordained, if we except, perhaps, the clause that the bishops should have the first voice. All the rest is nothing but the method of election which had been followed from the earliest days. And even the right thus given to the cardinal bishops can hardly, in practice, be considered as a new institution. For in the early times, by reason of the bloody persecutions of the Church, there was in all its members a wonderful unanimity, which was to some extent lost in quiet and peaceful ages. Christians then were one great family, all the members of which were equally heroic in self-sacrifice and generosity. With this feeling of fellowship was united the most unlimited reverence for those who, in regard to this family, held the office of fathers. When, therefore, the chair of Peter was vacant, the next in authority were the cardinal bish- :i fAPAL ELECTIONS. 59 ops : and hence it naturally devolved upon them to seek for the worthiest successor ; from them all others expected to receive advice. Pope Nicholas, there- fore, in decreeing that they should first consult to- gether, only gave a public sanction to what had been observed from the earliest days, in almost every elec- tion, as something flowing from the very nature of things. From this decree it is evident that there is no longer question of imperial interference in the elec- tion, much less of a nomination of the Pope by the Emperor. It is true that the Pope wished to see a due regard shown to the Prince (Henry IV. was still young at the time, and not yet on the throne) ; but even the words of the decree, " salvo debito honore et reverentia," plainly show that the Pontiff meant only that regard wliich was due to the ruler of Germany as protector of the Church. It was then rather an instruction l.o the electors than a privilege for the Prince. They were not to forget the reverence and honor due to the monarch. That nothing more was intended, is shown by other clauses of the same document, which may be viewed as inno- vations, the object of which was to guard the election against the power of the emperors, as well as against the action of factions in Rome. Thus the Pope ordains, that, should an election be impossible at Rome, the cardinals shall have the right to elect '! •1 1 ... Pi t: ;• III I ■ y i I I i i; ]l ■ ill ,* 60 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. elsewhere. He ordains, moreover, that, if circum- stances prevent the solemn inauguration of the newly elected Pontiff, this shall not be a hinderance to him in the full use of his power to govern the Church. The elect was Pope by the fact of his legitimate election ; and against this no protest could be ad- mitted. This decree has been to this day the groundwork of the Papal election. In unessential matters, some alterations have been made by new regulations, or the abrogation of old, as the times seemed to require ; but the main point remained firm, — that no worldly power has the right of imposing a head on the Church in any form, or under any pretext. By degrees, the method of electing was so modified that it was intrusted to the cardinals alone ; and hence the preliminary council of cardinal bishops was abro- gated, as no longer needed, now that a fixed electoral college existed, composed exclusively of men of the greatest wisdom and virtue. Moreover, the custom was introduced, and became a law, that the Pope should be elected from the College of Cardinals. This had been otherwise in ancient ages, when men were sometimes chosen who were not even priests ; but who were, of course, first ordained before they could exercise the functions of their high spiritual office. We know that the apostles raised laymen to the epis- copate. St. Ambrose was chosen bishop of Milan PAPAL ELECTIONS. 6l •even before his baptism. It was only after his elec- tion, that he was baptized, then received the lower orders, and eight days afterwards was consecrated bishop. The groundwork of the hierat-ciy was laid ; but the solid, well-planned edifice required time for its erection. Hence the decree of Pope Nicholas still permitted, in case of necessity, the choice of an ecclesiastic from another Church ; that is, of one not a member of the College of Cardinals. Finally, the manifold relations which existed be tween the Pope and the Catholic kingdoms gave origin to a certain negative influence exercised by the latter on the election. We have seen that Nicho- las required a due regard for the secular power. But care was taken that this should never again lead to the abuses which had formerly existed. No secular power was to choose the Pope : this was and re- mained the office of the cardinals. It was, however, in the interest of the Church, that the future Pope should be one against whose person there would be no grounded or ungrounded prejudice in this or that great nation. Now, that the electors might know who would be unacceptable to one or other of the Catho- lic powers, the privilege of a veto was granted to Austria, France, and Spain. But this veto had not the meaning, as has frequently been asserted, that these nations, or any one of them, could protest against an election once made, or render it null. I : ti I 1 1 ' I \\H I (■ 62 L/J^E AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XII L This would have been a direct return to the old abuses which it was the object to ward off. Indeed, the difficulties would only have been multiplied. For, instead of one, there were three to control the choice ; and not unfrequently, by reason of conllict- ing political interests, a candidate would have been most acceptable to one government, against whom another entertained the most unconcealed opposit* -n. The veto, then, was something very different from this. It meant only, that each of those nations might depute one of the cardinals to point out the one whom it did not desire to be elected. But this was to be done before the election, in order to hinder the choice. A protest against one already chosen was not allowed. Besides, each of the governments could make use of its veto but once ; so that, at the most, only three cardinals were excluded. It was, of course, permitted to each of the powers to name several persons whose elevation would be less agree- able to it, with the understanding that the cardinal who represented its interests could use the veto against any one of them, should he prove a likely candidate during the conclave. Once that this veto had been pronounced against any candidate, the privi- lege was at an end, and could not be used against any other in the same election. In this manner it was sought to observe all due regard towards the great Catholic nations ; whilst, on the other hand, [f I PAPAL ELECTIONS. 63 the freedom of the election was secured. This privi- lege, granted to the three leading Catholic govern- ments, was termed the " exclusiva!' But even this concession does not constitute a formal right to be maintained against the Church, or to which she would consider herself bound to yield uncondition- ally, through a sense of moral obligation. It is noth- ing more than a grant, or concession, grounded on motives of prudence. If a Pope chose to abolish this veto, it would cease ; and if a Pope were elected over the veto, he would still be Pope. But this will hardly happen ; for at Rome such privileges are held sacred, even though there is no strict obligation to regard them. The formalities and ceremonies connected with the Papal election are the work of a thousand years. It would exceed the limits of our space, to give a full account of the origin, the changes, and the develop- ment of these formalities. We must content our- selves in this, as in other portions of our task, with merely stating In general terms the principles on which the election is based. In this respect it will suffice to explain how the choice is made according to laws in vigor at the present time. The nature of the subject suggests its division into three parts : — The first part includes the preliminary steps, until the cardinals enter into conclave. in Ill: k ■ lilt 64 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. The second regards the election itself in conclave, , which ends with the conclave itself. The last part explains the acts that take place immediately after the election, and until the govern- ment of the Church is restored to its usual form. Before we pass to the development of these points, we must remark, that, owing to peculiar circumstances, the Papal election cannot at present be conducted in strict accordance with the method demanded by the usages and laws of the Church. The presence of the Piedmontese in Rome may yet necessitate other modi- fications ; but we pay little heed to this ephemeral circumstance. In describing the Papal election, we do not intend to consider merely how this or that Pot e was elected ; this belongs to the historian : but we describe the grand acts and forms which, in the intention of the Church, should accompany the elec- tion. If now and thjn, in consequence of the rising of some particular political star, some of the pre- scriptions can be observed only in their spirit, and not in their letter, we may be grieved at this misfor- tune ; but we must not forget that political stars rise and fall, and the everlasting Church of God outlives them all. It was for the purpose of preparing the reader, so that he might be less sensibly affected by the fact that the conclave has not now its full liberty of action, that we insisted in this chapter on the immovable PAPAL ELECTIONS. 65 principles on which the election of a Pontiff must proceed. Whatever may be hindered by the pressure of political power, it remains always true that he is our Pope whom the cardinals of the Holy Roman Church have chosen. God has stood by His Church in the past : He will not desert her now. \\\ ■W The Christ (after the celebrated painting by Correggio). 1: ii! ■ y i! 1 ■I, ! n ill I ■'I M 66 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. CHAPTER VII. POPE LEO'S CORONATION. CARDINAL PECCI was elected Pope on the 20th of February, 1878; and the date of his coronation was fixed for the 3d of the following month. His Holiness spent the intervening time, as much as he possibly could, in prayer and retirement, in order to prepare himself for the great event of his life. All audiences were suspended, and the Pope claimed for himself the privilege of spending the brief time allotted him in silence and meditation. The coronation was naturally to take place in the grand Basilica of St. Peter ; but certain circumstances determined Leo XIII. to have it elsewhere, and accordi;igly the Sistine Chapel was selected for the ceremony. The change of location, however, de- tracted nothing from the pomp and magnificence of the coronation, which was carried out with all that solenmity with which the Catholic Church invests an event of such great importance. On the morning of the 3d, the Pope, surrounded by all the cardinals and accompanied by the entire !l POPE LEO'S coronation: ^7 pontifical court, quitted his apartments, entered the secies gestatoria, and followed by a numerous cortege of Swiss Guards, Noble Guards, and Roman nobility, proceeded to the Hall of Tapestries, where he was vested by the first two cardinal deacons, who placed on his head a golden mitre. These preliminaries over, preceded by the penitentiaries of the Vatican Basilica and a numerous body of other ecclesiastical dignities, he went to the Ducal Hall, which had been fitted up as a chapel. After a brief prayer, he took his seat on the throne at the gospel side of the altar ; and to him in order then came the cardinals, who tendered him their obedience. Singly they approached the throne, and, kissing the right hand of the Pope, retired. Then came the archbishops and bishops, who kissed his foot; and then, chanting the apostolic benediction, the Holy Father intoned the office of tierce, which the pontifical choir con- tinued to its completion. Afterwards the Sovereign Pontiff was robed in the pontifical vestments, the ring was placed on his finger, and the route of the procession was again taken up ; the Pope, as before, being borne in the sedes gestatoria^ covered v/ith a canopy of gold, and supported by eight dignitaries. Into the Sistine Chapel, where a throne was raised on a marble dais on the gospel side of the altar, the procession moved ; but as it was on the point of starting, an official brought the Pope a handful •S i \ f ! r ' ?ii I. ((I 'i: II 11 i 68 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO Xllf. of flax attached to a gilded rod, which was lit in his presence and consumed, while a clerk said in Latin, " Holy Father, thus passes away the glory of the world," to remind him, that notwithstanding his high position, and the honors which were being paid him, death was in store for him as for the rest of mortals, and the accounting after death would be all the more rigorous for him who had received such signal favors from Heaven. To attempt any description of the scenes in the Sistine Chapel during the Papal coronation, would be idle. One has to see that sight with his own eyes, to realize its magnificence. The cardinals in their rich attire ; the archbishops and bishops in the showy copes and mitres ; the various garbs of the clergy, regular and secular ; the gleaming helmets and jewels of the Papal Guard ; the long rows of ambassadors, nobles, and other lay dignitaries ; the immense con- course of the people, filling every available space ; the grand ceremonies, the resonant music, and the seraph- ic singing of unseen choirs, — all those things form a picture which it would be useless to attempt to describe in words. The Pope, arriving before the grand altar, descended from the sedile chair, and began the introit of the Mass ; during which the pal- lium, indicative of the fulness of the Papal office, was given him, and immediately he received the obedience of all the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops who were POPE LEO'S coronation: 69 present. At the conclusion of the Mass, he again ascended the throne; and, after the prescribed prayers had been said, the tiara, or triple crown, was placed upon his head. The choirs saluted him with joyful acclamations ; and rising, with the tiara on his brow, he pronounced the triple benediction, announced the accorded indulgences, and entering the chair, still wearing the triple crown, was borne back to the Hall of Tapestries to be disrobed. There the following address was read to him by Cardinal di Pietro, on behalf of the College of Cardinals : — " Most Holy Father, since our votes, inspired by God, liave caused the selection for the great dignity of Sovereign Pontiff of the Catholic Church to fall upon your Holiness, we have passed from profouiK-l affliction to a lively hope. To the tears whicn we shed upon the tomb of Pius IX., a Pope so greatly venerated throughout the whole world, and so beloved by us, succeeds the consoling thought, that there arises rapidly a new dawn with well- founded hopes for the Church of Jesus Christ. " Yes, Most Holy Father, you gave sufficient proofs of your piety, of your apostolic zeal, of your many virtues, of your high intelli- gence, of your prudence, and of the deep interest you took in the glory and the majesty of our Sacred College, when you ruled the dio- cese intrusted to you by Divine Providence, or took part in the grave affairs of the Holy See ; so that we can easily persuade our- selves, that, being elected Sovereign Pontiff, you will do as the apostle wrote of himself to the Thessalonians : For our gospel hath not hen to you in word only, but in power also, and in the Holy Ghost, and in much fulness. " Nor, indeed, was the Divine Will slow to manifest itself, — that ii .1 :vi 'Iff: il 'i mil 70 l/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X//L Will which, by our stifTrngcs, repeated to ynii the words formerly spoken to David when ho was declared king in Israel : 'J'hou shatt feed my people Israel ; and tluni shall l>e ruler over them. "To which Divine disposition, it is gratifying,' to us to see how suddenly the general sentiment corresponds, and how all concnr in venerating your sacred person, as the tribes of Israel prostrated themselves in Hebron before the new pastor allotted to them by God. So we likewise hasten, on this solemn day of your coronation, like the elders of the chosen peoi)le, to repeat to you, in pledge of affection and of obedience, the wortls recorded in the sacred pages : Behold, ive are thy bone and thy flesh. " May Heaven grant, that, as the holy T5ook of Kings adds that David reigned forty years, — (/uadrai^t'nta annis rei^navit, — so eccle- siastical history may record for posterity the length of t'-": pontificate of Leo XIII. "These are the sentiments and the sincere wishes that, in the name of the Sacred C'ollege, I place at your sacred feet. Deign benignantly to accept them, by imparting to us your apostolic bene- diction." Tlie Holy Father received these sentiments of the Sacred Colleo^c in the most benignant manner, and replied to them in the following words : — " The noble and affectionate words which your Eminence, in the name of the whole Sacred College, has just addressed to us, deeply touch our heart, already deeply moved by the unexpected event -of our exaltation to the supreme pontificate, which has happened with- out any merit of ours. " The weight of the sovereign keys, already of itself so formidable, which has been imposed upon our shoulders, is rendered heavier still by our littleness, which is overburdened by it. " The very rite which has now been accomplished with so much POPE LEO'S CORONATION. 71 solemnity has made us understand still more the majesty and hci;,'ht of the See to which we are raised, and has increased in our soul the idea of the greatness of this sul)lime throne on earth. "And since you, Lord Cardinal, have wished to compare tis to David, the words of the same holy king recur spontaneously to our mind when he said : Quis t^o sum Doininc Dciis, (jiiia athluxisti me hucusque? 'Who am I, O Lord (lod, that Thou hast brought me here ? ' " Nevertheless, in the midst of so many just reasons for alarm and for comfort, it consoles us to see all Catholics, in unanimous con- cord, pressing around this apostolic see to give it a public testimony, of obedirnrc and of love. " The concord and the affection of all the Sacred College, which^ is most dear to us, and also the certainty of their co-operation in the fulfilment of the diftkult ministry to which their votes have called us,, consoles us. "Trust in the most merciful God, who has deigned to raise us to such a height, comforts us ; whose assistance we will never cease to implore with all the fervor of our heart ; and we desire that by all He may be implored, mindful of that which the apostle says : Our sufficiency is from God. " Persuaded, then, that it is He who selects the weak things of the earth to confound the strong, — infirma wundi rliyit ut con- fundat fortia, — we live in the hope that He will sustain our weak- ness and raise up our humility, to show forth His power, and to make His strength resplendent. " With all our heart we thank your Eminence for the courteous sentiments and for the sincere wishes which you, in the name of the Sacred College, have addressed to us, and which we accept with our whole soul. " Wc conclude by imparting with all our heart the apostolic bene-- diction : Bencdictio,''' etc. y2 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. CHAPTER VIII. ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 'tl \i :. THE new Pope was now duly installed in his high office, and he lost no time in applying himself to the duties that devolved upon him. His position was far from being an enviable one. He had succeeded to the Papacy, it is true ; but he had also succeeded to the virtual imprisonment which his predecessor had endured from the day that he retired into the Vatican i: : order 3 rebuke the Piedmontese government for its spoliation of the States of the Church ; and he had every reason to believe that the enemies of the Church wo'dd treat him with less deference and more insolence than they did the saintly Pius IX. However, he was not in the least dismayed ; but, trusting in Divine Providence, he applied himself to his duties with that zeal and energy which had always been characteristic of him. One of his first tasks was to announce his accession to the various European courts ; and this the new Pope did at once, not even excluding those which had been most antagonistic to his predecessor, thereby exhibiting at the very outset of his reign that ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 73 diplomacy and holy prudence which have since won him so many distinguished triumphs. Russia, Ger- many, and the Swiss Confederation were all notified by Pope Leo of his election to the head of the Church ; and each in turn acknowledged the receipt of the notification in courteous, if not in thankful, language. Almost at the date of his accession to the Papal throne, an attack was made on the venerable Emperor of Germany ; and the Pope hastened to con- gratulate him on his happy escape. In replying for his parent to the Pope's letter, the Crown Prince said : — " In answer to the requ-^st of your Holiness, in the letter of the 17th of April, that the constitution and the laws of Prussia may be so modified as to be conformable to the dogmas of the Catholic Church [be it remarked, that the Holy Father's words are not cor- rectly (luoted], I must say that no Prussian monarch can ever accept it, for the reason that the independence of the monarchy would be diminished if the free exercise of its legislation were made subordi- nate to a foreign power." Later on, we shall se^ how the Pope brought that " modification " about by judicious use of his diplo- matic abilities. One of the earliest acts of Pope Leo was to perfect the work of restoring the Scotch hierarchy, a task that had been commenced by Pope Pius IX., and which his successor, knowing how dear the undertaking was to the heart of his amiable predecessor, resolved to ^ . f I m m A i>l ! i ( ■■■ j 4 74 Z/Fi: AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XITL complete without delay. As the apostolic letters de- creeino- the restoration of the Scotch hierarchy were the first that were issued by Leo XIII. , we give them in full here, knowing that the reader will be glad of an opportunity of perusing them. They bear date of March 4, 1878, — the day immediately following the Pope's coronation, —and run as follows: — LEO, LISI-IOP, SERVANT OF THE SERVANTS OF GOD, EOR A I'ERrETUAL REMEMBRANCE. P'rnni the highest summit of the apostolic office, to which, with- out any merits of ours, but by the disposition of Providence, we have recently been raised, the Roman Pontiffs, our predecessors, never ceased to watch, as from a mountain-top, in order that tliey might pcrcei\e what, as years rolled on, would be most conducive to the prosperity, dignity, and stability of all the cliurches. Hence, as flir as was given them, they were exceedingly solicitous, not only to erect episcopal sees in every land, but also to recall to life sucli as had through evil times ceased to exist. For, since the Holy (ihost has placed bishops to rule the Church of God, wherover the state of religion allows the ordinary episcopal government to be either estalilished or restored, it certainly is not lawful to ileprive the Church of tlie benefits which naturally (low from this divinely established institution. Wherefore our immediate predecessor, Pius IX. of sacred mem- ory, whcwe recent death we all deplore, seeing, even from the begin- ning of his Pontificate, that the missions in the most noble and flourishing kingdom of England had made such ]:)rogress that the form of Church government which exists in Catholic nations would be beneficial to religion, restored to the English their ordinary bishops by an apostolic letter, dated ist October, 1850, beginning Univer- salis ecci regions o positions, apostolic The wisd of the pn result, wh of this H given to tl restoratioi The lo not as yet nal heart \ by the Cal ever is eve that the li^ for, to sa' ancient a]i fourth cen correctly t and in th having l)e( Christ in S in the six sprang. / eleventh Scodand a that there had no fixe the sovere exhortatio which, eid various po ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 75 sails ecclcsia ; and not long after, perceiving that the illustrious regions of Holland and Brabant could enjoy the same salutary dis- positions, he there also restored the episcopal hierarchy by another apostolic letter, dated 4th March, 1853, beginning Ex qua die. The wisdom of these measures — to say nothing of the restoration of the patriarchate of Jerusalem — has been amply proved by the result, which, through the Divine grace, has fully realized the hopes of this Moly See ; since it is evident to all, that a great increase was given to the Catholic Church in each of those countries, through the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy. The loving heart of the Pontiff was grieved that Scodand could not as yet enjoy the same good fortune. And this grief of his pater- nal heart was increased by his knowledge of the great progress made by the Catholic Church in Scotland in past days. And, indeed, who- ever is even slightly conversant with Church history must have known that the light of the gospel shone upon the Scots at an early date ; for, to say nothing of what tradition has handed down of more ancient apostolic missions, it is recounted that towards the end of the fourth century, St. Ninian, who, as Venerable Bade attests, hatl been correctly taught the foith and the mysteries of the truth in Rome, and in the fifth century, St. Palladius, a deacon of the Roman Church, having been invested with the sacred mitre, preached t'u.' faith of Christ in Scotland ; and that St. Columba, abbot, who i.nded there in the sixth century, built a monastery, from which many others sprang. And although, from the middle of the eighth century to the eleventh, historical documents concerning the ecclesiastical state of Scotlanil are almost entirely wanting, still it has been handed down that there were many bishops in the counay, although some of them had no fixed sees. But after Malcolm TIL came into possession of tiie sovereign power in the year 1057, through his exertions at the exhortation of his sainted spouse Margaret, the Christian religion^ which, either through the inroads of foreign peoples, or through various political vicissitudes, had suffered heavy losses, began to be 1 1 W t I' ( I'i SI I > ■)l . r \^: I I ^ ll , I I i:i S ; ') l.i 7^ LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL restored and spread ; and the still existing remains of churnhes, monasteries, and religious buildings, bear witness to the pie'-y of the ancient Scots. But, to come more directly to our subject, it is known that in the fifteenth century the episcopal sees had increased to the number of thirteen ; to wit, St. Andrew's, Glasgow, Dunkeld, Aber- deen, Moray, Brechin, Dumblane, Ross and Caithness, Whithorn and Lismore, Sodor or the Isles, and Orkney, — all of which were imme- diately subject to the Apostolic See. It is also known — and the Scots are justly proud of the fact — that the Roman Pontiffs, taking the kingdom of Scotland under their special protection, regarded the above-named churches with special favor : hence, while they them- selves acted as metropolitans of Scotland, they more than once decreed that the liberties and immunities granted in past times by the Roman Church, mother and t^jacher of all the Churches, should be preserved intact; so that, as was decreed by Honorius III. of holy memory, the Scottish Church should be like a favorite daughter, immediately subject to the Apostolic See without any intermediary. Thus Scotland was without a metropolitan of its own to the time of Sixtus IV. ; who, reflecting on the expense and delays to which the Scots were subjected in coming to the Roman metropolis, by an apostolic letter of the 17th August, 1472, beginning Triumphans Pastor ^ternus, raised the see of St. Andrew's to be the metropoli- tan and archiepiscopal see of the whole kingdom, the other sees being subjected to it as suffragans. In like manner the see of Glas- gow was withdrawn from the ecclesiastical province of St. Andrew's by Innocent VIII. in 1491, and raised to the dignity of a metropolitan see, with some of the above sees as suffragans. The Scottish Church thus constituted was in a flourishing con- dition, when it was reduced to utter ruin by the outbreak of heresy in the sixteenth century. Yet never did the anxious care, solicitude, and watchfulness of the Supreme Pontiffs, our predecessors, fail the Scots, that they might persevere strong in their faith. For, moved with compassion for that people, and seeing the wide havoc wrought ON' THE PAPAL THRONE. 77 by the storm, they labored strenuously to succor religion, now by sending missionaries of various religious orders, again by apostolic legations and by every kind of assistance. By their care, in this citadel of the Catholic world, besides the Urban College, a special college was opened for chosen youths of the Scottish nation, in which they should be trained in sacred knowledge, and prepared for the priesthood, in order to exercise the sacred ministry in their native land, and to bring spiritual aid to their countrymen. And as that beloved portion of the Lord's flock was l)crc('t of its pas- tors, Gregory XV., of happy memory, as soon as he had it in his power, sent William, IJishop of Chalcedon, with the ample faculties which beiuP.g to ordinaries, to both l^igland and Scotland, to assume the pastoral charge of those scattered Sn^jp; as may be seen in the apostolic letter, beginning ' Ecclcsia Roinana,' dated 23d March, 1623. To restore the orthodox faith in the same regions, and to procure the salvation of the English and Scots, Urban VIII. granted ample facuUies to Francis Barberini, Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church, as is shown by his brief IjUii- Gravissiiii.is, dated tSih of May, 1630. To the same intent also is another letter of tlie same Pontiff, beginning Alnlta sunt, written to the Queen of France for the -purpose of recommending to her good oftices the faithful and the afflicted Church of those countries. Again, in order to provide in the best manner possible for the spiritual government of the Scots, Pope Innocent XII., in 1694, deputed as his vicar apostolic, Thomas Nicholson, Bishop of Per- istachium, committing to his care all the kingdom and tlie islands adjacent. And not long after, when one vicar apostolic was no longer sufficient for the cultivation of the whole of the said vine- yard of the Lord, Benedict XIII. gave the aforesaid bishop a com- panion, in the year 1727. T"ms it came to pass that the kingdom of Scotland was divided intc two apostolic vicariates, one of which embraced the southern, the odier the northern portion. But the division which had sufficed for the government of the number of rr. ''1 1 i • I I H I. Ml Iff '■' i ' . 78 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL Catholics then existing was no longer sufficient, when through the Lord's blessing their numbers had increased. Hence this apostolic see perceived the necessity of providing additional help for religion in Scotland, by the institution of a third vicariate. Wherefore Leo Xn. of happy memory, by an apostolic letter of the 13th of February, 1827, beginning Quanta hctitia affccti siiniis, divided Scotland into three districts or apostolic vicariates ; namely, the eastern, western, and northern. It is known to all what a rich harvest the zeal of the new bishops, and the anxious care of our Congregation tie Propaganda Fide, have gathered for the Catholic Church in tlie said kingdom. From all this it is evident that this Holy See, in its solicitude for all the churches, has used every endeavor to restore the Scottish nation from tlie sad calamities of bygone days. But Pius IX., of haj^py memory, had exceedingly at heart the restoration to its pristine beauty of the illustrious Scottish Church ; for the bright example of his predecessors urged him, they having, as it were, smoothed the way for him to the accomplishment of this work. Considering, on tiie one hand, the condition of the Catholic religion in Scotland, and the daily increasing number of the faithful, of sacred workers, churches, missions, and religious houses, as well as the sufficiency of temporal means ; and seeing, on the other hand, that the liberty granted by the British Govern- ment to Catholics had removed every impediment that might have opposed the restoration to the Scots of the ordinary rule of bishops by which the Catholics of other nations are governed, the said Pontiff concluded that the establishment of the episcopal hierarchy in Scotland should not be further delayed. Meanwhile, the vicars- apostolic themselves, and very many of the clergy and laity, — men conspicuous by noble birth and virtue, — besouglit him earnestly to satisfy their earnest wishes in this matter. This humble request was again laid before him wlien a chosen band from every rank in the said region, having at their head our venerable brother John Strain, Bishop eastern annivet said Pi the dis gregatie more a was rej long an crown c VViiat bringing all iiis w our pon quired a what ha( promulg;: Light, fi- invoked blessed A her spou Apostles the Scots they mig In vie' certain k we posses God, and that in th who slia'.l tion we cr province, be erectet ! I ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 79 Bishop of Abila, in partibus infidelium, and vicar apostolic of the eastern district, came to this city to congratulate him on the fiftieth anniversary of his episcopal consecration. It was then that the said Pius IX. referred the matter, as its importance demanded, to the discussion of our venerable brethren the cardinals of the Con- gregation tie Propaganda Fide ; and their opinion confirmed him more anil more in the resolution he had formed. Ijut while he was rejoicing that he had come to the completion of a work so long and ardently wished for, he was called away to receive the crown of justice. What, therefore, our predecessor was hindered by death from bringing to a conclusion, God, plentiful in mercy, and glorious in all his works, has enabled us to effect, so that we might inaugurate our pontificate with a happy omen. Wherefore, after having ac- quired a full knowledge of the entire matter, we have deemed that what had been decreed by the lately deceased Pius IX. should be promulgated. Therefore, raising up our eyes to the Father of Light, from whom comes every good and perfect gift, we have invoked the aid of Divine grace : praying also for the help of the blessed Virgin Idaiy, conceived without stain ; of blessed Joseph, her spouse, a:id patron of the Universal Church ; of the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul ; of Andrew, and the other saints whom the Scots venerate as patrons, — that by their suffrages before God they might bring the said matter to a prosperous issue. In view of these considerations, by an act of our own will, with certain knowledge, and in virtue of the apostolic authority which we possess over the whole Church, to the greater glory of Almighty God, and the exaltation of the Catholic fliith, we ordain and tlecree that in the kingdom of Scotland, the hierarchy of ordinary bishops, who shall take their titles from the sees which by this our constitu- tion we erect, shall be revived, and shall constitute an ecclesiastical province. Moreover, we ordain that, for the present, six sees shall be erected, and are hereby erected : to wit, St. Andrew's, with the .1, ;i i!5f m\ «* I mi 'M 80 Z/i^iS' /4A7? LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL addition of tlie title of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dunkeld, Whithorn or (lalloway, and Argyll and the Isles. Recalling to mind the illustrious records of the Church of St. Andrew's, and taking into account the present chief city of the said kingdom, antl weighing other considerations, we have resolved to call forth, as it were, from tlie grave, the said renowned see, and to raise or restore it, with the addition of the title of Edinburgh, to the rank of the metropolitan or archiepiscopal dignity which had formerly been granted by our predecessor Si.xtus IV., of venerable memory: and we assign to it, by virtue of our apostolic authority, four of the above-nauieil sees; namely, Aberdeen, Dunkeld, Wiiit- horn or (lalioway, Argyll and the Isles. In n-ard to the see of Glasgow, considering tlie antiquity, importance, ami nobility of that city, and es|)ecially the highly flourishing state of religion therein, and the archiepiscopal pre-eminence conferred upon it by Innocent VIII., we have thought it proper to give to its bishop the name and insignia of an archbishop ; in such manner, however, that, until it shall have lieen otherwise ordained by us or our successors, he shall not receive, beyond the prerogative of the name ana honor, any right proper to a true archbishop and metropolitan. We also ordain that the Ar(;hI)ishop of Glasgow, so long as he shall bi' without suffragans, shall be present with the other bisliops in the ])rovincial synod of Scotland. Now, in the aforesaid archiepiscopal or metropolitan sec of St. Andrew's and ]'".dinl)urgh, shall be included the counties of Ed- inburgh, Linlithgow, Hatldington, Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles, Ro.\- burgh, and the southern part of Fife, which lies to the right of the river Eden ; also the county of Stirling, except the territories of Baldernock and East Kilpatrick. In the archdiocese of Glasgow shall be included the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, Dumbarton, the territories of Baldernock and East Kilpatrick, situated in the county of Stirling, the northern portion of the county of Ayr, which is separated from the southern ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 8i portion of the same by the Lugton flowing into the river Garnock ; also the islands of Great and Little Cumbrae. In the diocese of Aberdeen shall be contained the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, Banff, Elgin or Moray, Nairn, Ross (except Lewis in the Hebrides), Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness, the Orkney and Shetland Islands ; and, finally, that portion of the county of Inverness which lies to the north of a straight line drawn from the most northerly point of Loch Linnhe to the eastern boundary of the said county of Inverness, where the counties of Aberdeen and Banff meet. In the diocese of Dunkeld shall be included the counties of Perth, Forfar, Clackmannan, Kinross, and the northern portion of the county of Fife lying to the left of the river lAlen ; also those portions of the county of Stirling which are disjoined from it and are surrounded by the counties of Perth and Clackmannan. The diocese of Whithorn or Galloway shall contain the counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, and that portion of Ayr which stretches southwards to the left of the Lugton flowing into the river Garnock. Finally, the diocese of Argyll and the Isles shall embrace the county of Argyll, the islands of Bute and Arran, the Hebrides, and the southern portion of the county of Inverness which stretches from Loch Linnhe to the eastern boundary of the said county according to the line above described. Thus, therefore, in the kingdom of Scotland, besides the hon- orary archbishopric of Glasgow, there shall be one only ecclesias- tical province, consisting of one archbishop or metropolitan, and four suffragan bishops. We doubt not that the new prelates, following in the footsteps of their predecessors, who by their virtues rendered the Church of Scotland illustrious, will use every endeavor to make the name of the Catholic religion in their country shine with still greater brightness, and to promote the salvation of souls and the increase of the Divine \' \t *l 82 LIFE AA'D LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL worship. We moreover reserve it to ourselves and to our successors in the Apostolic See, to divide the aforesaid dioceses into others ; to increase their numher, to cliange their boundaries, and freely execute whatever else may seem to us in the Lord most conducive to the projiagation of the orthodox faith. And as we see clearly that it will be of great benefit to the said churclics, we will and ordain chat their prelates shall never fail to transmit to our Congregation de Propaganda Fide, which has hitherto bestowed special care upon the said region, reports upon the sees committed to their care ; and shall inform us, through the said congregation, of whatever they may deem it necessary or useful to decree in fulfiunent of their pastoral duty, and for the increase of their churc'.ies. Let them remember, moreover, that they are bound to send in this report, as well as to visit the tombs of the Holy Apo'itles, every four years, as is enacted in the constitution of Sixtus v., of sacred memory, dated Dec. 20, 1585, beginning Ro- inaiins Pontifcx, In all other matters which belong to the pastoral office, the above-named archbishops and bishops shall enjoy all the lights and faculties given to the Catholic bishops of other nations by the canons and apostolic constitutions ; and they shall be bound by the same obligations which, through the same common and general discipline of the Catholic Church, bind other bishops. Whatever, therefore, may have been in force in the ancient churches of Scotland, or in the subsequent missions by special constitutions or privileges or particular customs, now that the circumstances are changed, shall no longer convey any right or impose any obligation. And, in order that no doubt may arise 'in future on this head, we, by the plenitude of our apostolic authority, deprive the said special statutes, ordinances, privileges, and customs, at however remote or imnicauirial a time they may have been introduced, and now in force, of all power of inducing any obligation or conveying any right. Wherefore it shall be in the power of the Scottish prelates to religioH Savioui His reil AncIre\M ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 83 decree whatever is requisite for the execution of the common law, and whatever is competent to the episcopal authority, according to the general discipline of the Church. Let them feel assured that we shall willin}j;ly lend them the aid of our apostolic authority in whatever may seem conducive to the increase of the glory of Goil's name and the welfare of souls. And as an earnest of our good-will towards the beloved daughter of the Holy See, the Church of Scotland, we declare that these prelates, when they shall have been invested with the title and rights of ordinary bishops, shall not be deprived of the special and more ample faculties which they formerly enjoyed as vicars of the Holy See. For it is not right that they should suffer any loss from what, in compliance with the wishes (i{ the Scottish Catholics, has been decreed by us for the greater good of religion in their country. And, whereas the con- dition of Scotland is such that means are still wanting for the support of the clergy and the various needs of each Church, we have a certain hope that our beloved sons in Christ, to whose earnest wish for the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy we have acceded, will continue to aid those whom we place over them with alms and offerings ; to provide for the episcopal sees, the splendor of the churches and of the Divine worship, the sii])port of the clergy and the poor, and the other needs of the Church. And now we turn with most humble prayer to Him in whom it hath pleased the Father in the fulness of time to restore all things ; beseeching Him who has begun the good work to perfect it, con- firm it, and strengthen it, and to give to all those whose duty it is to execute these our decrees, the light and strength of heavenly grace ; so that the episcopal hierarchy, restored by us in the king- dom of Scodand, may be for the greater L,'ood of the Catholic religion. For this end, also, we invoke, as intercessors with our Saviour Jesus Christ, His most blessed RIoUier, the blessed Joseph His reputed father, the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, as also St. Andrew, whom Scotland venerates with special devotion ; and the I' %^ % .^^16^, '^>, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 M 1.25 |S6 1^ m 1^ 12.2 S? B4 ■ lU ■ 40 I 2.0 ■7 7] Photographic Sciences Corporation \ ^ •NJ :\ \ rv 6^ ^ '^,* 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4S03 ^ ^-l^^"^* r r.^ I,. ■lit-: H ^W hf'l'' ' ;'**: ^ ' t . 84 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. Other saints, especially the blessed Margaret, Queen of Scotland, — that they may look with benign favor upon this Church now bom again. Finally, we decree that this our letter shall never be impugned by reason of omission or addition, or any defect in expressing our intention, or any other defect ; but shall always be valid, and obtain effect in all things, and shall be inviolably observed ; notwithstand- ing apostolic edicts and general or special sanctions published in synodal, provincial, and universal councils, and the rights and privi- leges of the ancient sees of Scotland, and of the missions and apostolic vicariates afterwards constituted therein, and of all churches or pious institutes, and all things to the contrary what- soever. We expressly abrogate all these things in so far as they contradict the foregoing, although for their abrogation they would require special mention or any other particular formality. We decree, moreover, that whatever may be done to the contrary, knowingly or ignorantly, by any person, in the name of any author- ity whatsoever, shall be null and void. We will, also, that even printed copies of this letter, when subscribed by a public notary, and confirmed by the seal of an ecclesiastical dignitary, shall have the same credit as would be given to the expression of our will by the exhibition of this diploma itself. Let no man, therefore, dare to infringe or rashly gainsay this our decree of erection and restoration. If any one should presume to attempt this, let him know that he shall incur the indignation of Almighty God and of His blessed Apostles Peter and Paul. Given at Rome at St. Peter's, in the year of the Lord's Incarna- tion one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, the fourth of the nones of March (4th March, 1878), in the first year of our pontificate. F. CARDINAL ASQULNL C. CARDINAL SACCONI, Pro-Datanus. ^ ON- THE PAPAL THRONE. 85 Several addresses were made by Roman bodies to his Holiness immediately after his coronation ; a nota- ble one being that of the Roman clergy, to which the Pope made a touching and eloquent reply. The world was, however, waiting for the first consistory of the new Pontiff, and his first official declaration of the principles which would shape his course. It did not have long to wait, however. On the 28th of March, his Holiness held his first consistory in the Vatican, surrounding it with all the ceremony which his prede- cessor had discontinued since the entrance of the Piedmontese troops into Rome. Robed in his richest vestments, and wearing on his head the golden mitre, Leo XIII. addressed the following eloquent allocution to the assembled cardinals : — "Venerable Brethren, — As soon as we were called, through your suffrages in the past month, to assume the government of the Universal Church, and to hold here on earth the place of the Prince of pastors, our Lord Jesus Christ, we felt ourselves moved by the greatest apprehension and fear on account of the knowledge of our own unworthiness, as well as the inadequacy of our strength to bear such a burden, which appeared the greater on account of the splendid and illustrious fame of our predecessor, Pius IX. That great pastor of the flock of Christ, always combating energetically for truth and justice, and sustaining the great burden of the adminis- tration of the entire Church, not only rendered this apostolic chair more resplendent by his virtues, but filled the Church with love and admiration. And in the same manner, as he surpassed the whole series of Roman Pontiffs in the length of his reign, so, may we say, 86 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL \i. r.- t,. he surpassed all in the public testimonials of sympathy and venera- tion which he received. On the other hand, our heart was filled with sorrow at the sad condition in which we find not only human society, but also the Catholic Church, and in an especial manner this Apos- tolic See, violently despoiled of its temporal dominions, and so reduced as to be completely unable to enjoy its full, free, and independent power. " And although we felt ourselves inclined to refuse the great honor offered us, yet with what heart could we resist the will of God, so evi- dently made known to us through the harmony of your suffrages, seeking only the welfare of the Catholic Church, and succeeding so promptly in completing the election of the new Pontiff? For this reason we thought ourselves obliged to accept the burden presented to us, in obedience to the will of God, in whom we place all our trust, firmly hoping that He who has q^levated us to so high a position will support our weakness. " Now, venerable brethren, as this is the first time that we address you, we declare that nothing shall be held more sacred by us, with the aid of Divine grace, than the inviolable preservation of the Cath- olic faith, the defence of the rights of the Church and the Holy Apostolic See, and the promotion of the salvation of all men. "For the fulfilment of this part of our ministry, we confide in your counsel and wisdom, which we trust will never be wanting to us ; and this we wish you to understand, not as a mere compliment, but as a solemn declaration of our will. For we bear in mind what is narrated in Holy Writ, when Moses, terrified at the great weight laid upon him, called together seventy of the ancients of Israel, that they might divide with him the cares of the government of his people. Having this example before our eyes, now that we are called as leader and governor of the whole Christian world, we cannot do less than ask help in our fatigues, and comfort in our carer-, from you who hold in the Church of God the same position as the elders of Israel. " Besides, we know that the Sacred Scriptures say that * there is ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 87 safety where there is much counsel ; ' we know that the holy Council of Trent attests that the Sovereign Pontiff should find assistance in the wisdom of the cardinals ; and, finally, that St. Bernard calls the cardinals the assistants and counsellors of the Sovereign Pontiff. We, who for five and twenty years had thf good fortune to form a part of the Sacred College, bring to this throne not only a heart full of affec- tion and sympathy for you, but still more the consolation of having, in the exercise of our duties to the Church, companions and co- operators in our obligations, and sharers in our glories and honors. " Moreover, it is with the greatest pleasure that we communicate to you, venerable brethren, the completion of a work which was undertaken by our glorious predecessor, Pius IX., and which had already been discussed by those among you who form a part of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith ; namely, the estaljlishment of the episcopal hierarchy in the illustrious king- dom of Scotland. We, by the grace of God, had the consolation of issuing the apostolic bull for this purpose on the fourth day of the present month. We rejoiced that we were able to answer the fervent prayers of those beloved children of Jesus Christ, the clergy and faithful of Scotland, who have ever shown the greatest devotion towards the Catholic Church and the chair of St. Peter; and we most firmly hope that this work of the Holy Apostolic See may be crowned with heavenly fruits, and that, through the mediation and prayers of the patron saints of Scotland, stiscipiant monies pacem popiilo, ct colles justitiam, — her mountains may receive peace and her hills justice for her people. " Finally, venerable brethren, we doubt not that you, united in the same spirit with us, will work unceasingly for the defence of the Holy Apostolic See and the increase of the glory of God j knowing that our reward in heaven shall be the same, if our trials in the interest of the Church shall have been the same on earth. Pray, therefore, humbly with us, that God, rich in mercies, through the powerful intercession of his Immaculate Mother, of St. Joseph, patron of the [I i'lpi! i 1 r ii I 88 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL w:- Universal Church, the Holy Apostles SS. Peter and Paul, may be propitious, and happily direct our minds and actions through the days of our pontificate ; that we may conduct the Bark of Peter, which has been confided to us, through tlie fury of the winds and the waves to the desired port of tranquillity and peace." After a suitable reply had been made to the Papal allocution, by Cardinal di Pietro, whom the Pope then appointed Camerlengo ; of the Church, several vacant sees were provided with new bishops ; and the hall of the Vatican where the consistory was held was then thrown open for a ceremony which had the greatest interest for American Catholics, it being none other than the conferring of the red hat on the first Ameri- can cardinal, the late lamented John, Cardinal McClos- key, the learned and pious Archbishop of New York, who had been created a cardinal by Pius IX. on March I5> 1875, but who now came to Rome for the first time since that date ; and, as the cardinal's hat can only be given by the Pope himself in person, the final ceremony had never yet been complied with. Car- dinal McCloskey did not arrive in Rome in time to take part in the conclave that elected the Pope ; but he lost no time in hurrying thither, and was eager to pay his homage to Leo XIIL The ceremony of con- ferring the cardinal's hat is a very impressive one. The new cardinal is led into the Pope's presence by two of the cardinal deacons; and he immediately makes a triple profound reverence to the Head of the ON THE PAPAL THRONE. 89 Church, — one at the threshold of the hall, one in the middle, and still another at the feet of the throne. The Pope then bestows upon him the kiss of peace, and he is embraced by all his cardinalitial colleagues in turn. The Te Deum is chanted ; and, after en- circling the altar with his colleagues, the new cardinal prostrates himself, and remains in that position while the canticle is being finished, and the proper prayers said by the cardinal dean. Arising, next his hood is thrown back ; the cardinal dean receives his oath of office, and leads him before the Pope, who confers upon him the red velvet hat, with due prayers. The Pope then withdraws, and the new cardinal receives the congratulations of his brethren. The cardinalitial ring and title are not conferred until the second con- sistory : only the hat is given at the first. The cardinal's hat is of red cloth, with a very small crown and broad brim. Two ties, each ending in five rows of red silk acorns or tassels, three in each row, are fastened to the crown, and fall on either side, being long enough to meet under the wearer's chin. Originally, instead of this fringe, each tie had but a single tassel, because the hat was then used on all solemn occasions. At present the hat is not worn, and therefore ^he fringing may be more elaborate. Indeed, after the hat has been conferred, it is not again seen till the cardinal's death, when it is placed upon his bier, and, as a rule, suspended in the church . F-ffi 'i i!!-:i ' 'I ■' 90 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL above his tomb. The red hat of the cardinals is of felt, of the same shape as those of simple ecclesiastics. On ordinary occasions they wear a black hat with a red ribbon gold-embroidered. The ring given to the cardinal to consecrate his marriage with the Church is a sapphire set in gold. 'i! ■ r li^l;'!= ill if\ li m CARDINAL M^CLOSKEY, r ■ -r- ii r ^41 ; ^iwiyy ;i '^i^SBi^nfi Vna^EinR l|| ' 'i^raP :. A HI II IHIi ti ^^^H :f ;* H| ii m' ! i : ■ i ' " ■ '1 ■■■ " ■■,;:' ! f t i| '■^\ t- : 1 CARDINAL MCCLOSKEY. 91 CHAPTER IX. CARDINAL McCLOSKEY. 1 -.J - vh THE reader will not take it amiss if he finds in- serted here the following brief biographical sketch of America's first cardinal, the lamented Arch- bishop McCloskey, upon whom, as shown in the last chapter, Pope Leo XIII. conferred the cardinal's hat, in the first consistory of his reign. John McCloskey was born at Brooklyn, N.Y., on March 10, 18 10. His father, George McCloskey, had emigrated from Derry, in Ireland, and was one of the first Catholic settlers of Manhattan. Brooklyn was then a suburb of New York, with a population of less than five thousand, and not even one Catholic church. His parents con- sequently had to bring the future cardinal to St. Peter's, in Barclay Street, New York, to be christened ; and it was there they attended divine service on Sun- day. George McCloskey, when his son grew up, and gave promise of great abilities, built high hopes on his talents, and intended to send him to Georgetown Col- lege, of which Father Benedict Fenwick, long con- nected with St. Peter's, had become president. But, ' r4 i >■' I ( II I LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL M. in the providence of God, he was not to sec him enter any college : while still in the prime of life, he was seized with illness, which carried him to the grave in 1820. Mrs. McCloskey was left with means which enabled her to carry out the plans of her husband ; but as Father Fenwick had left Georgetown, she acted on the advice of friends, and sent her son to the College of Mount St. Mary's, which had been founded near Emmittsburg by the Rev. John Du Bois, a French priest, who, escaping the horrors of the Revo- lution in his own country, and the sanguinary tribunals of his old schoolmate Robespierre, had crossed the Adantic to be a missionary in America. After a seven-years' course, he graduated in 1826. Rejoining his mother, who, on the death of her hus- band, had removed to Westchester, the young stu- dent hesitated whether his inclination for the ministry might be followed without a violation of filial duty. His father having left a competence, the decision was taken : he would embrace the ecclesiastical state. Ac- cordingly he returned to St. Mary's, and pursued a further course of four years. In January, 1834, he was ordained priest, and soon after was sent to Rome to perfect his theological studies. For two years he attended the lectures of the most distinguished pro- fessors in the Gregorian University. At its source he imbibed deeply of ecclesiastical lore. While in Rome he made the acquaintance of the most distinguished ■I. / CARDINAL MCCLOSKEY, 93 men of various nationalities. The tWrd year of his sojourn abroad, he spent in travelling through the principal European countries, visiting the institutions and celebrities at those places, returning trained and highly qualified to engage in the great work then in progress, — the extension of Catholicity in America. He was appointed pastor of St. Joseph's Church, New York. Afterwards, at the earnest entreaty of his bishop, he accepted the presidency of Fordham Col- lege. This appointment developed his talent for or- ganization, and displayed his executive skill. Having placed the seminary in successful operation, after a year he resumed his pastoral duties at St. Joseph's. In 1843 Bishop Hughes chose him for coadjutor. In his new sphere, his devoted zeal was marked by the increase of churches, institutions, etc., in his extensive province. On the division of the diocese of New York, he was named Bishop of Albany. There he labored eighteen years, during which churches mul- tiplied, and religious orders were introduced. The death of Archbishop Hughes rendered the New-York see vacant. Dr. McCloskey was unanimously chosen to succeed him. The wisdom of that choice, time has approved. In 1866 he attended the second council of Baltimore. His wisdom and eloquence there dis- tinguished him. In 1869 he assisted at the Vatican Council, the grandest ecclesiastical assembly that had been held since the Council of Trent. Among the 1 1! t *w \:v w.^ HlH 94 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL i !■; !! !.r !':1' \-. \ -I m illustrious of that assembly, Archbishop McCloskey was conspicuous. A crowning honor was reserved as a recognition of his long service and zeal in the cause of God. Pius IX., in the consistory of 1875, created him cardinal. This new dignity was hailed by America with evident manifestation of delight. In token of their joy, his own flock brought to completion the Cathedral of New York, and built the adjoining mansion as the cardinal's residence. In 1884 took place the last event of notable public in- terest in the cardinal's life, — his golden jubilee in the priesthood. Thenceforth he lived in retirement, spending much time in prayer and preparation for his last summons. After a long illness, patiently borne, an edifying death fittingly closed an edifying life. Bestowing his blessing on his successor and on his flock, he passed peacefully, on Oct. 10, into the hands of his Creator, to receive the reward of the faithful servant. His funeral in New York was most imposing. Around the grand cathedral, as around a fretted rock of marble, surged the waves of people, like a sea. The vast interior was filled ; and beneath the groined roof he had reared, lay, in his pontifical vestments, — the hat, insignia of his highest dignity, at his feet, — the mild and gentle and patient Cardinal McCloskey, his life's work well and nobly ended. The solemn Mnss, the deep tones of the organ, the II CARDINAL MCCLOSKEY. 95 Gregorian notes of the choirs, moved all to pray for the soul of one whose life had been given to the ser- vice of God. The Archbishop of Baltimore, the Most Rev. James Gibbons, pronounced the funeral discourse, and then the body was laid beside those of his pred- ecessors in the crypt beneath. A month later, and again the Dies Irce resounded through that noble monument of his love for religion. The Month's Mind, that touching tribute which our Church pays her departed, called forth from the Most Rev. Michael A. Corrigan, who knew him so well and so intimately, words full of touching reminiscences. Bishop Lynch of Charleston, S.C, who knew him so intimately, thus described him a few years ago, before the hand of disease had changed him : "In personal appearance the cardinal is about five feet ten inches in height, straight and thin in person, and apparently frail, though his chest is full, and the tones of his voice when preaching are clear and far- reaching. His features are regular and finely chis- elled ; the brow is lofty ; the nose thin and straight ; the eyes keen, quick, and penetrating ; the thin lips, even in repose, seeming to preserve the memory of a smile ; the whole expression of the countenance, one of serious thought and placid repose ; yet you feel or see indications of activity ready to manifest itself through the brows, the eyes, or the lips. In fact, his temperament is decidedly nervous ; and if you observe S? u. V% rl 96 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. ! I \A ii ! 'f ' I ■'mm the natural promptness and decision of his movements, you might almost think him quick and naturally im- petuous. There could be no greater mistake ; or, if he is such by natural disposition, this is one of the points where his seminary training has taught him to control and master himself. The forte of his character is his unchanging equanimity. And yet there must have been in him a wondrous amount of nervous energy to enable him to survive very serious injuries to his frame in early life, and to endure the severe physical labors of an American bishop for thirty years. . . . Piety, learning, experience, zeal, — every bishop should have these as a matter of course. He has more. In address gentle, frank, and winning, he at once puts you at ease, and makes you feel you are speaking to a father or a friend in whom you may unreservedly confide. Soft and delicate in manners as a lady, none could ever presume in his presence to say a word or do an act tinged with rudeness, still less indelicacy. Kind and patient with all who come to him, he is especially considerate with his c; -rgy. To them he is just in his decisions, wise in his counsels and exhortations, ever anxious to aid them in their" difficulties. Tender and lenient as a mother to those who wish to do right and to correct evil, he is inflex- ible when a principle is at stake, and can be stern when the offender is obdurate. Notoriety and display are supremely distasteful to him. He would have his CARDINAL MCCLOSKEY. 97 work done, and thoroughly done, and his own name or his part in it never mentioned. He studiously avoids coming before the public, save in his ecclesi- astical functions, or where a sense of duty drives him to it. He prefers to work quietly and industriously in the sphere of his duties. Here he is unflagging, so ordering matters that work never accumulates on his hands through his own neglect." We cannot but add that beautiful quotation which His Grace Archbishop Corrigan applied to the style of the Cardinal's writing : — " We might as well gild refined gold, Paint the lily, cast perfume on the violet, Smooth the ice, or add another hue unto the rainbow, Or with taper light seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, As add one jot to the pure and simple character of the departed prince." jlki %^ 98 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. CHAPTER X. THE FIRST ENCYCLICAL. U . ■: ■ll. I ii 1' mi. ^ i ! I WHEN Leo XIII. ascended the Papal throne, there were not wanting those who predicted that he would depart from the methods of his prede- cessor in dealing with the I edmontese government; and there were some who asserted that what they called " the mockery of the virtual imprisonment of the Pope within the Vatican " would speedily come to an end. Such individuals knew little of the new Pontiff; and they understood still less the spirit of the Catholic Church, to preside over which he was chosen, and which never condones a crime until those ^yho perpetrated it show signs of repentance, and make all the restitution that lies in their power. The new Pope had scarcely taken his seat before he addressed an encyclical to all the patriarchs, primates, arch- bishops, and bishops in communion with the Apos- tolic See, in which he reiterated the 7ion possumus of Pius IX. with the same determination that that pious and learned Pontiff had on various occasions proclaimed it. If the so-called Italian government THE FIRST ENCYCLICAL. 99 riattered itself that it would find in Leo XIII. a more tractable Pope than Pius IX. proved towards it, it was quickly undeceived. The doctrines which the latter had so often upheld in the latter years of his life, both by voice and pen, were re-taught anew by the former in the encyclical to which we allude. The so-called ideas of modern times — a name to cover up heresies and false teachings — were reprobated and condemned, and the unchanged and unchanging doctrine of the Catholic Church was re-asserted in all its force and truth. After speaking of the evil times which had come to the Church and the world, alluding to the insatiable greed for money, the thrift- less administration and squandering of public funds, and that deadly poison of error which works itself into the very vitals of human society, never allows it to be quiet, but constantly goads it on to the commission of new crimes, the encyclical to which reference has been made continues as follows : — " We are convinced that the cause of these evils Hes princi- pally in the rejection of the august authority of the Church, which presides over the human race in the name of God, and is the safe- guard of all legitimate authority. The enemies of public order, knowing this full well, thought that nothing was more conducive to uproot the foundations of society than to attack the Church of God pertinaciously, and by foul calumnies bring her into odium and disrepute, as if she were the enemy of real civilization, and destroy the supreme power of the Roman Pontiff, the champion of the unchangeable principles of eternal justice. Hence liave come those \^t\ \\ i'lvi^f; i I'fi; ^l !■ 'i m t}n lOO LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. . .r< itfj-liii laws destructive of the divine constitution of the Church which we grieve to see enacted in many countries ; henre emanated con- tempt for episcopal power, impediments to the exercise of the ecclesiastical ministry, the dissolution of the religious corporations, and the confiscation of the goods with which the ministers of the Church and the poor were supported ; hence public institutions consecrated to charity were taken from the salutary administration of the Church ; hence sprang that license to teach and print every iniquity, while, on the other hand, the right of the Church to instruct and educate youth is violated and trampled under foot. " This, too, is the end and object of the usurpation of the civil principality which Divine Providence gave to the Bishop of Rome many centuries ago, that he might use freely the power given by Christ for the salvation of souls. " We have called to mind this sad accumulation of evils, vener- able brothers, not with a view of increasing your grief, which this most wretched condition of things of itself produces in you, but because we know that thus you will clearly see how serious is the situation of affairs which calls for our zealous solicitude, and how assiduously we must labor to defend and vindicate to the best of our power the Church of God and the dignity of this Apostolic See, charged with so many calumnies. " It is evident, venerable brothers, that human civilization lacks a solid foundation, unless it rests upon the eternal principles of truth and the unchangeable laws of justice, and unless sincere love binds the wills of men together, and governs their mutual relations. Now, who can deny that it is the Church, that, by preaching the gospel to the nations, brought the light of truth among barbarous and superstitious people, and moved them to recognize the Divine Author of things and to respect themselves ; that, by abolishing slavery, recalled men to the pristine dignity of their noble nature ; by unfurling the banner of redemption in every clime of the earth ; by introducing or protecting the arts ; by founding excellent institu- iM THE FIRST ENCYCLICAL. lOI tions of charity which provide for every misery, cultivated the human race everywhere, raised it from its degradation, and brought it to a life becoming the dignity and the destinies of man? And if any one of sound intelligence will compare this age in which we live, so hostile to religion and the Church of Christ, with those happy times when the Church was regarded by nations as a mother, he will clearly perceive that this our age, full of disorders and revo- lutions, is going rapidly to ruin ; whereas those ages advanced in the excellence of their institutions, in tranquillity of life, in wealth and prosperity, in proportion as the people were more subject to the authority and laws of the Church. And if the many benefits which we have cited, effected by the ministry and salutary assist- ance of the Church, are the real works and glories of civilization, the Church, so far from abhorring and repudiating it, rather makes it her glory to be its nourisher, teacher, and mother. " But that kind of civilization which is opposed to the holy doc- trines and laws of the Church is only a shadow of civilization, an empty name without reality, as appears from the example of those people upon whom the light of the gospel has not shone, and in whose life a glimmer of civilization is to be seen, but its real and solid benefits do not exist. That certainly is not to be regarded as the perfection of civilization which contemns legitimate authority ; nor is that to be reputed as liberty which basely and miserably thrives on the unrestrained propagation of errors, on the free indul- gence of every wicked desire, on the impunity of crimes and offences, on the oppression of good citizens of every class. For since such things are false, wicked, and absurd, they certainly can- not render the human family prosperous ; for sin maketh nations miserable (Prov. xiv. 34), for when the mind and heart are corrupt, they drag men down into every misfortune, disturb all order, and destroy the peace of nations. " Moreover, considering what has been done by the Roman See, what can be more unjust than to deny the eminent services ren- i f « ' 1 ' \ v , \ ;l i ; 1 ' i r ■ f ' \ , % r: I ' ' ■' ' V - ' ■■ rl ^ H- 1 ' '^ 1 u .■■ u 1 i. !;■, *" ur^- ' : ■ a 1 ' >,: 103 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL Hi J ! ' 'If ! ^(■1 ai'i I'M •*: \\% . I ■ ;■ t I,.!' fi. I i.i f. dered by the Bishops of Rome to the cause of society? Cer- tainly our predecessors, in order to provide for the good of the people, never hesitated to undertake struggles of every kind, to per- form great labors, and expose themselves to serious difficulties ; and, with their eyes fixed upon heaven, they neither quailed before the threats of the wicked, nor suffered themselves to be led astray from their duty by flattery or promises. It was this Apostolic See that gathered up and united the remnants of ancient society ; it was the torch to shed light on the civilization of Christian times ; it was the anchor of safety in those violent tempests by which the human race was tossed about ; it was the sacred bond of concord which united nations of diverse customs together ; finally, it was the common centre whence all men derived, together with the doctrines of religion, encouragement and counsels to peace. It is the glory of the sovereign pontiffs, that they ever threw themselves into the breach, that human society might not sink back into ancient super- stition and barbarism. " Oh that this salutary authority had never been neglected or repudiated ! Certainly the civil power would never have lost that august and sacred glory which it received from religion, and which alone rendered obedience noble and worthy of man ; nor would so many seditions and wars have raged, which rendered the earth desolate with calamities and slaughter ; nor would once flourishing kingdoms, now fallen from the height of prosperity, be oppressed with the weight of misfortune. A signal proof of this are the people of the East, who, having burst asunder the bonds which joined them to this Apostolic See, have lost the splendor of their former greatness, the glory of the sciences and arts, and the dignity of their empire. " But the distinguished benefits which the illustrious monuments of every age declare to have been bestowed by the Apostolic See upon every clime of the earth, were particularly experienced by this land of Italy, which, being nearer to the source, received more •n '.. y THE FIRST ENCYCLICAL. 103 abundant blessing!?. For, to the Roman PontilTs Italy is indebted for the glory and greatness in which she surpassed other nations. Their paternal authority and solicitude often protected her from the assaults of her enemies, and brought her assistance, that the Catholic faith might always be preserved entire in the hearts of the Italians. " These services of our predecessors, to pass over many others, are recorded in the history of St. Leo the Great, of Alexander III., Innocent III., St. Pius V., Leo X., and other Pontiffs, by whose zeal and protection Italy escaped from the utter ruin threatened by the barbarians, retained the old faith incorrupt, and, amid the darkness and degradation of an uncultured age, nourished and maintained the light of science and the splendor of the arts. This fair city, the seat of the Pontiffs, bears witness to these benefits, of which it received so great a share ; becoming not only the fortified citadel of faith, but also the asylum and home of the fine arts and of learn- ing, which have won for her the admiration and respect of the whole world. And, as the greatness of these things is consigned to eternal remembrance in history, it will easily be understood that nothing but base calumny and malice could have published, by word of mouth and in print, that the Apostolic See is a hinderance to the civilization and happiness of the people of Italy. " If, then, all the hopes of Italy and of the whole world repose in that usefiil and salutary power, which is the authority of the Apos- tolic See, and in that bond which unites all the faithful with the Roman Pontiff, we can deem nothing more important than to pre- serve the dignity of the chair of St. Peter entire, and to .render more intimate the union of the members with the Head, of the children with the Father. " Wherefore, in the first place, that we may assert to the best of our power the rights and liberty of this Holy See, we shall never cease to contend for the obedience due to our authority, for the removal of the obstacles which hinder the full liberty of our min- I' > '. [. ■^ \l 104 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL '■\\ 11 '■\. m t, ■! istry, and for our restoration to that condition in which the counsels of the Divine Wisdom first placed the Roman bishops. We are not moved, venerable brothers, to demand this restoration by ambition .or the desire of dominion : but by our office, and by the religious oaths which bind us ; and because this principality is necessary to preserve the full liberty of the spiritual power, and it is most clear, that, in the question of the temporal principality of the Apostolic See, the cause of the public good and the safety of society are involved. Hence we cannot omit, because of our office, by which we are bound to defend the rights of the Holy Church, to renew and confirm by these our letters all the declarations and protests which our predecessor of holy memory, Pius IX., published and reiterated against the occupation of his civil principality, and against the violation of the rights of the Roman Church. At the same time, we turn our discourse to the princes and supreme rulers of the nations ; and we adjure them again and again, by the august name of the Most High God, not to reject the assistance of the Church offered to them in such a critical time, but to gather in a friendly manner around this centre of authority and safety, and be united more inseparably with it in the bonds of sincere love and obedience. God grant that they may recognize the truth of what we have said, and may know that the teaching of Christ, as St. Augustine says, if it be obsen'ed, will be very salutary to the repub- lic ; and that in the preservation of the Church, and in obedience to her, their own prosperity and peace are included. Let them turn their thoughts and cares to removing the evils which afflict the Church and her visible Head, so that the people over whom they preside, entering upon the way of justice and peace, may enjoy a happy era of prosperity and glory. " And finally, that the harmony between the entire Catholic flock and the Supreme Pastor may be more lasting, we appeal to you with particular affection, venerable brothers, and we warmly exhort you in your sacerdotal zeal and pastoral vigilance to inflame with ^ihi^ THE FIRST ENCYCLICAL. 105 the love of religion the fiiithful intrusted to you, that they may cleave more closely to this chair of truth and justice, and receive all its doctrines with the full assent of their mind and will, rejecting all opinions which they know to be opposed to the teaching of the Church. The Roman Pontiffs, our predecessors, and esi)ecially Pius IX. of holy memory, in the CEcumenical Council of the Vati- can especially, — mindful of the words of St. Paul, Bciaatr kst any man cheat you by philosophy and vain deceit, according to the tra- dition of men, according to the elements of the world, and not according to Christ, — never neglected, when it was necessary, to condemn current errors, and brand them with the Apostolic censure. Following in the footsteps of our predecessors, we confirm and re- iterate all these condemnations ; and at the same time we earnestly beg the Father of Lights that all the faithful, united with us in the same sentiments, may think and speak in accord with us. But it is your duty, venerable brothers, to use sedulous care that the seed of heavenly doctrines be scattered widely through the vineyard of the Lord, and that the teachings of the Catholic faith be early instilled into the minds of the faithful, strike deep root there, and be preserved incorrupt from the contagion of error. The more earnestly the enemies of religion try to instil into the unwary, and especially into youth, those things which becloud the mind and cor- rupt morals, the greater should be your efforts to obtain not only a solid method of education, but also to make the teaching itself agreeable to the Catholic faith, particularly in philosophy, upon which the right study of the other sciences depends, and which, far from destroying revelation, rather rejoices to point out the way to it, and defends it against those who attack it, as the great Augus- tine, the Angelic Doctor, and other teachers of Christian wisdom, prove by thc'r example and writings. " Moreover, it is necessary that the proper training of youth, to insure the true faith and good morals, should begin with the earli- est years in the family itself; which, being miserably disturbed in f I io6 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIII, t 1^1 !!■ ■ ' IS-! n J IK- ■ I ■ ;.' :!n ,i.i, I no L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL CHAPTER XI. SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. IN the first year of his pontificate, Leo XIIL issued an encyclical of more than ordinary importance and interest on account of the subjects which it deals with, and which, unhappily, have attained a special promi- nence in our own day and in our own country, though not, of course, to such an extent as in European coun- tries at the time that the Holy Father denounced them. Then nihilism was rampant in Russia, overturning the social order, and resulting, a few years later, in the assassination of the Czar, Alexander II. Socialism in its most hideous shapes, and communism in its worst forms, were attaining every day new growth in more than one nation of Continental Europe, threatening the direst calamities to the Church, the State, and the family. The laws of the afflicted lands seemed pow- erless to arrest the growth of these evils, which were fully described in the Pope's first encyclical (quoted in the last chapter), as permeating, like a deadly poison, the very vitals of human society, never allowing it to be quiet, and presaging for it new revolutions with the SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. Ill most calamitous results. In the encyclical which we reproduce in full in this chapter, and which the Pope promulgated on the 28th of December, 1878, the mask is torn off these errors, and they are laid bare in all their deformities. And not alone are the dupes of these errors admonished of their evil ways, and the dreadful results which they may expect from them ; but the leaders of these anti-Christian and anti-social parties are warned of the wrath which will certainly overtake them if they persist in spreading their pernicious doctrines among the people. Here is the full text of this all-important encyclical letter of the Holy Father: — " From the commencement of our pontificate, and in fulfilment of the duty of our office, we addressed you in an encyclical letter, to point out that deadly poison which is creeping into human society, and is leading it to ruin. We then also indicated the efficacious remedies by means of which society may be restored, and escape the serious dangers that threaten it. But the evils we then deplored have increased so rapidly that we are compelled once more to address you, as though the words of the prophet were ringing in our ear : * Cry, cease not ; lift up thy voice like a trumpet.' " You understand, venerable brethren, that we allude to that sect of men who call themselves by various and almost barbarous titles, — Socialists, Communists, and Nihilists ; and who, scattered all over the world, closely bound together in an unholy league, are no longer satisfied with lurking in secret, but boldly come forth into the light with the determination to uproot the foundation of society. It is surely these men that are signified by the words of Holy Writ, * who defile the flesh, and despise authority, and blaspheme majesty.' They 1 : -1 '^8Mn' }jl;fc^ •in \m !■] J' n i ■' i ; ■' i I Kill- 1 ■ ■ .. r'! : i /'• ;ij •} H| '{■i \^n '■111 iiM, 112 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL will not leave any thing intact that has been wisely decreed by divine and human laws for the security and honor of life. They refuse obedience to the higher powers, who hold from God the right to command, and to whom, according to the apostle, every soul ought to be subject ; and they preach the perfect equality of all men in every thing that concerns their rights and duties. They dishonor the natural union of man and woman, sacred even among barbarians, and endeavor to relax or even to break asunder that bond which chiefly cements domestic society. Seduced by the lust of earthly goods, which is ' the root of all evil,' and through the coveting of which * many have erred from the faith,' they assail the right of property sanctioned by the natural law ; and under the pretence of supplying the wants of men, and satisfying their lawful desires, they aim at making a common spoil of whatever has been legitimately acquired by inheritance, by skill, industry, or economy. They publish these monstrous doctrines at their meetings; they urge them in pam- phlets, and spread them far and wide by means of the press. The result of this is, that, within a short time, the majesty and authority of kings, which should be revered by all, has been rendered so odious to a seditious rabble, that traitors, breaking loose from all restraint, have more than once lifted their hands against the rulers of kingdoms. " These attempts of perfidious men, who threaten to undermine civil life, and fill all thinking minds with alarm, had their origin in the poisoned doctrines broached long ago, like seeds of corruption, which are now producing their destructive fruit. Yc;i are aware, venerable brethren, that the warfare raised against the Church by the reformers in the sixteenth century still continues, and tends to this end, that by the denial of all revelation and the suppression of the supernatural order, the reason of man may run riot in its own conceits. This error, which unjustly derives its name from reason, flatters the pride of man, loosens the reins to all his passions, and thus it has deceived many minds, whilst it has made deep ravages on I SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. "3 civil society. Hence it comes, tliat, by a new sort of impiety, un- known to the pagans, states constitute themselves independently of God, or of the order which He has established. Public authority is declared to derive neither its principle nor its power from God, but from the multitude, which, beheving itself free from all Divine sanc- tion, obeys no laws but such as its own caprice has dictated. Super- natural truth being rejected as contrary to reason, the Creator and Redeemer of the human race is ignored, and banished from the uni- versities, the lyceums and schools, as also from the whole economy of human life. The rewards and punishments of a future and eter- nal life are forgotten in the pursuit of present pleasure. With these doctrines widely spread, and this extreme license of thought and action extended everywhere, it is not surprising that nie:i of the lowest order, weary of the poverty of their home or of their litde workshop, should yearn to seize upon the dwellings and posses- sions of the rich ; that there remains neither peace nor tranciuillity in private or public life, and that society is brought to the brink of destruction. "The Supreme Pastors of the Church, on whom the duty rests of preserving the flock of the Lord from the snares of their enemies, have not neglected to point out the danger, and to provide for the safety of the faithful. Indeed, from the moment that secret societies began to be formed, and to cause the evils of which we have just spoken, the Roman Pontiffs, Clement XH. and Benedict XIV., un- veiled the iniquitous designs of these sects, and warned the faithful of the whole world of the serious evils which would result from them. When men who gloried in the name of philosophers had asserted for man an unlimited independence, and had devised what they called a new code of right in opposition to the natural and the Divine law. Pope Pius VI. immediately raised his voice against these false and wicked doctrines, and with apostolic foresight predicted the calamities which would flow from them. And when, in spite of tliis warning, these principles were still maintained, and even made ' \' \- |!1 i1 ''» 'X. 114 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. "\'\^. ill \n-- the basis of public legislation, Pius VII. and Leo XII. solemnly con- demned secret societies, and again gave warning of the perils that menaced the nations. Lastly, every one remembers with what au- thority and firmness our glorious predecessor, Pius IX., in his allocu- tions and encyclicals, combated the projects of these associations, especially of the socialists, who were just then beginning to appear. " But to our great grief, those who are charged with the care of the public welfare have allowed themselves to be blinded by the arts of the wicked, or intimidated by their threats, whilst they have always treated the Church with suspicion and injustice, forgetting that the efforts of the sects would have been powerless if the teaching of the Catholic Church and the authority of the Roman Pontiffs had always been duly respected by princes and people ; for it is ' the Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of truth,' which teaches the doctrines and principles on which society can rest secure, without fear of the fatal effects of socialism. For although the socialists pervert the gospel to deceive the unwary, and wrest it to their own sense, yet in truth there cannot be two things more at variance with one another than their depraved ideas and the beautiful teachings of Christ. * For what participation hath justice with injustice, or what fellowship hath light with darkness ? ' They never cease proclaiming that all men are equal in all things, and hence kings have no right to command them, nor laws any power to bind unless made by them- selves and according to their own inclinations. But, on the other hand, the gospel teaches that all men are indeed equal, inasmuch as all have the same nature ; all are called to the sublime dignity of children of God, are destined to the same end, and will be judged by the same law which will dp':ree the punishment or the reward deserved by each one. But an inequality of rights and powers ema- nates from the Author of nature Himself, * of whom all paternity is named in heaven and on earth.' According to the Catholic doc- trine, princes and people are bound together by a mutual relation of rights and duties in such a manner that a check is laid on the excess iW ,1 •■' i SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 115 of power, and obedience is rendered easy, constant, and noble. To the subjects, the Church constantly repeats the apostle's precept : * There is no power but from God ; and the powers that are, are ordained of God. Therefore he who resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God ; and they that resist purchase to themselves damnation.' And, again, she bids them ' be subject of necessity, not only for wrath, but also for conscience' sake ; ' and to render ' to all men their dues : to whom tribute, tribute ; to whom custom, custom ; to whom fear, fear ; to whom honor, honor.' For He who has created and who governs all things has wisely ordained that the lowest should depend on the middle, and the middle on the highest, that all may reach their end. And as even in heaven He has decreed a distinction among the angels, so that some are inferior to others, and as in the Church He has instituted a diversity of degrees and offices, so that not all are apostles, not all are doctors, nor all pas- tors J so, too, He has established in civil society different orders in dignity, in right and power, so that the State, like the Church, might form one body composed of many members, some more noble than others, but all necessary to one anotlier, and all laboring for the common good. " But that princes may use the power vested in them * unto edifi- cation and not unto destruction,' the Church appropriately warns them that they, too, are responsible to the Supreme Judge ; and she addresses to them the words of Divine wisdom : ' Give ear, ye that rule the people, and that please yourselves in multitudes of nations ; for power is given you by the Lord, and strength by the Most High, who will examine your works and search out your thoughts ; for a most severe judgment shall be for them that bear rule. For God will not accept any man's person, neither will He stand m awe of any man's greatness ; for He hath made the little and the great, and He hath equally care of all. But a greater punishment is ready for the more mighty.' If, however, at times it happens that public power is exercised by princes rashly and beyond bound, % Tk J] 1 tffi ' Iw ' 'll 1, n\ 'Kk w ' \'' t%|K ■:|' i I I ii6 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL I M i ; iii; '.iSi';! r !i. iM' .; ■ ■ the Catholic doctrine does not allow subjects to rebel against a ruler by private authority, lest the peaceful order be more and more dis- turbed, and society suffer greater detriment. And when tilings have come to such a pass that no other hope of safety appears, it teaches that a speedy remedy is to be sought from God by the merit of Christian forbearance and by fervent supplications. But if the ordi- nances of legislators and princes sanction or command what is con- trary to the Divine or tiie natural law, then the dignity of the Christian name, our duty, and the apostolic precept, proclaim that * we must obey God rather than men.' "This salutary influence which the Church exercises over civil society for the maintenance of order in it, and for its preservation, is felt also in domestic society, which is the foundation of the State. You know, venerable brethren, that the constitution of this society has, by virtue of the natural law, its foundation in the indissoluble union of the husband and wife, and its complement in the mutual rights and duties of parents and children, of masters and servants. You know also that this society is totally annihilated by the theories of socialism ; for when the firm bond is broken which the religious marriage throws around it, the authority of the parent over his off- spring, and the duties of children towards their parents, must neces- sarily be relaxed. On the contrary, the marriage ' honorable in all,' which God himself instituted from the beginning for the propagation and perpetuity of the race, and which He made indissoluble, has become, in the teaching of the Church, more firm and more holy through Christ, who conferred on it the dignity of a sacrament, — an image of His own union with the Church. Hence, according to the apostle, ' the husband is the head of the wife, as Christ is the Head of the Church ; ' and as the Church is subject to Christ, who honors her with a chaste and perpetual love, so wives should be sub! ''t to their husbands, who in return are bound to love their wives with a faithful and constant affection. "The Church likewise regulates the powers of the parent and '^ h ^ SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 117 master in such a way as to keep cliildren and servants in their duty, and yet not allow those powers to be abused ; for, according to Catliolic teaching, the authority of parents and masters comes to them from the authority of our heavenly Father and Master ; and therefore it not only derives from Him its origin and its force, but it should also be imbued with the nature and character of that Divine authority. Hence the apostle exhorts children ' to obey their parents in the Lord,' and * to honor their father and their mother, which precept is the first that hath a promise.' And to parents he says, 'And you, fathers, provoke not your children to anger, but bring them up in the discipline and correction of the Lord.' In like manner, the Divine commandment is given by the apostle to ser- vants and masters : the former being told * to be obedient to their masters according to the flesh, as to Christ ; serving with a good will, as to the Lord ; ' whilst the latter are * to forbear threatenings, know- ing that the Lord of all is in hejiven, and that there is no respect of persons with Him.' Now, if all these precepts were observed by each of those whom they concern, according to the disposition of God's will, surely each flunily would be an image of heaven ; and the benefits arising from this would not be confined within the family circle, but would spread abroad over the nations themselves. " Cut Catholic wisdom, resting on the principles of natural and Divine law, has provided for public and private tranquillity by those doctrines also which it maintains in regard to the ownership and dis- tribution of property held for the necessities and conveniences of life. The socialists denounce the right of property as a human invention, repugnant to the natural equality of men. They claim a community of goods ; and preach that poverty is not to be endured with patience, and that the possessions and rights of the rich can be lawfully disregarded. But the Church more wisely recognizes an inct[uality among men of different degrees in strength of body and of mind, also in the possession of goods ; and ordains that the right of proprietorship and of dominion, which comes from nature itself, is it :;f I iJ ? ! I 'I jii-; ';frti-,i : ' ,■ Ii8 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X/If. :! \ ' mu 'I ! to remain intact and inviolable to each one. For she knows that God, the author and assertcr of all right, has forbidden theft and rapine in such a manner, that it is not allowed even to covet another's goods ; and that thieves and robbers, as well as adulterers and idolaters, are excluded from the kingdom of heaven. But the Church, like a good mother, does not therefore neglect the care of the poor, or the relief of their wants. On the contrary, embracing them with maternal tenderness, and remembering that they bear the person of Christ himself, who esteems as done to Himself whatever is done to one of His little ones, she holds them in high honor ; com- forts them in every way ; raises up for them, protects and defends, asylums and hospitals to receive them, to nourish and heal them. She urges the rich, by the most pressing commandment, to distribute their superfluity among the poor ; and threatens them with the judg- ment of God, by which they shall be doomed to eternal punishment, if they refuse to relieve their afflicted brethren. Finally, she con- soles and rejoices the hearts of the poor, — now by presenting to them the example of Jesus Christ, 'who, being rich, became poor for our sakes;' and again by recalling His words by whi'i He declares the poor blessed, and bids them hope for the happiness of eternal life. Who does not see that this is the best means of appeas- ing the long quarrel between the poor and the rich ? For the very evidence of circumstances and facts shows, that, if this means is rejected, one of two alternatives must follow : either the greatest portion of mankind will be reduced to the ignominious condition of slaves, as they were long ago among the pagans ; or human society will be agitated by continual troubles, and desolated by robbery and pillage, as we have seen even in our own days. " This being the case, venerable brethren, we on whom the gov- ernment of the Church has now devolved, after having shown, from the first days of our pontificate, to princes and peoples tossed about by the violence of the tempest, the only harbor where they can find a safe refuge, moved to-day by the extreme peril which threatens,— ■ '»'«• !h ifill SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 119 we again raise our apostolic voice, and we conjure them, by thtir desire for their own security and that of the common weal, that they would listen to the teaching of the Church, which has done so much for the welfare of States, and would remember that the inter- est*? of the State and of religion are so united, that every loss inflictctl on the latter diminishes by so much the submission of subjects and the majesty of the ruler. And since they know that for the repression of socialism the Church possesses a power which is not to be found either in human laws, or in the restraints of magistrates or the arms of soldiery, let them restore to the Church that freedom which will enable her to wield her power for the common good of human society. " And do you, venerable brethren, who know the origin and the nature of the threatening evils, labor with all the energy of your souls to impress the Catholic doctrine deeply on the minds of all. Let it be your endeavor, that all may accustom themselves, even from their tenderest years, to cherish a filial love for God and rev- erence for His name ; to yield obedience to the majesty of princes and of the laws ; to curb their passions, and to observe the order which God has established in civil and domestic society. Do all that you can to prevent the children of the Church from uniting themselves with that abominable sect, or favoring it in any manner. Let them, on the contrary, by noble deeds and by their honorable conduct in all things, show to the world how happy society would be if it were entirely composed of members like them. Lastly, as socialism seeks its disciples chiefly in that class of men who follow trades or hire their labor, and whose weariness of work more easily tempts them with the desire of wealth and the hope of possessing it, it will be of great use to encourage those associa- tions of artisans and laborers which, founded under the patronage of religion, teach their members to be content with their lot, to endure their toils, and to lead a calm and tranquil life. "May our endeavors and yours, venerable brethren, be pros- lis m i ■^f):i V- I h' f .; :i ■ ' ■'.; I: &■<; l-\ I id i I20 LIFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIIL percd by Him to whom wc are in duty l)Oun(I to refer the beginning and the end of every good undert;iking ! The hope of a speedy help is raised within us by these very days in which we celeliratc tlie birtli of our Lord, who gives us also the hope of that salutar)' restoration which he, at his birth, brought to a world grown old in evils and fallen almost to the abyss of misfortune, and promises us the peace which lie then announced to men by the voice of his angels. The arm of the Lord is not shortened so as not to be able to save us, nor is his ear become heavy so as not to hear. In these sacred days, therefore, we wish you, venerable bretiiren, and the faithful of your churches, all happiness and joy ; and we fer- vently implore of Mini who gives all good gifts to men, that there may appear anew to us the goodness and humanity of Clod our Saviour, who snatches us from the power of our enemy, and lifts us up to the dignity of his childn n. And that we may more speedily and more fully enjoy these blessings, join your prayers to ours, and add to them the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, immaculate in her origin, of St. Joseph her spouse, and of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, in whose assistance we confidently trust. Meanwhile, as a pledge of the Divine gifts, we impart from the depths of our heart the apostolic benediction to you, venerable brethren, to your clergy, and to all the faithful people. "Given at St. Peter's, Rome, 28th December, 1S78, the first year of our pontificate. "LEO PP. XIIL" The Holy Father closed the first year of his pon- tificate (during which, as can be judged from the preceding chapters, he was kept very busily engaged) by celebrating in person, and causing to be celebrated by others, on the 7th of February, 1879, anniversary requiems in commemoration of the death of his pre- SOCIALISM AA'D COMMUXISM DKXOUXCED. 