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■^

.I*^-

♦ MEMOIRS

or A

CAPTIVITY

AMONG

THE INDIANS

NORTH AMERICA,

FROM CHILDHOOD TO THE AGE OF NINETEEN:

WITH
ANECDOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF

THErR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

TO WHICH IS ADDED,
SOME ACCOUNT OF THE

SOIL, CLIMATE, AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS

OF THE TEREITOBY WESTWARD OF THE MISSISSIPPL

By JOHN D. HUNTER.

LONDON:

PRiiraKD roR
LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN,

rATBRNOSTaR>BOW<

■1'

,u«i 1 1823.

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Printed by A. ft R. Spottiswoode,
New-SbveuSquare.

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PREFACE.

U-.'

In presenting myself to the world as an author^
I have complied mtore with the wishes of friends
than my own inclinations. Indeed, I do so with
reluctance, being fully sensible of my inability
to do justice to the undertaking. This convic*
tion arises from an imperfect acquaintance with
the English language, and total ignorance of
the art of book-making. Besides, I write from
memory, of events^ persons, and things, which
are many years separated from the present, and
some of them so remotely, as barely to come
within my recollection. Under such circam^
stances, although kindly assisted by my friend
Edward Clark, with interrogations respeetmg
some of the subject matter, and the revlsal
and arrangement of the manuscript^ still as
regards manner, I am not insensible that there
is ample ground for the exercise of indulgence
on the part of my readers. If I were a finished
scholar, the case would have scarcely sufleresd

PREFACE.

any change, because the data would remain the
same ; and it is questionable, whether I could
have improved its present form, at least within
the prescribed limits. From the circumstance
of writing altogether from memory, and at
different periods of time, some repetition has
been unavoidable. In the history of my early
life, I could have mentioned many more inci-
dents and anecdotes of a particular or general
nature, which, though of some interest to myself,
would not, I am persuaded, prove so to my
readers. Indian life is full of adventures, pri-
vations, and dangers : and the history of many
of their A/arriors would, in my opinion, prove
much more interesting than mine: except,
from the circumstance of my being a sojourner
amongst strangers, and comparatively a youth. ,^
(Here I ought to remark, as I omitted to do
in my narrative, that I am ignorant of the
length of time I lived with the Indians. I have
reason to believe I was nineteen or twenty
years of age when I left them, which was in
the spring of 1816.

In telling the story of my captivity during the
above-mentioned period, I found many things to
say respecting the people among whom I lived,
which tempted me to frequent and long digres-
sions. To avoid the inconvenience that would
have resulted from such a mode ot proceeding,.

PREFACE.

I have adopted the expedient of throwing into
a detached form, under appropriate heads, my
observations on the Manners and Customs of
the Indian tribes dwelling westward of the Mis-
sissippi, and my notices on the climate, soil, and
vegetable productions of the territory occupied
by them. To the former I have ventured to
add some anecdotes, which appeared likely to
prove at once characteristic and amusing ; while
the latter have been augmented by such details
as I was able to offer respecting the Materia
Medica of the Indians. It is with great diffi-
dence that I submit the volume to the critical
examination of the British Public; and in be-
speaking indulgence for its faults, I would re-
mind the reader, that the information which
it contains was acquired at a period when I had
neither the hope nor the intention of communi-
cating it in this manner, and that therefore it
is given simply and entirely from memory.

-u«l

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.^it "iv)! V'i. . ii" ''■^!j!.i;i;;u ;'

^>fi ^:!if;

-•■■{?• •••

ir V

•I ■> - :

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■ '■*

CONTENTS. • '

.V /

Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indiani of North
America, from the Author's earliest recollection to his
assumption of the habits of civilized life - - - 1

' fU^

I, ■

Manners and Customs of several Indian tribes located
west of the Mississippi ; including some observations on
the extent, aspect, and natural prc'uctions and circum-
stances of the country they inhabit.

CHAP. I.

Of the extent, aspect, soil, and climate uf the country,
distinguished at present by the names of the Miasuuri
and Arkansas territories ....

CHAP. II.

Observations on the mountains, lakes, and rivers of the
before described territories ....

CHAP. m.

Brief remarks on some of the animals, plants, and mine-
rals, indigenous to this district of country

CHAP. IV.

Considerations on the physical and moral condition of the
Indians .......

CHAP. V.

Brief statistical remarks on the Kickapoo, Kansas, and
Osage Indians - - - - - -

137

154

164<

177

209

Vlll

CONTENTS.

Pag*

CHAP. VI.

Views of theocracy, religion, agency of good and bad spiriti ;
of the tout and ita migration ; religious rites ; prophets,
priests, and physicians ; dreams, &c. - • • 214

CHAP. vn.

Courtship, marriage, widowhood, polygamy, divorcements,
continuance of families, adoption of children, Indian
names, disposition of the infirm and poor - • 231

CHAP. VIII. -i *

Family government, occupation and economy, birth, nursing
and education of infants, education and amusements of
youth, games of chance, modes of salutation, treatment
of strangers, forms of visits, feast:, festivals, &c. • 2.53

CHAP. IX.

Hunting, fishing, agriculture, manufactures, currency, and
trade ......< 276

CHAP. X.
Crimes and modes of piinishment .... 297

• ' • ' CHAP. XI.

Manner of counting time, traditions, tumuli, monuments, &c. 304

CHAP. XII.

Policy, councils, transaction of public business generally,
election of chiefs, reception of ambassadors, peace run-
ners, &c. - ■) . - , - - -311

In
01

'■•.JiltiK ii'. ,

,'■••' I '• il>. I

CHAP. XIII. -'■■■'

Patriotism, martial character and propensity, war imple-
ments, preparations for management and termination of

; . • - CHAP. XIV. i i

llesidence, dress, painting, food, diseases, treatment of the
ttick, disposal of the dead, mournings, &c.

334

'„>.*»

CONTENTS.

CHAP. XV. -V

Observations on civilizing the American Indloni - 960

CHAP. XVI.
Indian anucdotes ...... 374

CHAP. XVII.
Observations on the materia medica of the Indians - •40 b

CHAP. XVIII.
Observations on the Indian practice of surgery and medicine 429

^^ CHAP XIX.

A short description of the practice of physic among seve-
ral tribes of the Western Indians of North America who
reside on the waters of the Missouri and Mississippi •< 436

•fx^

MEMOIRS OF A CAFflVriT

AMONG THE

INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA,

FHOM

THE author's earliest RECOI.LK(;TJON

HIS ASSUMPTION OP THE HABITS OF CmiJJJED LIFE.

•H

'■''■ > '

MEMOIRS.

Of the place of my nativity, and the circumstances
of my parentage, I am altogether ignorant, and fear
that I shall for ever remain so ; as I have assiduously
explored every avenue through which I could expect
information, both while I was with the Indians, and
since my residence in the United States, I have had
friends, whose exertions to serve me, in this particular,
deserve my warmest gratitude ; and whilst I have the
gloomy reflection of knowing that their eIRMrts, as well
as my own, have been unavailing, I will cherish these
manifestations of their kindness toward me with the
devotion of a heart that knows how to appreciate
favours. This part of my history, together with most
of the incidents of early life, which generally, in works
of this kind, forn^ an interesting portion, will, in all
probability, for ever remain . 'known. Nevertheless,
some features in this period were so strongly marked
as to leave indelible impressions on my mind; while
others not so strikingly characterized, like the im-
perfect recollection of a dream, cross my memory,
but fix on it no decided and satisfactory images.

B *2

> *^

CAPTIVITY AMONG THR

I propose to tretlt on thesci an4 the subtequent
history of my life, before I enter into the details of
the habits, morals, and polity of the Indians with
whom I resided ; because this arrangement will
enable me to embody much matter in my narrative,
which, if read, I am apprehensive, will prove tedious
and uninteresting, and which thus disposed of, can be
passed over at the option of the reader, for the sub-
sequent and more interesting contents of the work,
without inteiTupting the general connection. Be-
sides, it will afford me the satisfaction of detaching
myself, in a degree, from the view of the reader in
the more important parts ; a circumstance with which,
in the capacity of an author, I may truly say I wished
altogether to have complied, but which I could not
consistently do against the opinions of many from
whom I have received unequivocal tokens of friend-
ship and regard, and whose advice I feel myself
bound to respect, ^^i />?»>/. ii<.niO .nt'i Y««*Oiv

I was taken prisoner at a very early period of my
life by a party of Indians, who, from the train of
events that followed, belonged to, or were in alliance
with, the Kickapoo nation. At the same time, two
other whifje children, a boy and a small girl, were
also imade prisoners. k'^itn i^^: iU;' ■ y^kh i

, I haive itoo imperfect a recollection of the circum-
stances connected with this capture, to attempt any
account of them ; although I have reflected on the
subject so often, and with so great interest and in-
tensity, under the knowledge I ,have since acquired of
the Indian modes of warfare, • as neaiiy to establish

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

at times a conviction of mv mind of a perfect re-
membrance. There are moments when I see the
rush of the Indians, hear their war-whoops and
terrific yells, and witness the massacre of my parents
and connections, the pillage of their property, and
the incendious destruction of their dwellings. But
the first incident that made an actual and promi-
nent impression on me happened while the party
were somewhere encamped, no doubt shortly after
my capture ; it was as follows : The little girl whom
I before mentioned, beginning to cry, was immediately
despatched with the blow of a tomahawk from one of
the warriors : the circumstance terrified me very
much, more particularly as it was followed with very
menacing motions of the same instrument, directed
to me, and then pointed to the slaughtered infant,
by the same warrior, which I then interpreted to
signify, that if I cried, he would serve me in the
same manner. From this period till the apprehension
of personal danger had subsided, I recollect many of
the occurrences which took place. < y^Mm i

r Soon afler the above transaction, we proceeded on
our journey till a party separated from the main *
body, and took the boy before noticed with them, ^
which was the last I saw or heard of him. - #

' The Indians generally separate their white prison-
ers. The practice no doubt originated more with a
view to hasten a reconciliation to their change, and a
nationalization of feelings, than with any intention of
wanton cruelty*
i¥ The Indians who retained me continued their

'- • - . -^ - . . ^ ■

O (JAPTIVITT AMONG THK

march, chiefly through woods, for several successive
days ; a circumstance well remembered by me, be-
cause the fear of being left behind called forth all my
efforts to keep up with them, whenever from fatigue
or any other cause they compelled me to walk, which
was often the case.

After a long march and much fatigue, we reached
their camps, which were situated on a considerable
stream of water; but in what ^particular part or
section of country, I am wholly unable to say. Just
before our arrival, however, we were met by a great
number of old men, women, and children, among
whom was a white woman attired in the Indian
costume : she was the wife of a principal chief; was
a great friend to the Indians ; and joined with, and
I believe surpassed, the squaws in the extravagancy
of her exultations and rejoicings on account of the
)safe return of the warriors with prisoners, scalps,
lihd other trophies obtained from their vanquished

^ foes. ' • -•^' . -- ■■^■-:-.- i'- ■■ r.'y:U,:t?i

'- I think it must have been in the tall when I was

' taken prisoner, because the forests, and indeed the

' whole fitmosphere, presented a smoky and peculiarly

'glooniy appearance ; which most probably was owing

. to a custom which the Indians practise, of finng the

leaves at this season of the year, to facilitate the

collection of nuts for their consumption during the

approaching winter. ' '^ ' jt>':^t .j^iHiii^ a i.; ^^/o

After our arrival at their camps, and I had become
reconciled to my new mode of living, and my adopted
connections, nothing occurred for several years, to the
best of my recollection, as worthy of notice, except our

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

uccessive
me, be-
th all my
n fatigue
Ik, which

reached
siderable

part or
y. Just
r a great
, among
i Indian
ief J was
ith, and
vagancy
t of the

quished

-v ,f

n I was
3ed the
culiarly
owing
ing the
ate the
ng the

)ecome
dopted
to the
Bpt our

repeated reir-^vals ; nor should I mention thisi only
that it serves to account for the obscurity with which
everything connected with my early life is surrounded.
I was adopted into the family of one of the principal
warriors, named Fongoh, who claimed me as his pro-
perty, from having taken me prisoner ; his wife, a
squaw of an mtermediate stature, and dark complexion,
proved to me a kind and afiectionate mother.

It may appear somewhat extraordinary that I should
i-ecollect the above incidents so circ>:imstantially, while
others scarcely separated from them as to time, should
have nearly or quite escaped my memory ; but such
is the fact, though I am persuaded from the faint traces
still remaining on my mind, could either my parents
or the location of my childliood be presented to me
at this time, in the same state or condition that they
were in previous to my being taken by the Indians,
that I should recognize them individually. But the
probable massacre of the former, and the changes in
respect to the latter, which have rapidly succee4ed
each other in the country where most likely my being
first dawned, forbid the hope of ever realizing these,
to me^ desirable and important €vents. ^ ^

But notwithstanding this s^parent incongruity in
respect to memory, when the careless and playful
manner in which children usually pass their time is
taken into consideration, together with the violent
changes that interrupted my youthful sports, the cause
of surprise will, I am persuaded, cease to exist.

With respect to my parents, it is highly probi^le,
as I before observed, that they perished at the com-
mencement of my captivity. This I infer from the

B 4

h^-^

1 CAPTIVITY AMONG THE /

circumHtances which generally precede, attend, and
follow the destruction of some families who adven-
ture to the western frontiers for a settlement, among
which, from the manner of my capture, I suppose
mine to have been ; and as some of my readers may
not be acquainted with them, a few remarks here on
these subjects may prove interesting, and will not, I
am persuaded, be deemed irrelative to the plan I
have proposed to follow.

Inheriting certain districts of country from their
ancestors, the limita to which are prescribed either by
treaties with the several tribes, or are traditionary and
mutually respected, the Indians are accustomed to
roam with unrestrained freedom through their forests
in fteai'ch of game, or to cultivate so much of the soil
as they may deem necessary to supply their wants
and comforts. Every encroachment made upon
their territory, whether with or without their con-
sent, is, sooner or later, regarded as an infringement
of their natural rights, and has frequently given rise
to long, cruel, and exterminating wars, not only
between different tribes, but between the Indiana
and the whites. They regard the latter with much
the most scrupulous jealousy ; because experience has
taught them that every settlement on their part,
within their boundaries, is a precursor to their farther
recess, which, they most sensibly feel, will only ter-
minate wif^l their final expulsion, extermination, or
incorporation with those they esteem their natural and
mo^^itter enemies. With such feelings and views
in re'l^arcf w their neighbours, and their highest ambi-
tion being to excel /In war, to improve themselves in

••la

If*

NOllTM AMKUICAN INDIANS.

d, and
adven-
among
uppose
rs may
ere on
not, I
plan I_

I their
her by
ryand
led to
forests :\1
be soil
wants
upon *

cbn-

ment

n rise

only
dians
much
e has
part,
rther
r ter-
1, or
[ and
iews
mbi-
i?s in

which no opportunity is suffered to escape, however-
abhorrent their mode of conducting it may appear to
civilized people, or however it may differ from the
legitimatized murders of more refined governments,
it ought not to be a subject of wonder that the Indian
warriors should often seek to come in collision with
the advanced settlers. They do seek it, and terrible
is the vengeance they ofl n inflict on these imfor-
tunate outposts to civilized life, for the imputed
infringements of their rights. ? .: •".: i*fj j.:r;!

• The outsettlers are generally men of indolent, and
frequently dissolute habits : they, for the most part,
hunt and fish to procure a livelihood ; and this wan-
dering mode of life makes them acquainted with the
neighbouring Indians, their manners, and languages,
and finally, with the situations most propitious for
their pursuits. Under such circumstances, perhaps
with consent, though tliis courtesy is but little
regarded, lured by the present prospects, and re-
gardless of future dangers ; first, one or two, and
afterwards more families, venture irito the territories
of the Indians, till in fact the jealousy of the latter
becomes excited, when, if possible, they scheme and
execute their destruction. The Indians are also
often provoked by other causes : such, for instance,
as frauds and thefts practised upon them, which pro-
voke to retaliation and aggression ; consequently,
the innocent and guilty indiscriminately suffer.
Such conduct, mutually practised by them and the
whites, along the whole extent of the conceived,,
though arbitrary boundary, is the cause of the inve-
terate liostility that exists between them, and leads

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

to all the scenes of Indian cruelty that are practised
on the frontier settlers. The settlers are aware of
the dangers to which they are exposed, and gene-
rally associate for their mutual defence : when suf-
ficiently numerous they erect block-houses and
pickets, to which all retreat on particular signals
being given. In cases of emergency, where their
number is not sufficiently great to encourage the
hope of a successful resistance, should they appre-
hend an attack, they retreat to places of greater
security, and wait till the angry passions of their
Indian neighbours have subsided, or become ap-
peased. This, however, does not often happen;
because the Indians take their measures so secretly,
and execute them with such expedition, as to cut
them off before any definite suspicion of danger hais
been entertained. From the first, these encroach-
ments are viewed with a suspicious eye by the
Indians ; and should any ill success subsequently
attend their pursuits after game, the cause is at once
aBcribed to the white settlers. These complaints are
for a while individual and feeble ; but multiplying
and becoming clamorous, a council is convened, the
subject debated, the measure of redress fixed upon,
and instantly carried into execution. Sometimes,
however, secret combinations of the young warriors,
with a' view to acquire celebrity and distinction,
anticipate this form; and the first intelligence the
chiefs have of their plan, is their return from an
expedition with scalps, prisoners, &c. But by far
the most frequent and summary way of chastising
those intruders is practised by tlie hunting parties ;

NORTH AMBKICAN INDIANS.

who, while these hostile feelings exist, promiscuously
destroy them, in whatever situation they may be found.
For this conduct, the warriors generally receive the
approbation and plaudits of the chiefs. When neither
of the above modes amount to a radical cure of the
evil, other measures having been determined on, and
the arrangements made necessary to carry them into
execution, the war-party starts for the settlement, on
the destruction of which it is bent. On arriving in the
neighbourhood, should the settlements be strong, and
capable of making much resistance, the Indians sepa-
rate, and secrete themselves till a favourable opportu-
nity presents for an attack ; such, for instance, as the
absence of the men ; when, upon a signal being given,
they rush simultaneously upon, and force an entrance
•into, their dwellings, block-houses, or pickets. Their
* conduct is then governed by the danger they have to
apprehend from the sudden return or number of their
enemies ; should this be great, and the prospect of
'Cutting them off by ambuscade appear doubtful, an
indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants and de-
struction of property follow. But if the. danger be
less, they Icill most of the men, reserving only such
as would be likely to associate with them, or those
against whom they entertain a pointed enmity for
injuries received, which they intend to revenge before
their assembled tribe, in the most exemplary manner.
Should the settlement, however, be weak, the Indians
commence the attack on their arrival ; and if they prove
successful, the men generally are treated as above, the
women and children carried off prisoners, and the
houses pillaged, and then fired with their remaining

• V*

• *

(Al'TIVITV AMONli TliK

contents. This Is a bncf outline of their mode of
warfare with the whites, and is perhaps all that re-
quires to be said on the subject. • " • ;

As I grew larger so as to recollect the more lecent
incidents of my life, the Indian boys were accustomed
tainitingly to upbraid me with being white^ and with
the whites all being squaws ; a reproachful term used
generally among the Indians, in contradistinction to
that of warrior. This oflen involved me in boyish
conflicts, from which I sometimes came off victorious.
These contests were always conducted fairly, and the
victor uniformly received the praises and encourage-
ments of the men ; while the vanquished, if he had
conducted himself bravely, was no less an object of
their notice ; if otherwise, he was neglected, and much
pains were taken to shame and mortify him ; nor would
this conduct be relaxed in the slightest degree, till
he had retrieved his character. The Indians are
not only spectators, but umpires in these contests ;
they discover great interest in them, and always
adjudge with the strictest impartiality. By such
mcaVis the courage and cluuacter of tiie young In-
dians are tested; and when deficient, the' remedy is
at once applied, and so eftectually, that instances of
cowardice are seldom discovered among them after
they have arrived at tlie age of })iiberty. From the
above ])ractice, it should not be inferred that they
encourage discord and quarrelling among themselves :
the fact is otherwise ; and in truth they experience
much less than is met with in the lower orders of
civilized life. '•> ' < . ..: .

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

The white woman whom I noticed a little back was
no way remarkable for any attention to me, which at
this period of my life I think Homewhat extraordinary;
but perhaps, like myself, she had been taken prisoner
by the Indiana while youn/?, and her sympathies had
become enlisted for, or identified with those of the
tribe. She had two children, was tall, healthy, and
good-looking, us I judge from tfie impressions made on
my mind at that early period of my life. She sepa-
rated from us in company with her husband and a con-
siderable party of Indians, wiio had become disaffected,
while on a hunting excursion on some of the branches
of the Mississippi, during the last year, except one or
two that I remained with this tribe ; since wliich, I have
heard nothing concerning her. She was much beloved
by the Indians, was in the prime of life, and I have no
doubt is now living with some of the Kickapoos on the
Mississippi, or some of its tributary streams.

Digressing a little, I may here observe that I met
three or four white children, aj)parently of my own
age, while travelling among the different tribes. They
appeared, like myself, to have been at first forced to
assume the Indian character and habits ; but time
and a conformity to custom had nationaliized them,
and they seemed as happy and contented as though
they had descended directly from the Indians, and
were in possession of their patrimony. I also met
some, whose parents, either on the side of the father
or mother, had been white: they sustained the cha-
racter of brave warriors ; but in general no cast, dif-
fering from that of the tribe, is held in repute or esti-
mation. It is a rpniarkable f'Rct, that white people

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

i I

generally, when brought up among the Indians, become
unalterably attached to their customs, and seldom
afterwards abandon them, I have known two instances
of white persons, who had arrived at manhood, leaving
their connections and civilized habits, assuming the
Indian, and fulfilling all his duties, These, however,
happened among the Cherokees. Thus far I am an
exception, and it is highly probable I shall ever reipain
such ; though, I must confess, the struggle in my bosom
was for a considerable time doubtful, and even now
my mind often reverts to the innocent scenes of my
childhood, with a mixture of pleasurable and pain-,
ful emotions that is altogether indescribable. But
my intercourse with refined society, acquaintance
with books, and a glimpse at the wonderful structure
into which the mind is capable of being moulded,
have, I am convinced, unalterably attached me to a
social intercourse with civilised man, composed as he
is of crudities and contradictions, '

While the Indians, with whom I lived, were en-
gaged on the Kaskaskia river in making sugar, the
season after they had separated from the white woman,
as just noticed, a party of Patawattomies split the
sugar troughs, hacked and very much injured the
sugar trees, stole several horses, and committed other
depredations on their property. The Kickapoos de-
termined to make reprisals; and, accordingly, a
party of their warriors pursued the aggressors down
the river, put them to flight, and returned with
most of their horses and some scalps, without having
sustained any loss on their part. The Kickapoos,
sensible that their hunting grounds were but in-

\ORTH AMERICAN INDIANii»

en-
the
nan,
the
the
her
de-
a
)wn
i^ith
ing

)0S,

in-

differently supplied with game, while those adjoining
them in some directions were quite the reverse,
were in consequence much addicted to roving.
Parties of them had already settled to the west of the
Missouri, and those who remained usually extended
their huts along the great lakes, or the Mississippi,
much to the annoyance of their neighbours, and the
interruption of their own peaceful relations. By such
conduct, and by divisions among themselves, they had
become comparatively weak ; and it was the wish of
the most influential warriors of the tribe to join their
brethren beyond the Missouri ; while those who had
hunted to the north, and carried on a considerable
trade at the post of Mackinaw, opposed the meMure.
The subject was debated a long time, with great
warmth, and ended in a separation of the parties.
Those in favour of migration immediately commenced
their march, taking me with them.

They were obliged to pass through the hunting
ground of the Patawattomies, which occasioned much
skirmishing with some hunting parties of that nation;
but they finally succeeded in crossing the Mississippi,
without sustaining much loss. Thence they proceeded
up the Marameck river, to a village of the Shawanees,
the same, I believe, that is now called llogerstown.
The Kickapoos were cordially received, and the pipe
went round in confirmation of mutual friendship. After
remaining for some time here, the party proceeded for
several days up the Marameck, leaving my mother be-
hind; but for what reason, I was never able to learn.
The separation filled me with the most painful sensa-

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

tions ; but I had then become so old as to appreciate
the importance of sustaining my Indian character, and
therefore scorned to complain. We finally encamped
on the banks of this river, considerably above the
Shawanee town, in a delightful country, which was
abundantly supplied with game. The hunters made
frequent excursions to explore tlie country and take
buffalo ; in one of which they were attacked, and very
roughly handled by a hunting party of strange Indians,
who, it was supposed, claimed the hnntinggrounds, and
considered the Kickapoos as violaters of their rights.
This surprise and defeat, together with their own weak-,
ness, induced the Kickapoos to send runners to the
Shawanees for assistance ; but they returned, without
being able to procure any : which induced the party to
ascend the river to a greater distance, with a view to
avoid their enemies. This step, however, proved highly
detrimental to them ; for by this time the hostile Indians
had appeared in more considerable numbers below,
and, as reported by some spies who had been sent out
to make observations, cut off' a retreat. In this state
of things, the party, to avoid a surprise, crossed the
river, and pursued their journey with great industry,
without any interruption till they unexpectedly arrived
opposite to a settlement of Kickapoos, which had been
effected some time previously, by a party that had
preceded them.

This settlement, when first made, consisted of about
ninety warriors; their number now was much reduced,
and, reinforced by our party, did not much exceed the
original number. They were considered as intruders

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

by the neighbouring Indians, who carried on a desul-
tory warfare with them ; which, if they had remained
where they were, must finally have terminated in their
total destruction. To return would be attended with
great danger j they therefore concluded to advance
further into the country, which they considered would
be flying from it ; besides, in the latter direction,
game, the most important object next to their rafety,
was very abundant. The execution of this resolu-
tion was hastened by several skirmishes, which the
Kickapoos had about this time. They accordingly
crossed the river, and coursed up its banks till they
blended with the ridges and hills. During the early
part of the march, the hunters had some engagements
with hostile wandering parties, which, though by no
means decisive, operated, in the aggregate, much
against them. They, however, found, as they receded
from the larger streams, and good grazing grounds,
that tli.s annoyance almost entirely ceased ; but then
the game diminished with the danger : there was,
nevertheless, a sufficiency to supply all their wants ;
and they again fixed their camps, with the hope of
enjoying uninterrupted })eace, till more of their nation
should join them, and tliey were better ])repared to
repel injuries. In this tliey were, however, disappoint-
ed ; for they were shortly after surprised by a large
party of wandering Pawnees, which massacred and
scal})ed nearly all their warriors, and took the remain-
der, including men, women, and children, prisoners.
The march that followed was long, and over a broken
country, wliich, to the best of my recollection, was
not intenu})ted by any very large stream.

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

The Indians who now claimed me had many small
engagements, some of which, I believe, were with the
Osages*, as I heard that name frequently used. Some
months must have transpired in this way, in which I
do not remember to have suffered any thing remark-
ttble } nor were my affections enlisted in favour of my
new masters by any particular kindness or attention
shown me. We had now come to the hunting grounds
of the Kansas t Indians, at least I learned so from the
incidents that followed, and also from the Kansas
themselves. The party I was with, as before observed,
were wanderers ; that is, havuig no fixed towns, and
not scrupulous as to the infringement of the privileges
of others. They pushed their hunting excursions into
the neighbourhood of the Kansas' hunting parties,
had frequent skirmishes with them, and lost or took
several scalps, according to whichever party prevailed ;
but nothing decisive occurred, till the Kansas hunti.
ers received reinforcements from their villages on the
Kansas river, when a bloody engagement ensued,
which terminated in nearly an equal loss to both
parties. Shortly after this, our party, while in their
camps, were surprised by the Kansas, who had been
reinforced, and almost entuely cut off; a few warriors
escaped, and the remainder, including myself, were
taken prisoners. The Kansas took us after a long
inarch to their towns, situated on the Kai as river,
several hundred miles above its confluence with the
Missouri, which is three hundred and fifty miles above
the entrance of the latter river iato the Mississippi.

+ Kon-ses ' l" ^^^^^^^^S to the Indian pronunciation.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

irnors

were

long

river,

th the

labove

)pi.

Shortly after my arrival, I was adopted into the fa-
mily of Kee-nees-tah by his squaw, who had lost a son
in one of their recent engagements with the Pawnees.
I was exceedingly fbrtunaf'; from this election; and not
only the chiefs and squaws, but the whole tribe, treated
me with regard and tenderness. This conduct in re-
spect to myself was not singular, for all the women
and children were treated in the same manner; while
the warriors who were so unfortunate as not to fall in
battle were nearly all tortured to death: a few of them,
however, were respected for their distinguished bra-
very, and permitted to live amongst them. It is some-
what remarkable, that among the few who survived -
this tragic event was an Indian named Nee-ke-rah,
who, as I have since been informed by an officer of
great respectability that served in Colonel RussePs
regiment of rangers, subsequently returned to the
hunting grounds of the Kickapoos, where he had for-
merly resided, joined the Indians hostile to the United
States, and fell, either at the battle of the Wabash or
Mississinua towns.

Injustice to my own feelings, I cannot avoid making
some remarks in this place, on the iHfference of cha-
racter that exists between the Kickapoo and Kansas
Indians. The former are treacherous, deceitful, cun-
ning, not tenacious of a good character, exceedingly
remiss in their social habits and intercourse, and are
held in humble estimation by the neighbouring tribes :
while the character of the latter, according to the esti-
mation I formed of their conduct to me, is directly the
reverse. In this difference of their general character,
it is, liowever, possible for me to be mistaken ; but

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

gratitude is a virtue inculcated by all the Indian tribes
with which I have been acquainted; and so great was
the change of conduct towards me, after my transpo-
sition from the former to the latter, that I am per-
suaded my readers will excuse me, even should I have
committed an error.

I was too short a time with the party from whom
the Kansas took me to form any correct opinion of
their ch9,racter : their conduct to me was in no re-
spect remarkable, and I am not positive to what tribe
of Pawnees they belonged.

In the ensying fall the traders came among usj and
here for the first time, to the best of my recollection,
I saw a white man. My surprise, as may be naturally
supposed, was great : but in a short time my curiosity
became satiated ; and their conduct, demeanour, and
employment, regarded under the prejudices I had im-
bibed from the Indi«ins, left no very favourable opinion
of them on my mind. It was in the fall season when
I arrived at the Kansas towns : the Indians were nume-
rous and well provided with venison, buffalo meat, corn,
nuts, &c. ; and judging from the knowledge I have since
acquired, had made greater advances towards civilized
life, than any of the neighbouring tribes. They had a
large number of liorses ; and while with them, I first
learned to ride that animal. Here, after I had become
acquainted with their language, I was accustomed, in
company with the Indian boys, to listen with indescrib-
able satisfaction to the sage counsels, inspiring narra-
tives, and traditionary tales of Tshut-che-nau. * This

♦ " Tshut-che-nau" means, in the Indian dialect, " Defender
of the People."

NO. TH AMERICAN INDIANS.

venerable worn-out warrior would often admonish us
for our faults, and exhort us never to tell a lie. " Never
steal, except it be from an enemy, whom it is just that
we should injure in every possible way. When you
become men, be brave and cunning in war, and de-
fend your hunting grounds against all encroachments.
Never suffer your squaws or little ones to want. Pro-
tect the squaws and strangers from insult. On no ac-
count betray your friend. Resent insults — revenge
yourselves on your enemies. Drink not the poisonous
strong-water of the white people ; it is sent by tlie
Bad Spirit to destroy the Indians. Fear not deatli j
none but cowards fear to die. Obey and venerate
the old people, particularly your parents. Fear and
propitiate the Bad Spirit, that he may do you no
harm ; — 1oa'<' and adore the Good Spirit, who made
us all, who supplies our hunting grounds, and keeps
us alive." . - • ' • ' • • • . - ■

He would then point to the scars that disfigured
his body, and say, " Often have I been engaged in
deadly combat with the enemies of our nation, and al-
most as often come off victorious, — I have made long
walks over snow and ice, and through swamps and
prairies, without food, in search of my country's foes:
I have taken this and that prisoner, and the scalps of
such and such warriors."

Now looking round on his auditors with an indescri-
bable expression of feeling in his countenance, and
pointing to the green fields of corn, and to the stores
collectedfrom the hunting grounds, he would continue,
" For the peaceful enjoyment of all these, you are
indebted to myself and to my brave warriors. But

c 3

CAPTIVITY AMONG THK

qow they are all gone, and 1 only remain. Like a de-
cayed prairie tree, 1 stand alone: the companions of
my youth, the partakers of my sports, my toils, and
my dangers, recline their heads on the bosom of our
Motlier.* Mysunis fast descending behind the western
hilU, and I feel that it will soon be night with me.**

, Finally, Iiis heart overflowing with gratitude, with
uplifited hands, and eyes directed heavenwards, he
would close the interesting scene, by thanking the
great and good Spirit, for having been so long spared
as an example to point out to the young men the true
path to glory and fame. I loved this old man, the In-
dians all loved him j and we always listened to his wise
counsels, with the greatest satisfaction and delight. I
am convinced that much of this venerable chief's cha-
racter would have adorned theproudest ageof civihzed
life. Surely it was a bright example, in the western
wilds, of uneducated virtue and practical piety.

Such, connected with the traditionary accounts of
the Indians, of which I shall take notice in the pro-
gress oi' this work, were our more serious employ-
ments; while dancing, running races, wrestling, jump-
ing, swimming, playing with the hoop, throwing the
tomahawk, lighting sham Lattles, and holding councils,
made up the most of our amusements. My employ-
ment, while with the Kansas, was similar to that of the
Indian boys generally, and consisted in assisting the
squaws to perform their various duties, and in taking-
fish and some kinds of game.

While with this nation, a party of hunters, consist-
ing of about thirty, which had ascended the Kansas

' ' ■ * Meamng the Earth.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

.ike a de-
^nions of
:oils, and
tn of our
3 western
;h me."
ide, with
ards, he
king the
g spared
the true
I, the In-
his wise
jHght. I
ef*s cha-
civihzed
western

)unts of
he pro-
employ-
r, jump-
ing tlie
ouncils,
jmploy-
it of the
ing the
taking

L'onsist-
Kausas

river, and crossed over to some of the branches of the
Arkansas, were routod with some loss by a party of
wandering Pawnees. On their return, a council was
convened, and the subject of migrating to new hunting
grounds, connected with which the recent excursiou
had been made, was solemnly debated. Tut-tes-se-gau,
or the Rushing Wind, a brave and ambitious warrior,
zealously supported the measure : he observed, that in
the recent contest, he had lost a brother ; that a remov-
al would bring them into delightful hunting grounds,
and place them in the immediate neighbourhood of
their natural enemies j that thus an opportunity of re-
venge would be offered, and new fields of glory be
opened to exercise the courage and skill of the young
warriors : while the chief Kis-ke-mas, or the Waving
Grass, as zealously opposed it. In discussing the sub-
ject, he observed, that the hunting grounds they al-
ready possessed were sufficiently extensive and well fur-
nished with game to supply all their wants; they were
theirs by inheritance, and they were able and willing
to defend them : and that to restrain and keep in fear
their neighbouring enemies, presented sufficiently bril-
liant and more just objects for exercising the bravery
and ambition of their warriors. "The hunting grounds
we propose to acquire belbng to powerful nations. —
They will unite and defend them, as we would ours,
to the last. Such a measure would lead to a per-
petual and exterminating war. How many women
and little children it would leave without hunters to
provide food for them, and warriors to defend them
against their enemies ! As for their bravery, none
cotdd doubt it ; every stream that watered their

c 4

CAPTIVITY AMONG TIIK

vastly extensive country could attordproofof it; ami
if this is not sufficient, the scars they all bore would
incontrovertibly establish it, as long as the fire of life
burned." I heard this subject discussed : much di-
vision of opinion existed; but th.Mvise counsels and
appropriate eloquence of Kis-ke-nuis prevailed. The
Pawnees, Mahas, and some other nations, were, to the
best of my recollection, severally at war with each
other al)out this time; and the two above mentioned
were also hostile to the Kansas, and made, during the
summer, several disconnected incursions upon their
hunting grounds, killed several of their hunters, and
stole many of their horses. The Kansas, determining to
put a stop to these encroachments, and to m::ke repri-
sals, pursued one of these marauding parties, belong-
ing to the Pawnees, up the Kansas river to the shoals
below Neesh-ke-nah, or the Willow islands of the tra-
(^■rs, where there is a safe ford, which is a thoroughfare
for the Indians in their hunting and depredatory excur-
sions. The Pawnees, perceiving that they were pursued,
and taking advantage of the very thy season and high
winds that prevailed, set fire to the leaves and prairie-
grass, and made safe their retreat across the river.
The Knusas were in consequence compelled to aban-
don the pursuit, and escaped with great difficulty from
the smoke and flames, which spread with the most as-
tonishing rapidity. About this time, the Mahas, who
were and for a long time had been at war with the
KaCnsas, and also with the Ottowas, made peace with
the latter ; and uniting their forces, determined to re-
sist the ambitious views of the Kansas, as respected
the farther extension of their hunting grounds*

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

.'/

Afler much skirmishing on both sides, in vvhicli no
great advantage was gained, a decisive antl bloody
battle was fought, hite in tlie tall, on the Gravelly
Fork, a few miles above its confluence witli the Kansas
river, in which tlie Kansas came oft' victorious with the
h)ssof'the brave and gallant Kis-ke-mas, and fourteen
or fifiteen of his warriors. The loss on the other side
was much more considera])le; the Mahas and Ottowas
haxiug lost thirty-five killed, and twenty-five taken
j)risoners.

The return of the Kansas with their prisoners and
scalps was greeted by the squaws, as is usual on such
occasions, l)y the most extravagant rejoicings ; while
every imaginable hidignity was practised on the pri-
soners. The rage of the rehct of Kis-ke-mas knew
no bounds : she, with the rest of the squaws, par-
ticularly tho.e who had lost any connections, and the
children, whipped the prisoners with green briars,
and hazle switches, and threw firebrands, clubs, and
stones at them, as they ran between their ranks to
the painted post, which is a goal of safety for all who
arrive at it, till their fate is finally determined in a
general council of the victorious warriors. A farther
account of this ceremony will be subsequently no-
ticed. The prisoners all arrived at the place of safety
alive : though some of them were horribly mangled.
In the course of a few days, a council was held, in
which it was determined to spare the lives of all
the prisoners except two, who were chiefs, and had
rendered themselves conspicuous objects for revenge,
from instigating the confederate war. These two chiefs
were Mahas ; they were never heard to complain

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

I'l

(luring the proti acted and cruel tortures inflicted on
them by the squaws : one of them, on the contrary,
did all in his power to provoke his persecutors ; ob-
serving to the wife of Kis-ke-mas, ♦* I killed your
husband, I took his scalp, I drank his blood: I owe
my country nothing; I have fought many battles for
her, killed many of her enemies, and leave behind me
warriors enough to revenge my death, to defend their
hunting grounds, squaws, and little ones. I am a
man : the fate of war is against me : — I die like a
warrior."

Not long after this, I experienced a painful loss.
The squaw who had adopted me among her children,
and who had treated me with great tenderness and
affection, was accidentally drowned in attempting to
collect drift-wood during the prevalence of a flood.
This circumstance was the cause of grief) apparently
more poignant to be enchu'ed than is usually expe-
rienced in civilized life ; because the customs of the
Indians do not tolerate the same open expression
of feelings, from the indulgexe of whicli the
acuteness of grief is relieved, nnd sooner subsides.
The Indians regard tears, or any expression of
grief, as a mark of weakness in males, and unworthy
of the character of the warrior. In obedience to this
custom, I bore my affliction in silence, in order to
sustain my claims to their respect and esteem ; but
nevertheless, I sincerely and deei)ly felt the bereave-
ment ; and cannot, even at this late day, reflect on
her maternal conduct to me, from the time I was
taken j)risoner by the Kansas, to her death, without
the association of feelings, to- which, in oilior re-

VOHTH AMKHICAN INDIANS.

lictfd on
;ontrary,
)rs ; ob-
etl your
: I owe
ittlcs for
hind me
nd their
I am a
e like a

fill losH.

hildren,

less and

pting to

ii flood.

)arently

y expe-

of the

nession

C'li the

ibsides.

(ion of

worthy

to this

der to

ti ; but

}reave-

ect on

I was

ithout

or re-

spects, 1 am a stranger. She was indeed a mother to
me J and I feel my bosom dilate with gratitude at the
recollection of her goodness, and care of me during
this helpless j)eriod oi' my life. This, to those who
have been bred in refinement and ease, under the fond
and watchful guardianship of parents, may appear gross
and incongruous. Ifi however, the imagination be al-
lowed scope, and a lad ten or twelve years of age, with-
out kindred or name, or any knowledge by which he
could arrive at an acquaintance with any of the cir-
cumstances connected with his being, be supposed in
the central wilds of North America, nearly a thousand
miles from any white aettlement, a prisoner or sojour-
ner among a people on whom he had not the slightest
claim, and with whose language, habits, and character,
he was wholly unacquainted j but who, nevertheless,
treated him kindly ; it will appear not only natural
but rational, that he should return such kindness with
gratitude and afiection. Such nearly was my situation,
and such in fact were my feelings at that time ; and
however my circumstances have since changed, or
however they may change hi the future, I have no
hope of seeing happier days than I experienced at
this early period of my life, while sojourning with the
Kansas nation, on the Kansas river, some hundred
miles aoove its confluence with the Missouri. Shortly
afler the death of my adopted mother, the sage and
venerable Indian chief j Tshut-che-nau, whom I have
before noticed, died. The whole nation grieved for
his loss, a large concourse followed him to the grave,
and the ceremony of burial was solemn and deeply
impressive. Early in the following spring, a party

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

' ]i

rl .i

of about thirty hunters and eleven boys, including
myself, started on a hunting excursion ; it was the
first time the Indians had taken me with them, and
the hunt excited great interest, especially as the boys,
armed only with bows and arrows, were very suc-
cessful in the chace. We ascended tlie Kansas river
nearly to its source, till we arrived at the hills that
separate it from the waters that flow into the Arkan-
sas. From thence we directed our course to the
right, and crossed the head waters of several streams
that flow into the Missouri. We ascended one of
these called the Kee-nesh-tah, or the River that Sinks,
known to the traders by the name of tlie La Platte,
several hundred miles. This river takes its Indian
name from flowing in some places through districts
of sand, over which it spreads to a great extent, and
sometimes nearly disappears. It is shoal ; and not
navigable, except for short distances, even for canoes.
The districts of country remote from the water-
courses, are generally prairie, and are abundantly
supplied with buffalo, elk, deer, bears, and other
smaller game.

We passed the summer in hunting and roving ; and
in the fall, ascended the La Platte several hundied
miles, with a view more particularly to take furs.
Near the place where we fixed our camps, which was
on the Teel-te-nah, or Dripping Fork, a few miles
above its entrance into the La Platte, is an extensive
cave, which we visited on several occasions, and
always with great reverence and dread.

This cave is remarkable as having been the ceme-
tery of some j)eople who must have inhabited this

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

hiding
as the
I}, and
3 boys, '
y siic-
s river

neighbourliood at a remote period of time, as the
Indians who now occasionally traverHe this dis-
trict bury their dead in a iimnnt»r altogether di|l
ferent.

The entrance to this cavern was rather above the
ground ; and though narrow, of easy access. The
floor was generally rocky, and much broken ; though
in some places, particularly in the ante-parts, strips
of soil appeared, covered with animal ordure. Parts
of the roof were at very unequal distances from the
floor ; in some places it appeared supi)orted by large,
singularly variegated, and beautiful columns ; and
at others it supported formations resembling huge
icicles, which I now suppose to be stalactites.

Lighted up by our birch-bark flambeaux, the cave
exhibited an astonishing and wonderful appearance ;
while the loud and distant rumbling or roar of wa-
ters through their subterranean channels, filled our
minds with apprehension and awe. We discovered
two human bodies partly denuded, ])r()l)ably by the
casual movements of the animals whicii frequent this
abode of darkness ; we inhumed and placed large
stones over them, and then made good our retreat, half
inclined to believe the tradition which prevails among
some of the tribes, and whicli ppresentM lliis cavern as
the aperture through which the first IiHlimi asciMukul
from the bowels of the earth, and Hi'ltlcd on its
surface. '."■^•.■\.; -;■■■■,.,,-■»•■ --, f ,*i. i •/••■•

Our camps were fixed on a high piece of ground
near the cave, in the vicinity of the Dripping Fork, a
name which this stream takes from tiie great number
of rills that drip into it from its rocky aiul al)ruj)t

CAPTIVITY AMOWO THE

liil

'iiiii

banks. Near this place is a salt lick, to which various
herds of the grazing kind rcaort in great numbers.
The buffalo, deer, and elk, have made extraordinarily
deep and wide excavations h\ the banks surrounding
it, where we used often to secrete ourselves j some-
times merely to observe the playful gambols of the
collected herds, and terrible conflicts of the buffaloes,
but more frequently to destroy such of them as were
necessary to s'pply our wants. The beaver, otter,
and musk-rat, wJnch find safe]retreats in the cavernous
banks of this stream, were very abundant ; and our
hunt was attended with great success.

About this time a young man, named Davis, wlio
I have since learned was from Kentucky, came
among us. He belonged to a party of adventuring
hunters, which he supposed were all cut off, except
himself, by a party of wandering Sioux. His ap^
p«3arance among us excited great sympathy^ he
claimed our protection, and received a cordial wel-
come. This occurrence, not without cause, created
great apprehension for our own safety j for the Sioux,
who had attacked Davis's }>aity, were numerous, and
not very far off. We had hitherto experienced
no incidents calculated to mar the pleasures always
connected, in a high degree, with the c! ace on safe
grounds : we had taken much game ; the cold, change-
able weather had commenced ; and our party, after
maturely deliberating the subject, determined forth-
with to commence their return to the Kansas towns.
A division of opinion, however, existed as to the route
which ought to be taken : some were for descending by
the La Platte and Missouri, as by this route the water-

■i
i

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

^■

courses would direct them, and food would be more
easily obtained, as game was much more abundant
As, however, the rich and abundant fUm, with which
the waters of this district were supplied, had become
objects of importance to the several tribes which
inhabited thereabouts, and contentions had arisen be-
tween them respecting the right to these hunting
grounds ; it was finally concluded to course back on
the high lands that divide the waters of the Arkansas
from those of the Missouri, in preference to inviting
the hostility of the belligerents, by passing through
the territory in dispute. We accordingly commenced
this long and tedious march, and proceeded for seve-
ral days, without any thing remarkable occurring.
We then fell in with a party of Osages, belonging
to the Grand Osage nation, who treated us very
friendly, and from whom we learned the difficulties
and dangers we should have to encounter, provided
we continued on our route to the Kansas towns.
They, pointing in a homeward direction, observed^
** The sky is overcast with clouds ; all is hostility
and war, — The tribe of Osages under White Hair,
has joined the confederacy against the Kansas ; and
war parties fi-om the Mahas, Ottowas, and Pawnees,
now occupy their hunting grounds, and cut off your
return,"

The Osage party with whom we were, couJd afford
us no protection : to remain on these grounds, or to
retreat farther back, would have e'lsured no safety ;
for the whole country hereabouts was frequently tra-
versed by hostile parties of Indians j and to give our-
selves up to the Mahas or Ottowas, our inveterate

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

'ii!!'

enemies, would have been inviting our destruction.
It was probable, although the Osages under White
Hair were at war with our nation, that no engage-
ments had taken place between them to inflame a
deadly hatred. Besides, they were considered by all
the neighbouring tribes to be magnanimous and sin-
cere, and were accordingly much esteemed and re-
spected. A council was therefore held, at which the
principd Osages attended ; and it was determined by
their a ice, all the circumstances having been ma-
turely eighed, to surrender ourselves to the protec-
tion of aie hostile Osages, as a measure though ex-
ceeding painful, yet offering the best prospects for
our safety. We parted from these friendly Osages,
with strong expressions of gratitude and regret, after
havjng received their assurances that our reception by
White Hair's tribe would be friendly, ana might be
depended on. They also sent a wampum and greet-
ings, as tokens of their favour, and our peaceful in-
tentions. ■ '".: ■■- ...:'.'

We now crossed several ranges of liills, and then
coursed down a considerable stream, which, from the
incrustations we found on its margin, I now suppose
was the grand saline of the Kansas rivei*. On its bank,
in the neighbourhood of extensive swamps, while pur-
suing our route, we were surprised by a strolling party
of independent Pawnees. Tliey .vere more numerous,
and better armed than we were ; but, notwithstanding,
our party came off victors. I do not know what num-
ber the Pawnees lost, as we took no scalps ; it is pro-
bable, however, it nmst have been considerable, from
the eircuniHtaiices of. their retreat, which was accom-

•M

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

structioii.
er White
• engage-
inflame a
ed by all
and sin-
l and re-
ivhich the
mined by
been ma-
le protec-
ough ex-
pects for
1^ Osages,
jret, after
eption by
might be
nd greet-
acefiil in-

and then
from the

suppose
its bank,

bile pi I r-
nig party
umerous,
itandino',

hat imin-
it is pro-
jle, from
s acconi-

■/If

panied witii the most hideous yells, and the bearing off
of their dead j a practice which they most tena.cioiisly
adiiere to, (iven at the risk of their lives. We lost no
scalps, but four of our party were killed, including
two boys, who had acquired much reputation before
they left the Kansas towns, for having, in conjunc-
tion with a squaw, killed two of the Ottowas in the
act of stealing horses on the banks of the Kansas river.
I ought before to have remarked, that these boys had
been presented with rifles, in consequence of their
good conduct on the above occasion, which probably
was the cause of their deaths in the recent engage-
ment. The Indians applauded Davis, who had con-
tinued of their party, and was one of the combat-
ants, tor his bravery and good conduct in this afiair.
This was the first engagement I had ever been in : I
was armed with a bow and arrows, which I applied to
the best of my ability ; but probably with little or no
effect. From this place, apprehensive of another at-
tack, we made all the expedition in our power, taking
our dead with us, which we buried in the course of
the following night, in silent grief. Afler this cere-
mony had been performed, we descended this Saline
a considerable distance ; thence, crossing a hilly coun-
try, a large river, probably the Kansas, and several
smaller ones, we arrived on a stream, called by the
Indians, Lesh-faus-keeh, and by the traders, Ver-
million river, on account of the red earth through
which it flows, and from which the natives procure
red paint.

, We next entered upon the hunting grounds of the
Osages hostile to the Kansas nation.. Xhebuffalahierds

d4'

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

iR ere here more numerous than I had ever before wit-
n ;ssed ; but, apprehending that we should be consi«
dcred as depredators, and treated as enemies, we did
not discharge a single shot, or in any other way dis-
turb them.

As we proceeded, our apprehensions increased,
from the appearance of mockasin tracks in the sand,
signs of recent encampments, &c., which plainly indi-
cated that we had nearly arrived at the crisis which
was to determine our relations, as to peac*} or war.
These indications continuing to in'jrease, we con-
cluded, and rightly, that we were in the immediate
neighbourhood of their settlements : in consequence
of which we encamped on elevated grounds near the
river, and dispatched two peace-runners, with friendly
tokens to the Osage chief. Our messengers were at
first, as is common among the Indians, regarded
with suspicion, and strict scrutiny ; but on giving a
satisfactory account of themselves and their party,
they were retained, and treated in a friendly manner.
In the mean time, the chief convened a council, and
sent six of his warriors to welcome our arrival.
They were received by our party, divested of their
arms, with great satisfaction and joy. Kee-nees-tah,
the chief of our party, and my father by adoption,
saluting the principal Osage according to the cus-
toms of the Indians, observed, ** Our people are
now at war. I left them friends at the time I started
on a hunting excursion, many moons ago, without
any hostile intentions to yours, or any other tribe.
I cannot return to nj people in safety, and come to
claim of you tb« lights of hospttality." The Osage^

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

s».

rewit-

consN

we did

ay dis-

reased,
e sand,
lyindi*
which
ar war.
e con-
nediate
iquence
lear the
friendly
were at
jgarded
jiving a
party,
nanner.
cil, and
arrival.
)f their
ees-tah,
option,
he cus-
ple are
started
writhout
tribe,
ome to
Osage,

in the same respectful inaainer, assured hini and our
party, in the name of his nation, of his friendship and
regaixl, and invited 'us to sit at the same iire, and
smoke the same pipe with them. We accordingly
accompanied them to their town, where we were wel-
comed by all the inhabitants, amounting probably to
fifteen hundred, in the most cordial and fHendly
manner. • ■ »

I had not been long with the Osages, before I was
received into the family of Shen-thweeh, a warrior
distinguished among his people for his wisdom and
bravery, at the instance of Hunk-hah, his wife, who
had recently lost a son in an engagement with some
of the neighbouring tribes. This good woman, whose
family now consisted of herself, her husband, a daugh-
ter almost grown, and myself, took every opportunity,
and used every means which kindness and benevo-
lence could suggest, to engage my affections and es-
teem. She used to weep over me, tell me how good
her son had been, how much she loved him, and how
much she moiuned his loss. " You must be good,"
she would say, " and you shall be my son, and I will
be your mother." 'The daughter, in many respects,
imitated the mother j and the greatest care was taken
to supply my wants witb the choicest things they had
in their power to bestow, lliey made and orna-
mcBted moekasins and le^ngs for me, and Aimished
me with a beaver cap and buffalo robe ; habiliments
not usually worn by the Indian boys. In fine, so
constant and persevering were their attentions, and so
kind and affectionate their care of me, that not to
have loved and esteemed them, would have argued a

D 2

3()

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

degree of ingratitude and apathy of feeling to which,
if I know myself, I then was, and shall for ever
remain, a stranger. Several m6nths had now tran-
spired since the death of my Indian Kansas mother.
My Indian father, it is true, had accompanied me
throughout our recent excursion to the Dripping
Fork : but then, as is customary among the Indian
warriors, with respect to their , offspring, or those
whom they may adopt, he shovvcd little or no regard
or tenderness for me. Thus, the indulgence of my
fiUal feelings, which I think were proportionally ex-,
cited as the necessity of parental support increased,
was in a measure interrupted. The treatment I
received from HunJLrhah and her daughter chimed
in harmonious concordance with the vibrations of my
bosom : I gave loose to their indulgence, and sin-
cerely loved and respected them, as much, it appears
to me, as if they had really been allied to me by the
strongest ties of consanguinity. The Osages generally
were fond of and kind to me, particularly the children ;
in whose sports, which much resembled those of the
Kansas, I invariably joined, and often excelled. The
party of Kansas whom I accompanied to the Osage
nation were distributed in different families, and
shared in their hospitality, amusements, and toils of
the chace. It may be proper, in respect to them, to
observe in this place, that the hostility between the
Osages and their nation continuing, they were not
permitted to return ; but suffered in no other respect
any restraint whatever. I an ved among the Osages
early in the winter season, aad jio occurrence took
place, in respect to myself or this nation, worthy of

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

o which,
for ever
ow trail-
mother,
nied me
Dripping
e Indian
or those
10 regard
;e of my
)naliy ex»
ncreased,
itment I
r chimed
3ns of my
and sin-
it appears
ne by the
generally
children ;
)se of the
ed. The
;he Osage
ilies, and
id toils of
them, to
ween the
were not
er respect
le Osages
mce took
worthy of

being noticed, during the following year. I passv^d
my time much in the same manner as while among
the Kansas, only with the exception that I occasion-
ally joined the Indians in their hunting excursions.

The next fall, hosvever, a party of hunters, consist-
ing of Osages and Kansas, took me with them on an
excursion, seveij. hundred miles up the main Arkan-
sas river. This expedition, in some respects, proved
very fortunate ; tor we not only collected a large
quantity of furs, venison and buffalo meat, but had
the additional satisfaction of gaining a victory over a
party of wandering Pawners, who had the temerity
to attack us. In this engagement, we only had two
wounded ; the enemy wa" entirely routed, with the
loss of fifteen scalps. I took part in this engagement;
but being only armed with a bow, was not more suc-
cessful than I had been in my first essay on the
Grand Saline.

We returned to the Osage town late the next
spring, where a part of our furs were bartered with the
traders, who frequently visited the Osages, for rifles j
with one of which, each of the boys who had been on
the recent hunt was supplied. Thus armed and other-
wise properly accoutred, I felt all the self-consequence
of a veteran warrior ; and panted more to distinguish
myself in war, than in any peaceful pursuits, though
probably not more than fourteen or fifteen years of age.
I soon learned the use of my rifle in the chace, and
used it with great success ; in consequence of which,
the Indians gave me the name of the Hunter. The
following summer, with nearly all the winter, was spent
in short hunting excursions, with a view, for the most

D 3

•ft

CAmVITY AMONG THE

part, to procure provisions ; hunting of furs being con-
sidered by the old men, whose opinions operate with
neaily as much force as their acknowledged laws, as
highly detrimental to the morals of the Indians. It
led to too great a superabundance, which created fac-
titious wants, and afforded the means of their intem-
po>rate indulgence, particularly aa respected ardent
spirits ; which had been introduced in considerable
quantities among the Osages, after our late successful
hunting excursion. Here, I first saw drunken Indians,
and witnessed, with indescribable astonishment, its un-
social effects on the women as well as on some of the
warriors. No state of society is, in my opinion, more
exempt from strife and contention between husband
and wife, tlian that oi' the Indians generally. The
warrior thinks it beneath his character to meddle in
any way with the province of his squaw ; but, when
this evil spirit is in' reduced among them by tlie traders,
this character undergoes a great modification, par-
ticularly during the paroxysm of its influence. In
fact, a drunken Intlian and squaw act more like de-
mons than rational human beings ; and nearly a whole
town in the same situation, as I have since frequently
witnessed, would, according to the representations
given of them by some poets, bear a strong resem-
blance to the Infernal Regions. Indeed, no language
can describe its mischievous effects. The traders
take advantage of such occasions to defraud the In-
dians ; who, when they become sober, very often seek
redress in the destruction of their property, or in that
of the white people themselves. Hence, quarrels and
commotions are fomented between them and their

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

nng con-
rate with
laws, as
iaiis. It
lated fac-
ir intem-
i ardent
siderable
uccessful
Indians,
It, its un-
le of the
on, more
husband
ly. The
leddle in
lit, when
e traders,
Loii, par-
nce. In
; Hke de-
r a whole
equently
entations
g resem-
anguage
traders
1 the In-
\en seek
r in that
rrels and
nd their

trading visitors, and no hope can be rationally en-
tertained by the benefactors of the human family to
improve their condition, till this bine to social life
be whoUy excluded from them. ^ > «• • t

Resuming my narrative, I think it was in the
winter following the Indians were filled with great
terrocr o'* account of the repeated occurrences of
violent tremors and oscillations of the earth : the trees
and wigwams shook exceedingly ; the ice which
skirted the margin of the Arkansas river was broken
in pieces ; and the most of the Indians thought that
the Great Spirit, angry with the human race, was
about to destroy the world. I have no doubt part
of New Madrid was sunk by one of these earth-
quakes ; and if so, they must have happened in 1811,
which period accords with the subsequent events of
my life. Davis, who joined the Kansas party while
at the Dripping Fork, left the Osages this winter :
I heard from Jiim some time after, but do not now
recollect the particulars ; and what has since become
of him I know not.

Afler I had been some time with the Osages, an
occurrence took place, which, as it had, beyond a
doubt, considerable influence on my ultimately leaving
them, deserves to be noticed.

, While I was out with my Inctian sister Wees-keh
collecting fuel, she made some very particular in-
quiries about my people, which, of course, I was
unable to answer. These inquiries frequently re-
curred to me, and led to a tram of reflections in my
youthful mind of a most extraordinary kind. .< ,., .
..... D 4 ■ .

CAPTIVITY AMONG THK

The accounts of the white people, whicli the In-
dians had been very particular in giving ine, were no
ways flattering to my colour ; they were represented
as an inferior order of beings, wicked, treacherous,
cowardly, and only tit to transact the common
drudgeries of life. I was at the same time assured,
that my transposition from them to the Indians was
for me a most fortunate occurrence ; for now I might
become an expert hunter, brave warrior, wise coun-
sellor, and possibly a distinguished chief of their
nation. All this I considered as true, till the arrival
of the traders among us. They were })articularly
kind and attentive to me, and made me several trifling
presents ; in consequence of which I in general
formed strong attachments for them. They gave me
to understand, that what the Indians had told me was
incorrect ; they informed me, that the white people
were mnnerous, powerful, brave, generous, and good ;
that they lived in large houses, some of \vhich floated
on the great waters ; that their towns were very ex-
tensive, and filled with people as numerous as the
sand ; and that they fought with great guns, and
coidd kill many at a single fire. They used various
methods to induce me to visit them ; but although
these reports were in part believed, my curiosity
much excited, and my mind filled with wonder and
astonishment, at the existence of such extraordinary
things ; yet, I could not bring my feehngs to consent
to such a measure.

After some reflection, the prejudices imbibed in
early life returned in their full strenfj;th ; and 1 still

NOn'ril A.MKUUAN INDIANS.

thought tljc white peojjlc were in thcu' chan.cters
what they hiul been represented, and even worse,
from tlie conihict whicli some of tlieni had practised
while among ns. IJesides, tliey were on ail occasions
represented by the Indians in the most iiideous and
objectionable colours, no donl)t witii a view to strength-
en my first impressions, enervate my curiosity, and
suppress any desire that possibly might exist to visit
the white settlements.

On several occasions, when I made incpiiries re-
specting this strange people, and expressed a wish to
visit them, anil see the singular things of which 1 Jiad
heard, and which continued a long time to occupy
my thoughts, the Indians told me I was too young for
so long a journey ; that ill undertook it, I should
be seized, forced to work in the fields even afler I
had grown to the size of a warrior or hunter, and
never be suffered to return. They also told me,
that when I had grown up, taken many scalps, and
become a renowned warrior, I migjit visit the white
people with impunity ; tliat tlien they would not
dare to touch me, but would behold me with con-
sternation and dread. In this way my inquiries were
answered, and my curiosity repressed ; and though
reflections on these subjects frequently recurred to
my mind, yet it is highly probable that nothing sliort
of the powerful incitement that finally led to tlie
measure could have induced me to abandon my
Indian brothers. ,. , .

In the following spring, a party of thirty hunters
and six or seven squaws started on a visit to sqnu»
of their cuiiiiectioiis, who remained at the Osage

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

! "I

towns, on the Grand Osage river*, takui^ me with
them. Our course was up the Arkansas for a con-
. siderable distance ; thence across the highlands, till
we struck the he&d waters of the Grand Osage river,
which we descended, to the village belonging to
Clermont, or the Builder of Towns, a celebrated Osage
chief. We remained among the Grand Osages, till
early in the next fall. During our stay, I saw a
number of white people, who, from different motives,
resorted to this nation : among them, was a clergy-
maUj who preached several times to the Indians
through an interpreter. He was the first Chr' tian
preacher that I had ever heard or seen. The In-
diai'iS treated him with great respect, and listened to
his discourses with profound attention j but could
Tiot, as I heard them obser/e, comprehend the doc-
trines he wished to inculcate. It may be appro-
priately mentioned here, that the Indians are accus-
tomed, in their own debates, never to speak but one at
a time ; while all others, constituting the audience,
invariably listen with patience and attention till their
turn to speak arrives. This respect is still more par-
ticularly observed towards strangers j and the slightest
deviation from it would be regarded by them as rude,
indecorous, and highly offensive. It is this trait
in the Indian character which many of the mis-
sionaries mistake for a serious impression made on

iri ., ^,

''!l

* To understand this subject fully, it should be borne in mind,
that a part of the Osages, not long since, with the chiefs Big
Track and White Hair for their leaders, had separated from the
Grand Osage nation, settled on the Arkansas riTcr, and sustained
their independence. ,:;..."; ..<;/.. . :v. ;,;;*. .j 'u... J.

-■3'

NOaiH AMERICAN INDIANA.

ilmi^ me with
isas for a cmi-
highlands, till
1 Osage river,

belonging to
ebrated Osage
d Osages, till
tay, I saw a
Tent motives,
vas a clergy-

the Indians
first Chr* tian
5n. The In-
td listened to

; but coidd
end the doc-
ly be appro-
ns are accus-
ak but one at
fie audience,
tion till their
ill more par-

the slightest
hem as rude,

is this trait
)f the mis-
m made on

born^ in mind,

the chiefs Big

'ated from the

and sustained

their minds; and which has led to many exaggerated
accoimts of their conversion to Chriitianity.

Some of the white people whom I met, as before
iioticed, among the Osages, were traders, and others
were reputed to be runners from their Great Father
beyond the Great Waters, to invite the Indians to take
up the tomahawk against the settlers. They made
many long talks, and distributed many valuable pre-
sents; but without being able to shake the resolution
which the Osages had formed, to preserve peace with
their Great Father, the President. Their determin-
ations were, however, to undergo a more severe trial:
Te-cum-seh, the celebrated Shawanee warrior and
chief, in company with Francis the prophet, now
made their appearance among them.
, He addressed them in long, eloquent, and pathetic
strains ; and an assembly more numerous than had
ever been witnessed on any former occasion listened
to him with an intensely agitated, though profoundly
respectful interest and attention. In fact, so great
was the effect produced by Te-cum-seh*8 eloquence,
that the chiefs adjourned the cour<cil, shortly after he
had closed his harangue; nor did they finally come to
a decision on the great question in debate for several
days afterwards. .

. I wish it was in my power to do justice to the elo-
quence of this distinguished man; but it is utterly im-
possible. The richest colours, shaded with a master's
pencil, would fall infinitely short of the glowing finish
of the original. The occasion and subject were pe-
culiarly adapted to call into action all the powers oti
genuine patriotism ; and such language, such gestures, ,

CAPTIVITV AMONG THE

and such feelings and fulness of soul contending for
utterance, were exhibited by this untutored native of
the forest in the cential wilds of America, as no audi-
ence, I am persuaded, either in ancient or modern
times ever before witnessed. .' • r ,' . ..>

My readers may think some qualification due to
this opinion ; but none is necessary. The unlet-
tered Te-cum-seh gave extemporaneous utterance
only to what he felt; it was a simple, but vehe-
ment narration of the wrongs imposed by the white
people on the Indians, and an exhortation for the
latter to resist them. The whole addressed to an
audience composed of individuals who had been
educated to prefer almost any sacrifice to that of
personal liberty, and even death to the degrada-
tion of their nation ; and who, on this occasion,
felt the portraiture of Te-cuni-seh but too strik-
ingly identified with their own condition, wrongs,
and sufferings.

This discourse made ati ini])ression on my mind,
which, I think, will last as long as I live. I can-
not repeat it verbatim, tiiough if I could, it would
be a mere skeleton, without the rounding finish of
its integuments : it would only ])e the shadow of
the substance; because the gestures, and the inte-
rest and feelings excited by the occasion, and which
constitute the essentials 0/ its character, would be
altogether wanting. Nevertheless, I shall, as far as
my recollection serves, muke the attempt, and trust
to the indulgence of my readers for an apology
for the presumptuous dis^ression. ., .*...*!.! :j
, When the Osagcs and ilitstinguishcd sti'angcrs

;:' p.'

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

1 due to
e unlet-
itterance
lit vehe-
he white
I for the
3d to an
ad been
► that of
degrada-
Dccasion,
^o strik-
wrongs,

ly jnind,
I can-
t would
finish of
adow of
he inte-
d which
ould be
IS far as
id trust
apology

trangcrt>

had assembled, Te-cum-seh arose; and after a pause
of some minutes, in which he surveyed his audience
in a very dignified, though respectfully complai-
sant and sympathizing manner, he commenced as
follows :

• " Brothers.— ^Weali belong to one family; we are
all children of the Great Spirit ; we walk in the same
path ; slake oar thirst at the same spring ; and now
affairs of the greatest concern lead us to smoke the
pipe around the same council fire !

** Brothers. — We are friends ; we must assist each
other to bear our burdens. The blood of many
of our fathers and brothers has run like water on
the ground, to satisfy the avarice of the white
men. We, ourselves, are threatened with a great
evil ; nothing will pacify them but the destruction
of all the red men.

" Brothers. — When the white men first set foot
on our grounds, they were hungry ; they had no
place on which to spread their blankets, or to kindle
their fires. They were feeble ; they could do
notliing for themselves. Our fathers commiser-
ated their distress, and shared freely with them
whatever the Great Spirit had given his red chil-
dren. They gave thein food when hungry, medi-
cine when sick, spread skins for them to sleej) on,
and gave them grounds, that they might hunt and
raise corn. — Brothers, the white people are like poi-
sonous serpents : when chilled, they are feeble and
harmless; but invigorate tliem with warmth, and they
sting their benefactors to death.
, " The white people came among us feeble ; and now

48^

CAPTIVITY AMOMtf THE

••i!

we have made them strong, they wish to kill m, ot
dri^-e us back, as they would wolves and panthers*

" J3ro/Aer*.— The white men aire not friends to the
Indians : at first, they only asked for land sufficient
for a wigwam ; now, nothing will satisfy them but the
whole of our hunting grounds, from the rising to the
setting sun.

" Brothers. — The white men want more than our
hunting grounds; they wish to kill our warriors;
they would even kill our old men, women, and little

ones. •-;• ^'-' '" '^ _: <■Kn.ui^^ :-;r -■! .'i -^ ..■■ ■ ^: :"•■ , ■ -h .

" Brothers, —Many winters ago, there was no land ;
the sun did not rise and set: aD was darkness. The
Great Spirit made all things. He gave the white
people a home beyond the great waters. He siip-
pKed these grounds with game, and gave them to his
red children ; and he gave them strength and courage
to defend them. . >

" Brothers.'-'M.y people wish for peace; the red
men all wish for peace : but where the white people
are, there is no peace for them, except it be on the
bosom of our mother.

" Brothers. — The white men despise and cheat the
Indians ; they abuse and insult them ; they do not
think the red men sufficiently good to live.

<* The red men have borne many and great injuries ;
they ought to suffer them no longer. My people will
not; they are determined on vengeance ;. they have
taken up the tomahawk \ they will make it fat with
blood; they will drink the blood of the white
people. --J •■■ - ■ . . ^ ^ ,.,.vv ..». J

" Brothers. — My people are brave and numet-ous ;

i%,:

|i ■ ;]

V,'

ijU ..

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

'. us, ot
hers, f'
is to the
lificient
but the
r to the

han our
irriors ;
id little

10 land;
I. The
i white
le sup-
n to his
jourage

the red
people
on the

eat the
do not

ijuries;
>le will
y have
t with
white

• ■■» .t ■

erous ;

I
I

but the white people are too strong for them alone.
I wish you to take up the tomakawk with them. If
we all unite, we will cause the rivers to stain the
great waters with their blood. • ' • ' * •

" Brothers, — If you do not unite with us, they will
first destroy us, and then you will fall an easy prey to
them. They have destroyed many nations of red men
because they were not united, because they were not
friends to each other. ' «

"Brothers. — The white people send runners amongst
us; they wish to make us enemies, that they may
sweep over and desolate our hunting grounds, like
devastating winds, or rushing waters.

" Brothers. — Our Great Father, over the great
waters, is angry with the white people, our enemies.
He will send his brave warriors against them ; he will
send us rifles, and whatever else we want — he is oiu*
friend, and we are his children.

** Brothers. — Who are the white people that we
should fear them? They cannot run fast, and are good
marks to shoot at: they are only men; our fathers
have killed many of them : we are not squaws, and
we will stain the earth red with their blood.

" Brothers. — The Great Spirit is angry with our
enemies ; he speaks in thunder, and the earth swal-
lows up villages, and drinks up the Mississippi. The
great waters will cover their lowlands ; their corn
cannot grow ; and the Great Spirit will sweep those
who escape to the hills from the earth with his ter-
rible breath. . -

** Brothers. — We must be united ; we must smoke

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

the same pipe ; we must fight each other's battles j
and more than all, we must love the Great Spirit : he
is for us ; he will destroy our enemies, and make all
his red children happy."

On the following day, Francis the prophet addressed
the Osages in council i and although he repeated al-
most precisely the language of Te-cum-seh, and en-
larged considerably more on the power and dispo-
sition of the Great Spirit ; yet his discourse produced
comparatively little effect on his audience. He was
not a favourite among the Indians; and I am of opi-
nion, that he did more injury than benefit to the
cause he undertook to espouse. , ,,,

After they had concluded, I looked upon war as
inevitable ; and in its consequences contemplated the
destruction of our enemies, and the restoration of the
Indians to their primitive rights, power, and happi-
ness. There was nothing I then so ardently desired
as that of being a warrior, and I even envied those
who were to achieve these important objects the fame
and glory that would redound as a necessary result.
In a short time afterwards, however, the Osages re-
jected Te-cum-seh's proposals, and all these brilliant
prospects vanished.

I return again to my narrative. About the falling
of the leaves, we rejoined White Hair's tribe, by the
same route we came, taking in our way some furs
and other game. In this account of our journey to
and from the Grand Osages, I ought not to omit
making some remarks on the excellent fruits with
which we often regaled ourselves. These, on our

-I

f i

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

; battles ;

ipi lit : he

make all

addressed
ipeated al-
», and en-
nd dispo-
produced
He was
a,m of opi-
jfit to the

)n war as
plated the
ion of the
nd happi-
ly desired
ried those
the fame
uy result.
)sages re-
i brilHant

le falling
e, by the
ome furs
Durney to
t to omit
uits with
on our

'ft

way out, consisted of very large red and white straw-
berries, red and purple raspberries and gooseberries ;,
and on our return, of various kinds of grapes, great
Osage plums, and a variety of nuts j all which were
in astonishing abundance. Before our return, thC;
Osage hunters on the Arkansas had gone on an ex-,
cursion up that river; in consequence of which I,
was only engaged in desultory hunting, for the fol-
lowing winter. In the spring the huntir^^ party re-,
turned, with an abundance of furs and other game.
Tliey had, d'iring the winter, an engagement of na
great importance with a party of wandering Indians,,
and brought back with them a gentleman \yhose
name I think was M'Clure; with the object of whose
tour through that country I am wholly ignorant.
He left us, after a short stay, with warm expressions
of gratitude for the kind treatment and protection he
had received; and I know not what became of him
afterwards, though it would be to me pecuHarly
gratifying to learn, as he asked me many questions,
appeared to take great interest in my situation and
welfare, and disco'^red much surprise at my inability
to give any account of myself prior to my residence
among the Indians. From the circumstance of his
speaking the Osage language so as to make himself
readily understood, I infer that he had been much
among the Osages, and perhaps other nations of

Indians. •, . ■ . ,i. . . -

A new event worthy of remark grew out of some
depredations of the wandering Pawnees on the pro-
perty of the Osages. Some squaws, who had gone
after the horses for the purpose of bringing in gaine,

CAPTIVITY AMONG tHE

.;H

<■. **]

Mirprised a party of this description, in the very act
of stealing them. The Osages had, on several former
occasions, lost their horses ; but from the manner in
which they were taken, knew not on whom to retali-
ate the injury. The discovery being made, a party
of about sij'.ty of their warriors, including myself,
started in pursuit. We followed their tracks up
Grand river for a considerable distance, when the
signs indicating that they were not far in advance, a
council was held to decide whether we should con-
tinue the pursuit forthwith, or wait till they had en-
camped for the night. We determined to proceed
on; but with the greatest caution. In the mean time
two spies were sent ahead, with a view to make dis-
coveries, while the main party marched slowly and
quietly after them, in single file.

About two miles from tht place where we halted,
there was a sand beach, bounded by the river on one
side, and on the other by high abrupt cliffs, which in
time of floods could not be passed.

