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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 12 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN "i&k r .idfiK ISO AJ^- LIFE IN TI DE, D LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF THIS ISLAND AND I THE MEMORIALS WHICH THEY HAVE "\ LEFT BEHIND THEM BY BERTRAM C. A. WINDLE D.Sc, M.l)., M.A., Tkinitv Colkece, Ducmm F.S.A. (I,oM). & Irel.) DEAN OF THE MEDICAI, lACUl.TY AND I'ROl-ESSOR OF ANATOMY MASON COLLEGE, lilRMINCJlTAM 1 } > J J » 1 • i » » 1 1 .1 X 3 > > -I i > IVITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS m LONDON DAVID NUTT, 270-271, STRAND 1897 GPhdip&.Sori,32FUet,St LonJjm.. DAi tV..-' V:.-' ' * » « f I • ■<• . • 4 • ^ « « I t i • t ■ » I > I I I r 1 « t c • t • * . t - • r • « t- ••. • 9 • 4 t • " • • 1 I •*\'' . % t '^ \ . • • ** * • • » • • » • • • • , i' * • • % • % •.••. • • • •..' Printed by Ballantynk, Hanson d^ Co. At tlie Ballautyne Presb %\ i I 7 TO MY WIFE > 9 I PREFACE The subject-matter of the following pages was arranged originally for a course of lectures which was delivered at Mason College, Birmingham. The object of that course, as of this book, was to present a brief but clear account of the different races which inhabited this country in prehistoric and early historic times, and to describe the chief relics which each has left behind it. It is hoped that this little book may be serviceable as an introduction to the study of Prehistoric Archaeology, and to the larger works on that subject by Sir John Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins and others, the names of which will be found in the Appendix. In order to add to its practical value some attempt has been made to supply a list of objects, arranged in counties, by which the facts alluded to in the body of the work may be more fully illustrated. These also will be found in an Appendix. For permission to use certain of the figures with which the book is illustrated, the author has to thank Sir John Evans, the Councils of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries 1 rl Is viU PREFACE and of the Archaeological Society, Mr. John Murray, Colonel Wood-Martin, Mr. W. R. Hughes and Messrs. Kegan Paul The author cannot but express his gratitude also to his friend and publisher, Mr. Alfred Nutt, for the great interest which he has taken in the book, and for the many valuable suggestions which he has made whilst it has been passing through the press. Birmingham, May i, 1897. CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL SKETCH tntroduction-Relics of past races in tale, custom, and law-Man and the Glacial Period-Palsolithic and Neolithic Races-The Celts and the Bronze Age -The Roman Occupation -The Saxon Invasion -Struggle between the Britons and the Saxons-The fall of Britain— The Danes p j^g CHAPTER II PALEOLITHIC MAN ^ild animals of the period-Flint implements-Method of their manufacture-Relics of the River-Drift Man-The Cave- dweller-Kenfs Hole-Early Art-Physical characteristics of the Cave-Man— His social life .... pp, ,g_ CHAPTER III NEOLITHIC MAN Dnditions of the land-Wild animals-Pit dwellings-Stone axes and arrow-heads-Their folk-lore-Manufactories-Art-Long barrows-Dolmens-Significance and folk-lore-Objects buried with the dead-Trephined skulls-Druidism-Language- Bodily remains— Social lif e . . p^ ^ ^P- 35-67 g 4 III " I ■ " I " |i f i # jj CONTENTS CHAPTER IV THE BRONZE PERIOD The Aryan Race-Goidels and Brythons -Early accounts of Britain -Lake-dwellings-Crannogs-The Glastonbury Lake-viUage- rile-dwellings-Brcnze Celts- Swords-Personal ornaments- Casting of bronze-Pottery- Clothing . . Pp. 68-92 J CHAPTER V THE BRONZE PERIOD— continued Camps-Maiden Castle-Yarnbury-Caer Caradoc-Bridges- Stonehenge-Avebury-The Rollright Stones- Fok-lore- Menhirion-Round Barrows-Celtic religion-Godiva s nde- Physical characters— Social life . . • • iP-93ii CHAPTER VI THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN Condition of the country-Forests-Wild animals-Trackways-^ Roman roads - Camps _ Cities - Silchester - Unconmm- ^ . . . , , Pp. 119-13" Cormmm . . • • • CHAPTER VII THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRIT klN-continued The Roman city-Cemetery-PomcBrium-Amphitheatre_Ga^ -Forum and Basilica-Shops-Baths-Temples-Chnst.a. Church— Barracks ^ * f* J' >> ./ CONTENTS xi ounts of Britain f Lake-village— lal ornaments — Pp. 68-92 CHAPTER VIII THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN— «>nf/«wd The Roman villa — Hypocausts— Tesselated pavements — Chedworth Villa — Mines— Method of burial — The Roman Wall — Nature of the Roman Occupation . . 1 . , Pp. 155-170 idoc — Bridges— ^es — Folk-lore — -Godiva's ride— . Pp. 93-118 CHAPTER IX THE SAXON OCCUPATION The Christian Church in Britain — Intermixture of Races— Saxon Earthworks— Relation to subsequent Norman Castles— Offa's Dyke — Methods of burial — Weapons and other objects found in Graves— Art— Church architecture . . . Pp. 171-186 :IITAIN als— Trackways- jr — Uriconium — , Pp. 119-13^ CHAPTER X TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES * The Tribal Community — Its members — The strangers living with it— The Chieftain— His house— The village community— The Hall— Evolution of the Manor-house— The Lord of the Manor- How a Manor was formed— The inhabitants of the Village— The land around it— Its allotment— The Manor of Westminster at the Conquest— I'he island of Heisgeier . , Pp. 187-206 \IN — continued iphitheatre— Gate; ["emples— Christiac . Pp. 137-ii CHAPTER XI SOME TRACES OF THE PAST RACES OF BRITAIN Traces in Language — Physical characteristics — Names of Places. Pp. 207-219 / II jgiii ■ Mil" Xtl CONTENTS List of Places . APPENDIX A • • . • • • Pp 221-227 APPENDIX B List of Books . • • • f • WDEX ....••• Pp. 228-229 231 \ 'I ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Map of Early Britain, showing roads and places of importance. Frontispiece X. River Drift Implement (Evans, "Ancient Stone Imple- ments") 21 2. Cave Implement (do.) 27 3 Harpoon Head (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) .... 28 4. Hunting of Horses (Joly, " Man before Metals") . . 29 5. The Mammoth (do.) 30 6. Plan of a Village Settlement . . . . . .37 7. Neolithic Celt (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) .... 39 8. A Celt in its Handle (Evans, "Ancient Stone Implements") 40 9. Perforated Stone Hammer (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) . . 41 ID. Flint Arrow-Heads (Evans, " Ancient Stone Implements ") 43 1 1 . The same in Shaft (do.) 43 12. Spindle Whorl (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) .... 48 13. A Long Barrow 49 14. An uncovered Dolmen Qoly, " Man before Metals") . . 50 15. A Breton Dolmen 50 16. Kits Coty House (" A Week's Tramp in Dickensland," by 51 W. R. Hughes) 53 17. Plan of Chambers in Uley Barrow 54 18. Concentric Circles cut on Stone (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) . 57 19. Position of Skeletons in a Barrow (after a figure in Jewitt's " Grave-Mounds and their Contents ") . . . 59 20. Trephined Skull (Joly, " Man before Metals ") . . .72 21. Restoration of aCrannog (Wood-Martin, " Pagan Ireland") ^22. Section of a Crannog (do.) 74 23. Plan uf a Crannog (do.) , , , , , . -75 I xiv ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 24. Plan of a Crannog (Wood-Martin, " Pagan Ireland ") . 75 25. Flat Bronze Celt (Evans, "Ancient Bronze Implements") 81 26. Flanged Bronze Celt (do.) ^i 27. Winged and Ringed Bronze Celt (do.) . . . .82 28. Socketed Bronze Celt (do.) 83 29. Bronze Celt in Handle (do.) . ... . .84 30. Bronze Pins (do.) ^^ 31. A Torque (do.) ^7 32. Bronze Caldron (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) .... 88 33. Stone Mould for Casting Celts (do.) . . . -, .89 34. Pottery of the Bronze Age (do). . . . . .91 35. General Plan of Stonehenge (Murray's Handbook for Wiltshire) 97 36. Conjectural Restoration of Stonehenge (do.) ... 98 37. Trilithons at Stonehenge (Barclay, " Stonehenge ") . . 99 38. Plan of Stonehenge as it is (Murray's Handbook) . . loi 39. Trilithons at TripoU (Barclay, "Stonehenge"). . . 103 40. Avebury, restoration (Murray's Handbook for Wiltshire) . 105 41. Avebury, Plan of District (do.) 105 42. Menhir, the Kingstone (" Folk-Lore ") . . . .109 43. Round Barrows (after a plate in Barclay's "Stonehenge ") 112 44. Plan of Silchester 130 45. Remains of Wall of Uriconium i33 46. A Roman Tombstone ^37 47. The Roman Gateway at Lincoln 14° 48. Plan of Forum and Basilica at Silchester (after the plan in Anhaologia) 141 49. Roman Pottery (Durobrivian) 145 50. Roman Pottery from Upchurch . . . . .145 51. Samian Pottery (Nos. 46, 47, 49, 50 and 51, after figures in Wright's " Celt, Roman, and Saxon ") . . .146 52. An OcuUst's Stamp (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) . . .147 53. The Roman Bath at Bath 149 54. A Tablet from the neighbourhood of the Roman Wall (Scot. Ant. Catalogue) . . . . . .153 55. Roman Hypocaust and Pavement (Wright) . . .157 56. Orpheus from a Tesselated Pavement .... 158 ILLUSTRATIONS xv PACE 57. A Lion from the same (after illustrations in the Archaolo- gical Journal) 159 58. Plan of Chedworth Villa .161 59. Interior of a Roman Tomb (Wright) 165 60. Plan of a Buhr (after a figure in Clarke, " Medianval Military Architecture ") . . . , . . 175 61. Rectangular Norman Keep 177 62. Norman Shell-keep 177 63. Anglo-Saxon Interment (after a figure in the Thesaurus Craniorum) 179 C4. Anglo-Saxon Fibulae (Wright) . . . . . . 182 65. Anglo-Saxon Tumblers (Wright) 183 J 66. Anglo-Saxon Manuscript (after a figure in Westwood's " Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts ") . . . . 185 >7. Bradford-on-Avon Church (after an illnstrntion in the Archaological Journal) 186 Inti law lith: OCCl Brit |NGLA^ laterial less real inriter h; on whos genius c complex Alt is a] Lite to terest i ^ck to tibns sue of a late wondered historic c oiijccts aj LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL SKETCH Inlroduclion-Eclics of past races in tale, custom, and aw-Man and the Glacial Period-Pai^oli hie and n" - hth,craces-The Celts and the Bronze Ase-The Roman occupa.,on-The Saxon invasion-Struggfe between , he Bntons and the Saxons-The Fall of BrSin-Th^" ■GLAND is full of the traces of her successive occupants latena re hcs of earth and stone, and less tangible, but no fe real, rehcs of custotn and tradition, As°an Ante ican writer has remarked, the country is in fact one vast museum » whose shelves lie objects illustrative of the hisTor nd g«n.us of the races, out of which has been built up that ^mplex entity, the Englishman of to-day It ,s also true that just as those shelves of a museum which I e to the remotest periods are those in which the least .rest .s shown by the casual visitor and which are leas.Tn ^«c^ by h,m so those objects in this country which dl^ b. k to the earhest periods are, with a few obvious excet races and races with an Aryan speech, it will be sufficient here to say that there are in Europe seven Aryan languages -viz., CJreek, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, Slav, Lettic and Ubanian, and that there are three in Asia— viz.. Indie (in- |c!uding Sanskrit), Iranic (including Persian), and Armenian. jThe race with which we are now dealing spoke a Celtic ^tongue, and was the first to introduce the knowledge of Imetals to this country, for though they were still ignorant of Ithe use of iron they knew how to manufacture articles tin bronze, for which reason the earlier part of their foccupancy of the land is known as the Bronze age. The fCelts appear to have descended upon this country in two separate invasions, separated from one another by a con- siderable period of time. The earlier of these invasions is lO LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ii i n fi I known as the Goidelic or Gadhclic, and the people who took part in it are known as (joidels or Gaels. They are in point of speech the ancestors of the Gaelic speaking people of Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland and the Isle of Man, and their tongue existed in Wales and Devon as late as the sixth century or probably even later. They appear to have largely amalgamated with the Neolithic inhabitants whom they found in possession. The se :ond invasion is known as the Brythonic, and those who were concerned in it as Krythons or Britons ; indeed it was from them that this country acquired the name of Britain.* Their speech still lives in that of the people of Wales and of Brittany ; until last century it also existed as the ancient Cornish language, now extinct as a living tongue ; it was at a still earlier date that the Brythonic speech of Cumbria died out of use. The Brythons appear to have driven the com- bined Goidelic and Neolithic peoples to the western side of the island, so that at the time of the Roman invasion, the latter were to be found south-west of the Mendip Hills and the River Stour, in the regions north and south of the Solway Firth and in Wales. In the last mentioned district, they were to be found in the northern part, to the west of a line drawn from Chester to the mouth of the River Mawd- dach, and in the south, west of the Severn and south of the Teme. They also occupied Ireland and the Isle of Man. The northern parts of Scotland were occupied by Ivernians and Picts, but the remainder, save for the part above mentioned near the Solway Firth, was peopled, like the greater part of luigland, by Brythons. The Romans, under Julius Caisar, had made a descent upon the island in the year 55 e.g., but it was more than one hundred years later, in the year 45 ad., that Claudius really undertook the reduction of the country. It is no * Prof. Rhys's view is that the name of the Rrittones got mixed up with PrilUuiia, a Brythonic form of the GoideUc Cruithneach. INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL SKETCH ii part of the purpose of this work to deal with the incidents of the campaigns by which Britain became a part of the Roman Empire. It is, however, important to note how essentially military in its character was the occupation of the country. Earthworks, great fortified cities, magnificent military roads, provided with change-houses and stations, not to speak of that remarkable triumph of military engineering, the Roman wall, sufficiently prove the truth of this statement. At the same time, the number and magnificence of the villas built for the occupation of Roman officials show that the settlement was regarded as permanent in its nature, and that the builders of these mansions con- sidered themselves firmly rooted in the soil of their adopted country. It is also important to remember that the Roman occupation was not accorrpanied by the extermination of the races which they found in occupation of the land on their arrival. Battles, it is true, there were between the Celts and the invaders, but the policy of the Romans, here as in other parts of their empire, obviously was, as far as pos- sible, to permit the natives to continue in occupation of their Uands and properties, and in the practice of their own i customs, whilst subject to and taxed by their foreign masters. The comparison has been justly made between *' the Roman occupation of Britain and our own occupation of India, for in both cases the intention of the conquering race has been, whilst firmly holding the dominions of which they had become possessed, to interfere as little as possible with the natives so long as they were content to submit ([uietly to the demands of their conquerors. Thus there was no such displacement of population during this period as had occurred previously or as took place during the next epoch. Early in the fifth century the Roman legions, whose presence was required nearer home, were finally withdrawn rom Eniiland, and the Romanised Britons were left to I« LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN f r !)' defend their own shores as best they niiglit, a task for which they were probably not too well fitted by centuries of de« pendence on alien troops. They were not long left in quiet possession of their country. It is probable that Britain had already been threatened by invaders from the north, for amongst the great Roman officials we find one whose title was Comes littoris Saxonici per Brittannias, and whose jurisdiction extended along the eastern coast from the Wash to Southampton Water. To this official, who may be re- garded as the ancestor of the Warden of the Cinque Ports of our own times, was entrusted the organisation of the district most exposed to the attacks of the Saxon pirates. It was at three i)oints on this shore that the land was invaded by the northern warriors. First, the Jutes under chieftains to whom tradition has assigned the names of Hengist and Horsa, descended upon the shores of Kent in 449. They were followed, in 477, by the Saxons who, under Aelle, invaded the south coast near Chichester. It was not until nearly a hundred years later that the third band, to whom this country was to owe its later name of England, the Angles, descended under the leadership of Ida upon the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk in the middle of the sixth century.* There was an important difference between this invasion and the two which preceded it. In the former cases it was only a detachment which had come over, but in the case of the Angles it was the entire * The dates and facts in the preceding paragraphs are those given by Green and other historians of a similar period. It is right, however, to say that Thurneysen, the latest investigator, considers that the main Germanic invasion took place in the early part of the fifth century. Moreover, it is true that we only hear of Ida in the middle of the sixth century, but that does not prove that he was the first invader of l^ast Anglia. On the contrary, there is reason to believe that the Germans established themselves earlier in the North of England than in the South, in which case the attack on East Anglia would be a movement from Northumbria, rather than from the Continent, INTRODUCTORY HISTORICAL SKETCH 13 sk for which .uries of do left in quiet Britain had e north, for whose title and whose m the Wash may be re- Mnque Ports Ltion of the xon pirates. was invaded I under the Suffolk in n important :h preceded : which had i the entire e those given It is right, or, considers y part of the f Ida in the that he was Te is reason arlier in the he attack on rather than population of the district, in the neighbourhood of what is now Magdeburg, still known as Angela or the Engleland, which removed en masse to England, leaving its former territory absolutely denuded of inhabitants. The operations of these successive bands of invaders were very different from those of the Romans. Their object was not merely to occupy the country but to colonise it, and to accomplish this, they proceeded as far as possible to exterminate the Celtic tribes, who, after a long and stub- born resistance, were forced to retreat before their invaders. Something of what occurred we learn from the writings of the historian of the Celts, Gildas, himself a scion of that race, who wrote some sixty or more years after the first Germanic invasion. " The red tongue of flame licked up the whole land from end to end," he says, in his somewhat high-flown language, "till it slaked its thirst in the western ocean." And"again of the inhabitants he says : " Some, con- strained by famine, came and yielded themselves up to their enemies as slaves for ever, while others, committing the safety of their lives to mountains, crags, thick forests, and ocky isles, though with trembling hearts, remained in their atherland." The Venerable Bede, if, indeed, he is not simply repeating (Hildas, speaks in much the same terms: ''Some were slaughtered; some gave themselves up to pdergo slavery ; some retreated beyond the sea ; and some 'emaining in their own land lived a miserable life in the ^mountains and forests." But apart from this written evidence, ive gain some idea of the straits to which the Celtic fugitives Were reduced from the traces of their occupation which have gbeen found in some of the caves to which they were driven "Ifor shelter. Amongst these, one of the most celebrated is that of the King's Scaur, near Settle, in Yorkshire, from the 'lEvidence collected in which by Professor Boyd Dawkins, 3Mr. Green has drawn the vivid picture which follows. " In -primeval ages," he says, "it had been the haunt of hyaenas J4 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN il:i : i i .. who dragged thither tlie mammoths, the reindeer, the bisons, and the bears that prowled in the neighbouring glens. At a later period it became a home of savages, whose stone adzes and flint knives and bone har[)oons are still embedded in its floor. But these, too, vanished in their turn, and this haunt of primitive men lay lonely and undisturbed until the sword of the English invaders drove the Roman provincials for shelter to the moors. The hurry of their flight may be gathered from the relics their cave-life has left behind it. There was clearly little time to do more than drive off the cattle, the swine, the goats, whose bones lie scattered round the hearth-fire at the mouth of the cave, where they served the wretched fugitives for food. The women must have hastily buckled their brooches of parti-coloured enamel, the peculiar workmanship of Celtic Britain, and snatched up a few household implements as they hurried away. The men, no doubt, girded on as hastily the swords, whose dainty hilts of ivory and bronze still remain to tell the tale of their doom, and hiding in their breasts what money the house contained from coins of Trajan to the wretched minims that showed the Empire's decay, mounted their horses to protect their flight. At nightfall all were crouching beneath the dripping roof of the cave or around the fire which was blazing at its mouth, and a long suffering began in which the fugitives lost year by year the memory of the civilisation from which they came. A few charred bones show how hunger drove them to slay their horses for food ; reddened pebbles mark the hour when the new vessels they wrought were too weak to stand the fire, and their meal was cooked by dropping heated stones into the pot. A time seems to have come when their very spindles were exhausted, and the women who wove in that dark retreat made spindle whorls as they could from the bones that lay about them." The cities which had been erected in considerable numbers by the Romans were sacked, burnt, and then left as ruins INTKODL'CTORY IIISTORRAL SKKTCH 15 by the Anglo-Saxons, who appear to have been afraid or at least unwilling to use them as i)laces of habitation. An instance of this may be found in the case of Camboritum, the important Roman city which corresponded to our modern Cambridge, which was sacked by the invaders and left a ruin at least until the time of the Venerable Bede (673-735), who relates that the nuns of Ely, requiring a cofiin for the remains of their foundress St. Aethelthryth, searched amongst its ruins and found there a marble sarcophagus which they used for the interment of the Saint. In later days these ruined walls and buildings still unoccupied were used as stone quarries, from which were obtained the materials for the construction of churches and abbeys, as in the case of Uriconium, the carved stones of which may be traced not only in the construction of Wroxeter Church itself, but also in that of Atcham, some little distance off, and in other edifices in the district.* It was the same with the villas of the Roman provincials, which, magnificent and even luxu- rious as they often were, fell into a state of ruin, and in that condition afforded perforce at times, an accommodation so inadequate and uncomfortable to belated travellers as to gain for them the name of Cold Harbours, a title met with in a number of places throughout the country where such buildings formerly existed. In the struggles which took place between invaders and invaded thu former were not always victorious. 'J'hus at the battle of Mons Badonicus, which may have been Badbury Rings in Dorsetshire, a band of West Saxons, who were probably making their way towards the city which occupied the site of the present Dorchester, was van(iuished by the Brythonic forces. This battle is traditionally associated * " Gaistor was a city when Norwich was none, And Norwich was built with Caistor stone." This Norfolk rhyme alludes to the custom above mentioned, Caistor having been the Roman city of Venta Icenorum. F x6 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN p i, with the name of the national Brythonic hero, King Arthur, various places in the south of England having been iden- tified with the sites of conflicts, in which he was concerned, by Dr. Guest. Too much reliance cannot, however, be placed upon this identification, since Mr. Skene has asso- ciated the same events with places in the south of Scotland. Again, at the battle of Fethanleah, now probably Faddiley in Cheshire, in 563, Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons, fresh from the destruction of Bassa's churches, now Bas- church in Shropshire, was vanquished by the Britons under Brocmael, Prince of Powys, a victory which for fifteen years checked the progress of the army of Wessex. But gradually the l^ritons were driven towards the western side of the island, until that portion of it, to which the name of Britain could be legitimately applied, was confined to a continuous strip, consisting in its northern part, of the district of Strathclyde, which extended, roughly speaking, from Loch Long in Scotland to the River Dee ; in its central part, of the present Principality, under the name of North Wales ; and in its southern, of West Wales, which included the present counties of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. This continuous strip was cleft into three parts by two decisive battles. The first of these took place at Deorhain, near Bath, in 577, when Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons, concjuered the Britons under their three kings, Conmael, Kyndylan and Farinmael, and permanently separated North from \Vest Wales. The second battle took place at Chester, in 607, when Aethelfrith, King of the Northumbrians, conquered Brocmael, Prince of Powys, divided Wales from Strathclyde, and finally put an end to the kingdom of Britain. It now only remains to see what became of the three dis- membered fragments. The most northerly portion, Strath- clyde, was in alliance with the little kingdom of Dalriada, founded by emit'^rants from Ireland, with which is associated r. '' ;:}. INTRODUCTORY IIISTORICAI. SKICTCH 17 the fame of St. CoIiiml)a of lona. In 603, Aedlian, King of Dalriada, was coikiuciccI by Actlu-lfrith, King of the Norlliinnbrians, at Dacgstonc, now Dawstonc, after which event the Ihitish inhabitants of Strathclyde became tributary to their conciiierors. West Wales, or Dyvnaint, extended from the (,)iiantock Hills to the Land's ICnd, and the first great inroad into it was made by Ine, who, in 7 10, conquered Geraint, the British king, jjushed his army as far as the River Tone and there founded the city which we now know as Taunton. It was not, however, until 815 that Kcgberht, King of the West Saxons, made the conriuest of Cornwall. It remains now only to .speak of the district with which we now associate the name of Wales, and here it may be men- tioned that the name of Welsh was given to the Brythons by the Anglo-Saxons, and was derived by them from their word wealhas, meaning strangers or unintelligible people, a term met with in other parts than Wales, such as at Walling- ford, in Berks, "the ford of the strangers." North Wales, or Wales as we know it, had a more enlarged boundary than it now possesses until 799, when Offa, King of Mercia, pushed his way over the Severn, till then in its upper part the British boundary, drove the Prince of Powys from his town of Pengwyrn, and founded there the town in the scrub, Scrobbesbyrig, our present Shrewsbury. After this victory he constructed, according to a long-standing tradition, the dyke which bears his name. It is, however, possible, that it may be a work of much earlier date, which he utilised as a boundary line. Offa's dyke, of which extensive remains still exist, stretched , from the mouth of the Dee to that of the Wye, including some portions of land now belonging to England, and ^ strmgent rules were laid down to prevent the Welsh from ^ entermg the English side of that boundary. ■ It is important from an ethnological point of view to remember that whilst Britons and Saxons were at war with i8 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN h i 1 1' one anolher in some parts of the land, in others they were on sufficiently good terms to act as allies against a common foe. Thus in 591, at the battle of Wanborough, on the edge of the Wiltshire downs above the Vale of White Horse, the Hwiccas under Ceolric joined with the Britons to conquer Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons. This is the first instance of an amalgamation which doubtless became more common as the intensity of the struggle be- tween the invaders and the invaded decreased and the conflicts between different groups of the former l)ecame more common. In 866 the Danes first descended upon East Anglia, and upon the history of their connection with this country it will not be necessary to dwell. For the purposes of future ethno- logical observations it is only necessary to remind the reader that, after the battle in which Alfred vanquished the Danes at Ethandun, now Edington, near Westbury in Wilt- shire, the country was divided between the two races, the Danes dominating that part of it which lies north of a line from the Thames to the mouth of the River Lea, and thence by Bedford and the River Ouse to the Watling Street, which, further west, formed the line of demarcation. Thus the Danes ruled over the north-east division of the island, whilst the English had London and the south-west. CHAPTER II PALEOLITHIC MAN Wild animals of the Period — Flint implements— Method of their manufacture— Relics of the River-Drift man — The Cave-dweller— Kent's Hole— Early Art— Physical Charac- teristics of the Cave-man— His Social Life. The classification of the early races to whom the use of metal was unknown, and whose implements were, therefore, mainly manufactured from stone, depends largely upon the character and finish of the weapons and tools which they left behind. Those which are assigned to the earlier age are much rougher and less finished than those of the later, so that we may regard the former, or l\ila;olithic period, as that in which stones were roughly chipped to the shape most applicable to the purpose for which they were intended, and the latter, or Neolithic, as that in which the stones were sometimes chipped alone but chipped with greater skill and minuteness, sometimes ground down and polished so us to be not merely more sightly, but also more effective weapons. It is with the former age that we have now to deal, and the reader will remember that it has been subdivided into two periods, that of the river-drift and that of the cave- dwellers. At th time when England was in the possession of Palnsolithic man not merely was its physical geography very different from that of the present day, but the animals which inhabited it were more varied in kind and far more dangerous in character. Amongst the fauna of that period, 20 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN were the hippopotamus, two kinds of elephant, and a like number of species of rhinoceros, a cave bear and a cave lion, the hyaena, bison, wild horse and reindeer. Palaeo- lithic man was thus provided with an abundance of animals to chase and to be chased by. It must be admitted that our predecessors of this period were but poorly provided for the pursuit of game of such size and ferocity. Their clothing, if indeed they did not for a large part of the year go naked, must have consisted solely of the dried skins of such animals as they were able to kill, and their weapons were confined to pointed stakes of wood and rude axes chiefly constructed of flint. The first implement of this kind which was ever recognised as being something more than a natural product, was discovered near Gray's Inn, London, about the year 1690, together with the remains of an elephant, with which it found a place in the Museum of Sir HansSloane, where it was described as " A British weapon found, with elephant's tooth, opposite to Black Mary's, near Grayes Inn Lane," but where its real antiquity was of course unsuspected. When the collection in question developed into the British Museum the specimen went with it, and there, too, it lay misunderstood, until one hundred and fifty years after its original discovery. It was then shown that it exactly corresponded with the specimens which had been discovered in the river gravels of Amiens and Abbeville. Such specimens having, after a long controversy and years of suspended opinion, been admitted to be the work of human hands, the true nature of the Gray's Inn flint was no longer a matter for doubt. This famous piece of flint is roughly triangular in shape, about six inches in length and four wide at its base, and has been fashioned by the process of chipping fragments off" the original block until it assumed the shape which it now possesses. This and other implements of a similar kind belonging to this period do not appear to have been ever attached to any handle, Fig. I. — River-drift Stone Impkinent found at Reculver. (Sir John Evans. ) It is made from a flint pebble, and ihc fouiided end is well adapted for being held in the hand. 22 LIFE IN KARLY BRITAIN r. but were held by the blunter end. They must have been formidable weapons in a hand-to-hand contest, and may possibly also have been used as missiles at a short range. Other and smaller pieces of flint have been found of an oval figure and worked so as to possess a cutting edge all round, others fashioned into what may have been scrapers for the preparation of skins, and again, others worked to a sharp point so as to be capable of serving as awls. Special manufactories appear to have existed for these stone tools in places capable of affording a supply of the necessary materials. Here have been found the tools which were used in the fashioning of the implements ; these consist of large blocks of flint which probably served the purpose of anvils, and other pieces of the same stone designed for shaping the fragments out of which the weapons were con- structed. The material employed was almost invariably flint, and this because that kind of stone has a form of fracture called conchoidal, which lends itself peculiarly to the process of the formation of weapons by flaking and chipping. Sir John Evans, after describing and comparing the methods adopted in the construction of their implements by races now or recently in the habit of making them in stone, thinks that the flake-implements may well have been made in a similar manner to that in which gun-flints are prepared, a pebble having been employed instead of the iron hammer of the modern flint-knapper. ■ " At first sight," he says, " it would appear that the production of flakes of flint, without having a pointed metallic hammer for the purpose, was a matter of great difificulty. I have, however, made some experiments upon the subject, and have also employed a Suffolk flint-knapper to do so, and I find that blows from a rounded pebble, judiciously administered, are capable of producing well-formed flakes, such as in shape cannot be distinguished from those made with a metallic hammer. The main difficulties consist first, in making the PALAEOLITHIC MAN 23 blow fall exactly in the proper plnce ; and secondly, in so proportioning its intensity that it shall simply dislodge a flake without shattering it. The pebble employed as a hammer need not be attached to a shaft, but can be used without any preparation in the hand." The flakes, being gradually detached from a given lump of flint, must necessarily leave behind the central block, from which they had been separated. Such blocks are formed in the process of manufacturing gun-flints, and are called cores. Analogous structures are met with amongst the remains of the prehistoric manufactories. The process of manufacture in the case of the stone axes was somewhat similar, though here it was the central mass from which flakes were detached which was the object of the workman's attention and not the pieces which hy re- moved from it in the process of its manufacture. Sir John Evans, dealing with the method of working this kind of weapon, says: "The hatchets seem to have been rough hewn by detaching a succession of flakes, chips, or splinters from a block of flint by means of a hammer-stone, and these rough-hewn implements were subsequently worked into a more finished form by detaching smaller splinters, also probably by means of a hammer, previously to their being ground or polished, if they were destined to be finished in such a manner. In most cases one face of the hatchet was first roughed out, and then by a series of blows, given at proper intervals along the margin of that face, the general shape was given and the other face chipped out. This is proved by the fact that in most of the roughly chipped hatchets found in Britain the depressions of the bulbs of percussion* of the flakes struck off" occur in a perfect state * The bulb of percussion is the name given to a bulb or projection, of a more or less conical shape, at the end of the flake where the blow was administered by which it was detached. There. is, of course, a corresponding hollow in the block from which it was dislodged. ! HI HI 24 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN only on one face, having been partly removed on the other face by the subsequent chipping. " There are, however, exceptions to this rule, and more especially among the implements found in our ancient river-gravels. In some cases the cutting edge has been formed by the intersection of two convex lines of fracture giving a curved and sharp outline, and the body of the hatchet has been subsequently made to suit the edge." Amongst some savage races flaking is effected by pressure and not by percussion, the required portion being detached with the aid of an instrument of wood, bone or horn, which is skilfully pressed against the block of stone with the result that a thin tlake or shaving flies off. Captain John Smith, whose name is associated with that of Pocahontas, the original Belle Sauvage, in speaking of the Indians of Virginia, appears to allude to this method of forming stone- flakes when he says : " His arrow-head he quickly maketh with a little bone, which he ever weareth in his bracept, of a splint of stone or glasse in the form of a heart, and these they glew to the end of their arrows." Amongst the various kinds of weapons and implements belongiiog to this period which have been discovered, one form, met with in such quantities during the Neolithic era, is wanting, and this is the arrow-head. From this we learn the significant fact, that so low was Pala^^olithic man in the scale of culture as to be unacquainted with the use of the bow. He does not seem to have been quite devoid of personal ornaments, for beads of a fossil shell, the orifices of which have been artificially enlarged as if to admit a cord, have been met with amongst his remains. In this, as in other points, his state of civilisation corresponds with that of many of the lower races of mankind, in most of which some effort at personal adornment is met with. The bodily remains of the man of the river-drift are PAL^OIJTHIC MAN 25 extremely scanty. On the continent, where implements of his manufacture have been discovered near Madrid in Spain, in Italy, Greece and Germany, as well as in Northern Africa, Palestine and India, some few portions of skeletons have been found which may be assigned to this period. At Eguisheim, near Colmar, Schaffhausen, a portion of a cranium was found with remains of the mammoth and other animals of a similar epoch. At Clichy, in the valley of the Seine, a skull and some bones were discovered at a con- siderable depth from the surface, in undisturbed strata, and lying with bones of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse and stag. The skulls which have been found are long and narrow in shape, and have very prominent ridges over- hanging their orbits. In the case of the limb bones of the Clichy skeleton, those of the thigh are characterised by possessing a remarkably* strong ridge running down the posterior aspect, whilst the tibia or shin-bone is platycnemic, or flattened. " The few fragments which remain to us," says Professor Boyd Dawkins, " prove that at this remote period man was present in Europe as man, and not as an inter- mediate form connecting the human race with the lower animals." The relics of the cave-man have been much more exten- sively met with than those of his predecessor, many caverns in Yorkshire, Somersetshire and elsewhere having, on care- ful explo-ation, yielded valuable results. One of the best known of these is the cavern of Kent's Hole, which has been so carefully explored by Mr. Pengelly. This cavern was re- discovered in 1825, by the Rev. J. McEnery, who found that it had been entered by one "Robert Hedges of Ireland," who had inscribed his name with the date, February 20, 1688, on a boss of stalagmite. These words, when found, were, as they are now, "glazed over and partly effaced" by the gradual deposition of carbonate of lime. It has been attempted to use the thickness of the 26 I-TFE IN EAKI.Y HKITAIN ':'"' "f ^l-il'-'Rmite which has accnnulatcd sinr. the insrrin .on was n,.dc as a measure of the period of tin, he '^; cave Such a method, however, Iil operating on flakes but directly on nodules, of which PALmoiATinc MAN * 27 portions of the original surface generally remained, and which were probably derived from supra-cretaceous gravels existmg m great volume between Tonjuay and Newton Abbot, about four miles from the cavern. It is obvious however, that even such tools could not be made without the dislodgment of flakes and chips, some of which would 5 ^^^^ <^ -# Fig. 2. -Flint Implement from Kent's Cavern. (Sir John Evans.) Face and side views and section. be capable of being utilised, and accordingly a few remnants ot this kind were met with in the breccia, but they were all of a very rude, simple character, and do not appear to have been improved by being chii)ped." In the cave earth a much more highly finished type of miplement was found, some of the flints being lance-shaped 11 28 LIFE IN EAKI.Y IIKIIAIN and poss.bly ,„,e„dc,l for spe,-,r-lu.a,k, others luinR „v„l t>craiXTS aiui hannncr-stoncs were also f,n„ul,an,l will, ihJni m>pe,„en.s of bone, amongst whieh .nay partieu ly he antlers of reu,deer, one being barl,ed on both side" the other only on one. In the black .nould were found ...ore n,oder„ objeets, sueh as lumps ofoopper l.r" e weapons and pottery of a Roman or pJe-Kon.an' yp . Z he vanous hnds ,t is elear that this eave, and tl samTs true of others of a similar nature, was first inhabited by the l-IG- 3--Harpoon Head of Reiiulccr-horn, 4/, In. 1„„„ „;„, ,i, Iwb,™ „„o ,i,l.a„ct r,vo „„ ,„„ „,|,c,.:- c„,ci U «„ri Basso, I'raiigu. (Scot, Am. Mus.) river-drift men, and afterwards, though at a much later penod, by those to whom the name of cave-dwellcMs has been given. Finally, the British or Romano-Kritish remams po.nt to its occupation at a date nmch nearer to our own. A remarkable feature of the fmds of this period which have been made on the continent- and the same is true, though in a much less degree, of those of our own country-is the occurrence of incised figures of animals, showing considerable powers of draughtmanship. Repre- sentations of the hunting of bisons and of horses have been found m the rock-shelter of La Madelaine, the latter also showing the figure of a man. The human form, it may be remarked, is but rarely found represented in these drawings, possibly because it may have been considered I'AI./Iiol.nilic MAN J9 ■"•'"--ky to ,lcp,ct it, such a .supcrsiiiion |„i„,, „ijeiv l.rcval,.,u amo„K,st pri.ni.ive races lhr„MKh«„t ll.c „,„.