121 deccssor, Pius IX., in the Sistine Chapel, the Basili- cas of St. Peter, St. John Lateran, and St. Mary Major. These sen ices were attended by immense throngs of the faithful, a number of the cardinals, and other dignitaries of the Church and State, all of whom testified by their deep devotion the esteem in which the gentle Pius was held. On the 15th of February, 1879, the Pope proclaimed a general jubilee by apostolic letters running as follows : — LEO XIII., rOPE. To ail the Faithful of Christ to julioin these Presents shall come, Health and Benediction in tlic Lord. The Supreme PontilTs our predecessors, according to the ancient usage of the Roman Church, have been wont, from the commence- ment of their apostolic service, to throw open the treasures of heavenly gifts to all the faithful with paternal liberality, and to pre- scribe united prayer in the Church, so as to afford to them the opportunity of reaping spiritual benefits, and to urge them to seek the aid of the Eternal Pastor by prayers, by pious works, and by alms to the poor. And that which on the one side was an auspi- cious gift which the Supreme Pontiffs of religion from the founda- tion of the apostolic ministry imparted to their cliildren in Christ, and, as it were, a sacred pledge of the love with which they em- braced the family of Christ ; on tlic other was a solemn act of Christian piety, and an exercise of virtue by which the foithful with their pastors united with the visible Head of the Church, prayed to God that the Father of mercies would graciously regard, not his flock only, but, to use the words of St. Leo, t/ie shepiierd also of his sheep, and vouchsafe to aid, protect, and support him. m ■i -' '^■f ■Uii 122 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. With this object in view, we on the approach of the anniversary of our election, following the example of our predecessors, have determined to announce an indulgence in the form of a general jubilee to the whole Catholic world. For, in the first place, we feel how much our infirmity stands in need of an abundance of Divine graces to support us in the arduous ministry which we sustain : the experience of every day shows us how sad is the condition of the time in which we live, and to what tempests the Church is exposed in the present age ; and we cannot but fear that greater evils are yet to come, when we see the deterioration in the manage- ment of public affairs, the pernicious counsels of impious men, and the signs of heavenly wrath which have already fallen severely upon some. But inasmuch as the peculiar benefits of a jubilee consist in this, that the stains of the soul are washed away, that works of penance and charity are performed, that the duty of prayer is more earnestly discharged, and as the sacrifices of justice and the prayers which are offered up by the united intention of the whole Church are so grateful to God and so fruitful that they appear to do violence to the Divine goodness, we must entertain a firm confidence that the Heavenly Father will regard the humility of his people, and, remedy- ing the evils which exist, grant the longed-for light and consolation in their affliction. For if, as was said by the same Leo the Great, our sihiritual enemies are overcome by that correction of our faults which is due to Divine grace, the strength of our corporeal enemies also succumbs, and they are weakened by our amendment, who were formidable to us not on account of their own merits, but of our faults. Therefore we earnestly exhort all the sons of the Catholic Church, and we beseech them in the Lord, to join to ours their prayers, their supplications, their works of Christian discipline and piety, and to zealously avail themselves, with the assistance of God, for the benefit of their own souls and the welfare of the Church, of the graces offered in the jubilee in this time of heavenly mercies. %\\m M I SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 123 Wherefore, through the mercy of Almighty God, and relying upon the authority of the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and in the exercise of that power of binding and of loosing which God has conferred upon us, though unworthy, we to all the faithful in Christ residing in our august city, or visiting it, who between the first Sun- day in Lent, which is the second day of March, and the first day of June, whicli will be Whitsunday, inclusively, shall twice visit the churches of St. John Lateran, of the Prince of the Apostles, and of St. Mary Major, and there pour forth their pious prayers to God for some space of time for the prosperity and exaltation of the Catholic Church and of this Apostolic See, for the extirpation of heresies, and the conversion of all who are in error, for the con- cord of Christian princes, and of the peace and unity of all the faithful people, and for our intention, and shall fast once during the above-named time, using only abstinence food, besides the days not included in the Lenten indult, or otherwise consecrated by the precept of the Church as days of fasting, and having confessed their sins receive the Holy Eucharist, and give some alms to the poor or in aid of some pious work, as may be suggested by the piety of each ; and to others dwelling elsewhere than in the above-named city, who shall visit twice, — or, if there be only two churches, three times, or if only one, six times, — during the three above-mentioned months, three churches in the city or place of their abode, or in its suburbs, to be named by the ordinaries of the places or their vicars or officials, or, in the absence of these, by those who exercise the cure of souls, and who shall devoudy perform the other works re- cited, — grant and concede a plenary indulgence of all their sins, such as is customarily granted to those who in a year of jubilee visit cer- tain churches within and without the above-named city ; i)ermitting also that this indulgence may be applied by way of suffrage for those souls which have departed from this life joined to God in charity. Moreover, we empower the ordinaries of each locality to reduce the number of these visits, according to their discretion, in the case of !■■ I iP 1- ^ • s I' l'> !l !u9mI ;. f \ 'It 1' il •\ l\:'i 1 'II W\Wi "- ^ iliiffi: I ' ^1 Hi V r . t ifp 124 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI IT. , J If li '< :i;!' XH li ii chapters and congregations, whether of regulars or seculars, of so- dalities, confraternities, universities, or colleges, who may visit the designated churches in procession. And we grant that voyagers or travellers when they arrive at their homes, or at some other place, when they have performed the pre- scribed works, and visited six times the cathedral, or principal or parochial cliurch of their home or other place, shall be qualified to obtain this indulgence. And in regard to regulars of either sex who dwell always in cloisters ; or to laymen or ecclesiastics, regular or secular, who arc in prison or captivity, or disabled by any bodily or other infirmity, who have been unable to perform the above- named works or any of them, — we grant that a confessor approved by the ordinary may commute these for other works of piety, or post- pone 'them to a later time, and prescribe such things as the penitents may be able to perform, with the faculty of dispensing with the communion in the case of children who have not yet been admitted to their first communion. INIoreover, to all the faithful in Christ, as well to laymen as to ecclesiastics, secular and regular, of every order and institute, we grant and concede the privilege to choose to this intent as a con- fessor any priest officially approved (a privilege which may be used by nuns, novices, and other women dwelling in cloisters, provided the confessor be approved of for nuns), who, during the time indi- cated, may absolve all persons of either sex Avho come to him to make their confession with the object of obtaining the jubilee, and of performing the other works necessary for gaining it, for that time only, and in foro covscientia alone, from all ecclesiastical sentence, whether of excommunication, suspension, or othenvise, from all cen- sures a jure or ah hoinine for whatever cause imposed, or inflicted even by the ordinaries of the place, or by ourselves or the Holy See, even in cases reserved in a special manner to the Supreme Pontiff and to the Apostolic See, and which are not included in any other concession, however ample, and from all sins and excesses, however :':l' ,'i U\ » r SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 125 grave and enormous they may be, even as we have said from those which are reserved to the ordinaries, to us, and to the Apostolic See, imposing upon them a sahitary penance, and enjoining other things required by justice, and, if it be a matter of heresy, all errors being first abjured and retracted ; and he may dispense and commute for other pious and salutary works vows, even those consecrated by uath and reserved to the Holy See (excepting those of chastity, religion, and those involving obligation accepted by a third party, or in which a third party might be prejudiced, and penitential vows which are called preservatives from sin unless the commutation be considered to be of such a nature as to restrain from the commission of sin as much as- the vow itself), and with regard to penitents in this condi- tion who are in holy orders or regulars, he may dispense from secret irregularity which prevents them from the exercise of the orders which they have received, or from receiving higher orders, provided that it have been contracted only by the violation of censures. We do not, however, intend by these presents to dispense from any other irregularity, whether caused by act or by omission, or by any public, secret, known, or other incapacity, however contracted, nor to give any power to dispens them, or to re-establish in his for- mer state any one subject to them, even in for oconscientice ; nor to derogate from the constitution, with the annexed declarations, of our predecessor of happy memory, Benedict XIV., which commences Sacramentum Pcnikntice ; nor shall these presents in any way avail or be applicable to those persons who have been excommuni- cated by name, suspended, interdicted, or declared to have incurred other sentences and censures, or who have been publicly denounced, unless within the time named they shall have made satisfaction, and become reconciled, where that is necessary, with the parties. But if within the prescribed time they have not been able, in the judgment of their confessor, to make satisfaction, we grant that they may be absolved in foro cotiscientice, with the effect of enabling them to receive the indulgence of the jubilee, but enjoining upon them ll ■ i IH i ■ ■ 1 126 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL iff i;. the obligation of making satisfaction as soon as they shall be able. Wherefore, in virtue of holy obedience, by the tenor of these presents, we strictly prescribe and command all and every the ordi- naries of the whole world, their vicars and officials, or, in their ab- sence, those who exercise the cure of souls, that as soon as they have received a transcript of these present letters, or even printed copies of the same, they shall publish them, or cause them to be pul^lished, throughout their churches, dioceses, provinces, states, towns, dis- tricts, and places ; and to point out to the people, duly prepared, as far as possible, by the preaching of the word of God, the church or churches to be visited according to what has already been said. The apostolic constitutions and ordinances notwithstanding, espe- cially those by which the power of absolving in certain cases therein expressed is in such a manner reserved to the Roman Pontiff for the time being, that concessions, similar or dissimilar, of indulgences, and of faculties of that kind — unless there be express mention of them, or a special derogation of them — can profit no one; not- withstanding, also, the rule of not granting indulgences ad instar, and notwithstanding the statutes and customs of all orders, congrega- tions, and institutes, even when strengthened by oath, by apostolic confirmation, or by any other authority ; notwithstanding, also, privi- leges and letters apostolic granted, approved, and renewed, to the same orders, congregations, institutes, and their members in any way whatsoever : from all and each of which, in order to the carrying-out of the foregoing, — although of them and of their whole tenor, there should have to be special, specific, express, and individual mention, and not by general clauses conveying the same idea, or although some other expression should have to be used, or any other recog- nized form should have to be adopted to this efiect, — holding their tenor to be sufficiently expressed, and the traditional form to be observed by those presents, we on this occasion specially, nominally, and expressly derogate, all other things to the contrary notwithstand- "1 \ t SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM DENOUNCED. 127 ing. And in order that our present letters, which cannot be con- veyed to every place, may the more easily be brought to the knowledge of all persons, we will that in all places and among all peoples the same credit be accorded to copies of these presents, even when printed (provided they be subscribed by the hand of some notary public, and authenticated by the seal of a person in- vested with some ecclesiastical dignity), as would be accorded to these presents if they were exhibited or shown. • Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, under the seal of the Fisher- man, the fifteenth day of February, 1879, and the first year of our Pontificate. L. CARD. NINA. n i i\ 1 I \ ' ! .,1 i? " j I 128 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI IL w\ ;^ : j: CHAPTER XII. THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. m. i^' I I •M %ti.\ THE second year of Pope Leo's Pontificate, which opened on the 20th of February, 1879, was marked by the visit of a large concourse of the faith- ful, who crowded into St. Peter's to hear Mass, and offer up their prayers for the preservation of the Pon- tiff who promised so much for the benefit of the Church and the promotion of the cause of religion. During the da^', his Holiness received visits and con- gratulations fiom many distinguished personages, in- cluding the College of Cardinals, who called to pay their respects, and in whose name Cardinal di Pietro read an address ; to which the Pope made an appro- priate reply, thanking them for their good wishes, and bespeaking for himself a continuance of their counsel and assistance, in order that he might be encouraged, and enabled to perform his duties fearlessly and faith- fully. On the 20th, the Feast of St. Peter at Antioch, the representatives of the Catholic press throughout the world were admitted to an audience with the Holy THE SECOA'D YEAR OF POPE LEO. 129 Father ; and on this occasion the Supreme Pontiff made one of those admirable addresses for which he has become famous, and whose profound wisdom, graceful diction, and excellent spirit are beyond all praise. He assured the Catholic journalists that never before was the Church more in need of the powerful aid of the Catholic press than it was at the time he addressed them, when it was beset by perils of all sorts ; perils that threatened not alone the sanctity of truth, but which aimed at subverting the whole fabric of state and society. He urged upon them to be valiant in their defence of the truth, to be watchful of the insidious attacks of error and unbelief; but, at the same time, to be moderate and temperate in their use of language, to endeavor to avoid all rancor in their disputes with their adversaries, and to be harmonious among themselves, and faithful to the teachings and views of the Church. " For," said he, " the necessity of this concord appears the greater when we remem- ber, that, even among those who are numbered as Catholics, there are some who take it upon themselves to decide and define on their private judgment public controversies of the gravest moment, which concern even the condition of the Apostolic See, and who ap- pear to entertain opinions which cannot be reconciled with the liberty and dignity of the Roman Pontiff." With the greatest emphasis, the Holy Father then uttered these words : " It is therefore of the utmost in 130 LIFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIII. .1 i '1ni :'i ' i»: "! \ importance, that no occasion of error may remain, to remind Catliolics that the supreme power of the Church, divinely conferred upon Peter and his suc- cessors, that it might keep the whole family of Christ in the faith, and conduct them to the eternal happiness of the heavenly kingdom, must, according to the ap- pointment of Christ Himself, be exercised with the fullest freedom ; and, to insure this freedom in every part of the world, an all-wise Providence ordained that after the dangers and troubles of the early period of the Church, a civil princedom should be attached to the Roman Church, and preserved intact through a long series of ages, amidst the changes of revolution and the wreck of kingdoms. For this weighty reason, and not, as we have often said, impelled by ambition or the lust of power, the Roman Pontiffs have ever felt it their sacred duty to defend this civil sovereignty from violation or disturbance, and to preserve intact the sacred rights of the Church of Rome ; and we ourselves, following the example of our predecessors, have not failed, nor will we ever fail, to assert and vindicate those rights." It can readily be supposed that these words of the Holy Father made a deep and lasting impression on the journalists who had the happiness of listening to them. Absorbed as his mind was with the complications of European matters, the Holy Father was far from forgetting the Catholic Church in the United States. l::l THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 131 One of the first acts, if not the very first, which (the giving of the cardinal's hat to Archbishop McCloskey excepted) he performed in behalf of the American Church, was to appoint Bishop Charles John Seghers, then of Vancouver's Island, archbishop and coadjutor to the venerable Archbishop Blanchet of Oregon City. Archbishop Seghers is a native of Ghent, Belgium, and an alumnus of the famous Lou- vain University. He is now again Ordinary of Van- couver's Island ; and at the time these lines are being written, he is engaged in visiting the distant missions of Alaska, whence, only a few days ago, word came that he had been assaulted and robbed by an Esqui- mau or Indian Rob Roy, who has long been in the habit of levying toll on every one who passed his way. Monsignor Seghers, in view of his having been archbishop, — a dignity he resigned in order to return again to the arduous labors of the Vancouver dio- cese, — enjoys the distinction, which was allowed him by the Pope, and which he is said to be the sole one to possess, of being called Archbishop- Bishop Seghers. He is one of the most pious, indefatigable, and self- sacrificing members of the American hierarchy. Later on in the year, at the consistory of May 15, he appointed Very Rev. Lawrence S. McMahon, pastor of St. Lawrence's Church, New Bedford, bishop of Hartford, to succeed the late Bishop Galberry ; and Rev. John Vertin, pastor of St. Paul's Church, Ne- \, v\ \\ 132 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XII L I ; gaunee, Mich., bishop of Marquette and Sauk St. Marie, as successor to the deceased Bishop Mrak. Bishop McMahon was born in New Brunswick in 1835 ; coming, however, to the United States at an early age, and settling with his parents at Charles- town. He made his first studies for the priesthood at Holy Cross College, Worcester, Mass. When that institution was destroyed by fire, the future bishop went to Montreal, and, after remaining there for a time, entered St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, where he made his course of philosophy under the direction of the Sulpician Fathers. He next visited Aix in France, where he continued his theological studies ; and finally went to Rome, where, having finished his course, he was raised to the dignity of the priesthood in i860. Father McMahon returned to the United States soon after his ordination, and was assigned, by the late Bishop Fitzpatrick, to the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston. During our civil war, he acted as chaplain of the Twenty-eighth Massachusetts Regi- ment, and on his return from the war was assigned to the pastoral charge of the Church of St. Thomas Aquinas, Bridgewater, Mass. In July, 1865, he was appointed pastor of St. Lawrence's Church, New Bed- ford, Mass., where he labored until made bishop. He was made vicar-general of the Providence diocese in 1872 by the late Bishop Hendricken. His brother. Rev. John W. McMahon, is pastor of St. Mary's, Charlestown, Mass. s f:.'!'.; THE SECOA'D YEAR OF POPE LEO. 133 Right Rev. John Vertin is a native of Doblicc, Aus- tria, where he was born in 1844. He came to this country in 1863, and was ordained three years later. His first mission was at St. Ignatius' Church, Hough- ton, and dependent missions. In the following year he succeeded Father Brown as pastor, and was alone in his work. He continued to minister to the wants of the Catholics of that region for five years ; when, in 1870, the Right Rev. Bishop Mrak transferred him to the pastoral charge of St. Paul's Church, Negaunee, Mich., where he was still doing the work of his Master when the news reached him, that he was appointed by his Holiness, Pope Leo XIII., to succeed the Right Rev. Dr. Mrak in the see of Marquette, Mich. Still later on in the year, at the consistory of Sept. 22, the Pope issued a brief appointing Rt. Rev. Fran- cis Leray administrator of the archdiocese of New Orleans, La., with right of succession ; and Rev. J. B. A. Brondel, bishop of Vancouver's Island. The former has since succeeded to the New Orleans see, and the latter has been transferred to the vicarate of Idaho. But the most important act, perhaps, of Leo XIII., during the second year of his pontificate, was his issu- ance, on Aug. 4, 1879, of a bull beginning ^terni Patris Filius, in which he declared that in all Cath- olic schools the study of philosophy and theology should be based on the system adopted by St. Thomas. 134 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL So well pleased were the American prelates with this utterance of the Holy Father, that on the 20th of Feb- ruary, 1880, Cardinal McCloskey of New York, Arch- bishop Williams of Boston, Wood of Philadelphia, together with their fourteen suffragan bishops, united in writing Pope Leo a letter, in which they said, — ¥\c4i " Most Holy Father, — We have read with the greatest joy the encyclical letter which your Holiness addressed in the month of August last to the bishops of the Catholic world, exhorting them to excite the zeal of the clergy and of all other learned men in favor of the philosophical and theological doctrine and method of St. Thomas. . . . You have clearly perceived, and you prove beyond a doubt, that it is impossible to meet the errors which crowd in upon us from every side, unless we return to the ancient methods of philosophy in our schools. For, since men of rebellious minds and unbridled license of opinion have rejected the teachings of the Fathers and the guidance of St. Thomas, it is hardly possible to tell how many and what monstrous errors have taken possession of the schools of philosophy. ... On our part, we promise to second your desires to the best of our power. We will see that no school or seminary of higher studies in our dioceses shall fail to imbue its students with the pure doctrine of St. Thomas ; and we thank you. Most Holy Father, for your vindication of the great Doctor of the Church, and for your efforts to promote the true progress of all science." .a The bull in full is given below as a perpetual memory of the great homage the Pope paid to the great doctor and saint, for whose teachings he always had the profoundest regard and reverence, and of THE SECOA'D YEAR OF POPE LEO. 135 whose tloctrines he is himself one cf the foremost and most faithful exponents. An encyclical which won such high praise from the American hierarchy is surely worthy of a place in these pages. Here it is in its entirety : — ♦' To all the Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, and Bishops of the Catholic world, in grace and communion with the Apostolic See. "Veneraiu.f, Brethren, — Health and Apostolic Benediction. The only begotten Son of the Eternal Father, who appeared on earth to bring salvation and the light of wisdom to the human race, evidently conferred a great and wonderful benefit on the world when he bade His apostles, as He was again about to ascend into heaven, 'Going, teach ye all nations,' and left the Church which He had founded as the supreme ruler of all peoples. For those men whom truth had made free, had to be preserved '1 that truth ; nor could it be expected that the fruits of the heavenly doctrines through which salvation comes to man should last long, unless Christ our Ix)rd established a perpetual supreme teaching body to instruct the minds of men in the faith. The Church being, then, once built on the promises of its Divine Author, and imitating his charity, so ful- filled His behests as to continually keep in view, and desired chiefly to enforce religion and ceaselessly combat error. To this end, indeed, tend the ever-watchful labors of the bishops, the laws and decrees of councils, and, most of all, the daily solicitude of the Roman Pontiffs, whose right and office it is, as the lawful successors of the blessed Peter, prince of the Apostles, to teach and confirm their brethren in the faith. Hence, as the minds of Christians are mostly deceived, and the purity of faith corrupted in men by a vain and false philosophy, as the apostles tell us, it has become the press- ing duty of the Supreme Pastors of the Church to promote true IP > :i i^'^. 4 136 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL '■ i ; ?:^ \m VA 'i'; science with their every energy, and with more than ordinary fore- sight to take care that all human discipline conform to the rule of Catholic faith, and more especially philosophy, as on it alone depends, in great part, a correct knowledge of the other sciences. Of this, among other things, we ourselves briefly spoke when first, venerable brethren, we addressed you in our encyclical letters ; but now the very weighty and growing importance of the matter, and the condition of the times, urge us again to conbult with you aljout introducing a plan of philosophical studies which may fitly meet the wants of a sound feith, and be at the same time in harmony with the dignity of the human sciences. " If any one take pains to think a while on the bitterness of our age, and try to account in his mind for those things which occur around him in private and in public, he will assuredly find that the fruitful source of present and anticipated evil may be traced to a wrong knowledge of Divine and human things, which, originating in the schools of philosophy, crept gradually into every grade of society, and was afterwards adopted by a common consent. P"or, since it is innate in the nature of man to follow reason as his guide, if his intellect sin in any thing, his will easily yields thereto ; whence it happens that pernicious opinions, whose root is in the intelligence, cjuickly control and pervert human actions. On the other hand, if the mind of man is sound and strongly imbued with true and solid pnnciples, it is productive of many advantages, both for the indi- vidual and general good. Yet we do not attach that much power and authority to human philosophy as to judge it equal to a com- plete overthrowing and uprooting of every form of error, and for this reason : when, for instance, the Cliristian religion was first established, the world was restored to its primal dignity, not so much by spreading the admirable light of faith in the persuasive words of human wisdom, as in tlie showing of the spirit and power ; so also now it is to be hoped, that, the darkness of error being removed by the omnipotent power and help of God, the minds of THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. n7 men may once more be disposed to repentance. Nor, in the accomplishment of this object, are these national means to be despised or set aside, with which, in disposing of all things fitly and sweetly, God, in his goodness, supplies the human race ; and amongst these means the rightful use of philosophy holds the first place. For God did not impart to the human mind the riglit of reason in vain, nor has the light of faith either extinguisliod or diminished it : on the contrary, it has only perfected it, and by increasing its powers has made it capable of the greatest things. Wherefore it is, that, in recalling nations to faith and salvation, the plan of Divine Providence itself seeks the aid of human science ; and to this day the monuments of antiquity bear witness to the wise and prudent care with which the most distinguished Fathers of the Church reduced it to practice. Nor were they wont to give reason the fewest and least important parts in the rule of science j as is very truly stated by the great Augustine, who says that by the aid of science a most healthful faith is begotten, nourished, defended, and strengthened. " In the first place, then, philosophy, if properly understood by scientists, does, in some manner, lead the way to the true faith, and quietly prepares the mind of the student for the reception of revela- tion. Hence it has not inapdy been called by tlie ancients the first step to Christian faith, the prelude and aid of Christianity, and teacher of the gospel. "And, in every thing appertaining to Divine things, a most benign God has wisely disclosed, by the light of faith, not only such truths as are beyond the reach of the human intellect, but has even revealed some which are not at all impervious to reason, so that, God's authority assisting, they might readily be known by every one, without any admixture of error ; whence it is that some truths which are either divinely proposed to our belief, or are clearly knit together \v'ith the doctrine of faith, have been known to the pagan philosophers by the light of reason, and by them elucidated and ill ' ? >»J 138 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. m w M 11' defended by fitting arguments. * For the invisible things of Him, from the creation of the world, are,' as the apostle says, * clearly seen, being understood by the things which are made ; His eternal power also, and divinity ; and the Gentiles, not having a law, show, nevertheless, the work of the law written in their hearts.' Now, it is exceedingly opportune to turn, as is plain, these truths to the use and advantage of revealed doctrine, although discovered by the pagan philosophers themselves, and make human wisdom and the testimony of our enemies contribute to the support of Christian faith ; and this method of argument is not new, but very old, and has been often used by the holy Fathers of the Church. Nay, more : even the venerable witnesses and preservers of religious traditions recognize a certain form and figure of this thing in the fact that the Hebrews, when leaving Egypt, were ordered to take with them the vessels of silver and gold and precious vestments, that, changing the object of their use, these articles, which had hitherto subserved the purposes of superstition and the most de- graded rites, might be dedicated to the religion of the true Deity. Under this head, Gregory of Neoca^sarea praises Origen for having ingeniously availed himself of the choicest pagan writings, which, as so many weapons snatched from the enemy, he turned with a rare skilfulness to the patronage of Christian learning and the over- throw of superstition. And this same line of argument is admired and approved of in the works of Basil the Great, both by Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa ; Jerome commends it very much in Quadratus, a disciple of the apostles, and in Aristides, Justin, Irenseus, and several others. ' Do we not see,' says Augustine, * what a surfeit of gold, silver, and apparel Cyprian., the mildest of doctors and most blessed of martyrs, carried out of Egypt? How much did Lactantius, Victorinus, Optatus, and Hilary accomplish? And, not to speak of the living, see what so many Greeks have achieved in the same direction.' But if natural reason so extended this rich field of learning before it had been fertilized by the power ]■■ (f- T^E SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 139 of Christ, how much more fruitful will it be after the grace of the Saviour has renewed and increased the powers of the human mind ? Who is it, therefore, who cannot see how plainly and feasibly this method of reasoning opens the way to faith? " Nor is the benefit accruing from this style of argumentation confined to these limits ; and, indeed, in the language of Divine wisdom, the folly of those men is severely reprehended, who ' by these good things that are seen could not understand Him that is, nor by attending to the works have acknowledged who was the workman.' In the first place, then, one great and glorious result of human reason is, that it demonstrates there is a God ; ' for by the greatness and the beauty of the creature the Creator in them may be seen, so as to be known thereby.' Next, it shows that God excels in each and in every degree of perfection. First of all, in '-^finite wisdom, from which nothing lies hidden, and in perfect >vi ^e. which no evil propensity can ever overcome ; and, therefor ' > is not only truth, but the very truth that cannot be deceived nor deceive ; from which it clearly follows, that human reason reconciles the fullest faith and authority with the Word of God. In like manner it declares that the doctrine of the gospel was distinguished, even from the beginning, by some wonderful signs as sure guaranties of a certain truth ; and accordingly every one who attaches faith to the gospel does not attach it rashly thereto, as one would to well-known fables, but gives up to Divine authority his intelligence and judgment with a submission which is altogether reasonable. Nor must we be understood to esteem as of little importance the fact that reason, as the Vatican Synod declares, sets up conspicuously the establishment of the Church of Christ * on account of its wonderful propagatioii, its renowned sanctity, its inexhaustible fruitfulness in all places, its Catholic unity, and its in- vincible stability, which is a great and continual motive of its credi- bility, and an unanswerable proof of its Divine mission.' " A solid basis is thus established ; yet a steady and varied prac- '|1 If! ij' \ 'I 11 fi I 5i IS: ')]! ■I i i I i ft 'It, ' i'' I !■ ■! 1 f : Hi;' : '■ir I 140 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI IT. tice of philosophy is needed to enable sacred theology to take up and put on the nature, habit, and quality of a true science. For in this noblest of sciences, there is a pressing need that the many and divers parts of heavenly doctrine be collected together so as to form one body, and that each part be nicely fitted to its own place, and, being deduced from special principles, all be linked together by an appropriate bond ; finally, that each and singular be confirmed by its own arguments, and those such as could not be gainsaid. Nor is it meet to pass over in silence, or make little or no account of that more accurate and deeper knowledge of things which are believed, and of that somewhat keener insight of the mysteries of faith, which St. Augustine and other Fathers praised and endeavored to acquire, and which the Vatican Synod declared to be most beneficent. And, in fact, it is certain that this knowledge and insight are more easily and fully acquired by those who unite to integrity of life and fiiith a mind for study which has been cultured by philosophic discipline ; and the more particularly so is this evident, as the same Vatican Synod teaches, when the thorough understanding of the sacred dogmas must be looked for, on the one hand, * from the analogy of those things which are known naturally, and, on the other hand, from the mutual relation of the sacred mysteries to each other and to the last end of man.' " It is, moreover, the office of philosophic study to guard reli- giously truths divinely transmitted to us, and to resist those who dare to oppose them. Hence it is the greatest honor for philosophy to be called the bulwark of faith and the stronghold of religion. * Verily it is,' as Clement of Alexandria testifies, ' in itself a perfect doctrine, and needs no patron, inasmuch as it is the power and wisdom of God. The aid of Greek philosophy did not strengthen truth, but only weakened the arguments of sophists, and repelled their cunningly devised subtleties, so that it is aptly called the ditch and rampart of truth.' In reality, as the enemies of the Catholic name, in their attack on religion, borrow much of their arsenal of THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 141 philosophy, so in turr the champions of the Divine sciences help themselves plentifully from the stores of philosophy with such means as may enable them to defend the dogmas of Revelation. Nor is it any small triumph for Christian faith if we consider that the same weapons which human reason had artificially designed to do mis- chief are by the same human reason powerfully and skilfully wielded to the discomfiture of the enemy. St. Hilary relates, writing to Magnics, that this species of religious warfare was adopted even by the Apostle of the Gentiles : ' Paul, the leader and irrepressible orator of the Christian army, pleading in the interests of Christ, artfully twists a casual inscription into an argument for the faith ; for he had learned from the true David how to wrench the sword from the hand of the enemy, and cut off with its blade the head of the haughty Goliah.' And the Church itself not only persuades but commands the doctors of Christianity to seek this assistance from philosophy. In latter times, the fifth council of Lateran decided ' as wholly false every assertion contrary to the truth of enlightened faith, for the reason that truth never contradicts truth,' and in- structed the teachers of philosophy to give their closest attention to the study and solution of dangerous problems. S. Augustine justly remarks, that ' if reason turn against the authority of the Divine Scriptures, however keen it be, it fails in its likeness to truth, it cannot be true.' " But in order that philosophy may be found equal to the task of producing the precious fruitt- we have mentioned, it is important that there be no defection from that path entered upon by the ancient Fathers, and which the Vatican Council indorsed by the solemn voice of authority ; when, for example, it is distinctly understood that very many truths of the supernatural order are to be accepted which far transcend the acunen of the greatest minds. Human reason, sensible of its own weakness, must not dare to essay any thing greater than itself; nor deny these truths, nor measure them by its own power, nor interpret them at will ; but rather accept them :ii^ f'i ' ' - g. jg -. "— )■ ' i'i ■ ,'!' !■ 142 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. :H !i. ■'1 1 1 i!.' IH- M with an entire and humble faith, gain the highest place of honor it is possible for it to attain, and by its fidelity, even as a handmaid and servant to the heavenly doctrines, attain them in the goodness of God by some means or other. But in all these leading doctrines which the human intelligence can naturally apprehend, it is only meet that philosophy use its own method, principles, and argu- ments, — not in a way, however, which may seem to boldly under- value Divine authority. Nay, when it is plain that these truths which became known by revelation have a fixed force in truth, and those which are hostile to faith are opposed to right reason, then the Catholic philosopher should understand that he violates the rights of faith and reason if he draws any conclusion opposed to revealed doctrine. " Indeed, we know there are some who, extolling the powers of human nature extravagantly, maintain that the intelligence a man loses its native dignity once it submits to Divine authority, and bowing itself down, as it were, to the yoke of slavery, is stayed and hampered in its march to the summit of truth and excellence. Such opinions as these are full of error and deception, and at length only lead men to the height of their folly and criminal ingratitude to spurn the more sublime truths, and willingly reject the Divine favor of faith which is the source of every good that permeates civil society. For the human mind is hemmed in by certain lines, and these exceedingly straitened : it is prone to a multitude of errors, and to an ignorance of many things. On the contrary, the Christian faith, resting on Divine authority, is the surest mistress of truth ; and whoever follows it falls not into the snares of error, ' nor is tossed about on the waves of doubtful opinions.' For this reason it is, that those who bring to the study of philosophy a dutiful submission to Christian faith are the best philosophers ; since the splendor of Divine truths taken into the mind assists the intelligence, and, instead of lessening in any degree its dignity, only imparts to it much more of nobility, acumen, and solidity. Whenever brilliancy of talent is THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. M3 directed to the refutation of errors adverse to faith, and in supporting whatever is in unison with it, the reason is fittingly exercised, and with the greatest advantage : for in the former the causes of error are pointed out, and the faulty arguments which bolster them up readily discovered j whilst in the latter the value of every reason in proof of faith is duly weighed, so as to carry persuasion to every sincere mind. To deny that the industry and rvactice acquired by this method of disputation does not increase uie wealth of the mind and expand its faculties, or to maintain that the distinction between truth and falsehood contributes nothing to the development of the mind, is in itself necessarily absurd. Deservedly, therefore, does the Vati- can Synod note, in these words, the exalted benefits bestowed on reason through the instrumentality of faith : ' Faith frees and pro- tects reason from errors, and supplies it with diverse knowledge.' Therefore it is the duty of man, if he is wise, not to be fault- finding with faith, as inimical to reason and natural truths ; but be more than ever grateful to God, and heartily delighted that, amid so many sources of ignorance and waves of error, a most holy faith shines upon him, which will lead him, as a friendly star, beyond all fear of wandering, and safely conduct him to the harbor of truth. " But if you examine, venerable brethem, the history of philoso- phy, you will find that all we have said above is sustained by fact. And, indeed, many of the ancient philosophers, who lacked the boon of faith, even those who were esteemed the wisest amongst them, grossly erred in many things. To mention only a few, you are aware how often they taught doctrines as false and unsound as they were uncertain and doubtful : concerning the true nature of the Divinity j the primal origin of things ; the government of the world ; the Divine knowledge of future events ; the cause and principle of evil ; the last end of man ; eternal happiness ; the virtues and the vices ; and like doctrines, a true and perfect knowledge of which was indispens- able to the human race. On the other hand, the Doctors and Fathers of the Church, clearly understanding from the counsel of the ?, M 144 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL in I i m' Divine will that Christ, who was * the power of God and the wisdom of God,' and in whom 'are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge,' was to restore human science, began to examine the books of the old philosophers, and to compare their teaching with revealed doctrines ; and whenever they met any truth in word or wisdom in thought, this they culled with most prudent care, and either corrected or rejected every thing else. For as God in His providence raised up brave martyrs, prodigal of life, to defend the Church against the tyranny of its persecutors, so, too. He matches with false philosophers and heretics men distinguished for their learning, and who guarded the treasury of revealed truths by the very aid of human reason. From the very beginning of the Church, therefore, the Catholic doctrine overcame the very bitterest of its enemies, who. scouting the dogmas and institutes of the early Chris- tians, taught a plurality of gods ; that the world lacked a first cause and principle ; that the tide of events was directed by a blind power or chance necessity, and not regulated by the wisdom of Divine Providence. At this very moment, learned men, known as ' apolo- gists,' quickly grappled with the teachers of these irrational doc- trines, and, with faith leading the advance, constructed arguments from human reason to prove that only one God, excelling in every perfection, was to be worshipped ; that all things were made from nothing, by Omnipotent Power ; and that every thing was sustained, directed, and moved towards its proper end, by Omnipotent Wisdom. As chief amongst these 'apologists,' St. Justin, martyr, holds the first rank. He it was who critically examined the most celebrated acade- mies of Greece to ripen his experience, and at a later day made open confession ; who, when he foresaw that truth could only be drawn from revealed doctrine, embraced it with such earnestness of soul as to remove calumnies, to defend it with vigor and fluency, and recon- cile to it many of the arguments of the Greek philosophers. "Quadratus, Aristides, Hermas, and Athenagoras distinguished themselves in this department much about the same time. Nor 11' I!!! THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO, 145 had Ircnnsus, the hero-martyr and Bishop of Lyons, achieved less glory in tlie cause. His is the honor of having vigorously refuted the preposterous opinions of the Orientals, and of having explained the Clnostic d(jctrines then spread throughout the Roman Empire, and, as Jerome testifies, 'defined the origin of all heresies, and from what schools of philosophy they emanated.' And who is not acquainted with the controversies of Clement of Alexandria, whom Jerome, already quoted, thus honorably mentions? 'What is it,' he asks, 'that is untaught in these controversies? Nay, is not philosophy itself rent in twain?' Indeed, he wrote on an incredible variety of subjects, with a view to establish the history of philosophy, the practice of the art of dialectics, and to effect a long-wished-for harmony between reason and faith. Next to him c .iie Origen, a man renowned as a teacher in the schools of Alexandria, and deeply versed in the learning of the Greeks and Orientals, and the inde- fatigable author of many voluminous works explanatory of sacred lit- erature, and remarkably opportune in their illustration of the sacred dogmas. And although these works, as now extant, are not alto- gether free of error, yet they embrace a large range of subjects which, in number and solidity, tend to advance the natural truths. TertuUian combats the heretics by the authority of the sacred writings, and, cijanging the weapons of attack, confounds the philoso- phers by philosophy, and so ingeniously and learnedly outwits them as to be able to confront them openly and boldly in these words : ' We are not surpassed, as you imagine, either in science or contro- versy.' Arnobius also, in his published books against the Gen- tiles, and Lactantius, chiefly in his * Divine Institutions,' strive, with like eloquence and power, to rationally persuade men of the dogmas and precepts of Catholic wisdom, and to win them back, not by the overthrow of philosophy, as was the wont of the academicians, but partly by using their own arms, and pardy by taking advantage of the mutual differences between the philosophers themselves. In their writings, as left us, on the human soul, and the Divine attri- ijiik 111 lii ^li' » I M Vj : !;P 146 LIFE A, WD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. i ^i' r- 9^ butes, and other questions of great moment, the great Athanasius and Chrysostom, the prince of orators, are, in the judgment of every one, so excellent, that little or any thing needs to be added to their sub- tility and copiousness. And if, in recounting each one, we weary not, we will add to the number of the truly great men already men- tioned the names of Basil the Great and the two Gregories, who left Athens, the home of the sciences, thoroughly versed in the intricacies of the schools of philosophy, only to use this wealth of learning, thus fashioned by each one to his own purpose, when fired with zeal, in the refutation of heresy and defence of Christianity. But from all these apologists, Augustine appears to have deservedly carried off the palm of excellence, as one of unusually powerful endowments, and, skilled in its fulness in sacred and profane science, warred bitterly against all the errors of his time with a like profound foith and learn- ing. What point in philosophy has he not reached, — yea, rather, that he has most carefully investigated, — whether in disclosing to the faithful the greatest mysteries of faith, and defending them against the vain attacks of the enemy ; or when, after wiping out the devices of the academicians and Manicheans, he lays in safety the base and superstructure of human science, or traces out the manner, origin, and cause of the evils which afflict man ? How much has he written on angels, the soul, the human mind, free will, religion, beatitude, time and eternity, and discussed with subtility the nature of mutable bodies I After this time, John Damascene, in the East, follows in the footsteps of Basil and Gregory Nazianzen ; and in the West, Boetius and Anselm profess the doctrines of Augustine, and greatly enrich and extend the domain of philosophy. " Next came the doctors of the Middle Ages, the ' scholastics,' who began a work of the greatest magnitude ; namely, to gather to- gether the rich and abundant harvest of learning found scattered in the huge tomes of the Fathers, and, thus garnered, to lay them aside in one place for the use and convenience of po' ' erity. And here, venerable brethren, it is pleasing to open out mor'^ in detail, and up % THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 147 in the words of a most learned man, our predecessor, Sixtus V., the origin, growth, and excellence of scholastic training : ' By a Divine dispensation of Him wlio alone bestows the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, and who, throughout the long chain of ages, endows and provides His Church, as needs be, with new graces and new helps, a system of scholastic theology has been devised by a large number of our most learned men, and which two doctors have especially distinguished, — the angelic S. Thomas, and the seraphic S. Bonaventure, highly renowned professors of this faculty, culti- vated and adorned by a high order of talent, patient study, great labor and care, and, having well arranged and clearly explained it, left it to posterity. And the knowledge of so salutary a science, flowing as it does from the exuberant fountains of sacred literature, of the Sovereign Pontiffs, of the Fathers and Councils, must always assuredly be the greatest help to the Church, whether it be in the wisely understanding and truly interpreting the Scriptures, or in use- fully reading and safely explaining the Fathers, in detecting and refuting the various errors and heresies ; but in these latter days in which we have fallen, or those dangerous times described by the apostle, when proud and impious men, seducers wandering away from truth, rush into every excess, leading others into error, it is a pre-eminent duty to strengthen the dogmas of Catholic faith, and combat heresy.' And although these words seem to point only to scholastic theology, it is clear they have a bearing, too, on philoso- phy and its praises. Indeed, these very characteristics which cause scholastic theology to be so dreadfully feared by the enemies of truth, namely, as the same Pontiff adds, 'that fitness and mutual connection of things between themselves ; that cohesiveness of causes ; that order and plan as of soldiers in battle-array ; that solidity of argument ; these sharp controversies, and pellucid dis- tinctions and definitions, through which light is distinguished from darkness, and truth from falsehood, and the lies of heresy covered up under countless cunning tricks and delusions, — are, as a vesture Mi'! ill 1; iitf ill! A' H • l] I i ■■: m hs LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XUL . Hit rent in pieces, exposed and laid bare.' Now, \vc say that all these admirable and wonderful prophecies are only to be found in a correct use of that philosophy wiiich the scholastic masters, after much pains-taking and wise counsel, were accustomed to adopt even in theological controversies. Jksides, when yon consider that it is the singular privilege and province of scholastic theologians to unite, in closest ties, human and Divine science, it is certain that theology, in wiiich they excelled, will not obtain its due meed of honor and attention in the opinions of men if it betrays a lame, imperfect, and superficial philosophy. " Now, as i)rince and master, Thomas Aquinas far outshines every one of the scholastic doctors. ' For, whilst he had,' as Cajetan re- marks, ' the deepest veneration for the holy doctors of antiquity, he shared, so to speak, tiie intellect of all of them.' Thomas gathered together tlieir doctrines, scattered about like the members of a body, enlarged them, put them in methodical order, and made such copious additions to them that he may be rightly and deservedly regarded as the glory and matchless defender of the Catholic Church. Of a docile disposition, his memory pliable and retentive, his life perfect, an intense love of truth, very rich in Divine and human sciences, he nourished like the sun the whole universe by the warmth of virtue, and filled it with the lustre of his leari^jng. There is no part of pliilosophy that he has not handled fully antKthoroughly. He has treated so clearly of the laws of reasoning, of ClcJtk^nd incorporeal substances, of man and the senses, of human acts auiSs their principles, that nothing is wanting under these heads, neither in his ample store of questions, nor in his neat arrangement of tlie parts, nor in his choice method of proceeding, nor in the solidity of his principles, nor in the strength of his arguments, nor in the per- spicuity and propriety of his diction, nor in his peculiar faculty of explaining the most abstruse things. " It may be further added, that the Angelic Doctor drew philo- sophical conclusions from the purport and principle of things, which THE SECOXD YEAR OF POPE LEO. 149 he spread far and wide, and shut up, as in their own breasts, the seeds of ahnost infinite truths to be tUsclosed in an opportune time, and with happiest results, to more modern masters. The hne of ar- gument, also, which he used in the refutation of error, was his own \ so that he warred sinyle-haniled against all the errors of former ages, and supplied the most invincible arms to scatter to the winds all those which in the course of time and change might spring up in the future. Moreover, in distinguishing reason especially from fiiiih, as is proper, he acceptably harmonized one with the other, ts to • on- serve the right, and consult the dignity of both to such . r. exteuf. that reason was borne on the wings of Thomas so near the pi;ina'-!o of human perfection that it dare scarcely mount any higher, whilst faith cannot be honored by reason with any more valid arf]:\u;i'.nts ii?. its favor than it has secured through the instrumentality 01" Tiiomas. " Hence some most learned men, distinguished oliiiu in the iklds of theology and philoso])hy, and particularly those oS. cadier tlmt*-', having sought out with invincible zeal the immortal works of 'I'liomas, devoted themselves to their study, not so much for the ] arpose cC acquiring a polished education, as to be interioily nourished Ijy his angelic wisdom. It is admitted that nearly all the founder.-; and '..(W- givers of the religious orders have directed their subjects I0 study;, and most conscientiously, the doctrines of S. Thomas, and with this warning, that no one depart with impunity one tittle from the foot- steps of so great a man. To omit the Dominican family, who glory in this great master as by right their own, we find that Benedictines, Carmelites, Augustinians, the Society of Jesas, and many other holy orders, are bound by this law, as their statutes prove. "And here the mind turns with much pleasure to the celebrated schools and academies which once flourished in ilurope ; namely, at Paris, Salamanca, Alcala, Douai, Toulouf'?, i.ouvain, Padua, Bologna, NN^les, Coimbra, and in other plar:es. Every one knows how the great mtiS^^of these academies increased in their day, and how in matters of wei^Ssi^ moment they were consulted, and their decisions ISO LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. wl'J i' I ': i: in most cases obeyed. It is, moreover, now known for certain, that in all these vast cstabhshments Tlionias reigned supreme as in his own kingdom ; and the minds of all, both teachers and pupils, in wonderful unison, abided by the decision and authority of this one Angelic Doctor. " But what is of greater importance and to our purpose, the Roman Pontiffs, our predecessors, have discoursed on the wisdom of S. Thomas in the most flattering terms and commendations of praise. Clement VI., Nicholas V., Benedict XIII., and others, witness the fact that the Universal Church was enrolled by his admirable doctrines ; S. Pius V. admits that by this same doctrine heresy, confounded and attainted, was sent adrift, and the world was freed daily from the most pestilential errors ; others, with Clem- ent XII., declared that the most abundant blessings were bestowed upon the Universal Church by his writings, and aiifirmed that he was to be honored with the very same honor which was paid to the greatest Doctors of the Church, as Gregory, Ambrose, Augus- tine, and Jerome ; others, again, did not hesitate to propose S. Thomas as the great model to be followed in safety by academies and higher lyceums. And in this connection the words of the blessed Urban V. to the Academy of Toulouse are worthy of mention : ' We wish, and by the tenor of these presents enjoin, you to follow the doctrine of the blessed Thomas as most truthful and Catholic, and that you study to amplify it with all your might.' This example of Urban was followed by Innocent XII. in the Louvain Univer- sity of Studies, and in the Dionysian College of Granda. To these verdicts of the Sovereign Pontiffs may be added, by way of accu- mulative evidence, the testimony of Innocent VI. ; ' Except the canonical writings, his [Thomas's] has, above all others, a fitness of expression, a style of diction, an honesty of opinion, thut those who hold to it are hardly ever found to have strayed away from the line of truth ; and he who has impugned it has ever been looked upon as wanting in truth.' we philo are give more best tic pi supnl tary sixtet any inves THE SECOXD YEAR OF POPE LEO. i!;i " Even the CEcumenical Councils, in whicli shone tlie most bril- liant wisdom of the world, vied in doing honor to Thomas Acjuinas. In the Councils of Lyons, Vienna, Florence, and that of the V^atican, Thomas assisted, and you miglit almost say presided, at the delibera- tions and decrees of the Fathers ; contending with irresistible power and happiest results against the errors of the Greeks, heretics, and rationalists. But Thomas's chiefest and special honor, and one he shares not in common with any of the Catholic Doctors, is, thiit the Fridentine Fathers, in the midst of the conclave, for order's sake, desired to place the Siimvia of the Aquinate on the altar beside the books of Sacred Scripture, and the decrees of the Sovereign Pontiffs, that they might seek therein counsel, guidance, and light. " Finally, it seems that to this incomparable man was also re- served the honor of forcibly drawing from the very enemies of the Catholic name a dutiful submission, respect, and admiration. For it has been discovered that the leaders of heretical factions openly boasted that they would be a match for all the Catholic Doctors, ' and, entering into the contest, conciuer and destroy the Church,' if only the works of Thomas Aquinas were removed out of reach. An empty boast, indeed, on their part, bi.t not an empty admis- sion. For these reasons and motives, venerable brethren, the oftcner we look at the excellency, power, and signal advantages of his philosophical system, so highly esteemed by our elders, the more are we inclined to judge it an act of sheer rashness to have fiiiled to give him his due meed of honor always and everywhere ; and the more so, since daily experience, and the judgment of great men, and, best of all, the suffrage of the Church, favored the study of scholas- tic philosophy. Therefore a new style of philosophy succeeded and supplanted, here and there, the old, lacking those desirable and salu- tary fruits so much needed by the Church and civil society. In the sixteenth century the Reformers undertook to philoso[)hize without any respect to faiths, seeking and giving by turns the power of investigation, according to each one's will and caprice. Whence it 1' il I f I m y\ l^• i=;2 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. ^::ii W V\ i; • f t ■ M ? ! ■e I li .' i .« ■i' ill/' happened, that all sorts of philosophies multiphed beyond measure, and a variety of opinions, adverse one to the other, sprang up, even on matters of greatest importance, in the reahn of human knowl- edge ; and from this multitude of opinions very often came hesitancy and doubt ; and from doubt, as any one can see, the minds of men easily slipped into error. And as most men are carried away by example, this desire of innovation seized in some places on the minds of some Catholic philosophers, who with great ill-advice, and to the detriment of the sciences, so underrated their inheritance in the schools of ancient wisdom as to prefer to strive after the new rather than increase and perfect the old by the new. And as this many-sitled doctrine rested on the will and authority of every teacher, its foundation was changeable, and for this very reason left us a weak and tottering philosophy, instead of one like the old, which was stable, firm, and strong ; and, if foimd at any time unable to cope with its enemies, it had to admit the cause and fault was its own. In speaking thus, however, we do not intend to chide the ingenious and learned men who bring to the study of philosophy, industry, erudi- tion, and a mine of new inventions ; for we understand well that all this adds to the storehouse of knowledge. But great care must be taken that too much time and labor be not given to this industry and erudition. The same may be said of sacred theology : it can be illustrated and made to do good, as one likes, by the manifold help of erudition ; but there is the greatest need of handling it after the severe method of the scholastics, so as to preserve in it the com- bined strength of revelation and reason, and make it ' the invincible shield of faith.' " With the very best of reason, therefore, have the many admirers of this philosophic system, when recently directing their attention to the introduction of a practical philosophy, restored the far-famed doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, and now study and have studied how to maintain it in all its pristine glory. With a like good-will, very many of jour own outer, venerable brethren, have entered on the ?■ If ;'ff! THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 153 same path, as we have learned to the great joy o*" our soul ; and all of whom we heartily praise, and pray to perse\ ere in their praise- worthy undertaking. Verily, we say to all of you iiidividually, there is notiiing for which we have a greater longing or desire than to see you help liberally and plentifully all classes of students to the purest streams of wisdom ever flowing from the rich perennial lore of the Angelic Doctor. " But how to accomplish this, as we wish with all our heart, many things must be attended to. First, as in these days, the Christian faith is usually opposed by the contrivances and cunning of a certain false philosophy. All our youth, and especially those hoping to enter the service of the Church, should for this reason be supplied with a strong, wholesome food of doctrine, that valiant in strength, and provided with sufficiency of armor, they may be early accus- tomed to bravely and learn .^dly defend the interests of religion, and be always ready, according to the advice of the Apostle, ' to give every one who seeks a satisfactory reason for the hope which is in us,' 'and to exhort in some doctrine and convince the gainsayers.' " Next, there are many men whose minds are alienated from the faitli, who hate Catholic customs, and admit reason to be their only teacher and guide. Now, in order to cure such men, and bring them in favor with Catholic faith, there is nothing, it appears to us, more opportune, outside the help of God, than the solid doctrine of the Fathers and scholastics, who point out with such clearness and force the firm foundations of faith, its Divine origin, its unshaken truth, the arguments on which it rests, the benefits it conferred on the human race, its perfect liarraony with reason, to bend the most unwilling and refractory minds to its yoke, as is abundantly proven. Again, we see the great danger which now threatens domestic and civil society from the plague of perverse opinions, and how much more peaceable and secure would either be if a sounder doctrine were taught in the academies and schools, and one more in con- formity with the general teaching of the Church, such as is found iiji ■*« \\\ 111;, 154 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XJIL .1 f %\. M \ ! « I in the works of S. Thomas Aquinas ; and then his treatises on the modern system of liberty, which, in our time, is tending to license, on the Divine origin of authority, on the laws and their binding force, on the fatherly, just government of sovereign princes, on obedience to the higher powers, on mutual charity to all ; these, to wit, and other subjects of a like nature, treated of by 'I'homas, have a great and invincible influence in rooting out these new prin- ciples of right, which are recognized as dangerous to order, ; :xe, and public safety. " Lastly, there is every hope of much good resulting to every form of human culture, and the "promise of many advantages from the following of the plan which we have proposed to ourselves ; namely, the restoration of philosophical discipline to its former state. For the fine arts usually borrow their method and system from philosophy equally as from wisdom as a guide, and draw from it, as from a common fountain, the spirit of life. Fact and constant experience teach that the liberal arts flourished best when the honor of philosophy remained intact and its judgment revered ; and they became neglected and almost forgotten only when philoso- phy tended to error, or was wrapped up in obscurities. So, too, the phj'sical sciences, so much in vogue now, and which by their ingeniously contrived inventions have everywhere excited so much merited attention, will have not only nothing to lose, but much to gain, by the restoration of the ancient philosophy. For in their use and improvement, the mere consideration of facts and study of nature is not enough ; but after the facts are established, it is needful to go a step higher, and sedulously employ every means in finding out the nature of corporeal things, investigating the laws and principles by which they are governed, and in tracing up their system, their unity in variety, and their mutual affinity in diversity. To all these investigations, scholastic philosophy, if handled with skilfulness, will bring power and light and empire. "And while on this subject, it is pertinent to remark that it is !M 'tk i I : THE SECOND YEAR OF POPE LEO. 155 only after philosophy has been grossly and viciously perverted, that it sets itself up against the improvement and progress of the natural sciences. As soon as the scholastics, adopting the system of the early Fathers, found in their studies on anthropology that it is only through the medium of sensible things that the human intelligence is led to the knowledge of things without body and matter, this at once was understood, — that nothing was more useful to t'le philoso- pher than a careful investigation of the secrets of nature ; and they devoted much time and labor to the study of physics. This they confirm by their own example : for S. Thomas, the blessed Albertus Magnus, and other great masters of scholasticism, did not give themselves up so entirely to the study of philosophy as not to devote much attention to the study of nature ; nay, many of their writings and discoveries in this department are still extant, and which much later masters approve of and declare to be consonant to truth. Besides, at this very day many celebrated professors of the physical sciences admit that between the defined and accepted conclusions of modern physics, and the principles of philosophy, there is no opposition worthy the name. " Whilst, therefore, we plainly declare in advance, that whatever has been said to the purpose, or invented or developed to advan- tage, be accepted with a generous and grateful heart, we most earnestly beseech you, venerable brethren, to restore and extend far and wide the golden wisdom of S. Thomas for the glory and defence of the Catholic faith, the good of society, and the improve- ment of all the sciences. We say the wisdom of S. Thomas ; for if there is any thing questioned with overmuch subtlety by the scholastic doctors, or treated of with too little consideration, or found less in harmony with the well-known doctrines of modern times, or, finally, in any sense not probable, it is not by any means our intention to offer any thing of this kind for imitation to the people of our age. Meantime, let the teachers intelligently chosen by you study the doctrine of S. Thomas Aquinas, with a view to I 11 '',1 f. < 156 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL gently instil it into the minds of their pupils, and, above all things, to set forth conspicuously its solidity and excellence ; and that the academies, either now instituted or hereafter to be instituted by you, defend, explain, and use it in refutation of the hardiest and most wide-spreading errors. And, lest it happen that the counter- feit supplant the genuine, and the impure instead of the pure waters be drunken down, provide in time that the wisdom of Thomas he drawn from its own fountains, or from streamlets run- ning directly from the fountain itself, and which are adjudged fresh and pure by the positive and unanimous verdict of learned men ; but especially guard the minds of youth from those rivulets which are said to flow hence, but which, in reality, are swollen in volume by unpleasant and unwholesome waters. " We know, venerable brethren, by experience, that all our efforts will be in vain unless ' the God of all knowledge,' as he is styled in the Scriptures, bless our undertaking, and in which we are told, * Every best gift and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of Lights ; ' and again, ' If any of you want wis- dom, let him ask of God, ivho giveth to all men abundantly, and upbraideth not, and it shall be given him.' In this, also, we only follow the example of the Angelic Doctor, who never sat down to read or write until he had first propitiated God in prayer, and who freely confesses that whatever he knew is not to be attributed so much to his own study and labor as to the Divine goodness : wherefore, with humble and united prayer, let us beg of God together, that he send down upon the children of his Church the spirit of science and knowledge, and open their minds to the under- standing of wisdom. And in order to obtain the more abundant fruits of Divine goodness, let us employ with God the most effica- cious patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary, who is called the Seat of Wisdom ; and at the same time let us use, as intercessors, the most pure spouse of the Virgin, the blessed Joseph, and the great Apostles Peter and Paul, who renovated the whole world, corrupted THE SECOXD YEAR OF POPE LEO. 157 by the impure state of error, and filled it with the light of their heavenly wisdom. " Finally, relying on the hope of the Divine assistance, and trust- ing to your pastoral zeal, we impart affectionately in the Lord the apostolic benediction, the harbinger of every heavenly gift, and test of our benevolence, to you, venerable brethren, and to all your clergy, and to the people intrusted to your care." 1 1 We close the account of the second year of the Pope's Pontificate, by announcing tliat on the 28th of October, 1879, he appointed Rev. Aegidius Junger bishop of Ncsqualy, Washington Territory, vice Bishop A. M. A. Blanchet, resigned ; and transferred Bishop WilHam H. Elder from Natchez to Cincinnati, where he became coadjutor, with the right of succession, to the Archbishop Purcell, who has since deceased. The first-named bishop, Dr. Junger, was born in France, while Archbishop Elder is a native of Baltimore. On the loth of February, 1880, the Holy Father issued an encyclical on marriage and divorce, in which, among other things, he said, — " Venerable brethren, that these teachings and precepts concerning Christian marriage, which we have thought it our duty to communi- cate to you by the present letter, apply as much to the preservation of civil society as to the eternal salvation of men. God grant that, the more valuable these teachings are, the greater may be the docil- ity with which they are received, and the more prompt the submis- sion they will meet with in the minds of men ! To this end, let all ardently and humbly pray for the aid of the Blessed and Immaculate in ^X 158 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XII L m i \\\ Virgin, in order that, having inspired submission to the faith, she may aid mankind as mother and guide. And let us with the same fervor beseech Peter and Paul, the princes of the Apostles, the conquerors of superstition, the sowers of truth, that the human race may be saved by their protection from the outburst of human errors." " Marriage," continues his Holiness, " at least in all that concerns the substance and sanctity of the conjugal tie, is an essentially sacred and religious act which naturally ought to be regulated by tlie spirit- ual power, which holds this power not as delegated to it by the State or by the consent of princes, but in the order established 1)y the Divine Founder of Christianity and the Author of the Sacraments." Modern progress wishes to separate the contract from the Sacra- ment, subjecting the contract to the authority of the State, and leav- ing the part of the Church to be nothing but a simple rite, a ceremony external to it. " Here there is a doctrine which overturns the essential idea of Christian marriage, in which the conjugal tie, sanctified by religion, identifies itself with the Sacrament, and these two things unite inseparably to constitute only one act, one single reality. ... In vain they may cite the example of those Catholic nations which, after having deeply suffered from revolutionary strug- gles and social perturbations, have found themselves constrained to submit to a like reform, which was either inspired by heterodox influ- ences and doctrines, or established by the strength of those in power. For the rest, while for these peoples it was fruitful in bitter- ness, this reform has never possessed a pacific sway, being always disapproved by the conscience of sincere Catholics and by the legiti- mate authority of the Church." H Z m m O c m z O > o o c z o 7i o m ji m O m O O O m M m T POPE LEO'S THIRD YEAR. '59 CHAPTER XIII. POPE LEO'S THIRD YEAR. THE two years of his Pontificate which had already elapsed gave abundant evidence that the con- clave of cardinals made no mistake when it elected Cardinal Pecci the successor of Pius IX. It is doubt- ful if the whole annals of ecclesiastical history furnish an instance of a greater and more brilliant success than Leo XIII. achieved during the first twenty-four months that he occupied St. Peter's chair. To a rare discernment of what the exigencies of the Church and the age demanded, he added a firmness which enabled him to pursue the right course in spite of all the obstacles that impeded his path, and a gentleness of disposition which impelled him to use mild means to accomplish his purposes, whenever it was possible for him to do so, and which seldom failed to win him friends, even among the ranks of those who were politically or otherwise opposed to him. In his deal- ings with the governments of Europe, which had an- tagonized the Holy See so bitterly during the last year of his predecessor's life, the Pope was especially fortu- ;i| iW^ '•m rit'i i6o I IFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE I.EO XI It. natc ant! successful. Already the German Emperor and chancellor showed a disposition to soften the rigors of the Kulturkampf, and to treat the German Catholics with more fairness and justice; Russia main- tained more friendly relations with the Holy See than it formerly had done; China and Japan were courteous in their communications ; and even England showed a disposition (though selfishness was the motive which prompted her action) to secure the influence of the Papacy for the purpose of settling the disputes into which she had been dragged by her refusal to treat the Irish people fairly. Of this, however, more in its proper place. We have already seen how the Pope, during his second year, proclaimed the Angelic Doc- tor, S. Thomas, the patron of the Christian schools where philosophy and theology were taught. Not content, however, with the first brief he issued on this question, his Holiness published the following procla- mation on the same subject: — " It is a custom at once founded on nature, and approved by the Catholic Church, to seek the patronage of men celebrated for their sanctity, and the examples of those who have excelled in, or attained, perfection of some kind, so as to imitate them. For this reason a large number of religious orders and of literary societies have already desired for a long time, with the approbation of the Holy See, to choose for their teacher and patron S. Thomas Aquinas, who has always shone like the sun in wisdom and in virtue. " Now, as the study of his doctrines has in our day everywhere increased, numerous requests have been made to have him assigned 'f I ^y ;d rOPF. LEO'S THIRD YEAR. I6! by this Apostolic Sec as the patron of all colleges, academics, and sch(K)ls tiiroiighoiit tlic Catiiolic world. Many bishops have mani- fested ti):U this was their desire, and they have sent us special or united letters looking to this end. The members of many academies and learned societies have sought the same fluor through humble and urgent supplications. " It was deemed advisable to defer satisfying the ardor of these prayers and supplications, that they might increase in number ; but the opportuneness of this declaration appeareil after the publication made last year, on the same day, in our encyclical lett:r on the ' Restoration in Catholic Schools, of Christian Philosophy according to the spirit of the Angelic Doctor, St. Thomas Aciuinas,' Indeed, bisho[)s, academies, deans of faculties, and savants from all parts of the earth, declared with one accord, i.-nd as it were with one voice, that they were, and would continue to be, docile to our prescrip- tions ; that they even desired, in teaching philosophy and theology, to follow altogether in the footsteps of St. Thomas ; they declared, too, that they are, like us, convinced that the Thomist doctrine pos- sesses to an eminent degree a singular power and virtue for remedying the evils which afflict our age. " We, then, who have for a long time earncsdy desired to see all schools flourish under the protection and patronage of so excellent a master, in view of the formal and so striking manifestation of a gen- eral wish, deem that the time has come for adding this new honor to the immortal glory of Thomas Aquinas. " Now, here is the chief and a summary of the reasons by which we are actuated : it is, that St. Thomas is the most perfect model Catholics can propose to themselves in the various branches of science. In him, indeed, are centred all the lights of heart and mind which justly command imitation ; a learning most fecund, most pure, and perfectly ordered ; a respect for faith, and an admirable harmony with divinely revealed truth ; integrity of life, and the snlendor of the most exalted virtues. < JH ■ •s ■^ m ,:4i 1 62 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XHI. VV' > 'i '! Ilfi rWll^' " His learning is so vast, that, like the sea, it contains all the wis- dom that comes down from the ancients. He not only fully under- stands every thing that was said of truth, every thing that was wisely discussed by pagan philosophers, by the Fathers and Doctors of the Churcli, by the superior of men who flourished before his time \ but he added to it, completed it, classified it, with such perspicuity of kind, such perfection of method, and such propriety of terms, that he seems to have left his successors nothing save the faculty of imi- tating him while depriving them of the possibility of equalling him. " There is this also to be considered : that his doctrine, being formed, and as it were armed with principles of wideness of appli- cation, meets all the necessities, not of one period alone, but of all .times ; and it is fully calculated to overcome the errors that are con- tinually cropping up. Sustained by its own power and its own worth, dt is invincible, and strikes its adversaries with the greatest alarm. " We must appreciate none the less, especially in the judgment of 'Christians, the perfect accord of reason and faith. Indeed, the holy Docl 'emonstrates with evidence that truths of the natural order cannot be in discord with truths accepted upon the Word of God ; that, consequently, to follow and to practise the Christian faith is not a humiliating and despicable debasement of reason, but a noble ' ijedience which sustains the mind, and raises it to grander heights ; finally, that reason and faith both come from God, not to be in opposition to each other, but chat, being united together by a bond of friendship, they may materially assist each other. " Now, the model of this union and of this admirable accord is to be seen in all the writings of tlie blessed Thomas : because there may be seen at one time, dominating and shining forth, reason, which, preceded by faith, has attained the object of its researches in the investigation of nature ; al ;mother, faith, explained and defended by the aid of reason, in such a manner, however, that they each preserve their force and dignity intact; finally, when the subject requires it, both march side by side like allies against their common POPE LEO'S THIRD YEAR. 163 enemy. But, if it has always been most important that an accord exist between reason and faith, it has become all the more so since the sixteenth century ; for, at that time, men began to sow the seeds of a liberty exceeding all law and limit, which has led human reason to repudiate openly all Divine authority, and to seek in philosophy for weapons wherewith to undermine and combat all religious truths. " Finally, if the Angelic Doctor is great in wisdom, he is none the less so in virtue and in sanctity. Now, virtue is the best preparation for the exercise of the powers of the mind and for the acquisition of wisdom ; those who neglect it falsely imagine they have acquired a solid and fruitful wisdom, because ' wisdom will not enter into a malicious soul, nor dwell in a body subject to sins' (Wis. i. 4). This preparation of the soul, which proceeds from virtue, existed in St. Thomas not only to an excellent and eminent degree, but in such a manner thai it merited to be divinely marked by a striking sign. Indeed, having come out victorious over a very strong, voluptuous temptation, this most chaste youth was permitted by God, as a reward for his courage, to wear a mysterious cincture around his loins, and, at the same time, to experience an entire extinction of the Hre of concupiscence. Thenceforth he lived like one exempt from all contagion of the flesh, and could be compared to angelic spirits no less for his innocence than for his genius. " For these reasons, we deem the Angelic Doctor in every respect worthy to be chosen as the patron of all students. /\nd in cheerfully pronouncing this judgment, we do so with the idea that the patron- age of this most great and holy man will be most effective in the restoration of philosophical and theological studies, to the great advantage of society. For, as soon as Catholic schools shall have placed themselves under the direction and tutelage of the Angelic Doctor, we shall see the easy progress of true wisdom, drawn from sure principles and developing itself in a rational order. Pure doc- trines will beget pure morals both in public and in private life ; and good morals will result in the salvation of nations, in good order, i i W m I'.ilf M i i:i -'i .\-\ r^ =i!l 164 LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI IE peace, and general tranquillity. Those who devote themselves to sacred sciences, so \iolently attacked in our day, will find in the works of St. Thomas the means for fully demonstrating the founda- tions of the Christian faith, of enforcing supernatural truths, and of victoriously defending our most holy religion against the criminal assaults of her enemies. All human sciences will understand that they will not, on that account, be interfered with or retarded in their onward march ; but, on the contrary, stimulated and increased. As for reason, all causes for dissension having disappeared, it will return to friendship with faith, and will take it for a guide in the search after truth. Finally, all men thirsting after knowledge, fiishioned after the example and precepts of so grand a teacher, will accustom themselves to a careful preparation for study by integrity of morals ; and they will not pursue that knowledge which, separated from charity, puffs tip minds and leads them astray, but that which, ' pro- ceeding from the Father of Lights and the Master of Sciences,' leads back to Him, '• We have been pleased, also, to ask the ad^'ice of the Sacred Congregation of Rites upon the subject; and, their unanimous opin- ion being fully in accortl with our wishes, by virtue of our supreme authority, for the glory of Almighty God and the honor of the Angelic Doctor, for the increase of learning and the common ad- vantage of human society, we declare St. Thomas the Angelic Doc- tor, the Patron of Catholic Universities, Academies, Faculties, and Schools ; and we desire that he be by all regarded, venerated, antl honored as si:ch. It is understood, however, that nothing is changed for the future in the honors and lank given to saints whom academics or faculties may have selected as special patrons." r i^ Early in the third year of his Pontificate, the Pope held a consistory in the; Vatican, in which he renewed a good deal of the former splendor of such meetings. !#(' POPE LEO'S THIRD YEAR. 165 Five cardinals, among them the Nuncios of Paris, Madrid, Vienna, and Lisbon, were then given their hats, and took their oaths of office. The seventh day of March^ i-, ^r ;,'i8» -4 %\i^p<- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 11.25 Li ■so 1^ ii^ 2.2 M IIIII2.0 1.4 m 1.6 -► ^ VI / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716)872-4503 ' *^% 174 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. I.M iff ', J < ( ' IM M tianity had existed for more than a thousand years. During that long period, it had laid its foundations deep, and had grown up over the ruins of heathendom. A new world had arisen, founded and cemented by apostles, martyrs, and confessors ; a system which was a living thing, which had shown and proved its strength and its independence of human support. The Church had triumphed over and crushed the spirit of Aristotle : she now subdued his work to her service. By the in- terpretation which Christianity was thus enabled to infuse into this philosophy, those who had fondly hoped to turn it to other accounts were defeated ; and Aristotle became from henceforward the champion of the Church, and the text-book of the Christian schools. The interpreter who did this work was St. Thomas, and so well was it done that from that time Aristotle never again was used against the Church. Wherever the scholastic philosophy was honored, Aristotle was studied : wherever it was despised, he was neglected. St. Thomas could not have accomplished this great work unless the Aristotelian system had been true. Error cannot serve truth ; but it required a vast genius to see clearly through the mist of prejudice, to trace its way through the mingled truth and falsehood, separating one from the other, and apportioning to truth its proper place. St. Thomas adopted the sys- tem of Aristotle, therefore, because on the whole it was true, and because it was being turned against the M : vm THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. 175 Church. This was one element of his own system, which he enriched by independent observation of nat- ural facts. The other and chief element, for the sake of which he labored, was the faith taught to him by the Church He learned this from her as her simplest member learned it ; and it rested upon the same basis, — upon her word. The one element he could grasp by his own reason : the other was as much hidden from him in its first principles as from the little child, and he could only receive It on testimony. Neverthe- less, he grasped it with a strength of reasonable faith which made it more certain to his mind than any truths he could see for himself. It was this receiving, and this grasp of the faith, which rendered his work possible ; for he was thereby placed in possession of absolutely certain truths, which he could treat philo- sophically although he had not received them by reason. And yet reason had its part also, because it showed the reasonableness of belief. With these ele- ments St. Thomas built up the mighty Summa Theo- logica, in which the truths of Christianity are explained, classified, and justified, and every possible objection against them is exploded. This work Is the most marvellous exhibition of speculative thought and rea- soning power ever given to the world. It unites faith and reason, and secures philosophy as the handmaid of dogma. We need not recount the praise lavished upon It by popes, councils, saints, and learned men ; 5 i-' ': Mi I • 2 \'i\ iii^ * 5,1-: ill • 176 Z//-£ ^/VZ> LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. for the recent encyclical sums up the tradition of all ages. Neither can we stop to weigh the exact value of the approbation which the Church has given to the doctrine of St. Thomas. It is enough for the present to remark that no other philosophical doctrine has been equally commended ; and, likewise, that this ap- proval is given to what is essentially -^ philosophy. It is not a list of truths ; it is not the tracing of a tradi- tion : it is a mental standpoint and a scientific method. In referring, therefore, to the doctrine of St. Thomas, we do not mean his particular opinions, so much as his method. Philosophy can never have the same value to the Church as doctrine, because doctrine is the object of philosophy, without which it could not exist. Her first care is for the faith which will save us, whether we reason upon it or not ; but if we do reason upon it, it is of vital importance that we should do so properly, in right order, with an eye to all the elements to be considered, and with an understanding how far it is reasonable to go, and when investigation must be fruitless. St. Thomas is the great master in this art of sacred reasoning. He shows us how, first of all, to grasp the truth with a strength that is truly supernatural because it comes from faith ; and when we have grasped it with no uncertain hold, he shows us how to examine its outlines, to search its details, and to look into its nature : and this with reverence as well as keenness, with depth as well as humility. in rst ily en \vs lis, ice THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. 