On arriving at this place, which was now passable,
the spies discovered that a part of the Pawnees had
left the direct route, and taken a circuitous x)ne round
these cliffs through the prairie grass, which at this time
was very high and thick. In consequence of this, they
returned immediately to the main party. Our principal
chief, who was well experienced in all the cunning and
artifice of Indian warfare, rightly concluding that our
party had been discovered, and that an ambuscade had
been planned to surprise it, took his measures accord-
ingly. The Pawnees, in order to deceive ?is, had sent
fi detachment from their party, for a short distance on

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

ry act
x)rmer
ner in
retail-
party
myself,
ks up
en the
ince, a
Id con-
ad en-
>roceed.
an time
ke dis-
v\y and

halted,
on one
hich in

assabie,
ees had
J round
lis time
lis, they
rincipal
ing and
liat our
ade had
accord-
lad sent
ance on

the direct route j but their trail in the other direc-
tion was too perceptible to pass unnoticed. We
therefore proceeded in it, till we arrived within from
forty to sixty yards of where they were secreted
among the shrubbery and rocks, waiting for us to
pass on the other route between them and the river.
We then singled out our objects, and, on a signal
given by the chief, fired on them. The surprise was
complete : the party, which was much more numer-
ous than ours, was routed, and eighteen scalps taken.
In this engagement, I took a scalp, which was my
first and last essay of the kind. I name this, with
great repugnance to my present feelings j but, as I
set out tc ^ive a correct history of my life, I cannot,
m justice to the subject, omit this circumstance.

After so decisive a victory, any further pursuit of
the enemy would have been useless, for fear had
added speed t6 their flight. We therefore returned
home, where we were received as war-parties usually
are by the Indians, after a fortunate and successful
expedition. Previous to this occurrence, I had
never received any marked attention from the
squaws ; but on this occasion, particularly, the young
ones danced around me in the most extravagant and
exulting manner. They ornamented my head, arms,
and legs, with feathers, stained porcupine-quills,
deer-sinews, &c. ; and struck up the song of victory,
accompanied with their musical instruments, if such
as they use deserve that name. Subsequently I went
on several other excursions ; but no incident worthy
of remark took place, till about the middle of the
following fall, when we discovered a numerous party

E 2

CAPTrVlTY AMONG THE

of the PuwTices on our hunting grounds j who,
though they had committed no depredations, ex-
hibited by thia intrusion no very friendly disposition.
Besides, it was one of the wandering parties with
some of which we had before been engaged. We
furtliermore considered the step they had taken as
a challenge of defiance, and accordingly prepared to
rcj-el it. A number of our men had now gone far
up the Arkansas, on a hunting expedition ; but our
forces, including my Kansas companions and myself,
were equal in number to the Pawnees, and we con-
sidered ourselves every way competent to fulfil the
object of our wishes. Our party, consisting of nearly
two hu'Kired warriors, well armed and otherwise
provided, started in pursuit, up the Arkansas river.
We had not marched over sixty miles, before we dis-
covered a small party of the enemy, which had just
killed a buffalo, and which, simultaneously discover-
ing us, dispersed in the greatest confusion. We
attempted to cut off their retreat, with a view to pre-
vent an alarm being given, but were unsuccessful.
They joined their main body, which had sufficient
time to prepare for our reception. The Pawnees
secreted theriiselves among the rocks and shrubbery
of an adjacent hill, in a very advantageous situation ;
while our party approached them under cover of the
trees, which extended to the very foot of the hill,
and commenced a desultory firing on • such of them
as were discoverable. The engagement continued
till dark; several were killed and wounded on both
sides, but no scalps were taken. During the night,
the Pawnees retreated several miles up the river.

NOKTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

is ; who,
tions, ex-
isposition.
irties with
ged. We
[ taken as
'epared to
iv gone far
; but our
nd myselii
lI we coii-
. fulfil the
5 of nearly

otherwise
insas river.
3re we dis-
h had just
y discover-
sion. We
tew to pre-
successful.
1 sufficient
e Pawnees

fhrubbery
; situation.;
)ver of the
>f the hill,
;h of them

continued
ed on both
J the night,

the river,

■f

while our party remained without fire on the battle
ground. Early the next morning we commenced the
pursuit, overtook and renewed the engagement with
them, some time before the middle of the day. Both
parties were now covered by a thick and large growtli
of trees on an alluvion bottom, so that the advantages
of ground were more equal than in the preceding
engagement ; however, as we were the pursuer*, they
rather inclined in our favour. This fighting pursuit
continued till nearly night, when we completely
routed them, and took about twenty scalps. Our
party suffered considerably while dodging from tree
to tree. We lost seventeen killed, and had about
the same number wounded ; among the latter of
which I had the misfortune to be included, having
received a ball just below the knee-joint. The Paw-
nees must have suffered much more considerably, as
I judge, from the traces of blood which appeared
shortly after the engagement was renewed, and
which continued to increase until they were routed.
Their whole party was at no time engaged, some
being in advance with their dead and wounded ; all of
which they succeeded in carrying off, till the engage-
ment had nearly come to a close. This fact was
fully established from the circumstance, that all the
wounds of those who fell into our hands were
recent ; while traces of blood continued beyond the
place where they were finally dispersed. Towards
the close of the fight, they left some of their dead
bodies behind; a circumstance which plainly indi-
cated that their loss, had been severe, and that they
intended to fly to their advance party, which must

E S

54>

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

i ii

.1 -f '

It '11

.1 ■ I

•J

have been some miles ahead, as soon as a favourable
opportunity offered, or the darkness of the a})proach-
ing night would co-'er their flight. These indica-
tions, while they served to depress the Pawnees, who
never leave their dead unless reduced to the last ex-
tremity, operated on our party as a powerful excite-
ment to press the fight and pursuit, and no doubt
produced a much more signal result than otherwise
would have happened.

The Osages, after a consultation, concluded to give
over the pursuit, returned with their dead and wound-
ed a short distance to a good watering place, and
encamped for the night. Four days after this, they
arrived at their towns, and were received with gene-
ral demonstrations of joy. To these succeeded the
wailings and mournings of those who had lost con-
nections and friends ; and then followed the burial of
the dead, which was performed in the most. solemn
and impressive manner. ' . ;;

My wound was severe and painful, and confined
me several weeks ; but from the skill of our physicians
and the kind attentions of my Indian mother and sis-
ter, I soon was enabled to rejoin the hunting parties.
After the return of the hunters from their excursion
up the Arkansas river, a party of thirty-seven hunters,
consisting chiefly of the Kansas, and including myself,
started on an exploring and hunting expedition, up the
Arkansas. It is proper here to remark, that although
the Osages had declared war against the Kansas, yet
no hostile operations were carried on by the parties
against each other. A sufficient number of the former
had, however, joined parties of the Mahas and Ot-

NORTH AMEUICAN INDIANS.

favourable
! approach-
esc indica-
vnces, who
the last cx-
rful excite-
] no doubt
I otherwise

ded to give
md wound-
place, and
this, they
with gene-
ceeded the
id lost con-
le burial of
iost. solemn

d confined
■ physicians
ler and sis-
ng parties.
[• excursion
en hunters,
ing myself,
don, up the
at although
Cansas, yet
the parties
' the former
as and Ot-

towas in their depredations on the latter, to keep
alive their mutual feelings of hostility. In conse-
quence of these animosities, the Osages kept a steady
eye on the Kansas party that had thrown itself on their
protection, and usually so contrived their hunting
parties as to have a majority of their own nation in
them. Tliis, I am satisfied, was their policy, though
it was executed with delicacy, and apparently witliout
imposing any restraint. The Kansas suspected
their motives; and, when by themselves, had fre-
quent conversations on the subject : plans for their
escape had been proposed; but it was utterly im-
possible for their whole number to co-operate si-
multaneously, without exciting a suspicion that would
either defeat them altogether, or prove fatal to a
portion of their party. They were well supplied, and
otherwise treated kindly ; and therefore thought the
maintenance of a friendly relation, and their own
safety, at least for the present, objects of paramount
consequence.

Under such feelings, and with a view to relieve the
inquietude of their minds, growing out of the pecu-
liarity of their situations, some of the leading and most
restless of the Kansas planned the expedition before
named. I have no doubt they intended to include
their whole party, so that should an opportunity offer,
they might return to their towns on the Kansas river,
though such a design was never declared. 1 was
merelv asked to volunteer, whenever the excursion
should be proposed. But however adroit the plan was,
or whatever it had for its object, the whole of the
Kansas could not be induced to embark in it.

£ 4

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

ili'i'

tii!

Some of them were sick, some had married among
the Osages, arid some, probably, did not approve of
the measure.

The trees had just beguii to show their foliage when
we commenced our journey up the Arkansas : we
pursued cm course very steadily, at the probable rate
of thirty or thirty-five miles a day, stopping only when
we required refreshment or rest. On arriving at the
usual crossing-plpce of the Indians between the
Arkansas and Kansas rivers, ont of the principal
Kansas of our party proposed privately to me and
some others, to separate from the Osages, and return
to the Kansas towns. I strenuously opposed the
measure ; because my Kansas father remained at the
Osage towua, who, together with the other Kansas,
not included in our party, might, I was apprehensive,
be sacrificed to requite such treachery ; and because
my ambition, which had been much excited by the
prospective results of our contemplated expedition,
would in consequence suffer a total disappointment.
Besides, I had been a long time from the Kansas,
and was not particularly attached to any of the
tribe; while with the Osages I had left a mother
and sister, who were dear to me, and who loved me
in return.

The scheme was finally abandoned ; and we conti-
nued our course considerably further up the Arkansas;
we then left this river, and crossed a hilly country, and
several of the heading branches of the: Kansas river,
and subsequently arrived at our old camping grounds
on the Dripping Fork, a few miles from its entrance
into the La Platte. We remained here several days,

NOItTH AMERICAN INDIANA.

d among
pprove of

age when
isas>: we
>able rate
ftly when
ng at the
veen the
principal
I me and
id return
osed the
ed at the
r Kansas,
ehensive,
1 because
id by the
[pedition,
ointment.
i Kansas,
Y of the
a mother
loved me

we conti-
Lrkansas;
ntry, and
sas river,
I grounds
entrance
jral days,

again explored the cavern before noticed, aud took a
considerable quantity of game on the adjacent prairie
grounds. A council was also held, and tlic Hubject of
our future route debated. A small number were for
descending the river and returning home j while a very
large majority, including myself, were for pursuing an
opposite direction. We accordingly crossed to the La
Platte, and followed the main stream, in a generally
direct course, nearly to its source among the Rocky
Mountains. This stream, for a great way up, con-
tinues shoal and rapid, flowing generally over a sandy
or gravelly bed ; though it is occasionally interrupted
by rocks and falls: it frequently branches aud then
unites, thus forming many large and beautiflil islands ;
some of which contained wigwams, and cultivated
spots of gi-ound. The prairies continue a great dis-
tance up ; but they do not, except in a very few
instances, border on the river, and when they do, the
distance is inconsiderable, and the grounds are barren
and rocky.

These prairies are generally undulating and rich,
in their hollows j but, receding from these, tliey gra-
dually become sterile, and terminate either in sandy
or clay ridges. The margins of this river, and of the
streams generally flowing into it, for an extent of from
one to three miles in breadth, are covered with thick
and large growths of cotton-wood, ash, sycamore, elm,
various kinds of walnut, and many other trees and
shrubs common to the western states.

But so variable are the features of this section of
country, and so totally disconnected with its future re-
claimance and improvement were my views when I

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

, 11,

visited it, that any attempt on my part to a particular
description would be the extreme of folly, and
merit no consideration. In fact, many years, if not
centuries, must yet elapse, before a correct account
of this extensive district can be obtained. Travellers
may pass over and write volumes on it ; but Indian
titles have to be extinguished, forests planted, and
roads formed, before any satisfactory and circum-
stantial information, as connected with the purposes
of civilized life, can be arrived at. Suffice it to say,
that no person unacquainted with this vast extent of
country, and the fertility of a large portion of its
soil, can form any idea of the luxuriance of its vege-
table productions, or of the immense herds of buffalo,
deer, elk, &c., that riot, if I may use the expression,
on the varied suffusion of perpetual plenty. Besides
the wild rice, which grows on the wet lands, and
various kinds of grass and herbage, either strawberries,
gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, or grapes, all
in their proper seasons, and of a size and richness of
flavour surpassing any that I have seen in a state of
cultivation, carpet the whole surface of the fertile
prairies.

On our way up, we fell in with a party of friendly
Maha Indians, who were ascending the river, to a for-
mer battle ground, with a view to collect the bones,
and pay the last solemn rites to the manes of their un-
fortunate countrymen, who, some time before, had
been surprised and all cut off by their enemies, except
one, who was their pilot on this occasion. This indi-
vidual escape had something of the miraculous in it,
and some account of it here may not prove iminter-

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

larticular
Qy, and
s, if not

account
Vavellers
it Indian
ted, and

circum-
purposes
t to say,
extent of
m of its
its vege-
f buffalo,
pression.

Besides
[ids, and
wberries,
apes, all
chness of
I state of
le fertile

' friendly
to a for-
le bones,
their un-
bre, had
s, except
^his indi-
ous in it,
iminter-

esting to my readers. The Mahas, to the number
of forty or fifty, were on a hunting excursion, and
had encamped on the banks of a considerable stream
that flows into the La Platte. In this situation, they
were surrounded on all sides, except that of the river,
by a numerous party of Indians ; who made their
advance so cautiously, as not to be perceived till they
had singled out and fired upon their objects. The
war-whoop and rush then followed ; and all, except
four or five who filed to the river, were massacred on
the spot. Those who took to the river were pursued ;
and all, except Nee-kish-lau-teeh, the subject of
this anecdote, were shot as they were swimming.
Nee-kish-lau-teeh, though twice sHghtly wounded,
escaped to i-he opposite shore, and took a circuitous
route through some woods that bordered on it, struck
the river again some distance below, but in sight of
his camps, and there secretly observed the motions of
his enemies. He supposed that all his companions
had been slain, and that no efforts of his foes would
be wanting to number him with them, in order more
effectually to skreen themselves from detection, and
avert . the just vengeance which their atrocious con-
duct merited.

In this supposition he was not mistaken ; for, on
arriving at the bank, as just noticed, he observed the
Indians making preparations to cross after him. In
consequence of which he again took to the woods,
following the course of the river, till he came to a bend,
where he re-swam it, and then changed his course
directly back towards the place where his party had
been surprised. On arriving within a suitable dis-

Il II

"- ,^ n

Ml
II 111

liii!'!

fill I (,'

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

tarice to notice whatever might transpire, he secreted
himself in some drift-grass, with which the willows
adjacent to the stream were thickly interwoven, and
there patiently waited for two days and two nights
the events that followed. The Indians, to the
number of ten or twelve, crossed the river in pursuit;
showed themselves at several places on the banks,
both above and below their crossing-place; and, to-
wards night, re-crossed, and joined their main party.
Early next morning, a still greater number crossed
the river, and took its course downwards ; while
another party took the same direction, on the side
where Nee-kish-lau-teeh had secreted himself This
party was so arranged as to sweep the whole of the
thick undergrowth along the shore : it proceeded
slowly, and searched apparently in every place but
the one which contained the object of their pursuit.
The Maha had nearly buried himself in the sand,
and was otherwise completely hidden: he saw his
blood-thirsty foes almost in the act of treading him
under their feet, and heard them encouraging each
other, and threatening him with cruel tortures, and
a lingering death ; but he fortunately escaped their
search. At night, the parties returned and en-
camped ; and the next morning, having abandoned
the search, crossed the river, ^nd journeyed into
the country along its banks. The Maha remained
in his hiding-place all that day; and at night, in
hopes of procuring some food, cautiously approach-
ed, first the recent encampments of the hostile
Indians, and then those of his unfortunate com-
panions, : w; .. ; . ; : '. : ; r:

iMi

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

secreted
2 willows
ven, and
70 nights
, to the

pursuit;
e banks,

and, to-
in party.
r crossed
; ; while

the side
if: This
le of the
mceeded
lace but

pursuit,
he sand,

saw his
ing him
ing each
ires, and
)ed their
and en-
andoned
'^ed into
emained
light, in
)proach-
hostile
te corn-

He found buffalo-meat, satisfied his appetite, slaked
his thirst at a neighbouring spring, cleansed and
dressed his wounds, and made such provision as he
could for a long journey. - - ■ -^ ■

He was feeble from long fasting and the wounds
he had received, and was without any offensive or
defensive weapons whatever; but, nevertheless, in
the dead of the night, with sensations too painful
to be described, he left this ill-fated spot covered
with the mangled carcasses of his brother warriors. >

On his journey home, he travelled in the night
time, secreted himself by day, and subsisted alto-
gether on roots ; after much suffering, however,
he carried the distressing intelligence to his country-
men.

A party of Loups committed this horrid massacre;
a long and bloody war followed, in which the Mahas
fully satiated their desire for revenge. They had
beaten them wholly from those grounds, and could
now hunt on them, without the fear of being dis-
turbed. Such at le^st is the account that Nee-kish-
lau-teeh gave of the transaction, and the conse-
quences that followed. This Maha was probably fifty
years of age, when I saw him : he spoke the Kansas
language so as with some difficulty to be understood.
He had been once across the Rocky Mountains,
and much among the neighbouring tribes and nations ;
by whom, as well as by his own people, he was
held in high estimation. They even supposed him
to be more under the immediate protection of the
Great Spirit, : than the generality of the Indians :
hence his influence was great ; and besides the duties

CAPTIViTV AJiONq THE

of a chief, he often performed those of a prophet and
physician. , . .< : . . • ' . % ;> .^: 1

The description this old man gave of his excursion
to the great hills of the west exr'ted the curiosity and
ambition of our whole party, and was the primary
cau^e that led us to the execution of a similar expe-
dition.

We continued with the Mahas several days, on the
most friendly terms; were advised of the country
over which we should pass, of the tribes we might
meet, and, in particular, cautioned to be on our
guard against the Sta-he-tah, a small but barbarous
tribe of Indians, which inhabit the grounds border-
ing on the head waters of the La Platte. We
parted from these friends with sincere regret. On
our way farther up we met several parties of hunters,
belonging to different tribes, most of whom, particui-
larly as we approached the mountains, were armed
only with bows, arrows, and spears. Whenever we
discovered recent trails, we secreted our arms as much
as possible, carried the muzzles of our rifles down-
ward, marched on wii,h an apparent carelessness,
though in reality with much caution ; and when in
view of any party, boldly approached it with the cus-
tomary ensigns of peace.

We were, at first, uniformly met with great suspicion
and distrust; but, when the motives of our excursion
and the place of our hunting grounds were made
known, we were as uniformly received i /ith friendship,
and treated with hospitality. We were able to hold
talks with some of the parties we met : although our
languages were very dissimilar, a few words in each

^ 13

:: M'-

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

phet and

xcursion

osity and

primary

lar expe-

s, on the

country

re might

on our

tarbarous

J border-

te. We

ret. On

' liunters,

particui.

e armed

lever we

as much

es down-

3:essness,

when in

the cus-

uspicion
xcursion
re made
endship,
! to hold
>ugh our
in each

were, in two or three instances, found to be precisely
the same ; others had some similitude, but by far the
greatest number were altogether unintelligible. We
met some with whom we were obliged to communi-
cate wholly by signs. These resided high up the
river, or among the mountains ; were generally well
made, robust, and peaceably disposed. They were
neither very cleanly nor well provided ; and were pro-
bably, as they never appeared in large parties, the
remnants of more powerful nations, who had sought
safety from their enemies in retired or wandering
lives. They frequently accompanied us on our route,
and partook of our ^ame; in the destruction of which,
we were, of course, much the most successful. In
return they gave us such things as their ill supplied
stores afforded, among which was the Pash-e-quah, a
farinaceous, nutritive, pleasant-tasted, bulbous root^
which is found in the valleys in great abundance, is
much used by these Indians, and is not a bad substi-
tute for bread, particularly when roasted. They also
gave us nuts and a species of wild rice ; the latter of
which might be collected in considerable quantities
in the low grounds of this district, notwithstanding
the depredations of the numerous herds which occa-
sionally subsist on it. These Indians, particularly the
squaws, treated me with singular attention, probably
on account of my being the only white person they
had ever seen. I forbear, however, going into details,
because they might by some be considered as clash-
ing with propriety. . , ■
Before we arrived at the upper confines of the

I''*

' ^i'

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

I)rairiG8, by the advice of some friendly Indians who
had been with us for several days, we directed our
course up a considerable branch of the La Platte to
the right, in a northernly direction from the main
river, in order to avoid the Sta-he-tah tribe, of whom
some mention has previously been made.

Ai or pvH ling this stream several days, we passed
a hiliv <:.o)it,iyt covered with oak, chesnut, beach,
iuckorj'j ijid o*her upland trees, indicative, as I
have since learncu, of a good soil j and then struck
upon a small stream, that flowed in a direction nearly
opposite to the one we had recently left. Here
we stopped a day ; and, after debating the subject,
unanimously agreed to proceed onwards, as far as
the summits of the Great Western Hills, and still
i'urther, should circumstances prove favourable. A
division of opinion, however, existed as to the
ilirect route ; but it was finally determined to course
along the base of the dividing hills, which we did,
till we arrived on the banks of a stream rather
larger than the La Platte was where we left it. It
may here be observed, our party generally thought
that the accomplishment of this journey would, on
our return, entitle us to as much applause from our
people as though we had gained a signal victory
over our enemies j and the desire for fame, or a
high reputation, urged us on, and made us bear with,
patience the fatigues of the journey. At a short dis-
tance above the place where we struck this riyer,
our course was interrupted by a remarkable clifti
which we could not ascend, and between which and

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

0.5

lians who
2cted our
Platte to
the main
of whom

ve passed
t, beach,
:ive, as I
en struck
on nearly
t. Here
J subject,
as far as
and still
•able. A
s to the
to course
1 we did,
m rather
ft it. It
1 thought
t'ould, on
from our
I victory
ne, or a
3ear with
short dis-
his river,
ible cliftj
^hich and

the water, there was no possibility of passing: we,
therefore, having examined a considerable fall in the
river, and ascertained the foregoing facts, varied our
course, till this range of hills afforded a convenient
pass.

Having crossed them, we directed our way along
the banks of this stream, till it terminated in a lake or
large pond of remarkable transparency. We observed
many small but no large streams flowing into this
heading reservoir, probably, of some one of the
branches of the Missouri. The country around, ^
far as the eye could extend, was hilly, and in a wc: t-
ward direction swelled into mountains of L^t
height. We here met small parties of Indians, con.
paratively poor, but nevertheless, hospitable ^nd
friendly. In character they resembled those before
described j though, receding from the grazing prai-
ries, they became more timid. ...

Some of them accompanied us constantly, and
served us virtually as guides to the Mountains of
Snow ; towards which they frequently journeyed,
during the summer seasons, on account of the greater
safety this route afforded in the chace.

After passing the lake above noticed, I accompanied
two of our party in pursuit of game up a small stream
which disembogued through a deep ravine, rendered
peculiarly gloomy by a tall and thick growth of ever-
greens. We soon discovered two unusually large
brown bears, which, so far from being intimidated at
our approach, made directly for us, in a rapid and
threatening manner. When first seen they were only
at a short distance from us, and we scarcely had time

• Jll

(16

CAPTIVITY AMONG THL

\\*i'

'■m

', i^'l!

n-\

'r, V,

to level our pieces and fire, before one of my compa^
nions was in the grasp of one of these ferocious
animals, now rendered furious by a wound we had
inflicted. Fortunately for us the other had been shot
through the heart, and fell immediately dead, so that
all our efforts could be directed to relieve our com-
panion from his perilous situation. Our rifles had all
been discharged, and the urgency was too great to
attempt to reload them j we therefore resorted to our
long knives and tomahawks, and although we thrust
the former their whole length repeatedly into the bear,
and cut it in an extraordinary manner with the latter,
yet some time elapsed before we could extricate him
from the potent fangs and claws of his rapacious ad-
versary. It is well known among the mountain tribes,
that these bears are not only ferocious and daring,
but remarkably tenacious of life ; and we came very
near provihg these facts, by the loss of one of our
party. The poor fellow was shockingly bitten and
torn, and in great danger of losing his life in this
desperate conflict. This affair delayed our progress
considerably, and made our hunters more wary.
Nevertheless we proceeded onward, coursing occa-
sionally the streams, and then crossing one range
of hills after another, till our patience was nearly ex-
hausted.

We had received from some of the Indians, a gene-
ral description of the route ; but we had no trails or
marks to guide us, except the transverse diiection of
the hills, which being covered either with thick
growths of evergreens, fallen trees, rocks, or snow ;
and not unfrequently with all of them together, and

'■'i

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

ferocious
1 we had
been shot
id, so that

our com-
les had all
3 great to
'ted to our
we thrust
the bear,
the latter,
xicate him
»acious ad-
tain tiibes,
id daring,
came very
one of our
bitten and
life in this
ir progress
lore wary,
sing occa-
one range

nearly ex-

ns, a gene-
no trails or
uection of
with thick
\f or snow :,
jether, and

■ f

swelling occasionally into mountains sometimes pre-
cipitous, rendered our journey tedious and difficult.
We found very little game to supply our wants, and
were obliged to waste our ammunition on pheasants
and small game, which, in some of the vallics, were
very abundant. We also shot some mountain goats,
and a few black-tailed deer. The cold was at times
severe, and we experienced several falls of snow, hail,
and rain. At length we arrived on the last range of
mountains, from the top of which an apparently de-
lightful country presented itself below : on reaching
it, however, it was quite the reverse, and very little
game was to be found.

Soon after, we struck a small stream, on the banks
of which three or four huts were situated; but no
Indians were perceived. We followed this stream
some distance, and finding game still scarce, owing
as we supposed to the sterility of the soil, we crossed
to our left several ranges of hills, where were some
deer, and in the course of two days came to an Indian
settlement, on the margin of a considerable stream.
These Indians were armed with bows and spears,
appeared very friendly, and were less suspicious than
any we had before met This conduct and apparent
security grew, no doubt, out of their own poverty,
and that of their hunting grounds. They were small
in stature, well made, but exceedingly filthy j and
subsisted mostly on fish, roots, and benies, of which
they were generally parsimonious. They had a few
horses, and many dogs j the former were of no great
account among them ; while the latter were held in
high estimation. They spoke a singular, and to us

F 2

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

ar unintelligible language, and called themselves
Lee-ha-taus. .

This tribe was not numerous, and inhabited the
neighbouring country. Some of these Indians ac-
companied us down the country, to other villages
belonging to the same nation. We stopped but a
short time, smoked the pipe of friendship, and still
accompanied by some of them, continued our route
down the river. As we advanced, we found the In-
dians more numerous, equally friendly, and more
liberally disposed, than those we had passed in the
upper country. Game was every where scarce, and
we were indebted to the hospitality of strangers for
a portion of what was necessary to our subsistence.
Sometimes we assisted in taking fish, but the stores
of this article were generally so abundant, and so
little valued, as to render our efforts in this way
rather a source of amusement than consideration
to our friendly hosts. We accepted these proffered
obligations in preference to running the risk of giving
offence, by destroying their game, which was es-
teemed by them in proportion to its scarcity. The
nations through which we passed, did not possess
the warlike character of the Indians of the Missouri
and Mississippi regions. They were all at peace, and
had frequent intercourse with each other, without
exciting the least suspicion or jealousy. These cir-
cumstances facilitated our progress very much, for
we were always accompanied by some of them, from
one tribe to another. Besides, we frequently had the
use of some of their canoes or rafts, to assist us on
our way. In this manner, we continued our route,

■a

NOllTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

icmselves

bited the
[lians ac-
r villages
ed but a
and still
our route
d the In-
ind more
ed in the
arce, and
mgers for
ibsistence.
the stores
It, and so
this way
isideration
proffered
: of giving
h was es-
city. The
ot possess
B Missouri
)eace, and
r, without
These cir-
much, for
hem, from
ly had the
ssist us on
our route.

■I

sometimes over barren prairies, hills, &c. and at others,
through woods, till we arrived at the great Pacific
Ocean. Here, the surprise and astonishment of
our whc!e party was indescribably great. The un-
bounded view of waters, the incessant and tremen-
dous dashing of the waves along the shore, accom-
panied with a noise resembling the roar of loud
and distant thunder, filled our minds with the most
sublime and awful sensations, and fixed on them
as immutable truths, the tradition we had received
from our old men, that the great waters divide the
residence of the Great Spirit, from the temporary
abodes of his red children We here contemplated in
silent dread, the immense difficuiues over which we
should be obliged to triumph after death, before we
could arrive at those delightful hunting grounds,
which are unalterably destined for such only as do
good, and love the Great Spirit. We looked in vain
for the stranded and shattered canoes of those who
had done wickedly. We could see none, and we
were led to hope that they were few in number. We
offered up our devotions, or I might rather say, our
minds were serious, and our devotions continued, all
the time we were in this country, for we had ever
been taught to believe, that the Great Spirit resided
on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, and
this idea com nued throughout the journey, notwith-
standing the more specific water boundary assigned
to him by our traditionary dogmas.

. We soon satisfied our curiosity; but what, however,
contributed most to hasten our departure, were the
almost incessant rains that fell while we were there.

F 3

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

MI,;

The food with which we were supplied, over the few
elk and deer we killed, was disagreeably loathsome ;
yet to have rejected the hospitality of our kind hosts,
would have given great offence, as we learned, in one
instance, by experience. We arrived at the ocean, on
the south side of Chock-a-li-lum, (Columbia river,) and
coasted southwardly, to a small inlet, around which se-
veral detached huts vcre situated. The Indians in-
habiting them were not very numerous ; they subsisted
chiefly by fishing : and the manner in which they ma-
naged their canoes, was a source of much surprise and
satisfaction. These Indians, as well as those along the
tide waters of the Columbia, are small and deformed
in their persons, and exceedingly filthy in their habits
and appearance. They paid particular attention to
their women, who frequently took part in their debates,
and generally in their fishing excursions. I remark
this, because it was so different from the privileges en-
joyed among the Osages, Kansas, and other nations of
Indians on the other side of the Rockv Mountains.
The men generally have but one wife, though, if I
mistake not, polygamy is permitted. The married wo-
men totally disregard the obligations of continence, and
boldly indulge in its violation ; but such conduct led to
no breach of hospitality or friendship between this
tribe and our party, whilst we remained with it.

They take fish in great abundance, with wooden
spears pointed with bone, or some other hard sub-
stance. They took many, while we were with them ;
they were five or six feet in length, and very oily : they
are not eaten till they become soft from keeping,
when they are mashed with water, in wooden troughs,

NORTH AMERICAN INUIANH.

r the few
athsome ;
ind hosts,
id, in one
ocean, on
iver,)and
which se-
tidians in-
subsisted
they ma-
rprise and
along the
deformed
leir habits
tention to
r debates,
I remark
dleges en-
nations of
[ountains.
)ugh, if I
irried wo-
lence, and
iuct led to
ween this
h it.

1 wooden
hard sub-
itji them;
oily: they
keeping,
n troughs,

and cooked with hot stones. We roaHted some while
fresh, which proved tolerably palatable, but they did
not approve of our mode of cooking. Each family
have their winter supplies on hand, consisting of
membranous sacks of oil, dried fish, and some roots.
Elk, deer, and wild fowl, are taken by them in
small numbers, but with great difficulty, and are
esteemed great luxuries. They cultivate no ground,
depending on the earth's spontaneous production for
the roots they obtain, which are few, and not very
nutritive. In fact, none of them agreed with us j
some produced the water-brash, and others, nattseot
and cathartic effects.

These Indians called themselves Calt-sops : the
country around them is mountainous, and covered
with a large growth of evergreen trees. From these
they make their canoes, with great labour, and then
launch them into the ocean ; from which, after every
expedition, they are carefully withdrawn for their
preservation. .

These canoes are highly valued, in consequence
of the difficulty experienced in constructing them.
They are articles of traffic only in matrimonial
negociations ; and a young Indian was busily
employed, while we were there, in making one,
which was to be exchanged for the daughter of his
intended father-in-law, with whom all the courtship
is carried on. . ; r

We remained but a few dayp with these Indians,
for the reasons above stated, and because a general
anxiety prevailed among our party to be on their
journey homeward.

CAPTIVITY AMOMG THE

! il

r After having taken our leave of them and oi' the
Great Waters, which had excited and still maintained
an indescribable interest in our minds, we returned
by the route we descended, till we arrived at the
entrance of the Mult-no-mali, (River of much game,)
into the Columbia. From whence, by the advice of
the Mult-no-mah Indians, we pursued the course of
that river, nearly to its sources, on account of the
hunting grounds in its vicinity being reputedly sup-
plied with an abundance of game. The navigation
of this river is interrupted by many rapids and several
falls ; one of which was very considerable, and ap-
peared at some distance, curtained with a semi-halo
of the most brilliant colours. It flows, particularly
towards its sources, through a hilly, or more properly
speaking, mountainous country. The soil of the val-
lies appeared fertile ; and was, for the most part,
covered with a large growth of trees. The Indians
settled along its course, received us in a very friendly
manner. . -

They differ very little in their habits and modes of
life, from those on the Columbia river. The hunting
grounds were ill supplied with game, and the waters
afforded but a limited supply of fish, in consequence of
which they paid some attention to tilling the soil.
They raised considerable quantities of a peculiar kind
of corn ; the ears of which were short, small, and set
on stalks near the ground j the grains were also small,
flat, and of a very deep blue colour. They also raised
beans and squashes, and to make up the remainder of
their stores, collected nuts, roots, and wild tobacco.
The leaves of this last article were narrow, long, and

NORTH AMERICAN INDLANS.

id of the
aintained
returned
d at the
;h game,)
advice of
course of
It of the
idly sup-
avigation
id several
, and ap-
semi-halo
rticularly
properly
►f the val-
lost part,
e Indians
y friendly

modes of
e hunting
;he waters
quence of
the soil,
uliar kind
1, and set
ilso small,
dso raised
lainder of
[ tobacco,
long, and

thin ; and when dried, mild, and very superior for
smoking.

A small tribe of Indians, calling themselves Leesh-
te-losh, reside on the head waters of the Mult-no-
mah; they were larger, better made, more warlike,
and of a whiter colour than any others we saw to the
west of the Rocky Mountains. They received us at
first, with some distrust, but afterwards were very
friendly; they supplied us with such articles as they
had to spare, and put us on the route eastwardly,
across several ranges of hills. Passing these, we found,
as we had been told we should, considerable game on
the borders of a very large lake.

The Indians here, however, were not so friendly as
we could have wished ; but we conciliated their chief
with presents, consisting of a tomahawk and two
knives. They were not very numerous, but were
athletic, and good warriors, being armed with stone
tomahawks, clubs, spears, and unusually large and
strong bows. The lake was weU supplied with fish,
which they took in considerable quantities with
spears made of hard wood or pointed with bone.
Their canoes were small, and clumsily made from
the trunks of trees, but they were managed with
great dexterity. They called themselves Ne-was-
kees ; we learned a few words of their language ;
but, from the circumstances before noticed, remained
only a short time with them. Journeying eastwardly,
along the side of this lake, we fell in with many
other parties of Indians, and killed what game we
wanted, without any incident happening worthy of
remark. We next crossed several ranges of hills.

CAPTIVITY AMONG THK

and found ourselves among a tribe ot poor, inoffensive,
, and friendly Indians, with whom, if game had beea
plenty, or their stores abundant, we should have re-
mained all the winter, as the season had now become
cold, and snow had fallen on the level country, so asr
to render the travelling difficult. , , * .

;We, however, pursued our route over a country
whose surface was considerably varied, but which;
could not be called mountainous. On our way, we
fell in with many Indians, of nearly the same cha-
racter, habits, and dispositions of those last described^
and were always kindly treated, though we received
little or no supplies from their hands. We had now?
arrived at the neighbourhood of the Great Moun-
tains, and concluded, if in the summer we suffered
extremely from the cold, in crossing tliem, that the
attempt at the inclement season of winter, might,
and probably would, terminate in the destruction of
our whole party. It was therefore determined to
form camps, and remain where we were, till the ap-
proach of milder weather. We accordingly set at
work, and with poles, the barks of trees and brush,
constructed lodges under the declivity of some lofty
rocks, in a pleasant southern exposure.

Near by, were several springs of water ; one of which
was of a temperature nearly sufficient to have cooked
food, though we made no particular use of it. From
the appearances, however, just below the efflux of the
water, it must have been much resorted to as a batli,
and, no doubt, by some of the Indians we had recently
passed: because many of them appeared to suffer fiom
r!*aneoMs diseases, which probably owed their ori"

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

loffensive,
liad been-

I have re-
;v become
try, so a»

country

ut whicfe

way, we

same cha-

lescribed^

received

had no^Nl

It Moun-

suffered

that the

r, might,

uction of

mined to

II the ap-
rly set at
nd brush,
ome lofty

! of which
e cooked
t. From
ux of the
as a batli,
I recently
lifer from
their ori*

giu to a restricted and long-continued diet on crude
and partially medicinal roots, and leguminous sub-
stances. > ;

Our powder and ball had now become scarce ; with
a view, therefore, to husband them to the best advan-
tage, we provided ourselves with bows and arrows,
and parties of our hunters used them sometimes with
considerable success, in procuring game for our sub*
sistence. They always, however, took some rifles
with them, in order, if chance should offer, to kill
larger game at a distance, and to defend themselves
against the white and brown bears and panthers which
frequent these regions. The game we took coi>
sisted of elk, black-tailed deer, a species of mountain
goat, some wild turkies and pheasants, and we were
generally well supplied. The pantlier and wolf) at-
tracted, probably, by the scent of our food, frequently
prowled round our camps ; and so much were they to
be apprehended, particularly the former, that no one
ever ventured to go out alone, even on the most
trifling occasion.

We killed several of them, and one under such pe-
culiar circumstances as to deserve notice. This < ,
as is the usual habit of the animal, in taking its p /,
had secreted itself in a crouching position, behi <1 a
rock, close to the spring we frequented, and wn not
discovered by two of our party, who were gc - for
water, till they had arrived within its leaping di.uance.
They, however, were not thrown off theii' guard by the
violent agitations produced by the discovery ; but ex^
ercised a presence of mind, which, I think, few men in
their situation would have done, and which, in all nro-

CAPTIVITY AMONG THK

m K

ii "fa

bability, saved at least one of their lives. Tare-heem,
who was in the advance, the moment he discovered
the danger he was in, gave directions to his companion,
and stepped cautiously backward, keeping his eyes
rivetted, if I may use the expression, all the while on
those of his adversary. In this manner they soon
retreated beyond its bounding distance *, and finally
reached the camp in safety, though not without great
apprehension. Tare-heem shot it a few moments
afterwards, in nearly the same position in which he
left it, and it proved to be the largest panther that any
of our party had before seen , He brought the skin
with him to the Osage nation, and took great pains to
preserve it. i

Apart from hunting, we dressed the skins of the
animals we took in our hunts, and made them into
mockasins, leggings, and robes. To amuse ourselves,
and beguile the time, we played at several games of
hazard, which will be noticed in another part of this
work. Small parties of the neighbouring Indians fre-
quently visited us, with whom we always shared the
products of our hunts gratuitously. We received from
them, occasionally, small presents of beans, roots,
nuts, and tobacco ; with the latter of which, in the
customary form, we often renewed and strengthened
the relations of friendship.

At the breaking up of the winter, having supplied

* Should this animal fail to seize its prey on the first leap or
bound, it seldom continues the pursuit, but retires to its crouching
posture and place, and there waits for a more fortunate opportu-
nity. It is also said by the Indians, never to spring on its nrej
while they are mutually eyeing each other.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

fare-heem,
discovered
lompanion,
5 his eyes
le while on
they soon
and finally
ihout great
^ moments
which he
er that any
t the skin
rat pains to

ins of the
them into
ourselves,
games of
)art of this
ndians fre-
ihared the
eived from
ms, roots,
ch, in the
engthened

supplied

firpt leap or

its crouching

ate opportu-

on its prey

.'ijj

ourselves with such things as were necessary, and the
situation afforded, all our party visited the spring
from which we had procured our supplies of water,
and there offered up our orisons to the Great Spirit,
ibr having preserved us in health and safety, and for
having supplied all our wants. This is the constant
practice of the Osages, Kansas, and many other na-
tions of Indians, located west of the Mississippi, on
breaking up their encampments, and is, by no means,
an unimportant ceremony. On the contrary, the oc-
casion calls forth all the devotional feelings of the
soul ; and you then witness the silent but deeply im-
pressive communion the unsophisticated native of

the forest holds with his Creator. ^

From our winter's encampment we soon arrived at,
and crossed, the various ranges of mounttv n^ which
divide the waters, flowing eastwardly and west-
wardly from each other. They did not appear so
high, numerous, or difficult to pass, at the place we
recrossed, -as they were where we crossed them ;
our progress was, nevertheless, slow, on account of
the snow, which was in some places deep, and gave
way under our feet. We experienced some intensely
cold weather, particularly on the tops of the moun-
tains. We also found it exceedingly difficult to procure
game, so that this part of our route might with pro-
priety be termed one of suffering, though not the
slightest complaint was heard to escape from the
lips of one of our party. As we descended from
the mountains, eastwardly, the difference in climate
and vegetation was too obvious to escape our notice.
When we left our winter camps, the warmth of the

%'■ '

' IB'

1 1

: It

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

Sun was considerable, the snow had nearly disap-
peared, and was dissolving rapidly J the nights were,
however, rather cold, and not a sign of resuscitating
vegetation presented itself to our view. A few days*
Journey, however, brought us upon grounds from
which the snow had wholly disappeared j where vege-
tation had put on its gayest liabiliments, and showed
forth its joyful thanksgivings in concert with the me-
lodious warblings of the feathered tribes. We had
supposed, from the course pursued on our recrossing
the mountains, and inclining northwardly, that we
should strike upon our old tracks ; but in this we were
disappointed. '

We made several excursions, first in one direction,
and then in another, without procuring to ourselves
any satisfaction as to the place where we were, or
the course which ought to be pursued to conduct us
to our homes. Much time transpired in these per-
plexed circumstances; our whole party were com-
pletely lost, which, in fact, was the first time in my
life that I had ever known of an individual occur-
rence of the kind, though they sometimes happen ;
ajnd this was the more extraordinary, as we were thirty-
seven in number. We knew that we had returned
by a route more to the south than the one by which
we went out, and finally determined to course our
way north and eastwardly, inclining considerably fi'om
the parallel direction of the mountains. We were
induced to adopt this measure on account of the
Yearns, where we then were, flowing in a southward
direction.

■f

•

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

iiiy disiip-
ights were,
siiscitating
L few days*
iinds from
here vege-
nd sliowed
th the me-
We had
recrossiiig
y^ tliat we
lis we were

; direction,
► ourselves
e were, or
conduct us

these per-
were com-
ime in my
ual occur-
s happen ;
irere thirty-
\ returned

by which
course our

rably from

We were

ant of the

southward

We obliquely crossed a series of vallies, formed by
gently swelling hills, and then successively arrived at,
and crossed, two ranges of high mountains, whose
tops were covered with snow. Shortly afterwards,
we arrived on the banks of a small stream, which
flowed in nearly a northern direction, and afforded
tolerably good hunting grounds. This circumstance
led us to change our route, which was now conformed
to that of the stream. In a few days after this, we
came to a much more considerable one which flowed
eastwardly, and discovered buffalo, and recent Indian,
trails ; but met with no interruption, till this stream,
swelled by the confluence of some others, and the rain
which had recently fallen, had become a large river.
Here we discovered a small party of Indians, who,
though we proffered every token of peace and friend-
ship, fled with great precipitation. '

We concluded rightly that they were only a hunting
detachment from a more numerous party, and accord-
ingly determined to guard against a sui'prise, in case
they should prove hostile, by crossing to the opposite
side of the river. This done, we proceeded slowly
on, carrying our arms in the attitude of peace. In
two or three hours we unexpectedly arrived near
several temporary wigwams, which, notwithstanding
all our efforts to prevent it, were deserted by some
old men, women, and children, their only tenants,
who fled, in the utmost consternation, to the neigh-
bouring woods. To have proceeded onwards at this
time, without essaying to conciliate the good feelings
of these Indians, would have been an act of defiance;
and if the warriors of the village had been sufficiently

I'll

"\ ' 'S

^■';i ' ^^' i

iHi

CAPTIVITY AMONG THK

numerous, would have Invited our own destruction,
as soon as they became acquainted with the circum-
stance, and could accomplish it. We therefore sent
Tare-heem unarmed in pursuit, in order to explain
our friendly intentions, and, if possible, to smoke the
pipe of peace with them. He returned in a short
time in company with some of the old men, among
whom was one who could speak the Mahas language,
which was also spoken by some of our j)arty. We
explained the nature of our situation, told them to
what nation we belonged, inquired where we were,
and tendered them wampums and the pipe of peace.
They were, at first, exceedingly cautious, but relaxing
as they became more acquainted, they smoked with
us, in token of friendship. The women and children
returned soon afterwards, and we were offered food ;
and, much to our satisfaction, told that we were now
on the main Arkansas river. We had scarcely regaled
ourselves before some hunters came in; they appeared
far from being satisfied with their new guests, and the
reception they had received. We, however, secured
their friendship, very timely for us, with the presents
of a rifle to the principal chief, and several tomahawks
and knives to others of less distinction. We had
barely terminated this negociation, when a party of
fifty or sixty warriors arrived in pursuit of us j among
them, as we afterwards learned, were the Indians
who fled from us in the early part of the day. They
at first appeared ferocious, but as they belonged to
the same tribe of Indians whose friendship we had
purchased, and under whose roofs we now were,
they forbore the. commission of any hostile acts. A

NORTH AMKUICAN rNDIANS.

istructioii,
le circum-
ef'ore sent
:o explain
smoke the
in a short
in, among
language,
irty. We
d them to
; we were,
5 of peace,
it relaxing
loked with
d children
jred food ;
were now
(ly regaled
r appeared
ts, and the
sr, secured
le presents
omahawks
We had
a party of
is ', among
le Indians
ly. They
elonged to
ip we had
low were,
; acts. A

new negociation was now set on foot, and we gratui-
tously parted with two more rifles and a few toma-
hawks ; and subsequently bartered two more of our
rifles for beaver skins. It is highly probable, had
there been no lodges at this place, or if the hunters
had been at their encampments when our party
arrived, that we should have been wholly cut off.
These Indians were principally armed with bows,
tomahawks, and spears ; appeared ferocious and war-
like, and belonged to the Tetau nation. They were
particularly hostile to the Pawnees, who had recently
stolen some of their horses, and against whom a party
of their warriors had then gone. We placed but
little confidence in them ; and, therefore, as soon as
we had prepared four canoes from the skins of buffa-
los, &c. we took our leave, not, however, without
strong apprehensions of being pursued and de-
stroyed J for we had now parted with several of our
rifles, and our ammunition was too far exhausted
to authorize any resistance, except under the most
desperate necessity. What contributed most to our
fears, was the circumstance of there always having
existed a strong animosity between these Indians
and all the various tribes located noith and east of
them.

We, however, finally escaped beyond their reach,
without any occurrence happening worthy of notice.
We afterwards fell in with three or four small parties,
all Pawnees, with whom, afler our mutual distrusts
were removed, we exchanged several of our rifles, at
their request, for beaver skins, which we transported

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

|5o "^~ iinHE

S«f IS

I lii 12.0

JJ.

;

1.25 1.4

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Hiotographic

Sciences
Corporation

33 WEST MAIN STREET

V^EBSTER, N.Y. MS80

(716) 872-4503

CAPTIVITY AMONG THt:

in our canoes, now increased in number sufficient to
cdntain our whole party. The navigation continued
good for several days after we left the Tetaus : lower
down it was interrupted by rapids and shoals, to such
an extent as, in my opinion, to render the passage even
of light canoes exceedingly difficult in dry times,
though at this time there was sufficient water for the
passage of large river boats. .r:

The river flows from its source, for nearly half the
distance above the Vermillion, through a hilly and
broken country ; the remainder of its course is
through prairies, separated in some instances from
the water by sand hills of considerable magnitude,
but, for the most part, by forests of various kinds.
The herds of buffalo, elk, and deer, were numerous ;
and we were always able to obtain supplies of food,
after we struck the main stream, without much
difficulty, though all our ammunition, except one
or two rounds, had failed several days before our
return. ' ' ^^ i^; ^

The Rocky Mountains, where we re-ciossed them,
were not precipitous, nor of very difficult passage.
Their sides were covered with considerably large
growths of trees, principally cedars and pines, which
diminished in size, till they altogether disappeared near
the summits. The soil in the vallies between them,
though somewhat broken by ridges and ravines, ap-
peared from its vegetable productions to be good, and
it was well watered. The streams which we crossed
between the mountains, as already remarked, flowed
southwardly, and, no doubt were the heading branches

-il^^i,-'!

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

of the Rio del Norde or of some other river, flowing
into the empire of Mexico or New Spain.

The Osages had looked upon us as lost, and greeted
our arrival among them in the most joyful and
tumultuous manner. My Indian mother and sister
wept aloud, and the squaws, young and old, danced
around us to the cadence of their festival songs, and
decorated our persons in the same manner as though
we had returned triumphant over the enemies of
our country. The old men and warriors listened
with wonder and astonishment at the narration of
our adventures, and lavished on us the meeds of
praise, and high encomiums, heretofore only bestowed
on the most distinguished of their nation. In fine,
Tare-heem, who before ranked as a distinguished
and leading warrior, was now listened to among the
sage counsellors : the rest of the party were ranked
among th^ bravest of the warriors, and many of the
unmarried men received from the young squaws,
some a greater and some a less number of ears of com,
as so many individual invitations to enter into matri-
monial alliances.

This journey occupied nearly sixteen moons. The
following seasons were passed in short hunting excur-
sions, festivals, and amusements, till the spring arrived,
when a considerable party, including myself, visited
the Grand Osage nation, where we remained a few
days. I became acquainted with, and received par-
ticular marks of favour from Cler-mont, the principal
chief, and some of his most distinguished warriors.
There was at this time, among the Osages, a trader
named Manuel Lisa, a Spaniard or half Indian, who

G 2

•■

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

was now bound on a trading expedition up the Mis-
souri, in company with a Mr. M'Lane another
trader, and several Spanish, French, and American
boatmen.

This Manuel Lisa was an aitful, cunning man: he
had several private interviews with me, and used every
argument in his power to persuade me to accompany
him in his intended voyage. I finally concluded to
go with him, on condition that some of the Kansas and
Osages, ii'om White Hair's tribe, would join the party,
which thev consented to, and about twenty of us, in
addition to the hunting party, descended the Osage
river, and proceeded up the Missouri, in boats con-
structed for the purpose. In general the boatmen
were competent to propel the boats; but where rapids
or erabarras* occurred in the river, we assisted at the
cordelle, or towing line, from the shore. Sometimes
it was necessary to wade up to the waist or arms in
water, which was the cause of much discontent among
the boats* crew, but more particularly so among the
Indians. The above was the first labour to which I
had ever been confined. It was occasionally severe,
but encouragement and praise, the tyrants to which
all mankind are slaves, timely lavished by Manuel
Lisa, made me forget my sufferings, and excited me
to increased efforts and turmoils.
J. On our way up, we stopped at a Kickapoo settle-
ment, at which were several who had connections in
the party of their nation to whom I belonged, and who

* Places where the navigation is rendered difficult, by the ac-
oumulatisn of drift wood, trees, &c.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

were nearly all cut off' on the head waters of the Mara^
meek. They had already been informed of the cir-
cumstances connected with that unfortunate event.

Much interesting conversation took place between
us : I made many particulv inquiries respecting my-
self and my family, from a curiosity that had been ex-
cited by similar, and often repeated inquiries which
the Indians, particularly the squaws, and several traders,
had made of me; but without being able to obtain the
least satisfaction. In fact, if they had known, I be-
lieve they would not have made the disclosure ; for
it is natural to conclude that such information would
have created a disquietude not to be allayed, short of
the fullest research, which, if successful, would proba-
bly have terminated in estranging me from their modes
of life, and social relations.

On arriving at the confluence of the Kansas river
with the Missouri, all the Kansas that were of our
party abandoned the expedition, and returned home,
much to the vexation of the traders. I was invited to
join them, and reflected on the course I ought to pur-
sue with deep concern. I had been a considerable time
from that nation, and, as my Kansas mother was dead,
and my Kansas father had again married among, and
incorporated himself with the Osages, I felt no parti-
cular attachment to this tribe j while among the Osages
I had a fond mother and sister, and was much respect-
ed and esteemed by the whole nation. These circum-
stances, joined to the artful persuasions and promises
of Manuel Lisa, determined me to remain, for the pre-
sent, in his employment, and finally to return to the
Osage towns. From this place, we ascended the Kan^

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

mi'

sas river to the towns where I had formerly resided. I
was received here with every mark of the warmest
friendship and affection ; we soon, however, returned
to the Missouri, and pursued the course of that river
towards its source. This digression up the Kansas
was undertaken by Lisa to form new connections with
the Indians, to trade and take game, in all which he
succeeded to his expectations. During this trip, I
witnessed, for the first time in my life, with painful
sensations, the wide and wanton destruction of
game, merely to procure skins ; and so much dis-
gusted was I, on seeing the buffalo carcases strewed
over the ground in a half putrefied state, that my
reluctance to fulfil my engagements w?i3 so much
increased, as to occasion me to reflect seriously on
absconding from the party. No opportunity, how-
ever, offered, and ^ gradually became more recon-
ciled to this barbarous practice : such, to the shame
of human nature, is the effect of custom. Just before
we arrived at the entrance of the La Platte into the
Missouri, we experienced the most violent and long
continued rains, accompanied with heavy thunder,
and the most vivid and incessant flashes of lightning,
that I ever before or since witnessed. Our engage-
ments were now such as to render a constant exposure
necessary; in consequence of which, our sufferings
were great, and many of the party became sick. The
river swelled into a devastating flood, covered the
islands and alluvion grounds, and bore off whole herds
of buffido and forests of trees on its surface : the sight
was so distressing and awful as to surpass my powers of
description. In a few days the rain abated, and we

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

pursued our route. We occaflionally fell in with par-
ties of Indians, belonging to the Mahas, Ottowas, and
Pawnees, who were friendly, and with whom Lisa en-
tered into engagements for such furs, &c. as they
might take, previous to his descending the river. The
Sioux, whose grounds we next entered, were not con-
sidered friendly J we therefore made all the expedition
in our power, k^piog on the shores opposite to where
we should be likely to iJJl in with them, and avoiding
every act that might be construed into an apology, on
their part, for attgcking us. Passing the Sioux with-
out any interf|^ptipo, we reached the villages of the
Ric-ca-ras *, wk^te we remained several days. These
Indians are w^ provided ; and they treated us in a
very friendly manner. Lisa entered into trading en-
gagements with them, and made them several small
presents, as he had done to those Indians who had
concluded similar contracts with him. We next
arrived among the Mandans, who received us in the
same manner as the Ric-ca-ras had, and laid them-
selves under similar obligations to our traders.
Hitherto, Lisa had treated me with a well-dissembled
kindness and indulgence. Having, however, ascend-
ed the river so far as to render my return by the Sioux
exceedingly hazardous, and being, as he now thought,
sure of my services, he threw off the disguise, in
order, no doubt, if possible, to make me sensible of my
dependence on him, and to secure my entire obedience
to his will : but he found himself mistaken. The
obligations he, myself, and our whole party, knew
were due from and not to him.

* Pronounced by the Indianb A*ric*ca-ra.

o 4 .

88'

CAPTIVITY AM014G TllfJ

Several harsh words passed between ud, when, on
my assuming a position that threatened a summary
and perhaps more severe chastisement than his
offence merited, he submitted to ask my pardon ; and
for some time afterwards treated me not with a reali
but an affected tenderness and regard.

My conduct on this occasion was much approved;
and secured me the friendship of all our party, except
the original transgressor. From this place we con-
tinued up the Missouri till we arrived in the neighi*
bourhood of the Great Falls. On our way, we had
frequent interviews with the several tribes of Indians
inhabiting its borders, and the traders entered into
similar engagements with most of them, as they had
before dono with those lower down. Otherwise,
nothing worthy of notice happened, till several days
after our arrival near the falls above named, when on
account of a general dissatisfaction at the conduct of
Lisa, all the Osages, who were ten in number, and
myself^ after having explained our motives to the<
traders, and their party, abandoned them, and took
our course down the river, in the most direct man-
ner. Lisa did all in his power to prevent our depart-
ure, on account of the important services he well
knew we were capable of rendering him, in procuring
ftirs, &C., and on which he had calculated with cer-
tainty and great expectations; but findihg our
determinations not to be changed, he parted from us
apparently reconciled.

Since my return to the territories of the United

States, he has, nevertheless, on several occasions, as I

have been informed, complained of our conduct, which

.«'

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

defeated in some meaBure the objects of the expedit
tion, he having made use of some of the Osages to
conduct his negociations with many of the tribes he
fell in with on his course up the Missouri. On the
third or fourth day after we left the traders* one of
our party was bitten on the fleshy part of the leg by a
rattlesnake. The wound was deep ; but was imme*
diately cut out with a sharp knife, and the incision
cauterized with a heated stone. This occurrence de^
layed us but a short time when it happened, though
sid)sequently it occasioned us much delay, on account
of the sufferings it produced.

Some days afterwards, we met a party of English
traders, wifli whom we bartered such ftu's as we had
taken, for powder, ball, &c. They had just arrived
on the Missouri by a portage connecting with some
of the head waters, of either the St. Lawrence or the
Mississippi river. By signs, we made them underti
stand our apprehensions of the hostile Sioux, which
were settled lower down, on the Missouri. They, in
a similar manner, advised us to avoid them alto-
gether, v by changing our direction south-eastwardly,
after we should, arrive at the Mandan villages, till we
struck on the waters of the Mississippi, and then, to
descend that river. After separating from this party,
our progress was slow, and much interrupted by the
lameness and indisposition of one of our party, occa^
sioned, as before noticed, by the bite of a rattiesnake.
The exposure and irritation produced by travelling
had induced a high local inflammation and fever,
which threatened the life of the sufferer, and rea.
dered an encampment necessary. In consequence of

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

this circumstance, we were detained several weeks ^
and finally resumed our journey, bearing our patient
on a litter. •

^^ In a few days, however, we were amply compen-
sated for all our delays and troubles, in his entire
recoveiy. This Indian's name was Wen-ga-shee : he
was a powerful and brave warrior, proved of essential
service to us on our journey home, and, when I lefl
tliem, continued to be much respected by the
Osages. On arriving at the Mandan settlements,
we attempted to follow the advice given us by the
English traders ; and after travelling for several
days, in which we scarcely once observed the sun, on
account of the fogs or smoke which prevailed, we
came to a stream that flowed, as indicates' by the
rising of the sun, in nearly an eastward direction.
Our i$arty, to a man, supposed this stream to be one
of the heading branches of the Mississippi, and were
so elated with the happy result of their comparatively
blindfold excursion, through woods and swamps,
and over prairies and hills, that they continued
their journey with redoubled efforts, notwithstanding
the continuance of fogs, clouds, and occasional

rams.

1 v^^:

;-; In a few days afterwards, however, we discovered,
very much to our surprise and mortification, the sun
rising obliquely behird us on the right ^ and, at a short
distance a-head, a much larger stream than the one we
were on, which flowed in nearly a westward course.

We all now concluded, and rightly, that we had taken
a wrong direction, and had not inclined sufHciently
to the right, after having left the Mandans* It was

t 1>.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

also evident, that the streams on which we now were
flowed from the highlands dividing them from the
head waters of the Mississippi.

In consequence of this, it was concluded to follow
the largest stream, in a direction considerably south
of east, which we did for several days.

Some of our party were now for cri ssing obliquely
to the right, over to the stream which we had first
struck, after leaving the Missouri, and from thence
directing our course for the Mississippi, as first in-
tended ; but Tun-gah, to whom all looked as their
chief, preferred the present route, and the others
acquiesced.

Previous to this, several snows had fallen, and it
had now become so cold that the rivers were, in most
instances, sufiiciently frozen to admit of our walking
on the ice ; but deer, and some other kinds of game,
were plenty, and we performed our daily marches with-
out experiencing much other anxiety, than what pro-
ceeded from the doubts that existed as to the correct-
ness of our route. We next arrived at a considerable
lake, and met a party of Chippewa Indians, who
treated us kindly, and informed us where we were,
and of the route we ought to pursue. Following
their advice, we altered our course to that of nearly
south, and the next day experienced a most severe
snow storm, which, terminating in hail and severely
cold weather, obliged us to encamp. A crust was now
formed, which broke through at every step we took,
and let us above our knees into the snow ; and what
was still more disagreeable, our mockasinsand leggings
soon gave out, and our feet and legs became nearly

CAPTIVITY AMONO THE

froeen, and very mnch lacerated. To repair them,
and obviate this sufTering, we first cut up the few
spare skins we had, andi when those were exhausted,
commenced on our buffalo robes : but with all the eX'
ertions we could mt^ke, our progress was slow ; sel-
dom amounting to twenty miles a day. The weather
moderating, however, and the travelling becoming
lesa difficult, we soon arrived upon waters flowing
southwardly, where we again found a few lodges of
the Chippewas, and were well treated. We obtained
from them a few bear skins ; repaired our robes, &c.
and continued our journey over several small lakes
and ponds, till we arrived at a more considerable
stream, which ultimately proved to be the Missis-
sippi. Here we experienced another snow storm,
which was more severe than the former, and rendered
the travelling still more difficult and painful. We
nevertheless continued slowly on, and should, I be-
lieve, have accomplished our return home, had not two
of our party unfortunately become so badly Tozen in
their feet, as to make an encampment essential to
their preservation.

We therefore soon cleared a spot in a small growth
of woods, fixed poles, thatched them with brush, and
finally covered the whole with a thick stratum of snow ;
which, with the fire we kept, and the few skins we
had, formed, as to temperature, a comfortable lodge.

We oflen attempted to hunt, but the snow was too
deep to wade through it, and too light to support us ;
We therefore were compelled to remain in our lodge,
at the imminent risk of starvation. It is probable, if
these difficulties had not existed, that our situation

NORTH ASUSRICAN INDIANS.

would not have been much improved, as game of
every kind was exceedingly scarce.

We occasionally shot a wolf, as they pr wled round
our lodge, and in one instance an animai of the cat
kind, neither so large nor of the same colour as the
panther of the Arkansas.

With these, including their skins and offals, and the
bark of some shrubbery, we made out to sustain the
flame of life, till those who were frozen had recover-;
ed, and the weather had apparentl) moderated; when,
though so much reduced as barely to be able to walk,
we renewed our journey, in hopes of finding 9ome In-*
dian lodge, or falling in with game. '

We however suffered disappointment in both ; and
what added still more to our distress, on the second
day's march, we were overwhelmed in one of those
boisterous and tempestuous snow stormS| which
sometimes happen in those northern regions, towards
the breaking up of the winter, and of the severity of
which no idea can be formed without experience.
The flakes fell in such rapid succession, as nearly to
fill the atmosphere; and were driven by the vehe-
mence of the winds with such force as almost to
obstruct our vision. The weather was intensely cold,
and no retreat was to be found to shelter us from
these threatening catastrophes. We spread a few
skins on the snow, crowded in a heap upon them,
covered ourselves M'ith what remained, and, under
the strongest convit!tion that our existence would
here terminate, devoutly resigned ourselves to the
disposition of the Gn^at Spirit The place where
we had thus committed ourselves proved afterwards

CAPTIVITY AMOMG THE

to be situated on the borders of a thin, stinted growth
of pines, on one side of which was a field of snow ex-
tending beyond the reach of vision, through which the
terminating branches of some shrubbery occasionally
made their appearance, o hi^n-'-''r-^ ? iF >:^ <y '

How long we remained in this state is altogether
out of my power to say ; but we had fallen asleep,
and were awakened by the howling of a wolf, which
sometimes was very near us, and at others, receded
till it was lost in remoteness. The repetition of this
circumstance induced the belief that our retreat
had been discovered by one of these animals, which,
not being sufficiently courageous to attack us alone,
had raised the cries we heard to raUy others to his
assistance. With a view, should such prove the fact,
of resisting them and procuring some food to re-
suscitate our nearly exhausted frames, we attempted
to rise, but found ourselves confined by an almost
irresistible barrier of snow; and, thinking it more
advisable to dig ourselves a passage out, than to con-
tinue efforts, which, if they succeeded, would spoil
our lodge, we soon made an aperture through which
we might pass with facility, though none of us, at
jthis time, ventured out. To the tempest, which so
lately threatened our existence, had succeeded a
most brilliant moonlight night; the winds had hushed,
and all, except the distant howls of the wolf as before
noticed, was profound silence. In this state of
things, Wen-ga-shee, one of our party, placed him-
self in the outlet of our lodge with his rifle, and,
much to our joy and relief, shot the wolf soon afier,
as it approached him. From long abstinence our

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

desire for food had become voracious ; and part of
this animal was literally devoured by us, without
undergoing any preparation, while it was yet warm
in its blood. This repast, although made in an in-
tensely cold night, on the surface of a deep snow, and
with very little more to cover us than the ethereal
arch, was by far the most delicious that any of our
party had ever before enjoyed. We had scarcely
completed it, when our ears were again assailed with
the approaching howls of another wolf; we therefore
retreated to our snowy cell, lay in wait as before, and
on its arrival shot this also. In the course of the
night we killed four more, which were probably
attracted in succession to the place by the bowlings
of those that preceded. Several more approached
us in the forenoon of the following day, but they
were so shy that we could not get within shooting
distance of them. The snow, in the late storm, fell
in great quantities j and, in consequence of the vio-
lence of the winds, had formed into deep drifts, par-
ticularly where we were. Our cell, for such the
place we r^ow occupied might with propriety be
called, was directly under one of tliem, which was
several feet deep. The warmth of our bodies had
occasioned the snow to settle somewhat beneath us,
but not sufficiently so to afford room for a comfortable
sitting posture. We therefore set to work, and in a
short time, with the assistance of our skins, excavated
the snow to a depth and extent sufficiently great to
contain us in any desirable posture.

With the stock of food we had on hand, we might
have remained several days, comparatively comfort-

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

able, provided it had been possible to have kept a
fire ; but such a measure was incompatible with the
existence of our mansion, and to have removed from
it would be to expose ourselves to other, and perhaps
greater dangers and inconveniences* We therefwe
formed a curtain door to our habitation with a bear-
skin, secured our provisions as well as we could,
lighted our pipes, and smoked the day away in
gloomy silence. The night following, we watched
by turns for the wolves, and killed three more early
in the evening, which were the last we saw while in
this singular encampment, though we often distinctly
heard their howls at a distance. We had suffered
much from cold on the preceding day, and determin-
ing, if possible, to obviate a similar occurrence, we
cut down several of the neighbouring pines, with the
trunks of which we pitched a roof over our lodge,
thatched it with branches and leaves, and finally
made it tight with the snow which we broke away
from the arch and walls of our snow cell below.
Soon ailer we made a fire in it, but found ourselves,
in the course of the following day, extremely un-
comfortable from the dampness of our situation.
We remedied this inconvenience in a short time, by
forming a sort of floor of the same materials,
omitting the snow, as used for the roofj and sub-
sequently kept ourselves, in respect to temper-
ature, tolerably comfortable. In respect to food,
our situation was far otherwise: we were con-
stantly on a very limited allowance, and, towards
the close of this extraordinary sojourning, with-
out any thing to eat except moss, and the inner

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

bark of trees, for several days together; so that our
situation became extremely alarming, from the pros-
pect of starvation.

Some attempts were made to take game, but not a
trace of any living creature, except wolves, could be
discovered: we tried various arts to decoy some of
them, but without "success. Although the weather
had moderated very much, and the snow was rapidly
dissolving, yet, as we were comparatively without
covering, three of our robes, or rather skins, having
been much burnt, and others cut up for mockasins, it
would have been exceedingly hazardous, and perhaps
fatal to some of us, to have abandoned our encamp-
ment, circumstanced as we were. At this period,
scarcely a single ray of hope glimmered between us
and the grave: we were nearly in a helpless situation,
and despondency had seized on us j but in the midst
of our distress, the Great Spirit forsook us not. - >

Qn the morning of a very pleasant day, I had
strolled, or rather crawled, a short distance from our
cell with my lifle, in hopes that game of some kind or
other would make its appearance. In this expect-
ation, extraordinary as it may seem, I was not disap-
pointed ; for I had scarcely proceeded one hundred
yards, before my attention was attracted by an ex-
traordinary large elk, which wc approaching me in
ratlief an oblique direction, in a careless and easy gait.
Fortunately, there happened to be a slight elevation,
or drift of snow, just ahead, behind which I skreened
myself, and when it had arrived, as I thought, suffi-
ciently near, shot at, and wounded it; but notwith-
standing it made off at iiill speed. Some of the

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

strongest and best provided of our party, hearing the
report of my rifle, came up to ascertain the cause,
joined in pursuit, and soon discovered, to our sur-
prise, a large panther fixed upon its throat, and de-
vouring it with great rapacity. We shot twe balls
through the body of this intruder, which, on first dis«
covering us, as though aware that he should be forced
to dispute the prize, had put himself in an attitude of
defence; showing his fangs, and growling defiance.
As soon as the panther had received our balls, he made
several bounds of surprising length, directly towards
ns, and then, perhaps fortunately for us, fell dead.
We now repaired with a part of the elk to our camp,
and ailer having indulged our appetites immoderately,
we brought in the balance in the course of the day.
This seasonable supply at first occasioned a distressing
sickness to all our party; but, finally, it re.animated
our drooping i^irits, and enabled us, shortly after, to
visit the haunts of the elk,' where we killed two more,
which, like the former, were from a third to a half
larger than any we had before seen. We found great
difficulty in carrying these animals to our cell.^ «^^ -
•• We next dressed their skins, repaired our mocka-
sins and robes, dried some of the meat, and after
returning thanks to the Great Spirit for having pre-
served ,xu through so many perils, commenced our
march down the Mississippi. We soon came to some
lodges of Chippewa Indians, where we received such
attenttons iis our necessities required. From thence,
continuing our course along the river, through the
Chippewa hunting grounds, we were generally wel-
comed, and kindly treated -, but, on arriving among

NOBTH AMERICAN INmANS.

the Sioux, we found ourselves in a very perplexed

situation, •»,«*»;■ . :. .j . -. -••-. ',r. Ahri.r^ • ■^tl

The friendly salutations we made were returned
with threatening and hostile gestures and expres-
sions. They closed their doors uniformly against us,
and set their dogs on, no doubt with a view to pro^
voke us to the commission of some act, which might
be construed by them as a sufficient o£fence to justify
an attack on us.

Sensible of the danger of our situation, though
they were few in number, we suffered these indigni-
ties to pass unnoticed, though we felt them deeply ;
cursed the perpetrators in our hearts, and Would, if
our force had been sufficient, have revenged them oq
the spot, . ;!. .u . , -. .

We found our situation so unpleasant, that, after
passing their first settlement, we determined to
change our route : accordingly, we passed over to the
west side of the river, and took our course nearly
south-west, leaving the Sioux on our left. Crossing a
broken, and somewhat hilly country, and several con-
siderable streams, we at length arrived at a settle-
ment of Sauk Indians, on Grand river, a considerable
stream, which flows nearly south into the Missouri.
We were received by them without the least distrust,
and treated kindly : we attended the ceremonials of a
wedding, joined in the festive dance, and, taking with
us some presents to their kindred, who were settled
about two hundred miles lower down, on the same
river, left them with mutual tokens of friendship and
regard. Gn arriving at the Sauk villages. Nee-he.
gab, or the Rocky hills, a chief of considerable note,

H 2

100

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

received us in the most hospitable manner, suppHed
all our wants, and, as is customary among them in
regard to those they esteem real friends, offered us the
attendance of their women, who are more cleanly in
their habits, and more handsome in their persons,
than those of any tribe with which I am acquainted.
Our party, however, to a man, declined the accept-
ance of .their services.

From the Sauk villages, we passed over the coun-
try, crossed the Missouri near the mouth of the
Kansas river, struck the Osage, and coursing along
its banks, arrived at the villages of the Osages ; who
received and treated us as relations and friends. It
was towards the termination of the busy sugar-making
season when we reached this place: we remained
among them till it was over, and partook of the fes-
tivities usual on such occasions. '.^ U , ^-.i;,,...M'

' From the Grand Osage villages, we crossed the
country by the usual route to the Osage settlements
of White Hair's tribe on the Arkansas, where
we were received in the same manner as we
had formerly been, on our return from the Pacific
Ocean. ' '-

•n: >)r?^■iiri iiO:

f',^* I: Zir'HiX-'

On my arrival, I found several white traders and
hunters with the Osages, among whom were Colonel
Watkins, and a Mr. Combs, who treated me with par-
ticular attention and kindness. They gave me some
small presents, acquired my confidence, and, in the
most pressing and persuasive manner, invited me to
accompany them back to the white settlements. I was
•strongly attached to the habits and manner of life I had
acquired, and regarded my relationship and connection

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

101

witli the Indians of too sacred a character to be thus
violated, without any real, or even ostensible cause.
I therefore peremptorily rejected all their offers. In
our hunting excursions, I visited the camps of these
traders, and these overtures were often renewed by
them, but as often, and as unwaveringly opposed by
me.

, About this time, however, ardently as I was
attached to the Indian mode of life, and to my
adopted country, relations, and friend?, an incident
of the most trying and painful character occurred,
which violently ruptured all those ties, brought me
at once into their, measures, and produced a highly
important revolution in my life j a revolution, which,
I am persuaded, few circumstances, and perhaps no
other, could have effected,

[ Shortly after my return, a party of about thirty,
including myself, consisting, mostly of young men,
started on a hunting excursion up a small river,
known to the traders by the name, of the Brushy
Fork, which enters into, the Arkansas about thirty
or forty miles below the mouth of the Vermillion
river. The success we met with was but indifferent,
and the cause, as it generally is on such occasions,
was ascribed to the white hunters, who had, in
reality, just returned from scouring the smaller
streams and hills for game. It perhaps deserves to
be noticed, that the hunters, after the beaver-season
is over, generally, terminate their hunting campaigns
in pursuit dT the smaller kinds of game, which
resort to the small streams and hills for their appro-
priate food/ which is generally there more abundant.

H 3

'DA.

lOS

CAPTIVITY AMOKG THE

'^f:

While the principal part of our hunters, in accordance
with this custom, were scattered on the upper branches
of this stream, six of our number visited Colonel Wat^
kins's main encampment on the Arkansas, below the
confluence of the Brushy Fork. They were treated
with kindness, but unfortunately permitted to barter
for too much whiskey ; a circumstance which came near
proving fatal to the traders, and all their party. On
leaving the encampment, these Indians stole six horses
from Watkins, which were grazing on the prairies,
and returning up tiie Brushy Fork, killed and scalped
Mr. La Fouche, a French trader, and plundered his
camp of all the furs, goods, &c. which it contained.*
With their hands thus stained iti l^ood, and rendered
ibrious by the excessive use of whiskey, they returned
to our camps, distributed the poisonous and infuriating
Uquid among the rest of the hunters, and, raving in
the most frantic manner against the whites, threw down
their spoils and trampled them under foot; at the same
time exhibiting the scalp of the unfortunate La Fouche,
and threatening a similar vengeance on all the whites.
The skin t with its potent contents went frequently
lound, and in a short time nothing was to be seen or
heard but the war-dance, the war-song, and tk? most

* This Mr. La Fouche was an excellent hunter: he was in the
habit of fi'equenting several of the tribes alone, because it afforded
a better opportunity for traffic with them. On the present occa-
sion he had ventured among strangers, and accompanied Colonel
Watkins for the sake of protection ; he unfortunately failed ofthis,
and fell a sacrifice to the Indians, who, in a dnlnken frolic, bdr-
liarously murdeVed him, as above recited.

t The Indians geuefrally make use of small skins, instead of
WtUte, Jfec. to onitaito their li^i^n.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

, lOS

bitter imprecations against all tho^e who had tres-
passed on their rights, and robbed them of their
game.