| u a o "S o a CJ B O ■a o E e needk', the skins ol the animals which he killed into garments even of a somewhat complicated nature. It is important to bear in mind the nature of the art of the period, for rough as the implements must have been with which it was executed, the pictures show considerable spirit and a real artistic capacity. Very many persons of to-day would be pleased, if with all the aids with which art can supply them, they could produce sosjjirited a sketch as that of the reindeer by the pool, or the group of fighting reindeer represented in another drawing. Jiesides the instances mentioned above of incised work, there are many examples of the carvings of l^ihwlithic man,' in the shape of bone handles, representing aninials of dif- ferent kinds. Whether drawings or carvings, the art of this period is particularly worthy of notice because it belonged to the cave-dwellers alone and perished with them, not being met with atnongst the remains of later races. Professor Boyd Dawkins has called attention to the remarkable similarity between the art of Palaiulithic man and that of the Eskimos, and considers that this is one of several proofs of the identity of the two races. IMiis theory, however, it is right to say, is not accepted by all ethnologists. It is necessary to have recourse to the discoveries made in continental caverns if we would study the physical characters of the cave-dweller. Amongst the relics which have been found, the most celebrated is that of the Neanderthal skull, which was discovered in a cave near Dusseldorf. This remarkable specimen, on the extreme antiquity of which much doubt has recently been thrown was, when first studied, thought to belong to a class not now' represented amongst living men. Further inquiry, however, has proved this view to be incorrect. Though unusual, this type of skull is not unknown amongst Europeans, whilst a race of Australians has received the name of Neandertha- If 32 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN 'I i i 1 loid, from the resemblance of their crania to that which IS now under discussion. It is long and narrow and its vault ,s extremely low, but perhaps its most striking charac tenstic IS the great projection of the ridges above the orbits and of the glabella or space between the eyebrows and just above the root of the nose. Two skeletons assigned to this period, the skulls of which are also narrow, have been found at Spey m Belgium. Here also the projection of the supra- orbital ridges and of the glabella is very marked The ridges upon the bones of the skull for the attachment of muscles are strongly developed and the cranial vault is low and flattened. The lower jaw shows no prominence of the chm— in fact, it recedes somewhat from the region of the teeth. Dr. Garson, from whose writings these facts have been condensed, further states that "the stature of the Neanderthal skeleton as estimated from the length of the femur (or thigh-bone) is 1.604 metres (5 ft. 3 in.), and from the humerus (or arm-bone) 2 cm. less; that of the Spey skeleton (there being only one of these in which the long bones could be measured), estimated from the femur and tibia (or shin-bone), is r.504 metres (4 ft. u^ in.) and from the femur alone, 1.540 metres (5 ft. | in.). The long bones of both the upper and lower limbs of the Neander- thal skeleton are characterised by their unusual thickness and the great development of the elevations and depres- sions for the attachment of muscles ; the articular ends of the femur are also of larger size than usual. The femur of the Spey skeleton is more arched forward than usual • it is somewhat flattened from side to side in section, and its articular ends are of large size, especially the lower in which there is enormous antero-posterior development of the articular surfaces of the condyles. The tibia is actually and proportionately very short, flattened laterally and therefore platycnemic. The bones generally are re markable for their stoutness, and indicate that the muscles PALEOLITHIC MAN 33 attached to them were large and powerful, especially those of the lower limb. " In regard to the platycnemism of the tibia, the Spey skeleton corresponds to the Laugerie Basse and Madelaine bones from the Perigord caves, and confirms in a very positive manner the evidence of their surroundings and relics, that Pakeolithic people were sons of the chase, as it is connected with the development of the tibialis posticus muscle, and not a race character." From the various observations which have been made at home and on the Continent, it is possible for us to form some kind of a picture, following on the lines indicated by Dr. Oarson, of the social life of the cave-dweller. As might be inferred from his name, he lived, at least during the colder parts of the year, in those natural shelters in which his remains have been found. Here he lit his fire and brought the spoils of the chase to be cooked for his food. He was essentially a hunter and not an agricul- turist, like his successors in the land, yet he possessed no dog to assist him in securing his prey. The bison, the wild horse and the reindeer were the main objects of his chase, and he pursued them with flint-tipped spears and with daggers made of bone and possessing carved handles. He also captured fish with barbed harpoons. His clothing was made from the skins of the animals which he killed, and the different portions were sewn together with cords made of the sinews of the reindeer. For this purpose he employed the bone awls and needles which have been found in the deposits of the period, and with the same implements and from the same materials he made the long glove which he wore. He manufactured flint imple- ments for use in the chase and in war, as well as for domestic purposes, and he converted the bones of animals into various useful tools. The handles of many of these he decorated by carving them into the form of beasts, and his c 34 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN taste for art is also shown by the figures which he engraved upon bones and pieces of stone. He was not indifferent to the adornment of his person, but, like other savages, made neckkces of shells, teeth and pieces of ivory and bone, and in all probability painted his body of a red colour with mineral pigments. He was short in stature and his beet- ling brows must have given him a fierce and repellent appearance. i cm V I f 'f It ; flMp •graved rent to , made Je, and ir with s beet- [)ellent CHAPTER III NEOLITHIC MAN Conditions of the Land-Wild Animals-Pit dwellings- Stone axes and arrovv-heads-Their Folk-lore -Man u- skulls n-V^'f ^""'^ "^'^ ^^^ Jead-Trephined skulls -. Druidism - Language - Bodily remains - Social The conditions of the land had been changed prior to the advent of the race with which this chapterl concerned, so as to be approximately the same as those which now obtain. England had become severed by the sea from the Continent and from Ireland, but the area which it covered was some- wha greater than at present, since parts of what were then dry land are now submerged beneath the waters of the sea The Isles of Wight and Anglesey were still part of tie mamland, the estuary of the Thames west of a hne dra n north from Felixstowe was dry land, and the same "as r e of a great part of the Bristol Channel. Traces of the forests which covered this part of the country n.ay still be seen at low tide near Minehead in Somersetshire and n other places. The northern and western coast lines o Wales extended for a greater distance than th y noTdo nearly he whole of the bay of Cardigan having been foLeci mce this period by the submergence of the land, indeeTa tradition to this effert ^tiU r^.^ • ' ^""^^<^ ^ peasantry. ' ^"'^"^' *^^ Welsh ^ 36 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN Ji The climate of the country was probably much damper than it is now, on account of the vast forests which covered the face of the earth ; and on account of the greater area of land it possessed more of a continental range of tempera- ture, with greater cold in the winter and greater heat in the summer. Many of the larger animals which existed during the epoch of Paloeolithic man had now become extinct, but others, some of which arc now unknown in this country, still occupied the forests and marshes. There were " wild boars, horses, roes and stags, Irish elks, true elks and rein- deer, and the great wild ox, the urus, as well as the Alpine hare, the common hare, and the rabbit. Wolves, foxes and badgers, martens and wild cats were abundant ; the brown bear, and the closely allied variety the grisly bear, were the two most formidable competitors of man in the chase. Otters pursued the salmon and trout in the rivers, beavers constructed their wonderful dams, and water rats haunted the banks of the streams." (Dawkins.) It will be noticed that whilst many of the animals just mentioned are no longer to be found in England, only one, the Irish elk, has become absolutely extinct. From the insular character of the country it is obvious that the Neolithic peoples must have invaded it in boats, bringing with them their cattle and household stuffs, and starting from the nearest coast of the Continent, and by a similar means they must have reached Ireland from England. These boats were of the kind known as " dug-outs "—that is, each was composed of the trunk of a tree, sometimes as much as forty feet in length, hollowed out partly by the action of fire, and partly by the use of the stone axe. These boats must have been propelled by some kind of paddle, for there is no reason to suppose that any know- ledge of the use of sails existed at that period. Like their predecessors, the Neolithic people in some \ I S-i NEOLITHIC MAN 37 instances lived in caves, such as those at Cefn, near St. v\sai)h, in North Wales, but their most characteristic dwellings are those known as pit dwellings or hut circles. A group of these exists near Fisherton, in the Wylye Valley in Wilt- 'I Fig. 6.— Plan of a part of a British Village, showing Ditches, Ramparts, and Cluster of Huts. shire, in which the excavations have been carried down to a depth of from seven to ten feet from the surface, passing through the superficial gravel to reach the subjacent chalk. Each pit or group of pits had a circular shaft by which it was entered, and below it expanded so as to have a diameter 38 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN I 11 l£ i I varying from five to seven feet, the upper portion being about three. The floor consisted of the chalk in which tiie excavation had been made, and was often raised sHghtly in the centre. Each was covered by a roof, which was composed of a kmd of wattle and daub, that is of interlacing sticks plastered with clay, which was partly hardened by the action of fire. Groups of these pits are found on the tops or sides of hills or sometimes in valleys, surrounded by ramparts and ditches, and intersected also by ditches or drains, probal)ly rendered necessary by the damp nature of the climate. It must be remembered that such villages or settlements, though characteristic of the Neolithic race, are not peculiar to the period which bears that name, for some of them were constructed and inhabited at a much later date. General Pitt-Rivers has carefully explored such a village of the Romano-British period at Woodcuts Common, near Rush- more in Dorsetshire. This village, which is included within ramparts, is divided into quarters by mounds and ditches. Within the area are many pits, in the neighbourhood of which have been found various bronze implements, Roman coins, pottery and skeletons of children and adults. The remains of the people of this period, which have been found in their dwellings and tombs, enable us to form a good idea of their condition and manner of life. The most characteristic weapon of the period is the stone axe or celt, a much more highly finished implement than that of the earlier Stone age, and carefully shaped so as to have usually a wide cutting edge at one end, the other being more pointed. These cells were often polished by friction against another stone. " In all cases," says Sir John Evans, "the grindstone on which they were polished was fixed and not rotatory, and in nearly all cases the stride running along the stone hatchets are longitudinal, thus proving that they were rubbed lengthways and not crossways on the grind- ing-bed. This is a criterion of some service in detecting f l-J m NEOLITHIC MAN 39 modern forgeries. The grinding- stones met with in Den- mark and Scandinavia are generally of compact sandstone or quartzite, and are usually of two forms— flat slabs, often Fig. 7.-Neolithic Celt of finely polished greyish Flint, found in Scotland. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) Side and front view. worn hollow by use, and polygonal prisms, smallest in the middle, these latter having frequently hollow facets in which gouges or the more convex-faced hatchets might be ground, and sometimes rounded ridges such as would grind the "" 1''"^ ^' gougca. rrum Inc coarse sination on the I I # 11 I 40 LIFE IN ICAKl.V IJUITAIN body of most flint hatilu-ts, cspaMally the large ones, it would appear that they were nui ground immechately on such Hne-grained stones, but that some coarse and hard grit must have b('en used to assist the action of the grind- stone. M. Morlot thought that some mechanical pressure was also used to aid in the oi)eralion, and that the hatchet to be ground was weighted in some manner, possibly by means of a lever. In grinding and i)olishing the hollowed ! I i Fig. 8.-ytoMo CVlt in o.igin.il woodon liandle, found in a pent moss in Cumberland. (Sir Joim ICvans.) faces of different forms of stone axes, it would api)ear that certain rubbers formed of stone were used i)robably in con- junction with sand." Celts thus formed were sunk into a wooden stock, the smaller end being pushed through a hole, a wrapping of raw hide possibly making the connection more secure. Their discovery in the handled condition is naturally rare, since the wooden sto^^ks have generally perished in the course of time ; but one or two have been found in peat bogs, which M • NEOLITHIC MAN 41 Fig. 9.— Perforated Hiuninor-Stoiie found in Scotland. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) The lower figure is a section of the hole, the narrowing of which at the centre shows that the boring was accomplished from both sides. The tigure on the right is the side view. ^B^W* 42 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN toguher. These must have been formidable weapons whether aga.nst animals or in warfare, as we manX; from the discovery of the sl« "-""- '» ' country. They were there called the warrior's stone the champion's flat stone, the semi-flat stone of a soldier "ham ion or by some such title. In the' record of the ba«Ie"f be lord of Comar, near Fore, in the county of Westmelth vhichis supposed to have occurred in the century before he Christian era, hohar's people all came with a champion'! handstone stowed away in the hollow of their shiZ Fergus "put his hand into the hollow of his shield and took out of it the semi-flat stone of a soldier ehai^S and hrew a manly cast and struck the hag (a Druidess) o; the front of her head which it passed through, and carried ou of Its own size of the brains at her poll." Eochaidh, the in hifg^r ""''''""■ '""'"^ '■'' '^''=""P»'>'»fl" stone Beside the axes with which we have been dealing the Neohthic peoples made numbers of arrow-heads of stone many of which are beautifully shaped and polished. The^ are sometimes barbed, and sometimes plain, tanged or tang- less, leaf-shaped or triangular, and may be compared with #. NHOLITIIIC MAN 43 the stone arrow-heads made by the North American Indians. Indeed one of the most remarkable things about these Fig. io.— Flint Arrow-heads, English. (Sir John Evans.) arrow-heads is the extraordinary similarity to one another which they present in whatever part of the world they may be found, a proof that the minds of different races work on similar lines, as we can scarcely suppose that the patterns were trans- mitted from one part of the world to another. Succeeding generations of people, finding these remnants of a former race and ignorant of their real signi- ficance, have looked upon them, here and elsewhere, with a superstitious awe and veneration. Thus the stone celt came to be regarded as the hammer of Thor, the thunderbolt, " the all dreaded thunderstone " of Cymbeline. Indeed the opinion that such axes fell from the skies in thunderstorms, which seems to have existed from a very early period, is met with in many parts of the world, for besides having been prevalent in all parts of Europe, it is found in Fig. II.— Stone Arrow- head.with original Sliaft. found in Switzerland. (Sir John Evans.) i r 44 LIFE IN EARLY HKITAIN '-: \K r M' M Japan, Hunnah, Assam, Malaysia, Western Africa, and else- where. Many virtues have also been attrihuted to these weapons, the water in which one has heen boiled having been used, even m recent times, as a cure Ibr rheunutism in Corn- wall, whilst the discovery of a celt in ICgypt bearing (Inostic inscriptions, shows that some mystic power was assigned to It by some early possessor. An ancient stone-axe has been known to be hung round the neck of each successive ram which acted as leader of the flock during many years, in order that the influence of the evil eye might be warded off from him, and through hini from tin; flock of which he was the head The Neolithic arrow-heads are as widely kn(,wn as fairy-darts, or elf-shots, and have been used as amulets up to a recent date both in these islands and on the continent. This practice must also be of great antiquity, since a flint arrow-head has been found attached to an ].:truscan gold necklace, apparently as a kind of charm. Writing in 1691 of the Fairies and their ways, in his "Secret Common^ wea th, the Rev. Robert Kirk, a Ih-m believer, by the way. in the tales which he narrated, gives us a good idea as to the views which were held at that date, and indeed we may say up to a much more recent period, as to the nature of these arrow-heads, for it is of them he speaks. ''Their weapons," he says, "are most what solid earthly Bodies nothing of Iron, but much of Stone, like to yellow soft Flint bpa, shaped like a barbed Arrow-head, but flung like a Dairt with great Force. These Armes (cut by Airt and Tools It seems beyond humane) have something of the Nature of Thunderbolt subtilty,and mortally wounding the vital Parts without breaking the Skin ; of which Wounds I have observed m Beasts, and felt them with my Hands. They are not as mfalhble Benjamites, hitting at a Hair's breadth ; nor are they wholly unvanquishable, at least in Appearance » A letter of Dr. Hickes to Pepys, dated London, June 10 1700, is a further proof of the prevalence of the idea at this NI'OLITHIC MAN 45 time. "At tlic same time, ns I romcniber, he (Lord Tarhiit) ontortaincd the Diiki' (of T>aii(lL'rdale) with a story of Elf arrows, which was very surprising' to me. They arc of a triangular form, somewhat hke the [)ile or beard of our old English arrows of war, almost as thin as one of our old groats, made of Hints or pebbles, or sueh-like stones, and these the country people in Scotland believe that evil spirits (which they call Elves, from the old Danish word Alfar, which signifies Daemon, Genius, Sntyrus) do shoot into the hearts of cattle ; and, as I remembi;r, my Lord 'i'arbut, or some other Lord, did [)roduce one of these Elf arrows, which one of his tenants or neighbours took out of the heart of one of his cattle that died of a usual death. I have another strange story, but very well attested, of an Elf arrow that was shot at a venerable Irish IJishop by an Evil Spirit, in a terrible noise louder than thunder, which shaked the house where the J)ishop was." liesides the use of these arrow-heads as amulets against the malign inlluence of fairies, they have been employed in other superstitious practices. Every reader will be familiar with the fact that one of the commonest devices of witch- craft was to construct a wax or clay image of the person whom it was desired to injure, and to pierce it with pins or other sharp instruments. It was, of course, hoped that the injury to the image would be followed by serious illness in the person which it rei)resented. Now Mr. Gomme tells us that in Scotland the implement used for wounding the image was sometimes a stone arrow-head, and that its use was accompanied by an incantation. No doubt it was believed that the effect of the injury would be intensified by the use of a magical weapon such as the fairy dart. It is probable that this idea is a genuine relic of the period when the fabricators of these weapons lived side by side with other and later races, who may have regarded them with that superstitious reverence with which the aborigines have bSBl 46 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN r f ! 1 J I 1 been regarded in other countries by later immigrants. This however, is a question which must be dealt with more ful^ at a later pomt. ^ Apart however, from the arts of witchcraft, we have abundant ev.dence that flint flakes had their place in genume rehg.ous ceremonies in various parts of the world i hus, m the process of the embalming of the body in Egypt a ter the In.e of d.e first incision had been marld ouf in he left gron, with ink. an assistant, the slitter or para- sch.tes tak.ng '«an Ethiopic stone" says Diodorus Siculus, . kmfe, probably made of flint," says Mr. Budge, made the requned openn.g. Circumcision amongst the J^^. may be performed w.th a stone knife, and a similar implement as used by the Arabians in the opening of the veins which forms a part of the ceremony of makn.g pledges of faith The Romans preserved a sacred flint in the temple of Jupiter teretruis, with which the Pater ]>atratus slew the victmi, offered up to consecrate the solemn treaties of the Romans. '' If by public counsel," he said, '^ or by wicked fraud they swerve f.rst ; in that day, oh Jove, smite thou the Roman people, as I here to-day shall smite this hog • and smite them .o much more as thou art abler and stronger." ^Vith these words he struck the hog with the flmt stone. ^ In various parts of the country, where flints were plentiful there existed regular manufactories of the weapons we have been considering. One of the most celebrated of these was at the place called Grimes' Graves, near Brandon in Suffolk a locality where the descendant trade of gun-flint making has long been carried on. Here the Neolithic worker^ sank shafts in search of flints and connected them to-^ether by mean, of galleries from three to five feet in height '' The miners of this period had never thought of the "simple method of using wooden props for the roofs of their ^ galleries and hence they did not dare to carry on operations NEOLITHIC MAN 47 very far from the shaft. Thus when they had carried their gallery a short way and exhausted all the flints near at hand, they sank a fresh shaft in a new spot and recom- menced operations. In some of their old workings the tools of the Neolithic miners have been discovered,' and we thus learn that they used the antlers of deer as pickaxes, as well as the polished stone celts described above Chisels made of bone and horn have also been found, and primitive lamps made of cups of chalk hollowed out to contain grease. Canon Greenwell gives the following account of the exploration of one of these galleries which had obvi- ously fallen in during the interval between two periods of work. " It was seen," he writes, "that the flint had b^en worked out in three places at the end, forming three hollows extending beyond the chalk face of the end of the gdlery In front of two of these hollows were laid two picks the handles of each towards the mouth of the gallery the tines pomting towards each other, showing in all probability that they had been used respectively by a right and left handed man. The day's work over, the men had laid down each h,s tool, ready for the next day's work; meanwhile the root had fallen m and the picks had never been recovered "I learnt from the workmen that it would not have been safe to have excavated further in that direction, the chalk at that pomt being broken up by cracks so as to prevent the roof from standing firm. It was a most impressive si^^ht and one never to be forgotten, to look, after a lapse it inaJ be of three thousand years, upon a piece of work unfinished, with the tools of the workmen still lying where they had been placed so many years ago. Between the picks was the skull of a bird, but none of the other bones. These two picks, as was the case with many found elsewhere, had unon them an mcnistation of chalk, the surface of which bore the impression of the workmen's fingers, the print of the skin bemg most apparent. This had been caused by the chalk i! 48 LIFE IN ICARLY BRITAIN hands became coated being with which the workmen's iiands transferred to the handle of the jjick." Other rehcs have been found in the i)i«-dwellings and tombs, such as si)indle whorls, showing that spinning was practised, chalk weights to stretch the warp and long combs to pusli the woof, which [irove that weaving was also one of their occupations. They were also ac([uainted with the manufacture of |)ottery, though only by hand. 'i'hus in their industries, they attained to a much higher level than their predecessors, so that it is the more remarkable that their idi'as of art were so much less advanced. 'J'he really graceful delineations of animal forms which we fmd associated with the cave-dwellers have no place in this jieriod, where instead we meet with spirals, concentric circles, rude geometrical orna- ments, in fact, alone or almost alone. In one instance, at Locmaria(juer in Brittany, a figure of a stone axe in its wooden handle has been found inscribed on the under surface of the capstone of the great dolmen known as the Table des Marchands. This axe is repre- sented as decked with a plume, and it is interesting to note that its handle is depicted as curved back beyond the socket for the l)lade, a feature which has been observed in one of the very few shafted celts which have been found in this country. The burial-places of this race, so full of valuable informa- tion from the relics which they contain, nmst next be con- sidered. In some cases the Neolithic jieople buried their dead in caverns, but their most characteristic form of Fig. 12.— Spindle-Whorl. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) J». NEOLITHIC MAN 49 interment was under a long oval mound of earth known as a long barrow, which was usually erected on the top or SKle of a h,ll or eminence of ground. Such mounds of earth form str.kmg and unmistakable objects in the la.id- scape m the parts of the country in which they occur The intenor of these mounds contained in some cases only a pile of stones m the midst of which the corpse was placed '>ut nj other n.stances the internal structure was much more -'mp .cated. In chan.bered barrows of this kind there was an entrance with passages and galleries all formed, as to Fig. I3._A Long Barrow, with the ring of standing stones restored. their sides and roof, of flat slabs of stone. In these galleries and transepts successive interments took place. In many instances the sui)erjacent earth has been removed, for farm- ing or other purposes, with the result that the internal skeleton of stones has been left exposed.* In its simplest form this skeleton consists of a large flat stone or capstone, supported by others standing on their sides or ends. The tabular appearance of such structures has led to their re- ceiving the name of dolmen, or stone table {daul, a table and maen, stone, Celtic). Subsequent generations of people', '^TT^-f t^^" '^^^^ ^'"'■Po^e' h'-^ve called them by the title of Druidical altars, to which they have no claim. Very solJonheteSolmenfhrvtn^n^''M'°'^'"^ '° '"'"^ archaeologists. sub-aeriui and neve cot,d with '• " ^rr"^"^' "^"^^ ^^^" v,uvered with a mound of earth. 50 LIFJ-: IN I'ARLY BRITAIN many of these structures exist in various parts of the country, and a few e.xuiuplcs of some of the more important Fig. 14.— Dolmen. Fig, 15.— Breton Dolmen, or better known may now be cited. Kit's Coty House, near Aylesford in Kent, is a well-known instance of an English -J i ( > ol the mpoitant neolithic: man 51 dolmen ; and others familiar to tourists are those of Chun in Cornwall, the cai)stone of which has been estimated to weigh twenty tons, and the double dolmen at JMas Newydd in the Isle of Anglesey. The great Lanyon dolmen in Cornwall was uncovered about one hundred years ago by a farmer, i i. ie, near English ■■'?>•■>. KIT'S COTY HOWAB Fig. 16.— Kit's Coty House. Dolmen near Aylesford, Kent. (From "A Week's Tramp in Dickensland," by W. R, Hughes.) * who supposed it to be a mere heap of earth which he thought might be usefully applied to farming purposes. By degrees, as the earth was carted away, the great stones began to appear, and when operations were completed and all the soil had been cleared away, the dolmen, much as it now exists^ was disclosed, contaixiing in its interior a heap J*> 52 LIFE IN KARLY 15KITAIN ^^^^^^B i 1 i! ! J I I: ^nl- of broken urns and liunian hones. The capstone is about eighteen and a liaif feet long by nine wide, and is computed to weigh more than fifteen tons. In 1815 it was blown off l)y a storm, but it was replaced in 1824, though it was found to be impossible to restore one of the upright stones to its position, since it had been broken in the fall. Weyland Smith's forge on the downs near the Icknield Street, and close to the White Horse of Berkshire, is another uistance of the uncovered stones of a long barrow. It con- sists of a ruined chamber, of some remains of a gallery and of a second chamber to comi)lete the cruciform arrange- ment. All these were at one time buried beneath the earth and surrounded by a ring of stones. This group of stones owes the name which it now bears to Wieland (Norse, Volundr), the Smith ci the Teutonic mythology, and nuist have been known by that title for a long time, for in 955 we fuid King Edred granting lands to the wide gap ' west of Welandes Smithan." Again, King Alfred, who was born at Wantage in the immediate neighbourhood of the remains, says, in his translation of Boethius, " Who now knows the bones of the wise Weland, under what barrow they are concealed ? " The legend which is attached to this group of stones, and which has been made use of by Sir AValter Scott in his novel of " Kenilworth " is that it was the habitation of an invisible smith, and that if a traveller's horse lost his shoe it would be replaced, if the horse was brought to the stones and left there with a piece of money. The long barrow at Uley in Gloucestershire was a very complicated structure of its kind. There was, as in other instances, a boundary wall laid in horizontal courses, faced on the outside, and carried up to a height of two or three feet. This surrounded the mound itself, which " is about 120 ft. in length, 85 ft. in its greatest breadth, and about 10 ft. in height. It is higher and broad^u' at its east end than else-- NEOLITHIC MAN 53 where. The entrance at the east end is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of 8 ft. in length, and 4^ ft. in depth, and supi)orted by two iii)right stones which face each other, so as to leave a space of about 2' ft. between the lower edge of the large stone and the natural ground. Entering this, a gallery appears, running from east to west, about 22 ft. in length, 4}, ft in average width, and 5 ft. in height ; the sides formed of large slabs of stone set edge- ways, the spaces between being filled in with smaller stones. The roof is formed, as usual, of flat slabs, laid across and Fig. 17.— Plan of the Ch.imbers in the Uley Barrow. resting on the side slabs. There are two smaller chambers on one side, and there is evidence of two others having existed on the other side. Several skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was opened many years ago." (Jewitt.) Had this barrow been denuded of earth, the stones, many of which would necessarily have lost their original position, would have presented similar, though more extensive, remains to those of Weyland Smith's forge. In some cases the stones forming the entrance and lining the galleries are carved in rude patterns. Examples of this occur in the great barrow at New Grange in the County Meath, and at 54 f n LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN Gavr Inis in the Morbihan, Brittany. It will be remembered that it is on the under surface of the capstone of such a dolmen at Locmariaquer that the figure of a hafted axe is incised. Again, in other cases, the barrow was surrounded by a ring of standing stones. Such was the case, according to Dr. Thurnam's restoration, at the long barrow of AVest Kennet in Wilts, 350 ft. in length. This had a bounding wall of rubble with large upright blocks interspersed at regular intervals. The observation of Aristotle, to which Fig. 18.— Stone with incised concentric circles, found at Eday Orkney. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) To illustrate the type of orna' ment alluded to on p. 48. Dr. Thurnam calls attention, that the Iberians used to place as many obelisks around the tomb of the dead warrior as he had killed enemies, perhaps gives a clue to the origin of this custom. In certain cases vhere the mound and rubble wall have disappeared, the standing stones remain, and some of the so-called Druidical circles have thus been formed. Indeed, Mr. Arthur Evans points out that in the most primitive examples of such burial mounds, "it seems a universal rule that the stone circle surrounds a central dolmen or stone cist containing the remains of the dead. To take, for example, some of the closest known parallels to our great British monument*— the stone circles described * Stonehenge. »9^ NEOLITHIC MAN 55 „^jn by travcllci^; in Arabia and its borderlands are distinctly associated with central interments. Mr. Palmer in his book on 'The Desert of Exodus ' states that in the neighbour- hood of Sinai he saw huge stone circles, some of them measuring loo ft. in diameter, having in the centre a cist covered with a heap of huge boulders. In the cists he found skeletons in the same contracted position — the attitude of sleep amongst the ' Courtmantles ' of primitive times -as is seen in our own early interments." Again, he points out, that the early barrows of the North are in fact a copy of a primitive kind of mound dwelling, such as is still repre- sented by the Gam me of the Lapp. " It is a primitive dwelling of the living preserved by religious usage as a dwelling for the dead in days when in all probability the living had adopted houses of somewhat improved construc- tion, and adapted to a less boreal climate." By studying these primitive dwellings, then, we can arrive at a compre- hension of the meaning of the different parts of the grave mound. In the Lapp Gamme near the North Cape ** there are the ring-stones actually employed in propping up the turf-covered mound of the dwelling, and there is the low en- trance gallery leading to the chamber within, which, in fact, is the living representative, and at the same time the remote progenitor, of the gallery of the chambered barrow." Again, the entrance to such barrows is directed towards the east, a fact which may be explained by what we know of the Northern dwelling-mounds, which have their doorways directed towards the east also, in order that the inhabitants may be awakened by the first rays of the sun in a land where during a large part of the year the hours of daylight are but few. " However the afterthoughts of religion may have connected this usage with the worship of the sun, it is in its origin to be accounted for, like the stone circle and the gallery and avenue, by purely utilitarian reasons." After the construction of such mounds had Jong ceased, perhaps after i 56 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ir ^ :i their signification has been forgotten, we find the dolmens associated with superstitious observances, and looked upon with a certain veneration. In the earlier days of Christianity in Europe, and especially in th- 'ev,u,i'. regions, one of the great difficulties with which !],e C'-r h had to contend was the tendency of its converts to revert to stone worship, and various fulminations of local synods are extant against this practice. For instance, we find the twentieth canon of a council held at Nantes, in Brittany, ordering tho ^' .tones which are venerated in ruinous places and in the forests," to be dug up and thrown away so that they may be con- cealed from those who were in the habit of worshiiipinff them.* ^ ^ ^ A striking instance is met with in the life of St. Boniface, the apostle of Friesland, who, when he commenced the con- version of that country in the eighth century, found that one of the megalithic tombs in the province of Drenthe had been turned into an altar for human sacrifices. Any stranger who fell into the hands of the wild races of the district was first made to creep through the opening between the upright stones and then "sent to Odin " on the capstone. The influence of the Saint was powerful enough to cause the cessation of the sacrifice itself, but the practice of causing a stranger, especially if he hailed from Brabant, to creep between the upright stones persisted until late in the Middle Ages. Many such mounds have been supposed to be habitations of the fairies in these islands and on the Continent, and the veneration with which they have been regarded Las lingered to our own days, for so late as 1859 a farmer in the Isle of Man offered a heifer up as a propitiatory sacrifice so that * " Lapides quos in ruinosis locis et sylvestribus daemonura ludifi- cationibus decepti venerantur. ubi et vota vovent et deferunt funditus effodiantur. atque in tali loco projiciantur. ubi nunquam a cultoribus suio inveniri possint." NEOLITHIC MAN 57 no haim might l)efall him from the opening of a tumulus upon liis land. The skeletons which have been found in these tombs show that the dead were buried in a huddled-up position, perhaps, Sir John Evans thinks, because it was the habit of Fig. 19.— Interments in a Barrow. The lower skeleton is that of a man who has beon buried in a crouched-up position. The upper is a secondary interment of a later age, such as is often met with in barrows. the people of the period to sleep in that position, and not stretched out straight. As Mr. Andrew Lang puts it : " He buried his dead with their toes Tucked up, an original plan, Till their knees came right under their nose, 'Twas the manner of Primitive Man." But in some of these barrows, and particularly in the south-western part of England, the bodies seem to have been deposited in a sitting posture with their backs restuig against the walls of the tomb. In the eastern chamber of the barrow at Charlton Abbots, there were twelve skeletons which must have been originally placed squatting on flat hi 58 MFE IN EARLY BRITAIN n .stones round the walls. At Wc.t Konnci, i„ wil„ 4, skeletons, whose original position nn,s, have l,een Z Ln were dtseovere,,, „nd similar lae.s have been noted aj Avening and Uley in (iloucestershire Very great interest attaches to the ohjects whieh are onndn, great alntndanee interred with the dead. 'I e cle t sknils ,,f sonte of the skeletons „,e, with in many stances by l,rTlu,rnam. led hi,„ to believe that ln,n an s. crifices took place at the ftn.eral ceren.ony, as is the ease w,tl, other s.,vage races. The bones of do.nestic i, ^ found ,n the same places were also probably the remai of les.s cruel sacr.hces. It is very likely that slaves a, d annnals were slatn ,n order that their spirits nti-ht aeoo, , pany t at of the dead n,an in his list journe 'j warrtors horse was slain by the Scythians and b^ No A Anertcan nd,ans,sothat it might serve its master in tie other world. In some cases the skull of a dog has been me w,th as at Knock Maraidhe, near Dubli,', the de probably be.ng the same. The Greenland tnissionary Cranz, says that ,t is the cnston, of the people of thl; egton .to place the head of a dog in the tomb of a child ■n order that the soul of the dog. which can always nnd US way home, may show the helpless infant the way to the cmnury of souls." Nilsson quotes this state.nent as lus.rat,ve of the fact that the skulls of dogs ZTlZ ound ,n the buryn,g-places of the Stone age in Sweden Bu beyond these relics of sacrifices, weapon.; such as eel s and arrow-heads, pottery and other implements, sometimes tn a perfect cond.t.on and sometintes broken, and with every evtdence of having been purposely broken, have also been discovered in great quantities. There can be no doubt from what we know of the practices of savage races that these implements were placed in the grave ttiat the; niigh be of service .0 the departed in the land of sot Is and the custom testifies to the fact that the people of the NKOLITHIC MAN ';q Neolithic period had a hi-Hef in a future existence. The fact that some of the implements had been broken is an additional proof of this, for we know that this is done by other races with the idea that the spirit of the broken weapon will be utilisable by the spirit of its dead master. Fig. 20.— Skull trephined during Life and after Death. From one of the Dolmens called Cibournios or Tombs of the Poulacres. AB, Healed edge of the surgical trephining; BC, AD, edges whence pieces had been cut off after death. (Prunieres. ) A further light is thrown upon this question by the dis- covery in France of skulls upon which the operation of trepanning, or removing a portion of bone from the cranium, had been performed. The operation was per- formed at this period of course with a flint implement, and sometimes took place in children or young adults, some- 6o 1 ' u LII'IC IN EARLY HKITAIN ?■ i lii .•.l.un,ln„u.v„l.nce in ,ho co.uli.ion of'the ho, . „ ", , " ".'t he or she should have hee,-, looked „|,on as an ind i death p.eees of Ins skull shonid have heen treasured a. Ill l-iench dolmens, w,ih grooves or holes for the altaeh lent o a cord, and each preserves on one of its hot^e l>.ii of the ccatrused exlgc of the original openin- as evulence or ,ts genuineness. The n.ost Valuabl • of t1,e e amu letscunously enough, have heen n,et in the interior" .he »knk, of persons who had suffered posthumous trepan ■""«. The auu>Ie,s had e. iden.ly heen' p.„.p„,,,, . i ^ " j ... . o pos,t,on which they oeeupie.1, anc' the si ni " ce or.h, tact ,s thus explained by M. liroea, the distinguish I'rench anthropologist: "Were they a symbol a e " seuta.,on of the great portion of tie skull r nm- d by" .