177 In his own example he shows us best how to fulfil this delicate and important task. In him we see the reasoning powers in exercise with a freedom which is nowhere surpassed, and at the same time with a rever- ence that proves we are listening not to a sophist, but to a master of the true and Christian wisdom. St. Thomas teaches us how to do all this, how to form conclusions, to distinguish truth and falsehood ; how, in short, to think clearly, boldly, practically, for our- selves, without injury — nay, with service — to the faith. The object of St. Thomas, therefore, was to ex- plain the faith by reason as far as it can be explained, that we may entertain an intelligent notion of its mysteries. We do not receive the faith by our own reasoning powers, otherwise it would be no longer faith, but mere science ; but we can reason upon the grounds of faith a id upon the objects of faith by showing that they are not impossible or improbable, and how they agree with the works of nature, and are justified by analogy. Reason may even go farther, and show how certain mysteries are legitimate deduc- tions from other revealed truths. St. Thomas is, of course, not the only saint and doctor who has had this purpose in view. But this may be said : that he, above all others, set it before him as the formal and direct object of his life, and that his method, or way of doing it, has been com- mended beyond that of others. H i * < 178 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. . • 1 v 11 \\\ We have already said that the doctrine of St. Thomas means particularly his philosophical method. This method must have its principles of construction ; and cur readers may ask, What are these ? The method of St. Thomas may be characterized as objective. He looks out upon truth with the eye of a large and luminous common-sense, observes it, re- ceives it as a disciple, understands it, and makes it his own so thoroughly that he can bring it down to the level of ordinary men. He pays no attention to sub- jective notions, unless he can find their objective counterpart and their law. A notion may be simply a distorted shadow. It can never be its own justifica- tion, apart from the truth it is supposed to reflect. This is the first great difference between St. Thomas and un-Catholic philosophers. The latter take their subjective sensations, their fancies and emotions, and, starting with them as principles, they reconstruct the universe in harmony with them. St. Thomas regards this method as false and dangerous, and as inevitably leading, if pushed home, to conclusions adverse to the faith. He, as much as any one, maintains the dignity of man, and even says that the sense. , properly ap- plied, cannot deceive ; but he does not forget that man is fallen, nor that man is far from sure to apply his reason or his senses properly, whatever his good in- tentions may be. Reason is true, but in conformity to truth. It is not safe, even when it is not wrong, to ;,l'. I THE DOCTRINE OF ST. T//OA/AS. IT9 he ity his in- ^ity to take it as a principle. It is this love of unity and law, which leads him to trace all our ideas to exterior sources. The mind is like a bright mirror, which reflects truth ; and so well adapted is it ioi this office, that in reflecting truth it is inevitably correct and even infallible : but when we come to the practical question, we must ask, Who can absolutely guarantee that the reflection in our minds is a perfect reflection? Al- though for practical purposes we can take it as suffi- ciently correct, nevertheless, our prejudices and bias are so strong that they may impair the image of truth, and give to it a shape that has no real counterpart. Hence the danger, to say the least, of taking our ideas as universal laws. A leading principle in St. Thomas's method is that of causality. That every thing has a cause, is a true Thomistic axiom. Every creature is part of the uni- versal network of law and order. It depends on something else ; it can only be understood when its cause is known. His proof of the existence of God is based upon this principle ; and we may say that it is the same proof, scientifically drawn out, which takes hold of the human mind in its universal aspect, ac- cording to the doctrine of the Apostle, " The invisible things of God by the things which are made are understood." It would take more space than we have at our dis- posal, to draw out all the principles of St. Thomas's ;,,.: ■*(?? « iS-i i8o LIFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIIL m i M \ : \: ;i '• method. It may be shortly described as the a pos- teriori method. It is the method which proceeds cautiously, in order, and, we must add, scientifically, from known facts to their known relations and to their known causes. It is a method which admits no asser- tion and advances no conclusion without a proof; which proceeds upon the principle that the universe is one and harmonious, and is ruled by law. All a priori assumptions and foregone conclusions are alien to the method of St. Thomas. They may not be false ; but they are out of order, only accidentally right, and dan- gerous as a method of reasoning. St. Thomas did not invent this method himself. He learned it from the great classical thinkers, from Aristotle and St. Augustine ; and he handed it on, more precisely sys- tematized and amplified, to swell the tide of true scientific discoven'. We mentioned the objective character of this method, as being its first mark. A true objective method, as our readers have already perceived, de- pends upon moral as well as upon intellectual quali- ties ; and it was in these qualities, as a Christian and a saint, that St. Thomas had the advantage over Aris- totle. It was not only in his moral character that he possessed this advantage, but in his clear knowledge of that truth which is the keystone of the moral and highest order of truths, — the knowledge of the per- sonal God. The truth of personality is the supreme THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. I8l nd truth which our Divine Lord brought upon earth and gave to man, as the principle of his perfection as well as of his worship. St. Thomas possessed this truth as a heathen philosopher could not ; and it is a cardinal axiom of his method, that, if we wish to understand, we must bring our person into complete subjection to the personal God. It is this principl*^ which makes his philosophy Christian, and raises it so infinitely above all others which are founded upon truth of a lower order. Although the doctrine of St. Thomas rrsans princi- pally his method, there are many positive doctrines of the Church which he has vigorously and ably defended. We may mention his magnificent proof of the pro- cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, his unfolding of the beatitude which the glorified soul enjoys, and especially his treatise on the Holy Eucharist. These occur in his last and greatest work, the Summa Theologica, which, in a manner, contains all the rest. His works, which are printed in 'v.',;enty folio volumes, comprise treatises on all subjects, ."rom the education of children up to the vision of God in heaven. The • moral qualities of his works, and especially of the Summa, are as conspicuous as their intellectual greatness. The charm and unction of the style are so attractive, the tenderest love so breathes forth through the scholastic form, that many have found the Summa »>. ■■■ I82 L/FE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIIL 'n \ i to be the best spiritual reading, and have derived from it increase of love as well as increase of light. It is this angelic poetry and feeling which Cardinal New- man refers to : " Such poets as are born under her shadow, she [the Church] can even make schoolmen of, as she made St. Thomas, till logic becomes poeti- cal ; " and Father Rawes does not hesitate to say that he considers the Stimma " the greatest epic poem that ever was written." The broad humanity, the fresh common-sense, of St. Thomas, make such expressions as these perfectly just. No man had less liking than he for useless subtilties and refinements. He wrote for a practical purpose, with facts ever in view. He makes truth not only persuasive and attractive, but he makes it live, so that it supports our steps, and becomes a motive of daily conduct. It is this union of light and love, this in- comparable wisdom, which has given St. Thomas his name and power. He is the master of truth, because he was its humble disciple. Sometimes he even ap- pears to play and disport himself with it, in his free- dom of spirit. It is remarkable that St. Thomas is the only one of the doctors and theologians of the Church who has formed a school, in the proper sense of the word. One reason is, that, first of all, his teaching is true, although this is not peculiar to himself. The chief reason is, that his teaching is extremely easy to un- THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. 183 |n- derstand. A critic in the " Dublin Review" called him •' probably the clearest writer who ever lived." It is the gift of teaching, of bringing the highest truths to the level of the ordinary mind, which has made his doctrine so efficient an instrument of education. Great thinkers, without this gift, are, in an intellectual sense, solitary. The people admire them ; but they do not take their principles as motives for their or- dinary conduct, because they cannot think with them. But St. Thomas is surrounded with a throng of listen- ers who have not his eagle gaze, but who can see the bearing of his teaching upon common facts ; and while he comes down to them, he thereby in some degree lifts them up to himself. Perhaps the world has never seen a more eminent body of intellectual men than the school of St. Thomas. Plato and Aristotle had their disciples ; but the dis- ciples of St. Thomas, whilst they were men of culti- vated and powerful minds, had the advantage of faith, and a knowledge of the unseen wond. Cardinal Manning has remarked of the scholastic philosophy : " Beyond all doubt, this philosophy is the most solid and subtile system which the human intel- lect has ever elaborated by its own unaided force ; " and the school of St. Thomas stands foremost in the scholastic philosophy. This school is composed, first of all, and, so to speak, naturally, of the Dominican Order, which en- Hih 1 84 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO Xl/f. P I "il • ■':( joins upon all its members the duty of following the doctrine of St. Thomas, not only in substance, but, as far as possible, even in choice of terms, in phrase, and mode of expression. A writer in the '* Dublin Review," a short time ago, declared that St. Thomas and Albert the Great were commanded by members of the episcopate to turn their attention and genius to the investigation of truth. We have never understood who these mythical per- sonages were. Honor to whom honor is due. The credit of the achievements of St. Thomas, so far as they can be traced to direction, is to be given to the Dominican Order, which discovered his vast genius, and made every effort and sacrifice for its develop- ment, with what results the world well knows. To his authority the Order has ever been faithful. St. Thomas has always been equally honored at home. But the school of St. Thomas is by no means confined to the Dominican Order. It includes all those who profess to follow his teaching, such as the Society of Jesus, and other distinguished Orders, and others who follow him by choice. The doctrine of St. Thomas, flowing through the many channels which opened before It, at one time attained to a supremacy which has had no parallel before or since. It seemed to take possession of the chair of truth, and to speak in the voice of the Church. As the Pope says in his encyclical, ** One would have v-m THE DOCTRINE OF ST. T//O.VAS. 185 believed he saw Thomas taking part in the Councils of Lyons, Vienna, Florence, and the Vatican, — even presiding, in a certain sense, over the deliberations of the Fathers." It would be .an interesting task to trace the influ- ence of St. Thomas's doctrine upon the after-course of philosophy and theology. To the Catholic mind, it will seem a truism to say that the tradition of philoso- phy belongs to the Church, and is handed down by her philosophers and theologians, and that it does not belong to the secular and infidel thinkers, who do but perpetuate the tradition of folly condemned in Holy Writ : " Dixit insipicns in corde suo, non est Deus." The tradition of the world is that of the corrupt heart, — of the wishes of fallen man : that of the Church is the tradition of reason. The highest and purest Cath- olic tradition has been the Thomistic ; and when we gaze upon the Thomistic tradition, flowing, like the Father of Waters, amongst the rivers that refresh the earth, we are struck no less by its moral than its in- tellectual greatness, and even more so, as bein-^'' a phenomenon exclusively belonging to Christian phi- losophy. We see the greatest minds anxious only to continue the tradition, and to serve truth. They reverence St. Thomas as their chief and master ; they make their works simply commentaries upon his ; they are content to be second, — or, rather, they have no thoughts of place, because they have the spirit of m 1 86 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. ^It- Christian humility : and, as a consequence, the moral argument from their unanimity is as striking as its intellectual force. How different is the scene outside the Church ! There, prid'- reigns as a principle, and each one wishes to be followed as an original thinker. The confusion and disorder that ensue attest the pres- ence of falsehood, as well as of moral chaos. The school of St. Thomas is not confined to priests and religious. The members of at least one confra- ternity — the Angelic Warfare — engage to follow his doctrine. Many laymen have devoted themselves with great fruit to the study of his works, and to the diffusion of his principles. Others have found his writings so interesting that they have given their leisure to them for their own comfort and strength. The heroic General Lamoriciere was found dead with the Szimma open before him. We venture to ex- press a hope that the school of St. Thomas may extend to many who have time, even in the affairs of the world, to ~* _ to the profound study of their religion. The moral effect of this study would be as benefi- cial as the insight gained ; for the special fruit of St. Thomas is strength of mind in the things of faith, a gift which, in these days, is no less wanted than accurate knowledge. If the councils of the Church have been so intimately affected by the teaching of St. Thomas, we should expect to find its influence in other directions, as indeed we do. The most famous THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. 187 spiritual work of the last three centuries, the " Spiritual Exercises" of St. Ignatius, is so penetrated with the Thomistic tradition, tliat we may say that without the Summa it would have been impossible, — at least in its widest and philosophical application. We have only to scan the works of St. Theresa and of St. John of the Cross, to learn how much mystical theology is indebted to the same source. From the Secunda SecundcB of the same immortal work, moral theology also derived principles extending to every part of its wide and noble domain. St. Thomas and the scholas- tics have done for Catholic theology what Bacon, it is said, has done for the conveniences of life : they have brought it to every man's door, and made it a common property. The simplest preacher now finds it an easy task to speak with propriety upon the deepest mys- teries of the faith. Errors or improprieties of speech from which the great Fathers of the Church were not free, owing to the want of a scientific terminology, are heard with surprise from the lips of the village pastor. The devotions of the Church have shared in the radi- ance of this sun of doctrine. The Office of Corpus Christi caiue from the pen of St. Thomas, or, rather, straight from his heart ; and it yields the hymns, so dear to all Catholics, which are sung over the globe at benediction and processions of the blessed Sacrament. The works of St. Thomas are penetrated with an \ II < :A i88 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. m\ apostolic motive. He wrote, as his father St. Dominic preached, to save souls. For this he spent toilsome days in study and writing, and curtailed his brief re- pose at night. In these days of controversy, there- fore, when to defend and explain the truth is an apostolic work of great responsibility, the method of so great a master in dealing with opponents is of wide-spread interest ; and we append the words of the learned Pope Benedict XIV., which fitly crown St. Thomas's merits as a controversialist. These words occur in the constitution prefixed to the Index (§ 24), and are therefore authoritative : — mm " The Angelical Prince of the schools, and Doctor of the Church, St. Thomas Aquinas, in writing so many works which can never be sufficiently praised, necessarily gave offence to the opinions of the philosophers and theologians whom truth obliged him to refute. But the other merits of the great doctor culminated in this, — that he was never known to abuse, vilify, or traduce any of his opponents : but, on the contrary, he treated them with courtesy and with the greatest kindness ; for any thing hard or ambiguous or ob- scure in their writings, he softened and explained by a large and generous interpretation. But hen the cause 01 religion and faith required that he should exploue and refute these opinions, this he did with so much modesty, that he deserved as much praise in dif- fering from them as in asserting the Catholic faith. Those who follow and glory in so great a master (and, for the singular veneration and affection we ourselves have ever entertained towards him, we rejoice to say they are numerous) should strive to emulate the moderation in writing of this great doctor, and his fair method of dealing and arguing with opponents. Others who differ from his school and his •i';i THE DOCTRINE OF ST. THOMAS. 189 teaching should also follow the same method. For the virtues of the saints are proposed by the Church as an example to all ; and since the Angelic Doctor has been placed amongst the saints, whilst it is allowable to think differently from him, it is not at all lawful to intro- duce a different method of dealing and arguing. It closely concerns pubhc tranquillity, the edification of our neighbor, and the cause of charity, that Catholic writings should be free from malice, bitterness, and scurrility, so entirely at variance with the Christian profession and all right conduct." Mlpr ^H^T^BH^B ^f ■ ' W^mVSR ^^^ ^Hf/''''|^n HL 3 I'f bII r B'' m fl ' ' 'if ' ' ^B si H ' '' ' ''1 ' ' mm ' '!' mm i ' ■K n -; j* ; : pjli f' ' II ;| |- ^ kH 1; ''' KH' ''^ ' IH ^i ^^' N'l^^ ' ^Bj|j; '^1 Hi ' p ' '''■ mi\ W if m, ■W- m: ■ !jij/''li WJi' 1 i h ^- ■'■ 1 S|t fwlljilj j^rof|rv -'i 'Mil? in 'i 11 S [^ Hii . AJl ! fii ; I 5., m"" !■ .. i- ] ;■? li^- l|Js| 1 nil ||;| ' i| III If .i |B:[l!{'; , 1 ^■§u8 ' 1 ' ! ' .' ' ii 4mM| ^' ' ' 1 1 i '' " ' |i;|l i 1 m'^V 1 ' ^ ^i M ' i\ ' K Ml ^,^ '1 ;} M it '' ^ 'I'i^ lllf [■-' li ■' ' ' i iLi ', !/.j| M ■■ ■! ; - f J . ■ ■■' Qj 1 t- ' j , j>' '1. B , Mi ■ J ■ ■• ■-' Ii 1 ' ' 1' i ! -. t ^' n : ' jft ! '!■' '1' . ' 1 1 IL' ! 190 Z//"^ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. CHAPTER XV. THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YUAR— Continued. THE condition of the Church in Belgium about this time claimed the attention of the Holy See. For years the infidel element of that countr)', under the pretence of spreading the doctrines of Liberalism, had been making war on the Church and Catholic education ; and finally they succeeded, in 1880, in precipitating the downfall of the Catholic ministry. That feat accomplished, they openly boasted that they would drive the priests and all religious instruction out of the state schools, and would put in their places teachers who professed no religion ; which, as every- body knows, is equivalent to saying that the education of the Catholic youth of Belgium would be handed over to atheists and infidels. Of course the illustri- ous Cardinal Deschamps of Malines made a vigorous opposition to this infidel movement ; and he was warmly supported in his resistance by the devoted Catholics of all Belgium, who, as soon as the infidel ministry, which succeeded to power, had enacted the law dechristianizing the schools, lost no time in found- THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 191 ing parochial schools of their own, which they sup- ported by voluntary contributions, and to which the Catholic children all flocked, leaving the infidel state schools without any pupils whatever. The " Liberal " government, incensed at this turn of affairs, foolishly thought it could stop it by appealing to the Pope, and asking him to use the influence of the Holy See in favor of the state schools. But it counted without its host. Leo XI IL was thoroughly at home on Belgian matters, his nuncio-ship at Brussels standing him in good stead now ; and, while any appeal to supplant Catholic by secularist education would be certain of being rejected by him, his refusal to antagonize the Catholics of Belgium, whose fidelity and devotion to the Holy See he well knew, was more emphatic ; and it led to the suppression, by the Cabinet at Brussels, of the Belgian Legation at Rome, and a determination on its part to have nothing more to do with the Holy See. This action, however, while it saddened, did not cause the Pope to alter his methods or determination. On the other hand, it impelled him to encourage the Belgian hierarchy, and to commend their action, which he did in the following letter : — "Dear Son and Venerable Brothers, — health and apostolic benediction. " The affectionate letter which, with common accord, you have written to us on the 8th of this month, proves to us the profound sorrow which is brought to you by the injury lately done to the Holy t .'''it ! ■ti 192 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL va iik'- t i\\ ■il See in Belgium. This event filled our soul also with sadness, but God in His goodness has deigned to make use of you to send to us the words of consolation of which we had need. That which con- soles us is to see you perfectly united, not only in lamenting what has happened, but likewise in repelling with all your efforts the as- saults against the Church ; and it is the zeal which you have dis- played in the fulfilment of the duties of the episcopate, your constant solicitude in defending the cause of religion, the firmness of your conduct, tempered by the spirit of moderation and of Christian prudence, Hence we do not hesitate to send you all those eulogiums which are due to you. " To the noble example of your devotion, correspond in an admir- able manner the sentiments of piety and of filial love of which the faithful intrusted to your vigilance cease not to give the most mani- fest proofs to us and to this Apostolic See. We see with joy that nothing is sufficient to crush the courage of your diocesans, and that, on the contrary, trials animate them to a noble rivalry of ardor in their great works, buch facts sweeten the bitterness of our afflic- tion, and confirm our trust in Divine Providence ; and we exclaim with the royal Prophet, * He will not sleep, nor will He forget us. He who guards Israel.' We recur, then, with all our heart to the God of patience and of consolation, supplicating Him that he may deign to increase in you the spirit of wisdom and of force, and at the same time confirm the faithful of Belgium in the defence of religious interests, and in their holy undertaking for the general good of the country. " Addressing to you, dear son and venerable brothers, these thanks, which the fulfilment of your duties well deserves, we warmly desire that you may become the interpreters of our gratitude to all those great Catholic associations which in such sad circumstances have hastened to console us with the most splendid attestations of devotion, fidelity, and filial love. Receive at the same time for yourselves, for the clergy and faithful of your respective dioceses, iiiiiii THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 193 our apostolic benediction and the sincere wishes of all tnie happi- ness, which we send you with our whole heart as a pledge of our paternal affection in Jesus Christ." Later on in the year, at the consistory of Aug. 23, the Holy Father again reverted to this subject, com- mended the constancy of the Belgian bishop, priests, and people ; declared that "the evils which are at pres- ent directed against the Church are not circumscribed within the confines of Belgium. The insidious war is. farther extended, and more amply spread to the preju- dice of Christianity ; " and asserted that he would never allow the apostolic dignity to be insulted, even if it cost him his life. During the third year of his Pontificate, the Holy Father made some notable appointments in the Ameri- can hierarchy. The first of these were, the nomina- tion of Right Rev. Bishop Heiss of La Crosse to the co-adjutorship of the archdiocese of Milwaukee ; of Rev. John A. Watterson to the vacant see of Colum- bus ; and of Rev. Patrick Manogue to the diocese of Grass Valley, since altered to that of Sacramento. A brief biographical sketch of each of these prelates is here appended. Most Rev. Michael Heiss was born at Pfaldorf, dio- cese of Eichstadt, Bavaria, April 12, 18 18. At the age of twenty-two he was ordained priest, and two years later came to America, where he entered upon his labors in Ohio. He afterwards moved to Mil- ,f II ' [I > % m in-^' ml If I \ I 1 1 ,!il 194 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. waukee, where he built St. Mary's Church ; and soon became professor in the Theological Seminary of St. Francis de Sales, of which institution he was the guiding spirit for many years, part of the time as president. In 1868 Dr. Heiss was consecrated bishop of La Crosse ; and such was his energy and zeal, that in 1880 his diocese numbered forty-six thousand Catholics, with ninety-six churches and fifty priests. He is recognized as a learned and able theologian, and is the author of more than one theological work. JR-ight Rev. John A. Watterson is a native of Blair- •ville, Indiana County, Penn., where he was born May 27, 1844. He made his studies partly at St. Vincent's College, Westmoreland County, Penn. ; and at the age of seventeen went to Mount St. Mary's, Emmetts- burg, Md., where he graduated. He was ordained in 1868, but remained at Mount St. Mary's to prose- cute his studies still further, filling the chair of moral theology and Sacred Scripture. He was elected vice- president in 1876, and a year later, by the resignation of Father McCoskey, succeeded to the presidency, — a post he retained until his nomination to the bishop- ric of Columbus, in which see his administration has been eminently successful, one of its most prominent features being the institution of the Diocesan College, which is at present in a very flourishing condition. Right Rev. Patrick Manogue was born and ordained in Ireland. He served on the mission in Grass Valley \^\\ THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 195 diocese until his nomination to the episcopate. His chief success since his consecration has been the work of erecting a magnificent cathedral at Sacramento, well under way, to which city he has secured the translation of his episcopal see. He is an intense home-ruler, and an ardent supporter of Mr. Parnell's Irish policy. On the I St of February, 1880, Rev. Martin Marty, O. S. B., who had been named bishop of Tiberias and vicar-apostolic of the Territory of Dakota, took place. This prelate was born at Schwyz, in Switzerland, Jan. 12, 1834; and made his studies at the Benedictine Monastery, Einsicdln, where he was ordained Sept. 14, 1856. Coming to this country in i860, he be- came attached to St. Meinrad's Monastery, Indiana, which owes much of its present prosperity to him. In 1865 he was elected its third prior, and in 1870 Pope Pius IX. made him its first abbot. His admin- istration of the vicariate of Dakota has been singu- larly successful, his labors among the Indians espe- cially bearing fruit. Later on in the year. His Holiness appointed Right Rev. Michael A. Corrigan, then bishop of the diocese of Newark, co-adjutor, with the right of succession, to Cardinal McCloskey of New York. Dr. Corrigan was born at Newark, N. J., on Aug. 13, 1839. He made his studies at Mount St. Mary's, Emmettsburg, graduating with high honors in 1859. That year wit- 196 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO \'IIL S;^: lii! m W 3 ". nessing the opening of the American Colleg^e in Rome, Dr. Corrigan was sent, with several other students, to that institution, where he was ordained on Sept. 19, 1863 ; returning home with the doctor's cap the following July. He was at once appointed professor of dogmatic theology at Seton Hall, and afterwards became successively vice-president and president of that institution. When, in 1880, Bishop Baylcy of the Newark diocese demanded a co-adjutor, Dr. Corrigan, who had previously been appointed vicar-general, was named for that position ; and when, in 1872, Bishop Bayley was transferred to Baltimore, he succeeded to the Newark see. Of his translation to New York, and his succession to that archicpiscopal seat on the death of the lamented Cardinal ]\IcClos- key, it is not necessary to speak here. Dr. Corrigan is still a young man ; and the probabilities are, that, if his life is spared, he will yet wear the cardinal's hat. At the same consistory at which Archbishop Corri- gan was made co-adjutor of the late Cardinal McClos- kcy, the Pope transferred Bishop P. A. Feehan from Nashville to Chicago ; making the latter sec, at the same time, an archdiocese. Bishop Feehan is a native of Graystown, County Tipperary, Ireland, where he was born in 1829. Evincing at an early age a strong desire to enter the priesthood, he was sent by his parents to the collegiate school at Castle Knock. Having completed his course there, he went to May- :■ THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 197 nooth, where, although put in competition with some of the brightest youthful minds of the land, he proved himself of far more than ordinary ability by carrjing off the Dunboyne prize, which consists of a scholar- ship worth a thousand dollars a year, besides other privileges dear to the student, and is one of the prin- cipal incentives offered by the institution to encourage its students to exertion. Had he remained in Ireland, he would doubdess have met with promotion ; but he had early determined on sharing the lot of the priest- hood in Western America, and in compliance with this wish he was sent from college to the archi- episcopal see of St. Louis. Here he was ordained in 1852, and was assigned to the Ecclesiastical Semi- nary for Boys at Carondelet, now South St. Louis. This position he filled with entire satisfaction until, in pursuance of his wish to follow the active work of saving souls, he was appointed to the Church of the Immaculate Conception at St. Louis, where he re- mained seven years, winning the respect and admira- tion of his ecclesiastical superiors, and the love of his flock. When, in 1865, a vacancy occurred in the diocese of Nashville, Father Feehan was urged for. the place. He was unwilling to accept ; and it was only at the earnest solicitation of Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis, that he assumed the charge. For fifteen years he was in charge of that diocese ; and during that time, by his great ability and attention to duty, he . f.M ;;• , iqS LIFE Al^D LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI//. w !I*1 ii .'I 1 was enabled to pay off an indebtedness of over a hundred thousand dollars, besides building an asylum that cost forty thousand dollars. He also labored with great self-sacrifice at the time Memphis was scourged with the yellow-fever ; and his administration since he came to Chicago has been of the most suc- cessful sort. Dr. Feehan is another prelate on whom it is thought a cardinal's hat will be bestowed at no distant date. On the 19th of February, Pope Leo XIII. appointed Vicar-General F. Janssens of the Diocese of Richmond to the vacant see of Natchez, from which Bishop Elder was transferred to the Cincinnati archdiocese. Bishop Janssens is a Hollander by birth, having first seen the light in the old town of Tilburg, in Nord Brabant, Oct. 17, 1843. ^^^ made his preparatory studies in the Petit Seminaire of that place, where he remained for six years, after which he entered the grand seminary of Bois-le-Duc. From the latter institution he passed to the American College, Lou- vain, where he was ordained Dec. 21, 1866. Two years later he came to Richmond, Va., in which diocese he served as pastor and vicar-general until his appointment to the Natchez see, as above stated. While on the subject of American appointments, it may be stated that the Pope, by a brief dated June 16, 1880, appointed Rev. Killan C. Flasch, then presi- dent of the Seminary of St. Francis de Sales, Milwau- :;iiii THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 190 kee, to the vacant see of La Crosse, Wis., from which Bishop Heiss had Ijeeii transfcrrcil to Milwaukee. Bishop Flasch was l^orn al Ri^ttzstaclt, diocese of Wurzburg, Bavaria, July 9, 1831. lie came to this country early, but it was not until 1853 that lie felt himself inclined to the sacred ministry. Entering the Salesanium at Milwaukee, he remained there for three years, at the end of which period he was or- dained a priest. After a year spent in the mission, he returned to the seminary as professor, where he staid until ill-health, in 1867, compelled him to seek more active work. He returned to the seminary again in 1875, assuming the chair of moral theology, and after- ward succeeding to the electorship, which post he held when he was made bishop of La Crosse. On the same day that his Holiness named Dr. Flasch for the Natchez diocese, he appointed Rev. Dr. John McMullen, since deceased, to the newly created see of Davenport, lo. Dr. McMullen was born March 8, 1833, in the town of Ballynahinch, in the county of Down, in the North of Ireland. The family removed to America in 1837, "^"^^ settled for a time in Lower Canada, afterwards removing to Chicago. The future bishop, a short time after the arrival of the family, entered college, and graduated with high honors in 1853, when in the twenty-first year of his age. In the same year he went to Rome, where he entered the College of the Propaganda. 111 200 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL I kX l!-' ! ^ ¥ ;|. :i'i 't*« P;l ■''li ' 1^ •!, Here he spent two years in the philosophical course, and three years in the theological course. In 1858 he was ordained a priest, and received the degree of doctor of divinity. In the same year, in August, he returned to Chicago, and was appointed pastor of St. Louis's Church. He afterwards became president of the University of Our Lady of the Lake, built by him in 1 86 1, removed in 1869 to Wilmington, 111. ; and, at Bishop Foley's request, returned to Chicago in 1870, to become administrator of the diocese. He died July 4, 1883, and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Henry Cosgrove, the ruling bishop, who was consecrated Sept. 14, 1884. Still later on in the year, his Holiness named Dr. Winand M. Wigger, parish priest of Madison, N.J., to the see of Newark, N.J. ; and appointed Rev. Michael J. O'Farrell, pastor of St. Peter's Church, Barclay Street, New York, to that of Trenton in the same State. Bishop Wigger was born in New York, Dec. 12, 1 84 1. He made his studies at the Jesuit College in Sixteenth Street, afterward entering Seton Hall. Going to Europe a few years later, he entered the College Brignole Sale at Genoa ; and, after completing his theological studies, was ordained priest June 10, 1865. Returning to this country in the fall, he was appointed to duty at the cathedral ; and, his health failing, he took a vacation in 1868, going to Rome, and returning two years later with the doctor's cap. THE IHIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 201 He was at once appointed pastor of Madison, where he remained until his episcopal nomination. Right Rev. Michael J. O'Farrell was born in Limerick, Ireland, in 1832. He began his studies at All Hal- lows, and finished them at St. Sulpice, Paris, becoming a member of the Sulpician Community. He was ordained in 1855, and, coming to this country, pro- ceeded to Montreal, where he filled various posts of honor and trust in the Sulpician Order. He severed his connection with the Sulpicians in 1879, came to New York, was curate at St. Peter's in that city, pastor at Rondout, and pastor again at St. Peter's, where he remained until he received the mitre. He is a pro- found theologian, an eloquent preacher and lecturer, and an intense Irish patriot. He has delivered several notable speeches, of late years, in behalf of the Irish cause. :f • m m m \ ■ ■iill I::;*! 202 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. CHAPTER XVI. CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. ^Ill \t I I ?U iiji; ■lil! iHi'i m m As Cardinal Nina, who was secretary of state, found himself in poor health early in 1880, he asked the Pope to relieve him of his onerous duties, and appoint some other cardinal in his stead. The Holy Father finally acceded to his request, and named Cardinal Jacobini for the office. This digni- tary was born at Albano, May 6, 1832. The late Sovereign Pontiff, Pope Pius IX., recognizing his worth, conferred many honors on him ; and when, in 1874, the Papal nuncio at Vienna withdrew, Monsignor Jacobini was appointed to succeed him. Though a position of no little difficulty, he filled it with honor both to himself and the Holy See. After his creation as cardinal in 1879, it was thought proper that he should remain in Vienna, in order to carry on the negotiations commenced some time previously with Germany and Russia to regulate the new ecclesiastical arrangements for Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result of these negotiations, in October preliminary agreements looking to an improvement of the rela- fi ' CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 203 tions between Rome and St. Petersburg were signed. These negotiations contained various articles relative to the nomination of bishops, the arrangement of many sees, and the liberty of prelates in directing their diocesan seminaries and the education of youth. Cardinal Jacobini also conducted to such successful issue the negotiations with Germany, that in August, 1 88 1, with the consent of the German Government, a bishop was appointed to Treves, in the person of Dr. Korum of Strasburg. This was the first episco- pal appointment to a Prussian see made since the promulgation of the May laws. It was Indeed a great triumph for the Holy See, and may be looked upon as the beginning of the end of the wretched conflict which for eight years had been waged against the Church. On the 30th of September, 1880, the Pope ad- dressed an encyclical letter to the pastors of the Catholic world, containing a summary of the lives of Sts. Cyril and Methodius, the devoted apostles of the Slavonians ; and in order to increase the devotion of the faithful towards these saints, he ordained that their feast, the 5th of July, should be observed as a double or minor rite ; and exhorted the bishops and faithful of the whole world to intercede with Sts. Cyril and Methodius to secure the preservation of true faith in the East, and the return of all schis- matics to the Catholic fold. ■ J. L ■ U'1 i 3- 1 1 ' ri n m; ',1 : Pii 204 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL In a consistory held Dec. 13, 1880, the Holy Father created Monsignor Antonio Hassoun, patriarch of Cilicia of the Armenians, and a cardinal of the Church. Cardinal Hassoun, the first of his nation who has been raised to the honor of the Roman purple, was born at Constantinople on the i6th of July, 1800, and was educated at the Urban College in Rome, where he took his degree of doctor of divinity with high honors. In 1842 he was conse- crated archbishop of Anazarba /./. /., and named co-adjutor with right of succession to Monsignor Marusei; and in 1845 ^^^ succeeded the latter as Armenian primate of the ecclesiastical province of Constantinople. In 1867 he was promoted to be Armenian patriarch of Cilicia, under the name of Antony-Peter IX. Since then he has been indefati- gable in his endeavors to reconcile to the Church the separated Christians of the East. For a time he was banished from Constantinople through a diplomatic intrigue, but finally better days dawned for the Arme- nian Catholics. Governmental support decayed, cer- tain diplomatic influences vanished, and the grace of God did the rest. Monsignor Hassoun w'as not alone recalled from exile, but even the Sultan himself heaped honors and favors upon him. He is the only cardinal at present who wears a beard, and the only one since the death of Cardinal Recanati, the Capu- chin, to do so. A cable despatch sent from London CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 20$ about this* time said that the Sultan might, after all, prove himself the largest-minded amongst the sover- eigns of Europe as regards the Church. It is exceed- ingly probable, that in a little while the relations of the Holy See with the various Catholic communities of Turkey will be less impeded than they are in France or Austria. And, as a result of the excellent effects of Pope Leo's policy, the following statements made by Euro- pean papers at this time are interesting. According to a despatch from Rome, the reply of the Emperor of Russia to the letter of the Pope, congratulating his Majesty upon the twenty-fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne, has arrived at the Vatican. The Czar, while thanking his Holiness for his good wishes, expresses only in vague terms the hope that friendly relations may be re-established between Russia and the Holy See. A telegram from Rome states that an agreement has been arrived at between Germany and the Vati- can. Cardinal Jacobini is to visit Berlin next month ; and it is probable that he will again confer with Prince Bismarck, who is said to have made concessions of importance in the negotiations that have lately been going on. Matters were settled in principle when his Eminence went to visit Prince Bismarck at Gastein ; and the details of the compromise were worked out in Vienna, an official from the Prussian Ministry of iji i' f 206 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL .;;* !l 111 * ' ^"1 i:i;rli "n ■M I ' 1 1 Public Worship having been sent thither for the purpose. The question of a reriewal of diplomatic relations between the Vatican and Mexico is revived. Though the Mexican Government is opposed to the system of mutual diplomatic representation, it does not object to a delegate being sent out by the Pope. The Vatican is desirous of re-establishing the relations which existed before the downfall of the Emperor Maximilian ; while the Pope himself said in June, 1880,— " The situation in France is grave, and not without serious apprehensions ; but the duty of the Holy See is always the same, under favorable circumstances or the contrary, — namely, to promote, guard, and defend the interests of the Catholic religion, which is the religion of France, and which reflects glory on France itself." Among other notable appointments, beside those already mentioned, made by the Pope in the third year of his Pontificate, was that of Right Rev. Timo- thy O'Mahony, bishop of Eudocia in partibiis, and auxiliary of Toronto ; the conferring of the dignity of domestic prelate on Very Rev. Dr. Neville, rector of the Dublin Catholic University ; and the appoint- ment of the venerable Cardinal Newman to the title of St. George in Velabro, by which to a certain extent official approbation was given, if such were need-'d, CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 207 to the revival of the devotion to the great saint, prac- tised to the glory of England for so many centuries. Early in the year, the Holy Father delivered the following address on the subject of the non-observance of religious festivals : — title tent d'-d. " It is a great consolation to our soul, dearly beloved children, to see you here to-day in such great number before us ; and of great comfort to us are the noble sentiments and the holy proposals just now expressed in the name of all, by him who holds amongst you so worthily the office of president. "Your work, which is so directly zealous for the honor of God and his glory, justly occupies a distinguished position amongst pious and religious institutions ; and, providing for a very great want of our days, has become highly meritorious and opportune. " None better than you, dearly beloved children, know how great the public profanation of feast-days is at present. In the shadow of a most extended liberty which is left to all and every thing, all too true is it that the days consecrated to the Lord cannot any more be distinguished from those destined to traffic and labor. The shops and business houses in great part remain open, and manual labors are protracted through many hours, both hiddenly and openly, in public places and in private. In our days, the designs of the im- pious, who had taken counsel together to abolish from the face of the earth the days sacred to the Lord, seem to have revived : Quies- cere fdciamus ovmes dies festos Dei a terra, — let us abolish all the festival days of God from the land. " And yet the observance of feast-days, willed expressly by God from the first origin of man, is loudly called for by the absolute and essential dependence of the creature on the Creator. And this law, — note it well, beloved children, — which at one time so admirably provides for the honor of God, the spiritual wants and dignity of ) 1 \?. \ Mst ■u ri' ''(.}'■; • p lie 1 j 1 K. t . :i iM^ ' : ;!: 208 Z//-£ AJVD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL man, and likewise for the temporal well-being of human life, — this law, we say, touches not only individuals, but also peoples and na- tions, which are debtors to Divine Providence for all good and every advantage derived from civil society. And it is exactly to this most fatal tendency, which prevails to-day, of desiring to lead man far from God, and to order kingdoms and nations as if God did not exist, that it is owing that at present the Lord's Day is despised and neglected. " It is said, indeed, that thereby it is intended to further industry, to procure for the people an increase of prosperity and riches. Foolish and false phrases ! It is sought, instead, to take away from the people the comforts, the consolations, and the benefits of re- ligion ; it is sought to weaken in them the sentiment of faith, and love of heavenly things; and to call down upon nations the most terrible scourges of God, the just vindicators of his outraged honor. " Tliat which renders still more deplorable so great a disorder is, that it takes place in the midst of Catholic nations, upon which the benefits of the Lord have been poured abundantly and copiously. It is most deplorable, then, that such excess should be seen in Rome, the centre of Catholicity, the see of the Roman Pontiffs, at the very time that in anti-Catholic nations the need is felt of recalling in vigor the observance of the festival day. " Hence it is, that we behold with profound sadness and grief that the faithful of the whole world, who expect to find here in Rome the model of Catholic life, public and private, are saddened and offended instead by such profanation. And our sorrow is rendered still more grave on reflecting, that, Rome having been taken from our legitimate dominion, we are placed in the impossibility of remedying the evil, and of vindicating the honor of God. " In great part this task belongs to you, dearly beloved children. Put all your care and effort in this holy work ; let the number of zealous associates for the observance of feast-days be greatly in- creased ; let your activity, zeal, and holy courage be redoubled ; let CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 2CK) not difficulties move you ; let not human respect restrain you ; let not even offences and injuries, which you will happen sometimes to meet with, cause you to abandon the holy undertaking. And in order that your efforts may turn out more fruitful, we make appeal to the piety and the religion of those who have at heart the honor of God and the well-being of Rome, to as many as are interested in the moral and material welfare of the working classes. And we earnestly ex- hort them to co-operate with you in this noble purpose, according to the rule of your statutes, and in the degree allowed by the condition of each person. " And as to us, we will always assist you, dearly beloved children, with our authority and word ; and we will constantly pray the Lord that to you, and to all your associates, may be granted the grace to continue with perseverance, with zeal, and with good fruit, so holy and salutary an undertaking. "Meanwhile, for your encouragement, and as a pledge of our particular benevolence, to you here present, to your families, and tO' as many as take part in the pious work, we impart, with effusion of heart, the apostolic benediction." I -n if that lie the [ended more itimate ie evil, lildren. Iber of Itly in- led ; let And about the same time he received a deputation of one hundred heads of religious orders, who pre- sented their congratulations to him on the advent of the new year. In his reply, his Holiness said that the religious orders were the fortresses of the Church, that everywhere they were a great source of help, and scattered benefits and consolations on the faithful, while they constituted a great power of social strength. Aware of this notable fact, he added, revolutionaries had in many instances taken possession of the monas- teries and monastic properties, and driven out their 'kill 2IO L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL holy inmates. The tempest had been formidable ; but after its cessation, the members of the confraternities would re-unite, marshal their ranks, and, recovering their convents, would recommence their labors. In giving his apostolic benediction, the Pope exhorted the deputation to persevere in the good work. Early in the year the Pope, in receiving the civil employes, some six hundred in number, of the Pon- tifical Government, who, refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Picdmontese usurper, had been pen- sioners, since 1870, of the Vatican, said, — rTi In :r % ■"True it is, that, to hide the odious character of the fact, they •never cease from saying we are free, because we are not subjected to visible coercion ; but true liberty is not that which depends on the will of others, nor can that be esteemed independence which is subject in aught to the control of others. They also persist in saying that freedom of speech has been left us ; as if :o many of our glorious predecessors had not spoken freely even \\\ the depths of the catacombs, in the squalor of prisons, in the face of fierce tyrants, in the midst of torments, and under threats of cruel death, and they nevertheless were certainly neither free nor independent at that state. We know also that tney cease not from saying and writing that our apostolic authority is reverenced and respected in Rome ; but the truth of this assertion may be easily known by slightly bending the ear, and listening to the insults which, in this same city, are with impunity aimed at us, at religion, and at the Catholic Church, of which, though unworthy, we are the head and supreme master. Only a few weeks have passed since beneath our very eyes they celebrated, with clamorous rejoicing, the anniversary of the violent occupation of Rome, that iiver-sorrowful day for us. : ■ i CONTINUATION OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 211 which obliged the Pontiff to sliut himself within the narrow circuit of these walls. Finally, they go about saying and repeating that nothing interferes with our doing all that is required for the govern- ment of the Church. But, on the contrary, it is well known that they place manifold obstacles in our way ; whether, for example, by depriving us of the valid help of the religious families, who are dispersed in the hopes of annihilating them, or by advancing pre- tended rights to the exequatur on the Pontifical bulls, and to the patronage of the various episcopal sees in Italy. What shall we say also regarding the occupation of churches in Rome, which, closed to public worship, are destined to public uses, the property and dominion of the ecclesiastical authorities in them not only being contested, but even the means of defending their rights at law being denied ? What shall we say regarding the door left open to impiety and heresy in this city of Rome, our see and the centre of Catholicism, without its being possible for us to oppose any sufficient and efficacious remedy? And further, when, impelled by love for the Roman people, to our special care confided, we have endeav- ored, at sacrifices beyond our resources, to counterpoise against the Protestant schools, perilous to the faith, other schools which would give parents every security for the Christian education of their chil- dren, we could not do so by employing the Pontifical authority, but solely by using those means which are conceded to any private person whomsoever. From our words you can fully understand, beloved children, how difficult and hard is the condition in which the Roman Pontiff has been placed by the revolution, and how vain are the flattering hopes of those who talk of the possibility of its being accepted on our part. Mindful always of our duties, and knowing what is required for the good of the Church and the dignity of the Roman Pontificate, we shall never acquiesce in the present condition of things ; nor shall we cease, as we have never yet ceased, from calling for the restitution of all which by fraad and deceit has been taken from the Apostolic See." '•■■'.'•:-l\ 212 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. \i. 1 J , '■\\ 'iilii^^ i ;; I \ ■ t Not content with his letters against sociahstic and other crimes, of Jan. 3, the Holy Father, on June 29, issued an encyclical on the duty of subjection to constituted authorities. This letter came at a most opportune time, and it produced excellent results ; for society was scarcely recovering from the shock of the assassination of Alexander II., when it was startled with the information that President Garfield had been made the victim of a dastardly assault, which, unfor- tunately, terminated fatally. As soon as the news reached Rome, the Holy Father hastened to send the following cablegram to Washington : — Rome, Aug, 15, 1881. Hon. James G. Bl.\ine, Secretary of Siate, JVashington. As the Holy Father learned with painful surprise and profound sorrow of the horrid attempt of which the President of the Repub- lic was the victim, so now he is happy to felicitate his Excellency upon the news that his precious life is now out of danger, and will ever pray that God may grant him speedy and complete recovery of his health, and long spare him to the benefit of the United States. The undersigned has the honor to join in these sentiments of sincere congratulations, wishes for complete recovery. L. CARDINAL JACOBINI. To which Secretary Blaine sent the following answer : — Washington, Aug. 22. To His Eminence L. Cardinal Jacobini, Rome. Please convey to his Holiness the sincere thanks with which this Government receives the kind expression of his prayerful inter- !l-; CONTINUATlOiV OF THE THIRD PONTIFICAL YEAR. 213 est in behalf of Ijlj » s! 1 THE INSULT TO POPE PIUS' REMAINS. 223 of St. Peter's the noblest funeral that the eye of man had ever seen. The sacred body of the Vicar of Jesus Christ, Pius TX., of holy and blessed memory, was borne out by his loving sons to be laid in the tomb which he had chosen for himself in the basilica of San Lorenzo, lying under the altar in the midst of martyrs. And when that procession went forth into the streets, there broke forth the illumination of a thousand torches, — a testimony of the love and faith of those who accompanied him to lay him in the tomb of his choice. Nothing sweeter, nothing more solemn, nothing more noble, nothing more innocent, than that funeral procession, can the heart of man conceive ; and yet against it there was an outburst of hellish hate, of infernal insult, — the true outcome from the mouth of that old serpent who hates the incarnate God, and the Vicar that reigns in his place. And along the whole pathway of that funeral proces- sion, not only insults of a kind so gross that even among savage men they could not be found were used against it, but language of such vileness that irrational minds would be incapable of using it, and reasonable man alone, when he is disfigured from the likeness of God into the image of Satan, can conceive and utter it. Yet Pius IX., though dead, yet speaketh. He speaks of the undying and implaca- ble hostility between the serpent and his seed, and the incarnate Son of God and all who serve him. And he speaks to us, in that last, lonely, and sweet procession, going, like our Divine Lord to the cross, in the midst of the insults of men, of the faith, the fidelity, the courage, and the perseverance which overcome the scorn of the world. There never was an event in our times which, I believe, has manifested and will manifest three things more strikingly than that procession : First, the love and faith of the true Roman people, as distinguished from those who have come, like an unclean flood, into the streets of the city ; next, the shame and humiliation of the anti- Christian faction, which made war for more than thirty years upon the living Pontiff, and which has not spared even execration and insult to his body as it was being borne to the tomb ; and, lastly, the ^: i w ' t' 1 1,^, 1 i 1 1 i 1 1 11 . ■■'. I s r - <( 224 L//'£ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. abhorrence and indignation of the whole Christian world, — not the Catholic world only, but the Christian world ; and every heart, and every man that is worthy of the name of man, will detest and abhor and denounce that most unholy and horrible sacrilege." Naturally the disgraceful conduct of the infidels made a deep impression on Pope Leo, as it did on the whole world, who saw that it was no idle talk to say that the Pope was no longer safe from insult in Rome, and who recognized that there was good reason for the assertion that the Holy Father was a prisoner in his own palace. Leo XI IL thought that this insult to the remains of his predecessor called for an expostulation on his part ; and at the next consistory of the cardinals he addressed to them an allocution on the subject, which is reproduced here in its entirety. Said the Holy Father, — " We have hastened to convoke around us your august college, venerable brethren, in order that the provision which we are obliged to make for some churches may afford us an opportunity of opening our soul to you, and sharing with you the sorrow with which we have recently been oppressed, on account of the execrable and shameful things which happened in Rome during the transfer of the body of Pius IX., our predecessor of hapi)y memory. We have enjoined our beloved son, the Cardinal Secretary 'f State, to advise the governments of Europe without delay of these disgraceful occur- rences. Nevertheless, the affront offered our great predecessor, as well as the outrage upon the Pontifical dignity, oblige us to raise our voice, that we give the sentiments of our soul public confirma- tion, and that Catholic nations may understand that we have done 'i.: ill' THE INSULT TO POPE PICS' REMAINS. 225 what was in our power to guard the memory of so saintly a person and to defend the majesty of the sovereign Pontificate. "As you know, venerable brethren, I'ius IX. ordered that his body should be buried in the basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura. Wherefore, having to carry his last will into effect, it was in intelli- gence with those whose duty it is to guarantee the public security, established that the removal from the Vatican Hasilica should be made in the silence of the night, and during the hours which are usually the most quiet. Similarly it was decided that the translation should be made in the manner permitted by the present condition of Rome, instead of in the splendid form proper to the Pontifical majesty, and the traditional usages of the Church. lUit the news, was suddenly spread throughout the city, tliat the Roman people, mindful of the virtues and the benefits bestowed by the great Pontiff, had spontaneously manifested the desire of rendering to their com- mon father the last tribute of respect and filial affection. That manifestation of gratitude and affection was intended to be thor- oughly worthy of the gravity and Lhe religious sentiments of the Roman people, who had no other intention than that of associating themselves decorously with the o>r(i'^L\ and assisting numerously and reverently at its passing. On the day and at the hour fixed, the cortege moved from the Vatican Temple, while a great multitude of persons of all classes crowded from all sides. Many were around the funeral car, very many behind it, and all of tran(]uil and serious bearing. Intent on reciting the befitting prayers, they neither uttered a cry, nor committed an act which could provoke any one, or give cause in any way for disturbances. But, behold ! from the very beginning of the religious accompaniment, a handful of noted miscreants disturbed the sad ceremony with riotous cries. Gradually increasing in number and boldness, they red(^ubk'd the clamor and tumult, they insulted the most holy things, sahited with hisses and contumely persons of the highest respectability ; and with a threaten- ing and contemptuous aspect they surrounded the funeral cortege, ■ '< ! m !U y : ):? i .Ji v';j 226 Z/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. n ii ill ; , '\\\'. i\ M I.' I ■>,' dealing blows and throwing stones at them. Moreover, what even barbarians would not have dared, they dared, not respecting even the remains of the Holy Pontiff; for not only did they imprecate the name of Pius IX., but they threw stones at the funeral-car which carried the corpse, and n^ore than once was the cry raised to throw away the ashes unburied. Throughout all the long way, and for the space of two hours, the indecent spectacle lasted ; and if they did not commit greater excesses, the merit is due to the long-suffering of those, who, although provoked by every violence and wantonness, preferred to resign themselves to the insults rather than permit their pious office to be saddened by more mournful scenes. From every side, letters of execration of such a disgrace and enormous misdeed reach us daily. But above all, the deepest grief and pain caused by the atrocious crime rests upon our soul ; and inasmuch as our duty vconstitutes us the vindicator of all that is attempted to the detriment of the majesty of the Roman Pontificate, and of the venerated memory of our predecessors, we solemnly protest before you, vener- able brethren, against those deploral^le excesses, and we loudly denounce the insults, the entire blame for which falls upon those who did not defend either the rights of religion, or the liberty of the citizens, from the fury of the impious. And from this also the Catholic world may judge what security there is left for us in Rome. It was already well and openly known, that we are reduced to a most difficult, and for many reasons intolerable condition ; but the recent facts of which we have spoken have made this more clearly manifest, and together they have demonstrated, that, if the present state of things is bitter to us, still more bitter is the fear of the future. If the removal of the ashes of Pius IX. gave cause for such unworthy disturbances and such serious tumults, who could give warranty that the audacity of the wicked would not break out into the same excesses when they saw us pass along the streets of Rome in a manner becoming our dignity, and especially if they believed they had just motive, because we ourselves, through duty, :.j to all those who are laboring in such a just and righteous cause, -isk long as they are guided by these principles. We solemnly declare that if the British Parliament iu unwill'-i;; or unable to apply an efficient remedy to " the coo. or tliat is eating away the life of the nation," it is the duty of England to remit tlv- cure of the evil to the people of Ireland themselves. Nor, on the other hand, do we hesitate to denounce a- ;)eniir'i,U3 and infamous the conduct of certain supposed emiss-aricj of sec'\t societies, who seek to infuse into this movement a spirit 01 injustice, and a disregard for the laws of morality as expoundixi by t'.ie Catholic Church. Following in the footsteps of our Holy Father, Pope Leo XIII. , who has recently manifested hi^- deep concern for the temporal as well as the eternal welfare of the faithful peoj/ie of Tit.iand, l.>y addressing them words of paternal sympathy and apostolic counsel, we declare that we are advocates of peace and civic order, and nold with St. Thomas and otlier Catholic doctors that the cily laudable and stable order is that which is founded on justice to all men, effective redress of wrong, and an equitable aojustmeut of conflict- ing interest. All civilized governments are more or less influenced by the pub- j! I' i I , 1 1 '■ ] \i ■ Ifjr ''^ '! ■ :■ i 240 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL lie opinion of the world ; and we will rejoice with you, should this declaration of ours serve, even in the slightest degree, to give more force and efficacy to the desire of the nations, that the condition of Ireland should cease to be the reproach of modern statesman- ship, a blot upon the civilization of the age, and a deplorable and needless exception to the general prosperity of the people of Europe. Our confidence in ultimate success is much increased when we see the clergy and people of Ireland, without regard to differences of creed or party affiliations, tending to unite in the work of redress- ing the wrongs under which she has so long groaned ; and we hope that the bonds of this growing union may be drawn closer day by day, till the united voice of the children of Ireland, at home and abroad, demanding justice, not alms, shall at length be heard and heeded. We pray the Giver of all good gifts that he may reward Ireland's centuries of suffering, and fidelity to religion, with the fullest civil liberty, peace, and prosperity, so that she may be once again the home of learning and science, and a source of blessings to other nations. tJOHN J. WILLIAMS, Archbishop of Boston. WILLIAM BYRNE, V. G. W. A. BLENKINSOP, Chairman, Pastor SS. Peter and Paul's Church, Boston. M. J. FLATLEY, Secretary, Pastor St. Joseph's, Wakefield. THOMAS H. SHAHAN, Pastor St. yames's Church, Boston. THOMAS MAGENNIS, Pastor St. Thomas's Church, Boston. MICHAEL J. MASTERSON, Pastor St. John's Church, Peabody, Mass. I 11 POPE LEO AND IRELAND. J4I Boston. Commenting on the Irish situation, the "Aurora" of Rome, which was then supposed to reflect the views of the Vatican, denied that the Irish bishops were pursuing a policy displeasing at heart to the Pope, and adds, — " The Pope and the bishops have never thought of preventing peoples from aiming at the legitimate satisfaction of their needs and respect for their rights, provided they never deviate from justice and rectitude in the choice of means. Rebellion, outbreaks of pas- sion, incendiarism, destruction of property, and homicide clearly are not among such means ; and the Pope and the bishops are perfectly agreed on this point. They render service to government in this respect, tlie more valuable inasmuch as their services touch souls and cost nothing. Here their action stops. If after this the Irish, or any other people, have grievances to prefer, and rights to enforce by proper means, that is their affair. The Church, loving her chil- dren, and imbued with the love of Jesus Christ, wishes just reasons for complaint to be removed, and rights ;o be acknowledged ; but it does not therefore descend from the lofty region of principles, to mix in the details of the movement. Thus it has always been, and will always be." Y Mass. h';,: '' t ii- 11 242 L/F£ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. t ' CHAPTER XIX. THE POPE'S FIRST CANONIZATION. ,)•: UV. !H at If ' 'HI vi i Mi * - WE conclude our review of Pope Leo's third Pontifical year by reproducing here the "Lon- don Tablet's " description of the grand ceremony with which the year 1881 closed; to wit, the canonization, on the 8th of December, in the great hall over the portico of St. Peter's, of the blessed Giovanni Battis- ta de Rossi, canon of Santa Maria in Cosmedin ; of Father Lorenzo da Brindisi, Capuchin of the Minor Observants of St. Francis ; of Benedict Joseph Labre, layman ; and of Sister Clare of the Cross of Monte- falco, Augustinian nun. Says " The Tablet," — " The hall was beautifully decorated and prepared for the occa- sion, under the direction of Commendatore Fontana, Vatican archi- tect, with the approval of the Holy Father himself, who carefully inspected all the arrangements. The hall was not adorned with glaring draperies, but in the simplest taste. The walls, divided already into compartments by the huge recesses for windows looking on one side into the piazza, on the other into the basilica, were fur- ther subdivided by festoons of flowers and candelabra, reaching in lines from the ceiling to near the ground. The cornice was equipped with a double row of lights, extending all around the hall, one row le occa- |an archi- carefully Ined with divided looking ,'ere fur- iching in equipped , one row z H n X 5 X VI H Tl m tn 33 7) m "I I "^ r I I!i^ * ri !-ii mnv. ■ « 1., I ' siS! iV^ :ii 11' n I'- ;;■ w ' ' ■ uhI i: i .1 m THE POPE'S FIRST CANONIZATION: 243 being perfectly even, and the upper being here and there diversified by slight elevations of the lamps. The prevailing colors in the decoration of the walls were white and gold, which were set off admirably by the festoons of flowers. The Papai throne, erected at the far end of the hall, had over it the legend Udi Petrus ibi eccksia. The altar, in the midst before the throne, was covered by a lofty baldacchino, the four columns and the angels supporting them being richly gilt. Between the throne and the altar were the benches for the cardinals and archbishops ; at the other side of the altar were seats for the bishops, mitred abbots, and prelates. A barrier similar to that in the Sistine Chapel divided the hall into two portions, one for the Pope, cardinals, and ecclesiastics, the other for the general public. All along the centre of the hall, a passage was kept clear by the Palatine and Swiss Guards. The recesses of the windows, the walls being of great thickness, afforded ample room for the erection of tribunes or galleries. The ten recesses, five on the side of the piazza and five looking into the basilica, were accordingly utilized by the erection in each of three tiers of seats with stair- cases. The ten tribunes thus provided were distinguished by letters, A to K. The tribune A to the left of the Papal throne, and gospel side of the Papal altar, was reserved for the Grand Master of the Order of Malta, with three knights, the president and four postu- lators of the respective causes, and friends of the Secretary of State. Tribune B was allocated to the prelates and consultors of the Congregation of Rites and to friends of the Majordomo. Tribune C was given to the postulation committee of blessed John Baptist de Rossi ; D to the postulation committee of blessed Joseph Labre; and E to the commission of the Congregation of Rites. At the right of the throne, and Epistle side of the Papal altar, tribune F was reserved for the diplomatic body, G for the Pecci family and the Roman nobles, H for the Roman nobles and the Papal choir, I for the postulation of blessed Lorenzo da Brindisi, and K for the postulation of blessed Clara da Montefalco. Twelve L' J \ i. fi^ri 244 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIH. 'a :J; 'A '..'■. If i ■Jit!' i 'i;: li ii" standams painted to represent miracles, or scenes in the lives of the new saints, were susi^ended at intervals along the walls of the hall and antechamber. " Eight o'clock A.M. was the hour mentioned for the arrival in the tickets of admission ; but as early as six a.m. people drove to the bron/e gate, which was then, of course, closed. The cardinals, archbishops, and bishops, the ambassadors and Roman nobles, drove round by the Zecca, and all other persons were directed to the bronze gate ; and long before eight a.m. the Scala Regia was crowded by some hundreds of ladies and gendemen, all anxious to get the first places. The Palatine Guards formed a cordon at the head of the stairs, and allowed only a few to pass at a time, in order to give time for close examination of the tickets. By nine A.M. the seats in the body of the hall were filled, and the tribunes nearly so. " Shortly after nine a.m., the Pope, accompanied by the Major- domo, Master of the Camera, Noble Guards and Chamberlains (lay and clerical) on duty, left his private apartments, and descended to the Hall del Paramenti, in which were already assembled the cardi- nals (forty-two in number), the archbishops (sixty-five or more), the bishops (seventy-five), the abbots (only four or five), the gen- erals of orders, Vatican penitentiaries, Vatican prelates and officials, and the consultors of the Congregation of Rites. The Pope then robed in the sacred vestments with the Papal mantle, and put on the tiara, and, after blessing the incense, entered the adjoining Sala Ducale, where he laid aside the tiara, and knelt in prayer at an altar erected for the purpose, and adorned by a tapestry picture of the Immaculate Conception. The Pope, on rising from prayer, intoned the first words of the hymn Avi^ Man's stclla, which was sung by the Papal choir, and, assuming the mitre, entered the sedia gestatoria, and was presented by Cardinal Bartolini, procurator of the canonization, with three lighted waxen candles, richly painted. The largest of these the Pope handed to the prince assistant at THE POPE'S FIPST CANOX/ZAT/O.V. 245 r the hall al in o the iinals, drove to the la was ions to L at the imc, in }y nine tribunes Major- jiins (lay ndecl to cardi- more), he gen- officials, oe then put on ling Sala cr at an »icture of prayer, hich was red the rocurator J painted. distant at tet the throne (Colonna), who knelt to receive itj and the smallest he took in his left hand, leaving his right hand free to impart the benediction. " A procession was then formed in the following order : Two niace-bearers ; under-officers ; consultors and officers of the Con- gregation of Rites ; members of the Cappella Pontificia, i.e., procu- rators, apostolic preacher, confessor, proctors-general of mendicant orders, Bussolanti, chaplains in ordinary, some of them bearing the Pope's precious mitres, clerks and private chaplains, the Procurator- General del Fisco and consistorial advocates, the Cameriere cV Onore and Scgreti, and the singers of the Papal choir ; various Vatican prel- ates ; two private chaplains, bearing the tiara and mitre usually worn by Leo XIII. ; Prince Ruspoli, master of the Sacred Hospice, at- tended by mace-bearers and Cursori. " Next came a Votante di Scgnatiira with incense, the junior auditor of the Rota, as sub-deacon apostolic, bearing the Papal cross, and surrounded by seven acolytes with lighted wax candles, and followed by the Virga Rubea, or keeper of the Papal cross, an auditor of the Rota, and two Greeks, habitated in sacred vestments for serving as sub-deacons at the Mass. Then in white copes ad- vanced the Vatican penitentiaries, the abbots general, the Commen- datore di S. Spirito, the abbots ordinary, all in white damask copes and white mitres ; the bishops and archbishops, non-assistant and assistant at the throne, in copes of silver cloth and with white mitres. "Afterwards the cardinals, the deacons first in rich silver dal- matics, embroidered in gold, then the priests in copes ; and lastly, the cardinal bishops in copes, all wearing damask mitres, and hold- ing in their hands lighted wax candles, each attended by train-bearer and officials; next the Prince (Colonna), assistant at the throne; two auditors of the Rota ; the two first deacons assistant (Cardinals Mertel and Randi), with Cardinal Zigliara as acting deacon minis- trant between them ; the prefect of pontifical ceremonies (Mgr. Cataldi) and a master of ceremonies in attendance. IS Si 246 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. iPHi Ji' , " Next came the Pope in the sedia gestatoria, attended by the Foriere (Marchese Sacchetti) and the Cavallerizzo (Marchese Ser- lupi), and carried by Palafrenicni and Scdiari, wearing red damask liveries, and with a baldachino held over him by eigiit referendary prelates of the Segnatura (of whom Mgr. Stonor was one), the flabclli or peacock fims being carried at either side. Immediately behind his Holiness followed the commandants and officers of the Noble Guard, the officers of the Swiss and Palatine Guards of Honor, the sword-bearers, mace-bearers, the dean of the Rota carrying the mitre, the Majordomo (Mgr. Ricci-Paracciani), the master of the camera (Mgr. Macchi), the prothonotaries Participanti, and some generals of religious orders. '' This procession, issuing from the Sala Ducale, went round the Aula Regia, and entered the Sistine Chapel, where the Pope alighted from the sedia gestatoria, and knelt before the Elessed Sacrament. The procession, when the Pope re-entered the sedia, resumed its course to the Hall of Canonization ; the Papal choir, at the entrance of his Holiness, singing the Tu es Pctrits. " The scene, as viewed from the upper galleries of the tribunes, at the entrance of the procession, was strikingly beautiful. A soft golden light pervaded the hall ; the tribunes were filled with ambas- sadors in rich uniform, nobles and gentlemen wearing brilliant deco- rations. Capuchins in sombre brown, and Augustinians in black robes. The crimson plumes of the Palatine Guards formed a double line in the midst of the hall ; then came slowly marching the various Vatican officials, some in red and white robes, interspersed with the Spanish costumes of black velvet and the silver maces ; next the long and api)arently interminable rows of white mitres with a few red crowns studded with jewels of Armenian and Oriental prelates, the cardinals in their rich robes, and the great officers of state ; and, most obser\-ed of all, Leo XHI. himself, giving his benediction to the kneeling crowds, and looking every inch the Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church. When the barrier was passed, his Holiness handed his THE POPE'S FIRST CANONIZATION. 247 waxen torch to the Coppiere (Monsignor Boccali), and the second cardinal deacon removed the tiara. The Pope then knelt in prayer at the faldstool before the throne, and on rising took his seat on the throne, again wearing the mitre. Fourteen of the senior archbishops and bishops sat on the steps of the throne. The cardinals sat on longitudinal benches at either side of the space before the throne, and behind them sat the archbishops. The bishops, abbots, peni- tentiaries, and Vatican prelates sat on cross benches ranged between the altar and the barrier. The cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and prelates then, one by one and in order of rank, wunt up to the throne, and paid their respective homages. They then re- sumed their seats, each retaining in his hand a lighted candle. The procurator of the canonization. Cardinal Bartolini, and on his left the consistorial advocate, De Domenicis Tosti, were then condurted to the foot of the throne ; and the dean, in the name of the cardi- nal procurator, made in Latin the first postulation instankr for the canonization, to which a reply, also in Latin, was made in the name of the Pontiff, by Monsignor Mercurelli, the secretary of briefs to princes. The postulators returned to their seats j the Pope left the throne, and knelt at the faldstool; and two singers of the Papal choir intoned the Litanies of the Saints, all present kneeling and join- ing in the responses. The Litanies being over, the Pope returned to his throne ; and the second postulation, instanter, instantius, was made, and the secretary replied. The postulators resumed their seats, the Pope again knelt, and the first cardinal deacon assistant pronounced the word Orate. All present knelt and prayed until the second cardinal deacon assistant said Lcvate. The Pope and all present then rose, and the Pope intoned the Veni Creator Spiritus, after which he recited the prescribed prayers ; and the third postula- tion, instanter, instantius, instantissime, was made, and responded to by the secretary. The Pope now stood at the throne, wearing the tiara, and, as Doctor Infallible and Head of the Universal Church, pronounced the formal decree of canonization. [1^* :'l,,l. ^i ! ' I = i ' in li. *, f :, ;;t : 248 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. " On the publication of this decree, the cardinal procurator and the consistorial advocate returned thanks, and prayed for the de- spatch of the relative apostolic letters. The Pope replied, ' Decerni- mus ; ' and the advocate requested the prothonotaries to compile the acts of canonization. The chief prothonotary answered, ' Con- ficicmtis,' and, turning to the chamberlains, added, ' Volns kstilms.^ The trumpets now sounded from the distance, and the bells of St. Peter's and of all the churches of Rome began to ring out a joyful peal. The Pope rose, laid aside the mitre, and intoned the Te Dcum, which was chanted by the Papal choir. After the Tc Dciim, Cardinal Mertel intoned the ' Oraie pro nobis, Sancii /oaniu. Bap- tista, Laurenti,Bcncdicte Joseph, ct C/ara,' the choir responding with ' Ut (figni cfficiamur pwinissionibiis Christi.^ The Holy Father then read the 'Orcmus' proi)er for the new saints. The cardinal deacon. Gospeller, recited the ' Confitcor,'' adding, after ' Petro ei Paulo,* the words ' Sanctis Joanni Baptishv, Laurentio, Benedicto Joseph, et Clarm.* The sub-deacon then approached the throne, bearing the cross ; and Leo XIII., laying aside the mitre, said the prayer before the benediction, adding the names of the new saints, and then solemnly imparted the benediction, and the canonization ceremonies were concluded. " Preparations were then made for the Mass. The Psalms for Tierce were intoned, and the Pope put on the vestments for Mass. Cardinal di Pietro was the assistant bishop. Cardinals Mertel and Randi the deacons assistant, and Cardinal Zigliara was deacon minis- trante. The sub-deacon was Mgr. Sibilia, auditor of the Rota. The Mass celebrated by the Holy Father was that of the Immaculate Conception, with prayers proper for the new saints. The Gospel and the Epistle were intoned both in Greek and Latin ; and after the Gos- pel, Leo XIII, delivered a homily, in which he enlarged on the sub- ject of the Immaculate Conception, and deplored the unfortunate condition of affairs which prevented the celebration of these func- tions in St. Peter's, and returned thanks to Heaven for the privilege i i 1 1 THE POPE'S FIRST CANONIZATION. 249 of decreeing divine honors to four heroes of the Church. He then pronounced an admirable panegyric on the life and virtues of the four saints, concluding by a prayer for a blessing for the Universal Church through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin and the newly canonized saints. The homily lasted for nearly twenty minutes. During the chanting of the ^ Credo,' twelve cardinals, members of tlie Congregation of Rites, proceeded to the Pauline CiiapLJ, where the oblations were laid out on twelve tables. These ol)kitioiis con- sisted, for each of the four postulations, of five wax candles, two of the weight of thirty Roman pounds each, and three of nine pounds weight each ; two large loaves, one gilt, the other silvered, on silver plates ; wine and water in two small barrels, one gilt, the other sil- vered ; three cages, one with two turtle-doves, the second with two pigeons, the third with some other birds. These oblations, carried by the postulators, were presented to the Pope by cardinals, namely, the cardinal procurator, Bartolini, a cardinal priest, and a cardinal deacon, all of the Congregation of Rites. Cardinal Bartolini acted for all four postulations, as the procurator for all ; the other cardinals were Di Pietro, Monaco La Valletta, and De Falloux, for St. John Baptist de Rossi ; Cardinals Sacconi, Orcglia, and Pellegrini, for St. Lorenzo da Brindisi ; Cardinals Bilio, Mertinelli, and Pecci, for St. Benedict Joseph Labre ; and Cardinals Pitra, Cattani, and Hassoun, for St. Clare of the Cross. The several oblations as presented to the Pope were by his Holiness handed to Monsignor Cataldi, prefect of Pontifical ceremonies. " The Pope then, after washing his hands, continued the celebra- tion of the Mass, making the Communion on the throne. The music chosen for the occasion was Ciciliani's Mass for eight voices, with the Credo of Vittoria, the Tota pulchra of Palestrina, and the O Salii- iaris Hostia of Mustafa, who directed the choir with his usual con- summate skill. At the moment of, the elevation, a melody was sounded by the silver trumpets of the Noble Guards, the musicians being stationed out of view, and above the cornice of the entrance „lyh ^^ l:. i \< m 250 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII, '/; r door. After the elevation, Baini's Bcnedictus was sung by the choir. The Pope at the termination of the Mass laid the pallium and mani- ple upon the altar, and, putting on the mitre, took his scat on the throne. He then exchanged the mitre for the tiara ; and Cardinal Bartolini, procurator of the canonization, Mgr. de Marzo, president of postuhitions, and the postulators of the four causes approached the throne ; and Cardinal Bartolini, in the name of the four postula- tors, presented his Holiness with a purse of white velvet, embroidered with gold, and containing the customary offering //-f? viissa bene cart' tata. The Tope then entered the saiia gesiatoria, the procession was formed ; and the Holy Father left the hall with the same cortege as when he entered it, and exhibiting little signs of fatigue, although the ceremonies had lasted from 8.30 a.m. to 2.30 p.m. " Cardinal Mertel unfortunately was seized with illness during the functions, and his place as cardinal-deacon ai distant was supplied by another cardinal. Some alarm was felt at first, at the apparently serious indisposition of his Eminence ; but he became much better the following day. *' Among the notables present at the canonization, were Cardinal Schwarzenberg, the sole remaining cardinal of the creation of Gregory XVI. ; the cardinal archbishops of Paris, Rouen, and Toulouse ; the recently consecrated Prussian prelate. Archbishop Joseph Stadler; and Bishops Mermillod and Lachat. "Among the British, Irish, and American ecclesiastics present, were Bishop Hugh Conway of Killala; Bishop Michael Logue of Raphoe ; Archbishop AUard, formerly vicar apostolic in Natal j Bishop John Quinlan of Mobile, U. S. A. ; Bishop John Leonard, vicar apostolic. Cape of Good Hope ; Bishop Patrick Moran of Dunedin, New Zealand ; Bishop Kirby, rector of the Irish College, Rome ; the Abbot Sweeney, O. S. B. ; Father Lockhart of London ; Dr. Talbot of Boston, then a student of the American College j and Father Murphy, O. S. A., now of Lawrence, Mass. THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE, 25 1 CHAPTER XX. THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. INASMUCH as in the account given of the first two years of Pope Leo's Pontificate, considerable space has been given to a description of the several cere- monies which it f rlls to the lot of a Supreme Pontiff to perform or to preside at ; and inasmuch, also, as the limits of this book do not admit of a repetition of these details on every occasion that the ceremonies with which they are connected are performed, — the author proposes to omit such repetition in the subse- quent chapters, and to confine himself more closely to a reproduction of the more important and signifi- cant utterances of the Holy Father in regard to the Church in general, and the different nations of the earth in particular. Leo XIII. has been called upon to perform many important acts that interested the Catholic Church in this country. He has named num- bers of new bishops ; called the archbishops of the whole country to Rome, to consult with them on the condition a.id progress of the American Church ; or- dered the holding of a plenary council of the Church - a' i>: 252 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL .r.VI M - H H Hi 'A !i! ' li i'i! ',■,"! ft'! I !' I' i'i if 'I 1'i ST' of the United States, a gathering which was attended by one of his own ablegates ; sent the cardinal's hat to Archbishop Gibbons, by another of his ablegates ; and performed many other actions which are of more or less recent occurrence. To adequately describe all of these Pontifical acts, and to detail the ceremonies at- tendant on each of them, would require not one book, but many; and hence the greater part of them will have to be passed over with merely a general mention, in order that more important facts in the life of Pope Leo may be fitly described. It is not necessary, either, here to enter into any description of the daily life of the Holy Father. All the world knows that the Pope is a man of very simple tastes ; and that he is, more- over, a laborious \iprker. Sunrise never fails to find him engaged either in his work or devotions ; he rarely spends an :>. moment during the day, so engrossed is he with the many duties he has to perform, and the numerous calls which are made on his time ; and it is said, that ten o'clock always finds him retired to rest. It is only by such restless activity that Leo XIII. becomes so thoroughly acquainted with Church mat- ters in the various countries, not only m general, but even with the details of single bishoprics. He was a model bishop during his thirty-two years' admin- istration in Perugia, and now as chief bishop he remains faithful to himself. "The most distinguish- ing trait in Leo XIIL," says a most worthy French THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 253 prelate, " a trait which at once strikes the observer, and which is his most marlced characteristic, is that he is above all a holy bishop." Thus it has been unanimously admitted, that Divine Providence has given to Pius IX. a successor whom both friend and foe could look up to with reverence and respect. The correspondent of a non-Catholic paper, in describ- ing the character of Leo XIII., concludes with these words : "I should gladly have added some dark shades to this flattering picture, but in vain have I inquired of the most pronounced enemies of the Church to nnd even the least blemish." It may not be out of place here, while speaking of the Pope's personal habits, to reproduce an account which an American priest, the Rev. Dr. Bernard O'Reilly, recently gave of a visit to the Vatican, where he was permitted to attend the private Mass of his Holiness : — " It is in one sense," wrote Dr. O'Reilly, " fortunate that Leo XIII. is debarred, by the present political circumstances of the Holy See, from performing the splendid functions in St. Peter's and some of the other great churches of Rome, which fell to the lot of his predecessors. The unceasing energy required by the writing of his encyclicals and other important official documents, — and he writes and corrects them all himself, — together with the extraordi- nary and difificult diplomatic affairs which he has to deal with, and the vast extension he has given to missions everywhere, would absorb the time, and tax to the utmost the strength, of young, experienced, and robust manhood. But Leo XIII., in his seventy-seventh year, lllf 1 m If ■■•■(' ''' m r HMi ii''^ 1 '^^ ' ' k'l jijli:- Xi 1 H '■■' I li,l iiii:^ ^r I- ^j5 ;:,iJ ?'tH I |li 254 Z//*^ AJVD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. is manifestly unequal to the long and fatiguing ceremonies of the solemn Pontifical offices in St. Peter's. At least, so I thought, after having carefully observed him this morning in the Vatican. I shall relate my experience, and allow your readers to judge of the wonderful power of endurance of one apparently so weak, and whose every day, from early morning till late into the ni^t, is one unbroken round of most wearying occupations. "During the Lenten season, and especially in Holy Week and Easter Week, the number of Catholic visitors from all countries is very great in Rome ; and great, too, is the eagerness to obtain an audience of the Holy Father. Very, very many, however, have to leave Rome without seeing him. It is still more difificult to obtain the privilege of assisting at the Pope's private Mass, and receiving Holy Communion from his hand. An exception, neverthe- less, is made on a very few days during the two weeks I have mentioned. From what I am 20'"g to relate, it will be seen what fatigue it must be for one so old, feeble, and overworked, to give Communion to a large number of persons. "Well, we were in the private chapel precisely at the hour appointed this morning, half-past seven. When I say private chapel, I must explain. The chapel proper is a small oratory, with fokling- doors opening out directly in front of the altar, into an apartment hung in crimson damask, and capable of seating about a hundred persons. We found it nearly filled. The folding-doors were open, the candles were lighted on the altar ; most of the distinguished persons present were seated, a few kneeling, all apparently aljsorbed in their devotions. As the folding-doors were narrow, you could see only the altar, with its fronting of cloth of gold, and its lights. The priestly vestments were laid upon it in front of the tabernacle. One of the chaplains was arranging the signets in the missal. " Suddenly there was a commotion. All present had dropped on their knees ; and a slender form, wearing a white cassock and cape, with a pectoral cross of gold, stood for a moment like an apparition THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 255 in front of the altar, and turned towards us. He sprinkled the worshippers with holy water, uttering in low tones the words of the benediction, and then, turning towards the altar, genuflected and retired to a prie-dieu at the Gospel side to recite the psalms and prayers prescribed, before the Mass. "To those who had never until then set eyes on Leo XIII., this sudden apparition must have been startling. The pure wliite cassock, the face, itself of almost transparent whiteness, the hair and skull- cap of the same color, the radiant countenance, and the benediction waved over our heads, seemed like a vision. " We heard the deep tones of the Pope reciting alternately with his two chaplains the verses of the preparatory psalms, and there was silence. Then the shnder white form of his Holiness re- appeared at the foot of the altai. and his two chaplains rol)ed him in the sacred vestments. He seemed utterly unconscious of every thing but the Presence in which he stood, and the rite for which he was preparing. At length he is fully vested, and, genuflecting, begins Mass. " As he stood there, slightly stooping, I could not help being much impressed. It was the great high priest of my fliilh, bending before the tabernacle of the New Law, in which was tlie reality prefigured by the manna ; and Leo XIII. seeme''' to pierce the veil, to see and to adilress Him who sat throned inisibly there. " I have never heard the divine words of die I.iturgy uttere<,^. with so fervent and solemn a significance as Christ's Vicar on earth gives to them, ^^1len he bent down to recite the confes'^io'-', you could see his whole frame moved by the deep feeling wiih whicii every word was pronounced : Mca culpa, mea culpa, mca uiaxima culpa, — ' Because I liave sinned exceedingly, through my fault, through my fault, through my exceeding great fault.' " All through the introit, the prayers, Kyrie, Gloria in Jixcelsis, Epistle and Gospel, every word, without being loud, was distinctly audible. The words of the Gloria especially seemed to move that **'rt »t A '^^tU ^*!i 256 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. « :;riM: il.-'; ni fi " ^mw white, fcel)lc frame with unwonted emotion. At every sentence one would fan<:y there was some force hfting up the bent head and shoulders. There was unspeakable pathos in the tone with which he uttered the last portions of this angelic hymn : ' We give Thee thanks. For Thou alone art holy. Thou alone art Lord. Thou alone art most high, O Christ Jesus ! ' " I cannot describe the succeeding parts of the Mass after the Offertory. Deeply as I felt, I believe every one present felt more than I did. A layman, — a young man too, — who knelt by my side, could scarcely contain himself. At the elevation, and after- ward in the interval before the communion, I could not help thinking, as if I saw it, that it was as if Moses on the mount stood face to face with God, and pleaded for all the people. " What a burden of care and sorrow and harrowing anxiety has Leo XIIL to bring daily into that Presence, and lay there at the foot of the mercy-seat ! The troubles of Germany are now well- nigh endcv' ; but how, since the 20th of February, 1878, till this day, Leo XIIL must have prayed there for the end of that fearful persecution ! And it is f;ir worse in France than it ever was in Germany. This very day Archbishop Richard, co-adjutor to Cardi- nal Guibert of Paris, is in Rome, devising with the Holy Father some means of preventing the rupture now daily expected between France and the Vatican. And in Russia they are still crushing, butchering, exiling the Catholic populations ; while in Tonquin and Cochin China they are massacring them. There is not one spot, far or near, in the Christian world, with which yonder venerable man is not acquainted ; not a want or a danger of all these churches and missions of which he is not informed, — wonderfully well informed, — and which he does not bring to that altar daily in his fatherly heart, there to plead for it with the Father of all. Do we wonder that these shoulders are bent far more with all these cares than with the weight of seventy-seven years of earthly labors ? " To look at the priestly form at the altar, as it swayed to and ].r ■ III* e one i and which ;Thee Thou ter the t more by my d after- ot help It stood iiety has e at the ow well- , till this It fearful was in :o Cardi- y Father jetween crushing, uin and ne spot, able man ;hurches 'ully well ily in his Do we lese cares s? \d to and TJIE FOURTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 257 fro with some strong emotion, you would think that the two assistants were only by its side to prevent it from suddenly falling by sheer weakness. But is the Pope going to give Holy Communion to that chapel-full? I waited and watched with wonder, fearful lest his strength should utterly fail him. But the seventy or eighty per- sons there, ladies and gentlemen, all approached, and knelt iii their turn, receiving the Divine gift from what might be deemed a hand unsteady and uncertain, but which was under the control of an iron will. " It was for me a sight never to be forgotten, to behold the unaffected and concentrated piety of all these persons, as if they were in th*^ upper chamber with Christ, and received from His hand the sacramental bread. One white-haired man wore stars and orders ; but it was only to do honor to the King of kings, whom he had come to receive. Another, a venerable Pole, was quite blind. " At length the Mass was over ; the last blessing had been given, oh, so solemnly ! and the Holy Father stood there in front of the altar while they disrobed him. Every thing was done so quietly, so gently, so silently ; and you could hear almost the beating of your own pulse in that chapel, where all these worshippers were kneeling, wrapped in the Divine Presence, and praying for the dear ones at home, in every quarter of the globe, for they had come from every land. " The Pope knelt in thanksgiving a litde to the left of the altar, while one of his chaplains celebrated Mass after him. This is always the rule. The second Mass over, an arm-chair was brought to the Episde side, below the pijtform ; and the Holy Father seated himself, in order that each of those present should come in turn and get his blessing, and have a kind word from t!ic common parent of Christendom. " I watclied with a keen attention all these families and groups of persons as they approached in succession, and were presented ■"■;'< * 1.