They next mentioned the great quantity of furs
that Watkins had collected, which, if suffered to be
taken away, would only serve as an inducement for
other and more numerous parties to frequent their
hunting grounds. ** In a short time," said they, " our
lands, now our pride and glory, will become as desor
late as the Rocky Mountains, whither perhaps we shall
be obliged to fly, for support and protection." These
addresses produced the intended effect on the now
pliant and over-heated minds of their audience ; and it
was immediately determined to cut ofi* and spoil the
whole of Watldns's party. These proceedings pro-
duced, in my bosom, the most acute and indescribably
painful sensations. I was obliged, nevertheless, to
suppress them, in order to avoid suspicion; for, should
they have entertained the least, either against me or
any one of the party, the consequence, at this time,
would have been instant death to the person suspected,
and that, too, without any ceremony. Therefore, with
an apparent cordiality, I lent my consent, and joined
among the most vociferous in approving the measure,
and upbraiding the conduct of the traders. This de-
ceptive conduct was also another source for painful
reflection ; because on no former occt >ion had I been
so situated, but that the opinion I expressed, or the
part I took, was in perfect concordance with my feel-
ings, and the maxims I, had been taught. From the
first proposition that was made to cut off this party, I
never hesitated, in my own mind, as to the course of

104

CAPTIVITY AMONG TtllE

lit

conduct I ought to pursue- After I had matured
my plan to my own satisfaction, I dissembled, very
much to my surprise, with as plausible assurance as I
have since sometimes seen practised in civilised life.
In fact, I not only acted my part so well as to avoid
suspicion, but maintained so high a place in their
confidence, as to be intrusted, at my own solicita-
tion, to guard our encampment. This office is of
great importance among the Indians ; but it seldom
exists, except when a measure of consequence has
been fixed on, for the successful termination of
which, secrecy and despatch become necessary. The
whiskey being exhausted, and the Indians retired to
rest, under its stupefactive influence, I silently and
cautiously removed all the flints from the guns,
emptied the primings from the pans, took my own
rifle, and other equipments, and mop'iting the best
horse that had been stolen on the preceding day,
made my escape, and gave the alarm to Watkins and
his party.

I made considerable noise in taking my horse, and
disengaging the others from tlieir fastenings, so as to
prevent their use, in case the Indians should discover
my absence, and determine on pursuing me. Our dog
heard me, and gave the alarm ; at least I suppose such
was the case, as it barVed very loud, at first pursued
me, and then alternately broke off' and renewed the
pursuit with increased ardor, as though it had been
recently urged on and encouraged. The distance
from our camp to Watkins*s was between twenty-five
and thirty miles; more than half of which was through
thick briars and brush- wood, where there was neither

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

105

path nor trail to direct me. It was before the dawn
of day, and quite dark when I left them, in con-
sequence of which, and the expedition I made, I lost
every thing I had except my rifle.

On arriving at the crossing place of the Brushy
Fork, I left the main, or Wells's trace, which, to
avoid a rocky hill, led circuitously round and over a
tremulous swamp. I apprehended, in case I followed
it, that my horse might be swallowed up, and that I
should be overtaken by my pursuers and destroyed.
I therefore took my course over an almost impass-
able acclivity, which detained me nearly as niuch
time as Wells's trace would, had it been passable for a
horse. -''' **

When I had passed this hill, and struck the
patli 1 had just left, it had become light, and, not
discovering any one in pursuit, much against imy
own inclination, but in obedience to a necessary
policy, I shot the dog, reloaded my rifle, and then
continued my flight ^s fast as my horse could possibly
carry me.

, The dog had hitherto been a constant source of
annoyance and apprehension to me, on account of
the continual barking it kept up ; Which, if the In-
dians were following, as I had reason to believe was
the case, served to pilot them in their pursuit.

Relieved from my perplexing companion, I varied
my course at the fitst stream of water 1 came to, by
following its channel a short distance downward j
and then striking off to my left, I soon crossed the
prairies, and arrived at Watkins's camp before any

> •#'.( .•>!-

;ji^tr,..«^<*..;i*^.:.j rti

„f yj •

*,f^i*T-''- J«.»]r.rj '^'-y,:.

ICK)

CAPTIVITY AMONG TH£

one had left it in pursuit of game, as heretofore had
been the daily practice. ,

From the darkness of the night, the interruption
and roughness of the way, and the haste I had made,
I had lost my apparel, was badly lacerated, bleeding,
and much exhausted. «• , , ,

• The powerful agitations under which my mind
laboured, my gestures and features, and the manner
and unusual hour of my arrival, spoke in a lan-
guage not to be mistaken, that something extra-
ordinary had, or was about to happen, and filled the
whole party with surprise and the deepest anxiety.
In very few words I informed them of the murder
of La Fouche, and the danger they themselves were
in. The hunters in general were exceedingly
alarmed, and proposed an immediate retreat ; but
Cdonel Watkins, who was a brave and courageous
man, would not listen to it. He instantly ordered
the preparations to be made to repel any attack that
might be made on them, and I was requested to join
in the defence, should one become necessary : but
I refiised, stating that it was sufficient for me to
have betrayed my counti'ymen, without augmenting
the crime, by fighting against, and possibly killing
some of them. Colonel Watkins. replied that they
were not my countrymen ; that I was a white man ;
and what I had done, and what he requested me to
do, were no more than my duty to the white people
required me to perform. - v

^ My prejudices against the whites generally were
at this time as great as they had ever before been :
my attachment for the Indians and Indian mode of

NUUTH AM£UICAN INDIANS.

107

life was ardent and enthusiastic ; I therefore could
not, or rather would not, understand this new rela-
tionship. I now hated the very looks of Colonel
Watkins, who, before, had appeared so amiable and
good ; despised myself for the treachery of which £
had been culpable, and almost regretted the part I
had performed. This change in my conduct and
feelings could not escape the notice of Watkins;
who, sensible of the obligations he was under to
and having, previously to my arrival^ nearly

completed his arrangements for descending the
Arkansas, ordered instant preparations to be made for
a decampment I descended the river with this
party, nearly to its junction with the Mississippi.

On the way, we had interviews with other traders^
to whom Col. Watkins made known the extraordinary
obligations he felt himself under to me ; in conse-
quence of which, frequent and pressing invitations
and offers were made to induce me to leave the party
I was with, and join them. The one I was now
with, though no pains were spared to reconcile me
to the change I had suffered, was scarcely to be en-
dured J these overtures were therefore as foreign to
my inclination as would have been a proposal for me
to return to the Osages, whose confidence I had
abused past all hopes of fcM'giveness. Indeed, so
much dissatisfied had I become with my situation
and relations with the whites, that, in despite o£ the
most pressing solicitations, advantageous offers, and
friendly advice from Col. Watkins, I determined on
abandoning his party, in search of consolation and
quiet to my hajf-distracted miiid, amoiig some tiibe

108

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

of Indians, who, ignorant of my treachery towards
the Osages, would receive me to their fellowship.
I thought that my life, passed among some of the
most degraded tribes, would be infinitely more toler-
able than it possibly could be, associated with the
white people, even though I should realize all the
gilded prospects which they incessantly held up to
my view. Accordingly, after having received from
Col. Watkins some presents, such as a powder-flask,
powder, lead, balls, bullet-moulds, flints, &c., which
at that time were of great value and consequence
to me, I left this party, I believe, to their sincere
regret. ' ;

I journeyed nearly north, over a country which at
first was level and partly composed of prairie-land,
though 'afterwards it was somewhat hilly ; and in the
course of a few days struck upon the waters flowing,
as I have since learned, into White River, at which
I afterwards arrived, and gradually ascended in ii
northern direction till it became only a small stream.

The prairie-lands I passed over were covered with
a very luxuriant grazing vegetation, and afforded
subsistence for exceedingly numerous herds of buffalo,
elk, and deer. .

Rattlesnakes, both black and parti-coloured, were
larger and more numerous than I had ever before seen ;
and they would infest the country, to a much greater
extent, were it not for the hostility that exists between
them and the deer.

This animal on discovering a snake, as I have
repeatedly witnessed, retreats some distance from it,
then running with great rapidity alights with its col-

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

109

ir sincere

lected feet upon it ; and repeats this manofeuvre till it
has destroyed its enemy. "' ' "■ ■ *" ' ^ i •: " • "

The hunting season for furs had now gone by, and
the time and labour necessary to procure food for
myself was very inconsiderable. I knew of no hu-
man being near me ; my only companions were the
grazing herbs, the rapacious animals that preyed on
them, the beaver and other animals that afforded pelts,
and birds, fish, and reptiles. Notwithstanding this
solitude, many sources of amusement presented them-
selves to me, especially after I had become somewhat
familiarized to it. The country around was delight-
ful, and I roved over it almost incessantly, in ardent
expectation of falling in with some party of Indians,
with whom I might be permitted to associate myself.
Apart from the hunting that was essential to my sub-
sistence, I practised various arts to take fish, birds,
and small game, fi'equently bathed in the river, and
took great pleasure in regarding the dispositions and
habits of such animals as were presented to my ob-
servations.

The conflicts of the male buffalos and deer, the
attack of the latter on the rattlesnake, the industry
and ingenuity of the beaver in constructing its dam,
&c., and the attacks of the panther on its prey, afford-
ed much interest, and engrossed much time. Indeed,
I have lain for half a day at a time in the shade to
witness the management and policy observed by the
ants in storing up their food, the manoeuvres of the
spider in taking its prey, the artifice of the mason-fly
(Sphex) in constructing and storing its clayey cells,
and the voraciousness and industry of the dragon-fly

CAPTIViry AMONG THE

(Libellula) to satisfy its appetite. In one instance I
vexed a rattlesnake till it bit itself, and subsequently
saw it die from the poison of its own fangs. I sJso
saw one strangled in the wreathed folds of its inve-
terate enemy the black snake. But in the midst of
this extraordinary employment, my mind was fer from
being satisfied. I looked back with the most painful
reflections on what I had been, and on the irrepar*
able sacrifices I had made, merely to become an out-
cast, to be hated and despised by those I sincerely
loved and esteemed. But however much I was dis-
posed to be dissatisfied and quarrel with myself, the
consolation of the most entire conviction that I had
acted rightly always followed, and silenced my self-
upbraidings. The anxieties and regrets about my
nation, country, and kindred, for a long time held
paramount dominion over all my feelings ; but I looked
unwaveringly to the Great Spirit, in whom experience
had taught me to confide, and the tumultuous agita-
tions of my mind gradually subsided into a calm : I
became satisfied with the loneliness of my situation,
could lie down to sleep among the rocks, ravines, and
ferns, in careless quietude, and hear the wolf and
panther prowling around me; and almost feel the
venomous reptiles seeking shelter and repose under
my robe with sensations bordering on indifference.
' In one of my excursions, while seated in the shade
of a large tree, situated on a gentle declivity, with a
view to procure some mitigation from the oppressive
"heat of the mid-day sun, I was surprised by a tre-
mendous rushing noise. X sprang up, and discovered
a herd, I believe, of a thousand buffalos running at

NOBTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

Ill

B midst of
as iar from
ost painful
he irrepar*
tne an out-
[ sincerely
1 1 was dis*
nyself, the
tiat I had
ed my self-
about my
g time held
)at I looked
experience
tuous agita-
) a calm : I
ly situation,
ravines, and
le wolf and
)st feel the
epose under
ifference.
In the shade
vity, with a
oppressive
led by a tre-
1 di8COvere4
s running at

full speed directly towards me ; with a view, as I sup-
posed, to beat off the flies, which at this season are
inconceivably troublesome to those animals.

I placed myself behind the tree, so as not to be
seen, not apprehending any danger ; because they
ran with too great rapidity, and too closely together,
to afford any one of them an opportunity of injuring
me, while protected in this manner.

The buffalos passed so near me on both sides, that
I could have touched several of them merely by ex-
tending my arm. In the rear of the herd was one on
which a huge panther had fixed, and was voraciously
engaged in cutting off the muscles of its neck. I did
not discover this circumstance till it had nearly passed
beyond rifle-shot distance, when I discharged my
piece, and wounded the panther. It instantly lefl its
hold on the buflalo, and bounded with great rapidity
towards me. On witnessing 'the result of my sJiot,
the apprehensions I suffered can scarcely be imagined.
I had, however, sufficient presence of mind to re-
treat and secrete myself behind the trunk of the tree,
opposite to its approaching direction. Here, solicitous
for what possibly might be the result of my unfortu-
nate shot, I prepared both my knife and tomahawk,
for what I supposed a deadly conflict with this terrible
animal In a few moments, however, I had the
satisfaction to hear it in the branches of the tree over
my head. My rifle had just been discharged, and I
entertained fears that I could not reload it, without
discovering and yet exposing myself to the fury of
its destructive rage. 1 looked into the tiee with the
utmost caution, but could not perceive it, though

IV2

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

its groans and vengeance-breathing growls told me
that it wa« not far off) and also what I had to ex-
pect, in case it should discover me. In this situation,
with my eyes almost constantly directed upwards to
observe its motion, I silently loaded my rifle, and
then creeping sofUy round the trunk of the tree, saw
my formidable enemy resting on a considerable
brancli, about thirty feet from the ground, with his
side fairly exposed. I was unobserved, took delibe-
rate aim, and shot it through the heart. It made a
single bound from the tree to the earth, and died in
a moment afterwards. I reloaded my rifle before I
ventured to approach it, and even then, not without
some apprehension. I took its skin, and was, with
the assistance of fire and smoke, enabled to preserve
and dress it. I name this circumstance, because it
afterwards afforded a source for some amusement:
for I used frequently to array myself in it, as near as
possible to the costume and form of the original, and
surprise the herds of buffklos, elk, and deer, which,
on my approach, uniformly fled with great precipit-
ation and dread. ... I .:

On several occasions, when I awaked in the morn-
ing, I found a rattlesnake coiled up close alongside
of me : some precaution was necessarily used to
avoid them. In one instance I lay quiet till the snake
saw fit to retire ; in another, I rolled gradually and
imj)crcej)tibly two or three times over, till out of
its reach. And in another, where the snake was
still more remote, but in which we simultaneously
discovered each other, I was obliged, while it was

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

lis

geherously warning me of the danger I had to fear
from the venomous potency of its fangs, to kill it with
my tomahawk. These reptiles, as before observed,
especially in stony grounds, are very numerous : the
black ones are short and thick, but the parti-coloured
ones are very laige and long. I saw many that
would, I am certain, have measured seven or eight
feet in length. They are not, however, considered
by the Indians so poisonous as the former j but, from
the distance they are able to strike, aftd the great
depth of the wounds they inflict, they are much the
most to be di-eaded. They never attack till after they
have alarmed the object of their fears, and on account
of this conceived magnanimity of character, the
Indians very seldom destroy them. Indeed, so mlich
do they esteem them for this trait, that I have known
several instances in which the occupants of a wigwam
have temporarily resigned its use, without fear oi
molestation, to one of these visitants who had given
due notice of his arrival. The regard the Indians
have for this snake has been illiberally construed into
an idolatrous veneration ; which is far from being the
case. Bravery, generosity, and magnanimity, form
most important traits in the character of the warrior ;
and the practice of these qualities is much more
strictly inculcated in early life, and observed in ma-
turer years by them, than are the commands of the
Decalogue by the respective sects which profess
to believe in and obey them. It is from impressions
arising from these sources that the Indian, surrounded
by his most bitter enemies, and the implements of
cruel and vindictive torture, derives his consolation,

■ i ' "

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

and is enabled, when put to the most severe trials
and excruciating pains, to bear them without com-
plaint ; nay more, to scorn the feeble efforts of his
enemies, to make him swerve from this character, and
to despise death unequivocally, approaching in its
most terrific form. The same impressions teach him
to respect those who also possess them, even though
such should be his most implacable and deadly foes.
Hence is derived the respect they show the rattle-
snake ; whose character, as before observed, they
have construed into a resemblance to these qualities ;
and I can assure my readers, as far as my knowledge
^ extends, whatever other people and nations may do,
that the Indians adore and worship only the Great
Spirit.

In the solitary and roving manner before noticed, I
passed several moons oh a number of small streams,
which flowed into White River. This led me to an
acquaintance with the best haunts for game, which
this district of country afforded, and latterly I had
employed a considerable portion of my time in
making preparations with a view, when the proper
season arrived, to employ myself in collecting furs.
I had constructed several falls and blinds* in the
vicinity of the beaver houses, and was one morning
occupied in this manner, when, to my surprise and
regret, I discovered some white people approaching
me. From their dreHs and equipments I knew them
to be hunters, and therefore apprehended nothing

• The former is a sort of trap which the Indians construct to
take heaver, *c. ; the latter is only a screen, fronj behind which
game is tihot.

NORTH AMERTCAN INDIANS.

1X5

e trials
it conx-
i of his
ter, and
T in its
ach him
though
ily foes.
3 rattle-
3d, they
ualities ;
owledge
may do,
le Great

loticed, I
streams,
ne to an
e, which
ly I had
time in
e proper
;ing furs.
■ in the
morning
prise and
)roaching
new them
I nothing

lonstruct to
ihind which

from them ; thougli tliey were nevertheless unwel-
come visitants, and I felt much distress at having
my jjaunts encroached on and my solitude inter-
rupted, especially by white people. I received them
rather cautiously and cavalierly; but on being ad-
dressed by one of them, named Levous, in a complai-
sant and friendly manner, and that too in the Osage
language, my conduct and feelings underwent a total
and instant revolution, and I actually danced for joy.

This party consisted of five Frenchmen, who were
on an exploring excursion to search out the most fa-
vourable places for taking furs, as soon as the hunting
season should arrive. From tlic knowledge I had ob-
tained of the adjacent country, I saved them the trour
ble of any further research : they therefore returned
down the river to u place called Flees* Settlement.
After some persuasion I accompanied them, and
on my arrival found a number of white people located
at this point and in its vicinity, for the various
purposes of cultivating the soil, grazing, trading, and
hunting.

My appearance excited considerable interest, more
particularly as a large portion of the inhabitants were
affected with intermittent fevers, had no physician to
relieve their sufferings, and at the same time enter-
tained a high opinion of the Indian mode of practice.

In consequence of these circumstances, numerous
appUcatibns were made to me to prescribe remedies
for this, and also for some other diseases. With a few
barks, roots, and herbs, such as the Indians resort to
on sunilar occasions, I treated their cases with the
happiest success, though much to rtiy own surprise ;

I 2

116

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

■ b

'^^■r

for it was my first essay in the practice of the heaUng
art.

- The ignorance in the treatment of diseases dis-
covered by the whites, who, in my intercourse with
them, had uniformly inculcated their own superior
skill and excellence over those of the Indians in
every moral and physical department, was matter of
great astonishment to me, and contributed in no
small degree to many unfavourable contrasts, which
I afterwards made.

While in this place, 1 acquired a knowledge of
many words in the English language, and, at the re-
peated and not to be denied instance of the American
women, for the first time in my life arrayed myself
in the costume of the whites ; but it was a long time
before I became reconciled to these peculiarly novel
fetters.' -■.• • •^•'.' '^ -' ■'^- ■

The people at this settlement generally were re-
moved but a small degree above the Indians in their
modes of life, which, considering the uncultivated
state of the country, could not reasonably be other-
wise expected. This circumstance had, however,
a great effect in reconciling me to the change I
was about to experience. It served as a gradation,
seasoned by other incidents, to make every suc-
ceeding step to civilization not only tolerable, but
highly desirable : whereas, if I had been ushered at
once from one extreme to the other, it is highly
probable that a mutual dissatisfaction, and perhaps
disgust, would have been the result j which, most
likely, would have deprived me of the superlative
pleasures I now derive from associating in re-

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

117

fined and highly cultiva^^^ed societies, and thrown me
back, no doubt, with self-gratulation to my former
unreclaimed state of being.

The hunting season arrived, and, having furnished
myself with several traps and other essentials, I
started with Levous and some others, on our contem-
plated hunting excursion. The hunters with wiiom
I now associated became attached to me, and fol-
lowed my advice on all occasions; and the conse-
quence was, the collection of an extraordinary .quan-
tity of valuable furs.

During this winter, a< party of Delawares, . eight or
ten. in number, who had been on a deputation to
some American post on the Mississippi, crossed our
hunting grounds,, and accidentally fell in with our
party. They had, previous to reaching^ our camp,
under the influence of whiskey, killed some women
and children belonging to some graziers in .the vici-
nity of Flees' Settlement, who were absent on a
hunting party; The alarm occasioned by this hostile
conduct reached us before the arrival of these Indians,
and nothing was heard among our. party but a deter-
mination to revenge these murders. On more mature
reflection,, however, it was thought most advisable to
let the ofl^nders pass unmolested ; particularly as the
number of whites on this river, including, hunters,
traders, and all, was too inconsiderable to encourage
the hope of success in a war that would be likely to
follow any hostile conduct on their part. Besides,
the Delawares were more numerous farther up the
country, and were also on very friendly terms with
some of the tribes in their neighbourhood. .

I 3 '■■ "^ '■

118

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

1:-*'

These Indians were sensible that the offence they
had committed was known to our party, and dreaded
the consequences : but, as I had Uved with the
Osages, with whom they were now friends, and
conversed with them in the Osage language, I ac-
quired their confidence, learned tha particulars, and
finally effected a reconciliation that secured them
from any hostility on our part, and enabled us to
pursue our hunts without the feai* of molestation.
Shortly afler, we were visited by another party of
Delawares, with whom we traded to a considerable
amount. I exchanged my traps for their full value
in furs. We separated from them on good terms,
and then returned down the river to Flees* Settle-
ment, where we made a short stay, and subLequently
continued our route to the Mississippi, with an in-
tention of descending that river in search of a
market : but, meeting with some traders at MaxwelPs
Fort, just above the mouth of White River, I con-
cluded to dispose of my furs, and remain for the
present at this place. o- ^ >

- Some people of respectability, particularly Messrs.
Wyatt, Finley, and Henderson, informed me of the
value of my fiirs in the current money of the country,
advised me to dispose of them, to vest the proceeds
in lands, and to turn my attention to agricultural or
some other useful pursuit.

I had several offers for them, one in particular from
a man calling himself Davis, who had in a peculiar
manner attached himself to me, by professions of the
deepest interest for my welfare, and for whom, be-
lieving lira sincere, I entertained a very high respect.

NORTH AMKUICAN INDIAN'S.

Ill)

- On account of the supposed reciprocity of good
feelings, I sold my pelts to this individual in pre-
ference to any other, for six hundred and fifty dollars.
On making payment, he counselled me in the most
friendly manner, to be cautious how I disposed of
my money. He stated, that the white people, gene-
rally, would be on the alert to take advantage of my
ignorance of the value of things and modes of nego-
ciation, to defraud me of it ; and further, that many
of them, if they knew how large an amount I had,
would not hesitate to rob, and, to prevent detection,
even to kill me. He urged me to avoid these dan-
gers by accompanying him ; to this proposition, how-
ever, I objected, and he took his departure down the
river, laying me under the strongest injunctions to
secrete my money in some safe place, and whenever
I wanted some, to take only a single note at a time.
I regarded all thai this fiend in human shape had said
as truth; and, not having any immediate wants to
satisfy, which made an expenditure necessary, a suf-
ficient time elapsed for him to escape, before I found
out the fraud he had practised on me. The dis-
covery, however, was soon made, and happened in
the following manner : Mr. Wyatt, whom I just be-
fore mentioned, had frequent interviews with me, and
expressed great solicitude to see me settled in some
employment that would restrain my roving dispo-
sition, concentrate my efforts and desires to a single
object, and establish habits of industry and usefulness.
He recommended agriculture to me, as the most
certain, independent, and elevating in its results, and
disinterestedly offered to assist me in the purchase of

I 4.

120

rAPTIVITY AMONG TIIR

a tract of land. This gentleman had a large family,
was easy in his circumstances, and very highly re-
spected by all who knew him ; and his counsel had
its intended effect on me, not so much, however, on
account of any of the foregoing circumstances, as be-
cause he was aged : for I had been taught, and still
believed it my duty, to attend to the advice of age
and experience, even though emanating from a white
person. I accordingly accepted of his offers, and de-
posited in his hands all my treasure, stating at the
same time the amount. The old gentleman counted
it over in the presence of his family, and, with indig-
nation and surprise strongly depicted in his counte-
nance, inquired if this was all I had. I answered, as
was the fact, that it was all I had obtained for my
furs, except five or six dollars. " The villain, the
yankee* villain," he replied, " has cheated you : in-
stead of six hundred and fifly dollars, you have only
twenty-two!!!'* ' - • • t : . ,; • .

• This I found to be the case ; and my agricultural
schemes were wholly defeated, for the present. Before
this fraud was discovered, I had i :; ended five or six
dollars for some necessary articles of clothing, &c. ; so
that the whole amount I had received did not exceed
twenty-seven or eight dollars. I was at first advised
by Mr. Wyatt and some others to pursue Davis in
the first boat that should descend the Mississippi;
but as considerable time had elapsed in which Davis
might, and probably had made his escape, as I was
comparatively without money, and an entire stranger

* The term Yankee is universally applied to all rogues in the
western states, without any regard to their place of nativity.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

V2l

to the language of the country, they subsequently
changed their opinions, and I adhered to their
advice.

I was exceedingly anxious to follow him, not, how-
ever, so much with a view to recover my money or furs,
as to chastise him for his egregious duplicity and con-
temptible breach of friendship. I openly threatened,
and, had he crossed my path, I certainly should have
chastised the villain in a very summary manner ; and
the apprehension of such an event was probably the
real cause why Wyatt and his friends finally advised
me to abandon the pursuit. This transaction, from
the manner of its accomplishment, disgusted me more
than ever with the white people. The Indians had
constantly inculcated on my mind, while I was with
them, that fraud, cupidity, and perfidiousness, were
indiscriminate traits in their character. Thinking
now these precepts were dogmas not to be ques-
tioned, I determined to abandon for ever all farther
connections with them. . .....;.

Wyatt, who was then and has ever since proved my
sincere friend, resolutely opposed such a measure.
" You cannot suppose," said he, " that either myself,
Mr. Finley, or Mr. Henderson, or such and such
individuals," repeating the names of several respect-
able persons, " would, on any account, have served
you so. There are but few among us that would ; and
as you advance into the settlements the proportional
number of such wicked people becomes very much
diminished. The Indians themselves have some
among them who are bad, of which you yourself are a
witness ; and you cannot hope, and ought not to ex-

12a

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

pect, to meet with any state of society wholly exempt
from them."

However consistent his mode of reasoning was, it
made little or no impression on me ; and taking my
leave of him, and the few acquaintances I had formed,
I started with a determined resolution to make no
considerable stop, till I arrived at the Kansas towns,
where I had formerly resided. On arriving at Flees*
Settlement, I was much embarrassed from inform-
ation I received there, that some of the Delawares had
committed hostilities on the whites, and massacred a
Mr. Hendricks and some others at a temporary settie-
ment farther up on White River. These Delawares,
had formerly resided in the state of Indiana, and had
moved across the Mississippi in consequence of some
negociations, effected, I beUeve, by General Harrison.
Subsequentiy they became displeased with this ar-
rangement, and showed their resentment in the
commission of the before-named massacres. The
people at Flees' Settlement had become acquainted
with my disposition towards the whites, and my
intended return to the Indians, and used all the
means in their power to conciliate my good feelings,
and prevent the execution of my plan. In this, I
am persuaded, they never would have succeeded,
had it not been for the previous conduct of the
Delawares j for when they had exhausted all their
arguments and offers, to no purpose, I was told, that
my intended movement was of an unfriendly and hos^
tile character; that I had now become an er^emy to
the white people, and was going to join their Indian
foes. This charge wrought my feelings up to a degree

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

1S3

of excitement bordering on frenzy. Such an idea
had never entered my mind : I entertained no enmity
against the whites generally, and the Delawares were
entirely strangers to me : I could not, however, deny
that appearances were so much against me, as to jus-
tify a language so derogatory to my honour, and for
which, under less specious circumstances, I would
have exacted an exemplary atonement. Nevertheless,
in the present exigency, I restrained my feeUngs and
resentments, as far as was in my power ; determined
neither to give offence to the whites by making a
movement in the direction of their enemies, nor to
risk the displeasure of the Delawares, by passing
through their territories, as I must have done, on
my journey to the Kansas nation, without enlisting
in their quarrels. -^^ rn> v; ,:

This determination satisfied the settlers ; but it was
indirectly forced, and consequently (apart from other
considerations) was not calculated to render a resi-
dence among them agreeable to my feelings, nor even
to reconcile them to me. Though constrained to aban^
don the route I had contemplated, the measure itself
was still uppermost in my mind, and I concluded still
to accomplish it, in some more circuitous direction. I
was diverted from my purpose, however, by two young
men, named Tibbs and Warren, who resided in the
neighbourhood of New Madrid, but were now on their
way to the river St. Francis, in search of good hunt*
ing grounds., The mere mention of their intended ex-
cursion was sufficient to induce me to join them, and
we forthwith proceeded on our journey. We passed
some tiirie on some oi' the branches of this river, in pur*

121

CAPTtVlTV AMONG THE

suit of our object, and then descended it to a small
French settlement, where we remained till the hunt-
ing season arrived. While here, 1 became acquainted
with an elderly French woman, named Mashon, who
took great pains to instruct me to read, and to
convert me to the Roman Catholic faith. I made
some progress in the former ; but with respect to
the latter, notwithstanding her zeal in the pious
office was unremitting, I made no proficiency.
My mind was too strongly prejudiced by early
education to yield either to her persuasions or
arguments. I worshipped the Great Spirit, and
entertained too exalted an opinion of his attributes
to consent to exchange the adoration of him for
that of a small ivory crucifix, the symbol of hep
faith, with which she had gratuitously presented me,
as I supposed, for that purpose. , .; / ; . :.'

Finding all her labours to convert me of no avail, in
the most fervent manner she pronounced me a heretic
unworthy of the blessings of the Go,, pel, and gave me
over to the buffetings of the father of sin ; notwith-
standing which, and the efforts she made to inflame
my mind against the Americans, on account of the
heresies of their religion, I still feel a regard for
her memory, because she first taught me the elements
of the English language, and because 1 believe her
conduct proceeded from pure, though mistaken
motives, having my spiritual welfare singly in view.

According to a previous agreement which I had
made with Tibbs and Warren, I started in their com-
pany up the west fork of the St. Francis river, on a
hunting and trading excursion, where we passed the

NOTITH AMERICAN INDIANS.

whole of that hunting season. In the spring,, we de-
scended the river to its junction with the Missis-
sippi, and proceeded down to Natches, where we dis-
posed of our furs. My part of the proceeds came to
rising eleven hundred dollars ; the most of which I
deposited for safe keeping in the hands of Doctor
Sanderson, a very respectable physician of that place.
Soon afterwards, I engaged, in company with the
above named Tibbs and Warren, in the capacity of
boatman, with some Kentuckians who were short of
help, and continued down the Mississippi to New
Orleans. Here new scenes for both my admiration
and disgust presented themselves to view. The ar-
rangement, comparative elegance, and number of
buildings; the magnitude, finish, and great collec-
tion of ships or vessels ; the vast multitude of people,
and the extent and bustle of business, excited the
former; while the tumultous revelry, intemperance,
and debauchery of the boatmen and sailors, the aban-
doned demeanour of some unfortunate females, and
the assemblage of a filthy multitude of blacks and
whites, motley in all the intermediate shades, scarcely
submitting to any moral restraints, and degraded in
servitude and its concomitant vices, too low to be as-
sociated in the scale of rational human beings, were
but too well calculated to produce the latter. The
first occasioned reflections corresponding with the
peculiarity and extraordinany grandeur of their cha-
racter, while the hideousness and delbrmity of the
latter, caused me again to sigh for the woody retreats
and uncontaminated manners of the tawny children
of the wilderness.

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

In my hiimbie capacity of boatman, I did not ex-
pect to form any respectable acquaintances in this
city ; nor did I at this time, though subsequently I
am happy to say that I can rank some of its most dis-
tinguished citizens, among those of a similar charac-
ter in various parts of the United States, who have
given me the most decided proofs of their friendship
and regard, and to whom, I thus gratefully tender the
homage of ' public acknowledgment.

Leaving iev, Orleans, I returned in company with
my emplo^ rs, through the Cherokee and Choctaw
nations, to Kentucky, and from thence to the neigh-
bourhood of Cape Girardeau, in the Missouri ter-
ritory, where I remained about six weeks, engaged
in acquiring a rudimental knowledge of the English
language, in a respectable school, conducted by Mr.
G. Simpson, a native, I believe, of the state of New
York. While in this place, I was distinguished by
as many different names as there were pupils in the
school, much to the amusement and playful ingenuity
of my companions. Indeed, the license taken with
me in this respect was so great as to give umbrage
to some of my friends ; who advised me to obviate
the grounds for such a practice, by assuming some
appropriate one to be known by thereafter. While
with the Indians, they had given me the name of
Hunter, because of my expertness and success in the
chace ; I therefore determined on retaining that as my
patronymic. And as Mr. John Dunn, a gentleman
of high respectability, of Cape Girardeau county,
state of Missouri, had treated me in every respect
more like a brother or son, than any other individual

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

had, since my association with the white people, I
adopted his for that of my distinctive, and have since
been known by tlie name of John Dunn Hunter.

In the following fall, I ascended the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers as far as Boon's Lick, in com-
pany with several others, on a trading expedition.
At this place I became acquainted with the cele-
brated Col. Boon, the gentleman who^r*^ adventured
to settle among the Indians, in that part of Virginia
now known as the state of Kentucky.

Both of our lives having been somewhat singular,
and in a great measure identified with the aborigines
of the country, notwithstanding the disparity of our
ages, we soon became strongly attached to each other:
I passed much of my time with him ; and he treated
me with so much kindness and friendship, that his
memory will ever remain dear to me.

While at this place I again met with Manuel Lisai
of whom I had occasion to make some remarks, in a
prior part of my narrative. He still continued hostile
to me, on account of our previous disagreements at the
Mandan villages, and higher up on the Missouri river,
and resorted to clandestine measures to prejudice the
Indians against me, and defeat the object of my voy-
age. Nevertheless, I managed so as to effect all the
negociations I desired, without increasing the misun-
derstanding between us ; at least, so far as my own
feelings were concerned. . .,

From this very successful expedition I returned
to St. Louis, where I exchanged my furs for produce
from Kentucky, and descended the Mississippi river

128

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

wit 1 it to New Orleans. On my way down, I was
near losing my life and property at a place, which
I think was called Bayou Sira, in a violent L;torm.
Several boats were wrecked, and some lives and much
property lost. I disposed of my produce on advan-
tageous terms at New Orleans, and returned up the
river to Natches in a steam-boat. This mode of
travelling, and the ease with which the boat apppeared
to be navigated against the current of the Mississippi,
without the aid of the wind, or any perceptible human
force, filled me with amazement, and almost induced
the belief, that it was effected through the agency
of invisible spirits; of whose favourable dispositions
towards mankind I had no reason to doubt.

I passed the following summer arid fall, in obtain-
ing a further knowledge of the English language,
under the tuition of Mr. Robert Currie, a very
respectable teacher, who conducted a flourishing
seminary in the vicinity ot' Pearl River, in the Mis-
sissippi territory. I remained at this school, under
that gentleman, and Mr. John Lewis his successor,
at subsequent intervals between the trading seasons ;
so as to make the whole period of my studies amount
to about two years and a half, exclusive of about six
weeks, which I passed, in the autumn of 1821, at
Mr. Samuel Wilson's academy, near Walnut " Hills,
in Mercer county, Kentucky. At first, my in-
structors experienced some difficulty with me, on
account of my supposed intractable disposition.
Mr. Currie acknowledged, after we became inti-
mately acquainted, that his prejudices were so great

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

129

against me, at the time I delivered an introductory
letter to him from Mr. Philip Sublette, that he was
on the point of refusing me admission to his school,
notwithstanding the highly respectable character and
standing of the gentleman who had recommended
me to his care and instruction. There was, perhaps,
some cause for these prejudices: for while I was at
school at Cape Girardeau, my fellow students, as
before noticed, were disposed to and did take greater
freedom with me than I thought was proper or justi-
fiable, and I never suffered them to go unnoticed,
notwithstanding the injunctions of my teacher to the
contrary. This conduct, it is true, irritated Mr.
Simpson at first; but subsequently, I believe I
secured his esteem ; though not by the same means
that I did the respect of my school companions.

For some time afler I entered school, I experi-
enced great difficulty in learning the pronunciation
and meaning of words ; this, however, being once
partially surmounted, my progress was easy, till I
could read, so as to understand all the common
school-books that were placed in my hands. During
the recess of my school employments, I seldom went
any where without a book. I had access to some
respectable libraries, and became literally infatuated
with reading. My judgr^.ent was so much confused
by the multiplicity of new ideas that crowded upon
my undisciplined mind, that I hardly knew how to
discriminate between truth and fable. This difficulty,
however, wore off with the novelty, and I gradually
recovered, with the explanatory assistance of my
associates, the proper condition of mind to pursue my

ISO

CAPTIVITY AMONG THE

studies, which were again renewed and continued, as
above noticed, with great interest and solicitude.
.They were confined to reading, writing, English
grammar, and arithmetic. On leaving this school,
my instructors respectfully complimented me for the
proficiency I had made ; but they were remarkable
for courtesy, and I ascribed their conduct to that
. cause.

I passed my winters as I had heretofore, since I
left the Osages, in taking, or trading for furs, which
,1 subsequently disposed of, on profitable terms, at
New Orleans.
. During my last viiit at this place, I accidentally
met my friend. Colonel Watkins j the interview was
highly interesting, and sincerely affecting to us both.
He made various propositions to induce me to form a
connection with him in the fur and cotton trade, to
which I thought it unadvisable to accede, on account
of my ignorance of commercial transactions, and my
anxiety for the attainment of , more extensive know-
ledge. He gave me much useful advice respecting
my future intercourse with the world ; treated me, in
every respect, with the interest and attention that a
fond father would an affectionate son ; enquired into
the state of my affairs ; and enjoined it on me, as a
matter of right, to call on him, should I ever stand
in need of his assistance. >

Since this interviev/, I have heard, that Colonel
Watkins was profitably engage- . in the fur and cotton
trade j though I have only received one communica-
tion directly from him, since we separated at New
Orleans. This was in April, 1821, while near

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

131

Shawneetown, in tlie state of Illinois. And, as it
alludes to the circumstance of my preserving him and
his party from destruction by the Osage Indians, as
previously detailed, I trust no apology will be deemed
necessary for giving it a place in my narrative. It

is as follows :

.II.'-

" Cape Girardeau, Missouri, March 15. 1821.
" My DEAR Friend, '

" I have just received information from Mr. Combs
and Colonel L. Bean, that you are lying very low with
the fever, at Shawneetown ; yet *m much gratified to
hear from the same respectable source, that you are
on the recovery. ......

" I am in haste, and am sorry I have but a few
moments to devote to this tribute of gratitude and
respect, for one to whose goodness and enterprise I am
indebted, under Providence, for my life ; and that too,
at the sacrifice of every thing valuable to you. I hope
you will not venture to start, before you recover your
strength. Mr. Combs informs me, that you have
started, without taking any recommendations with
you from your friends, excepting Dr. Syme. •

" If this will be of any service to you, it is with the
greatest pleasure I tender it. Your confidence may
carry you too far j your resources may fail ; and re-
commendations be rendered necessary. — If my re-
commendation will do you no good, it will not be any
disadvantage ; so, as to taking it along or not, you
will exercise your own pleasure; but however you
may receive it, be assured, that if any favour I can do

* In thia respect Mr. Combs laboured under a mistake. — Author*

K 2

■Pi ;'

l.iS

CAl'TIVITV AMONG Till".

you, would be o£ tenfold the advantage which it pos-
sibly can be at present, I would be far from suppos-
ing I have relieved myself from the obligations which
your intrepidity and goodness have laid me under.

** I have been to Philadelphia and Baltimore : you
may derive information by going to either. I would
advise you to spend some time at both places, as you
can, without any difficulty, procure letters of intro-
duction to the first characters in either place, from
your friends in Cincinnati, Louisville, or Lexington ;
which I would advise you by all means to accept, as
the politeness of those people will be certain to offer
them to you, — and, if you were aware of the neces-
sity of friends, in a strange country, as I have been,
you would not neglect any facility in extending, even
among strangers, your singular history. , „. , ^ f, ,

** I am willing to certify upon oath, at any time, if
required, my deliv%5ry from inevitable destruction, by
your timely and hazardous undertaking. ;.. . , ,

" I know your clerical friends were very solicitous
for you to go through Boston, and obtain a theological
education. I cannot say what course to advise you, as
to that : — I do not know the moral tendency of your
mind, and cannot advise. Let me hear from you often :
I shall be generally at Natches or Baton Rouge.

♦* Permit me, dear Sir, to subscribe myself, your
most affectionate and sincere friend and well wisher.
(Signed) .. . . "George P. Watkins.".

Previous to receiving the above letter, 1 had visited
several of- the largest towns, and formed an acquaint-
ance with some of the most respectable people in the

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

laa

Western States. There were many among them* who
were paHicularly friendly ; and who advised me to
journey eastwardly as far as Baltimore, Philadelphia,
and New York, with a view to publish the history of
my life, and su^h information as I possessed, respect-
ing the Indian nations settled west of the Mississippi
river.

In addition to the inducements held out by the ad-
vice and solicitude of my friends, I had for some time
preceding, fostered an ardent desire to become ac-
quainted with some one of the learned professions.
My views in this respect had been very much influenced
by the advice of the truly venerable Mr. Wyatt, whose
name I have previously had occasion to mention. [

He had explained to me the difference between the
comparatively natural rights enjoyed by the Indians,
and those essential to the harmonious preservation of
civilized society. v ; : . 1 1. r/^ « -^ti ''; , ,

He demonstrated the observance of industry, per-
severance and prudence as necessary to secure even
a moderate share of the comforts and happiness of
life, and taught me the importance of sustaining my
relation with the world independent of its bounties,
rewards or fears. ^ , , .. ,« ..

In fine, it was he, who first satisfactorily unfolded to
my benighted mind the Identity of the Great Spirit with
the Creator of all things, and the Salvator of the hu-
man family. He also taught me rationally to unbend
my selfish, evil propensities, and to gird on the armour
of self-deniaJ, charity, and truth, and to square my life
by them, as acceptable offerings to the Great I AM.

As I entertained very great respect for that gentle-

K a

134,

( •• '' CAPTIVITY.

man, his opinions were treasured up by me as oracular,
and I have since often reflected on them with a mix-
ture of pleasurable sensations and painful solicitude
that defies my powers o£ description.
^'' But besides my desire to acquire a professional
knowledge, my ardent imagination depicted to me all
the beauties that had been unveiled in the intellectual
world. From the ready proficiency I had made I
thought of nothing less than the subjugation of the
empires of science and literature, and when this had
been accomplished, to have penetrated into unex-
plored regions in search of new truths. •
' t' With my mind thus filled with lofly expectations ;
ignorant of the world, of my own powers, and the vanity
of the attempts I contemplated ; unknown to a single
human being, with whom I could claim kindred, ex*
cept from common origin ; and even indebted to cir-
cumstance for a name ; in the fall of 18S1, I crossed
the Alleghany mountains, and as it were commenced
a new existence. By this, however, I intend no local
reflection, for wherever I visited, hospitality and
friendship have been inmates, and oflen hailed me in
the silent though expressive language of the heart,
" thou art my brother.** In truth, the kindness and
respectful attention I have received since I lefl the
Indians, from all classes of people with which I became
acquainted, have been of a nature calculated to inspire
and fill my soul with gratitude and respect, and that
I may merit theu* continuance will be the high am-
bition and constant endeavour of my future life.

'j-^-

I '

•^ . . •

' '

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

OF SEVERAL

INDIAN TRIBES

LOCATED fVEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI:

XNCLUDIMO

.',*/>

SOME OBSERVATIOKS ON THE EXTEKT, ASPECT, AND NATURAL
PRODUCTIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE COUNTRY THEY
INHABIT. : • . ...

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PHYSICAL CHARACTER

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THE MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

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'' f: O

-;-^'^:u^.T^^^:;,(:^. CHAPTER I. ■ :::--v.- ^•';>-y-'^>

OF THE EXTENT, ASPECT, SOIL, AliD CLIMATE OP THE COUN-
TRY DISTINGUISHED AT PRESENT BY THE NAMES OF THE
MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS TERRITORIES. :':--'''-^x->-<^':,:-::-^-.:^_.

Before I enter upon the consideration of the sub-
jects more immediately connected ivith the manners
and customs of the Indians, some general account of
the country inhabited by them, appears to be neces-
sary to enable the reader to understand how far loca-
tion, boundary, abundance and scarcity of game, and
intercourse, influence their general character and

habits. . /rrjV:,7/r/* ^:' :P .'- '^' -"^ " :v;-- - "^ ■^-; i -'j

But this account must, from necessity, be exceed-
ingly] limited ; because, my acquaintance with these
subjects originated under circumstances and views
altogether disconnected with their application to the
general purposes of civilized life. .

The extensive country, of which I propose to give
a very imperfect description, is bounded on the east
by the state of Missouri and Mississippi river j north
by the British dominions j west by the Rocky Mpun-

138

PHYSICAL (3HARACTER OF THE

tains; and south by the Arkansas river and territo-
ries of the Mexican empire.

These regions, calculated to sustain probably more
than fifty millions of inhabitants in a state of civil-
ization, are at present, with the exception of some
inconsiderable white settlements and military posts,
occupied by something upwards of one hundred
thousand Indians, and have been computed to con-
tain about one million of square miles. The country
between the Mib.oissippi and Missouri rivers, may be
denominated level ; though I observed several ranges
of hills as we passed over it. It is composed of nearly
equal parts of prairie and woodland, the former pre-
dominating in the neighbourhood of the Missouri.
I can say but little in respect to the soil. Far north
it appeared, in part, from the growth of plants to be
tolerably good ; while in other places it was either too
sterile or wet for improvement. Lower down, nearly
all the country we passed over, appeared well calcu-
lated for cultivation. On the west side of the Mis-
souri, receding from the alluvions, or what in the
language of the country are called bottoms, the first
one hundred, or one hundred and fifty miles may be
denominated as level. It is, however, gradually
voluted ; and, receding farther, these volutations in-
crease, and sometimes swell into considerable hills,
and occasionally into abrupt cliffs. Farther west it
becomes still more hilly ; and, finally, the country as-
sumes the character of mountainous.

These undulated formations maintain a singular
coincidence in their directions with respect to parti-
cular prairies j but whether they are uniformly alike
n all, I caimot pretend to say.

MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

13SI

The mountains generally conform to a meridian
parallel in their direction, inclining, if any thing, to
the west of north. The samfe observations will ap-
ply to the hills, if we except those situated between
the Osage and Arkansas rivers, which individually
are very irregular, though they all may, and probably
do, conform to a general direction.

The aspect of this district should also be excepted
in the general description ; because, the prairies do
not bear so great a proportion to the other varieties of
land; they are less even, and generally better watered;
while the hills are more elevated and numerous, and
the proportion of woodland is very much increased.

Generally, throughout this vast country, the allu-
vions and more elevated hills only are supplied with
trees ; and the proportion of these lands, compared
with the other varieties, would be deemed too incon-
siderable to deserve notice, were they not indis-
pensable to the final settlement of the country. The
remainder consists of fertile and barren prairies and
morasses. To be more particular, the soil is various,
and, for convenience of description, may be treated
under the five following heads : " ' : .v

1st. Alluvions, or river bottom lands;
2d. Fertile prairies ;
3d. Hills; f '

4th. Morasses, or swamps ; and
5th. Barrens or sterile prairies.

The first, or the alluvions, skirt the margin of
all the water courses, except where they are occa-
sionally interrupted by the approach of the barrens.
They are of various widths, from half a mile to four

■ ••!

-*»'».■*

'<^tf»

4^i

K ■

140

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE

or five miles ; but they seldom exceed an average of
those distances. They are composed of a rich stra-
tum of vegetable and earthy mould to an unknown
depth, which, in general, supports large growths of
trees, consisting of cotton wood (Populus angulatd),
sycamore (^Platanus occidentalis), hackberry (Celtis
crassifolid), honey locust (jGleditschia triacanthos),
white locust {Robinia pseudacacia'), pecan (Juglans
oUv<Bformis)t dogwood {Comm Jloridd), shot bush,
or prickly ash (^Aralia sptnosa), hoop ash (CelHs oc-
cidentalis), coffee tree (fiymnocladiis canadensis')^ red
and white mulberry (Morus rubra, et alba), sassafras
(Laurus sassafras), white and slippery elm (Ulmus^
Americana, et aspera), red and sugar maple {Acer
rubrum, et saccharinum), persimmon {Diospyros vir-
giniana), various kinds of willow (Salia^), swamp dog-
wood (Comus sericea), various kinds of cherry and
plum (Prunus), crab apple {Pyrus coronaria), ches-
nut and chinquapin (Castanea Americana, et pumila),
various kinds of oak, among which are the pin, over-
cup, and swamp {Quercus palustris, macrocarpa, et
lyrata), papaw (Annona triloba), black, white, and
sweet birch (Be tula nigra, papyracea, et lenta), alder
(Alnus), elder {Sambttcus), trembling aspen {Populus
tremuloides), hazel {Corylus), magnolia, moose- wood*,
blood-wood, spice- wood*, bow-wood orOsage orange*,
several varieties of grape vines, and many other plants,
common to the United States. Some of the same
kinds of trees, as grow on the alluvions are found on
the hills, particularly near their base; they also are
produced in some of the swamps or morasses.

* The technical names unknown to the author.

snasouRi and Arkansas country.

• The Alluvions may be divided into wet and dry,
the former being more frequently inundated, and are
readily distinguishable by the plants they produce.

The second, or fertile prairies.— These, so far
as my observations go, constitute a greater extent of
surface, than the aggregate of all the other varieties.
Sometimes they present vast champaigns, and at others
a slightly undulated appearance ; not sufficient, how-
ever, to change the general character of evenness.
But the greatest portion is formed by the vallies which
are situated between the more elevated ridges or hills.
The soil in general is of a dark colour, rich, and in
the vallies, frequently several feet in depth. It pro-
duces a great variety of plants which it is impossible
for me to describe, because omitting those which are
used for nutritive and medicinal purposes, which I
shall subsequently notice, they did not fix my attention
so strongly as to enable me to make comparisons, that
would justify the attempt. ., ,

- The Prairie grass, which in a degree resembles
some kinds of broom grass, grows from three to ten
feet in height ; and in general affords excellent graz-
ing the whole year round, particularly in the lower
latitudes. The tops of that which is tall are beaten
down by the snow and winds, and in this situation
protect the more tender from the effects of the cold
weather ; so that grazing animals, without much diffi-
culty, keep themselves in pretty good condition
throughout the winter. ■ . i ; <

Third. The soil of the hills. — This differs con-
siderably ; but in general on the northern sides it is
black and ricli, though not deep, while the southern

'Sfi

4>...

in.

U'2

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE

I if ^

exposures are as uniformly sterile. The former fre-
quently produce tall and thick growths of oak, walnut
^Juglans squamosa et nigra), red, m'^untain, and sugar
maple, white locust, ash (Fraxinm), chesnut, chinqua-
pin, sassafras, and several others common to the hills
in the eastern states ; while the latter, and the tops of
the hills, are thinly covered with stinted growths of
red cedar (Juniperus Virgimam), pines (Pinus),
scrubby oak, sour wood*, sawas berry*, and whortle-
berries ( Vaccinium resinosum),

FouRiH. THii SWAMPS. — These are not very ex-
tensive nor numerous; but they are comparatively
more so, as we proceed north, or approximate the
Rocky Mountaiiis. In general they may be denomi-
nated fertile prairies, subject to occasional or long-
continued overflowings : the soil appears to be much
the same, thou£;h probably it reposes on strata of
clay; as these grounds prevail to a greater extent
among ridges, composed almost entirely of this ma-
terial. In some instances they support growths of
trees similar to 'those on the river lands or Alluvions;
in others, where more subject to inimdations, they
produce some species of the rush (Juncus), flags
(Iris, et acorus), cat's-tail (Ti/pha), swamp cabbage
(Pothosfostida), and many other aquatic plants ; but
in general they afford the wild rice, from which, ailer
the bufialos and other grazing animals have trampled
over it, the Indians collect their supplies. •

Fifth. Barrens. — The tops and sides of the ridges
in general constitute the barrens ; though I have seen

\\ j',1

'*'

* Technical names not known to the author.

MISSOURI AND AIIKAN8A8 COUNTRY.

143

them, with the exception of the deep ravines formed
by the rains and melting snows, almost of a dead level.
T^ey are composed either of clay, interspersed some-
times with rocks, or of sand, and sustain scarcely any
vegetable substances except brambles, moss, and a
species or two of the cactus.

One of these clay barrens of considerable extent,
situated to the north of the La Platte, is remarkably
intersected by deep ravines, which render the travel-
ling across it exceedingly difficult. Several others
are met with high up on the Arkansas and La Platte
rivers, which are composed wholly of sand. Some of
them are level j but in general they rise into gentle
ridges, and some of them into conical hills or ridges
of considerable height. The cactus and a kind of
running grass which bears innumerable small sharp-
pointed burrs, grow on the hills; and sometimes,
especially where rocky, brambles and small shrubs
are also found. In windy weather the sands are
drifted about, so as to occasion much pain and incon-
venience to those who travel over them.
• Where the level sand barrens are connected to the
fertile prairies, or to the river lands, they appear more
elevated, as though they had, at some former period,
been transported over them by the agency of wind or
water. Another corroborative circumstance that such
has been the case, is the appearance of the fertile
prairies in many places en one side of the rivers, while
on the other these sandy accumulations are of consi-
derable extent And such, I have no doubt, is the
fact ; since they are uniformly found more extensive
on the sides of the rivers in the leeward direction of the

'♦ II

I. !'

144

PHYSICAL CIIARACTER OP THE

prevailing winds. On this hypothesis, the rivers must
have conveyed these sands from the mountains, and
deposited them in times of floods in such situations as
to admit of their subsequent removal by the winds :
and yet, as an objection to it, they appear of too vast
extent and volu-ne to have been thus accumulated,
within the period assigned as the age of our globe.

There is, perhaps, no soil in the world which is in
itself better qualified for agricultural pjrposes, t|ian
what composes the alluvion districts in this country.
They are, however, annually overflowed from a week,
to a month or six weeks, according to the situation of
the sources of the different rivers, and the length, size,
and rapidity of their currents ; which circumstances
also influence the season of the year at which they
occur. • /

■ The period for cultivating the alluvions of the lower
Missouri, has arrived by the time the snows of the
Rocky Mountains begin to dissolve ; and it becomes
considerably advanced, before the floods they Anally
produce have reached them : so that it is utterly im-
possible to improve them, except for grazing meadows,
unless the waters be flrst banked out, as has been done
on the Mississippi, in the neighbourhood of New Or-
leans. Most of the streams flowing into the Missouri,
are liable to, and often dc overflow their banks, at dif-
ferent periods of the year ; so that, to obtain the great-
est possible advantage from cultivating their marginal
lands, they should also be embanked. But, perhaps, it
would be more conducive to the settlement and pro-
sperity of this country, to preserve them for the jaurpose
of supplying the settlers on the prairies with timber.

MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

145

•^ The fertile prairies bordering on the woodlands arc
well adapted for settlement, and, I have no doubt, will
be reclaimed to a very great extent before another cen-
tury has transpired, and finally give employment to a
hardy, dense population. On account of the scarcity
of wood and water, it is not probable that any attempts
to settle the central prairies will be made till the lands
better adapted to cultivation are first improved. But
the many thousand square miles so situated, will
finally become of too great value and importance in a
national view, to be suffered to remain a wilderness, as
many now suppose they for ever must. The want of
wood and water is not, however, the only barrier to
their settlement : another very formidable one is pre-
sented in their liability to fires, which will, almost to
a certainty, prove dangerous, if not destructive to the
first adventurers, unless suitable preventive, means be
carried into effect.

As clay, and I have no doubt coal and turf are
abundant, bricks for building may be readily obtain-
ed ; timber for the same object may be procured by
cultivating forests, which the earth, with proper atten-
tion, will certainly produce ; and for fences, nothing
can surpass living hedges, which would probably
flourish as readily as forest trees, and in as great per-
fection as any of the plants found at present in the
fertile prairies.

To obtain a supply of water will in general be more
difficult; but as one is in the earth, it may be procured.
But apart from this source, I am persuaded it may be
conveyed in canals, through some extensive districts

■ :'t ,■' "

14S

PHYSICAL CIlARACTKIl OF THK

of country, which the consequent increased value of
the neighbouring lands will eventually justify.

The prairies may be protected from fire by plough-
ing in the prairie g'-ass to any length and width
necessary to arrest its progress. In some situations
where the streams interlock, large districts of country
mjvy, in thij, waj, be defended against the fire, which
in dry windy weather, spreads with a rapidity not al-
ways to be avoided by the caution and utmost speed
of the buffalo.

In the fall of the year, when the prairie grass is dry,
the prairies are sometimes set on fire by accident, and
at others by design. Should the wind be high on these
occasions, nu spectacle can surpass them in grandeur
and sublimity ; a space as fiir as the eye can reach, is
seen dev*tstated by the igneous torrent. In some plar2s
the tortuous flames, comparatively lost in distance, ap
pear to smoulder bcneatli impervious columns of smoke;
at others, they burst into the skies with the vividness
and rapidity of lightning, and seem to threaten uni-
versal desolation. Their speed is that of the winds,
and destruction betides every living thing that cannot
outfly its course. The grazing herds, conscious of the
threatening calamity, fearlessly congregate with their
natural enemies ; and the bufFalos, elks, deer, panthers,
wolves and bears, are seen promiscuously crowded to-
gether. They sometimes escape to the ravines , and
avoid death, but more frequently they are overwhelmed
by the resistless flames. One of these fires raged to a
very great extent a few yearc since, on the prairies be-
tween the Kansas and Arkansas rivers; ; an4 it is ex-

MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

J47

tremely painful on passing over them, to witness

the ruin it produced. The mass of bleaclied bones

strewed on the earth is astonishingly great; and.

no doubt remains, that many tliousand buf&los

and other animals perished at this particular pe-
riod. • '- . V. r. ..,,.._..<..

These fires do not in common prove so destructive ;
but their occasional prevalence contributes greatly to
the destruction of animal life.

All the difficulties presented to the settlement of
the prairies, as above stated, may be surmounted,
wherever the fertility of the soil will compensate for
cultivation.

Many of the swamps or morasses will admit of being
drained ; at least, such is my present impression ; and
they would, under such management, prove excellent
for arable and grazing purposes.

The foregoing observations will apply with great
propriety to nearly the whole fertile district of coun-
try, included between the boundaries first describ-
ed. I assert this, from information I have received
from the traders and Indians, and from my own
observations, which, it should be kept in view,
liave been comparatively limited ; for I ascend- '
ed the Missouri but once, and then had but an'
indifferent opportunity for making observations be-
yond its variegated boundaries : I, however, crossed
three times from the Kansas and Arkansas to the La
Platte, and ascended the latter river nearly to its
source. Besides, I passed frequently between
the Arkansas and Osage rivers, and am well ac-
quainted with the country bordering on them, and

L 2

148

PHYSICAL CMARACTEn OF THE

on White and St, Francis rivers to a considerable
extent.

On approaching the iiocky Mountains, the surface
of the country, as before observed, is more uneven,
abrupt and hilly. The soil is by no means so pro-
ductive, and runs more frequently into sandy and
rocky barrens, which in some instances are of great
extent. The vegetable growth is also widely dif-
ferent J for instead of the lofty trees, which obtain in the
country lower down, though many of them are of the
same species, they dwindle into comparative shrub-
bery. To this, however, may be excepted some varie-
ties of pine, which, not unfrequently in the vallies,
grow to a stately size. The lands between the Osage
and the Arkansas, including the vallies drained by
White and St. Francis rivers, are very different from
those above described. The country generally is more
hilly, and the hills are larger, more fertile, and better
watered. :

I have noticed in my narrative, all that I recollect
respecting the country west of the Rocky Mountains,
and shall conclude by observing, that this subject,
connected with the future settlement of this extensive
country, is so very important, that I trust my readers
will forgive the short digression into which it has
led me. ^

Climate. — On so extensive a line as is included be-
tween the 35° and 49° north latitude, the northern
and southern extremities of these territories, with very
^evated ranges of mountains along their whole west-
ern borders, and the greater portion of the surface of
the country, exposed to the rays of the sun, the climate

MISSOURf AND ARKANSAS (OLNTKV.

149

must necessarily be exceedingly various. My know,
ledge respecting it does not, however, extend much
farther than between the southern boundary and 39°
or 40" north latitude ; 1 am therefore constrained to
confine my obs'jrvations on this subject, principally
to the country of the Osage and Kansas Indians.

The climate is here temperate, though exceedingly
changeable ; it very much resembles that of the same
latitudes on the cast side of the Mississippi. The pre-
vailing winds, snow storms and such hurricanes as
happen, which in general are annually periodical, come
mostly from the north-west, and the rains and thunder
gusts most frequently from between the south, and
south-east points. The earth is commonly supplied
with seasonable and refreshing showers of rain, except
from the middle of the summer to the ingathering of
the corn, when droughts generally prevail. Fogs are
by no means frequent ; late in the fall they occur
sometimes in the morning, but disappear uniformly
as the sun rises. Preceding the accession of frost,
the atmosphere assumes a reddish hazy appearance ;
for the rest of the year it is agreeably arid, and beau-
tifully clear. The snow storms are usually followed
by rain, in consequence of which the earth is seldom
covered for any considerable time. The grounds are
not commonly frozen for more than two or three
months, and I think, on an average, would admit
the plough by the first of March.
' The climate on the Arkansas, south of the Osage
river, is, more mild; which necessarily produces de-
viations from the above description, that the intelli-
gent reader will readily comprehend, without any

L 3

150

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE

farther notice of the subject on my part. I ought,
however, to remark, that hail storms are more fre-
quent, and the winds more changeable and strong,
especially in the summer season, tending much to
mitigate the I? eat of the sun, which otherwise would
oftentimes b<i very oppressive. Low down on White,
and on the alluvion lands of the St. Francis and
neighbouring rivers, the country is subject to long
continued and dense fogs, and is, ''n consequence,
unhealthy. The inhabitants of this district suffer
annually in a greater or less degree from intermittent
and remittent fevers and their concomitant diseases,
according to the prevalence of this peculiar atmo-
spheric contamination. - - - ...... .(V ,

To conclude, I may remark that the climate, after
passing the foggy regions of the Mississippi, is healthy,
and, no doubt, advancing west it becomes more so,
as far as the country is habitable, quite to the base
of the Rocky Mountains. On the other hand, the
facilities for settlement, and the prospects of reward
for labour, beyond what is essential for home con-
sumption, diminish in proportion as the distances in-
crease. The fertile districts of this whole country
are, beyond'a doubt, capable of being made to produce
all the vai ieties found in similar latitudes and eleva-
tions throughout the world, and that too with means
in the first instance exceedingly limited, in com-
parison to what has been necessary to reclaim other
portions of the globe. These lands are not now in
demand, and before they will become so, the govern-
ment, with judicious management, may, at a very
moderate expense compared to their value, readily

MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

151

obviate the difficulties to their improvement in
advance of the settlements, by planting forests, dig-
ging wells, &c. as I have previously suggested. .

Approaching the mountains, the proportion of the
good land is much diminished; but the quantity under
all circumstances, is sufficient to support a numerous
population ; and it must, in the necessary course of
events, finally yield, in common with those more ad-
vantageously situated, to the improving influence of
civilized life.

It is true, that the snows which perpetually cover
some of these mountains, will operate to a certain
extent against particular ^agricultural pursuits, but
not sufficiently to change the character of the country;
because, the winds which come from them, although
at first sufficiently cold to arrest and even render
doubtful the anticipated results of culture, yet be-
come gradually warm and fertilizing in their progress
through regions highly rarified by the reflecting power
of the extensive prairies.

But, was the climate still less favourable, th.^ ad-
vantages offered from the cultivation of indigenous
plants, and others which experience has shown will
flourish, in particular situations, are sufficient to fix
the attention, and reward the industry of the enter-
prizing. The white mulberry abounds at present in
sufficient numbers to authorize a very wide attention
to the product of the silk worm : and grape vines
producing black, red, flesh-coloured, and white fruit,
of a richness of flavour surpassing any I have seen
under cultivation, are to be met with in astonishing
quantities^, in the. hollows of the prairies. . This c^r-

L 4

152

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE :'T'

It 5.1'

cumstance will not appear extraordinary, if" the charac-
ter of the plant be taken into consideration, since it is
well known in order to obtain the grape in its greatest
perfection, that the vine should be exposed to a free
circulation of air and the direct rays of the sun; both
of which are natural results in the open prairies.

I have seen hundreds of acres spread over with the
vine ; nay, I might say thousands, which, in the proper
season, are loaded to an almost incredible extent, with
the most delicious grapes. And, were it not for the
paths kept open by bears, deer, and other animals
which feed on them, it would be next to impossible to
pass through the thickly interwoven branches. Large
tracts are frequently to be seen in various parts of the
country, particularly near the Osage river, which are
covered with thick growths of the crab apple, plum,
and wild cherry tree, and are so thickly interwoven
with grape vines, as totally to exclude the sun's rays
from the ground beneath. Such do not, however,
bear either rich or abundant fruit, and I name the
circumstance merely io show their wild luxuriancy.

I am satisfied that the two above-mentioned articles,
that is, silk and wine, may be attended to with decid-
edly greater advantage than generally results in the
United States, from the ordinary agricultural pursuits,
especially in situations remote from a market. Be-
sides those, cotton, rice, and tobacco, will succeed
remarkably well towards the southern confines of this
territory, and tobacco, flax, hemp, and all the products
of farming, common to the eastern and western states,
must answer equally well farther in the interior.
This account of the soil, climate, &c. might be ex-

IIISSOURI AND. ARKANSAS COUNTRT.

153

tended ; but as these subjects have already elicited
the proper solicitude of the United States' govern-
ment, and very laudable and judicious measures have
been pursued and are still pursuing both by it, and
by meritorious, intelligent, and enterprising indivi-
duals, it would be presumptuous in me to extend my
remarks any farther. . ^ >,,,-.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE

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CHAP. II.

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOUNTAINi^, LAKES, AND RIVERS OF
THE BEFORE-DESCRIBED TERRITORIES. "^

'^Ivl

Mountains. — If that devious range of the Rocky
Mountains which divides the waters flowing into the
Pacific Ocean from those which are discharged into
the Atlantic, be taken as the western boundary,
several very considerable continuations of the Andes
vrlll be found to pass within the western limits of
these territories. But in respect to them I can add
nothing to the present stock of knowledge. They
are the highest lands in North America, and many of
their peaks and ridges are covered with perpetual
snows ; to which no doubt many of the rivers flowing
from them, are more indebted for their varying sup-
plies of water, than to any other source. Besides,
they exert a great influence on the climate, as I have
already had occasion to remark.

In addition to these, there are several other eleva-
tions, particularly in the neighbourhood of the Arkan-
sas wliich have received the name of mountains ; but
so far as my knowledge extends, without any extraor-
dinary claim to such distinction.

Lakes. — I mentioned in my narrative, that, in
crossing from the head waters of the La Platte to the
Rocky Mountains, we passed a considerable lake ;
which, excepting some small ones on the head waters

MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

155

of the Mississippi, and on the river St. Francis, is the
only one I know of within this extensive country.
Small sheets of water are occasionally met with in
some of the morasses, and on some of the small sti'eams,
but they are too inconsiderable to merit notice.

Rivers. — The rivers are numerous, but as they
have been frequently described, and are pretty gene-
rally known, my observations on them will be very
limited.

Of the Mississippi and Missouri, nothing requu*es to
be said. Their approximation does not admit of the
origin of any very considerable streams between them,
that is, comparatively speaking. The largest are Grand,
Des Moins, St. Peter's, the Sioux, and Jaque or James,
rivers. The Indians say that they are navigable j but
I am ignorant of them all except the first, which is
navigated in canoes for five or six hundred miles,
according to the course of the rivers.

On the right side the Missouri receives the Osage,
Kansas, and La Platte rivers, besides several other
small, and some large streams, of which I know
nothing, and shall therefore omit to mention even
their names. . . ':i

The Osage river originates from numerous streams
which collect in the hills situated north of the Arkan-
sas river, and after flowing in a very crooked channel,
in a north-eastern direction, for about six hundred
miles, is discharged into the Missouri on its south-
west side, about one hundred and thirty miles above
its entrance into the Mississippi. It is navigable for
canoes at all seasons of the year, for about three hun-
dred and fifty miles, to the Osage villages ; but the

156

PHYSICAL CIIARAGl^.R OF THE

trading craft of the Missouri can ascend it only to the
shoals, about one hundred and thirty miles from its
mouth, except during the prevalence of floods ; when
they also may be navigated as far as the Osage settle-
ments.

The Kansas river is much larger than the Osage :
its southern branch has its origin principally from the
same range of hills, continued westwardly into the in-
terior of the country, while its northern or western
branches, which are numerous, though in the summer
almost dry, rise in the prairies intermediate between
the former and the La Platte rivers. Its course is east
a little north ; it drains a very extensive country, and
is subject to devastating floods. The Indians descend
it at all seasons of the year in their canoes, from a con-
siderable distance above the crossing place between it
and the Arkansas river ; which, according to the best
calculations I can make, is full six hundred miles from
its mouth ; so ♦hat the river itself and its southern
branch are navigable in the same manner that the
Osage is, for more than a thousand miles. Except in
floods, the current is not rapid, and the chaimel is
generally deep. In its whole course, I have never
heard of any considerable natural obstruction, never-
theless, many may exist ; though as the Kansas In-
dians were in the habit of frequently descending it
frorn their hunting excursions, it is probable 1 should
have heard something of the causes if they had expe-
rienced much difficulty.

' This river disembogues into the ^iissouri, on its
south-west side, about three hundred and forty miles

MISSOURI AKD ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

157

iibove its mouth, or two hundred and ten miles above
that of the Osage river. .

- The river La Platte rises in the Rocky Mountains^
runs nearly east, is about one thousand six hundred
miles in length ; broad, shoal, and not navigable, I
believe, even during the prevalence of its floods.
It is exceedingly winding for more than half the
distance from it heading sources, and flows prin-
cipally through sandy barrens, and over a sandy
bed, occasionally interrupted by rocks. At times
it is almost dry, and may be forded in particular
places with almost dry feet ; while, at others, it is
difficult to conceive of the volume of water that
seeks a level, with astonishing rapidity, through its
wide cut channels. Its entrance into the Missouri
is two hundred and sixty miles above the mouth
of the Kansas river, or six hundred miles from the
Mississippi.

I have already remarked, that the barrens are very
much intersected by deep ravines, and the same may
be said, in a limited degree, of the fertile prairies. In
fact, all parts of the country, in dry weather, present
broad, and not unfrequently rocky channels, in which
there is not the least appearance of water. ■ ■ -'

< After heavy rains, or great thaws, these channels
become filled, and may with propriety be regarded as
so many rivers, on account of the great quantity of
water conveyed ofl'by them. No section of country
is, perhaps, more remarkable for this particular char
racter, than that bordering on the upper La Platte.
This river drains a valley of great extent, wljidi,
being in general badly supplied with springs, affords

158

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OP THE

in dry periods very little water in addition to what
is produced by the dissolving snows on the neigh-
boiiring mountains; so that what does collect, ap-
pears to be lost in the extensive channels, formed
by the resistless and devastating deluges that occa-
sionally take place. It is owing to these circum-
stances '^at t^' river is not, and, in my opinion, can
never be m:\-\k: '>a\igable. '

The Arl iA\is it tises in the Rocky Mountains, and,
flowing in nearly a . utJi-east direction, for more than
two thousand miles, through its numerous windings,
discharges itself into the Mississipi, about eight hun^
dred miles above its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico.
In its course, it is joined by several very considerable
streams, among which are the Negracka, (White
man's) Little and Big Salt, Jefferson, and Canadian
rivers, flowing from the right, and the Verdigris and
Vermillion from the left.

The Arkansas, in comparison with the Missouri,
is not a rapid stream, though in another view it would
be regarded as such. In its course it is interrupted
by several inconsiderable rapids, one of which is situ-
ated near the mouth of Canadian river ; nevertheless,
it is navigable a great distance up, for boats of forty
or fifty tons burden, except in dry seasons, when its
passage is difficult even for canoes. " ' '

After ascending this stream for six or seven hun-
dred miles, it becomes, and continues for nearly the
same distance farther, more deep and tranquil, and
less interrupted by rapids ; after which, its navigation
is still more impeded than it is any where towards its
mouth. •

MISS0)UR1 AND ARKANSAS COUNTRY.

159

During floods, like the La Platte, it swells into an
overwhelming torrent ; but in very dry seasons con-
tracts into a shoal» and comparatively inconsiderable
stream. Were it not for this circumstance, the route
of the Arkansas to some of the great rivers which
flow west, would be decidedly the best to communi-
cate with the Pacific Ocean; at least L judge so from
the comparative facility with which the Rocky Moun-
tains may be passed in this direction. The route of
the Missouri is widely circuitous, the river of difiigult
ascent, and the mountains next to impassable foi
loaded teams, even though human art and meai •
should be exhausted in the construction of ro.i'^ •,
That of the La Platte from the seat of government,
is perhaps the most direct communication ; but r ^ »n,
as before remarked, this river is not navigable, nor
caii it be made so, for any expence at present
justifiable by the object in view. Of the naviga-
tion of the rivers on the west side of the Rocky
Mountains, opposite to the head waters of the Ar-
kansas, I am wholly ignorant: should they prove
suitable for that portion of the communication, I
have no doubt that the Arkansas may be rendered
navigable at least for eight or nine months in the
year. ■•.;-, :..;■.;■

Towards its sources it will be necessary to abandon
the river for the site of a road, as its banks are in
many places exceedingly precipitous. . . ,

I have made these observations, as well as some
others, at the suggestion of a friend, not, however, with
an expectation that they will afford sufficient interest

:Tfia *

ItiO

PHYSICAL CHAIIACTER OF THE

fif-

to my readers, to compensate for the interruption of
my subject :"\ :*: •

The Negfacka, Big Salt, Jefferson, and Canadian,
are a\\ navigable rivers, at favourable seasons of
the year. The hunters sometimes ascend them in
their batteaux, but to what distance, I am unable
to say. The Indians seldom undertake to navi-
gate these or any other streams upwards ; though it
is common for them, and I have ofien been of their
hunting parties, when, afler having obtained our
supplies, we have descended them in skin canoes.

Vermillion river rises in the highlands which sepa-
rate it from the streams flowing north and east into
the Kansas and Osage rivers. Its direction is nearly
south by east, for about two hundred and fifiy miles,
where it empties into the Arkansas. It is rapid,
shoal, and not navigable, except during the conti-
nuance of floods. The country through which it
flows is delightful, and abundantly supplied with
game : the circumstance which probably induced
White Hair to locate his tribe in its neighbourhood.
The Verdegris is of nearly the same size, and, in
other respects very much resembles the Vermillion
river. It discharges itself into the Arkansas, a few
miles above the former, and is not navigable.
i White River rises in the highlands, between the
Arkansas, Osage, and Marameck rivers, and flows in
a very serpentine channel, for more than a thousand
miles, first in nearly an east, and thien in a south-east
direction, and is discharged into the Mississippi^ a few
miles above the mouth of th^ Arkansas. It is navi-

MISSOURI AND AHKANSAS COUNTRY.

I6t

gable at all seasons of the year for boats of forty or
fifty tons, for five hundred miles. It flows for a con*
siderable distance through one of the most fertile,
delightful, and healthy countries on earth, which is
well watered, and agreeably interspersed with hills,
valleys, prairies, and woodlands. Game of all kinds
is abundant ; and I may say with safety, that it holds
out to new settlers, decidedly greater advantages than
any other with which I am acquainted. .;.....*; . •.

I passed some time, as noticed in uiy narrative,
on some of the northern branches of this stream ;
and in our hunts have several times visited its
western sources, which are situated to the north-
east, and not very remote from the Vermillion river.
I know very little of the central part of the principal
stream, and what I do, is from the report of some of
our hunters, who collected furs on it, during the
season which I passed on the west side of the Rocky
Mountains. The description they gave of it, was
flattering ; and I have no doubt that they continue
to hunt on it, unless prevented by the Cherokee or
Delaware Indians, as they claim dominion for a con-
siderable distance, eastwardly, from the heads of this
stream.

The St. Francis river originates in the hilly coun-
try, to the south-west of St Genevieve^ and after
flowing for nearly five hundred mdes m a southern
direction, joins the Mississipi, fifty or sixty miles
above the mouth of White river. The country
through which it flows, is generally low, and in many
places swampy and very forbidding to settlers. The
river is sluggish, and admits of an easy and safe navi-

M ;

■'■'''

U'H

PHYSICAL CHARACTKR Ot THi.