-paniuug? I. is hartlly likely, since any fragnrent of a kull ,„,ght have been en,ployed for this ptirpos;^ ; a, <1 t h Ihe nl,a-eran,alau„,le, nu-antmueh morethan that Itwas j. viatuHun, a .ahsn.an which the deceased carried a way tl i.n. ,nto another lile to bring bin, luck, and to pro ^t from the n„,uc.nce of the ail spirits who had to n,e, d " childhood Hut. even if we adu.i, the first hypoth 1 d ad , for otherwise there would have been no motive whatever for the ceren.ony of restittuion, Th st.Ty of preh,stor,c trepanning and the at,en,lant ceren.onie 'ov ■ lierefore, urcon.roverlibly, that the n,e„ of the Neo ill ,^ ag. beheved u, a future life, in which the dead re" d NEOLITHIC MAN 6i their individuality. It is, 1 think, the eailicst epoch to which we can attribute this behef." Beyond these foots connected with die religious oi)inions of the Neolithic i)eople, certain female figures of the rudest art, decketl with necklaces, and in one case ornamented with the figure of a stone axe, have been discovered carved on the walls of artilicial grottos of this period in I'Vance by the Baron de Baye. These figures, which somewhat re- semble the representations of the goddess Minerva on the clay vases found in ancient Troy, have been thought to be the tutelary deities of the inhabitants of tb.e grottoes. At a later date their religion appears to have been Druidism, of which, though tiic name is so familiar, we cannot be said to know a great deal. The first idea which rises to the nn'nd when the name of Druid is mentioned is that of a venerable old man in a white robe cutting down mistletoe with a golden sickle. From the various facts which we know about the Druids, they must really have closely resembled the angekoks of the I'lskimo or the medicinemen of the North American Indians. Slrabo (born c. O4 n.c.) described those whom he saw as walking in scarlet and gold brocade and wearing gold collars and bracelets, whilst in a mediieval Irish account the chief Druid of Tara, "is shown to us as a leai)ing juggler with ear-clasps of gold and a speckled cloak 'he tosses swords and balls in the air,' and like the buz/.ing of bees on a beautiful day is the motion of each passin- the other." (h:iton.) They practised human sacrifice and augury from the viscera, whilst at some seasons of the year human victims were "crucified or shot to death w'Mi arrows; elsewhere they would be stuffed into huge figures of wickerwork, or a heap of hay would be laid out in the human shape, where men, cattle, and wild beasts were burned in a general holocaust." (Elton.) In Julius Ci\;sar's time, and later, they taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. " One would have laughed," 62 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN says Valerius Maximus, a writer of the first century " at these long-trousered philosophers, if we had not found their doctrines under the cloak of Pythagoras." The Romans seem to have had a certain respect for the Druids of the later period when they occupied the country, for Lucan, addressing the Romano-Britons, says : " Ye too, ye bards, who by your praises perpetuate the memory of the fallen brave, without hindrance poured forth your strains And ye, ye Druids, now that the sword was removed, began once more your barbaric rites and weird solemnities. To you only IS given knowledge or ignorance (whichever it be) of the gods and the powers of heaven ; your dwelling is in the lone heart of .he forest. From you we learn that the bourne of man's ghost is not the senseless grave, not the pale realm of the monarch below ; in another world his spirit survives still • death, if your lore is true, is but the passage to eternal life."' The religious writings of Ireland afford many allusions to the Druids, St. Patrick's Hymn containing a prayer against "black laws of the heathen and against the spells of women, smiths and Druids/' whilst St. Columba exclaims ma striking metaphor, "The Son of God is my Druid ' » The magic of the Druids has also made a great impression upon the folk-stories of the same country, mention of the Druidical rod as an implement of wizardv and of the spells of the Druids being frequent. This has survived to the present day. Thus in the story of " The Champion of the Red Branch," as one example from many which might be quoted, we find such expressions as " I lay on thee the spells of the art of the Druid, to be feeble in strength as a woman in travail, in the place of the camp or of the battle if you go not out to meet the three hundred cats." Of the doctrine of metempsychosis, mentioned above, It is possible that some relics may still linger in the folk-lore of the country. In Yorkshire the country people call the night-flying white moths "souls," and in parts of Ireland i il NEOLITHIC MAN 63 butterflies are said to be the souls of your grandfather. Mr. Gomme mentions some further examples, one relating to an instance in London where a sparrow was supposed to be the soul of a dead person. In the county Mayo it is believed that the souls of virgins, remarkable for the purity of their lives, took after their death the forms of swans, perhaps a reminiscence of the Children of Lir. In Devonshire there is the case of the Oxenham family, whose souls at death are supposed to enter into a bird : while in Cornwall it is believed that King Arthur is still living as a raven. In Nidderdale the country people say that the souls of unbaptized infants are embodied in the nightjar. The most conspicuous example of souls assuming the form of animals is that of the Cornish fisher-folk, who believe that they can sometimes see their drowning comrades take that shape. In the Hebrides when a man is slowly lingering away in consumption the fairies arc said to be on the watch to steal his soul, that they may therewith give life to some other body. In Lancashire some one received into his mouth the last breath of a dying person, fancying that the soul passed out with it into his own body. These examples, Mr. Ciomme thinks, represent the last link in the genealogy of the doctrine of metempsychosis, as it has survived in folk-lore. Poetry may have kept alive the idea of the butterfly or moth embodied in the soul, but it did not create the idea, because it is shown to extend to other creatures not so adaptable to poetic fancy. When we come upon the Lincolnshire belief that the soul of a sleeping comrade had temporarily taken up his abode in a bee, we are too near the doctrine of savages for there to be any doubt as to where the first links of the genealogy start from. There is scarcely any need to draw attention to its non-Christian character, except that folk-lore has preserved in the Nidderdale example evidence of the arresting hand which Christianity put upon these beliefs. 64 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN I f i ) The tongue of the people of the ,,eriod with which we are deahng was not long extinct in Ireland in the ninth celrv when .n the fan,ous old Irish glossary ascribed to CorlaT K.ng and B.hop of Cashel (slain 9.5). it is called the Tar^' "records ;""■■ f f ""^ ^''' "™''''- "-' Cornrae records two of the Ivernian words known to him toese, together with Not, Corb, Ri and Others in is work tu , Tu t t"'r f *"■" °'"" '-S"'-'B«; but should It tun, out tl at those who without hesitation call our Ivernu,„s Iber.an, and bring then, into relationsh wl he Las.,ue.speak,ng people of France and Spain, are right considered the Iverman a dark speech. In the North of Ireland that tdiom may have been extinct in the ti e of knori';\T h'^"'™'-^" "^^ ""'' century cantrhav known ,t, which, nevertheless, does not prove that there were no peasants who spoke it there in his t me How- «/'/, a .tone, possibly enters; to wit, that of Ondemone in the year 563 ; it seems to have been near the Bann between Lough Neagh and the mouth of that river" li - possible that the earliest known title of this country Altaon, may belong to this tongue. This title is found secured the cows of Geryon, came from Spain to Liguria where he was attacked by two giants, whom he WW before proceeding to Italy. According to tlie first-centrrv geographer. Pomponius Mel., these fiants 1!T ZZ and Bergyon-,..., Albion and Iberion, or Enriand and Ireland, the position of the two islands in the e beinf. «sed in the story by its making them^noL"':^; NEOLITHIC MAN 65 There is no lack of osteological remains of the Neolithic people from which to form an opinion of their physical characteristics. These remains occur with the greatest fre- quency in the south-west district and particularly in Wilts and Gloucestershire, occupied by the Dobuni or Silures at the commencement of history. Dr. Garson, who has examined many of their skeletons, says that their skulls were larg^ and u'ell-formed, being long and proportionately narrow and ot an oval shape-that is, they were dolichocephalic. The ndges over the orbits and the central part of the forehead both so prominent in the skulls of the earlier race, were moderately or even feebly developed. Their foreheads were well formed, narrow and curved gracefully to the occiput, which was full and rounded. There was no tendency to prognathism or forward projection of the lower part of the face, such as is seen in negroes. The jaws were small and fine, and the whole facial expression must have been mild. itie age of the persons to whom they belong averages accordmg to Thurnam, forty-five years, which looks as if the duration of life was not very long at that period. Their stature was short, averaging, a .ording to Dr. Thurnam, 5 feet 61 inches, though Dr. Garson thinks that this average was too high. Their bones were slender, often with a well-marked ridge on the back of the tnigh-bone and a flattened shin-bone, which would show that the Neolithic people led an active life, probably as hunters. Tacitus, in speahng of the characters of the inhabitants of Britain, says folk ^Th '\- k'"" """ '"'^^ '"^" '^ ^^P^^«^»t the Neolithic tolk Ihe high complexion of the Silures, their usually them '"' '"f ''' '''' ^'^^ 'P^'" '^ th^ «PP«-te shore tl them, are evidences that Iberian, ut some earlier time crossed over and occupied these parts." This account of the Ner,l,thic people may fitly be con- BovH n 'J-"°''"^ '^' '^'"'^^^'^ P'^^"^^^ ^^hich Professor Boyd Dawkins, putting together facts, manvof wh-V-h Ko„.«: £ (' 66 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN been elucidated by himself, has drawn of the civilisation of the period : " If we could in imagination take our stand on the summit of a hill commanding an extensive view, in almost any part of Great Britain or Ireland in the Neolithic period, we should look upon a landscape somewhat of this kind. Thin lines of smoke rising from among the trees of the dense virgin forest at our feet would mark the position of the Neolithic homesteads, and of the neighbouring stockaded camp which afforded refuge in time of need ; while here and there a gleam of gold would show the small patch of ripening wheat. . " We enter a track in the forest, and thread our way to one of the clusters of homesteads, passing herds of goats and flocks of horned sheep, or disturbing a troop of horses or small short-horned oxen, or stumbling upon a swineherd tending tlie hogs in their eearch after roots. We should probably have to defend ourselves against the attack of some of the large dogs, used as guardians of the flock against bears, wolves and foxes, and for hunting the wild animals. At last, on emerging into the clearing, we should see a little plot of flax or small-eared wheat, and near the homestead the inhabitants, some clad in linen and others in skins, and ornamented with, necklaces and pendants of stone, bone or pottery, carrying on their daily occupations. Some are cutting wood with stone axes with a wonderfully sharp edge, fixed in wooden handles, with stone adzes or gouges, or with little saws, composed of carefully notched pieces of flint about three or four inches long, splitting it with stone wedges, scraping it with flint flakes. Some are at work preparing handles for the spears, shafts for the arrows, and wood for the bows, or for the broad paddles used for propelling the canoes. Others are busy grinding and sharpening the various stone tools, scraping skins with implements ground to a circular edge, or carving various implements out of NEOT.ITHIC MAN 67 bone and antler with sharp sph'ntcrs of flint, while the women arc preparing the meal with pestles and mortars and grain rubbers and cooking it on the fire, generally outside the house, or spinning thread with spindle or distaff, or weaving it with a rude loom. We might also have seen them at work at the moulding of rude cups and vessels out of clay which had been carefully prepared. The Neolithic farmers used for food the produce of their flocks and herds, and they appear to have eaten all their domestic animals,' including the horse and the dog; the latter animal, however,' prol)ably only under the pressure of famine. " They also had abundance of game out of the forest, but it was probably rather an occasional supply, and did' not furnish them with their main subsistence. The roe and the stag, probably also the elk and the reindeer, and in Ireland, the Irish elk, provided them with venison ; and the dis- covery of the urus in a refuse-heap at Cissbury, proves that the wild ox was still living in the forests, and was some- tunes a victim to the Neolithic hunter. They also ate hares, wild boars and beavers." I r : II y i !1^ CHAPTER IV THE BRONZE PERIOD The Aryan Race - Goidels and Brythons— -Early Accounts of Britain — Lake Dwellings — Crannogs — The Glastonbury Lake Village — Pile Dwellings — Bronze Celts— Swords — Personal Ornaments— Casting of Bronze— Pottery- -Cloth- ing. The Celtic immigrants, whether belonging to the earlier Goidelic, or to the later Brythonic wing, were members of the Aryan race, a race which had attained to a consider- able pitch of civilisation before the arrival of either division on these shores. From an examination of the words which seem to have belonged to the original tongue, we learn that the undivided Aryan race reckoned its year by months determined by the phases of the moon, which they styled the measurer, that they had domesticated animals, could count up to one hundred, and had a religion, a large part of which was a profound reverence for the hearth as the altar and shrine of ancestral deities. Traces of this reverence are to be met with even in these days, especially in Scotland and Ireland, where to " trample the cinders " is one of the worst insults which can be offered to a household. It is in the customs connected with the initiation of the new-born child into the family circle, ho\/ever, that perhaps the most striking relics of this reverence have been found in recent times. Pennant narrates that in the Highlands of Scodand he saw at christening-feasts the father place a basket of food across the fire and hand the child three times over the THE BRONZE PERIOD 69 food and the flames. Another striking custom, also met with in the Highlands of Scotland, and described by Light- foot, is when, after the birth of the child, the nurse takes a green stick of ash, one end of which she puts in the fire, and while it is burning receives in a spoon the sap that oozes from the other, which she administers to the child as its first food. "Some thousands of years ago," says Kelly* in his "Indo-European Folk-lore," commenting upon this custom, " the ancestors of this Highland nurse had known the fraxinus ornus in Arya, and now their descendant, imitating their practice in the cold North, but totally ignorant of its true meaning, puts the nauseous sap of her native ash into the mouth of her hapless charge." It was perhaps on account of their reverence for the hearth that they regarded the eating of uncooked meat with such scorn that the term eaters of uncooked meat, or some similar phrase, is applied in many of the derivative languages to barbarous men. But perhaps the most important piece of knowledge which they brought with them to this country was that of the working of metal in the shape of bronze, the period, at least the earlier part of it to which they belonged, having from that circumstance received the name of the Bronze Age. As has already been mentioned, the Celtic peoples came over to this country in two bands, separated from one another by several centuries. The Goidels, who were the first to arrive, to a greater or lesser extent amalgamated with the Ivernians, whom they found in possession, and seem to have in part at least assimilated their Druidism, a question which will have to be more fully dealt with on a future page. As to the Brythons, Professor Rhys remarks that : "The name Brittones is that which all the Celts who have spoken a Brythonic tongue in later times own in common ; among the Kymry it becomes In reference to this passage, it must be remembered that Kellv fully held the Central- Asian view of th le .-iryan origin. H 70 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN i Brython, which is one of the names they still give them- selves, and from which they derive the weed Brythont-g, one of their names for the Welsh language. This, in old Cornish, was Brethonec, and meant the Brylhonic dialect of Wales and Cornwall, after the Goidelic had been chased away. In Breton the word assumes the form Brezonek, and means the Ikythonic tongue spoken in lesser Britain or Brittany. So," he continues, " when one wants to speak collectively of this linguistic group of Celts from the Clyde to the neighbour- hood of the Loire, confusion is best avoided by calling them by some such names as Brythons and Brythonic, leaving the words Britain, British and Britannic for other uses, including amongst them the exigencies of the Englishman who, in his more playful moods, condescends to call himself a Briton." The name Brythonic, which the race appears to have adopted before reaching this island, means a cloth-clad people, in contradistinction to a people dressed in skins, some continental tribe being doubtless indicated who used the hides of beasts for their clothing. When these immi- grants reached this country, it cannot have been a very attractive spot for occupation, covered as it was with vast forests and marshes, overhung with constant fogs and deluged with frequent rains. During their occupancy, in the fourth century before Christ, we have indeed direct evidence of the condition of the country, for at that period an energetic syndicate of merchants of Massilia, the modern Marseilles, being anxious to extend their trading relations, fitted out an expedition, which they placed in charge of a learned Greek mathematician, Pytheas by name, a contem- porary of Aristotle and Alexander the Great. He twice visited these shores, and from his observations we learn that he was struck by the contrast which the climate of Britain presented when compared with that of the South of Europe, whence he came. "The natives," he says, "collect the sheaves in great barns, and thrash out the corn there, be- THE BRONZE PERIOD 7» r I cause they have so little sunshine that our open thrashing- places would be of little use in th"t land of clouds and rain." He also tells us that the inhabitants made a drink "by mixing wheat and honey," in which statement he doubtless alludes to mead or metheglin, a compound still prepared in some parts of the country. It is probable that he was also the first to mention the British beer, which was known to the Greek i)hysicians by a Celtic term, curmi, now cuirm in Irish and avnv in Welsh, a drink against which they warned their patients as one " producing pain in tiiu head and injury to the nerves." But the authority for this statement may have been another Greek explorer, I'osi- donius, who had been a fellow student with Cicero at Rhodes, and who visited this country two centuries later than Pytheas. At any rate, he is supposed to have been the person from whom Diodorus Siculus learnt that the inhabitants of Britain lived in mean dwellings, made for the most part of reeds and wood, and that their harvests con- sisted in cutting off the ears of corn and storing them in underground pits, from which they fetched each day those which had been longest in store to be prepared for food. In speaking of the mean dwellings of wood or reeds, he was probably alluding to the huts of watdc and daub which have been found in considerable numbers in the lake dwellings of the period. Lake dwellings are of two kinds, the crannog and the pile building, and it will now be necessary to say something about either variety. But first it may be remarked that, though different in construction, the idea was the same in each case, namely, to construct a habitation surrounded by water, which might serve as an effectual barrier against the dej)redations of wild beasts or of human enemies. The same idea precisely led the military architects of a later date_ to construct moats around their mounds or castles, only ia the latter case the lake was constructed around the island, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^7 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■- IIM I 40 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.4 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 A i-V iV \\ ^9> V a^ % c> i/.A ^ 7« LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN whilst in the former the artificial island was formed in the pre-existent lake. The Irish crannog seems to have been inhabited to vvhat may be called a recent period, for in 1567 ji i' * m u ■ o o o .S — I'-a ^ c O S 2. c i/i TO •c a. I— I . c c 0« we find that " one Thomas Phettiplace, in his answer to an inquiry from the Government as to what castles or forts O'Neil hath, and of what strength they be, states : 'For castles, in C ^ o o to ,c . i Si •C Oi c c o I '/I THE BRONZE PERIOD 73 I think it be not unknown to your honours, he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the raising of the strongest castles of all his countreys, and that fortification which he only dependeth upon is in sartin ffreshwater loghes in his country, which from the sea there come neither ship nor boat to approach them ; it is thought that there in the said fortified islands lyeth all his plate, which is much, and money, prisoners and gages ; which islands hath in wars to fore been attempted, and now of late again by the T^ord Deputy there. Sir Harry Sidney, which, for want of means for safe conducts upon the water, it hath not prevailed.' " And again in 1603, it is stated in the " Annals of the Four Masters," that Hugh Boy O'Donnell, having been wounded, '* was sent to crannog-na-n-Uuini, in Ross Guill, in the Tuathas. to be healed." In Scotland also they were inhabited to a late date, for in some instructions to ** Andro bischop of the Yllis " and others in 1608 we read : "That the haill houssis of defence strongholdis and cranokis in the Yllis perteining to thame and their foirsaidis sal be dely verit to his Maiestie and sic as his Heynes sail appoint to ressave the same to be vsit at his Maiesty's pleasour.' Another crannog in the loch of Forfar, partly natural and partly artificial, bears the name of St. Margaret, the queen of Malcolm Canmore, who died in 1097. A record of 1508 states that the artificial barrier of the isle had been repaired in that year. It will be well to learn something about the structure of the crannogs of the countries mentioned above before turning our attention to an English example, and for this purpose the accounts of some of those who have made these structures a subject of special investigation, may be quoted. Sir William Wilde, writing about Irish crannogs, says, " that they were not, strictly speaking, artificial islands, but cluans, small islets, or shallows of clay or marl, in those lakes which were probably dry in summer time, but submerged li ^, 74 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN in winter. These were enlarged and fortified by piles of oaken timber, and in some cases by stonework. A few were approached by moles or causeways, but, generally speaking, they were completely insulated and only ac- cessible by boat; and it is notable that in almost every instance an ancient canoe was discovered in connection with the crannoge. Being thus insulated they afforded secure places of retreat from the attacks of enemies, or were the fastnesses of predatory chiefs or robbers, to which might be conveyed the booty of a marauding excursion, or the product of a cattle raid." On the same subject, Mr. Wakeman, a well-known Irish archaeologist, writes : " The Fig, 22.— Section of Crannog in Ardakillen Lough, Co. Roscom- mon (Ireland). (From Wood-Martin's " Pagan Ireland. ") Irish crannog, great or small, was simply an island, eitaer altogether or in part artificial, strongly staked with piles of oak, pine, yew, alder, or other timber, encompassed by rows of palisading (the bases of which now usually remain), behind which the occupiers of the hold might defend them- selves with advantage against assailants. Within the enclosure were usually one or more log-houses which no doubt afforded shelter to the dwellers during the night- time, or whenever the state of the weather necessitated a retreat under cover." In Scotland their structure was similar to that just described, and the method of their erec- tion has been studied in that country by Dr. Munro, who points out that it was a task of no small difficulty to tHE BRONZE TERIOD 75 construct, in perhaps ten feet of water, with very Ukely a treacherous bottom beneath it, a firm compact artificial island, possibly with a circular area of as much as loo feet. Fig. 23.— a completely drained Lakc-Cei at Clontygonnell, Co. Cavan f! eland), with site of Crannog in foreground. (From Wood-Martin's " Pagan Ireland.") .^-w ^^^ /- BOG :' PlATEAU^;t,j_ "% ■i'' MARSH R A 1 L W A Y MARS H it- MA RSH "•.^«# Fig. 24.— General Plan of the Lake-Bed shown in Fig. 23, with sites of plateaux. (.From the same book.) 76 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN liUl Bf l-V: He believes that the work was thus carried o„t • (,) T„, ^^'s'l'rawr r ^- ^"^ ' "-''- ^aftt .ii'Tf trees laid above branches and brushwood, was formed .ml above ,t adduionallayers of logs, togcth; wUh tZe'' gravel &c., were heaped up till the whole mass grounds Ind of ,h' ■'™^«^\™^'" ™. "I'risb. piles, made of oak ins^eri,;:: rtd-orttTr^.rTi ^ ^", r forming the horizontal layers ^^re tdj ^Lr^t Tf wood, generally birch, it being the most abunda •^ e" >vere occas,„n„lIy pinned together by thick „ k ne^, ^^ here and there at various levels oak beams „>orS i o one another stretched across the substance oflet d ine maigm of the island was also slantingly shaned hv an intricate arrangement of beams and stonfs, cons^utin« .n some eases a well-formed breakwater. (5) When hf skeleton „f the island was thus finished, probably ZluW be laid over its margin where the pointed piles nmZJ"^ a superficial barrier of hurdles, o'r some lull"i:^i close to tl-e edge of the water. (6) Frequently aw" gangway, probably submerged, stretched to the shore bv means o, which secret access to the crannog ou d' be obtamed without the use of a canoe. The cran'iog dfs covered up to now in England are much fewer i„ number han those of the other parts of the kingdom, but wh he for size or for importance of the discoveries i^ade fcrlin «hK:h has W-n lor some years undergoing investigation under the supervision of Mr. Bulleid. llthough IheCds ^«1 THE BRONZE PERIOD 77 in this village point to its having been inhabited during the Roman oceu])ation, in its character it belongs strictly to the period with which we are now concerned. This village was constructed on the edge of a mere now converted into a peat moor, but when in occupation would have been pro- tected from attack by the sheet of water which lay between it and (rlastonbury, which is one mile distant. It consisted of a cluster of round huts which were erected upon artificial platforms of clay and timber and surrounded by a stockade. Each huL was from 12 to 14 feet in diameter, and was con- structed of what is known as wattle and daub, that is to say, a kind of wicker-work, smeared over with clay, and each had a wooden door about 3 feet high. In the centre of each floor was a stone hearth for a fire, and outside each door a few slabs of lias formed a rough platform in front of the wooden threshold. The stockade around the village was composed of a palisading of piles from 3 to 9 inches in diameter, and from 9 to 11 feet high, which were kept together by a kind of rough hurdle-work, rnnm^s nf nnk - have been discovered by which the inhabitants gained access to the mainland. It may be well to anticipate to some extent what will hereafter be said of the implements of the Bronze period, and to give some account of v^rhat has been found in this village, it being premised that whilst it belonged to the people of the Bronze age, it belonged to them at a time when, through the Roman influence, they had learnt th e use of iron and perhaps of other things not known during what was strictly the Bronze age. Various implem ents of iron^ both civil and military, have been found, and the presence of some of these in an unfinished condi- tion, as well as of lumps of scorioe, show that the forges existed in the village itself. Glass slag has also been found, which seems to show that the inhabitants manufactured the beads of that material met with amongst their remains. They worked in bronze, and a fine bowl, fibulae, pins, and I It! IM /, : !'n IV ^ Ui 78 LIFr: IN EARLY BRITAIN other articles testify to their skill in this direction. They smelted lead ore, doubtless obtained from the neighbouring Mendips, and made from it spindle-whorls and weights for their fishing-nets. ThejL niade-pQttery partly by the aid of the wheel and partly— in a ruder manner- by hand, and decorated it with designs of various kinds. They si)uji_flax 'in4-U^^4 -the .Joom for weaving. Perhaps that which excites the greatest admiration is the remarkable skill which they showed in carii^try, beams well s(iuared and holed, wheels, ladders, doors, buckets, dishes and bowls, many of them adorned with incised patterns of a flamboyant character, remaining as evidences of their capabilities in this direction. Besides ornamenting their persons with beads, rings and pins, they seem to have painted themselves with red ochre and charcoal mixed with grease. Some of the human remains which have been found outside the stockade are cut and broken, and some of the skulls, including one of a woman, have been cut off the body and stuck upon the head of a spear, to be placed probably on the stockade, just as the heads of criminals were, up to a recent date, stuck upon the gates of cities or over bridges. The inhabitants of the village cultivated wheat on the main- land adjacent, and had flocks and herds ; they were also pro- vided with large dogs. Tliey killed for Jheir food the red deer and the roe, the beaver and the otter,~as well as wild geese, swans, ducks and pelicans. Such was the nature of a British lake-settlement, and such the mode of life of its inhabitants in the tJiijxl.iLud_fcuLrth,cejiti]iie*_aft©i-Chrw The other form of lake-village, which has been met with especially in the Swiss lakes, was built in a totally different manner. Long piles were driven into the bed of the lake and when a sufficient number of these were in position a platform was constructed upjn them, on which were even- tually raised the huts in which the inhabitants dwelt. The jest which Erasmus made in reference to the citizens of S'HV THE BRONZE PERIOD 79 Amsterdam, that he knew a city where people lived on the tops of trees, might well have been applied to the inhabi- tants of these villages. Such settlements still exist in some parts of the world, and the description which Herodotus gave of one belonging, in his day, to the Pa^onians, not merely shows what such constructions were like, but affords a clue as to the manner in which they were built and extended to meet the growing needs of the community. "Their dwellings," he says, "are contrived after this man- ner : planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in t'^c middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the mainland by a single bridge. These piles, that support the planks, all the citizens anciently placed there at the public charge ; but afterwards they established a law to the following effect : whenever a man marries, for each wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood from a mountain called Orbelus ; but every man has several wives. They live in the following manner : every man has a hut on the planks, in which he dwells, with a trap-door closely fitted in the planks, and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a cord round the foot, fearing lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder, of which there is such abundance, that when a man has opened his trap-door, he lets down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a short time, draws it up full of fish." This description of the dwelling-places particularly asso- ciated with the people of the Bronze period has necessitated some digression into the life at another and later date, and in other countries, but we must now return to the time before the Celtic inhabitants of the country had been affected by Roman influence and see what light the remains in our possession throw upon the state of civilisation of that period. The most characteristic weapons and other imple- ments of this age are composed of the metal bronze, for Wi 8o LIFE IN EARLY nKITAIN r •r i i!m^= a hough u ,s possible that there may have been a time when copper was used in a pure state, such period must have been o short duration, for the lesson was soon learn that the addition of a small quantity of tin produced a mc.re serviceable and harder material for the purposes fo^ ttt th was required. It must not, however, be supposed that the manufacture of stone weapons came to a sudden and complete end with the introduction of bron/e. On the contrary, we know, as an historical fact, that the English forces, at the battle of Senlac, used stone mauls as well a other weapons. Again, the extreme rarity of arrow-heads made of bronze leads us to conclude thai stone was stUl used for this purpose, even during the Bronze period, and this perhaps because that metal was too precious to be sub- jected to the risk of loss which must necessarily attach to sucii a weapon as an arrow-head. Just as each of the Stone periods had its characteristic axe or celt, so also has the Bronze age, though the weapon vanes more „. Us shape on account of the greater possibil" .es opened up to the craftsman by the nature of the n a^^er-a ,n which he worked, a material which was cast and not hewn But in its essential features, and this particularly in the case of those celts which are s'upposed to be the earliest in date, it was very similar in shnpl to the stone celt of the polished period. Such early in.plements form the first class, and are called^., celts/and UZTr , these are ornamented on their faces with patterns such as hues, chevrons and herring bones produced by punches or gravers. A similar form of ornamentation is found in some instances on the second variety, or A^^.^celts, the edges of which have projecting ledges, eit^iF^a-H^l^y have been so cast originally, or because, after having been cast flat, the edges have been hammered up so as to form flanges. The third type, or^^^^celt^is in its simplest form an ex aggeration of the flanged variety, the flanges being shorter THE BRONZK I'ERIOD 8i » J Fig. 25.— Flat Bronze C'tlt found in a Barrow at Butterwick, Yorks, with bide view and section. (Sir John Evans.) \ Fig. 26.— Flanged Bronze Celt found in Dorsetshire. (Sir John Evans.) The sides are decorated with a fluted chevron pattern, and the faces with indented herring-bone and chevron paticiUS, K; \ fi2 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN but much deeper. Sometimes there is a transverse stop- ridge across liie blade to prevent its slipi)ing too deei^y into its haft, and sometimes, to assist towards the same end, that part of the blade which is between the flanges and below the stop-ridge is thinner than the rest. Thus a kind of groove is formed on each side into which the handle fitted. In some cases the edges of the flanges were hammered over so as to form a kind of socket, like that often used it the present day for iron implements, such as rakes and hoes. ( ' Fig. 27.— Looped Palstave found at Brassington, Derbyshire. (Sir John Evans.) This variety led up to the last and most perfect form ot socAe^e£s^h^i»^ which, as Sir John Evans puts it, the haft was embedded in the blade, instead of, as in the other cases, the blade being embedded in the haft. This form marks an advance in casting, as a more perfect mould must have been employed, with a core for the socket and special arrangements for the ring or loop, which was often placed at the side of the blade, so that the head might be more securely fastened to the haft. In this variety orna- mentation in the shape of readings, pellets, circles and m Tllli: HRONZE I'J.KIOD 83 other devices is sonietiines met with, the patterns hdii^^ raised and produced in the casting and not by the subse- ciuent use of tools. As to the liandling of these celts the Fig. 28.-Socketfd and Ringed Celt with raised ornament, found at Kingston, Surrey. (Sir John Evans.) Simpler forms may have been attached to their hafts much as the stone celts were to theirs, but the others would requue a crooked helve if they were to be used as axes One such celt with its handle was found in Ireland, in which the helve consisted of a branch with a second flR 84 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN portion sticking out from it nearly at right angles, to which the head was attached. Other implements of the same i; w "^ ^ k w> '53 .2 c x: rt ■" -O > ^ £ w.s 2 B ^ £ O aj ° i~ '< •— > D "i u x: ^ •^ «-' -w^ 2-^ • o llein und cro rt 1) C > .^ c ON^ ^ ^ « H aJ= d »-« b metal which have come down to us are chisels, gouges, hammers, punches, awls, tongs, socketed and tanged knives, daggers, razors and sickles. / Special mention must THE BRONZE PERIOD S5 icntioii must be made of two classes of weapons, swords and lance- heads. The former are leaf-shaped and their "total length is generally about 24 inches, though sometimes not more than 16 inches, but they are occasionally as long as 30 inches, or even more. The blades are in most cases uniformly rounded, but with the part next the edge slightly drawn down so as to form a shallow fluting. In some instances, however, there is a more or less bold rounded central rib, or else projecting ridges running along the greater part of the blade near the edges. They differ considerably in the form of the plate for the hilt, and in the number and arrangement of the rivets by which the covering material was attached. This latter usually con- sisted of plates of horn, bone or wood, riveted on each side of the hilt plate. In rare instances the outer part of the hilt was of bronze." (Evans.) Sometimes, though rarely, a pommel has been cast on to the handle, and occasionally a considerable part of the scabbard was made of the same material as the blade, though probably, for the most part, the sheaths were of leather or wood. The spear-heads found in this island are of the socketed variety, great care and skill having been bestowed on thj coring. They may be divided into the following classes : (i) The simple leaf-shaped, either long and narrow, or broad, with holes in the socket through which to pass the rivets to fasten them to the shaft. (2) The looped, with eyes on each side of the socket below and on the same plane with the blade. These are generally of the long, narrow, straight-edged kind. (3) Those with loops in the angles between the edge of the blade and the socket. (4) Those with side apertures and per- forations through the blade. (5) Those in which the base of each side of the blade projects at right angles to the socket, or is prolonged downwards so as to form barbs. Besides these weapons of offence, pieces of de*"'^nsive armour. : ; 86 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN in the shape of shields, bucklers and helmets, have been found, for a full description of which the reader is referred to the work of Sir John Evans on "Ancient Bronze W I Fro. 30. — Bronze T.ns fmind in Ireland. (Sir John Evans,) One has a loop at the side, the oIIkm has a turnt;d-ovcr head of the type described in the text. Weapons of Great Britain," a work which must form the basis of all study of this subject. Amongst articles of personal adornment may be men- tioned pins, either for fastening the clothes or for the hair, have been is referred nt Bronze THE BRONZJC PERIOD 87 which have been found in great quantities and of very various patterns, the head being sometimes turned over so as to be visible when stuck in the clothes, just as that of a scarf-pin is when placed in a tie. Others have rings or loops attached to them and others again are ^ ns.) One ead of thi" 5t form the ly be men- JY the hair, Fig. 31.— Torque found at Wedmore, Somerset. (Sir John Evans ) ornamented with patterns of various kinds. To this period also belong the torques, or twisted necklets, bracelets, finger and ear rings, sometimes of gold, some- times of bronze, which have been found in various parts of these islands. The torque seems to have been a favourite ornament of the Celtic race : it " takes its nam.e from the -r-^ay^f^'Wi-P- - 88 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN (I ; Latin torques, which again is derived a forquendo. This word torques was appHed to a twisted collar of gold or other metal worn around the neck. Among the ancient Gauls gold torques appear to have been abundant, and to have formed an important part of the spoils acquired from them by their Roman conquerors. About 223 B.C., when Fig. 32. — Bronze Caldron found in Carlinwark Loch, Kirkcud- brightshire. (Scot, Ant. Mus.) It is composed of thin plates of bronze riveted together. Flaminius Nepos gained his victory over the Gauls on the Addua, it is related that instead of the Gauls dedicating, as they had intended, a torque made from the spoils of the Roman soldiers to their god of war, Flaminius erected to Jupiter a golden trophy made from the Gaulish torques. The name of the Torquati, a family of the Manlia gens, was derived from their ancestor, T. Manlius, having, in r..c, 361, slain a gigantic Gaul in single combat, whose torque he THE BRONZE PERIOD 8r> took from his dead body after cutting off the head, and placed it around liis own neck." (Evans.) Some of these torcjues are of great size, one in the possession of the Dlik.e of Westminster, which was found near Holywell in Flint- shire, is of gold, measures 44 inches in circumference and weighs 28 ounces. Vessels, cups and caldrons of gold and bronze were made Fig. 33.— Stone Mould for casting flat Bronze Axes and Knife, found in Ireland. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) at this period, the last mentioned being sometimes formed* of thin plates of bronze riveted together, and having rings or lugs by which they could be lifted. The objects in bronze appear to have been cast in the following ways, as summarised by Sir John Evans: (i) In a single mould formed of loam, sand, stone, or metal, the upper surface of the casting exhibiting the flat surface of a molten metal, which was left open to the air. In the case of loam or sand castings a pattern or model would be used, which might be an object already in use, or made of the desired form in [All, W m K ; 90 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN wood or other soft substance. Several specimens of stone moulds for the casting of celts or spear-heads have been discovered. (2) In double moulds of similar materials. The castings produced in this manner, when in an un- finished condition, show the joints of the moulds. When sand was employed a frame or flask of some kind must have been used to retain the material in place when the upper half of the mould was lifted off the pattern. The loam moulds were probably burnt hard before being used. In many cases cores for producing hollows in the castings were employed in conjunction with these moulds. Double moulds have also been found for the casting of celts. (3) In what may be termed solid moulds. For this process the model was made of wax, wood, or some combustible material, which was encased in a mass of loam, possibly mixed with cow-dung or vegetable matter, which on exposure to heat left the loam or clay in a porous condition. This exposure to fire also burnt out the wax or wood model and left a cavity for the reception of the metal, which was, probably poured in while the mould was still hot. The pottery of the period, consisting of urns for the ashes of the dead after cremation, of pots for cooking, drinking vessels, &c., seems to have been made by hand, and was ornamented with simple patterns formed by dots and straight lines. Indeed the art of the period is very simple in its cliaracter, being limited to geometrical designs, such as circles, triangles, crosses, chevrons, and the like. The clothing was of linen and wool, and portions of the apparatus for spinning and weaving both of these materials have been discovered. Naturally, perishable fabrics such as these are but seldom found, but in the Scale-house barrow at Rylstone, the body had been covered from head to foot in cloth before being placed in the hollow oak tree which served for a coffin. Further, a wood-^n coffin was found in a tumulus in Jutland, con- THE BRONZi: ri'KIOD 9^ ;astings were taming a body, the clothing of which iiad been preserved by the [presence of certain saUs in the water. The body had been wrapped in a coarse woollen cloak which was Fro. 34.— Pottery from a Bronze Age Cemetery in Scotland. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) almost semicircular and hollowed out at the neck. On its inner side were left hanging a great number of short woollen threads, which gave it somewhat the a{)pearance of plush. A box beside the body contained, amongst other articles, a woollen cap, and there were also in the coffin two woollen ga LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN It' m ■ I u i' my shawls, of a square shape and with long fringes. A shirt, also of wool, cut out a little at the neck and with a long projecting tongue at one of the upper angles, had been fastened round the body by a long woollen band which went twice round the waist and hung down in front. Two woollen leggings and traces of leather, probably representing the remains of the boots, complete the equipment of this early believer in Jager's all-wool theory of clothing. The people of the era appear to have arranged their hair in a large shock or pyramid, and if the length of the hairpins, some of which measure twenty inches, is to be taken as a criterion, this must at times have attained a huge size. Like some savage races of to-day who treat their hair in a similar manner, they used, at least in Switzerland, where pottery head-re^ts of a crescentic shape have been found, to support their necks alone and not their heads whilst sleeping, for fear of disarranging a head of hair which must have given them considerable trouble to arrange. Besides the metal ornaments mentioned previously, they decorated their persons with necklaces of stone, bone, and glass, as well as of amber. 