^1 1 .! n > iillK. V «^JJ 1 111' A in. ; •> ' ill rj ''• :l ; • { lii'. ; hiji^' ■ 1 ■ i ;■ II J .: ' Ulilii-2,..if,i'ju;,' ! 258 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. by Monsignor Macchi. How the sweet face — so unearthly in its spiritualized pallor and transparency — beamed with the light of true fatherly affection on these representatives of the great Catholic family ! Every one was questioned^ consoled, blessed, and sent away with kind messages and blessings to the absent ones. There was a whole family in a circle around the Pope's chair, among them a little girl to whom he had just given her first communion. Then two ladies, one of whom was in deep affliction, for she sobbed bitterly ; and the fatherly heart went out to her in sweet words of comfort. And so group after group knelt, uttered their petitions, which were kindly answered ; and the saindy face beamed on all, as one might fancy that of the Saviour did in some sylvan spot in Galilee, when He had taught the multitude and fed them, and allowed them to come to Him, to kiss His feet. His hands, the very hem of His garments. And is not that venerable figure the Vicar of Christ to us ? " Our turn came. We were not strangers to Leo XHI. He had much to say, many blessings to give to my companion. I was questioned about the progress of my work. Again and again I kissed that dear hand, which is never raised but to bless. And we went away feeling as if we had been near the Lake of Gennesaret in the time of our Lord. " Such is Leo XHL, a parent to whom all come, as of old children came to Christ, to be blessed and prayed for. It is something, in these days of doubt, to have on earth one who is the representative of God's authority, and the living image of His fatherly kindness." THE POPE AND IRELAND AGAIN. !59 CHAPTER XXI. THE POPE AND IRELAND AGAIN. ONE of the most notable acts of Pope Leo's fourth year was his addressing another encyclical let- ter to Cardinal McGabe, as the head of the Irish episcopate. The Holy Father evidently was deeply concerned over the Irish question ; and he seems to have feared, that, as the agitation grew intenser in Ireland, there might be some grounds for dread ^est harm should come to his faithful Irish Catholics. His faith in them never for an instant wavered, neither did his good-will towards them, and the patriotic hopes which he knew they entertained for their country. He afterwards proved the sincerity of his sympathy in a striking manner, by his appointment of Arch- bishop Walsh to the see of Dublin, after that had been made vacant by the death of Cardinal IMcCabe. And when it is remembered that he did this in spite of all the influence which England could bring, and which she knows so well how to bring, against Dr. Walsh's appointment, nobody can doubt that Pope Leo wishes the Irish Nationalists well, and that it .Mm 26o LIFE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XLLL would delight him to see their countr)' gain that in- dependence wliicli she is striving after. Dr. Walsh's appointment was everywhere regarded as a signal proof that the Pope had studied the Irish question thoroughly ; that he had viewed it from all sides ; and that he saw nothing in the agitation the Irish people were making for their rights, to call for censure or con- demnation. Prior, however, to the convocation of the Irish prelates in Rome in 1883, his Holiness appears to have been somewhat anxious about the Irish situa- tion, as the following letter, sent to Cardinal McCabe on the 5th of August, 1882, would seem to indicate: — M ;v ;.! I 'X "Beloved Sov, Vexfraple Brethren, — Health and apostolic benediction. Tiie loving good-will with which we embrace the Irish people, and of which the intensity seems only to increase with the present difficulties, leads us to follow with singular care and paternal feeling the course of events occurring among you. But this con- sideration gives us more of anxiety than of comfort, because we do not yet see the public affairs of your country in that condition of peace and prosperity which we desire. On the one hand, the press- ure is still felt of grievous hardships : on the other, perplexing agita- tion hurries many into turbulent courses ; and men have not been wanting wiio stained themselves with atrocious murders, as if it were possible to find hope for national happiness in public disgrace and crime. " We already knew, and have again recently seen from what you decreed in your last meeting in Dublin, that, from the same causes, you, beloved son, venerable brethren, are no less anxious than our- selves. Trembling for the common welflire, you very properly laid down what every one must avoid in so difficult a crisis, and in the THE rOPE AND IRELAND AGAIN. 261 in- IslVs crnal 3tion and 3oplc con- )f the )pears situa- cCabe ate: — apostolic ^he Irish with the paternal [this con- ,se we do [dition of he press- ing agita- not been |if it were grace and what you U causes, Ithan our- Iperly laid Ind in the midst of conflict. So doing, you certainly acted both according to your duty as bishops, and for the public interest. For men need tlie advice of their bishops most of all when, under the impulse of some violent craving, they mistake their true interests by false judgments ; and if ever they are impetuously driven, as it were, to relin([uish the right course, it is the duty of the bishops to motlerate the excited feeling of the people, and, by timely exhortations, to bring them back to the justice and moderation necessary in all things. You seasonably recalled the Divine precept, to seek first the kingdom of God and His justice, by which Christians are commanded in every action of life, and conseciuently in their actions also as citizens, to keep in view their eternal salvation, and place religious fidelity to duty before every temporal consideration. So long as these rules are observed, it is lawful for the Irish to seek relief in their misfortunes ; it is lawful for them to contend for their rights : for it cannot be thought that what is permitted to every other country is forbidden to Ireland. Nevertheless, interest must be directed by justice ; and it must be seriously considered, that it is base to defend by unjust mecvHS any cause, however just. And justice is not to be found in violence, and especially not in those secret societies which, under ])retext of vindicating a right, generally end in violent disturbance of the public peace. As our predecessors more than once, and we our- selves have done, so you, in your Dublin meeting, have now given a timely warning with how much caution every good man shoukl keep aloof from such societies. Still, so long as the danger lasts, it is for you, in your watchfulness, often to repeat authoritatively the warning, exhorting all Irishmen, by the holiness of the Catholic name, and by the very love of their country, to have nothing to do with societies of this sort, which are powerless to obtain what the people rightfully ask, and which too often impel to crime those who have been fired by their allurements. Since the Irish are proud, and deservedly to be called Catholics, — which is, as St. Augustine explains, guardians of integrity, and followers of what is right, — let them bear out to \ 262 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. \Vi I ■ ii ■ ,,'1 the full their name ; and, even w hen they are asserting their rights, let thum strive to be what they are called. Let them remenil)er that the first of all liberties is to be free from crime ; anil let them so conduct themsc1\'es through life, that none of them may si:ffcr the l)cnalties of the law as a mtinlerer, or a thief, or a railcr or a covcter of other men's things. '• But it is fitting that your episcopal solicitude in governing the people should be assisted by the virtue, the labor, and the industry of all tiie clergy. With reference to this subject, all that you thought proper to decree concerning priests, especially the younger clergy, we judge right, and suited to the circumstances. For priests, if at any time, certainly in these popular storms, must be watchful and laborious co-operators in the preservation of order. And as in pro- portion to the high estimation in which one is held is his influence on the minds of others, they must endeavor to gain the approbation of the people by their gravity, constancy, and moderation in word and deed, and never take any step that may appear wanting in pru- dence or in the spirit of conciliation. It is easily understood that the clergy will be such as the circumstances require, if early trained by wise discipline and sound direction. For, as the Fathers of Trent admonished, the age of youth, unless it be formed from its tender years unto piety and religion, will never fetfectly, and without the greatest, and well-nigh special, help of Almighty God, persevere in ecclesiastical discipline. " In this way, and by these means, we believe that Ireland will, without any violence, attain that prosperity which she desires. For, as we signified to you on anotl»er occasion, we are confident that the statesmen who preside over the administration of public affairs will give satisfaction to the Irish when they demand what is just. Tliis not only reason advises, but also their well-known political prudence ; since it cannot be doubted that the well-being of Ireland is con- nected with the tranquillity of the whole empire. " We, meanwhile, with this hope, do not cease to help the Irish THE POPE AA'D IRELAND AGAIN. 263 rights, er that lem so Jcr the ■ or a ihig the industry thought r clergy, sts, if at liful and i in pro- influence probation I in word in pru- tood that ly trained of Trent i/s tendc Uhoiit the rscvere in iland will, Ires. For, It that the [affairs will ust. This [prudence ; [id is con- the Irish people with the authority of our advice, and to olTcr to God our prayers, inspired by solicitude and love, that He would graciously look down upon a people so distinguished by many noble virtues, and, calming tlie storm, bless it with the longed-for peace and pros- perity. In pledge of these heavenly blessings, and in token of our great allection, we lovingly impart in our Lurd to you, beloved son, and venerable brethren, to the clergy, and to the whole people, the apostolic benediction." Leaving the Irish question aside for the moment, for it will recur again before these pages are ended, it may be of interest to look for a while at Italy, where an important movement was about this time put on foot amonc'" the Catholics of Italy, to prepare to take advantage of the large extension of the suffrage prom- ised by the Cairoli Ministry. Hitherto it was impossi- ble for Catholics to take part in elections ; and the maxim, " N'c eletii, ne elettori" was faithfully observed from 1866 to the present time. Catholics could not enter a Parliament which was formed for the purpose of enabling Victor Emmanuel to seize the territories of neighboring sovereigns, and dethrone the Pope. Catholics could not aid the work of expelling the religious orders, and robbing the monks, friars, and nuns, of their homes and lands. The suffrage was then given to a few, and the control of the elections was vested in the ministry of the day. A few Catho- lics might, indeed, have obtained seats ; but they would have been too few in number to offer any effectual resistance to the revolutionary majority. ! ;l 1^. .0^. %% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // /^ .*% 1.0 I.I 11.25 hiKA 12.5 lU 02 12.2 £ us no U 11.6 '/ ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) t72.4S03 '^^2'^/^ >l!?^ > i/. o 6^ 'i '' i IS' ffii i; 264 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL ' Their presence, in ever so small numbers, might have given occasion to enemies to say that Catholics shared in the guilt of that wicked legislation by which the Church was oppressed, and the Pontiff stripped of his temporal dominions and of much of his spiritual authority. But now the case is different. The Catho- lics may employ their immense numerical majority to return members who will be sufficiently numerous to prevent further persecution of the clergy, and to save the country from the ruinous measures which extreme republicans are anxious to introduce. Leo XIIL is not averse to the principles on which this new Catholic movement is based, and it is probable that before long the word will be pronounced to permit to faithful Catholics the exercise of the electoral fran- chise. If Catholics be returned in any numbers for Italian constituencies, a stop will certainly be put to the godless system of education which finds such favor among the Italian revolutionists ; and the catechism will be no longer banished from the public schools. It is, however, premature to decide upon the line of action to be taken by Catholics in Italy, for the elec- toral-reform bill is not yet before the country ; and it may contain clauses which will prevent the Catholics from gaining much advantage by the extension of the suffrage. The following correspondence, which appeared about this date in " The London Times," will prove interest- iiii r Ir! THE POPE AND IRELAND AGAIN. 265 ing because it affords an insight into the ways that obtain in the Papal court, and instances the manner, gracious yet withal convincing, which the Pope employs to emphasize and carry his points. Says the corre- spondent of the London paper mentioned, — " A noteworthy scene was enacted in the Vatican a few days ago, which still more fully reveals the means by which Leo XIII. would endeavor to restore not only the ecclesiastical, but, if he can, also the temporal, glories of the Papacy. It is evident that from the very beginning of his reign he formed the determination of doing all in his power to elevate the Roman hierarchy and priesthood to the highest practicable standard of morality and learning, and to sur- round the Pontifical throne with eminent men. In his first encyclical he told the episcopate how much it behooved the clergy to show themselves shining exam )les of piety and learning before all men, and he has repeated the same charge more than once. In creating his first batch of cardinals, he has chosen from among the men most noted for the qualities and attainments he had commended ; and a day or two ago he gathered about him in the Vatican a number of the most distinguished students in the various colleges, and, sitting in the library, presided at a disputation on philosophy, and rewarded the disputants with gold and silver medals, — not the mere ' objects of devotion' generally bestowed by Popes, but medals having for their meaning the reward of merit only. No such scene has been witnessed in the Vatican for many long years ; and, as described to me by one who was present, it somewhat recalls the days when a former Leo was the centre of the talent and genius of his day. " The Pope himself took no direct part in the discussion ; but at its conclusion — it lasted three hours — he rose, and made a short discourse. He expressed his satisfaction with what he had heard, and hoped that the theological disputation to be held in the same N.lf 266 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL iiSf- i manner at the end of the month might be equally praiseworthy. It was his intention, he said, to hold these trials of ability each year, in order to encourage the students in their studies, and stimulate them to greater exertions for the glory of the Church and the good of mankind ; and he further purposed to have similar competitions in canon law, and in Greek, Latin, and Italian literature. And with that he gave the medals I have mentioned, and his benediction. " Leo XIIL is gradually surrounding himself with a new world. The customary names are falling into the background, and others are taking their places. Of the new cardinals, Hergenrother leaves the University of Wiirzburg, and Alimonda his bishopric of Albenga, to take up their residence in Rome, and direcdy participate, together with Zigliari and Pecci, in the Pope's councils. The celebrated Capecelatro, who, it will be remembered, was what may be called the Italian nominee for the archbishopric of Naples, given instead to Monsignor San Felice, has been called to fill the office of under — or, in other words, acting — librarian of the Vatican Library. " Monsignor Boccali has been summoned from Perugia also to take part in the Pontifical doings of the present ; while, with an onward view to the future, the Pope calls into his presence, and applauds, the most promising minds among the youth in the universities. Never- theless, although Alimonda, Capecelatro, and others are men of enlarged, as contra-distinguished from narrow, minds, it would be altogether a mistake to suppose that Leo XIIL has the slightest intention of abating one jot or tittle of what he considers to be the inalienable rights of the Pontificate. He is not calling the best tal- ents of the Church around him to help him to yield, or find some means of conciliation, but to strengthen himself in maintaining what he holds to be his rights in such a way as may be best calculated to insure his regaining them." And, finally, to conclude this chapter, which has drifted into a somewhat personal description of his THE POPE AND IRELAND AGAIN. 267 Holiness, the following incident is added, to show the benignity and forgiving nature of the Pope, who, however, knew how to show himself resolute and de- termined when the enemies of the Church asked him to compromise aught of her honor, or surrender any of her rights. Here is the incident referred to : — "When the Holy Father received news of Garibaldi's death, he is said to have remained in silent thought for a while, and then, raising his eyes to heaven, to have exclaimed, 'Another revolutionist gone ! O God ! be merciful to him.' Garibaldi was one of the most deter- mined, but likewise one of the most open, opponents of the Catholic cause. Not from him came the heaviest blows or the most trials to the Church in Italy. He was no hypocrite. May the prayers of his pious mother have obtained, that the last moments of the turbulent life of her son were peaceful ! A prayer for the salvation of his bitterest enemy is the Pope's only revenge." 'I llfl 268 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. ! 4 r.J CHAPTER XXII. PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE YEAR. ONE of the first fruits of Pope Leo's policy in 1882 was the pardon it obtained from the Rus- sian Government in behalf of the Polish bishops who were exiled in 1864. There is scarcely any question but what the attitude of the Holy See towards Rus- sia, and especially the Pontifical letters against the crimes of nihilism and socialism, together with the feelings of sorrow the Vatican expressed at the time of the assassination of Alexander II., had much to do with procuring the mitigation of the sentence pro- nounced against the exiled Polish prelates ; and this first relaxation of the rigors of the Russian laws against Catholics has since been followed by others, though there is unfortunately much yet left of the old-time tyranny and persecution. On the loth of January, 1882, his Holiness granted special indulgences to the pilgrims who visited the tomb of St. Theresa, a saint for whom he always had a special veneration. On the 15th he beatified the blessed Alfonso de Oroczo, the Augustinian friar, who , :;i •ifr PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE YEAR. 269 )olicy in the Rus- ops who question rds Rus- ainst the ^ith the le time much to nee pro- and this ian laws y others, t of the granted sited the vays had ified the riar, who died at Madrid, in 1591, at the advanced age of ninety-one years ; and a week later he performed the same ceremony in behalf of the blessed Charles da Sezzi ; while on the 29th of the same month he be?*.i- fied the Franciscan friar, Fra Umile da Bisagnano. The Holy Father never loses sight of the great St. Thomas and his admirable teaching, which he regards as the palladium of society, and the best shield of the Church. On the 25th of January, 1882, we conse- quently find him issuing another brief on the doctrine of the Angelic Doctor, defining at the same time the rights of the Roman Pontiff, and addressing his utter- ances this time to the arciibishops and bishops of the provinces of Milan, Turin, and Vercelli, places in which attacks upon the Papacy had recently been made. Later on, in February, on the 15th, he addressed an- other encyclical, mainly on the same subjects, to the archbishops, bishops, and other ordinaries of all Italy, re-affirming his previous declarations, and asserting that while he lived he would never consent to any in- fringement upon the rights of the Holy See. On the 28th his Holiness approved of the action of the Prop- aganda in resolving to drop the designation of certain sees as being located in partibus infidelium. On the 27th of March the Pope created a number of cardinals, among others the Most Rev. Edward McCabe, Arch- bishop of Dublin, since deceased. On the 2 2d of April he addressed a special letter to the archbishops t-l' nil il - ! 1 w^ iH ^1 ; 1 ' 1 r ■r. 270 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. •\ i 1 ■ !■ I and bishops of Sicily. On the 24th of the same month he granted the indulgences of the Portiuncula for seven years to the Cathedral of New Orleans. On the 15th of May he erected Grand Rapids, Mich., into an episcopal see, and appointed Right Rev. Henry Joseph Richter its first incumbent. On the ist of August he issued another apostolic letter to Cardinal McCabe and the Irish bishops, on the political situation in Ireland, exhorting them to use all their influence to ward off from their flocks all perils and dangers which might lessen their faith, or loosen their attachment to the Holy See of Rome. On the 28th of the same month he sent a letter to Archbishop Gibbons, thank- ing the American Catholics, especially those of the Baltimore archdiocese, through him, for their gener- osity in donating such large amounts of Peter's-pence to the Holy See. On the 14th of September he made a magnificent addi ^ss to a number of Italian pilgrims who visited Rom( On the 17th he issued an en- cyclical, extolling the virtues of St. Francis of Assisi, and exhorting the faithful to an increased devotion towards that saint. On the 26th he created Mon- signor Wladimir Czacki, nuncio at Paris, and Monsignor A. Bianchi, nuncio at Madrid, cardinals at a consistory held that day. The Catholic Church in the United States, during the year 1882, suffered many severe losses in the ranks of its hierarchy and clergy, but none more PRTNCrrnL EVENTS OF THE YEAR. 271 same iuncula Orleans. ]Mich., . Henry I St of Cardinal iituation lence to rs which ment to he same 5, thank- e of the ,r gener- r's-pence he made pilgrims an en- )f Assist, devotion [ed Mon- [onsignor [onsistory [s, during is in the )ne more notable than it did by the death of Bishop Lynch of Charleston, S.C., who died on the 26th of February. Dr. Lynch was born at Clones, County Monaghan, Ireland, March 10, 181 7, but early removed with the family to Cheraw, S.C. He was educated at the Seminary of St. John the Baptist in Charleston, "and was sent to the Propaganda, where he was a brilliant student. He was ordained in 1840, and began his ministry at the Cathedral, Charleston. From 1844 to 1855 he was rector of St. Mary's Church, principal of the Collegiate Institute, and vicar-general. C.i the death of Bishop Reynolds he became adminis- trator, and was consecrated bishop of Charleston, March 14, 1858. During the civil war his cathedral and house were destroyed by fire. Churches and institutions throughout his diocese were nearly all destroyed, injured, or deprived of means of support. Besides, he was left to struggle with a heavy load of debt. Much of this he paid off by the aid of benevo- lent friends throughout the country. He was an able theologian, well versed in the sciences, especially in as- tronomy. He wrote a series of papers on the Vatican Council, another on the Liquefaction of the Blood of St. Januarius, and a review of the Galileo question. Among other ecclesiastical notabilities who died during the same year, may be mentioned Archbishop Hannon of Halifax, and Right Rev. Dr. Crinnon, the beloved bishop of Hamilton, Ont. V'Mfi ■'* \ fe'i i^l ill. r 'i:i ■■■■■* i'i If* 'i^ll lii&ii-.'ir 272 LIFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO Xl/f. CHAPTER XXIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF POPE LEO'S POLICY. ;n. Mr' I m IF one were asked what were the most striking char- acteristics of Pope Leo's policy, he would be inclined to answer that the skilful diplomacy shown by him in dealing with the nations of the earth con- stituted one of the most prominent of such distinc- tive marks. In olden times, before the spirit of irreligion denied to the Holy See the exercise of that prerogative, the Papacy was the grand court of appeal and the ready tribunal of arbitration for all disputants to have recourse to. When its Divine Founder insti- tuted the Church, he so adapted its constitution that it could serve all nations and all people, no matter what form of government the one might have or the other be subject to, as a court to which they could bring all their grievances with the assurance that both sides of all questions would be duly and justly consid- ered, and a proper verdict given. In the course of time, this prerogative of the Holy See fell more or less into disuse ; owing to the jealousy of earthly kings to have recourse to the Holy See, and owing partly, CHARACTERISTICS OF POPE LEO'S POLICY. 273 g char- Lild be shown ■th con- distinc- pirit of of that appeal iputants ler insti- ion that matter or the ;y couid tat both consid- lurse of jmore or ily kings partly, also, to the spirit of irreligion which was the out- growth of the Reformation, so called, of the sixteenth century. Yet, even in our own day, we have seen a disposi- sition to return to the custom of former years. Ger- many and Spain asked the Holy Father to arbitrate between them in the Carolines dispute ; Russia was not averse to using the influence of the Vatican against the nihilists ; China, and even Japan, viewed with no unfriendly eyes the wise counsel Pope Leo gave their subjects ; and probably other instances will yet be furnished of people willing to have the Papacy arbitrate between them and those with whom they have differences, be those either their own temporal rulers or outside individuals. The silly notion that allegiance to the Pope inter- fered with the loyalty any citizen owed his country is now practically exploded, and is used by nobody save a few bigots who do not themselves credit the non- sense they utter when they make such an assertion. Intelligent people understand fully that a man can be a good subject either of a republic or a monarchy, and at the same time be a devoted adherent of the Holy See ; and even non-believers in Catholic doc- trine are beginning to recognize, that, the better Cath- olic an individual is, the better citizen he therefore becomes of the country in which he lives. The old absurdity of owing allegiance to a foreign potentate. \\ If ill; 11 ^,■;|■| y.fm t 1 274 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X/IL which was the charcje made against ;\merican Catho- lics in Know-Nothing times, is rarely heard now, and has been relegated to that obscurity which it deserved. People understand that spiritual allegiance to the Pope will never interfere with the duties an honest state exacts from its citizens, but, on the contrary, will inspire the citizen to perform his duties better and more conscientiously ; and hence the bugbear that frightened the dissentients of earlier years, in this country especially, rarely puts in an appearance now in this part of the nineteenth century. This idea of the perfect compatibility existing be- tween allegiance to the Holy See, and fidelity to one's duties towards his country, is thus forcibly elucidated by the fathers of the late Baltimore Council : — " We repudiate with equal earnestness," say these prelates, " the assertion that we need to lay aside any of our devotedncss to our Church, to be true Americans ; the insinuation that we need to lay aside any of our love for our country's principles and institutions, to be faitliful Catholics. To argue that the Catholic Church is hostile to our great Republic, because she teaches that * there is no power but from God ; ' because, therefore, back of the events wliich led to the formation of the Republic, she sees the Providence of Cod lead- ing to that issue, and back of our country's laws the authority of God as their sanction, — this is evidently so illogical and contradictory an accusation, that we are astonished to hear it advanced by persons of ordinary intelligence. We believe that our country's heroes were the instruments of the God of nations in establishing this home of free- dom. To both the Almighty, and to his instruments in the work, we look with grateful reverence ; and to maintain the inheritance of free- CHARACTERISTICS OF POPE LEO'S POLICY. 27S Catho- ow, and cserved. to the -1 honest contrary, cttcr and Dcar that 5, in this ance now isting be- ;y to one's eUicidated )rdates, " the ;dness to our need to lay Institutions, to Irch is hostile is no power which led to of (lod lead- ihority of God Intradictory an )y persons of ;roes were the Ihome of free- the work, we ritance of free- dom which they have left us, should it ever — which God forhid — be imperilled, our Catholic citizens will be found to stand forward, as one man, ready to pledge anew ' their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor.' No less illogical would be the notion, that tliere is aught in the free spirit of our American institutions, incompatible with perfect docility to the Cliurch of Christ. 'I'iie spirit of .\meri- can freedom is not one of anarchy or license. It esst-ntially involves love of order, respect for rightful authority, and ol)edience to just laws. There is nothing in the character of the most liberty-loving American, which could hinder his reverential submission to the Divine authority of our Lord, or to the like authority delegated by Ilim to His Apostles and His Church. Nor are there in the world more il'evoted adherents of the Catholic Church, the See of Peter, antl the Vicar of Christ, than the Catholics of the United States. Narrow, insular, national views and jealousies concerning c ■ clesiastical author- ity and Church organization, may have sprung naturally enough tVom the selfish policy of certain rulers and nations in bxgone times ; but they find no sympathy in the spirit of the true American Catholic. His natural instincts, no less than his religious training, would forbid him to submit in matters of faith to the dictation of the State or to any merely human authority whatsoever. He accepts tin. religion and the Church that are from God ; and he knows well that these are universal, not national or local, — for all the children of men, not for any special tribe or tongue. We glory that we are, and, with God's blessing, shall continue to be, not the American Church, nor the Church of the United States, nor a Church in any other sense exclusive or limited ; but an integral part r-f the one holy (Jatliolic and Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ, which is the body of Christ, in which there is no distinction of classes and nationalities, — in which all are one in Jesus Christ." What, however, it may not be irrelevant to ask at this stage, is the altitude of modern governments '\.-'^-M 1 V •iU'.'i' itVl i 276 L/F£ AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO X/IL .■■■: I towards the Holy See ? This question cannot be better answered than it was by tiie "Journal de Rome," from whose pages we make the following trans- lation : — " With very few exceptions, all th*? governments, monarchical or rei)ublican, are in more or less direct conflict with the Holy See ; at least, the negotiations with them are dragging out to such a length that th'j press does not dare to touch upon the subject, for fear of giving pretexts for a complete rupture. We even hesitate to expose the points of disagreement, lest this mere exposition, showing too clearly the strong claims in favor of the Church, might seem to be a charge against the governments. AVe are even afraid to name those governments which thus abuse the longanimity of the Sovereign Pontiff and his great desire of peace. To name them would be to recall the subjects of disagreement. "But the fact is undeniable, and it is useless to try to deny it : after seven years of patience in sterile negotiations, Leo XIII. arrives at precisely the same results as Pius IX. The governments do not in- tervene to guarantee the liberty and independence of the Pontificate ; and their timidity before a power of the third class presented a sin- gular spectacle when this little state, which attempts to absorb the Holy See, proc'' ' " tO the spoliation of the Propaganda, They do not even come forward to protect the material interests of their Catliolic subjects against the outrai.'e committed by insignificant Italy against their common property. But this is not all : in all these states, with the exceptions intimated above. Catholics are the victims of all sorts of persecutions, or at least of the privation of justice. " The reason is, that Freemasonry dominates over all these gov- ernments, and associates itself to the sectarian spirit of heretics or schismatics in the attempt to enslave the Universal Church. Behold why they tremble before this weak power, Italy. It is neither het cannon nor her fleets that overawe the other states : it is the high CHARACTERISTICS OF POPE LEO'S POLICY. 277 rank which she occupies amongst the Masonic powers ; she is the executrix of all the lodges of the world, the attorney of the universal Revolution. This is her raison (fetrc ; this is why she hesitates at no iniquity, braves the protests of outraged justice, and the remon- strances of states and sovereigns. " Hence, at the present time, the Roman Pontiff, with the most admirable longanimity, the most correct diplomacy, has only been able to prove to the world that the enemies of the Church rule most of the governments of Europe ; that the revolution is the irrecon- cilable enemy of the Church ; that it possesses the governments, be they princes or presidents ; that it has made them its prey, and that it is leading them to the abyss. " It is the contrary as regards the people. Far from being alien- ated by these efforts made by the Pontificate with the governments, they have conceived great hopes. But the check to these negotia- tions, foreseen, has taught them to the contrary, and has united them more closely to truth and to the Holy See. " In France, Germany, Belgium, the Catholic provinces of Russia, everywhere, the enthusiasm of the people for the Holy See is irre- sistible. From the people came the protests against the Italian usurpation. It is the people that resist the attempts of the sects ; it is the people who succor the Pontiff in his distress, who hold out against the powers in defending the rights of the Church, as they have done in Germany; it is the people who, by their obedience, their delicate submission, their respect, maintain the power and dignity of the Holy See. "Thus the movement to which thrones have yielded is not so unfavorable to the Church as it might be thought. Thrones, which are both ruled and undermined by the revolution, if they are no longer the support of the Churc'% — the pillar of legitimate rights, — have lost their social utility. As the great body of the people remain faithful to the Church, there is still, in the depths of that diseased society, an element of salvation which prepares a new order of 278 Z/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL things, wherein the Church will find again her splendor and her triumph. " This attraction of the people towards the truth in its integrity has not diminished under the Pontificate of Leo XIII. ; but the separation between the people and governments in the hands of the sects has widened. The throne having ceased to protect the altar, the protection of the altar has fallen to the care of the people. "The diplomacy of Leo XIIL, if it has failed to make the governments understand their real interests, has at least demonstrated this : that between the Church and the revolution no agreement is possible." m THE FIFTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 2J<^ CHAPTER XXIV. THE FIFTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. THE success which attended the earlier years of Pope Leo's Pontificate continued to increase as the days lengthened, and he remained at the head of the Church. As the reader can perceive, it has become necessary to summarize the acts of his admin- istration, in order to keep this volume within reason- able limits, and to give to the more important acts of the Holy Father and to the occurrences, especially, in the American Church, that prominence which they merit. It would be of the highest interest to repro- duce, in full, all the apostolic letters of Leo XIII., but to do that would require a volume of greater bulk than this work ; and some of his encyclicals, while, of course, possessing an interest for all Catholics, were more especially directed to the faithful of certain locali- ties. That being the case, the author has deemed it fit to merely mention the fact and the date of the issuance of such documents, in order to reserve for himself an ampler space in which to deal with events that more intimately concern American Catholics. Passing, then, m 28o LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. '.'I ' ' ' ii i I « f^'M\ \ 1 to the year 1883, the first important event chronicled in that is the letter which the Holy Father, on the ist of January, addressed to Cardinal McCabe on the condition of Ireland. These repeated communications which the Pope sent to the Irish prelates, in reference to the situation in Ireland, furnish convincing proofs that his Holiness had at heart, and that, too, in a very close manner, the spiritual interests of the Irish Catho- lics. His constant apprehension seems to have been, lest, carried away by the enthusiasm which accompa- nied the agitation for national rights they were mak- ing, the Irish people would lose sight, even temporarily, of their religious duties ; and hence he lost no oppor- tunity, when he could appropriately do so, of remind- ing them that, after all, their first allegiance was to the Church, and that it would profit them very little to gain their aims if they did so at the expense of their faith and religion. The month of February witnessed ^he death of one of the Sacred College, Cardinal Ignatius Morales Cardoso, the Patriarch of Lisbon ; and the following month, March, saw the Holy See embroiled in a dispute with the Chilian Government, which dismissed the apostolic delegate, Monsignor Celestino del Frate. This dispute, thanks to the diplomacy ot the Holy Father, has since been mitigated, and is now in a fair way of being settled. In May, 1883, the Holy Father addressed a brief to the Catholic Total-Abstinence Union of America. On the 30th of I i r. i< ' THE FIFTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 28 1 onicled the I St on the ications [iference y proofs 1 a very li Catho- de been, iccompa- sre mak- iporarily, o oppor- f remind- kas to the little to J of their witnessed Cardinal Lisbon ; oly See ■ernment, onsignor is to the itigatcd, In May, Catholic 30th of the same month, he issued a circular letter proclaim- ing the constitution of the Third Order of St. Francis. On the 5th of June he witnessed a signal triumph of his policy by the introduction in the German Landtag of a bill modifying the Falk Laws. On the 14th of August he addressed a brief to the Archbishop of Vienna on the relief of that city in 1683 ; and four days later, he sent one to Cardinals De Luca, Petra, and Hcrgen- rother, on the study of history. In September he issued an encyclical to the Universal Church, com- mending the devotion of the Holy Rosary. In Octo- ber the apostolic delegate, whom he sent to Canada to arbitrate the university question there, solemnly entered the basilica at Quebec. On the 4th of November his appointee to the coadjutorship of Dub- lin, Right Rev. Nicholas Donnelly, was consecrated bishop of Canea ; and on Dec. 13 Archbishop Elder of Cincinnati was invested with the pallium. During the year, five eminent prelates of the Amer- ican hierarchy died : to wit. Archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati, July 4 ; Archbisnop Wood of Philadelphia, June 20 ; Archbishop Blanchet, formerly of Oregon, June 18 ; Bishop Quinlan of Mobile, March 9 ; Bishop McMullen of Davenport, July 4 ; and Archbishop Perche of New Orleans, Dec. 26. Of Bishop McMul- len a sketch has been already given. Subjoined are brief biographies of the others : — Most Rev. Napoleon J. Perche was born at Angers Ifll^ f J ;?{ 1 il r- 1 ! 1 li < ri i . ' t 1 t! .t ■i ^ ' i ^ 282 Z//*^ / :i '•\'\ 1 ■»i ■ ■ ii ; ■' '■ ilij 1 ■ i\ i 286 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIT. il that Catholics hold dear, now consider that they can better serve their ends by reversing their tactics, they will not hesitate to belaud his Holiness with their fulsome praise. Approval conning from such sources is to be regarded with well-merited suspicion. If the 'Times' chanced to praise O'Connell, he used to ask himself what he had done wrong ; and if the ' Times ' and its followers praise the action of the Pope, the fact alone should give pause to the advisers of his Holiness, and induce them to carefully seek out the hidden motive of so unusual a proceeding. If, in truth, this circular be a formal censure not of one member of the Catholic episcopacy, but of nine Catholic bishops, some of the most learned, pious, and devoted to be found in the whole world, it is a censure upon hun- dreds of zealous Catholic priests, and upon thousands of earnest practical Catholic laymen. It may be so : it is not for us to judge. The matter is one essentially for the consideration of the most holy prelates themselves. For us to interpret its precise significance, much less to suggest the course of action proper for them to take under the circumstances, would be impertinent presumption. Of one thing we may be certain ; that their conduct will be dictated by affectionate reverence for the Holy See, as well as by that true and sterling patriotism which has always characterized them. But those who, while professing their respect for the Catholic priesthood, take it upon themselves to pronounce a censure upon the men who have promoted the national tribute to Mr. Parnell, should remember that in censuring the promoters of the testimonial they are censuring a large section, if not the majority, of the Catholic hierarchy of Ireland. " In approaching the consideration of the circular of his Holiness, we realize deeply the responsibility of our every utterance, and would be loath to say a word calculated to intensify the gravity of a position which, it is not to be concealed, is full of peril to interests more grave than those of any individual, however eminent, or political party, however patriotic. Men maj' come and go. The progress of Irish ■■■! ^i i 1 THE FIFTH YEAR OF THE POPE'S PONTIFICATE. 287 nationality may be delayed by untoward incidents. Its eventual triumph is assurcil, for it is the cause of justice and truth. The Irish people have waited for seven centuries for their deliverance. Through all the trials of that long period of gloom, their constancy, their faith in the destiny of their mother-lanil, has never wavered. They can wait still, assured that the time of their emancipation is not far off. But were any thing to occur which would cause them to view with distrust the advice of their spiritual guides, a calamity worse than any other which can be conceived would be precipitated. We dare scarcely speculate upon the consequences. Those who know the Irish character the best can best estimate the result. Suffice it to say that the man who had hand or part in bringing it about would render an ill service to religion, to Ireland, to humanity. In Catholic countries on the Continent, the doctrine of ' no priests in politics' has been vindicated, and with what effect? Let the Com- mune and the blood of the slaughtered Archbishop of Paris answer. "We can only say that in our opinion the circular of his Holiness, \vrittcn as it is with the best motives, indicates that in important par- ticulars his confidence has been abused, and he has been misled, if not deliberately deceived. His Holiness recognizes the right of the Irish people to seek redress for their grievances, and to strive for their rights ; but truly says that it is wicked to further any cause, no matter how just, by illegal means. This, we assert, is the guiding principle of that constitutional agitation of which Mr. Parnell is the leader. The denunciation of crime by his Holiness is not more eloquent or vigorous than that uttered by Mr. Parnell and Mr. Dillon on the morrow of the Phoenix Park assassinations. The Parnell fund was not initiated for the purpose of inflaming men's minds. As a matter of fact, the first suggestion of it came because of statements in the public press, that Mr. Parnell's estate was about to be sold in the court. It is true that Mr. Parnell then declined it, and only sub- sequently gave his tacit assent when it was sought to be used not as a method of inflaming men's passions, or as a means of leading a i ;f'fj 3CI i .-. ^^^^^Hi 'i ' THE ENCYCLICAL ABOUT THE ROSARY. 299 of the Holy Rosary should make, according to the ancient usage, solemn processions througli the towns in order to glorify religion in public. Nevertheless, if, by reason of the evils of the times, this public exercise of religion should not be possible in certain cities, let its place be taken by more assiduous visits to the churclies, and let the fervor of piety be made to shine forth by a still more diligent practice of all Christian virtues. " In favor of those who shall do what we have commanded, it pleases us to open the celestial treasury of the Church, so that they may take therefrom encouragement and reward. To all, then, who during the time named shall be present at the public recitation of the Rosary and the Litany, and shall pray according to our intentions, we grant seven years and seven quarantines of indul- gence, applicable to all ends. We wish to impart this favor to those also whom a legitimate cause shall prevent from taking share in the public prayers, provided that in private they shall practise this devo- tion, and that they shall pray to God according to our intentions. We fully absolve those who, during the time which we have indi- cated, shall at least twice, either publicly in the churches or in their homes (with lawful excuse), practise these pious exercises, and, after confession, shall approach the Holy Table. We also grant the full remission of sins to those who, either on the festival of the Blessed Virgin of the Rosary, or during the eight following days, after having purified their souls by a salutary confession, shall ap- proach the table of Christ, and shall for a certain time offer, accord- ing to our intentions, their prayers to God and to the Holy Virgin for the necessities of the Church. " To action, then, venerable brothers ! The more you have at heart the honor of Mary and the salvation of human society, the more you must apply yourselves to feed the piety of the people towards the great Virgin, and to increase their confidence in her. We hold that it is in the designs of Providence, that during these times of trial for the Church the ancient devotion to the august ' m '; *-■ 30O LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X/IL W I ilif Virgin may flower more than ever among the vast majority of the Christian people. Let the nations now, excited by our exhortations, fired by your appeals, seek with a daily growing fervor the protection of Mary ; let them become more and more attached to the habit of the rosary, to that devotion which our ancestors used to practise not only as an ever-present remedy for their evils, but as a noble orna- ment of Christian piety. The celestial patroness of humankind will hear their supjilications. She will readily grant to the good the hap- piness of seeing their own virtues increase ; to those who have gone astray, the blessing of a return to the way of salvation. In answer to her prayers, God, the avenger of crime, inclining to clemency and mercy, will avert all these perils, and will give back to the Christian world that peace which is so much to be desired. " Encouraged by this hope, we pray God by the intervention of her in whom He has placed the fulness of all good, — we pray Him with all our strength to shed abundantly upon you, venerable broth- ers, these celestial favors. And as pledge of our good-will we give you with our whole heart — to you, to your clergy, and to the people committed to your care — the apostolic benediction." 115- Hi :? t if 1 ,;|j! THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL, 301 CHAPTER XXVI. THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL, TO do more than detail the work of the Baltimore Council, which was held in the year 1884, and which, of course, forms a part of the history of Po^dc Leo's Pontificate, inasmuch as he was the one who especially ordered its convocation, is impossible. Every American is aware of the calling of the Ameri- can prelates to Rome by the Pope, who wished to consult them on the condition of the American Church. The American dignitaries were detained in Rome for months, during which they held many inter- views with the cardinals of the Propaganda, and the Holy Father himself, who showed an almost uncon- trollable desire to inform himself about the minuticB of the Catholic Church in this country. He did the same thing when the Irish prelates were in Rome. As a result of the conferences of the Propaganda and the American hierarchs, a plenary council of the Cath- olic Church of the United States was ordered ; but as 1884 was the year of a Presidential election, it was deemed prudent by Rome and by the American prel- t v? '■■■■ mm f^ r i t i < 1 ' it , 1 ', .i! 1 ' i I <,^, ii . :iU I ti I j.i 4 302 L/F£ AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. ■■\ ates to postpone its holding until after the elections had been held in November. This was accordingly done ; and as the Baltimore Council, whose acts have since been approved by the Holy See, and are now being enforced in the various dioceses of this country, is of the highest interest to American Catholics, the following summarized account of its session is here given, the author believing that the reader will be pleased to have such an account given him in these pages. With all the pomp and circumstance, the form and ceremony, which have been associated with the Cath- olic Church for centuries, its third plenary council in the United States opened on the 9th of November, in the Baltimore Cathedral. The minor clergy and the laity, who were to take part in the procession, assem- bled at St. Alphonsus' Hall, about two squares distant, and then marched to the archbishop's residence to join in the ceremonies proper. The streets through which the pageant was to pass to the cathedral were by this time filled with spectators. As the cross-bearer, car- rying the processional cross, was seen leading the procession, the faithful uncovered, or made a genu- flection. In order then there followed secular and regular clergy, seminarians, theologians, mitred ab- bots, bishops, and archbishops, — all in the full pano- ply of their sacred office. Slowly swinging his censer, and spreading around an odor of frankincense, came f \ THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 303 the ccnscr-bcarcr ; and then, brinnrinjj^ up tlic rear, the apostolit delegate, Arclibishop Gibbons. IVecediiv^ him, walked with feeble steps tlie venerable vicar- general of the ditKese, Father McColgan ; and tlien came the archbisnop, attended by his deacons of honor, the Rev. Fathers Curtis and Devine, with thousands of devotees bowing their heads ; and even tiiose who looked on tlie spectacle as a passiivj^ show were imi)ressed with its beauty and its harmony. The church was reached, and up the long aisles came the steady movement. On reacliing the sanc- tuary, the archbishops occupied seats to the right of the altar, and the abbots and provincials to the left. The bishops occupied the recess of the altar of the Blessed Virgin ; while the seminarians occupied the recess of the altar of St. Joseph. The priests occu- pied chairs in the aisles and in front of the sanctu- ary. Archbishop Gibbons occupied the throne ; and near him was the Very Rev. Edward IMcColgan, vicar-general of the archiepiscopal see. The main altar was decorated with evergreens and white flowers. The Most Rev. Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis then celebrated the grand high Mass, assisted by the Rev. Dwight Lyman as deacon, and the Rev. J. A. McCallen, S.S., as master of ceremonies. The choir consisted of upward of fifty vocalists, under the direction of the Rev. Father Graf, and the music was of a high order. Besides the choir, the iS'^: ! ail ■ « ::!' ^m'U \m jiii m ill ^ <¥ -Ml''! , ■ i 'I I -\l < 304 ZZ/'iS' ^7VZ» LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. seminarians acted as choristers, and, with the reverend clergy and higher dignitaries, chanted the litanies. After the Mass, the Most Rev. Archbishop Ryan of Philadelphia preached on "The Church and her Coun- cils." He selected for his text St. Matt, xxviii. 18, 19, 20. He said that it was not without emotion and some embarrassment that he attempted to make an address on this august occasion. He was to speak of the Church which Christ had established on the earth, and of its head. The Church recognized its head, be- cause God had placed him at the head of His flock on earth. The Church had been exposed to rains and wind, but it fell not ; because it was founded on a rock, and Christ said it should continue to the con- summation of the world. It was not deputed with ordinary power, but the Holy Ghost had endowed It with extraordinary power. Addressing himself to the priesthood, who were brought more into contact with the people, he said they were present at the council to aid its deliberations by their experience and coun- sel. He said he was present eighteen years ago at the second plenary council, when there were forty-six bishops ; and now there are over seventy. Of the forty-six then, forty had passed to the Bishop of their souls ; and their nearness to God makes them more zealous for the glory of God and the salvation of the people. The Church was fighting the battle for the right against the wrong. There are men of different THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 305 reverend ; litanies. Ryan of lier Coun- xxviii. 18, lotion and make an D speak of the earth, 5 head, be- is flock on rains and nded on a o the con- 3Uted with endowed it self to the intact with he council and coun- ;ars ago at •e forty-six Of the |o)D of their ;hem more tion of the tie for the f different religious denominations, and men of no religion at all, who look to this council to lay the basis of a sounder morality; and the Church knows it is fatal to trust to human honor and honesty without supernatural aid. Men say they admire the Preacher of the Sermon on the Mount, but do not connect themselves with an institution founded by that Preacher. He said, " I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. Who hears you, hears me ; who despises you, despises me, and despises the P'ather who sent me." He promised to send the Holy Ghost to abide with His people forever. Saul persecuted not Christ personally, but His Church, when the voice said to him, " Saul, Saul, why pcrsecutest thou me ? " The Divine law endowed the Church with a mission of verification and sanctification ; and it has come down through all the centuries without a break, or we should not know that it was the true Church of Christ. He spoke of the life of Christ, and of His crucifixion and ascension ; and the Church can say that it stood with Mary and John at the foot of the cross, and for nearly nineteen hundred years it has sung His praise. Where was the magnificent Church of God of which the prophets spoke ? Behold it in its representative in this young Republic, beautiful with the beauty of God. CEcumenlcal councils had resulted in a stronger adherence to the faith. Without the Church the world would be in chaos. The Church passes such salutary ' .m Wi ' . > |5 ; 3o6 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. 'Ml < i, ! I laws as will protect the consciences of the people. All the people in the Church might not be good, for there was a Judas and a Peter ; but abuses have been corrected, and will be, for Christ said, " I am with you always, even to the consummation of the world." The archbishop spoke against modern errors, and said the teaching of the Church should be accepted. Among the disciples, there was one reprobate ; and he went out and sold Jesus Christ for thirty pieces of silver. Without the Church the world would go back to worse than pagan darkness. She has brought back the most abandoned ; and in this young Republic she will bring back the people by instruction, teaching submission to the will of God, by her love for the pure, by her orders who j^refer poverty that they may the better serve God. She will call all the people into her embrace. She in 8i6 abolished slavery in England, and in 1103 liberated all the English slaves in Ireland. Because Christ was the great regenerator of humanity, the Church has followed him in aiding the poor, and aid- ing humanity. When Archbishop Ryan left the sanctuary. Arch- bishop Gibbons descended from his throne, and with Fathers Devine and Curtis, his aids, knelt at the foot of the altar, while the antiphon and psalm were sung by the choir. All of the prelates also knelt, and the scene attending this ceremony was yery im- pressive. The apostolic delegate then recited a short THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 307 prayer, after which the Litany of the Saints was chanted. Escorted by his two aids, Archbishop Gib- bons then took the seat elevated before the altar, and assumed the duties of his office. The ceremony at- tending the opening of the council was then formally proceeded with. Father Lyman repeated the Gosp-l of the day, and the choir sang the " Vcni Creator ^ The apostolic delegate then addressed the prelates and theologians in Latin, in which he declared the synod opened. All of the business was transacted in the Latin tonjjue. The officers who were elected at the secret session held on Saturday were then installed. Bishops J. J. Kain, D.D., of Wheeling, and Francis Janssens, D.D., of Natchez, Miss., took their seats on either side of the apostolic delegate. The other officers were as follows : Chancellors, Rev. George Devine, Rev. John S. Foley, D.D., Baltimore. Secretaries, Right Rev. James Corcoran, D.D., Philadelphia; Rev. Henry Gabriels, D.D., Troy, N.Y. ; Rev. Sebastian Messmer, Newark, N.J. ; Rev. Denis J. O'Connell, D.D., Richmond. Prothonotary apostolic. Right Rev. Robert Seton, D.D., LL.D., Newark, N.J. Notaries, Very Rev. John Sullivan, V.G. ; Rev. John M. Farley, Rev. P. A. Stanton, O. S. A. ; Rev. Frederick Wayrich, C. SS. R. ; Rev. P. L. Chappelle, D.D. ; Rev. J. L. Andreis, Rev. Sebastian B. Smith, D.D. ; Rev. Matthew Harkins, Rev. P. M. Abbelen, Rev. Henry Moeller, ■ 11 1 |Hh 1 III in iHIIH !f*i1j 1 i ra J |i ' IflBt \m Hi 11 li^H ' 4 1 S r'^'p Hn I ^ I'l K^^Hli ' uiiiin Cl '. M II: iii i!. ■ 1 1 i :^ jl*!' ■ B N ■ i- f'!'') . ''iLiMiif H |. -;! : '■ :■ wVl£ul H; 1 ' 1 ^I mI^ r II i|; '■'■ ',. m 1 i' 1 ' i " ' " i ■ "ITHlgJESi**^*""'-'*'' 1 ill. '■ "■ ■I ii| II .'■ ( M? ■■ -, 'I - ( ■ ; ■ .:■*■■ 11 ' ' ■ if -,';■■ i i 1 ' ' 5 u ,^ i^ :• • ; ..,! jl i ; ' ' ■' 1. ' 1 1 ir. 11 ' i'lfi'. i i llr V ■ M ■ ^i i , / it •: ' ■ ■ , ' '1 1 ■ • ! „ I i : ■ ; ; , 1 |- ]}' ' ■ ''!'■ :■; il 1 ilj III ^^^^HfetdiLJik. I 308 Z/F^ AA''D LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI/L D.D. Masters of ceremonies, Revs. James McCallan, SS., Michael Kelly, Thomas Broderick, Monsignor Corcoran read the preliminary decrees with regard to the rules to be observed in the council, which was fol- lowed by the calling of the roll by Dr. D. J. O'Connell. This lasted some time, the list being very long. The most interesting ceremony of all, however, was the profession of faith made in turn by each of the prel- ates. The archbishops came first. Archbishops Ale- many of San Francisco, and Kenrick of St. Louis, the two oldest of the assembled prelates, came first, closely followed by the others according to seniority. Then came the bishops, and after them the heads of semi- naries and orders. Among the dignitaries were several of the various orders, who differed in appearance from their colleagues in that they wore beards. The opening ceremonies were very impressive ; there being Pontifical high Mass in the morning, and Pontifical vespers in the evening, with a sermon on " The Unity of the Church," by Bishop Shanahan of Harrisburg, Penn. The sessions of the council were necessarily secret. On Tuesday evening, Bishop Becker of Wilmington then, now of Savannah, deliv- ered a public discourse on " The Church and Science." On the 13th there was no legislative session; but the Fathers of the Council attended a Pontifical Mass of requiem sung by the venerable Archbishop Ale- many, then c^ San Francisco, since resigned and THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 309 living in a convent of the Dominicans, of which order he is a member, in Spain. On the 14th, after the legislative session, Archbishop Seghers, then of Ore- gon, now of Vancouver's Island, preached on the great work the Church had accomplished on the Indian missions. A large temperance meeting was also held in St. Alphonsus Hall, at which addresses were made by several well-known advocates of the temperance cause. On the 15th, nothing besides holding a legis- lative session was done. On the i6th, Su iday, the second open session was held in the Cathedral, the Pontifical Mass being sung by Archbishop Williams of Boston. Archbishop Elder of Cincinnati was the preacher, and his subject was " The Priesthood." After the singing of the Litany of the Saints, the council was opened by the Rev. Dr. Foley. Upon permission of the apostolic delegate, he put to the assembled high clergy the preliminary question whether they were prepared to give their final opinion on the decrees, the formulation of which had been completed through the grace of God and their own chastity in discussion. The answer given from each side of the sanctuary was affirmative. Dr. O'Connell, a secretary of the council, and now Rector of the American College, Rome, then called the roll. Mgr. Corcoran, then rising, asked again whether the clergy were pleased to deliberate ; and, receiving an affirma- tive answer, read the decrees as formulated as follows : • 1^^ ■I.i in y'-l'i m IfP wff ivh i ' i'\ i.-ii' ; 1 i i : I i; 'IJH 4 310 Z/ZV? /^A'Z? LETTERS OF POPE LEO A'///. "Decree No. i. — Concerning the Catholic fi\ith. A solemn and detailed profession of faith will hereafter be retjuired of all who enter upon the sacred ministration of the Church. "Decree No. 2. — Concerning Christian missionaries. They are to be sul:)ordinatc, in a greater degree than has hitherto been the case, to their natural superiors, the members of the episcopacy. "Decree No. 3. — Concerning our apostolic vicars. Tlie decree embraced the conduct of these functionaries in whatsoever relates to the si)read of the faith as. their chief office." These decrees were all unanimously adopted. A further chapter of resolutions specified the re- quirements that are henceforward to be made of those intending to enter the ministry of the Church. The title of this chapter is " Concerning the Examination of the Clergy." Greater age, longer time of theologi- cal study, and greater actual learning, will be necessary for admission to the priesthood. Certain restrictions not hitherto strictly observed in relation to the celebration of the Mass will be enforced, full force being given the council's decision under a pertinent statute of Pope Innocent III. These reso- lutions were also unanimously adopted. The services ended with the papal benediction. In the evening Bishop Spalding of Peoria, 111., preached an eloquent sermon on "The Higher Educa- tion of the Priesthood." On the 17th, after the legislative session, a sermon on "Faith and Reason" was delivered by Bishop Watterson of Columbus ; and in the evening many of THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 3n the fathers attended a meetlnor of the directors of the Catholic Colonization Association, and expressed them- selves well pleased with the good work accomplished by it. On the i8th, after the legislative session, Bishop O'Farrcll of Trenton, N.J.. delivered a public sermon on " Christian Marriage." The Fathers of the Council were this day photographed in a group, and one of the pictures was forwarded to the Pope. The next day, the evening public discourses were two in number, — one in English by Bishop Ryan of Buffalo, on "The Observation of Feasts;" and one in German by Bishop Krautbauer of Green Bay, since deceased, who took for his subject, " The Church in America." On the 20th, public services were held in the cathe- dral ; Archbishop Heiss of Milwaukee being the cele- brant of the Mass, and a sermon in Latin, on *' The Priesthood," being delivered by Archbishop Alemany. In the evening the Fathers of the Council attended a reception given them by the Catholics of Baltimore, at which were present a large number of distinguished laymen. Judge Merrick made an eloquent address of welcome, to which Archbishop Williams made a suit- able reply. At the banquet which followed, fully five hundred persons sat at the tables. On the 2 2d, a private session was held at St. Mary's Seminary, and in the evening Bishop Hennessy of Dubuque deliv- ered a magnificent address on " The Sanctity of the Church." The 23d, Sunday, witnessed the third public '! ' fS: Li'li;! : •i '! 5, 312 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. \s\- '■■ \ 'i!- session cf the council ; the celebrant of the Mass being Archbishop Feehan of Chicago, and the preacher, Bishop Fitzgerald of Little Rock, whose theme was "The Sacrifice of the Mass." On the 24th, at the private session, the erection of several new sees was advocated ; and in the evening the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of Maryland gave the Fathers of the Council a brilliant reception at Ford's Opera House. The next session was held on the 26th ; and, the fol- lowing day being Thanksgiving, a solemn public ses- sion was held in the cathedral. Archbishop Lamy of Santa Fe was the celebrant of the Pontifical Mass ; and an appropriate sermon was delivered by the elo- quent bishop of Peoria, Right Rev. John Lancaster Spalding, who is said to be the coming bishop of the new see of Washington, D.C., and the president of the Catholic University to be established in that city. In the evening the Catholic Benevolent Union gave the Fathers a reception. At the session of the 28th, Archbishop Seghers tendered his resignation as arch- bishop of Oregon, to return to the see of Vancouver's Island. In the evening he preached at St. Joseph's Church, on " The Alaskan Missions." On Sunday, the 30th, Bishop Loughlin of Brooklyn was the celebrant of the high Mass, and Bishop Hennessy of Dubuque the preacher. In the afternoon Bishop Ireland of St. Paul, the Father Mathew of the North-West, preached an interesting sermon before a large audience com- » THE BALTIMORE COUNCIL. 313 posed chiefly of members of the various temperance societies of BaUimore and vicinity. The closing session of the council was held in the cathedral on Sunday ; when Bishop Spalding of Peoria, for the benefit of the people who were in attendance at the high Mass, thus reviewed its work : — " The questions which were discussed by the coun- cil had a direct bearing on the social, moral, religious, and intellectual welfare of the people and of the country at large. It was through the Church in Europe that woman was raised up, that childhood was cared for, and the poor aided ; and here in this coun- try, where womanhood is honored, where childhood is watched over, and where the poor are aided, the prelates of the Church sought to remove all obstacles which might prevent the spread of the truth, and have come in a spirit of universal charity and world- wide benevolence to frame decrees which shall inspire greater reverence for the truth as it is in Christ Jesus. They have been consecrated, chosen, ordained, and set apart for the work, and have bound the members of the Church in a sweet and loving charity. The priest as well as the people, they believe, should be raised up to the highest ideal ; afid they have sought to direct the steps of the priesthood that in it may be seen the sweetness, the meekness, and the gentleness of Christ. They have begun by advocating more :i : ■■Mk J- ' K ifi-y 1. 1. ^M^ !?rl 314 ///7? ^A'Z> LETTERS OF POPE LEO X//L advanced studies, and have laid the foundations of wliat will yet be a f,^reat American Catholic College, thus inspiring all with a love for intellectual progress. They have treated of education in general, of a sys- tem which will combine in it the ritrhts of relicrion and of government. They ha\'e dealt also with ques- tions affecting the family, which is the basis of the Church. They want to inspire a holier reverence for the sacrament of marriage. Marriage must be a per- petual union, lasting as long as life lasts, and with no cause for divorce but death. They have pleaded for the cause of sobriety and temperance. They stand on the side of good laws and customs, and wish to make the world so that men may be truly free, and grow in moral purity and intellectual worth. They have tried to stimulate the Catholic press and Catho- lic literature, so that men may be led to take greater interest in matters affecting them as Catholic and American citizens. They have laid down laws for the guidance of societies which co-operate with the Church, and have sought to know what is for good and what for harm in the Church. Their delibera- tions have been conducted with dignity, and the full thought has been spoken without restriction. It is not possible to reci^ize what has been done for the Church in this country during the last one hundred years; but a thourand years from now men can look back on the triumphs which have been achieved. THE BALTIMORE COUXCIL. 315 through all eclipses and shadows and doubts and storms and uncertainties and inimical tradition and unfavorable public oi)inion. They have laid low all disorder, rebellion, and schism ; they have gathered together many forces and many tongues, and, while banishing their defects, have preserved their virtues: and throughout all, the Church has shown that her forces, like those of Nature, are indesLruclible, and bring life from death, and beauty and harmony from chaos." After the sermon, the vestments of the prelates and priests were changed from white to those of a red color, being symbolical of the tongues of fire which descended on the apostles on Pentecost Sunday. The apostolic delegate, attended by his deacons of honor, took a seat at the entrance of the sanctuary when the change was made, and a number of hymns and psalms were sung and prayers intoned. At the conclusion of these, the apostolic delegate took his seat at the altar-steps, with Bishop Kane of Wheeling at his right and Bishop Janssens of Natchez at his left ; and the last session of the council was opened. Monsignor Corcoran read the chapters of the decrees passed during the past week, and they were formally adopted. When this was over, the pens and ink with which the bishops and officers were to sign their names in testimony of the genuineness of the decrees were placed on the altar. The apostolic dele- I . ' 11 >/ I I I 316 /.//'£ AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XllE gate was the first to sign his name, followed hy Arch- bishops Kenrick and Alcmany and all the other archbishops except Archinshop Riordan, who was absent. Then came the bishops and abbots, and lastly the officers of the council, the Rev. George \V. Dc- vinc being the last to sign. After all the prelates were again seated, Archbishop Kenrick went ii[) to the apostolic d(,'legate, and they exchanged the kiss of peace. The archbishop then stood to one side, and Archbishop Alemany similarly saluted the apostolic delegate, and, after exchanging the kiss with Arch- bishop Kenrick, took his place at his side. Thus each prelate saluted the apostolic delegate, and, passing along the line, saluted each of the prelates as he passed, and then took his place at the end of the line, which extended through the sanctuary, down a part of the centre aisle, and back again into the sanctuary be- fore the ceremony was completed. The kiss of peace is given simply by the two prelates placing their heads close together, and whispering the Latin words Pax tcmm to each other. When the parties had all been seated at the end of this ceremony, Archbishop Ken- rick of St. Louis advanced to the front of the altar, and, in a broken voice, said, " It has fallen to my lot to be the oldest bishop in this council, the arrange- ments and preparations for which, it is needless to say, caused great anxiety, care, and labor for the apostolic delegate who presided over its deliberations. There- 'f : ,! X ' 1 TIFF. nAT.TnroRE corxcri.. .V7 fore I return him tlianks on Ixihalf of its moml)crs. It is many years since I stood in tills edifice as a spectator at llie openinf^ of tilt; first plena. y council. What struck me most then was, that, in the compara- tively small number of ecclesiastics present, thirteen different nationalities were rej)rescnted, all united to- jTcthcr for one pur[)Ose." He then, in contrastinLjf that council with the one just closed, spoke at length of the progress of the Church in the past, and h(.'r bright prospects for the future. Then turning to the apostolic delegate he said, " At the next i)lenary council, should God prolong your days, you will miss many of those who are with )ou now ; and )ou will think of them as w^e now think of those who have passed away since the second plenary council." The feeble old man was obliged to stop frequently in the delivery of his short address, through the infirmities of age, and at its close went with uncertain steps back to his seat among the archbishops. The Te Deum was sung by the choir, closing praj'er recited, the papal benediction pronounced by the most reverend apostolic delegate, and the third plenary council ended. It is unnecessary to add any thing to the above ac- count of the Council, whose work reflects the greatest credit on Pope Leo's Pontificate, under \vhos(" auspices it was begun and happily concluded, and who bestowed his apostolic benediction on the prelates who took part ■A !■ ; :i Wl (!*'■ ' 318 Z/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL in it, and on the labors which they so successfully accomplished. It only, remains to add that the decrees of the Council are now being enforced, with excellent effect, throughout the whole country ; the several dio- ceses holding synods to adopt them and to comply with the regulations which they exact from the bishops and priests of each and every see. The archbishop, who so worthily presided over the council, has since been raised to the cardinalitial dignity; and there is no question but what higher honors are in store for more than one of the prelates who took part in its deliberations. y-'i^ \ \: i 'si mv.\ ^'i Ml (I : I, \\ . ■ t "* ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL. 319 CHAPTER XXVII. ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL. BEFORE closing the narrative of this year, it is incumbent on the author to submit the text of the following encyclical against secret societies, which the Pope published in April, 1884 : — "Vener-vble Brethren, — Health and apostolic benediction. When through the envy of the Devil the human race had miserably fallen away from God the Creator, the Dispenser of all heavenly gifts, it divided itself into two separate and hostile camps, of which the one wars perpetually for truth and virtue, and the other for every thing that is antago.iistic to truth and virtue. The one is the kingdom of God upon earth, — that is, the true Church of Jesus Christ, of which the members, if they would belong to it in sincerity and in a manner availing for salvation, must serve God and His only Son with all tlieir heart and will : the other is the kingdom of Satan, under whose power and dominion are those who, following his sad example, and that of our first parents, refuse to yield obedience to divine and eternal law ; they set God aside in many things, and in many ways they actually oppose Him. St. Augustine has described these two kingdoms under the similitude of two states, differing in the laws by which they are governed, and in their aims and objects, and has embraced in one pointed sentence the character of each. Tii'o loves have made tii'o cities. The love of self, he m il 320 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL iliilijp ; ! says, carried to /ori^cffiihu'ss of God, has been the cause of the earthly city ; whilst the love of God, carried to fori^ctfiilncss of self, has been the cause of the heaveuly city. All through the ages thes ^ cities have fought one with the other with many weapons, and in many forms of strife, thougli not always with the same fierceness or the same energy. In our own time, the enemies of God, aided and strengthened by the widely spread and firmly knit society of the Masons, seem to have uniteil to make a supreme effort. No longer concealing their objects, they boldly array themselves against the majesty of God, and oi)enly strive for the ruin of the Church, in the hope that if possible they may rob the Christian peoples of the benefits won for them by our Saviour Jesus Christ. \\'e, bemoan- ing these evils, are often driven, under the impulse of our love, to cry aloud to God : For lo, thy enemies have viadr a noise, and they that hate thee have lifted up their head. They have taken up a malicious counsel against thy people, and Jiave consulted against thy saints. They have said: Come, let us destroy them, so that they be not a nation. In the presence of such a peril, and in the face of an attack upon Christianity at once so formidable and so persevering, it is our duty to make the danger known, to point out the enemy, and, as far as possible, to make vain their schemes and plots, so that those whose eternal salvation is committed to our care shall not perish everlastingly, and the kingdom of Jesus Christ, which it is ours to defend, may not only stand and remain unharmed, but everywhere spread over tiie earth by new contpiests. Our predecessors, the Roman Ponuffs, steadily watchful for the well- being of the Christian people, recognized this deadly enemy for what it was, and what it aimed at, the moment it left the obscurity of a secret conspinicy to step into the light of day. Foreseeing the future, sounding a note of alarm, they put the princes and the people on their guard against the snares and the artifices intended to lead them astray. The first to denounce this danger was Clement XII., in the year 1738; and his Constitution was confirmed and i ! ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL. 321 use of the lu'ss of self, agL's thes-: ons, and in i fierceness God, aitled t society of effort. No ilves against tlie Cluircli, I peoples of We, bemoan- of our love, I noise, and • taken tip a / against thy so that they , and in the dable and so to point out schemes and litted to our Jesus Christ, lin unharmed, !iests. Our {ox the well- y enemy for the obscurity Foreseeing nces and the fices intended was Clement t)nfirmed and renewed by Benedict XIV. Pius VII. followed in the footsteps of these Pontiffs ; and Loo XII. in his Apostolic Constitution Quo graviora, collecting the acts and decrees on this subject of the Popes who had gone before him, ratified and confirmed them for all time. Pius VIII., Gregory XVI., and on many occasions Pius IX., have spoken in the same sense. When the nature and the character of the Masonic body had been mrde apparent by unmistakable signs, by the knowledge of its principles, by the publication of its rules and rites and ceremonies, — and to these was often added the testimony of the initiated themselves, — the Holy See condemned and publicly proclaimed the ^Masonic sect as contrary to right and justice, and not less baneful to Christianity than to the State. At the same time, under pain of penalties which the Church is accustomed to reserve for serious offenders, the Holy See forbade any one to join the association. Irritated by this condemnation, and thinking to escape the force of it, or — partly by disregarding it, partly by .'rj- ;se of calumny — to weaken its effect, the members of the sect .; c ' the Popes, who had decreed it, of having passed a sent..iice that was unjust, or of having exceeded the bounds of equity. In this way they thought to escape the authority and the weight of the Apostolic Constitutions of Clement XII. and Benedict XIV., and in the same way those of Pius VII. and Pius IX. But there were also some, even in the ranks of the Masons, who, unwilling witnesses as they were, confessed, that, the teaching and discipline of the Catholic Church being accepted, the action of her Pontiffs was amply justified. And many princes and chief magist'-ites have so far agreed with the action of the Popes, that they have made it their business either to denounce the sect to the Holy See itself, or else by their own laws to brand it as noxious, as has been the case in Holland, Austria, Switzerland, Bavaria, Savoy, and other parts of Italy. " But what is of most importance is the fact that the result proved the wisdom of our predecessors. For their far-seeing and \Mm \'-m 322 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL paternal efforts had not always or in all places the desired efTectJ and that, too, either through the deceit and craft of men who were engaged in that conspiracy, or through the thoughtless carelessness of the rest, whose duty it was specially to attend to their admoni- tions. Hence, in a century and a half, the sect of Masons made great strides in public opinion ; and, by boldness or slyness intruding themselves into all ranks of the commonwealth, already began to be so great that they seemed almost to rule the state. From this rapid and threatening progress there resulted, in fact, those deadly evils against the Church, the authority of rulers, and the public weal, which our predecessors long before saw. For matters have got to this: that for the future there is cause to fear, — not indeed for the Church, whose foundation is far too secure that human power should shake it, — but for those states in which the sect of which we are speaking is rife, or others of a similar kind, who lend themselves to it as their co-operators and satellites. " For these reasons, as soon as we received the charge of ruling the Church, we clearly saw it was our duty to resist to the utmost so great an evil with the weight of our authority. And, indeed, as opportunity from time to time offered, we attacked the chief doc- trines of the sect in which the greatest moral evil seemed to be found. Thus in an encyclical letter, ' Quod Apostolici 7nuneris,^ we endeavored to refute the monstrous features of the socialists and communists ; and in another letter, * Arcanum,^ we labored to de- fend and explain the real, genuine idea of domestic society, whose fountain-head is matrimony ; and besides the above letters, in an- other entitled ' Diuturnum^ we set forth the idea of political society according to Christian principles as bound up most admiral)ly with the very nature of things, and with the welfare of both peoples and princes. But now, following the example set by our predecessors, we have determined to direct our mind pointedly against the Ma- sonic sect itself, its entire teaching, aims, ways of thinking and act- ing, in order that its pernicious power may be more and more ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL. 323 brought to light, and may thereby avail to stop the spread of so terrible a plague. " Now, there are various sects of men which, though in name, rites, form, and origin they differ, yet when in sameness of aim and likeness of first principles they are bound together, really thereby agree with the Masonic sect, which forms for all a common centre, whence all proceed, and to which all return. Though they just now seem very much to have cast off the garb of secrecy, and hold their meetings before the eyes of the world, and even have their own daily press, when we look, however, into the matter, we find that they still retain all the characteristics of secret societies. For many things done in them have the nature of strict secrecy, to conceal which with the utmost care, not only from those outside, but from very many of their own associates, is a primary law ; for instance, tlieir secret and important resolutions, the names and persons of their chief leaders, certain secret and clandestine meetings, as well as their decrees, and the vv^ays and means to be employed in carrying them out. To the same end is the complicated distinction of the members in trades and duties and employment ; not less than the established diiference in their ranks and degrees, and the severity and discipline by which all are ruled ; wliile the candidates for enrol- ment are bound by promise, — nay, more, by a si)ccial oath, — to swear, as in most cases they are required, never in any way to divulge their associates, their signs, or their doctrines. Thus by a feigned appearance, and the same style of pretence, the Masons, as of old the Manichceans, try by every poss'ble means to hide themselves, and to have no witnesses of their actions but members of their own sect. They seek hiding-places as most convenient, having assuaicd to themselves the character of learned men and philosophers fur the sake of training their associates ; in their language they cultivate most strictly politeness of speech, and charity towards the lower classes ; they profess only to desire a better state of things for the masses, and to make the greater number participate in the conven- A \ II I ; I- t;^: n; r( i mm A 324 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL iences of civilized life. But even supposing these principles were true ones, they would by no means represent all their objects. Be- sides, those who are admitted into the society must promise and engage that they will render implicit obedience and fidelity to the dictates of their leaders and teachers ; that they will carry out their commands at the least sign and indication of their will ; otherwise they will have to meet the most dire consequences, and even death itself. And, moreover, if any one shall be judged to have betrayed the discipline, or resisted the commands of their superiors, extreme punishment is often inflicted upon them, and that indeed with such boldness and dexterity that very frequently the police fail in discov- ering or in bringing the criminals to justice. Moreover, to practise deceit and to conceal themselves, to bind men to themselves, as slaves with iron fetters, without alleging any reason, to employ for any crime these slaves of another's will, to bare their arm to slaughter, whilst guarding themselves as much as possible from punishment, is an enormity at which nature revolts. Wheiefore against this associa- tion reason and truth itself compel one, in justice and natural virtue, to fight. ♦' And the more so, because other most cogent reasons condemn the nature of the society, being, as it is, the enemy of all virtuous living. For, however great may be in men the power of skilful de- ceit and the haljit of lying, it is impossible that the cause of things should not, to a certain extent, be discovered in its consequences. ' A good tree cannot bring forth bad fruit, neither can a bad tree bring forth good fruit ^ (.St. ]\Iatt. vii. 18). Now, this sect of Masons docs produce most pernicious fruit, mingled with the greatest bitterness. For, by the most certain evidence which we have already mentioned, it comes to light what is its ultimate end, viz., utterly to overthrow that discipline of religion and social order which Christianity has founded, and to erect upon its ruins a new one after its own mind, on the principles and foundations of mere naturalism. "What we have said, and what we are going to say, must be 1 M n: 'i! ?!;! ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL, 325 understood of the Masonic sect viewed as a genus, and as it embraces cognate and affiliated societies ; not, however, of the individual members of the sect, among whom, indeed, there can be those, and not a few, who, although they are not free from the fault that they have allowed themselves to be implicated in such societies, nevertheless are neither themselves criminal participators in their doings, nor are aware of what they really aim at. In like manner, some of these associations do not perhaps indorse certain extreme conclusions, which, as they necessarily f w from their common principles, it may be taken for granted that they embrace, unless the baseness itself of the action should deter them by its hideous sight. Likewise the circumstances of time and place persuade some of them to aim at less than either they themselves desire, or the rest are wont to aim at. Still, they are not on that account to be reckoned free from the Masonic bond ; because this bond is not to be judged so much from its acts and accomplished facts as from its declared principles. " It is the first principle of those who call themselves Naturalists, since by their very name they declare it, that human nature and human reason should be in all things the teacher and ruler; and, this laid down, they either pay less attention to duties towards God, or they pervert them by indefinite and erroneous opinions. For they deny that any thing has been revealed to us by God Himself; they admit no dogmas of religion, — that nothing is true but what human intelligence can understand ; that there is no teacher whom we are to believe on account of the authority of his office. But since it is the special office of the Catholic Cliurch to embrace fully, and to maintain in their most complex j integrity, the doctrines which have been committed to her alone, received from God Himself, as well as her authority as teacher, and every thing else in the way of heavenly help towards salvation, therefore, against her is the attack of her enemies with the utmost hatred directed. " Now, let us just look at the sect of Masons, and see what it does MM: 326 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL in those matters which concern religion, — especially where it has the most liberty of action, — and let us determine whether it does not plainly appear to carry out the decrees of these naturalists. For long and laboriously has it endeavored to bring it to pass, that the teaching of the Church and her authority shall be rendered impotent in states, alleging and maintaining that religion and civil policy are altogether to be separated ; and, this done, they exclude the most wholesome influence of the Catholic religion on the laws and administration of states ; and hence it results, that they determine that states are to be regulated entirely without the influence and teaching of the Church. Nor are they satisfied with merely setting the Church — that best of all leaders — aside, but they must injure her by hostile action. And, indeed, they allow men with impunity to attack the very foundations of the Catholic religion in speaking, writing, and teaching ; the rights of the Church are not spared ; and the gifts with which, by God's providence, she has been endowed, are not safe. The least possible liberty of action is allowed her, and that by means of laws which apparently are not very severe, but which, in reality, are framed for the very purpose of hampering her action. We also see special and grievous laws imposed upon the clergy, in order that both their num- bers may be diminished, and the daily necessaries of life denied them ; what remains of ecclesiastical property, though bound to her by the most stringent ties, handed over to the will o^ the state execu- tive ; communities of the religious orders rooted up and scattered to the winds. And, besides, war has been stirred up against the Apos- tolic See and the Roman Pontiff by his enemies. And, in the first place, he has been, for fictitious reasons, deprived of his civil prince- dom, which is the guaranty of his liberty and the defence of his right ; next, driven into a condition which is more unjust, and made intolerable by difificulties and hinderances ; until at last we have come to the time when the supporters of these sects openly proclaim, what they have for a long time agitated in secret, viz., that the sacred power of the Pontiff is to be abolished, and his apostolic office, ANOTHER FAMOUS ENCYCLICAL. 327 founded by Divine right, is to be utterly destroyed. And this deter- mination, even if other proofs were wanting, is made sufficiently clear by the testimony of members of that society, many of whom liave often in the past, and also recently, declared this to be the object of Masonry, — to harass the Catholic name with the utmost and un- relenting hatred ; not to cease until they see every thing abolislied which the Roman Pontiffs have established for the sake of religion. Now, even if those who are enrolled in this sect are not recjuired in so many words to renounce the Catholic religion, it is because such a line, so far from being repugnant to the interests of Masonry, rather serves the cause : for, first, they thus easily deceive the simple and unwary, and are able to invite many more to join them ; then, be- sides, by their adopting certain well-known practices of religious rite, they succeed in establishing the great error of these times, — that the care of religion is a matter of little or no importance, and that there is no difference of worth between them. This view is well fitted to destroy all religions, and especially the Catholic, which, as it is the only true one of all, cannot be treated on equal grounds with the rest without the greatest injury done to it. But the naturalists go farther ; for in things of the highest importance, having boUlly en- tered on the career of universal wandering, with a headlong course they hurry on to destruction, either through the weakness of human nature, or through the act of God demanding the just punishment of their pride. Hence it happens that they cannot even grasp firmly those things which are known by the natural use of reason : as cer- tainly are, that God exists ; that the souls of men are free from all admixture of matter, and are immortal. Now, the sect of the Masons is foundering upon these same rocks with like aberration. For al- tliough they, in a general way, confess that God exists, nevertheless they themselves attest that this belief does not exist in the minds of certain individuals among them, with a firm assent and steadfast judg- ment. For they do not attempt to hide the fact, that this (luestion about God is the greatest cause of dissension among them, and, ft . «". ,.j,,|il ii.ii ■': W . . ' 'If llHl' '!■? :» ilf ■. ! 