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my.

I ^t'. 1:

gatidn for three hundred or three hundred and fifty
miles into the interior.

The Marameck flows from the hilly country, about
three hundred miles south-west from the mouth of the
Missouri. It is somewhat rapid, though said to be
navigable quite to its source : its confluence with the
Mississippi is twenty miles below St. Louis.

In the above account of rivers, I have scarcely
mentioned any except those of which I possess some
knowledge, and to give my readers any information
respecting them, and the extent and character oi'
the country through which they flow, less could not
with propriety have been said. I ought not, how-
ever, to quit this subject without remarking that,
from the internal structure of some portions of this
country, considerable streams, in some instances, dis-
appear in the cavities of the rocks ; while in others,
some of a size almost sufficient to merit the appella-
tion of rivers, gush in concentrated currents from
the earth. In situations where there was not the
slightest appearance of water within the range of
vision, I have frequently heard currents gurgling
over their subterranean beds ; and I know of a stream,
at some distance west of the usual route between the
Osage settlement on the Arkansas and Osage rivers,
more than sufficient in size to turn a commbn mill
water-wheel, which only appears for about fifty yards,
and then retreats to its hidden channel. The banks
around it are deep, much inclined, and covered with
large trees. The earth, probably, at no very remote
period, entirely obscured this stream, and has since
fallen in, leaving the appearance above described. I

MIH80Utt$ AI^O ARKANSAS CUUNTUY.

have seen others resembling the above, though not so
remarkably characterized.

I name these circumstances to sliow that although
scarcity of water prevails to a wide extent, in many
places, yet tiiere is every prospect for obtaining suj)-
plies by merely excavating the earth. "la

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164

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

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, . . CHAP. III. : - - A

fiRIEF REMARKS ON SOME OF THE ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND
MINERALS, INDIGENOUS TO THIS DISTRICT OF COUNTRY.

■;Hr'

My observations on these subjects must be very
vague and limited ; because I do not possess the com-
petent knowledge to treat them otherwise ; and be-
cause a very full account, even if I did, would not
comport with the plan I have proposed to follow in
the publication of this work.

Animals. — I have seen two species of the American
panther, or Couguar (Felts'). The largest and most
formidable, inhabits the west and mountainous re-
gions. It grows to the height of three feet, with a
body about six feet long, exclusive of the tail, which
is full two and a half feet in length. Its colour is a
dark brown, deepening on the back, and almost white
on the belly.

The other is found in the woods bordering on the
piairies, is about the length of the former, but not so
high, and more slender ; its colour partakes of the
tawny; it is far less ferocious, and preys on the
buffalo, elk, and deer.

The wild cat (fiatusferus of Lin.) is also numer-
ous ; it is similar to those found in the western states,
and requires no description.

The buffalo, or more properly the bison, varies in
lieight fiom five to five and a half feet. It differs from

• t--

ANIMALS.

165

the domesticated ox in being longer legged, shorter
bodied, in having a large hump upon its back, a long
mane, and much long hair on its head, back, and
shoulders. Its greatest girth is just back of the fore
legs, from which the body gradually tapers, and also
diminishes in height. Its neck is long and slender,
head and eyes small, structure calculated for speed,
and its general aspect fierce and terrible ; though, ex-
cept when wounded, or closely pressed, it is harmless
and timid. Its smell is acute, and it chiefly depends
on this sense for its safety. It may be denominated
an annually migrating animal ; though a few of them
may be found far north, at all seasons of the year.

They go in immense herds, and no one, ignorant
of the extent of the fertile prairies, can form any idea
of the countless myriads that are spread over, and
find support on them. The males and females herd
separately, except in the copulating season, which is
in June and July, when their assemblage is tumultu-
ously promiscuous. The bulls at this time contend
for mastery : I have seen some hundreds of these
engaged in fighting at the same time ; their roar is
deep and loud, and their conflicts really terrible.
The cows bring forth in March or April j they are
proverbially attached to their young, and form at
night a circular phalanx round them, with their horns
outward, to protect them against the attack of the
wolves. They weigh, when fat, from ten to twelve
hundred weight, and their flesh, if possible, is belter
than that of the domesticated stall-fed beeves. This
circumstance originates, probably, in the peculiarity
of their food, which chiefly consists of the prairie

M 3

166

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

Kiflunniffl

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grass. They might, no doubt, be domesticated with
great advantage, more especially as their hair is of a
iexture surpassing in fineness the wool of the Merino
sheep. In their wild state it appears to great disad-
vantage, on account of its being generally interwoven
with the burrs of various plants. This might be
altogether obviated by grazing them on the smooth
bottoms of th6 reclaimed meadows. Attempts have
been made to cross them with the common cow, but
a failure followed in consequence of their difference
in structure.

The wild cows should be domesticated, in order to
ensure success ; but it would be better to domesticate
both the bull and cow to secure the benefit of the hair,
than which, connected with the excellency of their
fiesh, I scarcely know of any one attainable object,
that would result more to the interest of the farmer.

But there are other advantages derivable from
such a measure, which also deserve to be considered.
Their size is from a fourth to a third larger than the
iiverage of those domesticated in the United States,
and consequently thfey must be more powerful.
They are more hardy in a state of nature, and there-
fore their preservation, with due attention to their
habits, would be less difficult and expensive. They
are longer lived, at least, I judge so from the
accounts of the Indians, and would therefore be
more valuable for their labour and capacity for repro-
duction. They are more rapid in their movements,
travelling ordinarily with greater speed than our
draught horses, consequently they might be made to
supersede them to very great advantage, in respect

ANIMALS.

to theii' keeping, and in their ultimate value when
no longer fit for service. This subject merits serious
attention, and wUl» I have no doubt, shortly receive
it from some of the very numerous Agricultural
Societies, ai present existing in the United States. :

Two species of the bear {Ursus) inhabit these
regions. •;

Of the largest, which is found near the Rocky
Mountains, I know but little ; we killed two, which
were the only ones I ever saw: they were about
twice the size of the bear of the Arkansas t«:ritory.
Their heads were large, and their bodies long and
slender, legs long, and calculated for speed, and
their colour of a dark brown, approaching to black.
In their attack they are fearless, formidable, and
ferocious.

The other is common to the United States, and is
too well known to require notice. The Indians
esteem them, particularly their fat, for food j but
only kill such as they occasionally meet. .

Of the deer family (Cervus) there are several dis-
tinct species. Those found on the prairies are com-
mon to almost all parts of the United States, and
require no particular description. The long-pared,
or moose deer, is found in the mountain regions : it
is larger than the above, has a short tufted tail, is
rather darker coloured, and of more solitary habits,
never appearing in large herds. Another variety,
much resembling the first, furnished, however, with
a long tail, is also found in the mountains. The elks
are small, far south ; but increase in size in the
neighbourhood of the mountains. Tliose I saw on

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168

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

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the head waters of the Mississippi, were almost as
tall as a horse, very light coloured, and altogetlier
different from any I had before seen.

Antelopes are numerous in the upper country ; but
never having seen them, except at a distance, I am
unable to give any account of their structure, habits,
&c.

The mountain goat is larger than the common deer j
its colour is tawny, approaching to a white on its back,
horns large, and disproportionally long, frequently
exceeding two feet. It is found in the mountains,
and is very shy. We killed several, on our journey
to the Pacific Ocean ; but they were poor, and their
flesh strong and unpalatable.

Two species of the hare (Lepus) are also met with.
The one, common to the United States, is exceedingly
numerous ; the other is more rare, but considerably
larger. In the summer its colour is of a brownish
grey, from which in the winter it changes to a snowy
white. Neither are much esteemed by the Indians.

Several species of the squirrel (Sciurus) are also met
with, but none except the Prairie dog, or barking
squirrel (Wish-ton-wish of the Indians), which I believe
belongs to this family, desei'ves any particular descrip-
tion. Its body is about the size of a mink, head and
eyes rather large, somewhat resembling thoslB of a hare,
legs short, tail very small, liair short, shining, and
smooth, and of a light grey colour, shaded deeper on
tJie back, and almost white on the belly. It barks
something like a small dog, but more resembling the
Indian pronunciation of the name they have given it.
They conjL;r( gate in immense mimbers on tlie brows or

ANIMALS.

169

gentle declivities of the prairie hills, in dry situations,
but in general not very remote from water. Their
holes are deep, and neither crowded nor in regular
order. The earth removed from them is formed
into little mounds, on which, when not engaged in
feeding, they may, in pleasant weather, generally be
seen posted, as so many sentinels, watching for their
enemies, which are numerous, and prove very de-
structive to them. Whenever any thing strange makes
its appearance, every individual commences barking,
and retreats to the entrance of its hole, into which,
however, it does not proceed till the exigency is
pressing. When they re-appear, it is with great cau-
tion. They make no hibernal provisions, but remain
in a toi'pid state during the prevalence of the frost.
In the summer they feed on and form their beds of
the prairie grass, which ihey cut close as they go,
leaving no kind of rubbish to interrupt the cleanly
prospect, or by which a foe might secrete itself.
They are *ociable and playful, and where an ac-
quaintance exists, less apprehensive of man than any
other animal. The Indians frequently observe their
habits and management, but never offer them tl>
slightest injury. They are more numerous in the int«
rior than elsewhere, and their settlements frequently
extend over several hundred acres. The praiue
wolf and fox are their most formidable enen^ es j
though both the rattle and black snake pre) on
them while feeding on the edges of the prairie grass ;
but their destruction would be still more consider-
able, were it not for the perpetual belligerency of
these reptiles.

■: I

170

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

i*.:

Besides the foregoing, the cominoti and prairie
wolf, yellow and grey fox, oppossum (D. saragoi/),
racoon, martin, pole cat, muskrat, beaver, otter, and
mink, are found, and some of them in great abundance.

Wild turkey, prairie hens, pheasants, partridges,
swans, geese, ducks, and I believe, all the variety of
birds found on the Ohio, are inhabitants of this cpun-
try ; and the iish, reptiles, &c. are also so very similar,
as to render any account of them, in this work, un-
necessary. ,-

I ought to except the rattlesnake $ iS^r, although I
have previously made some remarks on it, more may
still be added, which, I think, will prove interesting to
my readers. They are numerous through the coun-
try, but particularly high up .on the Missouri, and on
the White and St. Francis rivers. Two species are met
with : the black are from Ihree to four feet long, dis-
proportionately thick, exceedingly venomous in their
bites, and slow in their movements ; it lives mostly on
the low and wet lands. The other is black and yellow
spotter? grows sometimes to the length of seven or
eight feet, but its poison is not so venomous as that of
the former. It is found on the dry prairies and rocky
groUiids. They both live to a very great age ; that is,
if it be a fact that they annually acquire a new process
to their rattles. I once met with one that had upwards
of ninety of these annular cells attached to its tail.
When alarmed, the young ones, which are generally
eight or ten ':•: number, retreat into the mouth of the
parent, and re-appear on its giving a contractile mus-
cular token that the danger is passed. Towards the
close of the summer, they become in appearance par-

•o;

ANIMALS.

171

tially blind j their ability to move is diminished, and
their bite, if possible, more deadly. The Indians erro-
neously ascribe this difference in its habits and charac-
ter, to a diffusion of the inordinately secreted poison
through its system. The common black, copper-
head, and spotted swamp snakes never fail, I believe,
toejngage with, and destroy them, whenever they meet j
which, together with the hostility that exists between
the two species, prevents an increase that would other-
wise render the country almost uninhabitable.

When the two species fight, it is by coiling and
striking at each other j they frequently miss in their
aim, or rather avoid each other's fangs by darting
simultaneously in a direction different from the ap-
proaching blow. Wh^n one is bitten, it amounts to
a defeat, and it instantly retreats for a wateriij j>iace,
at which, should it arrive in time, it slakes its thirr»t,
swells, and dies. 1 have witnessed the effects of the
poison on their own bodies, or on those of the an-
tagonist species, in several instances, and have never
known one that was bitten to recover, notwithstand-
ing the generally prevailing opinion to the con-
trary, that such instinctively resort to efficient an-
tidotes. The other hostile snakes grasp their necks
between their teeth, wreathe round, and strangle
them. ' : u

The Indians known nothing about the charming
powers of this or any other snake ; tiiey believe the
rattles are designed to alarm their enemies, and ter-
rify such animals as they are accustomed to prey on.
The latter, 110 doubt, is the fact, whatever the former
may be, because, wlienevcr they fix their piercing eyes

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172

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

on a bird, squirrel, &c. they commence and keep up
an incessant rattling noise, until the animal, convulsed
by fear, approaches within the reach of its formida-
ble enemy, and sometimes into its very jaws. This,
however, is not always the result, for I have repeat-
edly seen animals thus agitated, and in imminent
danger, make their escape without any intervention
in their favour, except the recovery of their own
powers.

Plants. — In describing the various kinds of soil, I
have already mentioned, so far as my knowledge ex-
tends, the different plants they respectively produce,
excepting only those used for food and medicine. This
transposition appeared necessary, in order that the
reader might fully estimate the distinctive qualities of
the land) besides, as I cannot pretend to treat this sub-
ject scientifically, I do not perceive that any disadvan-
tage will arise from this out-of-place arrangement.
• What other information I possess, respecting the vege-
table productions of this country, will be detailed, as
previously promised, when I come to treat on the Ma-
teria Medica, and the esculents used by the Indians. I
shall close this subject with a few observations on the
Osage orange, or bow-wood tree, which I have pre-
viously mentioned, but of which, very little appears to
be known. It is found in abundance on the St. Fran-
cis, White, and some parts of the Arkansas, Vermillion,
Canadian, and Osage rivers; and there are a few scat-
. tering ones on the Kansas ; I do not recollect to have
seen them farther north, though they may exist on
the Missouri, and hi many other places, without my
knowledge. The tree delights in a fertile, and rather

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..«.»,

PLANTS.

173

dry soil, and attains to the height of from iiileen to
thirty feet, with a trunk proportionally large. j ,*n}

In May or June, the male, or tree not bearing
fruit, is covered with numerous pale yellow flowers,
which expand in nearly the same manner as those
of the dogwood (Cornus Florida)^ . though they are
not so large. The fruit ripens in the fore part of
the fall J is also of a pale yellow colour, spheroidal
shaped, and about the size of a large hen's egg.
It is slightly pulpy, and acid, and by many of the
Indians esteemed as an agreeable esculent. The rind,
when wounded, especially before ripe, emits a milky
juice, much resembling that of the silk plant (^Ascle-
pias syriaca), •. ' ' •■ r

When solitary, or on the prairies, it is usually bar-
ren; but its branches become more expanded, the
colour of the foliage of a richer green, and its top
assumes a rounded and beautiful appearance. The
wood is coarse grained, of a deep yellow colour, and
is held in high estimation by the Indians, on account
of its great elastic properties. They manufacture it
into bows, which become, articles of commerce, and
are sometimes exchanged for peltries, &c. I knew
a Sioux to give his horse for a single one ; and
among the upper tribes they frequently bring three
or four beaver skins each. This tree is so highly
valued, that they never destroy it, except when
wanted for use, or in the territories of their enemies ;
in the latter case, they make its destruction as particular
an object, as they do that of their game. It probably
would afford a beautiful yellow dye, and to a cer-
tainty, add a rich vaii'^ty to inlaid cabinet furniture^

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111

17*

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

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The tree is hardy, and would probably flourish in any
part of the United States, between the parallel lati-
tudes of 30^ and 40°, and perhaps still farther north.
It appears, both for utility and ornament, to hold out
BufRcient inducements to warrant particular attention
to its cultivation. \. iv^;. i. >; juj .w-

Minerals. — Of the mineral productions of these
extensive regions, I know comparatively nothing. I
shall not, therefore, attempt to give any particular
account of them ; but barely mention the places
where some of those, most important to civilized life,
may be found. Coal abounds on the Vermillion,
Verdigris, Osage, Kansas, Missoiu-i, and Earth rivers,
particularly high up on the last, in considerably ex-
tensive strata ; and I doubt not that it will be found
in many other places. I am unable to give any spe-
cific account of it, for the Indians do not use it on
any occasion ; and nearly all the traits of its character
known to me, aie derived from a recoUective com-
parison. The Indians, however, are acquainted with
its combustible or ignitive properties, and have se-
veral times, from motives of admiration or curiosity,
set pieces o^ it on fire. This circumstance establishes
the fact that some of it is bituminous, but where such
is located, or in what quantities, or with what facility
it may be obtained, I cannot say. Limestone is fojmd
on the Missouri, near the mouths of the Kansas and
Osage rivers, and in several parts of the countiy
bordering on these last mentioned rivers : it is also
found on the Arkansas ; and I have seen it in many
places which have now escaped my memory; but
which are sufficiently numerous, in my opinion, to

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MINKRALS.

1/5

entitle these territories to the general appellation of
a limestone country. Strata of slate and sandstone
are frequent : the former is so commonly combined
with coaly and sulphurous matter, as to have at-
tracted the notice of the Indians; who, from its
somewhat similar character, call it Kee-nish, in com-
mon with the more perfect varieties of coal. • i •'••

On the Vermillion and Verdigris rivers, are vast
quantities of what I suppose iron ore, from the pro-
perties of the waters which flow from them : here are
also found extensive beds of ochre, from which the
neighbouring Indians obtain the principal part of
their paints. Similar appearances and ochres are met
with in many other places. Clay beds are so numer-
ous and extensive throughout this country, as to
make the attainment of almost any required supply,
at almost any place, a matter of no great difficulty.
Salt springs are found in great numbers on the Ver-
million, Kansas, Grand, Big and Little Saline, the
head waters of Earth, and on the La Platte rivers.

The country around the Salines is generally clayey;
and, in dry weather, from the incrustations formed on
its surface by the exhalations of the water, often ex-
hibits the appearance of extensive salt formations.
During the wet and rainy seasons, these crystalliz-
ations chiefly disappear, and the waters which before
were exceedingly salt, become much diluted. The
access of fresh water to them may, I am convinced,
be prevented ; at any rate the facility of making salt
is so great, that no fears can be entertained of a
scarcity of this article, throughout the whole of this,
country, as high up as the La Platte.

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176

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

The springs are generally situated far in the in-
terior, and not very remote from navigable waters ;
which will increase the facility of transporting sup-
plies. The Indians seldom make use of it for any
purpose : I have« however, known it prescribed medi-
cinally ; and, in a few instances, eaten as a condiment
The salt springs are places of great resort for all the
grazing herds, and consequently attract the animals
which prey on them, whether man or quadruped.
On this account they are better known to the Indians,
than any other mineral production of the country.

Saltpetre (nitrate of potash), has been collected in
gceat quantities from caves found in some parts of
this ^country; and very extensive lead mines have
been worked for many years past, between the sources
of the St. Francis and Marameck rivers ; but of
these, and of the existence of either gold or silver
mines, the Indians of the Osage and Kansas nation
are wholly ignorant.

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CHAP. IV.

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONDITION

OP THE INDIANS.

Unocr this head I propose to treat of their migra*
tions, and separations into tribes, language, signs,
modes of writing and delineation, structure, complex-
ion* mental capacity, &c. I shall commence on their
migrations and separation into tribes or nations.

The Indians are very thinly dispersed over the
country described in one of the preceding chapters,
and particularly so in the temperate and more fertile
parts; where, aU circumstances taken into view, one.
would, with apparently great reason, look for the
contrary.

But the abundance and variety of game, the spon-
taneous production of a^eat number of plants, mild
climate, and facilities for satisfying all the wants of
Indian life, have rendered the possession of these re-
gions a perpetual subject for contention, and are the
proximate causes of this unnatural reversion. The
Indians generally are disposed to rove ; and in their
excursions, they frequently encroach on the privileges
of their neighbours, which is seldom suffered to pass
unnoticed, and usually terminates in warj a result
frequently courted with no other view than to school
the young warriors, and afford the older ones oppor-
tunities to acquire distinction^ THmeiMm^are some-

N ■ ' '

178

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

times of short duration ; at others they only cease with
the extermination or removal of one of the parties.
Discomfitted bands or tribes are sometimes met with,
which have scarcely males sufficient for the chace,
without regarding the subject of their defence. In
such instances they commonly retreat for protection
and safety to the most unfrequented or mountainous
regions, or form alliances with their more powerful
and friendly neighbours. But in general they incor-
porate themselves with some other tribe, and become
either virtually extinct, or acknowledged dependants.
The Peoiras, Missouri, and Little Osage tribes, are
instances to the point.

If closely pressed by their foes, instead of be-
coming tributaries, and contrary to what generally
results among reclaimed nations, they abandon their
country and homes, apparently without experiencing
those acutely painful sensations incident on similar
occasions to civilized life. But before they resort to
such measures, they accomplish all that their means
will permit, more to support their claim to the cha-
racter of an independent and brave people than to
their territory. In this way the strong and more
powerful press upon the weak ; while the weak dis-
pose of themselves as above described.

The migratory disposition of the Indians conse-
quently becomes in part forced. Remotely, accord-
ing to the tradition of many of the tribes, it has been
from the north or north-east, southwardly ; and no
doubt it has been induced by the very same causes
which contribute to depopulate the more fertile re-
gions of this country, with which the Indians, from

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

179

their mode of life, could not fail progressively t6 fee-
come acquainted. To these causes may perhaps be
added the more favourable disposition of a northern
climate to an increase of population, and exemption
from the jealousy and envy of their more southern
neighbours, because of the severity of their climate
and the poverty of their hunting grounds. These
circumstances combined would allow of an accumu-
lation of people greater than those regions could
support, so that from necessity, a portion would be
compelled to a change of residence. Or Asia, as
some have supposed, may have by some means at
present unknown to us, sent out either by accident or
design, a succession of colonies, which, pressing one
upon the other, have contributed to keep up this
change of location among the several tribes.

There now exists an implacable enmity between
the Sioux and Kansas, which originated, at no very
remote period, in the former having forced the latter
to abandon their hunting grounds on the Missouri.
The Osages have a similar tradition in regard to their
removal, though it does not extend to the nation that
coerced them to the measure.

Most of the Indian nations, although now occu-
pying territories, which they have possessed for periods
extending very far beyond their chronological data,
have like traditions, which are no doubt founded on
facts ; but the problems, as to the remote or succeed-
ing cause:^ which led to those results, I shall resign
to abler pens for solution.

These migrations recently have been much influ-
enced by the advance of the white settlers ; and they

180

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

will continue to be so, I apprehend, till terminated by
the total destrpction of all the Indians on the eastern
side of the Rocky Mountains.

In regard to those settled on the western side, I en-
tertain more favourable hopes ; because they are less
warlike, appear to entertain far less elevated notions
respecting the sovereignty of their tribes, and their
own individual natural rights, and have not so un-
conquerable a contempt for all servile labour ; and
because the game, fish, and roots on which they sub-
sist, having become comparatively scarce, they will
the more readily be persuaded to adopt agricultural
pursuits, to obtain a less precarious subsistence.
Such changes, if history may be relied on, are the
concomitants of civilization, and they must prcve
conducive to an increase of population ; so that if
brought about'among those people, they will be re-
deemed from the annihilation to which those on the
eastern side of the mountains appear to be rapidly
advancing. When a nation of Indians becomes too
numerous conveniently to procure subsistence from
its own hunting grounds, it is no uncommon occur-
rence for it to send out a colony, or, in other words,
to separate into tribes. Preparatory to such a mea-
sure, runners or spies are sent in various directions
to ascertain the most suitable location. A national
council next hears the several reports, determines
on the plan, and elects chiefs to carry it into opera-
tion. The pipe is then sent round, and all who smoke
it are considered as volunteers. Sometimes the num-
ber is too small to warrant the enterprise j at others it
is so large as to occasion the migration of the whole
nation. Where, however, it is properly proportioned,

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

181

the ceremony of separating is at once accomplished
and is truly affecting. < '^ •

The tribe so separated maintains all its relations,^
independent of the parent nation ; though the most
friendly intercourse is commonly maintained, and they
are almost uniformly allies. Separations sometimes
take place from party dissensions, growing generally
out of the jealousies of the principal chiefs, and not
unfrequently out of petty quarrels. In such in-
stances, in order to prevent the unnecessary and wan-
ton effusion of blood, and consequent enfeebling of
the nation, the weaker party moves off, usually with-
out the observance of much ceremony. These divi-
sions seldom last long ; reconciliation follows reflec-
tion, and a re-union is effected. Instances, however,
have been known, in which the two parties became
the most irreconcileable, rancorous, and deadly foe's,
and raised the tomahawk against each other, with
a malignity surpassing, if possible, that exercised
between hostile nations totally distinct in consan-

guinity. ,

To the above causes for the Indian nations sepa-
rating into tribes, may be added that of belligerency;
in which, as in wars among civilized nations, the strong
generally triumph over the weak; but the conse- 7;
quences are very dissimilar. Among the civilize^'
the vanquished are very seldom disturbed in their pwj-^
sessions, or undergo even a change of masters, though^
such a measure might oflen prove highly advanta-
geous; while among the Indians, to prevent entire
destruction, they are obliged to flee from their pos-
sessions, and are frequently dispersed into differefnt

183

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

tribes or bands, which, being prevented from re-unit-
ing, by the interposition of their enemies, connect
themselves with other nations, or seek safe retread,
and maintain their independence in the manner as
before observed.

Of some one of these characters have been the
divisions which not very remotely took place, respec-
tively, among the Sioux, Pawnees, and Osages; and it
is highly probably that the Kansas and Osages descend-
ed from, or constituted originally a single nation, as
there is a striking resemblance in their languages«f>'c
. Langvage. — It has been supposed by some, that
all the Indian nations speak different dialects of the
same language ; but the case is far otherwise. Th^re
are scarcely two nations, between whom no inter-
course exists, whose languages are so similar as to be
mutually understood by the respective individuals of
each ; indeed, I believe there are none ; although the
qircumstances of origin, descent, immediate neighbour-
hood, intermarriages, voluntary associations, friendly
intercourse, and the incorporation of the vanquished
of one tribe with another, have materially modified,
and, in^many instances, effected a strong resemblance
in some of them. Among nations more remote, some
words of the same pronunciation, and of the same and
of different imports, are used; but instances of this
nature do not occur sufficiently often to materially
ftlter their character, and they maintain their claims
to distinctiveness with as much force, perhaps, as do
the English, Frencli, German, and Russian languages.
It is true, that an individual of one nation may, by
the assistance of signs, make himself sufficiently un-

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

183

derstood to hold a conversation on all ordinary subjects,
with strangers of almost every other, but then it should
be remembered that their languages are pantomimic,
and that their poverty is, to a considerable degt^e, made
up for by those impressive and common auxiliaries*
I'l^The Indians settled in tovms and villages speak
languages more stable, comprehensive, and full, than
those do who have no jBxed residence, or lead more
solitary lives. And, as they have neither records nor
standards, but depend wholly on recollection and
habit, it is not extraordinary, under the many other
casual and arbitrary circumstances influencing them,
that their languages should, as they actually do, suffer
frequent and considerable changes.

Signs. — In regard to the signs used by the Indians
to connect their words, and render their languages
intelligible, very little of ' a satisfactory nature can be
said ; because they are so variously adapted to their
different subjects of conversation, as in general to
baffle description. In order to comprehend them
fully, it is necessary to understand their idioms and
habits. In talking of an enemy, they assume a fero-
cious attitude and aspect, seize hold of j and brandish
their weapons of war, in precisely the same manner
as they would do if they were in their presence, and
about to engage in a deadly conflict* The wampum
and pipe are handled, in conversations on peaceable
subjects, and every thing connected with them is
diametrically reversed. Speaking of men, gamcy birds,
fish, trees, marching, hunting, swimming, &c. &c., the
peculiar habits or character of each, individually, is
imitated in so happy a manner as to be readily un-

N 4

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184

PHYSICAL AND MORAL 'SO

derstbod by those acquainted with the qualities of the
subject intended to be described, although they should
be entire strangers to the language. Independent
of the above, they use many signs, which convey
ideas of entire sentences : such, for instance, as a cir-
cuhu* motion of the extended arm in the direction of
the sun's course, to represent a day or a half day ;
the rapid sweep of the hand represents a violent wind;
the uplifted hands and eyes, an invocation to the
Great Spirit, &c. They also use significant emblems,
such as the wing of the swan and ^Id goose, wam-
pums and the pipe, for, or as overtures for peace:
the arrow, war club, and black and red paintings, for
war, or as indications or declarations of it Any ar-
ticle, but in general a skin painted black, or the wing
of the raven, represents the death of friends ; and
when edioured or striped with red, that of enemies.
This eniuneration might be considerably extended,
but, as it is barren of interest, I shall proceed to make
some remarks on their

*^^^**^MODES OV WRiTING AND DELINEATION. *»^>M« i

' In their writing and Correspondence, the Indians
make use altogether of hieroglyphics ) to which they
are forced by their ignorance of characters which ad-
mit of a series of methodical combinations. Even if
this we^e not the case, it is doubtful whether their
languages would permit the application of such a
knowledge ; at any rate, it would be exceedingly arbi-
traiy, and to understand it would require great and
constant eflbrts of the imagination.

(u: til

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

185

>,,They inscribe their correspondence, and such sub«
jects as require to be recorded, on the inner bark of' the
white birch (Beitila papyracea), or on skins prepared
for the purpose. >

Styles of iron, wood, or stone, and brushes made oS
hair, feathers or the fibres of wood, are used, to deli-
neate or paint the most prominent objects embraced
in their subjects; the remainder is to be supplied by
the imagination of the reader. . ,

If, for instance, they wished to describe the surprise
of a party of their hunters by their enemies, and
their rescue by white people, they would first imprint
the tracks of the buf&lo in advance ; next, as many
footsteps as there were hunters, provided the num-
ber was small, if not, they would draw as many large
footsteps as there were tens, and smaller ones for
those of the fraction of that number, the whole ar-
ranged in disorder ; then the number of the assailing
party would be imprinted in -the same manner, and
the nation to which they belonged, be pointed out by.
some emblem of its chief, as that of a wolf for a
Pawnee chief; finally, in the rear of the Pawnees,
which should also be represented in disorder, the
number of the rescuing party would be drawn as be-
fore, and their national character distinguished by the
representation of its flag. The number of their own,
and that of their friends slain, ". ould be indicated
by the number of footsteps painted black, and the
wounded by those partially so coloured : while that
of their enemies would be distinguished by red paint-
ings, in precisely the same manner. If they thought

186

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

it necessary, the description would extend to the
country, or even place where the surprise happened ;
as for instance, if it was either in a prairie, or in woods,
or on the margin of a river ; prairie grass, trees, or a
stream, would be represented according as the occur-
rence happened} and the place would be characterised
by the presentation of some generally known object,
at or in its neighbourhood.

In fine, the Indians experience little or no difficulty
in describing or understanding any incident or subje(^
in this way. The chiefs, especially if any misunder-
standing had previously existed, constantly wear on
their robes the delineated boundaries of their hunting
grounds, according to stipulations entered into by the
disputing parties. These boundaries are also drawn
on skins, and deposited in their public lodges, as re-
cords to be referred to on necessary occasions. They
likewise design very correct maps, in which the rivers,
hills, trails, and other eircumstances worthy of notice,
are very correctly laid down ; they also very readily do
tlie same on the sand or earth, for the information of
strange travellers. In their marches, they inscribe in-
structions or any other information deemed necessary,
for the spies or detached parties, on smooth-barked
trees. Their distinguished warriors register on skins
all the remarkable incidents of their lives: which, with
the exception of those they are buried in, are uniformly
kqpt by their relatisres as sacred relics and testimonies
of honourable descent for many succeeding genera-
tions. They sometimes cut with hard stones emblem-
atical representations of remarkable events, &c. on

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

soft or friable rocks, which, as their mode of com-
puting time is very imperfect, soon cease to be
interesting, and are forgotten. And the same tk'^l
is extended to ornamenting their pipes, and variout
domestic utensils.

I have seen many of those engravings, which, though
in part apparently intelligible, could not be identified
with any of the circumstances or traditions of the pre-
sent population of the country ; and I have no doubt,
more correct information, respecting the origin of the
Indians, might be obtained from a comparison
of the hieroglyphic characters of different nations and
eras, than can possibly be arrived at from the analy-
sis of their respective languages. The former are the
delineations of truth, and probably have been imitated
respectively by all the Indian nations from the remot*
est antiquity. The only objection to this source is the
extreme scarcity of incident; while the latter, in the in-
termixtures, separations, and destructions, that slowly
but surely happen, and the liability of their languages
to change, as before remarked, presents clearly to my
mind insurmountable difficulties to the acquirement of
the desired knowledge. As well might the debris on
the seashore be traced back to their primitive locations,
by means of their external or chemical characters, as
the Indians to their progenitors by their languages.
What, let me inquire, would hav^ become of the Gr^ek
and Roman languages, had not letters preserved their
knowledge to after times? and changes, not of the same
magnitude, but of equally the same importance, con-
nected with their idioms, frequently take place among
the Indians. ,. ...

188

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

Besides, where the very best means exist to main-
tain or preserve the unity of language, how many new
terms are constantly adding to it! How many pld ones
have become, or are becoming obsolete! It may be
replied, that these changes do not extend to the radi-
cals ; and perhaps they do not, to any considerable
extent, wherever registers exist; but the Indians are
not provided with any means to arrest the oblivious
effects of the changeable circumstances to which they
are subject; and, therefore, have frequently to exer-
cise their inventive faculties to give names to things
which are not only altogether new, but also to such as
had been forgotten. To confirm this position, it is only
necessary to observe the great difference that at pre-
sent exists in the languages of the different Pawnee
tribes; which, there can be no doubt, were, originally,
precisely the same.

Those living in villages speak fluently a much more
copious and intelligible language than those do who
lead wandering lives. Indeed, I am persuaded I ha-
zard nothing, by saying that any person, a stranger to
the circumstance of their origin, would without hesi-
tation take them for different nations.
' The great trait of character, which more particu-
larly distinguishes the Indians from every other
people on our globe, except the Jews, is their reli-
gion ; which is so different, as to place the period of
their descent from any other people, necessarily
remote; because, from the best information extant
oh this subject, all the various races, from which
there seems any probability of tlieir having de-
scended, have been from immemorial time involved

CONDITION OF THK INDIANS.

189

in the grossest superstition and paganiHm. This cir-
cumstance of remoteness involves the subject in still
greater obscurity; because it allows of proportionately
extended chances for the very changes which, I con-
tend, have taken place in their languages. However,
if any similitude in their worship could be traced out,
I would place more reliance on it, in attempting to
establish their origin, than I can now consent to on
any or all the circumstantial proofs and hypotheses
tl^at have been suggested ; because, without referring
to divine authority, I believe the whole iiuman family,
left to the exercise of their rational faculties from in-
fancy, would in the process of time, and in accordance
with those faculties, first adopt tlie doctrine of Theism,
and that they would not be likely to deviate from it
only in proportion as the means for indulging the
baser passions increased. v, v . ,. - , . , f^v!)

From a resemblance to the Jews in their worship,
and in some of their laws and customs, particularly
as respects murder, anointings, and places of refuge,
some have attempted to show that the Indians
originally descended from that people; while others,
with greater plausibility, perhaps, ascribe this con-
formation to accident.

This subject has excited much interest, and mai\y
ingenious hypotheses have been suggested without
producing any satisfactory results. And I am per-
suaded that every step we take in pursuit of this truth,
on the data we now possess, must terminate in the
same way.

Hfl!

190

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

;f|.j|.

STEUCTUBK AND COMPLEXION.

The whole family of mankind are generally re-
garded but as one species ; and the difference that
exists in it, according to the influence of cli'-^ate, or
the regions they inhabit, constitutes only varieties :
while some others, comparatively few in number,
think the difference between the several races suffi-
ciently marked to justify their arrangement into dis-
tinct species. But in regard to correctness in either
of these opinions, it does not belong to me to discuss.
I shall, therefore, give only a brief outline of the
most striking characteristics of the North American
Indians. ^'''^-^:^ '^■^^■^ ^ -'-^ n-;i^.v'.c rr-.^ij-n.. ,h -^jfi.-

Notwithstanding the countries they inhabit are
nearly similar in respect to climate, supplies, and other
circumstances, calculated to produce like results, a
considerable difference in the size and colour of the
different nations does actually exist.

The Pattawattomies, Shawanees, Osages, and Che-
rokees, are tall ; the Ricaras, Mandans, and Kicka-
poos, are short ; while the Kansas, Mahas, Pawnees,
Ottowas, Quapaws, and Delawares, who are remark-
able for their fuU chests and broad shoulders, are all
intermediates to the two former. In their size and
structure, considerable difference prevails among all
the nations I have visited, both on this and on the
other side of the Rocky Mountains. •

According to the taste of the white people, tlie
persons of the Indians generally are well proportioned:
I ought, however, to except a general muscular defi-
ciency on the calves of their legs, and, in some of the

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

191

tribes, the disproportional increase of the integuments
on the femores, and about the pelvis of the females ;
the latter, however, I observed only on the Pacific
side of the continent.

Malformation is very rare among them; but, when
an instance happens, it is thought to be influenced by
the Great Spirit to punish, or by the Evil Spirit to
torment them; and the individual, in either case,
becomes the peculiar subject of their superstitious
regard ; under the hope that such conduct will ap-
pease the one, or propitiate the other. • . • '

Their foreheads are rather flat, and not generally
very high and jutting ; their eyes are small, black,
and set somewhat deep in their sockets, with the
external angles a little elevated above the internal ;
their noses long and prominent, and their cheek
bones full, high, and generally broad, so as to ter-
minate the inferior oval curve of the face, between
the nose and mouth. The hair on their heads is
naturally long and black, and much pains are bestowed
by the women, to preserve it as an ornament to their
persons ; the men pluck all out, except a small tuft
that cover* the crown of their head or scalp, which
they preserve with the most studious attention, with
a view to meet their enemies on a fair footing, or
with honourably corresponding objects for contention
on the field of battle. The hair on the othti parts
of their bodies would, I am persuaded, be as abun-
dant as it is on those of any other variety of the
human family, were it permitted to grow ; but all
the Indians, except lunatics, or such as suffer from
derangement of mind, extract it with great care.

il'^M!

, ■ 1

192

PHYSICAL AND ^fORAL

whenever it appears. I name this more particularly,
because, I have heard it suggested that they are
naturally deficient in this respect; and because of the
repeated inquiries addressed to me on this subject.

The colour of the Indians approaches a tawney
copper ; the shades, however, differ in the different
tribes, and even among the individuals of the same
tribe ; but not sufficiently to change the characteris-
tic trait. This does not appear to proceed from the
influence of climate, so much as one would, on a
cursory view of the subject, be led to suppose : for
we find many of those located northwardly, to be
more swarthy or darker coloured than their more
southern neighbours, or even than some that are more
remotely situated in the same direction. I shall pass
by the philosophical disquisition as to the causes of
this variation, because I feel incompetent to do the
subject justice, and merely notice the facts as they
occurred to my observations. The Pattawattomies,
inhabiting the head waters of the Illinois river ; the
Sioux on the Missouri and Mississippi j the Pawnees
on the La Platte ; and the Ricaras on the Missouri ;
are, I believe, more deeply shaded than any other
nations with which I am acquainted. Next to the
above in deepness of colour, are the Osages, Kansas,
Ottowas, and Cherokees ; all more southwardly lo-
cated ; and the Mandans on the Missouri, and the
Choctaws, and Creeks of the state of Mississippi, are
among those of a still lighter cast.

Under this division, arbitrary as it is, all the tribes
on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains may be
arranged conveniently enough for desription, though

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

193

it must be acknowledged that the shades of colour of
the extremes of each, approximate so closely, as per-
haps, to bring in question its propriety. .',;!!' J

Those on the western side of this boundary, as
far as my knowledge extends, are not so dark as the
lightest above described. While a particular tribe,
situated near the head waters of the Mult-no-mah
river, are of a pale ash, and very much resembling
that of the African albinos, though somewhat darker.

The lips, which in some of the tribes are very
thick, as I ought before to have noticed, are coloured
similar to the other parts of their bodies, while the
palms of their hands, and the soles of their feet, are
almost white.

The children, when first bom, ars of a dusky cream
colour, with the exception of spots under the eyes,
and along the spinal ridge, which are more deeply
shaded. They gradually become darker from ex-
posure, and finally assume the complexion of the
older Indians ; which varies in a slight degree on the
different paii;s of their bodies, accordingly as they may
be more or less exposed to the action of the air and
solar rays. - ... .... ;.: ;

The Indians call themselves red men, in contra-
distinction to the whites and blacks, wherever such
are known to exist. Generally they pride themselves
much on their colour ; its coppery darkness being
considered a peculiar mark of excellence.

The chiefs and influential men in some of the
tribes object to intermarriages with the whites, on
account of the aberration from this standard colour,
which is exhibited in the offspring : white being

:,.f

r-fvi.

194

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

regarded characteristic of effeminacy and cowardice*
and all the shades between it and their own as na-
turally influenced by those qualities, in proportion
as it preponderates. They nevertheless think these
traits may be corrected by rigid discipline and strict
attention to early education : and I have no doubt
the many battles I fought in my boyhood were coun-
tenanced in conformity to this opinion and their
tuitive policy.

The Indians universally believe that the Great
Spirit, when he created all things, exercised a par-
tiality in their favour, which was indelibly registered
in their colour.

Next in order to themselves some class the whites,
while others suppose the blacks to be superior to
them : they generally believe this partiality extended
to the whole descending series of organic and in-
organic things according to the perfections they re-
spectively display. -J ; ; Vi }i 'I'. / ;

The circumstances incidentally connected with the
wandering life and precarious condition of the In-
dians are not very favourable to procreant habits, and
the cares they entail. Instances of a sanguine tem-
perament seldom occur, though when they do, they
are less frequent among the males. They do not
arrive at puberty at so early a period of life as is
common in civilized society ; the difference may be
estimated at two or three years. The particular time
is similarly influenced by climate and other causes,
and is equally various in different individuals.

Custom, with them, as with the whites, regulates
th" intercourse of the sexes, but not with so close

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

195

a rein in respect to consequences ; for a female may
become a parent out of wedlock, without loss of re-
putation, or diminishing her chance for a subsequent
matrimonial alliance, provided her paramour be of
respectable standing. But, notwithstanding, in-
stances of the kind seldom happen ; not that the
Indian women are over rigidly virtuous ; but because
abortives are sometimes resorted to as well in celibacy
as in married life ; though the practice is discoun-
tenanced by the men, except when on long marches
or pressed by their enemies. The women seldom
raise more than three or four children ; I have known
a few to have five, and, very rarely indeed, one oi'
two more. They suckle them from two to three
years, and sometimes even longer. This practice
has, no doubt, grown out of thie difficulty of procuring
nutriment suitable to the digestive organs of infancy ;
though it is continued by some, under the belief that
it promotes sterility ; an entire instance of which I
have never known among Indian wotaen. Their
gestative, parturient, and travailing affections are so
slight as scarcely to admit of any comparison with
those experienced in civilized life, except in name and
circumstance. ' - - • - •:

Of the proportions of male to female births, I
cannot speak with precision; though it appears to
me, from what I have observed, that the former are
rather more numerous. The proportion of the men
to the women is comparatively small, in consequence
of the frequent and destructive wars in which the
former arc engaged, and their greater liability to
disease.

o ^2

1 i(.,i

196

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

This disparity is scarcely perceptible in early life ;
but, among those arrived at maturity, and still farther
advanced in life, it is very obvious, and varies in the
different tribes from two or three of the former to four
of the latter, according as the causes above named
prevail. In some tribes the extremes differ consider-
ably from this average, more especially for the less ;
and, as previously remarked, they are sometimes
without men sufficient for the chace.

I am unable to say much in relation to the propor-
tion of the births to deaths that occur in the natural
way ; because, the natural operations of disease and
decay, are interrupted, or rather, anticipated by their
desolating wars. I may observe, however, from
comparisons made since my arrival in the United
States, that the births, in proportion to the population,
are not more than half so numerous as they are
among the white people : while the deaths by old
age, apart from the causes above noticed, and regard
being continued to numbers, are considerably more
numerous. So that, if my observations have been
correct, and the Indians were to desist from their
belligerent habits, and lead regular and temperate
lives, their chance of arriving at great age, and dying
by decay, would be much greater than that of any
people devoted to the pursuits and habits of civilized
life. '■ ■ ■' •■ '^ ' ' ■■.■"'' ' ' '

The death of an Indian woman, aside from ca-
sualty, is a rare occurrence, except from the ordinary
wane of the functions of life. The same cannot be
said of the men : their frequent exposure to all varie-
ties of temperature and weather ; fatigues from long

CONDITION OF TH£ INDIANS.

197

marches ; and long abstinence from food, followed by
an inordinate indulgence of the appetite; give rise to
man;' diseases, from which death oftentimes endues.
Both the men and women that survive to old age, re-
tain all their senses much more perfectly than is com-
mon to civilized life. / / . r!. ; ' %
^Disease, particularly the small-pox, has deprived
some few of their vision; otherwise I have never
known a single instance of total blindness : tne same
may be said of total deafness ; though dimness of eye-
sight and difficulty of hearing are not uncommon to
very aged persons ; but they are not so frequent as
among white people.

. They also retain their mental and corporeal powers
in greater vigour and perfection. When old, they
usually depart from the taciturn habits of early life,
become garrulous, and frequently discourse with an
astonishing minuteness and accuracy, on the events
of their past lives, and on circumstances calculated
to inspire patriotism, and the love of glory, in
younger minds. An ardent love for the chase, con-
tinues with the men to the last. When too old to
carry the rifle, they employ the boys or young men
for that purpose, and frequently take long marches
in pursuit of game. I have myself accompanied them
till nearly worn out with fatigue, though ashamed to
complain.

The men sometimes arrive at a very great age;
though the proportional number of old women is
much the greatest. I have known many whose ages
were computed severally to be from ninety to one
Imndred years. The women generally live the

o 3

198

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

longest, and retain their mental faculties more re-
markably than the men.

They are not much afflicted with diseased teeth ;
I may truly say that I have never known a half
do2en instances, in which they have been entirely
decayed. The toothache, and swelled faces pro-
ceeding from it, are exceedingly rare j and it may
be generally observed of the Indians on the eastern
side of the Rocky Mountains, that they retain their
teeth entire, to the close of their lives. It is not
however the case with those on the western side.
Nearly all the old ones there are without ; and many
middle aged, and some quite young, are exceedingly
affected by diseased and decayed teeth. This dif-
ference in their condition and liability to decay, no
doubt arises in the difference of their modes of liv-
ing. Nearly all the Indians which subsist chiefly on
animal food, are exempted from this misfortune and
suffering; while those who are more confined to a
vegetable diet, are peculiarly subject to them. None
of the Indian tribes are, however, so much and so
generally disfigured by decayed and lost teeth, as are
the people of the United States, who, as I have been
informed, are not in this respect singular among
civilized nations.

This effect, no doubt, generally results to the In-
dians from their want of cleanliness, and the acidity
contained in their food, which is mainly vegetable,
and often taken without the slightest preparation by
cooking.

Education and habit disqualify the Indians for
laborious pursuits of civilized life 5 but the extraor-

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

199

dinary performance of such as they are accustomed
to, shows that they are not deficient in activity and
strength.

I have known Indians, when much enfeebled by
hunger, to carry loads of buffalo meat, deer, and elk,
for miles to the camps of their party j which very
few labouring white people, in perfect health and
vigour, would have willingly undertaken. Besides,
their greater ability to perform long journeys in
shorter times than those less accustomed to this ex-
ercise could possibly do, is another proof, if one were
wanting, to the same effect : and to these might be
added the known capacity and cheerful compliance
of the women to perform all their laborious duties,
and that sometimes too under circumstances that
would not be tolerated in civilized life.

So that no doubt remains in my mind, if we average
the perfections and imperfections, that the Indians
will bear a comparison in their physical conditions,
with any other great division of the human family.

Moral condition. — In regard to the moral condi-
tion of the Indians, very little requires to be said j
because, it will be admitted on all sides, if history may
be credited, that they display, according to the oppor-
tunities presented by the circumstances and modes of
their lives, as great energy of mental powers, and ca-
pability of accommodating it to particular exigencies,
as any other people ever have.

The causes which operate against their increase of
numbers, and the facilities with which they are in ge-
neral able to supply all their wants, very much restrict,
and I mav say, prevent their moral advancement.

o 4

i H

,'m

1200

PHYSICAL AND MOllAL t

Were these causes and facilities to cease or become
considerably limited, it would be absurd to suppose
the Indians would not resort to grazing and agri-
culture for a livelihood. Fixed residence would
follow as a necessary consequence ; and these ob-
jects once obtained, all the arts and policies, con-
nected with the wants and comforts of civilized life,
would as necessarily be developed. And then, as
population and wealth increased, science and refine-
ment, and perhaps, disease and crime also, would
commence their rapid march ; never, from the con-
stitution of the human mind, and the organization of
things, to terminate, except in the wreck of universal

nature.

':.-\'- t.

.,» . ^

■t^'i

■f'.^ \^

•' In weighing or estimating these probable results,
the long period of the aggregate of human existenfce,
the slow development of Hvd mental faculties, and of
the arts and sciences, as they have actually occurred
in the progressive condition of the world, should be
constantly and prominently kept in view.

I have ventured to make the foregoing observ-
ations, from the progress which most of the Indian
nations had made in such arts as are essentially
connected with their manner of life, previous to
their acquaintance, and intercourse with the white
people. . Their manner of dressing skins into lea-
ther, either with or without preserving the hair,
for many puiposes far exceeds those in general
practice in the United States. For, besides the
pliant softness which is imparted to them by
their process of dressing, and which, though ever
so frequently wet, is retained to a considerable

CONDITION OF THL INDIANS.

«01

degree, they are neither so liable to stretch, nor to be
tlestroyed by the worms.

They also succeed in making very good pottery }
though the forms are neither various nor elegant;
nor do the uses to which it is applied, require that
they should be ; but they resist the effects of fire very
well, and till lately were the only implements used
in their cookery. They make mats from grass and
rushes, and very warm and durable, though not very
sightly ; blankets ^rom the hair of the buffalo, and
other animals. They form stones into various shapes,
as the pestle and mortar, tomahawks, pipes, and
knives; construct various kinds of canoes; as
from trees, the barks of trees, and the skins of ani-
mals; and, sometimes, comfortable, and spacious
lodges, though they are not generally very particular
in this respect. They cultivate such plants for food
and medicine as they have found by experience to
require it ; and, in a few instances, where the advan-
tages were favourable, irrigated their fields, and con-
veyed water to their lodges, in drains, or the barks of
trees. They boil, roast, bake, and broil their meats,
and cook their vegetables generally in an appropriate
manner.

They sketch general resemblances of men, quadru-
peds, &c. delineate maps of countries with consider-
able accuracy ; and chisel hieroglyphic figures in mas-
sive rocks. Of their proficiency in music, little can
be said : they, however, have instruments resembling
the tambourine, drum, and pandean pipes; on which
they perform to a regular eadence> and they well

;U,.

ao^

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

understand their effect on the passions, either in the
festive pastime, or tumultuous din of battle*

They observe some of the heavenly b')dies, as the
north and seven stars, and direct their way by them,
across the trackless prairies, with as much accuracy
in general as the mariner steers his ship by means of
thecompass. - *'• '

i" in reasoning, their judgment and perceptions are
clear and quick, and their arguments ingenious and
cogent. "^' '* = "'•— ' ■•'- "^'^''''^

They resort much to figures, which are generally
poetic, bold, and appropriate : in fact, if I ain a com-
petent judge, their eloquence is more persuasive, lofty,
and commanding, and their orators far more numer-
ous, in proportion to numbers, than is common among
any class of people on the globe.

Their fundamental laws are few in number, and
traditionary; but are as fixed as the reputed ones "of
the Medes and Persians : " they are in general well
adapted to their condition ; and some of them are pre-
cisely similar to those of the justly celebrated Jewish
Lawgiver, as, for " Thou shalt not kill," they require
blood for blood. Their minor laws are subject to
modifications; they may generally be denominated
common, for they result fi'om public opinion.

Their diseases are comparatively few, though some
of them are acute and complicated ; nevertheless those
in general incidental to their modes of life, readily
yield to their modes of practising medicine ; and indeed
most of those for which they are indebted to their
intercourse with the whites are treated with a like

CONDITION OV THE INDIAN0.

$03

happy success. So that they may be said to have
made greater proficiency in the healing, than in any
other art or science. In general their knowledge and
skill are adapted to the occasion, in as striking
a degree &? they are in societies, which, in other
respects, have greatly preceded them in the march
towards perfection. It must, however, be allowed^
that in some tribes, the knowledge of medicine is ex-
ceedingly limited, and its practice amounts to very
little more than the hocus-pocus of conjuration, v^r

They are, so far as my acquaintance extends, uni-
versally Theists, and have, according to their tradi-
tions, from immemorial time worshipped only the
Deity. This circumstance alone, whether it origi-
nated from comparative enquiries, or was an especial
gifl of Heaven, entitles them to a high grade in the
scale of intellectual and moral beings ; because, if
from the first, they arrived at the perfection of truth ;
ard if from the last, they continued faithful and
ooedient to the divine illustration, while all the rest
ef the human family, except the Jews, lost themselves
in the darkness of an idolatry and polytheism, that
to be dispersed required the interference of God
himself.

Many other circumstances might be deduced, were
it necessary, to establish the claim of the Indians to be
classed with those races of mankind, which have alrea-
dy developed the higher intellectual faculties of their
natures. But enough, in my opinion, has been said on
the subject, to convince all unprejudiced and reflecting
minds; and for those who think differently, if volumes

^04>

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

were to be written in support of this position, it is pro-
baji>le their opinions would remain unalti^ed. ^
?•' As an illustration of the capacity of the Indians,
for moral improvement, it appears necessary to make
some general observations o>n their present state of
society, their tenor, arid modes of their education, &c»,
before the more particular details on these subjects
are attempted.

rr Their multiplied division into tribes or nations ; the
want of well-defined natural boundaries, to their re-
spective territories ; added to a domineering disposi-
tion, natural perhaps to man ; their zeal for tlie chace,
and ardent love of independence ; have an extraordi-
nary influence in forming their character, which is
essentially warlike. Nevertheless, it undergoes modi-
fication according to climate, abundance or scarcity
of game, feebleness, strength, disposition, and habits
of neighbours. . . =*

^)-. Those which inhabit the warm regions where game
is plenty, are naturally of a peaceable turn, but are
forced to become warlike, to defend their hunting,
grounds. Those which have retreated to the moun-
tains, while weak are, from policy, of the same dispo-
sition ; but, as they grow strong, they almost uniformly
change in character, and become offensively active.
Those who till the earth, and fish for a livelihood, and
those who are feeble, and border on powerfld neigh-
bours, generally cultivate social and friendly relations ;
while those who live on poor hunting-grounds, and are
formidable, are as generally hostile in their avocations
and character. There are some exceptions to the

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

5^05

foregoing, particularly along our frontier settlements ;
and where tjjjey do exist, they arise from the preju-
dices the Indians entertain against the customs and
habits of the white people, and their reluctance to
gratify the ambitious views of speculators, by parting
with their lands. These motives with some others not
named, operating on the almost endlessly varying con-
dition of the Indians, produce a suspicious, watchful;
and disturbed society, in almost all the different tribes
and nations, and exact the most rigid and constant
performance of duty from every individual capable of
bearing arms. In this state of things, the high object
of their education is, to constitute the able and fear-
less warrior ; and all the duties of life, connected with
tiieir preservation, matrimonial alliances, and amuse-
ments, are subservient and directed to it. The love
of their tribe or country, the individuals of their own
family scarcely more than that of any other, and above
all, that of real self-exc .Hence, is unceasingly im-
pressed on their youth, first by the women, and then
by the old men, in the narration of traditions and re-
markable events, till they enter, and distinguish them-
selves in the arena of mature life. In addition to this,
they are the spectators of their boyish quarrels and
amusements, and award censure, or praise, as it is
merited. ' < =, ,. ^ ■ ,. - n, .<;

I have already noticed this subject in my narrative
at considerable length, as practised among the Kan-
sas, and as is much conformed to by the other Indian
nations, with which I am acquainted, and I shall in
consequence treat it very slightly in this place. The
youths are taught, both by precept and example, to

1 H]

'';:.

■•■■■'.

206

PHYSICAL AND MORAL

reward a benefit, and resent and punish an injury ; td
love and oblige a friend, and to hate and persecute an
enemy ; and a dereliction from either, would subject
the delinquent to reproach or ridicule. They are in-
structed to regard and reverence age, and, so careful
and punctilious ai*e they in the observance of this
lesson, that the passives frequently become the sub-
jects of great error and inconvenience. The young
are always silent in the presence of the aged, and
counsel which, from an equal or middle-aged person,
would not be listened to, would, on coming from an
old man, be regarded as oracular, and most scrupu-
lously followed. They are also taught to contemn
falsehood, and never to practise it; but even with
them this wholesome lesson is not always regarded ;
though its violation, especially if often repeated, is
certain to involve the offender in a loss of character.
Slanderers are reprobated to the same punishment.
Theft, except when practised on enemies, is esteem-
ed execrable, and is indeed seldom known among
them. Adultery and murder are strictly prohi-
bited. The former, without the consent of the hus-
band, is generally punished by separation; though
I have known one instance, in which the outraged
put the offender to death. For the latter, the blood
of the offender, if it can be obtained, must atone.
' . : By what I have before stated, it will readily be per-
ceived that their crimes are few, and their punish-
ments in general very appropriate, and, I can assure
my readers, not less effective than those which have
commonly been resorted to in civilized society. In
^ner^i their virtues arc limited in the same ratio with

CONDITION OF THE INDIANS.

«07

their vices ; but, it must be understood that I allude
to those which are uncontaminated by any intercourse
with the white people. Where the fact is otherwise,
the proportion is hideously altered ; for the Indians
readily adopt, in an aggravating degree, th'ir exam-^
pies in respect to the latter, while from necessity they
remain strangers to the former. I say, from neces-
sity ; because mankind in all ages have been the crea-t
tures of example ; and the Indians, with a very lew
exceptions, have only had an opportunity for imitat-^
ing the most abandoned of their species. Besides,
from education they have been taught to pursue that
course of life which would present the most extensive
means for their sensual gratification. Vice, in all its
various forms, is the concomitant of their intercourse
with the dissolute portion of civilized life ; and it is
cultivated with great zeal by a majority of the traders
who visit them, because it most eifectually breaks
down the lofty notions of independence and superi-
ority, entertained by the Indians, and renders them
the unresisting dupes to cupidity and fraud. And, I
repeat, the benevolent of our race trust their hopes of
benefiting the Indians, on a " sandy foundation," so
long as this kind of intercourse is tolerated.

Beyond what has been said, the educauon of the
Indian youth is derived from imitating their superiors,
or from experience derived from a more extended ob-
servation and intercourse. The means of acquiring
knowledge being thus limited and defective, and the
pupils at perfect liberty either to improve by, or
neglect them, it is not a subject for surprise, that
their range of ideas should be much circumscribed.

', >n

SOS

PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONDITION.

and their information in general extend no farther than
is made necessary by their convenience and safety.
,-> It should be kept in mind, that all the comparisons
presented in this chapter between the white people
and Indians, have relation to respective conditions
and proportional numbers.

-A- For the information of the reader I ought to men-
tion that it will be necessary to dwell more at large on
some of the subjects which have been hurried over in
the preceding considerations on the physical and
moral circumstances of the Indians, when I come to
treat of particulars in the subsequent parts of my
work. m o-'l +• •'..■•'.. ,y^^,

rt|f- '* ^ ** ■'■■' ''fie ,^frrif nf sih "ro ih-^i-U-^v^-^'r:':^ -:^f ■^"' ^

V,.., ^, ^,,r •;5"'_:Cj' -^'iv ^'Kviy^ 'Hio'ii'r ;Jr?l''fl.''7^'.'"td '";■?) ^''h"'^r7' :

r:'•'^■1•;■f ':.:";\''fY^''yh'['hi 1 , ;5' -fry ?v

j'l-r .J

",> fr'

(*'■*»»'• J '

r. r . • »» • t

•v f . * r ■ - - •

liij-'ii ii'j

i.-ji'

~%:l '■'.

5: <.J/yf. n r.

,*:*•

209

CHAP. V.

\4^

fiUIEF STATISTICAL REMARKS ON THE KICKAPOO, KANSAS)
AND OSAGE INDIANS. ,. ^..^^v-..

Hitherto my observations respecting the Indians
have almost altogether been general, and they might
be made to sustain the same character much farther,
if my limits would allow.

But it is time to enter upon the consideration of
those particulars ^vith which my residence among
some of the tribes has made me more familiarly
acquainted. In attempting this I shall not confine
myself strictly to this arrangement, but wherever any
remarkable contrast or difTerehv^e exists, I shall notice
it connected with the individualities between which it
is observable. It may be premised, that my observ-
ations under this head will be very limited, because
of the paucity of matter; and because many subjects
which might be here treated may with at least equal
propriety be elsewhere arranged : for instance, those
of climate, soil, &c. came unde;r consideration in the
general views I have taken of the extent and aspect
of the country; that of the longevity of the Indians, in
the chapter on their physical and moral circum-
stances ; and that of their food and diseases will be
noticed in the course of the work; so that little
more than the consideration of their respective loca-
tions and number of inhabitants will remain to be
noticed under this head.

'}%

.,.:-. .5 tfl

1,li

STATISTICAL REMARKS.

Although all the Indian nations, excepting those
which rove, have well defined boundaries to their ter-
ritories, and preserve records or traditionary accounts
of them, as I have previously mentioned, yet, as this
particular knowledge is seldom cultivated by the young
people, I can say nothing definite respecting it. I
shall therefore dwell but a moment on these subjects.

i /

KICKAPOOS.

The location of this tribe of Indians, at the time I
resided with them, was somewhat remote from the
district of country I have heretofore described.
They inhabited the country bordering on the central
waters of the IlUnois, and the head waters of the
Kaskaskia and Embarras rivers : they have, since
that period, migrated to the country bordering on the
Gasconade river; and, though much weakened by
dissensions among themselves, and the wars in which
they have been almost constantly engaged, they still
maintain their independence. Whilst with them, I
vas too young to make any observations on their
country, though if I had been competent, the know-
ledge respecting it is now so general, as to render
any attempt, on my part, altogethei superfluous.
For such particulars respecting their character, as
have come to my knowledge, the reader is referred
to the slight notice I took of them in the course of
my narrative. (Page 19.) This v*^as formerly a
powerful nation, but is now reduced to less than four
hundred efficient warriors. My knowledge of them
is very confined ; but, as they were the agents of my
captivity, and consequently accessory to all the subse-

STATISTICAL REMARKS.

211

those
eir ter-
counts
as this
I young
: it. I
ibjects.

! time I
om the
scribed,
central
i of the
e, since
g on the
ened by
n which
;hey still
them, I
on their
e know-
) render
erfluous.
icter, as
referred
course of
merly a
han four
of them
its of my
he subse-

quent events of my life, I thought it proper to men-
tion them in this place. * *' ,

KANSAS.

}'.

it will be seen in the history of my life, that I pass-
ed from the Kickapoo to the Pawnee Indians, of whom
it may be expected that I should give some account ;
but I was with them too short a time to acquire their
language, or learn much respecting their character.
Besides, I was then young, too much troubled at the
misfortunes that had happened to our party, and in--
terested in my own personal safety, to make any reflec-
tions that would justify my enlarging upon what I
have previously said respecting them. ' '•^>

From these irrelative remarks, I shall proceed to
give a very brief account of the Kansas Indians, who
reside in villages situated on the Kansas river,
between two and three hundred miles above its con-
fluence with the Missouri. Formerly this nation
resiued on the right bank of the Missouri, above the
junction of the before named river : according to
their own accounts, they were then much more
powerful than at present. They have always been at
war with the Sioux, who, being the most powerful,
forced them to abandon this, for their present loca-
tion. They hunt on the head waters of the Kansas
and Arkansas, and occasionally extend their excur-
sions to the Missouri, and north on the prairies
towards the La Platte river. They have recently
been engaged in a bloody war with the Osage and
Pawnee Indians ; but the number of their warriors
amounts at present to probably four hundred.

p 2

SIS

STATISTICAL REMARKS.

■ it

OSAOES.

?y*»

The Osage nation is divided nominally into three
tribes ; viz. the Great Osage* Little Osage, and the
Osage of the Arkansas.

The first resides on the head waters of the Osage
riv^r, and is composed of a population of about SOOO
souls ; of which about one-fourth part are warriors.
The second resides near the Great Osage, and is
composed of a population of about 1600 qt I7OO souls ;
of which about 350 are warriors. They formerly
occupied the south-west side of the Missouri, near
Grand river ; but were driven back to their present
situation, and to the protection of their more power-
ful Osage brothers, by the frequent and destructive
wars in which they were engaged. ^ ,, ^, .,...,.,..;.;
f. The Osageo of the Arkansas are about as
numerous as the Little Osages, and can send out 450
warriors.

They separated from the Grand Osages, about
twenty years since, under the ostensible direction of
Big-track, though White-h9,ir instigated the mea-
sure, and virtually exercised the duties of chief.
Their principal village is on the Vermillion j though
they have others on Verdigris, and Grand rivers,
which, however, are compariatively small. The
country claimed by the different tribes is very exten-
sive : they hunt from the Missouri southwardly to
the head waters of the Negracka, Jefferson, and
Canadian rivers; eastwardly considerably down on
White and the Arki-nsas ; and westwardly sometimes
nearly to the sources of the latter river.

STATISTICAL REMARKS.

215

I could enumerate several other tribes ; name their
location, and number of souls and warriors, accord-
ing to the accounts I have received from the Indians;
but such a course would be attended with no ad-
vantage, because the travellers and hunters who have
visited them have already given, perhaps, more ac-
curate information respecting those subjects than I
am able to do. Besides many changes have taken
place among them since I left, which, in fact, places
it beyond my power to pretend even to tolerable ac-
curacy. What remains to be said of the Indians
relates more particularly to the Osages, although it
will apply with almost as much propriety to the
Kansas, Mahas, and Ottowas. In fact, if we except
the roving bands, the circumstances of the Indians,
settled immediately to the west of the Missouri and
Mississippi, are so very similar, that the delineation
of the character of any particular nation Or tribe wiU
answer for them all ; at least, the resemblance is too
striking to admit of much comparison, within the
limits I have prescribed to follow. V : , ,

k f

.••■>'•■:

n4,

*»?•■'.

t •• •*

■■' *,

CHAP. VI.

I . »»,^. I „*»

VIEWS or THEOCRACY, RELIGION) AGENCY OF GOOD AND BAD
spirits; OF THE SOUL AND ITS MIGRATION; RELIGIOUS
rites; prophets, priests, and physicians, DREAMS, &C.

In respect to the origin of their religion, the Indians
themselves are altogether ignorant. It is certain, how-
ever, that they acknowledge, at least so far as my
acquaintance extends, one supreme, all powerful, and
intelligent Being, viz. the Great Spirit, or tho Giver
of life, who created and governs all things. They
believe, in general, that, after the hunting grounds
had been formed and supplied with game, that he
created the first red man and woman, who were very
large in their stature, and lived to an exceedingly old
a^fej that he often held councils and smoked with
them, gave them laws to be observed, and taught
them how to take game and cultivate corn : but that
in consequence of' their disobedience, he w thdrew
from, and abandoned them to the vexation } of the
bad spirit, who had since been instrumental to all
their degeneracy and sufferings.

They believe him of too exalted a character to be
directly the author of evil, and that, notwithstanding
the offences of his red children, he continues to
shower down on them all the blessings they enjoy:
in consequence of this parental regard for them, they
are truly filial and sincere in their devotions, and
pray to him for such things as they need, and return
thanks for such good things as they receive.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

215

On the other hand, wlien in affliction, or suffering
under any great calamity, in the belief that it will
appease his wrath or mitigate his chastisements, they
pray with equal fervency to the Evil Spirit, who,
they conceive, is of a character directly the reverse
of the Good Spirit, to whom he is inferior, but,
nevertheless, has sufficient power, and is constantly
employed in devising means to torment and punish
the human family. • : • < ; r-j . , -.

r By the term Spirit, the Indians have an idea of a
being that can, at pleasure, be present, and yet in-
visible : they nevertheless think the Great Spirit, like
themselves, possessed of a corporeal form, though
endowed with a nature infinitely more excellent
than theirs, and which will endure for ever without
change. ' * - ^ ----•, .

Although they believe in a future state of ex-
istence, as before noticed, they associate it with
natural things, having no idea of the soul, or of intel-
lectual enjoyments ; biit expect, at some future time
afler death, to become in their proper persons the
perpetual inhabitants of a delightfid country ; where
their employments, divested of pains and .troubles,
wUl resemble those here ; where game will be abun-
dant ; and where there is one continued spring, and
cloudless sky.

They also expect that their sensual pleasures will
be in proportion to individual merit : the brave war-
rior, expert hunter, and those slain in battle in defence
of their country, having the highest claims, will be
the most distinguished j while those of subordinate
pretensions will occupy subordinate stations. .

p 4

■rhm

vJ-;-l

S16

MANNERS ^D CUSTOMS OF SOME

They have no particular days set apart for devo-
tional purposes, though they have particular times;
such, for instance, as the declaration of war, the re-
storation of peace, and extraordinary natural visit-
ation^. They also have rgoicings, which assume
something of the pious form ; such are their harvests,
and the return of the new moon. In general, how-
ever, a day seldom passes with an elderly Indian, or
others who are esteemed wise and good, in which a
Irfessing is not asked, or thanks returned to the Giver
of life ; sometimes audibly, but most generally in the
devotional language of the heart.

This ceremony is particularly observed after allay-
ing their thirst at the fountains, but is not confined
to circumstance nor place. It is practised by indi-
viduals, parties, and even by whole tribes, when they
break up their encampments, as was noticed in my
narrative. (Page 77.)

Their manner of worshipping the Deity differs,
however, on different occasions. Shortly after a coun-
cil has determined on war, every individual that is able
to walk, and the old men sometimes borne by others,
assemble in a grove, or some other place rendered
sacred by the occasion, and offer up their prayers to
the Great Spirit for success against their enemies. ' '

Sometimes the devotional exercises are panto-
mimic and profoundly silent; at others, ejacula^
iory and vociferous. At the conclusion, some one
of the old men or prq)hets addresses the assembly ;
states the cause of their grievances ; and enjoins
the warriors to merit success, by being brave, and
placing their confidence in the Great Giver of Life.

OF THE WESTERN

^DM

N8*

217

Afterwards all return to their homes. These meet,
ings vary in their duration from three hours to a
whole day. >

Similar meetings are generally held on the conclu-
sion of peace, or the attainment of a victory, though
their devotions assume more or less of the character
of rejoicing or mourning, according to the success
that has attended their arms. When triumphant,
tliey dance and sing songs of victory, in which the
name of the Great Spirit is frequently introduced
with great reverence ; if vanquished, or having 8uf>
fered great losses, the women and children weep im-
moderatel)', pull their hair, beat on their breast, and
pray for the destruction of their enemies. The men
for the most part of the time maintain a sullen and
mournful silence, beat on their breasts, and occa-
sionally pray for their lives to be spared till they
have revenged themselves on their enemies. These
meetings never take place till after the burial of those
who have fallen in battle ; a particular account of
which will be given in its proper place.

Meetings similar to the above are also convened
on any extraordinary natural occurrence, or on the
prevalence of any fatal epidemic. On such occa-
sions, some one of the old men, or a prophet, if one
should be present, addresses the Indians in an au-
thoritative tone of voice, and assures them that the
calamity which threatens is a visitation from the
Great Spirit, to chastise them for their ill-spent lives,
and wilful offences against him ; he then commands
them to be penitent for what has passed, and to re-
forrp for the future. Silent prayers are now offered.

' .ft '

y'H

^18

MANNERS Ai\I> CUSTOMS OF SOME

accompanied by promises to become more obedient
to their Great Father: the meeting is then dissolved;
all amusements and recreations cease, and individual
prayers and fastings are frequently observed for
many successive days. All their serious devotions
are performed in a standing position.

At the ingathering of the corn, they observe ge-
neral rejoicings ; at which all who are able join in
appropriate dances, songs, and feasts, and in thanks
to the Great Spirit, for his munificence towards
them. On these occasions, as also at the new moon,
at the commencement of hunting the buffalo in the
spring, lamps, constructed of shells, and supplied
with bears* grease and rush wicks, are kept burning
all the night preceding and following these joyous
festivals, but for what particular purpose the practice
is kept up, or from what circumstances it originated,
I could never learn ; and it is probable the history is
lost, as the Indians themselves only conform t'* it in
obedience to usage. , , n * ^

They in general, (mi discovering the new moon, ut-
ter a short prayer to the Great Spirit, to preserve
them from, and make them victorious over their
enemies ; and to give them a cloudless sky, and an
abundance of game. -'- > '• ' • •'

Their addresses to the evil spirit are only made
on particular occasions, as before observed, and then
not uniformly by all such as are generally esteemed
subjects of his tormenting visitations : for, in regard
to his agency, there are some among the Indians,
as well as the white people, who entertain doubts,
and others, though this number is small, who alto-

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

S19

gether discredit it, and pay all their adoration to Him,
who, under whatever name he may be worshipped, is
alone worthy. -,>„.„

Their ideas of good and evil spirits, the agents
or minions of superior powers, are exceedingly
various. There are some exceptions, however, to
the belief of their existence ; though the opposite
opinion is almost universal. Some believe that they
invisibly hover around and influence all their con-
duct, and are on ordinary occasions the immediate
executors of rewards and punishments. Others be-
lieve that they perform only the offices of exciting
to good and bad actions ; and others again, that
they only officiate on great and important occa-
sions. They also believe that these good and bad
spirits are at perpetual war with each other j that
their power is much limited, and not transferable
to human beings in general, though in a very limited
degree so to those who are remarkable for their
wisdom and goodness, or for qualities of an opposite
nature. The former constitute their prophets or
priests, and the latter their enchanters, or practisers
of witchery, as is believed, to the injury of inoffensive
Indians.

In all the tribes I have visited, the belief of a
future state of existence, and of future rewards and
punishments, is prevalent ; though this in many re-
spects is various, and generally confused and indis-
tinct; as might reasonably be supposed would be th'i
case among any people possessed of no better oppor-
tunities or advantages for acquiring or perpetuating
information. This belief in their accountability to the

•.'it

* 'M

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

Great Spirit makes the Indians generally scrupuloim
and enthusiastic obliervers of all their traditionary,
tuitive, and exemplary dogmas ; and it is a fact wor-
thy of remark, that neither frigidity, indifference, nor
hypocrisy, in regard to sacred things, is known to
exist among them, excepting occasionally the young
and inconsiderate, some of their prophets or priests,
and all their conjurers. This conduct, with most of
the Indians, is fbunde^^ on a perfect conviction that
the cultivation and ol rvg- ce of good and virtuous
actions in this life, wil in the next, entitle them to
the perpetual enjoyment of ease and happiness, in de-
lightful and abundantly supplied hunting grounds,
situated at a vast distance beyond the Great Waters,
where they will be again restored to the favour, and
enjoy the immediate presence, counsel, and pro-
tection of the Great Spirit While a dereliction from it,
or the pursuit of an opposite course, will as assuredly
entail on them endless afflictions, wants, and wretch-
edness; bai'ren, parched, and desolate hunting
grounds, the inheritance and residence of wicked
spirits, whose pleasure and provhice it is to render
the unhappy still more miserable. Others again think,
that the pleasure or displeasure of the Great Spirit
is manifested in the passage, or attempted passage,
of the good and bad, from this to another world.
On this eventful occasion all are supplied with ca-
which, if they have been brave warriors, and

noes

otherwise virtuous and commendable, the Great
Spirit, either directly or indirectly, guides across
the deep to the haven of unceasing happiness and
peace. On the other hand, if they have been coward-

'^^ OF THE WESTERN INDIANS. iS^

ly, vicious, and negligent in the performance of their
duties, they are reprobated to the evil fantasies of ma-
lign, spirits, who either sink i:heir canoes, and leave"
them to struggle amidst contending floods, or feed
their hopes with delusive prospects, and bewilder them
in inextricable errors, or strand them on some shore,
and there transform them into some beast, reptUe, or
insect, according to the enormity of their guilt.