'I - 4 ! f CHAPTER V THE BRONZE PERIOD— coniinued Canips— Maiden Castle — Yarnbury — Caer Caradoc — Bridges— Stonehenge—Avebury— The Rollright Stones- Folk-lore— Menihirion— Round Barrows— Celtic Religion— Godiva's Ride— Physical Characteristics -Social Life. Having in the previous chapter considered some of the smaller relics of the Bronze age, there remain for investiga- tion some of the larger of their works, such as camps, barrows, and megalithic remains. Most hilly parts of England afford examples of the kind of earthwork known as a camp, a form of fortification which consists of a circular bank of earth, called a vallum, enclosing an area of variable size, and having on its outer aspect a ditch called the fosse. Sometimes there are two or three concentric series of ramparts and ditches in the case of the larger and better fortified camps. Though the space which is enclosed is nearly always of a more or less rounded shape, it would be a mistake to suppose that all British camps are circular. Such no doubt is the case where the camp is placed on a flat surface or where the contour of the hill favours that shape, but where an oval or other figure is more in con- formity with the top of the hill which had to be fortified, a camp of ihe corresponding contour has been constructed. Agam, in some cases, as at the great camp of Croft Ambrey, near Ludlow, the artificial ramparts are wanting on one side, 94 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN w (': II but where this is the case it will be found that it is because the natural declivity of the hill is so great at that [)art as to render other defences unnecessary. It may be well here to mention that the quadrilateral cani[)s also met with through- out the country, though not with such frequency as the other variety, are of Roman origin, and will be more fully dealt with at a later part of this work. Sometimes a camp of each kind is to be found in the same neighbourhood, as on the hill above Dunster in Somersetshire, where a Roman camp is placed within a few hundred yards of one of the circular fortifications of the Britons. The fosse and vallum were traversed at one or more points by openings, often guarded by advanced earthworks, and probably closed in times of war with masses of timber. But a description of a few examples will enable the reader to form a better idea of what an ancient British camp was like. Maiden Castle was the British predecessor of the Roman Durnovaria, now the Dorsetshire Dorchester, close to which it stands. It has been identified with great pro- bability with the city called Dunium by Ptolemy. The name appears to be derived from Celtic words meaning the Hill of Strength, a title which might well be applied to one of the most extensive and most strongly fortified earthworks in England. It occupies the flat summit of a natural hill, is looo yards long and 500 wide, and is surrounded by doubk, and in part by triple, ditches and ramparts, the latter being exceedingly steep and even now sixty feet in height. It appears to have had four entrances, defended by advanced earthworks, and is divided internally into two parts by a ditch and bank of very much lower elevation than those forming the outer defences. In having been the pre- cursor of a Roman and subsequently of an English town, Maiden Castle is not singular, for the same has happened at other places, Old Sarum, for example, having been almost certainly British, and Oswestry having been preceded by THE BRONZE PERIOD 95 the large triple-ramparted camp, now overgrown with trees and nctlles, which is situated about a mile off and is called Hen Dinas or Old Oswestry. It will be noted that the shape of Maiden Castle is oval, in conformity with the shape of the top of the hill which it occupies. For an example of a great circular camp, that known as Yarnbury, may be selected. This is situated about two miles from Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain and close to the old road between Bath and Salisbury. It is surrounded by a double fosse and vallum, the inner ditch being fifty feet deep, and the principal entrance is defended by a complicated arrangement of earthworks. In its neighbourhood are a host of other camps of the same period. On the Herefordshire Beacon, near Malvern, is another great British camp, which possesses a triple fosse and vallum of irregular outline, following the shape of the hill. This camp is said to have been the work of, or at least to have been occupied by, the British chieftain Caratacos, or, as he is generally but incorrectly described, Caractacus. This chieftain's name is, however, more closely associated with another camp situated on the top of the hill called Caer Caradoc, which is situated near Church Stretton in Shropshire, and at the foot of which tradition places the site of the decisive battle between Caratacos and Ostorius Scapula. The ditches in this case are quite shallow, no doubt because the exceeding steepness of the hill rendered more formidable earthworks unnecessary. It has been already mentioned that sometimes pit- dwellings are found within ramparts of a similar character, as, for instance, on the top of Chalbury Hill, familiar to visitors to Weymouth. In their neighbourhood are also sometimes found remains of the terrace or " lynchet " form of cultivation. In the West of England, on Dartmoor and Exmoor, have been found a few bridges which have been assigned to this period. One of the finest of these is known as Tarr or Torr 96 LIFE IN EARr.Y r?KITAIN lii.' . Ii i" !l i il ^tc{)s, and crosses the River liarle, not far from Winsforcl on Kxnioor. It is composed of a number of solid, though short piers built up of stones, laid on the top of one another without any cement or mortar. Large flat slabs of stone, stretchmg from one pier to the next, form the pathway, a pathway which is submerged when the river is in flood, but which at other times affords an excellent passage for those on foot, a ford just above serving for the crossing of horses, Hut the most striking stone erections of this im riod are the great circles, of which Stonehenge is the best-known example. Tliis great, tiiough ruinous temple, for temple it seems certainly to have been, has been assigned by some to a Roman or even post-Roman date, but the general consensus of opinion amongst archaeologists is that it is a work of the Bronze period, though of a late date, as seems to be proved by the lact that it is the only circle of the kind in which the stones have been hewn and shaped, all the others being composed of rough and unworked boulders. Mr. Arthur Evans thinks that the construction was in part at least of a gradual character, and that its foundation belongs to the same age as the latest class of the round-barrows by which it was si )unded— a class of barrows which it would not be safe to bring down beyond the approximate date of 250 B.C. On the other hand, he .ays, if we are to accept the view that the construction itself was gradual and that, in particular, the blue stones were set up in groups at intervals of time, we may cjrry down some parts of the monumen!; to a considerably ]a; ■• date. The collection of ston... -liioh forms this monument is surrounded by a low bank and ditch, enclosing a circle 100 feet in diameter, a measurement which is common to several of these temples, to which the general term of 1 oo feet circles has been applied. Within this circle, now almost obliterated, are a few ^1 /» THE BKON/K l^ERTOD 97 lonument is ing a circle common to term of loo ^" oSiT.!^""""' r*"" °^ 5*°"'^'i^"ge. A. Stone circles ia centre Wh.ch. being absorbed in the earti'en b.nl-' ""?'''' been of earlier construction tba^i«b,nk';r^^'';;° ^'"^ "Handbook to WUtsbire") *"■""' Murray's fi^ 1^*' 98 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN upright stones with many others in a more or less recumbent position, indeed such is their confusion, that it is difficult even for experts to arrive at any certain conclusion as to all the details of the perfect temple. Under these circum- stances it will be better to consider Stonehenge as it probably 1 !! 1 ' •1 ■ 1 \ i! • !i I Fig. 36;— Conjectural Restoration of Stonehenge. A, Small Syenite trilithon, which may have stood here ; it now lies as at A in Fig. 38. (From Murray's " Handbook for Wiltshire.") was when complete and uninjured, and to indicate as we go on such parts of the structure as are still recognisable. The outer circle of stones, the nearest in position to the ditch, consisted of thirty upright pillars, each 16 feet in height, with imposts or square masses of stone passing from one to the next, so as to form a continuous ring. Each upright was 3^ feet distant from its neighbour on either side, and each had on its upper end two projections, or tenons, each of .-J., ♦ • # « N • less recumbent at it is difficult elusion as to all r these circum- ge as it probably ge. A, Small ; it now lies as for Wiltshire.'") ndicate as we go ognisable. The )n to the ditch, I feet in height, sing from one to Each upright either side, and r tenons, each of THE BRONZE PERIOD gg which fitted into a corresponding hole or mortice on the under surface of one of the imposts. It is obvious tiiat much greater security was thus attained than if the imposts I t . ( I • » • t ^""'inir'/- ''""'°"' ''"'^ °'^''' ^''^"^^ ^' Stonehenge. Notico the ^^:^;zc T ^' '" '^'-^^ ""'''''' ^-'- ^^^^ inipoot... ( |. ro:„ Harclay's " Stonehenge.") i--id .nercly been laid upon the uprights. It is perini^s unnecessary ., state that no mortar 'or'cement was ^^^ any of the stone structures of the period. Ine stones of this circle aro -.ll nf 1 i - i ■ v-uuic aic an or Jocai oriLnn. beinfr the. ^arsens or grey-wuhcT. of Marlborough Dot„. 01 tht * , -^ ' ••mmmm m 'n too LIFE IN KARLV HKITAIN »' l! 1 1 1 i w mi ^■^ l^i'i I'l i I t t r I 'SIS' I t t t circle, sixteen uprights and six imposts still remain in position. Alxnit nine feet nearer to the centre was the second circle, which consisted of unhewn pillars, probably more than thirty in number, of syenite, an igneous rock, which musf 'have been brought from a considerable distance, as none is known to exist nearer than Wales, These, and the others of a similar character, are known as the blue stones. Each of these stones is about six feet in height, and there are now only seven of them left. Within this circle, which depri\ed of its adjuncts would not in any way differ from similar simple circles in Wales and elsewhere, was the most striking part of the monument, an ellipse consisting ot at least five and probably seven great trilithons. ICacii of these is composed of two hewn pillars with an im])()st, and they gradually increased in height to the central trilithon, which is twenty-five feet in height. Of these trilithons, two remain perfect and in situ^ there are two other u[)rights standing, but without imposts, and [lortions of the others are lying on the ground. These stoiies are similar to those of the outer circle, and no doubt derived from the same place. Within the ellipse of trilithons is an ellipse of nineteen pillars of syenite, the material being the same as that of the stones which form the inner circle, of which seven are still in place. Finally, in the centre of all is a block, called, for no valid reason, the altar-stone, which was very probably always recumbent. It is of a fine micaceous sand- stone, and differs in character from all the other stones of which the monument is composed. Thus to summarise; Stonehenge consisted of: — (i) A shallow ditch and bank, which opens out at one point into an avenue flanked by a ditch and bank on either side. (2) A ring of hewn local stones, with imposts mortised to Uiem. f*.- # THE BKUNZi: PKRlGiJ lOX ;till remain in was the second [)i()bably more us rock, which lie distance, as ?. 'I'hese, and •n as the bhic in hciglu, and liin this circle, any way differ where, was the se consisting of ions, l^acii of an impost, and antral trilithon, 2 trilithons, two other u[)rights s of the others similar to those from the same lipse of nineteen e as that of the 'hich soven are all is a block, which was very iiicaceous sand- : other stones of dof:— )ens out at one ditch and bank i i 4) *-* a d £ l; o 4-* § C O a 1/) lU u to aJ c u '5 §•5 -^ 1) s;- c u S^ i^ ■u S < c O?: -7) t/3C« O?: : 'tl ^ s I 9, 4-« «' ■ . £ .£ « --J '«! (U ■« O ra C T3 C S 2 o oo CO iiposts mortised ■| . — i 1 02 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN lj( r I i i (3) A ring of unhewn, non-local, igneous pillars. (4) An ellipse of local, hewn trilithons, with mortice and tenon connection. (5) An ellipse of unhewn, non-local, igneous pillars. (6) A single recumbent rock of different character from the rest. It is certainly surprising that so little is said in the works of early writers about a monument which would, one would have supposed, have excited the wonder of all who might see it. It is possible that Hecatffius, a geographer who flourished about five hundred years before Christ, may have alluded to Stonehenge, when he says that there is a magni- ficent circular temple in the island of the Hyperboreans, over against Celtica. Giraldus Cambrensis gives us the mythical tale which was told to account for it in his day : " There was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of admiration, called the Giant's Dance, because giants, from the remotest part of Africa, brought them into Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare, not far from the Castle of Naas, as well by force of art as strength, miracu- lously set them up; and similar stones, erected in a like manner, are to be seen there at this day. These stones (according to the British history) Aurelius Ambrosius, king of the Britorts, procured Merlin, by supernatural means, to bring from Ireland into Britain. And that he might leave some famous monument of so great a treason to future ages, in the same order and art as they stood formerly, set them up where the flower of the British nation fell by the cut-throat practice of the Saxons, and where, under the pretence of peace, the ill secured youth of the kingdom, by murderous designs, were slain." As regards the explana- tion of these monuments, Mr. Arthur Evans thinks that the component parts of stone circles such as Stonehenge, namely, the circle itself, the avenue of stones which lead up to it, imperfect at Stonehenge, though better marked at # Ik THE BRONZE PERIOD 103 Avebury, and the central dolmen, wanting in the instance now under consideration, are all of them amplifications of the simplest sepulchral forms. The circle is an enlarged version of the ring of stones placed round the grave mound; the dolmen represents the cist within it; the avenue is merely the continuation of the underground gallery, which in the early barrows, described in a previous chapter, leads to the sepulchral chamber. 'J'he trililhons are a new feature in connection with the stone circle, but, as shown Fig. 39.— Tiilithons in Tripoli. (From Dr. Earth's "Travels,") by the example of some of our later long barrows, and by a comparison with the monuments of Tripoli, of Syria, of India and elsewhere, are themselves only the perpetuation of a part of the sepulchral structure, the actual gateway of the subterranean chamber, which remains as a ritual survival when, owing to cremation or other causes, the galleried chamber to which it led has itself been modified away. Like the circles themselves, ancJ like the avenue, the trilithon is of sepulchral origin, and connects itself directly with the worship of departed spirits. Finally, he thinks M m |W^ # h !i * " m -104 LIFE IN KARLY HRI'IAIN that the original holy object within the central Irililhuns of Stonehenge was a sacred tree, and in this connection he reminds iis that the oak was of special sanctity amongst the Celtic nations, as shown, amongst other things, by the words of Maximus 'J^rius, '* The Celts worship Zeus, and the Celtic image of Zeus is a tall oak." Professor Rhys in his "Hibbert Lectures" replies as follows to the (luestion " Whose temple Stonehenge was, or whose it chiefly was ? After giving it all the attention I can, I have come to the conclusion that we cannot do better than follow the story of (leoffrey, which makes Stonehenge the work of Merlin Emrys, commanded by another ]<:mrys, which I interpret to mean that the temple belonged to the Celtic Zeus whose later legendary self we have in Merlin." In the same county as Stonehenge, but further north, is a second collection of great stones, now unfortunately even more reduced in numbers, which in the time of Charles II. was described by Aubrey as surpassing Stonehenge as much as a cathedral did a parish church. This monument is Avebury or Abury, and the village of that name which now lies within the ditch has been the destruction of the temple, whose stones have been used up for building and even for road-mending purposes, more than 650 having thus perished. The temple was surrounded by a rampart and fosse, the latter being internal and not external as in the case of fortifications. This rampart and fosse form nearly a circle, with a diameter of 1200 ft, a circumference of 4442 ft., and enclosing an area of 28| acres. From the top of the rampart to the bottom of the fosse is a depth of 40 ft. Inside the ditch was a circle of rough stones supposed to have been 100 in number, and this again enclosed two neighbouring, not concentric, circles, each again containing a smaller circle and a group of stones forming what is called a cove. These, it seems probable, originally contained ■.*> m. THi: BRONZE PERIOD a 05 ral trilithuiis of connection he ty amongst the s, by the words Zeus, and the it Rhys in his I the (juestion it chiefly was ? e come to the ow the story of :)rk of MerHn 1 I interpret to ic Zeus whose rther north, is irtunately even of Charles II. lenge as much lis monument t name which ruction of the r building and in 650 having by a rampart external as in id fosse form circumference acres. From >sse is a depth Fig. 40.— Conjectural Restoration of Avebury. Silbury Hill is seen in the distance. The circles of stones were much less regular than is above shown, and there is no evidence for Stukeley's Beckhanipton Avenue. (From Murray's " Hand- book to Wiltshire.") ■^ .y L'"IG. 41.— Plan of Avebury and surrounding country. A, The Kennet Avenue of stones leading to Overton Circle, O; B, Stukeley's supposed avenue to Beckhanipton ; c, c, Roman Road ; d, d, British trackway ; c, Beckhanipton ; g. West Kenneit Long Barrow ; h, East Kennett Long Barrow. (From Murray's " Handbook to Wiltshire,") »% io6 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN t( i u I i i In ^ » interments. An avenue of stones, of which fifteen still remain, led vS.W. to West Kcnnet, and according to Stukeley, though it is more than doubtful whether he had any valid reason for making the assertion, there was a second avenue leading to Beckhampton in the opposite direction. The size of some of the stones forming this monument is immense ; one destroyed in recent years weighed ninety tons, and another still remaining is esti- mated to weigh sixty. It may well cause wonder as to how these huge stones were transported to this spot and reared up on end in the cavities prepared for them, especially by a people possessed of only the rudest mechanical appliances to assist them in their task. Perhaps we may obtain a clue as to the manner in which the stones were moved by look- ing at the pictures of the transport of the huge stone figures of Egypt, as represented on some of the buildings of that country. In the representation of the colossal statue of Thothotpu being dragged to its place, we see the figure itself on a sort of flat wheelless sled to which numbers of slaves are attached by cords. The captain stands on the knees of the statue to urge on those who are dragging it, and an attendant on the pedestal pours water on the ropes, lest their tension should cause them to take fire. But we have a further example of how the work of shaping and carrying these huge stones may have been effected, by the way in which it is carried out by the Khasis, a tribe of Northern Bengal, who break and flake their blocks by heating them along the required line of fracture and then pouring water upon them. They trans- port them by placing wooden rollers underneath and then harnessing numbers of men to them with ropes of rattan. When it is necessary to set a block upright, one end is slipped into a hole some feet in depth, whilst the other is pulled upon by the ropes. And finally, when it is desired to lift one block into position on the top of others, a slope THE BRONZE PERIOD 107 fifteen still ccording to ther he had ;here was a the opposite Forming this recent years ning is esti- er as to how and reared pecially by a 1 appliances btain a clue ved by look- huge stone be buildings :he colossal , we see the I to which rhe captain 3se who are pours water lem to take he work of have been out by the c and flake red line of They trans- h and then 3 of rattan, one end is he other is is desired ivs, a slope of earth is constructed leading up to the desired altitude and then the impost is pulled up the slope upon rollers. Obviously it is possible that huge masses can be trans- ported even with rude n.eans, all that is necessary being a sufficiency of men and of enthusiasm. There must have been no lack of either at the building of Avebury. Before passing to the consideration of any other stone circle, it may be well to mention that remarkable conical earthwork close by, called Silbury Hill. This mound, the largest artificial earthwork of its kind in England and probably in Europe, covers with its base over five acres of ground, is 1657 ft. in circumference and 170 ft. in height. It was originally surrounded by a circle of sarsen stones, nearly all of which have disappeared. Its origin and date are equally doubtful ; it is apparently not sepulchral, at least all excavations so far have failed to find any remains, and whether it has any relation to the megalithic circle at Ave- bury is a question which may perhaps never be cleared up. Its gigantic size and the labour which its construction must have cost afford another example of the energy and engineering skill of the period. Another interesting monument of this class is that called the Rollright stones, most of which are in Oxfordshire, though only just in that county. The boundary between that county and Warwickshire is formed by an ancient road which passes between the circle and dolmen on the one hand and the menhir on the other. This circle is one of the hundred feet variety, but the stones of which it is composed are insignificant in size, the tallest being 7 ft. and most of them ranging between 2 ft. and 4 ft. The circle is locally called the King's Men. Not far off is a group of stones called the Whispering Knights, which consists of the remains of a collapsed dolmen. On the other side of the road, and near a long artificial mound of earth, of uncertain nature, which the imaginative Stukeley if: io8 MFB IN i:ari.v hkitain I-'- !'■ 11 i I I I called the An-h- Druid's barrow, is a single standing stone or menlur, named the King's Stone. The legend which is related about these stones may be cited as a good example of the kind of story which grows up around such relics. The kmg is said to have set out with his men to conquer England. Arrived at the top <,f the hill where the stones stand he meets a witch who says : " If LoriR Compton thoii canst see King of Kngland tlioii sluilt be." l-ong Compton, it should be said, is a village in the valley north of the stones and just invisil)le from ihcin, 'l"hc king, delighted at what he supposes will be the tiium[)hant issik' of his expedition, exclaims : " Stick, stock, stone, As King of England I shall be known." As he speaks the mound of earth near the menhir rises up before him and prevents him from seeing the village, whilst the witch exclaims : " As Long Compton thou canst not see King of England thou shalt not be. Rise up stick, and stand still stone, For King of England thou shalt be none, For thou and thy men hoar stones shall be, And I myself an eldern tree." Thereupon they all turn, the witch into an alder tree, the rest into stones, the menhir being the king, the circle his army and the dolmen his officers, either engaged at the time of their transmutation in prayer or in plotting against their leader, according to diiferent versions of the story. Further traditions attach to these stones, in common with others of the same character in different parts of the country, such as that it is impossible to count them correctly, that they arise at midnight to dance with one another and the like; but the point of greatest interest, perhaps, is related to their name, 0. ^ iHlC HKON/i: TKRIOI) TOO idiiig Stone, or end which is [,'()( )(1 example i such relics. M to conquer -le the stones in llie valley I. 'The king, ni[)hanl issiii. nhir rises up illage, whilst ye, ler tree, the he circle Ijis 1 at the time igainst their y. Further th others of itry, such as they arise at ce; but the their name, which apnenn:, according to Mr. Arthur ICvans.to have been properly Kollcndricc. and to have meant the kingdom or dominion of KoUmd. Thus the group of stones whose Fig, 42. -Menhir, the " King Stone," at Rollright. original name and signification had long been forgotten, was in later ages associated with the name and fame of Roland, the legendary champion of Christendom against the paynim. In connection with this group of stones mention has been made of a menhir, and it may now be well to say something i: no LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN 1 : , i ^^^ i ■ al)()iit this kind of monument. The menhir derives its name frcm two Celtic words meaning a standing stone, and IS the snnplest and most obvious form of memorial or monument which can be imagined. This being so, one -is not surprised to find that it is not specially associated with any age or with any country, indeed Cleopatra's needle and many of the memorials in our own towns and cemeteries are nothmg more than glorified monihirion. But using the term as it is employed in British archx'ology it is limited to single, unhewn, standing stones, probably belonging chiefly to the Bronze, but certainly also to the Neolithic period These stones are very variable in shape, being sometimes long and comparatively narrow, like the great menhir of Carnac and others, sometimes larger at the upper part, like the Kingstone at Rollright, sometimes wide Hat slabs, like the great Clun menhir in Shropshire, which is 8 ft. in height, 6 ft. 6 in. in breadth and 8 in. to 12 in. in thickness. Sometimes they appear to have been erected on the summits of barrows, sometimes, as we have already seen, they formed a ring round their base. Mr. Stevens points out that such monoliths are associated also with long barrows and with ancient grave mounds in other countries. He says : " In the chambered tumulus at Ablington, Gloucestershire," there was found a large upright oval stone, 6 ft. in height and 5 ft. in width, standing on a block of stone having a natural perforation and by which it was steadied and kept in its place. Upon a long barrow at Duntesbourne Abbots Gloucestershire, is a monolith known as the ' Hoar Stone ' and upon another long barrow in the same county is a monolith known as the 'Tingle Stone.' The ancient Greeks, in like manner, appear to have placed a monolith (ar^Xr,) upon the summit of some of their tumuli, and Pans, taking his position behind such a pillar on the barrow of Ilus, shot at Diomede, wounding him in the foot " Such stones have been in other countries not m^r^i'. - - J. THE BRONZE PERIOD HI memorials of some great deed or departed hero, but objeeis of worship, and the same was probably the ui.se in this country. Indeed Mr. Oomme ealls attention to a curious custom in connection with such a stone, which looks like the degenerated remains of a real act of sacrifice offered to a menhir. *' At the village of Holne, situated on one of the spurs of Dartmoor, is a field of about two acres, the property of the parish, and called the IMoy Field. In the centre of this field stands a granite pillar (menhir) 6 ft. or 7 ft. high. On May morning, before daybreak, the young men of the village used to assemble there and then proceed to the moor, where they selected a ram lamb, and after running it down brought it in triumph to the Ploy Field, fastened it to the pillar, cut its throat, and then roasted it whole, skin, wool, &c. At mid-day a struggle took place, at the risk of cut hands, for a slice ; it being supposed to cor fer luck for the ensuing year on the fortunate devourer. As an act of gallantry the young men sometimes fought their way through the crowd to get a slice for the chosen amongst the young women, all of whom, in their best dresses, attended the Ram Feast as it was called. Dancing, wrestling, and other games, assisted by copious libations of cider during the afternoon, prolonged the festivity till midnight." The places of interment of this race, like those of the people who preceded it, are marked by mounds or barrows, which are, however, smaller, nearly always circular, and in this country devoid of the passage and chambers which formed a feature of the long barrow. The shape of these barrows on elevation is sometimes like a bowl, more rarely like a disc or even a bell. In some of them the remains of the dead are buried in the same crouched up position as they occupy in the long barrows, in others there is an urn containing the ashes which have resulted from the cremation of the corpse, and in both cases there may be found implements of different If! m •* i i I! *. 112 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN kinds laid beside the remains. These two systems of burial have undoubtedly been pursued simultaneously, and may perhaps mark a divergence in religious ideas between the two sections of the Celts. It is at least possible that the Goidelic branch may have conformed to the funeral customs of the Neolithic race, whilst the Brythonic people, perhaps from veneration for the sun, perhaps from the idea of puri- fying the body, may have resorted to the practice of crema- tion. However this may be, it is interesting to liad tiiut Fig. 43. — Round Barrows near Stonehenge. (After a plate in . Barclay's ' ' Stonehenge. " ) sometimes both kinds of interment have been met with in the same barrow, one being secondary to the other. In these cases the earlier burial is usually that of the unburnt body, the secondary being that of the cremated, but this is not an invariable rule. So far as it goes this evidence also points in the direction above mentioned that the earlier Goidelic race was that which practised inhumation. There are great numbers of these round barrows scattered over the country, and in some parts of it many may be seen close together. Around Stonehenge, for example, there are about THE BRONZE PERIOD "3 three hundred within a circuit of three miles. There ore a number of others in the vicinity of Avelniry, and in one spot on the road between Weymouth and Bridport twenty can be seen at once, a spot, says Stukeley, "foi sight of barrows not to be equalled in the world." In certain places they, as well as other mounds of earth, artificial nnd natural, have been supposed to be the homes of fairies, and names such as the Fairy Know or Fairy Hill applied to them. In one instance such a mound affords what seems to be an example of the extraordinary persist- ence and endurance of a tradition. Near the town of Mold there was a cairn called Bryn-yr-Ellyllon, the hill of the fairy or of the goblin, which was long sai i to be haunted by a ghost in golden armour, who was seen to enter it from time to time. When the tomb was opened there was found within it the skeleton of what had been a Cme tall man with a corselet of bronze overlaid by gold, of Etruscan work, says Professor Boyd Dawkins, and probably belonging to the Romano-British period. Unless we are to beHeve that the ghost really did walk, we must admit that the tradition had been handed down of this warrior's burial in his armour for perhaps fourteen hundred years. The religion of the Celts, both Brythons and Goidels, was polytheistic, and the names of some of their gods and minor deities have come down to us. Of these the i)rincipal Bry- thonic deity seems to have been Teutates, the gcd of war, in whose honour the stone inscribed " Marti Toutali " found in Hertfordshire was probably erected. In this country, Teutates seems perhaps more often to have been spoken of under the name of Camulus, a name which enters into the formation of the word Camulodunum, the title of the city which preceded the modern Colchester, Taranis, another deity, seems to have been the summer- god, and Noden.s, the god of the sea, liad a temple at Lydney on the Severn even in the Roman times. Among the Goidels the H ■ M 1 J i miUkl 'W M "4 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN Irish Boann, a minor goddess, tiie deity of the Boyne in Ireland, is an example of the personification of rivers under the guise of minor deities, another instance of which in Britain is Sabrina, the goddess of the Severn, " Sabrina fair, Listen wliere thou art sitting Under the glassy, cool, translucent wave, In twisted braids of lilies knitting The loose train of thy amber-dropping hair," as Milton wrote in " Comus." Other minor deities figure in our stories of today as giants. Thus Rabelais look his name of Gargantua from such a half-deity, half-hero. A dolmen in France is shown to this day as his tomb. Cioemagot, another similar personage, becomes Gogmagog, the name of a range of what pass for hills in Cambridge- shire, and of the well-known giants of the Mansion House. The Celt, however, of both families, seems to have in some measure adopted the Druidism of the Neolithic peoples with whom he came in contact on reaching the island. In so doing he only conformed to what seems to have been almost a general rule where an Aryan and a non-Aryan race have come in contact, as Mr. Tylor and Mr. Gomme have pointed out. Such is the case in Scandinavia, where the Lapp is looked upon as being a very superior magician to the later occupants of the land, and in India, where the non-Aryan races, despised and harried though they may be during the rest of the year by their Aryan neighbours, are yet brought into the villages of the latter on solemn occasions to perform the religious cere- monies which are supposed to be more effectively performed by them than by any other. A curious instance of this is given by Walhouse, which may be cited, as showing the kind of thing which may perhaps have happened in this country centuries ago. " The Kurumbas of Nulli, one of the wildest Nilgherry declivities, come up annually to wor- M ■* THE BRONZE PERIOD 115 ship at one of the dolmens on the tableland above, in which they say one of their old gods resides. Though they are re- garded with fear and hatred as sorcerers by the agricultural Badagas of the tableland, one of them must, nevertheless, at sowing-time, be called to guide the first plough for two or three yards, and go through a mystic pantomime of propi- tiation to the earth deity, without which the crop would certainly fail. When so summoned, the Kurumba must pass the night by the dolmens alone, and I have seen one who had been called from his present dwelling for the morning ceremony, sitting after dark on the capstone of a dolmen, with heels and hams drawn together and chin on knees, looking like some huge ghostly fowl perched on the mysterious stone." It is probable that the later coming Aryans, here and elsewhere, might have considered the inhabitants whom they found on their arrival as somewhat uncanny, and, again, it is highly probable that they reasoned that their priests, the Druids, having been longer in occupation, were better able to approach the local divinities with hope of success than those who were strangers in the land. There is a statement by Pliny that the wives and daughters-in-law of the Britons attended certain religious rites without clothing and with their bodies painted black like Ethiopians. To which race this statement applies is more than doubtful, but it is possible, if Mr. Hartland's surmise is correct, that we have a trace of this rite in the processions which took place in Coventry and Southam in honour of Lady Godiva. Though Godgifu, or Godiva, was an historical personage, her celebrated ride is purely mythical, a good example, indeed, of the kind of myth which, without any reason, often becomes attached to some hero or heroine. The essence of the tale consists in the passage of a naked woman through a town where the men were not allowed to look out upon her, and such a story is not peculiar to «r lit ii6 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ;! I I in I England, as readers of the " Arabian Nights " \\i\\ remember. Now, we know that in Rome the religious rites of the deity known as the Bona Dea were performed by women alone and that men were forbidden under the severest penalties to intrude upon them. It is highly probable that the rite of which Pliny speaks may have been of a similar character, and that it may gradually, in the manner which has been already pointed out, have dwindled clown and lost all its original significance. The probability that this view is correct is muv h increased by the fact that in the procession of Southam, no very great distance from Coventry, there were two Godivas, one of whom was of the natural colour, but the other was black, and formed, perhaps, the last link in the chain stretching back to the woad-painted British matron of Pliny. ^t now only remains to speak of the physical character- istics of the Celts. They were a tall race, indeed their average stature of 5 feet 9 inches, as ascertained by measurements of the long bones of their skeletons, exceeded the average of the present inhabitants of the island. They were a longer-lived race than that which they succeeded, if we are to trust Dr. Thurnam's computation, that the average of the Celt was fifty- five and of the Neolith forty-five years. Their skulls were rounder and broader than those of the previous race, or, to use the language of physical anthropology, the Celt was brachy- cephalic, or round-headed, the Ivernian, dolichocephalic, or long-headed, only in the physical sense of course. The skull was also of large size, with a well-formed and broad brow and salient ridgcs above tiie eyes, and with prominent cheek-bones. The stature of the Celts seems to have made a great impression upon those with whom they were brought in contact, for Caesar alludes to their tnirifica corpora, whilst Strabo, s])eaking of some of the Coritavi, a tribe who inhabited Lincolnshire, says, " To show how tall they were, I Jl ^9L THE BRONZE PERIOD 117 saw myself some of their young men at Rome, and they were taller by six inches than any one else in the city." Many contemporary references also leave little doubt that the Celt belonged to a fair or red-haired race. Lucan calls the Britons flavi^ Silius Italicus says their hair was golden, and Vitruvius, hi a passage sup|)osed to allude to them, speaks of their huge limbs, their grey eyes, and their long, straight red hair. In his perhaps partly fanciful de- scription of Eoudicca or Boadicea, the queen of the Iceni, Dion Cassius speaks of her greatness of stature, of the fierceness of her appearance, which struck all beholders with awe, and of the severe and piercing expression of her countenance. She had, he adds, a harsh voice, and a pro- fusion of dark, ruddy hair which reached down to her hips. The life of the tall, fair-haired, round-headed occu])ant of this land during the Bronze period has been sufficiently dealt with in this and the preceding chapter to render unneces- sary any prolonged summary of the conditions under which he existed. It will be sufficient to point out that lie entered the island possessed of a greater amount of culture than that of the people whom he found in occupation of the land. Above all else he understood the art of working in metal, a piece of knowledge which differed, not merely in degree but in kind, from any possessed by previous inhabitants of the land. In correspondence with his wider knowledge and perhaps also with his greater strength, the works which he undertODk were of a more ambitious character than those of his predecessors, and included huge earthworks, massive stone monuments, and artificial island residences. In the arts of spinning and weaving he was an adept, and prided himself so much upon using textile clothing instead of gar- ments fashioned from skins, as to find in that fact the most appropriate name for his race. Such was the inhabitant of this country at the time of the Roman occupation, and, as will be seen, or indeed has already been seen, from the '■II i i0m mm mm i ' >i f I i 1: .1:. ii8 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN description of the Glastonbury lake village, he lived on in the land, beside his conquerors, in his own villages. And when that conqueror was obliged to desert the country which he had occupied for four hundred years, the Celt remained behind in possession once more of full sovereignty over the land. Thus we shall here only leave him for a time, returning to the consideration of the race again, after dealing with the Roaians and their remains. CHAPTER VI THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN Condition of the Country — Forests — Wild animals — Trackways — Roman roads — Camps — Cities — Silchester — Uriconium — Corinium. When the Romans took possession of this country, it can only have been their insatiable zeal for colonisation, coupled perhaps with some knowledge of the mineral riches which it afforded, which could have induced them to take so much trouble over what must have appeared a singularly unin- viting spot. For such, the accounts of the earlier visitors, whose opinions remain on record, declare it unanimously to have been. They speak of its stormy sky, obscured with constant rain, of its atmosphere chilly and damp even in summer-time, and of the dense fogs, but rarely pierced by the rays of the sun, which hung over it like a pall. The im- mense forests, with which the land was covered, condensed the rain, fallen timber choked up the streams, and caused them to spread their waters into wide marshes, so that only the higher grounds lifted themselves from the morasses and woods. It is a little difficult to realise how great a portion of the surface of this island was covered with forest at the time we are speaking of, and even down to a much later period. Nearly the whole of Warwickshire was covered over by the Forest of Arden {see Map), the district now occupied by Birmingham and the adjacent Black Country towns being t mm III « K I n t ' 1 20 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN then a dense woodland, penetrated by the little stream of the Rea, and traversed by one trackway, the Ryknield Street. In fact, at a very much later period, it was said that a squirrel could leap from tree to tree for nearly the whole length of Warwickshire. To-day we can gather some idea of its limits by the names of the places which existed around its fringes, like VVooton Wawcn, with its pre-Con- quest church, on its southern border, and Woodtiid on its northern. North of Worcester, the Forest of Wyre, which still exists, though shorn of most of its ancient glory, extended as far as Chester. Another still existent forest, Sherwood, in Nottinghamshire, associated with Robin Hood and his crew, was, according to Camden, anciently set with trees, whose entangled branches were so twisted together that they hardly left room for a man to jiass. Of one of its outliers, Charnwood Forest, the name only remains, for the district has long been disafforested. The Porest of Dean was described as "very dark and terrible" on account of its gloomy paths and rides, whilst Denbighshire, up to the fifteenth century, was one immense forest, from the Dee to the region of Snowdonia. In the South of ]<^ngland that vast piece of woodland, the Andredsweald, or Forest of Anderida, stretched for more than one hundred and twenty miles continuously between the North and South Downs, and formed a barrier far more impervious than seas, rivers, or mountains. These dense woodlands, with their frequent marshy bottoms, were inhabited by numerous wild beasts. The huger animals of an earlier period had, of course, long since disappeared, but wolves swarmed in Arden and Sherwood, and the wild ox, or urus, and wild boar were objects of the chase at a period long after that with which we have now to do. In fact, in the time of Henry II., we hear of the citizens of London hunting both the last-named animals in the forests of Middlesex. Wolves disappeared finally in England somewhere in the fifteenth I THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 121 century, tliougli they appear to have lingered in the re- cesses of the Irish forests until the eighteenth. When the bear disappeared is not known, for though it is recorded that the city of Norwich gave one of these animals yearly to Edward the Confessor, it is possible that it was not a native wild beast. Beavers, which have been extinct for a long time, must have been plentiful in the wooded swamps, judging from the places called after them, such as Beverley, in Yorkshire; Bevere, near Worcester ; and Nant Fran^on (the glen of the beavers), near T.lyn Ogwen, in North Wales. Through these woods in some districts, but more frequently along the tops of Jiish_rangeAj of hills, the jCIe ltic peopk; had cut narrow roads^ known by the name of trackways, remains ofwhich may be seen in various parts to the present day. Of the Ryknield Street, which ran through Arden, from the Fosse Way, near Stow, to Wall on the Wading Street, pieces remain here and there, which must very closely resemble the condition of that road when actually in use. One l)ortion of this way which is probably still much in its primitive state is Buckle Street, a narrow trackway which runs along the top of the Cotswold Hills, above Broadway, and another little altered portion crosses the fields between Alcester and Wixford. Another ancient trackway which preserves its original appearance is called the Portway, and runs along the top of the Longmynd, above Church Stretton, in Shropshire, while a second way of the same kind crosses, close to the same place, the lower Watling Street, and ends in the valley called the Cwms, behind Caer Caradoc. Another called the Ridgeway, runs along the top of the range of hills which intervenes between Weymouth and Dorchester, and many other examples might be cited, from which only one further instance, and that the most striking, shall be selected. Along the top of the Downs above the Vale of White Horse, skirting Ashdown, the n 1 1 m ^H^jk ^mafm m :"t ii t 'i ' !