1 < '■^ ; r * SlrJiriif 348 Z//"^ AJVn LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIIL I i consent to any ' transaction ' in regard to the essential rights of the Church, irima facie, then, it is quite certain, that, whatever arrange- ment has been made, there has been no sacrifice of those rights. The Prussian Government has wilhngly pubHshed the fact that the Pope has sanctioned the Anzcigepjlicht, for this was so far a justifica- tion of the policy of tiie Government. The publication of the details of the arrangement was not necessary, and could only lead to criticism and controversy that might be mischievous. But is it not most misleading to say that the A7izcigcpflicht is the same to-day as it was when created by the law of May 11, 1873? What was at that time and subsequently so vehemently objected to, was not so much the communication beforehand to the civil authorities of pro- posed ecclesiastical appointments, although it was not then in keeping with the existing Concordat to impose such an obligation on the bishops merely by a law of the state, without the concurrence of the Holy See : the fundamental ground of objection was the whole network of circumstances and consequences involved in the new enactment. " If the bishop and the provincial governor were not agreed about any appointment, the decision fell to the ' Ecclesiastical Court,' a schismatical tribunal of which some nommal Catholic lawyers were not ashamed to form a part, but with which no bishop or priest could have any thing to do. This court has ceased to exist. Then what was the use of ' communicating any proposed appointment ' ? The first thing a priest appointed by law was required to do was to take an oath to observe all the laws and ordinances of the Kingdom of Prussia. Some of these laws were palpably unjust and immoral, as that forbidding, under penalties, any priest outside of his own dio- cese to give the last sacraments to a dying man, or to baptize a dying child. Others notoriously struck at the framework of Church disci- pline and authority. But the obligation to make such a declaration has been suspended under the various relief laws, and must be re- pealed at last. The ' legal (lualification ' of having been educated in THE YEAR /SSj. 349 of the irrange- ; rights, that the justifica- of the f lead to is it not to-day as :it was at as not so ;s of pro- Ill keeping ow on the irrence of the whole 1 the new reed about [ Court; a .wyers were Driest could Then what ;nt'? The as to take .ingdom of immoral, as is own dio- tize a dying iiu-ch disci- declaration Inuist be re- educated in a German university has been repealed. Nothing remains, even under the strict letter of the law of May ii, but the right of the provincial governor to object to a person as being ' likely to disturb public order.' Eut, in the first place, it is certain tliat no such objec- tion would now be likely to be made, because the bishops would cer- tainly not propose to appoint an agitator or brawler in the political sense ; and disobedience to the May laws, which ha\'c no k)nger any legal and binding force, cannot, even by the most rabid anti-Catho- lic, any longer be regarded as a disturbance of public order. In the second place, any differences of opinion between the bishop and tlie governor will henceforward be reserved to the minister of worship for setUcment ; and it is not difficult to see that an amicable arrange- ment of the difficulty must be the result. " In the same way, the right of tlie governor to fill up a vacancy within a year must now be regarded under the altered circumstances. The truth is, that the aim and scope of the Aiizcigcpflidit disappeared when the right of exercising ecclesiastical discipline over her minis- ters was restored to the Church, together with the right of educating and training them. As Prince Bismarck forcibly put it, a priest is only a soldier, a volunteer enlisted in the great army of the Cliurch, the supreme command of which rests on tlie Pope. ^\ liy, then, should the State interfere to break down a discipline and weaken an authority to which the priest has voluntarily submittc : i;imself? That the Slate may wish to be informed officially who the persons are that are to fill positions of influence as parish priests, and between whom and the State many relations de facto exist, seems natural. And this, we may be sure, was the view taken in Rome : as tliis view, on the other hand, limits the extent and conditions under which it will be found, the fulfilment of the Auzci'^rpfiiiht has l)een allowed. It is a concession which is one other guaranty of the sincerity of both sides, and a pledge that the last hinderances to a final settlement are now very near removal." 1 r I ( t! m 'ft- •ffl' 350 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. 4 CHAPTER XXIX. THE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. THE present year of our Holy Father's Pontificate will compare favorably with any of its predeces- sors. Although there have been rumors now and then that his health was failing him, Leo XIII. man- ages to show himself the same indefatigable Pontiff that he has been since he first ascended the Papal throne. Without doubt the long confii-cment which he has endured in the Vatican, together with the tre- mendous amount of labor which he accomplishes, has told on his Holiness' strength ; for since the insult to the remains of the saintly Pius IX., detailed in a pre- ceding chapter, the Holy Father has remained in closer confinement in the Vatican than he probably would have done if this outrage had not convinced him that neither his person nor the dignity of his office was secure from insult from the infidel rabble who have usurped and still hold the Eternal City. Early in the year, his Holiness, desirous of providing by excep- tional means of religious piety for the peculiar nature of the times, decided to grant an extraordinary jubi- THE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 351 lee ; and he expressed his wish to put this grace under the patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The encyclical in which this extraordinary jubilee was announced ran as follows : — pontificate predeces- now and XUI. man- ble Pontiff I the Papal nent which ith the tre- iplishes, has le insult to |d in a pre- led in closer ably would ;d him that s office was ie who have Early in the by excep- :culiar nature irdinary jubi- "POPE LEO XIII. " To Our Venerable Brethren, the Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, Bishops, and other Ordinaries of Places having Grace and Communion with the Apostolic See. "Vener-arle Brethren, — Health and apostolic benediction. " What we have twice already by .'' nostolic authority decreed, — that an extraordinary year of jubilee should be observed in the whole Christian world, opening for general welfare those heavenly treasures wtiich it is in our power to dispense, — we are pleased to decree likewise, with God's blessing, for the coming year. The usefulness of this action you, venerable brethren, cannot fail to understand, well aware as you are of the moral condition of our times ; but there is a special reason rendering this design more seasonable perhaps than on other occasions. For, having in a previous encyclical taught how much it is to the interest of states that they should conform more closely to Christian truth and a Christian character, it can readily be understood how suitable to this very purpose of ours it is to use what means we can to urge men to, or recall them to, the practice of Christian virtues. For the state is what the morals of the people make it ; and as the goodness of a ship or a building depends on the goodness of its parts, and thei proper union, each in its own place, similarly the course of government cannot be rightful or free from obstacles unless the citizens lead righteous lives. Civil discipline, and all those things in which public action cor-iiscs, originate and perish through individuals : they impress on thest, things the stamp of their opinions and their morals. In order, therefore, that minds i^'illi ' i* ilr •f , > 1! ■'• 352 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI/T. i.'i may be thoroughly imbued with those precepts of ours, and, above all, that the daily life of the individual be ruled accordingly, efforts must be made to the end that each one shall apply himself to the attainment of Christian wisdom, and also of Christian action, not less publicly than privately. "And in this matter efforts must be increased in proportion to the greater number of dangers that threaten on every side. For the great virtues of our fathers have declined in no small part. Passions that have of themselves very great force have, through license, striven to still greater ; unsound opinions, entirely unrestrained, or insuffi- ciently restrained, are becoming daily more wide-spread; among those who hold correct sentiments, there are many who, deterred by an unreasonable shame, do not dare to profess freely what tiiey be- lieve, and much less to carry it out ; most wretched examples have exercised an influence on popular morals here and there ; sinful societies, which we ourselves have already designated, that are most proficient in criminal artifices, strive to impose on the people, and to withdraw and alienate as many as possible from God, from sacred duties, from Christian faith. '• Unilcr the pressure of so many evils, whose very length of dura- tion makes them greater, we must not omit any thing that affords any hope of relief. With this design, and this hope, we are about to proclaim a sacred jubilee ; admonishing and exhorting all who have their salvation at heart to collect themselves for a little while, and turn to better things their thoughts that now are sunken in the earth. And this will be salutary not only to private persons, but to the whole commonwealth ; for the reason that as much as any person singly advances in perfection of mind, so much of an increase of virtue will be given to public life and morals. " But the desired result depends, as you see, venerable brethren, in great measure on your work and diligence, since the people must be suitably and carefully prepared, in order that they may receive the fruits intended. It will pertain, therefore, to your charity auLi m THE PRESEI^T PONTIFICAL YEAR. 353 md, above gly, efforts self to the n, not less )portion to I, For the . Passions ;nse, striven , or insuffi- ad ; among deterred by lat they bc- :amples have :hcrc ; sinful that are most :ople, and to from sacred "th of dura- at affords any are about t^) all who have e while, and in the earth, to the whole person singly of virtue will able brethren, e people must may receive wisdom, to give to priests selected for the purpose the charge of instructing tlie people by pious discourses suited to common capa- city, and especially of exhorting to penance, which is, according to St. Augustine, 'The daily punishment of the good and humble of the faitliful, in which we strike our breasts, saying. Forgive us our trespasses' (Epist. io8). Not without reason, we mention, in the first place, penance, and, what is a part of it, the voluntary chastise- ment of the body. For you know the custom of the world : it is the choice of many to lead a life of effeminacy, — to do nothing demand- ing fortitude and true courage. They fldl into much other wretched- ness ; and often fashion reasons why they should not obey the salutary laws of the Church, thinking that a greater burden lias been imposed on them than can be borne, when they are commanded to abstain from a certain kind of food, or to observe a fast on a few days of the year. Enervated by such mode of life, it is not to be wondered at tiiat they, by degrees, give themselves up entirely to passions that call for greater indulgence still. It is proper, therefore, to recall to temper- ance those who have fallen into or are inclined to effeminacy ; and, for this reason, those who are to address the people must carefully and minutely teach them, what is a command not only of the law of the gospel, but of natural reason as well, that every one ought to exercise self-control and hold his passions in subjection ; that sins are not expiated except by penance. And that this virtue may be of enduring character, it will not be an unsuitable provision to place it, as it were, in the trust and keeping of an institution having a per- manent character. You readily understand, venerable brethren, to what we refer; namely, to your perseverance — each in his own dio- cese — in protecting and extending the Third, ox secular, Order of St. Francis. Surely, to preserve and foster the spirit of jKMiance among Christians, there will be great aid in the examples and flivor of the Patriarch Francis of Assisi, who, to the greatest innocence of life, joined a studious chastisement of himself, so that he seemed to bear the image of Jesus Christ crucified not less in his life and cus- '< iM I • '• 354 Z/FE AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL I pl!rl .1 ' i li toms than in the signs that were divinely impressed upon him. The laws of that Order, which have been by us suitably temi)ered, are very easily observed. Their importance to Christian virtue is by no means slight. " Secondly, in so great private and puljlic needs, since the whole hope of salvation lies in the favor and keeping of our Heavenly Father, we greatly wish the revival of a constant and confiding habit of prayer. In every great crisis of the Christian commonwealth, whenever it happened to the Church to be pressed by external or internal dangers, our ancestors raising suijpliant eyes to Heaven have signally taught in what way and from whence were to be sought strong virtue and suitable aid. Minds were thoroughly imbued with those precepts of Jesus Christ, * Ask, and it shall be given you ; ' (Matt. vii. 7); 'We ought always to pray, and fliil not' (Luke xviii. i). Consonant with this is the voice of the apostles, 'Pray without ceasing' (i Thess. v. 17); 'I desire, therefore, first of all, that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men' (i Tim. ii. i). On this point John Chrysos- tom has left us, with not less acuteness than truth, the following comijarison : As to man, when he comes naked and needing every thing in the world, nature has given hands by the aid of which to procure what is necessary for life, so in those things that are above nature, since of himself he can do nothing, God has bestowed on him the faculty of prayer, by the wise use of which he may easily obtain all that is required for salvation. And in these matters let all of }'ou determine, venerable brethren, how pleasing and satisfac- tory to us is the care you have, with our initiative, taken to ])roiiiote the devotion of the Holy Rosary, especially in these recent years. Nor can we pass over in silence the general piety awakened in the people nearly everywhere in that matter : nevertheless, the greatest care is to be taken, that this devotion be made still more ardent and lasting. If we continue to urge this, as we have more than once done already, none of you will be surprised ; understanding, as you THE rRESEXT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 355 do, of how much moment it is tliat the practice of the rosary of Mary should flourish among Christians, and knowing well, as you do, that it is a very beautiful form and part of that very sjiirit of prayer of which we speak, and tliat it is suitable to the times, easily practised, and of most abundant usefulness. "But since the first and chief fruit of a jubilee, as we have alujvc pointed out, ought to be amendment of life and an increase of virtue, we consider especially necessary the avoidance of that evil which we have not failed to designate in previous ercyclical letters. We mean the internal and nearly domestic dissensions of some of our own, which dissolve, or certaiiily relax, tiie bond of charity, with an almost inexpressible harm. We have here mentioned tiiis matter again to you, venerable brethren, guardians of ecclesiastical discipline and mutual charity, because we wish your watciifulness and authority continually applied to the abolition of this gMve liis- advantage. Admonishing, exhorting, reproving, work to the eud, that all be "solicitous to preserve unity of the spirit in tlie bond (jf peace," and that those may return to duty who arc tiie cause of dis- sension ; keeping in mind in every step of life, tiuit the only-bcgotien Son of God, at the very approach of his supreme agonies, songlit nothing more ardently from his Father than that those should love one another who believed or were to believe in him, — 'that they all may be one ; as thou, Father, in me, and I in thee, that tlicy also may be one in us ' (John xvii. 21). "Therefore trusting in the mercy of Almighty God, and tiie authority of the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, of that power of binding and loosing which the Lord has conferred on us tlujugh unworthy, we grant to each and every one of the faithful, of lioth sexes, a plenary indulgence according to tlie manner of a general jubilee, on the condition and law that within the space of tlie next year, 18S6, they shall do the things that are written farther on. "All those residing in Rome, or visiting the city, shall go twice to the Lateran, Vatican, and Liberian Basilicas, and sliall therein for :% i "xl \yi \ \: 35(5 LIFE AND LETTERS OF TOPE LEO XIIL •ii I 1;! a while pour out pious prayers for the prosperity and exaltation of the Catholic Church and the Apostolic See, for the extirpation of heresies and the conversion of all the erring, for concord of Chris- tian i)rinces, and the i)eace and unity of the whole peo|)le of tho faith, according to our intention. Tlu-y shall fast, using only fasting food i^(il>is csiiri(tii/>iis), two days outside of those conijirehendcd in the Lenten indult, and outsid ■ of other days consecrated by precept of the Church to a similar strict fast; besides, they shall, having rightly confessed their sins, receive the Holy Sacrament of the JMicharist, and shall according to their means, using tlie advice of the confessor, make an offering to some pious work pertaining to the propagation and increase of the Catholic faith. Let it be free to every one to choose what pious work he may prefer. \\'e think it well, however, to designate two specially, on which beneficence will be well bestowed, both, in many places, needing resources and aid, both fruitful to the State not less than the Church ; namely, pri'iHitc schools for clii/i/irii, and clerical seminaries. " All others, living anywhere outside of the city, shall go hi'ice to three churches to be designated by you, venerable brethren, or your vicars or officials, or with your or their mandate by those exercising care of souls ; if there are but two churches in the place, three fiinrs; if but one, six limes, — all within the above-mentioned time; they must perform also the other works mentioned. This indulgence \vc wish also applicable by way of suffrage to the souls that have de- parted from this life, united to God by charity. Wc also grant power to you to reduce the number of these visits, according to pruilent judgment, for chapters and congregations, whether sccnlai or regular, sodalities, confraternities, universities, and any oihcr bodies, visiting in procession the churches mentioned. " We grant that those on sea, and travellers when they return to their residences, or to any other certain stopping-place, visiting six times the principal church or a parochial church, and performing the other works above prescribed, may gain the same indulgence. To I .! w THE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 357 exaltation irpiition of I of t^luis- )l)le of tl.o only fasting, nprcluiidcd ^ccnitcd by , they shall, icramcnt of g the advice pcrtainiuLi; to ,ct it I'L- iVeo r, \Vc thiol; I beneficence resources and irch; namely, all go hi'icc to duen, or your ose exercising c, three times; led time ; they indulgence we that have dc- We also grant , according to .vhether scc'ilnv nd any other d. they return to ace, visiting .""-V" performing the ndulgence. To regulars, of both sexes, also those living perpetually in the cloister, and to aU other persons, whether lay or ecclesiastic, who by iini)ris- onment, infirmity, or any other just cause, are prevented from doing the al)ove works, or some of them, we grant that a confessor may commute them into other works of piety; the power being also given of disi)ensiiig, as to communion in the case of children not yet ad- mitted to first communion. Moreover, to each anil every one of the faithful, whether laymen or ecclesiastics, secular and regular, of whatsoever order and institute, even those to be si)ecially named, we grant the faculty of choosing any confessor, secular or regular, among those actually approved ; which faculty may be used also by religious novices and other women living within the cloister, provided the confessor be one approved for religious. We also give to confessors, on this occasion, and during the time of this jubilee only, all those facultic's which we bestowed in our Letters Apostolic Pontifices iiiaxi- ;;;/, dated Feb. 15, 1879, all those things excepted which are excepted in the same letters. " For the rest, let all take care to obtain merit with the great Mother of God by special homage and devotion during this time. For we wish this sacred jubilee to be under the jiatronage of the Holy Virgin of llie rvutry ; and with her aid we trust that tliere shall be not a few whose souls shall obtain remission of sin am 1 expiation, and be by fiiith, piety, justice, renewed not only to hope of eternal salvation, but also to presage of a more peaceful age. " Auspicious of these heavenly benefits, an ^ - ■ " ■" ' f ■ , ■~i- ■ 358 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XII I. \h\ • r J: M i i' V if* the matter of the Caroline Island disputes. It is hardly necessary to refer to the causes which led to this dispute, as they are of such recent happening that everybody who reads the newspapers is fully aware of them. Suffice it to say, that Germany's seiz- ure of one of the Caroline Islands threatened to em- broil her in a war with Spain, which country claimed the islands ; but the happy mediation of Pope Leo averted such a calamity, and his decision satisfied both Berlin and Madrid. When it was first announced in Continental journals, that Bismarck had proposed the Pope as mediator between Germany and Spain, the idea was scouted as ridiculous. \ et it proved to be true. No greater tribute could be paid to Leo XIII. than that the empire which, par excellence^ represents material force, should ask the services of a dethroned monarch, the head of a spiritual kingdom. The fact speaks volumes in favor of the present Pope's talents, wis- dom, and conciliatory spirit. There is not a crowned head in Europe whose decision or judgment carries the same weight. The infidel and revolutionary papers of Europe would have laughed to scorn, a year or two ago, the choice by Germany and Spain of the Holy Father as mediator in the Caroline-Islands dispute. The imprisoned chief of Christendom, living as he does in the city of the invader and despoiler, has not lost one shred of his vast influence over the r/. THE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 359 :es. It is lich led to happening rs is fully aany's seiz- led to em- itry claimed • Pope Leo atisfied both ital journals, as mediator ^vas scouted No greater fian that the taterial force, led monarch, fact speaks talents, wis- ,t a crowned ment carries revolutionary to scorn, a |ny and Spain .roline-lslands lendom, living Lnd despoiler, ence over the two hemispheres. In an age when might generally suppresses right, that which is, humanly speaking, weakest, survives victoriously. The Papal mediation is no whim of Prince Bismarck or of King Alphonso's government. Column after column has been written upon the subject In its general bearings, and many European statesmen believe that the great mission of temporal peace is to come from the Vatican. To Catholics, the remembrance that humanity can have no greater friend and benefactor than the Church, carries more weight than all the combinations of diplomacy. If any thing were wanted to show the efficacy of the arrangement, it would be supplied by the remarks of the foreign revolutionary press. Find- ing that a conspiracy of silence is impossible, they, one and all, try to discover a danger in the fact. The principle of the arbitration of the Pope has been revived. One print goes so far as to say that the German chancellor has restored the temporal power by implication. Whatever may be the motive of Prince Bismarck, his action will be commended by the Catholics of the universe, because it is a public testimony to the fact, that, even in the eyes of its most potent and most persistent adversary, the Holy See is still recognized as an immense force in the world ; and it will be a consolation to Leo XIII., in the midst of his tribulations, that, at this portion of the nineteenth century, he has been requested to ( 1. I -I !i:.:i '■• : i 360 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL exercise, as his distant predecessors exercised, one of the prerogatives attaching to the exalted position of the Vicar of the Prince of peace, — the office of the arbitrator of the nations. The Papacy, which revolutionary journals said was dead, is living and vigorous ; and, as the " Corriere de Torino" says, "An aureole of justice and wisdom shines around it. The fact is so much the more remarkable, as the Pope has not at all sought this mediation, but it has been offered to him by both nations. It is a homage rendered by material force to moral supremacy ; modern diplomacy recognizes the spirit of justice and wisdom of the great Pope who governs the Church." The " Echo " of Bero-amo remarks that this news of the mediation suffices to demonstrate in what esteem the Sovereign Pontiff is held in Europe. At the present day the Papacy is once more the only institution which maintains, in a high degree, the glory of Italy. A commission of seven cardinals has been chosen by the Pope to examine the facts and weigh the reasons in this important case. The judgment, it is plain, whatever it may be, will be founded upon truth and right ; and if either of the disputants should act contrary to this judgment, and despise the decision of the Pope, it is certain that such a one will be condemned by the public opinion and good sense of the world. The cardinals chosen for this commission are their Emi- THE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 361 ised, one 1 position office of 3 said was '* Corriere nd wisdom the more sought this m by both iterial force recognizes great Pope of Bergamo I suffices to rn Pontiff is the Papacy maintains, in commission ;he Pope to ions in this in, whatever right; and itrary to this |the Pope, it ned by the world. The their Emi- nences Ludovico Jacobin!, Secretary of State ; Carlo Laurenzi, Wladimir Czaki, Micceslao Ledochouski, Angelo Bianchi, Lucido Parocchi, and Raffaelo Monaca La Valletta. They are all men of great learning, and have had, each in his own special way, vast exper ence in political and ecclesiastical questions. The secretary of the commission is Monsignor Mocenni, Substitute of the Cardinal Secretary of State. On the evening of the 28th of September, the Spanish Government despatched to Rome the documents, which, in its opinion, demonstrate the rights of Spain over the Caroline Islands. On the morning of that day, the Holy Father received in audience the Prussian min- ister to the Holy See, Baron von Schloezer. In a letter to the Paris " Univers," M. de Brassier St. Simon reminds his readers that the high tribute just paid by Prince Bismarck to the Holy See in referring the Carolines dispute to the mediation of Leo XIII., was anticipated by another great Protes- tant minister in the sixteenth century. Sully, in his Memoirs, treating of the grand political scheme of Henry IV. for a re-constitution of Europe, " reserves to the Pope the honor of serving as mediator between Christian princes, —an office for which it cannot be denied that the Court of Rome is by its wisdom the most suitable of all." Thus, adds M. de Brassier St. Simon, " at an interval of nearly three centuries, the two most eminent statesmen, as it would appear, that u \ 362 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL hi ' 1 :! lUM ',* 1 3 Protestantism has produced, agree in attributing to the Pope the august mission of acting as mediator between Christian princes. This comparison appears to be instructive." We give the text of the Sovereign Pontiff's proposal of arbitration between Germany and Spain : so that it may be seen at a glance how closely the protocol fol- lowed its suggestions, merely amplifying, in a technical and explicit sense, the scheme of his Holiness : — PROPOSAL OF HIS HOLINESS LEO XIII., Mediator in the Question of the Archipelago of the Carolines and the Palaos, pending between Spain and Germany. The discovery made by Spain, in the sixteenth century, of the islands forming the archipelago of the Carolines and the Palaos, and the series of acts accomplished in these same islands by the Spanish Government for the benefit of the natives, have created, in the conviction of the said government and of the nation, a title of sovereignty, founded upon the principles of international law which are quoted and obeyed in our days in similar cases. And, in fact, when we consider the sum of the above-mentioned acts, the authenticity of which is confirmed by various documents in the archives of Propaganda, we cannot mistake the beneficent course of Spain in regard to these islanders. It is, moreover, to be obser\ed that no other government has exercised a like action towards them. This explains what must be kept in mind, — the constant tradition and conviction of the Spanish people in respect to that sovereignty, — a tradition and a conviction which were mani- fested two months ago, with an ardor and an animosity capable of compromising for an instant the internal peace of two friendly governments and their mutual relations. Y. TffE PRESENT PONTIFICAL YEAR. 363 buting to i mediator m appears 's proposal ; so that it rotocol fol- a technical liness : — XIII., Carolines and nnany. century, of the the Palaos, and by the Spanish created, in the .tion, a title of ional law which s. bove-mentioned ious documents the beneficent moreover, to be a like action in mind, — the ;ople in respect ■hich were mani- isity capable of of two friendly On the other hand, Germany, as well as England, declared expressly in 1875 to the Spanish Government, that she did not rec- ognize the sovereignty of Spain over these islands. The Imperial Government holds that it is the effectual occupation of a territory which constitutes the origin of the right of sovereign*^y ever it, and that such occupation has never been realized by Spain in the case of the Carolines. It has acted in conformity with that principle in the Island of Yap ; and in this the mediator is happy to recognize, as the Spanish Government has also done, the loyalty of the Imperial Government. In consequence, and in order that this divergence of views between the two States may be no obstacle to an honoral)le arrangement, the mediator, having weighed all things, proposes that the new arrange- ment should adopt the formulas of the protocol relating to the Archipelago of Jolo, signed at Madrid on the 7th of March last, by the representatives of Great Britain, of Germany, and of Spain ; and that the following points be observed : — 1. Affirmation of the sovereignty of Spain over the Carolines and the Palaos. 2. The Spanish Government, in order to render this sovereignty effectual, undertakes to establish as quickly as possible, in the archi- pelago in question, a regular administration, with a sufficient force to guarantee order and the rights acquired. 3. Spain offers to Germany full and entire liberty of commerce, of navigation, and of fishery within the islands, as also the right of establishing a naval and a coaling station. 4. Spain also assures to Germany the liberty of plantation within the islands, and of the foundation of agricultural establishments upon the same footing as that of undertakings by Spanish subjects. L. CARDINAL JACOBINI, Secretary of State to his Holiness, m 11 3^4 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL PRINCE BISMARCK TO THE POPE. \vt\ I i\< i \'"t. 'r it I ' P • Htl '? ■! Sire, — The gracious letter with which your Holiness has honored me, and the high decoration accompanying it, gave me great pleasure ; and I beg your Holiness to deign to receive the expression of my profound gratitude. Any mark of approbation connected with a work of peace in which it has been given me to co-operate is the more precious to me because of the high satisfaction it causes his Majesty my august master. Your Holiness says in your letter that nothing is more in harmony with the spirit and nature of the Roman Pontificate than the practice of works of peace. That is the very thought by which I was guided in begging your Holiness to accept the noble employment of arbiter in the difference pending between Germany and Spain, and in proposing to the Spanish Government to abide by your Holiness's decision. The con- sideration of tlie fact that the two nations do not stand in the same position towards the Church which venerates in your Holiness her supreme chief, never weakened my firm confidence in the elevation of your Holiness's views, which assured me of the most perfect impartiality of your verdict. The nature of Germany's relations with Spain is such that the peace which reigns between these two coun- tries is not menaced by any permanent divergence of interests, by rancors arising from the past, or by rivalry inherent in their geo- graphic situation. Their habitually good relations could only be troubled by fortuitous causes or misunderstandings. There is, therefore, every reason to hope that your Holiness's pacific action will have lasting effects ; and first among these, I count the grateful recollection the two parties will retain of their august mediator. For my own part, I shall gladly avail myself of every occasion which the fulfilment of my duties towards my master and my country may furnish me to testify to your Holiness my lively gratitude and my very humble devotion. VON BISMARCK. THE PRESEiVT rONTIFICAL YEAR. 365 Among the many decorations resulting from the happy settlement of the Carolines question, was the gift of the decoration of the Order of Christ, sent by the Pope to Senor Canovas del Castello. The same order was conferred upon Bismarck and the German Emperor ; and his Holiness also gave to Prince Bis- marck the ancient Portuguese Order of Christ, which was founded by King Denis of Portugal in 13 17, and adopted by King John XXII. three years later. The decoration, which is only conferred upon the most distinguished and exalted persons, was accompanied by an autograph letter from his Holiness. The Prussian chancellor evidently prized his Papal decorations ; for early in May it was reported from Berlin, that he gave one of his parliamentary dinners to several members of the Prussian Upper Chamber, to which has been presented the new May Law Amendment Act. His guests included Bishop Kopp, who appeared in his robes of office, while the Prince himself wore the star of the Papal Order of Christ. Of the donor of this distinction, th' Chancellor spoke in the most appreciative and flattering terms. Leo XIII., he remarked, was one of the most acute and enlightened statesmen of our time, who had been quick to perceive the advantages accruing to Europe from the existence in its centre, in the present condi- tion of the world, of a conservative and well-ordered state like Germany. lii * ■ 366 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XITT. M ;.!■ » m :<9 I r. ;l And still more recently the chancellor declared in the Prussian Diet, that the time had arrived to abol- ish the penal laws enacted against the Catholics of Germany. He was persuaded that no loss of dignity would result to Emperor William in attempting to meet the wishes of his Catholic subjects. The prime minister also declared his preference to treat directly with the Pope, because he " had found the Pope better disposed toward Germany" than the majority in the Reichstag. Bismarck is finding out lots of things lately, — among other things, that the Catholic Church is pre-eminently conservative, and the best promoter, as well as defender, of law and order; while the German minister of public worship has written to the president of the Prussian House of Commons, to the effect that he had formally notified the Roman Curia of the intention of the Government to abroorate the principal provisions of the May Laws. A reply had been received from the Holy See, through Cardi- nal Jacobini, acknowledging the friendly dispositions of the Government, and promising that measures should immediately be taken to meet the new situa- tion. His Eminence also expressed the great satisfac- tion felt by the Holy See at the near prospect of the re-establishment of religious peace in the German Empire. u. THE CHRISTIAN COXSTITUTION OF STA TES. 367 cclarcd in id to abol- itholics of of dignity ;mpting to The prime eat directly Pope better ority in the s of things loUc Church 5t promoter, ; while the ritten to the Zommons, to the Roman t to abrogate 's. A reply •ough Cardi- dispositions ,at measures ,e new situa- reat satisfac- »spect of the the German CHAPTER XXX. THE ENCYCLICAL CONCERNING THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. IN the acts of this present Pontifical year, may also be included the remarkable encyclical concerning the Christian Constitution of States, the text of which is here given. *' The work of a merciful God, the Church looks essentially, and from the very nature of her being, to the salvation of souls and the winning for them of happiness in heaven : nevertheless, she also secures, even in this world, advantages so many and so great that she could not do more, even if she had been founded primarily and specially to secure prosperity in this life which is worked out upon earth. In truth, wherever the Church has set her foot, she has at once changed the aspect of affairs, colored the manners of the people as with new virtues and a refinement unknown before : as many people as have accepted this have been distinguished for their gentleness, their justice, and the glory of their deeds. But the accu- sation is an old one, and not of recent date, that the Church is incompatible with the welfare of the commonwealth, and incapable of contributing to those things, whether useful or ornamental, which, naturally and of its own will, every rightly constituted state eagerly strives for. We know that on this ground, in the very beginnings of the Church, the Christians, from the same perversity of view, were /'" I; J.I / il'^M 'Jill ;.'■; 'tSsi. •; I ■ 3G8 Z//-J? ^iVZ) LETTERS OF POPE LEO XllL persecuted, and constantly held up to hatred and contempt, so that they were styled the enemies of the empire. And at that time it was generally popular to attribute to Christianity the responsibility for the c\ils beneath which the state was beaten down ; when in reality, God, the avenger of crimes, was requir-ng a just punishment from the guilty. The wickedness of this calumny, not without cause, fired the genius and sharpened the pen of Augustine ; who, especially in his Civitate Dei, set forth so clearly the efficacy of Christian wis- dom, and the way in which it is bound up with the well-being of states, that he seems not only to have pleaded the cause of the Chris- tians of his own time, but to have triumphantly refuted these false charges for all time. But this unhappy inclination to complaints and false accusations was not laid to rest, and many have thought well to seek a system of civil life elsewhere than in the doctrines which the Church approves. And now in these latter times a new law, as they call it, has begun to prevail, which they describe as the outcome of a world now fully developed, and born of a growing liberty. But although many hazardous schemes have been propounded by many, it is clear that never has any better method been found for establish- ing and ruling the state than that which is the natural result of the teaching of the gospel. We deem it, therefore, of the greatest mo- ment, and especially suitable to our apostolic function, to compare with Christian doctrine the new opinions concerning the state ; by which method we trust that, truth being thus presented, the causes of error and doubt will be removed, so that each may easily see, by those supreme commandments for living, what things he ought to follow, and whom he ought to obey. " It is not a very difficult matter to set forth what form and ap- pearance the state should have if Christian philosophy governed the commonwealth. By nature it is implanted in man, that he should live in civil society ; for, since he cannot attain in solitude the neces- sary means of civilized life, it is a Divine provision that he comes into existence adapted for taking part in the union and assembling ri. ;mpt, so that that time it rcsiionsibilily wn ; when in a inmishmcnt without cause, ,vho, especially Christian wis- ; well-being of se of the Chris- ited these false comphaints and thought well to ;trines which the new law, as they the outcome of ing liberty. But puncled by many, ind for establish- iral result of the |the greatest mo- lion, to compare |ng the state ; by nted, the causes Liay easily see, by lings he ought to jiat form and ap- Iphy governed the In, that he should lolitude the neces- 311 that he comes In and assembling TI/E CIIRISTIAX COh'STirUTlON OF STATES, 369 of men, both in the family and in the state, which alone can supply adequate facilities for the perficting of lije. Ikit since no society can hold together unless some person is over all, impelling individuals l)y efficient and similar motives to pursue the common advantage, it is brought about that authority whereby it may be ruled is indispensable to a civilized community ; which authority, as well as society, ran have no other source than nature, and consequently God Himself. And thence it follows, that by its very nature there can be no public power except from God alone. 1' or God alone is the most true and supreme Lord of the world, whom necessarily all things, whatever they be, must be subservient to and obey, so that whoever possess the right of governing can receive that from no other source than from that supreme Chief of all, God. ' There is no power except from GotV (Rom. xiii. i). But the right of ruling is not necessa- rily conjoined with any special form of commonwealth, but may rightly assume this or that form, provided that it promotes utility and the common good. But, whatever be the kind of commor wealth, rulers ought to keep in view God, the Supreme Governor of the world, and to set Him before themselves as an example and a law in the administratioi* of the state. For as God, in things which are and which are seen, has produced secondary causes wherein the Divine nature and course of action can be perceived, and which conduce to that end to which the universal course of the world is directed, so in civil society he has willed that there should be a government which should be carried on by men who should reflect towards mankind an image, as it were, of Divine power and Divine providence. The rule of the government, therefore, should be just, and not that of a master, but rather that of a father ; because the power of God over men is most just, and allied with a father's good- ness. Moreover, it is to be carried on with a view to the advantage of the citizens, because they who are over others are over them for this cause alone, that they may see to the interests of the state. And in no way is it to be allowed, that the civil authority should be sub- lb i|.<5 ti;<« 370 L/FE AKD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. servient merely to the advantage of one or of a few, since it was es- tablishetl for the common good of all. But if they who are over the state should lapse into unjust rule, if they should err through arro- gance or pride, if their measures should be injurious to the people, let them know that hereafter an account must be rendered to God, and that so much the stricter in proportion as they are intrusted with more sacred functions, or have obtained a higher grade of dignity. * The vw^hty shall be mightily tormcntccV (Wis. vi. 7). " Thus truly the majesty of rule will be attended with an honor- able and willing regard on the part of the citizens ; for when once they have been brought to conclude that they who rule are strong only with the authority given by God, they will feel that those duties are due and just, that they should be obedient to their rulers, and pay to them respect and fidelity, with somewhat of the same affec- tion as that of children to their parents. ^ Let every soul be subject to higher powers^ (Rom. xiii. t). " Indeed, to contemn lawful authority, in whatever person it is vested, is as unlawful as it is to resist the Divine will ; and whoever resists that, rushes voluntarily to his destruction. *// :S ■ ' , : li \i ^|ii ! ^Vi' 388 Z//-^ .4A09 LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. ceming those things which are called recently acquired liberties, is it proper to stand by the judgment of the Apostolic See, and for each one to hold what she herself holds. " Take care lest some one be deceived by the honest outward appearance of these things ; and think of the beginnings from which they are sprung ; and by what desires they are sustained and fed in divers places. It is now sufficiently known by experience, of what things they are the causes in the state ; how indiscriminately they bring forth fniit of which good men and wise rightly do repent. If there should be in any place a state, either actual or hypothetical, that wantonly and tyrannically wages war upon the Christian name, and it have conferred upon it that character of which we have spoken, it is possible that this may be considered more tolerable ; yet the principles upon which it rests are absolutely such, that of themselves they ought to be approved by no man. " Now, action may be taken in private and domestic affairs, or in affairs public. In private life, indeed, the first duty is to conform one's life and manners to the precepts of the Gospel, and not to refuse if Christian virtues demand something more difficult to bear than usual. Individuals, also, are bound to love the Church as their common mother ; to keep her laws obediently ; to give her the service of due honor, and to wish her rights respected, and to endeavor that she be fostered and beloved with like piety by those over whom they may exercise authority. It is also of great impor- tance to the public welfare diligently and wisely to give attention to the duties of citizenship ; in this regard, most particularly, with that concern which is righteous amongst Christians, to take pains and pass effective measures so that public provision be made for the instruction of youth in religion and true morality, for upon these things depends very much the welfare of every state. Besides, in general, it is useful and honorable to stretch the attention of Catholic men beyond this narrower field, and to embrace every branch of public administration. Generally, we say, because these ; I ; THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 389 our precepts reach unto all nations. But it may happen in some particular place, for the most urgent and just reasons, that it is by no means expedient to engage in public affairs, or to take an active part in political functions. But generally, as we have said, to wish to take no part in public affairs would be in that degree vicious in which it brought to the common weal neither care nor work ; and on this account the more so, because Catholic men are bound by the admonitions of the doctrine which they profess, to do what has to be done with integrity and with faith. If, on the contrary, they were idle, those whose opinions do not, in truth, give any great hope of safety, would easily get possession of the reins of government. This, also, would be attended with danger to the Christian name, because they would become most powerful who are badly disposed towards the Church, and those least powerful who are well disposed. Wherefore, it is evident there is just cause for Catholics to undertake the conduct of public affairs ; for they do not assume these responsibilities in order to approve of what is not lawful in the methods of government at this time ; but in order that they may turn these very methods, as far as may be, to the unmixed and true public good, holding this purpose in their minds, to infuse into all the veins of the commonwealth the wisdom and virtue of the Catholic religion, — the most healthy sap and blood, as it were. It was scarcely done otherwise in the first ages of the Church. For the manners and desires of the heathen were divergent as widely as possible from the manners and desires of the Gospel ; for the Christians had to separate themselves incorrupt in the midst of superstition, and, always true to themselves, most cheer- fully to enter every walk in life which was open to them. Models of fidelity to their princes, obedient, where lawful, to the sovereign power, they established a wonderful splendor of holiness everywhere ; they sought the advantage of their neighbor, and to all others, to the wisdom of Christ ; bravely prepared to retire from public life, and even to die if they could not retain honors, nor the magistracy, M vm Si i 11 11 :* 11: If i ii .< ;f'j II. i Iff ;H- I I , ■ I 390 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL nor the supreme command, with unsullied virtue. For which reason Christian customs soon found their way, not only into private houses, but into the camps, into the senate, even into the imperial palace. 'We are of yesterday, and we fill your every thing, cities, islands, castles, municipalities, councils, the very camps, the rank and file of the army, the officcrships, the palace, the senate, the forum ' (^Tertidlian, ApoL, n. 37), so that the Christian faith, when it was unlawful publicly to profess the Gospel, was not like a child crying in his cradle, but grown up, and already sufficiently firm, was manifest •in a great part of the state. " Now, indeed, in these days it is as well to renew these examples of our forefathers. For Catholics, indeed, as many as are worthy of the name, before all things it is necessary to bo, and to be willing to be, regarded as most loving sons of the Church ; whatsoever is inconsistent with this good report, without hesitation to reject ; to use popular institutions as far as honestly can be to the advantage of truth and justice ; to labor that liberty of action shall not transgress the bounds ordained by the law of nature and of God ; so to work that the whole of public life shall be transformed into that, as we have called it, a Christian image and likeness. The means to seek these ends can scarcely be laid down upon one uniform plan, since they must suit places and times very different from each other. Nevertheless, in the first place, let concord of wills be presen-ed, and a likeness of things to be done sought for. And each will be attained the best, if all shall consider the admoni- tions of the Apostolic See a law of conduct, and shall obey the bishops whom ' the Spirit of God has phtced to rule the Church of God' (Acts XX. 28). The defence of the Catholic name, indeed, of necessity demands that in the profession of doctrines which are handed down by the Church the opinion of all shall be one, and the most perfect constancy ; and from this point of view take care tiiat no one connives in any degree at fahic opinions, or resists v i'.h greater gentleness than truth will allow. Cor>'enii!ig those things ! ( THE CHRISTIAN COXSTITUTION OF STATES. 391 hich reason ^ate houses, irial palace, ties, islands, ink and file the forum ' when it was child crying was manifest ese examples ire worthy of to be willing whatsoever is to reject ; to :he advantage on shall not and of God ; sformed into likeness. The vn upon one very different ;t concord of lie sought for. Ir the admoni- Ihall obey the \he Church of Lime, indeed, Ines which are be one, and •iew take care lor resists v /.h those things which arc matters of opinion, it will be lawful, with moderation and with a (k'sire of investigating the truth, without injurious suspicions and mutual incriminations. For which purpose, lest the agreement of minds l)e broken by temerity of accusation, let all understand : that the integrity of the Catholic profession can by no means be reconciled with opinions approaching towards naturalism or ration- alism, of which the sum total is to uproot Christian institutions altogether, and to establish the supremacy of man. Almighty Clod being pushed to one side. Likewise, it is unlawful to follow one line of duty in private and another in public, so that the authority of the Church shall be observed in private, and spurned in public. For this would be to join together things honest and disgraceful, and to make a man fight a battle with himself, when, on the contrary, he ought always to be consistent with himself, and never, in any the least thing or manner of living, decline from Christian virtue. But if inquiry is made about principles, merely political, concerning the best form of government, of civil regulations of one kind or another, concerning these things, of course, there is room for disagreement without harm. Those whose piety, therefore, is known on other accounts, and w^hose minds are ready to accept the decrees of the Apostolic See, justice will not allow accounted evil because they differ on these subjects ; and much greater is the injury if they are charged with the crime of having violated the Catholic faith, or are suspected, a thing we deplore done not once only. And let all hold this precept absolutely, who are wont to commit their thoughts to writing, especially the editors of news- papers. In this contention about the highest things, nothing is to be left to intestine conflicts, or the greed of parties ; but let all, uniting together, seek the common object of all, to preser^■e religion and the State. " If, therefore, there have been dissensions, it is right to obliterate them in a certain voluntary forgetfulness ; if there has been any thing rash, any < ,; ig injurious, to whomsoever this fault belongs, let 4 I'ifi 392 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO X//r. \H. w \\U\ I i ! compensation be made by mutual charity, and especially in obedi- ence to the Apostolic See. In this way Catholics will obtain two things most excellent : one, that they will make themselves helps to the Church in preserving and propagating Christian knowledge ; the other, that they will benefit civil society, of which the safety is gravely compromised by reason of evil doctrines and inordinate desires. "These things, therefore, venerable brethren, concerning the Christian constitution cf states and the duties of individual citizens, we have dwelt upon ; we shall transmit them to all the nations of the Catholic world. " But it behooves us to implore, with most earnest prayers, the heavenly protection, and to beg of Almighty God these things which we desire and strive after for his glory and the salvation of the human race, whose alone it is to illumine the minds and to quicken the wills of men, and himself to lead on to the wished-for end. As a pledge of the Divine favors, and in witness of our paternal benevo- lence to you, venerable brethren, to the clergy, and to all the people committed to your faith and vigilance, we lovingly bestow in the Lord the apostolic benediction." //. illy in obedi- 11 obtain two :lves helps to owledge; the the safety is lul inordinate mcerning the idual citizens, the nations of 5t prayers, the e things which Ivation of the ,nd to quicken d-for end. As atemal benevo- all the people bestow in the 'i,^'m&::'. CARDINAL GIBBONS CARDINAL GIBBONS. 393 CHAPTER XXXI. CARDINAL GIBBONS. ONE of the most notable acts of the present year of Pope Leo's Pontificate was his appointment to the Sacred College of two American prelates, Most Rev. James Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore, and Most Rev. E. A. Taschereau, Archbishop of Quebec. Archbishop Gibbons was born in Baltimore in 1836. When quite a child, his parents returned to their native land, Ireland, the future cardinal with them. At the age of seventeen, however, we find young Gibbons again in America, this time in New Orleans, where we believe his mother still resides, and where for a short while he was a clerk in a mercantile house. Shortly afterwards he entered St. Charles's College, Ellicott City, to fit himself for the seminary, and re- mained there four years, distinguishing himself in his classical studies, and afterwards going to the Sulpician Seminary of St. Mary, Baltimore, where, after finish- ing his theological course, he was ordained to the priesthood, in i860, by the late Archbishop Spalding of Baltimore. His first missionary labors were per- li i ; - iJ ;: I '1 ii J 1 1 ; i i'i i 1 ii 394 /./r/i AND lETTEh'.'i OF POPF. f.FO X//f. formed at St. Bridget's Church, I^altiinore ; but it was not long before tlie keen-sighted Dr. Spalding saw in the young Father James Gibbons a clergyman of great capabilities. His transfer to tht; Cathedral soon followed; antl there his rise was rapid, though no more so than his piety and abilities warranted. In i868 he was consecrated bishop of Adramyttium, in partibus, and nominated vicar apostolic of North Carolina, where he ruled until his translation to the see of Richmond, made vacant by the ('cath, in 1872, of Bishop McGill. Episcopal life in North Carolina was then, anil still remains, the hardest of missionary labors ; and Cardinal Gibbons frequently relates with evident pleasure his experiences among the scattered Catholics of the Tar-heel State, when he spent night after night in the rude log cabins that still abound in the pine woods, and shared the homely hominy and bacon that constitute the usual fare of the natives. After four years of arduous toil in North Carolina, Bishop Gibbons, as above related, was transferred to Richmond, where he remained for five years, when, on the death of Archbishop Bayley of Baltimore, he was transferred to that see. While bishop of Rich- mond, he was the defendant in a suit relatinsf to some Church property. When he was called to the witness- stand, the plaintiff's lawyer, a distinguished legal luminary, who still shines in Richmond, after vain endeavors to involve the witness in contradictions, CARDIXAf. G/nPOXS. II. but it was int: saw in rgyman ol icdral soon A\ no more In 1868 he In partibus, \\ Carolina, the see of in 1872, of Carolina was ■ missionary relates with the scattered spent night 11 abound in hominy and the natives, th Carolina, Iransferred to years, when, laltimore, he ',op of Rich- itinc: to some the witness- Lished legal Id, after vain lontradictions, 395 stnick on a plan which he thought would annf)y the bishop. He thereupon (lucstioncd Dr. Gibbons's right to the title of Bishop of Richmond, and called on him to prove his claim to the office. Tlie dcfemlanl's lawyer, of course, objected to this as irrelevant; but the bishop, with a (piiet smile, said he would com[)ly with the request if allowed a half-hour to produce the necessary papers. This was allowed. The bishop left the court-room, and returned in twenty minutes wiUi a document which he proceeded to read with great solemnity, all the more soU-mn as the i)aper was all in Latin. The plaintiff's lawyer pretended to take not(;s industriously, bowing his head once in a while as if in acquiescence, and seeming perfectly convinced at the end. When the reading was finished, he announced that the Papal bulls just read were entirely satisfactory, at the same time apologizing for his expressed doubts. The next day it leaked out that the l.)ishop, unable to find the Papal bulls at his residence, had brought to court and read a Latin essay on Pope Leo the Great, written by one of the ecclesiastical students, and for- warded by the president of the college as a specimen of the young man's skill in Latin composition. That smart lawyer has not heard the last of it }"et. Of Archbishop Gibbons's labors in Baltimore, it is un- necessary to speak here, as those have been of such recent occurrence that they are well known. The able and dignified manner in which as Papal legate he pre- 14 mi' m^ I mM 396 L/FE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL sided over the late plenary council was fully detailed in the newspapers of the time the council was held ; and without doubt he owes in no small measure to that the fact that he has been selected to succeed the late Cardinal McCloskey as a member of the Sacred College. The archbishop is the author of " The Faith of Our Fathers," a volume which has had the largest sale of any Catholic work printed in this country, more than a hundred thousand copies having already been disposed of, while the demand for it is still un- abated. The new cardinal makes no pretensions to pulpit oratory, but is, nevertheless, the possessor of a very fluent and forcible style, and his sermons rarely fail to reach and touch the hearts of his hearers. He is a singularly modest and unassuming prelate, and has a peculiar faculty of making friends of all who are brought in contact with him. During the visit of the American prelates to Rome a few years ago, Pope Leo conceived a great liking for the young archbishop of Baltimore, and testified the high esteem in which he held him by presenting him with a handsome oil painting of himself, which he discovered Arch- bishop Gibbons admiring in one of the halls of the Vatican. As the ceremony of investing a cardinal with the robes of his office has already been told in these pages, no further description is given here. The ceremonies attendant on the investiture of Cardinals XIII. ally detailed ;il was held ; measure to ) succeed the f the Sacred ■ " The Faith d the largest this country, iving already it is still un- iretensions to possessor of ermons rarely hearers. He r prelate, and of all who are le visit of the ars ago, Pope ng archbishop ;eem in which a handsome covered Arch- ie halls of the -jyj^p-; =-«ji;>v oj^ CARDINAL TASCHEREAU . dinal with the told in thfise n here. The re of Cardinals f ■ i h- ■■ i. J i; ;.< I'-Jtiwat '■; >i li. lA CARDINAL GIBBONS. 397 Gibbons and Taschereau, however, it may be men- tioned, were on a scale of great magnificence. Cardinal Gibbons, early in May of this year, re- ceived the following address from the Australian prelates, who met in council last year at Sydney, and of whose action in congratulating the American hier- archy mention has been already made. Say the Fathers of the Sydney Council : — "'A full century has not yet elapsed since its first bishop, Dr. Carroll, was commissioned by the Holy See to take charge of the infant church of America. In this very year we celebrate the semi- centenary of the first arrival of a vicar apostolic on our shores, John Bede Paulding, in 1835. You will rejoice to learn that our plenary council, in the labors of which we are now engaged, requests the Holy See to enrich our Church with three new metropolitan sees, with six new suffragan sees, with four additional bishops, some vicars- apostolic for the native races, and with a national seminary, which will be a ir>;ins of developing the manifest vocations of our native youth. The cardinal archbishop, one procurator of a metropolitan see, fifteen bishops, one vicar apostolic, with fifty-two of our clergy, constitute our first national synod.' In last November the church in Australia assembled in council at St. Mary's Cathedral in Sydney, New South Wales, under the presidency of the apostolic delegate. Cardinal Moran. The council was attended by sixteen bishops, sev- eral priests, both religious and secular, representing a prosperous and well-organized Catholic population that are in future to be governed by the more defined canonical laws of older Catholic countries, the bishops deeming ihe missionary days of the country at an end. " Less than a ce/tury agoj the light of Christian civilization had not as yet arisen over this southern land : the savage native tribes >J' If % 398 LIFE AxVD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL m \ Hi 'I i it roamed unchecked over its vast plains, sunk in the depths of bar- barism and idolatry. Even when missionary intrepidity penetrated those almost unknown lands, the persecuting tendencies of England drove them away. But benign Providence employed other ajrencies to plant His Church in this great land. . Three priests, who were branded as rebels in Ireland, were sent as exiles to this country, and they it was who planted the seed that has grown a hundred-fold. The men and priests whom England designated rebels to her were patriots in Ireland ; and it was because of their love of religion and fiitherland that England exiled them, little knowing they would be- come the pioneers of a new race and a glorious country that in time would discard England's religion, and no doubt, at no distant day, her authority also. From the address of Cardinal Moran at the close of the council, we learn the following facts : — "As late as the year 1817, the first priest who was permitted by Government to come as a missionary to these shores no sooner landed here than he was cast into prison through the bigotry of the uncon- trolled local authorities, and compelled to quit the country in the first ship that set sail. It is but fifty years since, on the memorable feast of the exaltation of the holy cross in 1S35, ^"^^ fi^'^*^ vicar apostolic landed at Port Lincoln. He found two priests ministering to the faithfiil in Van Dieman's Land ; and in the whole Australian Continent, there were but three other priests. One of these was the Rev. John Joseph Therry, who may justly be styled the pioneer of the faith, and the true apostle of the cross in all these Southern lands. Another of these priests was the present venerable bishop of Birmingham, Dr. Ullathorne, whom we all revere as a living link of the present with the past, and who will rejoice more than any other to-day that die little seed that was sown amid unparalleled sorrows and humiliations, and over which he watched with .uich anxious care, has, through the blessings of Heav ^n, grown with stately growth, and stretched forth its branches throughout the length and breadth of this fair continent. Slow was the growth of the sacred bi ii I ///. CARDINAL GIBBONS. 399 depths of bar- lity penetrated ies of England other af^encies iests, who were lis country, and L hundred- fold. ;ls to her were of religion and they would be- try that in time no distant day, aran at the close as permitted by no sooner landed ■y of the uncon- ; country in the the memorable the first vicar iests ministering Iwhole Australian of these was the 1 the pioneer of |l these Southern enerable bishop as a living link more than any |nid unparalleled ched with .uich jrown with stately the length and 1th of the sacred tree of holy faith. Many, perhaps, who are listening to my words, remember well the time when there were fewer priests throughout all Australia than there are at present bishops assembled within the sanctuary. Some of these illustrious prelates are themselves the first bishops who have laid deep the foundations, and nobly l)uilt up, the Church in their respective sees. When the Very Rev. Dr. Fitzpatrick, the present vicar-gencral of Melbourne, entered on his missionary duties there, he had to land from a little boat at Sandridge, and walk three miles before he could meet a huiV.an habitation. There was then only one small wooden church in all that district. What a contrast that presents to the grand cathedral that now adorns the city of Melbourne, — a noble monument to religion, of which any city in Christendom might be proud, and erected mainly by the untiring exertions of the venerable ecclesiastic to whom I have referred ! About forty years ago, some religious men were appointed to the spiritual charge of the Moreton Bay territory, which included the then village of Brisbane. But they could find no means of subsistence there, and were compelled to sail back along the coast in a little boat to Sydney. Even twenty-five years ago, the first bishop, coming to his see, though standing on the spot now crowned by the magnificent cathedral, could ask, ' Where is the town of Brisbane ? ' It is but twenty years since the boundaries of the sees of Bathurst and Maitland were marked out ; and yet they already have so grown as to yield to few missionary dioceses, as well in their organization as in the number of their schools and churches, and various institutions of charity and religion. When, fifty years ago, his lordship of Dunedin took possession of that newly erected see, there was absolutely nothing there, — one church, school and pres- bytery, no institutions of any kind, no sacred vestments, not even an altar-stone on which to offer up the holy sacrifice. Its beautifiil con- vents, flourishing schools, numerous presbyteries and churches, and fine cathedral, just completed, and all quite free of debt, attest what piogress has been made. ■ ti * ? ' 400 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIIL " Notwithstanding those almost insurmountable difficulties, which the pioneers of Catholicity had to contend against, to-day churches, schools, hospitals, asylums, colleges, everywhere abound, and the dif- ficulties of missionary days are fast disappearing. The subjects under discussion in this, the first plenary council of Australia, were similar to those treated in the late council of Baltimore, and show that the Church has religiously outgrown her missionary state. The higher education of the clergy and the establishment of a national univer- sity, the establishment of new diocesan seminaries and the founding of an Australian college in Rome, were subjects of discussion favora- bly considered. An extra impetus is to be given to missionary work among the natives." xin. ifficulties, which o-day churches, nd, and the dif- e subjects under lia, were similar d show that the te. The higher national univer- tid the founding iscussion favora- missionary work CARDINAL MOxRAN I P \m !. Is' lit i laffi tij [ I 1 m riv p/niM' ■ : l> if' i i f ' im i'. 'Lti M m ' >,'■■': ,, ', £ iv ■ 'S .m »■,:■« : M ^'M- 1 1 11 hC'^ 1 LEO THE GREAT. 401 CHAPTER XXXII. LEO THE GREAT. THERE remains very little more to be said. It might be mentioned, that the Holy Father is showing great affection towards the Jesuits, one of whom, and an American citizen at that, his Eminence Camillus Cardinal Mazella, he recently made a member of the Sacred College, while in the brief Dolemus inter alea he has given the Order a new pledge of his esteem, because in it he refers to the evils which have come upon the religious orders ; and, to manifest his regard for the Jesuits, he confirms by his brief the letters given by the Roman Pontiffs from Paul III. to our own times. He confirms anew all that is con- tained in such letters of favors and privileges, and all that follows them in the way of indults, immunities, and exceptions, and in various other manners shows his affection for the devoted followers of St. Ignatius. Mention might also be made of the grand and elabo- rate preparations which are being made, not only in Rome, but all over the Christian world, to celebrate the approaching fiftieth anniversary of the entry into 1 ! .! I i ■ *i i I V'\' 402 L/F£ AXD LETTERS OF POPE LEO XI/I. the priesthood of the Holy Father. Reference might be made to the remarkable and varied talents his Holi- ness has shown since he ascended the Pontifical throne, proving himself as graceful a poet almost as he is skilful as a diplomatist; but the limits of this volume will not allow the admission of much more matter, and the author prefers to close this sketch of Leo XIII. by directing attention to the great work he has accom- plished in the years of his Pontificate, by smoothing over so many of the difficulties that hitherto existed between the nations of the earth and the Holy See, in reconciling which powers the Holy Father has shown himself possessed of marvellous tact, which, without yielding one inch of the prerogatives of the Papacy, has known how to conciliate enemies and win friends where a less skilful ruler would have failed. The Church has every reason to be proud of its present Pontiff, who is not ineptly styled Leo the Great ; for though it has not fallen to his lot, during the few years of his Pontificate, to decree, like his saintly predecessor, any new dogma of faith, or to preside over an ecumenical council, like the unfinished one of the Vatican, which he may yet re-assemble, he has achieved many brilliant successes ; he has glorified the Papal chair ; and he has prepared, as far as in him lies, the Church to meet that subtler and more dan- gerous foe which she has to encounter in these mod- ern days, that false science which makes the perverted m-m II. :ncc might ;s his Moli- kal throne, ;t as he is this volume matter, and eo XUI. by has accom- r smoothing erto existed e Holy See, Father has tact, which, itives of the lies and win y^e failed, proud of its ed Leo the s lot, during ;ree, like his faith, or to le unfinished assemble, he has glorified ar as in him d more dan- these mod- le perverted LEO THE GREAT. 403 mind and will to revolt against the teachings of the true Church and the unchangeable doctrines of the Catholic religion. One need not wait for the coming golden jubilee of his Holiness' ordination, therefore, to hear his praises sounded and his name glorified. All over the Christian world, in both hemispheres, wher- ever the Catholic faith is known and tauofht — and few are the places on the world where it is not known and taught — Leo XIIL is hailed as the worthy successor of the sainted Pius IX., and proclaimed one of the greatest Pontiffs who ever occupied the Papal throne, while daily fervent prayers are offered up in his behalf, that his years may be many upon earth, and that the Church may long profit by his prudence, his piety, and his great abilities. A more feeling ending to these pages cannot be found than the reproduction here of the following tribute to Leo XIIL from the pastoral letter of the Fathers of the last Baltimore Council. " While enduring with the heroism of a martyr the trials which beset him, and trustfully awaiting the Almighty's day of deliverance, the energy and wisdom of Leo XIIL are felt to the ends of the earth. He is carrying on with the governments of Europe the negotiations which promise soon to bring peace to the Church. In the East he is preparing the way for the return to Catholic unity of the millions whom the Greek schism has so long deprived of communion with the See of Peter; and is following the progress of exploration in lands hitherto unknown or inaccessible, with corresponding advances 404 LIFE AND LETTERS OF POPE LEO XIII. )«( I f ! * D). I 1 of Catholic missions. To the whole world his voice has again and again been lifted up in counsels of eloquence and wisdom, pointing out the path to the acquisition of truth in the important domain of philosophy and history ; the best means for the improvement of hu- man life in all its phases, individual, domestic, and social ; the ways in which the children of God should walk, — ' that all flesh may see the salvation of God.' " Pope Leo XIII. ;■■■ I : i: \l:\v ))V l*:^i UI, las again and dom, pointing nt domain of /ement of hu- cial ; the ways , flesh may see APPENDIX: CONTAINING V\h TABLES OF USEFUL, INSTRUCTIVE, AND ENTERTAINING INFORMATION; ALSO A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CATHOLIC WORDS, PHRASES, ETC. » r 'Uii APPENDIX. ECCLESIASTICAL REFERENCE TABLE. Cardinals Archbishops Bishops Priests Ecclesiastical Students . . . . Churches Chapels and Stations Seminaries and Houses of Study , Colleges ■ . Academies Parochial Schools Pupils in Parochial Schools Charitable Institutions . . . . Catholic Population, census iS8o United States. Canada. I I 12 4 62 29 7.301 2,230 1,621 - 6,756 I.S94 2,809 375 37 17 86 49 618 lOI 2,623 3.525 492,970 - 450 Ill 1 2,000,000 2,185,082 h ' GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CATHOLIC POPULATION OF THE WORLD. Area Sq. Miles. Population, Europe ... Asia Africa America Australia and Polynesia Polar Regions .... 3,700,000 18,250,000 1 2,000,000 1 5,600,000 S.595.534 2,298,175 S7.S43.709 328,000,000 796,000,000 206,000,000 102,000,000 4,300,000 850,000 1,437,150,000 catholics. IS3.837.s3s 9,234,000 2,656,000 SI.033,790 672,000 :17.433.32s " : 1 407 'm i: m' i '■ I ^i ! ) ■, :i . I I 408 APPENDIX. LIST OF POPES OF THE ROUAN-C/THOUC CHURCH. The rise of the Pontificate of Rome as a temporal power dates from the year 755, when Pepin, King of the Franks, granted to Pope Stefano III. the exarch- ate of Ravenna, to which Charlemagne added the provinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser Heinrich III., in 1053, increased these possessions of the Head of the Church by the city of Benevento, with the surrounding territory ; and not long after, in 1102, the Marchioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the provinces known as the " Patrimony of St. Peter." In 1297 Forli and the rest of the Romagna, and in 1364 IJologna, became portions of the Papal dominions; and, toward the end of the fourteenth century, the Pontiff acquired full jurisdiction over Rome and Sabina. From the acces-ion of Stefano III., first temporal sovereign, and 95th in the official list of Pontiffs, to Leo XIII., the 25Sth in the list, there were one hundred and sixty-four Popes, as follows: — Year Year Name of Pontiff. Nationality. OF Elec- tion. 1 Name of Pontiff. Nationality. OF Elec- tion. Stefano III Italian . . . 752 Stefano Vni Italian . . . 938 P.iolo 1. . . Italian . 757 Giovanni XI Italian . 93t Stefano IV. . Italian. 768 UoVII Italian . 936 Adriano T. . Italian . 772 Stefano IX German 939 Leo III. . . Italian . 795 Martino II Italian . 943 Stefano V. . Italian . 816 Agapito II Italian . 946 Pasquale . . Italian. 8.7 Giovanni XII. . . . Itali.an . 956 Eugenio II. . Italian • 824 Benedetto V Italian . 964 Valentino Italian . 827 Giovanni XIII. . . . Italian . 965 Gregorio IV. Italian . 827 Benedetto VI Italian . 972 Sergius II. . Italian . 844 Donato II Italian . 974 Leo IV. . . Italian. 847 Benedetto VII. . . . Italian . 975 Benedetto III. It.alian . 856 Giovanni XIV. . . . Italian . 983 Nicola I. . . Italian . 858 Giovanni XV Italian . 995 Adriano 11. . Italian . 867 Gregorio V German 996 Giovanni VIII. Italian . 872 Silvestro II French 999 Martino I. . Italian . 8S2 Giovanni XVI. . . . Italian . 1003 Adriano Til. Italian . 884 Giov.inni XVII. . . . It.->lian . 1003 St<;fano VI. . Italian . 885 Sergius IV Italian . 1009 Forniosus Italian. 891 Benedetto VIII. . . . Italian . 1012 Stefano VH. Italian . 896 Giovanni XVIII.. . . Italian . 1024 Romano . . Italian. 897 Benedetto IX Italian . «o33 Teodoro 11 . Itali.'in . 897 Gregorio VI Italian . 1044 Giovanni IX. Italian . 898 Clemcnte II German 1046 Benedetto IV. Italian . 900 Damaso II German 1048 LeoV. . . Italian . 903 Leo VIII German 1049 Cristofo . . Italian ■ 903 Vittorell German 1055 Sergius III. . Italian . 904 Stefano X German 1056 Anastasio III, Italian . 911 Nxola n French 1058 Lando . . . Italian . 913 Alessandro II Italian . io6t Giovanni X . It.alian. 913 Gregorio VII Italian . 1073 Leo VI. . . Italian . 928 Vittore III Italian . 1086 APPENDIX. 409 ;s from the year I III. the exarch- of renigia and ions of the Head irritory ; and not ijueathed to the ," In 1297 Forli ions of the Papal Tontiff acquired 1 of Stcfano III., to Leo XIII., the as follows : — Namb of Pontiff. Nationality. Year , OF Ei.Ec-: TION. ' Name of Pontiff. Nationality. Year OF Elec. tion. 1 If EAR OF I Nationality, j Elec- noN. 1 Italian . . • 938 1 Italian . • • 93t ^ Italian . . • 936 IIk'.* German . . 939 P Italian . • • 943 Italian . . • 946 Italian . . • 956 Italian • • • 964 Italian . . • 965 Italian . • ■ 972 Itali.m . . • 974 Italian . • • 97S Itali.tn . . • 983 Italian . . • 995 German . . 996 French . . 999 Italian . . • 1003 Italian. • • 1003 Italian . . • 1009 Italian . . ■ lOU Italian . . • 1034 Italian . . ■ «o33 It.ilian . . . 1044 German . . 1046 German . • 1048 German . • 1049 German . ■ 1053 Germ.an . 1056 French . 1058 Itali.an . . 1061 Italinn . • 1073 Italian . . J 1086 TJrb.inoII. . . . French Pasquale 11. . . Ilali.vi . . Gelasius II. . . . Italian . . CallistoII. . . . French Onorato II. . . . Italian . - Innocente II. . . Italian. . Celestino II. . . Italian . . Lucio n Italian. . EugenioIII. . . Italian . . Anastasio IV. . . Italian . . Adriano IV. . . English . Alessandro III. Italian. . Lucio III. . . Italian . . UrbanoIII.. . . Italian. . Gregorio VIII. Italian. . Clemente III. . Italian . . Celestino III. . Italian . . Innocente III. . Italian . . Onorata III. . Italian . . Gregorio IX. . Italian . . Celestino IV. . Italian. . Innocente IV. . Italian . . Alessandro IV. Italian . . Urbano IV. . . French Clemente IV. . French . Gregorio X. . . Italian . . Innocente V. . French Adriano V. . . Italian . . Giovanni XIX. Portuguese Nicola III. . . Italian . . Martino IV. Italian . . Onorato IV. . Italian . . Nicola IV. . . Italian . . Celestino V. . . Italian. . Bonifacio VIII. I Lilian. . Benedetto X. . Italian . . Clemente V. French Giovanni XX. . French . Benedetto XI. . French Clemente VI. . F'rench Innocente VI. . French Urbano V. . . French . Gregorio XI. . French Urbano VI. . . Italian . . Bonifacio IX. . Italian . . Innocente VII. Italian. . Gregorio XII. . Italian. . Alessandro V. . 1 Greek . . Giovanni XXI. ' Italian . • Martino V. . . ! Italian . . logg ; 1118 I 1 1 19 1 1 1 24 1130 "43 H44 1145 "53 "54 "59 I181 I185 1187 1187 I191 1 198 1216 1227 1241 1243 1254 1261 12C5 1271 1276 1276 1276 1277 1281 12S5 1292 1294 1294 •303 •305 1316 1334 •342 «352 1362 1370 1378 •389 1404 1406 1409 1410 1417 Eugenio IV. . Nicola V. . . Callisto III. . PioII. . , . Paolo II. . . Sisto IV. . . Innocente VIII. Alessandro VI. PioIII. . . . Giulio IT. . . LcoX. . . . Adriano VI. . Clemente VII. P:.oloIII. . . Giulio III. . . Marcello II. . P.aoloIV. . . PioIV. . . . PioV. . . . Gregorio XIII. Sisto V. . . . Urbano VII. . Gregorio XIV. Innocente IX. Clemente VIII. Eeo XI. . . . Paolo V. . . Gregorio XV. . Urbano VIII. . Innocente X. . Alessandro VII. Clemente IX. . Clemente X. . Innocente XI. . Alessandro VI II Innocente XII. Clemente XI. . Innocerte XIII. Benedetto XIII. Clemente XII. Benedetto XIV. Clemente XIII. Clemente XIV. PioVI. . . . PioVII.. . . Leo XII. . . PioVIII. . . Gregorio XVI. Pioix. . . . UoXlII. . . Italian . . 143' Italian . . •447 Spaniard . 1455 It.alian . . • 458 Italian . . 1464 Italian . . •471 Italian . . 1484 Spaniard . 1492 Italian . •503 Italian . . 1503 Italian . •513 Dutch . • 532 Italian . . •523 Italian . •5?4 Italian . '550 Italian . •555 Italian . •555 Italian . •559 Italian . 1566 Italian . •572 Italian. •585 Italian . 1590 Italian . 1590 Italian . 1 59 1 Italian . 1592 Italian . 1605 Italian. 1605 Italian . 1621 Italian . 1623 Italian . 1644 Italian . 1635 Italian . 1667 Italian . 1670 Italian .676 Italian . 1689 Italian . 1691 Italian 1700 Italian . 1721 Italian . 1724 Italian . 1730 Italian . 1740 It.alian . 1758 It.alian . 1769 Italian . •775 Italian . 1800 Ilali.-tn . 18=3 Italian . 1829 Italian . iSjt Italian . 1846 Italian . • 878 ,1 f |!'; * Mr., ill ^'^ > 4IO APPENDIX. LIST OF POPES FROM THE TIME OF ST. PETER TO STEFANO III. I r h'.i , I , r? ;:' \m V\:m m St. Peter, 42-67 or 68. St. Linus (2 Tim. iv. 21). St. Anenclitus, or Cletus. St. Clement, 92-101. St. Evaristus. St. Alexander, until rig. St. Xystus (Sixtus), mitil 127. .St. Tclesphorus, 127-139. St. Hyginus, 139-142. St. Pius. 142-157. St. Anicctus, 157-168. St. Soter, 16S-177. St. Eluiherius, 177-192. St. Victor, 192-202. St. Zephyrinus, 202-219. St. Callistus, 219-223. St. Urbanus, 223-230. St. Pontianus, 230-235. St. Antherus, 235-236. St. Fabianus, 236-250. St. Cornelius, 251-252. St. Lucius, 253. St. Stephen I., 253-257. St. Xystus n. (Sixtus), 257-258. St. Dionysius, 259-269. St. Felix L, 269-274. St. Eutychianus, 274-2S3. St. Caius, 2S3-296. St. Marcel linus, until 304. St. Marccllus, 30S-310. St. Eusebius, 310. St. Melchiades, 311-314. St. Sylvester L, 314-315. St. ^[arcus, 336. St. Julius L, 337-352. Liberius, 352-366. (Felix IL, 355, Anti-PoiK-). St. Damasus, 366-3S4. St. Siricius, 385-398. St. Aiiastasius, 402. St. Innocent L, 402-417. St. Zosimus, 417-41S. St. lioniface, 418-422. St. Ca'lestine, 422-432. St. Sixtus IIL, 432-440. St. Leo L, the Great, 440-461. St. liilarius, 461-467. St. Simplicius, 467-483. St. Felix III., 483-492. St. Cialasius I., 492-496. St. Anastasius, 496-497. St. Symmachus, 498-514. (Lawrence, Anti-Pope.) St. Hormisdas, 514-523. St. John I., 523-526. St. Felix IV., 526-530. St. Ponifacc II., 530-532. St. John II., 532-535. St. Agapetus, 535-536. St. Silverius, 536-540. Vigilius (537), 540-555. IVIagius I., 555-560. John III., 560-573. Benedict I., 574-578. Pelagius II., 578-590. St. Gregory I., the Great, 590-604. Sabinian, 604-605. Doniface III., 606. St. Ijonifacc IV., 607-614. St. Deusdedit, 61 5-618. Doniface V., 619-625. llonorius I., 625-63S. Severinus, until 640. John IV., 640-642. Theodore I., 642-649. St. Martin I., 649-655. Eugene I. (654), 655-657. St. Vitalian, 657-672. Adeodatus, 672-676. Donus or Domiius I,, 676-678. St. Agatho, 678-6S2. St. Leo II., 6S2-683. St. ISenedict II., until 685. John v., 6S5-686. Conon, 68 7. St. Sergius I., 687-701. John VI., 701-705. John VII., 705-707. .Sisinnius, 708. Constantine, 708-715. St. Gregory II., 715-731- St. Gregory III., 731-741. St. Zachary, 741-752. Stephen II., 752. [Died without h.ivingbeen consecrated. Is uot counted by the majority of historians.] .1 1' APPENDIX. 411 CATHEDRALS OF THE WORLD. Italy and Spain. ROME, St. Peter's. — Length, 613J feet; breadth, 446^ feet; height, 448 feet; tounckd, 1503 A.D. ; finished, 1626 A. I). The cathedral occupies the site of a basilica built by Constantine 306 ; founded by Julius II. ; dedicated by Urban VIII., 1626; its erection was carried on by twelve architects, among whom were Bramante, Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Madcrno ; the plan is in the form of a Latin cross. The annual cost of keeping the church in repair is 30,000 scudi. MILAN, Duomo. — Length, 4S6 feet; breadth, 252 feet; height, 355 feet; founded, 13.S7 A.D. Founded by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti ; the ground plan is a Latin cross, terminated by an apsis; the exterior has niches for 4,500 statues, of which 3,400 are completed; architecture, Gothic. FLORENCE, Duomo. —Length, 500 feet; breadth, 306 feet; height, 38S feet; founded, 1298 A.D. ; finished, 1444 A.D. The original design was by Arnolfo; completed by Brunelleschi; architecture, Italian-Gothic; covers 84,802 square feet. SEVILLE. — Length, 431 feet; breadth, 315 feet; height, 350 feet; founded, 1349 A.D. ; finished, 1519 A.D. This cathedral is of the Spanish-Gothic style, and is superbly decorated ; attached to it is the remarkable tower, the Giralda, 350 feet high; it has one of the largest organs in the world, and paintings by Murillo, Vargas, the Ilerreras, etc. Germany, BelKlum, and France. COLOGNE. —Length, 511 feet; breadth, 231 feet; height, 501 feet; foundc', 1248 A.D.; finished, 1880 A.D. The building of the cathedral was sus- pended 1509, but has been continued by the kings of Prussia since 1842; 6ooth anniversary celebrated 1848; 52,000,000 expended since 1S42; it is considered one of the best Gothic structures in Europe. DANTZIG, Marienkirche. — Length, 35S feet; breadth, 112 feet; height, 230 feet ; founded, 1343 A.D. ; finished, 1503 A.D. The cathedral contains the celebrated picture of "The Last Judgment." The vaulted roof is 9S feet high, supported by 26 brick pi'lars. It is built of brick; the whole area is 42,000 feet. STRASBURG. — Length, 357 feet; breadth, 150 feet; height, 466 feet; founded, 1277 A.D. ; finished, 1601 A.D. The cathedral was designed by Erwin of Stcinbach, and completed by John liultz; its spire is the highest in the world ; injured by shells during the Franco-German war of 1S70, but since re]iaired ; famous for its wonderful clock ; architecture, Gothic. ANTWERP, Notre Dame. — Length, 390 feet; breadth, 250 feet; heigli.t, 403 feet; founded, 1325 A.D. ; finished, 1411 A.D. It was sacked 15O6; contains Rubens' " Descent from the Cross ; " architecture, Gothic. r; ;llM riii i,ii« < i » I 11 ; \'H m I ,n :!!^ 412 APPENDIX, RHEIMS. — Length, 466 feet; breadth, ife feet; height, 144 feet; founded 1211 A.D. ; finished, 1430 A.D. The cathedral is of Gothic architecture, but the towers of the original design have not been completed. The French kings were crowned here for many centuries, the last being Charles X. AMIENS, Notre Dame. — Length, 469 feet ; breadth, 182 feet; height, 422 feet; founded, 1220 A.D. ; finished, 1288 A.D. The cathedral was com- menced by Robert de Luzarches, and completed by Thomas and Regnault de Corniont; architecture, Gothic. PARIS, Notre Dame. — Length, 390 feet; breadth, 144 feet; height, 224 feet; founded, 1163 A.D.; finished, 1420 A.D. Founded by Pope Alex- ander in., though a church on the present site had been built 365 A.D. ; suffered during the Revolution, but was repaired by Napoleon I. The pillars of the nave are 4 feet in diameter, resting on gravelled beds 18 feet below the surface. The organ is 45 feet high, 36 feet wide, with 3,484 pipes. The architecture is Gothic ; covers 64,108 square feet. Tlie ITnlted States. NEW YORK, St. Patrick's. — Length, 332 feet ; breadth, 174 feet; height, 328 feet; founded, 1858. It was projected by Archbishop Hughes, who laid the corner-stone Aug. 15, 1858; it is of white marble, in the Decorated Gothic style ; it has not been completed, but services have been held in it for several years. PHILADELPHIA, St. Peter and St. Paul. — Length, 216 feet; breadth, 136 feet; height, 210 feet; founded, 1846; finished, 1862. Is built of red sandstone, in the Roman-Corinthian style, from designs by Le Brun. It has a fine organ, frescos, and an altar-piece by Brumidi. BALTIMORE. — Length, 190 feet; breadth, 177 feet; height 127 feet; founded, 1806; finished, 1865. It is built of granite, in the form of a cross, surmounted by a lofty dome and two bell-towers. It has a large organ of 6,000 pipes and 36 stops ; a painting presented by Louis XVI., and one pre- sented by Charles X. of France. BOSTON, Cathedral of the Holy Cross. — Length, 364 feet; breadth, 170 feet; height to ridge-pole, 120 feet. South-west corner with spire will be 300 feet ; small tower in north-west corner will be 200 feet. Entire meas- urement, 46,000 square feet ; covers more than an acre of ground. Pews accommodate 3,500. It was projected by Archbishop Williams, and dedi- cated 1875. The style is the Early English Gothic. It is built of Roxbury stone, and ornamented with granite trimmings. Canada and Mexico. MONTREAL, St. Peter's. — Length, 333 feet; breadth, 222 feet; height, 256 feet; founded, 1868; unfinished, i386. The cathedral is an imitation of St. Peter's, Rome. The expenditure up to the present year is ^250,000. There will be fire main entrances, and one on each side of the portico. APPENDIX. 413 There will be twenty-six altars and four pulpits within the interior. Stone from the St. Coteau quarries. Probable cost of edifice when completed will run over a million dollars. MONTREAL, Notre Dame. — Length, 255 feet; breadth, 135 feet; height, 220 feet; founded, 1824; finished, 1S29. It is built in the Gothic style of the thirteenth century; it has two towers, each 220 feet high, one of which contains a chime of bells, and the other a single bell, the "Gros Bourdon," weighing 29,400 pounds ; cost of the cathedral, ;^8o,ooo. QUEBEC, The Basilica. — Commenced 1647; consecrated 1666; partly de- stroyed by fire ''' ing the sieges and storming of the city. Length, 216 feet; breadth, 1^0 feet; height, 100 feet. It is the oldest sacred structure in North America. Built of limestone. The Basilica is distinguished for its solidity and cheerful aspect, rather than for splendor and symmetry of architecture. It contains many rare and valuable paintings. Capacity 5,000. MEXICO. — Length, 500 feet; breadth, 420 feet; founded, 1573; finished, 1667. This cathedral is built in an incongruous mixture of styles ; con- tains a magnificent interior, with costly altars, statuary, and painting. Cost of the cathedral, $2,500,000. m . ':i til : , 1' I : » ^'Ji 414 APPENDIX. A. ; CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE SHOWING THE REMARKABLE GROWTH OF THE CATHOLIC PRESS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. 1810. Prnpagatcur Catholique, I.c (weekly), New Orlenns ; L. I.afargue. 1832, Catholic Telegraph (weekly), Cincinnati; Rev. J. F. Cailaghan. 1837. AVahrheitsfreiind (weekly), Cincinnati; Benziger lirothcis. 1838. Pilot (weekly), Boston ; Pilot Publishing Conii)any. 1840. Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register (weekly), New York; J. A. McMaster. 1844. Catholic (weekly), Pittsburg; J. Porter. 1846. Katholische Kirclien Zeitung (weekly), Jamaica, N.Y. ; M. Ocrtel. 1850. Catholic Mirror (weekly), I'altinioic; J. IS. Piet. 1850. Ilcrold des Glaubens, l)er (weekly), St. Louis; German Printing and Publishing Association. 1851. Aurora, Die (weekly), P>uffalo ; C. Wieckmann. 1857. Monitor (weekly), San Francisco; Rev. J. F. Harrington. 1857. Tablet (weekly), New York ; D. and J. Sadlier & Co. i860. Katholische Volks-Zeitung (weekly), Baltimore; John Schmidt. i860. K.atholische Wochenblatt (weekly), Chicago; F. X. Brandccker. 1865. Ave Maria (weekly), Notre Dame, Ind. ; Rev. D. E. Hudson. 1865. Catholic World (monthly). New York; Rev. I. T. Heckcr. 1866. Catholic Standard (weekly), Philadelphia; G. D. Wolff. 1866. Katholischer Glaubensbote (weekly), Louisville ; G. D. Denser. 1866. North-western Chronicle (weekly) St. Paul ; North-western Chronicle Publishing Company. 1867. Wanderer, Der (weekly), St. Paul ; F. Fassbind. 1868. Guardian Angel (monthly), Philadelphia; Revs. J. O'Reilly and W. F. Cook. 1868. Morning Star and Catholic Messenger (weekly). New Orleans; New- Orleans Catholic Publishing Company. 1868. Western Catholic (weekly), Chicago; J. R. Coffin. i86g. Central Catholic Advocate (weekly), Louisville; L. H. Bell. 1869. Western Watchman (weekly), St. Louis ; Rev. D. S. Phelan. 1870. Catholic Citizen (weekly), Milwaukee; Rev. G. C. Willanl. 1870. Catholic Sentinel (weekly), Portland, Ore.; Catholic Sentinel Publishing Company. 1870. Young Catholic (monthly). New York; Rev. L T. Heckcr. 1871. Catholic Review (weekly). New York; P. V. Hickey. 1871. Luxemburger Gazette (weekly), Dubuque ; N. Conner. 1872. Catholic Union (weekly), Buffalo ; Rev. P. Cronin. 1872. Michigan Catholic, Detroit, Mich. ; William H. Hughes, editor and proprietor. 1872. Western Home Journal (weekly), Detroit; W. E. Savage. 1873. L C. B. U. Journal, Philadelphia ; M. J. J. Griffin. 1873. Union (weekly). New York ; J. W. O'Brien. 1874. Coecilia (monthly), New York; J. Singenberger. APPENDIX. 415 New York ; J. A. Sentinel Publishing 1874. Catholic Universe (weekly), Cleveland; M. Tello. 1874, Catholic Visitor (weekly), I.ockport, N.Y. ; Will)i;r Brothers. 1874, Columbia (weekly), Milwaukee; German Catholic i'rinting Society. 1874. Concordia (weekly), Oreen Hay, Wis.; Concordia I'rinting Association. 1874. Ciazcta I'olska Catolicka (weekly), Chicago; John Uaritynski. 1874. Harp (monthly), Montreal; J. (Jillics. 1874. Lake Shore Visitor (weekly), Krie, Penn. ; Rev. T. A. Casey. 1874. Pilot (weekly), Chicago; M. J. Cahill. 1874. Tribune (weekly), Toronto; A.Robertson. 1875. Catholic Columbian (weekly), Columbus; Rev. I). A. Clarke. 1875. Catholic Visitor (weekly), Richmond; D. J. O'Conneli, D.l). 1875. Christliche Woche, Die (weekly), Puffaio; Rev. J. M. Sorg. 1875. Revista Catolica (weekly), Lcs V^cgas, N. Mex. ; S. Pessare. 1875. Stinime der Wahrhcit, Die (weekly), Detroit; J. 15. Mutlcr. 1876. L'Album des !•" imilics (monthly), Ottawa; J. Tasse. 1876. American Catholic Review (quarterly), Philadelphia; Very Rev. J. A. Corcoran. 1876. Catholic, Parkersburg, Va. ; J. N. O'Brien. 1876. Connecticut Catholic (weekly), Hartford; M. F. Scanlan. 1877. Catholic Times (weekly), Rochester; O'Connor. 1878. Katholischer Jugend-Freund, New York (weekly), Chicago ; Rev. A. J. Thiele. 1878. Catholic Record (weekly), London, Ont. ; Thomas Coffey. 1878. Catholic Telegraph (weekly), Albany, N.Y.; Rev. J. M. Ludden and M. J. Louden. 1878. Katholisches Volksblatt (weekly), New York; Rev. A. Schwenniger. 1878. Standaard, De (weekly), De Pere, Wis. ; De Standaard l^rinling Company. 1879. Celtic Monthly (monthly). New York; J. Ilaltigan. 1880. Catholic Fireside (monthly), New York; Catholic Fireside Publishing Company. 1880. Illustrated Catholic American (weekly). New York; P. V. Hickey. 1880. Catholic ller.ald, Boston; P. McCorry editor, D. O'Loughlin proprietor. i88a. Republic, Boston, Mass. ; Patrick Maguire. 1882. Brooklyn Examiner, Brooklyn, N.Y. ; Kdward Feeney & Co. 1883. Vesper Bells, Philadelphia, Penn. ; Dan F. Gillin, publisher. 1883. Working Boy, Boston; Rev. D. II. Roche, editor and jniblishcr. 1883. Orphan's Friend, Boston, House of the Angel Guardian ; Brother Joseph, publisher. VI I 'if ■'■ill 416 APPENDIX. MBBREVIATIONS OF ECCLESIASTICAL WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS. T r i-' !; (IK ' 1 ill-* ' 'I AnnREViATlONS are literary contrivances for con.sisting citlier in the omission of some letters sign. Abp. Archbishop. A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ. Adv. Advent. A.M.D.G. For the greater honor and glory of God. Ap. Apostle. Apoc. Apocalypse. B.C. Before Christ. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. Bib. Bible, Biblical. Bp. Bishop. Br. Brother. B.V. Blessed Virgin. B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. Card. Cardinal. Cath. Catholic. C.C. Corpus Christi. Ch. Church, Chapter. Chanc. Chancellor. Chr. Christian. Chr. Ch. Christ Cliurch. Chron. Chronology. Com. Ver. Common Version. Cor. Corinthians. Dan. Daniel. D.D, Doctor of Divinity. Dea. Deacon. Deut. Deuteronomy, D.F. Defender of the Faith. D.G. By the grace of God, Thanks to God. D.T. (Doctor Theologiae), Doctor of Divinity. Eccl., Eccles. Ecclesiastes. Eccl. Hist. Ecclesiastical History. Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. Exod., Ex. Exodus. s.iving time and space. They are of two kimls, or words, or in the substitution of some arbitrary Fid. Def. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith. Gen. Genesis. H.E. (Hoc Est), This is. Heb. or Hebr. Hebrew, Hebrews. H.H. His Holiness {tlie Pope). H.P. High Priest. I.C.TH.U.S. («,tCvf),(JcsousChristos, Theou Huios, Soter), Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour. I.H.S. (Jesus Hominum Salvator), Jesus the Saviour of Men. (In Hac [Cruce] Salus), In this [cross] salva- tion. I. N.R.I. (lesusNazarenus Rexludae- orum), Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Is. or Isa. Isaiah. Itin. Itinerancy. J.C. Jesus Christ. Judg. Judges. J.M.J. Jesus, Mary, and Joseph. J.V. (or U.) D. (Juris Utriusque Doc- tor), Doctor of both Civil and Canon Law. Ki. Kings. Kingd. Kingdom. Ld. Lord. Lev. Leviticus. Lit. Litany. Lp., Ldp. Lordship. Mace. Maccabees. M.S. (Memoriae Sacrum), Sacred to the memory. APPENDIX. 417 XPRESSIONS. hey are of two kinds, ion of some arbitrary jfensor), Defender izarenus Rex ludx- ^azareth, King of and Joseph, iris UtriusqucDoc- :h Civil and Canon N.S. (Notre Seigneur), Our I,ord. N.S.J. C. (Noster .Saivator Jcsiis Ciiristus), Our .Saviour Jesus Christ. N.T. New Testament. Num. or Numb. Numbers. N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary. O. Test. Old Testament, Ord. Ordinary. O.T. Old Testament. P. (Pire), Father. Pet. Peter. P.P. Pastor of Pastors, when applied to the i'ope. P.P. Parish Priest. Pr. Priest. Prot. Protestant. Ps. Psalm or Psalms. R.C. Roman Catholic. Rect. Rector. Rel. Religion. Rev. Revelation. Rev. or Rev'd. Reverend. Revs. Reverends, plural of Reverend. Rom. Romans. Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. R.R. Right Reverend. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. Sam. Samuel, Samaritan. Script. Scripture, Scriptural. Seq. or seq. (Sequentes or Scquentia), The following. S.J. Society of Jesus. S. of Sol. Song of Solomon. S.S. Suiulay School. SS. Saints. St. Saint. S.T r (Sacrae Theologix Doctor), Doctor of Sacred Theology. Su. Sunday. Sun. or Sund. Sunday. Sup. Superior. Theol. Theology, theological. Trans. Translated. Trin. Trinity. Vat. Vatican. Ven. Venerable. V.Q. Vicar General. Vul. Vulgate. Wp. Worship. W.P. Worthy Patriarch. X. Christ. Xm. or Xmas. Xn. or Xtian. Xnty. or Xty. Xt. Christ. Zach. Zachary. Christmas. Christian. Christianity. iv- I ' ! '. acrum), Sacred to APrE.VDlX. CHIEF HERESIES OF THE CHURCH. The Arians, founded by Alius, an ambitious cleric of Alexandria, who denied tlic divinity of our Lord, and said that He was not hc^ntten of the l-'ather, but made by Ilitn J that I le was not ecjual to, but inferior to, the Father. These heretics were condemned at tlie Council of AVic, a town in Hitiiynia, A.D. 3^5, under I'opc S. Sylvester I. The Niccnc C'nrfS. two Chii-ts ; i.st, but only in figure, tie wa.s coiuiemned at Kome, The Albigcnses taught that there were two (iods and two Chii-ts ; they condemned inarri.'ige, denied all the .Saeraments aiul the re>urn(ti(in of the body. It waswiiilst i)reai hiiii; to these heretic,-, that the devotion of tl,L " Kosai'y " Wiis revealed by the lilesstd Virgin to S'., l)omiiiiL'. The Waldenses taught that it was a hc'roiis sin t >. a r :>^istrate to con- demn to dcTth for any crinc ; ihat it was ,'1 mortal i;i to c.Ue in o;ith ; and that the clergy became rem-ohates h, hoidii.ii; "li;; ..irthivij; ,- Aorth nf jUop- erty. The Alhigensos and U ahlen-.;s vvciv am()',mn' ,'. ^l I'lC Thifil Liili>\in Council, under I'oiic Alexantler III. wD. '. i7m. Heresy of Wickliff. This man taMKht Jh:it ':iic [ i>pe i* not the ilvad of the Church ; that iiishops have no pr* c'"i!'(.in:e o<''v simple jiri'j .is ; that all ecclesiastical nowers are either f.irfeind os aie in aievanec rlnmi^, iiKital sin ; that man is bound to sin ; that Col .ippn \>.s ( f si/. ; tha; ^oMfc■■^^lon i.-> (juitc useless; and that temporal ivinjCH shi.tid cut off ilif, 'ic.ui of any •riiji >v 'vcrv, .Tfti-i thi; ikalh of Wicr ■ ,,! ecclesiastic kvlui sinned, etc. Thesj floe" lil'fe, preached hyyo/iii //iissrj-i\ hij i.'llowi-i'.s i". th-; ffn\i\« md '■j,' '^cs ot liohemia. Condemned at tho Council -'J C'oitstan i'i;i own Ijfdir. He then attacked the doctnne of induigitpjes \\^i.'l. He a so aught ih.it faith alone will .save mankind ; that thi' sa.rilic: oi the Ma'-'j is an abomina- tion ; that there is no necessity for ,oiif';ssii.n, a!..tinencr fasiin;;, or any mortification whatever. He said tiiat p.icsts nv'i.ht in.ury; hi denied I'n'c supremacy of the I'ojic; he wrote agaiiu^t j/ttrg.'torv, fi-ej-vvill, ai"! .ilmost every article of Christian belief. 16. Calvin, who is regarded as second only to Luther, wn? the lonvidjr of py -s bytcrianisni. His chief stronv.hold was Ceneva. Ho t.uigl t. a-i^oiig uilicr things, that fiC)d created mankind on jiurixise to damn the gieatcr 11 iiMber of them ; t'.iat God is the author of all sin ; aiid th. t man has no fre'-wi I. I le renounced not only the Pope, but l!i.-.hop, ai;il ;\)ics.t> • Iso. At the Coniifil of Trent, held froni 1545 to ' siC)3 'v. I)., the !\cresies of Luther, Calvin, and others were condemned, '1 he "('reed of i'ope Pius 1\'." was drawn up at this council. 17. The Jansenists, so called after their I'.adtr Janf-cnics, i'ishop of Yprcs, in F'l.inders. He maintained that mun i',,is not free; tliat it was impossible to keep some of God's comman.',.iei..s: tlipr all r;.)0(l works of unbelievers are but sins; that God will jun'.-li us for not pra.;ti.sing virtues which are not in our power; that our t /■•(! died to save only a few privileged souls, and not the whole huma < riite. Two illustrious French bishojis, Bossuct and Fihielou, defer>,xJ the truth against these heretics. Chris' :i'lier de Bean- vio'it, .\rchbisil(^;• ot Paris (1746- 1 7S1), was also a great champion of the true raitli, and by his virtues and exertions did much to put down this heresy, which had already been condemned by the Holy See. i :■■ \ hi') V'. I Ul h I !. ! 'I ;! I| ( , It 420 APPENDIX. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH. A Council is an assembly of the Prelates of the Church, called together by their lawful head, in order to decide questions concerning faith or morals or ecclesiastical discipline. The following are the chief kinds of councils; — I. A General cr (Eeiime)iieal Council, being one to which the bishops of the whole workl arc lawfully summoned by the Pope, or witii his consent, and pre- sided over by him or by his legates. Its decrees must also have the approval of the .Sovereign Pontiff. Oentral councils are infallible, — that is, they cannot teach us any thing wrong in faith or in morals. 2. A Provineiijl Council, which is a meeting of the bishops of one province. 3. A A'atioiial Council, which is a gathering of the bishops of one country. 4. // Diocesan Council, which is a council composed of the bishop and clergy of a diocese, and is usually called a Synod. The following are the names of the general councils which have been held up to the i)rcscnt time. The first eight were held in Asia, or the Eastern part of Christendom ; and the remainder in liurope, or the Western part. 1. First of Nice, A.D. 325, condemned heresy of Arius. 2. First of Constantinople, A.D. 381, condemned heresy of Macedonius. 3. Council of ICphesus, A.D. 431, condemned heresy of .Nestorius. 4. Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451, condemned heresy of Eutyches. 5. Second of Constantinoi)le, A. 13. 553, condemned books of Theodorus favor- ing Xestorian heresy. 6. Thircl of Constantinople, A.D. 680, condemned heresy of Monothelites. 7. Second of Nice, A.D. 7S7, condemned heresy of Iconoclasts. 8. Fourth of Constantinople, A.D. S70, condemned and deposed Photius, au- thor of Greek schism. 9. First Lateran, A.D. 1123, regulated rights of Church and Emperors in elec- tion of bishops and abbots. 10. Second Lateran, A.D. 1139, condemned heresies of Peter of Bruys and Arnold of Brescia. 11. Third Lateran, A.D. 1 179, condemned heresies of Waldenses and Albigenses. 12. Fourth Lateran, A.D. 1215, for general legislation. 13. First of Lyons, A.D. 1245, decreed a general crusade. 14. Second of Lyons, A.D. 1274, decreed the double procession of the Holy Ghost. 15. Council of Vienne, A.D. 1312, abolished order of Knights Templars. 16. Council of Florence, A.D. 1439-45, a reconciliation of the Greeks took place. 17. Fifth Lateran, A.D. 1512, for re-establishment of discipline in Church. 18. Council of Trent, A.D. 1545-63, heresies of Luther, Calvin, and others con- demned. 19. Vatican Council, A.D. 1S69-70, solemnly decreed the infallibility of the Pope, in the following words: " We teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed : That the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, — that is, when, in the discharge of his office of pastor and teacher of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doc- trine regarding faith or morals, to be held by the Universal Church, — is by the I )ivine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, possessed of that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed that the Church should be endowed in defining doctrine regarding faith or morals; and that, Micre- fore, such definitions of the Roman Pontiffs are of themselves, and nu£ from the consent of the Church, irreformable." h, called together by g faith or morals or "of councils: — \\ the bishops of the his consent, and jirc- ,0 have the aiiproval - that is, they cannot vimin! Council, which iiKi/ Couiiiil, which IS ;;/ Council, which is a , and is usually called ich have been held up or the Eastern part o£ m part. of Macedonius. Cestorius. [ Eutvchcs. LS of 'I'heodorus favor- er of Monothelltes. Dclasts. 1 deposed Photius, au- 1 and Emperors in el-c- )f Peter o£ Bruys and Idenses and Albigcnses. procession of the Holy ights Templai's- of the Greeks took iiiline in Church. Calvin, and others con- the infallibility of the ic-fine that it is a dogma I he speaks ex cathcdya, lastor and teacher of all hority, he defines a doc- Universal Church, — is I Peter, possessed of that I that the Church should ^1lorals; and that. Oicre- of themselves, and nut APPENDIX. 421 A PROXOUXCIXG DICTIONARY OK Catholic Words, Phrases, and Expressions, Biographical Names, Historical Facts, and Religious Information, Etc. Ab'bess. A superior of an order or community of nuns. Ab'bey. A religious house or monastery presided over and governed by an abbot. Ab'bot. The superior of a religious community, who live according to pre- scribed rules. Abbre'viator. A papal secretary employed in the chancery, who transcribes in abbreviated form papal decisions, documents, etc. Ablu'tion. A washing of the priest's fingers, and the chalice, with wine and water after communio.i ; also a drying of the lips and chalice after drinking the same. Absolu'tion, A remiss'on of sin by the priest, in the sacrament of penance, by authority received from Christ. Ab'stinence. Voluntarily depriving ourselves of the common pleasures and indulgonces of mind or body, as the Churcli may from time to time com- mand. Ac'olyte. i. The name given to him who has received the highest of the four minor orders. 2. One who serves at Mass u|)on the altar. He may be eitlier a layman or an ecclesiastic. Ad'vent. The time from .Advent Sunday (the Sunday nearest to the Feast of St. Andrew), to Christmas Eve, is the season of Advent, " the coming of the Son of God." Fasting, penance, and prayer are at tliis, mure than at any other season, enjoined by the Church. Ag'nus De'i. i. Lamb of God, which represents meekness. 2. A praver at Mass, before the Communion. 3. A figure of a iamb stamped on the wa.\ which remains from the jiaschal candles, and solemnly blessed by the Pope on the Thursday after Easter, in the first and seventh years of his Pontifi- cate. 4. A heart-shaped article of devotion, covered with woollen cloth or silk, to be worn about the person. m I. i %^\ \ I 'I I' 1 1- . 422 Alb. — Anchorites. : 1.1 mm f i If I'l It ' i ii^ ' ' :i' ^^l Alb. A loose-fitting vestment or garment of white linen with sleeves. Is worn about the neck, and reaciius to the feet of the priest, who attires himself with it before saying Mass, repeating the prayer, " Make nie white, O Lord, and cleanse me," etc. (See Sacranicntals, etc.) Allelu'ia. From the Hebrew, " I'raisc the Lord." It is used in the Mass be- tween the Epistle and tlospel, except in times of mourning, when the Church omits it. All-Saints. An annual feast, the ist of November, set apart by the Church in himor of all martyrs and saints. All-Souls. A day ol devotion on which tlie Church solemnly commemorates and prays for all the souls in purgatory, that they may be speedily loosed from their sins. It occurs on the 2d of Xoveinber. Al'moner. A disjjenscr (jf alms; generally an ecclesiastic at the court of royally, who acts in that capacity. Alms. A work of mercy. It may be the bestowal of a material gift, or spirit- ual assistance, to the needy. Al'tar. A place for sacrifice. Al'tar-Breads. Unconsecrated wafers made of fine wheaten flour, round in shape, and usually stamped on the centre with the figure of Christ, or the letters I. II. S. They vary in size. The smaller wafer is intended for the communion of the faithful. The larger one is received by the priest, or used for benediction; and at a fixed length of time is consumed by a priest at Mass, Al'tar-Cloths. Three white cloths, usually made of linen; or two cloths, of which one is doubled and laid on the altar. They are blessed by the bishop, or a priest with special faculties. A'men. A Hebrew word signifying, " So be it." Am'ice was the name of a loose and flowing linen garment worn by the Romans over the tunic, and by priests and pilgrims. Also a vestment still worn by i)riests during the service of the Mass. It was originally a piece of emliroidcred linen worn on the head or shoulders of the superior clergy, like a hood or cape. Anath'ema. The Church has used the phrase "Anathema sit," which means "Let him be accursed," from the earliest times. It is pronounced against wilful heretics, and e,\cludes them from her communion, From the ninth century, a distinction has been made between excommunication and anatl-.e- niatizing ; the latter being the extreme form of denunciation against obstinate offenders. Such a sentence could not be pronounced without the concur- rence of the provincial bishojis with their mefiopolitan. An'chorites, or An'chorets, the hermits who began to appear in the Christian Church in the third century, living in solitude, and not, like the monks or cenobitcs, in communities. During the first two centuries Christians gener- ally thought it enough to withdraw from the world by refusing to particijiate in heathen festivals and amusements; but extreme views became gradually prevalent, and were connected with a belief in the merit of celibacy, of abstinence from particular kinds of food, of self-inflicted tortures, etc. The persecutions to which Christians were subjected drove some into the soli- sleeves. Ts worn ttires himself with diite, O Lord, and 1 in the Mass be- ;, when the Church art by the Church nly commemorates be speedily loosed c at the court of terial gift, or spirit- iten flour, round in TC of Christ, or the ifer is intended for vcd by the priest, or jusumed by a priest i; or two cloths, of essed by the bishop, irment worn by the Iso a vestment still originally a piece of |the superior clergy, la sit," which means pronounced against Ion. From the ninth inication and anathe- ion against obstinate without the concur- Ipear in the Christian Lt, like the monks or lies Christians gencr- Lfusing to participate Ivs became gradually nerit of celibacy, of |d tortures, etc. The some into the soli- Andrew. — Angels. 423 tude of deserts; afterward the glory of a life spent in loneliness and austerity became a substitute for that of the martyr's death. The general corruption of society alsr caused many earnest and well-meaning jicrsons to flee from it. The ascetics first set the example of retiring from cities to rural districts and villages , '.le anchorites went farther, and sought to with- draw themselves altogether from mankind; and if the reputation of sanc- tity which was connected with a life of solitude constituted its chief attraction to some, there can be no doubt that many chose it in the hope of thereby attaining to real sanctity. Many of the anchorites voluntarily subjected themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather without proper habitation or clothing, restricted themselves to coarse and scanty fare, w^ore chains and iron rings, and even throughout many years maintained painful postures, such as standing on the top of a pillar, thus displaying an earnestnu^s which greater enlightenment might have directed to the good of mankind. I'aul the Hermit and Antony were among the first and most celebrated anchor- ites. St. Simeon Stylites has been celebrated in legend and song. The fame of their sanctity drew many to visit them; their advice was often sought, and the number of their visitors was much increased by the belief that diseases, particularly mental diseases, were cured by their blessing. Sometimes, also, they returned for a short time to the midst of their fel- low-men to deliver warnings, instructions, or encouragements, and were received as if they had been inspired prophets or angels from heaven. An'drew, the iirst disciple of Christ, and afterward an apostle, was, like his brother IVter, a fisherman. Previous to his recognition of Christ as the Messiah, he had been numbered among the disciples of John the Baptist. See John i. 40, 41. The career of Andrew as an apostle after the death of Christ is unknown. I'radition tells us, that after preaching the gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on the cross at Patra: in Achaia, 62 or 70 A.D. A cross formed of beams obli(|uely placed is styled St. Andrew's cross. St. Andrew is the patron saint of Scotland ; he is also held in great veneration in Russia as the apostle who, according to tradition, first preached the gospel in that country. In both countries, there is an order of knighthood named in his honor. An'drew I., II., and TIL, reigned in Ile.ngary from 1046 to 1301. Andrew II., in 1222, convoked a diet to which he granted the " Golden Bull," the Magna Charta of Hungary. An'gel. Messenger of Heaven. Purely spiritual intelligences crcited by God, and superior to man. An'gel Guard'ians. The Church teaches that every person has an angel guardian appointed for him by God. to watch over him, defend him from evil, suggest pious thoughts, and, finally, if he should have persevered in the way of God, to bring his soul to heaven. An'gels. In Jewish and Christian theology, a class of superior spirits repre- sented as the immediate instruments of Divine Providence. As Scripture contains no complete and systematic account of angels, the belief of the Church respecting them, except in a few points, has never been exactly defined. It has always been held, that angels und human souls, notwith- ii J 424 Angel Guardians. — Antiphon. l:\ ■ ;:i' ;. >^ 11 I ' t Standing the high origin of the latter, are distinct ; only Dionysius Areopa- gita and a few modern speculators have maintained the contrary. Diony- sius, in his Ilict-archia dvlestis, divides angels into nine orders. Whether there are not spirits superior both to men and angels, has been a disputed point. The names that have all along been in most common use are Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. The creation of the angels was placed by the I'latoiiizing Church Fathers before that of the material world; others assigned it to some one of the six days. Ec|ually various were the opinions as to the nature of the angels. The second synod of Nice (787) assigned them a subtile, ethereal, or fire-like body; the scholastics, on the other hand, and the Lateran Council of 1215, maintained their immateriality; while others, owing to the appearing of ".ngels mentioned in Scripture, attributed to them the power of assuming niomentarily the corporeal form. The poet Nonnus (living in Egypt in the fifth century) is the first to sjK-ak of angels' wings, but the cherubim were represented by the ancient Jews as winged figures. The belief in guanfum angels was common both to heathens and Jews, and had been reduced to system by Philo; and the doctrine was adopted in the Christian Church, and defe. '^d by Origen and others. It is founded on Matt, xviii. 10, and Acts xii. 15. Annuncia'da. i. The religious Order of the Heavenly Annunciation, or of the Nuns of the Annunciation of Mary, was instituted by Victoria Fornare at Genoa in 16S2, after the rule of St. Augustine. 2. Another Order of the Annunciation, or of Nuns of Mary's Announcement, or the Ten Virtues, was endowed by John of Valois at IJourges in 1501, after its separation from Louis XII. 3. The Order of Knights of the Annunciation in Savoy, known originally as the Order of the Neck-chain or Collar, was instituted in 1360 by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy. It received statutes from Ama- deus VIII. in 1409; was renewed in 1518 under the name of the Holy An- nunciation; and in 1720 was raised by Victor Amadeus to be the first Order of the kingdom of Savoy. Annuncia'tion, announcement of the conception of Jesus Christ to the Virgin Mary. The festival is celebrated on the 25th of March, Lady Day, and in Old Style this day began the year. An'them. (See Antiphon.) An'tichrist. It is the belief of the whole Church, that before our Lord comes again, a real individual being shall appear in the world, who shall become an evil power, persecute the Church, and lead many into ajiostasy. The general notion of antichrist, as a power opposing itself to the re?gn of the Messiah, may be traced back beyond the Christian era. Its origin is, per- ha])s, to be found in the prophecy of Ezekiel concerning the doom of Gog and ALigog. The ancient Jews conceived that immediately previous to the Messiah's reign, national adversity must be experienced in an extreme de- gree, and that an angel of Satan would appear who must be overcome before prosperity could be restored. This was antichrist. The idea is adopted in the New Testament, although the term antichrist occurs in no place of Scripture except in the First and Second Epistles of John. An'tiphon. An alternate chant, sung in the Church at vespers and on feast-days. n. Antonelli. — Antony, St. 425 Dionysius Areopa- contrary. Diony- orders. Whether IS been a disputed common use are ;els was placed by :rial world; others were the opinions Cice (787) assigned on the other hand, nuateriality; while cripturc, attributed il form. The poet to sjieak of angels' nt Jews as winged th to heathens and I the doctrine was gen and others. It lunciation, or of the Victoria Fornare at other Order of the ir the Ten Virtues, after its separation lunciation in Savoy, )llar, was instituted statutes from Ama- le of the Holy An- |o be the first Order Ihrist to the Virgin \, Lady Day, and in ore our Lord comes I, who shall become Into apostasy. The ] to the reign of the Its origin is, per- the doom of Gog [tely previous to the in an e.xtr?me de- Imust be overcome Jirist. The idea is Ichrist occurs in no :s of John. l:s and on feast-days. Antonelli (Giacomo), a distinguished Cardinal, born 1806 at Sonnino, a village situated near the Pontine Marshes; he gained the favor of I'opc Gregory XVL, who named him a prelato, and gave him some excellent ecclesiastical appointments. In 1841 Antonelli became under-secretary of state to the Ministry of the Interior; in 1S44, second treasurer; and in the fuUowing year finance minister of the two Apostolic Chambers. I'opc Tins IX., having mounted the Papal throne in 1846, raised Antonelli during the next year to the dignity of cardinal deacon of St. Agatha alia Suburra. In 1848 Antonelli was president and minister of foreign affairs in a liberal cabinet, which framed the famous Stalnto or Constitution, proclaimed in 1S48, the principal articles of which were so very soon eluded. Antoni'nus, Itinerary of (^«/'£'«/;////'/;/t'mr/«;«),a valuable geographical work, containing the names of all the places and stations on the ijrincipal and cross roads of the Roman Empire, with their distances from each other in Roman miles. It has been usually attributed to the Emperor Marcus Aure- lius Antoninus, whence its name. The testimony, however, of /I'^thicus, author of the Costnographia, assures us that a general survey of the Roman Empire was commenced 44 P>.C., in the consulship of Julius Ca;sar and Marcus Antonius, and completed in the reign of Augustus, when the results of the survey received the sanction of the State. These results, it is inferred, are embodied in this Itiiienuy, which, it is further supposed, received addi- tions and amendments in the time of the Antonines. Subsequent improve- ments were made down to the reign of Diocletian. Anto'nius, or An'tony of Padua, St., born at Lisbon 1195, was related to Godfrey of Bouillon. He was first a monk of the Augustine Order, and in 1 22 1 became one of the most active propagators of the Order of Francis- cans. On his missionary voyage to Africa, being cast on the coast of Italy, he preached with great success at Montpcllier, Toulouse, liologna, and Padua, where he died 1231. His anniversary falls on June 13. His monu- ment, a fine work of statuar)', is in the church which bears his name at Padua. An'tony, St., or Anthony of Thebes, surnamed the Great, the father of nionachism, born about 251 \.T>., at Koma, in Upper Egypt. Having sold his possessions, and distributed the proceeds among the poor, he w ilhdrcw into the wilderness ; but in 305 he was persuaded to leave this retreat by the prayers of numerous anchorites who wished to live under his direction. He founded the monastery of Faioum, near Memphis, which may be considered the origin of cenobite life. The persecution of the Christians bv Ma.ximian in 311 A.D. induced St. Anthony to leave his cell, and proceed to Alex- andria; but "■? returned to his solitude, and plunged yet deeper into the desert. At length he found a lodgement on a hill, about a day's journey from the Red Sea; but his disciples discovering his retreat, so jiressed him with their affectionate importunities, that he ventured to accompany them back. In 355 the venerable hermit, then 104 years of age, made a journey to Alexandria to dispute with the Arians. He had interviews with Athana- sius and other distinguished persons, and retired to his desert home, where he died 356 A.D. Although the father of monachism, St. Anthony is not the .f ir ; n ! I' 'mi ' I I'M!*! Vi I, Iri 426 Apocalyptic Number. — Aquinas. jiuthor of any monastic "rules;" those which the monks of the Eastern schismatic sects attribute to him are the iiroduction of St. ]'>asil. St. Amiionv's Firk. — The Rev. Allxiii liiitler, in h'xs, Lives of the Saints, gives tlie following account of the origin of this name: "In 10S9 a pestilen- tial erysipelatous distemper, called the sacred fire, swept off great num- bers in most jirovinccs of France. I'ublic prayers and processions were ordered against this scourge. At length it pleased God to grant many miraculous cures of this dreadful distemper to those who im|)lored his mercy through the intercession of St. Anthony, especially before his relics; the church (of La Mottc St. Didicr, near Vienne, in Dauphine) in which they were deposited was resorted to by great numbers of ])ilgrims, and his patron.ige was implored over the whole kingdom against this disease." The "Order of Canons Regular of St. Anthony," a religious fraternity, founded about 1090 for the relief of persons atiiicted with the fire of St. Anthony, survived in France till 1790. St. A.vthony's Well, a small fountain near the ruined Chapel of St. Anthony, on the north slope of Arthur's Se.it near Edinburgh. Apocalyp'tic Num'ber is "the mystical number" 666, spoken of in the Book of Revelation. .\s early as the second century the Church had found that the name antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number; while others believed it to express a d.ite. The most probable Interpretation is that which was current in the days of Irenacus, and which found the number in the word Lateiiws (Latiiius), The Roman nation — the mightiest pagan power on earth — was the most terrible symbol of anti- christ, and the number 666 appears in the Greek characters which spell the name. Apos'tasy. The giving up of the Christian faith. Apos'tate literally designates any one who changes his religion, whatever may be his motive. Apos'tle. " One who is sent." Apostol'ic Fathers. Christian authors who wrote in the age succeeding that of the apostles. Aqui'nas (Thomas), one of the most influential of the scholastic theologians, born in the Castle of Rocca Sccca in 1224. He received the rudnnents of his education from the Benedictine monks of Monte-Casino, and completed his studies at the University of Naples. A strong inclination to ])hilosophi- cal speculation determined the young nobleman, against the will of his family, to enter (1243) the Order of Dominicans. In order to frustrate the attempts of his friends to remove him from the convent, he was sent away from Naples with the view of going to France ; but his brothers took him by force from his conductors, and carried him to the paternal castle. Mere he was guarded as a prisoner for two years, when he escaped and went to Cologne. Thoroughly imbued with the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotel- ian philosoi)hy, he came forward, after a few years, as a public teacher in Paris. It was not, however, till 1257, that Aquinas obtained the degree of doctor, as the University of the Sorbonne was hostile to the mendicant monks. He vindicated his Order in his work, Contra Impugnantes Dei 'ion, whatever may Lge succeeding that Archbishop. — Ark of the Covenant. 427 Ctiltiim ct Rdif^ionem. He continued to lecture with great ajiiilnusc in Paris till Urban IV., in 1261, called him to Italy to teach ijliilosophy in Konvj, liologna, and Pisa. Finally, he came to reside in the convent at N'aples, where he declined the offer of the dignity of archbishop. ISeing summoned by Clregory X. to attend the General Council at Lyons, he died ( n the wav, 1274, at Fossanuova, in Na|)les. Accorcling to a report, lie was poisoned at the instigation of Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidciux- that Acpii- nas would give of him at Lyons. Lven dining his life, A(|uiu.i> injuyed the highest consideration in the Chinch. His voice carried decisive weight with it. A general chapter of Dominicans in Paris made it obligatory on the members of the Order, under pain of punishment, to defend his doc- trines. It was chiefly the narratives of miracles said to have been wrought by Aquinas, that induced John XXII., in 1323, to give him a i>lace among the saints. He gave a new and scientific foundation to the doctrine of the Church's treasury of works of supererogation, to that of withholding the cup from the laity in the communion, and to transubstantiation. He also treated Christian morals according to an arrangement of his own, and with a com- prehensiveness that procured him the title of the " Father of Moral Philoso- phy." His greatest work is the Siimma Thcclogica, on account of which he is called the "Angel of the Schools." Pope Leo XIII. declared him, in 1S80, to be henceforward the patron of all schools of learning of the Catholic world. Archbish'op. The word first occurs in the fourth century. It is derived from the Greek, and is a title that was bestowed on the old metropolitans of the Church about the ninth century. Ark of the Cov'enant, Ark of the Tes'timony, or Ark of Jeho'vah, one of the most important parts of the furniture of the tabernacle which, by Divine direction, the Israelites constructed in the wilderness, and afterward of the temple built by Solomon at Jerusalem. A description of it is to be found in E.xod. xxv., in the command given to Moses for its construction, and also in Exod. xxxvii. ; from which it appears that it was a chest of shittim-wood (very generally supposed to be the wood of a species of acacia, but by some regarded as more probably that of the wild olive), overlaid with gold within and without, two cubits and one-half in length, one cubit and one-half in breadth and in height, — that is, according to the common estimate of the length of the cubit, three feet nine inches in length, and two feet three inches in breadth and in height; the lid being formed entirely of pure gold, with a crown or raised border of gold round about. Within the ark was deposited the "testimony," consisting of "the two tables of the law," that is, the stone tablets upon which the Ten Com- mandments were inscribed. The golden lid of the ark was called the mercy- seat, or propitiatory; and above it were the cherubim made of the same piece of gold with it, and between them was the place of the shekinah, or manifestation of the Divine presence. The ark had also golden rings, through which passed staves of shittim-wood, overlaid with gold, for carry- ing it in the journeyings of the Israelites, concerning which very particu- lar rules were laid down (see Num. iv.). While being carried from one f il 1!^ I .!• li '■I ' 1: ( « Ik P'- i m. \\ ^'i % 'k p n ■ml i : ( >^ f fi' ■ I jii^ fir f >ii>, 1 1 1 i i , Ji' ■i!^ ( ;; .-iU iifii 428 Ascension Day. — Baptismal "Water. place to another, it was covered first with a " covering of badgers' skins," and above this with "a cloth wholly of blue;" and in the tabernacle and temple it was put into the "most holy place," into which the iiigh-pricst alone was to enter upon the "day of atonement." The ark was called the Ark of the Covenant, because it was the aiijiointed symbol of the presence of God as the God of Israel, and of his covenant with his peojjle. Ascen'sion Day, one of the great religious festivals of the Catholic Church. It is held on the fortieth day after Easter, and is intended to commemorate the ascension of Christ into heaven. Ash-Wednesday (pr. wcits'i/ay), the first day of Lent, so called from the Catholic ceremony of strewing ashes on the head as a sign of jiciiance. This custom, jirobably introduced by Gregory the Great (590-^)04), was sanctioned by Pope Celestine III. in 1191, and became universal. The ashes, made from the palms remaining from the previous Palm Sunday, are blessed immediately before the Mass. Asper'ges. "Thou shall sprinkle me." The celebrant repeats the word r.t the beginning of high Mass, while he sprinkles the altar, priests, and congrega- tion with holy water. Assump'tion of the Vir'gin Ma'ry. A festival of the Church. From the early ages of the Church has come down the pious tradition that the body of the Virgin had been carried up to heaven by Christ and his angels. This is not an article of faith. It is of faith, however, that the soul of the lilessed Virgin Mary was assumed into heaven. Attri'tion. An imperfect sorrow for sin, fear of disgrace, fear of hell, etc.; distinct from contrition, yet good in itself as coming from God and leading to contrition, but without actual confession will not avail to justify the sinner. Au'reole, Golden. In Christian art it is used to designate the glory of the figure represented. It surrounds the whole figure in sacred pictures and statuary. A've Mari'a, Angel'ical Saluta'tion, or the Angel'ic Saluta'tion, are names given by Catholics to a very common form of address to the Virgin Mary. Ave Maria are the first two words of the prayer in Latin, which is taken from the angel Gabriel's salutation (Luke i. 28). An edict of John XXII. (1326) ordains that every Catholic shall morning, noon, and evening at the warning of the bells, repeat three aves. Banns. A jiroclamation of intended marriage, which is read before the congre- gations of the churches of which the affianced are members. The Church adojns this method of discovering any impediment, which may be stated to the ecclesiastical authorities before marriage occurs. Bap'tism. A sacrament of the Church (literally, a dipping in water), instituted by Christ, by which we are cleansed from original sin ; and necessary for salvation. Baptis'mal Water. Water blessed in the font on Holy Saturday and on the vigil of Pentecost. The priest signs the water with the cross, divides it with his hands, pouring it towards the north, south, east, afnd west, breathes into it, and places in it the paschal candle. He then sprinkles a part on the Baptistery. — Benediction. 429 people, and reserves the rest for private use. Oil of catechumens and chrism are then poured into the water by the priest. Bap'tistery. A place for the administration of baptism. Basil'ica. A fine, stately, magnificent church. Bead, Beade, or Bede, in Anglo-Saxon and Old English, signified "a prayer," and hence came to mean the small perforated halls of gold, silver, glass, ivory, hard wood, etc., used for keeping account of the nunibcr of prayers repeated. A certain number strung on a thread makes a rosary. A beads- man or beadsworian is one who prays for another. I'ersoiis of station and wealth in old times " had regularly appointed beadsmen, who were paid to weary Heaven vith their supplications." Headsmen appointed to pray for the king and stnte sometimes lived together, and hence beadhousc is synony- mous with an .'.Imshouse. A common form of signature at one time wasi " Your boundan beadsman," or, " Your humble beadswoman," instead of the modern " Your obedient servant." Beatific Visior. The sight of God face to face, which is the end for which man is destined, and which constitutes the essential bliss of angels and men. Beatifica'tion. To be among the number of tlm blessed. It is an act which declares that the deceased person or persons have beeu proved to have received power from God, as demonstrated by miracles, and whose virtues have been proved by sutilicient testimony. Benedic'tines. The general name of all the monks following the rule of St. Benedict. The first Benedictine monastery was that founded at Monte Cas- sino, in the kingdom of Naples, about 529, by St. Benedict himself. The order increased so rapidly after the si.\th century, that the Benedictines must be regarded as the main agents in the spread of Christianity, civilization, and learning in the West. They are said at one time to have had as many as thirty-seven thousand monasteries, and counted among their branches the great Order of Clugny, founded about 910; the still greater Order of the Cistercians, founded in the following century; the Congregation of Monte Cassino, in 140S; of St. Vanne, in i6oo; and of St. Maur on the Loire, in 1627. The Benedictines were suppressed in France, with the other monas- tic orders, at the Revolution in 1792, and their splendid conventual buildings at St. Maur on the Loire were destroyed. They have lately been revived ; and the ISenedictines of Solesmes, established 1S37, have resumed, under the direction of Dona Gueranger, Dom (now Cardinal) Pitra, and others, some of the works which the Benedictines of St. Maur left unfinished, and entered on literary enterprises of their own. The rule of St. Benedict was less severe than that which the Eastern ascetics followed. Besides implicit obedience to their superior, the Benedic- tines were to shun laughter, to hold no private property, to live sparely, to exercise hospitality, and, above all, to be industrious. Com pared with the ascetic orders, the Benedictines, both in dress and manners, may be styled the gentlemanly order of monks. Benedic'tion (from the Latin heneduere, to speak well), signifies a solemn invo- cation of the Divine blessing upon men or things. The ceremony in its simplest form may be considered almost coeval with the earliest expression .: 1: ■■ r M % ' It;! 430 Benedictus. — Bethlehem. IV'f I i ,4.1 I i iMii ''ill of rclipinus feeling. Wc know from Ifnly Writ that the Jewish patri.irchs, l)cf(itL- tlicv died, invoked tiie blessing of (Jod ujion their children; and at a later period tiie priests were connnandeil to inijilorc the Divine blessing upon the peo[>le. Christ sanctioned the custom, which was consetpiently carried forward into the primitive Church, where it gradually developed itself in dilTerenl forms. Benedic'tus. A [lortion of the service of the Mass of the Roman Church; also the so-called "Canticle of Zachary" (Luke i. 6S-79), used in the office (if lands. Ber'nard, Great St., .lAms yiTv'.r, a famous mountain-pass in the Pennine Alps, Ixiwein Piedmont and the Valais. 'I'he pass attains an elevation of more than eiylit thousand feet above the sea-level; and almost on its very crest, on the edf^c of a small lake, which is frozen over nine months out of the twelve, stands the /nispice, founded in 962 by IJernard de Menthon, a Savoy, ard nobleman, for the benefit of jiilgrim.s to Rome. The hospice, said to be the highest habitati(3n in lutropc, is occupied by ten or twelve St. .\ugustine monks, who, with their noble dogs of St. liernard b: cd, ha\:' rescued many hundred travellers from death liy exposure to cold or burial in the snow, which ranges from ten to forty feet in depth. The humanity of the monks shortens their lives. The pass, which was traversed in early times by the Romans, Charlemagne, and Frederick Itarbarossa, is celebrated for the pas- sage ot thirty thousand French troops under Na])oleon in May, 1800. Little St. liernard, which forms part of the chain of the Graian AIjjs, is the most convenient of the Alpine passes, and is supposed to have been the one by which Hannibal led his forces into Italy. It also possesses a hospice, which is situated 7,192 feet above the sea. Berret'ta. A cap worn by ecclesiastics, srpiarcly shaped, with three or four prominent corners. A doctor of divinity generally wears a four-cornered berretta. A doctor of divinity, however, cannot wear a four-cornered ber- retta at divine service ; at all other times he may wear one if he chooses. \ priest's berretta is black; a bishop's, purple ; a cardinal's, red. The Pope docs not wear a berretta. Bethab'ara. John's place of baptizing beyond Jordan. Bethes'da, Pool of, meaning "house of pity." The scene of Christ's cure of the impotent man (John v. 2-9), and resort of the "impotent, blind, halt, and withered ;" once filled with water, "which an angel went down at cer- tain seasons and troubled;" is now dry, and used as a deposit for dirt and rubbish. It is situated within the gates of Jerusalem, near the .St. Stephen's Gate and the Mosque of Omar; measures 460 feet in length, by 120 in breadth, and 75 in depth. Beth'lehem, or Beit'lahem, meaning "house of bread," celebr.ated in Scrip- ture as the birthplace of our blessed Saviour and of King David, is now a small unwalled village, situated at a distance of five miles south of Jeru- salem. The population, about three thousand souls, is wholly Christian, — that is, Latin, Greek, and Armenian. The village is situated in the centre of a most interesting country; and the roof of the Latin monastery — the only public building of any importance, enclosing the cave which is the ■ I I '-■ Bible.— Bull. 431 alleged place of our Lord's nativity — commands a beautiful and extensive view of tlie surrounding ccniiUry. Bi'ble. From the Greek (JulXiov, l3i,i?MC, a letter or paper. The sacred books of the Jews and Christians. Bish'op. Tlio title of the highest order of clerpy in the Christian Church. The name is from the Greek f/ZsiO/'o; an overseer. The Athenians used to send officers, called episcopoi, to their subject states. The word was adopted by the Romans; and Cicero speaks of himself as an cpiscofus \\\ Caini) iiiia; 't was also applied by them to tlie officers who inspected tlic inovision-markuts. Bla'sius, a saint and martyr, was bishop of Sebaste in Capjiadocia when Lici- nius bej,'an a bloody persecution of the Christians. IJlasius left the town, and concealed himself in an unknown ciuism in the roci It' :i .*■ f* » hl\:, I •1 J 1 '1l ii|U 'i fl.( 43- Candelabrum. — Canon of the Mass. Candela'brum. A Latin word signifyinR properly a candlestick (from candela, a ciuullc), but more frcciucntiy enipluyed to mean a support tor a lamp. Caiuiclalira usually stood on the j^ruunii, and were of c<)nsideral)le height, from I'dur to ciyht or even ten tuct. 'I'he base often consists of three feet of a linn, yoat, (^riftin, or other animal. Can'dlemas, in its ecclesiastical meaning, is the feast of the Purification of tile N'ii^in M.iry, and is observed on the 2d of February. This festival id very strictly kejjt by the Catholic Church, there being a ])rocession with many lightetl candles, and those required for the service of the ensuing year being also on that occasion blessed; hence the name Candlemas Day. Canon'ical Hours are the times fixed for Divine service in the Catholic Church, but no longer strictly adhered to as to the time oi recitation; but as a i)art of the Divine ofl'icc they arc recited by every ecclesiastic in major orders, as a matter of strict obligation. They arc observed as to the time by many religious communities of men, the Hencdictines for example. These have not always been the same, but are now seven : matins and lauds, |)rimc, tierce, scxt, none, vespers, and compline. Canon'icals. A term used to describe the proper ecclesiastical dress of the clergy. Canoniza'tion. In the Church, the act of the Pope by which a deceased per- son is solemnly declared to be a saint. It had its origin in the jiractice of the early Church, of inserting in the commemorative prayer of the Euchar- istic Liturgy the roll of the names of those who had died as martyrs, or distinguished themselves as confessors of the faith. This record was cntcretl in the diptychs of the Church, and read in the so-called " Canon " of the Liturgy. Each bishop was at first accustomed to declare deceased persons to be saints. In the West the exercise of this power came to be reserved to the Popes; and the ceremonial itself was invested with much solemnity, and regarded as of very great importance. The first Papal canonization was accomplished by John XV. The Popes have possessed the exclusive right since 1170. The right of bcuitijiaition also belcmgs to them. When it is proposed to canonize a person of reputed sanctity, the Pope declares his views in a consistory, and an inquiry is instituted as to the virtues and merits of the person jiroposed. Can'on Law is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions for the government and regulation of the Roman-Catholic Church, although many of its regu- lations have been admitted into the ecclesiastical system of the Church of England, and still influence other Protestant bodies. It was comi)iled from the opinions of the ancient Latin Fathers, the decrees of general councils, and the decretal epistles and bulls of the Holy See. Can'on of the Mass. That part of the ALiss which begins after the " Sanc- tus" with the prayer " Te igitur," and ends before the Pater Noster. The Canon consists, according to the Council of Trent, "of our Lord's very words, and of prayers recei "A from apostolic tradition or piously ordained by holy Pontiffs." Cap'uchins. A branch of the order of Franciscans^ so designated from the capuche which is their head-dress. r '*■ Mass. cstitk (from iiwdelit, support tor a lamp. ctinsitlcrable hcinlit, onsists of three feet : the Purification of ary. Tiiis festival is )g a i)njces.sioa with ;e of the ensuing year aiuUenias Day. vice in the Catholic me of recitation; but ecclesiastic in major erveil as to the time ;lictine.s for example. V seven : matins and siastical dress of the i\\\c\\ a deceased per- ■igin in the i)ractice of prayer of the Euchar- d died as martyrs, or ,h. This record was \c so-called "Canon" to declare deceased this power came to be is invested with much The first Papal 'opes have possessed -ifi>, a Iiinpc). f'ardin.nls are the highest e (.InturH and councillors they are, mid wilh wlmm their appointmeiil e.>(clu>ive!y rests. Since I fSG their number has been (i.Ncd at seventy; but this is sel- dom complete, and has sometimes f.illen tnuih below. 'I'en vacancies were filled on the 1 2th of M.iy, 1S71}, and it is said that at no time h.ive so m.my eminent men been admitted in one group to the carilii\alatc as now, (dm- ment is also made on the f.ict that the liberal elenieiil in the Cliiuih, u^ing the term in the I 'atliolie sense, is stroni'Jy represented in the new addilimi to the Sacred Senate. < )iit of ten new eauliiials, oiily twt) ;ire It.ili.ms; and in the College, which now nimibers si.xty-four inenduis, one-ludf arc £oreij;ners. 'I'lie I'ope often employs cardiii.ils as ambassadors, and the individual thus emiiloyed is styled legate n Liiliic. A (..irdinal-legale aels, or recently acted, .IS governor of the Xorlh Provinces of the I'.ipal States, which thence received the name of legations. T!ie chief secretary of st.ite, the Camvrlfiii^it or minister of finances, the vii ar of Komc, and other leading oflicials, are always chosen from among the cardinals. The Council of Cardinals, when assembled under the jiresidency of the Pope to discuss matters of Church and State, is called the Consistorium. There arc jjublic consistories, which are held on great occasions, and correspond to the levees of other sovereigns ; and |)rivatc and secret consist(jries, which are the privy council of the l'o|)e. Car'dinal Vir'tues (I.at. lardiitiilis, chief, from (,tnh\ a hinge). The cardinal virtues of the ancients were justice, prudence, temperance, and foriitutle. They were so called because the whole of human virtue w;is sujiposed to hinge or turn upon them. In other words, they were considered as a full and comprehensive classification of man's various duties. Of the four cardinal virtues, it will be seen that the first, justice, is the social virtue ; that prudence (which, properly speaking, includes temperance also) re.nards the well-being of the indivitlual ; while fortitude is necessary to both. This last was a virtue greatly esteemed in the ancient world : each one's lot l;eing much less secure than with us in the present day, it was impossi- ble to say what sul'fering might be in store for the most jirosperously situated of men. In systems of theology, there are declared to lie four cardinal virtues, "prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice," from which all other "moral " virtues arc represented as flowing. Put there is a jirior division of virtues into the two classes of theological and moral; the theological virtues being faith, hope, and charity. The distinction between these two classes is represented as consisting in this: that the theological virtues " immediately regard (lod," and the moral virtues do not immediately regard Cod, but are commanded and rewarded by Cod, and are beneficial to ourselves. Car'mel is a mountain ridge, six or eight miles long, stretching nearly north and south from the ])lain of ICsdraelon into the sea, the only great promon- tory on the low coast of Palestine. The height has been variously statcd>j '4 A m I I ii I \\ 'i '* li ■\^ M: •m m 434 Carmelites. — Catacombs. but is ])robably about a thousand feet above the level of the plain. Mount Caimcl is renowned in Jewish history, and is often alluded to in the imagery of the -rophcts. On the summit of Mount Carmel, there is a monastery called Ellas, after the prophet Elijah, the monks of which lake the name of " Carmelites." It is built on the supposed site of the grotto where Elijah livcil, and the spot where he slew the jiricsts of liaal. Car'melites, or Order of Our La'dy of Mount Carmel. A monastic order, probably founded as an association of hermits on Mount Carmel by I!cr- thold, Count of Limoges, about 1156. Driven out by the .Saracens in the thirteenth century, the Carmelites wandered over Eurojic; and Simon Stoch, their general, changed them into a mendicant order in 1247. The order of Ciirmiiitcsses, or CanncliU A'lt/is, was instituted in 145J, and is very numer- ous in Italy. Cat'acombs. Subterraneous chanibcrs and passages, formed generally in a rock which is soft and easily excavated, such as //{/('/. C^atacombs are to be fouiid in almost every country where such rocks exist, and, in most • cases, probably originated in mere cpiarries, which afterwards came to be used either as jjlaces of sepulture for the dead or as hidlng-i)laces for the ■living. The most celebrated catacombs in existence, and those which are generally understood when catacombs are spoken of, are those on the Via Api)ia, at a short distance from Rome. To these dreary crypts it is believed that the early Christians were in the habit of retiring, in ortlei uj celebrate their new worship in times of persecution; and in tiieni were buried many of the saints and martyrs of the i)rimitive Church. They consist of long, narrow galleries, usually about eight feet high and five feet wide, which twist and turn in all directions, very much resembling mines. The graves were constructed by hollowing out a jiortion of the rock, at the side of the gallery, large enough to contain the body. The entrance: was then built up with stones, on which usually the letters D. M. (Deo Maximo), or XI', the first two letters of the Greek name of Christ, were inscribed. Other inscriptions and marks, such as the cross, are also found. Though latterly devotetl to the purposes of Christian interment exclusively, it is believed that the catacombs were at one time used as burying-places by pagans aNo. At Irregular intervals these galleries exjjand into wide and lofty vaulted chambers, in which the service of the Church was no doubt celebrated, and which still have the ajipearance of churches. The original extent of the catacombs is uncertain, the guitles niaiiitainlng that they have a length of twcntv miles, whereas about six only can now be ascertalneil tu exist, and of these many portions have cither fallen in or become dangerous. When Rome was besieged by the Lond)ards in the eighth century, many of the catacombs were destroyed; and the I'ojjcs afterward caused the remains of many of the saints and martyrs to be removed and buried in the churci.es. Art found its way into the catacombs at an early jjeriod, and many remains of fres.:os are still found in them, liel/.oni, in 1S15 and 1S18, expvired many Egyptian catacombs built three thousand years ago, and brought to England the sarcophagus of I'sammelichus, forme celebrate hem were buried many They consist of long, \ five feet wide, which ng mines. The graves rock, at the side of the ntrancc was then built ^Deo Maximo), or XT, , were inscribed. Other ound. Though latterly xclusively, it is believed g.places in- pagans alel/.oni, in 1S15 ^It three thousand years Psammclichus, formed the Parisian catacombs formerly stone-quarries, human remains from the Cemetery of the Inno- cents were deposited in 1785, and many of the victims of the Ke\ukuion of 1792-1794 are interred in them. Cat'afalque. An oblong, bin-shaped erection used during Masses of the dead when the corpse is not there. It is suitalily phiced in a position near the altar, surrounded with burning lights, and draped in JjlatU. Cat'echism, from a Greek word, X./A',//tv, which means to resound, or sound into one's cars: hence, to instruct by word of moutli. I'ersous uiulergoing instruction in the principles of Cln-istianity were hence calleil catcchiimciis (katt'c/toumenoi), and the teacher ap]K)iuted for tliis purpose was called a catcchist. Hence any system of tcacliing by (juestion and answer is called a catechism. A summary of Christian doctrine. Cath'olic. Universal. As apjilied to theChurch, it mcansthc one true C.itholic Church throughout the world, which teaclies the truth oC Christ whole and entire, as distinguished from iieretical sects. Cath'olic Epis'tles. The name given, according to Clemens Akxanehinus and Origen, to certain epistles, addressed not to particular churches or individ- uals, but either to the Church universal or to a large and indefinite circle of readers. Originally, the Catholic Ejiistlcs comprised only the fust Mpistlc of John and the first of Peter; but at least as early as the foiulh century (as evinced by the testimony of Eusebiiis), the term was api)lied ',0 all the apostolic writings used as "lessons" in the orthodo.x Cliristian churches. But this included the Epistle of James, of Jude, the second of I'cter, and the second and third of John. These seven thus constituted the Catholic Epistles, although the genuineness and authenticity of the last-mentioned five were not universally acknowledged ; but this very incorporation with epistles whose canonicity was not (picstioncd naturally had the effect of confirming their authorit\-, so that in a short time the entire seven came to be considered a portion of the canon. Cel'ebrant. The priest who actually offers Mass, as distinct from his assistants at the altar. Cel'ibacy of the Clergy. Their unmarried state of life. Cem'stery. From the Greek, "a sleeping-place." Catholic cemeteries are consecrated burial-places for Christians. The Church holds it unlawful to allow the interment of excommunicated persons therein. Chal'ice. The cup used for the wine which is to be consecrated in the Mass. Clialices are made of gold or silver : they must at least have a silver cup gilt inside. It must be consecrated by the bishop with chrism, according to a form prescribed in the Pontifical. C)nly lliose invested willi holy orders may touch it. Chal'ice Veil. The silk veil which covers the chalice. Chan'cel. Tlie part of a church between the alt.tr and the nave, so named from the rails {cancdli) which separated it from the nave. Chap'el (Fr., chapclle), a word derived from captu which originallv signified a case or chest in which were contained the relics of a saint, and afterwards the place where the chest was kept. The term now signifies a buikling erected for tiie ])urposes of public worship, but not possessing the full privileges and characteristics of a church. I'i m\ I 'I t I Mil 436 Chaplain. — Church History. ■i HI IJ l\.\u\i m • i Chap'lain. A priest who ministers to tl)c wants of .1 special class. Chas'uble. The outside garment of a priest, worn (luring the celebration of the Mass. It covers tiie pi icst frcjnt and hack, and is ornamented with a cross and flowers. It typilies good works, humility, charity, and peace, which are to cover and ailurn tiie priest on every side. Cher'ubim. Supernatural beings who guarded the entrance to Paradise after the fall. They form the second among the nine orders of angels. Choir. A band of singers. Chor'ister. A singer in a choir, whether collegiate or parochial. Chrism. Olive-oil mixed witii balm, blessed by the bisho]) on Holy Thursday, and used by the Church in contirniation, bajitism, ordination, consecration of altar-stones, chalices, churches, and in the blessing of baptismal water. The oil is diffusive, and signilics the fulness of grace; the balm mixed uitli it, incorrtiption and the "good odor of Ciirist." Christ. A title of our Saviour, now in general use almost as a name or as part of his name. It is originally Greek, signifies liip having :rs the Lord's peojile. merely different forms istory of the Christian |nt parts of the general „nly with the political ,(iphv, of liuralure, ami (.xtrcmely various, and x\\\ as their exploration inbraciiig a view of the l)egimiing to the prL>e:it Intry, or lime, or povii'Mi :1 chieny with regard to |ih referc-iKC to doctrine, hers still have devotul the constitution of the I'd under the name of Ciborium. — Conclave, 437 Cibo'rium, A vessel used in Catholic churchi.s to hold the host : it is made of gold or silver, and often ornamented with a cross. Circumcis'ion, Feast of. 'I'his feast celebrates the humility of our Lord in allowing himself to be seemingly numbered among sinners by submitting to the law of the Jews. Cler'gy. The priests of God. Clois'ter. An enclosed area, sciuarc, surrounded by covered passages which have continuous walls on the outer side, and rows of jjillars on the inner side, facing the square and out-buildings, such as monastic churches, or colleges. Coadju'tor. An assistant to a prelate or a i->ricst holding a benefice. In this country the bishops only have their coadjutors. Col'lect. Certain short prayers of comprehensive brevity, collected together, and said in the Mass at different times. Col'lege. A collection i^r assemblage. Command'ments of God. The Ten Commandments. Command'inents of the Church, called the Six Commandments, regarded as binding as the Decalogue, imposed upon tlie laity of the Catholic (.'lunch. They refer to the Mass, fasting, confession, the sacrament, support of pas- tor, and marriage. Com'mon House, or Com'mon Room, was an apartment in a monastery in which a fire was constantly kept burning for the use of the monks, who frequently were allowed fire nowhere else. The common house was [jre- sided over by a monk who was called the master. It was the prototype of the common rooms in the colleges and halls of universities. Commun'ion. The receiving from the hands of the priest the body and blood, soul and divinity, of Jesus Christ. Commun'ion of Saints. 'I'he union which binds together the members of the Church on earth, and connects the Church on earth with the Church suffering in purgatory, and triuir ''xnt in heaven. Concep'tion of Our Lady. An r of nuns, founded in 1484, in honor c 5 the Immaculate Conception, by . ,atri.\ de .Sylva, sister of James, first Count of Poralegro, in Portugal. It was confiriTi..d in 14S9 by Toijc Inno- cent VIII., who granted the sisterhood ]iermission to follow the rule of the Cistercians; but after the death of tlie foundress in 14S9, Cardinal Ximenes put the nuns under the direction of the Franc'scans, and imposed upon them the rule of St. Clara. The order subsetpiently spread into Italy and France. Their dress consists of a white gown, a blue mantle, and a seapulary on which is worn the image of tlie Virgin. Con'clave (Latin), either the place where the cardinals assemble for the choice of a pope, or the assembly itself. The practice f)f a conclave originated at the election of Gregory X. at Viterbo in 1271, and was regulated by the Council of Lyon in 1274, with formalities still substantially in force. The conclave must consist of a single ai)artment, having only one door, which is kept securely locked. Food and other necessaries are handed through a windmv, and are subjected to a r'gorous examination, in order to prevent communication with the outer world; the cardinals not being allowed to 11 i 1 1' I '■■■ ■ I f! ^ ill' m m !4' ' i •i:T \ \ ( ( t ■ u \ 1 '1 \ 1f i .i '.h ■ i^i'.'U III l;ijv i t; 438 Concordat — Congregation. leave the place, or to receive or send out letters, until a new pope is chosen. As the conclave was generally 1 ;lcl in t'le Pauline Chapel at Rome, a great number of cells were erected in one of the galleries, c 'ch to form the lodge- ment of a cardinal. A conclavist is a spiritual or seci 'ar attendant on the cardinals during the conclave. Each cardinal is allowed three. They are sworn to silence, and are not allowed to leave except in illness. Concor'dat (Lat. concordalinn, "a thing agreed on"), although sometimes used of purely secular treaties, is mow almost exclusively employed to des- ignate a compact on ecclesiastical affairs between the Pojie, as head of the Roman-Catholic Church, anil the temporal ruler of a particular kingdom or state. Concordats commonly relate to things which are neither purely spiritual, as faith, the sacraments, or worship, nor purely temporal, as civil rights, taxation, etc., but mixed matters, regarding which each jiower makes certain claims, in regard of which the action of the two powers can with difficulty be dissociated; and in which, therefore, in the hope of harmoni- ous co-operation for the public good, each is willing to cede to the other a portion of its peculiar right. Concordats are of two kinds, — the first in the form of a treaty, to which both the contracting powers arc formally consenting parties; the second, in which the terms are concerted by both, or, at least, are mutually accepted, but arr published only by one, most commonly by the Pope, in the form of a bull, reciting the enactments which result from the agreement. This difference is only in form. In both it is a settled doctrine of Catholic canonists, and especially of those of the Ultramontane school, th.it the Pope never absolutely cedes purely spiritual powers. Thus, in the presentation to bishoprics, while the King "nomi- nated" or "elected," the Pope always reserved to himself the power of " canonical institution." Confea'sion. To accuse ourselves of our sins to a priest who has received authority to give absolution. Confes'sional. The place where the priest hears confessions. Confess'or (saint). The name for a person who confessed the Christian faith in times of persecution, and tiiereby exposed himself to danger. Confess'or (in the sacrament of penance). The priest who hears confes- sions. Confirma'tion. A sacrament by which grace is conferred on baptized persons by which they are strengthened for the Christian faith. The sacrament is conferred by the bisho]3. Confi'teor. A form of prayer (" I confess to Almighty God, to blessed Mary ever Virgin," etc.l used in the sacrament of penance, and by the priest at the beginning of Mass, before he ascends the steps of the altar. Confrater'nity. An association of l.ivmen who devote themselves to some work, devotion, or charity, for the glory of God. Congrega'tion. An assembly, generally a religious assembly; in its most ordinary use, an assembly of Christians met in one place of worship. In the Catholic Church, it often designates a sort of board of cardinals, prel- ates, and divines, to which is intrusted the management of some important branch of the affairs of the Church. ricst who has received Consecration. — Credence. 439 Consecra'tion. i. The form of words by which the bread and wine in the Mass are changed into Christ's body and blood. 2. The act of solemnly dedicating a person or thing to the service of God. Consist'ory. Properly, a place of asscmlily; but in the later Latinity the word came to signify the particular [jLicc where the jnivy council or cabi- net of the Roman emperor met, and, after the time of Diocletian and Constantino, the council itself. The assessors of this council were partly the ordinary members, such as the imperial chancellor and seneschal, partly extraordinary; and their duty was to deliberate on all the important al'fairs of legislation, administration, and justice. The form of the imperial con- sistory passed over into the early Christian Church. The bishops estal)- lishcd their consistories ; and the highest ecclesiastical court, composed only '"'' cardinals, which meets in the Vatican, under the presidency of the Pope, to determine all such matters as the appointment of cardinals, arch- bishops, bishops, etc., still bears this name, as do also thi- private councils which '>e Pope can call at his pleasure. The Protestant Church of Ger- many was induced to perpetuate the consistorial courts, principally because the episcopal authority passed into the hands of territorial princes not familiar with ecclesiastical affairs. Consubstan'tial. God the Son ever in the Father, and the Father in him, — co-ec|ual, co-eternal. Contempla'tion. A word used to describe the life of those who devote them- selves to prayer and meditation, rather than to active works of charity. Contri'tion. "Grief J. mind and detestation of sin committed, with a pur- pose of sinning no more." (Council of Trent.) Con'vent. An enclosed building wherein a community lives, and devotes itself to religious works. Cor'pus Chris'ti Fes'tival. The most splendid festival of the Catholic Church. It was instituted in 1264, in honor of the consecrated Host, and with a view to its adoration, by Pojjc Urban IV., who appointed for its celebration the Thursday after the festival of the Trinity, and granted to all the penitent who took jiart in it an indulgence for a period of from forty to a hundred days. The festival is chiefly distiiiguislied by magnifi- cent processions. In France it is known as the Fete Dicu. Coun'cil, CEcumen'ical. Councils of the Church Catholic; ecclesiastical universal assemblies. There have been seven: viz., (i) the llrst council at Nice, A.D. 325; (2) the first at Constantinople, A.D. 3S1 ; (3) the first at Tqihcsus, A.D. 431 ; (4) at Chalcedon, .\.D. 451; (5) second at Constanti- nople, .\.I). 553; (6) third at Constantinople, A.D. 6S1 ; (7) second at Nice, A.I). 7S7. The latest of these councils was held 1869. Crea'tion. Making out of nothing. Cre'dence. A table on the Epistle side of the altar, covered with a linen cloth on which the cruets with wine and water, the humeral veil for the subdeacon, the burse, chalice, the candlesticks borne by the acolytes, etc., are placed during high Mass, and taken therefrom when required for use in the function. ' y I'i ■:1 '■ ■ i; in 1' , II 1 •if :h ' r %. ■ I- ' i i;l r I' 'lit ] '■<■•' .ii»i) ■s were sometimes they were impaled was originally and cc (/^iitiliiiltiiii) was il were tied, or to ;is fastened at right 5S was called crux iglcs across the top and when it was was crux dccussata. It in places of frc- ys upon the cross. ;ard the cross with the cross as a holy nor and commenio- he principal cruci- |h altar. It is used holds the conse- during the Middle ;he Mohammedans. Ithe rii^ht of Chris- Iqucst of Palestine, enlarged; and the the rescue of the imselves of it. In tate the assistance accompanying his his Holiness and Icircumstanccs prc- led into execution, |s, however, revived lied by the burning Europe, preaching everywhere to crowds, and producing the most extraordinary enthusiasm by his descriptions of how pilgrims were murdered, robbed, or beaten, how shrines and holy jilaces were desecrated, and how nothing but greed re- strained the ruffian Turks (who made the Christians pay lieavy taxes for their visits to Jerusalem) from dLsiroying the Holy Sepulchre, and extir- pating every vestige of Christianiiy in the land. As soon as the feelings of Europe had been sufficiently heated, Urban openly look up the c)ucs- tion. Two councils were held in 1095. '^^ '''"^ second, held at Clermont, in France, a crusade was definitely resolved on. The I'ope liiniself deliv- ered a Stirling address to avast multitude of clergy and laymen; .-md as he proceeiled, the ])entup emotions of the crowd l)iirst forth, and cries of Dcusvuit rose simultaneously from the whole audience. These words, Dais vull, by the injunction of Urban, were made the war-cry of the enter- prise ; and every one that embarked in it wore, as a badge, the sign of the cross ; hence the name crusade. First Crusade. — Erom all parts of Europe, thousands upon thousands hurried at the summons of the I'ope to engage in the holy war. "The most distant islands and savage countries," says William of Malmesbury, "were inspired with this ardent passion." It is said that in the spring of icg6 not less than six million souls were in motion toward I'alestiiie. Tlie first army consisted of twenty thousand foot, and was commanded by a Burgundian gentleman, Walter the I'enniless : it marched through Hungary. The second, consisting of forty thou^and men, women, and children, was led by Peter the Hermit. A third expedition of a similar kind, composed of fifteen thousand Germans, was led by a priest named Gottschalk. Then the real crusaders made their appearance, — the gentry, the yeomanry, and the serfs of feudal Europe, under chiefs of the first rank and renown. Six armies appeared in the field, marching separately, and at consiilerable intervals of time. Their respective leaders were Godfrey of iJouillon, Duke of Lorraine; Hugh the Great, Count of Verinandois, and brother of Phi- lippe, King of France; Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, the son of William the Conqueror; Count Robert of Flanders; Iiohemond, Prince of Tarentum, son of the famous Guiscard, under whom was Tancred. After some time spent in feasting, the crusaders crossed into Asia Minor, accompanied by the unfortunate Peter the Hermit. Here their first step was the siege and capture of Nice, the cajjital of Soliman, 24th June, 1097. This monarch was also defeated by ISohemoiul, Tancred, and Godfrey, at DoryLx'um. JSaldwin, brother of Godfrey, now crossed into Mesopotamia, where he obtnii^ed the jjrinciiiality of Edessa. After some time the cru- saders reached .Syria, and laid siege to Antioeh. For seven months the city held out, and the ranks of the besiegers were fearfully thinned by famine and disease. Many even brave warriors lost heart, and began to desert. Melancholy to relate, among the list of cowards was the poor enthusiast who had planned the enterprise. Peter was actually several miles on his way home when he was overtaken by the soldiers of Tancred, and brought back to undergo a public reprimand. At length, on tlie 3d of June, 1098, Antioeh was taken, and the inhabitants were massacred by if ' li'iiji :; *v-f I;! k f 'f. r i .i ,■ 1.' li r !^ 4 i'i 442 Crusades. the infuriated crusaders ; who were in their turn bcsie.c;ed by an army of two hundred thousand Mohammedans sent by tlic Persian Sultan. Once more famine and pestilence did their deadly work. Multitudes also de- serted, and, escai)ing over the walls, carried the news of the sad condition of the licsieged buck to Europe, liut again victory crowned the efforts of the Christians. On the 2Sth of June, 1098, the Mohammedans were utterly routed, and the way to Jerusalem opened. It was on a bright sunnner morning (1099) that forty thousand crusaders, the miserable renniaiit c.f that vast array wliich two years before had laid siege to Nice, obtained their fust glimpse of Jerusalem. The emotion was inten-.e, the scene sub- lime. On the 15th of Jidy, after a siege of rather more than five weeks, the grand object of the expedition was realized. Jerusalem was delivered from the hands of the infidel. Eight days after the capture of the city, Godfrey of ]5ouillon was unanimously elected King of Jeiusalcm. His kingdom, at first comprising little more than the mere city of Jerusalem, was gradually extended l)y conquest until it included the whole of Pales- tine. A language resembling Norman French was established, a code of feudal laws drawn up; Jerusalem was created into a patriarchate, and ISeth- Ichem into a bishopric. The best part of Asia Minor was restored to the Greek Empire, while liohemond became Prince of Antioch. Fur nearly fifty years the three I^atin principalities or kingdoms of the I'^ast — Kdessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem — not only maintained themselves against the attacks of the Mohammedans of Egypt and Syria, but greatly increased in size, power, and wealth. At Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitallers of .St. John and the Knights Temjilars. Through gross mismanagement, nearly all the advantage gained was lost; and about 1144 the Christians in Palestine implored help from I'^uropc, which gave rise to the Second Cnisade. — Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed liy the Emperor Conrad HI., and Louis VII. of France. The crusaders were defeated, and Jerusalem was lost in 11S7. Third Cnisadi-. — This was a glorious but fruitless effort for the recov- ery of Palestine, in which the Emperor Frederick Ibrbarossa, Philip II. of France, and Richard Lionheart of England took part, 1190. Fourth Crusade. — This was undertaken in 1195 by the Emperor Henry VI., and was successful till his death in 1197. Fifth Crusade. — Proclaimed by Innocent HI., 1198. I>aldwin, Count of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and captured Constantinople, 1202; but his companions returned, a. id he was left unsupi^orted. The Children'' s Crusade. — (Jccurrcd 1212. It consisted of thirty thou- sand French children and twenty thousand Germans, led respectively by Stephen of Colyes and Nicholas of Hungary. Loth armies of boys set out unarmed, and by different routes, to reach the sea. One German division crossed the Alps, and reached lirindisi. The other attempted to cross Mont Cenis, and were mostly lost ; while a portion of the French jjarty reaching Marseilles, and not finding the sea open before them as they had anticipated, took passage in seven vessels provided by Porcus and Ferris, Curate, — Delilah. 443 ged by an army of sian Sultan. Once ihiltitudcs also de- t the sad condition wned the efforts of medans were utterly in a bright summer serablc remnant cf e to Nice, obtaineil cnse, the scene sub- ire than five weeks, salem was delivered capture of the city, of Jeiusalem. His c city of Jerusalem, the whole of I'alcs- ,tablishcd, a code of itriarchate, and licth- was restored to the \ntioch. V«T nearly )f the Mast — F.dcssa, mselves against the but gre.itly increased idcd the two famous le Knights Templars. ,agc gained was lost; help from Kurope, 146, headed by the .'he crusaders were effort for the recov- irbarossa, Philip II. t, 1 190. the Emperor Henry 98. r.aldwin, Count antinoplc, 1202; but isted of thirty thou- Icd respectively I'y rmies of boys set out One German division attempted to cross of the French party ore them as they had y Porous and Ferris, two slave-traders, and cither perished by shipwreck or were sold into slavery. Sixf/i Crusade. — Was undertaken by the Emperor Frederick II., 1228, who obtained possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 1240 he was joined by Kicliard, Earl of Cornwall, who, JKjwever, soon left. Stfcnth Cyusitdc. — i^y I,(juis IX. (St. Louis), who was defeated and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 1250; released on payment of a heavy ran- som, he concluded a truce of ten years. Eii;lith CniSiule. — This was the la,-.t, and was undertaken by St. Louis, who dietl while on the way, of a contagious disease, at Carthage in Africa. Other princes followed him, chief among whom was Prince ivlward, after- ward Edward I. In 1291 the Sultan took Acre, and the Christians were driven out of .Syria. Cu'rate. Guardian of souls. An assistant jiricst to a pastcjr or rector. Cy'cle. A series of numbers, and letters standing for numbers, always recounted in the same order u|)on the completion of the series. The cycle includes the Golden Number, Dominical Letter, and I'^pact. Cycles enable us to reckon the time on which the annual feasts of the Church will fall. Cyrii'lic Al'phabet, invented by Cyril the Apostle for the Southern Slavi, S63, based upon the older Gkagolitic. With some modifications, it is used in Russia and other Slavic countries. Dalmat'ic. The deacon's vestment, worn at high Mass; open on both sides, with wide sleeves, and marked with two stripes. Dea'con. " Minister, servant." One in orders. lie is the highest of all whose oftke it is to serve the jiricst in the administration of the sacraments. Decre'tals. The body of tlie canon law consists, first, of the Decrctalium, a collection made by Gratian, a IJencdictine monk, after the middle of the twelfth century, in imitation of the Roman Pandects, and drawn from the opinions of the fathers, popes, and Church councils; second, of the Decre- talia, collected by Pope Gregory IX., nearly a century later, from the decre- tal rescripts or epistles of the popes, as the code of Justinian was from the constitutions of the emperors. To these, additions were made by several succeeding popes. De'i Gra'tia (Eat., "by the favor of God") is a formula taKcn from several apostolical expressions in the New Testament. It is believed to have been first formally used by the bishops at the Council of Ephosus, 431 A.D. Afterward it came to be ajipended by archbishops, bishops, abbots, abbesses, deans, monks, and even chaplains, to their titles, in letters and other docu- ments, as a humble expression of dependence on the Most High. After the middle of the thirteenth century, the higher clcrgv wrote, Dei ft apos- toliccE sedis gratid, "by the favor of God and the .Xpostolic See." At a later period many of them preferred to write miscratione divind, pcnnissione di'vi ri d, a.nd the like; but they still continued to be styled by others, Z>« gratid. Deli'lah (Heb. "the languishing") is the name of a Philistine woman whom Samson loved. By her flattering blandishments, she obtained from him the secret that his God-given strength lay in his locks ; and, having cut these ! J,f \'-).\\i M;(. if' ^iU?!!) i3 V I ffi I 444 Deuteronomy. — Uominus Vobiscum. off while he hiy asleep, she then treacherously bctrayca ilic strcngthless warrior into the hamis of his ciieniies. Deuteron'omy. The name given by the Council of Trent to the fifth book of the Old Testament. Dev'il. I.iaifer, an evil spirit. Devo'tion, Feasts of. Days set apart by the Cnurch for particular devotions, noL necessarily f.isting days. Di'es I'rae. The name generally given (from the opening words) to the famous nicili val hymn on the Last Judgment. The authorship of the hymn has been a-cribed to Gregory the Great, St. liernard of Clairvaux, Unihertus, and Frangii)ani, the last two of whom were noted as Church hyniiiistsi Imt in all pn)bability it proceeded from the i)cn of the Franciscan, Thomas of Celano, a native of the Abruzzi, in the kingdom of Naples, wIkj died about the year 1255. When the Church adopted it, and made it a portion of the service of the Mass, cannot be ascertained with any exactness ; but it must have been in any case before 13S5. Several alterations were then made in the text ; that, however, is believed to be the original which is engraved on a marble tablet in the Church of St. Francis at Mantua. It has been fre- quently trr.nslated into English. Di'ocese. The name of a i)opulated territory under the ecclesiastical govern- ment of a bisho]), who is assisted by jiriests within his jurisdiction. It is divided and subdivided into parishes, stations, etc. Dis'cipline. The laws which bind the subjects of the Clutrch in their conduct. Dispensa'tion. The relaxation of a law in a particular case, which has been made for the general good. Doc'tors of the Church. The seventeen saints who received this title after death because of superior wisdom and gooilness. Dog'ma. A revealed truth contained in the \V(jrd of God, written or unwrit- ten (in Scripture or tradition), and proposed by the Church for the belief of the faithful. Domin'icans. An order of preaching friars, founded at Toulouse in I2l5by St. Dominic (Domingo) de Guzman. St. Dominic was born at Calahorra, in Old Castile, 1170. lie studied theology at I'alencia, and in 1199 became canon and archdeacon of Osnia in Castile. In IJ05, along with his sujierior, Diego dc Azebes, ISishop of Osma, he began to itinerate through the South of F'rance, for the i)urpose of converting thj hcietical .Mbigenses; and, convinced that the ignorance of the people and the worldliness of the clergy were great helps to the progress of heresy, he instituted the order for the purpose of preaching and the cure of souls. The order of the Dominicans was confirmed by Innocent III., and llonorius III. in 1216. The members followed the rule of St. Augustine, somewhat modified; their dress was a white garment, resembling that of the Carthusians, with a black cloak and pointed caj) of the same color. In 1220 they took the vow of poverty. Dominic died at Uologna, 1221, and was canonized by Gregory IX. in 1233. Dom'inus Vo'biscum. " The Lord be with you." A salutation in the Mass and office. ilic strengthless the fifth book of ticular devotions, •(Is) to the famous of the hymn has irvaux, Umbertus, rch hymiiists; Init ;iscan, 'rUomas (if s, who died about it a portion of the tness ; Init it must ere then made in ich is engraved on It has been frc- ;lesiastical govern- jurisdiction. It is :h in tlieir conduct, sc, which has been vcd this title after written or unwrit- ;h for the belief of oulouse in I2i5by born at Calahorra, nd in 1199 became g with his superior, through the South Albigenses; and, worldliness of the stituted the order The order of the onus III. in 12 16. hat modified; their isians, with a black they took the vow lionized by Gregory tation in the Mass Douay Bible. — Easter. 445 Dou'ay Bi'ble. A misleading name given to a translation of the Holy Scrip, tures in M>e aniun;; I'lnglish-speakiii;^ Catholics. The liibie was imt trans- lated into English at Douay, but only a part of it was publi>lnil there. The versidi- now in use has been altered in such a manner as to make it unidentiial with the otiginal l)ouay liible. Dove. Ill ( hristiaii art, llie (Kivc is employed as an einbkin of the I Inly Ghost, no iloubi from the fact of this being the form in which the .'spirit desieiuled on our Lord at hi> baptism. l'"roin the dove being used to svm- boli/e purity, it is generally represented white, wilii its beak and claws red, as they occur in nature. In the older pictures, a golden nimbus surrouiuls its head, the nimbus being fretpiently divided by a cross, cither red or black. In stained-glass windows we see the ilovc with seven rays proceeding frmn it, terminating in seven stars, significative of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Holding an olive-branch, the dove is an emblem of jicacc. When seen issuing from the lips of dying saints and martyrs, it represents the human soul. Doxol'ogy, a Greek word, signifies an exclamation or prayer in honor of the niajesty of (lod, such as Taul uses at the close of his epistles, and some- times even in the middle of an arguni'iu (Kom. ix. 5). The hymn of the angels (l.uke ii. i.)) is also called a dwxology by the Christian Church; so likewise is the clnse of the " Lord's I'rayer." Easter. The feast of the resurrection of our Loui. i.nstcr, I'aster Day, or Easter Sunday, is thought to derive its Teutonic name, ( isterii, from the feast of the goddess Ostaia, or I'.astre, the iiersonification of the morning or the Kast, and also of the opening year. The feast was celebrated by the an- cient Saxons in the spring, and for it the I'"athers of the Church substituted the Christian festival. Some philologists maintain that both the English and (iennan words come from the old Saxon cf/iv nr cfAv/, which means rising, liecause nature arises anew in the spring. The Anglo-Saxon name of April was Estermonath, uul the month is still known in Germany as Ostcrmonath. The worship of Ostera appears to have been very prevalent in Northern Germany, and to have been carried to England by the Saxons. It continued to be commemorated in the former country until the beginning of the present century, by the kindling of bonfires and in other ways. P>y the Mosaic law, the Passover, among the Jews, was celebrated the four- teenth day of the month Abib, afterward called Xisan, that is, within a day or two before or after the vernal eepiinox. The early Christians dil'fcred as to the time of observing Easter. The Western Churches, taught, as they claimed, by St. i'liili)) and St. Paul, celebrated the nearest Sunday to the full moon of Xisan, without counting the day on which the Passover was honored. On the other hand, the Eastern Churches, following, as they said, the tradition derived from St. John and the Jewish calendar, adopted the 14th of Nisan as the day of the crucilixion, and celebrated Easter the third day after, whatever day of the week that might be. On this account they were designated as Quarto-deciniaiis. The cpiestion was not settled until Constantinc brought it (325) before the Council of Nice, when Easter was authoritatively declared for the whole Church to be always ;ii nil I >i:'; ■ni IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 2 = ■^ 1^ 12.2 ^ m pa 1 = 111^ ( ^ yti 9 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MStO (716) 872-4503 m .-( lli^ if Pi irii 446 Ecce Homo. — Eden. the first Sunday after the full moon which occurs on or next after March 21 ; and if the full moon happen on a Sunday, Easter is to be the Sunday following. The most characteristic Easter rite, and the most widely diffused, is the use of Paschal egi^s. They are usually stained of various colors with dye- woods or herbs, and people mutually make presents of them. There can be little doubt that the use of eggs at this season was originally symbolical of the revivification of nature, — the springing-forth of life in spring. The practice is not confined to Christians. The Jews used eggs in the feast of the Passover; and we are told that the Persians, when they keep the festival of the solar new year (in March), mutually present each other with colored eggs. From the Christiah point of view, this " Feast of Eggs " is usually considered as emblematic of the resurrection and of a future life. Ec'ce Ho'mo. The name usually given by artists to paintings representing Christ bound and crowned with thorns previous to his being led forth to crucifixion. On this e.xalted subject, the highest efforts of art have been employed. Ecclesias'tes. The title of a canonical book of the Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is Kohclcth, which signifies nearly the same. The inscrip- tion with which it commences is: "The words of Kohclcth, the son of David, king in Jerusalem." Its authorship is commonly ascribed to Solo- mon. Ecs'tasy. A state in which a man passes out of himself, or beyond his own control. E'den. According to the Hebrew Scriptures, the first residence of man. The de- scription given of it in the 13ook of Genesis is brief, obscure, and, in appear- ance, legendary. The allegorical theory will be noticed (under Fall, q. v.). In general, however, scholars have preferred to understand the story liter- ally, and to believe that the writer or writers of it meant it to be so under- stood ; but they have not therefore been unanimous as to the historical reality, or even the geographical position, of Eden. It would be difficult, in the whole history of opinion, to find any subject which has so invited, and at the same time so completely baffled, conjecture, as the Garden of Eden. In order more clearly to understand the merit of the several theo- ries, it will be necessary to submit to a careful examination the historic narrative on which they arc founded. Omitting those portions of the text of Gen. ii. 8-14 which do not bear upon the geographical position of Eden, the description is as follows: "And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden eastward. . . . And the river goeth forth from Eden to water the garden; and from thence it is divided, and becomes four heads (or arms). The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of Ilavilah, where is the gold. And the gold of that land is good : there is the bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is Hiddekel ; that is it which floweth bo "ore Assyria. And the fourth river, that is Euphrates." In the eastern portion, Elevation. — Epact. 447 ■ next after March to be the Sunday ely diffused, is the s colors with dye- them. There can iginally symbolical ife in spring. The , eggs in the feast hen they keep the )rcscnt each other ;w, this " Feast of lurrection and of a ntings representing being led forth to s of art have been lid Testament. Its same. The inscrip- Lohcleth, the son of ily ascribed to Solo- or beyond his own nee of man. The de- cure, and, in appear- (under Fall, q. v.). tand the story liter- it to be so under- as to the historical would be difticult, hich has so invited, e, as the Garden of of the several theo- lination the historic portions of the text al position of Eden, ilanted a garden in Eden to water the our heads (or arms), mpasseth the whole that land is good: name of the second land of Cash. And vhich floweth be "ore the eastern portion, then, of the region of Eden, was the garden planted. The river which flowed through Eden watered the garden, and thence branched off into four distinct streams. The first problem to be solved, then, is this : To find a river which, at some stage of its course, is divided into four streams, two of which are the Tigris and Euphrates. The identity of these rivers with the Iliddekcl and I'Vath has never been disputed, and ncj hypothesis wliich omits them is worthy of consideration. That the Iliddekel is the Tigris, and the P'rath the Euphrates, has never been denied, except by those who assume that the whole narrative is a myth which originated else- where, and was adapted by Hebrews to their own geographical notions. With regard to the Pison, the most ancient and most universally received opinion identifies it with the Ganges. Joscphus, Euscliius, and many others held this. Piut Kashi maintained that the Pison was the Nile. That the Pison was the Indus, was an opinion current long before it was revived by Ewald, and adopted by Kalisch. Philostorgius conjectured that it was the Hydaspes. Some have found the Pison in the Naharmalca, one of the artificial canals which formerly joined the Euphrates with the Tigris. All the theories which have been advanced share the inevitable fate of conclu- sions which are based upon inadequate premises. The problem may be indeterminate because the data are insufficient. It would scarcely, on any other hypoi'iesis, have admitted of so many apparent solutions. Eleva'tion. The act of elevating the blessed Sacrament by the priest above his head, for the adoration of the faithful. Em'ber Days. The Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday which follow Dec. 13, the first Sunday in Lent, Pentecost, and Sept. 14. They are fasting- days. Em'inence. A title given to cardinals by Urban VIII. Up to the period of his Pontificate, they had been called Most Illustrious and Most Reverend. Encyc'lical (litcra encycUccc). A circular letter addressed by the Pojjc to all the bishops in communion with him, in which he condemns prevalent errors, and informs them of the attitude of the different peoples in their countries towards the Church. The letter also contains suggestions relating to edu- cational matters, and explanations of the difficulties with which the Church has to contend in particular countries, as well as the means that should be employed by Catholics to aid the Church towards the fulfilment of her Divine mission. E'pact, in chronology, is the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodi- cal month; or of the solar year above the lunar year of twelve synodical months ; or of several solar months above as many synodical months ; or of several solar years above as many periods, each consisting of twelve synodical months. The menstrual epact is the excess of the civil calendar month above the lunar month. For a month of thirty-one days, this epact is one day, eleven hours, fifteen minutes, fifty-seven seconds, if we suppose new moon to occur on the first day of the month. The annual epact is the excess of the solar year above the lunar. As the Julian solar year is (nearly) three hundred and sixty-five days, and the Julian lunar year is (nearly) three hundred and fifty-four days, the annual epact is nearly eleven K 911 if lit Hi' :- mh IHtm^ i, ; la hlllf ! ', ■ flj: 'Ifi i^ij :r i 448 Epiphany. — Escurial. days. The epact for two Julian years is, therefore, nearly twenty-two days; for three years, thirty-three days, and so on. When, however, the epact passes thirty days, thirty falls to be deducted from it, as making an interca- lary month. For three years, then, the epact is properly three days; and for four years, adding eleven days, it is fourteen days, and so on. Follow- ing the cycle, starting from a new moon on the ist of January, we find that the ei)act becomes tiiirty or zero in the nineteenth year. The epact for the twentieth year is again eleven, and so on. The years in the cycle are marked by Roman numerals, I., II., III., etc., called the Golden Numbers; and a table of the Julian cpacts exhibits each year in the cycle with its Golden Number and epact. As the Gregorian year (see Calend.vr) differs from, and is in advance of, the Julian by eleven days (the number lost on the Julian account before the Gregorian computation of time was introduced in England), and as eleven days is the difference between the solar and lunar years, it follows that the Gregorian epact for any year is the same with the Julian epact for the year preceding it. Epiph'any denoted, among the heathen Greeks, a festival held in commemora- tion of the appearance of a god in any particular place. The word subse- quently passed into the usage of the Christian Church, and was used to designate the manifestation or appearance ot Christ upon the earth to the Gentiles, with especial reference to the day on which he was seen and wor- shipped by the wise men who came from the East. This occasion is com- memorated in the Church on the 6th of January, the twelfth day after Christmas ; and hence the Epiphany is also called Twelfth Day. Epis'tle. The lesson in the Church service called the Epistle derives its name from being most frequently taken from the Ajiostolic Epistles, although it is sometimes also taken from other parts of Scripture. This part of the service is believed to be as old as the si.xth century. Escu'rial. A famous monastery of New Castile, .Spain, in the province of Madrid. This solitary pile of granite has been called the eighth wonder of the world, and at the time of its erection surpassed every building of the kind in size and magnificence. It owes its origin, it is said, to an insi)ired vow made by Philip II. during the battle of St. Quentin. On that occasion he implored the aid of St. Lorenzo, on whose day the battle was fought, and vowed that, should victory be granted to him, he would dedicate a monastery to the saint. The Escurial is built in the form of a gridiron, in allusion to the instrument of St. Lorenzo's martyrdom. Towers represent the feet of the gridiron, which is supposed to be upside down ; and from the centre of one of the sides a range of buildings abuts, forming the royal residence, and representing the handle. The Escurial was begun in 1563, and finished in 15S4, and was intended to serve as a palace, mausoleum, and monastery. Kings only, avid the mothers of kings, are buried here. The Escurial is an immense building : it cost si.x million ducats. Its li- brary, previous to the sack of the Escurial by the French in 1808, contained thirty thousand printed and four thousand three hundred manuscript vol- umes, mainly treasures of Arabic literature. In 1872 the Escurial was struck by lightning, and partially burned. Eucharist. — Exegesis. 449 ly twenty-two days ; however, the epact maknig an interca- rly three clays ; and md so on. Follow- inuary, we find that The epact for the rs in the cycle are J Golden Numbers; n the cycle with its e Calendak) differs (the number lost on f time was introduced tween the solar and my year is the same held in commemora- ce. The word subse- rch, and was used to ipon the earth to the he was seen and wor- This occasion is com- the twelfth day after vclfth Day- pistle derives its name : Epistles, although it ire. This part of the in, in the province of led the eighth wonder :l every building of the is said, to an inspired itin. On that occasion the battle was fought, he would dedicate a form of a gridiron, in om. Towers represent pside down ; and from .)uts, forming the royal al was begun in 1 563. a palace, mausoleum, kings, are buried here, million ducats. Its li- ■ench in 1808, contained undred manuscript vol- 1872 the Escurial was Eu'charist. As a sacrament, the true body and blood of Christ under the appearance of bread and wine. As a sacrifice, "the oblation of a sensible thing made to God through a lawful minister by a real change in the thing offered, to testify God's absolute authority over us and our entire depend- ence on Ilim." Evangel'ical is an adjective derived from the Greek eiiaiigeliou, "good news," or "the Gospel," and is applied in general to any thing which is marked by the spirit of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Thus we speak of an evan- gelical sermon, of evangelical piety, evangelical views, etc.; though it is but right to mention that the term " evangelical " in such a connection is used by a portion of the religious community specially to denote certain peculiar theological opinions, which are held to constitute the only true and complete expression of Christian belief. Evan'gelists. The authors of the Four Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. E'vil is opposed to the Divine order of the universe. There are many appar- ent exceptions to the pervading harmony and happiness of creation; there are convulsions in the physical world; there are suffering, decay, and death, throughout the .vhole range of organic existence ; and the appellation of evil is commonly applied to such phenomena. In the face of the human consciousness, such phencniiena appear to be infractions of the gener.il order and good, and it pronounces them evil ; but they are not such, properly speaking, because they are helps to good. Sin is the only real evil, because it can never be made use of to obtain good. Excommunica'tion. An ecclesiastical censure, and exclusion from the com- munion of the Church. It is a power included in the power of the keys, or of binding and loosing, given by Christ to Peter and the apostles : " If he will not hear the Jhurch, let him be to her as a heathen and publican" (Matt, xviii. 