This latter opinion, omitting the sea-voyage, pre-
vails to a considerable extent among some of the tribes.
Indeed, the metamorphosis is supposed sometimes to
take place in a varying and alternating series in the
same individual, according to his culpableness, till
he has atoned for all his offences, and, in his proper
character, merited a residence in the elysium of the

good. ■. .....r.tjiv- .'•-;.;rr /}/■ . ;Af,M- ■''^;^'.l • rA' ":■".?:■'}

Every Indian of any standing has his sacred place;
such as a tree, rock, fountain, &c. to which he re-
sorts for devotional Exercise, whenever his feelings
pcomj^t to the measure : sometimes many resort to the
same place. Preceding any public meeting, held
either for religious or festive purposes, or the assem-
blage of a council, they uniformly retire to their
respective places of private worship, and solicit the
counsel and protection of the Great Spirit. No com-
pulsion is ever exercised to procure attendance at any
of these meetings ; but those who omit to attend are
thought less of, and their conduct is ascribed to an
indifference to holy things, and a want of solicitude
for the national welfare.

The religious opinions entertained, and modes of
worship observed by the several Indian tribes, with

iii

fM-

^^2 MA^NF,RS AND CUSTOA|S OF SOME .,

which I have say acquaintance, vary in their g^Qenil
character but Httle. My knowledge, however, is Umit-
ed to very few ; and what I have above stated applies
particularly to the Osage and Kansas nations. There
are some in all the tribes who do not subscribe in opi-
nion, or conform in conduct to the general dogmas,
and modes of worship : of this number I regard Cler-
mont, the chief of the Great Osages. I have several
times, both in public and private meetings, heard him
observe, that all good actions would be rewarded, and
all bad actions punished by the Great Spirit ; that the
evil actions of those whose lives were generally good
were the causes of the aitlictions they suffered, the
losses they sustained, and the more painful death that
followed: their offences would, however, be finally
forgotten. That such would not be the condition
of those whose lives were generally wicked j for in
this life they suffered much greater evils and
afflictions than the good, which in the next would
continue to be their lot ; because then they 'would
not have it in their power to reform, and merit a
happy state. . „. ; „, ,, ,

Tut-tus-sug-geh, another distinguished Osage, enter-
tains opinions very similar. At first, one might be led
to suppose that this belief was a modification of doc-
trines taught by some of the missionaries ; but such is
not the case ; for, antecedent to my leaving those peo-
ple, they had been held in such discredit, as to render
ell arguments and discourses on religious subjects sus-
pected and of no avail. Besides, Clermont had been
celebrated for the singularity of his opinions, before
any of this class, I believe, visited his nation ; and we

:':>*

r OF THE WE8TERN INDIANS.

223

4; ,

jUmit-
applies
There
in opi-
ogmas,
d Cler-
several
ard him
ed, and
that the
ly good
:ed, the
lath that
e finally
ondition
; for in
i'tXs and
it would
y 'Would
merit a

might as reasonably expect a disciple of the Cross to
preach up the worship of idols, as that an Indian tra-
der would have attempted to unfold the doctrine of
future rewards and punishments to the benighted
Indians. This opinion, therefore, must have origi-
nated in the versatility of some reflecting mind among
the Indians. z' ( ' .« vr

It may be remarked here, that a general opinion
prevails among them that the disquietude produced by,
or the misery attendant on bad conduct, is always
greater than the pleasure afforded by the transaction :
— which, say they, independent of their obligations
to perform what is agreeable to the Great Spirit,
is a sufficient motive, and should always stimulate
to the performance of good actions. The Indians
generally conform to this ; not, however, from
selfish views, but from principle; to which they
in general accommodate their conduct with greater
zeal, in my opinion, than any other people on the
globe.^r

They are scrupulous observers of their engage-
ments, prompt and steady friends, active and inve-
terate enemies, sincere in religious things, and, in
fact, perform all their duties, after the manner in
which they have been educated, " heart in hand."

Among the Indians there is no di^erence in the
character of their prophets and priests : one performs
the duties of both offices, if two can be said to exist.
They also, in general, officiate as physicians ; but the
practice of medicine is by no means contined to them ;
and we often see persons applying themselves to it,
without any regard to age or sex ; though experience

■M

224

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

and success are thought to be essentially requisite to
entitle them to tlie character. " - ^^f* J^fc -.»«

The power of holding communication with invisible
agents, and thus of being able to fbretel future events,
is pretended to, and practised, to a greater or less ex-
tent ; but the sacerdotal office, in the strict sense of the
word, is, in general, unknown among the Indians. I,
however, witnessed an instance, while at the Ricara
villages, wherein the priest burned tobacco, and the
offals of the buffalo and deer, on a kind of altar con-
structed of stones, on a mound. The ceremony was
accompanied with signs and incantations, addressed to
the Great, or some other spirit, which, from my igno-
rance of their language, were altogether unintelligible
to me. During the performance, a large concourse of
people was assembled round the mound, but no one,
except the priest, was permitted to tread on the* spot
consecrated to religious purposes. ^ ....

t The only thing further connected with this circum-
stance, as worthy of remark, was the dress or Imbili-
ments of the priest. His cap was very hi^h, and made
of a beaver skin, the tail of which was curiously orna-
mented with stained porcupine quills, and hung down
on his back ; his robe was a buffalo skin, singularly
decorated with various coloured feathers and dyed
porcupine quills ; and he wore on his breast, sus-
pended from his neck, a dressed beaver skin stretched
on sticks, on which were painted various hiero-
glyphic figures, in different colours. Hif forehead
was painted black, his cheeks blue, Vith stripes
of red obliquely out and downwards from the alae
of the nose. All his beard was plucked out, except

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS, j

'2^5

two small bunches on the upper lip, midway between
the nose and angles of the mouth, and two other
bunches, of about the same size, on the sides of the
chin, directly under those on the upper lip. These
bunches were all painted of different colours, and
helped, as I then thought, to constitute one of the
most singular and grotesques fiorures I had ever

seen*

i-a.if'.M'

;>. i'^t'V^'

Ui\

The Indians speak of similar characters being
among some other tribes j but the above described is
the only one that ever came under my observation.
The. prophets, as before noticed, are more numerous,
though the number of those who are, or have been
much distinguished, is comparatively small. Some
of them are wise, good, and pious men, who found
their pretensions to a knowledge of the future on
car«fl}l observation, and on their dreams, which the
Indians generally suppose are inspired by invisible
agents, of either good or evil qualities, ^according
to the nature of the sleeping effusion, and believing
them the faithful foreboders of unavoidable events,
they are happy or wretched, cheerful or gloomy, in
conformation to whatever they may portend.

The title of prophet is sometimes awarded by the
Indians on individuals who have rendered themselves
remarkable by their wise sayings, clearness of judg-
ment, and virtuous lives ; but, for the most part, it
is assumed by pretenders, and supported by juggling
tricks, and impostures practised on unsuspecting
creduhty. ^:..,;,^iv. .-, !:.'•: ; • ;•,,; v . .. ; : tvvui >jj ,.j,,^^

They are not distinguished by their dress from the
test of the Indians. ^ />.i,*^ u^ fv ,:.;.:-

:!'

t ,1

r\\

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'4- -3

@«G

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 80MG

• On ordinary occasions, they retire secretly to their
sacred places, and invoke the assistance of the Great
Spirit, and make the most solemn vows to him,
which they never fail to perform, should he vouch-
safe to lend an ear to their prayers; or, in other
words, should events correspond to their predictions
or prayers. Bu' at times more momentous, such as
the declaration of war, conclusion of peace, or the
prevalence of epidemics, &e. they impose on them-
selves long fastings and severe penance ; take narco-
tick and nauseating drugs, envelop themselves entirely
in several layers of skins, without any regard to the
temperature of the season ; and, in a perspiring and
suffocating condition, are carried by the people into
one of the public lodges, or to some sacred place,
where they remain, without the slightest interruption,
in a delirium or deep sleep, till the potency of the
drugs is exhausted. After the performance of this
ceremony, while the body is much debilitated, and
the mind still partially deranged, they proclaim their
dreams or phantasms to the astonished multituds as
the will or commands of the Great Spirit, made known
to them through their intercourse with his ministering
agents. These pretended oracles are always unfolded
in equivocal language, or are made to depend on
contingencies ; so that if they should not comport
with the events which follow, they can charge it to
the ignorance or misconduct of the Indians them-
selves ; which is often done with an assurance and
cunning that secures their reputation not only against

attack, but even suspicion. ' / . ^

They usually predict such things as in the natural

OF THE WESTERN I^ibIAN8.

9fin

order of Qventa would be most likely to take place ;
sueh, for iniftance, as changes in the weather, abun-
dance or scarcity of game, visits from strangers,
marriage, sickness, death, &c., and it is perfectly
consistent with the doctrme of chances that they
should, as they often do, turn out correct. The
Indians, however, never take this view of the sub-
ject, but in general give full credit to the pretensions
or absurd ability of their prophets. Sometimes they
predict so falsely as to be detected : in such case,
they totally lose their character and influence in the
tribe, and are contemned as the abusers of sacred
things, and offenders against the goodness of the
Great Spirit.

When they are possessed of popular qualities, such
as bravery and skill in war, great strength and vigour
of body, eloquence, Srr^ they exercise an almost un-
limited power over the minds and actions of the In-
dians, not only in their own, but in other tribes, their
allies or friends. Such, for a time, were Tecumseh
and Francis, the celebrated Shawanee prophets, whose
patriotic and magnanimous designs, connected with
their own country, were too vast for their means of
execution, and involved them and many of their
abettors in consequences too generally known to re-
quire any detail in this place. - - • - ^^ •- ^*

The opinions of the Kansas and Osages are vefy
shnilar on this subject \ though some difference pre-
vails in their various ceremonials, which, however,
is not sufficient to bring in question their eonin«on
origin. The Shawanees, I have understood, dispose
with many of these ceremonies, and are much more

Q 2

nil

I:' -A

S^8

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

credulous to their soothsayers and fortune-tellers, who
are much more numerous, and arc held in higher
estimation among them, than is usually the case in
any of the other tribes. They are also in great credit
among many of the white people on the frontiers ;
and some of them travel, and make a living in the
practice of their arts among them ; but such generally
become dissipated and lose their standing, both
abroad and at home. j. ,

I have before mentioned that the Indians place
great reliance on dreams. When any difficulty
arises in regard to their interpretation, recourse is
had to the prophets or old men, who generally aim
to put a favourable construction on all, but particu-
larly on those which excite the greatest apprehen-
sions. The motive for this conduct no doubt grows
out of a sympathetic feeling ; and it ought to be re-
garded commendable, on account of the relief thus
extended to anxious and highly perturbated minds,
which, in violation of these sleeping inspirations,
could hardly be brought to co-operate with the body
for their mutual preservation, or for that of any of
their dependents. Indeed, I have known several
instances in which an Indian has postponed his hunts
for several succeeding nights, notwithstanding his fa-
mily were in want, rather than go without the auspices
of a favourable dream. They sometimes dream of
combats with the wounded buffalo, elk, or buck;
which serve to make the Indians more cautious;
and should they afterwards experience any danger,
whether resembling them or not, they are sure, in the
fertility of their imaginations, to trace out a connection

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

^29

which, they conceive, lays them under very particular
obHgations to their invisible protector. ''

Should their dreams be partially or wholly verified,
the horn of the animal, or something connected with
the circumstance, is consecrated among their sacred
things, and preserved with the most assiduous care, as
an amulet possessed of the occult power of procuring
safety to its proprietor against evil spirits, and every
kind of disease and danger.

On some occasions the more artful avail themselves
of imputed dreams to secure their right to valuables
against the solicitations of others, and, at the same
time, to avoid the reproach of being avaricious ; a
quality uniformly unpopular among the Indians.

It is considered a moral crime to part with imy
thing which has been so ccmsecrated. Almost every
lodge contains something of the kind; and when-
ever any suffering does befall its inmates, the cause
is ascribed to their own misconduct, which, they say,
has been so great as to paralyze their efficacy.

That the Indians should regard their propliets as
the oracles of mysterious. Heaven to benighted man,
and dreams or sleeping reveries as divine visitations,
cannot be regarded as extraordinary, since every
nation and people on the face of the earth, of which
history has taken any notice, have, in a greater or less
degree, entertained and conformed their conduct to
similar notions. It is true, the progressive march
of reason has very much dispelled the ridiculous and
absurd opinions of supernatural agency, and pointed
out the causes of the delusion ; nevertheless, I think
I may say, without the fear of contradiction, that

Q 3

'III

rr?^-

' Ml

^ae

MANNUt$ AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

nearly one half of the population, in countrieB where
the mental faculties have been most perfectly de-
velopedy still advocate and believe in their existence,
and virtual influence. -.tj

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CHAP. VIL

t'V

iai?i

ntifr;

COURTSHIP) MARRIAQE, WIDOWHOOD) rOLVOAMY, DIV0R4SK-
MEMT8, CONTINUANCE OF FAMILIES) ADOFTION OF CHIL-
DREN, INDIAN NAMES DISPOSITION OF, THE INFIRM AND
POOR.

Tut young Indians are led, both by precept and
example, to adopt the married life ; and instances of
celibacy very rarely continue, more particularly on
the part of th3 males, much beyond the period of
ii.ature puberty. Old bachelors, settled in their
towns and villages, are a race of beings altogether
unknown ; I have, however, known a few, who led
a wandering life, sometimes attaching themselves to
one tribe, and sometimes to another, accordingly as
they happen ta be engaged in war. They were re-
nowned warriors, and on that account much sought
for whenever any hostile operations were to be
carried on against the enemies of their country or
its allies. • ' * ■

The Indians ascribe the cause of their not marry-
ing to their love of glory, which is only to be ac-
quired, in their opinion, by deeds of valour in the
deadly combat ; and ** the possession of a family and
fixed home," they say, "would restrain their in-
clinations and fetter their movements:" the squaws
are not so liberal in their apologies for such anoma-
lous conduct 'f but ascribe it either to moral or phy-
sical imperfections.

Early marriages are more frequent in the tribes
bordering on the white settlements, than in those

Q i

282

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

which are more remotely situated ; ar.A the practice
is encouraged by the old men, with a view to di-
minish the tendency to habits of intercourse with the
traders, &c. which is frequently followed by virulent
diseases, that occasionally baffle all their skill in the
healing art, and produce the most distressing conse-
quences. The old Indians say, when they were young,
that they did not marry, nor even think of being
called men, till they were upvyards of twenty winters
old, and had distinguished themselves in rencontres or
engagements with the enemies of their tribe j that
this innovation on their ancient customs, together
with the use of ardent spirits, and their intercourse
with the whites, had introduced many diseases among
them that formerly were altogether unknown ; ener-
vated the warriors ; caused the Indians to be more in-
dolent, quarrelsome, and wicked ; and materially
shortened the period of their existence. - • * - > ,
, There is very little difference in the circumstances
of the Indians generally, and as polygamy is tolerated
to any extent commensurate with the means which the
husband may possess for subsisting his family, an
unmarried Indian woman over the age of twenty-three
or four years, is very seldom to be met with in any of
the tribes which I have visited. The females com-
monly marry at about the same age as the males, though
sometimes much earlier in life. They esteem celibacy
as a misfortune and disgrace, and indeed for a squaw
to live perpetually single among the Indians, she must
be possessed of a very forbidding person, as some-
times is the case from the effects of the small pox, or
some ether deforming disease, or of a demoniac dis-

-:»7?.w

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

239

position, which tallies with the fact, whenever in-
stances of the kind occur.

There is less restraint among the sexes in savage,
than in civilized life : the Indians generally reside in
t6wns, and the young men, when not engaged in
war, hunting, travelling excursions, &c., have it in
their power to, and do associate with the females ;
and although some of the tribes are more particular,
and provide separate apartments for those of dif-
ferent sexes to sleep in ; yet, among the largest por-
tion, no arrangements of this kind are made ; and
the custom of males and females sleeping indis-
criminately together in the same lodge, prevails with-
out the thought or association of an idea of impro-
priety, or a breach of decorum. It was thus witli
the amiable Ruth of old, who lay at the feet of Boaz ;
and no doubt the same practice prevailed in all coun-
tries in the infancy of civilization. As this advanced,
the contaminating influence of luxuries and refine-
ment polluted the simplicity and purity of primeval
manners, and deranged their harmony with the most
atrocious crimes. vi ' v . i .* //

The custom which tolerates this intimacy among
the Indians, exists without producing any criminal de-
sire ; and we find chastity as common a virtue among
those Indians who have not been corrupted by an in-
tercourse with the whites, as it is, or ever has been,
among any people on earth. Indeed, the reason why
travellers, who have visited the Indians, so liberally
accuse thfir females of an opposite trait of character,
is not because they are less virtuous than the females
of civilized life, but* because their innocence and art-

s,H

S3*

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

lessness render them more liable to become the dupes
of accomplished villains ; and because when they have
transgressed, they do not become outcasts, but retain
their standing in society ', thus inducing the appear-
ance that the practice is generally tolerated. Such,
however, is not the iitct among tribes remote from,
and holding very little intercourse with the traders, &c.»
and but in a very limited degree so, where some of
this class have exercised iiill sway to the extent of
their power y and wherever such has been the case,
great allowance ought to be made for the demors^iz-
ing effect of ardent spirits, which, no doubt, have
been a more potent negotiator, than all others com-
bined, including even their own natural propensities
or desires ; which, notwithstanding all that has been
written by various authors, who pretend to be well ac-
quainted with the subject, I do not believe are as great
in general among tlie Indians, as are incident to civilized
life. The difference in the modes of living, including
food, amusements, and intercourse, I think, will sup-
port my opinion satisfactorily, in the minds of all who
will take the trouble to investigate their influence.

Seduction is regarded as a despicable crime, and
more blame is attached to the man, than to the woman,
when instances of the kind occur : hence, the offence
on the part of the female, is more readily forgotten and
forgiven, and she finds little or no difficulty, as before
noticed, in forming a subsequent matrimonial alliance
when deserted by her betrayer, who is generall;- re-
garded with distrust, and avoided in social intercourse.

Formerly, if what the Indians say may be relied on,
illegitimate births seldom occurred in any of the

iUia» THE WESTERN INDIANS. V

235

tribes. But, since the white people have appeared
among them, the character of their females has suf^
fared a modification, and instances have become moire
frequent. 'Vf

Though this is a subject for regret, it is not much
to be wondered at, since base and proHigate men suc^
cessiully practise their seductive wiles, in all the va*
rious walks of civilized life ; and since the patients to
these artifices among the Indians have not had their
minds fortified with those weolesome axioms that
keep pace with crime in civilized society, no matter
how rapid and bold it may stride.

It is considered disgraceful for a young Indian
publicly to prefer one woman to another, until he
has distinguished himself either in war or in the chace;
though attachments between the sexes are frequently
formed during childhood, which are as lasting as Hfe»
but are never made generally known until the can-
didates are thought fit subjects for, and about to enter
into, the matrimonial state. v -^ - ,- & . .; .:j.'*k

When a young Indian becomes attached to a fe-
male, he does not firequent the lodge of her parents, or
visit her elsewhere, oflener, perhaps, than he would,
provided no such attachment existed. Were he to
pursue an opposite course before he had acquired
either the reputation of a warrior or hunter, and suffer
his attachments to be known or suspected by any per-
sonal attention, he would be sure to suffer the painful
mortification of a rejection ; he would become the de-
rision of the warriors, and the contempt of the squaws.
On meeting, however, she is the first, excepting the
elderly people, who engages his respectful and kind

1 t

■^t

•'vii

i m
^m

;'^

■

.^-

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

enquiries j after which no conversation passes between
them, except it be with the language of the eyes,
which, even among savages, is eloquent, and 'ppears
to be well understood.

The next indication of serious intentions on the part
of the young Indian, is his assumption of more indus-
trious habits. He rises by day-break, and, with his
gun or bow, visits the woods or prairies, in search of
the most rare and esteemed game. He endeavours to
acquire the character of an expert and industrious
hunter, and, whenever success has crowned his efforts,
never fails to send the parents of the object of his af-
fections, some of the choicest he has procured. His
mother is generally the bearer, and she is sure to tell
from what source it comes, and to dilate largely on
the merits and excellencies of her son. The girl, on
her part, exercises all her skill in preparing it for food,
and, when it is cooked, frequently sends some of the
most delicious pieces, accompanied by other small
presents, such as nuts, mockasins, &c., to her lover.
These negotiations are usually carried on by the mo-
thers of the respective parties, who consider them con-
fidential, and seldom dilvuge them even to the remain-
ing parents, except one or both of the candidates
should be the offspring of a chief, when a deviation
from this practice is exacted, and generally observed.

Instances sometimes happen wherein the parties
themselves negotiate j but then, it is generally be-
lieved the maternal parents are consulted, and are
privy to their progress.

After an Indian has acquired the reputation of a
warrior, expert hunter, or swift runner, he has little

• '^

li^'

OP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

237

need of minor qualifications, or of much address or
formality in forwarding his matrimonial views. The
young squaws sometimes discover their attachments
to those they love, by some act of tender regard ; but
more frequently through the kind offices of a confi-
dant or friend. Such overtures generally succeed ;
but, should they fail, it is by no means considered dis-
graceful, or in the least disadvantageous to the female ;
on the contrary, should the object of her affections have
distinguished himself, especially in battle, she is more
esteemed, on account of the judgment she displayed
in her partiality for a respectable and brave warrior.
With such, the squaws generally deem a connection
highly desirable and honourable; and it often happens,
that the same individual finds himself favoured with
an opportunity of making choice from several, which
is seldom suffered to pass unimproved; indeed, I have
known instances of their having accommodated the
greatest part, and even the whole number of appli-
cants, who entered upon their new relations, and dis-
charged their respective duties, in the most perfect
harmony and good fellowship.

A state of widowhood is extremely unpleasant
among the squaws :' I have repeatedly known tLem to
meet a returning war party, at a considerable distance
from their villages, and, finding their husbands had
fallen in battle, after pulling their hair, tearing their
flesh, and beating themselves in the most fi-antic man-
ner, to lay siege to some favourite vt^arrior, and not
suffer him to depart till he had promised to revenge
the death of tineir deceased husbands. Promises given
in this manner, are considered as matrimonial engage-

j 1:»^|

■■;■'%'

<t i i ■ )

M-

«S8

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS O^ SOME

ments of the most sacred kind, and are never violated.
After the death of her husband, the sooner a squaw
marries again, the greater respect and regard she is
considered to show for his memory ; and should the
subject of her recent connection be able individually
to retaliate the promised revenge, it is considered the
greatest possible mark of attachment, and a mucii
greater favour than though her enemy had fallen by
the same individual totally disconnected with he*, or
by the hand of some other person. Such a female
courtier feels the mortificatiOii o£ a refusal much more
sensibly than a maiden applicant, and laments it sin-
ccijly and deeply; because it deprives her of the
opportunity of demonstrating the strength of her
attachment to her deceased husband. ^ ia V . ..

' I have known mothers greatly advanced in years
make interest for their daughters on such occasions,
and generally with success. : - , i o ? ^ , # . / . , .

Indeed, nothing can exceed their solicitude ai
such times, particularly if the deceased was their
own son.

These suits are generally soon terminated : if the
warrior approves of the overture, he readily and
cheerfully assents to the proposal ; and if otherwise^
he postpones the consideration of the subject for an-
other time: the meaning of which is, that the proposed
i^iance is not agreeable. Sometimes these offers are
renewed through different channels, and the first de-
cision is reversed ; but in case it fmally fails, the party
making the offer usually sends^ presents to the rejecting
one, as a token that no enmity exists, and that they
wish for a continuance of ^iendly relations. Inter-

Tu OF THfi WESTERN INDIANS.

«39

marriages between families that are not on friendly
terms, seldom take place : so that the opposition of
parents is an obstacle not often experienced in the
formation a£ these alliances, among the Indians. The
chiefs generally bestow their chUdren, particularly
their daughters, in marriage, on such as they prefer.
Sometimes they form alliances with the families of the
chiefs of some of the neighbouring friendly tribes, but
more frequently vith the distinguished warriors and
families of their own.

They, however, are never peremptory, and, when
the proposed marriage is disagreeable, the parties are
generally governed by their own inclinations.

When the preliminaries for a marriage have been
agreed upon, which amount tO nothing more than the
conviction of the parents, that a suitable attachment
exists between the parties, and that they are qualified,
competent, and willing, to perform their respective
duties in the new relations they are about to form,
the connections and friends of the parties are invited
by the parents to attend the ceremony at the resi-
dence of the bride. ' i-H

On this occasion, after the guests are assembled,
the young Indian takes his intended by the wrist ; oc-
cupies a central situation in regard to the party, and,
in a standing position, candidly proclaims the affec-
tionate attachments he entertains for her, promises to
protect her and provide her with game, and at the
same time presents her with some comparatively im-
perishable part of a buflfaloe, elk, deer, &c. as a pledge
of his faithful performance. The female, on her part,
makes a similar declaration of attachment ; promises

•.^-

24.0

MANNERS AND CUSTOl^IS OF flOMH

to cultivate the corn, &c. ; transact the other ofBcen
of her station, and pledges the faithfll performance,
by presenting her husband an ear of corn, or some
other article to which it becomes her province to attend.
The new married couple are now greeted with the
kind wishes of all present; and the remainder of the
day, and a part, or ihe who'e of the following night,
is passed in feasting, mirth, and festivity.
! . The party separate as suits their inclination, leaving
the young couple to receive the visits of those friends
who could not attend, or were not invited to the wed-
ding ; a ceremony usually observed, to show, at least,
that no hostile or inimical feelings exist. Tiiese visits
are next returned, and \n fact, extended to all their
relations and friends. After a few days have elapsed,
more or less of the ^varriors or hunters, according to
the respectability and standing of the recently mar-
ried Indian, assemble and ooustruct him a house or
lodge, which is soon furnished with presents from
their particular friends. The parties now remove to
their new home, and enter upon the discharge of their
respective duties. !« ^ ^ v'.

. No people enjoy more unalloyed pleasure at such
meetings ; and, though ihey frequently indulge to ex-
cess, they suffer less from their irregularities than the
white people settled along their frontiers do on such
occasions. Where they have no ardent spirits, they
usually retire more orderly, and in better time.
. In the marriage ceremonies there is considerable
difference in the same tribe ; and this difference is very
muchinHuenced by theageand condition of the parties.
Sometimes it is performed by merely an exchange of

"^f OP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

«41

pledges or tokens, similar to those above described,
which, it may here be remarked, are carefully pre-
served as a record of their iiiarriage. At other times,
particularly where there is considerable disparity in
ths age of the parties, or where an Indian already
has several wives, little or no ceremony is observed.
The parties having come to an understanding, the
new wife is provided with a separate lodge, as is uni-
formly the practice on such occasions, and the Indian
makes as kind and provident a husband, as though
the whole tribe had witnessed their union in the most
formal manner, a .;\ .;o'* v ; i ^ i/ £••

It has already been remarked that the tribes border-
ing on the white settlements are anxious for, and en-
courage early marriages j by this, however, I do not
mean to be understood that any relaxation of disposi-
ticn exists among the tribes more remotely situated ;
but only that this disposition is procrastinated, till, in
fact, the young men assume the character, and dis-
charge, or are competent to discharge, the duties of
the warrior. The motives which lead to it, also
spring from a widely different source. It is the
strength, importance,, and character of their tribe or
nation, their ambition for a superior ascendancy in
dominion and war, or the policy of those who are
really weak to attempt to match the more powerful,
that cause their old men particularly to advocate the
early entrance into, and the continued maintenance
of the marriage state, through all the changes to
which they are liable, either from custom or the
chances of war.

.:>■

.« >

»>\^m

'i <:

■ :M

■i-'i

■#.j

: I i.'l

'■tl

'•■ '41

■-I

J24^

MANNER6 AND CUhiUMS 0¥ HOME

, These motives have been ho long adla-red to, that
the habit has asvsunied the ciiaracter of a sacred duty
or obligation.

( Ex|)erience has tauglit tlie Indians that this mode
of life is most conducive to individual happiness, and
to the objects to which they aspire ; therefore, all
who adopt it, are regarded with moral and natural
feelings of pride. The squaw is esteemed in propor-
tion to the number of children she raises, particularly
if they are mules, and prove brave warriois j other-
wise, she attracts no marked respect, and, should any
of them act cowardly, she is openly charged with
having been remiss in her duty as a mother, respect-
ing their early education. When instances of this
kind happen, disgrace is certain to follow, and the
n.other would a thousand times prefer to hear of the
death of her son, than that he h^ acted cowardly in
battle. .......

•;,">i'i

■J>J". , ',';'.l:i...-ii"'-

POLYGAMY.

The Indians, regarding themselves as the lords of
the earth, look down upon tlie squaws as an inferior
order of beings, especially given them by the Great
Spirit, to rear up their families j to take charge of,
and, with the exception of game, to provide for the
household: and the squaws, accustomed to such usage,
cheerfully acquiesce in it as a duty. To become the
legitimate mother of a warrior, and to discharge the
offices of a wife, are objects of the g'-patest solicitude
with them j and to be disappointed in these respects
is to them a subject of deep distress. This circum-
stance^ijoined to their warlike disposition and the

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

S4d

necessity that consequently exists in the opinion of
the Indians for constantly repairing the losses to
which they are always liable, and which they fre-
quently sustain, probably gave rise to the toleration
of polygamy ; at least, they appear to be poximate
causes ; though remotely, no doubt, it originated in
arbitrary inclination or caprice.

The Indians in general have but one wife ; though
they, as well as the chiefs and distinguished warriors,
may have more according to their inclination and
ability to support their different families. They fre-
quently amount to two or three, and sometimes to
more. Cler-mont and Was-saw-be-ton-ga, ea,ch had
four, and O-kon-now was remarkable for having six
or seven. The wives of the former had about twenty
children, and those of the latter seventeen or
eighteen.

They construct lodges at a short distance one from
another, for the accpmmodation of their different
wives, who fulfil the respective duties of mother
and wife separately, occasionally visit each other,
and generally live on the most friendly terms^. The
chief or warrior takes up his residence with the
one he most esteems, and only leaves her, to reside
with the next in favour, during the. periods of her
pregnancy and lactation. The one with whom the
husband resides, considers it her duty . and interest,
and is ambitious, to discharge all the offices per-
taining to a wife, so far as regards his comfort and
convenience ; and any interference with her on the
part of his other wives, except in case of sickness or
inabihty, is regarded as a jnst cause for offen^it*

R 2

Hii

r> .

I f i

'■■,*

M ANKEaS AND €U8T4Mft OP «OM£

H.-^-i

244

. Where any diAfmcf «Bflli batmtm IkBw^veB «f
an Indian, he is mmHimm npf ■ii i l iJ '4i»ly#eKrffend-
ed party ; he doai not, l up i w i f i ir !inkr!fipe :ui their
aiFaira, but leaves them io lettit Hieir mmidusputesy
wfaidi oftentimes tenR%^ in hn separating from
some <Mie of them. -■^^k-. ,.»;.>> i ^. • . .:.. >

■'i<

■ .4.J

DIVORCEMENTS.

« As the Indians enter into the marriage state for
the mutual happiness and comfort of the parties con-
cerned, no obligation exists for remaining in it for a
longer period than these olijects are secured. They
say, whenever a continuance in this state becomes
disagreeable to either one or both, the purposes of
the original contract are defeated ; and instead of its
being a soiut^e, it is the very bane of happiness,
and renders the parties miserable : a result contrary
to the design of all contracts ; which are, or ought
to be made Ibr their mi^ual benefit, instead of the
reverse. ■ '• '' '> :.■.*'.:.■"'• ;' -
. They,: therefore, neither feel any compunction
nor find any difficulty from their companions or
connections, in efi^ing a separation whenever
such a measure has a. tendency to gratify their
inclinations, or promote their happiness. But, in-
dependent of these notions, they possess, and are
governed in these transactions by more elevated
motives. They generally regard every circumstarce
of their lives as influenced by two orders of
supernatui'pl beings, viz. Good and Bad Spirits,
which have already been noticed under an appro-
priate head. To these they ascribe the immediate

09 THE. WElTEiy INDIANS.

245

agency of all'tiicir hflppineis and misery, all their pleor

suresaiidpMlli--'.'fii Ji'- J-i v;.;:?^ ;» v>'.j i,y:.>. riAivo ii^v\:>,
i Therefbre, ^fienever the men or women, for in in-
stances of this kind there is no exclusive privilege, are
dissatisfied or unhappy with their matrimotiial com-
panion, they place it to the account of some malign
spirit, which, they say, takes delight in tormenting
therii, and will not cease so long as they continue to
maii^tain their present condition, and hence do not
suffer much time to elapse before they effect a sepa-

'41

ration.

An Inctian^ when about to leave his wife, conducts
himself very distantly towards her \ g6e» on his hunt-
ing or other excursions without naming them, or the
time of his return ; maintains a sullen silence towards
his own connections, but most generally hints his dis-
satisfaction to those of his wife. During this time,>
if a separation should be disagreeabk to his com-
panion, she appears exceedingly solicitous to atone
for any misconduct of her own, and uses every pos-
sible means in her power to conciliate her husband, and
regain his affections and regard, which very frequently
are attended with the sought-fbr residt : but should
she fail in her endeavours, her husband, after bury-
ing the pledge he received at their marriage, deserts
her altogether, and never after is heard to mention
her name. She is branded as a bad squaw, but, ne-
vertheless, soon finds another husband, to whom she
usually proves an excellent wife, to avoid, perhaps,
the repetition of a similar mortification and suf-
fering. Repudiated squalls are more anxious to
marry than any others, in order to do awu'< Uie di^*

B 3

!■■ :t

?M,!

24S

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

grace they are conceived to labour uAder. On occa-
sions of this kind the squaw is left in possession of the
lodge, &c., and generally of all the children, though
the husband sometimes takes one or two of the boys,
provided they are of a sufficient size not to require the
further care of a mother.

Sieparations are, however, very rare, especially after
the parents have much of a family. After septu-ating,
the husband usually goes on a long hunting excur-
sion, or visits a neighbouring tribe. And even thus
late I have known successful overtures to a reconcili-
atioU) made either by the wife or some of her friends,
and the husband^ to return again to his ^mUy. Such
instances, however, do not often occur j he most fre-
quently returns to his tribe, and forms a new connec-
tion ; though sometimes he intermarries and incorpo-
rates himself with some other.

When a chief or distinguished warrior parts with
his wife, attempts at I'econciliation are not frequently
'made- -l^eeause the wife having in the discharge of
ner duties e^^.usted every effort to obtain or main-
tain a preference in the good opinion of her hus-
band, has few resources left to bring into operation
on these extraordinary occasions. Nevertheless,
't*he*6 are some exceptions, in which they have been
kndWn to restore their repudiated ^ives to favotir.
Dslially they exercise less ceremony, and appear to
feel less, than the other Indians do on similar oc-
casions.

These circumstances may be plausibly accounted
for, in the greater facility they find in procuring
•wives, ind in the gfeatet number they possess, k- .

i^O^ THL WESTERN INDIANS. H

^4/7

When a female is disposed to leave her husband,
she burns or destroys the pledge she received at her
wedding, deserts his lodge, and returns witli her
family and effects to ber parents, or some of her near
relations. Under such circumstances she finds no
difficulty in marrying again, and in general dhe soon
commences the duties of a wife, under the protection
of another husband. i r]r« >m ijf

Jealousy is a passion but little known, and much
less indulged, among the Indians. Their principal
causes for divorcements are indolence, intemperance,
cowardice, impotence, and sterility. I have never
known a smgle instance of either the two last, and
their existence must be ex^^eedingly^raie.

OF CONTINUING FAMILIES, AND ADOPTION OP CHlLDItEN'

AND OTHERS.

Whenever a distinguished warrior falls in battle, or
otherwise, it is considered a great privilege to marry
his squaw; and whoevei' does, is obliged ito Ksslime
the name of her former husband, and to i»Ustain, as
far as possible, his reputation and clisudcter. Thb*-
custom of continuing families is indulged to a consi-
derable extent ; sometimes the brother of the deceased
becomes the husband; but the most frequent source
of continuance is from the prisoners taken in battle^
who, but for this kind of preferment, are generally
condemned to suffer tortures and death.

The squaw who has lost her husband, makes the
elect' "n herself ; the warrior thus chosen generally ac-
cedes to the offer, assimies the name of the deceased,
and attaches himself to his new wife, iiiid to lier tiibej

. T: 4

¥•1

■r<'

S48

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

sometimes, however, 1 e rejects the overture, and in
preference magnanimously, as he supposes, submits to
the tortures and persecutions of his tormentors, among
the foremost of which the sUghted and offended squaw
is often found.

The motives of the Indians for keeping up families,
originate in part in the respect entertained for the
deceased, but much more in policy ; for by the cus-
tom fecundity is promoted, and a kind of provision
secured to the sufferers, which does not m any way
encroach on the public interests or solicitude: be-
sides, it removes all apprehensions for family welfare
and happiness from the mindof the warrior, who thus
circumstanced, and otherwise conformably educated,
goes to battle under the strongest belief that no
change, except that of disgrace, can possibly happen
to him for the worse. But, nevertheless, they are as
^cerely attached to, and feel as great interest and
solicitude for their families as any other people what-
ever; and I am convinced would, were it not for
their customs, be influenced on their account in times
of peril, so as materially to alter their warlike cha-
jracveTS* - • r.^ . ,—

The young Indians are regarded as national proper-
ty i as the soiuce from which all their losses in war, or
otherwise, are to be repaired^ and by which they are
to maintain their importance, or arrive at greater dis-
tinction* Henccj they engross the most earnest at-
tention and care of those who have entered upon the
active duties of war and the chace. In fact, a solici-
tude is manifested even before birth, in respect to sex ;
and this increases according to circumstances, till the

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

249

character be developed in manhood. This interest
for the young males, connected with the objects
above noticed, has many important bearings on the
customs of the Indians. It removes from obloquy
those fenales who become parents out of wedlock ;
it prevents, in a great degree, the procurement of
abortions ; and it is also the reason why the children
and women taken prisoners are preserved, and
adopted, especially into such families among their
captors as have lost any of their numbers, either by
sickness or war. ... «...

This is done without much ceremony ; some trifling
presents are generally made them, and in common
they receive names similar to those for whom they
have been substituted.

They mutually make promises of love and regard
for each other, which in general they faithfully per-
form, and appear to become as sincerely attached, as
though they were really connected by consanguinity.
The adopted warriors nevertheless sometimes abscond,
but should they afterwards be taken in arms fighting
against their adopted tribe, their lives most generally
atone for the offence. ---.i

% -A

\i} I

OF INDIAN NAMES.

Since the Indians are so scrupulous in keeping up
families, it appears somewhat singular that they should
all be distinguished by their maternal names, till some
act pf prowess, intrepidity, or skill, entitles them to
others of their own choice, n --t^ % : : ? : mv . . ; c^>r^;,

But, apart from the natural propriety, it must on
reflection be acknowledged judicious; because it

S50

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

(elicits a very early ambition in youth, to create by
their own efforts meritorious names for themselves ;
which are generally changed for others on the occur
rence of some remarkable incidents, and serve as so
many records of the bravery and worth cf respective
families ; i;ircumstances that are particularly regarded
by the chiefs and lespectable warriors, when they
make chfnce of wives.

In the cowardice or bad conduct of an Indian, his
mother, sister, or daughter, suffers in a degree, and
their chances for a respectable marriage are dimi-
nished ; because the Indians think that good and bad
qualities may be both inherited and entailed, though,
as before observed, with proper management, they
think that their faults may be wholly corrected. The
blame in such instances is charged on the squaws,
who are accused with a negligence of duty towards
their children in early life, and, probably, on pretty
good grounds. For the Indians, who are nice ob-
servers, say, that a squaw who loves her country and
reputation, and does her duty, c?n never be the
mother of a bad Indian.

The Indians, as just noticed, are known frequently
to change their own names as they grow older, and
incidents of sufficient consequence occur to justify
the measure ; and Sometimes names are bestowed by
common consent, on characters either notoriously
good or bad. But in all cases they are intended as
representations or remembrances of the partirAilar
events, qualities, or actions, of particular individuals,
and in general they are appropriate and judicious.

«^-

eit 9-^

OF THE WESTERN INDIANA.
DISPOSITION OF THE INFIRM AND POOR.

231

Each warrior makes provision for tho aged, infirm,
and needy, which are nearly related to him ; and»
where it is not wholly beyond his power, for those
also more remotely connected. This, in general, is
not a severe duty, since the hunters divide their game,
when tliis form is observed, in proportion to the indi-
viduals of each family. ., --n^^-knif^imi ir^ni

They are very assiduous and attentive to the wants
and comforts particularly of the aged, and kind to all
who require their assistance. And an Indian who
failed in these respects, though he otherwise merited
esteem, would be neglected and despised. To the
credit of their morals few such are to be found,
except where debauched by the vices of the white
people. , V .. ...^

Whenever the helpless are too numerous for their
natural protectors, they arc distributed in the same
manner that is observed in respect to their orphans, as
will presently be noticed.

Women who have not been married, and those who
have separated from, or lost their husbands, live with
or return to their parents or connections, where they
assist in the ordinary duties of the females. The
children of such generally accompany their mothers j
but orphan children are adopted into other families,
and virtually become constituent members of them.

Whenever a widowed mother sickens and is con-
sidered to be in danger, the warriors, immediately
related to her, exhibit great concern for her children ;
take them to their lodges ; and, in case of her death.

MANNERS AND CUSTOHS. '

adopt and bring then^ up. But should there be no
relations, there is always a sufficient number of afipli.
cants, and generally from the liiost respeetable of Ihe
tribe, who adopt and biii^ them tip as theiv own.

Where such indivi^imls are adopted into f^utulies,
a mutual cohfiden' e is- f"« e lo follow, and the same
respectful attentior? i, filj* ience, and affections^ appear
to exist between tli» lacliti^vus, as is common among
the natural members. .

V , a,

■ . ■ -■■■ ^.^)hii& :■ . V-

^n,.ii-''i .■^l}''tii fi^'i^: ■ ■■:r:,.r,'i^tii'- iif iifit^. 1

. ij..- ■:. J

riifii '1 • -il .^ ': i) /jfoi C...W i .tu

".!>

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r:'C3 ^io- »;. . S9S

duii

• .■■* • "», • »*,

• ► r t ' f ' r

• *

::*:

CHAP. VIII.

FAMILY fiOTBBKlOeirr, OCCUPATION AND, ECONOMY, BIRTH,
NUBSING AND EDUCATION OF INFANTS^ EDUCATION AND
AMUSSMBNTS of youth, games of chance, modes OF
SALUTATION, TREATMENT OF STRANGERS, FORMS OF VISITS,
FEASTS, FESTIVALS, &C.

In the government of their ^niilies, the manage-
ment of their Lidges, and in the transactions of all
their duties, the squaws are sole mistresses. When-
ever the husband requires any thing, he has but to
name it, and his squaw immediately complies with
his wishes. These intimations, however, only extend
to his own or his friends' individual wants and com-
forts, and are often anticipated. The slightest devi-
ation froni this line of conduct on her part, would be
considered a just cause of offence, and, if not corrected,
lead to a separation. Although the women, espe-
cially in their towns and villages, are employed in
attending to their children, cultivating their fields,
collecting wood, water, &c. they do not think their
task more severe than that of the men. , , ^

However, in civilized life, where people are edu-
cated differently, and conform to different regula-
tions, a concurrence with them in opinion is not very
likely to prevail : but, before final judgment be passed,
regard should be had to the two modes of life. Those
qualifications which render their possessors ornaments
in civilized life, would be esteemed altogether useless,

?;• In

:i;i

^'\

354

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Oi< SOME

not to say contemptible, in the views of the savages.
While nothing but th6 most urgent necessity could
induce civilized man to submit to an almost conti-
nual state of warfare ; to long marches, fastings, and
exposures, to procure a subsistence. But relatively,
each confom) to the pecuHarities of their own re-
spective modes of life, with a zealous preference.
The white people coiqmiserate the Indians, mi tie-
count of their thousand misfortunes and sufferings,
and congratulq,te themselves on the superior privileges
and blessings they enjo;-. Tl^e Indians reverse the
position, and tl)ank the Great i!i|Hht for not having
made them white, and subjected them to the drudgery
of civilized life • ' 'o m

In order to maintain their existence, the Indians
are obliged to become skilful end expert in war and
the chace ; and, to qualify or accomplish themselves
for these pursuits, becomes an avocation both of plea-
sure and duty ; and until they acquire celebrity/ no
people on earth pursue the objects of their ambttilin
with greater zeal and industry. As they become
older, and their characters are established, habits of
indolence succeed ; and nothing but the most stimu-
lating and urgent incidents, such as revenge, war, or
imnger, can rouse them to action. To this trait
there are occasional exceptions, in which the war-
riors, from a playful condescension, are seen to mingle
with, and assist the squaws in almost all their varied
occupations; or when grown old, m to-, devote them-
selves to the education of the youths. '

The course of life pursued by the Indians is neces-
sarily attended with exposure and loss of life ; with

: OF THE W£ST£RN INDIANS.

255

mutilations and peril ( and with great deprivations
and fatigues, which lay the foundation for, and are
frequently followed by many distressing diseases, from
which the women are comparatively exempted. With
these circumstances, and their particular bearings,
the squaws are well acquainted ; they also know that
they are not physically qualified to contend with the
men far the prize of distinction.

Therefore they cheerfully submit, and from reces.
sity must, at least so long as the present sentiments of
the Indians prevail to till the ground, per£am the
menial offices, and content themselves with acquiring
us respectable a standing in their Uibes, and in the
esteem of the men, as a life of /jbedi&nce and sub-
mission can procure. Custom has sanctified this, and
nature has kindly furnished them with the means and
ability to perform their task, which, as before observed,
they neither think severe nor difficult, particularly
where game is abundant, and the soil productive,
andiof easy cultivation. Nor, in fact, are they: for
except in planting and harvest times, which only last
a few days, they have more than half their time leisure,
which is devoted to visiting and instructive 9mu8e«
ments, in which their children generally are con-
spicuous agents. u.;.v^ ^^ - ti V ;,i • - .. .;

The women of some tribes, however, have much
more to perform than in others : this is particulaily
observable of those who live in towns and villages,
where wood is scarce, the earth cultivated, and game
has to be brought from a distance ; while those who
rove, generally encamp in the neighbourhood of wood
and water, and follow and subsist on game. >

I (

250

MANNERS ANi) CUSTOMS OF SOME

The lattier, however, where horses are scarce,
carry great burdens ; perform long marches ^ and
experience many more privations, and fewer com-
forts. .

In some of the tribes, the men pack in the game ;
while in others, the task is imposed on the squaws, and
is cheerfully performed by them as a part of their
duty. This practice, no doubt, had its origin in neces.
sity : the greater exertions of the men being required
in hunting, and defending their territories from the
encroachment of their enemies. '

The women and children, both male and female,
plant, cultivate, and gather in the crops ; collect the
wild rice, nuts, roots, &c. ; procure wood and water;
dress buffalo robes, and other skins; manufacture
sugar, pottery, mats, waist-^cloths, mockasins and leg<
gings ; pound the corn ; and prepare or cook the food,
&c. &c.; and to intermeddle in any of their concerns,
to wrangle with, or inflict a blow on any of them,
the warriors think is disgraceful, and descending
from their own elevated character to the degraded
one of the squaw. But, notwithstanding, since whisky
has been introduced among them, a great portion
of the Indians disregard, or forget to maintain this
distinctive dignity ; and, while under its influence,
are often guilty of beating them most severely.

Wrought on by the same magic, the squaws as
often retaliate on their inoffensive children ; and when
an abundance of this article is attainable, and freely
distributed among them, these scenes of castigations
extend widely ; and are accompanied with such a med.
]ey of shrieks and jargon, that a spectator, in his sober

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

257

Hcnses, might, without any extraordinary efforts of liis
imagination, suppose himself in a community of bed-
lamites. (See page S8.) In common, however, the
women, to whom, as I have previously noticed, the
government of the children is submitted, are judicious
and wise disciplinarians. And to do justice to the
character of the Indians, there are many among them,
particularly their chiefs and old men, who observe the
strictest regimen in their food and drinks, and never
indulge in any species of excess. In fact, I have
known them first to exercise persuasion, and then au-
thority, to prevent intemperance among their people ;
and finally, when these failed, and the traders pei:" . ted
in selling their liquors, to demolish the vessels which
contained it, and thus, for the time, effectually to ar-
rest a propensity that they could not otherwise
control. . ■ J • - ....■,

But to return again to our subject. The squaws
raise for the consumption of their families, corn, to-
bacco, pumkpins, squashes, melons, gourds, beans,
peas, and, within u few years past, potatoes in small
quantities. They collect liazle nuts, hickory nuts,
walnuts, chesnuts, peccan nuts, grass, or ground nuts,
various kinds of acorns, wild liquorice, sweet myrrh,
or anise root, and Pash-e-quah, a large bulbous root
somewhat resembling the sweet potatoe in form,
iind very similar to the chesimt in flavour, though
more juicy.

They also collect, in their seasons, crab and may-
apples, Osage oranges, three or four kinds of plums,
strawberries, gooseberries, whortleberries, black and
dew-berries, and a great variety of grapes.

^58

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

All their various products, as well as those of
the chace, are, in general, distributed in propor-
tion to the members of each family concerned in
their acquirement; though sometimes no distribu-
tion takes place, but all draw, as they want, from
the supplying source, as a common reservoir, till it is
exhausted, ^ . , , , . ^: v .'• ..

After a distribution has taken place, the various
articles are carefully preserved by the respective pro-
prietors ; the corn m cribs, constructed of small poles
and bark of trees j potatoes in the ground; tobacco
on small rods ; nuts, &c. either in sacks or cribs ; and
oil, honey, &c., in skins ; all which are contained in
their cabins or lodges.

Whenever a scarcity prevails, they reciprocally
lend, or rather share with each other, their respective
stores, till they are all exhausted. I speak now of
those who are provident, and sustain good characters.

When the case is otherwise, the wants of such in-
dividuals are regarded with comparative indifference ;
though their families share in the stock, become other-
wise common from the public exigency. Under such
circumstances, the warriors cheerfully surrender their
whole share of eatables to the women, children, and
infirm, and submit without complaint to privations,
which often materially affect their health, and some-
times threaten their very existence. Such instances,
however, rarely happen, and when they do, it is either
in the winter, early spring, or during the prevalence of
long-continued tempestuous weather. I have known
the warriors forced to subsist for days together, on ,
roots, and the bark and sap of trees. The Indians
generally are good providers, though the duties of

lose of
propor-
:iied in
listribu-
t, from
till it is

various
ive pro-
all poles
tobacco
lbs ; and
gained in

OF THE W£ST£RN INDIANS.

259

the chacf are from choice usually performed by the
youth, or young men.

If they took sufficient care in preserving their
animal food, a scarcity would seldom, if ever, be ex-
perienced. But, once engaged in their hunts, their
feelings are too much engrossed to attend to so sub-
ordinate employments, as those of drying and smoking
their meats.

This essential operation being neglected, or too
much hurried, occasions great losses; especially as
the warm weather comes on in the spring ; and I have
known a severe scarcity to prevail from this very cir-
cumstance. In cooking, they resort t-o various simple
modes. The one most prevalent is that of roasting,
which is effected by enveloping tfie meat first in
leaves, and then in ashes and burning coals ; dressed
in this way, it possesses a juicy sweetness not rivalled
by any other process with which I am acquainted.
Tiiey frequently broil it on embers, and sometimes
roast, by Suspending it by a vine before the fire.
But, next to baking, the practice of boiling their
meats with vegetables most generally prevails. From
their unripe corn recently gathered or dried, other
vegetables, and bear's oil, buffUlo's fat or marrow,
they also prepare a very nutritive, and when meat
and spices are superadded, as is frequently the case,
a very savoury and palatable food.

When the days are long and their supplies abundant,
the grown people generally eat daily three meals;
when the days are shorter, two ; and when provisions
are scarce^ only one ; and sometimes not even tlmt.

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260

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

The usual times of taking their meals, are at sun-
rise, noon, and sunset.

The children eat whenever they are hungry.

I have already remarked that the warriors suffer
most during periods of scarcity; though from their
deportment, their most intimate acquaintance might
be led to suppose, that they feasted daily from the
stores of plenty.

It is the common practice of the Indians, however
closely pressed their appetites may be, to exercise pa-
tience ; and I have frequently known them to return
from long marches, in an almost famished condition,
and sustain conversation with their friends for hours
together, without giving the slightest intimation of
their pressing exigencies.

In the summer, they usually cook their food in the
open air ; but in cool and wet weather, in their lodges;
which are heated by fires built either on rocks, or in
excavations of the earth, situated directly in their cen-
tres. Every individual supplies himself or is supplied
with a separate dish and eating utensils, which are
used on all ordinary occasions, and even taken to their
feasts by them, and they are never exchanged or used
by any, except the rightful owners. Their cabin fur-
niture is very limited; they use neither stools nor
tables, but generally sit cross-legged on mats or skins
placed on the earth ; in which position, when the wea-
ther is cold, they eat their meals around their fires ; but
when it is otherwise or tolerable, they take their food
in the shade of trees, or in the open air. In general,
theiflien eat by themselves.; dua^ng their meals, they

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

261

observe the most profound silence. TKey prefer
their own articles of food, and modes of cooking, to
any other j and even the traders, after they have be-
come accustomed, are generally fond of, and also
frequently prefer them. ' -

In general, they are moderate eaters ; but, when
plenty succeeds a scarcity, they are too apt to
indulge their appetites to excess ; though the old
men, and those who have suffered from such con-
duct, commonly exercise more forbearance of self-
denial. Their usual drink is pure cold water ; though
sometimes they mix maple sugar with it, or honey,
which they procure in considerable quantities from
the stores of the honey bees, deposited in hollow trees ;
and at others they make agreeable teas from the
leaves, roots, and bark of various spicy plants, which,
unless they are indisposed, are suffered to cool before
drank.

Fermentation, in their opinion, spoils them, and
whenever that takes place, they are always thrown
away.

Their cooking utensils are few in number, and not
vario IS in form : they consist of pots and pans made
vif clay» and since their intercourse with the traders,
of some castings. They make use of some tin
pots, knives and spoons, also obtained from the
traders; but in general, earthen- ware of their own
make, gourd shells^ and wooded spoons, bowls, and
mortars, make up their stock of cooking and eating
apparatus. In addition, however, each village has one
or two large stone mortars for pounding corn ; tlicy
are placed in a central situation, are public property,

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<262

MANNKllS ANb CUSTOM^ Ol- SOMK

and are used in rotation by the different families.
Their lodges, as before noticed, answer the purpose
of store-houses : they also smoke their skins, and
frequently their meats in them ; and very little
order is observed in the arrangement of their con-
tents.

They sleep on skins, usually stretched on poles,
Und elevated a little above the ground, though some-
times they are laid directly on it.

They go to rest whenever nature prompts, which
commonly is within an hour or two after sunset ; and
they rise about day-break.

. When not excited to action, they also sleep in the
day time ; but, when watchfulness is necessary, Hhey
recline in nearly the same position without sleep, for
forty or fifty hours at a time. The old people, and
young children sleep about one half, and those who
perform the home duties, perhaps one third of their
time.

According to my arrangement, the affections con-
comitant or incident to parturient females comes next
in order; they seem to demand a copious consider-
ation: but the limits of mv work and other obvious
reasons forbid it, at least for the present ; 1 shall
therefore merely mention heads, and postpone their
detail for a more appropriate opportunity.
. When a young Indian woman, for the first time, is
in travail, it is common for lier mother, or some aged
or expfTienced person to be in attendance: afterwards,
thev commonly retire to lodges constructed for the
•(j'jrp-jse, .vnd ^here patit^itly submit to natural oi)t'i i-
lioiii, ^vhicb, a*> befoj t noticed, with regard to duration

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

26B

and suffering, scarcely deserve to be mentioned in
comparison with what are commonly experienced in
civiUzed hfe.

The performance of their duties is seldom interrupt*
ed for more than a day on such occasions ; neverthe-
less, instances do sometimes occur in which they are
confined for days and weeks together, by the milder
forms of some diseases incident to labour.

Their infants, wrapped in skins, are secured with
belts to a small thin piece of board placed along
the back. As they grow older, should the wea-
ther be mild, the skins are removed altogether,
and no other dresses are substituted for them,
except in very cold weather, till near the period of
puberty.

When travelling, the mother places the board to
which the infant is secured on her back, and supports
it in this manner for the whole distance of the
journey. While resting, or at work^ she suspends it
perpendicularly from the side of her lodge^ the arm
of a tree, or a post she has erected for the purpose.
She administers food to it when she thinks it is hun-
gry ; disregards its crying ; and seldom unbinds and
soothes it to rest, except when she herself retires for
sleep.

When the temperature of the weather is mild, they
bathe their children daily from their birth till they
are able to walk alone, in order to make their skins
luirdy, and capable of resisting the extreme changes of
the weather, to which they are more particularly ex-
posed in early life. When sutHciently old and strong,
they wean and suffer them to run a^^nif : this is gene-

3 i

rl'n

264

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

i3ip

rally between the age of two and three years. They
would, no doubt, deviate from this practice sometimes,
did they not apprehend that such conduct would be
stigmatized by a pair of bowed legs, which would
bear witness against their parental care and good
qualities to the whole tribe.

Should the child be a boy, this period is to the
mother peculiarly interesting; because she now
takes it with her in all her visits, witnesses its play-
ful, empassioned, or vindictive emotions and con-
duct, with its infantile fellows ; and feels her soul
bowed down with mortification and griofi or swell-
ed with pride and joy, as she discovers the ignoble
traits of cowardice, or the innate characters of
courage, to unfold themselves in the ofllspring of
her hopes. They are seldom long to^i ther without
quarrelling, and pretty generally make a bold fight,
though they are not permitted to continue it : should
the case be otherwise, the disappointed mother soon
returns to her lodge . and thence conunences a very
extraordinary discipline. She begins by placing a
rod in his hand ; assists him to beat and make flee
the dog, or any thing else that may come in his way,
and then encourages him to pursue. An adept in
this, she teazes and vexes him, creates an irritable
temper, submits to the rod, and flees before him
with great apparent dread. When skilled in this
branch, she strikes him with her hand, pulls his hair,
&c., wliich lier now hopeful boy retaliates in a spiteful
and l)ecommg manner. Some time having passed in
this way, by which her pupil has learned to bear pain
without dread, she takes him again on a visit, and 1

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

265

have never known an instance of a second Jisap-
pointment in these trials of courage. They are then
permitted to play with the other children of the village,
and to quarrel and make up as well as they can.

After this conceived salutary course of discipline,
the parents bring them back to their accustomed
subjection, by a steady and determined course of
government. . ,

There is nothing connected with the education of
the female part of the children that requires to be
noticed, except it be their early entrance with the
boys into sports and amusements in imitation of
the grown people. A particular account of these
cannot prove generally interesting ; nevertheless, as
they are connected with, and indeed constitute parts
of Indian education, they appear to me of sufficient
importance to be briefly noticed. Those in which
they most frequently engage, are the dances, wliicli
they soon learn to perform with accuracy, and with
the same variety as practised by the older ones.
Running races, wrestling, jumping, and swimming,
also engross much of tlieir time. They perform tliese
sports in a manner very similar to what is practised
among civilized people : and therefore I shall not
attempt their description. Playing the hoop is per-
formed on an oblong level piece of ground, prepared
for the purpose. Three parallel lines run the whole
length of the plot, at about fifteen yards' distance
from each other. On the exterior ones, the opposing
parties, which generally consist of from twelve to
eighteen })ersons, arrange themselves about ten
paces apart,

each individual fronting hitermediate

■ill

^'^illi

JS3E.

266

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOMK

to his two opposite or nearest opponents. On the
central line, extended a few paces beyond the wings
of the two parties, stand two persons facing each
other ; it is their part of the play alternately to roll
a hoop of about the diameter of a common hogshead,
with all their strength, from one to the other. The
object for triumph between these two is, who shall
catoh his opponent's hoop the oftcnest, and of the
contending parties, which shall throw the greatest
number of balls through the hooj) as it passes rapidly
along the intervening space. Judges are appointed,
usually from among the old men, to determine which
party is victorious, and to distribute the prizes,
which, on some particular occasions, consist of beaver
and deer skins, mockasins, leggings, &c., but more
usually of shells, nuts, and other trifles.

Throwing the tomahawk, and shooting with the
bow, are practised with great perseverance and zeal,
and form iio inconsiderable or unimportant part of
their amusement. In regard to the first, the whole
art consists in strength and precision, and in ac-
commodating the motions of the arm and hand to
the distance, so as invariably to cause the edge of
the tomahawk to strike the mark, and it is at-
tained 'to an astonishing degree of perfection by the
Indians.

In sham battles, another of their amusements, all
the feelings of the Warrioi- are excited. The con-
tending parties secrete themselves in the woods aiul
prairie grass, and reciprocally practise on each otiier
sujpriie and i»pen attack, before or after which, at;

OF THE WLSTERN INDIANS.

'267

the case may be proper, the war whoop is raised,
and the feats of real warfare are imitated. i ':<

Councils are afterwards held ; the pipe of peace
smoked ; and as much gravity observed as though
the fate of the nation depended on their deliber-
ations. These sports are finally terminated in the
dance of peace, and other rejoicings, in which the
young squaws usually take a part. All these various
sports are encouraged and promoted by the older
Indians, with the avowed purpose of quahfying the
minds and habits, and preparing the bodies of the
younger for the more important offices of war and
hunting ; to excel in which constitutes their first
duty, and is the acme of their ambition.

The rest of the Indian's education, apart fi'om what
is acquired by experience, is obtained from the dis-
courses of the aged warriors, who, fi-om the services
rendered their country, have high claims on its grati-
tude and respect. »Such was Tshut-che-nau, as men-
tioned page ^0. ; and similar to his are the doctrines
they generally teach. The elderly women also, fre-
quently perform these offices, more particularly as
they relate to narratives and traditions, of which they
are by the consent of custom the unerring and
sacred depositories.

The young warriors, to the age of twenty-five or
thirty years, occasionally amuse themselves with the
boys in their plays ; and sometimes thay form parties
entirely from their own niunbers ; bet high, at least
for Indians, and contend with astonishing activity and
skill for the masterv. Tiiis is on<e of their modes of

hvvM

:. Fil. I; I

M-n^i

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268

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOMK

gambling ; but those commonly practised by the
older Indians are altogether different. In common,
they merely burn on one side a few grains of corn
or pumpkin seeds, which the stakers alternately
throw up for a succession of times, or till one arrives
to a given number first ; that is, counting those only
that show of the requisite colour when he wins. A
very similar game is played with small flat pieces of
wood or bone, on one side of which are notched or
burned a greater or less number of marks, like the
individual faces of a die. It is played and counted
like the preceding.

Besides these, they shoot the rifle and bow, and
throw the tomahawk at marks, and perform various
feats, frequently for no other purpose but to vary the
chance or mode of their bets.

Some are extravagantly fond of games of chance,
and play at them till they lose every thing they possess,
except their war accoutrements and consecrated
things : in fact, a krge majority of tlie Indians arc
fond of them ; whilst there are a few to be met with
who contemn, and are neither agents in, nor spectators
of the practice.

The warriors are of taciturn and rather unsocial
habits, which do not, however, proceed from any
want of respect for those with whom they associate,
as has often been charged to them by persons im-
perfectly acquainted with their character ; but alto-
gether from their education.

They say, to be garrulous and familiar, is unbecom-
ing the warrior and hunter, and only sufFerable in old

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

269

men, women, and children, whose duties are more
trivial and relaxed. .

In compliance with this custom, either at home, or
on hunting, or war excursions, they observe an almost
uninterrupted silence, and never condescend to be-
come familiar, even with each other, except it be in
their amusements with their particular friends, or at
meetings of a public nature, I have already observed
that great attention is paid to marked seniority, and
this custom no doubt materially influences their taci-
turn dispositions.

Their usual mode of salutation is to take hold of
the wrist, and give it a gentle shake. When there
is a difference of age, it is performed first by the
eldest, who always approaches for the performance
of this ceremony with much confidence. When the
individual first saluting is venerable from age, irre-
proachable character, and the achievement of many
great actions, those but little inferior to him accom-
pany theirs with a slight inclination of the bodyj
while those who are young and more removed from
him in their claims to respect, merely take hold of
his robe, or some other article of his dress.

But in regard to their modes of salutation, as well
as visits, custom is very indefinite as to forms. There
are many ways in which respect may be shown by
one to another, which cannot well be described, but
whicli are daily practised among the Indians ; and
for one to fail in courtesy where there arc just claims
for a demonstration of it, is generally regarded by
them as a personal insult, or as characteristic of a
vulgar mind.

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270

MANNSBS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

When a stranger anives among them, then* first
object is to ascertain whether he is friendly. In
doing this, they do not so much rely on professions,
as conduct ; they therefore talk very little ; eye him
at first closely ; and then observe all his movements
and looks with apparent carelessness, till convinced
of his sincerity and good will.

Satisfied in this respect, the Indians welcome him
with a respectful and friendly attention, and make
him a joint partaker in their comforts and pleasures.
This conduct is particularly observable towards those
who are in distress ; I have known them to accom-
pany those who have been indisposed, or had lost
their way, for two or three days together. In fact,
for a friend or a friendly stranger, they have no
measure for their kindness and hospitality ; and the
same may generally be said of their hatred and per-
secution to those whom they esteem their enemies j
though instances have occurred in which their active
sympathies have been awakened in favour of known
enemies, who had become mcapable of doing them
an injury.

An Indian who has promised protection, or who
ieels himself obligated by the relations of friendship
or hospitality to afibrd it, will assuredly do so j or at
any rate, his lifeless body must be trampled under
foot, before it can be violated, or the safety of his
guest be disturbed. >., ^ ^ n; ' '

One warrior seldom visits another, unless he has
business, or is on very intimate terms. On entering
a lodge, he is welcomed by the proprietor with the
usual salutations : he then speaks a word or two to

■•#■'

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS,

^71

the individuals of the family, beginning with the
eldest, and continuing downwards frequently to the
younger branches j but, contrary to the forms ob-
served in civiHzed life, the men engross his first at^
tentions, and afterwards the women. He next men*
tions the individual his visit is for ; sits perhaps half
an hour engaged in conversation, has food offered,
which he commonly eats, and then takes a general
leave. During these visits the men commonly speak
slow, and are very dignified, though complaisant, in
their demeanour.

The visits of the women are more frequent ; coui-
tinue longer, and are not often particularized ; conse-
quently the conversations on these occasions are more
general and brisk ; otherwise they do not materially
differ from those of the men. Their conversations,
as in civilized life, turn in general on the incidents .
of the day, and their deviations from them relate
mostly to subjects calculated to attract the attention,
excite the curiosity, and stimulate the ambition of the
germinating warriors, whose education, as repeatedly
remarked, seems constantly to engross their solici-
tude. They are very emulous of excellence ; hence
to praise every thing relating to themselves is one of
the favourite topics of conversation among female
visitors. I have frequently known them dispute
who had the bravest husbands, whose sons were the
most valiant in war and the chase, or the swiftest
runners and most able to bear fatigue and hunger.
They also frequently boast that they can carry the
heaviest burthen, make the best canoe, and raise he
best corn. These conversations, as well as those of

Q72

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

the men, are generally confined to those present, and
when they do speak of those who are absent, it is of
such as have recently lost friends, or experienced
some other misfortune which appropriately calls forth
an expression of their sympathies. Back-biting, or
talking ill of those not present, is ranked by them
amongst the blackest of their crimes ; and is never
practised or listened to by any who have claims to a
good character, s . ; - • v

Whenever a misunderstanding does occur, they
never employ second-hand agents, but either secretly
or openly chastise the aggressor. A contrary course
of conduct would subject the insulted or aggrieved
party to reproach and ridicule. Even the profligate
look with contempt on the slanderer ; while he is
singled out with the finger of scorn by the more re-
spectable, who shun him as they would the poisonous
serpent, and hold no kind of intercourse with him.
None will venture to traduce those who sustain a fair
and honourable character, and as for the worthless,
they never condescend to talk about them.
^ Slander, therefore, the most pitiful vice of little
and malicious minds, is beneath tlie notice even of
the Indian women, without reference to the men,
whose notions of propriety are still more elevated.
This noble trait in their character is highly vvor-
thy to be imitated by many of both sexes, who pre-
tend to much higher claims in the scale of rational
beings. -

■ Another trait in the Indian character equally ad-
mirable and worthy of general adoption is, " never
to meddle or interfere with the business of another.'*

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS, n

273

Hence they have very few confidential stories or
injunctions to secrecy to impose on their friends, and
hence that freedom from broils and quarrelling which
so frequently disturb more complex societies.

The respect paid to the aged is not wholly confined
to the men ; on the contrary, the women come in for
their share ; but then it is somewhat different in char
racter. The aged warrior, who, by the prowess of
his deeds, and the wisdom of his conduct, has acquired
high reputation among the counsellors of his nation ;
who, bowed down with years, infirmities, and disease, is
rapidly hastening to mingle the mechanism of his
greatness with its parent earth ; but who, nevertheless,
is solicitous only for the happiness of his people,
founded on the correct education of the rising gener-
ation with which he is constantly busied, receives as a
just due the spontaneous homage of their highest
respect and veneration. On the other hand, the aged
female's claim to admiration and esteem rests on her
having been an industrious, faithful, and obedient
wife, and the parent and instructress of a race of
valiant and distinguished warriors, -^rn ;; u . ; m) y.clf

They are, in general, looked upon by the young fe-
males as patterns for imitation j but on some occasions,
as for instance that of the corn feast, they exercise
almost an unlimited authority. The pldest and most
respectable mother in the tribe prepares for, and con-
ducts the ceremony j she also claims and exercises the
privilege of informing her children, as she calls her
tribe, when they may commence eating the green
corn, nor do the younger ones ever anticipate this
permission.

l!'^

I'm

^%1

274-

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

She frequents the fields, daily examines the silks of
the young spikes, and when they become dry, plucks
and prepares some of them in different ways, and
^ tiien presents them to her frieL'ds.

Afterwards she decorates the door- way leading to
her lodge with the husks of the recently-gathered
corn, which are regarded as signals for the approach-
ing feasit. The intelligence spreads rapidly, and the
whole tribe, as it were, pass in review before her lodge
to witness the welcome invitation.

Forthwith the young and the old, without regard to
sex, are seen joyfiilly skipping and dancing to their
respective fields, and the whole atmosphere resounds
with shouts and songs appropriate to the occasion;
they return in the same manner loaded with ears of
green com, which chey either bury in the embers,
still enveloped in their husks, or roast before the fire j
when sufficiently done, they season it with bear's oil,^
buffalo's suet or marrow, and partake of the rich though
simple rq)ast with joyful gratitude : and no occasion
with which I am acquainted, displays in a more mani-
fest degree its social effects than the corn feast The
heart dilates with pleasure even to overflowing, and
the guests give utterance to their joys in songs and
dances, and continue the hilarity for the remaining,
part of the day and night, and frequently for the whole
of the succeeding day. No people, I am j^ersuaded,
experience the mirthful scenes of life in a higher
degree than they do ; in fact, the old grey-headed
men and women are seen to commingle in the sports,
and seem to re-enjoy with increased zest the scenes of
their youth.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

275

After this breach upon their new crops, they are
permitted to gather without restraint whatever their
wants require ; but the Indians, both old and young,
look upon it as upon their game, as the gift of the
Great Spirit, and neve' wantonly destroy either,
except as before remarked, while in the territories of
their enemies.

The harvest feast, and that observed at the appear^
ance of the buffalo, are cond^icted so very sLnilar to
the foregoing, as to render any description of them
altogether unnecessary. The songs are different ; but
the dances and other enjoyments are nearly the same.

I have already remarked, that the appearance of the
new moon was a subject for rejoicing among the In^
dians ; but such is not uniformly the case, and they
are somewhat capricious amongst themselves about it.
Should it be discovered in the day-time, the youth
of both sexes, and frequently the young warriors and
married women, join in the dance and song, which are
equally gay and animated with the before-described,
hut are not as exclusively approprfate. When the dis-
covery is made in the evening, the parties are more
numerous, especially if the weather be fjne ; but these
occasions are far more generally noticed when they
happen on the approach of the hunting season, or at
the planting or ingathering of the crops, or antece-
dent to contemplated hostile operations against their

enemies.

'l<i\ , .-U) r I'' ■■

T 2

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

CHAP. IX.

HUNTING, FISHING, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES,
( CURRENCV, AND TRADE. i*

Hunting, next to war, is thought by the Indians to
be the most honourable employment they can
pursue ; and, as it is essential to their mode of exist-
ence, they are trained to it from the time they are
able to bend the bow, and become familiar with
every art and cunning that can be devised to destroy
such animals as are necjessary for food, or valuable
for their furs. Though naturally indolent, nothing
can exceed their industry when engaged in the chace.
They rise early, hunt late, perform long marches
fasting, and pursue game through forests and prairie
grass by trails, which none but. themselves would be
able to discover. . .^ ,^,, ...
.r In general, their hunting parties are not numerous,
*and are conducted according to the caprice of the
individuals composing them, the majority commonly
governing. But when they hunt for their winter
stores, they are large, take different routes, and gene-
rally follow the directions prescribed before starting,
by a general council. ■ / '/

They are all composed of volunteers* who respec-
tively yield obedience, for the time, to the chiefs they
have assisted to elect for the occasion. Before they
start on these expeditions, whether their number be
few or many, it is customary to await the favourable
omen of dreams, which, if not foi;thcoming when wish-
ed for, aie encouraged or forced by prayers and long

tiiidp

and {

conce

the p

shoulc

pal hu

pendei

resign

form r

Of tHE WEStERN INDIANS.

«77

tLhd painful fastings, ofientimes to the inconvenience,
and sometimes to the manifest injury of all those
concerned. This conduct frequently disconcerts
the previous arrangement of the councils ; for
should the dream of the chief, or one of the princi-
pal hunters of a party, and those only are much de-
pended on, happen to the .contrary, they generally
resign their appointments, or abandon the old, and
form new parties, in which their friends generally
support them*

These changes are not thought of any consequence,
and are only named to present the peculiarity of their
characters.

Th0 Indians of different tribes pwsue different
methods in taking their game j some effect it on horse-
back, others on foot, and occasionally the hunting
parties are made up promiscuously of both. The
hunting implements, where an intercourse with the
traders admits of it, consist of rifles ; but, under
different circumstances, of lances five or six feet
in length, armed with pointed stones, iron or bones,
and of bows with arrows pointed in the same
manner. - . ii.:i.\ .i U'^-'::ir'y''.r-^*y:^'[x :^z::' Ui-:-

The hunters from experience become acquainted
with the habits of the animal they pursue ; and, in-
deed, their success depends very much on this know-
ledge. They always approach from the leeward,
those which are naturally gifted with an acute sense
of smell, as it were to guard them from danger ; they
resort to ambuscades to take such as depend on vision
and flight for their safety ; and to decoys and imita-
tions to circumvent others not peculiarly discrimina-

T 3

1 :„

278

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOMt:

tive. In hunting the buffalo vrith rifles, no great difl
ficulty is presented ; precaution in the approach, and
in aim, vrhich is always at or near the ear, or just back
b£ the shoulder, being all that is required.

The lance is used on horseback, but not till ailer
the partial success of the boW and arrow, which ar0
l^romlscUously resorted to, as occasion Requires.