■ ! i iLi.: 122 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN i^scandune of Alfred's decisive battle, and that ancient barrow, Weyland Smith's forge, is a broad grassy road, marked off from the surrounding fields by low banks, and called in that part of the country the Green Road. This ancient way, which was one of the Quatuor Chimini of the Confessor's laws, hereafter to be dealt with, differs from the other three apparently in never having been remade by the Romans, by whom it must nevertheless have been used. Under the name of the Icknield Street, Acling Street, and other terms, it makes its way from the neighbourhood of Gloucester to Icklingham, in Norfolkshire. Its ancient name was the Icenhilde VVeg, the path of the warriors of the Iceni, a Celtic tribe who dwelt in the district which is now NorColk. This street gives us a good idea of what the British trackways in their fullest development must have looked hke, and one of the great aims of the Romans was to construct out of them wide and vvell-made roads along which bodies of troops might be rapidly and easily trans- ported from one part of the country to another. Their road- flnaking, like all their other works, was carried out in a most systematic and careful manner, the exact method of con [/struction varying with the character of the land through which the road had to pass. Thus in the neighbourhood of Lincoln the roads through the marshes were upon piles. On the other hand a part of the Great Fosse Road, which still remains as a monument to the engineering capabilities of the Romans, was constructed of the following layers : (i) Pavimentum, or foundation of fine earth beaten "in hard. (2) Stattimen, or the bed of the road, which was com- posed of large stones, sometimes mixed with mortar. (3) Rtideratio^ made of small stones also mixed with mortar. (4) The Nucleus, which was formed by mixing lime, ch.alk, pounded bricks or tiles; or again, by mixing gravel sand, and lime with clay. THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 123 (5) The Summum Dorsum, or top of the road, forming tlie actual surface exposed to the wear and tear of the traffic. Of these roads, three beside the Icknield Street were, in the time of Edward the Confessor, called the Quatuor Chimini, and place d under the King's PeajiCr tterTsTQ say, crimes committed upofTthem Wer'elried in the_KiagVCourt, and not in any local court, as would have been the case haT they taken place on any other road. These three were the VVatling Street, the Fgisie Way, and. the„JEuDine_ Street, and much labour has been spent on the task of tracing out the exact line of each, a task rendered none the easier by the fact that there are several roads of each of these names, in some cases quite unconnected with one another. A few words must be devoted to describing the course of each of these ways ; and here it may be said that our knowledge of the Roman roads and stations is largely drawn from the Itinerary of Antoninus, a description of the roads compiled probably for military use and ascribed to the age of Hadrian or Severus. The most celebrated of the four roads received at a later date from the Saxons the name of Watling Street, a title, by the way, which, as we learn from Chaucer, was also given to the Milky Way {see Map). Starting from T.ondon, it ran north-west through St. Albans (Veru- lamium), Dunstable, Fenny and Stony Stratford, Towcester (Lactodorum), crossed the Fosse Road at a place now called High Cross, traversed Wall (Etocetum), and finally reached Wroxeter (Uriconium). Here it met a second but smaller road of the same name, which, starting from Caerleon-on- Usk (Isca Silurum), passed through Kenchester (Magna), near Hereford, Leintwardine (Branodunum), and the Stret- ton Valley. Places with names such as Stretton, Stretford, Stratford, and the like, found along these and other great roads of — , ^..i.,.. „,^,r {:iU(.s iruiii men proximity uo the ancient "street." I i t:^^ itSBStmrntm Miii ■ h ! r'i W ^' "4 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN The Fosse Road started from a point north of Seaton, in Devonshire, passing thence north-east through Bath (Aquai Snlis), Cirencester (Coriniimi), and Stow-on-the-Wold, to High Cross already mentioned. Thence through Leicester (Ratne) and Newark it pursued its course to terminat at Lincoln (Lindum Colonia). The Ermine Street in later times ran nearly due north from London to Lincoln, but it is probable from the silence of the Roman itineraries as to any direct road between the former city and Huntingdon, that the only part of the street which existed at the time with which we are now dealing was the northern portion between Huntingdon and Is be avoided; such as a hill commanding the camp, by which the enemy can descend in attack, or see what is done in the camp ; or a wood where the enemy can lie in ambush ; or ravines or valleys by which they can steal unawares on the camp; or such a situation of the camp that it can be suddenly flooded from a river." Castra stativa^ or stations which were intended for pro- longed occupation, were generaiiy placed on lower ground THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 127 and in the vicinity of water. When fully developed, this kind of camp was called legionary, and an example of the kind at Caistor in Northamptonshire (which indeed derives its name from this castra) is an oblong, 1349 feet in length and 1 1 20 in breadth, and covers about 33 acres of ground. In such a camp, the gate facing the enemy was called the Porta Praetoria, and from it led a straight wide path, the Via Principalis, to the gruma, or measuring point, behind which was situated the Prsetorium. On this were the altar for public sacrifices, the Auguratorium, where the auspices were consulted, and the Tribunal, from which the troops were harangued. A second Via Principalis cut the first at right angles and led from the Porta Principalis of one side to that of the other. The gate at the opposite side to the Praetorian, and therefore furthest from the enemy, was called Porta Uecumana. In the interior, the positions of the leader and hib staff, of the various troops and of the workshops, were marked out with that precision so characteristic of the military genius of the Romans. Even the most perfect form of camp, however, was more or less of a temporary expedient, and often the castra stativa proved to be the forerunner of the later walled city. " A Roman camp was * a city in arms,' and most of the British towns grew out of the stationary quarters of the soldiery. The ramparts and pathways developed into walls and streets, the square of the tribunal into the market-place, and every gateway was the beginning of a suburb, where straggling rows of shops, temples, rose-gardens, and cemeteries, were sheltered from all danger by the presence of a permanent garrison. In course of time the important positions were surrounded with lofty walls, protected by turrets set apart at the distance of a bowshot, and built of such solid strength as to resist the shock of a battering-ram. In the centre of the town stood a gioup of public buildings, containing the courthouse, baths and barracks, and it seems likely that '!« \m ! « '' iii f 128 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN every important place had a theatre or a circus for races and shows. The humble beginnings of our cities are seen in the ancient sketch of a visit to central Britain, in which a poet (Statins) pictured the arrival of the son of a former governor, and imagined a white-haired old man pointinfj out the changes of the province. ' Here your father,' he says, 'sat in judgment, and on that bank he stood and addressed his troops. Those watch-towers and distant forts are his, and these walls were built and entrenched by him. This trophy of arms he offered to the gods of war, with the inscription that you still may see ; that cuirass he donned at the call to arms ; this corselet he tore from the body of a British king." (Elton.) In some instances their situations were not identical, as in the case of the quadri- lateral Roman camp, locally called Poundbury, situated on a hill a little distance north of Dorchester, which was the parent of the Roman Durnovaria, on whose remains Dorchester stands. But here the alteration in position was probably due to the greater proximity of the second site to the water supply. In other cases, the town grew up actually inside the earthworks, which may, as at Wareham, though altered, persist to the present day. Where the walled city was built from the commencement as such, and of set plan, or where it grew out of a legionary camp, it was constructed of a quadrilateral shape, as may be seen at Dorchester (where avenues of trees mark out the foundations of the walls), and was provided with a gate at each side."' In such towns two main streets ran at right angles to one another so as to connect the gates of opposite sides, and where they intersected they formed the cross, which we find in the centre of towns like Gloucester, Worcester and Dor- chester. But in other cases the city grew up first, and when it became advisable subsequently to provide it with walls, they had to accommodate themselves to the shaj)e of houses and could not assume a rcctanuular 11 j-»r^*-« />f» f \ THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 129 form. Such is the case at Silchester, where we have perhaps the most perfect example of a Roman city wall in England. When the Roman troops were withdrawn from this country there existed in it fifty walled towns, not count- ing the stations placed along the course of the more important roads. Of these, twenty-eight deserved to rank as cities, two of tliem, Eburacum (York) and Verulamium (St. Albans), belonging to the highest class or municipia, and nine to the second or colonia. It may perhaps be interesting to give the names of the colonia, one of which has long since out-topped not merely its fellows but also the two municipia in importance. They were Glevum (Gloucester), Eindum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Camulo- dunum (Colchester), Eondinium (Eondon), Rutupise (Rich- borough, the port of prime importance at that time), Aquai Sulis (Bath), Isca Silurum (Caerleon-on-Usk), and Cambo- ritum (close to Cambridge). The reader will perhaps obtain a more clear idea of the construction and contents of a J joman city if a few examples are first described, and then the most salient features common to all are separately dealt with. The remarkable remains of Silchester, which might, were money forthcoming, be made into an English Pompeii, are situ- ated a short distance from Reading, close to the village of Mortimer Fielding. Nearly the whQle_QLtJiejyall is present and in a wonderfully perfect condition, its extent being li miles. It is composed largely of flint, mixed, however, with other stones, and is intersected with bonding courses, not, as in all other walls in England of the same period, made of brick, but of flat slabs of stone. It is from 15 to 21 feet in height, from 9 to 15 feet in thickness, and is strengthened by buttresses placed against its inner face. It has the usual four gateways, and in addition, a smaller exit directly opposite the amphitheatre, which is, as cus- tomary, placed outside the wa!Is= Beyond the w.qlls a\^d ■i I iM Mi m* i| 130 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN H w ft-rll (s at some small distance from them, is a fosse, which is 100 feet in width and from 12 to 14 feet in deptli, and still in places is filled with water. This city contained, besides a number of residences, a forum forming a parallelogram 276 by 313 feet, which was surrounded by y Fig. 44— Plan of SilcliPst(M-, showing the walls tind some of the objects of interest. N, S, \\', [•:, tlio iM'incipal jjatos ; a, Small gate leading to b, ampliitheatie ; c, forum ; d, basilica ; e, site of Roman Ciiristian basilica ; f, site of circular temple ; g, "Cavalry barracks" ; h, baths; j, modern church ; K, K, in- trenchments ; L, I., L, remains oi I'osso ; lu ui Villas ; n, Hypocaust. an ambulatory from 12 to 15 feet in width. Along its northern side was a row of shops, amongst which have been identified those of a wine merchant, a fish-seller, from ^^ whom were bought some at least of the oysters whose shells litter the remains of Silchcster so profusely, a butcher, whose steel-yards and flesh-hooks have been found, a poulterer, in whose shop were some of the steel spurs used for arming gamecocks for a fight, and a jeweller. Attached >i ♦ THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 131 was also a hall for the use of merchants, which measured 30 by 60 feet. There was an apsidal basilica 2 76 by 60 feet with a gallery on one side, and a central nave sustained by two rows of pillars with Corinthian capitals. Around it were a senes of smaller rooms, in one of which was fou.id the c^agle or standard of a legion, a unic,ue discovery so far as thLs island is concerned. There have also been identified one or more temples, the usual baths, and a Christian church. A further range of buildings may have been cavalry barracks, loan these objects further attention will be paid in the next chapter. Uriconium, the modern Wroxeter, situated at the foot of the Wrekm, in Shropshire, must also have been a place of great miportance. -The town," says Mr. Green, "was strongly placed at the foot of the Wrekin, not far from the bank of the Severn, and was of great extent. Its walls enc osed a space more than double that of Roman London, while the remains of its forum, its theatre and its amphi- theatre, as well as the broad streets which contrast so strangely with the narrow alleys of other British towns show Its wealth and importance. With its storm by the West Saxons the very existence of the city came to an end Its rums show that the place was plundered and burned* while the bones which lie scattered among them tell thei^ tale of the flight and massacre of its inhabitants, of women and children hewn down in the streets, and wretched tugitives stifled in the hypociiusts whither they had fled with their little hoards for shelter. A British poet sings piteously, in verses still left to us, the death-song of Uncomum, 'the white town in the valley,' the town of white stones gleaming amongst the green woodlands. The torch of the foe had left it, when he sang, a heap of black- ened rums, where the singer wandered through halls he had known m happier days, the halls of its chief Kyndylan without hre. without light, without song.' their «Mlln.c« IM f n I ! V 132 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ri: 1! If If' I' i ' I-:/. ' M, ii > 1 i ., 1 i \ i 1 Jj 1 ." broken only by the eagle's scream, the eagle 'who has swallowed fresh drink, heart's blood of Kyndylan the fair.' Of this great city even less remains above ground than of Silchester, the most prominent portion being a bit of the city wall, long known in the district as the ' Old Works.' " This fine fragment is about twenty feet in height and seventy-two in length. Like other Roman walls it is erected upon a good foundation, on which are laid one or two set-off courses of stone. Upon this is placed a series of courses of shaped stones, then a string or bonding course of flat tiles, then more stones, another course of tiles and so on. In fact this alternation of tile and stone is characteristic of Roman walls in this country, that fine fragment, recently threatened with destruction by a railway company, the Jewry Wall, a portion of the fortifications of Ratse, the Roman Leicester, having no less than sixteen alternations of stone and tile. In some cases in-tcad of the courses of tiles having been laid flat, they have been placed in a herring-bone manner. Outside the area of the wall in places can be seen the remains' of the fosse and ramparts with which it was surrounded. As has been mentioned in another chapter, the ruins of Uriconium, after its sack and burning, were used as a stone quarry for the building operations of later ages. The pillars of the gateway lead- ing into the churchyard are topped with capitals which once surmounted the pillars of some edifice in the Roinan city,, whilst another pillar, hollowed out internally, forms the font. Its stones are found not merely at Wroxeter and at Atcham in the walls of the Norman churches of those two places, but are said to have been used in great numbers in the construction of the Abbey of Lilleshall. It is not, therefore, surprising that there should not be much of Uriconium left above ground. Our knowledge of what it was is gained from the excavations which have been J . 1 ^ ii f-f-.-^ i-\r^a fn time l^"*' ^« nparlv all the undertaken ihcic uom amt 10 im»c, — — jj »- — 1^ * who has ;he fair.' than of t of the :^rks.' " ght and ils it is I one or a series bonding ourse of stone is that fine I railway ations of 1 sixteen ad of the in placed e wall in ramparts tioned in sack and building way lead- lich once r^an city,. Dnns the ;r and at those two imbers in d not be wledge of lave been riv all the ■-J — " " THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 133 i V: III 1 i ■" ^^ 134 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN places which have been disclosed have been covered up again, in order that the land may be used for agricultural purposes, the visitor will be disappointed if he expects to see any number of the objects described as existing at Uriconium by the books dealing with it. In fact, he will learn more as to the habits of the citizens of Uriconium by visiting the museum in Shrewsbury, where are collected many of the objects which have been found from time to time, than he can from the few relics to be seen at Wroxeter. In the course of the excavations were exposed the usual basilica and baths, together with shops, one of wJiich, apparently the property of a worker in glass or metal, or of an enameller, possessed a furnace or forge, built of red clay, the interior surface of which had been completely vitrified by the intense heat to which it had been exposed. Four or five feet from it stood a curious roughly-formed grey stone, circular in shape and with a flat top, which may have been used for a work-table. The villas, here as elsewhere, had been warmed by a heating apparatus under the floors of the rooms, called a hypocaust, which will be more fully described in the next chapter. In one of the hypocausts were found the remains of three of the inhabitants, referred to in the passage quoted above. One of these skeletons was that of a woman, another, that of a very old man, was found in a crouching position in one corner of the low chamber into which he had crept, with his savings, for near his remains was found a heap consist- ing of 132 coins and a few nails, the latter being the only remnants of the wooden box in which the money had lain. The third skeleton, like that of the first, was a woman. No doubt when the sack of the town took place these three wretches crawled into the hypocaust by the narrow passage through which the flames and heat entered, in the hope that they might escape the notice of their barbarian foes. But whilst hiding there they must have t*% THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 135 been stifled, either by the hot air and smoke belonging to the hypocaust, or by the conflagration in which the city itself perished. Corinium, the modern Cirencester, was probably built on the site of a British camp, and was surrounded by walls, fifteen feet in height and two miles in circuit, which en- closed a parallelogram. It was placed at the junction of several important roads, as the Fosse ran through it, also another great highway called the Ermine Street (not, of course, that mentioned earlier in this chapter), whilst, finally, another road which led to Bath and received in Saxon times the significant name of Akeman Street,* from the condition of the gouty suff'erers who travelled along it, also traversed the city. It was the chief town of the Cotswold district, a district distinguished above all other parts of England by the number, size and magnificence of its villas, and is said to have been occupied by Ostorius Scapula prior to his campaign against Caratacos. One may gather from the words of Stukeley not merely what extensive remains there were in existence at his day, but also how it is that so many of them both there and elsewhere are no more to be seen. "Here/' he says, "are found many mosaic pavements, rings, intaglios, and coins innumerable, especially in one great garden, called Lewis Grounds. I suppose it was the Praetorium. Large quantities of carved stones are carried off" yearly in carts, to mend the highways, besides what are useful in building. In the same place they found several stones of the shafts of pillars, 6 ft. long, and bases of stone (as the tenant expressed himself) near as big in com- pass as his summer-house adjoining ; these, with cornices, very handsomely moulded, and carved with modillions and * It is right to say that this etymology has been objected to by some who find in the word Aqua (water) the derivation of the first syllable of the name^ mi •«• illi 136 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN 1 1 If lil ,i i. ■ 1 i ' ; 1 j: *'i ■ ^ i 1 1' 1 the like ornaments, were converted into swine troughs. Some of the stones of the bases were fastened together with cramps of iron, so that they were forced to employ horses to draw them asunder. Capitals of these pillars were likewise found." Like the villas in the district to which it belonged, the houses of Corinium were notable for the beauty and diversity of their tesselated pavements, of many of which we fortu- nately possess full details, which will be dealt with in the next chapter. Here have also been found funeral monu- ments and other inscriptions, some on the walls of houses. Outside the wall of the city was an amphitheatre. It would be tedious to give further accounts of the general details of the Roman towns in Britain, but what has been said will show how immeasurably civilisation had advanced upon the lake villages of the previous era, lake villages which, be it remembered, were still existing in England, side by side with, and only partially influenced by, the culture of the cities which we have been considering. ■m^ i CHAPTER VII THE ROiMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN — continued The Roman city— Cemetery— Pomoerium— Amphitheatre — Gates -I'orum and BasiUca— Shops— Baths -Temples - Christian Church— Barracks. The outlines afforded in the last chapter of the Romano British cities must now be filled in by a more complete description of some of the prominent objects found in or near them. This may [perhaps btst be effected by taking them in the order in which they would naturally be met with by a stranger visiting a city for the first time. Approaching by one of the great roads, the attention of the traveller would probably first be attracted by ■fe numerous tombstones which he would see by its side, setting forth the names, ages and conditions of those who were interred beneath. These would, in the great majority of cases, as is natural, having regard to the condition of the country, be * The inscription may be thus translated: " Rufus Sita, of the sixth cohort of the Thracians, forty years of age, served twenty-two u^ RVFVSSlTAEaVFSCHOV. s. Fig. 46, — Roman iunib- stone from Urjconium. (Wright.)* ml f it n n fSI ri 1 u m :t;! 138 I.IFE IN KARLY URITAIN cither soldiers or their relatives. Some of these are adorned with carvings like that on which a Roman soldier on horse- back is represented as bestriding his prostrate British foe. A few instances out of the many which have been collected must suffice. (i) A military tombstone from Uriconium. The original inscription is on the left, the full Latin in the centre, and the translation on the riyht. M. I'KTIUJNIUS IK. MKN VIC. ANN x.x.xvni MIL. LEG Xni. GKM MILITAVIT ANN. XVIII SIGN. KVIT II. S. K. Marcus retronius, Lucii filiiis Mciienia, Vicsit annis xxxviii miles legionis xiii geminte, militavit annis xviii, Sigoifer fuit. Hie situs est. Marcus Petro son of Lucius, of the Men- enian tribe, lived 38 years, a soldier of the fourteenth legion, called Gemina ; he served as a soldier eighteen years, and was a standard-bearer. He lies here. n (ii) The next instance is that of a family tombstone from the .same place, which was intended originally to commemo- rate three persons, being divided into three compartments, but for some reason the third, which was {probably intended to bear the name of the husband and brother (?) of those to whom the first two sections belong, has remained unfilled up. In the first compartment appears : n. M. Diis Manibus. To the Gods of the Shades TLACIDA I'lacida Placida AN. LV. Annorum Iv. , aged fifty-five years, CUR. AG Curam agente erected by the care of CON I. A Conjuge annorum him who was her husband XXX XXX. for thirty years. years in the ranks. His heirs have caused this monument to be erected in accordance with the instructions of his will. He is buried here." Jt il M m THE ROMAN OCCUI'ATION Ol- BRITAIN ij.j In the second : D. M. DHVCCV Diis Manibus. Deuccu To the Gods of the Shades. Deuccus S. AN. XV CVK. AG FKATRE. s, annorum xv. curam agente fratre. aged fifteen years ; erected by the care of his brother. (iii) One final instance may be given of an inscription on the cottin of a child, discovered near Holdgale in Yorkshire : D. M. siMi'Lici^. FLORENTINE To the Gods of the Shades of Sim- ANiME iNNOCENTissiME plicia Florentiiia. a most innocent QUE. vixir MENSES DECEM soul. who lived ten months. FELicius. SIMPLEX. I'ATER FECIT Felicius Simplex, her father, of the LEG. VI. V. Sixth legion, the Victorious, made this. Approaching still nearer the city the iwrncerium would appear, an oi)en space outside the walls which might not he built upon. Mr. Gomme thinks that in the name of the parish of St. Martin's Pomeroy, London, we have a relic of the pomcErium of Londinium, just as the **pummery," an open space outside Dorchester, may be that of Durnovaria. ^ Before entering the city, the amphitheatre would also be visited, and of these open-air places of amusement we have several good examples in this country, that near Dorchester, known as Maumbury, being the finest. This is an oval earthwork, enclosing a space 218 ft. in length and 163 ft. in width, and has been constructed by excavating the chalk and heaping it up into a rampart 3c ft. high. This rampart is interrupted by two openings at its opposite ends, by which entrance was gained to the interior. It rises gradually to attain its maximum height midway between the openings, and was no doubt once arranged in tiers to accommodate the rows of spectators. In much later days, in fact, in the last century, it was used as the public place of execution, and it is calculated that ten thousand persons have been present in it on such occasions. Another amphitheatre "is ^1 • F1 I40 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN situated near Cirencester, in which the bank, 20 ft. in height, encloses a space 148 ft. by 134 ft. Few vestiges of the seats remain here, though, if we may trust the account of earher writers, they must have been much more distinct in comparatively recent times. An amphitheatre outside the walls of Caerleon-on-Usk goes by the name of King Arthur's Round Table, and, as we have seen, there is a fourth outside Silchester. 'i'he amphithealre inspected, the J ■ 1 1. i \ i, il I: 1, I i 'S Fig. 47.— Roman Gate at Linclum (Lincoln). (Wright.) The figure is reversed, the smaller arch being really to the ris^iit of the large one. traveller would next approach the wall, the general structure of which has already been sufficiently described, and enter the city by one of its gates. At Lincoln one of the smaller entrances to the city of Lindum Colonia still remains, and is called the Newport Arch. The original design of this gateway no doubt consisted of a large central archway, with two smaller posterns, one on either side, but of the latter, one has completely disappeared. The main arch consists of twenty-six huge wedge-shaped blocks of stone without any regular keystone, and is 16 ft. in diameter. Pa.ssing ■. ^&^. ^m' THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 141 through the gateway and following one of the main streets to the centre of the city, the forum and basilica would be reached. The reader can form a good idea of what these important buildings were like from the following account of those of Silchester, given by Mr. Joyce. The forum pre- •ented a straight line of unbroken wall, without a projection, i Fig. 48.— Plan of Forum (the square enclosure) and Basilica (the oblong enclosure to the K-lt) at Silchester. The former i3 separated by an ambulatory from rows of shops and offices, and the latter has a lateral apsidal recess and two apsida'' tribunes. (After a plan in the Archceologia. ) having one entrance at some hundred feet from its western termination. Between the entrance and that western end rose the basilica, towering over all the other buildings, and over the forum itseF. Against this wall of the basilica, close to the intersection of the two great vi^e, was an in- scription in honour of the local god, the Segontian Hercules. The forum proper was, therefore, on the left hand at ■**^- /■"mmmmmm !■ f I 142 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN entering by this northern doorway, and the basilica and council-chambers on the right. Confining ourselves first to the forum, properly so called, and excluding for the present any other buildings which lie within its plan, the visitor, immediately upon passing through the entrance, would have found himself standing in an arnbulato y, which stretched away to his left hand, and might be followed, without a break, completely round three sides of the entire edifice, making the circuit until it arrived on the southern side, at an exit corresponding to the doorway on the north ; any one walking along it, however, must pass by the great entrance, which was at the centre of the eastern side. The range of the shops extended the whole way along the inner part of this ambulatory, forming a sort of bazaar, except on the south side, where the rooms were larger, and had other uses. Within the range of shops, again, was a second line of ambulatories, enclosing on three sides the great central court or quadrangle of the forum. The general plan may, therefore, be described as a rectangular court, encompassed round three of its sides by symmetrical ranges of not very lofty buildings, which contained a double row of ambula- tories, having between their lines a series of chambers, used for shops or for public business. The fourth side of the central court was formed by the side wall of the basilica, which extended its whole length. The range of rooms lying between the double range of ambulatories, on the south side, was not used for shops, but for the offices of the public departments, to which there would be perpetual resort out of the forum. These rooms are more stately in size, and were probably loftier than the shops ; they also are only five in number, and are distinguished, by their arrangement, as a group constructed for an especial purpose. The central and the two end rooms (all alike in size) are rectangular, but those on each side of the central room have semi-circular ends, implying that they were built for the # THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 143 reception of boards or committees, with a president and assessors. In this group of pubhc offices the business of the cnedile, qurestor, and the revenue was carried on. The inner ambulatories at each side opened into the basihca, and there was most hkely also an entrance to it from the central court. Passing now, therefore, out of the forum proper into the basilica, the first particular which at once arrests the attention is its magnitude. Including the two tribunals, which face each other at the extreme ends, this basilica extended entirely across the forum. Its total length consequently, measuring from the outside of Its north end to the titside of its south end, was not less than 276 ft.; or, omitting the tribunals altogether, the central space was about 230 ft. long by 60 ft. wide This however, by no means fills up the plan between the wide party wall next the forum and the west exterior wall All along the whole west side of the basilica were spacious chambers (to certain of which uses have been assigned from the ariicles found within them), that at the centre being un- equivocally the curia, or principal hall of council. This latter was quite open to the basilica along its entire front was always a lofty room, and at Silchester was ascended by two steps ; the back of it was formed by a wide shallow semi- circle, so a^ to accommodate a large council board, and it was lined with a dado of white Italian marble sawn in thin slabs, and secured by small iron clamps. The largest room, however, along this range was a great apartment, 60 ft! long, which occupied the northern end, and to which, from the connection Vitruvius mentions between merchants and basihcre, the name of the Hall of Merchants has been assigned. It must not be forgotten that of tiie spacious chambers nothing remains but the outline of their several floors. To revert to the great basilica itself, it might with propriety be described as consisting really of two courts, placed ma to end. No septum or division, nor anv indit^i- Li til i l> m SIRWWffirimniiH Hig 144 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN tion whatever of one, has been discovered, but the dimen- sions (that is to say, the length as compared with the breadth) almost indicate that such was the purpose of its original designer. A Roman basilica was built upon such a plan that its nave or central area (which was very lofty) had on either hand an aisle in two stories. The lower story of the aisle was formed by a colonnade of large pillars, and the upper by a gallery behind a parapet, having along its front a range of smaller pillars, which stood symmetrically over the large ones. The colonnade below had thus to supp ot an enormous weight, and it was usual to give strength and firmness to the bases of the columns by placing them upon a massive substructural wall, which wall, built beneath the floor of the basilica, kept all the columns true to the level, and greatly aided them to bear the superincumbent pressure without sinking. At Silchester nave and aisles are obliterated, the splendid colonnade is represented by a few blocks of weather-worn shafts and by some fragments of well-wrought capitals ; but the massive substructural wall on one side of the basilica, which sup- ported its long range of pillars, remains embedded still in the ground, and is no less than 5 ft. wide. Of the corresponding wall, upon the oppposite side of the centre, not the slightest vestige has been recovered, though care- fully sought for. Portions of shafts of two sizes (as might be expected) lay about among the debris in the centre. The diameter of the largest was 3 ft, that of the smaller, i ft. 10 in. Parts of two bases have also been met with, one of them having the torus mouldings fairly marked still, but both being more or less defaced. Fragments of capitals of a very enriched style and excellent workmanship have also been discovered, but unfortunately no pieces of sculp- ture and only a few fragments of inscriptions have come to light. Much curious ironwork has been from time THE ROMAN OCCCPATIOM OK BRITAIN ,45 to time found i„ the forum, amongsl other things, th. Icevs of h. shops M, the ambulatories, the styli with which tire r desman kept their accounts, door-hinges (one especully, «h,ch appears to be made to Iceep a door closed by a spnng at the back), snap-lock bolts, rings in pairs for the handles of double doors, nails of every size and shape X small rron axe, knife-blades of various sizes, the hooks of and the blade of an oyster-knife in the fishmonger's The bronze art.cles consist principally of fibuU-e of various patterns-small armlets, pieces of a chain-bracelet with a " li Fig. 49.— Romnn Pottery from Castor (Durobriva;). (Wright.) Fig. so.— Roman Pottery from Upchurch. (Wright.) ' ' i snap, some playthings, such as a toy-anchor and tiny game- oa by balancn,g on a small sphere of metal (though none "ow extsts , a fny axe (probably one of a set of pendent to.lette maplements and studs of curiously n.odern shape Besides the shops incidentally mentioned here in the iS chapter, the visitor would probably find one „ more .oued by the Romans. Of po„,,,, ,„.„ y„j^ , have been made in this country, that of Upchurch'oTthe I i U 146 LIFE IN EARLY niUTAlN Medway, which was of a blue-black colour and hard in texture, and that called Durobrivian, from its place of manufacture (Uurobriv?e, or Castor in Northamptonshire). This was of a superior character to the other ware, being better designed and often ornamented in white relief with hunting scenes and other groups of figures or animals. Its colour was generally bluish or slaty, though vases of a dark copper hue have also been found. The potteries of this district must have been very numerous, since they are said to have extended for twenty miles along the river Nen, Fig. 51.— Samiaii Pottery. (Wright.) and to have employed at least 2000 men. A still more beautiful form of pottery found in quantities in Britain was the Samian ware. This does not appear to have been made in this country but was imported from abroad, is of a fine red colour and has a highly polished surface. It was evidently much valued by its possessors, for we find pieces which have been accidentally broken, and afterwards mended with rivets, just as a valuable piece of porcelain might be treated to-day. This ware is ornamented with raised patterns representiiig trees, animals, hunting and mythological scenes. Of one or other of tliosc kinds of pottery the most varied ■**| hard in place of lonshirc). ire, being elief with animals. vases of 3tteries of 3 they are iver Nen, « THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 147 articles niii,'ht be purchased, from a baby's bottle, for such an article has been found at Colchester, to large and beautiful bowls and dishes. Terra-cotta statuettes manufactured at Riciiborough, glass cups, bowls and beads, would perhaps have been found in the same shop. Another store which the traveller might visit was that of the local apothecary. The elaborate surgical instruments, some of them so strikingly like those still in use, which have been discovered at Pompeii, have not as yet been met with in Britain, though a surgical lancet has been found at Uriconium. ■ At several places, however, stamps have been found which were used by oculists to mark the wax on the tops of their pots of 11 still more ritain was lave been ad, is of a e. It was nd pieces afterwards porcelain nted with nting and lost varied Fig. 52.-Oculists .Stamp. The inscription is for an ointnient- " Ad Cicatrices et Aspritudines "-for scars and roughnesses. (Scot. Ant. Mus.) ointment. One of these, discovered also at Uriconium, betrays the Same touching belief in the efficacy of his remedy to cure all ills that marks the patent medicine man of our own time. It is circular and bears an inscription, which, translated reads : " The dialibanum (or eye-salve) of Tiberius Claudius, the physician, for all complaints of the eyes, to be uSed with eggs." Another found at Bath belonged to a physician called Titus Junianus, and bore a dififerent inscription on each of its four sides, so as to be used for the stami)ing of pots of ointment of various qualities. The first of these seems to have been employed in cases of cataract, the second is a cerusomae- t Ms 148 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN iM ( i1 linum, or golden ointment, the third probably an astringent eye lotion made of galls or some part of the oak, and the fourth is more doubtful in its meaning, but is said to be •' delicta a medicis," or as we should now put it, "recom- mended by the faculty." '' Passing to another part of the city the visitor would probably be anxious to inspect the baths, so essential a feature of every Roman town. So devoted were the Romans to their baths that it is said that there were at one time as many as 850 of these establishments in the city of Rome, and that some of them were capable of accommodating several thousand bathers. The Roman bath closely resembled the Turkish bath of to day, which is indeed its lineal descendant. The arrangement of such a bath is sufficiently well known to render any descrip- tion of its ancient representative unnecessary, so that it will suffice to say that in addition to the processes with which we are familiar the bather was oiled all over in the apody- terium, a large chamber where he left his clothes, and that an additional room, called the sphseristerium, was provided in which games were played and athletic exercises performed. One of the most celebrated of the Romano-British baths is that at Bath, a place long noted for its constant supply of hot water, charged with salts of great benefit in gouty ailments. The Britons, who appear to have known these waters before the coming of the Romans, had placed tliem under the patronage of one of their goddesses named Sul. This personage was equated by the Romans with Minerva, and altars dedicated to the goddess under the double name, "Dese Suliminervae," have been found at Bath. Large portions of the Roman baths have been uncovered, including an oblong bath with steps leading down into it, on which the bathers could sit, which measured 8^ ft. by 30 ft., and a circular bath 25 ft. in diameter. At Silchester extensive baths have also been exposed, no less than sixteen u . n % fi. THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 149 «■- . recom- I •a c E o c 1> c iH' r n II i iij;lil cdloinvd twisted i^iiillot lie, lomiiii^ llie whole wilhin Jl S(|liare; (heii followed ;i jMlilloi he ol ;i colder lone, wlii<'li was succeeded hy ihe lahyi iiuhiiie and llie liiaii[',iilar hiacic licis, linished hy a wide hordi-f ol greyish lessanc, which was iclii!ved by a ceiilial line ol' lew rows of the while ones. The pictorial rcpresciUatioiis ol the medallions loiined (wo scries, o\\v consisting ofgroni.s, ihe oilier ol In , ids, syiiiho- Had of the seasons, in the eeiilie is a iiiik h miililalcd "S'M'^'^' l'"ii the diinale and of their cold (loois by introducing beneath the latlcr in the hypocaubt a constant supply of lujt iiir from ^4 'i^W f** ^^^n I i6o LIFl'. IN EARLY BRITAIN I ) I i a pnv'fiirMiuiu, or furnace, tlic heat ;iikI smoke from which circulated amongst the pihu and was, in many cases at least, carried o(T through hollow bricks or llue-liles laid in the walls and terminating, as we learn from a mosaic of an Algerian house, in chimney-slacks, with pots and cowls like those of the present day. Thus not only the lloor but the walls radiated hot air and must have maintained an ecjuable and comfortable temperature throughout the house. The ui^per rooms would, of course, only be warmed by the flue tiles. As wood was almost exclusively used for fuel, there would he but little soot, and thus the ditficult task of cleaning such exceedingly narrow flues would be obviated. In towns, at least, as Professor INTiddleton [)oints out, there was a regular water supply, large k'ad mains being laid under the paving of the streets, antl rising mains branching off right and left to the houses. 