17). Exege'sis projierly signifies the exposition or interpretation of any writing, but is almost exclusively employed in connection with the interpretation of Sacred Scripture. To interpret a writing, means to ascertain thoroughly and fundamentally what are the conceptions and thoughts which the author designs to express by the words he has used. For this purpose it is neces- sary, in regard to books written in a foreign language, that the exegete should know well, first, the precise signification of the words and idioms employed by the writer. This is termed grammatico-philological exegesis. In the next place, he must be acquainted with the things denoted by these words, and also with the history, antiquities, and modes of thought of the nation. This is termed histoyico-autiquarian exegesis. Doth together con- stitute grammntico-historical exegesis. When only an exposition of the system of thought contained in a writing is sought after, this is termed doc- trinal or dogmatic exegesis ; while the investigation of a secret sense, other than that literally conveyed by the words of a writing, is termed allegorical exegesis. But if a writing is regarded from a practical point of view, and in reference to its bearing upon life and manners, the exposition is termed iM ■I k,,f V/'^i \i m > I :m : ;! f j i '■: J J rM!'.? ■1^1 I : I ■tl:! !•» j fK A\ 450 Exorcism. — Fathers of the Church. moral exegesis. The complete and coherent exegesis of a writing forms what is called d, commentary ; but, if restricted to certain difficult words or knotty points, the elucidations arc termed scluiliu. In the earliest ages of the Christian Church, the allegorical method of exegesis prevailed. Ex'orcism. The casting-out of the devil from possessed persons by those who have received power from God. Extreme Unc'tion. A sacrament of the Church which imparts to the Chris- tian ill sickness gface and strength to encounter the struggle of the dying hour. The rite of unction in different forms is common to several of the sacraments ; the name " extreme " is given to that of the present sacrament, because it is reserved for the last act of the Christian career. Faith. A firm, undoubting assent given to revealed truths, not because of the proof which can be produced for them, but simply because God has revealed them. Faith'ful. Persons who have the faith of Christ. Fast. Abstinence from food and drink. Fa'ther. The title common to all priests. It is a mark of dignity as well as a name that implies a paternal solicitude for the spiritual welfare of those committed to their charge. Fa'thers of the Church. Certain early writers of the Christian Church. The term Ablia was, in the first century of Christianity, ajiplicd indiscrimi- nately to all theological writers who were distinguished l)y their learning, genius, or piety. Gradually, however, the word I'"ather, or, \nore fully, Fathers of the Church, was confined to those teachers whose writings were considered pre-eminently orthodox, and who might be looked upon as the progenitors, as it were, of certain dogmas, upon the development of which they had exercised a more or less direct influence. The temporal limits within which the Fathers arc to be confined, as well as their jjroper share of authority in matters of faith, have long been points of grave discussion. While some include the Fathers of the first century, generally called the Apostolic Fathers, on account of their being the contemporaries or discijiles of Christ and the Apostles, they are excluded by others ; again, by some, the seventh century is made the closing period, while others carry the list down to the twelfth, or even the thirteenth, century. With respect to the authority of the Fathers, some held their words to be as sacred as those of the prophets and sacred writers; while others ridicule the notion that Sym- machus should be made equal to St. Paul, or Didynuis to St. John the Evangelist. Others, again, took the middle course of regarding them not as infallible, much less as prophets and apostles ; but held that when in matters of faith the most perfect and unswerving unanimity reigns among them, then only the Holy Ghost is to be considered to speak through them. Immense as is the range and variety of their writings, ascetic, apologetic, polemical, exegetical, moral, historical, or dogmatical, so also is the diver- , sity of their individual value. The philosopher, the historian, the antiquary, each and all will find their writings, as a whole, to contain an inexhaustible fund of instruction. Of no less interest, perhaps, are their works in rela- tion to the writers individually. These, issuing from all parts of the known lurch. of a writing forms lin clitikult words or the earliest ages of is prevailed, jersons by those who mparts to the Chris- struggle of tlic dying ion to several of the he present sacrament, career. ruths, not because of iply because God has of dignity as well as a ritual vveltare of those the Christian Church, lity, applied indiscrimi- shcd by their learning, Father, or, nore fully, ers whose writings were be looked upon as the development of which ;. The temporal limits ill as their proper share nts of grave discussion, ury, generally called the temporaries or disciples others ; again, by some, ilc others carry the list y. With respect to the be as sacred as those of Lile the notion that Sym- idymus to St. John the of regarding them not but held that when in unanimity reigns among . to speak through them, itings, ascetic, apologetic, cal, so also is the diver- J historian, the antiquary, contain an inexhaustible are their works in rcla- ,m all parts o£ the known Feuillants, Congregation of. 451 world, from all ranks, all creeds, could not but impress the stamp of their nationality and callings, besides that of their youth or age, vigor or feeble- ness, upon their writing. Jew, Greek, Roman, African, Spaniard, — orator, poet, lawyer, statesman, priest, — they all bring with them that which was their own before they embraced the new faith; their dialectic power, their fantastic poetry, their graceful speech, their stern austerity. We will now take a brief survey of these writcio. They are divided into two distinct periods, the first of which goes down to the Council of Nicxa, 325 A. D. Of those who head the list, the Apostolic Fathers, very little need be said, as their writings have come down to us in a mutilated state, and as the writers themselves owe their chief celebrity to the times in which they hapjiened to live. We have here I'arnabas, the son of Teos- ter, Dishop of Antioch, Milliades, etc. Ne.xt come the Church Fathers of Asia Minor, men of more practical and peaceful tendencies: Ilegesippus; Irenxus, Bishop of Lyon and Vicnne; Ilippolytus, his disciple, of unknown birthplace and renowned name. In the North-African Church, we find Tertullian of Carthage, rhetorician and advocate, a man of profound mind and vast influence ; Cyi)rian, Commodian, and Arnobius. The Church which, more than any other, endeavored to combine speculation with faith, and which gradually became, through its high degree of culture and erudi- tion, the very centre of Christianity, is the Alexandrian. And here we have PantKnus; Clement the Alexandrine; Origen, called Adamantinus, the eminent Neo-Platonist, born 185 in Alexandria, one of the most influ- ential writers of the whole Christian Church ; Ilerculas, with his discijile Dionysius, a liberal and moderate man ; Gregory, the worker of miracles ; Pamphilus; and Julius Africanus, the first Christian chorographer. In the second period, which dates fronr the Nicxan Council, and comes down to Gregory II., 604 A. D., a period altogether superior, on account of the great number of intellectual and erudite men who devoted their lives and labors to the Church, we have to distinguish the Greek from the Latin Fathers. Among the former we have again to draw a line between those of the Alexandrian school — like Euscbius Pamphili, the Herodotus of the Church; Athanasius, the father of orthodoxy; Basil the Great, Doctor Ecclesix, and his brother Gregory of Xyssa ; Gregory of Nazianzen, called the Theologian, by way of eminence; Did\mus, and Cyrillus, some time Patriarch of Alexandria, the chief prosecutor of Ncslorius — and those of the Antiochian school, where we find Ephraem Syrus, "the prophet of the Syrians;" Cyril of Jerusalem, the converted Arian ; John Chrysostom, of brilliant eloquence; Diodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, one of the chief founders of the Antiochian school ; and Theodoretus, Bishop of Cyrus. Feuil'lants, Congrega'tion of, a reform of the Cistercian Order, remarkable as forming part of the great religious movement in the Catholic Church during the sixteenth century, contemporary with, and probably stimulated b}', the progress of the Reformation. The author of this reform was Jean de la Barriere, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Feuillants, who, painfully struck by the relaxation of its discipline, laid down for him- self a new and much more austere course of life, in which he soon found ■ ! I ■ i 452 Fillan, St. — First-born. ( I i4 I I ! \i'r H mi > .! i' I I 1 ■!' !.'',;: l.llU- many imitators and associates among the brethren of his Order. The rule thus reformed was ajjproved by Pope Sixtus V. j and a convent was founded for tlieni iiy Ilcnry III., in the Rue St. Honor^, Paris. The cele- brated Revolutionary club of Fcuillants took its name from this order, the convent of which, in the Rue St. Honnre, was the place of meeting for the members of the club. It was founded in 1790 by Lafayette, Sityes, La Rochefoucauld, and others holding moderate opinions. The club was at first called the "Company of 17S9," and was intended to support the constitu- tion against the ultra party. It reckoned among its members individuals of all classes, who took the constitution of England as their model. This opposition served, however, only to accelerate the revolutionary movement. On the 27th January, 1791, on Count Clermont Tonnerre being elected president of the club, a popular insurrection broke out against it; and, on the 2Sth of March, the assembly in the cloister was forcibly dispersed by a raging mob. Fil'lan, St. Two Scotch-Irish saints of the name of Fillan appear in the Church calendars: (i) St. Fillan, or Faolan, surnamed the Leper, had his yearly festival on the 20th of June. His chief church in Scotland was at the cast end of Loch Erne, in Perthshire, where " St. Fillan's Well " was long believed to have supernatural powers of healing. (2) St. Fillan, the abbot, lived in the eighth century, and had his yearly festival on the 7th or 9th of January. His church in Ireland was in the county of Wcstmeath. His chief church in Scotland was in Perthshire, in the upper part of Glen- docharl, which takes from him the name of Strathfillan. First-born, in scriptural use, signifies the first male offspring, whether of man or of other animals. Under the title arising from this recognition are to be classed many observances regarding the first-born of animate beings, whether rational or irrational, which prevailed among Eastern nations gen- erally, or which are specially established by the Mosaic law. The first-born male, whether of men or of animals, was devoted from the time of birth to God. In the case of first-born male children, the law required that, within one month after birth, they should be redeemed by an offering not exceeding in value five shekels of silver (E.xod. xiii. 13). If the child died before the expiration of thirty days, the obligation of redemption ceased; but if that term were completed, the obligation was not extinguished by the subsequent death of the infant. This redemption took place according to a fixed ceremonial. Before the time of Moses, it was in the power of the father to decide which among all his sons should be considered the first-born. Moses ordained that the right should invariably belong to the first-born in point of time. Among other nations, considerable variety existed as to the succession of children to the inheritance of their parent. The Greeks excluded the females of a family so rigorously from the inher- itance, that, in the event of a father dying intestate and without heirs male of his body, the nearest male kinsman succeeded to the estate. The later Romans, on the contrary, placed daughters on the same footing with sons as to the division of intestate property. The Mohammedans gave the daughters a certain share of the father's estate, but only one-half of that r « s Order. The rule md a convent was 6, Paris. The cele- from this order, the ilace of meeting for :,afayette, Si^yes, La The club was at first support the constitu- members individuals s their model. This jlutionary movement, nnerre being elected ut against it ; and, on )rcibly dispersed by a Fillan appear in the ed the Leper, had his ch in Scotland was at St. Fillan's Well" was ig. (2) St. Fillan, the festival on the 7th or county of Wcstmeath. le upper part of Glen- Ian. ipring, whether of man this recognition are to )rn of animate beings, ,g Eastern nations gen- aiclaw. The first-born from the time of birth the law required that, med by an offering not 13). If the child died of redemption ceased; not extinguished by the ,00k place according to it was in the power of lould be considered the Id invariably belong to ons, considerable variety eritance of their parent, jorously from the inher- ' and without heirs male o the estate. The later same footing with sons Mohammedans gave the ,ut only one-haU of that Flectamus Genua. — Francis of Assisi. 453 assigned to the sons. All the nations of Germanic descent restricted the succession, especially in land, to heirs male ; but the Visigoths in Spain admitted females, except in certain contingencies. Flec'tamus Gen'ua ("Let us bend our knees"). Words used by the dea- con before the collects in the office of Good Friday and in certain masses. Fran'cJs de Paul, Saint, originally a Franciscan, became a hermit, gaining fame both for his terrible asceticism and his rcinited miracles : he estab- lished an order of hermits, and served Charles VIIL and Louis XL of France; b. 1416, d. 1507. Canonized 1519. Fran'cis of Assi'si, founder of the Franciscan Order, and a saint of the Catholic Church, was one of the most extraordinary men of his .ige, born 1 182. His baptismal name was John; but from his familiarity with the Romance, or language of the troubadours, in his youth, he acquired the name of II Francesco (" \.\\c little Frenchman"). He engaged eagerly in exercises of chivalry and of arms ; and in one of the petty feuds of the time he was taken prisoner, and detained for a year in captivity at Perugia. An illness which he there contracted turned his thoughts from earth ; and although he again engaged hi military pursuits, a second illness, at Spolcto, decided his career for life. lie resolved to fulfil litci.dly the counsels of the Gospel, and he especially devoted himself to poverty. His father, hav- ing in vain confined him in a dark room of his own house, cited him before the magistrates, and, on P'rancis's dec'ining all civil jurisdiction in such a case, before the bishop, in order to compel him to renounce his inheritance. Francis abandoned all, even to the very clothes he wore. This was in his twenty-sixth year, in 120S. His enthusiasm by degrees excited emulation. Two of his fellow-townsmen, liernard (^Hiintavalle and Peter Cattano, were his first associates. They were followed, although slowly, by others; and it was not till 12 10 that, his brotherhood having now increased to eleven in number, he drew up for them a rule, selected in the true spirit of religious enthusiasm, by thrice opening at random the Gospels upon the altar, and taking the passages thus indicated as the basis of the young institute. In common with the older forms of monastic life, the F'ranciscan institute is founded on the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience ; but of these the second was, in the eyes of Francis, the first in im|)ortance and in spir- itual efficacy. Numbers crowded to the standard of Franc ■• He told them off in parties to different provinces of Italy. Five of a.t lirother- hood repaired to Morocco to preach to the Moors, and, as the first martyrs of the Order, fell victims to their holy daring. Success removed all the hesitation with which the institute at first was regarded, and in 1216 the order was solemnly approved by Pope Innocent. From this date it in- creased with extraordinary rapidity. At the first general assembly, held in 1219, five thousand members were present. Francis himself inaugurated the future missionary character of his brotherhood by going (1253) to the East, and preaching the Gospel in the presence of the Sultan himself. It is after his return to Italy that his biographers place the celebrated miracle, which has so long been a subject of veneration, — his receiving, while in an ecstasy of prayer, the marks (stipiiata) upon his own person of the wounds r \ ¥,'j] 458 Heart of Mary. — High Places. Heart of Ma'ry (Immaculate). This devotion rests upon the same principles as tliosc which are the foundation of the Catholic devotion to the Sacred Heart. Catliolics worship the Sacred Heart because it is united to the Person of the Word, just as they venerate and honor the heart of Mary be- cause united to the pcrso of the Ulessed Virgin. Tlie physical heart of each symbolizes charity and the inner life, while the charity and virtues of Mary are infinitely inferior to those of her Divine Son. The devotion ' to the Immaculate Heart was first propagated by John Eudes, founder of a congregation of priests who were named alter him. They were called Ludislcs. Pius IX. extended the feast in 1855. Heav'en. A place of beatitude beyond the earth; the kingdom of God, where the blessed see God face to face, and enjoy a state of perfect bliss. He'brews, Epis'tle to the. One of the Epistles of the New Testament. Hell. A place and state in which the devils and those who die in mortal sin suffer eternal torments. Her'esy (Gr., //,u'/rs/s) primitively means a c/ioice or election, and in its appli- cation to religious belief is used to designate as well the act of choosing for one's self, and maintaining opinions contrary to the authorized teachings of the religious community to which one's obedience is due, as the hetero- dox opinions thus adopted, and the party which may have adojjted them. In the Acts of the A])ostIes (see Acts v. 17, xv. 5, xxiv. 5, xxviii. 22), the word seems to be used of a sect or party, abstracting from the con- sideration of its character whether good or bad ; but in the Epistles and in the early Christian writers it is almost invariably used in a bad sense, which is the sense uniformly accepted in all subsequent theological literature. The notion of heresy, as understood by theological writers, involves two ideas : first, the deliberate and voluntary rejection of some doctrine projjosed by the supreme authority established in any church as necessary to be believed; and, secondly, a contumacious persistence in such rejection, with the knowledge that the belief of the doctrine is required of all the members of that particular religious community. Catholic writers, -P,...uing the authority of their own Church as sui)reme and final, apply the name of heresy to any formal denial of a doctrine proposed by the Catholic Church as necessary to be believed. Her'mit. A dweller in the desert ; an anchorite ; one who has retired from the world. Hi'erarchy. The organization of ranks and orders in the Christian Church. High Pla'ces (Ilcb., Bamoth). The name given in Scripture to certain places where illicit worship was performed by the people of Israel. The practice of erecting altars on elevated situations was common in ancient times, and originated in the belief that hill-tops were nearer heaven, and, therefore, the most favorable places for prayer and incense. The father'-- of the Jewish nation acted, \w this respect, just like their neighbors. Abraham, we are told, built an altar to tlie Lord on a mountain near liethel. Tiie Mosaic law, however, true to its grand aim of securing national strength and purity by a vigorous system of isolation, prohibited the practice for the future, on the ground that the spots v.'hich the Israelites would be compelled to choose had been already polluted by idolatrous services. High- rriest. — Holy Family. 459 le same principles tion to the Sacred is united to the Keart of Mary be- physical heart of larity and virtues )n. The devotion ules, founder of a They were called om of God, where ■ect bliss, w Testament, die in mortal sin t, and in its appli- le act of choosing Uhorizcd teachings lue, as the hctero- :ive adopted them. ;xiv. 5, xxviii. 22), ting from the con- 1 the Epistles and cd in a bad sense, ■ciucnt theological heological writers, rejection of some 1 in any church as pcr;iistence in such line is required of Catholic writers, and final, apply the ;ed by the Catholic las retired from the hristian Church, •e to certain places ael. The practice ancient times, and and, therefore, the her", of the Jewish Abraham, we are thel. The Mosaic itrength and purity for the future, on ompelled to choose High-Priest (Ileb., Kohen Iing:^(idol, oremphat. Kolicn ; Gr., arc/iwri/s ; I,at., primus pontifcx, etc.). The chief of tlie Jewish priesthood. His (H:;nity was hereditary in the line of Eleazar, the son of Aaron; and many more restric- tions attaclied to it than belonged to the ordinary office of a ])ricst. His functions consisted principally in the general administration of the sanctuary and all tliat liclongcd to the sacred service. He alone was allowed to enter the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement, and to consult the Urim and Thummim. \o less was his costume of surpassing splendor and costliness, comprising numerous vestments in addition to those of tiie ordinary priests. This brilliant costume, howe\er, was laid asiilo by the high jnicst when, on the Day of Atonement, he went to 1 crform the most awful service in tlie Holy of Holies. A simi)le gar!) ot while linen — the funeral dress of the Jews in later times — was all he wore on that occasion. Hil'ary (the Pope) succeeded Leo the Great 461 ; v.as zealous for the faith, and a stern discijjlinarian. Died 4CS. Ho'Iiness. A title of tlie Pope. He is addressed as " Your Holiness," " His Holiness," "Beatissime Pater," etc. Tl isignia of the Pope are the straight crosier; the pallium, which he wears constantly; the tiara, or triple crown. Ho'ly Alli'ance. A league formed after the fall of Napoleon by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, nominally to regulate the relations of the States of Christendom by the principles of Christian charity, but really to preserve the power and influence of the existing dynasties. Most of the other European rulers acceded to it, and the treaty was formally made public in the Frankfurt "Journal," Feb. 2, 1S16. It was in virtue of this league, that Austria, in 1S21, crushed the revolutions in Naples and Pied- mont, and that France, in 1S2J, restored absolutism in Spain. Subse- quently both France and England seceded, after which it became a mere nomiiiis umbra. A special article of the treaty excluded forever the members of the ISonaparte family from any Euro|)ean throne. Ho'ly Coat. A relic preserved with the greatest reverence in the Cathedral of Treves, It is the seamless coat of our Saviour, and was discovered in the fourth century, by the Empress Helena, in her memorable visit to Pales- tine. The Treves relics were concealed from the Normans in the ninth century, in crypts; but the Holy Coat was rediscovered 'n 1 196, and then solemnly exhibited to the public gaze, which did not take place again till 1512, when, nmltitudes flocking to see and venerate it, Leo X. appointed it to be exhibited every seven years. Ho'ly Cross, Congrega'tion of the, called also Croisiers and Cross-bearers, are numerous in Continental Europe; have a college in Wisconsin; were founded by the Abbe Moreau in 1S34, the brotherhood of St. Joseph being merged Into them in 1S56. There is also a sisterhood of the same name, founded in 1834. Ho'ly Fam'ily. The name given, in the language of art, to every reprcsent.a- tion of the infant Saviour and his attendants. In the early ]iart of the Middle Ages, when the object in view was to excite devotion, ihc Virgin and Child were usually the only persons represented. At a later period 1 ' 460 Holy Fire. — Homily. ': i ! ni (■> l>-i il-': t .!> • ! ! Joseph, Elisabeth, St. Anna (the mother of the Virgin), and John the Baptist were included. Some of the old German painters have added the Twelve Apostles as children and playfellows of the infant Christ, as well as their mothers, as stated in the legends. The Italian school, with its fine feeling for comi)osition, was the first to recognize of how many figures the group must consist, if the interest is to remain undivided, and be con- centrated on one figure, whether that figure be the Madonna or the Child. Two masters are pre-eminent in this species of representation, — Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. Ho'ly Fire. In tiie Church of Rome, a light kindled at Easter in remem- brance — according to the missal — of Christ as the great corner-stone, and hailed by kneeling ecclesiastics with the words, " Light of Christ " {Lumen Christi). The ceremony takes place on Holy Saturday. Ho'ly Ghost. Holy Spirit. The Holy Ghost is God, like the Father and the Son, and is a distinct person in himself. He proceeds from the Father and Son, and is equal to them in every respect. He is often called the " Love of God," the " Paraclete " or Comforter, and the " Dove." He appeared in the form of a dove at our Lord's baptism, and in the form of tongues of fire on the day of Pentecost. Ho'ly Ghost, Or'ders of the. Three orders called by this name were insti- tuted by the Catholic Church, 1178, 158S, and 1700. The latter, a society of missionary priests, is still alive. Ho'ly Places, Ho'ly Sep'ulchre. The name Holy Places of Jerusalem more strictly designates the group of sacred places of which the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the centre, and which are supposed to comprise the sites of the chief events of our Lord's jiassion, death, and burial : Gethscmane, the Supper-room, the Church of the Ascension, the Tomb of the Blessed Virgin, etc. Ho'ly Wa'ter. Water blessed by the priest for certain religious uses. It is a symbol of purity. Ho'ly Week. The week immediately preceding Easter, and specially conse- crated to the commemoration of Christ's death and burial. Hom'ily (Gr. Iioinilia^ converse) primitively signifies a discourse held with one or more individuals; but in ecclesiastical v se it means a discourse held in the church, and addressed by the minister to the congregation. The dis- courses employed for this purpose were of the most simple character; but with the exception of one ascribed to Ilippolytus (q. v.), we have no sample of this form of composition earlier than the homilies of Origen in the third century. Taking these as a type, the early Christian homily may be described as a popular exposition of a portion of Scripture, accompanied by moral reflections and exhortations. The schools of Alexandria and Antioch appear to have been the great centres of this class of sacred litera- ture; and in the early century we find the names of Ilippolytus, Metro- dorus, Clement of Alexandria, Dionysius, and Gregory Th.iumaturgus, as principally distinguished. But it was in the following centuries that the homily received its full development in the hands of the Oriental Fathers, Athanasius, the two Gregories of Nyssa and of Nazianzen, Basil, the two ■«^ Homiletics. — Immaculate Conception. 461 eligious uses. It is Cyrils of Jerusalem and of Alexandria, and above all, Chrysostom ; and in the West, of Ambrose, Augustine, Peter Chrysologus, I.ce, and Gregory the Great. The name " homily " is very frequently used almost as a synonyme for sermon. Homilet'ics. That particular branch of sacred rhetoric which regards the composition of the familiar discourses known under the name of homilies. The earliest writer on the subject of homiletics is St. Augustine, whose book, " De Doctrina Christiana," is in some sense an adaptation of profane rhetoric to sacred uses. The nearest approach to a systematic treatment of the suliject in medixval literature is to be found in Ihmibcrt, "De Eruditione Concionatorum." St. Carlo Borromeo's " Instructioncs Fasto- rum" was a part of his general scheme for the improvement of clerical education; and in the ecclesiastical course, as well of Catholics as of Protestants, homiletics occupies an important nlace. The bare enumera- tion of the works of Schott, Marheinckc, Theremin, Sailer, Gisbert, lirand, Labercnz, may show the importance which is attached, in both churches, to this branch of sacred science. Hosan'na. A Hebrew word taken from Ps. cxviii. (Vulg. cxvii.) 25: "O Lord, we beseech thee, save now ; save, we pray." A joyous shout. Host (from /uutia, a victim). The consecrated bread of the Eucharist. In appearance it is a thin, circular disk of unleavened bread made of the finest flour, and generally bearing some emblematic device, as the Crucifix- ion, the Lamb, or some words or initials of words having reference to the sacrifice. Hu'meral Veil. An oblong scarf of the same material as the vestments, worn by the sub-deacon at high Mass, when he holds the paten, between the Offertory and the Paternoster ; by the priest when he raises the mon- strance to give benediction with the lilessed Sacrament; and by priests and deacons when they remove the Blessed Sacrament from one place to another, or carry it in procession. It is worn around the shoulders, and the paten, pyx, or monstrance is wrapped in it. Hymn. A song of praise to God. A religious poem adapted to be sung, and written in metre. Hypostat'ic Union. The vision of Christ's human and Divine nature in the hypostatis, or person of God the Word. Icon'oclasts (breakers of images). The name used to designate a powerful party of the eighth century, which opposed the use of sacred images; that is, of statues, pictures, and other sensible representations of sacreil objects. Ignoran'tines (Fr., Frires Ignorantins). A religious congregation of men of the Catholic Church, associated for the gratuitous instruction of poor children in sacred as well as secular learning. It was founded in France, in the early part of the eighteenth century (1724), by the Abbe de la Salle, and has gradually been introduced into every Catholic country of Europe. Immac'ulate Concep'tion of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of. A festival celebrated on the 8th of December, to commemorate the Blessed Virgin's preservation from the stain of original sin, by a Divine privilege, in view of the future merits of Jesus Christ. \ '■iJl 462 Immortality.— In Caena Domini n.i ill ir i i i: Immortal'ity is the continued existence of the human soul in a future and invisible state. "If a man die, shall he live again?" is a question which has naturally agitated the heart and stimulated the intellectual curiosity of man, wherever he has risen above a state of barbarism, and commenced to exercise his intellect at all. The religion of all civilized people may be said more or less to recognize the affirmative of the question, although often under very vague and materialistic forms. In the ancient Egyptian religion, the idea of immortality first assumes a definite f hape. There is a clear recognition of a dwelling-place of the dead, and of a future judgment. In the Zoroastrian religion, the future world, with its governing spirits, plays a prominent part. \Vhocver has lived in purity, and has not suffered the !" ! !■ : I 464 Innocents, Holy, Feast of. — Installation. 11 i^^ 1' ;,: Hr-! « of the Condition of Man," were published in two volumes, folio, Paris, 16S2. Died 1216. Innocent XI. (benedetto Odescalchi), elected in 1676, one of the most distinguished among the Popes of the seventeenth cen- tury. He was a vigorous and judicious reformer, but his historical celebrity is mainly owing to his contest with Louis XIV. Died 1689. In'nocents, Ho'ly, Feast of, one of the Christmas festivals, held in the Western Church on Dec. 28, and in the Eastern on the 29th. It is intended to commemorate the massacre of the children "from two years old and up- ward " at IJethlehem. The concurrence of the East and the West in cele- brating the festival is an evidence of its antiquity. Inquisi'tion, The, called also the Ho'ly Office, a tribunal in the Catholic Church for the discovery and repression of heresy, unbelief, and other offences against religion. From the very first establishment of Chris- tianity as the religion of the Roman Empire, laws, more or less severe, existed, as in most of the ancient religions, for the repression and punish- ment of dissent from the nation£jl creed ; and the Emperors Thcodosius and Justinian appointed ofificials called "inquisitors," whose .special duty it was to discover, and to prosecute before the civil tribunals, offences of this class. The ecclesiastical cognizance of heresy, and its punishnxiit by spiritual censures, belonged to the bishop or the episcopal synod ; but no special machinery for the purpose was devised until the spread, in the eleventh and twelfth centurie; , of certain sects reputed dangerous alike to the State and to the Church — the Cathari, Waldenscs, and Albigenses — excited the alarm of the civil as well as of the ecclesiastical authorities. In the then condition of the public inind, heresy was regarded as a crime against the State, no less than against the Church. An extraor- dinary commission was sent by Pope Innocent III. into the South of France to aid the local authorities in checking the spread of the Albigensian heresy. The fourth Lateran Council (1215) earnestly impressed, both on bishops and magistrates, the necessity of increased vigilance against heresy ; and a council held at Toulouse directed that in each parish the priest and two or three laymen of good repute should be appointed to examine and report to the bishop all such offences discovered within the district. So far, how- ever, there was no permaitcnt court distinct from those of the bishops; but under Innocent IV., in 124S, a special tribunal for the purpose was insti- tuted, the chief direction of which was vested in the then recently estal> lished Dominican Order. The Inquisition thus constituted became a gen- eral, instead of, as previously, a local tribunal ; and it was introduced in succession into Italy, Spain, Germany, and the South provinces of France. Inspira'tion (literally, ^;r(7////;/<,''/«/'t') is applied in theology to denote the action of the Divine Mind upon the human mind, whereby the latter is both supernaturally informed, and qualified to communicate the information received. Installa'tion, in Church law, means the ceremonial act or process by which a person presented and legally confirmed in a benefice is formally put into possession of his office, and by which he is fully empowered, not alone to exercise its functions, but to enjoy its honors and emoluments. nation. Intermarriage. — Isaiah. 465 ncs, folio, raris, , elected in 1676, seveiUcentb ccn- listorical celebrity vals, held m the th. It is intended ) years old and up- the West in cele- lal in the Catholic mbelicf. and other liahmcnt of Chris- ,ore or less severe, ,ression and punish- nperors Theodosius hose special duty it ibunals, offences of and its punishnxnt ie episcopal synod; ed until the spread, s reputed dangerous ari, WaUlenses, and , of the ecclesiastical [ V^cresy was regarded hurch. An extraor- the South of France le Albigcnsian heresy, ied, both on bishops ainst heresy ; and a the priest and two or xamine and report to district. So far, how- e of the bishops ; but he purpose was insti- ye then recently cslab- ilituted became a gen- it was introduced m provinces of France. ry to denote the action 'by the latter is both licate the information or process by which a ,e is formally put mto ipowered, not alone to .oluments. In'termarriage. The intermarriage or intercourse of near relatives has been universally believed to entail degeneration upon liie offspring, and tiie .ict has been condemned and proliihitcd. The physical deformity and mental debasement of the Cagots of the Pyrenees, of the Marsons of Auvcrgne, of the Sarrasins of Dauphine, of the Cretins of the Alps, and the gradual deterioration of the slave population of America, have been attributed to the consanguineous alliances which are unavoidable among these unfor- tunate peoples. More recently, the same opinion has been supjiorted by the history of deaf-mutism and of idiocy. Of two hundred and thirty- five deaf-and-dumb children whose parentage could be traced, seventy, or nearly thirty per cent, were the offspring of the intermarriage of blood- relations. In'troit. Words said in the Mass when the priest begins the celebration of the holy sacrifice. Invest'iture (Lat., in, and vesfto, to clothe), in feudal and ecclesiastical history, means the act of giving corporal possession of a manor, office, or benefice, accompanied by a certain ceremonial, such as the delivery of a branch, a banner, or an instrument of office, more or less designed to signify the power or authority which it is supposed to convey. The contest about ecclesiastical investiture is so interwoven with the whole course of mediae- val history, that a brief accoi nt of its origin and nature is indispensable to a right understanding of many of the most important events of that period. The system of feud.il ten are had become so universal, that it affected even the land held by ecclesiastics, and attached to most of the higher ecclesiastical dignities, monastic as well as secular. Accordingly ecclesiastics who, in virtue 01 the ecclesiastical office which they held, came into possession of the lands attached to such offices, began to be regarded as becoming, by the very fact, feudatory to the suzerain of these lands ; and, as a not unnatural result, the suzerains thought themselves entitled to claim, in reference to these personages, the same rights which they enjoyed over the other feudatories of their domains. Among these rights was that of granting solemn investiture. In the case of bishops, abbots, and other Church dignitaries, the form of investiture consisted in the delivery of a pastoral staff or crosier, and the placing a ring upon the finger ; and these badges of office were emblematic — the one of the spiritual care of souls, the other of the espousals, as it were, between the pastor and his church or monastery. I'saac {" He will laugh "), a Hebrew patriarch and pastoral chief, was the son of Abraham and Sarah, and half-brother of Ishmael. His birth happened when both his parents were advanced in age. The incidents of his life, as recorded in Genesis, are well known. He died at Hebron, aged a hundred and eighty years, leaving two sons, Jacob and Esau. The Midrash ascribes to him, in allusion to Gen. xxiv. 63, the institution of the after- noon prayer. Isai'ah (Heb., Yeshayahu, "Salvation of God"), the most sublime of the He- brew prophets, was the son of one Amoz. He uttered his oracles in the reigns o£,Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Regard j \ I 466 Ishmael. — Itinerary. i i ■ (iif ) ■ ■ ■ |1 i :■ !' f. luu. 'I I : i i ing his outward life, almost nothing is known. He appears to have resided at Jerusalem, in the vicinity of the temple, was married, and had three sons, given him, he says, "for signs and for wonders in Israel." Ish'mael (Heb., Vis/imae/, "God will hear"), the first-born of Abraham bv Hagar, the Egyptian handmaid of his wife Sarah. His character is found foretold before his birth by an angel, who met Hagar sitting by a well in the wilderness on the way to Shur, whither she had fled to avoid the harsh treatment of her mistress: "And he will be a wild [literally, "a wild-ass"] man ; his hand against every man, and every man's hand against him ; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren " (Gen. xvi. 12). Kxpcllcd from his father's house, along with his mother, when he was about the .ige of fifteen, he went into the South wilderness, where he grew up to man- hood, and became famous as an archer. Scripture represents Ishmael in a not unfavorable light, and it was predicted that he should become a great nation. This "great nation " is commonly believed to be the Arabian ; and there is no good reason for doubting that at least the North Arabs — the wild Bedouins who roam over the great wastes between the Peninsula of Sinai and the Persian Gulf — may, to a certain degree, be the descendants of Ishmael. Ital'ian Arch'itecture. This term is usually limited to the style practised by the Italian architects of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, and which has since been adopted in every country in Europe. This style originated in a revival of the ancient architecture of Rome. Although the Gothic architecture had been practised in Italy during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, it had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Italians always showed a preference for the round arch over the pointed North form ; and even in the buildings they erected in the pointed style, there is a certain simplicity and largeness of parts indicative of a classic feeling. As early as 1350, Giovanni Pisano, in the beautiful sculpture of the pulpit at Pisa, showed a return to the ancient models. Arnolpho di Lapo built the Cathedral of Florence (i 290-1 300), and in his design proposed a great dome (a remarkably Roman feature) over the crossing of the nave and transept. This he did not live to complete ; but he prepared the way for Brunelleschi, the chief aim of whose life was the accomplishment of the great dome of the cathedral. He went to Rome to study the ancient build- ings there, at that time neglected and hardly known to the Italians them- selves. After devoting a considerable time to exploring these monuments, he returned to Florence, and, after great opposition, succeeded in carrying out the construction of the dome as it now stands. From this time the revival of Roman architecture went on rapidly. It was encouraged by the Popes and other princes of Italy; and the invention of the printing- press soon spread a knowledge of the works of the Italian architects over Europe. Italian architecture is divided into three styles, or schools, ac- cording to the places where it was practised ; viz., the Florentine, Roman, and Venetian. Itin'erary (Lat., itinerarium, derived from iter, a journey), the name given by the Romans to a table of the stages between two places of importance. I • \ i: •Ml; pears to have resided I, and had three sons, ijorn of Abraham bv is character is found r sitting l)y a well in ed to avoid the harsh iterally," a wild-ass"] md against him; and cn.xvi.l2). Kxpclkd he was about the age ; he grew ui) to man- eprescnts Ishmael in a ibould become a great ;o be the Arabian ; and the North Arabs — the ween the Tcninsula of ree, be the descendants the style practised by 1 seventeenth centuries, . in Europe. This style ,f Rome. Although the aring the thirteenth and aturalized. The Italians over the pointed North : pointed style, there is a of a classic feeling. As ^ulpture of the pulpit at Arnolpho di Lapo budt design proposed a great :rossing of the nave and he prepared the way for e accomplishment of the •0 study the ancient build- ,wn to the Italians them- ploring these monuments, ',on, succeeded in carrying mds. From this time the y It was encouraged by invention of the printing- the Italian architects over iree styles, or schools, ac- iz., the Florentine, Roman, urney), the name given by two places of importance. Jacob, — Jacobites. 46; with the distance from one to another. The itineraries of the ancients con- tribute much to our acquaintance with ancient geography. — A form of prayer intended for the use of clerics when setting out on a journey. Ja'cob (Ileb., Vndi-od, derived variously from " heel," Gen. xxv. 26, or from " to deceive," Gen. xxvii. 36), one of the three chief Hebrew patriarchs, was the second son of Isaac and Rebekah, and on account of his docile, domestic character, the favorite of his mother. His conduct toward his brother in regard to the birthright (Gen. xxvii.) does not greatly redound to his credit. After an exile of twenty years in I'adan-aram, whither he had fled to escape the vengeance of Esau, he returned to Canaan with two wives (Rachel and Leah), two concubines (Rilhah and Ziipah), twelve sons (the fathers of the subsequent Hebrew tribes), and a daughter named Dinaii, who was the un- intentional cause of a vindictive massacre of the Shechemites by her broth- ers Simeon and Levi. In his one hundred and thirtieth year, he and his family went down to Egypt, where his favorite son Joseph had become a great man under Pharaoh. Here he lived for seventeen years longer in the land of Goshen, and died in his one hundred and forty-seventh year. His body was embalmed, carried back to Canaan with great pomp by his sons, and there buried near Hebron. Jac'obites, in Ciiurch history, is the common name of the Oriental sect of Monophysites. The name is derived from a Syrian monk called Jacobus Barada:us, who, in the reign of Justinian, formed the Monophysite recu- sants of his country into a single party. The Jacobites at present number about forty thousand families, and are subject to two patriarchs, appointed by the Sultan, — one resident at Diarbekir, with the title of Patriarch of Antioch ; the other at Saphran, under the style of Patriarch of Jerusalem. "The Jacobites have always protested against being considered followers of Eutychcs ; but, while they profess to anathematize that heresiarch, they merely reject some minor opinions of his, and hold fast his great distin- guishing error of the absorption of Uic humanity of our Saviour in his divine nature. They think that in the incarnation, from two natures there resulted one. In other words, they do not believe that the Redeemer does not possess two natures, but one composed of two, illustrating their dogma in this way: Glass is made of sand; but the whole is only glass, no longer sand ; thus the divine nature of Chri-t has absorbed the human, so that the two have become one. A middle v ay between Eutychianism and or- thodoxy was chosen by Xcnayas and Vh -chool, who on the incarnation maintain the existence in Christ of one nature, composed of the divinity and humanity, but without conversion, confusion, or commixture. He teaches that the Son, one of the Trinity, united himself with a human body and a rational soul in the womb of the Virgin. His body had no being before this union. In this he was born, in it he was nourished, in it he suf- fered and died. Yet the divine nature of the Son did not suffer and die. Nor was his human nature, or his agency, or death, merely visionary, as the Phantasmists taught, but actual and real. Moreover, the divine nature was not changed or transmuted itifo the /tumatt, or commixed or confused there- with; neither was the human nature converted into the divine, nor com- 4. t |. I ; (■■! ' i ! r 468 Jehoshaphat. — Jerome, St. I i < /■< ■ffi. ;; i mixed or confused with it ; but an adulation of the two natures took place, of a mode equivalent to that which, by the union of body and soul, makes a human being ; for, as the soul and body are united in one human nature, so, from the union of the Godhead and nuinhood of our Lord Jesus Christ, there has arisen a nature peculiar to itself, not simple, but complex; 'one double nature.' Here is evidently maintained a distinction from the luity- chians that the flesh of Christ taken from the Virgin was actual and real, and united with the divine in Christ, ' without confusion, change, or divis- ion;' and from the orthodox, in holding that, after the union, the two natures united in one, losing their distinctiveness. This view of Xenayas seems to be at present the doctrine of the Jacobites; but as the laity is very moderately educated, this remark applies only to the clergy. As an indica- tion that they have only an imperfect idea on this point, Etheridge cites their usages of making the sign of the cross with only the middle finger of their hand, holding the others so as to render them invisible, evincing thereby that the whole subject is to them an unsolved mystery." Jehosh'aphat. Son of Asa, reigned over Jerusalem as fourth king, 912-887 B.C. I lis reign was, on the whole, fortunate, and devoted to the extirpation of idolatry from the kingdom. Jeho'vah (Ileb., Ye/iofa/i ; more correctly, Yahve, Vahaveh, or Ynhavdh; in poetry, Ydh ; generally believed to be derived from the verb /laya, '"to be," though scholars are far from unanimous in regard to its etymology) is one of the names of God employed in the Old Testament. Its meaning is, "lie that is," "The lieing;" or, since the word contains all the forms of the past, present, and future tenses, "The Eternal One." Je'hu. Founder of the fourth dynasty of the new kingdom of Israel, 883-855 li.C. Jerome, St., Eusebius Hieronymus Sophronius. Born at Stridon, at some period between 331 rind 345. He studied Greek and Latin rhetoric and philosoi)hy under i-Llius Donatus at Rome, where he was also admitted to the rite of bajitism. After a residence in Gaul, he seems to have re- visited Rome; but in the year 370 he had settled in Aquileia with his friend Rufinus, and retired in 374 to the desert of Chalcis, where he spent four years in penitential exercises and in study, especially of the Hebrew lan- guage. In 379 he was ordained, and went in 3S2 to Rome, where he resided until 3S4, as secretary of the Pope Damasus, and where, although already engaged in his great v ork of the revision of the Latin version of the Bible, he attained to great popularity and influence by his sanctity, learning, and eloquence. Many jiious jiersons jslaced themselves under his spiritual direc- tion, the most remarkable of whom were the Lady Paula and her daughter Eustochium. These ladies followed him to the Holy Land, whither he returned in 3S4. He permanently fixed his residence at Bethlehem in 386, the Lady Paula having founded four convents, three for nuns and one for monks, the latter of which was governed by Jerome himself. His conflict with the Pelagians rendering even his life insecure at Bethlehem, he was comiielled to go into concealment for above two years; and soon aftcv his return to Bethl(;hem in 41S, he was seized with a lingering illness, v hich fv- 1 '■'*( ^ i.H natures took place, )cly and soul, makes one human nature, r Lord Jesus Christ, , but complex ; ' one tion from the Kuty- vas actual and real, ion, change, or divis- the union, the two 'his view of Xenayas )ut as the laity is very :lcrgy. As an indica- point, Etheridge cites nly the middle finger em invisible, evincing mystery." fourth king, 912-887 otcd to the extirpation aveh, or Yahavdh ; in ;he verb Iniya, '• to be," , its etymology) is one ment. Its meaning is, itains all the forms of ne." |dom of Israel, 883-855 Born at Stridon, at ;ek and Latin rhetoric ■e he was also admitted [, he seems to have re- Aquilcia with his friend is, where he spent four illy of the Hebrew Ian- Rome, where he resided /here, although already in version of the Bible, 3 sanctity, learning, and [indcr his spiritual dircc- 'aula and her daughter .loly Land, whither he [e at Bethlehem in 386, for nuns and one for ^ himself. His conflict |e at Bethlehem, he was lars ; and soon aftcv his lingering illness, which Jesuits. — Judah. 469 terminated in his death 420. St. Jerome is universally regarded as the most learned and eloquent of the Latin Fathers. Jes'uits, or Soci'ety of Je'sus. A celebrated religious order of the Catholic Church. It was founded in 1334 by the well-known Ignatius of Loyola (see Loyola), in concert with five associates. Je'sus (the Greek form of the Hebrew word jfosfiua, Jchoshua, "Jehovah the Saviour") is the name given to the Son of the Virgin Mary, by .he angels who announced his approaching birth (Matt. i. 21; Luke i. 31). The rea- son of the name was at tlic same time declared: "For he shall save his people from their sins." The date of the birth of Jesus is now generally fi.\ed a few years — at least four years — before the commencement of the Christian era. The common computation fixes his death in 33 A.D., or when he was probably at least thirty-seven years of age. With the accounts given by the Evangelists of the birth of Jesus, his ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven, every one may be supposed familiar. Jew (Heb., Ye/iiidi). The subjects of the kings of Judah have I)een sometimes called Jews, as distinct from the seceding ten tribes, who retained the name of Israel. As the term is now used, however, the histijry of the Jews begins with the return of the remnant of the kingdom of Judah from the Babylonish captivity, in consequence of the edict of Cyrus. Jo'seph. The young and favorite son of Jacob by his wife Rachel, who excited the envy of liis elder b ethren, and was by them sold intc Egyptian slavery. Having actjuired the confidence of I'haraoh through his iuccessful interpre- tation of dreams, he was placed as viceroy at the head of the arrangements for f -ovisioning the kingdom during seven consecutive "ears of famine, and was thus enabled to preserve. In the persons of his lather and brethren, with their families, the future Israelitish nation. Born in Haran 1913, died in Egypt 1802 B.C. His body was embalmed, and cairied up into Canaan by the Israelites at their exodus. Jo'seph, St. A carpenter of Nazareth, whose genealogy is given by both Matthew and Luke; was the husband of Mary, aid the foster-father of Jesus. Jo'seph, Father. A Capuchin friar who, as secretary and confidential adviser to Richelieu, possessed great power and influcrce, which he exercised chiefly in despatching missionaries to Canada and elsewhere. Born in Paris 1577, died 163S. Ju'bilee, The Year of (Heb., YoM). A peculiar iistitution among the He- brews (Lev. XXV.), by which, every fiftieth year, tie land that in the interval had passed out of the possession of those to wiom it originally belonged was restored to them, and all who had been rediced to poverty, and obliged to hire themselves out as servants, were released from their bondage ; no less were all debts remitted. Ju'bilee, or Ju'bilee Year. An institution of the Catholic Church. The Catholic jubilee is of two kinds, — "ordinary " and "extraordinary." Ju'dah, the King'dom of, may be said to date from the division of the king- dom of Israel at the death of Solomon. It was composed of the tribes I i! II': i. "'^ .J -I 11'' i ( 1 > it! 1 ' • 1 ' 1 • 'f \ ' 1 r I IV',. . <. ■';,< 'if f • I h 470 Judgment. — Justification. of Jiiflah, Simeon, and Hcnjaniin, when the territory of all the rest of Israel was lost to kch()l)oani, ami included the piicsts and Lcvite:* who emigrated in great number from Israel, and who rallied round the city of iJavid. ( For an account of the causes wIulIi led to the separation, sec Iskaki., Kingdom OK.) This territory conjprised within its limits included a part, if not all, of the territory of Simeon, of Dan, of llenjamin (the last connected with Judah by Jerusalem, situated on the borders of both, which formed an indissoluble bond between them), and at a Liter date portions of Kphraim. The popula- tion has been variously estimated at from five million under Jehoshaphat, down to one million two hundred tliousand under Amaziah; but at the time of the separation, about two million would appear to be the correct number. Subsequently, when the captivity had destroyed all ])ractical distinction between the two and the ten, the scattered remnants had no visible head save at Jerusalem, which had been rc-occupicd by a part of Judah's exiles. For an account of the sister kingdom, and for the history of the chosen people after the return from the liabylonish captivity, consult a history of the Jews. In this article a brief recapitulation of the history of the kingdom of Judah will be given. During Rehoboam's lifetime, jicaceful relations between Israel and Judah were never restored ; the king of Judah made an effort to contpier Israel, but the exjicdition was forbidden by the prophet Shemaiah. He then occupied himself in strengthening his king- dom. The pure worship of God was maintained, but along with it the worship of Ashtoreth was allowed to exist. These evils were punished by an Egyptian invasion under Shishak, who cai)turcd Jerusalem, and pillaged the temple, B.C. 971. Abijah, Rehoboam's successor, defeated the king of Israel, 957; Ilazael, king of Damascus, invaded Judah in the reign of Ahaziah, 857, and desolated the land; I'ekah, king of Israel, laid siege to Jerusalem, and one hundred and twenty thousand men were slain in one day, 741 ; Sennacherib invaded Judah, 710. In repairing the temple, Ilil- kiah discovered the Book of the Law, and Josiah kept a solemn passover, 624 ; Nebuchadnezzar invaded the land of Judah, 605 ; besieged Jerusalem, 599; he again invaded Judah, and captured the city after a long siege, 588; the city reduced to ashes, 587. The kingdom of Judah survived Israel one hundred and fifty years. Judg'ment. The coming of Christ to judge all men and angels on the last day, when the just shall be glorified, and the wicked put to open shame, and condemned to hell's torments. Ju'lius. The name of three Popes, of whom the second and third deserve to be noticed. Julius II., originally Cardinal Delia Rovere, a nephew of Sixtus IV., born at Albizzola, near Savona; died 1513. Julius III., a native of Monte San Savino, near Arezzo, was known before his elevation to the Pontificate as Cardinal del Monte. He was one of the four legates of the Pope under whom the Council of Trent was opened. He is con- nected with English history as having sent Cardinal Pole to organize with Mary the re-union of the kingdom with Rome. Jtistifica'tion. An operation of grace from God in the soul of the repentant sinner, by which he is sanctified and becomes just. Kempis, Thomas ^. — Lacordaire. 47' le soul of the repentant Kem'pls, Thomas A. l<%licvec) to liavc been no called from Kimpcn, a town in the rrussi.111 Khine provin'-cs, where lie was l)i)rn in ijry. Ik' was tdii- catcU at Dcvtntcr, and in 1400 entered an Auyuslinian convent in tlie diocese of Utrecht. licit lie took (he vows in 1406. lie entered into priest's orders in I4«3. and w;.* chosen suii-pfinT in 1429, to which office he was rc-tlected in 14. j'^ His whole lif*' appears to have licen >pent in the seclusion of this convent where he lived in an extreme old ape. Mis death took place in 147 1, at which time he certainly liud attained his ninetieth year, and most probably his ninciy second. The charactt/ if Kempis, for sanctity and ascetic learning, stood very high among his contenipur.iries ; but his historical reputation rests almost entirely on his writings, which consist of sermons, ascetical treatises, pious biograpliio?, letters, and hvmns. Of these, one which deserves special notice is the cekhr.itetl asietical treatise On tht Follinviii,: {or /init,itnwi). The name :stament, containing laments over the desolation of the land, the exile of the people, the destruc- tion of the first temple, the fall of the kingdom of Judah, and the writer's own woes. These laments are five in number. Lat'eran, Church of St. John, the first in dignity of the Roman churches, and styled in Roman usage "the Mother and Head of all the churches of the city and the world," is so called from its occupying the site of the splen- did palace of Plantius Lateranus, which, having been escheated (66 A. D.) in conse(iucnce of Lateranus being implicated in the conspiracy of the Pisos, became imperial property, and was assigned for Christian uses by the Emperor Constantine. It was originally dedicated to the Saviour; but Lucius II., who rebuilt it in the middle of the twelfth century, dedicated it to St. John the Baptist. The solemn entrance of the Pope into office is inaugurated by his taking possession of this church ; and over its portico is the balcony from which tiic Pope, while still sovereign of Rome, was used, on certain festivals, to bless the entire world. The original church is said to have been the ISasilica; but it has been several times rebuilt, its final completion dating from the Pontificate of Clement XII. It has been the scene of five councils of the Roman Church. Leo XIII. li;is brought to completion the extensive work in the sanctuary, begun untkr I'ius IX. In the piazza of .St. John Lateran stands the celebrated relic called the "Scala Santa," or " Holy Staircase," which is the stairs of Pilate's house at Jeru- salem, made holy by the feet of our Lord. Lat'eran Coun'cils. They were five in number, regarded as ecumenical by the Catholic Church, besides six minor ones, and were held 1123, [139, 1179, 1215, and 1 512. They took their name from the Church of St. John Lateran, in Rome, in which they were held. Lat'in Lan'guage and Lit'erature. The Latin language is a member of the great family commonly called Indo-Cermanic, Indo-Kuropcan, or Aryan. It is therefore closely allied to the flrcck, Persian, German, (.'cltic, Englisli, and many other tongues and dialects of Europe ; and to all these its kin- dred is more or less clearly shown by identity of stems and similarity of Structure. It was primarily dcvelo]icd among the people who inhabited that part of Western Italy which lies between the rivers Tiber and IJiis; and though the city of Rome stamped her name on the political institutions of the empire, yet the standard tongue of Italy still continued to be called the LaO'it language, iwf the Roman. It was in the last years of the republic, and the first of the empire, that the polished language reached its highest point of perfection in the writings of Cicero, Horace, Viri'il, and others. But by the influx of strangers, by the gradual decline of Roman feelings and Roman spirit, and by the intermixture of the classic forms with the dialects of the provinces, it became corrupted, the process of deterioration going on with double rapidity after the dismemberment of the Roman P'm- pire in the fifth century. Thus were formed the modern French, Si)anish, Italian, and Portuguese. The English language owes much to Latin, both directly by derivation from the classic forms, and at second-hand throut^h the Norman-French. The grammar of the Latin language has I»cn studied and illustrated by many celebrated scholars from Varro (iiO-jS li. C.) H [ if' ' i! ii:i-'' ■ ! )^ ' i ' P hi If mw^ 1 ffl^)i 1 IIIIj ll'> ill 1 9n''^ i ill i jW'^'-'l 3 .P 4 m m 'i^ 474 Latin Cross. — Lectionary. down to Zumpt. The Roman Republic had well-nigh run its course ere it possessed a writer or a literature worthy of the name. A kind of rude poetry was cultivated from the earliest times, and was employed in such compositions as the Hymn of the Fratres Arvales (dug up at Rome in 1778, and in the first burst of enthusiasm excited by its discovery assigned to the age of Romulus). And even when in later years the Romans did l)cgin to foster a literary taste, the rage for Greek models hindered every effort at original thought. It was considered highly meritorious to imitate or trans- late a Greek writer; while, on the other hand, it was deemed dishonorable to follow a Latin author. Such were the feelings even in the days of Hor- ace and Virgil, both of whom are largely indebted to their Greek models. The first period of Roman literature may be said to extend from 240 1$. C. to the death of Sulla, 78 B. C; the second, or Golden Age, from the death of Sulla to the death of the Emperor Augustus (14 A. D.) ; tlie third, or Silver Age, from the death of Augustus to the death of Ha.iiian (138 A. D.) ; and the fourth, from the death of Hadrian to the overthrow of the Western Empire in 476 A. D. The spread of Christianity gave rise to the ecclesiastical poetry of the Middle Ages, which departed from the classic models. Lat'in Cross. A cross with the lower limb considerably longer than the other three. Law'rence, St. the Deacon, one of the most celebrated martyrs of the early Church, the subject of many ancient panegyrics, was one of the deacons of Rome in the Pontificate of Sixtus I. (third century), and as such was espe- cially charged with the care of the poor and the orphans and widows. In the persecution of Valerian, being summoned before the prastor as a Chris- tian, and being called on to deliver up the treasures of the Church, he pro- duced the poor and the sick of his charge, declaring that " those were his treasures ; " and on his persisting in his refusal to sacrifice, being condemned to be roasted on a gridiron, he continued throughout his tortures to pray for his persecutors. Laz'arists. An order of priests founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1625, and established a few years later in the College of St. Lazare at Paris. They arc properly named " Congregation of the Priests of the Mission." Lec'tionary. One of the service-books of the mediaeval Church, so called because it contained the lessons (lectiones) of the Church. The Roman Lec- tionary contained the E|)istlcs and Gospels of the Roman missal, and some- times all the lessons of the various services in use in the Roman Church, in which case it was named the Plcnariitm. Its compilation was attrib- uted to St. Jerome ; and it appears certain that it belongs in substance, although not in form or details, to that age. The collection was revised and remodelled in the eighth century. The Galilean Lectionary was pub- lished by Mabillon from a manuscript of the monastery of Luxcuil, and is believed to represent the rite of the ancient Galilean Church, chiefly be- cause one of the few samts' offices which it contains is that of the peculiarly French saint, Genevieve. It is interesting as showing that the Galilean liturgy had three lessons, and not two as in the Roman missal. r. run its course ere it e. A kind of rude IS employed in such up at Rome in 1778, overy assigned to the iomans did liegin to dcred every el^ort at s to imitate or trans- deemed dishonorable I in the days of Hor- their GrLck models, ttend from 240 15. C. I Age, from the death A. D.) ; the third, or ath of Haarian (138 I the overthrow of the ristianity gave rise to parted from the classic longer than the other 1 martyrs of the early one of the deacons of md as such was cspe- hans and widows. In the prxtor as a Chris- )f the Church, he pro- that " those were his fice, being condemned his tortures to pray de Paul in 1625, and ,azare at Paris. They the Mission." val Church, so called ch. The Roman Lec- iman missal, and some- in the Roman Church, ompilation was attrib- belongs in substance, collection was revised n Leclionary was pub- tery of Luxouil, and is an Church, chiefly be- is that of the peculiarly iiig that the Galilean an missal. Lef ^vre. — Leo. 475 Leffevre, Peter Paul, D.D., a Catholic prelate ; Bishop of Zcla, 1S.14; cst.-itv lished many religious institutions ; born in Belgium, 1S04 ; died in Michigan, 1869. Le'gate. The name of the ambassador or representative, whether temporary or permanent, sent by the Pope to a particular Church. Three classes of legates are distinguished ; first, legati a latere, " legates despatched from the side " of the Pontiff, who are commonly cardinals ; second, U\i;titi viissi, called also " apostolic nuncios," and including a lower grade called " inter- nuncios ; " third, legati nati, " legates born," whose office is not personal, but is attached by ancient institution or usage to the see or other ecclesias- tical dignity which they hold. Le'gend was the name given in early times, in the Catholic Church, to a book containing the daily lessons which were wont to be read as a part of the Divine service. Then the narratives of the lives of saints and martyrs, as well as the collections of such narratives, received this name. Among the mediaeval collections of legends, that drawn up by the Genoese archbishop. Jacobus de Voragine, in the second half of the thirteenth cen- tury, under the title of Legenda Aitrea, or Historia Lomlianlica, is the most celebrated. From the ecclesiastical literature of the Eastern and Western Churches, especially of the latter, the legends also found an entrance into the national literature of Christian nations. Among the Germans this was very markedly the case after the second half of the twelfth century, although specimens of legendary poems are not altogether wanting at an earlier period. Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, legends in prose began also to appear, such as Herman von Fritzlar's Von der ILiligen Lcben. Lent. Lent derives its name from the .Saxon word Lenctcn (lengthening days, or spring-time), for it was the spring fast ; just as we are indebted to the Saxon word Fasten (to restrain) for the word " fast." Lent. Fasting-time before Easter, which is observed in the Roman, and in the Greek and other Oriental Churches. The earliest allusions to it speak of it as an established usage handed down from the fathers. The forty days' period, as commemorative of our Lord's forty days' fast, or of the simi- lar perfunctory fasts of Moses and Elias, commences with Ash-Wcdnesday, betw^cen which day and Easter Sunday (omitting the Sundays, on which the fast is not observed), forty clear days intervene. The rigor of the ancient observance, which excluded all flesh and even the so-called " white meats," is now much relaxed; but the principle of permitting but one meal, with a slight refection or collation, is widely retained. In Spain, during the Cru- sades and the wars with the Moors, a practice arose of permitting, in certain cases, the substitution of a contribution to the holy war, for the ob- servance of the Lenten abstinence ; and although the object has long since ceased, the composition is still permitted, under the same title of the Crusada. Leo. Six of the Byzantine emperors bore this name, — Leo I., the Thracian, 457-474; Leo II., 474; Leo III., the Isaurian, 717-741 ; Leo IV., 775-780; Leo v., the Armenian, 813-S20; and Leo VI., the philosopher, 8S6-912. The latter was a writer of poems, orations, etc. : I 1 3 « %i i 'i 476 Leo. — Loyola. 'I f '1 I 'J ■ ! ! "ii'h 1 1 Leo. The name of thirteen Popes, commencing with Leo I., surnamed the Greal, liDrn 390, and regarded as the founder of the Papacy, and closing with Leo XIII., elected 1878 on the death of Pius IX. (.See Poi'E.) Leo IX., originally Uruno, born 1002, died 1054, was noted for learning and efforts at reform. Leo X. (Cardinal tie' Medici), born 1475, ''■'-''' 'S^i. was a munificent patron of literature and the arts, under whom Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Luther flourished. Leo, Allatius, librarian of the Vatican, 1661-69; born in Chios 1586, died 1669. Levit'icus is the name of the third book of the Pentateuch, containing chiefly the laws and ordinances relating to the Leviles and priests. The erection of the sanctuary having been described at the end of Exodus, tiie nature of the worshij) — revealed by God within this tabernacle — is set forth in Leviticus, which forms its continuation. Lim'bo. From the Latin Umbtis (or " fringe "), the outskirts of hell, where the just who died before Christ were detained till our Lord's resurrection. Lit'any. A word, the specific meaning of which has varied considerably at different times, but which means in general a solemn act of supplication addressed with the object of averting the Divine anger, and especially on occasions of public calamity. Through all the varieties of form which litanies have assumed, one characteristic has always been maintained ; viz., that the jirayer alternates between the priest or other minister, who an- nounces the object of each petition, and the congregation, who reply in a common supplicatory form, the most usual of which were the well-known " Kvric clcison," " Ora pro nobis." Lit'urgy, in general, signifies a form of prayer and ceremonial est.iblished by ecclesiastical authority, to be used in the public services of the Church, but is especially ajiplied to that used in the celebration and administra- tion of the Eucharist. The very earliest historical records of Christianity plainly show that such forms were in use in the primitive times, but it seems highly probable that for a considerable period they were not reduced to writing. Lord's Sup'per, The, is one of the sacraments of the Christian religion. It is so called from its being instituted at supper by Jesus Christ, whom his discijiles styled the Lord, or Master. It is also called Eucharist and Communion. Loyj'la, de, Ignatius Inigo Lopez de Recalde. Corn 1491 in the Casque Provinces. Under the auspices of his relative Don Antonio Manri((uez, Duke of Xajura, he embraced the profession of arms, and was wounded in the defence of Pampeluna. His convalescence was slow ; and the stock of romances, by which he was w'ont to relieve the tedium of confinement, hav- ing been exhausted, he was thrown upon the only other available reading, that of the Lives of the Saints. Tiie result was what might be expected in so ardent a temperament, — the creation of a spiritual enthusiasm equally intense in degree with that by whicii he had hitherto been drawn to feats of chivalry. The spiritual glories of St. Francis or St. Dominic now took, in his aspirations, the place which had been before held by the knights of Maccabees. 477 ., surnamed the acy, and closing Jec I'ui'K.) Leo tor learning and 5, died 1 521, was Michael Angelo, Chios 1586, died containing chiefly ts. The erection dus, tiic nature of — is set forth in of hell, where the resurrection. ;d considerably at ict of supplication , and especially on ics of form which L maintained j viz., minister, who an- ion, who reply in a ere the well-known nial established by ces of the Church, n and administra- rds of Christianity itive times, but it were not reduced itian religion. It is Christ, whom his lUed Eucharist and I1491 in the Basque .nlonio Manriquez, nd was wounded in \.\ ; and the stock of )f confinement, hav- ;r available reading, light be expected in enthusiasm equally in drawn to feats of Dominic now took. Id by the knights of medixval romance. With souls like his, there is no middle course : he threw himself, with all the fire of his temperament, upon tiie new inspira- tions which tiiesc thoughts engendered. Renouncing the pursuit of arms, and with it ail other worldly plans, lie tore iiimself from liome and friends, and resolved to prepare himself for the new course which he contemplated, by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. With a view to his immediate preparation for this holy task, he retired in the garb of a beggar to the celebrated mon- astery of Montscrrat, where, on the vigil of the Feast of the Annunciation in 1522, he hung up his arms, as at once a votive offering significative of his renunciation of the works of the flesh, and an emblem of his entire devotion to the spiritual warfare to which he was from that moment vowed. From Montserrat he set out barefooted on his pilgrimage, the first step of which was a voluntary engagement which he undertook to serve the poor and sick in the hospital of the neighboring town of Mrnresa. From Manrcsa he repaired by Barcelona to Rome, whence, after receiving the papal benediction from Adrian VI., he proceeded on foot, and as a mendi- cant, to Venice, and there embarked for Cyprus and the Holy Land. It was while engaged in these elementary studies, that he first formed the pious fraternity which resulted in that great organization which has exercised such influence upon the religious, moral, and social condition of the modern world. Died at Rome 1556. Ilis name was admitted to what is known in the Church as the preliminary step of beatification in the year 1609, and he was solenndy canonized as a saint by Gregory XV. in 1622. lie founded his Order, the Society of Jesus, at Paris, Aug. 16, 1534. He presented its institutes in 1539 to Pope I'aul HI., Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the Ibjiy See. The institution was confirmed by a bull, Sept. 27, 1540. The nund^er of mend)ers was not to exceed sixty. That restriction was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543; and Popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII. granted great privileges. Francis .Xavicr, and other missionaries, the first brothers, carried the Order to the extremities of the habitable globe; but it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly in Paris. The society was condemned by the Sorhonne, Paris, 1554; expelled from France, 1594; re-admitted, 1604; but, after several decrees, was totally suppressed in France, anil its pro])erty confiscated, 1764; ordered by Parliament to be expelled from England, 1579, 15.S1, 15S6, 1602, and finally by the Relief Act in 1829; expelled from Venice, 1607; Holland, 170S; Portugal, 1759; Spain, 1767; abolished by Clement XIV. (at the meeting of the Piourbon sovereigns), July 21, 1773; restored by Pius VI,, Aug. 7, 1S14; expelled from Pclgiimi, 1818; Russia, 1S20; Spain, 1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1S45, 1880; Portugal, 1834; Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 184S; Italy and Sicilv, 1860. The chief of the Order appealed to the King of Sardinia for redress of grievances, Oct. 21, 18G0. Mac'cabees. A word of uncertain meaning and origin. The founder of the Maccabean dynasty, Matithjahu, a priest, was the first who matie a stand against the persecutions of the Jewish nation and creed by .\ntiochus Epiphanes. At the beginning of the troubles he had retired, together with u 478 Maccabees, — Malachi. I ,y.: 1 ! 1 1 1 , .j his five sons, to Modiin, a small place between Jerusalem and Joppa, to mourn in solitude over the desolation of the holy city and the desecration of the temple. But the Syrians pursued him thither. He being a person of importance, Apelles, a Syrian captain, endeavored to induce him, by tempting promises, to relinquish his faith and to embrace the Greek religion. He answered by slaying with his own hand the first renegade Jew who approached the altar of idolatry. This gave the sign for a sudden out- break. His sons, together with a handful of faithful men, rose against the national foe, destroyed all traces of heathen worship already established in Modiin and its neighborhood, and fled into the wilderness of Judah. Their number soon increased ; and not long after they were able to make descents into the adjacent villages and cities, where they circumcised the children and restored everywhere the ancient religion of Jehovah. At the death of Mattathiah (i66 B.C.), which took place a few years after the outbreak, Judah Makkabi (166-161 B.C.) took the command of the patriots, and repulsed the enemy, notwithstanding his superior force, at Mizpah (6,000 against 70,000), Bethsur (10,000 against 65,000), and other places, reconquered Jerusalem, purified the temple (Feast of Reconsecration — Chanuka), and re-inaugurated the holy service (164 B.C.). H.-'ving further concluded an alliance with the Romans, he fell in a battle against Bacchides (161 B.C.). Mac'cabees, Books of. Certain vifritings of the Old Testament, treating chiefly of the history of the Maccabees. They are usually divided into four parts or books; the first of which — the most important — compris- ing the period 175-135 B.C., relates the events which took place in Judaea, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes' misdeeds against the temple, the city, and the nation (ch. i.-ii.), the rising of Mattathiah and his sons against the oppres- sor, the heroic deeds of Judas Maccabeus (iii.-ix.), of Jonathan (ix.-xii.), and Simon, until the election of Johannes Hyrcanus to the dignity of high priest. According to Origen and Jerome, this book was originally written in Hebrew. Madon'na. An Italian word signifying My Lady, and especially applied to the Virgin Mary. It has now become common in other languages, particularly in reference to works of art. In pictorial illustrations, the face of the Madonna or Virgin is gemrally full, oval, and of a mild expression. At first its lineaments were copied from the older pictures of Christ, according to the tradition which declared that the Saviour resembled his mother. The Madonna has been a principal subject of the pencils of the great masters. The greatest success has been achieved by Raphael, in whose pictures of the Madonna there prevails now the loving mother, now the ideal of feminine beauty, until in that of St. Sixtus he reaches the most glorious representation of the " Queen of Heaven." Ma'gi signifies " august," " reverend," " wise." Mal'achi, The name given to the last canonical book of the Old Testament. Regarding its author, nothing whatever is known. It has even been doubted whether Malachi is a proper name or only an appellative ; the Seventy, the Chaldee, Jerome, and many modern scholars — Vitringa, i h.. gstenberg, sM;^'- #ft ■ I i. Maniple. — Michael Angelo. 479 km and Joppa, to ncl the desecration He being a person to induce him, by the Greek religion, renegade Jew who for a sudden out- ;n, rose against the already established ilderness of Judah. were able to make hey circumcised the jn of Jehovah. At few years after the mand of the patriots, ior fnrcc, at Mizpah i), and other places, ji Reconsccration — C). IIc"ving further ;tle against Bacchides Testament, treating usually divided into important— compris- took place in Judsea, pie, the city, and the IS against the oppres- of Jonathan (ix.-xii.), to the dignity of high was originally written pecially applied to the languages, particularly tions, the face of the mild expression. At -s of Christ, according •esembled his mother. 2 pencils of the great by Raphael, in whose g mother, now the ideal ^hes the most glorious of the Old Testament. has even been doubted ative ; the Seventy, the /itringa, ; !■.-> gstenberg, U" breit, etc. — favor the latter view. The period when the writer of Malachi composed his prophecies is conjectured to have been during the governorship of Nehemiah, or about 420 1!.C. Man'iple. An ornamental vestment worn by the priest upon his left arm at Mass. It is worn by deacons and sub-deacons also. Man'ning, Henry E., Cardinal, founded the University of Kensington, and took an active part in the Vatican Council. Horn iSoS in Hertfordshire, England. Mass (from the Latin mittere, to send), " Prayers sent to God." Mas'sillon, Jean Baptiste. One of the most distinguished of modern pulpit orators ; born at Iliferes, in France, 1663. It was while he was engaged in teaching theology in one of the houses of the congregation in the diocese of Meaux, that he made his first essay in the pulpit at Vicnnc. His funeral oration on M. Villars, the Archbishop of Vicnnc, was eminently successful, and led to his being called by the superiors of the Oratory to Paris. His course of ecclesiastical conferences, delivered in the Seminary of St. Ma- gloire, established his reputation. The criticism of Louis XIV., after his Advent course at Versailles, that " when he heard other great preachers he felt satisfied with them, but when he heard Massillon he felt dissatisfied with himself," well expresses the characteristics of the cloc|ucnce of this great orator. Died 1742. His works, consisting mainly of sermons and other similar compositions, were collected in twelve volumes by his nephew, and published in 1745. Maun'dy Thurs'day. The Thursday of Holy Week. It is a feast in memory of our Lord's Last Supper, when he instituted the Holy Eucharist and washed his disciples' feet. Medita'tion. Mental prayer. Messi'ah. " The Anointed ; " the Saviour. Metropol'itan. The leading bishop in a province was titled a metropolitan. Mir'acle. An effect which "is beyond the order (or laws) of the whole of created nature" (St. Thomas, i. ex. 4). Mi'chael An'gelo Buonarot'ti, in an age when Christian art had reached its zenith, stood almost unrivalled as a painter, sculptor, and architect. Born in 1474 at Chiusi, in Italy. He learned the rudiments of painting from Bertoldo, a pupil of Domenico Ghirlandaio; and having been admitted as a student into the seminary which was established by Lorenzo the Magni- ficent for the study of ancient art in connection with the collections of statuary in the Medicean Gardens, he attracted the attention of Lorenzo by the artistic skill with which he had restored the mutilated head of a laughing faun, and was received into the palace of the Medici, where he spent several years. Pope Julius II. called him to Rome, and commissioned him to make his monument, which was to be erected within St. Peter's. Although this work was never completed on the colossal scale on which it had been designed, and was ultimately erected in the Church of St. Pietro ad Vincula, it is a magnificent composition, and is memorable for having given occasion to the reconstruction of St. Peter's on its present sublime plan, in order the better to adapt it to the colossal dimensions of the proposed monument. § ill' f if:; i \\ *■ t:, ( I '■ 480 Missal. — Montaigne. M ■ , mih 'it;' ti i! The Pope insisted upon Micliael Angelo painting with his own hand the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel ; and he began in 1508, and completed within less than two years, his colossal task, which proved one of the most mar- vellous of his works. The subjects of these cartoons are taken from the Book of Genesis, while between these and the representations of the persons of the Saviour's genealogy are colossal figures of prophets and sibyls. His great i)iclure of the Last Judgment was painted for the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The colossal fresco, nearly seventy feet in height, which was com- pleted in 1541, was regarded by contemporary critics as having surpassed all his other works. After its completion Michael Angelo turned to the perfecting of St. Peter's, which, by the touch of his genius, was converted from a mere Saracenic hall into the most superb model of a Christian Church. He refused all remuneration for his labor, which he regarded as a service for the glory of God. Michael Angelo died in 1563 in Rome, but his remains were removed to Florence. Mis'sal. The book which contains the complete service of the Mass through- out the year. Mis'sion. An order of religious devotions to quicken faith and piety among Christians, whom their life in the world has made tepid and careless. Mi'tre. The head-dress worn in solemn Church services by bishops, abbots, and certain other prelates in the Catholic Church. The name, as probably the ornament itself, is borrowed from the Orientals. The Western mitre is a tall, tongue-shaped cap, terminating in a twofold point, which is sup- posed to symbolize the "cloven tongues" in the form of which the Holy Ghost was imparted to the apostles; and is furnished with two flaps, which fall behind over the shoulders. Opinion is much divided as to the date at which the mitre first came into use. F'rom the ninth century it is found in use, although not universally; and instc ices are recorded in which the Popes grant permission to certain bishops to wear the mitre. The mitre, as an ornament, seems to have descended in the earliest times from bishop to bishop. Mixed Mar'riages are marriages between persons of different religions. Monk (Greek, fwvaX'K, "solitary"). A male religious who lives in a monastery. Mon'strance, called also Osten'sory. The sacred article employed in the Church for the purpose of presenting the consecrated Host for the adora- tion of the people, as well while it is carried in procession as when it is exposed upon the altar for benediction. Montaigne', de, Michel Eyquem. A distinguished French moral philoso- pher; was born in 1533 in Perigord. In 1580 he composed the first two books of his celebrated " Essais," the third portion of which appeared in 158S, after his return from an extensive course of travels, which he had undertaken partly to escape from the plague, and partly for the improve- ment of his own health, and during which he visited Rome, and was received with signal favor by the Pope. Montaigne was a constant, and occasionally a successful, mediator between the party of Henry of Navarre and that of the Guises, and stood in relations ' friendship with men of all creeds. Died in 1592. Myrrh. — Nice, Councils of. 48r his own hand the completed within of tlic most mar- re taken from the ions of the persons IS and sil)yls. His Utar of the Sistine ht, which was com- s having surpassed igelo turned to tire nuis, was converted )del of a Christian lich he regarded as I 1563 in Rome, but E the Mass through- lith and piety among ;l and careless. i by bishops, abbots, ^e name, as probably The Western mitre is point, which is sup- in of which the Holy with two flaps, which ivided as to the date ;h century it is found ecorded in which the he mitre. The mitre, ;st times from bishop erent religions. 3 lives in a monastery, icle employed in the L>d Host for the adora- fcession as when it is kench moral philoso- [omposed the first two [of wliich appeared in Itravels, which he had lartly for the improve- ^ited Rome, and was , was a constant, and of Henry of Navarre Kendship with men of Myrrh. A gum-resin produced by Dalsantodeniiron Myrrh, tree of the nattiral order AmyrUacea, growing in Arabia, and probably also in Abyssinia. The myrrh-tree is small and scrubby, spiny, with whitish-gray bark, thinly scattered small leaves, each consisting of three obovate, obtusely tootlilcted leaflets; and the fruit a smooth, brown, ovate drui)e, somewhat larger than a pea. Myrrh exudes from the bark in oily yellowish drops, which gradually thicken, and finally become hard, the color at the same time becoming darker. Myrrh has been known and valued from the most ancient times. It is moaitioned as an article of commerce in Gen. xxxvii. 25, and was among the presents which Jacob sent to the Egyptian ruler, and among those which the wise men from the East brought to the infant Jesus. It was an ingredient in the "holy anointing oil" of the Jews. Nazarene' was used by the Jews as one of the designations of our Lord, and afterward became a common appellation of the early Christians in Judxa. Although, originally, it was but a local appellation, there can be no doubt, that, as Nazareth was but a second-rate city of the despised province of Galilee, it was eventually applied to our Lord and his followers as a name of contempt (John xviii. 5-7 ; Acts xxiv. 5). Naz'areth. A small town or village of Palestine, anciently in the district of Galilee, and in the territory of the tribe of Zebulon. It is celebrated as the scene of the Annunciation, and the place where the Saviour spent the greater part of his life in obscure labor; population six thousand. Naz'arites denoted among the Jews those persons, male or female, who had consecrated themselves to God by certain acts of abstinence, which marked them off, or "separated" them from the rest of the community. In particu- lar, they were prohibited from using wine or strong drink of any kind, grapes, whether moist or dry, or from shaving their heads. The only examples of the cl.iss recorded in .Scripture are Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist, who were devoted from birth to that condition; though the law appears to contemplate temporary and voluntary, rather than perpetual, Nazariteship. Ne'ophyte (Gr., vtfx^vro^, newly grown, of new nature). Applied to converts newly baptized in the primitive Church. Nice, or Nicae'a, now Is'nik, is a village and ruined city on the eastern extremity of the lake of Isnik in Asia Minor, thirty-two miles south south-west of Ismid, and forty miles east north-east of Brusa. The village comprises about a hundred and fifty houses on part of a wide area enclosed by ancient double walls, with gates and towers still nearly perfect, though nearly hid by vegetation. Here the first general Ecclesiastical Council met in A.D. 325, on which occasion the " Nicene Creed" was framed; another council was held here in 787. The city was the first conquest A the crusaders in the East, being captured in 1097. Nice, Coun'cils of. The first council of Nice was held A.D. 325, and was convened by the Emperor Constantine. The second council of Nice, called also the seventh Ecumenical Council, was assembled under the Empress Irene, 787. (See NiCB.) 482 Nicholas. — Obedience. 'r H ) I i ' ,i'; 1 1- ■' E !■ i' « I ■ : i '1 Nich'olas. The name of five Roman Pontiffs, of whom the following alone appear to call for separate notice. On the death of Itenedict III., 111858, Nicholas I. was elected to succeed him, and was consecrated in .St. I'etcr's Church in the presence of Ludwig II., Emperor of Germany. The earliest incident of importance of his Pontificate is his conflict with Photius, who had been intruded into the see of Constantinople after the deprivation of Ignatius. Nicholas died in 87S. Nicholas V. was originally called Thomas Parentucelli ; born in Pisa, 1398. In the judgment of the literary world, the great distinction of the Pontificate of this Nicholas lies in the eminent service which he rendered to that revival of letters which dates from his age. Died 1455. No'vice. A name given to a person, eifhcr man or woman, of whatever age, who has entered a religious house, and desires to embrace Its rule. Novi'tiates. The name of a house where novices pass their time of proba- tion, also the name given the probatory period. Nun. A member of a religious order of women. It is only necessary here to specify a few particulars peculiar to the religious orders of funiales. Of these, the most striking, perhaps, is the strictness in the regularly author- ized orders of nuns of the "cloister," or enclosure, which no cxt'-n is ever permitted to enter, and beyond which nuns are never peruiitttii to pass, without express leave of the bishop. The superiors of convents of nuns arc called by the names Abbess, Prioress, and, in general, Mothe- Superior. The authority of the abbess over her nuns is very comprehensive; but a precise line is drawn between her powers and those of the priestly office, from which she is strictly debarred. The name of nun is given in general to the sisters of all religious congregations of females who live in retire- ment, and arc bound by rule; but it is primitively and projiLily applicable only to sisters of the religious orders strictly so called, who have conse- crated themselves to God by the three vow i of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and bound themselves to live in a convent under a certain rule. Nunc Dimit'tis. The name given to the canticle of Simeon (Luke li. 29-32), which forms part of the compline office of the Roman Hreviary. It is also retained in the evening service of the Anglican Church, when it follows the second lesson. Nun'cio. The name given to the superior grade of the ambassadors sent by the Pope to foreign courts. A nuncio is an ambassador to the court of an emperor or a king. The ambassador to a republic, or to the court of a minor sovereign, is called internuncio. Obe'dience, in canon law, means the duty by which the various gradations in ecclesiastical organization are held subject, in all things consistent with the law of God or of the Church, to the several superiors placed immediately above each, respectively, in the hierarchical scale. Thus priests and inferior clergy owe canonical obedience to the bishop, and priests are bound thereto by a solemn promise administered at ordination. The bishop primitively took a similar oath to the metropolitan; but by the modern law 'he juris- diction of the metropolitan is confined to the occasions of his holding a visitation, or presiding in the provincial synod. Bishops, by the present ? :.* ^c following alone Micdict 111., in 853, atcd ill St. I'ctcr's aany. The earliest with rhotius, who r the deprivation of iially called Thomas the literary world, lies in the eminent hich dates from his an, of whatever age, ace its rule. their time of proba- only necessary here •dcrs of females. Of the regularly author- lich no exl-rn is ever or permittcil to pass, s of conveii'.s of nuns eral, Mothc Superior, comprehensive ; but a c of the priestly office, m is given in general lies who live in relire- ul properly applicable lied, whc have conse- poverty, chastity, and t under a certain rule, imcon (lAike li. 29-3-)> ui r.reviary. It is also luuch, when it follows le ambassadors sent by tdor to the court of an ;, or to the court of a e various gradations in ngs consistent with the ors placed immediately ^hus priests and inferior [riests are bound thereto I The bishop primitively L modern law 'he juris- fasions of his holding a iishops, by the present Opiates. —Oils. Holy. 4«3 law of the Catholic Church, take an oath of obedience to the Pope. This obedience, however, is strictly limited by the canons, and is onlj held to bind in things consi itcnt with the divine and natural law. Oblates. A congregation of secular priests who "offer" themselves (whence the name) to the bishop, to be employed by him in any part of the iliocesc he may choose, and upon any work which he may appoint for them. There are different associations which bear this name, organized for some other religious works. Octava'rium. The name of a book for the use of ecclesiastics. Oc'tave. The Chrijtian, following the example of the Jewish, Church, cele- brates certain fe.ists till the eighth or octave day. The number eight is supposed to represent perfection ; for the seven days of the week arc taken as figures of the ages of the world, and the eighth of the eternal rest which is to follow them. Offertory is the name given to that portion of the public liturgy of the Catho- lic Church with which the eucharistic service, strictly so called, commences. This offering of the bread and wine in the public service became, from a very early period, the occasion of a voluntary offering on the part of the faithful ; originally of the bread and wine designed for the eucharistic cele- bration and for the communion of the priest and the congregation, some- times even including the absent members, and also for the o^n/>e, or common sacved feast, which accompanied it. By degrees other gifts were superadded to those of bread and wine, — as of corn, oil, wa.\, honey, eggs, butter, fruits, lambs, fowl, and other animals ; and eventually of equivalents in money or other objects of value. Office, Congrega'tion of the Ho'ly. In the article Inquisition, it has been mentioned that that tribunal is sometimes called by the name Holy Office. That title, however, properly belongs to the " Congregation " at Rome, to which the direction of the tribunal of the Inquisition at Rome is subject, and its organization was completed by Sixtus V. It consists of twelve car- dinals, a commissary, consulters, and qualifiers, whose duty it is to examine and report on each case for the information of the cardinals. The Holy Ofiice decides questions of heresy, inquires into crimes against faith, and judges ecclesiastical offences, especially in the administration of the sacra- ments. In the present condition of the Papal Court, the action of the Holy Office is much restricted. Office, The Divine, is the name popularly given to the canonical hours pre- scribed to be read each day by the bishops, priests, deacons, and sub-dea- cons of the Catholic Church. Oils, Ho'ly. There arc three holy oils consecrated by the bishop on Holy Thursday, and received from him by the priests who have charge of parishes and districts, i. The oil of catechumens, used for blessing fonts in bap- tism, consecration of churches, of altars whether fixed or movable, ordina- tion of priests, blessing and coronation of kings and queens. 