The mounted parties for hunting are usually nu^
meroud* They approach the herds through ravines,
or under cidVet of hillocks, &c. till they are disco^
Vered, when each pursues a separate buffalo, at an
accommodating speeid, apparently as well understood
by th^ horse as his rider, and continues to shoot his
Arrows till he inflicts a mortal wdund ; or should there
be any doubt in this respect, and circumstances admit,
he resorts to his lance. He ^hen attacks another^
and sometimes a third and fourth ; though it is very
seldom their horses are able to continue the chace
so long. The individuals who kill the greatest num^
ber, through a series of hunts, are of course esteemed
the best hunters; a distinction which all are ex^
ceedingly ambitious to acquire and strive to, with a
zeal and intrepidity almost bordering on madness*
These observations are universally applicable in re-
spect to all the different modes of hunting. When
the bow and arrow are used by hunters on foot,
they usually resort to the salt-licks and watering
places, where they secrete themselves among bushes
or excavations of the earth, frequently arranged or
constructed for the purpose. On the arrival of a
herd, they simultaneously discharge their arrows at
some one, or more, occupying dif!erent places, that

O' THE WESTBRK JKDIANS.

had been previously fixed on, and generally witiv
success.

The hunters in some tribes suri'ound large herds of
buffalo, elk, and deer, and drive them either into
impassable ravines, or upon the precipitous confine*
of rocky cliffs j where they take with their lances,
bows and arrows, as many as their necessity may'
require.

I have never known a solitary instance of their
wantonly destroying any of those animals, except on
the hunting grounds of their enemies, or encouraged
to it by the prospect of bartering their skins with the
traders*

When an opportunity for a choice is presented, and
their wants extend no farther, the Indians kill the
calves, on account of the preference they have for
their meat ( and on the same account) they select the
fallow cows when they lay in their stores. How<.
ever, when such cannot be conveniently obtained,
they shoot promiscuously at such as chance presents.
But as the buffalo is a difficult animal to kill, imless
shot in particular places, and as the Indians are no
ways remarkable for the use of the rifle or gun, they
wound very many more than they are able to take.

The wounded bulls, in particular, become fearless
and ferocious ; roar terribly, pitch against trees and
rocks, tear up the earth, and frequently attack, and
sometimes destroy the hunters. .'^

Many are destroyed by the hunters and panthers ;
but a much greater number, in my opinion, perish in
the burning prairies, or are drowned by the breaking
away of the ice in their attempts to pass over streams,

T 4

^80

MANKER» and CtJflTOMR OF SOME

or by the devastating floods which sometimes delUgd
the alluvions, and bear off immense herds. Notwith-*
standing the great extent of this sweeping destruc-
tion, there is no apparent diminution of their num-
ber i the increase being, at least, equal to the waste.
Such are the opinions of the old Indians, who have
had good opportunities to judge, and such, I have no
doubt, is the fact, from the existence of so many cir*
cumstances favourable to their propagation.

The sense of smell with the elk and deer is re*
mai'kably acute ; they also see quick. Are very cun-
ning, and run with great rapidity ; hence they are
exceedingly difficult to be taken. They are hunted
in the same manner as the buffalo, excepting the
pursuit on horseback, and the decoys that are some*
times resorted to at particular seasons of the year.

For a decoy the Indians use the head of a buck-elk<
or deer, nicely preserved with the horns attached,
with which, having previously secreted themselves,
they beat the bushes, and at the same time imitate
the wooing bleat, or defying snort of the real animal.
Thib manoeuvring generally produces the intended
effect J the males or females, as they may happen to
be near, are attracted to the spot, and, if in proper
condition, shot by the hunters.

The Indians seldom eat the flesh of either of tliese
animals, while that of the buffalo can be obtained i it
is, nevertheless, excellent in its season, particularly
that of the deer, and they preserve it in considerable
quantities.

The tendons of the deer are wrought into a sort of
twine, with which they sew their Uggings and mocka-

OF THE WESTEUN INDIANS.

S81

sins. The tips of their horns are appHed to point their
arrows, perforate skins for sewing, and the like.

They seldom hunt purposely either for bears or
small game ; but kill such is come in their way, and
for which they have occasion* When on their hunts,
at a distance from their villages, they cut their meat
in pieces of greater or less thickness, according to
the temperature of the weather, suspend it on poles,
smoke, and dry it, and finally convey it home, either
on their pack-horses, or in canoes, which they con*
struct for the purpose. When in the neighbourhood
of their settlements, the meat is conveyed home fresh,
in which condition they greatly prefer it.

Formerly, the Indians almost venerated the beaver,
on account of the high rational faculties it discovered,
in daming creeks, and building houses for its own ac-
commodation, and particularly in educating its young,
and avoiding dangers. • But, latterly, since they have

* The young beavers oflen begin to cut down trees, for the pur-
pose of making dams, before they are capable of judging of the
directions in which they would be likely to fall. In such cases, the
old ones not only interrupt their progress, but take them to such as,
M^hen felled, will answer the sought-for object. This trait in their
character is well known to the Indians, who could not travel oter
their haunts without observing numerous trees thus partially cut
off, and judiciously abandoned. I have heard it suggested that
these appearances had been produced in their playful frolics, or to
acquire experience. But, if such was the fact, we might suppose
that they would cut those nean^^t to their cabins first ; that they
would be found fresh cut in the neighbourhood of their ponds,
and sometimes remote from the water ; but I have never seen them
except in situations well calculated in every other respect for the
construction of their dams.

I have repeatedly seen traps which had been sprung with sticks
and robbed of their baits, and evidently by beavers, as their foot-
steps were traceable in their vicinity, while those of no other ani-
mal could be discovered.

28^

MA>7NERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

become acquainted with the value and consequence
which the white people attach to the fur of this
animal, they hunt it with an avidity and industry
that threaten in the course of a few years to era-
dicate them from their hunting grounds. They
are commonly taken with traps and snares, or falls ;
though sometimes they are killed with rifles, lances,
or arrows.

Their haunts soon attract tlie notice of the hunters,
\;ho bury their traps, or suspend large logs in
such a manner that the beaver, in attempting to
obtain the baits, springs them to his own destruc-^
tion. Sometimes holes are made in the ice formed
on their ponds, to which the beavers, when driven
from their houses, resort to breathe, and are des->
patched witli spears or lances. They also break
down their dams, and having previously prevented
their retreat, take them by destroying tlieir cells.
Their skins form a very important item in the Indian

trade.

The turkey is not much valued, though, when fat,
till Indians frequently take them alive in the following
manner. Having prepared from the skin an apt re.
semblance of the living bird, they follow the turkey
trails or haunts, till they discover a flock, when they
secrete themselves behind a log, in such a manner as
to elude discovery j partially display their decoy;
and imitate the gobbling noise of the cock. This
management generally succeeds to dra v off first one
and then another from their companions, which from
their social and unsuspecting habits, thus succes-
sively place themselves literally in the hands of the

dF THE WESTERN INIJIAKS.

285

hunters, who quickly despatch them, and wait for
the arrival of more. This species of hunting, with
fishing, is more practised by the boys than the older
Indians, who seldom, in fact, undertake them, unless
closely pressed by hunger.

They take fish with a kind of hurdle net, made by
weaving bunches of brushwood or sticks together
with giape vines. They are of considerable length,
and are used nearly In the same manner practised
for taking shad, herrings, &c. in the United States.
They are not, however, extended into deep water, and
the lower ends of the brush are loaded with stones, and
the rear of the net is lined with boys, who constantly
beat the water with rods, to prevent the escape of the
fish. In this way, considerable quantities are taken,
and oftentimes merely for sport : but in such cases,
the fish are always suffered to escape uninjured ; a
usage strictly enjoined by the older Indians, to pre-
vent their unnecessary and wanton destruction, tj .

AGRICULTURE.

\'ii

The Indians chiefly depend on the chace for %
subsistence ; therefore what little progress they have
made in agriculture, ought rather to be ascribed to
incident, than to any settled design.

There are many, besides the roving tribes, that do
not practise tillage; and it is highly probable that
those which do, inherit what of the art they possess
from remote antiquity.

Otherwise, in a country so well supplied with
game, as theirs generally is, it appears to me, it
would have received no attention, or else have been

li 'Mi

•1 Ml

1 '
I

28-1

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOMfe

carried to a much greater degree of perfection. Ob»
servation, in which they are by no means deficient,
must have unfolded to their knowledge the fecundi-
fying powers of the earth, at as early a period,
(supposing their progenitors the same,) as it did to
any other race of men j and, had a similar necessity
existed, they, no doubt, would have made as great
proficiency. Even circumstanced as they are, they
raise, in the neighbourhood of many of their villages,
excellent though not very abundant crops of corn,
beans, tobacco, pumpkins, squashes, &c. as before
noticed. In efiecting this, they usually till the prai-
ries; when otherwise, they clear their grounds by
building fires at the roots of trees, or by stripping
the barks from them, and, with hoes procured from
the traders, plant their various kinds of seeds pro-
miscuously, that is, without regard to sorts or ar-
rangement. They carefully remove the weeds j keep
the soil loose; and when occasion requires, hill
it, to prevent the fragile vegetation from being in-
jured by the winds. In dry seasons they irrigate
their fields occasionally, and at their harvests preserve
all the refuse as a common stock for food for their
horses, which, with the dogs, are the only animals they
have in a state of domestication. The former are
much more abundant in some tribes than others, and,
where most so, constitute the principal wealth of the
Indians. They are valued in proportion to their fleet-
ness and ability to continue the chace ; and those tliat
can run down three or four biiffalos at a hunt are
esteemed almost invaluable ; because, to their owneis,

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

285

they are the certain passports to distinction. Among
the Osages and Kansas, they are common property,
and are rarely used, except as pack-horses in their
hunting excursions.

Their dogs are all similar in their qualities and ap-
pearance, and seem to be intermediates between the
fox and wolf.

They are with the Indians, as elsewhere, generous,
faithful, and devotedly attached to their masters, who,
in return, caress and provide for them with almost as
much care and assiduity as they do for their own
families.

They are trained to guard the corn fields against
the depredatory encroachments of the horses j to
pursue game, especially after it has been wounded j
and, when collected, to defend it from the wolves,
which seldom have the courage to dispute with
them the propriety of their trust. In some tribes
they are eaten, and esteemed a great delicacy;
but this practice does not prevail where the buffalo,
elk, and deer, are found in any considerable num-
bers. . '„.■ •' -, --■ /,' r/[^ ..,%■■::■■ ■'••.r i;r,, ,:>!:. .j.,-.

According to tradition, the Great Spirit, when he
became offended with the Indians because of their
mal-practices, particularly one towards another, gave
them the dog, as a ^ *\ttern of fidelity for their imita-
tion ; from which, and from their own accounts of
these animals, I infer that they were in a state of
domestication among the Indians, very long before
the American continent was known to, or even
thought of, by the Europeans,

4 ' ;■

: • '.%m\

'•§> ■

^80

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

• » MANUFACTURES. > ' *

I have already noticed the progress the Indians
have made in geographical delineations and hiero-
glyphic writings, as proofs of their capacity for far-
ther and more important improvements, even though
wholly insulated from the civilized world. And,
were others wanting, I might add the knowledge they
have acquu'ed in such branches of manufacture as
are essential to their comforts.
- These attainments have principally originated in
necessity, and they unquestionably would have been
extended to more positive demonstrations to the
point, provided the exciting causes essential to such
improvements had existed. ■ ^i^:.-. •■-]''} ^^nt:.-^ :•

' But the case is far otherwise ; the means of
procuring a comfortable livelihood are generally at
command, and opposed to them; besides, the men
are taught to regard every kind of labour and fatigue,
apart from war, the chace, and the construction of
implements connected with these several pursuits, as
servile, and unbecoming the lofty character of the
warrior. Hence, they can claim but very little if
any credit for the proficiency to which some of the
arts have arrived among them. It is true, they con-
struct cabins and canoes, and manufacture for their
own use, besides what I have mentioned, wooden
bowls and spoons fropi the protuberances of trees,
and pipes from clay and indurated boles ; but the
dressing of skins, the construction of pottery, and
the fabrication of blankets and mats, aie left for the

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

287

Indians
d hiero-
jr for far-
ft though
1. And,
!dge they
acture as

inated in
lave been
IS to the
al to such

means of
snerally at
the men
d fatigue,
ruction of
ursuits, as
ter of the
y little if
ne of the
they con-
for their
I, wooden
of trees,
but the
ttery, and
eft for the

performance of tlie women, notwithstanding their
other engagements, and supposed inferior intellectual
endowments. In consequence of this state of things,
added to the roving and belligerent lives they lead,
and the disadvantages they labour under for want of
working tools, the very limited knowledge they have
acquired, ought not to excite our surprise ; and I am
persuaded will not, when all the circumstances of
their lives have been considered.

Their mode of dressing skins is very simple. When
they wish to preserve the hair, they first extend the
skins in the shade, and spread a thin covering of the
recent ordure of the buffalo mixed with clay, on the
fleshy sides, which for two or three days are kept
constantly moistened with water. In the next place,
they are thoroughly cleansed, and subsequently
rubbed in the brain of some animal, till they become
dry, sofl, and pliant. - -' "' ' •

They are then washed in water thickened with com
bran, dried, and finally scraped with bones, sharp
stones, or knives, or sometimes they are worked soft,
by drawing them backwards and forwards over the
rounded end of a piece of timber, fixed permanently
in the ground. When sufficiently di*essed, in the man-
ner above described, they are hung tip to be smoked,
either in the smoke aperture of the lodges, or in
places constructed exclusively for the purpose.

Dressed skins are generally kept in this situation,
except when required for use.

Should the hair at any time become loose, they
cover the hairy sides of the skins with finely-cut oak-

!■■?;:

lim

^288

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

bark, and sprinkle water on them three, four, or five
times a day, till it becomes fixed.

When skins are to be dressed without the hair, they
are covered with ashes, and kept in a trough of water,
till the action of the ley readily admits of its being
scraped off; when the same proce^^ses, as above de.
scribed, are performed with brains, bran, smoke, &c.

The former are used by the Indians for bedding,
robes, and dresses, and, in some instances, for lining
their lodges ; the latter are made into leggings and
mockasins, and in some of the tribes into coverings
for their tents or lodges. Those used for construct-
ing their canoes, are never dressed.

While travelling, the hunters preserve their skins
by simply rolling, or placing leaves in them : this,
however, it should be understood, is only done in cool
weather, for they seldom attempt to save them in the
summer months ; or if they should, it is by drying
and smoking them over a fire. The skins are gener-
ally dry when put into the hands of the women for
dressing, though this condition is not considered as
a requisite in the process. It is a fact worthy of
notice, that skins dressed by the Indians, that is,
those which have been smoked, are never injured by
worms, and are not so liable to become hard, or to
stretch, after having been wet, as are the pliant ones
of the professed leather-dressers among the white
people.

In manufacturing their pottery for cooking and do-
mestic purposes, they collect tough clay, beat it into
powder, temper it with water, and then spread it

or five

ir, they
■ water,
5 being
lOve de-
ke, &c.
ledding,
)r lining
ngs and
overings
mstruct-

■ *'

teir skins
m: this,
e in cool
tm in the
,y drying
re gener-
omen for
idered as
worthy of
, that is,
[ijured by
rd, or to
iant ones
;he whit<?

ig and dO'
eat it into
spread it

OF THE WESTERN' INDIANS. 2§9

over blocks of wood, which have been formed into
shapec io suit their convenience or fancy. When
sufficiently dried, they are removed from the moulds,
placed in proper situations, and burned to a hardness
suitable to their intended uses.

Another method practised by them is, to coat the
inner surface of baskets made of rushes or willows,
with clay, to any required thickness, and, when dry,
to burn them as above described.

In this way they construct large, handsome, and
tolerably durable ware ; though latterly, with such
tribes as have much intercourse with the whites, it is
not much used, because of the substitution of cast-
iron ware in its stead.

When these vessels are large, as is the case for the
manufacture of sugar, they are suspended by grape
vines, which, wherever exposed to the fire, are con-
stantly kept covered with moist clay.

Sometimes, however, the rims are made strong,
and project a little inwardly quite round the vessels,
so as to admit of their being sustained by flattened
pieces of wood, slid underneath these projections, and
extending across their centres.

The hair of the buffalo and other animals is some-
times manufactured into blankets ; the hair is first
twisted by hand, and wound into balls. The warp
is then laid of a length to answer the size of the
intended blanket, crossed by three small smooth rods
alternately beneath the threads, and secured at
each end to stronger rods supported on forks, at
a short distance above the ground. Thus pre-
pared, the woof is filled in, thread by thread, and

''I

III

'■4

t, if. I

:; m

■i V

ill:

ill
ill

'-'Ml

S90

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

pressed closely together, by means of a long
flattened wooden needle. When the weaving is
finished, the ends of the waq) and woof are tied into
knots, and the blanket is ready for use. In the same
manner they construct mats from flags and rushes,
on which, particularly in warm weather, they sleep
and sit

In districts of country where the sugar maple
abounds, the Indians prepare considerable quantities
of sugar by simply concentrating the juices of the
tree by boiling, till it acquires a sufficient consistency
to crystallize on cooling. But, as they are extrava-
gantly fond of it, very little is preserved beyond the
sugar-making season. The men tap the trees, attach
spigots to them, make the sap troughs ; and some-
times, at this frolicking season, assist the squaws in.
collecting sap.

The men occasionally amuse themselves with mak-
ing bowls and pipes of clay, for their individual use,
which are burned as before described.

They also make bowls and pipes of a kind of
indurated bole, and of compact sand and limestone,
which are excavated and reduced to form by means
of friction with harder substances, and tlie inter-
vention of sand and water. They generally orna-
ment them with some figure characteristic of the
owner's name ; as for instance with tliat of a buffalo,
dk, bear, tortoise, serpent, &c., according to the
circumstance or caprice that has given rise to its
assumption. In the same way they manufactuie
their large stone mortars, for reducing corn into fine
meal.

OF THE WRSTKHN INDIANS.

201

long
ig is
I into
same
ashes,
sleep

maple
mtities
of the
istency
ixtrava-
ond the
\, attach
d some-
^uaws in.

Ill specifying the employments of the Indians,
although the subjects do not properly come under
this head, I ought not to omit giving some account
of their cabins or lodges, which are always con-
structed by the men. They are usually formed of
split poles, in the shape of an equilateral, quadran-
gular, obtusely-truncated cone, with an aperture
through the top, for t^e egress of the smoke. They
are generally about twenty feet square, and from
twelve to fourteen in height. The apertures be-
tween the poles are closed either with prairie grass
and clay, turf, or the barks of trees. They have no
windows, and but one door, which is generally on
the south side : in cold weather they close it with a
curtain of skins, and it is not unusual, as I have
already remarked, for the cabins of the chiefs and
principal warriors to be partially, and sometimes
wholly lined with the same materials.

From the loose manner in which they build their
fires, their lodges are intolerably smoky, especially
in windy weather ; and, in fact, whenever artificially
heated, they are sufficiently so to render them exceed-
ingly uncomtbrtable to all except Indians, who, from
being accustomed, scarcely experience any inconve-
nience from it.

Considerable difference prevails among the dif-
ferent tribes, and even among the individuals of the
same tribe, in the construction of their lodges.

Sometimes they are built principally of clay or
turf, and at others of bark or brush, sustained by
poles, and covered first with prairie grass, and then
with loose earth.

u Q

•1 v

ill!.' i

2D2

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

This difference particularly distinguishes the In-
dians settled in villages from the roving bands, which
always construct their huts in the most temporary
manner ; nevertheless, they are generally very com-
fortable, being covered with skins, which, for the
especial purpose, make up part of their baggage.

The lodges for public purposes are much larger,
and vary considerably in the forms of their struc-
ture j sometimes they are octagonal ; at others, ob-
Jong, or square ; and, as the case may be, aic
otherwise pyramidical.

They are the depositories of all public records
and property, and are never entered by any of the
individuals of a tribe, except on public occasions :
even enemies, when they have it completely in their
power, deem it sacrilegious to enter them, or in any
way to molest their contents, unless the proprietary
nation should have been wholly cut off or vanquished.
' Their canoes are made promiscuously by either
men or women, and sometimes conjointly by both,
according to the exigency for which they are wanted.
The skeletons or frames are made of osiers, or
flexible poles, lashed together with bark or some
other materials, and are covered generally with the
skins of the buffalo sewed together, and to the frame,
with the sinews of the deer. They vary in size con-
siderably, according to the service for which they
are wanted : sometimes a single skin covers one, and,
at others, a half dozen are required. The hau* is
left on the outside ; it, however, soon weais off) when
the boat moves rapidly in the water and is easily mii-
jiagtd.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

293

The Indians smoke, oil, and preserve tlieni with
great care, which makes them very durable. When
travelling, they often remove them to the land, invert
and use them for shelters against the rain ; being ex-
ceedingly light, they are carried without inconvenience
over the longest portages. The Indians also construct
canoes from the bark of the birch-tree, and from
cotton-wood trees, and such are more or less in use
among most of the tribes. *

' "" "','■*■■ ,.' '^'

CURRENCY AND TRADE. ' ' '

From the nature and origin of society among the
Indians, it may readily be supposed, and correctly
too, that trade among themselves, and even with
strangers, is conducted on a very limited scale, and
by precarious standards.

Their currency standard of value is different in dif-
ferent tribes. Among the Osages, Kansas, Ottowas,
Mahas, and their neighbouring tribes, the beaver skin
is as much the aggregate of fractions, as the dollar is
in Spain and the United States, or as the sovereign
in Great Britain.

In general, two good otter skins are valued equal
to one beaver skin ; from ten to twelve racoon, or four
or five wild-cat skins, at the same ratej and so on for
other skins, or materials for traffic. The standard
among the Mandans is a skin full of corn.

Tliese skin measures are of different dimensions, and
are kept in the council lodge. The Ricaras use a
stone mortar for the same purpose, and it is kept in
the same public place ; while some of the tribes
situated on the western side of the Rocky Mountains,

u 3

! +

'll't.i

:294

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

make use of various coloured shells^ ground to an oval
or nearly round shap^. Belts of wampum are also
used, not only as standards of value, but as records of
important transactions. According to these various
standards they exchange property among themselves,
and with the traders, for such articles as they fi^ncy,or
may really want; but, as the Indians are not generally
acquainted with the value of foreign commodities, it
frequently happens among some of the tribes, that
councils are convened to establish the rate of ex-
change, which is afterwards publicly promulgated,
and pretty strictly adhered to. In most of the tribes,
however, the traders are left to fix their own prices,
and they generally avail themselves of the privilege
to the extent of the credulity and ignorance of the
Indians; but I have already named this circumstance,
; jgether with the consequences that sometimes follow.
When two of the Indians have entered into a con.
tract, and a credit is given, the time of payment al-
ways extends to the termination of tlie next hunting
season, and the number of beaver skins due, is regis-
tered by a similar number of marks or notches cut on
the inside of the great council lodge, at the first sub-
sequent public meeting. On the final settlement, it is
exceedingly rare that any disagreement takes place ;
though, should any exist, the affair is referred for ad-
justment to some of the most respectable old men or
counsellors, much after the manner practised in civili-
zed life. The decision is final, and, though it should
be disapproved, is very seldom reproached. Nothing^
indeed, could give greater offence to the referees, than
an opposite line of conduct: the ofiended parties would

1()

or TH£ WESTERN INDIANS.

295

never afterwards sit at the same council tire, nor hold
any other intercourse with the offender.

Breach of contract is very seldom known among
them; but, when one does occur, coercion is out of the
question: for they, in fact, are strangers to all systems
of the kind; and when told by the traders of the prac-
tice of imprisoning for debt, which prevails among the
whites, the motive, unless it be for revenge, appears
to them altogether paradoxical. -

Should an Indian be unable to meet his engage-
ments, in consequence of sickness or ill success in
hunting, the creditor never duns him, nor even so
much as mentions his individual wants in his presence,
but the same friendly relations subsist between them,
as though no disappointment or delinquency had taken
place. But if the inability of the debtor originates
in his indolent or intemperate habits; or if he wilfully
omits to pay when he has the means in his power, and
otherwise applies them, he then suffers a greater pen-
alty than imprisonment, he is abandoned by his friends,
and is characterized as a bad Indian ; and his creditor
would esteem it dishonourable to receive from hiin
iiflerwards even his just demands. Such instances
have occuned within my knowledge ; but they are
exceedingly rare. These methods of negotiation and
trade answer very well among the Indians; they suffer
no inconvenience from the absence of a specie curren-
cy } and, in fact, many Indians are ignorant of its use,
and, when in possession of coin, apply it solely to de-
corating their persons. They are generally strangers
to exclusive property, except as regards their lodges
and furniture. It is true, after theu: hunts and

u 4

, I

!■:

296

MANNfiHS AND CUSTOiVIS OF SOME

harvestings they make divisions, but they are for the
convenience of disposition ; for, as before remarked,
no one of respectable standing will be allowed to ex-
perience want or sufferings of any kind, whUe it is in
the power of others of the same community to prevent
it. In this respect they are extravagantly generous;
always supplying the wants of their friend from their
own superabundance. In this equality of condition
and privilege enjoined by natural laws, the Indians,
where they understand how different people in civilized
life manage their affairs, feel themselves supremely
happy, in being exempted from the evils which avariceii
pride, and folly, entail on them. i

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OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

297

:t; i^iT-fe, '*,!?-?;> "

^.m

^i>t> '•'>

CHAP. X.

l><y>:i?#f^^ .

r U^,

'.'/,

CRIMES AND MODES OF PUNISHMENT.

There happen but very few occurrences among
the Indians, which are regarded as criminal. I
have never heard of an instance of treason, or con-
spiracy against any of their communities, and know
of no punishment for such an offence. But, if I un-
derstand the Indian character, an individual detected
in holding a correspondence with the enemies of his
country, would, I venture to assert, suffer instant
death by the hands of the detector.

Murder, ingratitude, cowardice, adultery, stealing
and lying, constitute nearly the whole list of their
crimes.

The first is punished " blood for blood," according
to the Mosaic law, by the relations of the deceased,
without regard to the justification of trial and con-
demnation.

Ingratitude is certain to involve the offender in a
loss of character ; and this offence, and cowardice, are
represented in more hideous colours, and dwelt on
with more pointed emphasis by the squaws and old
men, in their lessons to the youth, than any other,
with the exception of murder, in their whole catalogue.
It is sometimes punishable with death: for, should an
Indian, who had been taken prisoner, accept grace by
being adopted into the family of his captors, and af-
terwards abscond and be retaken fighting against them,

$98

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

he would forfeit his life, without the possibility of a
second reprieve. ^ ,

Loss of reputation is not the only consequence of
cowardice. Among the Kansas, when it cannot be
corrected, they destroy cowards probably with a view
to nerve the young warriors in the practice of the op-
posite quality, c . :

I witnessed one of these executions, which origin-
ated in the following circumstances, and was con-
ducted in the following manner. . ' ': ;/^ -

The Kansas had returned from a successful war
excursion, in which one of their party, who had on a
former occasion been culpable, behaved in a very
cowardly manner. The whole nation, except tliose
who had lost relations, and Te-pa-gee, the subject
for chastisement, was engaged in rejoicings appro-
priate to the occasion of victory. Te-pa-gee, probably
without the least suspicion of the destiny that await-
ed him, had withdrawn from the public ceremonials,
and sullenly seated himself on the trunk of a tree ad-
jacent to the river. Shortly after, and apparently
without design, the squaws and children in their
dances approached the river, near the place occu-
pied by him ; when E-gron-ga-see walked carelessly
through the festive groups, presented himself be-
fore the astonished culprit, and proclaimed to him,
in a voice audible to all present, " Thy cowardice
has forfeited thy life." The sports instantly
ceased; all was silence and consternation : E-gron-
ga-see drew his knife from beneath his robe, Te-
pa-gee bared his bosom, received a thrust to the
heart, and died without scarcely uttering a groan.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

299

The warriors then assembled with the witnesses of
this tragic scene ; the executioner, addressing his
audience in a few words, stated the reprehensible con-
, duct of the deceased, and the necessity that existed
for inflicting so signal a punishment; after whick all
returned to their respective homes.

I need not attempt to describe the feelings which
this event occasioned in my mind, and those of the
young Indians generally. We all concluded, that, in
preference to suffering such ignominy, we would die
a thousand deaths, if it were possible, in defence of
our country ; and the old men and squaws availed
themselves of the occurrence to confirm and
strengthen our resolutions.

f ^ The Indians claim the sole disposal of their wives ;
and although, in many instances, they devote them
to the sensual gratification of their friends, without
associating the least impropriety to the transaction,
yet they regard a voluntary indulgence of the passions,
on their part, as an unpardonable offence. . .

Incontinency after marriage, apart from that
tolerated by custom, as above noticed, can scarcely
be numbered among the sins prevalent among the
Indians. The men reprobate lasciviousness, as
unbecoming the character of the warrior j hence,
though their temperament may be as ardent as
is common to any particular race of the human
family, they affect a phlegmatic disposition, to which
the love of reputation and glory forces them to con-
form their habits.

The women are not less ardent than the men j but
the love of character, the apprehension of suffering,

300

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

and tlie continency of their husbands, combine in
general to establish similar habits. » • - v ' ' '
' This, however, is not uniformly the case, more par-
ticularly with those who have adjuncts to participate
in the favours of their husbands ; with such, derelic-
tion from duty occurs much more frequently than it
does, where the conjugal relations are more consist-
ently balanced between the sexes. V -i' . .^ J S
• Repudiation is the punishment most generally
inflicted for this offence ; and it is resorted to botli
by men and women, especially when an ex-parte
attachment exists. On the part of the men the
punishment is, however, discretionary. They some-
times cut off their hair ; slit, or cut off their noses
or ears : at others, when they have many children,
they merely discontinue all intercourse with them,
and substitute other wives in their stead. I knew
of an instance in which the outraged husband
took the life of his light-footed squaw. He was
himself an eye-witness to her offence ; he loved,
and had never suspected: anger, for the moment,
triumphed over reason; he directed his tomahawk,
and the blow was unerring. This circumstance
produced some excitement among her relations ; but
no attempt was ever made, within my knowledge, to
revenge her death. - .

Among the individuals of Dme tribes or nations,
theft is a crime scarcely known. They have neither
fastenings to the doors of their lodges, nor any secret
place for the security of their effects ; and they leave
them for days together, or retire to rest, without en-
tertaining the least apprehciision for tlicir own safety,

,. OF THE WESTEHK INDIANS. ,

301

re consist-

or that of their property. They however are taught
from infancy, that it is not only right, but a duty, to
depredate on the goods and effects of their enemies,
and such as maintain equivocal relations with them.
But these obserations will not apply universally;
for, in some which have become more settled, a dis-
tinction oi\ and desire to accumulate property exists
in a limited degree. Under such circumstances, the
means of obtaining a livelihood are more difficult, and
the indolent are more apt to become dishonest. The
offender is sometimes punished by banishme^ ♦^ ; but,
in general, he is made to restore the stolen goods,
and, if able, sometimes threefold. •_..,?*.

Falsehood they esteem much more mean and con-
temptible than stealing. The greatest insult that
can be offered to an Indian, is, to doubt his courage :
the next is, to question his honour or truth : then
to doubt his ability to hunt and travel, and to
slight his proffered hospitality and friendship. But
insults are not accounted crimes, except against in-
dividuals.

Lying, as well as stealing, entails loss of character
on habitual offenders ; and, indeed, an Indian of in-
dependent feelings and elevated character will hold
no kind of intercourse with any one who has been
once clearly convicted.

For the commission of all crimes, insults, and of-
fences, the party or individual injured is the executor
of its own revenge, except in the case of bloodshed,
when, as before remarked, it devolves on the nearest
relations of the deceased, who seldom relax in their

a02

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

resentments short of obtaining the most ample satis-
faction.

In general they are just one towards dnothei', and
inculcate and practise the moral duties, no doubt be-
cause experience has taught, that such conduct is the
most conducive to their own and the public happiness.
Nevertheless, difficulties sometimes occur, which can-
not be accommodated even by the interposition of the
influence of the national councils. In such cases,
one or other of the parties, with its adherents, sepa-
rates from the nation. - , . . .

While I lived with the Kansas, a young girl who
had been adopted into the Wolf family, was insulted
by a young Indian, belonging to the family distin-
guished by the name of the Panther. The girl enter-
tained a strong antipathy for this would-be gallant,
and, in retaliation for offered violence, or rather in
self-defence, inflicted several dangerous wounds with
a scalping-knife. At first the parents of the parties
sided with their respective children, and afterwards
the entire families became involved in the quarrel, and
some lives were lost on both sides. The affair assum-
ing a serious aspect was carried before the councils,
which at first, from the motives before noticed, re-
fused to give it consideration j nor did their final de-
cision satisfy both parties ; and the most feeble one
abandoned the village, and established a settlement
considerably farther up, on the Kansas river. After
I left them, the parties became reconciled in conse-
quence of a war with the Pawnees, and the discon-
tented returned to their former habitations.

OP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

In common, the councils do not intermeddle with
private disputes ; because, as the Indians say, it would
have a tendency to increase the evil, by increasing its
consequence.

When complaints are preferred, their answer gene-
rally is, that ** none but squaws become involved in-
troubles and disputes, from which they cannot extri-
cate themselves."

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304

>IA1^ER8 AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

■ Ji,'J:i 'V r:^iii *li:K

CHAP. XI.

■ .l:--'i ri.S'i.lx

Manner of counting time, tiiaditions, tumuli, monu-

ments, &c.

1 HEIR mode of reckoning time is very simple. Their
year begins about the vernal equinox, or at the length-
ening of the days : their menstrual periods are reckon-
ed from one full moon to another ; and their diurnal,
or rather nocturnal, for they count nights instead of
days, from sunset to sunset. The first month they
denominate the hunting, bird, or singing month;
because in it they begin to hunt, and the birds begin
to pair, and sing. The second they call the flower
month, because, in it the greatest part of the plants
are in blossom. The third they call the planting
month; as during it they plant the stsds of such
vegetables as they cultivate. The fourth is called
the salt month, on account of the game first collect-
ing in vast herds about the salt-licks, which have
generally become strong at this period. The fifth is
called the buffalo, because in it the male and female
begin to herd together. The sixth is called the corn,
or plum month ; because green corn is then first ga-
thered, and the plums become ripe. The seventh is
called the harvest month, because it is that in whicli
the corn is gathered. The eighth is called the bear, or
smoky month, because these animals are now fat, and
the season for killing them connneuces, and because

^: OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

iVf

305

) frt-'

.f»v

I, MONU-

.., •: -^ . •■ -

e. Their
e lengtli-
; reckon-
r diurnal,
nstead of
nth they
month ;
rds begin
he flower
he plants
planting
of such
is called
it collect-
lich have
he fifth is
d female
the corn,
1 first ga-
eventh is
in which
e bear, or
fat, and
d because

tlie atmosphere is generally very smoky, from the
fires that prevail. The ninth they distinguish as^
the buck, or windy month ; because in it the bucks '
cast their horns, and the winds blow more violently. '
The tenth is the freezing, or snow month ; because ^
of the frost and snows which generally prevail. •
The eleventh is the dead month ; because of the '
dreary aspect which all creation takes on. The
twelfth they call the tliaw or rain month ; because
of the thaws and rains that prevail : and the thir-
teenth they call the sugar months ; because in it they'
manufacture their sugar, from the maple and box
elder trees. - :.;> . . , u. .J.sV ^ : ;; i:^
DiflTerent nations observe the same annual divisions,
though they give different names to the moons, all
which, however, partake of the characteristic changes
of the season. •' ■ ? ' :'

I ought before to have noticed, that in their com-
munications, they particularize different periods, when
deemed necessary, by hieroglyphic figures indicative
of these various characteristics ; as, for instance, the
planting month is represented by grains of sprouting
corn, &c.

They have no general epochs from which to date,
but each individual counts from the time when his
fathers or ancestors flourished.

Their traditionary accounts all refer back to inde-
finite eras. They have many curre.it among them,
of which some have already been noticed, and the
account may be extended somewhat further, per-^
haps to the amusement, though I cannot suppose to
the improvement of my readers. - '

30C

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

Some relate, that the whole human family, and
every living thing, like vegetables, sprang out of the
earth many hundred snows ago : others, as before
noticed, that the Great Spirit created at first only
one of each sex, and placed them on an island
in the midst of the great waters, which, in the
process of time, became too small for their accom-
modation, and threatened them with great cala-
mities. In this distress, the woman, who was
remarkable for her piety and goodness, prayed to
their Great Father, who took compassion on them,
and sent the beavers, musk-rats, and turtles, to
enlarge it with materials from the bottom of the
ocean, which they collected in such great quantities,
as to give to the island the present extent of our
earth.

The different tribes have very different traditions :
some of them are truly ludicrous, and are related with
a seriousness not very reputable to their credulity and
understanding ; of tliis nature is the following : it is
often repeated by the women themselves. It states
that the red men were furnished with long tails, but
that, having offended the Great Spirit, he deprived
them of these ornaments, and from them created the
women. As an additional punishment, he sent large
swarms of mosquitoes to prey upon them, which, when
they were thus mutilated, could torment them with
greater impunity. ; . /fi^rji t: /«fi v ^^^ *? j .

I ought not perhaps to have prefaced this oral ac-
count of the Indians with any remarks of my own,
because without them the advocates of the hypothesis
that all mankind were once quadrupeds, might have

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

507

used it with more plausibility as an argument in sup-
port of those which they have already advanced. -^
The Indians do not pretend to any correct know-
ledge of the tumuli or mounds that are occasion-
ally met with in their country. They believe their
origin artificial, and the production of necessity and
custom, in respect to defence and interments of the
dead. One tradition of the Quapaws states, that a
nation differing very much from themselves, inha-
bited the country many hundred snows ago, when
game was so plenty that it required very slight
efforts to procure a subsistence, and when there
existed no hostile neighbours to render the pursuit
of war necessary. They then merely for sport,
collected the earth into heaps, which have ever
since remained, and been used by other nations
which have succeeded to their possession, as the de-
positories of their dead. Another states that they
have been constructed to protect the red men from
the attacks of wild beasts, which formerly were very
large, and used to destroy many of the Indians j but
that finally the Great Spirit commiserated his red
children, and taught them the use of the bow and
arrow, by which means they had destroyed their
enemies, and the use of this kind of defence had
become unnecessary ; while others state, that they
were built solely for securing one nation from
being suppressed by another. All concur in their
great antiquity, and most of them in their having been
the work of a people which had altogether ceased to
exist, before those hunting grounds came into the pos-
session of the ancestors of the present occupants.

X 2

I"*. I

I (1 ' i !■

1 ■»■■■

'■ I.

r-f.

308

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

The Indians are well acquainted with the circum-
stance of their containing human bones ; and many,
notwithstanding their traditionary accounts, believe
them to have been the depositories of the dead for a
nation of men, which now no longer exists. These
mounds are regarded with great reverence, and are
frequently resorted to by the Indians when in their
neighbourhood, as places sacred to their devotional
exercises. '■" "■• *■ •■* -" "' '■ ' ■* '■'■''- • ^ ■ ' -^
'■' There are other elevations differing materially from
the mounds abovs noticed, which were formerly, and
are at present, exclusively devoted to burying their
dead. They are composed of stones and earth,
placed in such a manner as to cover, and separate one
dead body from another. These, however, are the
burying-places of the modern Indians, and will be
more particularly noticed, when I treat of their man-
ner of interment.

The memory of the squaws is the principal reposi-
tory of their historical treasures, for such are their
traditions esteemed Hence uncommon diligence
and pains are taken by the aged, to repeat circum-
stantially to their children all that they themselves
have been taught. They relate to a great variety
of subjects which no doubt at first originated in
truth ; but which, from a love of the marvellous,
incident, I believe, to the whole human family, have
in general been so transformed through a succession
of ages, as to be entitled to no moie credit than
the witchcraft stories and ballads, that constitute the
evening's amusement in some circles among the
white people. ' V ' •-

OP THE WESTBIIN INDIANS.

309

The Indians are particularly careful to preserve
memorials of those who have discharged their duty
to their country. These, however, result only from
individual feelings ; for they seldom, if ever, execute
any public commemorative measures. Every thing,
however, which has been deposited in the council
lodge, by the chiefs or distinguished warriors, is care-
fully preserved, and referred to on particular occa-
sions. The young warrior, when he assumes his
station in the national councils, takes indescribable
pleasure in these records of the bravery of his ances-
tors, and the older ones dwell on the relation of the
virtues and prowess of their original proprietors with
peculiar satisfaction.

Preceding their entrance upon active warfare, they
serve, next to the war dances, the most important
purpose of inspiring to valorous deeds, and a con-
tempt for danger and death.

At, or soon after burial, the relations of the de-
ceased sometimes cover the grave with stones, and
for years after, occasionally resort to it, and mourn
over or recount the merits and virtues of its silent
tenant.

At others, they cut on smooth-barked trees, or on
soft rocks, hieroglyphic histories of the remark-
able events of individuals, which are read with great
interest, not only by relatives and friends, but by
strangers.

Every thing connected with the dead is regarded
as sacred, even between nations where the most in-
veterate hostility exists ; and instances have taken
place, in which they have contributed to perpetuate

X 3

.■'.

y
jilt,'.

310

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

the excellencies of an unfortunate fallen foe. At
least, so say some of the Osages ; but from my
knowledge of the Indian character, I am disposed to
regard such commemoratives rather as the result
of private friendship than of public magnanimity:
because, with them, the title to excellence is only
awarded to friends; while the reverse is liberally
bestowed on their enemies.

f^y'-i 1 i ^ '.": ■ i'v / V'

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' ■! ■ ':

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

311

■'i'i [T^^^ij^J.

■r^-i^

-^:.-<.^U

CHAP. XII.

POLICY, COUNCILS, TRANSACTION OF PUBLIC BUSINESS GENE-
RALLY, ELECTION OF CHIEFS, RECEPTION OF AMBASSADORS,
PEACE RUNNERS, &C. ,., ,_ , ,, . • .,

The Indians individually acknowledge no superior,
nor are they subordinate to any government, except
such as they find by experience to be essential to
their preservation, triumph, and success in their war
and hunting parties.

On such occasions, and even where the most urgent
necessity exists, they only become voluntarily so, and
can at any time withdraw themselves from all self-
imposed restrictions. Nevertheless, as the object of
their government is almost wholly connected with
their foreign relations, the dread of their enemies
perhaps more than their patriotism commands their
services, and, while on actual duty, renders them
obedient to their chiefs. v/i i j ;i. en^

Some of their chiefs, from extraordinary qualifica-
tions, exercise, at all times, an influence which falls
very little, if any thing, short of absolute authority,
but, in general, the warriors, while in their villages,
are unyielding, exceedingly tenacious of their free-
dom, and live together in a state of equality, closely
approximated to natural rights.

Whenever they deviate from this conduct, it is out
of respect for their chiefs, or because they believe that

x 4

312

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

a much greater degree of success will crown their
efforts when united under, and controlled by a single
efficient head, than otherwise possibly could.

Hence it will be seen that their governments de-
pend on caprice or circumstances, and that although
they somewhat resemble the democratic forai, still a
majority cannot bind a minority to a compliance with
any acts of its own.

The convocation of their meeting, except imme-
diately after a council, is rather capricious and arbi-
trary. Any individual may notify one, but unless the
occasion be highly important, it will be attended more
or less numerously, according to the respect en-
tertained for the convocator. They, however, are
usually held at the request of some one of the aged,
who, if in a village, goes from house to house, and
mentions his wishes, but if the population be more
scattered, the notice is promulgated by runners.
Preparatory to holding a council, the chiefs and
principal warriors g lerally hold private meetings,
at which the propriety of the contemplated business
and the assemblage of the counsellors is considered.
The eldest person always enters a council lodge first,
and is followed by the other counsellors much ac-
cording to seniority, and in the most perfect order.
They next seat themselves in a cross-legged position
on mats, which are arranged circularly around the
lodge. The chief then lights the national pipe, takes
three whiffs, and passes it to the individual next to
himself, of the greatest consequence in the nation.
In this manner it is passed round, till the whole have
smoked, when the chief rises, and in the midst of

OF THE WESTEll» INDIANS.

31S

the most profound silence, tells them that he is ready
to hear their talk.

The councU thus organized, the eldest orator rises
and addresses his audience on the subject for debate.
After he has finished, another rises, and turns by seni-
ority are observed, till every member of the counc il
so disposed, has spoken. On these occasions, the
subjects are debated with much gravity and often
with nervous eloquence, and the orators listened to
with deep interest and attention.

During this time not a breath of censure or
applause is uttered, and the speaker can judge of the
effect of his eloquence only by the countenances of
his audience, and the turn of the subsequent votes.
• They do not speak long, nor irrelatively, neither
are they interrupted by calls to order, nor in any
other way. It is a maxim amongst the counsellors to
make short and pertinent speeches j " chattering,"
say they, " is the privilege of the squaws ; but it is
not characteristic of wise and brave waniors, for they
think and act without much talk."

In their councils a majority generally determines
all their important concerns : it is commonly ascer-
tained by a division and subsequent count* Every
individual determines for himself as to the propriety
of his vote, and no greater insult could be offered
than an attempt to bias it.

In voting, the counsellors sometimes divide, part
arranging themselves with their chief as proSy or cons,
as the subject may conform ' /ith his ideas ; at others,
they express their approbation by merely rising, or by
smoking the national pipe, and not unfrequently by

P.^

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ii'

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314

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

depositing their respective badges, which, as counted,
are reclaimed by them. On some occasions they
arrange themselves on the sides of particular chiefs,
as will presently be noticed. Discussions on the
expediency of war, and the declaration of it, are
often conducted with closed doors, or, in other words,
with secrecy ; opinions in favour of this subject are
often expressed when the final question is taken by
the war-whoop, as the warriors pass in succession by
the chief.

When the majority is large, the minority generally
join it ; but should the division be nearly equal, and
the subject of much moment, great obstinacy
frequently prevails, more particularly should the
disagreement extend to their chiefs. The young
men, and even boys, are permitted to attend these
assemblages ; but they are li^jt suffered to take any
part in them, till they have arrived at puberty, and
distinguished themselves either in war or the chace.
Jf this were not the case, deference for the aged, and
respect for superiors, which are so strictly enjoined
and universally practised in youth as almost to
become a natural habit, would alone operate as a
sufficient restraint. • ' - 1'..' v.

When an election for a chief takes place, the
candidates go by turns to the public lodge, or some
mound near it, and there recount all the deeds they
have achieved; exhibit the trophies they have ob-
tained, and the scars they have received while fight-
ing for their country ; and promise to be the fathers
and protectors of their tribes, and to watch over their
welfare, and promote their happiness.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

315

The preferonce is generally given to those who can
exhibit the greatest number of trophies ; though age
has great weight, especially if accompanied by other
commendable qualities ; and it sometimes happens
that the elderly warriors receive this mark of distinc-
tion, to the exclusion of more equitable rights, if
graduated to the scale of actual merit. After these
harangues and exhibitions are concluded, the warriors
respectively aissemble round the candidate to whom
they give the preference, and whichever has the
greatest number of adherents is commonly acknow-
ledged as the chief

Sometimes, however, these elections give rise
to quarrels or misunderstandings, which result in
the separation of the nation either into friendly or
hostile tribes, though instances of this kind are very
rare.

On some occasions their elections are conducted in
a different way. The counsellors assemble and nomi-
nate a candidate, who separates from the electors,
carrying with him the national pipe. Such as are
friendly to the nomination, join him, and testify their
approbation by smoking the customary number of
whifTs. Should his partizans be a minority, a new
candidate is named, and the same course pursued till
an election is effected. This mode is generally con-
sented to by the candidates when considerable excite-
ment prevails with a view to preserve the union and
strength of their tribe. ; . h..

On others, tl e candidates decorate themselves with
some particular badge, as that of the buck or beaver's
tail, which they wear for several days preceding the

M- .i;t

I if

-n

■- I

316

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

election. In the mean time, their respective partizans
decorate themselves in the same manner, and when
the period for determining the choice arrives, as in
the former instances, it is awarded in favour of the
greatest number, to which the others generally con-
sent by joining in the public rejoicings.

Whenever these elections take place in a nation
composed of different tribes, or in tribes composed of
different villages, which are somewhat remote, the re-
spective families constituting them often depute their
chiefs to attend, who exercise an influence at them, in
proportion to fhe number of warriors they represent
: Individuals sometimes exercise the duties, and re-
ceive all the respectful attentions which the Indians
are accustomed to bestow on chiefs who have been
regularly elected to the station. This occasionally
happens on account of real merit ; but more fre-
quently from the various deceptions and artifices
practised on their credulity, with a view to secure
this particular influence. Such, for instance, are
some of the prophets. Electioneering for one's self'
is thought to be very disgraceful, and is seldom if
ever resorted to, but much intrigue is practised on
these occasions by the immediate friends of the can-
didate. They are sly, cunning, and oftentimes
deceitful ; sometimes they buy articles at an extrava-
gant price from one, and gratuitously part with them
to others, with a view, no doubt, to secure the re-
putation of being generous: at others, theypretend to
have had remarkable dreams, or to predict future
events, dependent on contingencies connected with
their own advancement.

OP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

.317

The candidate elected next receives presents from
his subordinate chiefs, or rather, from the chiefs of
families, consisting oi trophies obtained from their
enemies, or of badges of national distinction : after
which he is conducted to the council lodge, (provided
the election was held without it, as . is commonly
the case,) where all the records and public property
are inscribed with an additional hieroglyphic, charac-
teristic of the new chief. This ceremony i followed
by public feasts and rejoicing, which, in general, are
of short duration, and close with the day.

The candidates spurn with contempt the aid of
those Indians who do not support good characters ;
cowardice and mean habits constitute their principal
disqualifications ; and, should persons of this trait join
in the proceedings, they are studiously avoided, and,
not unfrequently insulted.

The chiefs and candidates for public preferment
render themselves popular by their disinterestedness
and poverty. Whenever any extraordinary success
attends them in the acquisition of property, it is only
for the benefit of their most meritorious adherents ;
for they distribute it with a profuse liberality, and
pride themselves in being estimated the poorest men
in the community. Valour, intrepidity, and liberality,
are the passports to popular favour; while the con-
trasts are the damning sins of Indian politicians. In
general, each family elects a chief to overtook and
attend to its interests ; he is its orator, attends the
councils, and is, whenever occasion requires, an aid
to the principal chief.

The preference in these elections is always given

!:'•'

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I ' ' 'r .

I ;

I i. '

: \

111'* .'t

318

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

to the aged, victorious, and brave warrior. Althougli
their chiefs have great influence, they are obliged to
hunt for their own support, with as much industry as
their warriors j and frequently, when their wives are
numerous, with much greater. It should, however,
be recollected, that this can only happen during the
recess of the general hunts ; as at other times the
products of the chace are divided in proportion to the
size of their families. Their squaws and families
enjoy no particular privileges, but submit to perform
the same duties as are common to the rest of the
tribe.

These heads of the nation receive no emolument
for their services j the honour attached to the situ-
ation being considered a most enviable and satis-
factory reward.

The ambassadors from friendly nations are received
with much ceremony. Usually the chiefs appropriate
a lodge and one of their squaws to each of them ; and,
while they remain, they exercise the same control as
though they were permanently invested in the proprie-
tary. These tokens of regard are, however, ex-
tended to all distinguished friends. On entering tlie
council-lodge, the chief conducts them to the most
honourable situation, and after the ceremony of light-
ing the pipe has been performed, takes the customary
number of whiffs fi-om it himself, and then offers it to
his foreign guests. They then unfold the object of
their mission, and, in the course of a day or two, re-
ceive a reply, ar d take their departure, accompanied
perhaps by a half dozen of the most distinguished
warriors, who sometimes escort them to their homes.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

319

Messengers fifbm hostile nations are not permitted
to enter their villages, unless they bring proposals for
peace that can be honourably accepted, but they com-
municate through a deputation, and are dismissed
without having become acquainted with any of the
opinions or circumstances of their enemies.

Should their negociations terminate favourably, they
are then placed on the footing of friends, and treated
accordingly. '■"•'' = ^ i" ■ n •? ; >;

Messengers of peace, on entering an enemy's coun-
try, secrete their arms, and decorate themselves with
the feathers of the white swan, belts of wampum, &c.
They are sacred personages, and no violence is ever
oiFered them.

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320

MANNKtlS ANI> CUSTOMS OF SOIMK

CHAP. XIII.

PATRIOTISM, MARTIAL CHARACTER AND PROPENSITY, WAR
IMPLEMENTS, PREPARATIONS FOR, AND MANAGEMENT AND
TERMINATION OF WAR, 8CC. ' '

' , ' ,* * t i

JVo people are more enthusiastically attached to
their country than the Indians. This does not ori-
ginate, in any considerable degree, from those local
circumstances which influence the feelings in civilized
life, but from the love of national distinction and glory.
Each nation is divided into families, or sub-tribes,
which are taught to become competitors for the meed
of excellence, in whatever relates to their mode of
life ; and this honourable strife exists among all the
members of their respective families. But it, together
with ambition and self-love, is strenuously cultivated
as subservient to national attachment and devotion.
It is this which constitutes their union and strength ;
and, to an Indian, when his country is to be benefited
by it, death has no terrors ; self is never taken into the
account ; and he submits to his fate, under the impres-
sion that he has done his duty, with a magnanimity not
to be appreciated by worldly minds. Nevertheless,
the Indians have their attachments for particular
places. They sometimes go for miles out of their
way, to visit the site of an old encampment, or situ-
ations where they have escaped imminent dangers, or
any thing remarkable has occurred. But such con-
duct appears to be primarily connected with their
devotional exercises.

OF TIIK VVKSTEUN INDIANS*

NSITY, WAR
iEMENT AND

ttached to
)es not ori-
those local
in civilized
1 and glory,
sub-tribes,
>r the meed
iir mode of
long all the
it, together
y cultivated
id devotion,
id strength ;
be benefited
iken into the
: the impres-
lanimity not
evertheless,

particular
3ut of their
lent, or situ-
b dangers, or
it "^uch con-

with their

The mode of life peculiar to the Indians exposes
them to the optional encroachment of all their hostile
neighbours. For their security they are therefore
indebted to personal bravery, and skill in attack
and defence ; because, in their active warlike oper-
ations, they obey only general instructions ; each
warrior accommodating his manoeuvres according to
his own judgment on the exigency of the occasion.
Hence, the cultivation of martial habits and taste
becomes essential, and constitutes the chief employ-
ment of every individual in their respective com-
munities, first, of the squaws and old men, in relation
to precept, and then of the warriors, in respect to
example.

Under such guidance, the love of war becomes
almost a natural propensity. Besides, they are taught
to believe that their happiness here and hereafter
is made to depend on their warlike achievements ;
and daily example confirms it as a fact, so far as
the indulgence of their affections is concerned ; for
the females, both young and old, affect to despise
the Indian who openly becomes the lover, without
the authority of having acquired distinction either
in the chace, or in fighting against the enemies of his
country.

It is not, therefore, extraordinary that they should
love war, since so inan\ and important results are
believed to depend on their success in it : their hap-
piness, their standing in society, and their sexual
relations, make it necessary that they should excel,
or at least strive to, in whatever is connected with
their mode of existence. Hence, they court oppor-

":>'

'Jgt

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32'2

MAKNEU^ AND CUSTOMS OF kOMU

timities for self-distinction, tind, in fact, when wanting,
oflen make them, in opposition to justice, and the
welfare of their nation; and the indulgence of this
disposition is one of the principal causes of the fre-
quency of war among the Indian nations.

They regard their hunting grounds as their birth-
right; defend them with the most determined bravery;
and never yield them till forced by superior numbers,
and the adverse fate of war. They are exceedingly
tenacious of their rights, and chastise the slightest in-
fringement. Hence, they are almost constantly en-
gaged in warfare with some of their neighbours.

Their instruments of war were formerly the scalp,
ing-knife and tomahawk, formed from flinty rocks,
the bow and arrow, the war-club, and javelin or
spear; and, among some tribes, shields made of several
folds of buffalo skin. Latterly those have been pretty
generally superseded by the rifle, and steel tomahawk
and scalping-knife, procured from the traders.

When a sufficient cause for war is thought to exist,
it becomes the subject of private conversation, till
the opinions of the warriors are pretty well under-
stood ; a council is then convened, and it undergoes
a thorough discussion. If determined on conditionally,
the offending tribe is made acquainted with all the
circumstances ; otherwise, they generally keep the
affair secret, at least so far as respects the subject of
their hostility.

On some occasions, when the chiefs from pru-
dential motives think it advisable not to go to war,
and omit to convene a council to try the question,
the discontent of the warriors reminds them of their

OF THE WMSTRUV 1\1)I.\\S.

323

duty. They discover it hy planting painted posts,
blazing trees, ornamcnving their pei^^ons with black
feathers, and omitting to pain^, or painting their
faces after the manner practised in war. These symp-
toms are discoverable among the young and unin-
Huential warriors; but they nevertheless produce
the intended effect, and lead to a formal expression
of the public feelings.

On adjournment of the council, the warriors repair
to their respective homes, and, having painted their
necks red, and their faces in red and black stripes,
they re-assemble at some place previously fixed on,
and discover their hostile intentions in the dances and
songs that follow. They next prepare their arms,
and provide the munitions for war ; and then follow
the ceremonials of fasts, ablutions, anointings, and
prayers to the Great Spirit, to crown their undertaking
with success. They take drastic cathartics, bathe
repeatedly, and finally anoint themselves with bears'
grease, in which yellow root has been steeped. They
abstain from sexual intercourse, eat sparingly from
their military provisions, and take freely of the Kut-
che-nau, a plant which operates on the human system
something like opium, without producing the same
comatose effects. They then perform the war dance,
which is not less appropriate to this occasion than are
all their festive ones to the events for vJiich they have
been adapted. Whole days are sometimes spent in
making preparations for it. Robes, stumps, posts, &c.
are painted red or black; every movement and appear-
ance bespeaks the interest and solemnity that are
diffused through the tribe.

Y 2

11 ■:'■'■

S24

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

The warriors, arrayed in their military habiliments,
at a proper signal, assemble and commence the dance.
It consists in imitating all the feats of real warfare,
accompanied with the alternate shouts of victory, and
yells of defeat. In short, they perform every thing
which is calculated to inspire confidence in themselves,
and to infuse terror into their enemies. They are
celebrated only at the dawn of a campaign. After
this dance, they commence their m^rch to the cadence
of the shouts, songs, and prayers of the old men,
women, and children, who usually attend them a short
distance on their way.

Their equipments and stores amount merely to
indispensables, which consist of their arms, buffalo
suet, bears' oil, parched corn, anise and wild liquorice
roots, and pipes and tobacco.

Their progress differs according to the make of the
country, the prevalenceofwoods, or hiding-places, &c.,
through which they have to pass. It sometimes amounts
to fifty or sixty miles in a day; but usually to about
thirty or forty. This difference arises in general from
the circumstance whether they are the pursuers or
pursued. They use great precaution in travelling so
as not to leave traces for their enemies to follow them.
They march by families, or small parties separated
from each other, within hearing distance, in single file,
and step high and light. ,

They make various kinus of whoops, % which they
communicate intelligence one to another, to any dis*
tance within hearing; such as those of war, which are
to encourage their own adherents, and intimidate their

OF THE WESTERN INDlANiS.

325

foes ; those of alarm, which advise secrecy or flight,
as the exigency may require ; those of the chace, &c.'
They imitate the barking of the fox, the cry of the
hawk, or the howl of the wolf, at short intervals of
time, so as to maintain their regular distances, and
give each other notice in case of danger. These
imitations are varied, and accommodated to circunti^
stances previously agreed on, and are as well under-
stood as the telegraphic signals practised among
civilized nations.

When arrived within the neighbourhood of their
enemies, a whispering council is held, which is con-
stituted of the principal and subordinate chiefs, and
their deliberations are guarded by sentinels, secreted
at convenient distances, to prevent a surprise. They
then separate and remain hidden, till intelligence from
their spies authorizes an attack.

Their modes of fighting vary according to circum-
stances. I have already described some of them in
pages 8. 50. and 52. to which, and to the notices I
have taken of this subject in the course of my nar-
rative, the reader is referred for farther inform-
ation. "-' . ' ' • • ' •-?

They generally aim at surprising their enemies,
and, with such views, secrete themselves and wait
patiently, for many days together, for an opportunity.
During such times they neither visit nor converse with
each other, but lie the whole time, without varying
their position more than they can possibly help.

They are implacable in their enmities, and will
undergo privations that threaten their own existence,
and even rush on certain death, to obtain revenge ;

Y 3

526

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

but they ai<; graceful for benefits received, and ar-
dent and unchangeable in their friendship. When
battle rages, and death is in every aim, the Indian,
at the risk of his own life, will save his friend, though
arrayed against him in the combat.

Shin-ga-was-sa, while young, visited the Kansas
during a hunting excursion. The wife of a dis-
tinguished warrior paid him some attentions without
the approbation of her husband, which resulted in
her repudiation, and threatened the existence of her
gallant. P£uton-seeh, a young Kansas, secretly in-
terfered, and Shin-ga-was-sa made his escape, without
coming in collision with his justly-irritated foe.
Many years afterwards, the Grand Osages and
Kansas were involved in war : a battle followed, in
which an Osage had shot down Pa-ton-seeh, and was
in the very act of taking his scalp, when Shin-
ga-was-sa arrested his hand, and preserved his
fnend.

In another instance, a Pawnee, who had rendered
himself an object of public resentment to the Kansas,
and was about to expiate his offences by suffering
torture, was, to the astonishment of the whole tribe,
* preserved by the daring intrepidity of his friend. The
circumstance was as follows : The Pawnee had on
some former occasion laid his preserver under par-
ticular obligations, by an act of which I am now
ignorant. In return for it, Sha-won-ga-seeh, the
moment he knew of the captivity of his friend, in-
trigued with the young warriors, who, with some of
his friends, interrupted the ceremonials that had been
authorised by a national council ; cut the bonds of

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

327

the prisoner : mounted him on a fleet horse, and
commanded him to fly for his hfe.
,j, This daring Kansas had previously so disposed of
their horses, that pursuit was out of the question; and
the boldness of the measure so completely paralyzed
the volition of the Indians, that a single effort was not
made to arrest its success. The excitement produced
by thia affair at first threatened tragic consequences :
but Sha-won-ga-seeh*s friends rallied to his defence ;
an explanation ensued, and he finally was much com-
mended for an act that might have cost him his life,
without the propitiation demanded for murder on all
other occasions, v >> .. v .^ , *

I could relate many circumstances of a similar
nature, which would place this trait in their character
beyond all doubt ; but the limits prescribed to my
work will not authorize it. V^

In taking a scalp, they seize the tuft of hair left
for the purpose on the crown of the head in the left
hand, and, raising the head a little from the ground,
with one cut of the scalping-knife, which is held in
their right hand, they separate the skin from the
skull.

During an engagement quarters are very seldom
asked or given ; but should a combatant throw down
his arms, his life is spared, and he is placed in charge
of those who are entrusted with the wounded. When
it is over, the prisoners are all assembled, and
marched to the villages of the captors, either slow or
fast, according as they apprehend danger from pur-
suit : should this, however, be pressing, they destroy
all, sparing neither the aged, women, nor children.

Y 4j

J'C

3S8

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

When arrived within hearing distance of their homes,
the warriors set up the shout of victory, and after a
short pause utter as many distinct whoops as they
have taken prisoners and scalps. At this signal all
the inhabitants tumultuously proceed to meet them,
and, after the first greetings and salutations are over,
commence an attack, with clubs, switches, and mis-
siles, on the captive warriors. The women are ex-
ceedingly barbarous on such occasions, particularly
if they have lost their husbands, or any near re-
latives, in the preceding fight.

Every village has a post planted near the council
lodge, which is uniformly painted red, on the breaking
out of a war. It is the prisoner's place of reftige. On
arriving within a short distance of it, the women and
children, armed as above, and sometimes even wjith
firebrands, place themselves in two ranks, between
which the warriors, one by one, are forced to pass :
it is in general a flight for life though some, who
are sensible of the fate that awaits them, should they
survive, move slowly, and perish by the way. Those
who reach it are afterwards treated kindly, and per-
mitted to enjoy uninterrupted repose, under the
charge of relief guards, until a general council finally
determines their fate. The women and children are
at once adopted into the respective families of the
captors, or some of their friends.

Such warriors as are exempted from their venge.
ance, generally marry among them, and constitute
members of their community. They, however, have
it in their power to return to their relatives and nation
whenever a peace has been concluded j but, as such

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

S29

conduct would be esteemed ungrateful, instances of
the kind very seldom occur. Those who are con-
demned to death, sufler with great magnanimity the
most cruel tortures which revenge can invent. They
are generally bound hand and foot, sometimes to-
gether, and at others to separate posts or trees, and
burned with small pieces of touchwood ; pierced with
goads, and whipped with briars or spinous shrubs, at
different intervals, so as to protract the periods of
their tortures.

These victims to a mistaken policy, during their
sufferings, recount, in an audible and manly voice,
and generally with vehement eloquence, all their
valorous deeds of former times, and particularly those
which they have performed against their persecutors.
They contrast the bravery of their own people with
the squaw-like conduct of their enemies : they say
that they have done their duty ; that the fortune of
war happened to be against them ; and that they
are only hastened into more delightful hunting
grounds than thosi6 they possess here, by squaws who
are incapable of appreciating the merits of brave war-
riors. ■ ■^■> ' "■''■■ ' • ■ ." ' '^s^-i^^v* t .. - ^>^i
They speak of their own deaths as a matter of no
consequence ; their nation will not miss them ; they
have many fearless warriors, who will not fail to re-
venge their wrongs. ' *•.-.;'

As they grow feeble from suffering, they sing their
death songs, and finally expire, without discovering
the slightest indication of the pains they endure. In-
deed nothing can exceed the indifference with which
the Indians apparently suffer the tortures and protract-

'V -U.

830

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

ed deaths, inflicted on them by their relentless and
unfeeling foes.

In these executions the prisoners often make use
of the most provoking language, with a view, no
doubt, to shorten the period of their tortures ; and
they generally succeed ; for the outraged party, un-
able to resist the desire of revenge, despatch them
at once with the tomahawk, or some other deadly
weapon.

I have known an instance, and others have occur-
red, in which a female had the temerity to risk the
public resentment, by interfering in behalf of the cap-
tive. It was at the Kansas village. The subject was
a young Maha, who had rendered himself particu-
larly odious, from having taking the scalp of one of
their distinguished warriors. He had been bound,
and his tormentors had just commenced their dance?,
and fiend-like yells as the prelude to his destruction,
when Shu-ja-he-min-keh, a beautiful girl of eighteen,
and daughter of one of their chiefs, abandoned her
country-women, and, as it were, her country ; clasp-
ed the destined victim in her arms, implored his
life, and would not be separated till her prayers were
granted.

Attempts of this kind are not, however, always suc-
cessful ; the Indians being governed somewhat by the
number of those condemned, and by the respective
standings, and character of the supplicants.

The sufferers, in these instances, believe, that to die
courageously will entitle them to the particular favour
and protection of the Great Spirit, and introduce iliem
into the councils and society of the brave and good, in

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

331

the delightful regions of perpetual spring and plenty,
where, under a cloudless sky, they are destined to
enjoy with heightened zest the consciousness of
this life unalloyed by its anxieties, pains, and afflic-
tions.

With the Indians, the passion of revenge ceases with
its object ; and these tragic scenes close with the bu-
rial of their victims, which are universally respectful,
and attended with very nearly the same exterior cere-
monials that are observed in the interment of their
own dead ; especially if their conduct at the closing
scene had been brave and consistent.

In their campaigns, the Indians are always accom-
panied by some who officiate, when necessary, in the
character of surgeons and physicians, but who
ordinarily perform the warrior's duty. They do not,
however, attend to the wounded till the battle is over,
unless they should be in imminent danger, or it
should prove of long duration, and the number of
sufferers or prisoners becomes considerable. In such
cases they become non-combatants, and perform the
two-fold duty of surgeons and guards. I shall omit
the description of their surgical operations for ano-
ther occasion. The wounded are borne off on litters
to some place of safety : in cases of retreat they are
sometimes abandoned ; but, in general, they are kept
in the advance, and defended with the most obstinate
bravery and resolution. They observe the same per-
tinacious courage in regard to their dead ; though,
when obliged to abandon them, they do not, if they
can possibly avoid it, permit their scalps to fall
into the possession of their enemies, and always

i I.

332

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

return and collect their bones, as soon as they
can do it with safety. When at a great distance
from home, they inter their dead temporarily, but
always return, when the proper period has arrived,
for their skeletons, and pay them the same honours
as though they were enveloped in their muscular
integuments.

Nothing can ei ceed the joyous exultations of the
old men, women and ci*:-dren, who have not lost re-
lations, on the return of the warriors from successful
warfare ; while with those who have, the expression
of grief is equally extravagant.

The afflicted associate themselves on the occasion,
apart from the festive circles, and the duration of their
grief is generally in the inverse ratio of this violence : it
does not last long, and they soon join in the rejoicings,
which are continued for several days. They are con-
summated by the scalp dance, in which the squaws
bear the trophies, such sla scalps, arms and apparel,
won by their husbands from the enemy, by songs, the
torture of their enemies, and finally by feasts. In the
performance of the scalp dance, the squaw usually at-
taches all the scalps that are in her family to a pole,
which she bears on the occasion. As they dance
round the council lodge or fire, they alternately
sing and recount the exploits that were achieved on
their acquisition. The one who sings is for the time
the principal, and all the others obsequiously follow
her. The men and children join in the whoops and
rejoicings. During these festivities, marks of favour
are lavished, particularly by the squaws, on all such as
have distinguished themselves. The most worthy are

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

333

seated by the old men and chiefs ; the women dance
round them, decorate their persons M'ith dresses or-
namented with feathers, and porcupine quills stained
of various colours ; and crown them with wreaths of
oak leaves, fantastically interwoven with flowers,
beads, and shells. „

The reception of the warriors from an unsuccess-
ful expedition is different in the extreme, from the
reverse of the circumstance. The mournings are ge-
neral, and last for several days. The men are morose
and gloomy, and only break silence in their prayers to
the Great Spirit for support in the revenge they me-
ditate, or in imprecations denounced against their
enemies. After the mournings are at an end, the
\. nen appear apprehensive and reserved, and do not
generally renew their caresses for some time, unless
invited to by the occurrence of more fortuitous events.

) ,

i ,i. \; i.

..< - i . i J-

... :,'ih

:..;J

il*i

331

MANNERS \ND CUSTOMS OF SOME

ff.i.'r.

;..

CHAP. XIV.

•1 , '. {■

RE81i)ENCE, DRES8, PAJNTINO, FOOD, DISEASES, TREATMENT
OF THE SICK, DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD, MOURNINOS, &.C.

The Osages and Kansas live in villages, which, even
during the hunting seasons, are never wholly aban-
doned, as is the case with several tribes settled on the
'Missouri. ' '■ •" '" ■'■•'/' - -'■• •" •

• Their lodges are built promiscuously, in situations
to please their respective proprietors: they are ar-
ranged to neither streets nor alleys, and are sometimes
so crowded, as to render the passage between them
difficult. ' '

Their towns are subject to no police regulations ;
every individual goes and comes when, and does what
he pleases; consequently nothing can be said in
favour or their cleanliness ; though, in general, I think
them less filthy than many places met with in some of
the large cities of the United States, which boast wise
and rigidly-administered municipal governments.

Those who rove, and sometimes those engaged in
hunting, live in portable tents, which they pitch or
strike at pleasure ; such generally follow the buffalo
and other game, in their migratory routes.

Wlien a village is large and crowded, and a division
becomes necessary, they uniformly fix on a site for
another as near the original or parent settlement as
circumstances will peri>iit, in order to secure the whole

^ N:«-

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

335

force of the nation agaiiist their enemies, and to main-
tain, by a constant intercourse, the relations oi' friend-
ship and consanguinity.

Dress. — The ordinary dress of both men and
women in warm weather, consists only of mock-
asins, leggings, and breech-cloths, made from the
skins of various animals, dressed after their parti-
cular manner : the last-named article is from twelve
to eighteen inches wide, and its convolutions or folds
are varied, according to the temperature of the
weather.

In addition to the foregoing, during the cold sea-
sons, they wrap their shoulders and bodies in blankets
procured from the traders, or in robes made of the
dressed skins of various animals, and cover their heads
with fur caps, particularly when exposed.

Some of the women wear stays to support their
breasts while nursing ; the custom, however, is so re-
stricted, as scarcely to deserve notice. On religious
or festive occasions, the men generally exercise extra-
ordinary pains and patience in decorating their per-
sons. I have known them to pass a whole day at the
toilet, and then to appear mortified at the necessity
which obliged them to leave it before they had satis-
factorily completed their dress. ^

All commence their preparations with ablutions,
which in general are preceded by rubbing themselves
in clay. They next anoint themselves all over with
bears' oil or buffaloes* marrow, which is frequently
scented with some odoriferous substance, as that of
anise or sassafras. They then paint themselves in
the style called for by the occasion. Afler these

h 1^'^

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T'U^

1 «-i. , ■,..

3S6

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

preliminaries have been performed, the men dress
their heads in beaver or otter skin caps, neatly orna-
mented with feathers, porcupine quills, and horse-
hairs stained of various colours, and variegated shells,
beads, &c.

They encircle their arms above the elbow, and at
the wrist, with beads, shells, beans, &c. fancifully
strung; and their waste and necks with belts of
wampum beautifully braided, from deer sinews and
horse-hairs, tastefully strung with beads of various
shades and colours. Their waist-cloths, leggings,
and mockasins, omitting the feathers, are decorated
in the same manner as their caps. They attach the
tails of foxes, or other animals, to th^ir heels, and
also wear pendent from their eaps behind the tails
of the animals from which they have severally been
made.

The dress of the females, omitting the belts of wam-
pum, andthe particular head and heel ornaments, resem-
bles that of the warriors; though there is a considerable
difference in the style of workmanship ; for that of the
squaws distinguishes only the families to which they
belong, while the warrior's always characterizes the
nation, and is fi-equently the record of his own heroic
deeds. On all occasions, where sanctioned, they
fasten to their ankles and knees small toitoise-shells,
containing rounded pebbles, with a view to increase
the variety and confusedness of their music. The
married women suffer their hair to hang loosely
on their backs, and decorate their head with fea-
thers; while, by way of distinction, the unmarried only
part theirs, and bring it forward over their breasts.

OP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

337

dress
orna-
tiorse-
shells,

Fn some tribes they roll it up, and fasten it on the
top of the crown.

In cold weather the full dress is completed by the
addition of skin robes, which are ornamented with
hieroglyphic painting, characterizing either their na-
tion, family, or exploits, and not unfrequently all of
them together. But here, as in the other parts of
their dress, a sexual distinction, except under very
extraordinary circumstances, is constantly maintained.
A Kansas squaw, who, with two boys, had killed two
Ottowas in the act of stealing their horses, (see page
33.) was permitted to wear a robe, and other articles
of dress, emblazoned with symbols commemorative
of the event ; and I once saw a Pawnee woman
whose dress was characterized by masculine distinc-
tions, but I am ignorant of the circumstance which
tolerated it. *' < -J

Painting. — In peace, the custom of painting is
resorted to with a view to ornament their persons ;
but in proportion as it resembles the natural colour,
the more it is admired. "^

To obtain this colour they calcine clay, and mix it
with pulverized charcoal and bears' grease in proper
proportions. The more coxcomical sometimes use
the purest red they can obtain, which is prepared
from an earth found on the Vermillion River, and
in some other places, and some vegetable colours.
In war, they usually paint themselves red back of the
earsj and in stripes of red and black on their faces.
Sometimes they paint their faces wholly black, which
indicates that no quarter is to be given to their ene-
mies; black being understood by them as emble-

■z

!■' ■;

:'|;-

638

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

matical of death, and red merely of war. Their
black paints are prepared from pulverized charcoal
and bears' grease. ; ; . -, ^ ir, ..v- ,r

The Indians in general paint themselves only on
festive or religious occasions, or while travelling
without their territories, or when actually engaged in
war, or entertaining hostile feelings against their
neighbours : and the various modes they obsei^e are
always sstrictly emblematical of their feelings. The
more hideous a warrior can render himself by these
factitious means, the greater he conceives his claim
to be to the martial character : hence, when in com-
plete military array, their appearance is in general
truly frightful.

The practice of painting is univ^sal among all the
tribes, but less dispensable with some than others:
with the Osages, an Indian who neglects it, humbles
himself very much in the estimation of the rest of the
nation: instances of this kind, however, rarely occur;
and, when they do, the delinquents are not permitted
to join in the ceremonials, or, in other words, are
totally neglected. The females paint, as well as the
males, but only after the manner tolerated in peace.