'I'hese led up to cisterns on the upper floors, from whence descending supply-pipes were laid on to various parts of the house, exactly as in our modern system. Air-chambers were often introduced to diminish the risk of pipes bursting from the hydraulic pressure, the conlined air acting as a s[)ring. A cubical lead box was usually i)laced at the point where the rising main to the house branched off from the street main ; this seems rather a clumsy way of making a junction, but it apparently answered its purpose very well. Very neatly- made water-cocks and draw-taps of bronze were used, and the turncocks in the mains had movable key- handles like those now in use. The draw-ta|)s were very like those used in Italy, often formed in the sha[)e of an animal's head, with handles either fixed, or, nior.: often, movable ; they nre frequently very graceful in fv>rm. and are always vtry skilfully made ami fitted so as to avoid leakage. The interior of the walls was covered first with a layer of plaster, on which was spread a liner composition, on which 'fr' IM ^^^Ti • Tllli ROMAN OCCUPATION 01' liRITAIN i6i again were cxecLitcd, in fresco, bands or siniplr salterns in various colours. Il will iKrhaps he well to give a fairly rompletc ncrount of one villa, which may serve as an example of the dwelling- Ir .- — /I " Lb r:^J Fi<;. 58 - Plan of Clicdworth Villa. y1 , Chnmbor with tesselated riuomt'iit ; li, baili; (\ sweatintr clinmljer ; D, room with pila ot iiypocaiist ;// si/ii , /-.', i:)ia-rmniiiin or heating ciirmiber of hath; /■', possibly ii)c forgo. Hen- pigs of iron wi-m fonnd. 'Ilu' buihlings represented in the tipper pait of the figure form tiie Villa Rnstica. place of the Roman period, and for this purpose that at Chedworth, not far from C'heltenham and among.st the Cotswold Kills, may he selected. This villa occupies three sides of a sciuare, and so far as has at [)resent been made out, did not possess that part known as the I'ructuaria. In the first i)art of the Urbana were a series of rooms whose tesselated pavements are much mutilated. The larL«er a^ o ■ ~ ~ - L m -. .&"• mii9i m 1 62 I-IFIO IN EARLY BRITAIN m .hM tlicse rooms has a tesselated pavement representing a dance, apparently emblematical of the seasons, as one of the figures, which may represent winter, is warmly clad, and carries in his arms a hare or rabbit. These were probably the living rooms of the house, and next to them was the bath, which formed a part of every respectable house, and was modelled on those of the city, though of course on a much smaller scale. Tile amount of wear to which the stone ste[), leading out of the hot room, has been subjected, shows the length of time during which this villa must have been occupied, and the extensive use to which the bath was put. At right angles to this group of buildings is a second row, the Rustica, containing the rooms of the servants, also provided with baths. A small building in the grounds contains a pool, which may have been used for the storage of live fish, and an altar, and there is a lime-kiln in the immediate vicinity. The numerous pigs of iron which have been found in this villa seem to show tliat amongst the offices attached to it was a forge, no doubt a very necessary part of a Roman provincial's establishment. One of the most interesting things about this villa is the discovery which has been made, under the foundation stone of the main entrance, of the Greek letters x and p, forming in combination the first two letters of the name of Christ. A similar pair of letters has been discovered in four other instances in this villa, and their occurrence leads to the belief that its occupant was a Christian Roman. On this account some have surmised that the small building with the pool, already alluded to, may have been a baptistery, but it is scarcely probable that this is a correct explanation of its purpose. In this villa have been found a number of knives, hinges, keys, locks and spoons, also a steelyard for weighing. These and other objects connected with the villa are placed in a small museum on the spot, and all the remains have been carefully protected from cold and damp, and preserved in a m 'iri/iK^ ..rR._ IS* ; a dance, e figures, carries in he living :h, which rn odd led 1 smaller ), leading le length )cciii)ied. At right row, the provided tntains a live fish, miediate en found attached V Roman teresting as been entrance, ition the r pair of 5 in this that its nt some , already scarcely purpose. , hinges, These :ed in a ve been ^^ed in a THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN 163 manner which may serve as a model for other proi)rielors of Roman antiquities. Mention was made some pages back of the leaden water- ;)ipes of the Roman cities, and this leads to a mention of the mining operations of the Romans, which enabled them to |)rocure the lead and other minerals which they used in their numerous manufactures. Tlu^y appear to have nu-ned load extensively in the M,>ndip Hills, where many traces of their operations are visible. Indi-ed, a pavement, now unfortu- nately destroyed, which was apparently inspired by scenes of a mining nature, was found at a villa at Pitney in Somersetshire. In one of the apartments of this villa was a pavement containing, in a square, nine whole-length human figiu-es, each four feet in height. The central figure was probably that of the owner of the villa, holding a cup of coin in his hands to pay his dependents. 'J'he remaining figures were male and female alternately, and bore in their hands the different instruments still in use for smelting ore, such as rakes, forks, pincers, r.nd long iron rods, crooked' and straight ; also canisters, or smelting-i)ots, from which com is dropping. The same metal was also obtained at Snead and other mines, near Bishop's Castle in Shropshire; and a large pig of lead was found in that district, together with Roman spades in what is called the Roman Gravels Mine, which bears the stamp IMP HADRIANI AVG. and is now in the Mason College Museum. Copper mines of Roman date exist at Llanymynech in Shropshire, where, in a large shaft called tl e Ogo, or hole, several skeletons,' together with some tools and coins of the reign of Anto- ninus, were found in 1761. Similar mines have also been lound near Machynlleth in Wales. Iron was chiefly worked in the I'brest of Dean and along the Wye, where great quantities of scoria' and ashes have been found, in such # -St. 164 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ' i^ tiili bulk, in fact, at one place as to have procured for it the name of Cinderford. Under (heat Doward Hill, near the Wye, there is the remains of an excavation called King Arthur's Hall, which was a Roman mine. The Forest of Anderida, which occupied the Weald of Sussex and Kent, was another source of iron ; and in the Midlands the Roman town of Alauna, now Alcestcr, was a place where iron was smelted. Tin was worked in Cornwall before the Roman occupation, and there is no doubt that this mineral was also mined by them in the same county. It is highly probable that they obtained silver, and even possible that they may have found gold in this country. In the case of former races who have occupied this land we have seen that valuable information as to their habits and possessions has been afforded to archaeologists by the remains which have been found in their graves. In the case of the Romans we have so many other sources of information on which to rely that the interments take quite a secondary place, but they must not be completely passed over. The Romans dealt with their dead either by cremation or by burial of the unburnt corpse. In the former case the body was burnt outside the city, as cremation within the walls was forbidden by the laws of the Twelve Tables. A coin was placed in the mouth for the payment of Charon, the ferryman of the nether regions, and the body was consumed on a pyre, either in the burial ground, or, in the cases of wealthy persons, in some private place of cremation. The common burning-places were called ustrina, and remains of such have been discovered in a Roman cemetery at Littlington, near Royston. This cemetery is enclosed within strong walls, which form a square of 390 feet. At two of the corners level spaces, free from interments but covered with ashes, mark the sites of ustrina. The ashes, resulting from the cremation, were 1 Hi 4fc-- a^- THE ROMAN OCCLTATION OF HRITAIN 165 placed in glass or pottery urns, and buried with various objects, such as lachrymatories or tear bottles, lamps, vases, ^:c. A groui) of Roman tumuli called the IJartlow Hills exists on the borders of Essex and Cambridgeshire. One of of these, when opened, i)resented a wooden sei)ulchral chamber, which contained a glass vessel with charred bones 111 It, several other glass, bronze and earthenware vessels, a bronze lamp, a folding seat, and two bronze strigils, or scrapers, such as were used in the bath. Professor ^m. '^'r:^^^ ^-- -^g^ Fu;. 59. -Contents of a Roman Sepulchre cliscovei-jd ,it Avisford in Sussex. (Wright.) The square bottle, of greon "lass in the centre contained calcined bones. Around it were ananged on the floor three earthen vases with handles, several patcrt a pair of sandals (to the left) studded with luunerous hexagonal brass nails, an oval dish containing a transparent agate of the size and shape of a pigeon's egg, and a small double- handled glass bottle. Three lamps were placed on supporting projec- tions of the stone. Henslow was present at the opening of another sepulchral chamber at Rougham, in Suffolk, and has given an account of its structure and contents. It consisted of four walls of bricks and mortar, covered with a roof of tiles, the interior depth being 2 ft. 3 in. " On removing one of the smaller tiles in the upper range,^' he says, " I had the satisfaction of peeping into a chamber in which was a large glass vase, which owing to the joint effects of time and corruption had fallen to pieces ; and its fragments were now lying towards the north corner, in a confused heap, intermixed with the « i #, i^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. Zk ^ A 4^. 5r, & ^ 1.0 Si- ilii I.I 1.25 If It IIM 2.0 U ill 1.6 V] // /^ V Photographic Sciences Corporation V "Q V ^ i' % # f H '74 LIFR IN KARLV BRITAIN of the now comers, whose settlements were of n purely family kind. No doubt during the struggle of conquest they may at times have utilised some of the earthworks which they found ready to their hands, just as the Romans had done before them, and they undoubtedly threw up earthen ramjiarts themselves as temporary measures. The Roman cities and villas they either sacked and burnt, or left to crumble to decay, for, at least during the earlier part of their occupation of the land, they did not make any permanent use of them," but rather regarded them with a superstitious horror. The first fortifications which they themselves constructed were called buhrs or burgs, a word from which we have obtained our modern title of borough. These earthworks were of a totally different nature from those of the Ikitish period, being intended for the occupa- tion and defence of the lord and his household, for the protection of his tenants in case of attack, and as places where in time of war their flocks and herds might be safely housed. Sometimes tliey were perfectly new erections, in other cases pre-existent Roman ramparts appear to have been used for a part of the fortifications. Mr. G. T. Clark has given a full account of these earthworks in his " Mediaeval Military Architecture," which may here be quoted. " These works, thrown up in England in the ninth and tenth centuries, are seldom, if ever, rectangular, nor are they governed to any great extent by the character of the ground. First was cast up a truncated cone of earth, standing at its natural slope, from twelve to even fifty or sixty feet in height. This ' mound,' 'motte,' or 'burh,' the ' Mota ' of our records, was formed from the contents of a broad and deep circumscribing ditch. This ditch, proper to the mound, is now sometimes wholly or partially filled up, but it seems always to have been present, being in fact the parent of the mound. Berkhampstead is a fine example of such a mound, with the original ditch. At Caerleon, J» a piiroly conquest earthworks le Romans threw up .ires. The 1 burnt, or ■arlier part make any iL'm with a /W\ch they rgs, a word f borough, iture from le occupa- Id, for the I as places t be safely ections, in ar to have VIr. G. T. >rks in his ' here be 1 the ninth igular, nor laracter of e of earth, fen fifty or 'burh,' the itents of a tch, proper tially filled ing in fact ne example ; Caerleon, Till-: SAXON OCCUPATION ,7- Tickhill and I.inc.In it has been in part filled up- at Cardiff It was wholly so, but has been recently Pu,st care- fully cleared out, and its original depth and breadth are seen to have been very formidable. I'hough usually artificial, these mounds are not always so. Durham Uuncestun, Montacute, iJunster, Restorinel, Nant Cribba' Fig. 60.— Plan of a Burh. The mound and its ditch are at the upper part of the figure. The base-court, with rampart, ditch and entrance, are below. are natural hills ; Windsor, Tickhill, Lewes, Norwich, Ely and the Devizes are partly so; at Sherborne and Heading- ham the mound is a natural platform, scarped by art; at I utbury, Pontefract and Bramber, whore the natural plat- form was also large, it has been scarped and a mound thrown up upon it. Connected with the mound was also a l)ase-court or enclosurc,sometimes circular, more commonly oval or horse-shoe shaped, but if of the age of the mound • 176 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN always more or less rounded. This enclosure bad also its bank and ditch on its outward faces, its rear resting on the ditch of the mound, and the area was often further strengthened by a bank along ilie crest of the scarj) of the ditch. Now and then, as at Old Sarum, there is an additional but slighter bank placed outside the outer ditch —that is, upon the crest of the counterscarp. 'I'his was evidently intended to carry a palisade. The mound is either central or at other times is placed in one corner of the enclosure, no doubt with the idea of concentrating the stables and other otTices in one part and of making the mound itself a part of the exterior defences." The top of the mound was probably surrounded with a strong fence of wood, and formed the earthen keep of a primitive form of castle. In examples which can be seen in Herefordshire, Shropshire, and elsewhere, these earthworks remain un- touched, save by the hand of time, but in many places they have been utilised by the Normans when they in turn took possession of the land. In some cases the earthen bank was perhaps found to have too small an area on the top, or for some other reason to be unsuited for the purposes of the Norman builder. This appears to have been the case at Holgate in Shropshire, where the Saxon mound of remarkable steepness, but with a very small area at the top, stands between the church and the remains of the castle founded by one Helgotus, shortly after the Norman con- quest. In a great majority of cases, however, when the Norman took possession of the Saxon lord's lands, he also took over his "buhr"or stronghold, and converted it into a fortress after his own manner, by building a keep upon the mound and walls within the outer defences. Thus were formed the outer and inner baily of a castle. An artificial mound, however, such as that of a Saxon burh, had not the solidity or stability necessary for the erection of the rectangular tower keep, which the Norman used when he It also its » on the I further p of the re is an ter ditch This was lound is corner of ating the iking the 10 top of fence of : form of fordshire, main un- laces they turn took hen bank le top, or irposes of the case lound of t the top, the castle man con- when the Is, he also 1 it into a upon the rhus were n artificial 1, had not ion of the i when he THK SAXON OCCUPATION jyy was building on a perfectly new site, and of which the lower ol London presents an example. He was obliged to mod.ty his architecture and build what is called a shell keep, an altogether lighter form of building, lon.sisting of a wall, governed in its shape by the form of the mound on which it .stood, and sometimes strengthened l)y pilasters 'J'hese keeps, many of which exist in the country, point in most cases to the presence of an earlier Saxon mound and ditches. Such an earthen castle or /v//-/^ was the fortified house of a strong man; the A.// or /u,i was the enclosed and fortilied village or single large farm. The tun was I'k;. 6i.— a Rectangular Norman Keep. Fig. 62.— a Norman iShell-kecp. surrounded by a rampart and a ditch, and the crest of the former was further guarded by a palisade or by a thick hedge. Inside the enclosure thus formed lay, if it was a village, the hou.ses of the inhabitants, the smaller farms €1 ^ J i 178 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN with their cattle-sheds, barns and other offices. In the centre was either a sacred tree or a mound, at which were held the meetings of the householders for the regulation of the affairs of the village and the appointment of the village officers, of whom more will be said in a later chapter. These tuns often originated as small clearings in the virgin forest, by which they were surrounded, in which respect they resembled the first settlements of the backwoodsmen of America or any other i)rimitively afforested country. But the bands of forest intervening between neighbouring villages were jealously preserved by the Saxons as means of defence, for the dominant character of such settlements was their primitive independence one of another. Thus we find amongst the customs of the period that any person crossing the belt of forest to visit the village was bound to give notice of his coming by blowing a horn, or run the risk of being slain by the first person whom he might meet. Each of these tuns was known by the name of the real or supposed ancestor of the family by whom it was founded. Thus if Mr. Green's view as to the first-named place is correct, Birmingham was the ham or home of the Beorm- ings or children of Beorni, just as Leamington was the ton or village of the Learnings or children of Leam. Besides the earthworks just mentioned, various long lines of embankment in different parts of the country have been assigned to the Saxon period. The must imi)ortant of these is the dyke bounding, in a large part of its course, the eastern frontier of Wales, which bears the name of OlTa, and is sup- posed to have been erected by the orders of that monarch. Professor M 'Kenny Hughes has, however, thrown consider- able doubt upon this hypothesis, and thinks that it may have been the work of British, Roman or Romano-British hands, so that its exact period, as well as that of similar dykes in that and other parts of the country, must still be considered to be unsettled. m M THE SAXON OCCUPATION 179 s. In the which were igulation of ■ the village :er chapter. I the virgin lich respect kwoodsmen ;d country, eighbouring as means of settlements ther. Thus any person .s bound to run the risk night meet, the real or as founded, led place is the Beorm- .vas the ton IS long lines y have been Lant of these , the eastern and is sup- at monarch, vn consider- that it may nano British t of similar lUst still be The methods of interment used i)y the Saxons were vrrious. In the earlier times they seem to have been buried generally after cremation, in a mound erected over the remains of the funeral pyre, which was called a " blow," a word which ap- pears in names such as Ludlow, or " bearw," whence our modern term "barrow." Somewhat later, cre- mation seems to have been discon- tinued, and the body was mterred in a pit in the ground, either at full length or doubled up; and with it were buried the short knife or seax, from which the national name derived its origin, the long, douole-edged iron sword, the spear and the shield, with other articles sometimes of great value. We find this custom alluded to in the poem of Beowulf, which contains many facts of interest concerning the life and customs of the Saxons in their l)agan condition. After telling of the burning of the body of Beowulf, ii describes how they raised " A pile on the earth all unweaklike that was With war-helms behung, and with boards of the battle, And bright byrnies, e'en after the boon that he hade Laid down then amidmost their king mighty-famous The warriors lamenting, the lief lord of them. Began on the burg of bale-fires the biggest The warriors to wnken ; the wood-ropk v.t'.nt up Swart over the smoky glow, sound of the flame Fig. 63. — Angio-baxon Tomb at Ozingell. The warrior's spear is ;;t lii5 left hand, his knife at liis riglit, and tlie sword across hi^i loins. The c'nvhi marks the proijuble outline of his shield, of which the (.entrul boss alone rtiniain.;. (Thesnuru'. Cranio- rum.) { f^ i8o LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ill i 'i r ; F^ewound with the weeping (the wind-blending stilled), Until it at last the bone-house had broken." AikI after the process of cremation was over " Wrought there and fashion'd the folk of the Weders A howe * on the lithe.f that high was and broad, Unto the wave-farers wide to be seen ; Then it they betirabered in time of ten days, The battle-strong's beacon : the brands' very leavings They bewrought with a wall in the worthiest of ways, That men of all wisdom might know how to work. Into burg then they did the rings and bright sun-gems, And all such adornments as in the hoard there The war-minded men had taken e'er now ; The earl's treasure let they the earth to be holding, Gold in the grit, wherein yet it liveth, As useless to men- folk as ever it was." In some instances the Roman places of interment and even the long barrows of the Neolithic period were utilised by the Saxons for the purposes of burial, but such secondary interments can be distinguished by the character of the articles buried with the dead. Saxon cemeteries, where numerous interments have taken place, have been dis- covered in many parts of the country, as at Sleaford, where the graveyard occupied an area of 3600 square yards, and seems to have contained about six hundred graves. These were arranged in rows, each body being about ten feet from the next, and buried at a depth of nearly three feet. Most of the bodies found in this cemetery were doubled up, with the knees bent and the hands placed in front of the face. The body was laid on the left side, with the head towards the west and the face to the north. A few instances of cremation were also met with in this cemetery, the graves in these cases containing sepulchral urns, filled with calcined bones. A curious feature in this instance '-^ the complete absence of swords in the interments, no trace of any such * A mound or barrow. t Body. |i 1 1 II m .'^^ THE SAXON OCCUPATION iBi illed), ers ings i'ays, gems, ig. rment and ere utilised 1 secondary :ter of the "ies, where been dis- "ord, where yards, and L's. These 1 feet from jct. Most :d up, with the face. ,d towards stances of 2 graves in :h calcined ; complete f any such weapon having been found, though knives, buckles, brooches and other ornaments of bronze, glass, amber and ivory were met with. It will now be necessary to describe some of the com- moner weapons and other articles found in these graves somewhat more fully. The swords made of iron, with either single or double edges, were often three feet in length, and possessed in some cases highly ornamented hilts, which were wrought of silver or bronze, and inscribed with legions in runic letters, a fact which is alluded to in the poem of Beowulf. " Now spake out Hrothgar, as he looked on the hilts there, The old heir-loom whereon was writ the beginning Of the strife of the old time, whenas the flood slew, The ocean a-gushing, that kin of the giants As fiercely they fared. That was a folk alien To the Lord everlasting ; so to them a last guerdon Through the welling of waters the Wielder did give. So was on the sword-guards all of the sheer gold By dint of the rune-staves rightly bemarked, Set down and said for whom first was that sword wrought, And the choice of all irons erst had been done, Wreath-hilted and worm-adornetl." * The scabbard of such a sword was of wood, and was tipped and edged with bronze. The sword was slung from the girdle, and so also was the short, triangular-bladed knife, which was probably also used as a dagger. Of the spear, as a rule, only the iron parts— viz., the head and the ferule and spike of the lower end— remain, the ashen shaft having perished. On the breast of the corpse the shield, made of linden-wood, the yellow war-board of Beowulf, was laid flat. It is highly probable that it was originally covered with leather, but nothing usually remains of it except the * This passage, with those previously quoted from the same poem, is taken from the translation published by the late Mr. William Morris and Mr. Wyatt in the Kelmscolt edition. ij ' x82 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN large iron boss which formed its centre. Coats of ringed mail have also been met with in these graves, as well as helmets, made entirely or in part of iron or brass. These were often orna- mented with a figure of the sacred boar, or some- times with an image of ^Voden. The Saxons dis- played a remarkable skill in goldsmith's work, and many petsonal ornaments of a very high excellence have been found in their graves. Amongst the most characteristic of these are the fibulce or brooches, which are of different shapes and made of various metals. Sometimes they are circular and made ot gold, ornamented with fili- gree work and jewels, usually garnets or enamel. Fibulae of this type are believed to have been chiefly made by the Jutes. The pattern as- sociated with the Angles is that of a T, generally made of gilt bronze or brass. Fig. 64.— Anglo-Saxon Fibuloe. (Wright.) The upper right fig. was found at Sittingbourne, Kent, is of gold and set with rubies, garnets and blue stones. The upper left fig. was found at Ingarsby, near Leicester, and tliat below it at Stowe Heath, near Icklingtiam, Suffolk. The two small objects between the circular fibulre were found on Stowe Heath in Suffolk. The lowest fig. on the right was found at Ashendon, lUicks, and is set with pieces of coloured glass. and sometimes of very large The form supposed to be characteristic of is saucer-shaped, and is also made of brass Very numerous buckles have been found, and dimensions, the Saxons or bronze. also chatelaines, which, with their various pendant objects, Jirst and ceiUial point of the lioiise, a fact which Mr. G;een has insisted upon, when dealing with Saxon limes. •"I'he hall was the connnon living place of all the dwellers within the house. 1 lere the ' board,' set up on trestles when needed, furnisluil a rough table for the family meal; and when the I)oard was cleared away the women bore the wooden cups for beer, or drinking-horns, to the house-master and his friends as ihey sal on the sellles or benches ranged round ilu' walls ; while the gleeman sang his .song, or the harp was passed round from hand to hand. Here, to(j, when night came and the Ure died down, was the common sleeping-place, and men lay down to rest upon the bundles of straw which they had strewn about its floor." No doubt the single-roomed house was the earliest form, and its next development would probably be the addition of a second story for sleeping purposes. As it is interesting to see how such simple abodes developed into the stately and splendid manor-house of Elizabethan and Jacobean limes, the following account, in which Mr. Haring Gould altem[)ts such a task, may be quoted. Describing some fifteenth-century examples in his own neighbourhood, he says of one such house : '' It has stained-glass coats of arms in the hall-window. TJiis house has been used as a farmhouse for three hundred years at least, but it was originally the seal of an iniluential family in the county. Now what are its arrangements ? There is a [)orch ; from the porch you enter the hall, with a huge fueplace and stained glass in the windows ; but do not imagine a baronial hall, but a low room, seven feet to the rafters unceiled. Behind the hall is a lean-to back kitchen which, I suspect, is a latter addition. Beside the porch a dairy and larder. A winding stair of stone, and you reach the bedroom. I say the bedroom, because positively there was only one, with a huge six-light wuidow TRIHAT. AND VILI.AGE COMMUNITII'S 193 opening into if, over tli(> porch, dniry, and hall. In the hall , the faiuily sat sciuiic, ladii-s, serving; men, and maids; up- stairs let us trust with sonic sort of screen I)c;tw(!en them — the whoh; coninuuiity slept in one room. In (,)ueen Anne's time this arrangement was too primitive even for the farmer, and an additional wing was erected, with a drawing rocmi hclow and a second bedroom upstairs. Hut, no, perhaps J nm wrong in lliinking and asserting that the entire family of .S(iuire and retaiiu^rs pigged upstairs in one room ; on further considention, 1 believe that the serving-men slej)t on the benches and in the straw on the ground about the fire of tlie hall ; and very probably so did the sons of the scjuire. Upstairs he had his four-poster with cmtains around, but the daughters and servantgirls had their uncurtained truckle bedsteads in the same room. An advance was made when partitions were erected, constituting a series of bedrooms; but even then all the rooms communicated with each other. Usually this was the arrangement : in the ccMitrc of the house, upstairs at the stair-head, slept the Sfjuire and his wife; on the right hand, through a door, marched the sons and serving-men to their beds ; and through a door on the left hand trotted the daughters and the maid-servants to their beds. In a will as late as 1652 a gentleman leaves his dwelling house to his son Thomas, 'and my will is that my daughter Joan shall have free ingress, egress, and regress to the bedd in the chamber where she now lyeth, so long as she conlinucth unmarried,' which is explicable enough when we understand how the bedrooms opened one out of another, and how the master of the house commanded the approach to them by sleeping at the top of the stairs. In the parish of Little Ilcmpston, near Totnes, is a perfect example of a house of the time of Richard II. It was pro- bably a manor-house of the family of Arundell, but was given to the church, and become the parsonage. It is absolutely unaltered and is of extraordinary inlereRt. It -J J»? m ""^-^ if^ I 194 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN consists of a quadrangle, with buildings on all four sides, but the central court is only about twenty feet by twelve feet, into which all the windows look from sunless rooms. The only exception is the hall-window which has a southern aspect. The hall was heated by a brazier in the centre, and the smoke went out at a louvre in the roof. There was one gloomy parlour, with a fireplace in it, opening out of this hall. All the rest of the quadrangle was taken up with kitchen, porter's lodge, collar, and stables. Upstairs one long dormitory. The hall window, in such houses, for long remained a i)rominent feature. Often it forms a bay, and in the side of it may frequently be found a lavatory. The ladies of the house sat in this window at their needlework, whilst in the smaller houses the cooking went on at the hall fire. The hall served, as we have seen, as kitchen, dining- room, parlour, and bedroom for the men. In Elizabeth's reign the bay of the bay window became more prominent, and was even sometimes cut off from the hall by panelling. The -ceiling of the bay is low, whereas that of the hall is high, the ladies began to look to their comforts, but they had no separate fire in this bower, if their fingers became cold, they had to run into the hall and warm them at the common fire. Then, still later, came parlours as separate rooms, generally on the side of the hall opposite to the entrance, and often forming a wing projecting at right angles. At first all houses of any importance affected the quadrangle ; but the dwelling-house formed only one side of it, the others were occupied by stables, cow-houses, barns, and lodge. The windows all looked into the yard. When, however, this arrangement ceased to be necessary, because of the greater security in the country, the owners pulled down their farm-buildings and reconstructed them behind the house, so that a little sun might look in at their windows, and that they might have a little prospect out of them other than heaps of stable manure and the walls and roofs of cow- *tii M ill four sides, jet by twelve uiless rooms, as a southern le centre, and 'here was one g out of this iken up with Upstairs one uses, for long ns a bay, and Lvatory. The r needlework, on at the hall tchen, dining- ;n Elizabeth's re prominent, by panelling, le hall is high, t they had no became cold, t the common )arate rooms, the entrance, ngles. At first idrangle ; but it, the others 3, and lodge, hen, however, ecause of the ed down their , the house, so lows, and that m other than roofs of cow- TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 195 houses. There still remain, however, in certain districts on the borders of Dartmoor, a number of the early manor houses thus constructed and quite unaltered, left unaltered because their protection is needed from the boisterous gales. When the farm buildings before the house were removed, the house itself presented a perfectly plain straight front, occasionally with a plain projecting porch, but not usually. The projecting porch was erected later, because the front entrance was exposed by the removal of the farm buildings. Eliminating these erections, the earliest houses of Henry II. 's reign were plain long buildings. Then a porch was added. Next, at right angles, a set of superior apartments or a parlour was erected, and the house was changed to the shape of a capital F. Increased wealth and need of accommodation, fashion and compliment to the reigning sovereign, made the house assume the shape of H or E. But the old quad- rangles, very small, remain often where least expected. They have been glazed over, and turned into a central staircase." The centre of the village, considered as a cluster of houses, was that of the lord, and he himself was its culminating point, if it be regarded as a congeries of human beings. The lord or Thegn held his manor of the king, in return for certain services, military and otherwise, always including the three great duties, the irmoda necessitas of the Rectitu- dines, in which were summed up the duties of the various persons connected with manors. These three duties were — "fyrd," the accompanying the king upon his military expedi- tions ; " buhrbote," the aiding him in the building of his castles ; and " brigbote," the maintenance of the bridges of the district. The lord of a village may have gained it in the first place as the leader of the band of warriors who drove out its original possessors, or he may have obtained it by a grant from the crown or from some great lord, or, again, he may have carved it out for himself from the waste # «# ft ■«. 196 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN I I! forest-land which covered so much of the country. It was in the second of these ways that the abbeys became possessed of so many manors, where the abbot was repre- sented by a reeve who acted as the head of the village. The last process is perhaps the most interesting from the point of view of this book, .One can easily picture the formation of such a village by some energetic pioneer, who, having laboriously made a clearing in the forest, erected his wattle house, tilled his scanty fields, and gradually enlarged his borders and his population by the accession of fresh persons anxious to form a part of his village. Such a process must often have taken place, and its termination would be the conversion of the new village into a manor by grant of the land from the crown or the over-lord, after it had been cleared and colonised. As Mr. Seebohm points out, we get a glimpse of this process, and of the transition of the soil, from being laen-land (land granted as a benefice to a thane for life) to becoming boc-land (land of inheritance permanently made over by charter or deed), in a book written by King Alfred, and entitled " Blossom Gatherings from St. Augustine." The king describes how the forest provides every requisite for building, shafts and handles for tools, timbers for house-building, fair rods with which many a house may be constructed and many a fair tun timbered, wherein men may dwell permanently in peace and quiet, summer and winter, which, he adds parentheti- cally, is more than I have done yet. There is, he says, an eternal " ham " above, but He that has promised it through the holy Fathers might in the meantime make him, so long as he was in this world, to dwell softly in a log-hut on laen- land, waiting patiently for his eternal inheritance. So we wonder not, he proceeds, that men should work in timber felling and in carrying and in building, for a man hopes that if he, has built a cottage on laen-land of his lord's, ^vith his lord's help he may be allowed to lie liiH^. ^' w w *r TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 197 country. It :Deys became Dt was repre- village. resting from asily picture etic pioneer, the forest, in d gradually he accession llage. Such termination into a manor ^er-lord, after [r. Seebohm , and of the id granted as oc-land (land ter or deed), id "Blossom escribes how g, shafts and lir rods with many a fair intly in peace s parentheti- >, he says, an ed it through him, so long ;-hut on laen- mce. So we trk in timber a man hopes land of his lowed to lie there awhile, and hunt and fowl and fish, and occupy the laen as he likes on sea or land, until through his lord's grace he may perhaps some day obtain boc-land and a permanent inheritance. Finally, he completes his parable by contrasting the log-hut upon laen-land, and the permanent freehold " ham " on the boc-land or hereditary manorial estate. The lands around a village of the kind with which we are dealing were of two kinds. There was first the personal demesne of the lord, his home-farm, which he tilled for himself by the work of his villeins and theows or slaves, or let out for money if he pleased. Secondly, there was the remainder of the land which was held in villenage. This introduces us to the class of inhabitants known as villeins, who held lands from the lord, at his will, and in return for certain services hereafter to be named. They were the highest class of villagers and formed the jury at the Halimote or manorial court. Their holdings were hereditary, and passed by re-grant of the lord, from father to son by the rule of primo- geniture, on payment of the customary heriot or relief, exacted down to recent times, many years after the services, which the lord was supposed to have rendered for it, had fallen into desuetude. They could and did make wills, and but for certain other features of their position might have been looked upon as free men. But they had to perform certain services for their lord, and these were of three kinds : — (i) Week-work, or so many days, generally three, of labour for the lord. The amount and kind of this work, whether reaping, ploughing or otherwise, was regulated by custom. (2) Precarioe, or boon-work, which was special work performed at request and sometimes counted as part of the week-work, sometimes as extra to it. (3) Payments in money or kind or work rendered by way of rent or Gafol, with various dues, such as Kirk-scot, Hearth-penny and Easter dues. Aii these of course might iiavc been looked .-^:,r -A^tl^lc i^* t^**^ m m- ^ S^' ■1*, ■ 1 '■> \ ^Hii I ^^^^^^^^^■' ^^1 19^ LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN upon as being of the nature of rent, rates and taxes, but there were other rules to which the villeins were subject which were far more distinctly servile than those just enumerated. Thus if a villein wished to marry his daughter to any one, he had first to obtain a licence from his lord. If she lost her chastity, the father was fined, and if the village jury became cognisant of the fact and did not report it to the lord, they were all fined. No villein might sell an ox without his lord's permission, and if he left the village, he was searched for, and, when found, arrested as a fugitive and taken back. He must also use his lord's flour-mill for the grinding of his corn. A somewhat inferior class of villagers was that of the cotarii or bordarii, sometimes possessed of no land, some- times of only a garden. In other cases they had a holding possibly of only one acre, or even so many as ten, in the open fields near the village. But typically the cotarius was a cottager — indeed, our present word is derived from the earlier — who held, in addition to his cottage, five acres in the open fields. He was subordinate to the villein, did not ordinarily share in the deliberations of the manorial court, put no oxen into the village plough-team and took no part in the common ploughing. He performed services for his lord of a character somewhat more trivial than those of the villein. Below the cotarius was the servus or slave, but before dealing with him it will be well to say something about the corporate character of the village, a strongly marked feature in such communities. It possessed several officials, such as the blacksmith, whose duty it was to keep in repair the ironwork of the ploughs of the village, and the carpenter, who had charge of the woodwork. These officials held their lands free from the ordinary services on account of the duties which they performed for the community. The aflfairs of the village were arranged at the Folk moot, which was held at some sacred tree or mound or stone. -#* ■m- 10^ ^ .