2. Chrism, used in confirmation, in blessing the font in baptism, consecration of a bishop, of paten and chalice, and in the blessing of bells. 3. Oil of the sick, used in extreme unction, and the blessing of bells. « .1 -i :l i 484 Olives, Mount of .— Ordination. Ol'ives, Mount of, called alsn Mount Ol'ivet, an inconsiderable ridge lying on the cast side of Jerusalem, from which it is only separated by the nar- row Valley of Jehoshaphat. It is called by the modern Arabs, Jebclel-Tur, and takes its familiar name from a magnificent grove of olive-trees which once stood on its west flank, but has now in great part disappeared. The road to Mount Olivet is through St. Stephen's Gate, and leads by a stone bridge over the now almost waterless brook Kedron. Immediately beyond, at the foot of the bridge, lies the Garden of Gcthsemane; and the road here parts into two branches, northward toward Galilee, and eastward to Jericho. The ridge rises in three peaks, the central one of which is 2,556 feet above the level of the sea, and 416 feet above the Valley of Jehosha- phat. It is around the central peak, which is the Mount of Olives, properly so called, that all the most sacred associations of Christian history con- verge. On the summit stands the Church of the Ascension, built originally by St. Helen, the modem church being now in the hands of the Armenian community ; and near it are shown the various places where, according to tradition, our Lord wept over Jerusalem, where the apostles composed the Apostles' Creed, where our Lord taught them the Lord's Fiayer, etc. Near the Church of the Ascension is a mosque, and the tomb of a Mohammedan saint. In the Garden of Gcthsemane, at the foot of the hill, is shown the scene of our Lord's agony. Oliv'etans. A religious order of the Catholic Church, one of the many remarkable proc! acts of that well-known spiritual movement which char- acterized the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Olivetans, or Brethren of Our Lady of Mount Olivet, are an offshoot of the great Itencdictine Order, and derive their origin from John Tolomei, a native of Sienna, born in the year 1272. Or'atory. In early times. Mass was said in private houses, and those parts in the houses wliere the Masses were celebrated were called oratories. Or'der, Ho'ly. A sacrament by which bishops, priests, and other ministers of the Church are ordained, and receive power and grace to perform their sacred duties. Or'ders, Ho'ly. The ministry, consisting of seven degrees, viz., porter, reader, exorcist, acolyte, sub-deacon, deacon, and priest. The first four are called the minor or lesser orders; the remaining three are called the holy or greater orders. The priesthood has two degrees of power and dignity, — (i) that of the bishop, whose office it is to govern the particular district given to him (called a diocese), to give Confirmation and Holy Order, inflict cen- sures, pronounce excommunications, grant indulgences, etc. ; (2) that of the priest, whose office it is to offer sacrifice, preach to the people, administer the sacraments, etc. Or'dinary, in Canon Law, when used without other additions, is understood to mean the bishop, who is the ordinary of his own diocese, and is competent of himself to do every act necessary for its government, and for the order- ing of the spiritual concerns of his flock. Ordina'tion. The rite or ceremony by which ministers of the Christian Church are dedicated to their sacred office. The use of a ceremonial for such pur- Ordo Romanus. — Pall. lerable ridge lying KiratLcl l)y tlic lur- \rabs, Jtbelcl-Tur, j{ olivc-trccs which disapiiciircd. The id leads by a stone mmcdiatcly beyond, nane; and the road cc, and eastward to nc of which is 2,556 2 Valley of Jchosha- it of Olives, properly hristian history con- ision, built originally ids of the Armenian , where, according to lostlcs composed the I'a r i-ayer, etc. Near lb of a Mohammedan the hill, is shown the h, one of the many lovcment which char- 3livetans, or Brethren he great licncdictine ative of Sienna, born es, and those parts in lied oratories, lid other ministers of race to perform their es, viz., porter, reader, e first four are called re called the /loly or power and dignity, — )articular district given loW Order, inflict ccn- s, etc. ; (2) that of the the people, administer tions, is understood to :ese, and is competent ent, and for the order- I the Christian Church remonial for such pur- 485 pones 13 traceable among the Jews, and the New Testament contains fre- quent references to the specific cortnvmi.il of "imposition ol hands." In the 1^ Jinan, the Greek, and the other K.isttrn (JImrches, this rite of ordina- tion is held to be sacramental, and it is reserved, at least as regards the major orders, exclusively to bishops. Or'do Ro'manus. Certain ancient collections of ritual prescriptions, as ob- Mcrvt!' in the Roman Churci), licar this name. Ostia'riu , or doorkeeper, held the lowest of the minor orders in the Latin Churcii. His office was more important in ancient times before the con- version of the Roman Kmpire. He hatl to prevent tiie heathen from entering, and disturbing the service, and to keep the laity separate from the clergy, men from the wonK.'n, and to see generally that decorum was main- tained. He had to guard the Church anil its contents, to open tlie Church and sacristy at certain hours, etc. Pal'atine Hill. The central hill of the famous seven on which ancient Rome was built, and, .iccording to tradition, the seat of the earliest Roman settle- ments. In point of historical interest, it ranks next to the Cai)itol and the P'orum. Its sumtnit is about a lunulred antl sixty feet above the sea. The form of the hill is irregidarly quadrangular. Its north-west slope, toward the Capitolinc llill and the Tiber, was called Gcniiiiius or Cemialits, Recent excavations have brought to light numerous remains of the palatial and other structures with which the Palatine Hill was once covered, and these are now among the most interesting sights of the Eternal City. Palestri'na, Giovanni Pierluigi da. A distinguished Italian composer, born 1524. In 1581 he was made maestro di capellu oi the Julian Chapel, Rome ; and in 1554 he published a collection of Masses, so highly approved of by Pope Julius HI., to whom they were dedicated, that he appointed their author one of the singers of the Pontifical Chapel. Iking a married man, he lost that office on the accession to the Pontificate of Paul IV. During the remaining years of his life, the number and the quality of the works of Palestrina were equally remarkable. His published works consist of thirteen books of Masses, six books of Mcjtets, one book of Lamentations, one book of Hymns, one book of Offertories, one book of Magnificats, one book of Litanies, one book of Spiritual Madrigals, and three books of Madrigals. He died in 1594. Pall. The name given in English to two very different portions of the vesture employed in the religious use of the Roman and some other churches. One of these is the funeral pall, an ample covering of black velvet or other stuff, which is cast over the coffin while being borne to burial. The ends of the pall are held during the funeral procession by the most distinguished among the friends of the deceased, generally selected from among those unconnected by blood. In its second and most strictly liturgical use, the word " pall " is applied to one of the coverings used at the altar in the cele- bration of the Mass. Primitively, as appears from Optatus and other early writers, the altar was covered with a large linen cloth, — called by the Latins pallium, and by the Greeks dkton, — the extremities of wliich \ ^':. ! ? i \h : 1 n- i fifi> 486 Palla. — Parable. were folded back so as to cover the bread and wine prepared for the celebration of the Eucharist. Pal'la. A small linen cloth used to cover the chalice, and usually stiffened v.'ith a squarc-shai)cd cardboard. Pal'lium. The name given in the Catholic Church to one of the ecclesiastical ornaments worn by the Poi)e, by patriarchs, and by arch bishops. Its use is held by Catholics to descend from a very early period. It is Worn by the Pope at all times, as a symbol of his universal and abiding jurisdiction. Palm Sun'day, the last Sunday of Lent, is so called from the custom of bless- ing branches of the palm-tree, or of other trees substituted in those coun- tries in which palm cannot be procured, and of carrying the blessed branches in procession, in commemoration of the triumphal entry of our Lord into Jerusalem. The date of this custom is uncertain. The first writer in the West who expressly refers to it is the Venerable 13ede. The usage certainly existed in the seventh century. Pan'ge Lingua. One of the most remarkable of the hymns of the Roman Breviary, and, like its kindred hymn, "Lauda Sion," a most characteristic example as well of the mediaeval Latin versification as of that union of theology with asceticism which a large class of these hymns present. The " Pange Lingua " is a hymn in honor of the Eucharist, and belongs to the service of the festival of Corpus Christi. It is from the pen of the great Angelic Doctor, Thomas Aquinas. Pa'pacy'. (i.) The office and dignity of the Pope or Pontiff of Rome; papal authority or jurisdiction. (2.) The Popes taken collectively; the series or line of Popes (Webster). Pa'pal States. A name given formerly to a territory, or rather group of states, in Central Italy, once united into one sovereignty, with the Pope for its head. It was an irregular form, resembling the letter Z, the upper portion lying to the east of the Apennines, the lower to the west of that range, these two being connected by a third strip, which crossed the peninsula from east to west. The Papal States were bounded on the north by the Po, on the south by Naples, on the east by the Gulf of Venice and Naples, and on the west by Modena, Tuscany, and the Tyrrhe- nian Sea. Detached portions, as Beiievento and Pontecorvo, lay within the Neapolitan territory. (See Italy for hisiory of the Papal States.) The climate of these states is one of the finest in the world, and the heat of summer is tempered by the mild and cooling sea-breezes ; but in the flats south of the Po, and in the Campagna of Rome, the noxious atmos- phere produced by the exhalations from the marshes is mo.^t destructive of human life. Pa'pist. A firm, uncompromising, practical Catholic. Par'able was originally the name given by the Greek rhetoricians to an illus- tration avowedly introduced as such. In Hellenistic and New-Testament Greek, it came to signify an independent, fictitious narrative, employed for the illustration of a moral rule or principle. This kind of illustration is of Eastern origin ; and admirable examples are to be found in the Old and New Testaments, particularly in the discourses of our Lord. Paradise. — Pastor. 487 Par'adise. An old Tcrsian word adopted in ancient times by the Hebrews. It means simply " a park " or " garden," " heaven " or " a part of heaven." Pas'chal Can'dle. See S.vcka.me.ntals and Cf.kemuniks. Pas'chal Chron'icle, a chronological arrangement of events from Adam to Ileraclius (629 A.D.). Pas'sion Sun'day. The Sunday before Palm Sunday. Pas'sionists, a religious congregation of priests, the object of whose institute, indicated by their name, is to preach "Jesus Christ and him crucified." The founder, Paul Francis, surnamed Paul of the Cross, was born in 1694, at Ovada, in the diocese of Acqui, in the kingdom of Sardinia. Died 1775. Having commenced his career as a hermit, he formed the design of enlist- ing others in the missionary life; and being ordained priest in 1737, he asso- ciated himself with ten others, and obtained for his plan the approbation of successive Popes, together with the convent on the Ca;lian Hill, at Rome, which still forms the mother-house of the congregation. The special object of the institute was to instil into men's minds by preaching, by example, and by devotional practices, a sense of the mercy and love of Cod as mani- fested in the passion of Christ. Hence the cross appears everywhere as their emblem, in their churches, in their halls, and in the courts and public places of their monasteries. A large crucifix, moreover, forms part of their very striking costume. They go barefooted, and practise many other per- sonal austerities, rising at midnight to recite the canonical hours in the church ; and their ministerial work consists chietly in holding what are called " missions," wherever they are invited by the local clergy, in which sermons on the passion of Christ, on sin, and on repentance, together with the hearing of confessions, hold the principal places. For a time his con- gregation remained in obscurity ; but it has risen into notice within the last half-century, new houses having been founded in England, Ireland, Ilel- gium, America, and Australia. Pass'over, the first and greatest of the three annual feasts instituted by Moses, at which it was incumbent upon every male Israelite to make a pilgrimage to the house of the Lord. It was celebrated on the anniversary of the exodus from Egypt, i.e., on the fourteenth day of Nisan, otherwise called Abib, the period of the first full moon in the spring, and lasted eight days. In commemoration of the incidents connected with the great event of the liberation of the people, it was ordained that unleavened bread only should be eaten during this impressive period, whence it also bore the name Chai:^- hammazzoth (Feast of Unleavened liread) ; and, further, that a lamb one year old, and free from all blemish, roasted whole, together with bitter herbs, should form the meal in every house on the eve of the feast. The paschal meal, as at present celebrated umong the Jews, has more the char- acter of a hallowed family-feast, with reference, however, to the great national event. Pas'tor. A title pre-eminently belonging to the Roman Pontiff, who in the collect "Pro Papa" is described as /'aslor ecclcsiir. It is also given to bishojis and priests, each of whom are to lead, feed, and gently rule, like a shepherd, the Hock committed to them. I 1 488 Pastoral Letter. — Patrick, St. Pas'toral Let'ter is a letter addressed either at certain stated times, or on the occurrence of some notable occasion, by a pastor, but especially by a bishop to the clergy under his jurisdiction, to the laity of his flock, or to both. It is usual for bishops, besides their stated letters, to address to their clergy or people instructions suited to any particular emergency which may arise, and sometimes to take occasion from the issuing of the stated pastoral letter to offer instruction on some topic of importance which may engage public attention at the time, on some prevalent abuse or scandal, or some apprehended danger to faith or to morals. Pas'toral Staff, sometimes also, although not properly, called crosier, one of the insignia of the episcopal office, sometimes also borne by an abbot. It is a tall staff of metal, or of wood ornamented with metal, having, at least in the Western Church, the head curved in the form of a shepherd's crook, as a symbol of the pastoral office. It is difficult to determine the time at which the pastoral staff first came into use. The first distinct allusion to it is in St. Augustine's commentary on the one hundred and twenty-fourth Psalm. Gregory of Tours, in the Life of St. Martin, mentions the pastoral staff of St. Severinus, who was Bishop of Cologne in the end of the fourth century. From an early time the pastoral staff was connected with the actual possession of the jurisdiction which it symbolizes. Pa'ten. A small golden plate used by the priest to receive the consecrated host at the Mass. Pa'ter Noster. Our Lord's Prayer, taught by him to his disciples. Pa'triarch, Patriarchate. Next to the Primacy of St. Peter, which stands apart, the highest grade in the hierarchy of jurisdiction. Next comes the Primate, etc. Pat'rick, St. A distinguished missionary of the fifth century, commonly known as the Apostle of Ireland. There is some uncertainty as to the date and place of his birth. The year of his birth is variously assigned to the years 377 and 387, of which the latter, if not even a. later date, is more probable Of the place it is only known for certain, from his own confes- sion, that his father had a small farm near Bonavem Tabcrniae ; and in one of the ancient lives he is said to have been born at Nemthur. Arguing on these data, connected with other collateral indications, some writers assign his birthplace to the present Poulogne-sur-Mcr; others, to a place in the estuary of the Clyde (called from him Kilpatrick), at or near the modern Dumbarton. Mis father, he himself tells, was a deacon named Calpurnius; his mother, according to the ancient biographers, was named Conches, or Conchessa according to some of these authorities, a sister of St. Martin of Tours. Patrick's original name is said to have been Succath, Patricius being the Roman appellative by which he was known. In his sixteenth year he was seized, while at his father's farm of Bonavem Tabernia;, by a band of pirates, and with a number of others was carried to Ireland, and sold to a petty chief, in whose service he remained for six years, after which he suc- ceeded in effecting his escape, and, prob.ably after a second captivity, went to France, where he became a monk, first at Tours, and afterward in the celebrated monastery of Lcrins. In the year 431 he went to Rome, whence Patron. — Paul, Vincent de. 489 times, or on the ially by a bishop :, or to both. It to their clergy or ^hich may arise, : stated pastoral hich may engage scandal, or some d crosier, one of ; by an abbot. It 1, having, at least shepherd's crook, •mine the time at tinct allusion to it and twonty-fourth itions the pastoral ; end of the fourth ;onnected with the re the consecrated isciples. 'eter, which stands |. Next comes the :entury, commonly certainty as to the .riously assigned to later date, is more im his own confes- icrnise ; and in one ithur. Arguing on ;omc writers assign , to a place in the 3r near the modern named Calpurnius; named Conches, or er of St. Martin of :ath, Patricius being , sixteenth year he .rniK, by a band of .and, and sold to a after which he suc- ond cai)tivity, went id afterw:ird in the nt to Rome, whence he was sent by the Pope of the day, Celestine, to preach in Ireland, Palla- dius, who had been sent as missionary to that country a short lime before, having died. Such is the received account of his mission; but Dr. Todd, his latest biographer, regards this statement as erroneous, and fixes the date of his coming to Ireland eight years later. He was ordained in France, and arrived in Ireland in 432. His mission was eminently successful. He adopted the expedient of addressing himself first to the chiefs, and of im- proving, as far as possible, the spirit of clanship, and o'her existing usages of the Irish, for the furtherance of his preaching ; nor can it be doubted that he had much success in Christianizing the ancient Irish system of belief and practice. By degrees he visited a large portion of the kingdom, and baptized great numbers as well of the chieftains as of the people. According to the accounts of his Irish biographers, he founded three hun- dred and sixty-five churches, and baptized with his own hand twelve thou- sand persons. He is said also to have ordained a vast numl)cr of priests, and to have blessed very many monks and nuns. After he had been about twenty years engaged in his missionary enterprise, he is said to have fixed his see at Armagh about the year 454; and having procured two of his disciples to le ordained bishops, he held probably more than one synod, the d xrees of which have been a subject of much controversy. He died at a place called Saul, near Downpatrick; and his relics were preserved at Downpatrick down to the period of the Reformation. The place is vener- ated by the people. The date of his death is much disputed, the Bolland- ists placing it in 460, while Usher holds it to have been 493. Pa'tron, among the Romans, originally signified a citizen who had dependents, who were called clients, attached to him. Before the time of the laws of the Twelve Tables, ihe most frequent use of the term patronus was in opposition to libcrtus, these two words being used to signify persons who stood to one another in the relation of master and manumitted slave. The Roman was not denuded of all right in his slave when he freed him ; a tie remained somewhat " Ke that of parent and child; and the law recognized inijiortant obligations on the part of the libcrttis toward his patron, the neg- lect of which involved severe punishment. In some cases the jjatron could claim a right to the whole or part of the property of his freedman. " Pa- tron," in after times, became a common designation of every protector or powerful promoter of the interests of another ; and the saints who were bel'eved to watch over the interests of particular persons, places, trades, etc., acquired in the Middle Ages the designation of their patron saints. The saint in whose name a church is founded is considered its patron saint. Paul, Vmcent de, one of the most eminent saints of the modern Catholic Church, was born in the year 1576. The indications of ability which he exhibited led to his being sent to school at Toulouse. He was admitted to priests' orders in 1600. He laid the foundation of what eventually grew into the great and influential Congregation of Priests of the Missions, an association of priests who devoted themselves to the work of assisting the parochial clergy by preaching and hearing confessions periodically in those districts to which they may bt invited by the local pastors. The rules of 490 Penance. — Peter, St. 'Li-U Sjlw I i» • I i? ! ■■ ' li this congregation were finally approved by Urban VIII. in 1632 ; and in the following year Fathers established themselves in the so-called I'riory of St. Lazare in Paris, whence their name of Lazaristi is derived. Vincent's preacliiiig was of the most simjjle kind, singularly affecting and impressive. He finnuled the order of the "Daughters of Charity" at I'aris in 1634. The Order is popularly known in this country by the title of " The Sisters of Ch.'.iity," and its members have won for their Order as well as them- selves the admiration, esteem, and well-deserved praise of the whole nation for their godlike ministration to the sick and afflicted during times of war and peace. He died at the advanced age of eighty-five, at St. Lazare, Sept. 27, 1660; and was canonized by Clement XII. in 1737. His festival is held on the 19th of July, the day of his canonization. Pen'ance. " Sorrow, regret." A sacrament whereby the sins, whether mortal or venial, which we have committed after bajjtism, are forgiven. Peniten'tial Psalms. Seven of the Psalms of David, so called as being spe- cially expressive of sorrow foi sin, and accepted l)y Christian devotion as form.> of prayer suitable for the repentant sinner. They are Psalms vi., x.xxii., x.\x\iii., li., cii., c.x.x.x., and cxliii., according to the Authorized Version, which correspond with vi., xxxi., xxxvii., 1., ci., cxxix., and cxlii. of the Vulgate. These Psalms have been set apart from a very early period, and are referred to as such by Origcn. Pope Innocent HI. ordered that they should be re- cited in Lent. They have a special place in the Roman IJreviary, and more than one of the Popes attached an indulgence to the recital of them. Pen'tecost was the name given to the feast among the Jews, held on the fifti- eth day after the Passover, in celebration of the "ingathering," and in thanksgiving for the harvest. From the Jewish use, it was introduced into the Christian, and with special solemnity, as bemg the day of the descent of the Holy Ghost on the apostles, and of the first solemn preaching of the Christian religion. From early times Pentecost has been regarded as one of the great festivals of the Christian year, and it was chosen as one of the times for the solemn administration of baptism; and the English name of the festival, Whit-Sunday, is derived from the white robes in which the newly baptized were clad. It is regarded as specially sacred to the Third Person of the blessed Trinity, to whose honor the services of the day are directly addressed. Pe'ter, St., Apostle, named originally Simon, was a native of Bcthsaida, on the Lake of Gennesaret. His father was called Jonas; and the name by which Peter is known in Christian history was given to him by our Loril, who changed his original name (I?ar-Jona) into Cephas, a Syro-Chaldaic word, which means " rock " or stone, and for which Pitni, or, in the mascu- line form, Petros, is the Greek equivalent. He was a fisherman by occupa- tion, and, together with his br-jiher Andrew, was actually engaged in this occupati(5n on the Sea of Galilee when our Lord called both to be his disciples, promising to " make them fishers of men." For this invitation they had been prepared by the preaching of John the Baptist, and they accepted it without hesitation. For the incidents recorded ^,1 Peter's life as a disciple, we must refer to the Gospel narrative. The last incident of n Peter's Pence. — Peter the Hermit. 491 II. in 1632; and in ; so-called Priory of derived. Vincent's ling and impressive. " at I'aris in 1634- itlc of " The Sisters Icr as well as tl cm- : of the whole nation during times of war ;, at St. Lazare, Sept. His festival is held : sins, whether mortal ; forgiven. 3 called as being spe- Christian devotion as ;yarersalmsvi.,xxxii., horized Version, which cxlii. of the Vulgate. ,criod,and are referred ^hat they should be re- nan Breviary, and more recital of them. Jews, held on the fifti- "ingathering," and m , it was introduced into 'the day of the descent •St solemn preaching of ,t has been regarded as id it was chosen as one ktism; and the English torn the white robes m cd as specially sacred to le honor the services of I native of Bethsaida, on Tunas; and the name by ^ven to him by our Lord, :,p/ias, a Syro-Chaldaic Pc-lni, or, in the mascu- a fisherman by occupa- factually engaged in this called both to be his ■en." For this invitation [m the Baptist, and they [ recorded ^l Peter's lite live. The last incident of Peter's life supplied by the Scripture narrative is his presence in the council of Jerusalem, A.I). 49. Ilis martyrdom is fi.vcd, with much proliability, in the year 66, and is supposed to have been at the same time and place with that of St. Paul. Peter was sentenced to he crucified, and, according to the tradition (preserved by Kusebius from Urigcn), prayed llial he might be crucified with his head downward, in order that his death migiit exceed in ignominy that of his Divine Master. Pe'ter's-Pence. Originally an annual tax of one ])cnny for every house in England, collected at midsummer, ami paid to the Holy See. It was ex- tended to Ireland under the bull grained by Pope Adri.an to Henry H. Nowadays it is a voluntary contribution given by the faithful for the maintenance of the Sovereign Pontiff. It is usually coUectetl under the direction of the several bishops. Pe'ter the Her'mit, the first mover of the great media;val drama of the Crusades, was of gentle birth, and a native of .\miens, where he was horn about the middle of the eleventh century. In tlic course (jf a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, about 1093, 1*^ was moved by observing that the Holy Sepulchre was in the hands of the infidel, as well as by the ojipressed con- dition of the Christian residents or pilgrims under the Moslem rule, and on his return spoke so earnestly on the subject to Pope Urban II., that that Pontiff warmly adopted his views, and commissioned him to preach throughout the West an armed confederation of Christians for the deliv- erance of the Holy City. Mean in figure, and diminutive in stature, his enthusiasm lent him a power which no external advantages of form could have commanded. " He traversed Italy," writes the historian of Latin Christianity, "crossed the Alps, from province to province, from city to city. He rode on a mule, with a crucifix in his hand, his head and feet bare. His dress was a long robe, girt with a cord, and a hermit's cloak of the coarsest stuff. He preached in the puljiits, on the roads, in the market-places. His eloquence was that which stirs the heart of the people, for it came from his own, — brief, figurative, full of bold apostrophes; it was mingled with his own tears, with his own groans; he beat his breast; the contagion spread throughout his audience. His preaching appealed to every passion, — to valor and shame, to indignation and pity, to the pride of the warrior, to the compassion of the man, to the religion of the Chris- tian, to the love of the brethren, to the hatred of the unbeliever aggravated by his insulting tyranny, to reverence for the Redeemer and the saints, to the desire of expiating sin, to the hope of eternal life." Peter accom- panied the expedition under Godfrey; but, worn out by the delays and difficulties of the siege of Antioch, he was about to withdraw from the expedition, and was only retained in it by the influence of the other leaders, who foresaw the worst results from his departure. Accordingly, he had a share, although not marked by any signal distinction, in the siege and capture of the Holy City in 1099; and the closing incident of his history as a Crusader was an address to the victorious army, delivered on the Mount of Olives. He returned to Europe, and founded a monastery at Huy, in the diocese of Liege. In this monastery he died, 11 15. 492 Physicians. — Pilgrim. 1 1 i' I V. « JM [lit HI': ) ' I i' >i Physi'cians, The Roy'al Col'lege of, was founded in 1518 by the munifi- cence of Thomas Linacre, a priest and distinguished physician, born in 1460, died in 1524. In 1518, through the influence of Cardinal Wolsey, he obtained from Henry VIII. letters-patent granting to John Chambre, himself, and Ferdinandus de Victoria, the acknowledged physicians to the King, together with Nicholas Halsewell, John Francis, Robert Yaxley, and all other men of the same faculty in London, to be incorporated as one body and perpetual community or college. Phil'istines. A word either derived from a root Phalasa, to emigrate, wander about, or identified with I'elasgi, or compared by others with Shefela, low- landers ; designates a certain population mentioned in the Bible as being in frequent contact with the Jews, and who lived on the coast of the Medi- terranean, to the south-west of Judea, from Ekron toward the Egyptian frontier, bordering principally on the tribes of Dan, Simeon, and Judah. Our information about the origin of the Philistines is extremely obscure and contradictory, and is principally found in the Scriptures. Pil'grim. A pilgrim is one who visits, with religious intent, some place reputed to possess f.ome especial holiness. The early Christians, like the Jews and the pagan Gentiles, regarded certain places with special religious interest; above all, the Holy Land, and particularly the scenes of the Passion of our Lord at Jerusalem. St. Jerome refers the practice of visiting Jerusalem to the discovery of the Holy Cross by St. Helena. He himself was a zealous pilgrim ; and throughout the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, pilgrims habitu- ally undertook the long and perilous journey to the Holy Land from almost every part of the West. Other sacred places, too, were held to be fit objects of the same visits of religious veneration. The tombs of the Apos- tles Peter and Paul, and of the martyrs in the catacombs at Rome, are so described by St. Jerome (Commentar. in Ezekiel). St. Basil speaks in the same terms of the tomb of the Forty Martyrs ; and the historian Theodoret tells of not only visiting such sanctuaries, but of hanging up therein, as offerings, gold and silver ornaments, and even models of hands, feet, eyes, etc., in commemoration of the cures of diseases supernaturally obtained as the fruit of these pious visits. The pilgrimage, however, pre-eminently so called, was that to the Holy Land ; and even after Jerusalem had been occupied by the Saracens, the liberty of pilgrimage, on payment of a tax, was formally secured by treaty ; and it was from the necessity of protecting pilgrims from outrage, that the well-known military orders had their origin. The Crusades may be regarded as a pilgrimage on a grand scale, the direct object being to secure for the Latin Christians immunity of pilgrimage. On the other hand, the final abandonment of the Crusades led to a great exten- sion of what may be called domestic pilgrimage, and drew into religious notice and veneration many shrines in Europe which, after the lapse of time, became celebrated places of pious resort. The chief places of pil- grimage in the West were : in Italy — Rome, Loretto, Genetsano, Assisi ; in Spain — Compostella, Guadalupe, Montserrat; in France — Fourvi^res, Puy, St. Denis; in Germany — Getting, Zell, Cologne, Trier, Einsiedeln; in England — Walslngham, Canterbury, and many others of minor note. Pius. — Plain-Chant 493 518 by the munifi- physician, born in Cardinal Wolsey, to John Chambre, :d physicians to the Robert Yaxley, and incorporated as one to emigrate, wander •s with Sliffela, low- 1 the Bible as being ; coast of the Medi- oward the Egyptian Simeon, and Judah. is extremely obscure 5tures. nt, some place reputed ins, like the Jews and ial religious interest; of the Passion of our : visiting Jerusalem to himself was a zealous ituries, pilgrims habitu- ioly Land from almost \, were held to be fit he tombs of the Apos- ombs at Rome, are so it. Basil speaks in the he historian Theodoret hanging up therein, as ;ls of hands, feet, eyes, srnaturally obtained as ivever, pre-eminently so ;r Jerusalem had been , on payment of a tax, 'necessity of protecting orders had their origin, a grand scale, the direct nity of pilgrimage. On ies led to a great exten- and drew into religious hich, after the lapse of The chief places of pil- •tto, Genetsano, Assisi; in France -Fourviferes, ,gne, Trier, Einsiedeln; others of minor note. The costume consisted of a black or gray gabardine, girt with a cincture, from which a shell and scrip were suspended, a broad hat oriuuncntcd with scallop-shells, and a long staff. In late years, however, i)ilgrinis have resorted in large numbers, not only to the ancient sanctuaries of Notre Dame dc la Garde, de Fourvieres, de Puy, etc., but also to La Salctte, Lourdes, Paray-le-Monial, and Pontigny. In 1S73 and 1874, organized parties of pilgrims on a very large scale from France, Hclgium, luigland, the United States, etc., visited the sanctuary of Paray-le-Monial, the place at which the vision of Marie Alacoquc, which gave rise to the devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, is recorded to have taken place. Pi'us, the name of nine among the Roman Pontiffs. Pius IX., Giovanni Maria Masti Ferretti, occupant of the Papal Chair during one of the most eventful periods in the history of the Papacy, was born at Sinigaglia, May 13, 1792. He was originally destined for the military profession, — the Noble Guard; but symptoms of an epileptic tendency led to his abandoning his intended profession. He received holy orders, and, after exercising his ministry for a time in Rome, was sent as "auditor" of the vicar apostolic to Chili. Having been successively archbishop of Spoleto and of Imola, nuncio and cardinal, he was, on the death of Gregory XVI. in 1846, elected "by ac- clamation" to succeed him. He took the name of Pius IX., and entered at once on a course of reforms. In 1S45 ^'^ issued a decree propounding as a doctrine of the Church the faith of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the internal administration of his states, not- withstanding the embarrassed condition of finances produced by the curtail- ment of his territory, he introduced many ameliorations, and did much for the advancement and improvement of the city of Rome and of its institu- tions. In this he was aided by the voluntary contributions of the several churches, as well in special gifts as in the org.anization of the permanent tribute called " Peter's-pence " (q v.). In 1864, on occasion of the centenary of the martyrdom of St. Peter, he brought together at Rome a large assemblage of bishops ; and subsequently, on occasion of the canonization of the Jesuit martyrs of Japan. But the most important event of his Pon- tificate was the convocation of the Vatican Council (see CoUNCii.) at which bishops from all parts of the Catholic world assembled in December, 186.9. It was adjourned in July, 1870, after it had proclaimed the celebrated decree of the infallibility of the Pope when on a subject of faith or morals he issues a decree ex cathcdrA to the universal Church. Soon after the adjournment, the Italian army occupied Rome, and declared it the capital of the kingdom of Italy. Pius renewed, with all solemnity, his oft-repeated protest, and, refusing an offered dotation and all other proposals of accom- modation, from that date declared himself a captive in the V.atican, to which he strictly confined himself. Died 1878, and was succeeded by Leo XIII. Plaii'-chant or Plain'song, two names early given by the Church of Rome to the ecclesiastical chant. It is an extremely simple melody, admitting only notes of equal \alue, rarely extending beyond the compass of an octave, and never exceeding nine notes, the staff on which the notes are placed consisting of only four lines. St. Ambrose is considered to have been i s ^%k, J* 1% 494 Pluralism. — Postulation. ;Mi' 11 m the inventor or systcmatizer of plain-song. Ills labors consisted in select- ing from the extremely complicated system of the Greeks a set of scales sufficic-nily few and simple for a very rude people. Plu'ralism, in canon law. means the possession by the same person of two or more ecclesiastical offices, whether of dignity or of emolument. I'liiralism has been held unlawful from the earliest times, and is forbidden by many ancient councils, as Chalcedon, tenth century (451 A.l).), second N'icxa, fif- teenth century (737 .\.r).). This prohibition, however, was not regarded as absolute and admitting no possible exception ; the natural ground of the prohibition I.icing the impossibility, in ordinary cases, of the same individual adequately discharging the duties of more than one office. It has been held, therefore, that, in cases in which this impossibility does not really exist, the union of two or more offices in the hands of one person might, speaking absolutely, be permitted without infringing the divine law. Two benefices may be incrmipatible in three ways, — (i) if each requires resi- dence; (2) if the duties of both fall to be discharged at one and the same time ; or (3) if the revenue of either fully suffices for the becoming main- tenance of the incumbent. Pol'ycarp. Bishop of Smyrna, and one of the most illustrious of the early Christian martyrs, born in the latter part of the first century A.D., but neither the dale nor the place of his birth is known. He was, however, brought up at Smyrna, where his pupil Irenieus states that Polycarp was taught the doctrin'' of Christianity by the apostles, particularly by John, with whom he had " familiar intercourse." His martyrdom is related at great length by Eusebius, and took place probably in 166 A. 13., during the persecution under the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. When asked, or rather entreated, "to revile Christ," Polycarp reijlied, "Eighty and six years have I served him, and he never did me wrong ; and how can I now blaspheme my King that has saved me.'" He was burned alive. Polycarp wrote several Epistola, of which only one has been preserved, the Epistohi ad Philippenses, valuable for its numerous quotations from the New Testament, especially from the writings of Paul and Peter. Pontifical. One of the service-books of the Church, in which are contained the several services, whether in the administration of sacraments, or the performance of public worship, in which the bishop exclusively, or at least a priest delegated by the bishop, officiates. Pope. The title of the Bishop of Rome, and of the Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church. The name "Papa" — the Latin equivalent of Pope — was originally used in relation to all the bishops. The first known writer who applies it to the Roman Bishop, as his specific title, is Ennodius of Pavia, in the latter part of the fifth century, who thus addresses Pope Symmachus. Postula'tion, in canon law, means a presentation or recommendation ad dressed to the superior, to whom the right of appointment to any dignity belongs, in favor of one who has not a strict title to the appointment. It is one of the forms of projjosing to the Pope persons nominated, but not, strictly speaking, elected, to a bishopric. \\\ IW Postures. — Priest. 495 consisted in select- cks a set of scales nc person of two or jlumcnt. Pluralism forbidden by many .), second Nicxa, fif- was not regarded as ^tural ground of the { the same individual office. It has been jility does not really af one person might, ;he divine law. Two if each requires resi- \ at one and the same : the becoming main- ilustrious of the early irst century A.D., but m. He was, however, ites that rolycarp was , particularly by John, lartyrdom is related at 1 166 A.D., during the 1 Lucius Verus. When ycarp re.Jied, "Eighty ,e wrong ; and how can He was burned alive, [has been preserved, the notations from the New Teter. in which are contained of sacraments, or the exclusively, or at least I Supreme Pontiff of the ^ equivalent of Pope — The first known writer lecific title, is Ennodius |ho thus addresses Pope I or recommendation ad pointment to any dignity [to the appointment. It sons nominated, but not, Post'ures. The name given to the attitude observed in worship, whether pri- vate or public, but espcci.illy (he hitter. They are the natiir.il ixprt^sions of the fueling which acconipanics or characterizes the particular devcition in which they are employed, and are used liy suppliants tu man as well as to Clod. Four postures are found to have been used h" the aneieiit Chris- tians in their prayer, — the standing, the kneeling, the bowini; or iiKlined, and the jjrostratc. The prostrate posture was the attitude of the deepest humiliation. Predestina'tion. St. Augustine's definition: viz., "God's prevision and i)rcp- aration of benefits by which th'ise who are freed [i.e., from ttern.al death] are most certainly freed." Preface. A prelude or introduction to the Canon of the Mass, consisting in an exhortation to thanksgiving made by the celebrant, in tlie answers u( the minister or choir, and a prayer ending with the Sanctus, in wliich God is thanked for his benefits. Prel'ate, in Church law, is the name given to the holders of those higher dig- nities in the Church, to which, of their own right, is attaclied a proper jurisdiction, not derived by dcleg.ition from any superior official. In this sense, the name comprises not only prelates of the first class, as bishops, but also the heads of religious orders, abbots or priors of religious houses, and other similar ecclesiastical dignitaries. Presenta'tion Nuns. A Catholic order, designed for the instruction of chil- dren and the care of aged women; established at Cork 1777, came to the United States 1854. Priest. The title, in its most general signification, of a minister of public worship, but specially applied to the minister of sacrifice or other media- torial offices. In the early history of mankind, the functions of the [iriest seem to have commonly been discharged by the head of each family; but on the expansion of the family into the state, the office of priest became a public one. It thus came to pass, that in many instances the priestly office was associated with that of the sovereign, whatever might be the particular form of the sovereignty. But in many religious and political bodies, also, the orders were maintained in complete independence, and the priests formed a distinct, and, generally speaking, a privileged class. In the Mosaic law, the whole theory of the priesthood, as a sacrificial and mediatorial office, is fully developed. The priest of the Mosaic taw stands in the ]iosition of a mediator between God and the people; and even if the sacrifices which he offered be regarded as but typical and prospective in their moral ctificacy, the priest must be considered as administering them with full authority in all that regards their legal value. In the Christian dispensation, the name primitively given to the public ministers of religion was fivshteros, of which the English name "priest" is but a form derived through the old French or Norman prestre. The name given in classical Greek to the sac- rificing priests of the pagan religion, Gr. hiercus, Lat. sacerdos, is not found in the New Testament explicitly applied to ministers of the Christian min- istry; but verv early in ecclesiastical use it appears as an ordinary desig- nation; and with those bodies of Christians, — Roman Catholics, Greeks, 496 Primate. — Pulpit. i'j] It ' ■\-i^ 1 i Syrians, and other Orientals, — who regard the Eucharist as a sacrifice, the two names were applied indiscriminately. Pri'mate. A Ijishop to whose see the dignity of vicar of the Holy See was fornurly annexed. The i)rinci])al sees included under this head are, Aries and Lyons in France, Armagh in Ireland, Mentz in Germany, Toledo in Spain, Grau in Hungary, I'isa and Salerno in Italy. Propagan'd.a. The name of a congregation, and also of a college in Rome, the object of which is to direct and forward the projjagation of the Catholic religion, especially among the heathen; although Christian dis- senters from the Catholic Church are also included in the sphere of its operations. The institution was originated by Pope Gregory XIII., 1572- ISS4. Prot'estant. The history of the name is as follows: At the first Diet of Spires (1526), a decree was agreed to, in effect, that, pending the convocation of a general council, every prince of the German Empire should be free to execute the imperial edict of Worms (1521, by which Luther and his doctrine had been condemned), in such a manner as was consistent with his being prepared to answer for his conduct to God and the emperor. The adoption of this decree led in practice to much discord and confusion ; the princes of the different states being emboldened by it, to make and enforce within their own territories any arrangements about religion that might be agree- able to them. Thus, in states and cities where the Lutheran opinions pre- vailed, ^he Catholic worship was often forbidden. At the second Diet of Spires (1529), the majority adopted a new decree to this effect: that those states that had hitherto observed the edict of Worms should continue to observe it ; that the other states, in which the new opinions had been intro- duced, should not, pending the meeting of the council, make any fresh changes in regard to religion, and that, in these last-named states, no preach- ing against the sacrament of the altar should be permitted, the Mass should not be abolished, and, if Lutheranism was most prevalent, the Catholics were not to be prevented from hearing Mass. Against this decree, the Lutheran minority in the Diet protested, the meaning of the protest being that the dissentient princes did not intend to tolerate Catholicism within their borders. Luther's followers objected to being called Lutherans ; the name of "Evangelical," which Luther approved, the Catholics would not concede. Hence the name " Protestant," which name is common to all who reject the authority of the Church. Prov'idence. In theology, implies not only fore-knowledge, but preparation and provision, government and control, and includes the general idea of preservation. There is no limit to Providence, and its end is infinitely benevolent, holy, and wise. Provin'cial of an Or'der is the superior of all the houses and all the members of a monastic order, within any particular province. The office is gen- e:-lly held for a stated term of years, and in most orders the appointment to it rests with the general of the order. Psalms. Hymns of praise to God. Pul'pit. A preacher's stand. fi I urn Purgatory. — Raphael. 497 9t as a sacrifice, the f the Holy See was this head are, Aries Germany, Toledo in i a college in Rome, propagation of the hough Christian di»- in the sphere of its Gregory XIIL, 1572- At the first Diet of inding the convocation pire should be free to blither and his doctrine isistcnt with his being mperor. The adoption nfusion ; the princes of ke and enforce within n that might be agree- Lutheran opinions pre- At the second Diet of this effect : that those ms should continue to pinions had been intro- juncil, make any fresh .amed states, no prtach- nittod, the Mass should irevalent, the Catholics gainst this decree, the ig of the protest being rate Catholicism within T called Lutherans ; the he Catholics would not le is common to all who wledge, but preparation des the general idea of md its end is infinitely ses and all the members ice. The office is gen- orders the appointment Purg'atory. A place in which souls who die in the prace of Cod siiffrr fnr a time for their venial sins, or to pay the temporal inmishnicnt due to mortal sins, the guilt and the eternal punishment of which have been remitted. Purifica'tion, in a biblical sense, was the act throii,i;li wliich an individual became fit to approach the Deity, or to mix fixcly in tiic coiniiumity in cases where a certain bodily or other disability had kept him out i.| the pale of the latter. The purification consisted chiefly in cxinatioiis and .iMutions, sometimes accompanied by si)ccial sacrifices. I'liests and Levitts were consecrated for the Divine service by " |)urificationi " proselytes had to undergo it at baptism; and special religious acts could only be performed by those who had " bathed their bodies." Generally, no one was allowed to enter the temiilc or synagogue, without having wasjied or "sanct.fied" himself; and in the post-exilian i)erioil, bathing was consiilered as a chief duty of piety. The Jewish ceremonial jjurifications are commonly regarded by Christian theologians as emblematic of the necessity of holiness in the people of the Lord, and particularly in all acts of worship. Purifica'tion of the Bless'ed Vir'gin Mary, Feast of. A festival in com- memoration of the " jnirification " of the lilessed Virgin Marv, in accord- ance with the ceremonial law of Lev. xii. 2. This ceremony was api)oiiited for the fortieth day after childbirth, which, reckoning from Dec. 25 (the nativity of our Lord), falls upon Feb. 2, on which day the purification is celebrated. The history of Mary's compliance with the law is related in Luke ii. 22-24. Pyx. The sacred vessel used in the Catholic Church to contain the consecrated eucharistic elements, which arc preserved after consecration, wlietlier for the communion of the sick, or for the adoration of the faithful in the churches. Its form has varied very much at different times. Anciently it was sometimes of the form of a dove, which was hung suspended over the altar. More commonly, however, it was, as its name implies, a simple box, generally of the precious metals, or, at least, of metal plated witli gold or silver. At jiresent the pyx is often cup-shaped, with a close-fitting cover of the same material. Quadrages'l^na. The name of the Lenten season, or, more properly, of the first Sunday of Lent. It is so called by analogy with the three Sundays which precede Lent, and which are called respectively Septuagcsima, seventieth ; Sexagesima, sixtieth ; and Quinquagcsima, fiftieth. Ra'phael, or Raffael'lo San'ti, or San'zio, called by his countrymen // Diviiio, "the Divine,"' is ranked by almost universal opinion as the greatest of painters; born at Urbino in 14S3, and was placed under Pietro Perugino, the most distinguished painter of the period. He seems to have lived in Florence till 1508, when he went to Rome, on the invitation of Po]ie Julius II. His celebrated frescos in the Vatican and numerous important works were then commenced. The works of Raphael are generally divided into three classes: his first style, when under the influence of Perugino's man- ner; his second, when he painted in Florence from 1504-08; and his third style, which is distinguishable in the works executed by him after he settled in Rome. In all these different styles he has left works of great excellence. ' •; i 498 Regulars. — Rosary. "The Coronation of the Virf^in," in the gallery of the Vatican, and " Sposa- li^io," or Marriaj^c of the Virgin, in tlie Drcra (lallery at Milan, belonging to the first period; while the " St. Cecilia " at Hologna, the "Madonna di San Sisto " at Dresden, "The Cartoons " at Hampton Court, "The Trans- figuration," anil all tiie Vatican frescos except "Theology, or the Disjiute on the Sacrament," are in his third manner, or that which peculiarly marks the Roman school in its highest development. Raphael died at Kome, 1520. Reg'ulars, Reg'ular Cler'gy, a name used to designate that portion of the clergy in the Catholic Ciuirch, who l)elong to the nu)nastic orders o( reli- gious congregations, and thus live under an established rule, commonly including the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The name, there- fore, comprises all friars, monks, regular canons, clerks of the mission, and, in general, all members of clerical congregations who live under an approved rule. Rel'ics. The bodies or fr.igments of departed saints, articles or portions of articles which they have used. Reli'gious (religio, from rcle^o, rcligiiis). Attentive, studious; the religious state; "a stable manner of living in common, approved by the Church, adopted by believers endeavoring after the jierfection of Christian charity, who have taken the vows of i)eri)etual obedience, poverty, and chastity." Rel'iquary. A case or bo.x to contain relics. They are made of all kinds of materials, such as wood, iron, stone, ivory, silver, etc., and are frec|uently ornamented with costly jewels. Shrines are of the same descriiition. That of the "Tiuee Kings," at Cologne, has jewels valued at 5i, 200,000. Resurrec'tion. The general resurrection of the dead. Rit'ual. A hook which contains the forms to be observed by priests in the administration of the sacraments. Roga'tion Days. The Mond.iy, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension Day. Ro'mans, Epis'tle to the, in a doctrinal point of view, the most profound and elaborate comi)osition of .St. I'aul. The great value of the Ki)istle to the Romans consists in this, that it exhibits what may be called the rationale of Christianity. The immediate object of the apostle was probably nothing more than to prevent an outbreak in the Church at Rome, of those violent antipathies of religious sentiment which had shown themselves elsewhere; but with a view to the more complete accomplishment of tiiis object, he takes a broad ethical \\c\v of human nature, and finds all men — Jews and Gentiles alike — to be estranged from God, and in need of pardon and reconciliation. Hence Paul's grand argument, that if men are to stand as "righteous" in the sight of God, it cannot be by their "works," but in virtue of a Divine justification graciously vouchsafed to them, and received into their hearts by an act of faith. The Epistle is believed to have been written from Corinth during Paul's third missionary journey, about 58 A.D. Almost all the great doctrinal controversies that have agitated Christendom owe their origin to it. Ros'ary. A form of prayer in which fifteen decades of Aves, each decade being preceded by a Pater and followed by a Gloria, are recited on beads. Rubrics. — Sacramentals. 499 itlcan, and " Sposa- at Milan, btlunning ,, the "Madonna lU Court, "The Trai.««- ,^y, or the Dispuie ch iicculiarly marks ilicd at Home, 1 5-0- that portion of the lastic orders of rcli- licd rule, commonly ;. The name, thcre- .■rks of the mission, s who live under an rticles or portions of Lidious; the religious ovcd by the Church, , of Christian charity, erty, and chastity." made of all kinds of c, and are frequently ime description. , at $1,200,000. That irvcd by priests in the sday before Ascension the most profound and , „f the Kpistlc to the c called the ratiomih' of was probably nothing Rome, of those vi.^lent themselves elsewhere ; ,„cnt of this object, he ds all men -Jews and m need of pardon and if men arc to stand as ^ their " works," but in d to them, and received 1 believed to have been yr journey, about 58 A. li- ve agitated Christendom s of Aves, each decade ia, are recited on beads. The prayer comprises the mysteries of tlie hirili and death of our I-,icred rites. The word is taken from the Roman law, in wiiicii tile titles, maxims, and principal decisions were written in red. Sack'cloth. A coarsely woven hempen manufacture, formerly worn as an emblem of grief or of penitential sorrow. Sac'rament. " A sign of a sacred thing, which thing sanctifies mt-n." Sacrament'als and Ccr'cmonies. S.icramenfals are certain pious practice* and things which are not in themselves sacrauieiUs, but bear a kind of rela- tion or resemblance to tliem. The principal diiference between them is, that the sacraments were instituted by our I,r)rd as the channels of grace, which they give to all who receive them worthily ; whereas the sacramentals were instituted by the Church, and do not of themselves give grace, but produce their effects by the i)rayers and blessings (jf the Church, and ilepend chiefly on the pious intentions of the persons wlio make use of them. Keligious ceremonies arc certain signs or actions establislicd by the Cluirch for the more solemn celebration of the I)ivine service. They assist us in elevating our souls to God, and to the contemplation of holy things. They rejiresent in a visible manner mysteries invisible in themselves, and thereby make it easier for us to meditate on them. The following are some of the principal sacramentals and ceremonies: — Blesskd AsilivS. — On Ash Wednesday, ashes are blessed, and placed on the foreheads of the people to remind them that they are only dust and ashes, and that they ought to enter upon the holv season of Lent, ot which this is the first day, w''''' :. iiumble and mortified spirit, Ulesseo Candles. — On the Keast of tlic I'uriucation, candles arc lilcsscd before the Mass of the day, and distributed among the peoi)le, and lighted and carried in procession. This is to remind us that our Saviour, who is the Light of the world, appeared fur the first time on that (!;i\ in the temple. It is customary for Catholics to keep blessed candles and \>alm-branches in their houses. liLEssED Palms. — On Palm Sunday, the first day of Holy Week, which is the name given to the week of our Lord's Passion, branches of palm and of other trees are blessed and carried in process!' -n to remind us of the triumiihal entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem. Some of these are after- wards burned to make the ashes for the Ash Wednesday of the following year. Holy Oils, which are employed in administering several of the sacra- ments. They are of three kinds : viz., '' <>/ the Sick, which is used for the sacrament of E.xtreme Unction, and with which the different senses are anointed ; Oil of Catechumens, which is used at bapti"- m, the person to '.)e baptized being anointed with it on th^' breast and between the shoulders; and Chrism, which is used at conlirni.ition, at the consecration of a bishop, and of some things specially set apart for the service of God. The holy oils are all olive-oil, but the chii.ni is oil mixed with balsam. Holy Water is natural water mixed with a little bait and blessed by a [ f ! hnm-ii \' I mm- I ; i ; 1^ i* 500 Sacramentals and Ceremonies. priest. It reminds us of our baptism, and strengtViens us against tlie evil of wicked spirits. It is in constant use among Catliolics. We use it in going in and coming out of cliurcli ; in tlie morning wlien we rise, and at niglit wlien we retire to rest. Wlicn we go to higli Mass, tlie first tiling is the Aspcrges, or sprinkling of the people with holy water by the priest, to remind us that we should be pure and holy when we apjDear in tiie presence of God, and assist at Mass with attention, innocence, and piety. At the entrance of every Catholic church is placed a "holy-w;;tcr font;" and whenever any thing is blessed, it is almost always sprinkled with holy water. Ever since the time of the Apostles, holy water has been in use. Pope Alexander I., who was but the seventh Pope from St. Peter, makes mention of it in one of his epistles. The Blessing at the end of Mass, by the priest, represents the bene- diction which our Saviour gave to His disciples before He ascended into heaven from the Mount of Olives. The Latin Language is used in the celebration of Mass and most of the other ceremonies of the Church, in order that the service of God may be everywhere the same ; that the same words and prayers may be used, in order to avoid the changes to which all living languages are so subject; that the pastors in all countries may understand one another ; and that Catho- lics passing from one country to another may have no diiirtculty in joining in the public service, it being the same everywhere. The Paschal Candle is blessed and set up on Holy Saturday, and is the first symbol placed before us on that day of our Saviour risen from the grave. The five grains of incense which are inserted represent the five wounds of our Lord, and the "sweet spices" which embalmed His body. This candle is lighted during the time of the high Mass on Sundays and festivals in Paschal time, to remind us of the apparitions which Christ made to His disciples during that period. The Altar is the place of sacrifice, — as it were, another Calvary, whereon is celebrated the memorial of Christ's passion and death by the pure and unbloody sacrifice of the Mass. It also represents the table used for the Last Supper. The Crucifix, or image of our Saviour on the cross, is placed upon the altar, that, as the Mass is said there in remembrance of our Lord's passion and death, both the priest and the people may have before their eyes during this sacrifice the image which puts them in mind of those mysteries. The Tahernacle contains our Lord really present under the appearance of bread in the consecrated Host ; therefore we bend the knee in homage and adoration when we enter or depart from the church. The Fifteen Lights set on a triangular figure on Wednesday, Thurs- day, and Friday in Holy Week, during the office of Tenebra;, correspond to certain parts of the office. The triangular figure signifies that ail light of grace and glory comes from the Blessed Trinity. The light pui under the altar at the end of the office is to signify the burial of our Lord, and the darkness that overspread the earth at His death. The noise made is to remind us of the earthquake, and the rending of the veil of the temple, which happened at the same time. Sacrilege. — Secular Clergy. 501 linst the evil We use it in e rise, and at first thing is the iM-icst, to \ tlie presence Mcty. At the ;r font;" and ith holy water, in use. Pope makes mention sents the bene- ascended into ss and most of :e of God may may be used, in so subject; that md that Catho- iculty in joining Saturday, and is r risen from the present the five limed His body, on Sundays and hich Christ made another Calvary, and death by the ts the table used s placed upon the ur Lord's passion ; their eyes during mysteries. Icr the appearance e knee in homage .Vednesdav, Thurs- nebrse, correspond -lifies that ail light ne light puv under .1 of our Lord, and he noise made is to veil of the temple, TllK Drop of Water put into the wine in the chalice by the priest signifies the union of the Divine and human natures in Jesus Christ. The Consecrated Elements arc elevated by the priest in the Mass, to represent the elevation of the cross after our Lord was naikd to it. Sac'rilege is not now a legal, but is a popular, term used to denote the break- ing into a place of worship, and stealing therefrom. Sac'ristan. An official attached to a church, who is charged, under the priest or ruler of the church, with the care of the church and all its appurte- nances. The English name "sexton " is derived from this word. Sac'risty. An apartment attached to a church, in which arc kept the sacred objects used in the public worship. In many foreign cburch'.s, tiie sacristy is a spacious and costly building. Saint Viateur, Congrega'tion of. A society of Catholic priests founded in France, 1S33, by J. L. J. Querbcs, and introduced into North America 1847. Saints' Days. Days set apart in honor of particular saints and martyrs. In the multiplication of such celebrations, a record of the days fixed for each saint or martyr became necessary. This is called aileiuiariiun. In particu- lar 'countries, provinces, dioceses, or parishes, the day of the patron saint is specially celebrated, and in all churches the festival of the saint to whom the church is dedicated. Sanctifica'tion is defined to be that work of God's grace by which persons are renewed after the image of God, set apart for his service, and enabled to die unto sin and live unto righteousness. Saiictification is either of na- ture, whereby the subjects are renewed after the image of God, in knowl- edge, righteousness, and true holiness, (Eph. iv. 24 ; Col. iii. 19), or of practice, whereby they die unto sin, have its power destroyed in them, cease from the love and practice of it, hate it as abominable, and live unto ri;.;iUeous- ness, loving and studying good works (Tit. ii. 11, 12). .Sanctificaiion com- prehends all the graces of knowledge, faith, repentance, love, humility, z.cal, patience, etc., and the exercise of them in one's conduct toward God or man. Sanc'tuary. The part of the church round the high altar reserved for the clergy. Sanc'tus. A hymn which forms the conclusion of the Preface. Schools, Broth'ers of the Chris'tian. A religious congregation in the Catholic Cliurch, established for the religious and secular education of the poor. It originated in Trance at the end of the seventeenth century, and was organized by the Abbe de la .Sal'e, canon of the Church of Kheims. The members are all lay brothers, and are subject to one general head. Houses of the Order are found in almost every country of Eurojie. The brethren are bound by the ordinary religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Sisters of the Christian Scikjoi.s. — .Several similar congregations of women, for the education of the poor female children, also exist in the Catholic Church. Sec'ular Cler'gy. The name of the priests in the world, as distinguished from religious, who lead a monastic or regular life. ' 1,1 $02 Seminary. — Solomon. li I Sem'inary. A training school or college for those destined for the priesthood. Septuages'ima Sun'day (Lat., Sf/>tnagesim(i, "the seventieth"), the third Sunday before Lent, so called, like " Sexagesima " and " Qiiinquagcsima," from its distance (reckoned in round numbers) before Easter. Ser'aphim (plural of Seni/'/t). Celestial beings in attendance upon Jehovah, mentioned by Isaiah. They are similar to the cherubim, and are repre- sented as having the human form, face, voice, two hands and two feet, but six wings, with four of which they cover their face and feet, as a sign of rever- ence, while with two they fly. Their office is singing the praises of Jeho- vah's greatness, and being the swift messengers between heaven and earth. Sexages'ima Sun'day (Lat., sexagesima, i.e., dies, the sixtieth day), the second Sunday before Lent, and roughly reckoned the sixtieth day before Easter. Shrine. A casket or receptacle for something held sacred, sometimes small and portable, at others fixed in a suit.ible place. Tombs of holy people were called shrines, and the term came to be applied to the churches with which they were connected. Shrovetide (.\nglo-Saxon, scrifan, to shrive, to confess), literally means "con- fession-time," and is the name given to the days immediately preceding Ash Wednesday, which, as indeed the whole period after Septuagesima Sunday appears to have been, were anciently days of preparation for the penitential time of Lent, the chief part of which preparation consisted in receiving the sacrament of penance, i.e., in "being shriven," or confessing. Si'nai. The mountain on which God announced to Moses the Ten Command- ments and the other laws by which the Israelites were to be bound. Its exact position is matter of dispute among travellers ; but it is to be sought for in the mass of granite and porphyry mountains occupying far the greater part of the Arabian peninsula, lying between the gulfs of Suez and Aka- bah, and rising to a height of eight or nine thousand feet above the sea. This mountain mass is divisible into three groups : a north-western, reach- ing, in Mount Serbal, an elevation of 6,340 feet; an eastern and central, attaining, in Jebel Katherin, a height of S,i6o feet; and a south-eastern, whose highest peak, Um Shaumer, is the culminating point of the whole Sinaitic range. Serbal is identified with Sinai by the earlier Church Fath- ers, Eusebius, Jerome, Cosmas, etc. ; but as early as the time of Justinian, the opinion was abandoned, and to a ridge of the second or eastern range thai honor has been transferred, the northern summit of which is termed Horeb ; and the southern, Jebel-Musa, or Mount of Moses, continues to be regarded by the great majority of scholars as the true Sinai. Its height is estimated at from 6,800 to 7,100 feet above the sea. Sol'omon (lieb., Shelomo, Salomon, Salomo, Suleiman, derived from shalom, peace, peaceful, like Ger. Friedrich), the second son of David and IJath- sheba, successor of the former on the throne of the Israelitish empire for forty years (1015-975 B. C). Nothing is known of his youth, except that he was probably educated by Nathan (or Jehicl). Equally uncertain is the age at which he succeeded to the crown of his father. That he was older ihan twelve or fourteen j'cars, seems certain. Having inherited fabulous wealth, and further adding to it enormously fS; r the priesthood. ;th"), the third Jiiinquagcsima," ;r. : upon Jehovah, 1, and are repre- two feet, but six > a sign of rever- praises of Jcho- laven and earth, day), the second before Easter, sometimes small s of holy people he churches with ally means " con- ;ly preceding Ash aagcsima Sunday or the penitential d in receiving the ng- le Ten Command- :o be bound. Its it is to be sought ing far the greater )f Suez and Aka- et above the sea. th-\vcstern, reach- stern and central, d a south-eastern, oint of the whole Her Church Fath- time of Justinian, 1 or eastern range f which is termed es, continues to be nai. Its height is ived from shalom, : David and Bath- lelitish empire for youth, except that ly uncertain is the That he was older to it enormously Stabat Mater. — Stole. 503 from his own multifarious revenues, so that "silver was nothinc; nccountcd ot in his days," it became necessary that a new organization cGncsponding to this unheard-of splendor should be introduced. Accordingly, we hear of "princes," i.e., great officers of state, not before hr;ard of. The two counsellors of David's time disappear, in order, probably, to make r(jom for a whole body of legal advisers; the prophets are no longer to be found among the dignitaries of state, but new military charges arc created instead. The immense accumulation of treasure also allowed the execution of a number of public works in Jerusalem, which now first assumed liie magnifi- cence and station of a capital. The king's banc|uets, at which all the ves- sels were of gold, his stables, with their four (or forty) thousand stalls, his gardens and parks and summer-retreats, were such as to dazzle even an Eastern fancy. The dominion of Solomon extended from Thap^acus on the Euphrates, to Gaza on the Mediterranean. The country was in the profoundest state of peace; the treasures accumulated by David a|)pearcd inexhaustible; and the popularity of the king, who listened to the meanest of his subjects, and gave judgment according to that wisdom whicii has remained proverbial from his day to ours, was naturally at first very great. Every thing was done to develop and increase the national wealth and wel- fare. The rich internal resources were developed, and commercial relations of the most extensive nature established. According to his promise, Solo- mon, in the fourth year of his accession, connneiiced the building of the temple on Moriah, after the model of the tabernacle, wherein he was aided by Hiram. In the eleventh year of his reign it was coni])lt.ied, and solemnly inaugurated in the following year. The fame of Solomon spread far and near. The splendor of his court and reign, heightened bv his per- sonal qualities, his wisdom and erudition — for he was not only the wisest, but most learned of men — brought embassies from all parts to Jerusalem to witness his magnificence, and to lay gifts of tribute at his feet. Sta'bat Ma'ter. A celebrated Latin hymn on the Crucifixion, forming part of the service of the Catholic Church during I'assion Week. Its au- thorship has been assigned to Jacoponc, a Franciscan, who flcxiri.ilied in the thirteenth century. It has been set to music by many coni|)osers of eminence. Sta'tions of the Cross {Via Cr/tc/s, I'iii CiiIthi-H). A most popular devot on of the Church, embracing a series of fourteen images or i)ictiires, repre- senting the different events in the passion of Christ. The devotion began in the Franciscan Order. Stig'mata. Brands or marks upon the body. After the vision of St. Francis of Assisi, the hands and feet of the saint were found to be marked with nails, and there was a wound in his side. The wounds were seen by many persons, among whom was Alexander IV., during the lifetime of the saint. Stole (Gr. stole, Lat. stola, a robe) is the name of one of the sacred vestments used in the Latin Church, and, .vith some modification, in the Greek Church also. It originated in a wide and flowing robe of linen, called also orariitm, which hung from the shoulder, and which had a narrow end)roid- ered border of a different color. The present stole seems to be the tra- .! 504 Sub-deacons. — Tabernacle. im ditionary representative of the embrnitlcrcd border of the orarium of the Catholic Cluirch, and consists of a narrow band of silk or precious stuff, edged and fringed with gold or cnibroidurv. It is worn over the shoulders by priests and deacons. See Sacka.mk.ntals and Ceremonies. Sub-dea'cons. Ministers of the Church who rank next to deacons. Suffragan. The name given to a bishop in an ecclesiastical province, rela- tively to the metropolitan primate or patriarch in whose province he is; also to a titular bishop, or bishop in partHnts, who is exercising the Pontifi- cal functions and ordinations for the ordinary bishop whom he has been invited to assist j also to a titular bisho[) who is under a titular patriarch or archbishop. Such are suffragans nominally. Supereroga'tion, Works of (Lat., supercrogata, over and above things re- quired). A class of works which, in the Catholic system, are described as not absolutely required of each individual as conditions to his eternal salvation. A consequence of this doctrine is, that God may accci)t the superabundant works of one in atonement for the defective service of another; and hence, in the Catholic indulgences, along with what they regard as the infinite and inexhaustible treasure of the merits of our I.ord, they also regard, although in a degree infinitely inferior, the superabundant merits of the saints as forming part of that "treasure of the Church" which is applied in the form of indulgences. Sur'plice (Lat., super pellicium, above the robe of fur). A linen or muslin vestment, worn by clerks of all degrees of orders in the discharge of their public religious ottices. It is by some supposed to be derived from the longer and more flowing vestment which, in the Catholic Church, is still used in the Mass, and is called the "alb;" but in the Church the surplice is ivorn not alone by priests, but by all who have been admitted even to the Church tonsure. See Sacramentals, etc. Syn'od (Gr. and Lat., an assembly), in general, signifies a meeting; but it is almost exclusively applied to ecclesiastical assemblies for the purpose of deliberating on doctrinal or.disciplinary subjects. In Church law, several kinds of synods — called also ?:ouncils — are enumerated: (i) ecumenical or general, of the entire Church; (2) national, that is, of the Church of an entire nation; (3) provincial, that is, of a province; (4) diocesan, or of a single diocese. ' Tab'ernacle (Meb., Okel Moed= tent of meeting, scil., between God and man; LX.\. skeiie ; Vuig., Tahcrnaculum luvJcris), or, :nore fully, "'rabernacle of the Congregation," was the tent first erected by Moses in the desert as a visible symbol of the Divine Presence in the midst ,of the people. It was the place where he went to receive his inspirations as their rejjresentative, when they "came to seek Jehovah." A cloudy pillar descended, and stood at the door of the tabernacle while " the Lord spake to Moses." It was divided into the "sanctuary" ])roper, — which formed the front part, and the dimensions of which were twenty cubits in length, ten in width, and ten in height, — and the "holy of holies," which was ten cubits square and ten high. A kind of court-yard, formed by curtains susjiended between columns, ran round the tabernacle, one hundred cubits long, and fifty wide. Tabernacle. — Thurible. 50s The entrance was toward the east, and closed Ijv another costly curtain. The surrounding court was much larger on this east than on the svcst side, for here it was that the people assembled for the purpose of worship. Here also stood the altar, made of acacia-wood. Tab'ernacle (Lat., tabernaculmn armarium), in the Catholic Church, is the name given to' the receptacle in which the consecrated elements of the Eucharist are retained. The name is derived by analogy from the Taber- nacle of the Old Law. Tabor. A mountain of Northern Palestine, rising solitarily in the north-eastern part of the plain of Esdraelon, to about the height of one thousand feet, and commanding the most extensive prospect in the Holy Land. Tem'poral Power of the Pope is a phrase susceptible of two meanings, which are distinct from each other. In one sense it means the sovereign power which the Pope possessed as ruler of the Papal States, liy the second signification is understood what would more properly be called the claim of the Pope, in virtue of his office, to a power over the temporal- ities of other kings and states. This power may be of two kinds, directive and coercive. In the directive sense, it is a claim which no Catholic is sup- posed to deny, as it imports that the Pope, as supreme moral teacher, has power to instruct all members of his Church, whether subjects or sove- reigns, in the moral duties of their several states. From the tenth century downward. Popes have claimed, and have repeatedly exercised, a jiower of coercing kings, and punishing them when refractory by suspension, by deprivation, and by the transfer of the allegiance of their subjects to an- other sovereign. Ter'tiary (Lat., tertiarius, one of the third rank). A name given by Church writers to a class in the Catholic Church who, without entering into the seclusion of a monastery, aspire to practise in ortlinary life all the sub- stantial obligations of chastity and poverty. It was under .St. Francis, and the mendicant orders generally, that the institute of Tertiary reached its full development. There'sa, St., one of the most remarkable of the female saints of the modern Roman calendar, born at Avila, in Old Castile, 1515, was the daughter of Alphonso, of the noble house of Sanchez de Ceyeda. In her eighteenth year she entered a convent of the Carmelite Order in her native city, where she continued to reside for nearly thirty years. The most notable fruit of the enthusiastic spirituality of Theresa is the reform of the Carnjclite Order, of which she became the instrument. Theresa died 15.S2, and was canonized in 1621. She left a number of works, which have at all times maintained a high reputation. Thessalo'nians, First Epistle to the. One of the earliest epistles of St. Paul, — perha.s the very earliest ; was probably written at Corinth about the close of the year 52 A.D., and seems to have been occasioned by the "good tidings" which Timothy brought him of the "faith and charity" displayed by his Macedonian converts. The Second Epistle was writlen soon after the first. TLu'rible. A name for the vessel which holds incense. 5o6 Tiara. —Tonsure. ■( ; t .1 ! i Tia'ra. The triple crown of the Pope, which is considered to be symbolical of his temporal, as the keys are of his spiritual, authority. It is composed of a high cap of gold cloth, encircled by three coronets, with a mound and cross of gold on the top. From the cap hang two pendants, embroidered and fringed at the ends. The original Pai)al crown consisted of the cap alone, and was first used by I'ope Damasus II., 1048 A.D. Tithes (Ang.-Sax., tcotha, a tenth ; Lat., decinta, i.e., pars', a tenth part), the tenth part of the produce of the land, which by ancient usage, and subsequently by law, is set aside for the support of the clergy, and other religious uses. This i)rovision for the clergy passed at a very early period from the Jewish into the Christian Church ; and, indeed, the same or some analogous appro- priation has been traced in the other ancient religions. It is observable under the patriarchal system, in the words employed by Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 22), and in the offering of Abraham to Melchisedec (Gen. xiv. 20). The details of the institution among the Jews will be found in Lev. xxvii., Deut. xiv., and many other places. The tribe of Levi, not having lands assigned, as was the case with other tribes, drew their support from this impost. The first introduction of tithes into England is ascribed to Offa, King of -Mercia, in the close of the eighth century. The usage passed into the other divis- ions of Saxon England, and was in the end made general for all England by Ethehvulf. It would seem that at first, although all were required to pay tithes, it was optional with each to select the church to which his pay- ment should be made; but by a decretal of Innocent III., addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1200, all were required to pay tithes to the clergy of their respective parishes, and this parochial distribution of tithes has ever since obtained in England. The ancient canon and civil law dis- tinguishes many varieties of tithes, into which we shall not enter ; as, royal, indominicate, fiscal, salic, etc. Tit'ular Bish'op. His Holiness Leo XIII. by a recent decision substituted the phrase "titular bishop" for "bishop in partibus" which ap|)lies to him who has jurisdiction over certain countries no longer "partes iufidclium." Tit'uli. The name of the parish churches of Rome, as distinct from the patri- archical churches such as St. John Lateran, St. Peter's, St. Mary Major, St. Lawrence in Agro Verano, St. Paul's, which belonged especially to the Pope, as well as from the Diaconiaand Oratories. Each titular ciiurch was under a cardinal presbyter, had a district attached to it, and a font for baptism in case of necessity. Ti'tus, a companion of St. Paul, born probably in Antioch, took part in the founding of churches in Crete. Ti'tus, Epis'tle to, one of the three " Pastoral Epistles," was written by St. Paul, probably in the latter part of his life, and after he had been liberated from his first imprisonment at Rome. Ton'sure (Lat. tonsttra, a shaving, from tondco, " 1 shave," a religious observance of the Catholic Church), which consists in shaving or cutting the hair, as a sign of the dedication of the person to the special service of God, and commonly to the public ministry of religion. It is a very ancient usage. ed to be symbolical of jrity. It is composed its, with a mound and pendants, embroidered 1 consisted of the cap , A.D. a tenth part), the tenth sage, and subsccjucntly d other religious uses, leriod from the Jewish some analogous appro- ions. It is observable by Jacob (Gen. x.\viii. EC (Gen. xiv. 20). The nd in Lev. xxvii., Deut. having lands assigned, from this impost. The o Offa, King of Mercia, fcd into the other divis- ;eneral for all England ;h all were required to lurch to which his pay- cent III., addressed to lired to pay tithes to the il distribution of tithes anon and civil law dis- all not enter ; as, royal, nt decision substituted which applies to him ^^ partes iufiddium" distinct from the patri- Eter's, St. Mary Major, onged especially to the Each titular church was to it, and a font for lioch, took part in the es," was written by St. he had been liberated " a religious observance ng or cutting the hair, special service of God, It is a very ancient Tradition. —Vatican. 507 Tradj'tion. Doctrine handed down from one generation to another. Trapp'ist Order, The, celebrated among the religious orders of the Catholic Church for its extraordinary austerities, is so called from La Trappe, an abbey of the Cistercian order, founded in the middle of the twelfth century. Trin'ity Sun'day, the Sunday immediately following Pentecost Sunday, so called as being set aside for the special honor of the 151esscd Trinity. Trin'ity, The Doc'trine of the, is the highest and most mysterious doctrine of the Christian religion. It declares that there arc three IVrsons in the Godhead, or Divine nature,— 1' Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; and that " these three are one ti eternal God, the same in substance, equal in power and glory, although distinguished by their personal [)ropertics." The most elaborate statement of the doctrine is to be found in the Athanasian Creed, which asserts that "the Catholic faith is this: That we worship one God as Trinity, and Trinity in Unity ; neither confounding the i)crsons nor dividing the substance ; for there is one person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. iJut the Godhead of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one ; the glory equal ; the majesty co-eternal." Ur'ban, the name of eight Popes, of whom the following deserve ti> be specially noticed: Urban IL, 1042-99, French by birth, was elected in loSS. Urban, in a council held at Clermont in 1095, made the well-known apjical on the subject of the Crusades, which called forth that enthusiasm which was destined to lead to the long scries of efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land. Urban V. (originally William de Grimoard) is rcmarkal'le as prac- tically the last of the Popes who resided at Avignon, and the one by whom the Papal seat was for a time re-transferred to Rome. Died 1370. Urban VI. (1318-1389), under whom the great Western schism had its origin. His name was Bartolomeo Prignano, and at the time of his election he was archbishop of Bari. Urban VIII. was the successor of (Ircgory XV. His family name was Maffeo IJarberini. In the difficult position of Roman affairs, as complicated between France, Austria, and Sjiain, in the war of the Valtellina,'he acquitted himself with much dexterity. His Pontificate was also signalized by the acquisition to the Holy See of the Duchy of Urbino in 1626. He was the founder of the celebrated College of the Propaganda; and to him Rome is indebted for many works, including large and important additions to the Vatican Library. Died 1644. Ur'bi et Or'bi (Lat., "To the city and to the world "), a form used in the pub- lication of Papal bulls, for the purpose of signifying their formal promulga- tion to the entire Catholic world as well as to the city of Rome. U'rim and Thum'mim (Heb.), a mysterious contrivance in or on the high- priest's breastplate, either consisting of the four rows of precious stones upon which the names of the twelve tribes were engraved, or of two images personifying — most probably — Truth and Revelation. Vat'ican. A magnificent assemblage of buildings, including one of the Pope's palaces, a museum, a library, etc., situated at the foot of one of the seven hills on which Rome is built, and adjoining the Church of St. Peter. $08 Vatican, Palace of. —Vigils. •' .■ ' I \.hl Vat'ican, Palace of, in Rome, the principal residence of the Pope, and the scat of tlie great library and tiie nuiscunis, and collections of art, ancient and modern, which, for visitors, constitute one of the chief attractions of the city of Rome. The Popes, very soon after the establishment of the peace of the Church under the Emperor Constanline, had a residence at the Vatican, which tliey occupied, although at uncertain intervals, conjointly with that of the Lateran. For a long time, however, through the medixval and especially the late medixval period, the Vatican apjjears to have been neglected. It was Nicholas V. who began that systematic scheme for the improvement and embellishment of the Vatican, which has resulted in what, taken altogether, may be regarded as the noblest of princely residences. Alexander VI., Julius II., and, above all, Leo X., pursued the same plan; and there are very few of the succeeding Po[)es who have not had a share in the enlargement or embellishment of the Vatican. It is pojjularly believed to contain si.\teen thousand apartments of various sizes. Some of them are of unrivalled beauty, among which may be particularized the Chapel of San Lorenzo, the Pauline Chapel, and still more celebrated Sistine Chapel, which is decorated in frescos from the pencil of Michael Angclo; the Sala Rcgia, the galleries and halls decorated by Raphael, Giulio Romano, and their scholars; the magnificent library, which, although surpassed in the number of volumes, is unrivalled in Europe in extent, beauty of proportions, and in decorations; the galleries of antiquities. Christian and jjagan, and of paintings, statuary, bronzes, medals, vases, and other objects of art. Ve'ni Crea'tor Spir'itus, an ancient and very celebrated hymn of the Roman Breviary, which occurs in the offices of the Feast of Pentecost, and which is used in many of the most solemn services of the Catholic Church. Its author is not known with certainty. The Veni Creator Spiritus must not be confounded with another hymn to the Holy Ghost, Veni Sancte Spiritus, which somewhat resembles it. The latter belongs not to the lircviary, but to the Missal, in which it forms a " Sequence " in the Mass of Pentecost Sunday and Octave. Viat'icum. Holy Communion given to those in danger of death. Vic'ar ( Lat., wV(?m«, from 7'icem, i.e., gerens, acting in the place of another). The title given to the substitute, whether temporary or permanent, em|)loyed to act in the place of certain ecclesiastical officials, whether individuals or corporations; as of the Pope, a bishop, a chapter, a parish priest, etc. Vicars take different names from these various considerations. Vicars of the Pope are called "vicars apostolic," and they are generally invested with episcopal authority in some place where there is no canonical bishop. Vicars of a bishop are either "vicars general," who have the ^ull authority of the bishop all over his diocese, or "vicars forane," (haX., foraticus, from fort's, abroad), whose authority is confined to a particular district, and gen- erally otherwise limited. A vicar capitular is the person elected by the chapter of a diocese, during the vacancy of the see, to hold the place of the bishop, and to exercise all the authority necessary for the government of the diocese. Vig'ils. Night-watches kept the day and night preceding a feast. '"igils. ICC of the Tope, and the collections of art, ancient f the chief attractions of the establishment of the inline, had a residence at crtain intervals, conjointly vcr, through the medioeval :an appears to have been ;ystematic scheme for the vhich has resulted in what, L'st of princely residences. ,, pursued the same plan ; .•ho have not had a share n. It is pojjularly believed JUS sizes. Some of them articularized the Chapel of celebrated Sistine Chapel, Michael Angelo ; the Sala ihael, Giulio Romano, and although surpassed in the tent, beauty of proportions, Christian and pagan, and d other objects of art. )rated hymn of the Roman 3t of Tentccost, and which the Catholic Church. Its Creator Spiritus must not host, Veni Sancte Spiritus, igs not to the Breviary, but in the Mass of Tentecost iger of death. in the place of another), xry or permanent, employed lis, whether individuals or ipter, a parish priest, etc. considerations. Vicars of are generally invested with ; is no canonical bishop, ■ho have the f'ull authority ane," (Lat., foraueus, from jarlicular district, and gen- the person elected by the see, to hold the place of lessary for the government ;eding a feast. Visitation Nuns. — Wolsey. 509 Visita'tion Nuns, an order est.ablished in i6io at Annecy, Savnv, and intro- duced into the United States, 1S08. Voca'tion. "A disposition of Divine Providence" whereby persons arc called to serve God in some special state. Vow, A deliberate promise made to God in regard to something possessing superior goodness. Vul'gate. The name given to the Latin version of the IJible, authorized by the Catholic Church. Whit-Sun'day. The common name in England for Pentecost, suggestive, perhaps, of the white robe of baptism. Wise'man (Nicholas), Cardinal, and Catholic Archbishop of Westminster, was born at Seville, 1S02, of an Irish family settled in Spain. In his sixteenth year he entered as an ecclesiastical student the Iuigli>ii College at Rome, and received holy orders in 1.S23, at which time he was also admitted to the degree of Doctor of Divinity, and was appointed vice- rector of the English College, and professor of Oriental languages in the University of the Sapienza. In 1S28 he published his "Hen a; SyriacK," and in the end of that year was named rector of the English College ; in 1S40 he was appointed president of St. Mary's College of Oscott; in 1S50 Wiseman was named archbishop of the see of Westminster, and at the same time created cardinal. Hesides high professional learning, he pos- sessed rare and singularly varied attainments; was an eminent linguist, a scientific scholar, a distinguished finished orator, a vigorous writer, and a critic and connoisseur of art. Died 1S65. Wol'sey (Thomas), Cardinal, was born in England, I47i,at Ipswich. Thrnnpth the influence of a friend he was appointed chaplain to Henry VII., with whom he speedily ingratiated himself. In 1508 the deanery of Lincoln was conferred on him, and in 1515 he obtained the bishopric of Lincoln and the archbishopric of York. The year following, the dignity of cardi- nal was conferred on him by the Pope, who, not long after, appointed him also legate, liesides these ecclesiastical honors, he was made by Henry VIII. , in 1515, his prime minister, and lord high chancellor of luigland. From this time up to that of his forfeiture of the royal favor, Wolsey was one of the most important men of Europe; and at home his power was almost without limit. He openly aspired to be Pojie ; and there seemed more than once ground for supposing that the crowning object of his ambition was really within his reach. To the project on which the King had set his heart, of divorcing Queen Catharine, and marrying .Vnne Boleyn, Wolsey showed himself hostile ; of the latter part of the scheme he was known to dis.approve ; and his negotiations with a view to securing the consent of the Pope to the divorce were conducted in a dilatory and half-hearted manner. Henry's displeasure was carefully fanned, and the disgrace of Wolsey was accomplished. In 1529 he was stripped of all his honors, and driven with ignominy from the court. Being arrested on the charge of high treason, he vv'as ordered to be conveyed to London for trial. On his journey, at the monastery of Leicester, he died, 1530. Haughty and insolent to his enemies, and to those whose claims ran counter to his 510 Xavier, St. Francis. /.' I I i; i'f own, to liis flcpcndcnts and inferiors he was generous, affable, and humane. Of learning he was a niu.st liberal and enlightened patrun. In his failing health the King granted him a free pardon, and restored a large part of his revenues. Xa'vier, St. Fran'cis, a celebrated missionary of the (' • Church, was born of a noble family at Xavier, in Navarre, 1506. ^ 'ig received his early education at home, he was sent, when in his eighteenth year, to the college of Sainte IJarbe, at Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Ignatius de Loyola, with whom he ultimately became associated in the foundation of the Jesuit Society. It was while he was engaged in these early lal)ors of the society in, Rome, that Xavier attracted the ncjtice of Govea, the representative of John III. of Portugal at Rome, who suggested to the king the idea of sending out members of the new Order as missiona- ries to the Portuguese colonies in the East. Xavier was chosen for this purpose in the place of ISobadilla, who had been originally ap|)ointed, but was prevented by sickness from going on the expedition. Having sailed from Lisbon, April 7, 1541, and wintered at Mozambique, he arrived at Goa, May 6, 1542, and presented to the bishop his letters of authorization from the Pope, Paul III. In May, 1548, he returned a second time to Goa. His great object now was to carry out a project for the conversion of the Japanese Empire, which had been suggested to him by a Japanese of high rank, whom he had attached to himself at Malacca, and who accompanied him to Goa. His mission to Japan occupied about two and a half years ; and in November, 1551, he sailed from Amanguchi for the purpose of returning to Goa to organize a mission to China. Touching at Malacca upon his voyage, he endeavored to concert with the governor an embassy in the name of the King of Portugal to China, under cover of which he hoped to et'fect an entrance for his missionary enterprise ; but on his return from Goa to Malacca he found a new governor who was opposed to any such attempt, and he was obliged to adopt the expedient of sailing in a merchant-ship to the island of Sancian, near Macao, which was at that time the trading-depot of the Chinese with the merchants of Portugal. From Sancicn, Xavier, having procured a Chinese interpreter, hoped to induce one of the native merchants to land him secretly on the coast; but in this hnjie also he was bafHcd by the feais of the Portuguese, who dreaded for themselves the vengeance of the Chinese authorities upon tiiis infrac- tion of the law. This disappointment, coupled with the privations and labors to which he had been exposed, brought on a violent fever ; and under the combined weight of mental depression and physical sickness, this Christian hero sunk upon the very threshold of what he had looked to as the great enterprise of his life, in the island of Sancian, on the 22d of December, 1552. His remains were conveyed to Malacca, and thence with great solemnity to Goa, March 15, 1554. Many miracles, attested by numerous witnesses, were reported of Xavier in almost all stages of his career. The number of his converts was so great as to be almost beyond comjnitation ; and Christians of all creeds have ever regarded him as one of the holiest and most useful of men. See Francis Xavucr, St. ^..1.; C.