After bathing in warm weather, and generally to-
wards evening, they anoint their bodies slightly with
bears* grease. This practice is continued for no
other purpose than to prevent the annoyance of in.
sects, and it answers the object remarkably well.

Food. — From the description already given of the
animals found on their hunting grounds, and of the
vegetable substances cultivated and collected by the
Indians, very httle requires to be said in this place
on the articles of their food.

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

339

Their
arcoal

nly on
veiling
iged in
t their
rve are
I. The
>y these
IS claim
in com-

g all the
, others:
humbles
jstofthe
ly occur;
termitted
ords, are
ell as the
n peace,
lerally to-
5htly with
;d for no
nee of in-
well.
Iven of the
md of the
ted by the
this place

They eat the flesh of the buffalo, bear, elk, deer,
beaver, and racoon ; but that of the first is greatly
preferred, particularly that of the young, of the pro-
tuberance on the back, the tongue, and lactescent
glands. They also take wild-fowl and fish, when a
scarcity prevails ; but otherwise care little for them.
Their esculent vegetables consist of corn, some va»
rieties of leguminous seeds, pumpkins, squashes,
melons, roots, nuts, and all the kinds of fruit enume-
rated in a former part of this work. i i-. ,:.
They are no epicures, but appear equally satisfled
for the time, whether their boards afford the most
dainty bits of the bufi^o, or only parched com, or a
vegetable suk-ka-tosh. When their supplies are abun-
dant, they consume the best first, and are always tem-
perate in their meals, which, as before noticed, are
generally at regular periods, but are never taken, un*
less by the invitation of good appetites.

Previous to undertaking a journey that requires
expedition, they reduce themselves by fastings and
purgative medicines, in order that they may perform
it with less fatigue, and liability to indisposition.
During their marches they eat sparingly, once or
twice in the course of the day, of parched corn-meal,
mollified with bears* or buffalo fat, or marrow, and
drin^: very little. This regimen, they say, prevents
a shortness of breath; while the nutritive quality
of he food gives them sufficient strength to per-
form their most arduous undertaking: besides, it
is light, not bulky, and consequently better suited
to such occasions than any of their other pro-
visions. :.

z 2

w • ■

540

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

In addition to the foregoing, they sometimes take
a small quantity of smoked meat ; but at such times
their wants must be exceedingly pressing before they
will indulge their appetites with that which is fresh ;
and it very seldom becomes necessary, as the suet
and marrow of such animals as they kill are gene-
rally competent to supply their deficiencies. But,
whenever respited from their duties, or plenty suc-
ceeds a scarcity, the most experienced are at first too
apt to indulge their appetites to excess ; and hence
commonly originates the cholera morbus, which is
one of their most distressing diseases, and fi'equently
proves fatal.

Their cooking, according to the refined taste and
practice of civilized people, is generally much over
done. When pressed for time or fuel, as sometimes
happens, they are not, however, very particular, but
eat their food scarcely sodden or heated ; and not-
withstanding they occasionally accommodate them-
selves to this mode of diet for weeks together, I do
not recollect to have witnessed any disagreeable re-
sults from it. They conform to no systematic mode
of cooking ; but accommodate it to the condition of
their fires, or the plenty or scarcity of fuel: some
exceptions, however, exist, in regard to dieting the
old, young, and convalescent, for whom they are
very careful to provide broths, soups, and teas,
suited to their respective circumstances and wants.

Some tribes are better provided, more particular in
their food, and regular in their meals, than others.
Those which follow the movements of the migratory
herds, and subsist chiefly on animal suo^^tances, are, I

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

341

es take
h times
)re they
s fresh ;
he suet
re gene-
s. But,
mty suc-
; first too
id hence
which is
requently

taste and
luch over
sometimes
cular, but
[ and not-
ate them-
ther, I do
reeable re-
natic mode
ondition of
fuel: some
dieting the
n they are
and teas,
id wants,
larticular in
than others,
le migratory
ances, are, I

think I may say with safety, the most robust, and
least subject to disease. Those which live in villages,
cultivate corn, and live on a mixed vegetable and ani-
mal diet, are perhaps the reverse ; while those which
rove, and depredate promiscuously on foreign privi-
leges for a livelihood, may be classed as intermediates
to the former.

I ought not, however, to omit mentioning, that the
Indians settled on the western side of the Rocky
Mountains, whose chief dependence for a living
is on the fish they take, may be ranked among the
most healthy. Agriculture, if known with them, can-
not be said to be generally practised. They, how-
ever, collect roots, nuts, and fruits of the earth's
spontaneous production, which, in a limited degree,
serve occasionally to vary their food : 'indeed, with
some tribes, they constitute important items in their
esculent list; while with others, some corn, legu-
minous plants, and squashes, are cultivated. But I
am not sufficiently acquainted with the effects of
their diet on their general health, to say any thing
positively on the subject ; it is, Iwwever, certain,
that a great physical difference appeared to exist be-
tween the individuals of different tribes, and the
comparison was decidedly against those who relied
chiefly on the productions of the earth for a subsist-
ence ; though this might have originated in a scarcity
of supplies, or in the undue presence oi medicinal
properties in their nutritives. Nearly all the roots
used by them for food, operated as purgatives on all
our party, and, in some instances, produced nausea
and vomiting.

z 3

I'r ■ <i ■ 1

■« :i

, t .■ ,P.;. ,

s '

' li

f'.:

342

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

' Diseases. — The Indians are subject to but few
diseases, and those are generally simple, and easily
cured. Cases, however, of a different character,
sometimes occur, and assume all the various and
complicated symptoms which are experienced in
civilized society: they are not, comparatively, so
frequent ; but, from want of skill in their treatment,
prove more fatal.

To repeat : the men, from fatigue, a greater ex-
posure to change of weather, abstinence from food,
and an intemperate indulgence of the appetite, at
times, are more liable to disease than the women.
Nearly all the former fall in battle, before they arrive
at an advanced age ; so that the number of natural
deaths in the different sexes must, of course, be in
reverse to this liability.

From the same causes, the diseases of^ the men
more frequently assume the acute type than the
chronic: in fact, they can hardly be said to suffer
from the latter ; and I am inclined to believe, if they
would abandon their warlike pursuits, and adopt some
of the habits of civilized people, that their lives would
generally equal in length those of the early ages,
before Pandora had scattered her plagues on the
earth. Many among them now live free from dis-
ease, till they have arrived to advanced years, and
undergone numerous long marches and campaigns ;
but the asthma or rheumatism is certain to afflict
them in tlieir old age.

The diseases most common among them are rheu-
matism, asthma, fevers, pleurisy, and bowel com-
plaints; which, with some others that prevail less

OF THK WESTERN INDIANS.

343

frequently, and their particular modes of treatment,
I shall consider in the chapter on their Materia
Medica.

With the Indians generally, medicinal barks, roots,
and herbs, are thought essentials in their household
contents ; and, even in their journeys, such as are
most likely to be wanted constitute part of their
necessary outfits. ....

Almost every family has its medicine or sacred
bag, which consists of a beaver or otter skin curiously
ornamented, and generally contains both their me-
dicinal and small sacred articles.

The application of these pouches, however, varies
in different tribes ; sometimes they are devoted to a
single purpose ; at others, from the variety of their
contents, they may be denominated catch-alls ; but
they are always esteemed sacred j and I do not re-
collect a single instance, in which their privacy has
been violated by unhallowed hands.

The shak-kee, or rattle-snake*s master, a plant
which is thought to secure its possessor against in-
jury from that reptile ; anise root, eel*s liver, tobacco,
and small consecrated articles, supposed to neutralize
the agency of evil spirits, are generally among the
contents of this holy receptacle. They commonly
wear it, in order to derive all the advantages which
they suppose it is capable of affording ; and, should
any accident befal them while without it, they always
ascribe it to their own negligence. To suggest its
inefficiency, would give offence; and, when its posses-
sion fails to benefit, the Indian finds a ready apology
for it in his own wickedness, and will not rest, until

z 4

l;:1'

t^i

: ':

MANNKkS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

by fastings and prayer he has, as he supposes, can-
celled his offences.

The Indians are far from being ignorant of the
treatment of their uiseascci ; they have a rich variety
of remedies, fion; the simple to those which are
very active ; and experience has given them skill,
on most occasions, how best to apply them. Never-
theless, among them, as among civilized people,
though from totally different causes, new diseases
sometimes appear, which baffle the curative powers
of their most skilful physicians ; such, for instance,
have been the small-pox, and syphilis. However,
we seldom meet with an Indian who has not a suf-
ficient knowledge of their medicine to prescribe on
all ordinary occasions ; but some are so much more
skilful than others, as to justly merit and obtain the
distinctive title of doctor. In some tribes, this dis-
tinction is confined to the men j in others, it is ac-
ceded to both the men and women, according to the
success which attends individual practice. In all
cases, however, the women are permitted to prescribe
for their own peculiar diseases j but, where the men
are tenacious of titles, it is done quietly, and without
ostentation.

Among the more enlightened tribes, the practice
of medicine is not confined to particular individuals j
all the old men and women know how to manage the
generality of their complaints, and the patient usually
makes choice of the oncj he prefers.

Quackery, or unsk'iful and unsuccessful practice,
is in most of the tribes followed by loss of character,
and sometimes, when life is supposed to have been

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

34.5

!s, can-

: of the
I variety
uch are
jm skill,
Never-
people,
diseases
B powers
instance,
lowever,
not a suf-
scribe on
iich more
(btain the
, this dis-
i, it is ac-
ing to the
;. In all
prescribe
the men
id without

le practice
dividuals ;
lanage the
jnt usually

l1 practice,
character,
have been

sacrificed, by the banishment, and even the death of
the pretended physician.

In general, however, no one undertakes the prac-
tice of medicine, unless invited to by those suffering
under disease, or by the spontaneous call of the tribe ;
which is not commonly uttered, except from a con-
viction, arising from results, that the subject is pos- •
sessed of superior talents. But, among the more
ignorant tribes, no regard is had to real qualifica-
tions ; and the treatment of their sick has no claim
to the distinctive quality of being rational. Their
physicians resort chiefly to juggling, charms, and
cdnjurations, as curative processes : a course, in most
cases, far inferior to that which Nature, when lefl to
herself, most commonly observes.

When practitioners found their claim on real merit,
they observe no distinction in dress from the rest of
the nation; but, when otherwise, they frequently
array themselves in the most grotesque habiliments,
and, instead of giving their medicine to their patients,
take it themselves. They wrap themselves in the
skins of some animal, to which are fastened, accoru-
ing to their whims, buffaloes' horns, bears* claws,
tortoise-shells, &c., in order to frighten away the evil
spirit, which, they say, is the cause of their patient's
disease ; and they take drugs to inspire in them-
selves a power superior to that of the supposed
afflicting supernatural agents. They sometimes
assume great authority, and, afler having prayed,
and sweated profusely, tell their patients, that they
have accomplished their cures by driving away their
tormentors : and I have known an instance in which

d46

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

the physician became offended, because the sick
would not appear better, and charged it to obstinacy.
. To question their skill on such occasions would
give great offence ; and I have no doubt that the
effect of this kind of practice on the imagination
}<as vrought some cures, and helped to establish the
^iifluunce and authority they generally exercise.
i ^^ese pretenders, however, occasionally fail, not
onfj 'n effecting cures, but in securing their repu-
tations against opprobrium ; though the more timor-
ous do not withhold outward respect for them, for
fear of being made sufferers, on the score of retalia-
tion, through their influence with evil spirits. Never-
llieless, their impostures sometimes become so glaring,
ai) to even forfeit this restraint, and they are obliged
to fly for self-preservation. I have heard of instances
in which their lives have been made to atone for their
abuse of sacred things, and the public credulity.
However, among those tribes, where the choice of a
physician is lefl to the patient or his friends, their
claims in general are founded on merit ; and, though
they should prove unsuccessful in practice, the public
opinion is usually indulgent and charitable towards
them, and appears to be guided by a just view of the
constant liability of all mankind to death.

The Indian physicians are commonly honourable,
humane, and experienced men ; they are not tempted
to foUow the profession from the hope of gain, and fre-
quently the title is awarded them f irom their having
relieved a sufferer, when no regular doctor could be
procured. Sometimes the character originates from
remarkable dreams} as, for instance, if remedies which

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

347

have been prescribed and have proved successful, seem
to them to have been pointed out by some good spirit,
through an uncommonly pure channel, and for the
benefit of the sufferer ; on these occasions, therefore,
they are not backwad in awarding honours. In gene-
ral, however, age, acute observation, good judgment,
and experience, constitute the qualifications of their
most popular and reputable physicians.

The dangerously sick occupy separate lodges,
which none but the attendant physic' a d nurse
are allowed to enter : when their disc "^e : ess vio-
lent, the family do not remove, but r^-aa n and nurse
the patient. In their villages they imii" inly occupy
skin cots, elevated something ab> 'e the ground;
when travelling, they are disposed ot aS circumstances
will permit.

The physician, on entering the apartment of the sick,
takes his patient by the arm, examines his tongue, feels
his hands, feet, and breast; regards him for some
time with the most profound attention and silence ;
and then, in a low voice, inquires into the nature of
his sufferings. This ascertained, he continues for a
much longer period than before in silent thoughtful-
ness; and, afler having given some general instructions
to the nurse, retires to prepare his medicines. On
returning, he is guided in their administration by the
violence of the disease, as indicated by the symptoms;
but, in nearly all their practice, their doses are too
large, and oflen of too active a nature. When their
patients are bad, they say, the enemy within is strong,
and it requires great force to drive him out ; which.

I'lf i;

■f ,, !• ■•

'■'>- .

J48

MANN£li8 AND CUSTOMS OF SOMB

whether successful or not, is always the apology for
their energetic practice.

The treatment of their women and children, during
sickness, is precisely the same as is observed towards
the men, so far as there is a conformity in their dis-
eases. In the treatment of those peculiar to their
sex, the female practice is rational, and seldom fails
to relieve ; indeed, it may justly be said to be attend-
ed with great success : and the same observations
will apply equally well, in regard to the general prac-
tice of medicine by the men among the Osages and
Kansas.

The women always officiate as nurses to the sick,
in their villages, and also in their hunting excursions,
when any happen to be of their party j which, to be
prepared for an exigency of this kind, more than for
any other purpose, is frequently the case.

However, when without them, either in the chace
or in war, those best skilled in medicine act both in
the capacity of physician and nurse ; and, should more
assistance be required, the young and inexperienced
are detached on the service. The Indians say that
good nursing is as essential to the recovery of the sick,
as are the attendance of a skilful physician, and the
kind operation of the prescribed medicine; in conse-
quence of which, the elderly, most experienced, and
most respectable, are selected for this duty. The
preference is however commonly given to relations or
friends; but where the case requires extraordinary
attention, these circumstances are overlooked; and the
most respectable women in the thbe feel themselves

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

340

honoured by being chosen ; and particularly so, should
their charge be a highly respectable character.

When the danger is great, they iiave one, and
sometimes two adjuncts, who, with the principal,
continue alternately with the sick, and promptly
administer sucli medicines and nutritive broths and
teas as they may require.

No one presumes to interfere with their duties j
and they praise or scandalize the attending physician,
according to the s'jccens whJch results from his prac-
tice. The physician calls frequently on the sick;
often attends to the operation of his medicine ; hears
the reports of the nurses, to whom he is generally
obliging in his conduct ; takes a little rest ; and
discovers great anxiety till his patient is out of
danger. They receive nothing in consideration for
all their services, deprivations, and sufferings : those,
however, who have experienced the benefit of their
skill, sometimes present th« m with robes, caps, or
mockasins, or with some redundant consecrated
article, as mementos, or rather acknowledgments of
their obligations : a present, tendered in any other
form, would be regarded with disdaiii, and the offer
itself considered as an insult.

The friends of the deceased oflen make presents
of a similar nature, in order to testify their satisfac-
tion, in regard to zeal and efforts, in his behalf. Such
testimonials uniformly impart cheerfulness to the
physician, serve to dispel his distress ; and, if any
thing, to increase his reputation. But this is more
particularly the case, when they come from the nurses,
who, in this way, often approbate his skill.

ma\

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350

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

When the patients have a particular desire for any
thing, they indulge it with moderation, except the
crisis be alarming, in which case they impose a rigid
abstinence, and say, a contrary course would be
feeding the disease. Experience has taught them
that full eating increases fever ; therefore, during the
prevalence and the convalescent state, they are care-
ful in dieting their patients ; nor do they suffer them
to sleep long at a time, nor in close apartments.
Long sleep, they believe, disposes to a return of the
fever. In most instances, the recovery of the sick
from acute diseases is rapid ; but they do not return
to severe exercise until they have sufficiently regained
their health and strength, which is indicated by a
fecurrence to smoking their pipes ; occasions which
call forth rejoicings, feasts, and thanksgivings to the
Great Spirit, and in which all their friends and relar
tionsjoin. i

•v When all natural means fail, the physicians do not
abandon their patients ; on the contrary, they cling to
them till their last gasp, but substitute, instead of their
prescriptions, fastings and prayers to the Great Spirit.
" So long as there is life," say they, ** there is room
for hope ; and to despair of effecting good, and to
neglect means that appear remote and almost foreign
to the disease, bespeak a careless and unskilful prac-
tice." When their hopes fail, they seldom inform their
patients of their danger, but are very cautious that
their last moments may be calm and undisturbed. In
general, they look upon sickness and affliction as chas-
tisements for their offences against the Great Spirit,
and commonly bear them with great resignation and

OP THS WESTERN INDIANS.

351

fortitude. When they become peevish and fretful, as
sometimes happens, their doctors then say, that the
abatement of their disease permits their minds to be
idle or unoccupied, and the danger is past.

Whenever death unfortunately succeeds, they ap-
pear deeply afflicted ; are foremost to attend to the
obsequies of the dead; and afterwards retire in gloomy
silence to their lodges, or sacred places, to appease by
their supplications the evil spirit, to whose wrath they
are wont to ascribe their ill success.

As soon as a physician looks upon the condition of
his patient as desperate, he permits the relatives and
particular friends to visit his bedside. I have myself
been a spectator at s!ich assemblages; witnessed
some lingering and painful deaths ; particularly no-
ticed their conduct at the closing scene ; and can
truly declare that they, for the most part, manifest as
, much firmness and resignation as any people of which
I have ever heard. i , , . ..

There is seldom any conversation between them and
their relations ; all present remain silent, and engaged
in inward devotion. Sometimes, however, the sick
avail themselves of these affecting occasions, to incuU
cate on the minds of their auditory the sage lessons of
age and experience. I have already remarked, that
the sayings of the aged are received and attended to,
ir common, as almost oracular, and it may be readily
supposed, particularly in respect to youth, as is the
fact, that those emanating from a death-bed make
much deeper and more lasting impressions.

The Indians, in general, collect much valuable in-
formation during the experience of long lives., which

352

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

is permanently retained in their memories till the
period of their dissolution, when it, together with
counsels and prayers, is dealt out to their surviving
connections and friends as the last and most im-
portant legacy they have to bestow. And the respect
which is always inculcated, and, on all common occa-
sions, awarded as a proper and just homage to the
aged, amounts, at such as the above described, almost
to veneration ; and the closing scene witnessed a
nation overwhelmed with wailings and sorrow.

While on a visit to the Great Osage village, at tlie
time Tecumseh was there, a very aged and respect-
able Indian died from natural decay. He was sen-
sible his race was nearly run, and met the King of
Terrors with a presence of mind, fortitude, and re-
signation, seldom if ever witnessed in civilized life.
His conduct and feelings did not arise from a want
of sensibility, or ignorance of the important change
he was about to suffer : on the contrary, he appeared
to comprehend them in all their bearings, and talked
of them, and of the duties of life, connected with
present and future happiness, with the calmness and
wisdom of a Socrates. At times, his discourses
were preceptial and admonitory ; at others, they
were persuar^^ve and pathetic, and related to example;
and he was listened to, day afler day, till his speech
failed him, by both young and old, with great solici-
tude and interest. ^

In general they discover no anxiety about the future;
but leave the world with an apparent satisfaction, under
a belief, provided their conduct has been in consonance
>vith the precepts which they have been taught, that

DP THE WESTERN INDIANS.

SdB

till the
her with
surviving
most im-
le respect
non occa-
Ljre to the
ed, ahuost
itnessed a
ow.

ige, at the
id respect-
e was sen-
he King of
ie, andre-
LviUzed hfe.
rom a want
ant change
le appeared

and talked
lected with
ahnness and
discourses
)thers, they

;o example;
his speech

great soUci-

the future;
iction, under
1 consonance

taught, that

th6it title to future happiness is unquestionable. When
an Indian discovei's fear and weakness, and makes la-
mentable complaints on his death-bed, it is a source
of mortification to his relations and friends, who in-
dulge, though not in liis presence^ in the most ex-
travagant grief, and, believing him under the influence
of some malignant spirit, utter the most fervent
prayers to the Great Spirit* for his espe<;ial inter-
ference in behalf of the suffering.

Entire silence on these occasions is looked upon
as a happy omen ; it is regarded as a confirmation
that the patient has performed all the duties re-
quisite to secure him a future and perpetual resi*
dence with the wise and good. His apparent medi-
tations are supposed to be inward devotions, and
they doubt not that he is in direct communion with
the good spirit, which is in waiting to protect him
from all injuries and dangers in his journey to the
other world. * ^ ^ .. ■ -■■■< »- «

The attendance of these ministering spirits is
thought to be more especial in the night than in the
day; and the Indian's faith in it is so strong, that
their diseased imaginations oflen give to them forms
and presence ; and they sometimes even pretend to
repeat the substance of their discourses. Extraordi-
nary as this may seem to people in civilized life, I am
confident this delusion, connected with their lives
and death, is to them a source of good. As connected
with their moral conduct, it is for them a substitute
of that faith which has the Creator of the Universe
for its author, and the salvation of souls for its end^

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35^

MANNRIIS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

Some Indians believe that death has been inflicted
on the human family in consequence of the transgres.
sions they committed against the Great Spirit: in-
deedt one of their traditions, though I have omitted
to mention it, is to this effect.

But, in general, the most observant, judging com-
paratively from the course of events entailed on all
other organized and living beings and things, regard
the cessation of the functions of life, and the dis-
solution of the human body, as a necessary result,
conformed to the designed operations of nature. With
this view of death, they submit to it, as they do to
other circumstances which they cannot avoid, with
consistent resignation. But, notwithstanding the ex-
ercise of this philosophy, if it may be called such,
education avails them of extraordinary reinforcements
on these highly important and eventful occasions; for
they are taught to believe, that a fearlessness or disre-
gard for death, no matter in what form it may ap-
proach, is as essential to the good and perfect charac-
ter of the warrior, as are bravery and courageous
achievements in the deadly fray of battle. Without
them, all other externals of dignity are regarded as
mere shadows, and cannot secure the rt.spect even of
the most hunible pretenders.

FORKS OF BURIAL.

When an Indian dies, the body is laid in an ej^tided
position on buf&lo robes, and is thus kept until the
incipient signs of putrefaction make their appearance.
The friends of the deceased then convey it in a very
silent, respectful, and solemn manner, to the place of

or THE WESTERN INDIANS.

855

inflicted
transgress
jpirit: in-
e omitted

'•*

ging corn-
led on all
igs, regard
id the dis-
lary result,
ture. With
i they do to
avoid, with
ling the ex-
:alled such,
nforcements
^casions; for
less or disre-
it may ap-
frfect charac-

courageous
,e. Without

regarded as
>pect even of

intefitient, where it is wrapped in a skin robe, along
with a bow, f limited quiver, tomahawk, and such
other things as it most valued while livhig, and finally
buried. ; . .

This ceremony is performed differently, not only
by different tribes, but by the individuals of the same
tribe. The body is sometimes placed on the surface
of the ground, between flat stones set edge upwards,
and then covered over, first by similar stones, and
then with earth brought a short distance : occasion-
ally this stone casing is only applied to the head, and
then again, it is altogether omitted. Others excavate
the earth to the dfepth of two or three feet, and de-
posit their dead below its surface.

When at too great a distance from their villages to
convey them home, they dispose of them temporarily,
as I have before noticed, in some one of the modes
above described, or they deposit them in caves, or on
scafTolds, erected several feet above the ground, and
secure them with skins, &c., against predacious ani-
mals, until the fugitive or more perishable p" L: have
become detached from the bones, when they are
placed promiscuously beside those of their fathers.
The ceremony of removing and depositing such bones
is, however, as formal and solemn, as it is in cases of
recent death ; and even more so, when they are the
remains of their warriors.

They leave the face of their dead, afler burial, un-
covered for several days, according to the season of
the year, with a view to facilitate the intercourse be-
tween the body and its good spirit, which, they sup-

J^ J ■; h

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A A 2

.356

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

pose, continues till the iatter has made ample provi-
sion for their entrance into the next world. It is
then covered in presence of all the relations of the
deceased, and the period of their mourning generally
ceases. i . v , .■

The professed object for accoutring their dead with
arms, &c., is, to provide them with the means to pro-
cure subsistence in their journey from this to the next
world ; but it is complied with, by the intelligent
Indians, merely on account of custom. For they
teach, that the wants of this life extend no farther than
to food, drinks, and clothing j that more than is essen-
tial for these objects is of no account ; because they
can take nothing with them when they leave this
world J or, if they could, that it would not be neces-
sary so to do ; because their Great Father has made
far better and more abundant provisions for them in
the next.

The funeral ceremonies are conducted in various
forms, according to the respect entertained for, or tlie
circumstance of sex or age of the deceased. An old
and able counsellor, distinguished chief, brave warrior,
swift runner and expert hunter, are the constant sub-
jects of their highest esteem. The death of any such
is therefore regarded as a greater misfortune than that
of an ordinary warrior, or of a squaw or child, and
is followed by an expression of gricfi and display of
funeral solemnities, proportioned to the supposed
national sufferings.

At the biuial of an aged Indian, who has often
fought in their defence, and provided for their wants,
and who, when disqualified by decay for these pursuits,

anple provi-
orld. It 18
itions of the
ng generally

eir dead with
neans to pro-
is to the next
tie intelligent
xi. For they
10 farther than
! than is essen-
because they
ley leave this
[ not be neces-
ither has made
tis for them in

cted in various
ined for, or the
ased. An old
; brave warrior,
e constant sub-
jath of any such
)rtune than that
w or child, and
and display of
the supposed

who has often

for their wants.

)r these pursuits,

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

357

has devoted all his faculties to instruct the rising ge-
neration, the greatest honours are paid ; the deepest
afflictions are felt ; and the mournings continue for
the longest periods. So, if their sorrows and cere-
monies can be graduated, they decrease in intense-
ness accordingly as the respectability of the deceased
diminishes : but, nevertheless, those exhibited at the
death of their women and children are decent, pious,
and solemn. ^' - . :^. -». *,

Their burying places are generally located at the
distance of a mile or two from their villages, and are
often resorted to by those who have recently lost re-
lations, and by others during their public and private
fasts, and self-imposed penances.

It is said some tribes at present bury their dead in
caves ; but, if such be the fact, it has escaped my
knowledge; though, that such was the practice at
«ome very remote period, I cannot doubt; since I my-
self have seen dead bodies in such cemeteries; but they
were in a high state of preservation ; and the circum-
stance or costume of appearance in which they were
discovered, leaves no room to suppose that they were
tiie remains of any people now existing i leir neigh-
bourhood, or within the knowledge of t > neighbour-
ing Indians,

MOURNINGS.

The grief that is suppressed during the dangerous
sickness of an Indian, bursts out with redoubled vio-
lence whenever death ensues. On these occasions, the
men sometimes relax the rigidity of their muscles; and
swerving from their apparent constitis-^onal apathy,

A A 3

i. :-•

358

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF SOME

which does not allow the escape of tears, with heart-
felt grief mingle their cries with the piercing lamentr
ations of the women. ,-,, .>r<| i..»>;

They consider tears as a just tribute to the me-
mory of their meiitorious dead; and their escape
discovers neither a want of fortitude, nor an idle
.compliance with custom : and no doubt their pub-
lic mournings operate as powerful incentives oin the
living, in the discharge of what they conceive
to be their moral duties. They continue for
longer or shorter periods, according to the re-
spectability of the deceased, or the prevalence pf
peace or war. »•- >» • ■' f.-> .,,.,....

When a campaign is on ibot that requires their
attendance, the warriors only mourn while the obse-
quies of the dead are performed ; under other circum-
stances, th ty conform their grief to that of the nation.
During their mournings all their operations are sus-
pended, except in the above-named instance, or in
the scarcity of food.

Extreme grief is sometimes discovered by plucking
out the hail', tearing the flesh, fastings, and painting
the face black ; but, whenever it is so violent, it is
commonly of short duration.

When the loss of an individual is deeply felt, tiie
mournings are continued for one, two, or three
months, in audible lamentations or bowlings, which
begin daily at daybreak, and are continued generally
till the sun makes his appearance.

The chief of the nation, or the most respectable
warrior related to the deceasi;d, commences the ciy
of distress ; shortly aiierwards, tijiose next in respect-

OF THE WESTERN INDIANS.

359

ability or consanguinity join successively in the sym-
phony, till all present may be truly said to personify
grief.

Some travellers who have visited the Indians have
ascribed this custom, as practised on the most trivial
occasions ; but my readers may rest assured that the
above account of it is correct ; and further, that they
never practise it, unless urged by extreme and sincere
affliction, arising from the decease of their relatives
or friends. This method of mourning for their de^
is sometimes practised only by the family particularly
afflicted ; and, at others, only by the women of such
families; in all which, as in the periods of their dura-
tion, they are governed by the circumstances I have
before noticed, ^r^ ■:(>■!'■:'[':{ _\ -r: ■'■■•;!] n\

■i » ■• '

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dl60

'''■^ OBSERVATIONS ON

■ ;■■ ■'; CHAP. XV. ;' " *^f^^\

■ OBSERVATIONS ON CIVILIZING THE AMERICAN INDIANS. ^

Ihe propriety of any measure being proved, it may
be said that it is absurd to find fault with the means
used to effect it, without substituting or pointing at
better. We will endeavour to place reasons for the
plan proposed before the reader, keeping in view the
Indian character, disposition towards the ci\ilization
of their tribes, &c., and compare them with the means
which have heretofore been pursued. ^ "^^i'

In the first place, the Indians are acute observers,
and look much more deeply into matters than people
are commonly willing to believe ; and therefore re-
formers go among them with entirely erroneous views
of their character. And the vanity of the attempt to
remedy any evil, before any thing is accurately under-
stood as to its nature, or the character of the subject,
is too apparent to require arguments to prove. I have
myself known young missionaries, and others also, who
were sent among them, and whose correct intentions I
do not pretend to question, to deal out long lectures on
morality, original sin, vicarious atonement, &c. The dis-
position of the Indians never to interrupt a talker by a
rising, nor even by yawning and other indications of
uneasiness, often causes the philanthropist to flatter
himself that he has enlisted their whole affections and
judgment in the cause, when perhaps they feel them-
selves insulted ! When they are dismissed, and con-

CIVILIZING THK INDIANS.

361

verse among themselves on these subjects, they say,
" The white men tell Indian be honest : Indian have
no prison ; Indian have no jail for unfortunate debt<
ors : Indian have no lock on his doors." And when
the preachers make their discourse more evangelical
they do not comprehend them, which shows they
should become more acquainted with metaphysical
disquisitions, before any attempts are made to teach
them the mysteries of Christianity. '.n ?.;.'.} ozi'ml
Secondly, the acuteness of the Indians in prying
into the motives of those with whom they are treating,
makes them criticise their conduct. They say, " If
the white people are so good, why leave their kindred
and friends, and go among strangers, of whose mode
of living they complain so much ?" They look upon
it as a poor argument in favour of their doctrine,
when they leave their people, and come among them
whose language, habits, and pursuits are all so differ-
ent. And many of them look with pride on the nu-
merous examples of white people, who abandon the
habits of civilized life, and adopt those of Indians.
These are sometimes men of desperate characters, less
able to undergo the hardships of Indian life, or more
depraved in morals ; and the Indians point to them as
examples of white men's character, and bless the
Great Spirit that they are his red favourites. Among
the white people there are many infidels also, who
speak against what the Indians suppose to be their
own religion j bat among them they have no party
dissensions — no infidels. It is an insult to an Indian
to suppose it necessary to tell him he must believe in
a God. There is about as much propriety in such

1'^

I '

'■i

i ■

302

OBSERVATIONS ON

exhortation, as there would be in telling the most ac-
complished scholar he should learn his letters. In my
tour through the territories of the Choctow, Cherokee,
and Creek nations, I could not avoid observing the
difference which exists between them and some other
tribes, with whom I had formerly resided, in respect
to their modes of life, and their consequent moral
tendency. Some of the Indians, it is true, possessed
large herds of cattle, horses, and swine ; cultivated
cotton, com, and some other necessaries and articles
of commerce, and some held a number of slaves ;
but by far the greater portion of them were badly
provided, indolent, intemperate, miserably poor, and
taken collectively from their intercourse, with the
whites, they had become adepts in all their most fla-
grant and abominable vices, while they continued
strangers, at least in practice, to the greatest portion
of their virtues. I do not make these remarks from
any pr^udiced motives or feelings ; they are founded
on an impartial observation, and from my knowledge
of the Indian character.

I am sincerely apprehensive that similar results
will follow all similar attempts that may be made to
civilize any of the other Indian nations. These
fears are strengthened by further observations of my
own, and from information which I have received from
nufflerous and highly respectable sources, that the
same state of society, somewhat modified by locality,
exists among all the tribes bordering on our extensive
frontiers. The cause of these unfortunate results or
effects, it appears to me, if sought for, cannot be
mistaken. The Indians originally, are accustomed

CIVILIZING THE INDIANS.

f^3

most ac-
Eu In my
!herokee,
rving the
me other
n respect
!nt moral

cultivated
id articles
of slaves j
ere badly
poor, and
with the
most fla-
continued
est portion
narks from
re founded
knowledge

lar results
)e made to
18. These
ions of my
leived from
s, that the
by locality,
ir extensive
,e results or
cannot be
accustomed

to indulge all their wants, so far as the means are
attainable* and seldom restrain themselves except
when old, though repeatedly admonished by expe-
rieace and suffering. Hence, the want of a proper
education seems unquestionably to be the radical
cause. , >i.i;i^.;

The white people, for the most part, who hereto-
fore have had any intercourse with them, have them-
selves discovered a very doubtful title to the character
of civilized beings ; they generally are governed in
all their transacticms by a self-interest, which is not
in the least scrupulous as to means ; breach of faith,
fraud and peculation, are constantly practised on
them, and that oftentimes too after their appetites
for ardent spirits had been purposely indulged to
such an extent, as to render them, in the strict
sense of the phrase, fit subjects for protection.
Added to this, they have suffered severely from
various diseases, which have been introduced among
them by the whites ; so that the general efl'ects of
this intercourse on a people, whose very existence
depends on the expertness and bravery of its hunters
and warriors, are too perceptible in their enervating
and destructive consequences^ to escape their notice,
and render them distrustful in their negotiations, said
inimical to their habits and morals. Therefore,
before any permanently good effects can result to
them, from the beneficent but mistaken efforts of
the numerous associations organized for their civiliz-
ation, in various parts of the world, all their inter,
course with this class of people should be broken off;
the disposal and use of spirituous liquors should be

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23 WEST MAIN STREET

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(716) 873-4503

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OBSERVATIONS ON

wholly interdicted; eminent physicians should be
sent amongst them, to teach them to combat with
efficiency those diseases to which they were stranger,
previous to their acquaintance with the white people ;
every practicable means should be employed to
regain their confidence and good- will ; and, finally,
as a necessary preparatory measure, they should be
enlightened by the same common process that is
practised in respect to infant minds, in civilized life.
The numeral relations must first be taught, before
any aggregated series can be comprehended; and
this truism is as justly applicable to the instruction of
any other race of people, as of the Indians. Hence
the inference is plain: the Indians, as previouidy
observed, must be educated before they can com-
prehend the benefits and advantages to be derived
from civilized pursuits, or a change in their
religious tenets. There is, in the Indian mode
of life, something pecuharly fascinating : so much
so, that scarcely an instance is known of a person,
situated Jike myself, and even with the additional
inducements arising from a knowledge of, and even
an acquaintance with his parents and connections,
ever having abandoned it; and there are numerous
instances of persons, who, arriving at a discretionary
age, have either been captured, or voluntarily joiu'^d
them; and who, though subsequently having the
option completely at their control, continued with
them for the remainder of their lives. This disposi-
tion, no doubt, originated in their peculiar mode of
education, in their love of ease and indolence, and
the almost unrestrained freedom which they enjoy.
It is true, their wants force them into action ; other*

CIVILIZING THE INDIANS.

wise, a more isupine and inactive life than they lead^
could scarcely be desii'ed even by the disciples of Dio-
genes themselves*

They live under an implied social compact ; have
chiefs and other superior officers, and traditionary laws
for their government ; but, nevertheless, they sur-
render comparatively no portion of their personal
liberty : they chastise offeiices, and revenge insults,
regardless of all considerations, and neither yield
obedience nor acknowledge fealty to any one. Their
lives are either calms or storms, in which all the
passions of their souls are either quiescent or tu-
multuously excited, and concentrated according to
the impeUing cause. In fine, all their hopes and de-
sires, whether connected with this or a future Bfe;
are completely sensual : and whether their mode of
education can be varied, so long as the means of in^
dulgence are so easily attainable, admits of a doubt
(Ally to be resolved by constant, steady, a.nd potent
experiments. True Christian charity ought to be
extended to them ; and although great forbearance
and labour may, and probably will, be required fi^m
those who undertake the measure, before they can
be brou^t to comprehend and adopt the doctrines
and mysteries of reveajed religion, they should not
on that account be abandoned to their errors.
. In extenuation of these difficulties and troubles, it
should be remembered with what pertinacity man-
kind in general adhere to the prejudices and errors
derived from custom and early education ; and with
how much greater force they cling to opinions that
have received the adoption and concurrent testimony

!'1|

: ,4:i

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366

OBSERVATIONS ON

of '.aimemorial usage, in 8ii{)port of their ssnctity
and truth. Besides, it should alio be rentembered
that there are many individuals in ail Qiristian coun«
tries, highly distinguished for their natural and ac-
quired talents,^ who, though conversant with the
Scriptures, profess that they cannot cotnprehend thie
doctrines they inculcate.

^ With what horror and distress would the pious
professors o£ Christianity regard the zealous and un-
remitted efforts of the followers of Mahomet, to
convert them to the mussnlman faith ; more espe-
cially should such efforts be attended with only a
very Hmited success. The Indians do not, perhaps
experience the same degree of excitement that the
Christians probably would at such attempts to re-
volutionize their religious opinions ; they, neverthe-
less, look on such efforts as wicked, and upon those
who make them, as instruments of the bad spirit sent
to torment and destroy them. The object of res-
claimtng them fhmi their present erroneous customs
and habits^ and of redeeming them from the anni-
hilation With wliich they are threatened by the en-
croachment of the white settlers on their hunting-
grounds, and by a pestilential intercourse with the
lowest dr^ of civilized life, is of the utmost conse-
quence to their happiness and existence, and highly
worthy of the efforts of the enlightened, benevolent,
and philanthropic portiofn of the human family.
Nay, more, it does appear to me, that the American
community in particular, which has become great
and powerful as it were on the destruction of the
Indians, owes the accomplishment of this measure,

CIVILIZING THE INDIANS.

ag far as it is practicable, to its own character, to
justice, and to moral right.

Spain, by her cruelty, injustice, and oppression
towards the truly unfortunate aborigines of her Ame«
rican dominions, procured for herself a character
among the nations which has barred all their sym*
pathies for her, and in some instances caused them
to rejoice at her distressing and calamitous trials^
Moral re-action has revived and nearly paralysed the
fibres of her heart ; and she now feebly struggles, on
the brink oi' anarchy, for a renovated existence.; t ^

Although the American people have not trod in
the footsteps of Spain, as regards their conduct to^
wards the Indians within their territories ; yet they
have been guilty of cruelty and injustice to them,
in too many instances. ^v

Many proofs might be deduced in support of this
assertion ; but, on this occasion, I shall only bring
forward one, which is mild in its features compared
with others of more remote occurrence. I allude
to the recent location of the Cherokees in the neigh-
bourhood of the Osage nation. These people, till
the late treaty was effected between them, had been,
it was well known, for a long time past implacable
enemies ; and the least knowledge of their character
must have clearly pointed out the consequences that
actually did result from the measure; namely, offensive
operations, and the death of many warriors belonging
to both nations. Now, the powers that be, could
have effectually prevented this, without endangering
the interests of the American people in the slightest
degree; they^ therefore, as before asserted, have

il 4''

368

. *i r ^ OBSERVATIONS ON

Evidently been guilty of cruelty and injustice, to' say

the least of their conduct, towards both these tribes*

■ Thousands, perhaps I might say millions of these

people, have perished within the boundaries, now

claimed by the Umted States, since their 'intercourse

. with the first adventurers to this part of our conti'-

nent* Numerous nations, which before that period

were powerful and happy in their pursuits, now cease

to exist : many others have become feeble, and are

so rapidly diminishing, that in a short time, unless

the proper measures be adopted to prevent it, very

little will be known of them except their names. If

the paist be a criterion for the future, from what is

how cai^rydng on in respect to those who still remain

as it were, uncorrupt:d by, and strangers to the

cruel policy or effects of an intercourse with the

white people, as it at present exists ; it requires no

spirit of divination to predict what will ultimately be

their fate.

' The title of the Indians to the distinctive charac^
ter of human beings, from their moral and physical
endowments, is as good, considering the circum-
stances in which they are found, as that of any other
race of men on the face of the earth. This is so
clear to those who are acquainted with them, as not
to require any proof; but should there be a doubt on
this subject in the minds of any, such are referred to
the preceding parts of this work, for a moxe complete
development of their character and capacities. . i j
There are great numbers of pious good people in
the United States, who display the greatest solicitude
for, and generously contribute to the reclaimancc of

fIVILIZINO THE INDIANS.

3G9

say

these

now

lourse

CGQti'>

period

cease
id are
unless
:, very
les. If
vhat is
remain

to the
ith the
lires no
itely be

charac"
)hy8ical
circum-
ly other
is is so
, as not
oubt on
jrred to
omplete

eople in
laUcitude
nance of

the heathens of foreign countries from the darkness
of ignorance to the saving Ught of wisdom, as pro-
mulgated in the gospel ; while they overlook the
temporal and spiritual welfare of those equally be-
nighted, who live on their very thresholds. I say
overlook, because all the measures that have been
attempted, were so feeble, distracted, and inefficient,
as to induce tendiencies of a very doubtful, if not of
a decidedly injurious nature. The skilful physician
is desirous and. careful to understand the symptoms
and character of his patient's disease, before he pre-
scribes a remedy ; but those who would benefit the
condition of the Indians, attempted it without scarcely
any knowledge of their habits and morals ; and, as
might have been iexpected, have hitherto completely
failed. ;^ *a,v. _

A plan of education, however, has been recently
commenced at the Osage villages, which, if conti-
nued on the principles I have ventured to suggest,
and agriculture and the mechanic arts be superadded
to them, and all religious topics be suppressed till
the young minds have been prepared by a sufficient
previous education to understand them, will, I am
well persuaded, after a long time of patient perseve-
rance, result in the happiest consequences. Biit
"the vineyard is great," and an increase of la-
bourers is absolutely essential to any very extensive
beneficial results. v >

In selecting persons for this ' labour, those only
should be employed, who, are mild and forbearing
in their, dispositions, and moral and temperate in
their habits and lives ^ and whose regard for the wel-

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370

OBSERVATIONS ON

fare and happiness of the Indians would, on every
occasion, shew forth eminently superior to every
thing like self-interest.

The Indians are generally prejudiced against the
missionaries, no matter from wliat denomination or
people they come ; and this feeling also extends to
all white people, particularly to those from the United
States, excepting only the Friends, whose charac-
ter and disposition towards them are in general well
understood by all the frontier tribes, and, in many
instances, by those more remotely situated. They are
held in the greatest respect and esteem ; and if they
would undertake to revolutionize the habits and
opinions of the Indians, they woiild have the advan-
^cage of at least an entire generation of confidence
and good- will in their favour, over any other religious
sect ; a circumstance that would almost operate as a
miracle in arriving at the measure in view.

Whoever may undertake it, v/ill^ if they look for
a rich harvest at once, be assuredly disappointed.
The opinions and prejudices of nearly all theit grown
people are so firmly fixed, that it wiU require much
sound policy and good management to obtain per-
mission, in the ^rst place, to int^ere with the educa-
tion of those who are younger. Taught by experience
tiiat the white peoplie are sincere in their efforts to
tierve them, their prejudices will gradually unbend ;
they will acquire the knowledge of a few facts, that
wiU elicit and confirm a taste for farther and more
important attainments ; and, finally, they Will absorb
every ray of truth that may be reflected on them, till
tbey become civilized, enlightened^ and themselves
........ .17

CIVILIZING THE INDIANS.

371

the teachers of the very truths which they now so
much contemn.

Man, without regard to age, colour, or endow-
ments, from the circumstance of his reflecting powers,
and the constitution of his social feelings, cannot but
be di^ontented and unhappy when removed from his
home and connections, comparatively ignorant of the
motives whidi led to the measure, and placed among
strangers whose language he knows not, and whose
prejudices utterly forbid the formation of any new
ties and relations. Precisely such, however, has
been the situation of iall those Indians who have been
brought from, or induced to leave their forests and
vagrant pursuits for academic education : yet, for-
sooth, some of the philoiiophers of the day would
rank them in their moral and physical endowments
and capacities to improve, as intermediates to their
own fproudly cultivated race, and baboons or apes ;
because, instructed, though under the above-named
circumstances, they prefer their own country, and
the society of kindred and friends, to those where
their colour alone is aninsuperable barrier to all social
and friendly intercourse. Reverse this state of things;
convey the means of imparting knowledge to thein in
their native retreats, and enlist them heartily in its
pursuit, as readily may be done ; and I think I am
justified, from my knowledge of them, in averring
that they will rival the native Mexicans in the de-
velopment of their mental faculties, of whom so res-
pectful mention has been made by Count Humboldt,
in his treatise on the kingdom of New Spain.
Those who undertake the instruction of the Indians

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: S72

OBSERVATIONS ON

must expect to undergo, at least for a time, some
privations, and to suffer some inconveniences ; but

>they need apprehend nothing for their safety, pro-
vided they support rigidly just and honourable
relations. Their conduct should always be consistent,
steady, fearless, and independent ; though not stem

' and authoritive. Any variation from this course will
be sure to lessen their respect, or excite their jealousy,

leither of which would prove exceedingly prejudicial
to a successful prosecution of their functions. . They

:are ambitious ; and, from the youngest to the oldest,
love praise and distinction : circumstances of which
advantage should be taken, in the distribution of
tokens, presents, &c., to smooth dov/n, and render
agreeable the irksome asperities of their novel studies
and pursuits. The teachers should learn the language
of the tribes in which they are respectively located;
and, whenever an appropriate opportunity offers^
converse freely, particularly with the older ones, on
such^ subjects only as are agreeable to them. The
good opinion of the females will also prove service-
able, and greatly facilitate the education of their
children. It should be obtained by kindness and
respectful attention; too great familiarity might
excite interests that .would lead, to disagreeable con-
sequences; besides, whatever may be their own
habits, it would certainly abstract from the good
opinion of the men. .

. The climate on the Arkansaw, Missouri, and the
upper part of the Mississippi rivers, and on their
tributary streams, . is, perhaps, among the most
healtliy in the world ; the surface of country is re-

CIVILIZING TKS INDIANS.

373

; gome
s; but

mrabk
sistent,
)t stem
rse will
ialousy,

, They
i oldest,
tf which
ution of
[ render
I studies
anguage
located ;
y offers^
ones, on
m. The
service-
of their
ness and
by might
able con-
heir own
the good

and the
on their
the most
itry is re-

markably even, though in some instances hilly, and
the soil is in general easily reclaimable, unusually
productive, and, in some parts, well watered j so that,
even in temporal or interested views, the inducements
which are presented to settlers in this quarter are of
a most flattering nature.

I have no doubt that extensive plans may be de-
vised and carried iiito effect, which would ultimately
result in producing great benefits to the Indians. The
object is [highly important, and no means should be
spared inv attempting its accomplishment; and it will, r^
so far as is consistent with my pursuits, and the state .
of my affairs, at all times afford me the highest grati-
fication to be instrumental to the education, and
consequent preservation; of this neglected, persecu-
ted* and much injured portion of the human family. ,

• . • •* -J.*

■-' *' .

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I! :

374

CHAP. XVI.

INDIAN ANECDOTtM.

The white settlements on the frontiers of' civilized
life, and bordering upon the Indian territories, cul-
tivate the greatest friendship towards the Indians^ in
order to prevent the vengeance with which they
usually repay <m affront. When the friendly In-
dians, therefore, pass through the white peoples'
neighbourhood, they are certain to call, to tell them
they are friends; that they « smoke the pipe of
peace under the shadow of the same tree, and walk
the .same path to the spring." Indeed, to pass by an
old friend's house without calling to wish him well,
and ask him how he does, an Indian would think this
fiiend had sufficient reason to be angry, or to suspect
his friendship. Tliey commonly make some prese. ,
of venison, or other fresh meats, as farther tokens of
their good-will. In many instances, the white women
have become quite reconciled to them, having had
sufficient proofs of their peaceful intentions. Where
the Indian calling happens to be an old acquaint-
ance, and the man of the house be at home, he walks
in confidently, and without ceremony. But should
the man be ^om home, he lays his long knife and
tomahawk by the door, and puts his gun behind it,
or conceals his side-armour under his breech-cloth }
walks to the lady of the house ; looks pleasing ;
handles his ** calamut," or pipe ', inquires for the

'k.

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

375

welfare of the family ; and usually asks for tobacco,
which is a certain indication of his friendly disposi-
tion. The good women immediately orders some-
thing to be got read^ for her Indian friend to eat.
On such occasions, the white women, as well as their
husbands, become quite sociable with them. In-
deed, there are many traits in the character of an
Indian, who sustains a fair reputation, truly interest-
ing. A life of hardships and adventure aftbrd much
experience, which they treasure up in memory, and
for many years after will relate, with minuteness and
accuracy, the events of their lives.

It happened, that the old warrior and counsellor,
«* Round Buttons," was travelling through a white
settlement on the frontiers of the Illinois some years
since : his road led him near the house of an old
acquaintance, a gentleman of well-known respect-
ability and friendship towards the Indians. " Round-
Buttons" was noted for his experience and intel-
ligence ; had fought many battles ; had several wives;
and was a great hunter and runner. The gentle-
man and lady were happy to see their old friend :
the usual expressions of friendship being over, the
old guest entertained his kind host with many curious
and interesting stories about his people ; his hunting
^nd running; killing his enemies, &c. The lady
now commenced cor versation with him : she inter-
rogated him on many subjects relating to their man-
ners and habits ; how many snows he liad seen ? or
how old he was ? how the Indians lived ? how many
wives he had? The character of this Indian was
such as to give him the title which we calkd a pri-

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376

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

vileged character. After answering many of the lady's
questions, he looked into the yard through the
window very earnestly, where an aspen-tree grew ;
the lady asked him what he was looking at so in-
tently. He asked her what tree she called that in
the yard ? She said, it was a quaking asp. He re-
plied, in broken English, Indian no call hi: n quake
asp. What then? asked the inquisitive hostess.
** Woman tongue, woman tongue," answered the
sagacious warrior; " never still, never still, always
go." He then turned away, in a very good humour,
to enjoy the inspiring beverage, of which he was
unfortunately too fond ; and to regale, and be re-
galed in turn, by the gentlemen, with their favourite
exploits of hunting, shooting, &c. ...»--- .......

The same Indian, returning from a visit to the
governor on his way to Kaskaskia, stopt at a tippling
shop on the road. A number of half-civilized whites
were at the place drinking and playing cards.
In the language of the country, they were
" rowdying," indulging low vices. Round-But-
tons was unfortunately " craving a dram" when
he arrived; and having taken rather freely, and
feeling its influence, began to relax from his native
dignity of character, and to mix with the ruffians,
they now began to think they might make more free
with him. He did not choose to permit sucli liberty,
however ; for the Indians always think themselves
above mean white people, even the most abandoned
Indian you can find. They took this conduct as an
insult Some of the party proposed drenching him
with whiskey, because he refused to drink any more

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

377

with them. They would shew him what it was to
place himself above white people. The owner of the
house wished him to take protection in a separate
room, and be sliut up until the men got sober ; for
they might kill him. But the brave warrior was not
to be intimidated by threats. And besides, he too
well knew human nature, in its savage state, to think
of avoiding danger from ruffians, by hiding from
them. He assured the man he need not be uneasy
on his account J though he very warmly thanked him
for wishing to afford him protection. " No blood,
when much talk," he said ; " chattering belongs to
women and wild geese ! When men make themselves
squaws," said he, " they are much beneath them."
The infuriated men cursed and abused the warrior at
a horrid rate. Nothing can exceed the silence and
secrecy an Indian observes, when he is about to exe-
cute some important enterprise ; nothing can exceed
his contempt, therefore, for a person who makes harsh
threats, and speaks much of what he intends doing.
They say on such occasions, " Talk much, do little."
Round Buttons, therefore, insisted on Mr. Duke not
to exhibit the smallest symptom of uneasiness for his
safety, supposing it would encourage those despera-
does to persist in their ferocity, or make them boast
that they had alarmed him. He asked for a board,
went deliberately to the fire, and charred one side
black; thenasked for apiece of white paper, which, pin-
ned against the board, he placed by the side of a tree
as a target. He deliberately stepped off one hundred
yards, took aim, and shot the ball near the centre.
He re-loaded, and repeated with similar success.

■'*

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378

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

Having wiped his piece and charged it again, still
keeping his eye on, and watching minutely the eifect
of his conduct on his adversaries, he asked his host,
how he liked his shooting? if he thought any of his
neighbours coulf' beat him? He then desired the
little boy, son of Mr. Duke, the owner of the house,
to run and fetch the tomahawk, as he was without his
own. Having greased and dusted the handle, he
threw it against a post with much accuracy and force.
" Thus," said he, turning to his generous friend,
** Indian man provide for his wife and little ones in
peace ; thus defend them in war." He saw the effect
produced which he intended; and his rude opponents
w«re convinced they had best not interrupt him, for
he was no ♦* woman." .

Several traits in the Indian character are displayed
in the conduct of the brave and justly-celebrated
Round Buttons. When an Indian warrior of renown
is stimulated beyond his native sense of modesty and
reserve, by whisky, nothing can exceed the torture
which restraint, and hearing women's talk, ^ves him.
We find this old hero relieving himself of this embar-
rassment, without any personality ; and by happily
uniting pleasantry and wit, convinced his female friend
that a brave tenant of the forest is not insensible to
the courtesy due to her sex.

In the second place, had he accepted the proffered
protection of the innkeeper, or betrayed the least ap-
pearance of concern for his own safety, it would, he
well knew, give his enemies encouragement to intrude
farther, and perhaps proceed to violent and rash mea-
sures, as they were his superiors in number. By

INDIAN ANECDOTKR,

379

shewing them his skill in shooting, and throwing the
tomahawk) his enemies were convinced he would i.e-
fend himself above the mean passion of fear. Again,
we see a nobleness of mind eminently displayed in his
assuming and maintaining a stand above the ruffians
who would draw him into their demoralizing revels
and degrading riots.

The long and destructive war which had existed
between the Mahaws, Attowas, and Kansas tribes,
was at length compromised by a meeting at the grand
council fire, of the Kansas towns on the Kansas river.
Each nation sent its principal representatives, who, in
conformity to their expression, came to " bury the
tomahawk and scalping knife, and to remove the
slicks out of their path." The most unequivocal
tokens of reconciliation were expressed, and the most
dignified and decent deportment observed. The red
scarf of the Ottowas arrived first, with two of his
tribe, all with their national costume, but Ma-la-huk
bore the wampum of peace. Later in the afternoon
of the same day, Kas-karhe-ga or Moon-light, of the
Mahaws, arrived with his attendants; the Ottowa
and his suite staid in the house of Mu-kea or Star, and
Kas-ka^he-ga lodged with Kos-hu-ka, and all became
acquainted, but not social that evening ; they were
solemn and serious, which deportment they always-
observe justbetoiJ any concern of national import-
ance is to be transacted, or, as they term it, just at the
sleep or night before they sit around their council
fire. Any indulgence in sociality, or levity at such
times, is deemed highly improper and inconsistent
with the dignity of their high trust. Besides, they

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380

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

think, that to shew much levity at such a time, but
ill comports with the importance of the occasion, and
discovers a want of sincerity. There is another rea-
son for their retiring to rest very calmly just on the
eve of a national " smoke" They commonly take a
portion of the herb, heb-ri ; and go calmly to rest,
lest any irregularities should disturb the lessons or
instructions of the Good Spirit, who is supposed to
visit them at such times. They repaired early the
next morning, and literally drank out of the same
spring. They went, as usual on such occasions, and
laid their peace wampums in the council lodge, and
at the seat where they were to sit at the *• smoking."
They partook very temperately of roasted buffalo, ho-
mony, &c., and at mid-day, when the sun was highest
and the rays the warmest, and the time weariness
called for rest arrived, they smoked the pipe of peace
in the name of their nation. The sun is highest above
the horizon at noon, which is emblematical of their
highest friendship ; his rays are then most sensibly felt,
and that is expressive of the greatest sense of recon-
ciliation ; and as it causes weariness and a want of
rest, they shew, by this, they now agree to bury the
weapons of war under the tree of peace, and repose
together under its shadow. Sometimes they do, but
at this time they did not indulge in any extravagant
expressions of pleasure, until the noon of the succeed-
ing day. And, indeed, it very seldom happens, that
the Indians, on such occasions, indulge in such ex-
pressions of l^ilarity, or even depart in the slightest de-
gree from that silent dignity, until one sleep after the
council. . /

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

381

»' On the next day, each one told his dream, be-
ginning at the eldest. Their conversation then
turned on the .uost remarkable occurrences of their
lives ; and as few opportunities ever occur for them
to talk honourably of their worthy deeds, they relate,
each in his proper turn, every thing with the utmost
exactness and precision, as to time, season, place,
circumstance, &c. whatever they have achieved;
and he who has the most to speak of, is deemed
the greatest "man." No one of them ever have
the mortification of being disappointed ; . for they
have no such thing as being made, or purchasing,
the high dignitary of peace-messenger for his na-
tion, by bribery or family influence : his personal
achievements must render him the subject of the
appointment; and, as before remarked, he looks
forward with patient, but ardent wish to enjoy the
luxury of having a suitable opportunity of talking
of himself. , I mention this, . because, to be talking
on ordinary occasions of great actions, bespeaks
littleness, and is certain to be neglected or laughed
at. Around the council fire in company with chiefs,
and especially those of other nations, is the proper
place and company to make known their title to
high trust. It also, at the same time, puts them
on a par, or raises them above their neighbouring
chiefs ; lets them know they have bravery and skill
to defend their hunting grounds, women, and little
ones. One of the chiefs, , Mal-a-heek, observed,
with much self-importance, he had killed so many
of his enemies, that he could swim in their blood.
Kas-ka-he-ga, who sat next him, looked around with

.yl.

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INDIAN ANECDOTE^.

much earnestness on all the per^ns present^ and
then observed, ** he had killed so many of his ene-
mies, that all present could swim in their blood."

They exchanged presents of belts, tomahawks,
flints, &c. in token of itriendship, and relaxed into
more sociability. The young women presented
them with the choicest parts of r'^osted buftalo meat,
and marrow-bones of the same animal, which, when
well roasted in the fire, are a great delicacy.

When they had all slaked their thirst again at the
same spring, each gave the whoop of his nation
three times, left his peace-pipe and belt with theii-
former enemies, but now friends; and took their
leave.

It is most usual, on occasions like this, to take
leave not personally, but nationally and publicly, and
the over night: to arise with the singing of the
feathered tenants of the groves, and be advancing
on his journey before the sun crimsons the east with
his beams.

. Cowardice and treachery are the damning sins of
Indian life, and are seldonrpermitted to go unpunish-
ed. I have seen a Kansas warrior killed for this
vice, and have frequently witnessed the disgrace
which it entails on the individual charged with it.
During my residence with the Kansas, they were
frequently engaged in war parties with their neigh-
bouring tribes, and surprises were frequent. To
understand a surprise, or she-ga-hee, among the
Indians, requires a short explanation. Indians learn
to imitate the voice and other characteristics of the
various animals among their rambles. A hostile

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

S8d

t, and
lis ene-
ood."
ihawks,
ed into
esented

meat,
1, when

1 at the
nation

ith their
>k their

to take
icly, and
; of the
Ivancing
jast with

sins of
npunish-
for this
disgrace
with it.
ey were
ir neigh-
nt. To
ong the
ans learn
•s of the
hostile

party of Indians, therefore, will, with surprising
secrecy, go within hearing of their enemies' dwellings,
and imitate the voice of the animal which happens to
be in season at that period of the year ; as, for
instance, the gobbling of the turkey-cock in the early
part of the spring, or the yepping or clucking of the
hen during the infancy of her young in the summer ;
the howling of the wolf j or bleating of a buck or
buf&lo calf. The Indian hunters snatch up their
bow or gun, and instead of the expected game find
themselves surprised by an enemy. In one of these
instances, three young warriors of the Kansas tribe,
during their hostility with the Ottowas, were allured
into the neighbouring woods by the gobbling of the
turkey-cock, when to their misfortune two of them
were shot dead, and their scalps taken ; the third
ran for his life without discharging his piece. He
continued the yell of defeat the whole way, gave the
alarm to the warriors, who immediately set out in
pursuit of their enemies ; and followed them into the
very neighbourhood of their towns without being able
to overtake them. ' On their return home, however,
they fell in with the trail of a hunting party of that
tribe, fired on them by surprise, and took. each man
his scalp. The usual rejoicings of the women and
children were indulged on their return, and silent
applause of the old men. Shem-ba-gah looked very
much pleased that they were successful ; they sat
under the spreading shade, where the aged men and
warrio»'8 sat smoking. Shem-ba-gah, the one who ran,
went among them; they said not a word to him.
but went away as soon as he came near them. The

1.J,:

1,-k

,^1

5 I

\ i

r:n

384

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

punishment was too great for him to bear ; he left
them without taking leave or saying a word to any
person, and never returned while I remained with
that<tribe. >C'^^* *^ ^- • ^ : cj

X, During the war against the Mahaws, the son of a
brave warrior became much attached to an Ottowa
girl, who had been adopted into a Kansas family,
having been taken prisoner . in early life. The
Mahaws came and stole several horses belonging to
the Kansas, as they were grazing in a neighbouring
prairie. They were discovered in the act by some
Kansas women,, who were getting wood to make
fires. On bringing intelligence to the warriors, they
seized their arms and pursued them with their usual
rapidity; the son of the old warrior, who was now
laden with "snows" or years, staid behind, which so
provoked the old veteran, that he took down the
piece belonging to his son, which had not been given
Jhjm as a reward of bravery, but by the fondness of
his parent ; who, by his former bravery, had taken it
from his enemies : and striking it across a log with
Jiis whole strength, broke it in pieces. The young
orphan girl, his tender lover before, would never
suffer him to come near her after. This Indian,
whose name is Moi-hee-she-ga or ".sharp knife," I
saw »iome years afterwards on an expedition up the
Missouri, mentioned in my narrative, page 86, .87, &c.
, A treaty of peace was held between the Ottowas
and Missouris some time before I left the Indians, at
the pipe clay bank on Blue Earth river. The hostile
parties, had now, by. mutual agreement, " buried the
.tomahawk under the roots of the tree of, friendship,

he left
[ to any
;d with

;on of a
Ottowa

family,
I. The
[iging to
ibouring
by some
to make
lors, they
leir usual
was now
which so
iown the
een given
ndness of
d taken it
i log with
'he young
jld never
iS Indian,

knife," I
Lon up the

;6,.87,&c.
e Ottowas
ndians, at
?he hostile
mried the
friendship,

INDIAN ANELDOTKS.

SS,")

and sat under its shadow to smoke the pipe of peace,'
and * hear the birds sing.' "

A few of both of these tribes happened to meet on
the Missouri a few weeks atler, where some traders
had arrived with some articles of traffic ; among them
they had a (Quantity of whiskey to barter for furs,
peltry, &c. Several of the Indians soon began to feel
the influence of the inspiring beverage. A Missouri
and an Ottowa had a difference, which was soon
put a stop to by their friends reminding them of
their agreement, to " bury the tomahawk," and by
handling their emblems of peace, wampum, which is
done by holding up before each other the wampum,
suspended before the breast by a strip of deer or
buffalo skin, and they were soon placed beyond the
power of further hostility, by a dram of whiskey,
sufficient to throw them on their " mother's bosom,**
the earth, and drown all their enmity in the " great
watei'" of oblivion. The Missouri Indian recover-
ing first, and arousing from his stupor, stabbed the
Ottowa to the heart, and the blow was fatal. The
murderer concealed himself in a thicket about a mile
and a half ofi| for his final retreat was rendered im-
possible with safety, byhiniselfj in consequence of
the hostile tribes on each side. When the baccha-
nals aroused from their fits of intoxication, finding
their companion dead, satisfaction was demanded by
the Ottowas, and not inding the offender, a general
massacre would have been the consequence, had not
the brother of the criminal *' held his peace wampum "
in oath of delivering him to the enraged Ottowas ; in
two hours, he returned with his devoted brdther,

c c

I :i

38()

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

whom they hacked to pieces with their tomahawks
and scalping knives, sated their revenge, appeased
the departed spirit of the murdered, and closed the
tj*agic scene with a war-dance and drunken frolic.
During such scenes, the Indian cares not for any thing
but his dram, gun, and other equipage, his wampum
and trophies of victory, which he never parts with,
except with his liberty, and thus situated, the traders
feast their avarice on their unguaidedness.

Had either party killed his opponent, during the
encounter, it is highly probable nothing farther than
the burial of the dead would have been the conse-
quence. Many instances of a similar character do
happen by the introduction of ardent spirits among
them. A general butchery, and the death of two of
the Sioux, took place among a party of that nation,
a few years since, in a drunken frolic.

The well-known sacrifice of Poge is familiar to
most of the western traders. He was a man of artful
address, and insinuating manners ; but, unfortunately
for him, was not much acquainted with the Indian
character. , He took a considerable quantity of whis-
key, some trinkets, and ammunition among the
Peons, who, by the way, are not much to be trusted.
He did not observe the necessary preliminary step of
" getting in," as they call it, with their chiefs, or of
conciliating their favour, which would have ensured
his protection. He offered them whiskey, which they
refused to taste at first j but he became soon very
familiar and friendly with them. He would drink to
them, and it would betray want of friendship, on their
part, to refuse. He dissembled, pretending to drink

INDIAN ANKCDOTliS.

.i87

hawks
)eased
;d the
frolic.
f thing
impiim
\ with,
traders

ing the
ler than

conse-
cter do

among
f two of
: nation,

ailiar to
of artful
tunately

Indian
of whis-
ong the
; trusted.
y step of
jfs, or of
e ensured
lich they
soon very

drink to
), on their

to drink

tirequentiy, and they must drink every time he did.
It is usual among them to drink out of a tin cup, so
that there is no telling how nmch another drinks.
The vessel is filled ; the first drinks, and hands it to his
next, and it thus passes round the company ; his ob-
ject was to keep sober, and make the Indians drunk ;
they thought he was drinking as freely as themselves \
and tiiought it would be too much like women in
them to let a " white man drink them drunk •, " and
continued to partake as often as he pretended to do
so. His being quite sober, while his red brethren
were all " knocked down,*' as they term it, by the
" strong water,'* made their spy, or koo-gee, watch
him narrowly, and perceiving his not swallowing when
he Hfled the cup to his lips, told him, in broken
English, to wait in that place until he went to their
village, about two miles off, to get his people »nd
friends, who had furs to barter, to come and make an
exchange. This highly pleased the unfortunate Poget
who went to his brother's camp, about three milea
below, on the river, to get his assistance in conveying
his peltry down. Mr. Dellum was of tlie party, and
accompanied them when they returned. While they
were diverting themselves with the staggering of some,
and sullen stupidity of others, the Indian returned
with a number of warriors, women, and children.
The warriors were all armed, and painted in hostile
array ; Poge advanced towards them, not understand-
ing the signals of hostility, and, in a moment, was
filled with deadly wounds. Dellum and his com.
panion were captured, all their effects destroyed, ani
they taken to the habitations of their -qaptors, until

c c ^

■A

388

INDIAN ANKCDOTKH.

they determined how to dtHpoNc of them. The reHuIt
of their consultation was, that, if* they were " men,**
and would each take a '* Hquaw," they nhould remain
with them unhurt. To t\m they consented, and after
living some months with them, they were lefl per-
fectly at liberty to go as far as they liked without any
Indians with them. After returning punctually
several times at the hour appointed, they made their
escape, and arrived at the hack settlements in safety,
almost famished. Not that the means of subsistence
were at all scarce j but because they were afraid to
shoot, lest they should be discovered by hostile
tribes. . . ; . -

I am acquainted with both these young men.
Dellum has returned among them ; what has become
of Poge I am not able to say. I think when I saw
lim last, which was on Pearl River, in the state of
Mississippi, he was disposed to return with the In-
dians. Dellum persuaded me all in his power to
return with him. He was fascinated with the Indian
mode of living, and expressed much suqirise that
I could prefer the fetters of civilized habits. Oh,
the pleasures of hunting and roving through the
woods; nothing to trouble one! he would exclaim
in rapture. It was a great treat to meet a person
with feelings so congenial with my own ! He said, if
he had a hundred sons he would turn them all out
in the woods.

Colonel Browne related the following anecdote to
me during the spring of 1819. A Frenchman who
was in the habit of trading among the Indians, took,
among other articles, a quantity of gunpowder ; but

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

.389

the Indians were supplied by the disposal of most
of their furs to other traders, and reserved their re-
maining stock for the purpose of purchasing other
necessaries with them. The Frenchman, however,
having sold mostly all his goods except this powder,
and fearing lest it should remain on his hands, had
tried every artifice to induce them to barter with him
for it, but without succeeding, until Indian curiosity
afforded him the oj)portunity of selling it. Among
other ingenious <piestions they asked him, was, how
the white people made powder ? The hopes of find-
ing a ready market for the " black dust," at an ad-
vantageous price, immediately set to work his powers
of invention. He told them, " The white people
sowed it in fields like they did wheat or tobacco
seeds, and were enabled thereby to raise large crops
from a few pounds of seed." The Indians were
highly pleased, and every one who could raise a
beaver-skin, purchased, at an exorbitant price, as
far as his pelting would go, and in a little time the
Frenchman found himself freed of all his powder, and
in possession of great booty, and made the best of
his way as soon as he could. The delighted Indians
directly set to work in preparing a choice spot of
ground for the reception of their new crop. Having
cleared the land, by removing the timber, rubbish,
and brushwood, and having loosened the soil, they
followed the Frenchman's directions in sowing the
powder. They enclosed it, to prevent their horses
and wild animals from injuring it. They went from
time to time to see if it had come up. After some
weeks had elapsed, and finding all their hopes at an

c c S

390

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

end, one old chief, wiser than the rest, wittily obi-
served ** he was a Frenchman," of whom they had
purchased the powder. This hint was enough ; they
understood him. They now all believed it was a
fraud : they determined to revenge it the first oppor-
tunity. It should be kept in mind that when any
individual injures an Indian, he entertains the most
bitter enmity, not only against him and his relations,
but against his nation. Not long after, another
Frenchman went among the same tribe, with a cargo
of dry goods. It should be also remembered, that an
Indian seldom forgets an injury. The Frenchman
obtained permission from the chiefs to sell his goods
among his people : he gave up his own wigwam ; the
industrious pedlar opened his bales, and wh6n the
goods were all spread out for inspection, as it were,
the young warriors, and all that had been fooled by
the former Frenchman, rushed on him> and took all
the poor man's goods. He laid his bitter complaint
before the chief) and demanded satisfaction. The
chief very gravely replied, " He certainly should be
paid, but for that he must wait until the next gun-
powder harvest." This was all the remuneratioji
the disappointed Frenchman could obtain, and left
them, but without being loaded with furs as lie had
anticipated.

The Indians do not have many serious differences
among their families, though petty broils sometimes
. occur ; but they often end seriously. While I was
among the Kansas, however, I witnessed several
contests among the women, as well as amoiig the
children. An Indian woman went out to get wood ;

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

391

during her absence she left her child in a cradle
made of the bark of a tree, girdled and peeled
while the sap is up, split in two equal parts, and
bound round with a belt. The child was cross ; and
when the mother returned, her next neighbour, who
was not on very friendly terms with her, told her if
she did not move from that part of the village, or
strangle her squalling brat, she should not stay any
longer ; some other words followed, which did not
amount to many ; however, they soon began to more
serious business ; they beat each other heavily
for a few rounds, and then seized each other,
scratched each other's faces, tore each other's eyes,
and pulled one another's hair, to a desperate degree.
Ho-keeh, " the clouds," made Shes-ka'» nose bleed
most dreadfully. This contest caused no difference
between their husbands that I knew of. They were
both out on a war expedition at the time this hap-
pened. I witnessed the conflict. Althoogh many
were near, no one interfered either to urge hostilities
or to prevent discord ; but let them " fight out their
quarrels, as they say, and when they get tired they
will stop themselves."

One of the greatest insults an Indian woman can
offer another, is to say her child is an " ugly cross
brat;" or, if it be a boy, to call him " a young squaw."
Such language is never used, unless where they in-
tend the greatest insult. And the offended woman
is very apt to resent the insult with blows, in order
to convince lier enemy, by a tangible demonstration,
that her son's mother does not deserve the epithet.

c c 4

'I 'I:

392

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

EFFECTS OF INTEMPERANCE. INSTANCE OF FILIAL

PIETY IN AN INDIAN GIRL. '^ .

A number of Indians, of the Shawanee tribe, who
live near Rogerstown, on the Meramec river Mis-
souri, went with their peltries, venison, hams, and
other articles of traffic, to barter with some traders at
Cape Girede for such necessaries as they were in
need of. It is on such occasions very common for a
man to commit the conveyance of his goods to his
wife. She packs them on a horse, if she has one ; if
not, her children sometimes go to help to carry their
load. Among the rest, a hunter of some distinction
took his wife and daughter along to pack his peltries,
while he walked bearing his rifle. Having disposed
of what they had, the Indians began to indulge very
freely in drink. The father and mother both, of the
girl above mentioned, drank to excess. The father
got drunk and beat his squaw; she ran from his
power, but witliout going to a better place j for she
went to another house, where whiskey was kept.
Some idle young fellows collecting around them, to
have a little fun, as they call it, with them, oflered
them drams of whiskey repeatedly. This was to
niake them give the war-whoop, the songs and dance.
Tlie poor Shawanee girl, who was about eighteen years
old, could not be tempted to taste a drop, nor could
she be moved to leave her ])oor luifbrtunate parent.
She had sensibility to feel the disgrace of her tribe,
who were now all drunk, and amusing the idle spec-
tators and their criminal seducers, by the most tur
bulenl irid (.Atrava;-;aiii •crturci], vcliinvTi, and xdcj-

INDJAN ANK(J DOTES.