• xes, but there ubject which enumerated. any one, he ■ she lost her jury became he lord, they without his was searched 1 taken back, inding of his that of the I land, some- id a holding ,s ten, in the cotarius was /ed from the five acres in llein, did not inorial court, md took no i services for han those of or slave, but ly something ;, a strongly essed several was to keep lage, and the 'hese officials s on account community, e Folk moot, id or stone. TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 199 Here its officials were appointed, its lands distributed and its other business transacted. The Folkmoot was in fact a kind of village council, like those recently re-established, but with much wider powers, since it could inflict punishr ments for offences against its laws. In all the corporate life of the village the villeins took the main, often the sole share, the cotarii were sometimes allowed to assist in it, but the servus or thew was an abso- lute serf, and had no part whatever in the deliberations of the Folkmoot, however much they might affect him. The class of servi or theows, sprang, says Mr. Green, " mainly from debt or crime. Famine drove men to bend their heads in the evil days for meat; the debtor, unable to discharge his debt, flung on the ground his freeman's sword and spear, took up the labourer's mattock, and placed his head as a slave within his master's hands. The criminal, whose kinsfolk would not make up his fine, became a serf of the plaintiff or of the crown. Sometimes a father sold his children and wife into bondage when pressed by need. In any case the slave became part of the live-stock of his master's estate, to be willed away at death with horse and ox, whose pedigree was kept as carefully as his own. His children were bondsmen like himself, even a freeman's children by a slave mother inherited the slave's taint. ' Mine is the calf which is born of my cow' ran an English proverb. It was not, indeed, slavery such as we have known in modern times, for stripes and bonds were rare ; if the slave was slain, it was by an angry blow, not by the lash. But his master could slay him if he would ; it was but a chattel the less. The slave had no place in the justice- court, no kinsmen to claim vengeance or guilt- fine for his wrong. If a stranger slew him, his lord claimed the damages ; if guilty of wrong- doing, his skin paid for him under his master's lash. If he fled he might be chased like a strayed beast, and when caught he might be flogged to death. If the wrong-doer #• % ' « ■'t: . JM M -4;- w t r 200 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN l\'\ were a woman she might be burnt." No doubt the dialogue of ^Ifnc, in which the inquirer holds a conversation with a theow, represents fairly what must have been the feelings of so miserable a class. The inquirer asks, "What sayest thou, ploughman ? How dost thou thy work ? » and the ploughman replies, « Oh, my lord, hard do I work. I go out at daybreak driving the oxen to field, and I yoke them to the plough. Nor is it ever so hard winter that I dare lurk at home, for fear of my lord, but the oxen yoked, and the ploughshare and coulter fastened to the plough, every day must I plough a full acre or more." "Hast thou any comrade?" "I have a boy driving the oxen with an iron goad, who also is hoarse with cold and shouting." " What more dost thou in the day?" "Verily then I do more. I must fill the bin of the oxen with hay, and water them, and carry out the dung. Ha! ha! Hard work it is! be^ cause I am not free." The land around the village which belonged to the villeins and cottars was not cut up into fields separated from one another by hedges as is our land now. On the contrary the fields were quite open, and the separate holdings were divided from one another by narrow strips or balks of turf, so that they must have very much resembled what we are now beginning to be familiar with as allotment pieces, in the neighbourhood of many towns and villages. Roughly speaking each of these strips of land would be about an acre m sue, and arranged so as to be of the most convenient size for plougliing. Indeed, the names of the divisions by J which land is measured recall the primitive importance of , the plough, for the furlong is the " furrow-long," or the length of the furrow which the plough made before it was convenient to turn it, and as this is called rjmiren/emz in the Latin documents of the period, we gather that it con- sisted of forty rods. The word rood corresponds to as many furrows as could be made in the breadth of a rod, %i m the dialogue Jrsation with the feelings What sayest ? " and the vork. I go yoke them that I dare yoked, and lough, every it thou any vith an iron ;." " What t do more, vater them, k: it is ! be- the villeins 1 from one e contrary, Idings were Iks of turf, hat we are pieces, in Roughly 3ut an acre convenient ivisions by ortance of g," or the fore it was reniena in hat it con- ids to as of a rod, TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES to\ and four of these rods or roods laid side by side made and still make up the statute acre. Between the ends of the strips were often little bits of land, filling in disused corners perhaps awkwardly situated for ploughing. These were called " no man's land," " any man's land," " Jack's piece," or, in Scodand, consecrated as a propitiatory offering to the devil, under the name of "Cloutie's crofc," or "the gudeman's field." It is highly probable that we may find an explanation of this fact in the custom existing elsewhere amongst primitive people of leaving a patch of uncleared ground in the neigh- bourhood or even in the midst of land which they were breaking up for cultivation, such patch being intended as a place of refuge for the sylvan deities whose dominions had been invaded. The strips of arable land were arranged in three fields or areas, one of which was fallowed each year, a regular rotation of crops being thus insured. They were divided up amongst the villeins, each of whom possessed a certain number, not lying side by side as one would have sup- posed, but scattered here and there apparently at hazard over the three fields. The normal holding for a villein was called a virgate and consisted of thirty acres, ten in each of the three fields. Such a portion of property was also called a yardland. Although there seem to have been some varia- tions in this matter, as a rule there seem to have been four virgates — i.e.., one hundred and twenty acres in a hide of land. Four of these, again, were taxed forty shillings for scutage or maintenance of a knight, that area of land bearing, therefore, the name of a knight's fee. The hide was also called a- carucate, a word which is derived from the Latin caruca, a plough or plough-team. A carucate, therefore, being the amount of land capable of being cultivated by a full ox-team, which, it may parenthetically be said, consisted of eiglit beasts, may very well have varied with the nature i^' "W Jfc: ioi LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN of the soil and country, and this in fact wc find it did. We have already seen that the communal officers took charge of the village ploughs, and the beasts which drew them were the property of the villeins, the size of whose holdings determined the number of animals which each was required to supply. Thus the smallest division of land which a villein might hold was a bovate, and as this word is derived from the Latin l>os, an ox, it suggests the possession of one of these animals. Double this amount of land was a virgate, the normal holding of the villein, who must supi)ly two oxen to the team. The hide or carucate, containing four virgates, would then correspond to the full team of eight. The same system of co-operative ploughing explains apparently the way in which the pieces of land came to be scattered over the three fields. The Welsh laws relating to the co-aration of the waste, or communal ploughing, throw considerable light on this subject. Here also the team consisted of eight oxen, and all those who shared in its benefits had to supply their quota, whether of beasts or implements, which were handed over to the common ploughman. When the ground was ploughed, the first erw (a piece of ground about the size of an acre) went to the ploughman, the second to the owner of the plough irons, the third to the outside sod-ox, the fourth to the outside sward- ox, the fifth to the driver, from the sixth to the eleventh inclusive to the remaining oxen, the owners of the beasts being in each case of course meant, and, finally, the twelfth was reserved for plough-bote, that is for the maintenance of the wood-work of the plough, and thus the ''tie" of twelve erws was completed. In case of disputes as to the quality of the work done, there was a very common-sense method of settling the matter. '« Let the erw of the ploughman be examined as to the depth, length, and breadth of the furrow, and let everyone's be completed alike." It is quite easy to see how by such a division of the ploughed land, the W #! % ift> find it did. fficcrs took which drew :e of whose :h each was on of land this word is : possession land was a tiust supply containing ill team of ng explains :ame to be relating to !iing, throw the team ared in its beasts or i common le first erw ent to the 1 irons, the jide sward- e eleventh the beasts the twelfth tenance of ' of twelve :he quality ie method ighman be Ilh of the It is quite I land, the TRIBAL AND VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 263 owner of, say, the outside swardox, might have his strips scattered over the whole area and at some distance from one another. But there was yet another way in which this might have occurred, for, as Mr. C.omme has pointed out, m some cases there was an annual re-distribution of the strips by lot. He gives the following instance of how this took place up to a recent date. In the parishes of Congresbury and Puxton (Somersetshire) are two large pieces of common land, called East and West Dolemoors (from the Saxon dal, which means a share or portion), which were divided into single acres, each bearing a different and peculiar mark cut in the turf— such as a horn, four oxen and a mare, a pole- axe, cross, dung-fork, oven, duck's nest, hand-reel, and hare's tail. On the Saturday before old Midsummer, several pro- prietors of estates in the parishes of Congresbury, Puxton and Week St. Laurence, or their tenants, assembled on the commons. A number of apples were previously prepared, which were marked in the same manner as the above men- tioned acres. These were distributed by a young lad to each of the commoners from a bag or hat. At the close of the distribution each person repaired to his allotment, as determined by the apple, and took possession of it for the year. It will now sum up these facts as to the village, if we take one example of a manor, and see how it was divided, and for that purpose we may choose that of Westminster. The Domesday Book records that "in villa ubi sedet Ecclesia Sci. Petri (the Abbey) the abbot of the same place holdeth \z\ hides. There is land for 11 plough teams. To the demesne belong 9 hides and i virgate, and there are 4 plough teams. The villeins have 9 plough teams, and one more might be made. There are : 9 villani with a virgate each ; I villanus with a hide ; Q villani with a half-virgate each ; % ■•* iSk; ** 204 LIFE IN EARLY iiKITAIl4 1 I i I !! I cottier with five acres; 41 cottiers rendering a shilling each yearly for their gardens ; There is meadow for 1 1 i)lough teams ; Pasture for the cattle of the village ; Wood for loo pigs. There are 25 houses of the abbot's soldiers and of other men, who render 8s. per annum or j£io in all. In the same villa Rainardus holds 3 hides of the abbot. There is land for two plough teams, and they are there in demesne, and one cottier. Wood for 100 pigs. Pasture for cattle. Four arpents of vineyard newly planted. All these are worth 60s. This land belonged and belongs to the Church of S. Peter." It is clear from this description, says Mr. Seebohm, that the village which nestled around the new minster just com- pleted by Edward the Confessor was on a manor of the abbot. It consisted of twenty-live houses of the abbot's immediate followers, nineteen homesteads of villani, forly- two cottages with their little gardens, and one of them with five acres of land. There was also the larger homestead of the sub-manor of the abbot's under-tenant, with a single cottage and a vineyard of four half-acres, recently planted. There was meadow enough by the river-side to make hay for the herd of oxen belonging to the dozen plough-teams of the village, and pasture for them and other cattle. Further round the village, in open fields, were about one thousand acres of arable land, mostly in the acre strips, lying, no doubt, in their shots or furlongs, and divided by green turf balks and field-ways. Lastly, surrounding the whole on the land side were the woods where the swine- herds found mast for the two hundred pigs of the place. The open-field system of culture existed for many years until it was abolished by a series of Enclosure Acts, many of which were nassed durinL^ the end of the last and benin- ?h were pas iii-f^-^ for their d of other . In the There is I demesne, for cattle. tiiese are he Church bohni, that r just com- iior of the he abbot's Hani, forty- theni with mestcad of b a single y planted. > make hay )ugh-leams her cattle, about one Lcre strips, iivided by Hiding the the swine- place, nany years Yets, many ind heoin- TRIHAL AND VILLAGK COMMUNITII-S 205 ning of the present century. The Commissioners appointed for this purpose caused the fields to be re divided, hedges and roads to be made, and re-distributed the latid to those amongst whom it had previously been held. When it is known that nearly four thousand ICnclosure Acts were passed between the years 1760 and 1844, it will be understood how widely prevalent the open-field system of culture nuist once have been. In the re[)orl of the Oofter Commission of 1884 there is, as Mr. Comme has pointed out, an interest- ing account of the survival of this system, not, indeed, on what is technically a manor, but in connection with the village community living on the island of Ifeisgeier, one of the Outer Hebrides. This community consisted of ten tenants, or more properly of twelve, since two of the ten have two shares each instead of one ; these may be called the villagers. There are as officers of the community the maor, the constable and the herdsman. The maor is appointed by the lord's factor, and acts as a kind of sub- factor. The constable is elected by the villagers in a most primitive and interesting fashion. The people meet together at a gathering which is called " Nabac " or neighbourliness, or, if presided over by the maor, it is called mod or moot. The place of meeting is called Cnoc na Comhairle, the Council Hill, or Clac na Comhairle, the Council Stone. The constable, having been elected, takes off his shoes and stockings, uncovers his head, and, bowing reverently low, promises in presence of heaven and earth, of Cod and men, that he will be faithful to his trust. At Hallowtide the villagers meet and decide upon the piece of ground within their mark which is to be broken up for arable cultivation, a different piece being selected every three years, and the old ground put under grazing as before. The allotment of the land is the next process. The constable takes a rod, and diyides the land into equal divisions. At the boundary of each division he cuts a mark in the ground, which is called m. a^^^P i» 206 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN ^ I ! l! the Tore, and resembles the Government broad-arrow. A man, probably the herdsman, is then sent out from the meeting, and each of six men then put a lot into a bonnet ; the man sent out is then recalled, and the bonnet is handed to him. From this the man takes the lots and places them one after one on a line on the ground, the order in which they thus stand being the order in which the owners of the lots stand to one another, each man knowing his own mark. The two tenants who have double shares retain their two shares each ; the four other tenants sub-divide their divi- sions with four other men, whom they thus represent at the division. These sub-divisions are called Imirean or lomai- rean, rigs or ridges, and each two tenants cast lots again for the sub-divided rigs. A piece of ground is then set apart for the herdsman, which is the outside rig bordering on the grazings, and further pieces of ground are set out for the poor. Thus we find that the system of village-community which existed at least through the Saxon period has made its influence deeply and directly felt through the whole of the succeeding history of the country. The open-field system of culture has, it is true, departed, but the garden allotments and the Acts which provide for them are an attempt to keep upon the land a class of cottars very similar to those of the older manor. And it has already been re- marked that the recently originated parish councils are the lineal descendants and legitimate successors of the folkmoots of former days. In the present chapter it has been desired to give some insight into the life of the village, rather than to discuss any of the interesting problems related to it. For this and other information on the subject the reader is advised to consult the exhaustive works of Mr. Seebohm and Mr. Gomme, from which, indeed, all the facts mentioned in this brief account have been gathered. % ■j^ k.r 0^M id-arrow. A lUt from the to a bonnet ; let is handed places them der in which wners of the lis own mark, lin their two le their divi- iresent at the Ban or lomai- lots again for lien set apart dering on the t out for the ^e-community iod has made the whole of he open-field lit the garden them are an rs very similar ready been re- luncils are the the folk moots s been desired ;e, rather than ted to it. For the reader is , Seebohmand i mentioned in CHAPTER XI SOME TRACES OF THE PAST RACES OF BRITAIN Traces in Language— Physical characteristics — Names of Places. In considering what effects the various races with which this book is concerned have had on the present population of these islands, it may be well briefly to recapitulate the peoples whom we have to take into account. Omitting all the innumerable admixtures which have taken place within historic times, and turning only to the earlier races, we have at least one non- Aryan people to deal with — namely^ those of the Neolithic period. It may be that there are traces and remnants amongst us of the blood of the ancient cave-dweller of the rough Stone age ; but if so it may be said quite safely that they are unrecognisable, and there- fore to be neglected. Then we have Goidels, Brythons, Saxons, Danes and Normans all belonging to Aryan races. The Romans must be omitted from our calculations, for though it would be unsafe to say that they have left no ethnological legacy behind them, from the nature of their occupation of the country it cannot have been equal in share to that of the other races, and is apparently un- traceable. To attempt a linguistic inquiry as to the shar^ of the different races in the production of the present population is no part of the intention of this book, nor would such an attempt be very profitable. In his essay on «' Fixed Points in English Ethnology," the late Professor # ■ 2o8 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN Huxley shows how false any estimate based upon the present speech must be. "In Gaul," he writes, "the im- ported Teutonic dialect has been completely overpowered ' by the more or less modified Latin, which it found already in possession ; and what Teutonic blood there may be in modern Frenchmen is not adequately represented in their language. In Britain, on the contrary, the Teutonic dialects have overpowered the pre-existing forms of speech, and the people are vastly less Teutonic than their language. Whatever may have been the extent to which the Celtic- speaking population of the eastern half of Britain was trodden out and supplanted by the Teutonic-speaking Saxons and Danes, it is quite certain that no considerable displacement of the Celtic-speaking people occurred in Cornwall, Wales or the Highlands of Scotland ; and that nothing approaching to the extinction of that people took place in Devonshire, Somerset or the western moiety of Britain generally. Nevertheless, the fundamentally Teu- tonic English language is now spoken throughout Britain, except by an insignificint fraction of the population in Wales and the Western Highlands. But it is obvious that this fact affords not the slightest justification for the com- mon practice of speaking of the present inhabitants ot Britain as an Anglo-Saxon people. It is, in fact, just as absurd as the habit of talking of the French people as a Latin race because they speak a language which is, in the main derived from Latin. And the absurdity becomes the more patent when those who have no hesitation in calling a Devonshire man or a Cornish man an Anglo- Saxon would think it ridiculous to call a Tipperary man by the same title, though he and his forefathers may have 'Spoken English for as long a time as the Cornish man." In attributing small value to linguistic evidence as a means of help in unravelling the tangled skein of English ethnology, U must not be supposed that sufficient importance has not ■' wit' -.'^ ^^i^ ;d upon the tes, "the im- ovcrpowered ound already e may be in inted in their tonic dialects speech, and eir language. ::h the Celtic- Britain was onic-speaking considerable ; occurred in nd; and that t people took srn moiety of nentolly Teu- ^hout Britain, population in s obvious that 1 for the com- nhabitants of 1 fact, just as :h people as a g which is, in irdity becomes ) hesitation in lan an Anglo- ripperary man :hers may have lish man." In as a means of lish ethnology, jrtance has not TRACES OF PAST RACES OF BRITAIN 209 been attached to the eflbrts in this direction of the Dialect Society, which proirlae some day to throw light upon the subject ; but it is perhaps not unfair to say that the time is not yet come when a linguistic classification can be fully realised. Two curious linguistic relics there are, which may be men- tioned, of the influence of the Celt on his Saxon neighbour. The first is that of the rhyming score, which is met with in Scotland, Yorkshire, Northumberland, and in several western and central counties. It is a method adopted by shepherds of counting up to twenty in words which to them are only a meaningless jingle, but which, when examined, turn out to be nothing else than the Welsh numerals up to that amount. The explanation of this curious custom probably is that in eadier times the British slaves of Saxon lords were in the habit of thus reckoning up their flocks and that their numerals became converted into a kind of jingle by their fellows of English birth, being handed down by them to their descendants, who have lost all idea of the real meaning of the words which they use. The other instance is that of the local word ceffyl, a horse, used in Worcestershire, Herefordshire and some other counties. This is a pure Welsh word, nor need one feel much surprise at finding it in use in counties where the Saxon and the Brython must have had many dealings in horseflesh. But what is signifi- cant is the manner in which it is used, for it is employed only for horses of the poorest type, or as a word of abuse from one person to another, as when one says " you great keffil," meaning you clumsy idiot. This mode of employ- ment shows very well the feeling which the Saxon entertained for the Celt, a feeling of contempt, which led him, whilst yas*.. calling his own steed a horse, to name that of his British neighbour a keffil, and imagine that by so doing he disparaged it. That this feeling was returned with interest there can be no doubt, and in proof of it the following ^ '*m. # n 210 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN 1 1 I' , e4 \t .: quatrain may be quoted, which, though Irish in origin and therefore giving the view of the Goidel, no doubt represented that of his brother the Brython with equal accuracy. Describing the characteristics of different races the bard exclaims : For acuteness and valour, the Greeks, For excessive pride, the Romans, For dulness, the creeping Saxons, For beauty and amourousness, the Gaedhils. The most valuable data to hand for solving the ethno- logical problem are those afforded by the laborious observa- tions of Dr. Beddoes, of which large use has been made in the following sketch. In the first place, it is clear, as Mr. Elton points out, that in many parts of Ireland there are remnants of a short, biack-haired stock, probably of pre-Celtic origin. The tribal names of these peoples are in many cases taken from words for the Darkness and the Mist, and their physical appearance is quite different from that of the tall, light Celts. The same thing has been observed in the Scottish Highlands, and in the Western Isles, where the people have a " strange foreign look," and are dark-skinned, dark-haired, dark-eyed and small in stature. Campbell, in his " West Highland Tales," speaking of the short, dark natives of Barra, says : " Behind the fire sat a girl with one of those strange foreign faces which are occasionally to be seen in the Western Isles, a face which reminded me of the Nineveh sculptures and of faces seen in St. Sebastian. Her hair was as black as night, her clear eyes glittered through the peat-smoke. Her complexion was dark and her features so unlike those who sat about her that I asked if she were a native of the island and learned that she was a Highland girl." Again, in many parts of England and Wales the people are short and swarthy, with black hair and eyes, and with long, narrow heads. This is found to be the case not only in the ancient Siluria (comprising the • 4 h in origin and ubt represented qual accuracy, races the bard TRACES OF PAST RACES OF BRITAIN !II aedhils. zing the ethno- )orious observa- een made in the ar, as Mr. Elton re are remnants •re-Celtic origin, any cases taken Mist, and their hat of the tall, )bserved in the ^sles, where the re dark-skinned, Campbell, in the short, dark t a girl with one casionally to be inded me of the St. Sebastian, .r eyes glittered n was dark and her that I asked led that she was of England and with black hair rhis is found to (comprising the modern counties of Glamorgan, Drecknock, Monmouth, Radnor and Hereford), but in several districts in the fen- country, and in the south-western counties of Cornwall and Devon, with parts of Gloucester, Wilts and Somerset. The same fact has been noticed in the Midland counties, in districts round Derby, Stamford, Leicester and Lough- borough ; where we might have expected to find nothing but a population with light hair and eyes, and where " the names of the towns and villages show that the Saxon and Danish conquerors occupied the district in overwhelming numbers." That such people may be the representatives of the Neolithic inhabitants of these islands is at least possible, if not highly probable. When we come to try and decide the exact nature of the population of any given district we approach a most difficult and unsatisfactory problem. That there are differences in physiognomy and in bodily characteristics must have been noticed by any traveller through the country who has taken the trouble to keep his eyes open. Such an observant traveller may find himself remarking with Mr. LLirdy that some flexible mouth which he has seen never "came over from Sleswig with a band of Saxon pirates, whose lips met hke the two halves of a muffin," but if he tries to push his investigations further and say where it did come from he is at once encompassed round about with innumerable difficulties. It will, therefore, only be attempted to point out in a very general way some indications, which Dr. Beddoes thinks he has been able to perceive, as to the nature of the population of some of the districts of England. Li the Shetlands, for example, the population is unquestionably largely Norse in its origin, though there are other elements mixed with it.^^ In the Lewis there are three types : the large, fair, comely Norse type, said to exist almost pure at Ness in the north part of the island ; the short, thick-set, snub-nosed, dark-haired, often even dark-eyed race, which Dr. Beddoes thinks may |*«*i.1i,vr,. ±12 LIFE IN EAKLY BRITAIN Si^ be possibly Finiiisli, whose centre is at Barvas; and the West Highland type, which has gradually lillcrcd in, and is usually characterised by an athletic figure of medium height, a bony face, long sinuous pointed nose, grey eyes and dark hair. The Norsemen have also had their influence on the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, in which there are many Norse names, especially that of Sneefell, the highest mountain, which is purely Norse. Indeed there is another instance of the fact constantly under our eyes, though recognised by few, and that is the title of the Bishop of Sodor and Man. The Hebrides were called the Sudreyjar, or southern islands, by the Norsemen, and the See which they founded was united with that of Man in the eleventh century, and made dependent on the Archbishop of Drontheim in Norway, by whom, till 1334, the Episcopi Sudorenses were always consecrated. The Bishop of Sodor and Man still retains his titular supremacy over those southern islands which have long ceased to have any other connection with him. Beyond this influence Man is strongly Goidelic, as is shown by the tongue, the people's names and their ideas. These instances of comparatively isolated spots have been cited, in order to show how much admixture there is of races even in those districts where we should expect to find the strain most pure. Even in Aranmore, an extremely isolated island on the west coast of Ireland, Professor Haddon found a mixed race, some of the islanders even having French blood in their veins. It will not be difficult from this to understand how great the admixture of races must be in places Where for centuries there have been so many and so various currents of popula- _^^f^ tion constantly ebbing and flowing. Speaking generally we may say that we find the largest amount of Celtic blood on the western side of the island and notably in Wales and Cornwall, and that of the rest we find the Danish influence most marked in those parts of the country which are to the ■imiii rvas ; and the ncd in, and is ; of medium ose, grey eyes their influence liieh there are ;11, the highest ere is another eyes, though the Bishop of the Sudreyjar, the See which n the eleventh 'Vrch bishop of the Episcopi ishop of Sodor icy over those to have any iuence Man is le, the people's comparatively how how much tricts where we ire. Even in le west coast of •ce, some of the • veins. It will how great the :e for centuries rents of popula- ng generally we Celtic blood on ' in Wales and )anish influence rvhich are to the TRACES OF PAST RACES OF BRITAIN 213 north of the Watling Street and towards the east coast. But even here groat limitations must be placed. Some counties were much more comi)letely colonised by the Danes than others, and of these Leicester may serve as an example. Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire are Anglo- Danish, the latter element being particularly strong in Lincolnshire as far as to the border of the Fens. The northern part of Cambridgeshire, known as the Isle of Ely, is said to contain a considerable streak of British blood, a fact which may be explained by what we know of the inaccessibility of its isles and deep marshes and waters at a much later period. Norfolk and Suffolk, on the other hand, are more Anglian than Danish or British. On the other side of Watling Street the amount of Celtic blood mixed with the Saxon varies very much in different parts. In Warwickshire, for example, there is apparently a very strong admixture of Celtic blood, a fact which has been dwelt upon by those who attribute a strong Celtic strain as no inconsiderable factor in the genius of Shakespeare. Nor is it difficult to understand the fact of this admixture, in that district, for we know that the great Forest of Arden, which covered by far the greater part of the county, was one of the fastnesses occupied by the fugitive Britons, long after they had been dislodged by their Saxon adversaries from more accessible spots. In fact, Dr. Beddoes thinks that it was a band of the Britons of this district which united with Ceolric, the Saxon king, at the battle of Wanborough, in 591. If this be so it would show that they were living on terms of neutrality, if not of friendship, with the Saxon invaders, and under these circumstances, they may well have increased their numbers and by intermarriage with their alien neigh- bours have introduced a strong infusion of their blood into the dwellers in the Arden district. East Worcestershire was one of Ceawlin's colonies, so that there is a large amount of ,^ ^m^-,...,^ ' 214 LIFE IN ICARLY BRITAIN Saxon blood there. Derbyshire and East StafTordshire are Anghan, and so are large parts of Clieshire and Shropshire. But on the Dee and along the west of Shropshire the British population must have formed a considerable element, especially in isolated districts like that of Clun, where many of the names are still Welsh. The same remark a[)plies to the whole of Herefordshire, of which, indeed, Archeafield, the trans-Wye country, and some portions of the west border, beyond Offa's Dyke, were never colonised by the Saxons. Dr. Beddoes particularly insists on the long con- tinued reflux of the \Velsh over the whole of the Marches, which has rendered the preponderance of their type, especially amongst the lower classes, very conspicuous. The influence of this double race in the double town of Shrews- bury has been alluded to in another chapter. Dr. Beddoes considers that in the central part of Oxfordshire the West- Saxon type is very strong, and hence, extending up the valley of the Tiiames, it affects a great part of the Cots- wolds, the hill country of Gloucestershire, and even the Severn valley as far as the Severn. The city of Gloucester is supposed to have survived its conquest by Ceawlin, and its markets and streets stand pretty much on tlieir original sites. To the Forest of Dean, the part of the county beyond the river, applies what has been said of Hereford- shire. The peculiar customs of the miners of that district date back to a Roman, or perhaps even to a pre-Roman period, for it was very early an important mining centre, and the physical type of the inhabitants does not seem to have appreciably altered. The hair is generally dark, the head long, the cheek-bones prominent. The Severn, adds the rne writer, is a distinct ethnological frontier; the con- trast between the country people in the Eastgate side of Gloucester on a market day, and those who come across the bridge from the Forest side, is extremely striking. In the north and east of Kent Teutonic types preponderate, with * '?f ^#» TRACES OF PAST RACES OF BRITAIN ^^5 fordshirc are 1 Shropshire, ropshire the ible element, where many rk a[)plies to Archea field, of the west lised by the he long con- thc Marches, their type, )icuous. The in of Shrews- Dr. Beddoes re the West- ding up the of the Cots- nd even the >f Gloucester Ceawlin, and :heir original the county of Hereford- that district I pre-Roman g centre, and eeni to have irk, the head rn, adds the er; the con- tgate side of come across [king. In the nderate, with light or brown hair ; one in particular, with very prominent profile, is claimed by some observers as Jutic, and is said to be frequent also in the Isle of Wight and the Meon district, near Southampton. There is more British influence in Romney Marsh and the neighbouring part of the Weald. Chichester and Suffolk generally are, as may be supposed, strongly Saxon. The type possesses regular features, elliptical head and face, brows moderately arched, nose straight, often rounded or bulbous at the point, mouth well moulded, complexion fair and transparent, eyes well open, iris seldom large, of a beautiful clear blue, but sometimes brown or hazel, hair flaxen or brown of various shade, seldom bright, curly or abundant. Hampshire also, another centre of Saxon colonisation, bears witness to the fact by the blonde character of the population. In Devon, and still more so in Cornwall, we find more and more traces of British influence. Thus, here is a mixture of races in all parts, and, to conclude this sketch, it may be added that the conquests of Ida, the Flame-Bearer, and the Bernicians, filled the Lowland parts of Scotland with Saxons, so much so, that to this day the English tongue is preserved with greater purity in what is called Southern Scotland than in any other part of the kingdom. From what has been said it will be understood that in many parts of the country there have been Celtic influences at work from the beginning, modifying the purity of race of the Saxon colonists, and, in addition to these, in estimating the real nature of the race, the return wave of Celts, which has been so long spreading over the country, must be taken into account. When these two sources of Celtic influence have been properly appraised, it will be seen that the population of England is very far .^,,., from being as Anglo-Saxon as it is popularly supposed to be. In fact it may with reason be said that the families in England which do not contain more than a streak of Celtic blood must be comparatively very few. Jfei-Ar ^' ■^ hi i 216 LIFE IN EARLY BRITAIN I ) The cvidcnrc Avhich is gained from the names of places tells the same talc of the occupation of the country by various races. Of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of the country it cannot be said that there are any certain traces of this kind, Init of both l)ranches of the Celts we find them in abundance. Taking first the C.oidelic wing, and choosing examples mainly from England, we have the river names derived from the Gaelic word nisge, water, a word which we are most familiar with under its very slightly altered form of whisky. From this word come the Esk, the Usk and the Ouse, also the Exe, for Exeter was the Isca Damno- niorum of the Romans, and the first part of its name was the Latinised form of uisgc. As might be supposed the greater number of Celtic names in England are Brythonic, but Canon Taylor has pointed out that there is a thin stream of Goidelic names which extends across the island from the Thames to the Mersey, such as Dunmow, Ouse, Ben Rhydding, which, he thinks, may indicate the route by which the Gael traversed the country as he was driven west- ward by the invading Brython. The last-mentioned name reminds us that Ben is the characteristic Goidelic name for a mountain, and is met with in numerous instances in Scot- land, the land of the Gael. Fen, on the other hand, is the equivalent Brythonic word, and occurs with frequency in Wales. The leading Brythonic word for a river is a/on, meaning water. This word forms the name of several rivers in England, such as that which runs through Stratford-on- Avon, and it is quite easy to see how several isolated bands of Brythons might each describe the river of their own district as " The Water." In Wales the word is found in its proper place as the prefix to some specific name, such as Afon Llugwy or Afon Lledr. In England we speak of the River Avon, one of various pleonasms which have arisen by the re-christening of a place by successive occupants ignorant of the meaning of the term which they found in I'Ji* *«P TRACES OF PAST RACES OF BRITAIN 217 imcs of places 10 country by of the country traces of this find them in and choosing Q river names a word which y altered form the Usk and I sea Damno- ; name was the ed the greater hythonic, but thin stream of and from the r, Ouse, Ben the route by is driven west- ntioned name lelic name for ances in Scot- r hand, is the frequency in river is a/on, ' several rivers ; Stratford-on- solated bands of their own i is found in name, such as i speak of the 1 have arisen ive occupants they found in use on their arrival. A good instance of this is that of the hill at the head of the Yarrow, which is named Mount T.en- jerlaw. The original Celtic name was Ben-yair, the moun- tain of the Yarrow, to this the Saxons added their word Maitf, also meaning a hill, and finally in Norman times the Latin word //ions gave it the prefix of mount. So that the whole name when analysed means, hill (Norman) hill (Celtic) Yarrow hill (Saxon). Another Brythonic word, dun, a hill fortress, which in Wales is Dinas, enters into the formation of some names and did so in Roman times, as in the case of Dunum, and Camulodunum. Cwm, combe, a valley, another Brythonic word, occurs fre([uently in Somerset and Devon, where, as we have seen, Celtic in- fluence was always strong, and is met with as The Cwms in Shropshire, in the name of the valley east of Caer Caradoc. Canon Taylor points out that the words for church form a good index of colonisation, when they enter, as they so frequently do, into the names of places. In Goidelic this is kill, a word met with in no less than 1400 Irish places, of which Kilkenny, the Church of St. Canice, will serve for an example. The same word is met with in Scotland with considerable frequency and also in Wales, though, as every one knows, the Brythonic term- llan is the more common prefix in that country. The Anglo-Saxon aWe becomes softened into church, but as that word is also English it is no test of colonisation. The .Danes hardened the same word into ki'r/c, and that prefix is met with in sixty-eight cases in the Danish district, as for example in Kirby, the church village, and Kirk Oswald, though it is scarcely ever met with in parts untouched by the influence of the Danes. Amongst Saxon words that of Ion, the palisaded village, anjj^. l^t^r/i or borough, the house of the strong man, occur with great frequency, though both of them are used as suflixes and prefixes to towns which no longer preserve the condi- tions of the places to which they were origin.ally assigned. % .*fr 1,^*'-%;.S )i8 LIFE IN F.AKLY nRITAIN i ! 1 I Roman name; have almost entirely disappeared, though Spina; seems to linger under the form of Si)ecn and Castra Legionum under that of Caerieon. Ikit the word casira under one or other of its corruptions enables us to recognise many places which were originally Roman cities or settle- ments. Canon Taylor has drawn attention to the curious modifi- cations of the word castra, which has been altered in different ways in consonance with the dialectic peculiarities of different parts of the kingdom. Throughout the regions of Essex, Sussex, Wesscx, and other Saxon districts the form Chester is usual, as in Colchester, Godmanchcster, Grantchester, Rochester and Winchester. As we pass from the Saxon to the Anglian district we find Chester replaced by caster. In one instance at least the two forms are met with in close proximity. Northamptonshire, which is Danish, is separated from Huntingdonshire, which is Saxon, by the river Nen. On the Saxon side of the river we have the village of Chesterton, confronted on the opposite side by the town of Castor, both names recording the existence of the Roman station of Durobrivoe which guarded the bridge over the river. Throughout the Anglian and Danish districts generally we find the term caster, as at Doncaster, Lancaster and Caistor. As we pass from East Anglia to Mercia, which, though mainly Anglian, was subject to a certain amount of Saxon influence, we find the word becoming cester, which is inter- mediate between the Saxon Chester and the Anglian caster. The e is retained, but the h is omitted, and there is a strong tendency to further elision, as in the cases of Alcester Worcester and Gloucester. Beyond the Tees, where the fianish and Mercian influence ceases, we find the Saxon form Chester again in use, as in Lanchester and Chester-le- Street. Towards the Welsh frontier the c or ch becomes an x and the tendency to elision becomes very great, as at Wroxeter and Exeter, really (and in Camden's time actual!") Execester. # *• TRACl'S OF PAST RACES OF HKITAIN ired, though 1 and ('aslra word castra to recognise ies or settle- ious modifi- d in different !S of different lis of Essex, form Chester Irantchester, he Saxon to i by caster, with in close is separated ; river Nen. e village of the town of ' the Roman ver the river, generally we and Caistor. lich, though nt of Saxon lich is inter- glian caster. B is a strong of Alcester, where the ! Saxon form ter-le- Street, omes an x, atWroxeter, ') Rxecester. 219 These names on the \\'clsh frontiers exhibit a gradual ai)[)roximation to the form which exists where the Hrythonic speech survived. Mere the / also disappears and we get the word caer as in Caer ( !aradoc, ('aerleon and (,'aernarvon. Perhaps the most important Danish contribution to place names is the suffix />y. By or l>yr originally denoted a single dwelling, or a single farm, and we have it still in Scotlfind as the name of a cow-stall. By degrees, like the suffixes ton and ham, it came to have a larger meaning and denoted a village. Instances of this occur in the words (Irimsby, Whitby, Derby and Ashby, and a group of such names testifies to the strong 1 )anish influence which formerly prevailed in the Wirral peninsula. Lastly, a few of the Norman names may be mentioned, which marked the in- fluence of the last conquerors of England. Such are Malpas in Cheshire, Ikaudesert in the Forest of Arden, Beaumont in Oxfordshire, and the Abbeys of Beaulieu, Jervaulx, Rievaulx and Gracedieu. It is no part of the object of this book to deal with the influences of tiie various races v/hich have come under con- sideration, on the national literature and character. To attempt any task of this kind would demand an extension of its limits beyond those which have been contemplated. But those who would wish to find a succinct account of this part of the subject can with great advantage consult Mr. Arnold's book on Celtic literature, where they will find the subject dealt with in that critic's most luminous manner. I. m t: APPENDIX A LIST OK PLACES LM ENGLAND ILLUSTRATING OBJECTS DE:3CRI13ED IN THE TEXT This very imperfect list is inserted in the liopc tliat it may be of service to those wlio wisli to study practically some of the objects described in the preceding pages. In a few instances, of which mention will be made, archaeological surveys of counties have been made and published by experts in the pages of /] rchccologia. When this work has been carried out for the entire country, it will be possible to compile a far more complete and accurate list than the following. The atten- tion of readers may also be called to the lists of Roman Remains in England which will be found in the pages of the ArcJucological Review. Local archajologists are rc(]uested to pardon the errors of omission and counuission which they may find, and to comnnuiicate the same to the author, to be incorporated in a second edition, should such be called for. Bedford. — Earthworks {Brit.), Risinghoe Castle, Cainhoe Castle, Maiden Bower (Dunstable), Titternhoe Castle, Wahid's Bank ; Saxon cemetery, Sandy. Berkshiue. — Kemains of chambered barrow, Weyland's Smith's Cave (close to the Icknield Street, and in the neighbourhood of many barrows, and of the well-known ♦'White Horse " and Blowing-Stone); British village, Stanlake; Earthworks (L'nV.), Uflington Castle; {Rom), Grimsby Castle (Newbury) j Saxon cemeteries, Abing- rr 222 APPENDIX I don, Fulford. Museum (containing specimens from Silchester) at Reading. Buckinghamshire.— Earthworks {Brit.), Kimble Castle (EUesborough), Cholesbury ; Saxon cemetery, Dinton. Cambridgeshike.— Earthworks (Rum.), Chesterton ; (Sax.), Orwell, Wilbraham; Dykes, Devil's, Balsham, Brent Ditch, Haydon Ditch. Museum at Cambridge. Cheshire.— Earthworks {Brit.), Bucton (Stalybridge), Kcls- borough; (Sax.?), Eddisbury; General Koman anti- quities, and Museum at Chester. Cornwall. — Dolmens, numerous, the best are: Trcv'cthy Quoit, Zennor do., Pendarves do., Chun do., Lanyon do. ; Stone circles or avenues, The Hurlers (Liskeard), Boskednan circle, Nuie Maidens (Boscawen), Dawns Maen ; the Crick stone (Lanyon) is a holed stone ; Cliff castles with loose stone ramparts, Treryn Dinas (near the Land's End, and containing the Logan stone), Castel-an-Dinas, and Chun Castle ; Earthworks and circular hut-dwellings, numerous. Cumberland (For full list see Archccoloi^ia, vol. 53, pt. ii. p. 489).— Stone circles,, Penrith, Castle Rigg (Keswick), Dean Moor, Whitbeck, Burn Moor; Pit dwellings. Castle Carrock, Denton ; The Roman wall and its forts ; Saxon moated mounds in various places, e.g., Bleatarn ; and Earthworks at Egremont Castle. Derbyshire.— Caves, Poole's Cavern at Buxton, Robin Hood's, Church Hole, Cresswell Crags ; Stone circles, Arbor Low, Nine Ladies' circle, Stanton Moor, Hob Hurst's Hut, Baslow, BakevvcU ; Earthworks {Brit.), Melandra, Mouslow; Saxon cemeteries, Cowlon, Standlow. Devonshire.— Caves, Kent's Hole, Torquay, Brixham ; Stone circles, Grey Wethers, Gidleigh (Dartmoor), Merivale, do. (also an avenue and dolmen), Scor Hill Down, do. (avenue), Cas Tor, do., Spinster's Rock (dolmen), Drewsteignton ; Bridge over East Dart, at Portbridge; Villages {Brit.), Grimspound (Dartmoor) and elsewhere ; Earthworks, Prestonbury Castle (Dart- moor), Sidbury, and Henbury Castles (Sidinouth). HiillliJM-;. ^J^. mi^ ciinens from iinble Castle tery, Dinton. erton ; (Sax.), Isham, Brent dge. bridge), Kels- loman anti- re : Trevethy , L any on do. ; rs (Liskeard), wen), Dawns oled stone; larts, Treryn ng the Logan Earthworks /ol. 53, pt. ii. igg (Keswick), t dwellings, ivall and its lus places, e.g., Castle. uxton, Robin tone circles, 1 Moor, Hob trorks {Brit.), ies, Cowlon, ay, Brixham ; 1 (Dartmoor), en), Scor Hill (inster's Rock East Dart, at id (Dartmoor) y Castle (Dart- mouth). APPENDIX 223 Dorsetshire. — Earthworks (Brit.), Maiden Castle (Dor- chester), Hod Hill, Badbury Rings, Eggardon, Rawlsbury (on Bulbarrow), and many others; Villages {Brit.), Woodcuts, Turnworth, and many others; the Cerne giant, near Cerne Abbas (possibly Celtic work) ; Bomao remains at Dorchester and Wareham (the latter altered by later races) ; Pavement, near Weymouth. Museums at Dorchester and Farnham (General Pitt- Rivers Museum). Durham. — Cave, Heatherj^ Bum (where many bronze implements have been found), Lanchester, a Roman station, altars from which are in the Chapter Library at Durham ; Saxon cemetery at Castle Eden. Essex.— Deneholes (remarkable pits in the earth) are found in this county ; Colchester, general Boman remains. The Bartlow Hills, Boman tumuli. Museum at Saffron Walden. Gloucester.— Long barrows at Uley, Nether Swell, Bellas Knap (Winchcombe) ; Earthworks, Kemerton Camp (Bredon Hill), and many others on Cotswolds ; general Boman remains at Cirencester (Museum) ; Villas at Woodchcster, Chedworth (with Museum), and Spoonley; Earthworks at Godwin's Castle (Painswick) ; Saxon cemetery at Fairford; remarkable Anglo-Saxon chapel at Deerhurst. Hampshire. — Earthworks {Brit.), St. Catherine's Hill (Winchester), Beacon, and Ladle Hills (Kingsclere), Quarley Hill (Grateley), Buckland Rings (Lymington) and elsewhere ; general Boman remains at Por- chester, Silchester (small Museum) ; Villas at Caris- brooke and Brading (Isle of Wight) ; Earthwork, Egbury Castle; Saxon earthwork, Hengistbury (Christchurch^) ; Cemetery, Chessel Down (Isle of Wight). (Note: Objects from Silchester at Reading Museum.) Hereford.— Cave, King Arthur's Cave (near Symond's Yat) ; Dolmen, King Arthur's Seat (Dorstone) ; Earth- works, Croft Ambrey, Camp on Herefordshire Beacon (Malvern), Wall Hills, Ledbury ; Boman vallum and w w J%% ::W *sr vv£i 224 APPENDIX 1: ditch at Leintwardine, Camp at Brandon (near same place), Oll'a's Dyke. Muscuiu at Hereford. Hertfordshire (For full list see Archceologia, vol. 53, p. 245). ■ — Earthworks {Brit.), Anbury Camp (Redbournj, Thcsficld ; general Bomau remains at St. Albans ; Camps at Royston, Thesfield, Kilsmore Bank, Cheshunt ; Cemetery at Littlington (Royston) ; The Grimsdyke. Huntingdonshire. — Boman camps at Alwalton, Earith, and Chesterton. Kent (For full list see A rcJueolof^ia, vol. 51, p. 447). — Dolmen, Kit's Coty House (Aylcsford) ; Stone circle at Adding- ton ; other megalithic remains at Aylesford, Addington, and Coldrurn ; British camp, Darenth ; general Boman remains at Ricliborough, Dover (Museum), and Lynine ; Cemeteries at Canterbury and Chart ; walled do., Loose; Camps, Roman Codde (Kingsdovvn), Queens- borough ; numerous Saxon cemeteries, of which that at Osengal is the most celebrated. Lancashire.— Caves, Grange-over-Sands, Kirkhead (Cart- mel) ; Stone circle, Lowick ; Boman camp, Dalton ; Moated mound. Aldington. For list of objects in northern part of county see Archccologia, vol. 53, p. 531. Leicestershire. — Stone Circle and Barrows, near High Tor, Charnwood Forest; Boman wall, at Leicester (Museum in same town) ; Saxon cemeteries at Ingarsby and Bellerden. Lincolnshire. — Boman gate and general antiquities at Lincoln (Museum). Middlesex. — The reader will scarcely require to be reminded of the collections in the British Museum. Indications as to the position of the Boman remains in Loudon will be found in the guides to that city. Monmouthshire. — General Boman remains and amphi- theatre, at Caerleou-on-Usk (Museum). Norfolk.— Pit dwellings, between Sherringham and Wey- bourne ; Lake dwellings, Wretham, near Thetford ; Boman earthworks, Castle Acre (Caistor), Burgh Castle, and others. Museum at Norwich. Northamptonshire.— Earthworks {Bylt.), Castle Dykes w m m '^' itiquities at APPENDIX 225 (Farthington), Hunsborougli, Dane's Camp (Harding- stone); Roman, Borough Hill, Irchester, Burg Hill (Towcester), afterwards used by the Saxons, Castor. Museum at Northampton. NoRTHUMBERLAND.-Cromloch at Lordingshaws; Earth- works (Brit.), Old Rothbury camp, Bywell, do., Chester Hill, do. (Belford), Easington, and Spindleston (the last three all afterwards modified by Romans) ; the Roman wall, forts, and earthworks; Roman remains at Newcastle-on-Tyne (Museum); remains at Hexham Church; Piers of Roman bridge over Tyne, near Belfield. Museum at Alnwick Castle. NoTTiNGHAMSHiKE.— Camp in Sherwood Forest. OxFORDSHiRE.-Stone circle, Rollright; also dolmen, and at Lnstone (Hoarstone) ; the Devil's Quoits at Stanton Harcourt ; remains of a Roman villa at Northlegh Rutland.— Roman camp at Great Chesterton. SHRopsHiRE.-Stone circles, Marshpool, Mitchell's Fold • and a third, near Stapcley Hill; Menhir, near Clun, and on Glee Hill ; Earthworks (Brit.), Caer Caradoc, Stretton, and do. Knighton, Bodbury, Bury Ditches, &c. {Rom. ?), Norton Camp, Craven Arms, Nordy Bank ^lee); remains of Roman city of Uriconium- Mmes at Llanymynech and Snead. Museum at Shrews- bury. SoMKRSETSHiRE.-CavesatWookey.Burrington and Cheddar (at Cough's Cave, Cheddar, is an interesting collection of objects, of Stone, Bronze, and Romano-British periods which have been found during excavations); Stone Circle, Stanton Drew; Chambered barrow, Wcllow (Stoney Littleton) ; Hut circles. Brent Knoll, Worle Hill, Dolebury ; Lake village, Meare, near Glastonbury ; Camps, Dunster, Cadbury (Clevcdon), Maesbury, Ham- don Castle Neroche, Dolebury, Worlebury, and others; Bridge over Barle, Tarr Steps, near Winsford; general Roman remains at Bath, including Roman bath Museum; Roman camp, near Dunster, Masbury and Hamdon camps were altered by the Romans; Villa at Wellow: Roman aTni->Viit>>'>"^v^ '^i- ■ u ■ -r...j,^tix5/i*wc*i;rw, uiianerhouse-ou- I I « ^. ■^:p.. 326 APPENDIX if Mciulip. Museums ;it T.uintdu .uul Glastonbury (the latter coutainiu}; an interesting coUectiou of objects from the lake village at Meare). Stai'Fokdshike. — Thor's cave, near Ashbourne; Pit dwellings, Wetton, Cauldron, Alstoneiield, Stonrtoii, Ilani; Earthworks at Knave's Castle, near Lichliekl, and elsewhere ; Saxon low, near Tittensor. SuM'OLK. — Flint quarries, Grimes Graves, Brandon; Lake dwellings, Barton Mere (Bury St. Ednumds) ; Roman tumuli, Eastlow Hills (Rougham). Surrey. — Earthworks (Dyit.), Cardinal's Cap (White Hill, near Caterham) ; Caesar's Camp, Wimbledon. Sussex.— Earthworks and flint mines, Cissbury (near Worthing); Roman villa, Bignor; Saxon cemetery, High Down. Warwickshire.— Kingstone, Menhir, at RoUright; Camp, The Mount, near Shirley; Earthworks (Rom.?), Har- borough Banks, Oldbury, near Mancetter (Manduessedam, where Roman relies and a pottery station |iave been found). Westmokkland (For full list see Archivoloi^ia, vol. 53, p. 521). — Stone circles, Shap, Crosby Kavenhurst, Ravenstonedille ; Earthworks, Ashby Scar; camp, tumulus, and village, Harbynrigg ; (Rom.), Ambleside, Maiden Castle, on Stainmore ; (Sax.), Kendal Castle. Wiltshire.— Long harrows, Lugbury (and dolmen). West Kcnnctt, the King Barrow, near Borcham ; Dolmen, the Devil's Den, Clalford Bottom, near Marlborough; Hut circles, Fishcrton, and elsewhere ; megalithic re- mains, Stonehcnge (near which are very many barrows and earthworks), Avebury (Silbury Hill and barrows in neighbourhood); Earthworks, very numerous, e.g. {IJrit.), Barbury, Chisenbury, Yarnbury, Scratchbury, and Battlebury camps ; {Rom.), Old Sarum, Knooke, Round- way Castles, Mildenhall (Cunetio) ; The Wansdyke ; remarkable Anglo-Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon. Museums at Devizes and Salisbury (the latter containing a magnificent collection of pre-historic objects). WoRCESTEKSHiKE.— Earthworks {Brit.), Cadbury Banks, n > ^•wl :Mi i*. ^ >"^ l» ^>»— . 1 1 *^>»— '-^ APPENDIX 227 Woodbury (?), Wall Hill (Thornbury) ; (Rom.), Kcmnscy. Museum, Worcester. YoKKSHiRE.—Victoria cave, near Settle, and others in neigh- hood, Craven, Kirkdale; megalithic remains, the Devil's Arrows, near Boroughbridge ; Menhir, the Kud- stone, near Bridlington; Pit dwellings, Danby Moor, Lgton Grange, Killing Pits (near Gothland), Harwood Dale, Inglcborough ; circular earthworks, numerous, ^.^., Blois Hall, Thornborough, Alinonbury, near Huddcrs- field ; General Eoman remains, including the mul- tangular tower and wall at York; also Roman remains at Tadcaster and Aldborough. Museums, York, Leeds, Scarborough, Whitby. Wales, N.-Caves, Perthi Chwareu (Denbighshire), Cefn, near St Asaph; Stone circle, Penmaenmawr ; Dol- mens, twenty-eight in Anglesea, of which the best are, Plas Newydd, Bryn Celliden, and Bodowyr; Cairn or carnedd in district of Llyfni, near Clynnog; many earthworks, e.g., Moel-y-Caer (Flint), Caer Gybi, Port- hamel, Bwedd Arthur (Anglesey). Wales, S.-Caves, Long Hole (Glamorgan), Paviland (do.), Hoyle (Tenby, Pemb.); Dolmens, Pentre Ifan (Pem- broke), Arthur's Quoit (Gower, Glamorgan) ; numerous naenhirion and many camps, e.g., Ludbrook (Chen- stow) ; Roman amphitheatre, &c., Caerleon; camp at Penlan, near St. David's. ^ Isle 01. MAN.-Long barrow at Ballaglass; Stone circle nearCorra,inMaughold; Pit dwellings, Cronk Airey Circular huts of stone, Glen Darragh, Mount Murray ' ..^ , ''f,'rrrr!!r!r-r' I I i I ■ 1^' =■" -I ti ) i I':: 'li * I I «5^' ■# *.'>;■■ APPENDIX B LIST OF BOOKS WHICH MAY BE CONSULTED IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJECTS DEALT WITH IN THE PRECEDING PAGES Dealing chiefly with the Stone Period :— 1. " Cave Hunting." By Prof. Boyd-Dawkins. Macniillan &Co. 2. " Early Man in Britain." Same author and publisher. 3. " Prehistoric Times." By Sir John Lubboclc. Williams & Norgate. 4. "Ancient Stone Implements." By Sir John Evans. Longmans. 5. " Man before Metals." By N. Joly. Kcgan Paul. 6. " British Barrows." By Canon Greenwell. 7. " Flint Chips." By E. T. Stccvcns. Bell & Daldy. 8. "Grave-Mounds and their Contents." By H. Jewitt. Groombridge & Sous. Dealing chiefly with the Bron/e Period: — The works of Dawkins and Lubbock as above. 1. "Ancient Bronze Implements." By Sir John Evans. Longmans. 2. "Ancient Scottish Lake Dwelhugs." By Munro. ^r Douglas. 3. " Lake Dwellings." By Keller. 4. " Celtic Britain." By Prof. Rhys. S.P.C.K. 5. "Stonehenge and its Earthworks." E. Barlby. D. Nutt. '^ APPENDIX 229 Dealing chiefly with the Roman Period:— 1. " Roman Britain." By Preb. Scartli. S.P.C.K. 2. " Roman Remains," Ed. by L. Gomme. Gentleman's Magazine Library. 3. " Romano- Britisli Mosaic Pavements." By T. Morgan. Whiting. 4. " Cirencester." By Buckman and Newmarch. 5. " Uriconium." By Corbet Anderson. J. Russell Smith. 6. " Roman, Celt, and Saxon." By T. Wright. A. Hall Ivins. Macmillan Sir John Evans. s." By Munro. Dealing chiefly with the Saxon Pefuod: — 1. Wrif,'ht. As above. 2. "The Making of England." By J. R. Green. Mac- millan. 3. " Anglo-Saxon Britain." By G. Allen. S.P.C.K. General :— I. " Origins of English History." ByCJ. Elton. Quaritch. 3. " Ttie Village Community." By E. Seebohm. 3. " The Tribal Community." Same author and publisher. 4. "The Village Community." By L. Gomme. W. Scott. 5. " Ethnology in Folklore." By the same author. Kegan Paul. 6. " The Origin of the Aryans." By Canon Taylor. W. Scott. 7. •' Names of Places." By the same author. 8. "The Races of Britain." By Dr. Beddoes. Arrowsmith. g. " English Archaeologists' Handbook. By H. Godwin. Parker. 10. "Archaeological Index." By J. Y. Akerman. J. R. Smith. 11. "Pagan Ireland." By Wood-Martin. Longmans. (Gives a good account of corresponding times in the neighbouring island.) 1^ n I 'X / GENERAL INDEX Abyss, outcry over tliff, 189 A'laninan, 64 Adclpliifls, Hisliop, 172 *^!dlian, Kinif of Dilriada, \j /lilfric, Dialoj^ues of, '^oo A:ll(^ 12 yEthrlfritli, Kinij, 16, 17 yt-'-thelthryth, St., 15 Afon (wator), 216 Alban, St., 171 Albiona, 64 Albion, 64 Alfred, KiiiEf, t8, 184, 196 Alltnds (alii lis), 189 Altars, Rojnan, 150 Altar-ston*!' at Stonolienge, 100 Aniphithoalres, Roman, 129, 136, 139, 140 Amulets, stone, 44 ; bono, 60 Angles, 12 Anglo-Saxon villnqfes, 177 ; inter- ments, 179; swords, 179, i8r; cemeteries, 180 ; spears, 181 ; shields, 181; mail, 182; orna- numts, 182; glass, 183; manu- scripts, 184 j religion, 184 ; churches, 184 Antoninus, Itineraries of, 123 " Any-man's land," 201 Apodyterium, 148, 150 "Arabian Nights," the, 116 "Arch-Druids Barrow," 108 Architecture, Anglo-Saxon, i86 Ard-Ri of Ireland, the 190 Aries, Synod of, 172 Arnold, Mr. M., 219 Art of cave-dwellers, 28 ; of Neo- lithic period, 48 ; of 15ronze period, 90; Anglo-Saxon, 184 Arrow-heads, stone, 42 ; late use of, 80 ; bronze, 80 Arthur or Artorius, King, 16, 63, 170 Aryan languages, 9 Aryans, characteristics of undivided race, 68 ; and non-Aryan races, 114 Ash-sap given to ch'ld, 6g Auguralorium, the, 127 Augustine, St., Blossom Gatherings from, igf) Anielins .'Xnibrosius, 102, 170 .'\wls, Hint, 22; bone, 28 Axes, rough stone, construction of, 23 ; neolithic, 38 ; how jiolishcd and handled, 40; perforated, 42 ; bronze, 80 ; how handled, 83 Bahy's bottle, Roman, 147 B.ulagas, 1 1^ Barrows, long or chambered, 49; " arch-drnid's," 108; roumi, iii; legend about, 113; Saxon, 179 Base-court, 175 Basilica, Roman, T3T, 134, 143 liasques, Q, 64 Baths, public Roman, 148; private, 162 Bay-window, 194 Beads, of fossil shells, 24 ; of glass. n Bear, 36, 120 Bearw (borrow), 179 Beaver, 36, 120 Beddoes, Dr., 210, 211, 213, 2x4 Bede, the Venerable. "13 Beer, Britisli^ ji Ben (a momuaui), 216 Beorni, 178 Beowulf, 179, 180, 181 Bergyon, 64 Bishop of Durham, his lumting- lodge, 190 .<"' ■ '" 'X, Black-haired races in Great Britain, 210, 211 Blossom Gatherings from St. Augus- tine, 196 Boann (Goddess of Boyne), 114 ' y-h m- TG?" ■i]\ ^^^^maamm 'Jf^T ^^^^^^^^^B ■ . ;: -1 i H m HI 1 •''^ 33a GENERAL INDEX Boar, wIM. 36, tao ; Sfirn-d, 182 Boats of Nfolithic period, 36 Boo land, 190 Itoldon book, tlio, 190 Bona dea, ii6 Boniface, St., 56 Boon-work, 197 Bonlarii, 198 Boroiij^li, 217 Boroiif^li-lMiglisb, 3 Boiidicca (Moadicea), 117 liovati", 202 Brachyc<>pl)aly (round-lieadcdnoss), 116 Brenliin of Wales, 190 Breton tongue, 70 Brozonec, 70 Bridal veil, 4 Bridfics, Celtic, 95 Bri^'bote, 195 British trackways, lai Britons, 10, 70; flight before Saxons, 13 Brittones, 69 Broca, Professor, 60 Brocmael, Prince of Powys, 16 Bronze, 69, 80; arrow-heads, 80; celts, 80; how handled, 83; im- plements, 84 ; swords, 88 ; spear- heads, 88; pins, 86; caukhons, 89; methods of casting, 89; articles of Roman period, T45 Brooches, Anglo-Saxon, 182 Bruce, Dr. CollinguoofI, 166 Brythoneg, 70 Brythonic, race, 10, 69; meaning of word, 70; place-names, 216 Buckles, Anglo-Saxons, 182 Buckmap, Professor, 158 Buhr, Anglo-Saxon, 173, 177, 217 Piuhr-bote, 195 Bulb of percussion, 23 Bulleid, Mr. A., 76 Burial-places, Neolithic, 49; position of dead in, 57; other objects foundin,5c); PVonze.iii; Roman, 124, 164; Anglo-Saxon, t8o By or Byr(a cow-stall), 219 CiflESAR, Julius, 116 Camden, 120 Campbell's y West Highland Tales," 2IO "• Camps of Bronze period, 93; Ro- man, 94, 125, 126 Caraulus, 113 Canoes in lake village, 177 Canute, King 125 124, 164; 4 Caratacos (C'aractacus), 95 (larausius, 169 Carpentry nf lake-villagers, 78 Cnruiati', aor, 20a { asting of bronze, methods of, 89 Castra (a cami)) exijloratori,!, itc. 126 ; corruptions of word, aiB Cauldrons, bronze, 89 Cavalry b.trracks, Roman, 131 Cave-dwellers, 7; bodily nimains of, 31 ; social lif(;, 33 (Vawlin, King of the West Saxons, 1'), 18, 173 Ceflyl (a horse), use of term, 209 Cellic worship of tlie oak, 104; funeral customs, 112; reli>;i()n, 113; suffixes and |>refixes, 173; blood predominant in the West of iCng- land, 2T2; generally throughout England, 215 .,*• Celts, the people, g ^ Cemeteries, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, 180 Centwine, King, 172 Ceolric, i3, 213 c;hambered barrow, 49 CMiaron, coin for, 164 ( Miatelaines, An^lo-Saxon, iQa Chieftainship of tril)e, 189c Children's games, 3 ^- Chisels, bone, 47 Christ, monogram of, in Roman villa, 162 Christening feasts, ceremonies at, 68 Christian churches in Roman cities, 129, 132 Churches, Christian, Roman, 129, 132 ; Anglo-Saxon, 184 ; Norman, 191 Cinders, trampling the, 63 ( inque Ports, the Warden of, la Circe (a church), 217 Circles, stone, 54, 96 Cities, Roman, 127 Civilisation, Roman, 168 ; Anglo- Saxon, 186 Clarke, Mr. G. T., 174 (-1 audi us, 10 Climate of England in Neolithic period, 36 ; British, 71 ; Roman, 119 Clotliing of Bronze period, 90; suit found in Jutland, 91 " Cloutie's croft," 201 Co-aration of the waste, 20a Coffms, Roman, 166 Cold-harbours, n l^;*.' i^ *«. ■^ i^ -#v.- iUagors, 78 nctliods of, 8f) :i)loiiitoii,i, &c'. of word, ai8 8y Ionian, t.u xlily iTiuains of, le West Saxons, of term, 209 t!u' oak, 104; [2; R'lif^ion. 1 13; ices, i/j; blood II' West of I'^iiK- ally throughout n. 124, 164 ; 49 4 Saxon, lOs e, 189 C of, in Roman ceremonies at, n Roman cities, , Roman, 129, ,184; Norman, ;hp, 63 'arden of, la 7 > I, 168 ; Anglo- 74 \ in Neolithic 1, 71 ; Roman, Deriod, 90; suit II ste, 20a ■ «1H lIl Iil llilMtK GENERAL INDEX 233 Columba, St., 17, 69, 64 Combs, wi'uviiiK, 48 Comes Litoris Saxonici, ra Commonwealtii, the S^'cret, 44 Comus, 114 ("onmael, King, 16 Coote, Mr., 170 Copp«T-ii lines, Roman, 163 Cores, Ihnt, 23 Cormae, King of Cashel, 64 Corniih tongue, the ancient, 10,70 Cotarii, ig8 Crannogs, 71 • Irish late use of, 72 ; Scotch do., 73; St. Margaret's, 73; Wilde, .Sir W.. on, 73; Mr. Wakeman on, 74 ; Dr. Mnnroon, C ranz on Greenland burials, 58 Cremation, in, 164, 180 Crofters, 205 Cruithneacii, 10 Cryptoporticiis, 155 Cultivation in open fields, 200 Curia, the, 143 Curmi (cuirm, cwrw = beer), 71 Customs, funeral, 112 Cwm (a coombe or valley), 217 DANES,(he, 18 Danish intlueneepn English race, 212 Dawkins, Professor Boyd, 8, 13, 25, 31. 36, 6s, 1 13 Decuniana porta, 127 Deities, tutelary, of Neolithic race, 61 Deneholes, 223 Destruction of ancient buildings, T35 Dinas (a hill-fortress), 217 Diodorus Siculus on Britiish dwell- ings, 71 Dion Classius on Boudicca, 117 Distribution of land by lot, 203, 205 Disused bits of land, 201 Dobuni, 65 Dogs of Neolithic people, 66 1 )ol ichocephaly (nan o w-headed- ness), 65, 116 Dolmen, 49 " Diuidical altars," 49 Druidism, 61, 62, 114 " Dug-out" boats, 36 Dun (a hill-fortress), 217 Durham, the Bishop of, his hunting lodge, 190 Dykes, Anglo-Saxon, 178 Eagle, Roman legionary, 131 Ealdhelra, St., 144 Earrings, 87 Kastt-r dues, 197 J'^borius, Bishop, 17a Kcglierht, King, 17 JOIf-sliots, 44 Elton, Mr. V. J., 3, 61, 128, aio Enclosure Acts, 204 I'^rw (an acre), 202 i'lskimo, relation to palivolithic man, 31 Euskarians, 9 J':vans, Mr. A., 54, 96, 102, 109 i'vans Sir John, 21, 23, 38, 57, 82, 85, 86, 89 Fairiks, 184 ; and nioundr, ^6, 113 l-'airy dar(s, 44; know, 113 Fariiiinacl, King, 16 Fauna of iCngland, pal.-e jlitliic, 19; neolithic, 36; of Roman period, 120 Female rites, British, 115 I'lbulae or brooches, 182 I'igures of men and animals found in caves, 28, 29 I'inger-rings, 87 I'laking of Hints by pressure, 24 Mint impleiiients, rough, 20; method of construction of, 22; use in religious ceremonies, 46; manufactories of, 46; saws, 66 Flue-tiles, ii;6, 160 Folk-lore in general, 5 ; of stone weapons, 44; of the RoUnght stones, loS ; of menhirion, ni Folk-moot, 198 Forests of Britain, 119 Forum, the Roman, 130, 141 Fosse, 92 Funeral customs, Celtic, iie " Furrow-long," the, 200 Fyrd, 195 Gauhelic race, 10; place-names, 210 Gaelic-speaking people, 10 Gafol, 197 Games, children's, 3 Gamme, the, of ihe F^apps, 55 Gargantua, 114 Garson, Dr., 32, 33, 65 Gate of RoQ»n city, i^ Gavelkind, 3 Geography of England, palasoliihic, 17 ; neolithic, 35 Giants' Dance, the, 102 Gildas, 13 Giraldus Cambrensis, loa m' c»^i'Jfel^a?jll:i.^-tt l^^;i;tl lr jg^ 234 GENERAL INDEX I-. 3. 45- ^'3. TT^ 191, 203, 205, 206 Glacial poriod, s Ciodiva's rid<\ explanation of story, 115; tiio bl.ic'k (jodiva, 116 Goemavjog, 114 GoKmayog, 114 (ioidds, 10, 69 Uoninu;, Mr. (}. 114. 139, TflS, Goninii", Mrs , 4 (lonld, iiarint;-, 192 (iraves, Roman, 16 4 ; y\nglo-Saxon, 179 Gray's Inn flint, 20 Cin'i'ii Ciravt'l, song of, 4 (ii.'on, Mr. J. R.,'13, 125, 131, 172, ^73< T7S, T92, loc; (irccnvvfll. Canon, 47 (ircy '.A'tiicrs, yS (irinding-stoiies for axes, 39 " Guidrnan'.'; l''ield," tiic, jog Guest, Dr., i6 II ADDON, Prof., 212 Hair, Hrilisli method of wearing, cjr> Halimoti^ 197 Hall, tlie, 192 Ilall of Mercliants, the, T43 Ham, the, io6 Hardy, Mr. Tiionins, 2tj Harpoons, bone, 28 Ileartii-penny, 197 HecatiKUS, 102 Hengist, 12 Henslow, I'rof., T6q Hercules, tiie laboins of, 64, T41 Herodotus, on the P(ronians, 79 Ilickes, Dr., 44 Hide ofland, ti;e, 201 Hoarstone, the, no Hlaw, 179 Hope, Mr. St. John, 151 Horsa, 12 House, tiie primitive, 190, T91 Iluglies, I'rof. M'K., 178 Human sacrifices, 61 Ilimting lodge of the Bishop of Durham, 190 Hut circles, 37 Hwiccas, 18 Huxley, I'lof., oa Ethnology of Britain, 208,1 ^ Kyginus, T2Qr '^ Hyperboreans, 102 Hypocaust, 134, 156 ; skeletons in, 134 Takn, or iron language, 64 Iberians, y, 65 Ma, King, t2, 2t.i; Ilhimiiiaiions, Anglo-Saxon, 184 Iminan, 200 Implcmems of savage races, 7 Ine, King, 17, 173 Interments, Roman, 164 ; Anglo- Saxon, 179 lomireau, 206 Irish lilk, the, 36 Iron works, Roman, 163 Itineraries of Antoninus, 123 ivernians, 9, 64 JoYCK, Mr., 141 Julius t!;esir, 10 Jimior right, 3 Jutes, T2 Jtitic inlluence on 215 Briiish races, Kkrp.s, Norman rectangular, 176; shell, 177 Kelly, Mr., 69 " Kenilworth," SirW. Scoit's novel, S2 Khasis of Bengal, tin-, 106 Kill (a churcli), 217 Kin, the, 187 Kiu-wrocke(i man, 188 King's men, the, 107 King's jieace, the, 122 Kingstone, the, ro3, no Kirk (a churcli). 2t7 Kirk, tlie Rev. R., 44 Kirk-scot, 197 Kiss in the ling, 3 Knight's fee, ji, 2or Kuruiubas, the, 1 14 Kyndylan, King, 16, 21 Kyning, 70 LAnouRS of Hercules, 64 I-abnini, 11^2 Lachi ■yinatori''S, 166 Laen-land, 196 L.'ike-dwellings, 71 Lamps, stone, 47 ; Ro?nari, 166 Lancet, surgical, 147 Land, distribution of by lot, 203, 205 Lang, Mr. A., 57 Lapp Gamme, the, 55 Lapps, the, 114 Lavcr, 152 Lead, pigs of, 163 Leaden obji-ets in lake villages, 78 Leg.d methods a'l'smvivals, 2 Legions, Roman, 154 ':-%.•*, ,;;# .# *'it>m0t^ Iw ^' -Saxon, 184 1; r.u'cR, 7 164 ; Anglo- 163 HIS, 123 Hriilsli r;iro;lo-Saxon coats of, iRa Mrinor-houso, dcvdopnirnt of (he. 192 Manorial court, 197 Mnnor, tlu! lord of the, 195 Manor of Westminster, ' its con- stituent i)arts, 203 Manors belon^inj^ I'o abbeys, 196 Mansioiies, i'_>.} Mamifacture of fjjnt inipiemcnts 22, 40 ' ^,^ Mamiseripts, Anplo-Saxon, 18.1 .' Mass, the, 151 Maxiniius 'I'yrins, 104 MclMiery, the Rev. J., 25 Mead, 7t M;:nhir(I'l. Menihirion), ito; folk- loH! of meniliirioii, 1 1 1 Merchants, Hall of, 143 Merlin, 102 Metempsychosis, 62 ; relics of belfels in, 63 Methe},rlin, 71 Middi(;ton, I'rof , 160 Mil<-stoi)(s, koniaii, 124 Milliaria (milestones), 124 Milton's " Comiis," 114 Mines, koman, 163 Mor«:,iii, Mr,, 158 Morlot, Mons., 40 "Mota," the, 174 Monnds, Anglo-Saxon, 174 Munro, Dr., 74 NiCANDKRTtlAI, sknll, 31 Necklaces, 92 Neck rests, 92 N(!edle bone, 28 Neolithic race, 8; definition of term, 19 ; bodily characteristics 65; social life, 66 Newmarch, .\b-., 158 Nilsson, on Swedish interments Nodens, 113 "No man's" land," 201 Norman use of Saxon motmds, 176 ■ keeps, 176, 177 Nors(! influence on population. 212 Noverejc, 126 Numerals, Welsh, 209 235 Oak, Cnltic worship of, 104 Dciih'vfs stamps, 147 Offa, Kin),' of Mercia, 17 Open-field culture, :•<») OniauKMits, personal, of dwellers, 34 ; neolithic, HrilisI), 92 Oi|.h<'us, i_sS Ostorius Scapula, 131; Outcry ovs, Prof., 10, 64, 69, 104 Rings, finger and ear, 87 River-drift men, 7 ; bodily remains, 24 Roads, Roman, how made, 122 Robin Ilood, 120 Rogers, Prof. Thorold, 191 Roland, 109 RoUendrice, 109 Roman occupation, nature of, 11; arrival, 10; departure, 11 ; roads, 122 ; stations, 124 ; camps, 125, 126 ; cities, 127 ; shops, 130, 134, 142, 145 ; eagle, 131 ; tombs, 137 ; amphitheatres, 129, 136, 139, 140 ; bronze articles of, 145 ; pottery, 14s ; baths, 148; temples, 150; theatre, 152; walls, 151, to6 ; legions, 154 ; sewers, 154; villas, 155; mines, 163; graves, 164; civihsation, 168 Runic letters, 181 Rabrina, 114 Sacred tree, 178, 179 Sacrifices, human, 61 Samian pottery, T46 Sarsen stones, 98 Saws, flint, 06 .. Saxons, 12; Utthrs, 173; suffixes and prefixes, 173 Scrapers, flint, 22 Seax (short knife), 179, 181 "Secret Commonwealth," the, 144 Seebohm, Mr., 189, 196, 204, 206 begontian Hercules, 14* Sepulchral monuments and Stone- henge, 103 Servusor slave, 198, 199 Sewers, Roman, 154 Shakespeare's Celtic blood, 213 Shell-keep, Norman, 177 Shield, Anglo-Saxon, 179, 181 Shops, Roman, 130, 134, 142, 145 Silentiary, the, 190 Silius Italicus, 117 Silures, 65 Siluria, tlie ancient region of, 210 Skene, Mr., 16 Skull, the Neanderthal, 31 Smith, Captain John, 24 Social hfe of cave-dwellers, 33", neolithic, 66; Hiitish, 117 Sodor and Man, tlie Bishop of, 2H Spear, Anglo-Saxon, 181 Spear-heads, bronze, 85 4 Sphoeristerium, 148 .# Spindle-whorls, 48 f Stations, Roman, 124 t Statuettes, terra-cotta, 147 % Statins, 128 Stevens, Mr., no Stone-circles, 54, 96 ; in Arabia, 55 Stone-worship, 56 Stones, great, method of removal, 106 Stonesfield slates, 156 Strabo, 61, 116 Stukeley, 106, 107, 113, 13S Sul, 148 Sul-Minerva, 148, 150 Suspensura, 156 Swarthy races in Great Britain, 2it Swords, bronze, 85; Anglo-Saxon, 179. 181 Syenite stones at Stonehenge, 100 Synod of Aries, 172 Tacitu.s, 65 Taranis, 113 Taylor, Canon, 2x6, 217, 218 Temples, Roman, 150 Tesselated pavements, Roman, 136, 157. 163 Teutates, 113 Thadioc, Bishop, 172 Theatre, Roman, 150 Theon, Bishop, 172 Theow (a thrall or slave), 197 Thor, 184 Thor's hammer, 43 Thothotpu, statue of, its removal, 106 Tb.-Qwing-stones, 42 i ■M * ^- GENERAL INDEX Thunder-bolt, 43 Thurnam, Dr., 54, 58,116 Ihurneysen, Dr., 12 Tingle-stone, no Tin-mines, Roman, 164 Tomb-stones, Roman, 137 Ton, the, 177, 217 ; as a suffix, 172 Torques, 87 ; Gaulish, 88 ; name of lorquati, 88 Toys, Roman, 145 Trackways, British, 121 Trampling the cinders, 68 Transmigration of souls, 6i Tree, Sacred, 178, 198 Trepanned skulls, 159 Triads, the Welsh, -189 Tribal communities, 187 Tribe, the, 187; entrance of stranwrs into, 187 ; relation of strantrers to. 189; chieftainship of, 189 Iribunal, the, 127 ■Trinor'-i nccessitas, 195 Tumuli, Roman, 165 Tun, the (or ton), 177 Twelve -I ablos, the laws of the. 164 Tjjlor. Dr., 114 ' ^ UiSGE (water), 216 Urus (wild ox), 36, 120 Valerius Maximus, 61 Vallum, 92 Veil, the Bridal, 4 Villa, the Roman, 155 Village, Anglo-Saxon, 177; forma- ^7 tlon of, 196 ; lands around, 197 200 ; plough-team, 198 ; officials! 198 ; council, 198 Village community of Heisgeier, 20.; Villeins, 197 ; duties, 197 ; disabih- ties, 198 Virgate, 201, 20a Vitruvius, 117, 143 Wager of battle, 188 Wakeman, Mr., 74 Walhouse, Mr., 114 Wall, of a Roman city, 129 loc ■ the Roman, 154, i66 ' ' War-board, the, i8i Warden of the Cinque Ports, 12 Warrior's stone, 42 Waste, co-aration of the, 202 Water-pipes, Roman, 160 Watling Street (the Milky Way), 17 Wealhas (strangers), 17 Weaving, 48, 67 Week-work, 197 Weights for weaving, 48 Welsh numerals, 209 Whispering Knights, the, 107 Wilde, Sir William. 73 William the Conqueror, 12c: Window-glass, Roman, 15.^ Woad, staining bodies with, n6 Woden, 182, 184 Wolves, 36, 120 Worship, of oak, Celtic, 104 ; of stones, 56 I Yardlands, 201 ''^ •€ % ^f ^^ ■t',! INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES {Obsolete names are printed in italics) iv n I ^11 Abbkville, 20 Aberffraw, 190 Abingdon, 221 Ablington, no Abury, 104 Acling Street, 122 Addington, 224 ^.scanduiic {sec Ashdown) Akeman Street, 135 Alauna [ice Ai.cester) Alcester, 123, 164, 218 Aldborough, 227 Aldington, 224 Aldus M'Galdus, tomb of, 42 Almondbury, 227 Alnwick Castle, 225 Alstonefield, 226 Al Walton, 224 Ambleside, 226 Ambrey, Croft, 93 Amiens, 20 Anderidai Forest of , 120, 164 Andrcdswcald, the, 120, 164 Angeln, 13 Anglesey, 227 Aqua Suits [sec Bath) Arranniore, 212 Arbor Low, 222 Archeafield, 214 Arden, Forest of, iig, 171, 213 Arthur's Cave, King, 223 Hall, King, 164 Quoit, King, 227 Round Table, King, 140 '*'" Seat, King, 223 Ashbourne, 226 Ashby Scar, 219, 226 Ashdown (^scandune), 121 Ashendon, 182 Atcham, 15, 132 Aubury Camp, 224 Avebury, 104, 113, 226 Avening, 58 Avisfoid, 165 , Avon, River, 216 J Aylesford, 50, 224 Badbury Rings (Mons Badonicus), 15. 223 Badonicus, Mons {see BADBURY) Bake well, 223 Ballaglass, 227 y. Balsham Ditch, 222 4. Barbury, 226 ^^ Earle River, 96 Bartlow Hills, 165, 223 Barra, 210 Barton Mere, 226 Barva?, 212 Bascluuch {Ikissa's Churches), 16 Baslow, 222 Bassds Churches {see Baschukch) Bath {Aijua Sulis), 124, 147, 148, 150. 225 Battlebury, 226 Beacon Hill, 223 Beaudescrt, 219 Beaulicu, 219 Beaumont, 219 Beckham pton, 105 Belfield, 225 Belford, 225 Bellas Knap, 223 Bellerden, 224 Benjerlaw, Mount, 217 Ben Rhydding, 216 Berkhampstead, 174 Bevere, 121 Beverley, 121 Bignor, 226 Birmingham, 119, 178 Bishop's Castle, 163 11 :m: ?. m^ * •*v #• .■«*= INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES :es Badonicus\ vdbury) rches), i6 kSCHURCH) 4, 147, 148, Blois Hall, 227 niowing-stone, 221 Bodbury Ring, 225 Bodnor, 227 Borcovicus {see HousESTEADs) Boreham, 226 Boroughbridge, 227 Borough Hill, 225 Boscawen, 222 Boskednan Circle, 223 Bowness, 166 Boyne, River, 114 Bradford-on-Avon, 184, 226 Blading, 223 Bramber, 175 Brandon, 46, 224, 226 Bmnodunum {sec Leintwardine) Bravinium {sec Leinxwakdine) Bredon Hill, 223 ' Brent Ditch, 222 Brent Knoll, 225 Bridgeness, 153 Bridlington, 227 Bridport, 121 Brixhani, 222 Bryn Celliden, 227 yr-Ellylbn, 121 Broadway, 121 Buckland Rings, 223 Buckle Street, 121 Buckland Camp, 222 Bulbarrow, 223 Burgl) Castle, 224 Hill, 225 Burn Moor, 222 Biirrington, 225 Bury Ditches, 225 Bury St. Edmunds, 226 Buxton, 222 Bwedd Arthur, 227 Cadbury Banks, 226 Camp, 225 Caer Caradcc, 95, 219, 225 Gybi, 227 Caerleon-on-Usk {Isca Silunim), 124, 129, 140, 150, 154, 174. 218,' 219, 224 Caernarvon, 219 Ccesar's Camp, 226 Cainhoe Castle, 221 Caistor, 15, 218, 224 Cakaria {sec Tadc aster) Calicva Attrebatum (see SlL- CH ESTER) Camboritian, 15, 129 Cambridge, 222 Camulodiiuum {see Colcuestek) 230 Canterbury, 224 Cardiff, 175 Cardigan Hay, 35 Cardinal's Cap, 226 Carisbrooke, 223 Carnac, no Cartniel, 224 Castel-an-Dinas, 222 Castle Acre, 224 Carrcck, 222 Dykes, 224 Eden, 223 Neroche, 225 Rigg, 222 Cas Tor, 222 Castor, 146, 218, 225 Caterham, 226 Cauldron, 226 Cefn, 37, 227 Cerne Abbas, 223 Chalbury Hill, 95 (.'harlton Abbot-s, 57 Charnvvood Forest, 120, 224 Chart, 224 Charterhouse-on-Mendip. 22c; Cheddar, 225 Chedvvorth, 161. 172, 223 Cheltenham, 161 Chepstow, 227 Cheshunt C:amp, 224 Chessel Down 223 Chester {Dcva), 16, 120, 154. 222 Chester Hill, 225 Chester-le-Street, 218 Chesterton, 218 2^-^ z'^a Chichester (A',y«,,;;j, ^^q Chisenbury, 226 Cholesbury, 222 Christchurch, 223 Chun, 51, 222 Church Hole, 222 Stritton, 95, 121 Cinderford, 164 Cuencestor {Connliim), 124, iqr ./40, 157, 158, 223 '^^' Cissbury, 226 Clatford Hottoni, 226 Clee Hill, 225 Clevedon, 225 Clichy, 25 Clun, 1 10, ■214, 22!^ ^'^' Clyde, Finh of, 168 Ciynnog, 227 Colchester {Camuloduiium), 121 ^, lag. 150, 217, 218, 223 Cold rum. 224 Comar, the Ford of, 42 129, 150, % *$* % 240 INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES 'Ml Congresbury, 202 Coriniiim {sec Cirencester) Cornwall, 164 ' Coira, 227 Cotswold Hills, the, 135. x6i. 214, Coventry. 115 Covvlon, 222 Craven, 227 Arms, 225 Cresswell Crags, 222 Crick-stone, the, 222 Croft Ambrey, 93, 223 Cronk Airey, 227 Crosby Ravenhurst, 226 Cwnis, the. 121, 217 D^CGSTONE (see Dawstonk) I'alton, 224 JMlriada, 16 Uanby Moor. 227 Dane's Camp, 225 Parent, 224 ^^IT^' 95' "'• ^95. 222 ^-awns Maen, 222 Dawstone (Daegstone), 17 Dean Forest of, 120, 163, 214 Moor, 222 Dee, River, 120 Deerhurst, 223 Denton. 222 DcoHia7n. (Dyrham), i6 Derby, 219 Deva (see Chester) Devil's Arrows, 227 Den, 226 Dyke. 222 Quoits, 225 Devizes, 175, 226 Dimetia, 190 Dinton. 222 Dolebury, 225 Dolemoors. the, 203 Doncaster. 218 Dorchester {DnrnovariaV 94. 121 128,139,223 ^^' ^'' •Uorstone, 223 Dover, 224 Doward's Hill. Great, 164 Drewsteignton, 222 - Dunium, 94. 217 -, Dunmow, 216 ' j^ Dunstable, 123, 231 ^ Dunster, 94, 175, 225 iJuntesbourne Abbots, no Durham, 175, 223 Duniv.ana (see Dorchester) iJurclinvcB {see Castor) Duruthy, Cave of, 29 Dyvnaint, 17 Earith, 224 Easington, 225 East Kennett, 105 Easflow Hills, 226 Eboracuni (see YoRic) ii-adisbury, 222 Edington (Ethaudun), 18 Egbury Castle, 223 Eggardon, 223 Egremont Castle, 223 Egton Grange, 227 Eguisheim. 25 Ellesborough, 222 El met, Forest of, 171 Ely. 175 Engleland, 13 Enstone, 225 Ennine Street, the, 12^, i.,,; Esk, River, 216 ^ ^^ Ethaudun (see Edingtun) Etocefum (see Wali,) Exe, River. 216 Exeter, 173, 218 ii-xmoor, 95 Farnham, 223 Farthington, 225 Fenny Stratford. 123 EeiAanleak (see Faddu^ev) Fisherton, 37. 226 ' Forth, Firth of, 168 I-osse Way, the, 123, 13c f rankwell, 173 ■^' ^^ Fulford, 222 GATACRKHall, 191 uin), 122, 128, 129, 218 , 223 '- the, 114 168 ds, 224 INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES 241 Gray's Inn, London, 20 Great Chesterton, 225 Great Doward Hill, 164 Green Road, the, 122 Grey Wethers, the, 222 Grimes' Graves, 46, 226 Grimsby, 219 Grimsby Castle, S2i Grimsdyke, the, 224 Grimspound, 222 Givent, 190 Hamdon Camp, 225 Harborough Banks, 226 Harbynrigg, 226 Hardingstone, 225 Harwood Dale, 227 Haydon Ditch, 222 Headingham, 175 Heathery Burn, 223 Hebrides, the, 63, 205, 21a Heisgeier, 205 Hempston, Little, 193 Henbury Castle, 222 H6n Dinas, 95 Hengistbury, 223 Hereford, 124, 224 Herefordshire Beacon, 95, 223 Hexham, 225 High Cross, 123, 124 High Down, 226 High Tor, 224 Hoarstone, the, 225 Hob Hurst's Hut, 22 Hod Hill, 223 Holdgate, 139 Holgate, 176 Holne, III Housesteads (Boirovicus), 167 Hoyle, 227 Huddersfield, 227 Huntingdon, 124 Hunsborough, 225 Hurlers, the, 222 ICKLINGHAM, 122, 182 Icknield Street, the, 122 11am, 226 Ingarsby, 182, 224 Ingleborough, 227 Irchester, 225 Isca Silurum {see Caerleon) Isle of Man, 56, 212, 227 Isle of Wight" 223 Jervaulx, 219 Jewry Wall, the. 132 KELSBOROUGH, 222 Kenierton Camp, 223 Kempsey, 227 Kenchester [Magna), 124 Kendal Castle, 222, 226 Kennett, East, 105 West, 54, 58, 105, 226 Kent's Hole Cave, 25, 222 Kesserloch, 29 Keswick, 222 Kilkenny, 217 Killing Pits, 227 Kilsmore Bank, 224 King Barrow, 226 Kingsclere, 223 Kingsdown, 224 King's Scar Cave, 13 Kirby, 217 Kirkdale, 227 Kirkhead, 224 Kirk Oswald, 217 Kit's Coty House, 50, 224 Knave's Castle, 226 Knighton, 225 Knock Maraidhe, 58 Knook Castle, 226 Lactodorum [see Towcester) Ladle Hill, 223 La Madelaine, Cave cf, 28, 33 Lancaster, 218 Lanchester, 218, 223 Laugerie Basse, 29, 33 Lanyon, 51 ; quoit, 222 Launceston, 175 Leamington, 178 Ledbury, 223 Leeds, 171, 227 Leicester (/Vrtte), 124, 132, 224 Leintwardine [Branodinium or Braviniuvi), 124, 224 Lewes, 175 Lewis, 211 Lichfield, 226 Lilleshall, 132 'Lincoln [LiTidum Colonia), 124, 129, 140, 175, 224 Ltndum Colonia [see Lin'COLn) Liskeard, 222 Little Hempston, 193 Littlington, 164, 224 Llanymynech, 163, 224 Lledr, Afoi>,^"fli6 . ^ Llugwy, Afon, 216 Llyffni, 227 Llyn Ogwen, 121 Lochmariaquer, 48 Logan Stone, 222 ■-^ ■*» ■^■ 4m, *■ # 'm i^f 242 INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES Londinium [see Loni:on) I^ondon {Londinium), 129 224 Long Compton, 108 Long Hole, 227 T-ongmynd, the, 123 Loose, 224 Lordingshaws, 225 Lowick, 224 Ludbrook, 227 Ludlow, 93, 179 Lugbury, 226 Lydney, 121 Lymington, 222 Lymne, 224 Machynlleth, 163 Maesbuiy, 225 Mitchell's Fold, 225 Magna ^ee Kknchkstek) Maiden Bower, 221 Maiden Caslle (Dors.), 94, 223; (Westm.), 226 Malpas, 219 Malvern, 95, 223 Mancetter (Mundiiesedum), 226 Marlborough, 226 ; Down, 99 Martin's Pomeroy, St., C London, 139 Marshpool, 225 Masbury, 225 Masqat, Cave of La, 29 Maughold, 227 Maumbury, 139 Meare, 225, 226 Melandra Castle, 222 Mendip Hills, the, 163, 172 Merivale, 222 Mildenhall, 226 Minehead, 35 Mocl-y-Gaer, 227 Mold, 121 Montacute, 175 Mortimer Fielding, 129 Mount, the, 226 Mount Murray, 227 Mouslow Castle, 222 Nant Cribba, 175 Nant Francon, 121 Neanderthal, 31 Ness, 211 Nether Swell, 223 ,^ Newark, 124 ' '^. Newbury, 221 Newcastle-on-Tyne, 225 Newgrange, Co. Meath, 53 Newton Abbot, 27 Nidderdale, 63 Nine Ladies' circle, 22a Maidens, 222 Nordy Bank, 225 Northampton, 225 North Legh, 225 Norton Camp, 225 Norwich, 175, 224 Offa's dyke, 17, 178, 224 Old Oswestry, 95 Old bury, 226 Old Rothbury, 225 Sarum, 94, 125, 176, 226 "Old Works," the, 132 Orwell, 222 Oswestry, 94 ; old, 95 Ouse, River, 216 Overton, 105 Ozingell, 170, 224 Painswick, 223 Paviland, 227 Pendarves Quoit, 222 Pcngwyrn {see Shrewsbury) Penlan, 227 Penmaenmawr, 227 Pentre Ifan, 227 Penrith, 222 f Perigord, 33 Perthi Chwareu, 227 Pitney, 163 Plas Newydd, 51, 227 Ploy Field, the^ in Pontefract, 175 Porchester {Partus Mangus), 223 Porthamel, 227 Portbridge, 222 Portway, the, 123 Poundbury, x-'i Prestonbury Castle, 222 Puxton, 202 QUARLEY Hill, 223 Queensborough, 224 " Rat.'TS" {see Leicester) Ravenstonedale, 226 Rawlsbury, 223 Rea, River, 120 Reading, 129, 222, 223 Reculver {Regtilbium), 21 Redbourn, 224 Regnum (see Chichester) Restormel, 175 Richborough {Rutupice), 129, 147, 224 Ridgeway, the, 123 Rievaulx, 219 ■^^ *^ INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES 243 Risinghoe Castle, 221 Robin Hood's cave, 29, 222 Rochester. 218 Rollright, 107, 225, 226 Roman codde, 224 Rougham, 165, 226 Roundway Castle, 226 Royston, 164, 224 Rudstone, the, 227 Rush more, 38 Jiutupice (see Riciiborough) Ryknield Street, the, 120 Rylstone, 90 Saffron Walden, 223 St. Albans ( Feru/amium), 123, 152, 171, 224 Catherine's Hill, 223 David's, 227 Salisbury, 226 Sandy, 221 Sarum, Old [Sorbioduniim), 94, 125, 176, 226 Scalehouse Barrow, 90 Scarborough, 227 Scratchbury, 226 Scor Hill Down, 222 Scrobbesbyrig {see SHREWSBURY) Seaton, 124 Senlac, 80 Settle, 226 Shap, 226 vSherbome, 175 Sberringham, 224 Sherwood Forest, 120, ^25 Shetland, Islands, 211 Shirley, 226 Shrewsbury (Celt. Pengwyrn ; Sax. Scrobbesbyrig), 17, 134, 173, 225 Sidbury Castle, 222 Sidmouth, 222 Silbury Hill, 105, 107, 226 Silchester (Calleva Attrebatum), 129, 140, 141, 148, 150, 152, 171, 222, 223 Sittingbourne, 182 Sleaford, 180 Snead, 163, 225 Sneefell, 212 Snowdonia, 120 Sorbiodunum [see Old Sarum) Southam, 115 Speen, 218 Spey, 32 Spindleston Camp, 225 Spinster's Rock, 222 Spoonley, 223 Stainmore, 226 Stalybridge, 22a .Standlow, 222 Stanlake, 221 Stanton Drew, 225 Harcourt, 225 Moor, 222 Stapeley Hill, 225 Stonehenge, 96, 112, 226 Stony Littleton, 226 Stratford, 123 Stourton, 226 Stowe Heath, 182 Stow-on-the-Wold, lai Stratford, 124 Strathclyde, 16 Stretford, 124 Stretton, 124 Sudreyjar, 212 Symond's yat, 223 Tadcastkr (Calcaria), 125, 227 Tarraby, 150 Tarr Steps, 95, 225 Taunton, 17, 226 Thesfield, 224 Thetford, 224 Thornborough, 227 Thornbury, 227 Tickhill, 175 Tittensor, 226 Titternhoe Castle, 221 Torquay, 27, 222 Totnes, 193 Towcester, 123, 225 Treryn dinas, 222 Trevethy quoit, 222 Tripoli, 103 Turnworth, 223 Tutbury, 175 Uffington Castlk, 221 Uley Barrow, 52, 58, 223 Upchurch, 145 Uriconium (see Wroxeter) Usk, River, 216 Verulamium {see St. Albans) Victoria Cave, 227 Wales, North, 16, 17 West, 16, 17 Wall (Etocetum), 121, 123 Wall hills (Heref.), 223, (Wore.) m, 227 ''■'■■■■ Wallingford, 17 Wall's End, 166 Wanborough, 18, 213 Wansdyke, the, 184 ••*';■• 'v\ ■w 244 INDEX OF NAMES OF PLACES I Wareham, 128, 223 Watchet, 172 Watling Street, the, 123 Weald, the, 164 Wednesburv, ilj. Week St. Lain . ace, 203 Welh'u,;i.oii (Som. ;, 173 Wallow, 225 West Kennett, 54, 5S, 105 Westminster, 203 Wetton, 226 Weyland Smith's forge, 52, 122, 221 Weymouth, 95, 121, 223 Whitby, 219 Whitbeck, 222 White Horse, 52, 221 Vale of, 18, 121 Wilbraham, 222 Wimbledon, 226 Winchcombe, 223 Winchester, 218, 223 Windsor, 175 Winsford, 96, 225 Wirral penmsula, the, 2x9 Wixford, 123 Woodbury, 227 Woodchester, 223 Woodcuts Common, 38 Wood End, 120 Wooton Wawen, 120 Worcester, 128, 218, 227 Worlebury, 225 Worthing, 226 Wrekin, 131 Wretham, 224 Wroxeter {[/ruonium), 15, 124, 131, 138, 218, 225 Wye, River, 163, 164 Wyre, Forest of, 120 Yarnbury, 95, 226 Yarrow, 217 York (Eboracum), 125, 129, 154, 227 Zennor Quoit, 223 -«». Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson &> Co. London