S9S

ferations. It cannot be expected that a person
who would for a little idle diversion, or for a few
pence, make a brute of a fellow-being, would possess
humanity to aflbrd the unhappy victim shelter,
when intemperance deprived him of the power of
seeking it for himself. It should be remembered
that the tribe we are now speaking of, live on the
white settlements, have houses, raise considerable
quantities of live stock, grain, &c. Thoy are less ac-
customed to exposure, than those tribes whose habits
are more conformed to a state of nature. Their
liability to disease is also increased by adopting the
evils incident to refined life, without any of its com-
forts and improvements. The parent of the girl above
named, having become an object of much disgust, as
well as her red companions in general, (for a drunken
Indian is truly a disagreeable sight,) their traders had
no farther use for them. They might now seek
shelter where they could. Another evil hung over
the heads of the women ; for although their husbands
were now drunk, and not able to chastise them, they
would not fail to beat them heartily when they got
sober, unless they were able to find their horses,
which had now all got off and left them. The atten-
tion and piety of the young female, I have been in*
formed by a gentleman of high respectability and
honour, who blamed the instruments of their indul-
gence for their conduct, was such as to equal all dis-
plays of filial tenderness and patience that ever were
made. Her name is Peggy Surgett, and she is a
relation of the old chief " Fish," on the Meramec
riven Hor F-n'rlish nnnip slic took, from hcinc:

M il

f.^

*.^

h'i^

.^94

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

brought by a religious society to a school in the state
of Kentucky, where she made very respectable pro-
gress in letters, and learned needle-work and spin-
■^ ning. The unhappy situation of this dutiful young
Indian may be more readily felt than described, when
we contemplate the trials she was exposed to. Her
mother must be left alone in the woods, during a very
inclement night, or she must neglect to find the
horses which had strayed from them. Fearing to
leave a disabled parent alone, (for whom, had she
been sober, Peggy would not have felt any uneasi-
ness) ; and knowing the temper of her father, if she
should not find the horses, she left her mother under
shelter of a cliff of rocks, a few miles from the place
' where her father was with his " red brethren,** steep-
:* ing their senses in whiskey. Having found and caught
the horse, she brought him to Iier father j and, at a
little after ^ sun-rise, was at the place where she had
left her drunken mother. One of those sleeting
rains now came on, which at this season of the year
deluge the western waters. They were detained by
)iigh- water, while the attention of this young Woman
excited the sympathy of all who witnessed her affec-
tion and piety to her unfortunate parents. In fact,
observing white people who live near the Indians,
wherever they have become well acquainted with
them, almost uniformly p'^mire and esteem them.
But the unfortunate and dutiful Peggy Surgett fell a
victim to her virtue. The fatigue she underwent,
and exposure to which she was subjected, brouglit
on a violent cold ; this was followed by a pulmonary
consumptio)!, ol which she died about a twelvt'inonlli

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

S95

after. I saw her some weeks before her death, in
the neighbourhood of Rogerstown, when she was
hectic, and very much reduced. An ignorant pre-
tender to physic, advised the amiable Peggy to take
a tincture of some roots and herbs he had collected,
in whiskey; to which she indignantly replied in
broken English, " White man want poison poor
Indian. Whiskey bring my people to want. Whisky
kill poor Peggy. Peggy, poor daddy and mammy
have no one help 'em when Peggy dead." This
woman died much respected by all her acquaintances.
The closing scene was highly affectin",, ind truly
Christian. And the only regret she was heard to
express at the prospect of her approaching dissolu-
tion, was the helplessness of her parents, who had
become intemperate. The last particulars of this
story I learned from a highly respectable and philan-
thropic gentleman of Kentucky, who conveyed to '
Peggy's instructress, in that coiuity, a letter from
her, which did credit to her head and heart.

Of all the traits which distinguish the Indian cha-
racter, that of nice discrimination is perhaps the most
remarkable. Accustomed from his earliest life to no
other guide to conduct him, and no other means to
satisfy his wants than those with which Nature has
supplied him, the Indian follows her footsteps in all
his walks, and minutely watches her most secret
haunts; hence, that peculiar faculty so much observed
in their deportment by travellers who have witnessed
their actions, when any matter of mucii importance
was the subject of their attention. Hence, the ac-
curacy with whicJ! tliey travel through strange woods

396

INDIAN Anecdotes.

the darkest night. Hence, the swiftness with which
they pursue the blind trail of a flying enemy, where
a white person would scarcely suspect any one to have
travelled. And hence their ability to detect the
resorts of animals, and their success in tiiking them.
A trader from the state of Kentucky went among the
Osages a few years since, with many articles of show,
but of little value, such as blue and red beads, glass
buttons, toys, &c. The chiefs were not much in-
clined to favour his views; he pretended much friend-
ship however to procure their patronage, saying, he
had always been a friend to the Indians, though the
greater part of white people had been their enemies.
An aged and experienced Indian, who listened with
much attention to the trader, looked suddenly up,
fixing his eyes steadfast on those of the trader, and
replied, " his friendship should not pass unrewarded."
He ordered his women to prepare some jerked buffalo
for his lepast; thanked him kindly for his friendly
disposition towards him, and insisted on his keeping
his goods, for they were "too fine for us poor Indians."
The man, however, insisted on it, that the Indians
deserved to have "fine things" as much as any other
people ; and he declared, he was not willing to leave
them without leaving some of his nice beads with his
red brothers and sisters. With the same earnestness
and seriousness as before, the Indian sage expressed
his grateful obligations to his " white brother" for liis
favourable opinion of his tribe ; he then asked tlie
trader, how many squaws he had ? how many child-
ren, and relations ? The man gave some answer ; to
which the Indian replied in broken English ; " Why

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

397

did'nt gi\ 3 fine things to him ? He got no beaver, to
give for fine things. White man mouth full honey, '
talk sweet, say many good things. This please
foolish Indians. He then cheat him. He no fool
Shoma-cassa." The whole of the bye-standors joined
in the ridicule of the trader, who, mortified at not
being able to impose his worthless trinkets on them,
left them to try his fortune at the expense of some
more ignorant tribe. It should be remembered, that
this man had been several times among the same
Indians before, and had always taken worthless trinkets
which would please the ignorant and inexperienced ; '
but which were of no essential service to them.

The old men and chiefs, though sometimes as much
pleased with such things as any of their tribe, look
with indifference, for the most part, and frequently'
wi^h contempt on them. They are much better
pleased with those traders, who carry blankets, knives,
fire-arms, gunpowder, flints, and such articles of uti-
lity as they stand in need of, and they never refuse
to give a fair, and most usually an exorbitant price
for them. * • - " '- - -...-■... . *. ,- .-<^,.t

It will cease to surprise my readers, that they are
tired of sliewy trifles, when it is shewn how egregi-
ously they have been cheated, especially in those articles
whose worth is not easily reduced to a pecuniary
standard. I have known a strand of blue beads sell
for a beaver skin, and ;i few coloured glass buttons
to sell for twice that amount. T well recollect the
first looking-glass I ever saw. A trader came among
the Kansas Indians while I was with them ; he brought
among other trifles a number of small pocket looking-

(;,,:

Mfi

f I-

'4 '.

yys

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

glasses, not larger than a man's hand. Nothing can

exceed the pleasure of the old, and the astonishment

and ecstasy of the women and young Indians, when

seeing their likeness reflected in tlie glassy mirror.

Some thought it altogether enchantment, and othj.rs

were frightened ; but the most were highly pleased,

and thought the trader a supernatural being. The

chief gave him up the use of his house to open his

goods in, and in a few days he was master of all the

valuable furs and peltry in their tribe. Some f(^w of

the warriors and counsellors, who had been to St,

Louis, had seen looking-glasses ; but by far the major

part had never before seen or heard of the like before.

Some of the glasses were sold for two beavers* skins

a piece. Another tradei' came among the same tribe,

some time after, and had a considerable supply of

clothing, which was of a quality that did not very

much suit the taste and means of the Indians. Of

course he found but poor juarket for his goods. In

order, however, that he might get in favour with the

tribe, he told them how shamefully the man with the

looking-glasses had cheated' them. The Indians hate

to hear their judgment derided, and gave the poor

man very little thanks for his information. Besides,

they did not believe him to be much better. The

same man who had sold them the glasses, went among

them the next trading season, and took a number of

veryusefui articles, such as tin-cups, knives, &c. When

he arrived among a people, with whom he thought

himself a favourite, he ventured up to the same

house, which was so much at his service the

year before, and which was as freely given up to

INDIAN ANECDOTES.

399

tg can
liment
when
nirror.
otlu rs
leased,
The
►en his
all the
f(^w. of
to St,
i major
before,
s* skins
le tribe,
ipply of
ot very
ns. Of
ds. In
vith the
^ith the
ans hate
he poor
Besides,
r. The
t among
imber of
:. When
thought
le same
vice the
n up to

him now. But to his surprise none offered as before
to assist him in with his baggage ; none brought him
wood to kindle his fire ; nor did the chief order his
women to prepare him food ; nor invite him to
" smoke the calamut of peace with his red brothers
round the council fire.*' Several times the young
warriors were on the eve of rushing upon him by
surprise, but were prevented by the aged. Having
the use of the wigwam so freely offered to his ser-
vice, although his reception was " cold" to what it
had been the last year, he was not without hopes of
making a profitable disposal of his goods. After
ihey were all opened and ready to sell, the chief
went up to the door, and holding the same glass in
his hand, he held it up before the trader's eyes, and
asked him if he saw himself; the trader said. Yes j
and asked the Indian if it was not a very pretty
thing ? But Mee-ka-a and his tribe were now not
in a humour to be fooled with. He asked the man
if he did not see " woman's face, when he saw his
own in the glass ?" " Man, brave man, no cheat
Indian. Indian no cheat white man." He then
gave the signal whoop. Hoo-Hoop-Roh-Noh ! The
whole of the assembled tribe, who had concealed
themselves a few paces from the house, behind some
fallen logs, rushed in and seized as much of his pro-
perty as they thought would make up for the fraud
he had practised on them the year before. He was
forced to leave them without beaver this time, and
was glad to get off with his life.

A man named Campton went among the same
tribe while I was with them, and having a consider-

\-d

INDIAN ANFX'DOTES.

able quantity of powder, which he wished to sell for
a very exorbitant i)rice, refused several fair oflfers.
He had been several times among them before, and
spoke their language tolerably well. He looked very
gloomy, and appeared much concerned one day, in
hopes, perhaps, that the Indians would enquire the
reason. But they look upon inquisitiveness not only
as indicative of wonianly character, but as a breach
of politeness. He was forced therefore to tell them, •
unasked, the cause of his melancholy. He observed,
he had communication, during his last sleep, with
the Great Spirit, who had informed him that there
would be no more powder taken among his red
children for two snows (or years). The chief was
much concerned, apparently, and pretended to be-
lieve all that Compton had predicted; and, more-
over, thanked him heartily for the sympathy he
expressed for his tribe. The Indian saw through
the design, and caused his warriors and counsellors
to shew the same disposition to the man, and not
contradict him, nor purchase any of his powder, until
he dreamed. The next morning the Indian, Shuja-
Monda, went to his deceitful guest, and told him he
had dreamed last sleep. He told him, " the Great
Spirit appeared to him in his sleep, and informed liini
that the white was taught by the bad spirit, and that
he wanted to deceive and cheat the Indians. That
as he had supplied their hunting grounds with plenty
of game, so he would furnish them with means to
procure it. That no man who listened to the wicked
spirit, should sit at their fire." So they threw his
powder into the river, and sent him away.

401

ell for
offers,
e, and
1 very
ay, in
ire the
)t only
breach
[ them, •
served,
), with
,t there
lis red
ief was

to be-
, more-
ithy he
:hrough
nsellcrs
ind not
^r, until
, Shuja-

him he
le Great
ned him
md that
That

1 plenty
leans to
! wicked

irew his

CHAP. XVII.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATERIA MEDICA OP THE INDIANS.

Having finished that part of my work which treats
of the manners and customs of the Indians, I shall
now proceed to fulfil my engagements in respect to
their Materia Medica.

Here, as on some of the preceding subjects, I am
under the necessity of abridging my remarks for want
of room J but I shall endeavour to do justice to those
of the greatest consequence, so that very little, if any
loss will result from this circumstance.

I need not anticipate my readers, by telling them
the subject offered to their perusal is a dry record of
lacts. They have my assurance that I have seldom
indulged in remarks obtained from a foreign source,
but have confined them to such circumstances as came
within the sphere of my own immediate notice, or to
information from persons, whose regard for truth
places them above suspicion. . „ ;

r Their remedies, like their diseases, are comparatively
few, and on that very account seem not to require a
systematic arrangement. I shall, nevertheless, dis-
cuss them in alphabetical order, but without attempt-
ing to give their technical synonymes, for the same
reasons as stated in Chaptei* I. Indeed some of the
English names are of my own application ; but such
are conforn^ed either to their Indian meanings, or to
their particular qualities or appearance.

D D

402

MATFniA ytuntcA

LA-Go-NEE-iiAw. — Affvceabk' taste,
Angelica. — TIiIh plant jijrowH ubiiniluntly in high
and dry soils, in various parts of the western country.
It is held in high repute among the Indians, and always
constitutes an ingredient in the medicine bag. It is
chiefly valued however as an agreeable commodity
for smoking, in which way they frequently use it
alone, though they prefer it mixed with tobacco. It
is oflen eaten by the Indians while travelling and
short of provisions. It is liable, however, to produce
heartburn and other symptoms of indigestion. They
sometimes give it in the diseases oi' their children, but
it has no great claims as a medicine. It is sometimes
mixed with other remedies, to render them more
palatable. .■ ■ > .....*:: j;^.v- .

f r.. TUT-TE-SEE-IIAU. — // 6'.r/;e/* ///(? T£'/W</. ' ^

' Anise grows in great profusion in moist sliaded soils.
The roots are perennial, and possess u very agreeable
taste and aromatic smell. They are frequently eaten in
travelling, are considered good to remove flatulency,
and are sometimes given in combination with other
drugs to render theiii less disagreeable to the patient.

HE-NE-PIS-K A, — i'V'rC ^'OWC OW/.

Ashes,~~li\ie Indians make a ley from water and
the ashes obtained from sound wood j it is taken, much
diluted, for sourness in the stomach. They digest
grains of corn in it, and eat them as a remedy for the
same disease. The ashes of tobacco, and the moun-
tain laurel, are applied with considerable advantage,
to ill-conditioned ulcers. ...... . „

H0N-K0s-KA0>CA-SHA.-»// stopH the hloodjlowing out.
Astringent root. — This is a shrubby plant, growing

f '

OF THE INDIANS.

408

5'^

•y-

t is
iity
5 it
It
anil
luce
:hey
, but
;imcs
more

I soils,
[jeable
iten in
lency,
other
tient.

in abundance in tlie edges of the prairies and hill-sides
through the western countrv. Its principal virtue
consists in its astringent properties, which it possesses
in a very high degree. It is one of their favourite
remedies in stopping bleeding from wounds ; the dried
root is powdered and put on the mouths of the bleed-
ing vessel, and a bandage bound over it. The Indians
have great confidence in it. They use it very much,
both internally in form of tea, and externally as awash
in female complaints. But by far the most efficacious
purpose to which this root is apphed, is to stop the
spitting of blood ; an affection which frequently exists
amongst them, in consequence of their long and hur-
ried marches. They seldom travel without itj a half
tea spoonful in cold water is the dose. I know it to
be a highly valuable article in their materia medica. .

'^ > SHES-KA-NE-SHU. — Washing in the river, ' '
^ Bathing. — Thig, though perhaps not strictly speak-
ing a cure for their diseases, is a very good prevent-
ive. It is much practised, constitutes one of their
greatest pleasures, and, I am persuaded, contributes
very much to strengthen the body and invigorate the
constitution. Men, women, and children, from early
infancy, are in the daily habit of bathing, during the
warm months j and not unfrequently after cold weather
has set in. - . ;. - / . : / ^

WAs-SAW-BAPE-sHA.— /^ scares bears away.
Bears* Jright.-^This is a small annual plant, grow-
ing in abundance on the hills in the western territo-
ries. It has a strong disagreeable smell, on which
accpunt, .the Indians say that the bear will neither ap-
proach it, or any one who carries it about them ; but

D D 2

%^'

404

MATERIA MEDltA

I should not like to trust its efficacy, particularly wi^
the brown bears of the mountainous regions. The
root is given as a sudorific, and is also one of their
most violent cathartics.

WAS-sAW-BA-HE-jA. — Thefttt (if the hear.

Bears' oU. — This is used as a medicine, both inter-
nally and externally, in combination with many drugs.
It is used as a menstruum, for the gall of the earth,
yellow root, prickly ash, black root, and several other
plants, and with them respectively forms excellent
unctions for various cutaneous diseases. They are in
the habit of taking it both for medicine and for food.
Tor colds they seethe the roots of wild liquorice in it,
which they drink hot as they can well bear it. They
also take it for asthma and pleurisy. They esteem
it among the most valuable articles of food, especially
in their journies. It is highly nutritive, agrees well
with the stomach, and produces no thirst From the
smallness of the quantity necessary to satisfy the
appetite, it produces no shortness of breath. The
Indians, while travelling, take about four ounces in
twenty-four hours, which they continue for days to-
gether, with very little other nourishment. An oint-
ment is prepared, by mixing buck-eye leaves witli it,
which rubbed over the skin is very gooQ to keep oft*
the musquitoes ; and is much used for that purpose.

sHA-BA-wA-NEM-BiiA. — Bcavcrs eot tt.

IVie heaver root — very much resembles the common

garden carrot, in size and appearance ; but in taste it is

agreeably bitter. The topjgrows to the height of -three

orfourfeet, and bears large, broad, and deeply-indented

OF THE INDIANS.

405

The
their

inter-
drugs,
earth,
I other
cellent
r are in
)r food,
ce in it,

They
esteem
pecially
ees well
iom the
isfy the
li. The
ances in
days to-
An oint-
s witli it,

keep oft*
purpose.

common

1 taste it is
iit^jf-three
-indented

kaves. The root is much used by the hunters, as a
bait for beavers, which are exceedingly fond of it,
and from which circumstance its name is derived.

It is used as a tonic, and as such deservedly meritti
the high reputation awarded to it by the Indians.

E-HAU-WAH. — It makes sick.

Black Locust. — The inner bark of this tree is a
powerful emetic, and as such is used by the Indians.

., , HAS-HAK-A-DA-TON-GA. StVOTlg SOldicr,

Black root, — The plant rises about one foot in
height, has rough serrated leaves, nearly heart-shaped,
standing on long foot-stalks : the root, in very small
doses, is a drastic cathartic. It commonly produces
severe griping pains, and sometimes the discharge of
blood, vertigo, and partial blindness : from its pro-
perty, which affects vision, some call it Heenee (dark-
ness.) It is sometimes taken as an abortive.

HE-NE-SKA. — Dark-coloured liquor.
Black Walnut. — The rinds or hulls of the black
walnut readily impart their virtues to water, changing
its transparency to a deep black. Taken in doses of
an ounce, and repeated at proper intervals, it affects a
speedy relief in cases of the cholic. It is highly re-
puted among the Indians, and I believe fully merits
the character they have given it.

TAR-TON-GA-oN-BAi*— Eyc-ball of the buck.
Buck-eye. — There are two varieties of this tree ; the
medicinal has a most beautiful white soft wood ; and is
much used by the frontier settlers to make domestic
utensils, such as bowls, spoons, &c. The nut is the part
i D D 3

406

MATERIA MEDICA

used by the Indians as a remedy in diarrhoea. Its
leaves possess a disagreeable nauseous smell, some-
what similar to the Datura siramonium, and like
the nuts, are highly narcotic. — The leaves and fruit
are both so poisonous as to destroy many of the
cattle, which sometimes accidentally eat them; this
circumstance has caused the western farmers to cut
many of the trees down, in order to prevent similar
recurrences. They are, however, exceedingly tena-
cious of life, and when felled in the spring, their
leaves frequently expand and flourish through the
summer. The effects produced on such animals as
eat it, are contraction of the large upper muscles of
the neck, and the consequent elevation of the head,
one or both eyes turned inwards, and apparently
fixed, violent inflatus of the body, obstinate consti-
pation, an almost entire loss of muscular action, and

finally, convulsions and death. - ■ , - *

Having carefully attended to these effects, an emi-
nent physician. Dr. E. M'Dowell of Danville, Ky.
made several experiments on himself with the kernel
of the nut, in frequently-repeated doses of a few grains
each ; he continued his experiments until after having
taken ten grains in a few hours ; the effects were very
similar to what three grai..s of opium would have
produced in the same length of time.

i . .,.—_.

CHEE-ZA-HAU. — // seew^ to Jill the belli/.

': Chee-za-liau. — The name of this plant is in the In-
dian dialect indicative of its properties, which are
diuretic. It is a small delicate vine which delights in
a rich moist soil, and rising from small fibrous roots^

OF THE INDIANS.

407

supports itself on the neighbouring shrubbery. About
tlie middle of July it produces a great number of
small white flowers, which are followed by a profuse
crop of small brown-coloured seeds in shape and size
resembling the grains of buck-wheat.
• The leaves are heart-shaped, and about the size of
a dollar. It exerts its diuretic properties to an uncom-
mon degree with very little inconvenience tothepatient.
A sense of fulness and distention in the abdomen,
somewhat similar to that arising from eating freely of
water-melons, is the only inconvenience experienced
from its use. ' The Indians employ this plant with
good effect in dropsies. They make it into a tea, and
give it in large doses, frequently repeated.
. The result generally is a profuse discharge of urine,
but I have seen them almost faint from the excessive
flow of this secretion. The leaves and vine either in
the recent or dried state, and sometimes the whole of
the plant are used. It possesses a slightly bitter
taste, from which one might suppose it possessed a
tonic power J it is in a small degree narcotic. The
Indians sometimes smoke the leaves as a luxury ; though
they are not so highly esteemed as those of the sumach.

'' Kow-O'LA-E-Ko. ^-^ Phi/sic Jbr horses.

Columbian roo^— This plant grows in rich southern
exposures in great abundance throughout the Arkansas
and Missouri countries. It is among the earliest thaf,
appear in the spring, rises to three or four feet in
height, and sends one large root into the ground,
which resembles in size and appearance the common
parsnip. . It is, in combination with the bark of the

1) D 4

■k;'

408

MATERIA MEDICA

wild cherry and snake root, a favourite remedy among
the Indians in intermitting fever, general debility,
weakness and sickness of the stomach, and in dis-
eases incident to females. When their children are
afflicted or supposed to be afflicted with worms, they
administer this tonic in mixture with anthelmintic
remedies, as they believe it dangerous to purge off the
worms when they are much debilitated, without the
observance of some such precautionary measure.
-* ' . . . ■ --v

NE-WA-SHA-NE-WA-SttA. Cold US icC,

Cooling plants -^This grows only in cool shaded
places, where the soil is moist. The stalk is annual,
and grows three or four feet high; the leaves are very
succulent, of a deep green colour, serrated, oval, and
about three inches long. The recent leaves bruised
and applied to swellings and inflammations, give in
almost all cases immediate relief. It deserves to be,
and is highly valued hy the Indians.

TAR-ME-A. — Like the deer's tongue.
Deer's Tongue. — This is a smaU plant, producing
only a single leaf, which is in the shape of the deer*s
tongue, from which circumstance it derives its name ;
it appears early in the spring, and bears a white blos-
som. It is prized highly in breast complaints, is given
in powder, and also in decoction. I do not think it a
very active medicine.

'■■■ ■ sho.ma5;as-sa-es-sa-rah. — It kills wolves.

Devil's bit, or gall of the earth. — This small plant
when applied in its recent state is capable of exciting
inflammation of the skin j it is used in the treatment

or THE INDIANS.

409

of ulcers, as an escharotic, and also for keeping open
issues, the importance of which in particular consti-
tutional habits, the Indians very well understand.

O'GA-siiE'GA.-— Running on the ground.
Dew-berry root. — An infusion of this is given cold
in bowel complaints j it is not however considered a
very active remedy.

MAS-TIN-JAY. — Rabbit,

Dittany, — This is a plant too well known in this
country to require any description from me. It is
highly esteemed as a sudorific in coughs, colds, and
diseases of the febrile order.

They give the hot infusion very freely ; the patient
being covered up warm. The leaves are much used
for smoking and chewing among several tribes. It is
entirely free from the narcotic properties of tobacco ;
and is pleasant tasted, though it produces a slight
degree of pungency on the tongue.

SHEN-DON-SHU-GAH. — Bitter Ted berry.
Dog wood, — They give the bark of this tree in com-
bination with bitters of various kind, in fevers of the
low type, and when there is great prostration of
strength : I believe, however, they value it mostly in
form of poultice, as a corrector of ill-condition sores.

E-HAW-WAW. — It pukes.
Emetic bean, — This vegetable grows in great abun-
dance throughout the countries situated on the Arkan-
sas, Verdi ^ris, and Vermilion. The beans Lre small
and of a red colour j two or three of them chewed and
swallowed, prove a pretty active emetic j for which

■Li,

' I

♦ •

410

MATERIA MEDICA

purpose they are employed by the Indians. They are
also taken as abortives. They possess something of
an intoxicating property, and are tiiken in small doses
as a preparatory regimen for war, and to produce
dreams. . . - . , ,

" yfEsn-KE-iiAH.—-Ii relieves hard breathing, '•
Thejlax weed — grows in the fissures of rocks, par-
ticularly on cliffs, on the margin of the rivers, to the
height of ten or twelve inches ; the root sends off
many branches, which in July produce numerous
small pale blue flowers. The Indians gather the
plant, while in blossom, and prescribe it for asthmas
and cdughs with the happiest effect. The roots,
leaves, and stalks, are made into a decoction, and
given freely to the patient, as warm as he can con-
veniently take it ; and no medicine displays its salu-
tary effects more promptly. I speak thus confidently,
because I have witnessed its operations. The Indians
sometimes while travelling, or when just returned
from long and fatiguing journeys, are seized with the
asthma, but are certain to obtain prompt and decided
relief from this remedy. I believe it almost uniformly
excites a perspiration, on the appearance of which the
patient becomes easy. < - : ^

TON-GA-SHiN-GA. — // gives Strength to a child.

Gentian tt;«/rf.— This plant has commonly four or
five branching roots, which are about the size of a
man's finger. The stalks, to the number of five or
six> grow to a height of two or three feet, and bear
yellow pulpy seeds or berries, which adhere closely
to the stalk, at the junction of the leaves, wliicli art;

'■liT^,

OF THE INDIANS.

411

nearly oval-shaped and rough. The Indians make

great use of the root in cases of debility j especially

when accompanied with affections of the stomach.

They most commonly make use of it in decoction,:

though they sometimes take it in substance. They

combine it with dog- wood and wild-cherry bark; and

give it in cold infusion in intermittents, while the

fever is off. Thus prepared it is also given for the

palpitation of the heart and in dropsies . .: . .^

• ■■ ^ . .. .,■>,>.

siN-DES-NES-Ni. — It grows bi/ the Water,

■ Green-twig,'-^T\iis is a shrub very common on the
banks of rivers and water courses. It seldom attains
to a height exceeding six or eight feet, and is con-
sidered valuable in colds, and asthma ; they give a
warm infusion at night, with a design to excite per-
spiration. The roots are used for anthelmintic pur-
poses, and the inner bark as a febrifuge and sudo-
rific. , V .(,.., , t . . :
; - siiEM-BA. — Giddiness. , , ,

Hazel nut, -^They make poultices of the bark of the
hazel nut tree, as an external application for ulcers,
tumours, &c.

Mos-CHAR-NE- WAT-CHAR. — It causes heat and cold,

Jndian Balsam. — This is one of the most valuable
articles belonging to the Indian class of remedies. I
do not know that it has ever been . noticed by any
writer; I shall therefore endeavour to give such a
descripti(m of it, as when seen not to be mistaken.

The plant seldom attains to a height exceeding four
or five inches ; has three heart-shaped leaves, about

1 1

•sf:

41'2

MATERIA MEDICA

the size of a half dollar, supported on the apex of each
stalk. The top is annual, but the root is perennial. ^
, The root separates into four or five branches of
from three to five inches in length, are of a very
white colour, and when recent, about the size of a
goose quill. It is commonly found in an arable fer-
tile soil, completely shaded by other plants. Its
other sensible qualities are nearly as follows: The
smell is somewhat like that of cedar berries, and its
taste aromatic and resinous, resembling that of Co-
paiba balsam : they are both improved by keeping.
Chewing it produces a copious flow of saliva, and not
unfreqqently tears, " . ' " '•

On swdlowing it, a burning sensation is imparted
to the throat, which is followed by a sense of cool-
ness, that seems to extend over the whole system. It
may be described as an agreeable sensation.

A remarkable trait in the character of this article
is its producing an extensive and obvious action
on the system, without any inconvenience to the
patient.

The Indians consider this as one of the most valu-
able of all their remedies ; in colds, coughs, asthmas,
and consumptions, they give it in substance or infusion
with the most happy effects.

In fact such is the reputation of this plant among
them, that the physicians settled on their frontiers
have introduced it amongst their curatives, and speak
highly in its favour. Doctor Kincheloe, near Wood-
berry, Mississippi, and Doctor Saunderson near
Natches in Mississippi, have both prescribed it, and
declare its effects to have surpassed their expectations j

OF THE INDIANS.

41. <?

they say its introduction into general practice will
constitute a valuable edition to the Materia Medica.

It is more particularly valuable, those physicians
say, in pulmonary consumption, during the period of
hectic fever. . , , ... ^ ,,

SKU-TE-NA-JA. — It mokes stck.

Indian Physick. — The emetic and sudorific virtues
of this plant are well known to the Indians, and they
employ it in the cure of fevers, bowel complaints, &c.
"* ^' ' E-HAw-sHo-GA. — Bite the moutk. "•' ^

Indian turnip. -^This is another of the remedies
in common us' among the Osage and Shawanee
Indians. They confine its use, however, I believe,
to coughs, and intermitting fevers. For coughs they
give it in decoction with spikenard and wild liquorice j
and in intermittents, when the fever is off, in sub-
stance combined with snake root, and wild cherry
tree bark. ^ ^

- SHEN-DA-SAW-BA. — Black di/e. j

Iro7U — From the cliffs of rocks bordering on some
streams, mineralized waters much resembling a dilute
solution of copperas (sulphate of iron) exude and espe-
cially in very dry weather deposit a substance which I
now believe to be the oxide of iron. The Indians col-
lect it, and place much reliance on its vermifuge
powers. They give it as such by simply mixing it
with cold w^ater.

But they place more confidence in it as an ingre-
dient, in their favourite remedy for dropsy, which is
composed of this substance, the leaves of the sour-
wood tree, and wild cherry bark, witl^out much regard

414

MATERfA MEDICA

to fixed quantities. They boil them sometimes together,
and when cold, give the patient a draught of it three
or four times a day. On the Grand Saline, Vermil-
lion, and Blue Earth rivers, this substance is found in
considerable quantities. . ,. .. .,,i

CHE-SA-NE-PE-SHA. — It pattis the bowcls.
I Nay Apple, — The root of this plant is the part
used as a medicine. They give it in powder as a
cathartic ; the dose is about the same as that of jalap
or rhubarb. They give it as an antidote for poison,
and frequently prescribe it in the commencement
of fevers. The fruit is esteemed as a delicacy : it
is in g^eat abundance in various parts of the wesi^cr"
forests. ' , •..,•,,, ,

NE-PE-SHA. — Bad luck to touch it.
Milk-weed.— There are two species of the milk-
weed or silk plant, on the Arkansas river. One is the
plant /ell known in this country by the name of As-
clepias syriaca. The other is peculiar, I believe, to
the western country, at least I have never seen it
elsewhere. It is nearly allied to the former in some
of its botanical characters ; it differs, however, in
having its leaves fringed with a white border, and in
being less thick and milky. It growsplentifuUy in
open sunny lands, and attains to a height of three or
four feet. The Indians use the roots in decoction for
the cure of dysentery, dropsy, and asthma. It is also
used as an emetic, and held in tolerably high estima-
tion as a medicine in the above cases,

PA-us-KA.— Like hair.
Moss.^The bark of the shellbark walnut, espe-

OF THE INDIANS.

41,1

cially on the nortli side, is frequently covered with
moss, in wliich the Quapau Indians place the most
unshaken confidence in the treatment of catarrhs and
asthmas. I know nothing of its value. They give the
warm infusion, keeping the patient wrapped up in
blankets or buflalo skins.

u^-LASu-KEE.-^( The name qf the tree.)

Mountain Birc/e.— This tree is found on the north
sides of mountains and cliffs on western streams
in abundance, and attains to fifty or sixty feet in
height : The Indians make use of the inner bark
as a remedy in colds, coughs, and diseases of the
pulmonary organs. They usually administer it in
decoction. Many of the frontier settlers in the
western territories value it very highly as a table
beverage. . ,

Mos-CHAR,-^lVarmmg.

Mountain Tea,-^Th\s small evergreen thrives only
in sterile soils ; it is in great repute amongst the In-
dians, both as a sudorific and anodyne in coughs,
catarrhs, breast complaints, and fevers.

,' ' ' WAH-TON-GA.

The Oak, — Several varieties of the oak are used
as medicines by the Indians in bowel complaints,
and also as a wash for ulcers.

A-SHEM-BRA. — To make sleep.

Paint root, blue, — ^The plant connected with this
article, is found in considerable abundance on the
margins of the sterile prairies, and on the hills adjacent

416

MATiinrA MnurcA

to Blue Earth atul the heading wutcrH of the KAiiKas
and Arkansas rivers. The stalk is solitary, quadran-
gularly shaped, of a purple colour, and grows to the
height of about six inches : the leaves resemble those
of the catmint, though they arc more rough and of a
darker colour. It blossoms pale blue in July, and
has four or five short radicles of a goose-quill size,
which on account of their colouring properties the
Indians collect with great industry. It forms a toler-
ably permanent beautiful blue dye ; and as such it is
highly prized, and applied to partially stain their
faces, and to colour various articles used in orna-
menting their persons. If much rubbed, when ap-
plied to the skin, it produces violent itching and in-
flammation ; if much handled, it induces sleep, and it
is sometimes given as an o])iate in very minute doses.
Paint roott r^rf. — This plant grows on the dry
fertile prairies, has rough oval leaves, which alternate,
and are of the size of a half-dollar. The flowers are
of a purple colour, set close to the stalk, and appear
in July, in the angle formed by the leaf stem. The
root is perennial and replete with an intensely red
juice, which the Indians use as a cosmetic for their
persons and dresses, and also as emblematic of war,
the warriors generally colouring their faces with it,
preceding their hostile operations. It is sometimes
used as a vermifuge, but is more esteemed in the
furniture of the sacred bag, on account of its suj)-
posed protecting influence.

NJS-WAS-CHAIl-LA-OO-NE, — Cf00(/,/6r COlds OV COUgll.

- Prjt)5m«yfly. — This plant is too generally known

OF THE INDTANS.

417

ladran-
to the
e those
lid of a
ly, and
ill size,
tics the
a toler-
ich it is
in their
in oma-
hen ap-
and in-
p, and it
te doses,
the dry
Item ate,
wers are
appear
The
sely red
for their
of war,
with it,
nnetimes
d in the
its siip-

• cough.
known

among the people of the United States to require any
description by me. J', is held in cousiderablc esteem
by the Indians, and is used as an anodyne and sudo-
rific, especially in diseases of the breast, colds, &c.

HAN-TO-LA.

PricMy Ash, — This is one of the most valuable re-
medies the Indians possess in the cure of rheumatism.
The inner bark taken in substance, and the roots
boiled in water, to a strong decoction, and drank in
large draughts four or five times a day as a sudorific,
is a very common internal remedy among them. The
inner bark seethed in bears* grease is used externally
in form of an embrocation j it is also made into poul-
tices J and in powder applied with advantage to ulcers,
as well among the advanced settlers as the Indians.
They frequently resort to this remedy ; and have great
reliance in its efficacy ; but I can say nothing of its
claims to confidence, from my own experience.

ii , ' SHU-JEE-HU. — Red dye or colour. ■^. v.; r^

Pmccoom.—- The sanguinaria grows in great abun-
dance in various parts of the western countries; espe-
cially in rich and shaded soils. They hold it in high
esteem as a remedy in several of their diseases ; but
more particularly in rheumatism, for which it is taken
in the same manner as the prickly ash. I have known
them to use the dry powdered root as an escharotic.

NE-BRA-TA-HEA. — To make drink,

. Rushes. — This plant grows on most of the western
waters. It sometimes attains to a height of six feet,
though not commonly to more than three or four feet,

u E

)!.:■

41^

MATERIA MEDICA

It is well known to the frontier settlers, who make
much use of it in scrubbing and scouring their fur-
niture, rooms, &c. The Indians also use it in making
mats, thatching their lodges, and for wicks in their
illuminations, for which it answers an exceedingly
good purpose. But as a medicine they esteem it
more highly. It operates powerfully as a diuretic,
and is a very common remedy in dropsies, menstrual
and syphilitic diseases.

It produces great thirst, and an increased action
throughout the system.

The root is the part used as a medicine; it is given
in decoction, in large draughts, threr or four times
a day. .^,

KEE-CHI-HE-JA-K A.

— Gift qf the Great Spirit,
Sau-kies,

Sap pine, or healing gum tree of the traders. This
tree grows on a coM soil to the height of twenty or
thirty feet, and sends off long spreading branches ; it
is an evergreen of the pine family. On its trunk are
numerous small protuberances, which contain a
medicinal resinous juice, which is somewhat pungent
to the taste and smell. It is held in high estimation,
in the treatment of breast complaints ahd coughs }
it is also a favourite remedy for gonorrhoea and lan-
guid ulcers. They give it internally in the three first
cHseases, and when applied to ulcers, it is spread on
thin membranes or skins, and laid over the affected
part. It relieves pain, arrests inflammation, reduces
the swelling, and disposes the parts to heal. Mr.
Spencer, with whom many of my western fViends are

OF THE IVDIANS.

419

make
sir fiir-
naking
1 their
sdingly
eem it
iuretic,
instrual

I action

is given
ir times

■ ■ -\v

:s. This
venty or
ches; it
runk are
mtain a
pungent
timation,
coughs J
and lan-
;hree first
pread on
; affected
, reduces
eal. Mr.
Hends are

well acquainted, assured me, that during a trip up
the Mississippi to the Red Cedar Lake, he contracted,
ii-oro exposure, an excruciating pain in his limbs and
the small of his back, which interrupted his usual
avocations. An Indian of the Chippewa tribe pre-
scribed this medicine in doses of about a common tea-
spoon full, three or four times in the course of the
day. He also applied a plaister to his loins; and this
treatment he declares relieved him in a very short
time from all his sufferings. Applied externally to
the parts afiected, it is said to be an excellent remedy
in rheumatism. The Chippewas, Sau-kies and Fox
Indians, place so much confidence in this medicine!,
that they seldom travel without it. I know very little
about it myself, though its merit in the above-named
diseases is too well established among the Indians,
traders, and hunters, to be questioned by me.

'■»'■■

SA-BA^-sA.'— 'The name qf the tree,

Sarvas tree. — -The tree which bears this name in
the western country, is among the earliest, except the
dog- wood, to adorn the forests with its beautiful white
blossoms ; its fruit, wh^.ch is a small red berry grow-
ing in clusters, ripens about the first of June ; and is
well known in this country.

The bark of the roots is the part used by the In-
dians with considerable effect, ^s a remedy in various
diseases of the order profiuvia. Doctor Jones of
Kentucky used it, he says, in the form of infusion,
with the most decided: advantage, in several diseases
of that order ; and seems to think its re{»itKtion among
the Indians is justly merited.

E E ^

4«0

>fATERIA MEDICA

' ••• f sHi-KEE. — Name of the tree. .— •'•"

' Sassafras. — The Indians make a drink of the
young blossoms and bark from the roots of sassafras
in the spring of the year. The bruised leaves are
applied as poultices, and are deservedly prized. The
pith, or medullary part of the sprouts steeped in cold
water, forms a wash for sore eyes ; but I know no-
thing of its merits. They smoke the dried bark oi*
the root and prize it very highly. • - • - ' * '

AG-GA-SHU. — Short crooks. ,

Seneca Snake root. — This plant grows in consider-
able abundance in various parts of the western terri-
tories ; it is much used by the Indians ; is well known
in this country, and therefore requires no description.
They make use of it in cold infusions, during the re-
mission of fevers, which are attended with great pros-
tration of strength, and in diseases of the pulmonary
organs. . , <

They also give it warm, in combination with various
other drugs, with a view to promote the sweating pro-
cess, or to discharge the collections of mucus from the
trachea and lungs.

They esteem it very highly in their female com-
plaints, and also in diseases of their children when
there is great difficulty of breathing.

HON-KOS-KAO-GA-SHA. // WOUt gO doWn.

Slippery Elm. — This tree is too well known in this
country, to require any description from me. It grows
in considerable abundance on the western waters and
in other rich lands. The inner bark is the part used.
In colds an^ Jbowel complaints its properties as a de-

OF THE INDIANS.

4S1

I various

mulcent are considered valuable ; it is also much used
as a cataplasm or emoUient in ulcers and swellings.
But though it may deserve some reputation as an arti-
cle of medicine, its greatest value consists in its nutri-
tive qualities. I have subsisted for days on it, while
travelling through the country of unfriendly tribes
The elm bark will support life for a great length oi
time ; uncombined with animal food it produces sour-
ness in the stomach and eructations.

li;

y':, t "1 I

SA-WAH-JA-RA. — Curcjor Mte ofstiakc.

Snake Bite — Of the Indians is an annual plant,
grows in hilly countries, attains a height of about two
feet, stock single, leaves resembling those of the water
melon, and supported by long foot-stalks ; it flowers
in July. The whole is made into an infusion, and
given warm in large quantities to such as may have
been bitten by the rattlesnake.

On such occurrences the Indians frequently suck
out the poison, taking care to wash the mouth fre-
quently with water, and to chew tobacco. Excision
and subsequent cauterization of the parts is however
their most common practice, not only for this, but for
obstinate ulcerous aifections. ,

piN-NE-sE-GA. — Astringent taste.

Sour Wood, — This tree attains to the height of
twenty or thirty feet, and is in diameter about six or
eight inches. It never grows on fertile land, but is a
certain indication to that of an opposite character.
The leaves constitute an ingredient in the celebrated ^
mixture for dropsy. *

EE 3

>f:i

429

MATERIA MEDICA

They seldom, if ever, administer it alone; ^onv
which circumstaiiGe, I suppose its powers, as a remedy,
to be rather feeble. The Quapau Indians collect the
leaves for the nse of th;; pipe, and value the young
sprouts for arrows.

TU-TU8-SE-GA-0-6A-$H£< -^ To CAIpel toind*

' Spikenard. ^^^h spikenard i^ one of the most
luxuriant of the forest plants : it grows in the beds of
hollows in hilly districts in great abundance, and if it
possesses half the virtues ascribed to it by the Shawanee
Indians, it merits a high rank in the Materia Medica.
They give it with a view to expel wind from the
stomach, to stop cough^^ and to relieve pain in the
breasit and asthma.

ME-KA-A. ^^ Thejlotvers resemble the stars*

StaYjl&wer, — This plant grows in great abundance
in the Arkansas, and many other parts of the western
country. It spreads from the root into many branches,
which rise to two or three feet in l^eight, and expand
in August or September into beautiful purple flowers,
of a stellated figure ; from which circumstance, the
Indians call it Me-ka-a, or Star-weed. The whole
plant is sometimes used, but more commonly the
leaves and flowers, in form of infusion, as a sweat in
acute diseases.

KiN-NE-NE-KAH. — Arbitrary name*
. Sumac, — The roots and leaves of the sumac are
used by the Indians in several of their diseases, but
more especially as an ingi'cdient in their favourite com-
position for the cure of dropsy. They consider it a
principal article, next to tobacco, in ^he stores for

OF THE INDIANS.

4,23

the pipe J mixed with about an equal part of tobacco,
it forms one of their most fashionable treats.

NEs-Ni-NE-SHU-KA-AH. — T?ie sult Water runs.
Sweating. -— Among all the various Indian nations
with which I am acquainted, sweating constitutes one
oftheir principal remedies, and amongst some of them
Uke bathing, it is practised for the pleasurable sensa-
tions which it produces. Various means are resorted
to for the attainment of this object Some effect it by
drinking warm infusions ; others assist these means
by enwrapping themselves in blankets or skins, while a
majority have separate apartments prepared for the
purpose of procuring it by exposure to the steam of
water. For this, a house sufficient in size to contain
one, two, or more persons, is constructed of sticks or
logs ; commonly on the sloping side of a hill, and con-
venient to water. An excavation is next made in the
earth-flooring, in which they place heated rocks. The
bath thus prepared, the patient closes himself in, and
pours water on the rocks till the apartment is filled
with steam, and the intended effect produced. Herbs
and roo^ of various kinds are placed on the rock, with
a view that their virtues may unite and ascend with
the vapour. During the process, the patient drinks
freely of the infusion of dittany, mountain tea, or other
herbs. He remains in as long as the heated rocks re-
tain warmth sufficient to produce vapour. When he
leaves it, he wraps himself in a buffalo robe or blanket,
and immediately, if able, repairs to his house, and if
not he is assisted and goes to bed. I have frequently
knoM^n them to remain in until they became quite faint.

E E 4 • -

434

MATERIA MEDICA

When this bath is used as a luxury, they frequently, on
leaving it, plunge into cold water ; and I have never
witnessed any dangerous or ill effects to arise from the
practice.

Some tribes resort to another expedient to induce
sweating. They make a hole in the ground of a size
and depth sufficient to contain the body of the person
wishing to undergo the operation. They continue a
fire in it till it becomes quite heated. The patient
wrapped in his blanket or robe, stands over the exca-
vation, water is poured in it, and the steam rises be-
tween his body and its envelop j while others again
immerse themselves in the water.

They also produce sweating by covering themselvies
in the hot sands of the barrens, and I believe with
much advantage in some cases.

♦17 •■

NO'NE-AW. — Tobacco*

Tobacco. — The estimation in which this plant is held
as a luxury, is too generally understood to need any
account in this place. The Indians use it in three
different ways ; in decoction, with the chips of the
water-oak as a discutient, in abscesses, gatherings, and
other local inflammations. The leaves are laid warm
over the part affected, and kept continually moist by
occasionally adding the infusion to them. They also
apply the dried leaf to ulcers, especially of long stand-
ing : and another preparation is, to steep the leaves in
bears' grease, and use it as an embrocation to swellings,
cutaneous and eruptive diseases. They frequently use
it externally in the cure of dropsies, and apply it as ?»
vermifuge to the abdomen of their children. Indeed, I

OF THE INDIANS.

425

have witnessed some of the most alarming symptoms
from its exhibition in this way ; such as nausea, vomit-
ing, vertigo, great prostration of strength, and every
appearance ol' death ; though I do not know a case
that has terminated in that way.

'_ ES-PE-tON-GA. — Poplar tree.

Tulip tree, — This towering tree is one of the
greatest ornaments in the western forests, and fre-
quently attains to a height of one hundred and fifty
feet. The bark of the root, and the green seed ball
which is extremely bitter, are the parts mostly used by
the Indians. An infusion of the root-bark is freely
taken as a preventive to fevers of the intermitting
type, and the seed balls are given to their children to
destrov worms. I do not know what confidence it
deserves in either respect.

soo-KE-HE-AH. — Youjig turktes* feed,
Turkey pea. — There are two highly nutritive arti-
cles bearing this name, which grow in the western
country in great abundance, but which are entirely dif-
ferent in character from the one now under consider-
ation. One variety is however called by the graziers on
the frontiers Pea vine, which, from its great abundance
and nutritive properties, constitute a highly valuable
grazing article. The oth<;r has a single stock, grows to
the height of eight or ten inches, and bears a small pod.
It is found in rich loose soils, appears amongst the first
plants in the spring, and produces on the root small
tubers of the size of a hazel-nut, on which the turkies
feed. The Indians are fond of and collect them in
considerable cjuantities. I mention these iacts to avoid

426

MATERIA MEDICA

misunderstanding ; because these diiferent vegetables
bear the same name indiscriminately. But the sub-
stance now under notice grows to a foot or foot and a
half in height, and adorns the borders of the prairies,
where in July it almost unifomily bears a great pro-
fusion of beautiful blossoms, which are white, fringed
with red on their margins. These are subsequently
followed by a luxuriant crop of small peas, of which
the wild turkies are extren-'^ly fond, from whence their
name. The roots are much valued as a medicine by
theOsiige, Kansas, and Pawnee Indians. They give
it in form of tea, and in substance, principally with a
view to destroy worms.

PA-us-KA-TON-GA. — Like horse hairs, \ ■

Virginia Snake root. -—The Indians prescribe this

article in warm infusion, to procure sweating, and in

cold, three or four times a day, as a tonic in cases of

debility.

SE-iN-JA-sHU. — A little squirrePs ear,
JVhite plantain, — This is a small ever ^reen plant,
growing abundantly on the southern exposures of gra-
velly hills, and on poor lands. The Indians have great
confidence in it for the cure of coughs, colds, and fe-
vers. WiUi this intention they give it in infusion.
They also apply the bruised plant in its recent state
externally to inflamed parts.

SHA-GA-HINGAH. — Little JlngCTS,

Wild Cucumber tree. — This tree grows in the rich
valleys in the broken parts of the country situated on
theOsage, Kansas, and Missouri rivers. Some Indians
call it chawpesha, from its intense bitterness, and the

OF THE INDIANS.

very unpleasant sensation it produces in the mouth.
They make use of the fruit and bark in decoction as a
vermifuge*

E-HAw-NEs-Ni.— Wotev comcs in the mouth.
Wild Ginger is a plant found in all parts of the
western territories. The Indian women esteem it
highly as an emmenagogue ; it is also sometimes taken
as an abortive. Taken into the stomach it is ^pt to
produce pyrosis, or the water brash, and nausea.
The Indians apply it extemaUy to recent wounds, to
prevent their bleeding : but I am unacquainted with
its merits in this as well as in other respects.

NON-JA-PE-GA. — Light black dust.
Wood Soot. — This is very often given in form of
infusion or tea to their children, in cases of griping
and bowel complaints.

SE-A-HIN-GA. — From its extreme tenderness.

Yellow Root. — This is one of the first plants which
makes its appearance in the spring. It grows on the
alluvions of the western waters, to the height of six or
eight inches, and bears a single rough sinuately lobed
leaf, not unlike that of the grape vine. The flower stalk
rises simultaneously with the leaf stalk, grows some-
thing higher, and resembles that of the Puccoofit (San-
guinaria canadensis), except that its colour is of a pale
yellow. .= ;

The roots of this plant contain from three to five
small tuberous enlargements, of about the size of a ha-
zle-nut, which are replete with a most brilliant golden
coloured acrid juice. They lose nearly three-fourths
of their size by drying, and the acidity of their taste

4^8

MATEMA MEOICA.

becomes very much incre<ased. From its early appear-
ance in the spring, and the utility of this plant, I am
persuaded it would be a v aluable addition to the gar-
dens of this country.

The Yellow-root readily imparts its colouring mat-
ter to any liquid, forming the most beautiful tincture.
I have been tediouj in describing this plant, because
I have never heard of its being noticed by any other
person. As a generally efficient remedy, the Indians
use a cold watery infusion for sore eyes, which is a
very common disease in autumn, when from accident
or design, the dry leaves of the forests or prairie
grass take fire and ^ itiate the atmosphere with smoke.
The powdered root is also used as an escharotic, and
i believe with considerable propriety, as it has been
in high repute among tht Indians for a great length of
time ; and they seldom retain the use oi' any remedy
which, does not prove of manifest advantage.

The Indians use a warm infusion much diluted in
dropsy j from which circumstance, I suppose it to
possess some diuretic properties ; though I can say
nothing as to the fact. I believe it has some claims
as a stimulant or tonic.

f>A

; j:f:f\yjri -^(,v^Jft!t^>'J

, 1.^^ . '„

'■■.-'it' r\<t:iiiM t/ri:y

^^:.i^ ■n.>^tir'ii'{-i'-^'^-,:'H^^-'-^i'i'r'^^ ^.« ^-'•' •-': ?'* ''

4^9

I I

CHAP. XVIII.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE INDIAN PRACTICE OF SURGERY AND

MEDICINE.

1 HE Indians are aware that both respiration and the
circulation of the blood are essential to life ; they also
know that the former is performed by the lungs, and
the latter through the heart and blood vessels; though
they do not understand the peculiar maimer in which
these organs perform those functions. And what is of
much practical importance to their success in taking
game, and aiming at their enemies, they are well
acquainted with their situation, and with parts, which,
if wounded, are likely to prove mortal. They know
that the brain is essential to life, and believe that it is
the organ of thought. They seldom have any call for
the exercise of surgical skill, and when they do, they
in general display great want of experience ; thougli
I have known them to stop hemorrhages which I
am persuaded would otherwise have proved fatal.
Spitting of blood is a frequent occurrence in long
marches, and more especially when they are pursued
by enemies, and their retreat is over districts of
country badly supplied with water. In such cases
they chew the astringent root and swallow its juice
as they run. The warriors usually carry it with them,
but when without, they are compelled to seek it. It
is an excellent remedy, and generally succeeds in
stopping the discharge.

They sometimes experience troublesome bleedings
from wounds and other causes, which they manage to

(!^4

430

INDIAN PRACTICE OF

arrest with the fleshy scrapings obtained in dressing
skins, moss, or the hair of various animals bandaged
to the parts affected. They understand the import-
ance of blood-letting in cases of local pains, ftrvers
and inflammations ; and perform the operation in the
arm and foot with flint-stones, pointed bones, or
knives, having previously applied a ligature, as is the
common practice amongst the surgeons of the schools.
They seldom let blood in any considerable quantity,
and never, that I know of, until fainting is induced y
when they stop the blood, they secure the oriflce
with a piece of soft skin, and bind up the part by a
bandage. In wounds where matter is collected they
suck and spirt water into them with the mouth \ and
I believe with very great benefit. They seldom have
troublesome or difficult ulcers to heal, except where
their constitutions are impaired by intemperance and
debaudiery ; misfortunes which do sometimes occur,
since the introduction of ardent spirits among them.
They remove the fungous parts either by escha-
rotics or cautery. They say " that a burn will get
well of itself, while an old sore is exceedingly diffi«
cult to cure."

' They are acquainted with the advantage of re-
laxing the muscles in dislocations \ for in cases where
they do not readily succeed, they nauseate the patient
to a most distressing degree, and then And very little
difliculty in replacing a luxated bone. '' ' '

When a ball simply lodges beneath the integu-
ments, they ertrnct it with the point of the scalping-
knife or the handle of their bullet-moulds, which,
from its shape, is the better qualifled of the two.

SURGERY AND MEDICINE.

4S1

When, however, the ball is lodged more deeply, or
has penetrated in a circuitous direction, it is per-
mitted to come out by the slower process of suppur-
ation ; or to remain within a sac naturally formed by
the surrounding muscular integuments. When it is
desirable to extract a ball, they introduce a piece of
the slippery elm-bark as far into the wound as is
practicable, which is suffered to remain till the
8ought-for object is obtained, or no danger is likely
to result by suffering it to remain. They also make
incisions with the knife on the surface, whenever it
heals too fast for the more deep-seated parts of the
wound. The slippery elm-bark, beaten to a pulp
and applied to the wounded part, is the usual re-
medy among the Osages for the extraction of a ball,
thorn, &c. ; they sometimes apply the pounded roots
of the gall of the earth-plant to wounds ; inflammation
generally follows, and the foreign body is easily ex-
tracted.

Plaisters of the resin of the sap-pine are applied to
frosted members, with decided advantage.

They sometimes relieve inward pains by setting a
piece of touch- wood on fire, and permitting it to pro-
duce a blister over the pained part. They say, ** that
such treatment draws the enemy from his lurking,
place, and exposes him to a direct attack.''

I have known several who died from wounds receiv-
ed in battle ; they complain of continual thirst ; one in
particular, a brave warrior of the Osage tribe, named
Pau-ton-ga, or the Great Snow, had received a wound
in his thigh, in an engagement with the Pawnees ; he
suffered every symptom of what I now understand by

432

INDIAN PRACTICE OF

the locked jaw, and expired about the seventh day.
The attack was sHght at first, and excited, as well as
I can recollect, very little uneasiness at the time.
The physicians applied ley and skins of warm wet
laurel ashes to the part, but were not able to procure
mu'^h discharge, which they looked upon as essential
ic effect a cure : other cases of the kind may have
occurred among them, but not within my knowledge.
Having no favourite theories to support, they depend
chiefly on e.;:perience in th*^ application oi their reme-
dies; this being exhausted wiciiout procuring the
desired relief, they dispute every inch of ground with
tlie grim monster, by resorting to experiments, incan-
tations, charms, dreams, &c.

I once saw an Indian choked. This was from
swallowing a plum, which was brought back by
efforts to vomit, produced by thrusting a turkey's
feather down his throat ; a considerable quantity of
frothy mucus, tinged with blood, was brought up
with it, and the person recovered.

The Indians are not very liable to swellings, tu-
mors, or boils ; when they do occur they are ge-
nerally suffered to come to a crisis, without any
application to them ; when very much inflamed, they
apply cooling plaisters of bruised herbs, or fomenting
warm poultices. When the colour of the parts
changes, and the collection of matter is evident, they
make an incision, and continue the poultices, to pro-
mote a discharge. '

Among the Osages I have known two cases of what
I now suppose to have been white swellings, neither

SURGERY AND MEDICINE.

433

subject was more than fifteen years of age. One was
of the knee, and the other on the ankle joint. They
were treated with poultices.

Affections of the eyes sometimes occur, but I have
never known them to attempt cures by any manual
operations. When highly inllamed, they blow de-
crepitated salt into them, but whether this treatment
is productive of any benefit I am unable to say.
The more mild cases readily yield to their simple
applications.

The Indians commence the cure of most of their
acute diseases by an emetic, by bleeding, purging,
and sweating, the last of which is by far the most
common.

In their treatment of fevers, they puke the patient
at first, and then, while it is on, give him freely of
sweating teas, and warm drinks ; and when the fever
is perfectly off, and at no other time, they give bit-
ters, and other tonic medicines, in considerable quan-
tities, to prevent its return.

PfewW^y.— They bleed in ple'irisy, fill skins with
hot ashes, and apply them over the pained parts, and
sweat most violently. Whenever the patient begins to
sweat freely, the hard breathing and pain in the side
abate, and when the discharge of mucus from the
mouth commences, they say he is out of danger.

Cholera morbus. — In this disease, they resort to the
steam-bath and cathartics, after which they give co-
piously of a gruel made from wild rice, and wild
liquorice tea. They also apply fomentations to the
stomach.

F F

434

INDIAN PRACTICE OF

Dropsy, — The Indians are more subject to this
disease since the introduction of ardent spirits amongst
them than they formerly were, and also have more
remedies for it than for any other disv ase, probably,
from the uncertainty which attends their operation.
An infusion of the white flowering vine (Chee-za-hau)
is among their most valuable and active remedies.
A combination of wild cherry bark, sumach roots and
leaves, black haw, sour wood leaves, and a mineral
substance collected from the banks of rivers in decoc-
tion, given in cold large doses three or four times a
day, is also a remedy in high repute amongst them.
Powdered sliells and burnt bones, mixed with bitter
barks and herbs, is another remedy. They also apply
the leaves of tobacco, steeped in a strong decoction
of the chips of water oak {Qmrcus hfratd)^ warm to
the patient, and keep them moist by the infusion.
The effects are nausea, vomiting, and great prostra-
tion of strength.

Rheumatism, — This disease from its frequency and
\aolence has induced the Indians to seek a gr^at
variety of remedies, the principal of which are bleed-
ing, steam-bathing, warm infusions, fomentings,
sweating, frictions, unctions, &c.

They are generally successful in relieving acute
cases, and even the chronic ones sometimes yield to
their remedies, but they are very liable to return.

Diarrhcea. — For this disease they puke, sweat, and
give astringents : when long continuance has induced
great debility, they give frequent and large draughts
of bitter infusions. I have frequently known them to
cure it by chewing the inner bark of the burr oak.

SURGERY AND MEDICINE.

4^5

this

ngst

aore

ibly,

tion.

hau)

idles.

s and

neral

ecoc-

nes a

them.

bitter

apply

oction

irm to

fusion.

rostra-

cy and
great
bleed-
ntings,

Consumption,-^ This disease but rarely occurs.
They generally attempt its cure by giving warm infu-
sions of Indian physic, assisted by large draughts of
warm water and herb teas, and not unfrequently by
the sweat or steam-house bath, their object being to
induce sweating and nausea. The cough root or
Indian balsam is among their most valuable remedies.
Local applications for pain in the breast are also re-
sorted to, as well as many other remedies which are
rather harmless than useful. They abstain from ani-
mal food, subsisting principally on a gruel prepared
from parched com meal. In fact, abstinence is the
Indian's sheet-anchor in the management of this as
well as in their febrile diseases ; for, say they, " while
ever the fever is on, to give food is feeding it."
They adopt this saying from observing the facts, that
eating during the fever increases its violence.

I have known only a few instances of this com-
plaint amongst the Indians, brought on by exposure.
Intemperance is the principal cause of its prevalence
amongst them.

acute
ield to
urn.
at, and
nduced
raughts
them to
oak.

F F ^

436

^ ■ • ■ ■ * • w

.. , ■ „-'".;,^ v-''iM'' ■• '',■■„' 'r M^ ■-!

: ; J : . CHAP. XIX. ' , ;

A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC AMONO
SEVERAL TRIBES OF THE WESTERN INDIANS OF NORTH AME-
RICA, WHO RESIDE ON THE WATERS OF THE MISSOURI AND
MISSISSIPPI. — (in a letter from the AUTHOR, TO DR.
HENRY W. DUCHACHET, OF NEW YORK.) , ;

My dear Sir, ' " ,-

When I promised you to furnish a paper for your
interesting medical recorder, my engagements were
such, that an immediate compHance was impracticable.
Having more leisure at present, I perform now with
much pleasure, what I then promised ; with no other
disagreeable sensation, however, than what arises
from my inability to do the subject more justice.

The Indians, being without the advantages of
science, deduce most of their medical principles
from experience j but, in some cases, they refer them
to miraculous and mysterious powers. For example,
acidity of the stomach is readily relieved by eating a
few grains of corn which have been steeped in ley, or
by swallowing some of the absorbent earths whicli
abound on the banks of many of their rivers. Blood-
letting, in their inflammatory complaints, is equally
beneficial, and is considerably uped. But their em-
ployment of the former does not arise from their ac-
quaintance with the principles of chemistry, nor is
their use of the latter ascribable to their knowledge
of physiology. These remedies are entirely the re-

PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.

437

Siitts of experience; and when new diseases make
their appearance among them, they necessarily have
recourse to experiments to find a method of cure, and
when these fail, they ascribe the maladies to enchant-
ment, and rely only on supernatural agency for the>r
relief. The office of a physician is very respectable
among some tribes ; among others, the profession is
practised only by the old squaws. Among others,
the men attend to the diseases of the males, and par-
ticularly in surgical cases ; while the squaws attend
to those of the femai'. sex. In going to the bed side
of his patient, an Indian physician examines the
tongue, feels the breast, the hands, and the fee':,
assumes a solemn look, and says little. Having
determined on the nature of the case, he appoints one
of the friends as the nurse, who is strictly forbidden
to permit any one to converse with the sick ])erson,
or even to enter the apartment. These nurses are
generally relations of the patient ; and the office
usually falls to the lot of the old squaws, who are
very attentive and well qualified for the duty. Their
remedies are, for the most part, extremely simple and
harmless in ordinary cases; consisting chiefly of
warm infusions, powdered barks, roots, and leaves.
In accordance with their universal practice of follow-
ing nature in their habits and piusuits, they observe
her indications in the choice of remedies. They pro-
portion their doses to the diseases they have to en-
counter, and are very apt to give too large quantities.
This is particularly the case with regard to purging^
which is frequently attended with the most torment-
ing pains, loss of blood, and great prostration of

FF 3

438

PRACTICE OF PHYSIC

strength. In their febrile diseases, they make the
state of the skin and bowels the guide by which to
regulate their practice. When the skin assumes a
moisture for a considerable length of time, becomes
less hot and dry, and the t'lirst ceases, they say there
is tnen no danger. And when the discharges from the
bowels become less offensive to the sense of smell,
and change their colour, and the tongue becomes
clean, they stop purging and sweating. If there is
great debility, they commence giving tonic medi-
cines, which are commonly bitters, consisting of
herbs, roots, and barks. Should these induce cos-
tiveness or a return of the fever, purging ant' sweat-
ing are again resorted to. After these general re-
marks, I proceed to an account of particular diseases.
Dropsy. — This is a disease rarely seen amorg
those Indians who live at a remote distance from
civilized settlements : but those who have become
intemperate by their intercourse with the whites,
frequently become dropsical. The rheumatism, and
other acute diseases, sometimes terminate fatally in
dropsy. Soir.otimes they succeed in curing the latter
symptom, and then the patient recovers from the
original disease. I have known several of their women
to die with dropsy of the whole system, which fol-
lowed fever, taken from exposure to cold, hunger,
and fatigue. Indeed, most cases of this complaint,
which I have witnessed, occurred in subjects who,
either by exposure to wan^ inclement weatl ., or
great intemperance, had become greatly debilitated.
As far as I liave been able to witness the symptoms
constituting dropsy among the Indians, they are

AMONG THE INDIANS.

439

about the following: — Uncommon dryness of the
skin, considerable thirst, indisposition to move from
one place to another, collections of water either over
the whole system, or in particular parts, according as
there may be general or local affections producing it.
I have seen some dropsical cases, where the subject
had been afflicted with general disease, such as fever ;
and in those cases which follow rheumatic complaints,
the joints are more particularly the seat of the dis-
ease. There is no one disease among the Indians,
for the cure of which they make more experiments.
They commonly commence with an emetic, which
they give in small nauseating doses, so as to make
the patient extremely sick. This nausea they keep
up for a considerable time, so as to relax and enfeeble
the patient to a great degree. During this en-
feebled state, they discharge large quantities of water,
especially when purging comes on j and such are the
debilitating effects of this evacuation, that they fre^
quently faint. They do not always resort to this
harsh treament ; but those who are thus treated are
generally compensated for their sufferings by great
subsequent relief. This operation is repeatc 1 as
oflen as the state of the patient requires it, and is
commonly followed by sweating, which is usually
carried to as great an extent as the former remedy.
Sweating k effected by means of the sweat-oven, and
by internal and external sudorifics. Their mode of
sweating, without the sweat-oven, is to give warm
infusions very liberally, and to cover the patient up
very closely. When they are able to walk, the for.
mer method is always resorted to j and, as the sweat-

F F I

41.0

PRACTICE OF PHYSIC

ing-place is generally a considerable distance f i' :Mn the
village, they are frequently carried to it in blankets
by their friends. Here, placed on a mat, the patient
sits enveloped in a vapour arising from water poured
on hot stones and plants of different kinds, whose vir-
tues are supposed to unite and ascend with the
vapour. Sweating-teas are taken freely during the
pati: I's continuance in the oven, where he remains
dil iK perspiration ceases to flow : the debility in-
I'i'f !;i t V this treatment is sometimes so great, as to
make theiu aint, and experience the most unpleasant
feelings ; which, however, followed by proper treat-
ment, generally have a happy eflect. The patient
often comes out several pounds lighter than he went
in : he is then wrapt in a blanket, or buffalo-robe, to
prevent his taking cold, and is thus conveyed
home.

Burnt bones and shells powdered, with bitter barks
of various kinds, are much given in this complaint.
Another of their popular remedies is, a decoction of
the root and leaves of the sumach, with sour-wood
leaves and wild-cherry bark. This is given cold
freely three or four times a day. In this decoction
they occasionally put a quantity of a certain mineral
substance very similar to copperas, which they obtain
from the cliffs and banks of rivers, and which exists in
great abundance in that region. This medicine, thus
prepared, operates powerfully on the urinary system,
and at the same time is a valuable tonic. Under the
direction of a skilful physician, I am persuaded it
would prove highly useful. I have seldom seen
dropsy in an Indian binder forty years of age; and

AMONG THE INDIANS.

441

those who have it when much older tlian this, seldom
recover. The typhus fever, as it was called by the
physicians who lived on the frontier settlements, was,
in several instances, followed by dropsy of the whole
system, and this too, independently of the abuse of
spirituous liquors. In cases of collections of water in
the abdomen and about the large joints, the application
of tobacco leaves is one of their most common reme-
dies. But in its action it produces the most distressing
sickness, accompanied with giddiness, vomiting, and-
dimness of sight. These symptoms, a^er continuing
five or six hours, are generally folio * ecJ ?y a com-
fortable sleep, which considerably a) tes e disease.
It is deserving of remark, however .!^ai the disease is
very liable to return after it has co ; iplctely disap-
peared. Accordingly, the Indiar y.iy they can cure
any dropsical person with tobacco leaves externally,
but they cannot make him stay cured. A bulbous-
rootpd plant, called by the Indians Yellow-root^ is
one of great value in this complaint. Indeed, as it
combines in no inconsiderable degree, general tonic
virtues, and specific evacuant powers upon the urinary
organs, it is appUcable in a large number of cases of
dropsy. I have known the canguinaria (blood-root),
in combination with sarsaparilla and the magnolia,
given in large draughts three or four times a day, to
,be of some good effect in dropsy. But the In-
dians do not place so much confidence in it, as in the
above-mentioned remedies. Friction of the swelled
parts with rough skins is an external remedy, which,
I believe, has it advantages in some cases. It is used
by them. The purges they employ, I rather think

Its

PRACTICE OF PHYSIC

do more injury than benefit, by the extreme debility
they induce. They are apt to create great derange-
ment in the stomach and bowels, and not unfrequently
carry off the unhappy subjectwith an incurable diarrhoea.
This I have known to be the case among the Shawanees,
a tribe settled upon the river Maramee. The May-
apple (^podophyllum peltaturn) is one of their most
fashionable purgatives; and the black-root is one
resorted to only in desperate cases. A very small
quantity of this last, perhaps five or six grains, will
sometimes act with great violence, and is even dan-
gerous. It frequently produces horrible griping, and
a copious discharge of blood from the bowels.

Syphilis, the Indians say, was entirely unknown
among them until they contracted it from the whites.
It prevails among several of the tribes with which I
am acquainted, and proves one of their most trouble-
some and virulent disorders. Those who go among
the populous white settlements on the Missouri and
Mississippi, where the disease prevails in its most
inveterate forms among the traders and boatmen who
navigate the river to New Orleans, frequently return
to their families and tribes infected with it. It often
assumes a most distressing train of symptoms before
the emaciated sufferer is aware of his situation. In
the treatment of this disorder, they usually begin
with teas and warm diuretic infusions ; they drink de-
coctions of the roots of rushes, sumach leaves, and
golden-root, as the fi-ontier-settlers call it, and which
I suspect to be the sarsaparilla of the shops. They
also use a little creeping vine* which bears a great
number of small white blossoms and seed j cups of a

AMONG TlIK 1ND1AN8,

443

triangular shape, about the size of buck- wheat This
plant grows in rich places near water-courses, and
supports itself by running on the shrubbery and bushes
within its reach. I am persuaded it deserves a dis-
tinguished place in the Materia Medica. Its medici-
nal effects are profusely diuretic without producing
nausea, or any unpleasant sensation, except a feeling
of fulness somewhat similar to that after partaking
too freely of water-melons. From its bitterness and
other sensible properties, I have no doubt that its
action extends generally to the whole system.

Another plant, which is in considerable repute
among the Indians for the cure of the miilady in
question, is the white plantain. This they give in
infusion. Whether it deserves the character they give
it or not, I cannot say ; though I believe it has some
virtue as a diuretic. They give the warm tea three
or four times a day, in large draughts. I do not say
it has any anti-syphilitic properties. I merely know
that they give it in such cases, and mention that fact
without remark. Wild liquorice tea, and a tea of the
anise-root, are also given as a part of the diet of the
patient. Great abstinence is imposed on the Indians
in the cure of all their diseases, but especially in this.
If, however, they have a strong desire or craving for
any particular article of diet, it is viewed as a favour-
able symptom, and is always indulged. The friends
of the sufferer will spare no pains to procure it for
him. They often travel many days' journey for this
purpose.

Asthma. — AVhen we consider the hardships the

441

PHACTICK OF liiYDIC

Indians undergo, it \h not HiirpriNing that they should
be subject to asthma. ThiH in not an unfrcquent
disease among them. Their remedies are blistering^,
ibmentations, and anodynes. There is, perhaps, no
complaint, in which Indian remedies are more suc-
cessfully employed. They use the sweat-oven, as
before described, with great success. Sometimes
relief is obtained by the a)iplication of small bags of
wet ashes upon the breast •, and sometimes by inhaling
the streams arising from water poured upon hot
stones, and herbs of various kinds. But by far the
most valuable remedy ever used among them for the
cure of this distressing complaint, is a small plant,
xvesh'ke-nah. This plant somewhat resembles the
common flax, though it is more branched, and not
linty like the latter. An infusion of it, roots and
tops together, in doses of half a pint, at intervals of
twenty minutes, till relief is obtained, is the usual
mode of administering it. In a short time its bene-
ficial operation is perceivable by a gentle moisture on
the skin, more easy respiration, ability to lie in a
recumbent posture, &c. Shortly after a more copious
sweating comes on, attended with an expectoration
of phlegm or mucus, and entire relief from pain.
The patient now falls into a comfortable sleep, from
which he awakes free from his disease. Thus have I
seen these untutored followers of Escidapius subdue
some of the worst cases of asthma. ^ -

: I have known pulmonary consumption to occur
among the Indians. It is rarely seen, however,
except in those addicted to intemperance ; and even

AMONG THE INDIANS.

44.'>

in these it is by no means so common as among the
whites. It is worthy of notice, that fl'males are not
so subject to tlie disease as the nialo* are. I have
never known it to affect a person before i)uberty,
and very seklom under twenty years of age. It
appears, in fiir the greater number, between the ages
of twenty and forty years. They commence their
cure by emetics, from a warm infusion of the Indian
physic, or gillenia trifoliata, in doses of a wine-glass
full every fifteen or twenty minutes, until it has
operated several times, assisted by warm teas. They
then give a kind of gruel or soup, made of boiled
rice or beaten grains of corn. This usually stops the
vomiting, and operates cathartically. They depend
very much upon remeci*,'. of the sudorific class:
these are, for the most part, warm teas ; many of
which are rather harmless than useful, the sweat-
oven, and the steams of bitter decoctions. Tonic
barks and roots are given during the absence of fever,
and warm fomentations are applied locally, when they
have pains. I have known them to excite blisters over
the pained parts, with the bark of the moose- wood.
But of all the remedies for this fatal disease, the one
called by them the cough-root is the most valuable,
and promises to become the most useful in skilf ill and ;
experienced hands. It is a plant which grows to the
height of about from four to eight inches, has three
leavi's on the top of the stalk or stem, and never
flowers. The roots, though not fibrous, are com-
monly branched into four or five radicles, and are of
a whitish colour, and generally from two to three

- >a/

44!^ PRACTICE OP PHYSIC |

inches in length. It grows in woodlands, and de-
lights in an arable soil, and* in the shade of large trees.
Its root is perennial, and its top springs up about the
middle of May. Its sensible properties are very
similar to those of the balsam of copaiba, and it is
equally medicinal, and less pungent Few plants have
so much reputation in pulmonary disorders, and none
perhaps has juster claims to the encomiums it has
received.

Should it be hereafter ascertained to be really
valuable in consumptions, it will be entitled to regard
in a two-fold point of view, for its diuretic properties
are not surpassed by any plant with which I am ac-
quainted. Its action on the kidneys is imperceptible,
as it does not produce nausea, and such like symp-
toms. The Indians say, though I cannot state it
from my own knowledge, that while the medicine
affects the urinary system, there is no danger of the
cough troubling the patient. They forget, however,
the canker that gnaws the vitals.

The subject of Indian diseases and remedies would
afford matter for an almost interminable communica-
tion, and it is rich with interest to the medical philo-
sopher. But I have already extended my remarks
to too great a length, and must hasten to conclude
them. The observations I have detailed to you,
were made at a period when I little thought of ever
being in my present situation, under circumstances
very unfavourable to improvement, and at a time
when I had few motives to treasure up knowledge.
You may, however, rely upon the facts I have stated.

AMONGf>HE fefDUNS.

447

as I have seldom veiltured beyond my own experi-
ence. Hoping that you will overlook the numerous
defects of my letter, and that you will dispose of it
as you think proper, I assure you of my high con-
sideration and esteem, and am.

Dear Sir,

- / -*.-,

Yours, &c.

THE END.

«"%■

^ " ,.V'

'\ ,...-^ ;-

V ■•

. ,* -

London :
Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New-Street Stiuare.